0^ .^ ■^.. ^ -^^ .•i-^" ' J-^^ .^ ''t: " „9-' t^ V^ ,.4* *"J*I^.' ^%^lij^-0' y <" -s-^ o 0' •"-;/^ /^ . .^'' :''4^; V -^A N>^ Oo ^M^\ ^ c"^ ^^ : %. ;. ^^ .r-^ .'^^ ^v-. V' .■^>^^% -^.^ ^<^S^' > %^v \\ ■ j---;^^ '^^ v^' ~^- V' .v^ ^r ^0' o-^,X O*^ s^ '* ^/ "^' V %'i '^*, \y DR. PHILIP BUTTMANN'S INTERMEDIATE OR LARGER GREEK GRAMMAR, TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF THE AUTHOR. EDITED BY DR. CHARLES SUPR Cf)ittr ([^trition^ CORRECTED AND IMPROVED.Vr.V LONDON: WHITTAKEU AND CO. AVE MARIA LANE. MDCCCXLVIII. ^'^^ PREFACE OF THE EDITOR. In presenting this translation of Dr. Buttmann's Grammar to the pubHc, it would be superfluous to express in terms of high eulogium the sagacious views, the soundness of the rules, and the acuteness of philological remarks, which this work con- tains, or by endeavouring to recommend its practical use, whilst its editions have now reached the number of fifteen, from which latter this translation has been made. Dr. Alex. Buttmann, the son of the late author of this Grammar, has followed the footsteps of his father in the way and manner those rules and observations are expressed, which he has added to this new edition. Both the etymological as well as syntactical part have been greatly improved. In the former, the author succeeded in still more simplifying the theory of the Greek verb, this most essential part of all languages, but in particular of the Greek, on account of its greater perfection and variety ; and in the syntactical section, in filling up a chasm, remarked in former editions as to the unsatisfactory and cursory manner in which the rules of the moods had been treated, which was frequently quoted as a reasonable ground why, as to syntax, the preference was often given to the grammar of Matthias. The Greek moods, in which the nicest shades of ideas have ^ found a corresponding form and expression in the Greek, be- yond the power of other languages, and the force of which is often more felt, even by the experienced scholar, than he is able to analyse, are explained and classified with the utmost precision by the author. He avoided both extremes, into which most modern German grammarians have fallen, in either conveying their ideas in an abstract language, bordering on the abstruse, and using modern philosophical terms, little palatable to the general class of readers, but the least fit for VI PREFACE OF THE EDITOR. those for whom works of this sort are intended ; and, on the other hand, in abstaining from overlaying his observations with a mass of authorities and examples, requiring more philologi- cal knowledge than is fairly to be expected in a tyro ; whilst they are often superfluous for the accomplished scholar, unless he wishes to use such kind of works as a philological thesaurus. The author expresses his rules in precise but plain language, and prefers confining himself to a few well-chosen but striking examples, which are often translated and generally easily un- derstood. Besides the rules on the moods, those of the noun, article, pronoun, adjective, on the cases, on the infinitive, the participle, and on the attraction, have been revised and brought to greater perfection. The fault, therefore, which in former editions was often found as to the me^greness in the syntac- tical part of Buttmann^s Greek Grammar, may be said to be obviated in this new edition, and it thus fulfils all reasonable claims a teacher of the Greek idiom can fairly prefer. In this respect, we may say that this new edition will supersede the grammar of Matthiae, or at least confine it to that class of readers for whom it is calculated, whilst the grammar of Butt- mann will be the best qualified for the beginner, as well as the more advanced student in Greek literature. That this new edition may contribute its share to the solid and thorough comprehension of those unrivalled monuments of human genius, the literary works of ancient Greece, which will for ever remain the appropriate means of forming the mind, of endowing it with a sound judgment and an exquisite taste, of inspiring the mind with elevated views and principles, and the study of which will for ever constitute the best bulwark against the shallow claims of a universal philology, so much the order of the present day, is the wish of the Editor. Charles Supf. London, Augmt 25th, 1840. 1 he 1 I THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE. Nine years have elapsed since the decease of my father, and already two new editions of this intermediate or larger Grammar have been required. The first of these two, published in the year 1833, was revised and superintended by Professor Lachmann in Berlin, to whom the author, shortly before his death, expressed the wish, ^ that nothing should be altered in this new edition, (though he was willing to admit corrections,) but what he himself might probably have made ; that the work might remain his own, in the fullest sense of the word, until it was superseded by a better and more perfect one/ Con- formably to this wish, the editor of the fourteenth edition, according to his own words, has corrected only some errors, and some expressions which were wanting in precision, whilst he abstained altogether from altering whatever referred to the general arrangement, and to the leading principles on which the grammatical system had been originally founded. On the same principle, the revision of this second, or, properly speak- ing, fifteenth, edition has been made ; nevertheless, I must beg leave to render a somewhat more minute account of those alterations, which I thought absolutely necessary to make the work more practically useful. In the etymological part of the Grammar, I have left un- changed whatever had been based in the peculiar view of the late author, and only then permitted myself to make some alterations w^here they either could be made available from the vm author's manuscripts, or contributed to clearness and precision. Alterations, therefore, as in the §§ 7, 9, 32, 41, 50, 60, 113, &c. affect but the form or arrangement in particular instances, and aim merely at more conciseness in expression ; the new § 71. «. containing a general view of the pronouns, may be used as a reference, and the table of page 11 comprises only the results of the foregoing §§. The numerals have been printed in a better and clearer manner, and some adjectives and participles have been declined throughout, with the view of rendering this intermediate Grammar more adapted to the use of schools, so that it might answer all the purposes required in a school- book written for beginners in the Greek language. The theory of the verb has remained essentially the same ; the alterations which have been made have merely the object of bringing the results of the preceding investigations under a more compre- hensive and systematic view. That part alone (§ 113) which treats of the deponens passive, an article which seems to me still far from being brought to a satisfactory conclusion, and still open to a more minute investigation, has been newly added, wherein I followed partly the general observations laid down in the Grammar of Professor Rost. The syntactical part of the Grammar has undergone more important alterations. The late author had himself repeatedly declared that it was imperfect in the form in which it had till then appeared : he had therefore resolved on making the neces- sary improvements, but was soon convinced of the utter impos- sibility of doing so, as his state of health was already then greatly impaired and undermined^ That something was abso- lutely necessary for improving this part of the Grammar was universally felt by all teachers who made use of this work. The late author, as far as his health permitted him to do so, had sent his few remarks on this subject to Professor Kriiger, the editor of the fourteenth edition, and they are to be found in that edition inclosed in the sign [ ]. These are the reasons why I felt myself equally entitled to do something more to this part of the Grammar. My endeavours were principally IX directed to the improvement of those syntactical rules, the knowledge of which is absolutely required for the more effectual reading and understanding of Greek prose-writers, whilst I took care to deviate as little as possible from the basis and general divisions of former editions. These new additions are meant to be a general outline, which is to be filled up by the teacher in the course of his lectures on Greek authors. I en- deavoured likewise, as far as it can be done in Greek syntax, to substitute more precise rules and terms for those which were open to misinterpretation, or which were conceived in too gene- ral a manner. In making these alterations, T am greatly in- debted to the Grammar of Rost, which appears most congenial to the views of teachers in schools. I have followed this Grammar sometimes as to general arrangement, and often as to particular points, though I preferred in essential and more material parts to consult those sources from which Rost had drawn his observations, and in consequence of which the first §§ to § 138 are improved and rendered more concise. But § 139, containing the rules on the moods, has undergone a thorough change, of the necessity of which every teacher was convinced who wished to refer his pupils to the Grammar on this point, but was unable to do so from the total want of systematical order, so much required for classifying their mani- fold forms and appearances under leading points. The ar- rangement of this § is essentially the same as that followed up in the Grammar of Matthiae, Rost, and Kiihner, and must justify itself by its own merits. In the following §§, treating of the Infinitive and Participles, I was enabled to follow up more closely what had been laid down in former editions, though alterations have been made in some material points. The rules on the Prepositions and Particles have been left unchanged ; not that they did not require any improvement, but because I did not feel confidence enough in my being able at present to give results sufficiently satisfactory in this large and very difficult field of grammatical research, and which can only be obtained by an uninterrupted study of many years. and after a minute examination of the works of others treating of these most intricate questions. In the last §§ alone, several points and observations have been left out, partly from their being not sufficiently connected with each other, and partly from their having found a more suitable place in the preceding §§. The sign [ ] in former editions has been omitted, with the concurrence of Professor Kriiger, and have thus become embodied with the text itself. In thus presenting this new part of the Grammar to an en- lightened public, I confess I do so not without some hesitation, as I am quite aware of the great responsibility I have taken upon myself in altering such important points of a work, so long and so much valued as it has been for its sound principles and practical use. To this part of the Grammar, which pur- posely has been neglected by the late author on publishing the first editions, my future studies shall be exclusively directed, on condition that my manner of treating this subject meets with the approbation of a learned and discerning public. Alex. Buttmann. Potsdam, 3lst August, 1838, BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR DR. PHILIP BUTTMANN, REMARKS ON HIS WRITINGS. Doctor Philip Buttmann was born at Francfort on the Main, on the 5th of December, 1764. He was christened Philip Charles, and thus calls himself on the titles of some of his early writings ; but latterly called himself only Philip. His father, Jacob Buttmann, a wholesale stationer at Franc- fort, was descended from French Protestant Refugees, who settled there during the persecutions of Louis XIV., and whose French name of Boudemont was gradually changed by their German fellow-citizens into that of Buttmann. He received his first education in the Grammar-school of his native city, which was under the direction of the learned Purmann ; but the rest of the Teachers were greatly inferior to the Rector, and little calculated to inspire their pupils with the love of learning. Young Buttm Ann's predilection for the study of languages manifested itself, however, at any early period. In- dependently of the French, Danish, English, and Italian languages, he also applied himself to the study of theHEBREvr. This premature, and of course superficial acquaintance with seven or eight widely different languages afforded to him the opportunity of observations and comparisons, in which he was fond of indulging. In the spring of 1782, Buttmann re- paired to GcETTiNGEN to study PMlology under Heyne. In 1786, he returned to Francfort, and went the same year to XU BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR visit his brother-in-law^ Dr. Ehrmann, an eminent physician at Strasbourg in Alsace, through whom he was introduced to the learned Schweigh^user. His intercourse with this celebrated man was of incalculable service to Buttmann. Schweigh^user was at that time editing his Polybius, and availed himself of Buttmann^s assistance. His University- friend, Hugo, afterwards Professor at Gcettingen, had just then been appointed Tutor to the Hereditary Prince of Anhalt Dessau. It was at his recommendation that Butt- mann left Strasbourg to teach Geography and Statistics to the Prince. A residence of eight months at Dessau intro- duced Buttmann to several men of merit, and familiarised him still more to the manners of the polite world. He em- ployed his leisure hours in reading the ancients with the most particular attention, being constantly guided by his favourite motto, Multum, non multa. He never left any classical difficulty unresolved; but when he had thoroughly convinced himself of the impossibility of solving it to his complete satisfaction. On quitting Dessau, Buttmann, in the spring of the year 1788, took a journey to Berlin, where he formed the most inter- esting connexions with men like Teller, Biester, Gedicke, NicoLAi, and George Spalding. His stay at Berlin had been so very agreeable, that after having again passed ten or twelve months with his family at Franc fort, he gladly returned to that city, having accepted the situation of an Ex- traordinary Assistant Librarian to the Royal Library ; but, as his remuneration was rather scanty, he saw himself forced to secure his subsistence by private teaching, and by writing some of his first Essays. It was in 1792 that he published his short Greek Grammar, on the plan of Gedicke^s Latin and French School-Grammars, which is at its twenty -sixth edition in Germany, and which has been translated into English in America by Professor Anthon. He now ardently devoted himself to the study of the Greek language and literature. He read the Greek Authors over again in company with George Spalding, the lamented University friend of the OF DR. PHILIP BUTTMANN. XUl English Translator of Buttmann's Intermediate Greek Grammar, which we are offering to the English pubhc. In 1796 Buttmann was appointed Secretary to the Royal Library at Berlin, and in 1800 accepted the additional appointment of Professor at the principal Grammar-School of that city^ called the Joachimthal Gymnasium, He contri- buted several Essays to the Berlin Literary Journal, edited by BiESTER, entitled Berlinische Monaths Schrift. As a Fellow of the then existing Philomathic Society at Berlin, he was induced to write his short Mythological Essays. His Biography of himself was inserted, in the year 1806, in the third No. of a periodical work, edited by I. Lowe, entitled Portraits of the now Living Learned Men of Berlin, with their Lives written by themselves. In the same year, 1806, Butt- mann became a Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and was shortly after appointed Secretary to its His- torico-Philological Class. From 1803 to 1811, he was the Editor of the Berlin Gazette, published by Haude and Spener. As a member of the Royal Academy, he was one of the first Professors of the new Berlin University ; he had resigned the Professorship of the Joachimthal Grammar- School in 1808. It was also about this time that he was selected to instruct the Prince Royal of Prussia in the Greek _and Latin languages. In 1821 he was appointed Librainan to the Royal Library, and was successively elected a Member of the Academies of Munich, Naples, and Moscow ; and in 1824 the King of Prussia conferred on him the distinction of a Knight of the Prussian Red Eagle of the third Class. Buttmann had married at Berlin, in 1800, the eldest daughter of the Privy Councillor Selle, Physician to the King. His ardent attachment to ancient Greece induced him to give Greek names to his children. One of his daugh- ters was called Helen, and Hector and Achilles were the names of his sons. The loss of a beloved grown-up daughter in 1820, gave the first shock to his constitution, which had XIV BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR been uncommonly healthy and robust till that unfortunate moment. Repeated strokes of apoplexy, with which he began to be afflicted in 1824, undermined it gradually, and he died early in the morning of the 21st of June, 1829, in his sixty- fifth year. Dr. Schleiermacher pronounced a Funeral Ora- tion over his grave on the 23rd of the same month. Buttmann is one of the most distinguished Philologists of modern times. With the most extensive reading he com- bined the utmost sagacity, clearness, and conciseness. His Grammatical writings are in the hands of all scholars, and have been introduced into all those schools, which are really anxious to adopt the best methods of teaching the ancient languages. The Greek School-Grammar, which Buttmann first published in 1792, having been continually improved, as- sumed at last the form of an Intermediate Grammar for the more advanced scholar. This Intermediate Grammar had already reached the eighth edition in 1818, and the thirteenth in 1829. It is from the latter edition that the present English Trans- lation is made. The German original is indebted, for the constant and general approbation with which it has met, to the circumstance that it traces the elements of the Greek language historically, clears them up with great sagacity, and reduces them to a beautiful philosophical order, as far as this can be accomplished with regard to a language spoken by so many different tribes, and improved at periods widely distant from each other. When Buttmann found his Grammatical observations ac- cumulated to an extent beyond that which he thought cal- culated for the more advanced student, he resolved to embody them in a more elaborate work, which he entitled A Complete Greek Grammar {AusfUhrliche Griechische Sprachlehre), The first Volume was published at Berlin in 1819 ; the first Part of the Second Volume in 1825, and the second Part of the same Volume in 1827. Had his life been spared a few years longer, he would have added a copious Syntax to his historical researches, and critical explanations of the most important I OF DR. PHILIP BUTTMANN. XV Gr'ammatical points. It was with the same view that he pub- Hshed what he thought exceeding the limits of school-books in his Lexilogus, or Contributions to the Explanation of Greek Expressions, chiefly m Homer and Hesiod^ 1 vol., Berlin^ 1818, 1824 ; ^nd vol., 1825. The learned world is also indebted to Buttmann for 1.) A new edition (1811) of Four Dialogues of Plato, originally published by Biester ; 2.) The Fourth Volume of the edition (1816) of Quintilian's Institutions, edited by the late George Spalding, which had been interrupted by Spalding's premature death in 1811 ; 3.) The enlarged and much improved reprint (1821) of the Scholia of the Odyssea discovered by Maio ; 4.) Several of the best Essays in Wolf's Museum of Archce- ology, (1st vol.. No. 1, 1807,) and in Wolf's Museum Anti- quitatis (vol. 1. Fasc. 1, 1808. Fasc. 2, 1811). Of Buttmann's smaller writings, which were mostly occa- sioned by his being a Member of the Berlin Royal Academy of Sciences, we will only mention : 5.) The most Ancient Geography of the East, a Biblico- Philological Essay, with a Map, Berlin, 1803. 6.) The first two Narratives [Mythen) of the Mosaic History, 1804. 7.) The Fable (Mythus) of Heracles, 1810. 8.) The Narrative [Mythus) of the Deluge, 1812, 2nd edition, 1819. 9.) The Fable of Cydippe, 1815. 10.) The Mythical Period from Cain to the Deluge, 1811. 11.) The Necessity of the Warlike Constitution of Europe, 1805. An hypothesis of the celebrated Hirt, concerning the His- torian QuiNTUs CuRTius, induccd Buttmann, in 1820, to publish a short Essay on the Life o/Quintus Curtius Rufus. The sagacious views and elegant urbanity which distinguish all these writings, are striking proofs that Grammatical and XVI BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF DR. PHILIP BUTTMANN. Archaeological studies are not destructive of genius, and per- fectly compatible with native wit. It is true that Buttmann combined the most opposite talents. His conception was slow ; but this very circumstance induced him never to relinquish any subject which he was investigating before he had considered it in all its bearings, and mastered it to his entire satisfaction ; and his uncommon sagacity made him discover in whatever was the object of his study something which had not been dis- covered before. In all the relations of life he was most amiable ; and though his ready wit would frequently betray him into sarcastic remarks, his sarcasms never proved offensive; they were always tempered by his extreme good nature and in- dulgent disposition. His last literary labour was the editing of a Complete Collection of his Mythological Essays, in 2 vols., under the title of Buttmann's Mythologus. D. BOILEAU. V Erraiam — p. 238, 1. 15, for TrifiTcno read niTVTui. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE § 1. Of the Greek Language, and its Dialects in general . . 1 § 2. Of the Letters of the Alphabet 8 § 3 — 5. Of their Pronunciation ; (Diphthongs, 12 ; Iota Sub- scriptum, 13) 9 § 6. Spiritus ; (Digamma) 14 § 7. Prosody 15 § 8—14. Accents 22 § 15. Punctuation 31 §16. Interchange of Letters ib. § 16—25. Change of Consonant, 31; § 17, 18, Aspiratce . . 33 § 19 — 25. Accumulation of Consonants 34 §26. Moveable final Letters ; (j^ f^eXfcvtrrt/coj') 38 § 27, 28. Change of Vowels, and Contraction 40 § 29, 30. Hiatus, 45 ; Crasis, ib. ; Apostrophus .... 47 § 31. Parts of Speech 48 Of the Noun. § 32. Gender 49 § 33. Declensions 50 § 34. First Declension 52 § 35 — 37. Second Declension, 54 ; Contracta, 56 ; Attic se- cond Declension 56 § 38. Third Declension 57 § 38. Gender, 57 ; § 39—42. Inflection, 58 ; § 43. Paradigms 63 § 44. Accus. Sing. 65 ; §45. Vocative, 26. ; § 46. Dative Plural 66 § 47. Syncope of some Nouns in rip 67 § 48 — 55. Contracted (third) Declension, 68 ; Attic Genitive, &c 71 § 56. Anomalous Declension, 74 ; Heteroclitay 16 ; Metaplas- mus, &c. (Final Syllable (f)iv, (/><, § 56, Obs. 9, p. 78) . 76 § 57. Defectiva, Indeclinahilia, &c 78 a XVlll CONTENTS. PAGE § 58. List of Irregular Nouns 80 § 59. Adjectives 85 § 65 — 69. Degrees of ComYiarison (Gradus Comparationis) . . 93 § 70, 71. Numerals 98 § 72. Pronouns, 102 ; and § 75. Articles ....... 107 § 78, 79. Pronomina et Adjectiva Correlativa 110 § 80. Annexes, 113; I demonstrativum 113 Of the Verb. § 81. Of the Greek Verb in general, 114; Division of Tenses • (Principal and Historical Tenses) 115 § 82—86. Augment 116 § 87. Numbers and Persons 123 § 88. Moods and Participles 125 § 89. Activum ; Passivum ; Medium 127 § 90—92. Tenses, 130; Characteristic, 131; Double Themes (see also § 111, 112) 131 § 93, 94. Formation of the Tenses 135 § 95. Futurum Activi 137 § 96. Aoristus 1 et 2 Act 143 § 97. Perfectum 1 et2 Act 146 § 98. Perfectum Passivi 150 § 99. Futurum^ 152 § 100. Aoristus 1 et 2 Pass ib. § 100. a. General view of all the changes of the characteristics of the verb 154 § 101. Verbs in X, ju, V, p . 156 § 102. Verbal Adjectives in riog and rog 159 § 103. Ferbum Barytonon^WO ; Paradigm ruTrrw, 161 ; Para- digms of other Verbs, 170 ; Paradigm ayyeWw, 178 : Remarks on all the Paradigms 180 § 104. Tenses in use, and not in use 186 § 105. Conjugation of contracted verbs 187 Irregular Conjugation. § 106,107. Verbs in p 197 § 108. "Irjfxi, 211 ; ''Ufxai, 212 ; "Evvvfxi, 213 ; Elfjl, 213 ; ET/xt 215 § 109. 'I>»///J, 219; KgT^m, 220; OJSa ('Itxrj in, 222) . ... 221 CONTENTS. XIX PAGE § 110 — 113. Anomaly of Verbs; § 110. Syncopated Forms and Metathesis, 223; § 111. New Themes derived from the Tenses, 231 ; § 112. Anomalous Mutability of the Root, 232 ; § 113. Anomaly of Signification, 238 ; . Causativa et Immediativa 229 §114. List of Irregular Verbs 244 § 115. Particles, and their Degrees of Comparison .... 290 § 116. Particulce Correlativce 293 § 117. Mutability of some other Particles, 297 ; AnastropJie . 299 § 118, 119. Formation of Words by Terminations, (I. Verbs, 301 ; II. Substantives, 305 ; III. Adjectives, 314 ; IV. Adverbs, 316) 300 § 120,121. Derivation by Composition 318 Syntax. § 122. General View; § 1 23. Of the Noun 326 § 124 — 127. Article, 327 ; and Pronouns 332 § 128. Neuter of the Adjectives in general 338 § 129. Subject and Predicate 339 § 130. Object ; Casus Ohliqui, 343 ; § 131. Accusative, 345 ; § 132. Genitive, 349 ; § 133. Dative ..... 355 § 134. Verhum Passivum (Verbal Adjectives in riog and toq) . 358 § 135, 136. Medium 361 § 137, 138. Tenses, 366 ; § 138. Futurum 3 371 § 139. Moods, 372 ; § 139. A. Conditional Propositions, 377 ; B. Propositions beginning with Pronouns Relative, 380 ; C. Propositions beginning with the Particles of Time, 381 ; D. Propositions expressing any Cause or Reason, 382 ; E. Propositions expressing any Aim or Purpose, 383 ; F. Propositions expressing any Infer- ence or Conclusion, 385 ; G. Transitive Propositions after the verbs ' to say,' &c. 386 ; H. Direct and in- direct Interrogative Propositions 387 § 140 — 142. Infinitive, 389 ; Attraction . 393 § 143. Construction with the Relative, 395 ; and its Attraction 397 § 144. Construction with the Participle, 399 ; § 145. Casus Absoluti 405 § 146. Particles, 407 ; § 147. Prepositions ...... 409 XX CONTENTS. PAGE § 148. Negative Particles, 413 ; § 149. Expletives, &c. . . 431 § 150. Peculiar Phrases 433 § 151. Particular Constructions ; I. Attraction (compare § 142 and 143), 446 ; II. Anacoluthorii 449 ; III. Inversion, 451 ; IV. Ellipsis 453 APPENDIX. List of Words, &c., for Declension and Conjugation .... 455 Greek Technical Grammatical Terms 467 Abbreviations ' 468 INDEX. English and Latin 471 Greek 476 GREEK GRAMMAR. § 1. — Of the Greek Language, and its Dialects in general. 1. The Greek language {(fnovri 'EWyivikyj) was anciently spoken not only in Greece^ but also in a considerable part of Asia Minor, the south of Italy, Sicily^ and the Greek colonies of other countries. Like all languages, it had several dialects, (SmXfjcrot,) reducible, however^ to two principal ones, the Doric (?7 AwpiKYj, AwpXg,) and the Ionic, (17 'Iwvlkti, ^lag,) spoken by two chief Greek tribes, the Dorians and lonians. 2. The Dorians were the most considerable tribe, and founded the greatest number of colonies ; hence the Doric dialect pre- vailed in the whole interior of Greece, in Italy, and Sicily. It was harsh : the long a, which was prominent in it, (see § 27, Obs. 5,) made on the ear an impression called by the Greeks irXareiacTjULOQ (broad pronunciation) ; and the Doric dialect was, on the whole, the least improved. The ^olic dialect, (17 Alo- XiKTi, AloXig,) a collateral branch of the Doric, early attained in the -^olian colonies of Asia Minor, and the neighbouring islands, (Lesbos, &c.) a considerable degree of refinement, which probably was confined to poetry. 3. The lonians resided in earlier times chiefly in Attica, whence they sent colonies to the coasts of Asia Minor. As these were in many respects highly civilised prior to the parent tribe, nay even sooner than all the other Greeks, the denomi- nation of lonians and Ionic applied principally, and at length exclusively, to these colonies and their idiom : and the original lonians in Attica itself were called Attics, Athenians. The Ionic dialect, owing to the accumulation of vowels, is the softest of all. But the Attic dialect, (17 ^Attikyj, 'ArOlg,) which was of later improvement, soon excelled in refinement all the 2 OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE, other Greek dialects, by avoiding, with Attic ingenuity, both the Doric harshness and the Ionic softness. But though the Athenians really are the parent tribe, the Ionic dialect of the Asiatic colonies is yet considered as the parent of the Attic dialect, because it was improved at a period when it had least deviated from the primitive Ionic dialect, the common parent of both. Obs. 1. The ingenuity of the Attic dialect is most apparent in syntax, with regard to which it distinguishes itself, not only from all the other Greek dialects, but also from any other language, by an appropriate conciseness, a highly effective co-ordi- nation of the principal thoughts, and a certain moderation in asserting and dis- cussing, which had passed from the refined tone of the social intercourse of Athens into the language itself. Obs. 2. Of other collateral branches of the mentioned dialects, as the Boeotic, the Laconic, and the Thessalic, Sec, we have only solitary words and grammatical forms in scattered fragments, inscriptions, &c. 4. We must admit, as the parent of all the Greek dialects, an ancient primitive Greek language, of which philosophical grammatical inquiries alone may discover or rather conjecture some traces. Each dialect had naturally retained more or less of this ancient language, and each must also undoubtedly have preserved something, which had gradually been lost in the other dialects. This circumstance obviously accounts for gram- marians tracing Dorisms, ^olisms, and even Atticisms in the old Ionian Homer. Whatever was of habitual or frequent occurrence in one dialect was exclusively ascribed to this dia- lect, and designated accordingly, even if it likewise occurred, though less frequently, in other dialects. It is thus, for in- stance, that we must understand what are called Dorisms in Attic writers, and Atticisms in writers who are not Attics^. 5. Most poetical forms and licences spring from this ancient language. The poet, it is true, improves his idiom, and through him only it becomes a polished language, forming a harmonious, expressive, and copious whole. Yet the poet never originates the changes and innovations which he finds necessary ; this would be the surest way to displease. The oldest Greek bards selected, out of the manifold extant forms of speech, those which best suited them. Several of these forms became anti- quated in practice ; but the later poet, having these predecessors * Ex. (jr. the Doric fut. aovfxai, ^ovfjiai, the Attic declension (og, the Attic ^vv for fTVV, &c. . AND ITS DIALECTS IN GENERAL. 6 before him, would not be debarred from such treasures, and thus what had been originally a real dialect, and is justly considered as such, became a poetical peculiarity, or what is called a poetical licence ^ 6. In all civilised nations one of their dialects generally be- comes the foundation of their common written language, and the language of polished society. This was not immediately the case with the Greeks. They became civilised, when they still formed distinct locally and politically separated states. Nearly up to the time of Alexander, the Greeks wrote in the dialect in which they had been brought up, or to which they were most partial; and thus arose Ionic, ^olic, Doric, and Attic poets and prose-writers, v^^hose works are more or less extant. Obs. 3. Only great works, which attracted general attention, as epic and dramatic poems, formed an exception. Their authors unquestionably wrote in the dialect of their country ; but an imitation of them in another dialect, which, besides, would have required an almost equal creative talent, would not have been well received, because all the tribes of Greeks were already familiarised to the language proper for this species of composition, and could not separate one from the other. The dialect, in which the first masterpieces of any species of writing were composed, continued to be the dialect of that species. (See the Text, 10, IL) Obs. 4. The most ancient poets, Homer, Hesiod, Theognis, and others, wrote in the Ionic dialect ; but their language is rather that apparently mixed one, which comes nearest to the oldest language, and afterwards continued to be the poetical dialect used in most species of poetry. The real, but more modern Ionic dialect is to be found in the prose-writers, of whom Herodotus and Hippocrates are the most conspicuous, though both Dorians by origin. The Ionic dialect, owing to its pecu- liar softness and early improvement, had already become pretty general, even in prose, especially in Asia Minor. Obs. 5. The lyrics are the only poets of that time, who wrote in all the dialects. But the oldest and most celebrated of them were ^olians ; at their head are Sappho and Alcseus, of whom some few scanty remains have been handed down to us in fragments. Anacreo (of whom we have also but a few, partly crippled, and partly questionable, remains) wrote in the Ionic dialect. Most of the other lyric poets wrote in the Doric dialect ; out of the manifold forms of this widely-diffused dialect, they selected those which suited them, and created, as it were, each his own language. Pindar is the only one of these latter, of whom we have some entire poems. 2 But this must not be understood, as if every expression of the ancient poets had actually been once in common use. The privilege which, even in the most copious language, a modern poet enjoys of forming new words, and giving new- inflections to the existing ones, must have been still more largely allowed to the ancient poets, at a time when the language was poor. The materials, however, out of which, and the form according to which, he models his expressions, are not of the poet's creation, but derived from the stock, and conformable to the analogy of the language. Neither can a slight polishing of the usual forms, practised in com- mon life even by ordinary men, be denied to him, to whom harmony is a duty, and rhythmical metre a chain. B 2 4 OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE^ Ohs. G. Tlic few prose-writings which we have in the Doric dialect are mostly on niatlieniatical and philosophical subjects. With regard to Attic writers, see the following Obscrtations. 7. In the mean time, Athens rose to such a poHtical height, that it maintained for a while a kind of supremacy over all Greece, and became the centre of all scientific culture. The democratic constitution, nowhere so unmixed, introduced to the Attic forum, and the Attic stage, that freedom of speech, which, in connexion with other advantages, was alone sufficient to raise, not only these branches of literature, but also those congenial ones, history and philosophy, to the highest pitch, and impart to the Attic idiom a perfection and capaciousness which no other dialect attained. Ohs. 7. The most distinguished prose-writers of Greece, (we treat separately of its poets,) of this golden age of Attic literature, are Thucydides, Xenopho, Plato, Lysias, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and the other orators. 8. Greeks of all tribes repaired to Athens for improvement ; and Attic masterpieces served as models in the most extensive fields of literature. The consequence was that the Attic dialect, which maintained its pre-eminence over all others, became soon after, when Greece acquired a complete political unity under the Macedonian monarchs, the court-language and the general language of books, in which the prose-writers of all the Greek tribes and countries composed almost exclusively. This lan- guage was now taught in schools, and grammarians pronounced, according to these Attic models, on what was genuine or not genuine Attic. The central point of this later Greek literature was under the Ptolemies at Alexandria in Egypt. 9. But in proportion as the Attic dialect became general, it naturally also began gradually to degenerate ; partly because authors indulged in an admixture of their own provincial dialects, and partly because they substituted for anomalies and apparently affected expressions peculiar to the Athenians, more regular and natural ones, or introduced, instead of a simple term more or less obsolete in common life, a derivative one, which was now more generally used\ Grammarians, how- ever, (this class of them are called Atticists,) often endeavoured, with much pedantry and exaggeration, to prevent this, and in their school-books contrasted the expressions of the old ' Ex.gr. I'TJxtoOai for veiv, * to swim ;' aporpi^v for dpovv, Ho plough.' AND ITS DIALECTS IN GENERAL. 5 Attic writers with those which they criticised as faulty or less elegant. Thus arose the practice of calling Attic only the language found in the old Attic writers, and, in a more re- stricted sense, the peculiarities of those authors ; the usual language of persons of education, which was an offspring of the Attic, was now called Koivrj, the general language, or 'EXXr^vtKrj (the Greek, i. e., the common Greek) ; even the writers of later times were denominated ol kolvoI, or ot "EXXrjvecj in contradis- tinction to the genuine Attics. But this never can be considered as a particular dialect ; for the Koivrj diaXEKroQ continued in the main to be Attic, and hence Atticism is the principal object of every Greek Grammar, Obs. 8. It may easily be conceived that in these circumstances the denomination KoivoQ, KOLvbv, was considered as imputing something faulty, and though it properly denotes ' the language common to all Greeks, not excluding genuine Attic,' it rather denoted, with grammarians, ' a language which was not genuine Attic' On the other hand, all which is called Attic, is not on that account exclusively of Attic form, not even in genuine Attic writers. Many an Attic locution was not in con- stant general use, even at Athens, but alternated with other forms, (ex. gr. (piXoirj with (piKol, ^vv with uvv,) which were generally used. Neither were the Athenians strangers to many Ionic forms, {ex.gr. not contracted, instead of contracted ones,) which therefore might be employed by authors, who all consulted the ear. This approximation to lonism is the principal criterion of strictly ancient Atticism, such as we find in Thucydides ; but Demosthenes wrote that later Attic, which forms the transition to the more modei-n Koivrj. Obs. 9. To make an accurate and proper division, we must commence the more modern period, or the kolvovq, with the first non- Athenian, who wrote Attic. Of this class are Aristotle, Theophi'astus, Polybius, Diodorus, Plutarch, and the other later authors, many of whom endeavoured, however, to excel, as much as possible, in the old Attic language. This is especially the case with Luciau, ^lian, and Arrian. Obs. 10. Of the provincial dialects, which crept into the later Greek language, the Macedonian is the principal. The Macedonians were a kindred nation of the Greeks, accoimted themselves Dorians, and carried as conquerors Greek civilisation into the barbarian countries over which they ruled. In these countries Greek was now spoken and written, but not without an admixture of peculiarities, which the grammarians style Macedonian forms ; and as the seat of this later Greek culture was chiefly in Egypt, at Alexandria, its capital, the same forms are likewise deno- minated the Alexaiidrian dialect. But the inhabitants of these countries, who were not Greeks, now also began to speak Greek, ('EWj^i't^ftv,) and an Asiatic, Syrian, &c., who spoke Greek, was called 'B\\r)viaTi]Q. Thus originated the practice of diQrxomxuSiimgHellemstic the language, which is mixed with several foi'ms not Greek, and contains tui'ns of expression peculiar to the East. This language is chiefly met with in the written Jewish and Christian monuments of that period, especially in the Greek translation of the Old Testament by the LXX ti'anslators, and in the New Testament, whence it passed more or less into the works of the Fathers of the Church. New barbarisms of all kinds crept into this language in the middle age, when Constantinople, the ancient Byzantium, was the seat of the Greek empire, 6 OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE^ and the centre of the literature of that time ; hence arose the language of the Byzantine writers, and lastly the Modem Greek. 10. But the Attic dialect was not general with regard to poetry ; the Athenians were models only in one species, the dramatic ; and as dramatic poetry from its nature merely is, even in tragedy, the ennobled language of real life, no other dialect reigned on the Athenian stage than the Attic, which war in the sequel retained by all the other Greek theatres *. In the dialogued part of the drama, and especially in that which consisted of Trimetries or Senaries, poets, though indulging in the frequent use of the apostrophus, and of contractions, allowed themselves but few poetical licences and changes of forms. Obs. 11. These licences least indulged in were, as may be supposed, by comic writers ; but many a Homeric form would suit the tragic Senary. Of the Greek dramatists none have been handed down to us but genuine and old Attic writers, viz. the tragic poets ^Eschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and the comic poet Aristophanes. 11. Homer, and the other ancient Ionic poets, whose works were read in schools, continued uninterruptedly to be models for all other species of poems, especially those composed in hexameters, the epic, didactic, and elegiac : and through these poems the old Ionic or Homeric idiom was preserved with all its peculiarities and antiquated forms. It thus became, what the Attic was for prose-writers, the prevailing dialect or general language for epic, didactic, and elegiac poetry in the Alexan- drian period, and at a later time, when it was no longer readily intelligible to the common people, and required a learned education to be completely understood and relished. This language may be denominated the Epic idiom, as it was derived entirely from epic poetry. Obs. 12. The most eminent poets of this class in the Alexandrian period are Apollonius, Callimachus, Aratus ; and later, Nicander, Oppian, Quintus, and others. 12. But the Doric dialect was by no means excluded from poetry even in later times. It maintained itself in light and especially rural and jocose poetry, partly because there were predecessors in this line, and probably also because several of these poems describe the manners and expressions of country people and of the lower ranks, whose language, owing to the ^ See Obs. 3. 1 AND ITS DIALECTS IN GENERAL.. 7 almost general dispersion of the Dorians, was nearly every where the Doric. — (Compare above, 2.) Obs. 13. Hence the Doric dialect prevails in the Bucolic writers, Theocritus, Moschus, and Bio, whose more modern Dorism is, however, greatly different from that of Pindar. The old epigrams were partly in the Ionic, and partly in the Doric dialect ; but the Dorism in this species of poetry was far simpler and nobler, and confined to a small number of characteristic Doric forms, which were familiar to the Avell-informed poets of every tribe. 13. The idiom which prevails in the lyric parts of the drama, i. e., in choruses and pathetic speeches, is also usually called Doric ; but this Dorism consisted almost entirely in the preva- lence of the a long, especially in lieu of ij, which was peculiar to the old language in general, and, on account of its gravity, maintained itself in solemn hymns, whilst the Dorians alone retained it in common life ^ But this lyric language also a]dfl^ proximated to the epic in several respects. ^ See par. 2. There are, however, no Dorisms properly so called in the theatrical choinises, as infin. ending in iv and riv, accus. pi. in mq and og, &c. FIRST PART. GRAMMATICAL FORMS. WRITING AND PRONUNCIATION. § 2. — Alphabetical Letters. The Greeks received most of their letters fr©m the Phenicians ; this is evident from the oriental names by which they are called, ff hey are the following : — PRONOUNCED NAMED A a a, aw "A\(pa alpha B /3C b. BrjTa beta r yf S> rdjuiuLa gamma A g d, AiXra delta E ■^ e, a short ''E 4>iXhv epsilon * Z z ds^ ZriTa zeta H n e, a long '"Era eta e ^,0 th. • QriTa theta I I i, ee Iwra iota (not jota) K K k. KaTTTra cappa A X 1, Aaju/3^a lambda M A^ m, Mu my N V n. m ny ^ 5 X, m xi O o^ short ^0 jULlK^bv omicron (short o) n TT, t^ P. m pi p P. ^ r, rh 'Po. rho 2 «^5 C s^ 2t7/xa sigma T r,7 t, TaO tau Y V U, 00 "Y^iX^v ypsilon ^ 4> ^ f. ^t phi X X ch, XX chi ^ "^ ps. ^r psi £1 (Jj long 'Q jUfya omega (long o.) 1 "E xpiXbv and ''Y xpiXbv take the additional tpiXbv, that is lene, not aspirate, because in ancient Greek writings the figure « was at the same time one of the marks of the PRONUNCIATION. 9 Obs. 1. The letter cr is used only in the beginning and in the middle of words, g at the end ; this q must not be confounded with t. See the following §. Still we often meet with the letter g in the middle of compound words, as in ovgrtvag, Trpog- ). Hence it appears, that in order to distinguish i]v from eu, the e must be sounded stronger, and the same ought to be observed with regard to mv and vi. It is like- wise very evident that the case must have been the same with ^, y, and ^, at the time when the i was sounded with them, which must have been the usual pronxm- ciation in the strictly classical times, as is proved by the Latins writing tragoedus, comoedus, for Tpaytji^oQ, KOJfJKpdog. But it is also equally manifest from the words adopted at a later period, a.s prosodia, ode, for irpoaijjdia, i^dt), that ^ was then no longer distinguished from w. We now adhere thoroughly to this equally genuine pronunciation. Obs. 3. The ow, indeed, sounds only as one vowel, and therefore is no real diph- thong ; but we leave it in its own place, because it also differs essentially from the three others, in which there is only one of the two written vowels sounded, whilst in ov there is, as it were, a third mixed sound of o and v, just as ce has a sound between a and e. The short v was also in the oldest language, and remained in the -^ohc dialect, and in Latin, as the idiom most nearly related to that dialect. It was expressed by the kindred lettei-s and v, and in later times probably by the s, a compound of both letters. The Homeric (SoXeaOs is of this description. See Verb. Anom. v. (BovXofiai. 1 Whenever a vowel follows ev and av, it is now usually written in Latin with a V, as Evav, Evan, 'Ayavr], Agate, and pronounced accordingly. This evidently is a remnant of Reuchlin's pronunciation ; but is incorrect. We ought to write and pronounce in Latin Agaue and Euan. li A GREEK GRAMMAR. § 6. — Spiritus, Breathing, 1. The Greek letters have two signs or marks : ' Spiritus lenis, {irveviLia ipiXbv, the slight aspirate,) ' Spiritus asper [irvtv^a daav, the strong aspirate). Both these aspirates are usually placed only over vowels in the beginning of words ; for instance, "Ojujjpoc^ Homerus. The Spir. asper is the h aspirate : the lenis is used when other lan- guages begin the word simply with the vowel, as lyw, ego. But in Prosody and Grammar both kinds of words are considered as beginning merely with a vowel : thus with regard to the apostrophus, (§ 30,) and to the moveable v (v l(l)e\KV(TTLKov, § 26). 2. When the Spiritus falls on a diphthong, it is placed, like the accents, on the second letter: as EvpiTridrig, olog. But this is not done with the improper diphthongs : as, "At^rjc (o^'^^c). 3. The Spiritus asper is attached to p in the beginning of a word ; and two p's in the middle are marked p p. This is de- rived from a peculiarity of the ancient language ; hence ' the Latins never neglect it in Greek words : as, priTwp, rhetor, UvppoQ, Pyrrhus. Obs. 1 . Both spiritus are distinct letters in other languages ; the lenis is the alef or elif of the orientals. Neither is this an idle sign. Every vowel uttered without a consonant, and consequently every vowel which is to be pronounced distinctly and sepai-ately from the preceding letter \ is actually introduced by a slight audible aspiration, which the ancients had greater occasion to mark in their writing, as they did not separate their words. Obs. 2. The spir. asper was frequently neglected by the /Eolians, and sometimes by the lonians : hence we meet in epics with vixfiiv for vixlv, aXro from aXXofiai, rjkXiog for jjXioq, &c. Obs. 3. The most ancient Greek language had along with these two spiritus an additional aspiration, which maintained itself the longest among the Cohans. It is usually called digamma, a double F, from the figure of its sign, F, and properly was a consonant pronounced like the Latin V, and applied to several words, which, in the better known dialects, have either the spir. asper or the lenis. But whatever relates to the digamma is still involved in great obscurity, owing to the want of monuments. The Homeric digamma, so much discussed of late, rests on the follow- ing remarkable circumstance : — A certain number of words beginning with a vowel, the principal of which are the pronouns ov, oi, e, and the words tiSu), 'ioiKa, eiTreiv, ava^, 'iXioQ, olvog, oIkoq, tpyov, laog, SKacrrog, and their derivatives, so frequently have the hiatus in Homer (see § 28) before them, that on omitting them, the liiatus, now so frequent in Homer, seldom occurs, and is then easily accounted for in the few instances which remain. These very words, comparatively with others, have rarely an apostrophus before them, and the long voAvels and diphthongs, which are immediately preceding, are much less frequently shortened than before other words, (see § 7, Obs.) so that we must conclude that there was something in the beginning ^ For instance, when wc correctly pronounce Ab-origines instead of A-borigines. PROSODY. 15 of those words, by which both (the apostrophus and the shortening of the vowels) was prevented, and the hiatus removed. And as short vowels with a consonant (for instance, og, ov) often become long in these words, even exclusively of the caesura, as if there were Si position, it has been ingeniously conjectured in modern times, that all these words had in Homer's mouth this aspiration, (V,) with the power of a consonant before them, but had lost it at the far later period, when Homer's poems were written down. But as these poems are known to have under- gone so many changes and additions before that time, and even after, the instances where the traces of the digamma in Homer have disappeared are very obviously explained. We must also remember that the disappearance or gi-adual vanishing of the digamma may possibly have commenced in Homer's time, and that many a word may have been pronounced sometimes with and sometimes without it. § 7. Prosody. 1. Prosody, according to the modern acceptation of the word, is the theory of the quantity of syllables ; that is to say, their length, [productio,) or their shortness [correptio) \ 2. Every word and grammatical form had for each syllable, with very few exceptions, a fixed quantity, which regulated the pronunciation of the Greeks in their common intercourse, and must therefore be known, to pronounce the Greek correctly. Ohs. I. Hence it is evident how greatly they err, who detach Prosody from Gram- mar, and consider it merely as a theory necessary for the understanding of poetry. The error proceeds from the circumstance, that hearing no longer the common pro- nunciation of the ancients, we learn the quantity of syllables from the works of the poets, who indulged in peculiarities and licenses. Thus we have in many instances, along with the fixed quantity, a poetical quantity, of which the most important points are stated in the Observations. 3. Grammar notes the quantity of syllables with the following two marks over the vowel, (~) long, (*^) short; for instance, a short a, a long a. a doubtful or fluctuating. 4. Any syllable, the length of which is not distinctly ascer- tained, is presumed to be short. 5. A syllable is long either, 1, by the nature of the vowel, or 2, hy position. 6. A syllable is, 1, long by nature, when its vowel is a long one ; as, for instance, the middle syllable of amare, docere, in Latin. This is denoted in Greek partly by the characters themselves ; of the simple vowels, r] and w are always long, £ and o always short. ^ But the ancient Greek grammarians comprise in 7rpo(T(fdiat ' whatever affects the sound of a syllable,' and consequently also ' both accents and spiritus.' 16 A GREEK GRAMMAR. They therefore require no comment. But the three others, a, I, V, are, like all Latin vowels, both long and short, and hence are called doubtful or fluctuating, in Latin ancipites. Obs. 2. But this must not be understood as if there were in the nature of the sounds a, i, v, something fluctuating between length and shortness. All vowels are fixedly (positively) long in some words, and fixedly short in others ; but it is only for the e and o that the Greeks have particular characters in either case. The quantity of a, i, v, is leai'ned in the same way as we learn it, in Latin, of all the five vowels. But if one of the three vowels be actually fluctuating in some Grreek words, ex. gr. the a in KoXbg, the i in ctvia, the case is the same with e and o being written in two ways in the same words, as in rpoxdu) and rjOw%aai, aCJoQ and croog, vrjaQ and veaQ, which cannot be distinguished in the most ancient writing. 7. With respect to the length by nature, it is a general rule that two vowels, giving but one sound, constitute a long syl- lable. Hence 1.) All diphthongs, without exception, are long; e<^.^r. the penultima in jdaaiXeiog, kira^io. 2.) All contractions are long, and in this instance the fluc- tuating vowels are constantly long ; ea?. gr. the a in clkojv for aUiov, the I in Iphg for hpog, the v in the accus. jdorpvg for jSorpuac. See § 28. 06s. 3. But elisions {ex. gr. cnrayM for a7ro-aya>) must be carefully distinguished from contractions, as is stated in §§ 28 — 30. 8. A syllable is long, 2, even with a short vowel by position, that is to say when it is followed by two or more consonants, or a double letter ; eoo. gr. the penultima in XlyeaOai, fiiyicrTog, KadtXKU), (diXefjLvov, a\poppog, KaOl^u), voiuiZ(j>i» Obs. 4. There is frequently a long vowel along with the position. In this case it is a very customary fault to be satisfied with the length by position without lengthening the vowel in pronunciation. - It ought, however, to be lengthened not only in ArjfxvoQ, (pronounced Lehmnos,) opTrrjK, Xapojvdag, Sec, not only where there is a circumflex, (§ 11, i.) as in [xaXXov, Trpa^te, but also in TrpaVrw, Trpa^w, the length of whose a is obvious from the kindred forms, which have the circumflex, {Trpa^ig, irpayfia,) whilst the a in tcitto), rd^u), is short as in rd^ig. And just as we distinguish the final syllables of KvK\u)\f/ and KsKpotp, we must observe the same distinction in Oupa^, where the first syllable is long, (gen. OojpdKog,) and in avXa^, where it is short (gen. avXaKog). The length and shortness of the fluctuating vowels before a position, to obtain a correct pronunciation, must be learned by attending to the accents according to Obs. 11, and by consulting the kindred forms of the word in the way which we have just stated. 9. Muta cum liquida (§ 4) in general does not make a position ; hence the penultima in citskvoq, Si^paxju-og, yEviOXri, Sv(nroTiuog, &c. is short. Only poets sometimes also use these syllables as PROSODY. 17 long, whence the common assertion that muta cum liquida makes a doubtful syllable. Obs. 5. Hence beginners ought to be extremely careful to ascertain whether the vowel in such a word be not possibly long by natux'e, for in that case it remains long of course, as, for instance, in TrsvraOXog, which comes from dOXog, (a contrac- tion of dsOXog,) and consequently as a long a. It is the same with tpvxpbg, the v of which is long, because it comes from i|/y%a> (see Obs. 8). Learners are very apt to fancy that muta cum liquida has the power of rendering the syllable doubtful. 10. The medice, medials, (jS, y, ^,) when before the three liquids \, fx, V, form, however, an exception to the preceding rule, and make a true position. The penultiraa in the following words, for instance, is long, (only the vowel must not be lengthened in pronunciation,) iriTrXsyjuai, T£rpaj3ij3Xoc, evodfiog: but in the following, it is short, ^(^apadpa^ MeXiaypog, jjioXoftpoQ. 11. All syllables, the quantity of which is not determined by the preceding rules, which can be the case only with syllables with the vowels a, i, v, without a position, are regulated merely by usage ; and as this is most safely ascertained in the works of the poets, and confirmed by passages of the same, this is called determining the quantity ea? auctoritate, and in doubtful cases the authority of the Attic poets is decisive. The quantity of the radical syllable of words must be learned from dictionaries and private observation; we shall only notice the most im- portant, and the quantity of syllables used in the formation and inflection of words will be noticed in the Grammar in their proper place. Obs. 6. But with regard to the formation and inflection of syllables, we shall in general (under the supposition of Text 4) state only those in which the doubtful vowels are long. Every syllable, therefore, of which nothing is observed, and the contrary of which is not apparent from the general rules, is to be presumed short ; ex. gr. the penultima in irpdyfiarog, kTvxpdjjirjv, and in the terminations employed in the formation of words, as ^vXivog, diKatoavvr], &c. We thus have only to notice radical syllables, and a few derivatives, which are not easily comprised in the rules of grammar. Obs. 7- It is chiefly only the penultima, in words of three or more syllables, which is rendered sensible in modern pronunciation ; and yet it is of great importance to be accustomed to pronounce such words correctly before the reading of poets is attempted. We therefore give the principle of such only, in which the penultima is long : — (pXvapog, 6, futile talk. Ko/3a\og, rogue. dviapbg, sad. uKparog, pure, unmixed. Tidpa, tiara. iargog, physician. orraSbg, attendant. oivam, mustard. av9ddr]g, proud. aiayuiv, rj, jaio. with the words in ayog, derived from dyoj and dyvvm, as Xoxaybg, captain; vuvaybg, one who has been shipicrecked. 18 A GREEK GRAMMAR. KafiivoQ, ri, stove. XaXivbg, 6, rein. (TsXivov, parsley. Kvfiivov, cumin. avKajxivov, mulberry. KVKXdfiivov, a plant. dujTivrj, gift. d^ivt], axe. Kivdvpog, 6, danger. PSOvvog, 6, cavity. evOvvT}, scrutiny. l^Oinog, strong. ala')(vvri, disgrace. Kknv^ov, husk. dffvXoVf asylum. XdipvpoVf spoil, booty. TTiTvpov, bran. dyKvpa, anchor. 7rpt(rf3vTt}g, old man. ipifxvOog, 6, white lead. KsXvcpog, TO, husk. prjrivrj, rosin. ofxiXog, 6, multitude. (TTp6(3iXog, 6, cone of a pine-tree. TrkdiXov, shoe. XiXidihr, 6, swallow. 'ipiOog, one who labours for hire. dicpij3r)g, exact. ciKovLTov, aconite, wolfh-bane. Tapixog, TO, dried or salt fish. TTUTTvpog, rj, papyrus. kviTTtj, threat. dvTTi, cry. dfxvva, defence. diivfioiv, blameless. yscpvpa, bridge. oXvpa, spelt. KoXXvpa, small loaf of bread. and also iaxvpog, strong, (from iaxvio, to be powerful^ but in kx^pbg and ox^pog, fortified, fast, (from £%w, to ham, hold,) and in the other adjectives in vpbg, the v is short. It is likewise safer to pronounce fivpLKt], the shrub tamarisk. Kopvvr], club. TrXrififivptg, flood, tide. Topvvr}, ladle, skimmer [trowel']. long, though they also occur short. The following proper names are long ; "ErvfxcpaXog, ^dpcraXog, UpiaTTog, "ApaTog, Arjfxdparog, 'AxciTijg, Af.vKarrig, 'Evcppdrrjg, Nj0ar>jg, Qeavu), 'idotav, " A}iacig, "^dpamg {Serapis^). BvpiTTog, 'Evnrfvg, 'Skpi^og, rpdviKog, Kd'iKog, "Offipig, Bovcripig, ^oivLkt], 'Ayxi(7>/g, A'iyiva, Kafxdpiva, 'AtppodiTr], 'Aju^trptrj;, Ai6vv(Tog, ' Afxippvabg, Kafx^vatjg, 'Apx^rag, KoJKVTbg, Brjpvrbg, 'Afivdog, BiOvvbg, Tldxwov, KkpKvpa {Gorcyra). See in the Appendix to the third declension a list of words of that declension, which have the penultima long in the gen. (and in the rest of their eases.) 06s. 8. But those words must also he treasured in the memory, the first syllable of which frequently becomes long through interchange and composition. The following ought to be particularly remembered on that account : — ^iXbg, bald. ^tXof, 6, food, Xijxbg, 6, hunger. pivbg, t], skin. Xirbg, small. Ovfibg, 6, mind. pvfibg, b,pole of a carriage. X^iJ-bg, 6, juice, sap. X^Xbg, b, juice. Tvpbg, 6, cheese. TTvpbg, 6 ^, rijuj), honour. v'lKTfi, victory. kXivt], bed, couch. SivT}, whirlpool. %vvbg, common, mutual. Kv soul. (pvXtj, tribe, troop. vXt], forest, materials. XvTTr}, grief. •Kvyri, buttocks. 2 There is likewise some assistance to be derived from the Ionic dialect for the quantity of the a, as that dialect frequently changes a into tf, ex. gr. ^SrviKptjXog, Upirj-JTog. 3 But nvpbg, the gen. of Trvp, ro, fi^re. PROSODY. 19 XPV'^oQ, 6, gold. (pgdnap, member of the same tribe, drr], harm, ruin. (Tcppayig, r), seal. daXbg, b, firebrand. rpaxvg, rough, fiiKpog, little, small in stature. Xifir], infamy, /xvptj, pretext. In the verbs which end simply with an w annexed to the radical word, the t and v are constantly long, {ex. gr. rpt/3a>, avpcj, tpvx(ti,) excepting yXj;0w, to carve, engrave. But the a {ex. gr. in dyco, ypd), diarpX(3)j, dva\pvx^} TrapaT^Jvxh- But ypvxn {soul). h. with some adjectives in tIjq, gen. sog, svicpivT^g, drpXprjg, 7ra\ivTpt(3tjg, &c., and the substantive 7raidoTpi(3r]g. Obs. 10. The rule that a vowel before another vowel is short, which is unsafe in Latin, is still less to be depended on in Greek. A long vowel before a vowel is, however, more rare than before a simple consonant, and especially the many nouns in log, lev, and la, are always short, except log, arroiD, KaXid, nest, aUia, indignity, dvia, sorrow, Kovia, dust, ^AKadrjixia ; and the two last occur also as short in the Epic poets. Vowel before vowel was pro- bably in many cases doubtful even in the common language, and poets, and more particulai'ly the Epics, enjoyed a great latitude in this respect *. Hence, as we learn the quantity of syllables fi'om poets only, we are left in uncertainty in many instances, especially respecting the final syllable of the Present Tense of the verbs in v(x) and iw, most of which we are forced to leave to individual observation. Many of those which have a long vowel in the Future, are also constantly used as long in the Present Tense in the Senarius, viz., daicpvo), [jltjvvio, iaxv(*), dXvui, ^vo), 9vw, (pvcj, Xvb), vu), Trpib), xpi'w. But several of them are fluctuating in other species of poetry. The a deserves to be remembered as long, particularly in Xabg, b, nation. vabg, b, temple, Kdu), (for Kaioj,) to burn. kXom), (for /cXaiw,) to weep. Long are also the penultima in 'Ej/yw, Bellona, and all those words in lojv and dcjv, which take an o in the gen. ; consequently all comparatives, {ex. gr. jStXriiov,) and many proper names, ex.gr. 'AfxcpLojv, 'YTrepiojv, Maxdojv, 'A^v9du)v, gen. ovog : but the t is short in AsvkoXiijjv, ^opix'Kov, gen. wvog. That proper names compounded with Xabg are long is a matter of course ; but remember that 'AfJKpidpaog is long, Oivoixaog short. See about the particular cases in which long vowels are employed as short in verses, Text 16, and Obs. 16. * They might lengthen the i for the sake of the metre, even in 'AaKXijiriov, 'iXiov, c'tTinir], &c. See Obs, 14. c 2 20 A GREEK GRAMMATl. 12. We have hitherto treated of the general rules of Prosody, as regards the language and the quantity of syllables, con- sidered in a grammatical point of view. We must now add a few words respecting that part of Prosody which we shall denominate Poetical usage, and which constitutes a part of the metrical science. It must be remembered as a general rule, that poets were bound to the fixed and usual quantity of syllables as contained in common language. Yet the various kinds of poetry and verses have a vast influence on Greek prosody, the laws of which differ con- siderably in the Hexameter of the Ionic epic poem and the Iambic Trimeter, or Senarius, the principal verse of the Attic drama, to which the Iambic and Trochaic verses of this kind of poetry conform. Ohs. 11. Attic poets indulged in but few poetical licences, and conformed them- selves in the main to the actual pronunciation of the people of Athens ; whilst the Hexameter, grounded on the ancient pronunciation of the lonians, allowed great freedom to the poet in particular instances. The other species of poetry lay between these two ; hence the parts of the drama itself, wherein an increasing emotion for- sakes the common language, and above all the Lyric passages and choruses, admitted more or less the freedom of Epic poetry along with its forms. Even the Senarius of tragedy differed in this respect from the Senarius of comedy, the language of which came nearer to that of common life. Compare § I. 10, 11. Ohs. 12. It is another peculiarity of the Hexameter, that it also varies with respect to quantity by nature (Text 6, 7)- The words KaXoQ, beautiful, 'iaog, equal, constantly short with the Attic poets, are long with the Epics, who therefore write ItroQ 5. There are several other words, the quantity of which is fluctuating with the Epics, especially dvT^p, man, "Aprjg, Mars, of which the first syllable else generally is short. In the exclamation 'A ptf/'Apc^j which frequently occurs in Homer, the two words, though placed together, differ in quantity. Obs. 13. The difference is particularly sensible with regard to position. The meeting of muta cum liquida was rather harsh in the softer Ionic dialect ; hence it generally makes a true position in the Epic poets, and especially in the ancient ones. But with the Attics the instances of short syllables stated above, (Text 9, 10,) are always observed as short in the Senarius of comedy, whilst Tragic poets frequently conform to the Epic usage. 13. In many cases the mere rhythmus has occasioned, in poetical writings, deviations from the usual quantity of syllables. 5 Observe also, that dpd. Epic dp^, imprecation, is short with the Attic poets, and long with the Epics ; whilst dprj, misery to be deprecated, is likewise short with the latter. POETICAL USAGE. 21 These are what are properly called poetical licences, having been made by the exigency of the verse, and are not based upon the nature of the language. The quantity, therefore, of a syllable, altered in such an arbitrary manner, is not hereby changed in reality. Ohs. 14. But the licence of the old Epic poets must not be supposed to have been unbounded ; this would have destroyed the charm of their masterly compositions. Their own feelings confined them within proper bounds, so that it was only with i-egard to certain words and forms, or to particular cases, that they indulged in this freedom. They resorted to it especially, 1.) in proper names: 'ATroWiovoq, with a long a ; ''EXtvaividao, with the first i short {Hymn. Cer. 105, of. 95). 2.) in words with over-many short syllables, as in cLTCovhoQai, ctOdvaTog, the first syllable of which was made long ; hence this rhythmus of dOdvarog was afterwards steadily adopted by all poets. 3.) in the beginning of an hexameter: Homer has even 'E-rrei | dtj — and ^iXe Ka- I ciyvrj- \ re-. 14. Lastly, the following general rules are to be observed in poetry, principally in Homer. Position has its effects in two words following close one on the other. This is without ex- ception whenever the two consonants are divided between the two words, as ^ikov rl/coc. But when the second word begins with the two consonants, the position is indeed justifiable, ex.gr. Homer,"Ev0a | a^iv Kara — jXaipe | Jav' — Il.Z'73,avT£ \ T^iosg, yet of rare occurrence, unless the Ictus comes to its assistance. See Obs. 16. In the Attics it is more particularly attended to ; but in this case muta cum liqidda commonly makes no position, ex. gr. Eur. Iph. Taur. 1317, Dwc ^^V; '^f- ttv^v- \ fia. 15. Whenever the last syllable of a word in the dactylic Hexameter falls in the Arsis, (the masculine caesura,) this last syllable is often lengthened by the mere power of the ictus. This is what is called the productio in the Ccesura, ex. gr., 11. e, 359, (piXs Ka- I diyvy] — | re KO/xi — | crai . a, 51^ p>i \ Xog £X£ — I TTi^vKeg I — I (pidg. Ohs. 15. This lengthening (productio), however, does not frequently occur in so glaring a manner, as in the quoted examples, except 1.) when the following word begins with two consonants, which position, ac- cording to text 14, causes generally no long syllable, unless it be supported by the ictus. 2.) When the following word begins with a Uquida, which may easily be doubled in pronunciation ; ex. gr. II. 6. 748, "Hpj; | ^l jxd- \ crriyt — , d. 274, CLfja I Ce vscpog \ s'lTrero — \)roTionnce demmastige — denneplios. The p in particu- lar is so easily doubled in pronunciation in this case, that even the Attic poets commonly employ a short vowel as long before the p in both Thesis and Arsis, {ex.gr. in the Arsis of the Senarius, — tov \ Trpoaw | irov rd | paKT], Aristoph. 22 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Plut. 10G5, and in the Thesis of a spondseus among anapaests, avrai \ dl pi- \ rag ^x'ov- | (jiv, Nub. 343,) and even avoid the p, wherever a short syllable is required. 3.) When the following word was sounded with the Digamma, the breathing of which also was easily strengthened. Hence verses in Homer end so fre- quently with the pron. possessive og fi'om t in this manner: Ovyark \ pa rjVf — TToae- I "i (^. 16. It is a general rule with dactylic and anapagstic verses, especially in hexameters, that the long final vowel or diphthong is made short before a following vowel : ex.gr, bttXev a- \ pitrrog, — iaatTai | aXyog, — cro- \ (pwHpYi \ aXXwv, But whenever this occurs in the Arsis, the syllable retains its quantity; out of it very rarely, excepting cases of the Digamma, as has been ob- served, § 6, Obs. 3. The Attic senarius, on the contrary, did not admit this shortening of long syllables : the case did not occur as a hiatus. Obs. 16. There are likewise instances of a long vowel or diphthong being short- ened before a vowel in the middle of the word, but only in certain words and forms, which must have had something conducive to it in their pronunciation ; as in ttouIv, (which is frequently w'ritten ttohv,) TroXog, and its corx*elatives and others. Such a vowel or diphthong is constantly shortened before the demonstrativum, (§ 80,) ex. gr. in TovTovi, avTifi, avrau, Sec, and in the Epic Itt^ij) for tTreiSr]. § S.— Of the Accents. 1. Independently of the quantity of syllables, (the province of Prosody,) the Greek language also marks the tone or what is called the accents ; this expression however, according to our habits and conceptions, still offers many difficulties. The Greek accent falling as frequently on a short syllable as on a long one, must necessarily impair the quantity, when expressed in our habitual way : as, ri^rj/it, ^ujKparYig. 2. But this accentuation is proved to be as old as the lan- guage itself ' by clear historical facts, and unquestionable tes- timonies of the ancients. Attentive grammarians began to note it, when a false intonation was more and more invading the language of common life ; and it was undoubtedly at a far later period that these signs, which were now taught in the Greek schools, were generally used. They thus transmitted to us, at least, the theory of Greek accentuation. 3. Reflection and practice have already enabled us to remove ■ ^ That is to say, on the whole ; for in individual practice, accentuation, like any other part of the language, was exposed to fluctuations. The adopted accentuation is chiefly that of the flourishing Attic period. I ACCENTS. 23 in part the contradiction which appeared to prevail between quantity and accent ; and it is worthy of the exertions of the learned to endeavour to restore this essential ingredient of the melody of the Greek language ; but this cannot be effected without an intimate acquaintance with the present system of Greek accentuation. 4. But^ independently of these considerations, the Greek accents are not without great practical utility. They frequently enable us by their position to ascertain the quantity of sylla- bles ; serve to distinguish many homonymous words and forms of speech ; and even where they are of no immediate import, familiarise us to the laws of accentuation, without which we could be no judges of the instances where they are of practical service. Obs. Nothing can be more prejudicial than the habit of applying the accents in readmg in a way which perverts the actual quantity of syllables (see the 06s. to the following §). If learners cannot remedy this fault by study, and attend to both quantity and accents, they ought to attach themselves principally to quantity, which is of still higher importance in reading. § 9. — Acutus and Circumflex. 1. Every Greek word, generally speaking, has an accent on one of its vowels, and this accent is of two kinds : Acutus and Circumflex. The acute o^ala {sc. Trpoa^y^ia) accent, that is to say, the sharp or clear tone, has the mark or sign J. 2. The circumflex^ TrepiaTrwiuivTi, that is to say, the lengthened tone, which is marked thus ^, requires a syllable long by nature. Obs. 1. The theory of the ancients respecting any sound, which, in our way of speaking, has not the accent, gives to it the grave or falling tone, (Saptia, (Lat. gravis,) and grammarians had for it a mark \ which, however, is not used in common writing, and must be distinguished from the gravis, of which we shall speak in § 13. According to the same theory, a long vowel, which has the circumflex, is to be con- sidered as two combined short vowels, of which the first has the acute, and the other the grave accent : thus 6b, for instance, gives w. But when the first vowel has the grave, and the other the acute accent, thus bo, and they are converted into (o, this long vowel then takes only the acute accent w. Obs. 2. The audible utterance of this difference in pronunciation has some diffi- culties. We barely warn against the two principal faults. Every accented long vowel (w or dj) must be carefully distinguished from the unaccented one, (grave w,) for instance, in avSpojitog, without, however, making it short (o) ^. But the oppo- site fault of lengthening accented short vowels must equally be guarded against : oTTfp, for instance, must not be pronounced like W7r«j0 ^. 2 The first syllable of avOpio-rroQ may be accented, and yet the second syllable lengthened, as is done with Ahuljhty. 3 The attempt to give the tone to a short vowel has the same effect with us as 24 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 10. 1. The acute accent and the circumflex can fall only on one of the three last syllables ; the acute accent, indeed, may fall on any of the three, but the circumflex can take place only on the last syllable, or on the penultimate. The second Obs. of § 14 shows that ioTivi and such words constitute but a seeming exception. 2. It is the nature of the last syllable in particular, which gives to the whole word its grammatical denomination with regard to the accent. According as this last syllable has 1. the acute accent, 2. the circumflex, or 3. no accent, (viz., according to § 8. 2. when it has the grave accent,)' the word is called Oxytonon, as for instance, 0£oc, oc? r£ru«^wc» Perispomenon .... ^tXw, vovg. Baryfonon tutttw, Trpajjua, Trpayfiara. 3. Again, any dissyllabic or polysyllabic barytonon, according as it has 1. the acute accent on the penultimate syllable, or 2. on the antepenultimate, or 3. the circumflex on the penultimate, is called Parcxytonon .... ruTrrw, rErvjiiiuievoQ, Proparoxytonon . . . ruTrro^evoc? avOpcjirog. Properispomenon . . . Kpayfjia, ^tXovcra. See about the seeming barytona, as 6joy?7, T^TVi^wg^ etc., and about the atona or unaccented words, § 13. §11. The place of the accent in words is best learned through attention and practice, and at first from the Dictionary. The following general rules may, however, be attended to : doubling the following consonant, which creates a great difficulty, since it must obviously be supposed that the ancients distinguished otl from otti, and jSaXs from jSaXXf. But in the first place this alteration of the sound is neither so frequent nor so offensive as when bvoQ, j3g\oc,for instance, are pronounced mvoq, (SrjXog ; and, in the second place, persevering application may certainly succeed at least in lessen- ing the difficulty. To pronounce Sw/cparj/f, compare this word with three similar German monosyllables, so hat er, * so has he,' the middle one of which is short, and may yet be accented. These words obviously differ from so that er, ' so did he,' and are nearly like so hdtt' er, ' so had he.' To pronounce aocpla without lengthening the i appears moi'e difficult; but not only the German wie, ' how,^ but even the French j^, ' fie ! ' may be accented ; it merely requires some little practice to pronounce a short accented syllable immediately befoi'e another vowel. I ACCENTS. 25 The circumflex requires a syllable long by nature, (viz. by its vowel and not by mere position :) (§ 7, 8.) ex. gr, KTi^OQ, (pbjg, teXxoq, ovTog, (TjULrjjfia, and Tifxar^, rjfuVf irvp, because the uncertain vowels, (§ 7. 6.) a, i, v, are long in these words. Hence a short vowel, when accented, can only take the acute accent : as erepogi jLiivog, 'Ivaj Trpog, ttoXv, TrXiyiaa. Obs. 1. ^fjiriyna has the circumflex only on account of the rj, nc%because of the position yfx. And as, for instance, 7rpay/xa, [xaWov, have the circumflex, it shows that a is here long by itself, not on account of y/x and \\ : pronounce praghma, mahllon. 3. But the acute accent may also stand on a long vowel : as (jo^b}Tspog^ CEvrepogf ^evyu), Ti/irji [dacnXevg, (j)U)p* 3. Whenever the last syllable, being naturally long, is to have the accent, it may be the circumflex ; and in case of a CONTRACTION, as in aX-qOiog, aXr]9ovg, TTotEw, TToew, it almost always is the circumflex, for the reasons stated below, § 28 Obs.^ but else it is not often the case. Several monosyllabic V70IIDS, as TrDp, jdovg, irag, ovv, vvv, have the circumflex. But in polysyllabic words, excepting the contraction, whenever the final syllable is accented, the circumflex is placed only on a.) the adverbial termination wg. See § 115. b.) the terminations of the gen. and dat. See § 337. c.) the terminations eu and ot of the vocat. See § 45. 4. If the penultimate syllable, being naturally long, is to be accented, it must be the circumflex, whenever the last syllable is short, or long only by position ; as /ofijua, oTvocj ^i'Xocj jSwXa^j gen. aKog. Obs. 2. This rule does not apply to words joined together with enclitics ; hence we write dre, ovrs, iixrwep, ijrig, rovaSe, &c. (See § 14. Obs. 2.) The par- ticles eWe and vaixi, (not vaixh) which are but ti and vai lengthened, are the only exceptions. 5. But whenever the last syllable is naturally long, the penultimate cannot take the circumflex ; we write |o/]rwp, o'/vrj, ^ux^, Owpa^, gen. tifcoc* 6. According to § 10. 1, the antepenultimate can take only the acute accent. But when the last syllable is long, whether it be by nature or position, the antepenultimate cannot be ac- cented at all ; we write ^(jjKparrig^ rrvXXeyWf epi(5d'e te) but commonly it does not, ovte ri. Yet with regard to these matters there is no uniformity in the editions of Greek books ; espe- cially in cases where the first word of such a coalition should (according to the Text 3.) take two accents. We sometimes meet with "EpfjSocr^e, oloffrc, correctly, and sometimes with the second accent only, "Eps^oa^E, o\6)p, a centaur, is merely an antiquated form of G^p, beast, ' a ma7i-beast ;' opvig has generally 6pvi9og in the gen., Dorice opvixoQ. b.) the mediae; for instance, for y\r)x(*>v, pennyroyal, Attice j8Xi7xwv, for yrj, ancient Doric Set, for ojSeXog, spit, Dorice 68sX6g. c.) the tenues ; thus the iuterrogatives, (ttov, Trwg, rroXog, oTrolog, ttCj, Sec.) in- stead of the usual tt, have in the Ionic dialect constantly k, {kov, Kojg, Kolog, oKoTog, Ku), &c.) ; thus also irort, when, is Dorice ttoku, and tt'evts, five, jEolice Trsfjiire. d.) the liquids ; thus, instead of ijXOov, (BsXrKTTog, (piXraTog, the Doric dialect has yv9ov, l3evTi(TTog, (pivraTog : the Ionic, instead of 7rvev[j,(jjv, lungs, has TrXevfxujv : the Attic for KXi(3avog, oven, Kpi(3avog : see about fxlv and viv, the pronouns, § 72. Obs. 6. e.) the letters of the same organ : the Attic prefers yva^svg, fuller, to Kva^svg : TOLTrig, tapestry, and dixTng were both used indifferently ; and the Ionic dialect sometimes converted the aspiratce into tenues, as SeKOfiai for ^6%ojuai, to take, avrig for avOig, again ; the Attic actpdpayog is lonice dcTrdpayog. f.) the (T especially with the other Unguals. with T — for ai), irXriaiov, near, TLoauhaJv, the Doric has tv, irXariov, IloTeiddv. „ 9 throughout in the Laconic dialect, as for 9ebg, 9t.log — aibg, atiog. „ V — the termination jitev is Dorice [xeg (as tvtttoijisv, rvTrronsg). „ p — thus many Doric tribes ended the words in ag, rjg, og, log, with ap, rip, op, ijjp. g.) the double consonants with the kindred simple ones, especially d with ?, as Kbp^ for 8bp^, roebuck, fjiddda Dorice for [xd^a, dough, &c. The old Greek and ./Eolic dialect, instead of ^ and -if/, transposed the two simple consonants ; as CKSj/og, aTToXig, for Uvog, stranger, \paXlg, shears. The Doric dialect in particular commonly has, instead of ^ in the middle, od, as, avpicdcj for avpiK(ti, [xeffdwv for /xl^wv or fjLei^(jjv, &.C. (Compare above, § 3.) Obs. 2. The conversion of letters into those which are not of a kin to them is of rare occurrence, and must be especially remembered ; as fioyig for fxoXig, hardly, KoeXv, lonice for vofiv, to meditate, KtXaivbg, K^Xaivrj, poetically for fisXag fi'sXaiva ^, black. Obs. 3. Most of the above-mentioned interchanges are stated by ancient and modern grammarians in general terms, as * the Attic dialect changes 9 into 0, the Ionic TT into k,' and so on. But this must not lead us to suppose that such a con- version is constant in such a dialect. The examples quoted are very often the only ones in which that convei-sion occurs, and it is but in some cases that this or that dialect inclines to some particular change, which merely serves to bring the cases which may occur under their proper analogy. Obs. 4. Two conversions, founded on what we stated above, are, however, so frequent, that they deserve a particular nt)tice, viz. : TT and (r(7, pp and p : present Tp^(p(i), I nourish ; fut. Opixpu); deriva- tives Tpo(f)ri, 6ue7TTi]pLOVj Opifjijua. But such a law of formation may already have occurred in the principal form (nomin. or pres.) stated in the Lexicons, and 2 But the form (ppoifiioi', (for Trpooifxiou,) from 7rp6 and olfxr], compared with 6pd(j(T(o, a contraction of rapdffo-w, shows that even without a spiritus asper before the p, the tenues readily become aspiratte. D 34 A GREEK GRAMMAR. not ill some of the derivative forms : whence arises a seem- ingly opposite case (r/o£<^w, 9pi\[^w, Opl^, Tpixbg), which is, how- ever, essentially the same : Root 9PIX: no?7i. OplZ, hair; gen. rpixog, dat. pi. Opi^lv, de- rivative TQiypw. There are but a few verbs, (see in the list of Anomalous Verbs dairno, 0A$ — , Opvirrw, rpi^^^i Tvcpu),) and the adjective rax^g, on account of its comparative 6aG(T0}v, (§ 67.) which belong to these two cases. 06.'. 1 . In some words the Ionic dialect changes the first aspirata, and the Attic the second, and vice versa; as, ■)(^iT(jt)v, Ion. kiOojv, kvrfvOev, evravOa, Ion. svOsvrev, evQavTa. See § 116. Obs. 2. The passive termination Qrjv, and what is derived from it, opei-ates only on the preceding 9 of the verbs 9veiv, to sacrifice, Oelvai, to place, ervOrjv, IrsOriv, reOeig. There is no change in any other verb ; for instance, kxvBr]v, wpOojOrjv, (from opOouj,) 9a(p9eiQ, WpscpBijv, W\sx9r}v. — The aor. 1. of the imper. pass, is the only certain instance with regard to the termination 9i of the imper. See below the verb Ti9i]iJ,i, § 107. Obs. 1. 5. The imper. , (see the anomalous verb e'xw,) eTracprj, d'Kt(j)9og, where the re- quisite aspiration, (according to § 17. 2,) the rr before the spiritus asper, {a(prj, k(p9bg,) is omitted. There is no change in any other compound ; e^u^aij/w, d}x(pixv9tig, dv9o(p6pog, 6cc. Obs. 4. This law extended also to the spiritus asper, which it converted into a lenis, as may be clearly seen in the following verb : Root 'EX, pi'esent £%w, I liave,fut. s'^w, deriv. UrixSg. But the spiritus generally remains unchanged ; as, d(prj, v(l)aivio, ijxi, Wsv. ACCUMULATION OF CONSONANTS. §19. 1. The immediate meeting of consonants produces a kind of harshness, which the Greek language avoids. 2. Three consonants, or one consonant and a double letter, cannot (except in compounds, as ^v(j(f)OapTog, kWrwo-tc? e/c^uxw) stand together, unless the first or last be a liquid, or unless there be a y before a palatal letter ; as, for instance, irsiiKpd^lc, gkXtjpoq, riy^d). In other cases Greek writers either strive to avoid this accumulation, or one of the consonants must give way ; see instances below about the perf. of the pass, voice ; eoc. gr. lacpaX-aOai, l(T(f)aXOai. 3. But even the meeting of two consonants only may produce a harshness, and there are some fixed rules to avoid it, stated in the following §§. ACCUMULATIOX OF CONSONANTS. 35 Obs. 1. The introduction even of a third consonant facilitates the pronunciation in some rarely occurring instances. When through the omission of a vowel the liquid fi ov V comes to stand immediately hefore the liquid X or p, the media, (/3, d,) which is of a kin to the first, is introduced ; as, from r)p.kpa comes jxiGr]^^pla, mid- day ; from fiejjisXijTai arose the Epic fiififSXerai : dvrjp has gen. avSpog. Obs. 2. Transposition sometimes, but equally rarely, puts a cousonant in a more convenient place. Thus the nominative ttj^u^ comes from the root IITKN, retained in the formation of the cases TrvKvbq, ttvkvI (see the Anomalous Declensions^. But transpositions not suggested by euphony, especially in the pronunciation of liquids, will sometimes occur in all idioms, some of v.hich the polished language does not scruple to use, as in the formation of the aor. 2., TrspOoj, lirpaQov, or for the sake of the metre, Kpadia for KapSia: and also tice versa; arapTTOQ for drpaTrog, ^apdiarog for j3pddi(TTog, &c. Obs. 3. The meeting of two consonants was still more frequent in the old lan- guage ; one of them was subsequently dropped, but poets often retained such a con- sonant for the sake of the metre, or to strengthen the sound of a word, as TrroXf/xog, TTToXig, and their compounds, instead of tto/Xs/xo^, ttSXiq. This also serves to ex- plain how x«M"'j ^^ ^^^ ground, and x^'^H-'^^og, low, are connected. Obs. 4. The 5 "BaK^ogy HirOevg. Obs. 1. The non- Attic poets frequently double the consonant for the sake of the metre ; for instance, oaaov, brri, ottttots, 'ivvsTre, for cxxovj &c. ; and okxoq, (JKVTTcpoQ, for bxoQ, (TKvcpog. This, however, is not done arbitrarily, but frequently in some words, and never in others, (as, 'in, kVtpof, afxa, dveixog,) yet mostly with semi-vowels. (See also about these reduplications, § 27- Obs. 14.) Obs. 2. Sometimes, but much less frequently, they employ a simple consonant, where the usual language has a double one ; as, 'Axi^tvg, 'Odvasvg, (for 'AxiWevg, 'Odvaatvg,) and hence they also neglect doubling the p, as f'pi^c from pl^w. § 23. 1 . When the letters j3, tt, 0, and -y, k, x^ stand before an a, they are converted along with this a into the kindred double letters ;// or ^ ; ea^. gr. the termination of o-w of the fut. makes of Tpij5(i) Tpiipu), Xhttu) Xei^d), jpcKptjj ypa-(pijj, Xayo) Xl^a>, irXiKUJ ttXI^w, xpiiCpKT-iaa. Obs. But in the general formation of words the palatal and lingual consonants are frequently left unchanged before /x, as a/cju>}, t'x/^a, "idficjv, ksv9[iojv, ttothoq : there are also other instances peculiar to some dialects ; as o^w (OAQ) gives lonice odfi"^, and usually oafirj. §34. 1. The Unguals S, 0, r, Z) can stand only before liquids; before fi, however, they are frequently converted into o-, accord- ing to the preceding §. 2. Before other linguals they are changed into o-, as r\^(i} r\(j-dr\v, ndOio TTELa-riov. 3. They are generally dropped before o-, ea^. gr. aSii) a-(T(i}f TreiOu) Trel-cru), adyfxara (TWjua-cn, (j)paZ(jj (ppa-mg. Obs. With regard to the changes of r in the abbreviations of Kara, see § II7. 06s. 2. §25. 1. The consonant v usually remains unchanged only before ^, 0, and r. Before labials it is converted into //, and before palatal letters it is changed into -y, which is pronounced like ng. Thus, for instance, the compounds of ahv and Iv become (TVfjL7ra(T-)(^b), £ju]3atvaj, cru/x^fioo), efiipv^og, kyKoXtj, (jvyyevrig, ^y^eipiZ(i)y lyKiu). Obs. 1. The addition of an enclitic (§14. Obs. 2.) constitutes an exception for the sake of distinctness, but only in writing ; as rovye, ovirep. 2. Before liquids the v is changed into the same liquid, as (jvWiyw, iWdTTii), IfXfxivM, (JvppaTrTW, but the prep, ev generally remains unchanged before pylvpaTrru), 3. Before o- and Z the v is partly retained in compounds, partly converted into cr, and partly thrown off, (see Obs. 2.) but 38 A GREEK GRAMMAR. in inflections the v generally disappears before o-, for instance, in the dat. pi. SatjU0v-£C3 ^aifio-di' juf)v-£c, iiir}~(Tiv. The preposition h remains here likewise unchanged, ew. gr. ivadio, Evt^iu). 4. If in addition to the v, a S, 0, or r, (according to § 24.) has been rejected along with it, the short vowel becomes a long one; as TravT-£Q, 7ra-uL' rvipavTsg, rvxpacri) (§ 46.) for which purpose (according to § 27. 2.) £ is changed into £1, and o into ov, as ' ' n» ' «'^^ (With a loiig a I See the pre- TayaOa, raAAa. tor r« ayaUa, ra aWa, > _ ° , * ,. ^, „j, ^ < ,^ «r. ( ceding (>6s. a. TaXrjOeg, tuClkov, tor ro aA. ao. J " wTrairwr, wvrjp, for 6 aTrairwv, 6 av^p ^, with which the less frequent crasis of the artlc. postpositiv. or pronoun relative neuter agrees : as aSo^e for a tSo^s, dv for a av, &c. Obs. 4. A c?'asis is not easily recognised, when diphthongs are absorbed : as ovfioi, for 01 knot, WTTavToJVTeg or aTravriovTeg for oi aTravroivrfc, TCLvSpbg, ravdpi, for roi) ctvdpbg, t<^ avdpi, (see 06s. 2. a.) ravTov, TavT(p (§ 74.) cnro ravTOfidrav, TCLTiov for ro air to v, and such like ; or when 9 is used on account of the spir. asp. (§ 17. 06s. 2.) as for instance, OoifxciTiov, pi. Boiixaria, for ro tju., rd i/i. OrjfjLSTe^ov, for roi) rip,eTipov. Obs. 5. The vowels of the article are generally contracted into d with gVtpog, which comes from the ancient Doric form artpog, (short a,) for sVfpo^ : thus, ciTspog, cirepoi, for 6 eTspog, ol srspoi, Oarkpov, daTsp(p, Odrepa, for tov, r 'yaOh (dyaOe) — ry 'prifxiq, {ipr]fxia) TTov '(TTiv {i(7Tiv) — eyoj 'v toIq {kv). Other grammarians therefore distinguish not only these cases from the elision (§ 30.) but also from the crasis by the name of aphaeresis, d^aipsaiQ ; the cutting off of the first vowel in the second word ^. Obs. 11. Many other contractions were never noted in writing, but left to pro- nunciation, as a synizesis, (compare § 28. Obs.) which, however, is not easily ascer- tained ; ex. gr. eTrei oh as an iambus, (Soph. Phlloct. 446.) /x/) oi) in Attic poetry always as one syllable. And in Homer 77 daoKiv as a dactylus, {II. a. 446.) — d(7J3e- I OT(p, ovd' vi- \ bv, II. p. 89. § 30. Of the Apostrophus. 1. In the Greek, as in other languages, a short vowel at the end of a word before another vowel is thrown out hj elision, and the apostrophus ' is placed as a mark or sign over the empty- space ; for instance, £7r' Ifxov for £7ri Ifiov : and if the subsequent word has the spir. asper, the eventually preceding tenuis (according to § 17, 3.) is aspirated ; as a. 2. In prose, some words of frequent recurrence most com- monly are attended with an elision, especially kWa, apa and dpa, ava, dia, Kara, fx^ra, napa, awo, viro, a/i^f, avrl, lirl, Be, te, yi : or frequent combinations, as vi] A/a, {vrj Ai\) iravr civ, (for TTavTu av,) and such like. The elision occurs less frequently in other words, and most seldom in Ionic prose. Poets^ on the contrary, avail themselves of this licence with almost all short vowels ; only the short v, the monosyllables in a, i, o, (excepting the Epic pa,) and the prep. Trspl never admit the elision. Obs. 1. If the rejected vowel had the accent, this accent is always dropped in pre- positions and conjunctions ; as aV from dirb, dW from dXXd, ovd' from ovds. In all other words the accent is always tlirown on the preceding syllable, and con- stantly as an acute accent : for instance, (KaKci) KUK 'iirr], {duvd, deiv') 'irraQov, {(prjjjil) (prjjx syw, {rdyaOd) rdydO' av^erai, (cTrra) sttt' eaav. Obs. 2. To determine when the elision is used in prose, and when not, is attended with great difficulty, because even Se, d-rro, and such like, are often found without ^ That there really is a crasis in these instances, just as ^iXsw, 0i\w, is a real con- traction, is proved by the analogy of many known erases like uSo^e, rdirl, Orjrkpg,, {ry erepcf,) and by the fact that such an elision never takes place after a short vowel. To write a crasis distinctly is often attended with some difficulty, especially when the absorbed syllable had the accent, which in that case is frequently marked over the empty space ; as ti firj "xotiii (txoi/xi). Such instances, and those stated above, must be considered as if they were written ixijxoi-fii; Trjpriixiq., &c. 48 A GREEK GRAMMAR. an apostrophus. This difficulty is increased by its being proved that the ancients frequently did actually write down the vowel, which is to be dropped in speaking. Obs. 3. In the Attic dialect the dat. sing, in i and the particle on never undergo an elision, and in Epic poetry chiefly only when there is no possibility of confound- ing them with the usually apostroplied accus. in a and the particle ore, as kv dair' — , a.(TTsp' oTTwpivtp, — yLyvwcFKiov, ot' dvaXKiQ. Obs. 4. Third persons taking the moveable v may likewise be apostrophed by poets in case of need, and the same may be done with the dat. pi. ; only the terminations ai(Ti, yai, oi] dvOpcoTvog {licec foemina). It is the same with 6 and 77 Qibg, god and goddess, 6 and 77 Tpo^bg, tutor and nui'se, 6 and r) fAo- juJ/Xa, Fcya, AioTifxa, which likewise have a long a in the nomin. 3. All the other words in a have rjc in the gen., y in the dat. but they resume their a in the «cc. and voc. (See Moi)a-a.) 4. The four terminations agree in the pi. and dual. See the following examples, in which the changes, which the accent un- dergoes according to the general rules, have been attended to. \ Sing. ri, {honor,) r},{wisdom,) rj, (Muse,) o, (citizen,) b,{youngman,) Nom. rifiri Gocpia Movaa 7ro\iT7]g vw.viag Gen. Tifirig Gocpiag Mov(7}]g TToXlTOV veavLOv Dat. Tifiy ao(pi(^ MovGy TToXiry veavia Ace. TijLiriv (JO (piav Movaav TroXiTrjv vsaviav Voc. Tifxri (Totpia Moucra TToXtra veavia Dual. N.A.V. Tifxa (Tocpia Movaa TToXiTa veavia G.D. TifxaTv Go^iaiv MovGaiv TToXiraiv veaviaiv Plur. Nom. TifxaX (TO (fiia I Movaai TToXtrai veaviai Gen. Tl/ULMV ao(j)LU)v MovGtov TToXircov veaviwv Dat. TifiaXg aocpimg Movaaig TToXiraig veaviaig Ace. TLfxag Goc^lag MovGag TToXiTag veaviag Voc. Tifxai aO(l)iai MovGai TToXtrai veaviai Sing. 77, [right,) ri,[opinion,) Y], [trident,) v,{fcnife,) 6,{Atrides,) Nom. SlKY] yvwjurj rpiaiva paxaipa ^Arpei^Yig Gen. SiKYig ^vwfxng rpiaivi]q pa\aipag 'ArpEiSov Dat. yvwixy rpiaivrj paxaipa 'ArpeiSyj Ace. ^Vlji}fXY\V rpiaivav pa^aipav 'ArjOft^rjy Voc. Dual. N.A.V. dkv yVWfJLTf] TpiaLva fiaxaipa 'ArpEiSri diKa yvu)fia rpiaiva paxaipa 'ArpuBa G.D. ^iKaiv yvwfxmv rpiaivaiv pa^aipaiv ^ArpeiSaiv Plur. Nom. diKat JVMfiaL TpiaLvai p.a\aipaL ^ArpEidaL Gen. ^lkCjv yvijjfiCjv TpiaivCjv paxaipMv 'Arpc/^wv Dat. ciKaig yvujjuaig rpiaivaig fxaxaipaig ^ Arpd^aig Ace. SiKag yvwfjiag rpiaivag paxuipiig 'Arpd^ag Voc. SiKaL yvtjfxat Tpiaiva I paxatpi u 'Arpudai FIRST DECLENSION. 53 Examples for practice will be found in the Appendioc. 5. Of the words of the masc. gender ending in rjc? the vocat. is a in those ending in Tr]g, and in several compound verbal" nouns, which simply add rjc to the consonant of the verb, as yewfiETpY^g, fivpoirujXrig, iraLdoTpijdiig, and also in the national names, nep(Tr]Q, I^kvOy^q. The others, which are the least in number by far, have rj in the vocat., especially patronymics in dr]g. (See above 'Ar^siSrjc-) OBSERVATIONS. 1. The contracted nouns of this declension are all oKoiraBr) (§ 33, 5). They all contract the nomin. into one of the usual terminations a, ij, ag, and rjg, and are then declined regularly ; only those contracted into a, being originally j9urg, retain this vowel unchanged, and those in ag take the Doric gen. in a. (06s. IV. 4.) They are all known by the circumflex on the end-syllable. The resolved form is gene- rally disused, or has maintained itself in the Ionic dialect with some alteration, as for instance, 1.) fjLvda — fiva, gen. fxvag, pi. jxvaX, &c. (Ion. fivsa.) 2.) XeovTsa — XtovTrj, gen. rjg, &c. pi. nom. Xeovrai, ace. Xeovrag, (lonice Xeovrkij, Xeovreir],) lion's skin. 3.) 'Epfisag — 'Epixfjg, gen. ov, pi. 'Epjxai, &c. {Epic, 'Epfxeiag.) 4.) ISop'sag — also j3oppag, gen. (5oppa, &c. (The reduplication of the p is here merely an accidental peculiarity.) It is the same with 'aOjjvu, (originally -da, Ion. 'AQjjvair].) yV) (from TAA, Ion. yaXa, rarely y^a,) earth. — See about the contracted feminines of adjectives, § 60. II. Quantity. 1. The nom. in a, which has r]g in the gen., is always short. 2. The nom. in a, which has ag in the gen., is mostly long, but also short in several words. The accent is here a safe guide, as (according to § 11. 4, 5,) not only all pi'ojyaroxytona and jyroperispomena, [a.s [idxaipa, jjLoXpa,) have of course a short a, but it is an invariable rule in this decl. that all oxytona and paroxytona, which have ag in the gen., are long in the nom., as arod, X^9^} Trerpa, rifispa, (ro(pia, &c., excepting only the numeral fxia, and the proper names Uvppa, Kippa. 3. But as to accent a word correctly, the quantity of the end-syllable must be known, and as this cannot be reduced to plain rules, it will be sufficient at first to attend to the two following points : a.) Dissyllabic words in eia have the final a long, (xptio,) but the polysyllabic have the final a short : dXr]9eia, (from dXr]9i)g,) Mrjdtia, yXvKeia, (fern, of yXvKvg,) except the abstract substantives from verbs in ev(o, as dovXeia from dovXsvcj, (SacriXeia, {royal authority,) from (3a(TiXsvoj : but jSacriXeia, {queen,) from (BacrLXevg. See § 119. 06s. 6. b.) Substantives of three and more syllables, which a,refemaJe denominations, have the final a short : i^^aXvpia, dwreipa, "Oi-iirvia, &c., and the adjective TrorvLa is short, though all other adjectives /ew. of this kind have the final a long, as Kvpwg, Kvpia, &c. 4. The vocat. a of the masculines in rjg is short ; of those in ag, long. — The final a of the dual is always long. 5. The termination a g is long through the whole of this deck, and the ace. pi . distinguishes itself thereby from the third deck, in which it is short. The Dorians alone make the ace. pi. of the first decl. short. 6. The ace. sing, in av conforms itself to the quantity of the nomin. III. Accent. 1. It is the characteristic of this decl. that i\\e gen. p>l. always has the accent on the end-syllable, let the word have the accent, where it may, iu the 54 A GREEK GRAMMAR. other cases : Mouffa Movcriov, uKavOa oKavOuiv. This is owing to this gen. being contracted from the ancient form in acov. (See Obs. TV. 3 ) Except, however, a.) the feminines of adjectives and participles, which are barytona in og, as ^evog, %kvrf — ^h'wv, aiTWQ, aiTia — alTl(i)v, TVTrrofievog, i) — TVTTTOfi'eviov : h.) the substantives ■)(^p)]aTJ]g, iisurer, oi Irrjcriai, moiisoons, and d(pvTj, sort of fish. By means of this anomalous accent, the words xpj'/orwv, dcpvojv are distinguished from the same eases of the words xP^(^~og {useful) and dS'i??^. 6, {discourse,) ri, {beech,) 6, {people,) Q, {man,) roAfiff,) Nom. \6yoq (pr}yog SrijULog fivOpijJTTog avicov Gen. \6yov (pr]yoi) Er^fxov avOpu)7rov avKOV Dat. \6yM ^rjyaj d{]fi(^ av6p(jj7r(i) CFVK(i) Ace. \6yov (jjr^yov ^rijuov avBpojTrov (TVKOV Yoc. Xoye (prjye diifie avOpwTTS (JVKOV Dual. N.A.V. Aoyio (l>r)y(l) ^{ijUCi) avQpwTTio GVKli) G.D. Plur. Nom. \6yoLV (priyolv dr]fxoiv avdp(jL)7roLv (JVKOLV \6yoL (priyol ^rjfxoi avOpioTTOi avKa Gen. Aoywv (pYjytov §/j/U(i>V a.v9pwir(i)v (JVKWV Dat. XoyoiQ (piiyo7g driidoig avBpMTTOig (TVKOig Ace. Xoyovg (pr^yovg Si]iJ.ovg avOpwTTOvg (TVKa Voc. Xoyoi ^rjyot ^rijuioi avOpiOTTOL GVKa Examples for practice will be found in the Appendix. 1. For the neuters in o like aXXo, Ik^vo, &c. which conform entirely with this declension, see the Pronouns, § 74. 2. The vocative is sometimes like the nomin. partly for the sake of euphony, as in Oeoc? and partly without any such reason, especially in the Attic writers, as t5 (piXog. (Aristoph. Nub. 1167.) 3. Quantity and acceiit require no particular notice; the final a is short as in Latin ; the circumflex on the gen. and dat^ (see (pnyog) has been mentioned, § 33, 7. 4. Dialects, a.) In the oldest language the gen. ov was pro- bably resolved into 00, whence what is called the Thessalian gen. in oLo in Epic and Lyric poets : Xoyoio, ^rjyoTo. b.) The Doric dialect has in the gen. w, and in the ace. pi. ijjg, as 6 voiuLog — gen. rw vofxw, ace. pi. rwc vofxMg : less fre- quently og in the ace. pi. Theocr. makes of 6 XvKog — riog XvKog instead of rovg XvKOvg. c.) The neut. pi. in a appears to have had the gen. in dujv in the oldest language. See Hesiod, Sc. 7. Hence the Homeric ed(i)v from to. EA, goods, possessions. (See the Anom. Ivg.) d.) See about the dat. pi. in oiai, oiaiv, {XoyoKri, ^rj^oTtrtv,) 56 A GREEK GRAMMAR. § 34, Obs. IV. 6.— The Epic poets lengthen the gen, and dat, of the dual oiv to ouvi as, for instance^ "nnrouv, § 36. — Contracted Nouns of the Second Declension. Several words in oog and oov, soq and eov, are generally con- tracted, (as oXowaOri, § 33, 5,) according to the rules stated § 28, except that the a of the neut. gender absorbs the preceding f or o in the contraction, and becomes long : ocrria ogtcij airXoa airXa. (Compare below the adjectives in § 60.) Nom. Dat. Ace. Voc. 6, (navigation,) Sing. I Plur. ttXoocj irXovg ttXool, ttXoT ttXowv, ttXCov Gen. ttXoov, ttXov ttXo irXoov, TT V> Xto Xovv irX oig 7rXo£, TT/ wXooig, ttXoovq^ irXovg TrXot Dual TO, {bone,) Sing. \ Plur, OGTtov, oarovv oaTta, oora ocrrloi;, oarov oariiov, oaruiv I !' OGTi^OV, OCfTOVV OGTta, OGTa OGziov^ OGTOVV oaria^ ogtcl N.A. G.D. i 7rXott>, ttXw I TrXoofy, TrXoTy Ohs. For the compounds of the monosyllables tzXovq, vovq, &c., see § 60, 5. OGrioiV, OGTOIV. § 37. — Attic Second Declension. The decl. of several words in wc? {masc. and /em.) and u)v, [neuter,) is usually appended to the second decl. by the name of the Attic second decl. It has in all its cases an w instead of the vowels and diphthongs of the common second decl., and an iota subscriptum where this declension has oi or (o. The vocat. is constantly like the nomin. Another deviation from the rule is, that the gen. sing, is an owytonon whenever the end- syllable is accentuated ; ew. gr. rov vuo, contrary to § 33, 7. o, (temple,) \\ Sing. Dual. Plur. Nom. vfwc V£a) VEOJ Gen. ViO) VEMV vswv Dat. ve(^ vet[)g Ace. veu)v vecjg Voc. v^iog V£W TO, (upper room,) Sing. Dual. dvojyetov avwyeii) avivyeit) avwyewv avwyeiov Plur. av(i)yeio dv(x)yeo)v dvwyscog dvu)y5(jj dvo)yiio ' This regular wcat. is stated here for the sake of some proper names, as UctvOovg, vocat. UdvQov. The tocat. of dopv^oog, ovg, is in Aristophanes with the elision of the o, dopvU- (Compare Note to § 60, 5.) Else the vocat. of a proper name is of rare occurrence. 2 See Buttmann's Complete Greek Grammar. THIRD DECLENSION. 57 Obs. 1 . The expression Attic ded. must not be understood as if the Attics had usually declined the words in oq in this manner. It is rather a peculiar ancient decl. of a very limited number of words, a few of which follow likewise the common second decl., but with many variations ; as 6 XaoQ, {people,) vaog, — \i.o)Q, vewg, 6 Xayojg, (Jiare,) Ion. 6 Xaywbg and Xayog. Others also follow the third decl. (as Miv(og, gen. M'lvu) and Mivojog) : others agree only in some parts now with this, and now with that decl. See about all these points § 56. Obs. 6. It is called the Attic decl. merely because, when there are two forms of this decl., that of which we treat here is generally peculiar to the Attics. Obs. 2. The words of this decl. have also a peculiar Acciis. in (jj, sometimes in addition to the regular one, (as top Xaywv and Xayu),) less frequently indeed in some instances, but exclusively (or nearly so) in others. This is the case with the names of towns, Kojg, Kkojg, Tkcog, "AOojg, and with rj scjg, (aurora, accus. TTjv €0),) which is the Attic foi'm of the Ionic i^coc, (of the contracted third decl.) The neuter (nomin. and accus.) of some adjectives is likewise in w, particularly dyrjpojg, (not subject to old age,) neut. dyr]p(v. Obs. 3. The gen. in wo of this decl. corresponds with the Epic gen. in oio, as Usreojg, gen. Uerswo (Homer). Obs. 4. See about the anomalous accent of this decl. § 11,8. § 38. — Third Declension — Gender, 1. The terminations of the words belonging to this decl. are too various to allow of any rule, and must be remembered indi- vidually. There are^ however^ a few which are pretty steady. See the Obs. 2. The final g, on the whole^ is more the characteristic of the masc. and fem., and a short vowel in the end-syllable is generally the characteristic of the neut. gender. There are no neuters whatever in ^ and -ip. Obs. The terminations ojv, gen. ojvog and ovog, those in vg and ? and \p, fluctuate between the masc. and fem, gender, and are therefore the most difficult to be ranked under a strict rule. No regard is had in the exceptions to personal deno- minations like y firjTrjp, mother, r) dafiap, wife, the gender of which is a matter of coui'se (§ 32, 2). But where we say ' without exception/ there are no personal denominations of a different gender. Of the Masculine Gender are The words in tvg, as d opsvg, mule, d^(popsvg, amphora, without exception. The substantives which have vrog in the gen., 6 tsvojv, ovog, tendon, 6 odovg, ovrog, tooth, 6 indg, avrog, leatlier strap ; except the names of a few towns, § 32. 06s. 4. 2. Those in r}p, as ^woTjyp, except the fem. rj yaaTi)p, belly, rj Ki)p,fate, and with poets also Y] dr/p and rj aWrjp, and the contracted neuters, which see below. Those in wg, gen. wTog, as ysXcjg, laughter, 6 '^pojg, love. Those in rjv, as 6 fiijv, month, 6 avxn'^, neck ; except rj (pprjv, mind, rj, 6 %}?v, goose. The words 6 Trovg, 7rodbg,foot, 6 Knlg, Kvevbg, comb. Of the Feminine Gender are The words in w, as 7)x<^, without exception. Those in ag, which have adog in the gen., as r] Xafnrdg, torch, with the exception of a few adjectives generis communis, as Xoydg, aTropdg, § 63, 5. 58 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Those in ig, as »/ iroXig, t) x«ptCj except the viasc. 6(pig, serpent, l^ig, uper, K6pig,hug, opX^Sy testicle, finpig, a measure of liquids, (gen. £(t)g,) Kig, wood-worm, Xlg, lion, (toe,) deXipig (Ivog) : and 6, t) opvig, {9og,) r), 6 riypig, {log,) r), 6 Olg, (ivbg,) heap, shore. Abstract substantives in rrjg, (Latin tas,) as i) fiiKporijg, ' littleness,' jo«m^as, with- out exception ; and the words t) %f«p, hand, r) cpOelp, louse, r) vavg, vessel, jy taOijg, iJTog, garment. Of the Neuter Gender are The words in a, t], i, v, as to auJ^ia, body, Kdpr},head, [xsXi, honey, dcrrv, city, without exception. Those which have a short end-syllable with a and o, without exception, as rb TtixoQ} TO ^Top, and the neuter adjectives in eg, ev, ov. Those in ap, as to rJTrap, to veKTap, with those contracted from -tap into T]p, as to tap, i]p, spring, to Ksap, Krjp, heart, to (XTeap, or/yp, suet, fat. Only 6 ^dp, starling, is excepted. The words in wp, which are not personal denominations, as to vdu)p,Tb TSKfiu)p,Sic., except 6 I'xf^pj (gore, matter, water of the blood,) and 6 dx(j^p {running soreness of the head). Those in ag, gen. aTog and aog, as to Tspag, arog, prodigy, Tb dsTrag, aog, goblet; except 6 Xdg, Xdog, stone, and 6 or Tb KPA2, Kparbg, head. There are no other neuters of this decl. beside to 7rvp,fire, to ^u)g, light, rb ovg, ear, to aralg, dough. The words in ag are generally masc. when the gen. is avTog—fem. when it is adog — and neut. when it is uTog and aog. § 39. — Inflection of the Third Declension. 1. We must distinguish in any declinable word the root and the termination of the case. The nom. sing, in the two first decl. has itself a particular termination ; but in the third it is added only in the following cases, as, Second decl. Xoy-oq, Xo-y-ov, \6y-M, Third decl. driQ, 6r]pog, 6r]pL 2. But even in the third decl. the nomin. seldom is an abso- lutely unaltered root like Orip : in most instances the end- syllable of the root is changed, either by an addition, gen. [dorpv-og, {root (5oTpv,) nom. jSorpuc, or by a subtraction, gen. o-wjuar-oc, {root o-w/xar,) nom. <7wfjLa, or by a change, gen. kuvov-oq, {root Kavov,) nom. Kavwv *. ^ The root of a word with regard to its inflection very frequently differs from its etymological root. To him who does not carefully attend to this, it may appear more natural, for instance, to consider (twju as the root, and a, uTog, as terminations. But part of this termination, the a at least, belongs to the formation of the word, and not to the decl., which here is the main point. It is true that in the first two decl. the original formation of the word and its declinable desinences often run one into the other, (as X6y-og, X6y~ov,) and cannot be distinctly and methodically sepa- rated. But in the third decl., as the word drip shows, the terminations of the other cases are distinct from the root, which is the point to be alone attended to here. THIRD DECLENSION. 59 Obs. To be enabled to decline a word of the third dec), correctly, it is absolutely necessary to know the nomin. and one of the other cases, which commonly is the gen. But it is far easier to trace the nomln. in the gen. than Tice versa ; because the root, which here is of essential importance, is generally unaltered in the gen., but not so in the nomin. On consulting a dictionary, the gen. ought always to be carefully remembered along with the nomin. We far more frequently hit, in reading, on the gen., dat., &c., of an unknown word ; and to find this in the dic- tionary, we must be able to discover the nomin. in the gen., &c. Some directions for this purpose will be given. §40. 1. The most general alterations which a root undergoes in the nomin.^ are 1.) The addition of a c (as ^otqvq, Porpv-og, aXc, aX-oc)- 2.) In words of the masc, and fern, the change of the e and o of the root into i] and w in the nomin. (as etKwv, UKOv-og, aXr}9rig, aXr]Oi-og.) 2. To apply this correctly, we must distinguish two princi- pal caseSj viz. whether there be before the termination of the casus either, 1. a consonant, or, 2. a voiveL §41. 1. Whenever the termination of the casus is preceded by a consonant, and the nomin. takes the g, it first follows of course from the general rule, that this g coalesces with the letters y, K, x? aiid /3, TT, 0, and becomes £ and \p, as Koga^ KogaK-og, ovv^ 6vv)(^og, &\py wir-og, \aXv\p xa.Xvf5-og. 2. These nomin. in ? and ^ never alter the £ and o of the 7'oot, {(pXlip, 0X£/3oc, (^Xo| (pXoyogy Ai^io^ AlOloirog,) excepting only T) aXw7rr]S, aXw-ir^Kog. 3. But w^hen the letter immediately before the termination is S or r or 6, it disappears, according to the general rule, be- fore the g, as Xajuiirag XaiuLiraBog, AdjpXg Aivpi^og, JcrjXtc Kr^XlEog, opvLg opvldog, KOpvg KopvOog, rj Uapvy^g HapvriOog, ripag riparog, xapig xap^LTog. Hereto must be added, that if the letter r is preceded by k, k is, after having cast offr, changed into 5; vv^ vvKTog, ava^ avaKTog, 4. The letters v and vr also disappear before the c, but the ^ With regard to all the following examples the learner must be informed that the statement (SorpvQ (iorpv-og, for instance, means that * the root jSorpv, wliich results from the gen. (56Tpv-og, becomes jSoTpvg in the nomin.' CO A GREEK GRAMMAR. short vowel is then lengthened in the way stated § 25, 4. (with VT it is constantly the case, with v generally,) as yiyag ylyavTog, xapUig )(^apiEVTog, oBovg o^ovrog, ^fA^U? {^ong I,) §fAavrog, Ojlg Bivrog,) [oovg oovTog, (pvg ^vvTog,) (jjv [yipwV) ovTog) : ^ Dictionaries and grammars also state the nom. of those which have ivoq in the gen. as being iv, butin the most ancient writers we always find dtXfig, aKrig, pig, &c. 2 There is only tig to be added, which see below, § 70. 3 Hence ydXa, yaXuKTog, (see the Anom.) may thus be accounted for ; in the same manner the vocat. dva (of dvaK dvuKTog), and yvvai (of the antiquated form rrNAI^;, see Anom. yvvi],) since all these forms must, as they adopt no <7, cast off their consonants in the final syllable. § 4, 5. THIRD DECLENSION. 61 the gen. in ^oq of the nomin. in p {Orip} 0>?jo6c? &c.) : bat especially « }} }> ^pog and opoQ of the nomin. in rjp and wp, {ald^p aidipOQ, p{]T(i)p p{]TOpog,) ^ and of two neuters in op, aop, (sword,) and rirop (breast), 8. The following isolated instances are better remembered each separately : 6, rii aXg aXog, salt, sea. TO fisXi juiXiTog^ honey ; ro Kapr^ Kapr^rog, head, ri vv^ vvKTog, night ; 6 civa^ avaKTog, king, J] cafxap BajuapTog, wife. 6 TTOvg TTO^og, foot. and some others stated in the list of Anomalous words^ § 58^ especially yaXa, Oefiig, juaprvg, ovg, X^'V* Obs. I. The quantity of the penultimate syllable of the gen., whenever owing to a, I, V, is not easily discovered, and can be determined only by authorities, as is that of the nominatives of other words ; see the list of the words where it is long, in the j^ppendix, p. 458. But it may be laid down as a rule that the said syllable is long in all the substantives which have in the gen. avog, ivog, vvoq, as, for instance, Ilax' Jldvog, iraiav Tcaiavoc, pig plvbg, deXcplg deXiplvog, fxoavv IxoGvvog. Obs. 2. The end-syllables of the nomin., the quantity of which is not determined above, generally are like the penultimate of the gen. Hence, (with a few exceptions in poets,) oping -lOog, KT]\ig, (long i,) Idog, iraiav, (long a,) avog. And in similar instances the length must be observed in pronunciation before ^, \p : the accent frequently shows it, as Owpa^ -aKog, {Ion. Owpjj? -rjKog,) in (poivi^ -~iKog, KrjpvK, -vkoq (with later writei'S (polvi^, fciypv^') : on the contrary, avXa^ -aicog, &c. Obs. 3. All monosyllabic nomin., excepting the pronoun rig, are long : hence Trvp TTvpog. Obs. 4. The few words which have v6og in the gen. throw off only the 9 before the g of the nomin., and retain, contrary to the usual practice of the Greek language, the V, as 'i\pivg,"i\}xivQog, {earth-icorm,) Tipvvg, TipvvOog (§ 25. 06s. 2). Obs. 5. If there be an r] or o before the termination eig, evrog, the contraction generally takes place ; as rt/^ jyetg rt|U 17? vrog, contracted rifxyg^ TifxrjvTog, [xeXiToeig osvTog, contr. ixeXiTovg -ouvrog. It is the same with the names of towns in ovg, ovvTog, as 'Orrovg, &c. Obs. 6. The contractions which take place in the participles of the contracted conjugation (0tXwi/ (piXovvrog, TifiC)v nixaivrog, &c.) are best learned in the para- digms of this conjugation. We only observe that such proper names as 'iH^ievotpuiv, wvTog, originate in this contraction. Obs. 7. Another contraction takes place when the termination ap is preceded by £, as Kkap Kjjp, {heart,) gen. Ksapog Krjpog, and also tap ijp, {sjyring,) of which word we have in prose the resolved form in the nomin., and in the gen. and dat. the con- tracted form (tap, ijpog). The same contraction occurs in some which have a r in * 11. I. 605, according to Wolffs reading, which is alone correct. G.2 A GREEK GRAMMAR. the gen., but in these the accent does not conform to the rules of contraction, and takes a more convenient place, thus : ortap (rrlarot:, contracted ?v£wv for x»?vwv, from Xnv x>]i^oc. 3. Quantity. The terminations of casus in «, a, and ag, are constantly short in the third decl. (compare Obs. II. 5. to the first decl., and below, in § 52, the exceptions to the words in Evg.) — With regard to the quantity of the final syllable of the nomin. and of the penultimate of the gen.^ see the Obs. to the preceding §§. 4. Accent. The principal rules in this respect are, that : 1.) in dissyllabic and polysyllabic words the accent con- tinues, as long as its nature allovfs it, on the same syllable where it is in the nomin. (See above, Ko^a^^ alwv.) 2.) Monosyllabic words throw the accent in the gen. and dat. of the three numbers on the termination of the casus. On the termination wv it becomes, conformably to § 33. Obs. 7, a cir- cumflex. (See above, Qrip^ Kig.) 3.) The nomin., accus., and vocat., on the contrary, never have the accent on the termination of a casus \ From the second rule are excepted, a.) the participles, as Qug Oivrog, wv ovrog, &c. b.) the pi. of the adj. irag, irav, {iravTog, Travri,) gen. pL TravTwv, dat. iraaLv : c.) some which are become monosyllables by contractions, \aag \ag, gen. \aog, (see below the Anom.) cap ^^, Kiap Krip,gen. ^pog, Kripog : but not all, see above, § 41. Obs. 7, and below, olg, § 50. Obs. 6. d.) the gen. pi. and dual of the following nine words : iralg, ^ It ought, however, to be remembered, that in this decl. the final syllable of the word { fJiriTep, — prjrwp, opog^ & prjrop, — ^dJKpciTYig, eog, t5 ^(VKpareg. 5. The feminines in w and wg make the vocat. in oT^ (§ 11, 3.) as SttTT^w^ t5 SaTT^oT, — ii(og, (J 'Hot. Ohs. 1. From the rule 4. are excepted those which have the accent on the end- syllable ; as, TTOinrjv, bvoq, w Tvoifjitjv {shepherd)', but only substantives, not adjectives (as for instance, w K{kaiviv avvriOojv, {resolved cn(v) TToXicniv) /3ou(7i(v) ypav(n(v) Ace. LxOvag, IxOvg TToXiag, TToXlg j36ag,Povg ypaag,ypavg Voc. IxOveg, IxOvg TToXug, TToXlg /3ofc,/3ouc ypaEg,ypavg The contraction of ypaeg and ypaag into ypavg deserves notice, as uncommon. (The Ion. dialect has yp-nvg, yp-nog^ &c. without any contraction.) See about vavg, which partly conforms to this, the Anom, Obs. 1. Epic poets also contract the dat. v'i : IxOvl, {veKvg, v'eKv'i,) vtKvX. Obs. 2. The Dorians said, f^wg, ^wv. This word has this accus. in Homer {II. r]. 238) when it is employed in the fern, gender for an ox-hide^ shield ; compare II. [x. 105. (56s(TaLv. Obs. 3. The Attic writers frequently neglect the contraction in the words belong- ing to this §, mostly in the nomin. pi., and habitually in monosyllabics, as kIsq, fivsg, ^pvsQy ypaeg, j36sg: often also lyQveg, &c. Obs. 4. Through this contraction the pi. becomes again like the nomin. sing.; which is very remarkable. And even when the quantity is different, the accent at least does not always inform us of it ; as 6 ^otqvq and rovg [ioTpvg. Obs. 5. Besides Kig none i-etain, in common language, the formation in ig, log, but a few isolated forms of riypig, tiger, Troprig, heifer, iroaig, hmband, t) f^ijvig, wrath, r/ TpoTTig, keel, (which also partly take a ^ in the gen., see § 56. 06s. 5.) ; further, a few proper names like'^I^ig, and the adjectives in ig and t (see § 63, 1). The larger number of the remaining words in ig, which do not take a consonant, are declined entirely according to the following §. Obs. 6. The word oig (sheep) also follows the above decl. (Text 2.) and conse- quently has the gen. oiog, nom. accus. pi. oig (long i) : but the nom. sing, generally is contracted, rj oig. The decl. then is, gen. olbg, dat. oil, accus. olv, pi. oUg, olag, contr. oig (likewise r}, a\, and rag, oig). Homer has, however, in the dat. pi. otamv, viz. instead of of crt according to the following §. About the shortened c?a^. KXeo/3i, see § 28. 06s. 11. CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 71 Obs. 7. Most words in ovq follow the second contracted decl. like ttXovq, povq, vovq^ There are only two words declined like ^ovq, viz. xo^G? (see the Anom.) and povg when it signifies sumach, yet both without any contraction. §51. 1. Most words in ig and l, and a few in vq and v, retain the vowel of the nomin. in common language only in the nomin., accus. and vocat. sing. ; in all the other cases they change it into E, and then the dat. el becomes ei, and the pi. esq and eag become elq, and the neuter eu becomes r? : but there is no other contraction. 2. The substantives in ig and vg, besides, have what is called The Attic Gen. by making the gen, sing, ojg, (instead of ov,) and in the dual t^yv ^, (instead of oiv,) and accenting the three gen., as if the last syl- lable were short. (See § 11, 5 and 8.) 3. Neuters in v and l have the usual gen. aarv, aaTEog, clgtewv : TriTTEpt TTETTEpEOg. 4. Hence arises for substantives the following usual decl.: — Sing. i],{a city,) 6{anell,) TO, {a town ,) Plural. Nom. TToXig TTvx^g CLGTV TToXEig TTiix^ig CLGTY} Gen. TToXEwg TTTJX^Wg acTTEog ttoXewv TTT^X^^V aaTEU)V Dat. ttoXei TTVX^L adTEL iroXEcniy) Trijx^Giiv) aaT£GL{v) Ace. TToXlV Trrixvv aCTTV TToXEig Trrjx^ig aGTY] Voc. iroXi TTf/XU CLGTV TToXeig 7ri]X^Lg aGTT} Dual N. A. 1 ttoXee 7rr/X££ CLGTEE G.D. 1 7roX£(t)y irriXEMv CLGTEOl V 5. Adjectives in vg, v, have the usual gen., and do not con- tract the neut. pi., ex. gr. r}^vg^ neut. r^dv, gen. 17SI0C, dat. r}^E7, pi. ri^E'ig, neut, i^Sta, gen. ridiwv, Obs. 1. Most words in vg are declined according to the preceding §. There is only TTsXsKVQ, and partly eyxcXv^ and TrpiajSvg, (see the Anom.) which follow the decl. of Trrixvg. Besides ttCov, (which, however, is nowhere found contracted,) there is a considerable number of names of plants and minerals in t, as aivaTri, Kivvdjiapi, &c. which are declined like darv. Obs. 2. Attic poets have also the gen. dffreojg for the sake of the metre, and later writers employ it likewise in prose. (Pint. Sail. 13. 7reTrepsu)g.) Obs. 3. Ionic writers make always tog of those in ig, {-TroXiog, Sec.) according to the ^ Grammarians state it as Attic ; but in our Attic works we have yevea'soiv and KLVTjakoiV, &.C. 72 A GREEK GRAMMAR. preceding article. There is also a gen. eog, but only in Attic poets ; they shorten the qcn. £0)g for the sake of the metre ; TroXeog, vjSpsog, &c. Epics have the Ionic formation ; only in the dat. they use e'i, to avoid the cacophony of u, for instance, TToffig, TTOGiog, TToatl. Hence, when they contract this dat., they often make it £t, (TToXti,) instead of I, which is peculiar to Ionic and Doric prose (ttoXI). But the Ionic form of the words in vg of this decl., excepting 'iy')(^Ekvg, is tog, ei : TriJxvQf Trrjx^og, Sec. Obs. 4. noXig is the only word which with Epics has 7r6\r]og in the gen., and then the acciis. is TroXrja. Obs. 5. Contractions like TDjxuir, and (of the adj. neuter jj/jiicv) gen. r)fii(rovg,pl. TO. vixicrt}, belong to the time when the Attic writers were sinking. §53. The words in evq have also the Attic gen., but merely the gen. sing, in wc without any peculiarity in the accent, because the accent in the nomin. always is on wq, and must, according to § 43. Obs. 4. 1, remain on the penultimate syllable. The contraction in these words too extends barely to the dat. sing. and 7iom. and accus. pi., in which latter case mg, however, is more usual. Sing. Nom. b, [king,) (5a(nX^vg Dual. Plural. (dacjiXeig Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. (daaiXiwg (5a(nXd j5aGtXev jdadiXioiv j5a&iXicov (5a(TiXevcn{v) [5a(Ti\iag, (^acnXelg f^adiXng. Obs. 1. The long a in the accus. sing, and pi. is an Attic peculiarity. Writers, not Attics, or what are called kolvgI, (§ 1, 9.) employ the accus. tig. But poets, even the Attics, sometimes conti'act the accus. sing, sa into rj {II. o. 339. Aristoph. jicharn. 1151). Obs. 2. The old Attics (Thuc, Aristoph.) contract the nomin. pi. into rjg, as ol iTnrfjg, ot MavTivrjg, which termination is erroneously written with the iota sub- scriptum, since it comes from the old ijeg. (See the following Obs.) Obs. 3. The Ionic dialect constantly has (SaGiXijog, ^aaiKri'i, rja, rjag, &c. The form eog, ft, occurs rarely, and is only peculiar to the poets. See about the dat. pi. (Saci- Xesffai, and (fi'om linrt.vg) iTnrrjeaai, § 46. Obs. 2. §53. 1. There are some deviations in the Attic contraction of the third decl., when there is a vowel either before or after an c. The termination ea then is not contracted into rj, but into a, as vyiiig, (sound,) accus. sing, and neut. pi. vyiia, contr. vyta, (and the same with ev(})va, hdea,) kXc-oc, pi. ^Xafa, jcXea. 2. Even those terminations of the words in avg, which com- monly are not contracted, absorb in this way the £ before a, ag, CONTRACTED DECLENSION. 73 and wg, in some words ; as x^^^c^ {measure of liquids, see the Anom. xovQ,) gen. xouyg, (for xpiwg,) accus, x^'^^ accus. pi. xoac? (for xot'acj) Yl^LQaLivq, gen. Yleipaiwgf accus. Ilapam : ayvL^vg, TovQ ayvLag, and a few more. These are the few instances where the contracted ace. pi. differs from the contracted noin. pi- 3. This produces in proper names ending in K\ir}g, contr. K\rig, a double contraction,, but commonly merely in the daf,, as Nom. IlepiKXirig — IlE^JtfcXfjc: Gen, IleptKXhog, contr. UepiKkiovg Dat. TispiKXiiL — YlapiKXisL — JlfpticXEi Ace. IIspiKXiEa — rifjOtfcXfa Voc. nepiKXeec — UepiKXug Decline in the same way 'HookX^c? {Hercules,) and others. Obs. 1. The doubly contracted accus. occurs seldom ; for instance, 'Hpa/cX^. That we also meet with 'HpaKXfjv (but only in later writers) may be accounted for from what is stated § 56. Obs. 4. 06s. 2. Sometimes there is, instead of a conti'action, an elision of one of the vowels, for instance, vocat. "HpaKXeg, (by way of exclamation in the later prose- writers,) and in the poets the gen. 2o^o(c\£0i;, dat. 'HpajcXsT, Homer vTTspdsa, (instead of sa,) for vTrspSssa from -£Ti)g, Girkacn for (JTrssacn. Obs. 3. This elision may also serve to account for the xmaccented termination a, ex. gr. in to. kXsu, wliich, because of the contraction, should be long, being short in the Epic poets. Compare § 28. Obs. 11. Obs. 4. The learner must carefully notice which words, and which terminations of each word, have the usual form, or this peculiar contraction. We constantly find aXua, aXisag, (from aXuvg,) but of vyiii^g the accus. pi. vyuTg, never -ac. Obs. 5. The Ionic dialect always has vyiea, 'HpafcXssa, kvdsseg, &c., and the ancient poets contract the two first 6 into ei or t] : for instance, from KXsog, (nrkog, we find the gen. KXiiog, pi. fcXeia, dat. (ttthl, and (nrrj'i, further "HpafcXiJog, ij'i, fja. See the Anom. about XP^"?? Xp£wf. §54. 1. Of the neuters in ag, these two^ Kspag, ?iorn, and ripag, pro- digy, have arog in the gen., but cast off the r in the Ion. dialect : KtpaTog, Kepaog, ripaTog, Ttpaog, and the three following, jripag, old age, yipag^ honour, Kpiag, flesh, constantly have merely aog. 2. This produces the following contraction : — Sing. N.A.V. Kipag Gen. Kepaog, Kipwg Dat. Kipdi, kwo. Dual, KEpae, Kepa Kspaoiv, Kspwv Plural. Ktpaa, Kip a Kspawv, KepCjv Kipa(Ti{v) 74 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Obs. 1. The word Tspag admits the contraction only in the pi. (Hpa, TspoJv,) the Attics use solely reparoQ in the sing. ; and of Kepag also the form arog has con- tinued in use along with the contraction. The three others commonly occur only contracted ; aog is in all writers a mere Ionic form. 3. The remaining neuters in ag, aog, take only the forms a and a, for instance, crsXag, {light,) Ssirag, (goblet,) t<^ aiXa, SfTrct, pL TO. (TtXa, diwa. It is the same with ^ipag, acpiXag, and others. Obs. 2. The middle syllable pa is originally long in K£pag, (icipdTa, Anacr. 2. Eurip. Baccli. 919.) Hence the lengthened KtpdaTa and Tipdara of the (later) Epics. Obs. 3. But the end-syllable, for instance, of to. y'spa, Kpsa, is also used as short (see § 28. Obs. 11, and more particularly, Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr.). Obs. 4. The a of these words is often changed in the decl. into an 6 by the lonians, as if the nomin. were in og : for instance, Kspeog, rd ygpta, Kpesaaiv, and others. Some old words have barely this form, see the Anom. ^psrag, ovdag, and partly Kve(pag. §55. 1. The comparatives in wv, neut. ov, gen, ovog, (§ 67, 68.) drop the v in the accus. sing, and in the nomin,, accus,, and vocat, pi, and contract the two vowels, but without this contraction the V never is dropped, not even by the lonians ; ex, gr. Plur, jULuZoveg, contr. fidZovg fjiHZ,o(n[v) jULEitovag, contr. jusiZovg jueiZoveg, contr. iieiZovg Sing. Nom. /i£i4'wv, {greater,) N. juhZov Gen. fiei^ovog Dat. fieiZovL Ace. judiova, contr. ij.eiZ(i), N. fdelZov Voc. jueiZov Neut. pi. TO. /deiZova, contr. juei^w. Dual. N. jmdZove, G. juleiZovoiv* The Attics are as fond of the forms f.idZova and fxdZovag as of the contracted forms ; jusiZoveg occurs rarely. 2. The Attics contract in the same way, though it is rather harsh, the accus, of the two names 'AttoXAwv, wvog, and Uoaai- ^(ov, h)vog {Neptune), Accus, 'ATToAXwva 'AttoXXw, Yloau^Cjva Hogh^w, Obs. The poets also have KVKewv, {drink of various ingredients,) KVKeojva — KVKeijj (Epic, KVKSiuj). — Compare about this contraction, and some similar ones, tUoJVj dr]dojv, the following §. Obs. 6. d. Obs. 7. § 56. — Anomalous Declension, 1. There is an anomaly in a decl., when one or more cases ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. 75 of a noun are declined in a particular way different from the nomin. ; see, for instance^ avrip, Kvwvy ya\a, in the list of Ano- malous or Irregular Nouns. Ohs. 1 . Among these mere deviations of the deel. must also be ranked the decl. of foreign and later Greek names in q with a long vowel, as ^ikriQ, gen. ^i\ij, dat. ^L\y, accus. ^iXrjv, jg, ^sp^rjg, Tvyrjg — with the exception of this lonism, constantly follow in Greek the first deck, though they are declined in Latin entirely after the third (gen. Miltiadis, Xerxis, Sec). ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. 77 a.) ojg, gen. (jj SLTid o)og. Thus Mtvwc;, Trarpwg, jxrjTocjg, yet in the ^jZ. com- monly Trdrpueg, &c. See Anom. KaXwQ, and compare T^pajg. b.) wg, gen. (orog. These words sometimes drop the r : 6 Idpojg, {sweat,) IdpioTi, idpCira, has an Attic double form, ti^ Idp^i, tov IdpCi, considered as a con- traction, (like Kspari, Kspa,) but agrees likewise with the forms of the Attic second deck, just as xpwri, XP*? (Anom. xpi^g). See a more ob- vious transition to the Attic second deck in the Anom. yeXcog, and some adjectives, {evpvKspcjg, &c.) § 63. 06s. 5. Such words as have in the nominat. already two usual forms, can strictly neither be ranked amongst the HeterodUes nor amongst Metaplasms. Such are c.) JVom. ojg and eg. Even ipijjg, (orog, (desire, love,) which clearly is of the third deck, has a poetical double form, epog, ace. tpov. It therefore can- not surprise us, if some words of the Attic second deck have cases of the common second deck ; for instance, raojg, nomin.,][jl. rai^ and Taoi. See See also Anom. Kokwg and ykXoig. d.) Nom. (jjg and ujv. Here the change partly takes place already in the wowm. .- 6 Td(l)g,gen. w, and Ta(jjv,gen. u)vog, [peacock,) 6 TVfujg, a> and rv(p(j)V, Stvog, {icldrlicind,) rj ciXwQ, {threshing-floor,) gen. io and wof, also aXiov, cjvog. The forms of the third deck are more usual Avith all of them in the pi. The accus. 'AttoXXu), IIocrti^iD, kvksu), § 55, may be compared with them. e.) Some feminines in wv have a collateral form in w, gen. ovg : yXrjxf^v, ojvog, (pennyroyal,) — yXTjxw, ovg, Topyojv, ovog, in old authors ropy(jj, ovg. Metaplasms. Obs. 7. Under this head must be considered — I. Subst. of the fem. gender terminating in wj/, the collateral forms of which (unlike those in Obs. 6. e.) have been lost, ex. gr. of eiKujv, ovog, (image,) we find also gen. daovg, ace. fi/cw, ace. pi. eiKovg, of dT]S(jJv, ovog, {nightingale,) — gen. drjSovg, of ;^£Xt^wv, ovog, {swallow,) — voc. x^XidoT, though we might also assume a contraction in the manner of fxeii^wv, &c. II. One subst. in cop, which points to a disused nomin. in ujg, ex. gr. t^wp, Cjpog, (water of the blood,) — Homer has the accus. i;\;tD ^, instead of lx(^pa. Obs. 8. Lastly, we find in Epic and Lyric poets, instead of the usual terminations in the cases of some words, others of a shorter or simpler form, the analogous nomin. of which is wanting ; especially forms of the third deck with the terminations og, i, a, eg, eai, instead of the usual ones after the first and second deck ; for instance, instead of dXKy, (of n) dXicij, strength,) — oXkI of AAS, „ „ KpoKTiv, (oi Kp6Kr},woof in iceaving,) — KpoKa of KPOS, „ „ dihov, dtSy, dtoT]v, (of 6 dtdrjg, infernal regions,) — d'idog, d'idi, d'ida of 'AI2, „ „ KXdd(^j, (of 6 KXddog, twig,) — KXaSl, pk KXdosfft of KAAS, „ „ dvcpuTTodoig, (of to dv^pdiroSov, slave,) — dvdpaTrodeacn as if of ANAPAnOTS, „ „ v) t)ut (like the^^. Kapa) it may be considered as a contraction. 80 A GREEK GRAMMAR. § 58. — List of Irregular Nouns. Prefatory Remark. — With regard to the arrangement and use of this Ust, compare below the prefatory remarks to the List of Anomalous Verbs. What is there observed about ob- solete themes^ applies likewise here to obsolete nomin. ; they are distinguished in both places by capital letters. Whatever relates to common prose, is printed in a larger type, or partly so ; whatever is of rare occurrence and poetical, is printed in a small type. 'AT]duJv,% 56. 06s. 7. aXfct, § 56. 06s. 8. (iXujQ and aXojv, § 56. 06s. 6. d. dva, roc, § 41. 06s. 5. a. c. with the note. ci'iSog, &c. § 56. 06s. 8. a/\0i, § 57. 06s. 3. afJL'Pio, §78. 4. dv^paTTodsacn, § 56. 06s. 8. avrjp, {a mail,) belongs to words like Trarrip, (§ 47.) but admits the syncope in all the cases which have a lengthened ter- mination, and inserts a S (§ 19. Obs. 1) f therefore, avdpbg, avdpl, avSpa, w avsp, pi. avBpEg, avdpiov, av^paaiv, avdpag. In the Epic poets also regularly dvspog, &c. and in the dat. pi. also dvdpeaaiv. 'AttoXXwv, ace. § 55, 3. voc. § 45. Obs. 2. dpysTOQ, I, Epic abbrev. instead of the gen. apyrjroQ, dat. rjri, ivovcTdpyriQ {white). . "Apr]Q, [Mars,) gen. "Apeocj does not contract this gen., but it does the dat. "Apet — ace. "Apr] and "Apr/v, § 56. Obs. 4. In Epics Apijog, "Aprj'i, 'Aprja. We also raeet with the gen. "Apsbjg. See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gram. apvoQ, (rou, rr\Q, of the lamb^) apvX, apva, pi. apv^g, dat, apvaai. The nomin. sing, is supplied by djuLvog. These are the cases of an obsolete nomin. APHN or APPHN, gen. evog, whence by syncope dpvbg, &c. like the similar cases of dvrip. darpdai, § 47- 06s. 3. BaTTog has the metaplast. gen. of the first decl. Barrcw in Herod. (Sp'srag, {to, an image,) gen. ^pareog, pi. fSperr) (see § 54. 06s. 4). /3wv, ace. § 50. 06s. 2. yaXa, {to, milk,) makes yaXaKTog, jaXaKTi (compare § 41, 5, with the note). ydXcjg, {sister-in-law^ gen.'^ydXco, Ion. nom. yaXoojg, gen. yaXou). yaariip, § 47, 2, and 06s. 3. ykXuyg, (6, laughter,) gen. (urog, ace. ysXojra, and (according to the Attic second decl.) yeXwi/ (§ 56. 06s. 6. b.) Homer has also the dat. ysXo^), and in Od. v. 346, the ace. y'tXov, but with the various reading ykXia (§ 37. 06s. 2. and § 56. 06s. 6. c). yXdv, § 57. 06s. 3. | yXrix^ov, § 56. 06s. 7. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 81 yovv, {to, the knee,) gen. yovarog, &c. dat, pi. yovaGiv (as if of rONAS) : compare ^6pv, doparog. Ion. yovvarog, Slc, and with poets yovvog, yovvlf pi. yovva, y'ovvb)v. Compare dopv. ropywv, § 56. Ohs. 6. e. yvvi), (ivife,) yvvaiKOQ, yvvaiKi, yvvaiKa^ w yvvai, pi. yvvaiKeg, ag, yvvaiKi^v, yvvaiKlv (of FYNAI^). Compare the toc. yvvai with dva, § 45. Ohs. 5, and § 41, note 5. The accent in yvvanzbg is an exception from § 43. Ohs. 4. daX, § 56. Ohs. 5. | ^tiva, § 73. divdpov {to, tree,) has the dat. pi. commonly StvSpacrt of to Eivdpog, which occurs in Ionic writers : compare Kpivov. The p>l- Ssvdpsa, devdpeoig, conies from another Tonic form, and occurs likewise in common prose. Aiog, All, see Zevg. Bopv, {to, spear,) gen. '^opaTog, %lq.. dat. pi. ^opaai (of AOPAS) : compare yovv, yovaTog. Ion. covpaTog, &c. The (rather poetical) casus dopbg, dopl, Ion. doupbg, dovpi,pl. dovpa, dovpo)v, dovpeacnv, come from a still simpler form. Com- pare yovv. dopv^h, Toc. see § 36, note. I dio, § 57. Ohs. 3, lap, i)pog, see § 41. Ohs. 7. | edojv, see evg. h/x^^vQ} {Vi €el,) vog, has in the pi. Ion. lyx^^v^^, &c. Att. ayx^^^LQ-) lyx^^^^'^ (§ ^l* Obs. 1). tifcwv, § 56. Ohs. 7. svg, (good,) an Epic word, of which there is only the gen. eijog'^, ace. Ivg. Also i^vg, ace. -qvv, neut. rjv. The Epic geii. pi. kdiov (see § 35. a. Ohs. 4. c.) comes from another form, EOS, a, ov, and its neut. pi. to. EA (goods). £wc, § 37. Ohs. 2. Zevg, {Jupiter,) gen. Aiog, dat. An, ace. Ala, (as if from AIS,) and a still less frequent form, Zrjvbg, Zi]v\, Zrjva, (from ZHN,) voc. Zfu. Kojg, § 64. Obs. 2. ^\f, II. 0. 128. ^psvag ^Xe, (madman!) a vocat. abbreviated from the equally rare •nXebg (Od. (3. 243. (ppkvag rjkik). ripa, a defective aecus. in the Epic poets (love, assistance). ijpwg, (hero,) gen. di^, {rj, iceal,) makes afjiujdiyyog, &c. (TTTSog, § 53. Obs. 2 and 5. ffTaysg, § 56. Obs. 8. \ orlap, X^i°^^ ^'^^ X^i°^^^)* X^\iS(^v, see § 56. Obs. 7* I X^v'h &c. and x^p^i-^, § 68, 2. XovQ, (6, 'a measure of liquids/ congius,) is partly regular^ (after (5ovg,) xooc? x^"^^ x^^'^^ P^- X^^?' X^^c^ but as it pro- perly is a contraction of xof^c, (Hippocr.) the better Attic forms, gen. xo^c? ctcc. x^a, ace. pi. x^ac ^ come from this, according to § 53, 2. But x^^^^ ^, {earth heaped up,) has merely gen. x^^g, ace. xovv, &c. See irpoxovg. Xpswr, § 57, 3. Xpawc % {to, debt,) an Ionic-Attic form for XP^'^C? {ff^^- XP^o^^C?) has gen. again xP^^^iP^' X9^^' (§ ^^* ^^^* ^0 ^^* "^be dat. is wanting in both numbers. The Epic poets have xp^^oc and xp£twc in the nomin. X/owCj (o^ 5/:m,) ^e/z. xpwroc, &c. Ionic xpooc? XP*^^^ XP^^' '^be Attic c?«^. xpw is used merely in the expression kv X9^ (§ 56. Obs. e.'b). w rdv, see rdv, | wVoc;, see owg. § 59. — Of the Adjectives. 1. The Greek language, by its distinction of genders (motio), has two classes of adjectives; the first comprises adjectives of three terminations, the second adjectives of two terminations, in the last of which the masc. and fem. have a common form (they are, as in Latin, communis generis). There is, properly speaking, no third class of adjectives, since the few which might be enumerated in this class are not, as in Latin, generis omnis. See § 63, 3-5, and the seeming exception, ibid. Obs. 2. * Which must not be confounded with x^"-Qi from at x^'^h libations in Jionour of the dead. ^ Hitherto %p£wg frequently occurred in our editions as nomin. and accus. ; it has now been restored also as a gen. from MSS., for iiiStance, Demosth. c. Timoth. 1189,25. 1203,16. The form itself may be explained by the verb xpaw. The oldest form of the substantive was XPAOS, gen. XPAOYS, and from this arose the nomin. and gen. xpswg, just as Xaog and Xaovg made Xecog. Xpsog is the abbreviation. bt) A GREEK GRAMMAR. 2. The fetn. of adjectives of three terminations always follows the first decl. 3. The neuter always has in the nomin., and consequently in the three similar casus, (§ 33. Obs, 5.) a particular form, but which in the other casus is declined like the masculine. Obs. To decline adjectives correctly, we need only to know the gen. masc. beside the nomin. § 60. — Adjectives in ~og. 1. The adjectives in -oc are the most numerous; they corre- spond to the Latin adjectives in us, and either are, like them, of three terminations, Masc. og, fern, rj or a, ^ neuter ov ; or of two terminations, common og, neuter ov. See the few which have the neuter in o, among the pronouns, §74. 2. Most adjectives are of three terminations ; whenever there is a vowel or p before the final syllable, they have in the /em. a, gen. ag, else always i]. Thus, for instance, Kovcpog, Kovcprj, Kovcjiov, {light,) (l)i\og, ^/Xrj, ^i\ov, {dear, friendly,) deivbg, S^Lvrj, deivov, {dreadful,) but viog, via, viov, {young,) (piXiog, 0tXia, (piXiov, {benevolent,) eXtvOepog, -ipa, -epov, {fi'^^j) TTvppog, -a, -bv {red). Obs. 1 . Only those in oog have in the fern, r) : oydoog, 6y86r], Oobg, 9or}. But when p precedes, they also make the /em. in a : aQpooq, aQ^oa. The fern, in a is always long, except in ^Xoq, Sla, Slov, [divine,) and some adjectives in eiog. See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gram., and Trorvia^ § 64. Obs. 3. Respecting the accent, see § 34. Obs. III. 1, 2. 3. The following adjectives in og are partly always, and partly usually, of two terminations, viz. 6 and 17 j5ap(5apog, ov, 7]av)(og, TLOaaog, apriog., Kaipiog., irarpiog, [5a(7i\eLog, yvwpifJLog, (l)(j)i\iluiog, &c., and with the Attics and poets many more, which commonly have the three terminations, as kXwOepog, KoajULiog, Sec. 4. Compound adjectives in og, in particular, are of two termi- nations; as 6, T) (5a6vKoX7rog,ev(l)wvog, aXoyog, apyog, {for aepyog,) cnroKXripog, lyKVKXiog, didXevKog, (though the primitive is XevKog, ADJECTIVES. 87 ^, hv,) TToXvypacjiog : also those derived from compound verbs, as Eia(l)opog, virmoog, e^aipsTog. Those, however, which in their derivation add the syllable Kog, have always the three termina- tions, as kTTiEbiKTiKog^ 7], bv, (from the verb cTTiStiKvu^f,) av^aino- vLKog, rj, bv (from tvSaiiuLwv) ; and frequently also the adj. in toe (oLog, &c.), when they are compounded with the so-called a privative ; ew, gr. ava'^iog, ia, lov. Obs. 2. All adjectives in oq, which having their final syllables in Kog, \og, voQ, pog, and eog, clearly added, as a mark of their derivation from other words, for instance, fiav- TiKog, deiXbg, deivbg, (pavepog, TrXfKrbg, %pu(7£og, have generally, at least in prose, the three tei-minations. But among those ending in fiog, log, eiog, aiog, there are several communis generis. Poets only sometimes allowed themselves, for the sake of the verse, r) Xa/xTrpof, (pavspbg, Kkvrbg, and the like. 06s. 3. It is also a pretty general rule, that the adjectives in oc, which in making their feiii. in t] or a would render it similar to the abstract subst., have it partly always, and partly frequently, in og, ex.gr. awrripiog, tXevOtpiog, (SacriXeLog, because of }) aujTtipia, iXi.vQi.pia, jSaaiXeia : thus (piXiog, which has the fern, ^iXia, has also r/ (piXiog, because of the subst. r) (piXia. Obs. 4. The poets, on the contrary, employ also compound adjectives, which generally are communis generis, with the fem. form ; as dOavdrr], djW^iXyKj;, Homer, ddfirjTri, Sophocles. See the comparatives and superlatives, § 05, &c., and Obs. 6 to the same §. Examples for the practice of the adjectives in og are given in the Appendix. 5. Some adjectives in oog are contracted, viz. : a.) The communia, like Evvovg, evvovv, (well-disposed,) gen. evvov. They are all compounds of contracted words of the second decL, as vovg, irXovgy &c. Their decl., as they are compounds of words already contracted, is independent of the general rules of accentuation ; hence they retain the accent in all casus upon that syllable, where it was in the nom., whilst the resolved form is obliged to throw it forward; ea^. gr. evvov (resolved evvoov). They even circumflex the penul- tima, when long by nature, before the contracted ot of the nom, plu7\ ; ex. gr, evvoi ; but it is to be recollected that the accent can never be removed to the antepenul- tima ; thus, Trep/TrXot, KaKovoi [KaKovovg ^). The neuter plur, in oa remains unchanged: ra avoa, of avovg, senseless, ^ In the common language of the day, these contractions degenerated into abbreviations in og. Hence the collateral forms in vog of proper names originally ending in voog ; the former thei-efore lengthen the penultima ; ex.gr. 'EuOvvovg and EvOvyog, 'Apxivovg and 'Apx^^oQj KaXXlvog^ properly KaXXivoog. €8 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Plur. fivvoi, evvoa tVVLJV £VVOlV evvovg, ivvoa. Sing, ivvovq, euvouv iVVM ^VVOVVi bVVOVV b.) The multiple numerals, airXoog, ^nrXoog, r], ov, &c. (simple, twofold.) They have this peculiarity, that they all contract or] and 6a into i] and a : hence Sing. ^LirXoog, diirXovgi SiTrXorj, SiTrAf), dnrXoov, BinXovv ^/ttXoou, StTrXou, ^i7rAoi7C? ^lttX^q, &c. Plur, dnrXooi, ^lttXoX, ^iirXoaL, ^iirXaX, diirXoa, StirXa ^iirXowv, diirXiov, &c. ^ 6. Some adjectives in foc, denoting a material, are contracted and transpose the accent ; as y^pva^ogi (golden^ ^P^^^^^ X9^~ o-£ov, contr. ^pvaovg, XP^^^^ Xpuaouv, gen. ov, ijg, ov, &c. If there be another vowel or p preceding the final syllable, the fem. is not contracted into ?j, but into a, as kpkog, (woollen,) contr. epeovg, gpca, speovv : apjvpEog, [made of silver,) contr. apyvpovg, apyvpa, apyvpovv. The letter g in the Dual and Plur., like the letter o in the multiple numerals, becomes absorbed by the following diphthong or vowel ; hence the neut. plur. to. Xpvcra, ace. /em. rag xpvcrag : ex.gr. Sing, ;)(j0ij(7£0c, crovg xpvGia, ari xpvaeov, crovv Xpvaiov, GOV )(^pV(Teag, arig ^puaeou, gov \pvai(j^, GM ^pvGEa, Gy ;^pvo-£(i>, G(f XpVGWVy GOVV XpVGtaV, GTIV \pVGi:OV, GOVV Plur, ')^pvGEoi, Got xpvGeai, Gol xpvGia, GO., Sec, But the word [apyvpeog, ia, eov) apyvpovg, apyvpd, apyvpovv Gen. apyvpov, apyvpdg, dat. dpyvpt^, dpyvpq., &c. Epwvg, Ipm, fjO£ouv, gen, Ip^ov, dg, &c. § 61. — Adjectives in wg, 1. Adjectives in (vg after the Attic second decl. (see § 37.) are generally communis generis, as 6 and 17 'IXeuyg, to 'IXewv, {propitious,) and partly have the neut. w, as dyrjpojg, neut. dyrjpwv and dyr)p(jj. (See § 37. Obs. 2.) 2. The simple nXiwg, (full,) nXla, irXiwv, neut. pi, TrXia^ has the three terminations, but its compounds conform to the above rule, ex. gr. avcnrXnog^ dvairXiwv. Ols. About those in yeXojg and icepcjg, see § 63. Obs. 5. — ri. Dual Nom. aa^r\:, gen. (7a<^oTv. Examples: aXy]drig, true, ay^vyrjg, ignoble, aKpijirig, ac- curate, aifOaSr]g, (long a,) proud, 6i)piwdirjg, brutal, TrXi^prjc, full, aXrig, amassed, xpevdrig, false, irprivrigj bending forward, vyirig, see § 53. 2.) wv, neuter ov — as TrtVwv, iriirov, ripe, {gen. ovog,) gen. iriirovog. {Parad, Saiiuwv.) Examples : a/uLVjuLwy, (long v,) blameless, airpaj^wv^ idle, evyvwfuov, well-meaning. See the comparatives in wv and i(ji)v, § 67. 68, a. § 55. 3.) ig, neuter i — as 'idpig, 'l^pi, knowing, gen. 'Idpiog, {gen. log,) has very few examples. (Paradigma iroXtg, § 50.)_ _ vrjCTTig, Jejune, fasting, rpocjyig, well-fed. The Attic poets form the gen. of these words sometimes in idog : 'l^pi^og, 4.) The following isolated one : appr]v or ap(jr]v, neut. appev, apaev, masculine, gen. appsvog, apfrevog, 2. But besides these, there are adjectives compounded with subst., of which they retain the final syllable and declension, as far as it is possible, as is best seen from the examples. They all are communis generis, and have a neut. gender when it can be formed agreeably to analogy ; for instance, evxapig, tu^OjOt, graceful, gen. irog, from 17 x^P^^y trog, cidaKpvg, adaKpv^ tearless, gen. vog, from to daKpv, vog, [xovoSovg, juovoSov, gen. ovrog, from 6 oSovg, ovTog, Sometimes the conversion of rj into w, and £ into o, takes place in the final syllable ; for instance, from Trarrjp, ipog, comes airaTwp, op, fatherless, gen, opog, from (^tpriv, (ppevog, comes Gw(j)pwv, ov, wise, gen. ovog. ADJECTIVES. 91 3. If no analogous neut. gender can be formed, the adjective has but one termination, which, however, is only communis generis^ (not, as in Latin, omnis generis,) ex. gr. 6 and 77 airaiQ, ZoQ, childless ; 6 and 77 ^xaK^oyjELp, longimanus, * having long hands' 4. There are some adjectives communis generis of one termi- nation^ in i]q, r^rog {r]iuiLOvrjQ,) in w^, wTog, {ayviogj) in E, and t//, {tiXl^, Kog, fxwvv^i )(oc, alyiXop, ttoc) and one in r]v, aTrrrjv, cnrrrivog. 5. Common ones of this kind are also several adjectives in ag, gen» adoQj as \oyag, {select,) cpvyag, vojuag, (nropaQi and some in tg and vg, gen. idog^ vdog {avaXKig, ETrrjXuc, auyKXuc). But generally those in ag and tg are only of the /em. gender, and on omitting a subst. become substc of the fern, gender ; for instance, 7) fjiaivag, {yvvr),) a bacchant, 77 jrarplg, (yri,) native country, ti 'lac? V 'EXXr}Vig. 6. Several adjectives of one termination are only of the masc. gender, especially yipwv, ovrog, {old,) 7rpia(5vg, {old,) irivrig, rjTog, {poor,) and after the first decl. WsXovTrig, {voluntary,) yewa^ag, {noble,) and several in tag (as Tpoiriag, p.oviag). See also Obs. 7. Obs. 1. Some commoa adjectives of this kind have collateral /aw. forms, but are mostly confined to poetry, as fiovvoysveia, rj^vkivEia, from the masc. in rjQ. See also § 64. Obs. 3. Obs. 2. As (according to § 58, 3.) the neut. always is declined like the masc, the gen. and dat. of words, which have no neuter gender in the nomin., may be employed as being of the neuter gender, and such casus then actually are omnis generis ; but this is done only by poets, as Eurip. Or. 834. ^pojuacrt (3\e^dpoig, Nicander Ther. 631. apyrJTi clvOel. Obs. 3. Else the neuter, which is wanting, is supplied, in case of need, by a deri- vative form in ov, as ^Xukikov, ccpTraKTiKov, ixwvvxov, for j8Xd|, apira^, jjlCjvv^. Obs. 4. Those compounded with tzovq, Trodbg, {foot,) are regularly declined like their subst., as diTrovQ, odog : but in the neuter they take ovv, (as evvovg, evvovv, of the contracted second decl.) and yet decline this neuter according to the general rule, § 58, 3, like the masc. to diTvovv, tov Siirodog. Obs. 5. Adjectives coming from ykXiog, wrog, (laughter,) commonly forsake the decl. of their subst. and follow the Attic second decl. (see § 61) ; those made of Kspag, oTog, {horn,) change the a into w, and follow the same decl. ; but both have also the gen. lorog, and the neut. wv then has the same anomaly as the adjectives compounded with Trovg : for instance, ^iXoyeAwf, dUepwg, neut. lov, geii. w and (jjtoq. Those compounded with epwc retain nothing of the Attic second deck, but the accent in the nomin., as dvcrtpojg, gen. ojrog. Obs. 6. The compounds of iroXig take a d in their declension, ex. gr. (piXorroXig, i, gen. idog ; but in the Ionic and Doric writers they end regularly in log in the gen. case. Obs. 7- But adjectives and substantives in Greek run so much one into the other, both in form and connexion, that not only many of the above-mentioned adjectives (as 7rpi9ovoQ, abundant, and several others in the dialects, as airovdaXog, Sec. 3.) i into w, for instance, wopcpvpsu)- rarog, TropcpvpujraTog, but those in oog — ovg, according to Obs. 2, take tg ^^ the re- solved form dwXoog, cnrXokaTaTog : hence the contraction is aTrXovg, dirXovaTarog. Obs. 6. Comparatives and superlatives communis generis terminating in eg are very rare, and never in the Attics, except sometimes those whose positive is communis, as Thuc. 3, 101. dvcrealSoXtoTaTog 7) AoKpig. But Homer has also oXodJraTog odfir). § 66. 1. Adjectives in vg barely drop the c - evpvg, Bvfyvrepogj svpv- rarog. 2. Those in ag, gen. avog, do the same^ but resuming the Vy which has been rejected before the g : as imiXag, {gen, jucXavoc?) — juikavTepog. 3. Adjectives in rjg and £ig convert those terminations into Eg, for instance aXriOrig, {gen. toe,) aXriOiaraTog, wivrig, {gen, rjTog,) TTEviaraTog, ^(^apLSig, \apdv, (^KicTTog, &c. Obs. 4. Of the adjectives ending in pog the following have this form of com- parison, viz. alffxpog, kx^pog, olicTpbg, Kvdpbg, and they also use the other collateral form more or less, but oiKTpbg never has the compar. in iuiv. The form twv, larog, appears to be derived from some old positives in vg. (See § 69. Obs. 1.) Obs. 5. We must also notice under this head fiOKpog, {long,) because of its compar. lj.d(T(Tujv, (for ixuKiujv,) iJ.r}KL(TTog. This change of the vowel in the superl. is like- wise found in the subst. to j-iriKog, {length,) and other derivatives. But here too fiaKpoTtpog, naKooTaTog, are more usual. Obs. 6. A few more comparatives of this form may be seen among the Anomalous Adjectives of the following sections. Some are used only by poets, as (piXiujv, 0iXi- CTog, from cpiXog. Obs. 7- Hither belong also the comparatives of advei'bs : ddffov, {nearer,) from dyxh (Hom.) and the frequently used fxaWov, {magis,) [xdXKxra from fidXa. §68. Several adjectives have an anomalous form of comparison. 96 A GREEK GRAMMAR. This anomaly mostly consists in forming their degrees from obsolete positives, and when there are more forms derived from one positive, (see ayaObg and KUKog,) each generally has one of the more particular meanings of that positive, or at least is preferred in some connexions. This must be left to the indi- vidual notice of the learner. Comparative, Superlative, 1. ayaObg, {good,) ajiuvii)v, aiiHvov, {better^ agiaroQ, [best,) f5eXTiu)v, f3eXTL i'^^)) and the like. The lonians make of Ivvea, dvd-Trrixvg, &c. In these combinations the a sometimes remains before a vowel, and sometimes not ; the o is always dropped or contracted in the compounds with Irog {year) ; hence we have eTrTaETrjg, {of seven year's,) better eTrrsTijg, rpiaKov- Ta'srrjgj or TpiaKovTovrrjg (for osrrjg ^). Observe likewise evvasTrjg, {of nine years, nine years old,) and tvvrjixap {for or during nine days). * Mvpioi, many, numberless, is contradistinguished from it by the accent. 2 The composition with ^ig-, rpig-, is used only when the meaning of dig, Tpig, tv'ice, thrice, must be expressed, as in diuQavrig (Homer), haiivpioi, diat or TrpWTOg KoX ElKO(TTOg, &c. 30. TpiaKOCTTOg 40. Tfcro-apaKOo-Toc 50. TTEvrriKOrTTbg 60. £^TjKoa-roc 70. E(5SoiJ.rjKO(TTOg 80. o-ySorjKoa-roc 90. EV£Vr}KOGTOg 100. EKarocTTog 200. 8mKO(7tocrroc5 &C. 1,000. ;)(tXtocrroc 2,000. §t(7;;(fXtocrroc 10,000. pvpiocTTog, &C, The interrogative ttocttoc^ quotus ? is answered by an ordinal number ^. Tirparog is used instead of reraproc for the sake of the metre ; the lonians have Eivarog instead of Evvarog, Evarog : the Epics have rpiraTog, EJ3^6parog, oy^oarog t; the Dorians irparog for irptoTog. 2. The numeral adverbs answering the question. How man^ times? soce: aira^, [once,) ^Ig, rpig, TErpaKig, irEVTciKLg, ofcraiciCv EvvECLKig or EvvcLKig, EKaTovTCLKig, xiXiaKig, &c. [poet. -Ku) Inter- rogative, TTOcraKLg. 3. Multiples answering the question, Hoiv manifold F are cnrXoog, contr. aTrXouc^ {simple,) dnrXovg, rpiTrXovg, TErpairXovgi &c. (see § 60.) or also ^nrXacriog, &c. 4. Numbers as subst. all end in ag, gen. a^og ; as, 17 fiovag^ [unity,) ^vag, rpiag, TETpag, iTEVTag, (also TTEjiTrrag and TTEfiirag,) E^ag, EJ5^0fiag, oydoag, EVVEag, ^EKag, &c., flfcac? rpiuKag, rfcrcra- paKOvrag, &c., EKUTOVTag^ ^iXiag, fivpuig, 1 The superl. hvrarog, {last,) made of it, is merely poetical. 2 Further '7roXkoc>Tbg,oneofinany,6\iyo(yTbQ,oneoffew. Hence to iroWoffrbv fjikpoQ, one of many pai-ts, viz., a very small pai-t. 102 A GREEK GRAMMAR. PRONOUNS. § 71 a. — Division of Pronouns, 1. The division of the pronouns is supposed to be known from the Latin grammar; the following §§ therefore treat of them according to their etymological order. In order to facili- tate the review of all pronouns, see the following illustra- tions. 2. The pronouns are usually divided into three classes : 1, into pronouns substantive, that is to say, which are used instead of substantives or persons ; 2, into pronouns adjective, which are for the most part used for adjectives^ yet sometimes also for substantives ; 3, into pronouns adverb, which are used instead of adverbs. I. Pron. substantivum. 1. pron. personalia lytb, ah, t, § 72, 3. 2. pron. reflexiva Ifxavrov, aavTov, laurou, &c. § 74, 3. 3. pron. reciprocum aXX/jXwv, &c. § 74, 4. 4. pron. indefinit. 6, 17, to Setva, § 73. II. Pron. adjectivum. 1. pron. demonstrativa; to these belong the art. prsepos. 6, rj, ro, § 75. ovTogf avTY], tovto, this, &c. § 76, 2. ode, i]d£, rode, this, &c. § 76, 1. iKHvog, 7}, o, that, yon, § 74, 1. avTon, 17, 6, himself, &c. § 74, 1. 6 avTOQ, ibid. 2. 2. pron. relativa ; to these belong the art. postpos. oq, rj, 6, with the strengthened forms oaTTEp, &c. who, &c. § 78. 6, which is enclitic ; when orthotoned, the disyllabic form must be used. Of the forms beginning with cr^, only the oblique cases of the third person, and the forms of dialects noticed in the sixth Observation, are enclitic ; yet (jcpCJv and a^ag with the circumflex are excepted, but in their resolved form, {crcp'eojv, (xcpkag, Obs. 6, 8.) and when a^ag is made short by Poets, they also are enclitic. 06s. 3. When one of these pronouns has a preposition prefixed, it generally con- tinues orthotoned, as Trepl aov, iv aol, Trapd a(piaiv, and, consequently, (of gyw,) — Kar ejj,e, i% kjxov ^. Obs. 4. The particle ye (§ 149, 2.) is often appended to these jjronouns for the sake of emphasis, in which case syw, sjjioi, and kfik throw the accent back : iycjye (equidem), g/iotye , tfitye, avyt, &c., and the oblique cases of av cease to be encliti- cal ; ex. gr. fxi] cr'tye. Obs. 5. The oblique cases of rjixng and v}.tng are, according to grammarians, equally capable of being inclined, and in every instance, when they ai'e enclitics. Smg, /, Nom. eyw Gen. Ijuiov, and juov Dat. £jLioi, and /LLoX, Ace. lfjL£, and jUB, Dual, We both, N.A. vCj'l, Vli), G.D. vCSLv, vioV) PL We,^ Nom. -njUsTg Gen. Vjuojv Dat. rjiULv Ace. -hfJ-ag G(pw'iv (T(l>ug, neut, acpia, ),) bv, and for oq, — koQ, a, ijj,) ov. — With regard to the pi'etended form kr]OQ, see above the Anom. evg, with the note. 2.) There is an old shorter form for the possessive ^:)?., afjibg, ?), bv, vfJ^bg, r), ov, OfpOQ, V, bv, used by the Dorians and Epic poets, but the latter pronounce the first person with the sj). lenis, dfj-bg, i), ov : the Attic poets do the same, yet only in the meaning of the sing, (for kubg compare Ohs. 6, 10) ; for instance, Eurip. Electr. 555. Soph. Electr. 588. Ohs. 8. Poets also make of the dual of the first and second person vCj'i — vojtTspoQ both our, of us both, (T^oji — ffcpmrepog, both your, of you both. §73. We must also rank among the pronouns personal 6, 7], TO Sava, a certain person, some one, such and such a one, (the French un tel) : it is declined nom. and ace. Bdva, gen. ^eTvog, dat. delvt, pi* ol delv^g, &c. Obs. It is sometimes, though very rarely, indechnable : for instance, rbv dtXva, Tov Tov ddva {ylbv), Aristoph. Thesm. 622. §74. 1. The following four pronomina adjectiva are regularly de- clined, except that they have o in the neuter : avTog, avrri, avTo, himself, herself, itself; EKELvog, EKHVY}, Ikuvo, tMs, that, yon ; aXXog, aXX-q, aWo, other ; og, ^\ o, see § 75. Obs. 1. The loniaus are fond of introducing an a in some forms of avrbg, as avTST], avTSojv. (§ 28. Obs. 3,) 06s. 2. 'EKitvog comes from IksI, yonder, in that place. The Ionic form is Kslvog, 106 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 1], 0, and the Doric Ttjvog, a, o. The JEolic was Krjvog. — See § 29. Ohs. C. about wWoi for 01 dWoi. 2. The pronoun avrog has three significations : 1.) self; 2.) in the oblique cases, him, her, it ; 3.) with the article, the same. See the Syntax. We merely observe that in the last significa- tion it frequently coalesces with the article, (according to § 29. Obs. 4.) and in this instance the neuter is both in ov and o : hence 6 aiirog-, r) avrrj, ravro and ravrov ravTOv, Trig avrrig, ravTOV ravTto, TavTy, ravTio, &C. The forms Tavrij and ravra, especially when the coronis ' is wanting, must not be confounded with Tavrri and Tavra from ovTOQ, § 7Q. — See about the lonisms wvrog, tijjvto, § 29. Obs. 6. 3. It is with avTog that is formed the pronoun reflective, which being compounded with the ace. of the pronouns personal (£jU£, gI, a) is declined thus in the oblique cases : gen. IjiavTov, kfiavTr,Q, dat. lfxavT<^, y, ace. IjuLavrbv, rjv, of myself to myself myself, gen. cFsavrov, or davrov, &c. of thyself to thyself thyself, gen. iavrov, or avrov. &c. of himself or herself Sec. neuter accus. iavTo, avTo. The two words of the two first persons in the pi. are written separately ; the third is declined like the former : gen. yijuljv avrojv, dat, rjfuv avrolg, aig', ace. i^fiag avTovg, ag. gen. vfxujv avriovy dat. vfxlv avrolg, aig, &o. gen. iavrwv or avrCjv, dat. iavTolg or avTolg, alg ; ace, iavrovg, or avTOvg, ag, a. Obs. 3. Originally the sing, was also naturally written separate. Homer still has aoi avT<^, ol avr<^. We likewise find separately in his works, e avrijv, kyi avrov, &c. 11. a. 271. ?. 1G2. l. 490 ; and Od. %. 185. ra a avTov, a avrrjg, (or aavroii, rJQj) is considered as an elision of to. ad. Obs. 4. In these compositions the lonians have V, (bv, wv, Dat. rote, rate. Tolq, oIq, atcj olg, Ace. Tovg, rag, ra. ovg, Se, L Obs. 1. The deviations in the dialects are the same as in the end-syllables of the first and second decl. ; for instance, toXo for rov, a for rj, rag for Trjg, &c. Homer has, though but rarely, oov for the gen. ov of the articulus postpositivus. Obs. 2. Both articles were alike in form in the old language, and were only dis- tinguished by their position and accent, as is still the case with rj, oi, a'l. The Epic poets have also o, (incorrectly 6,) for og, and all the forms of the art. proep., which begin with r, are likewise used by the lonians and Dorians for the coi're- sponduig forms of the postpositivus ; TO for 0, TTjv for i)v, &c. The Dorians also have rol, ral, for both ol, ai, and oi, a'L Obs. 3. The two articles are in fact nothing but the old simple pronoun demon- strative, (tJiis,) and are frequently employed for it in the works of the ancients in many contexts even in prose, as is shown in the Syntax. See the usual pronouns demonstrative derived from it in the following Section. 3. The articulus postp., or simple pronoun relative, is strength- ened in several combinations, partly by the enclitic particle irep, {oairsp, wTTEp, rJTTfp, &c.) partly by being compounded with the pronoun rig [oarig, &c.). See § 77, 3. Obs. 4. With regard to the enclitic r^,- which in Epic poetry is appended to og, as og Ts or oare for og, ovts or rovre for ov, see § 149, under re. § 76. 1. The Greek has a double form for the general pronoun de- monstrative, ^ this,' One is made by appending the enclitic ^e, (§ 14. Obs. 3.) to the articulus pr(Bp. : o^e, ri^E, To^iE, gen. Tovds, Triads, &e. plur. olds, aide, tcl^e, Tovcrde, &e. 2. The other form ovrog comes from the same article, and conforms itself entirely to it in its very anomalous decl. Wherever the article has the spiritus asper or the t, the pronoun PRONOUNS. 109 has the same ; and where the article has o or w, the pronoun has in the first syllable ou, but where the article has rj or a, the pronoun has av : for instance, 6 — oSroc, ol — ovroi, tCjv — rovrixWy 7] — avTY], ra — Tavra^ &C. Sinff. Plur. Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fern. Neut, Nom. OVTOQ, aVTl], TOVTO, ovTOi, avTai, TavTa, Gen. TOVTOV, raVTYiQ, TOVTOV, i TOVTUJV, TOVTCOV, TOVTUJV Dat. TOVTCj), TaVTTI, TOVTlt), TOVTOig, TavTaig, TOVTOLg Ace. TOVTOV, TaVTTlV, TOVTO, TovTOvg^ Tamag, TavTa. Masc. Fern. Neut. Dual, N. A. TOVTW, TaVTa, TOVTh), G.D. TOVTOIV, TaVTULV, TOVTOIV. Ohs. 1. \?>t\iQ articulus i^rcep. \v^B the only 2^^'^^^'^^^^ demonstrative in the oldest language, (§ 126.) but gradually lost this meaning, it is obvious that both these forms only give to it more intensity, and that ovtoq in particular is in some degree the mperl. of 6. — See the still greater intensity given to both by annexing l, § 80. Ohs. 2. The dialects offer no peculiarity but the Ionic £ in rovrkov, ravrsfjg, &e. and the very anomalous Epic form of the dat. ToXadeai, rola^ecro't, for ToTade. Ohs. 3. The nom. ovtoq, avrr), is likewise used as a kind of vocative or exclama- tion iu the sense of the Latin heus ! ho ! you yonder I harh I §77. 1 . The simple Pronoun Interrogative., TLQ, neut. Ti, gen. tlvoq ; ivho or which ? what ? quis, quce, quid ? always has the accent on the l, {tIveq, dat. pi. tlgi, &c.) and distinguishes itself by that circumstance, and by its nomin. and accus. sing, constantly having the acute accent, (see § 13.) from the simple pronoun indefinite, T\g, neut. t\, gen. tlvoq, any one, some one, something, aliquis, aliqua, aliquid, which besides is mostly enclitic, and written without an accent. They are both regularly declined after the third decl., and the L is every where short. Ohs. 1. In those rare instances in which tiq or rl gets the acute accent, because it is followed by other enclitics, the connexion or the accent of the preceding word must distinguish it from the pronoun interrogatite : as, avrip tiq ttote. Ohs. 2. Poets, and also the Attic comic writers, employ instead of the interroga- tive ri the emphatic tlI], ichat then, tchy then, why so ? 2. The following forms are often used instead of the gen. and dat. of both pronouns : 110 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Tov, Ti[>, (in the three genders^) orthotoned for rivog, rtvi, and encUtic for nvog, tiv\, as no TEKfiaipei rovro ; how dost thou prove that ? — ywaiKog tov, of a certain woman, — ')^pri(jOaL tm, to use something : and for the neut.pl. of the pronoun indefinite arra, Ion. a(T(7a, for Tiva, but always orthotoned, as, ^eiva arra, for ^eiva riva, Od. r. 218, ottttoT aaaa. 3. The compound pronoun relative ogtiq, {who, which,) an intensive of og, has a double decl. Norn. b(7Tig, ring, o,rL (see § 15, 2). Gen. ovTLvog, rianvog, dat. l^tlvi, yrivL, &c. Ace. ovTiva, y'lvriva, 6,ti, Plur. Nom. olrLveg, alrLveg, ariva, Gen. ojvTivijJv, Dat. oiaTLai, alcrrKn, Ace. ovGTLvag, a(TTivag, ariva. It also admits one of those collateral forms of ng, which we have just mentioned (2) : orow, oTh) — for ovrivog, lorivi (but not for the fem.), arra, Ion. aa(Ta — for ariva. Ohs. 3. The collateral form tov, ri^, must not be confounded with the article, from which it is totally different, as is shown by the triple gender and the dialects. The TOV of the article is resolved by the Epics into toXo, but the tov for t'ivoq, tivoq, into t'so, whence Ion. and Dor. rcu — dat. Ion. TS(f. — The same in the compound pronoun relative, or£o, otteo, oTiv, oncf). Obs. 4. The lonians have this collateral form also in the gen. and dat. plural, t'eojv, tsokti, for tivmv, Tialv, and the Attics even have, though rarely, in the com- pound pronoMW re^a^itJe, orwj/, oTOKTi, Xen. Aiiab. 7,6,24. (Econ.3,2. (see Schn.) Soph. (Ed. T. 414. Aristoph. Eq. 758. lonice otsojv, otsoktiv, and also in the fein. oTtyaiv. Obs. 5, Epics also have the compound pronoun relative with the first syllable unchanged in all the cases — '6Tig,'6Tiva, (for ovTiva and uTiva,) oTivag. When- ever they use the double t, they write the neuter thus : 6,tti. (See § 80, about bariaovv, oTijiovv, &c.) 4. T\g, compounded with ou and fxri, gives the negative pronouns ovng, firjTig, i, no one, none, which are declined like rig (§ 78, 1). § 78. — Pronouns and Correlative * Adjectives. 1. Correlativa are words, several of which stand in such a connexion with each other, that one contains a certain question, * Pronouns cannot be so precisely defined in theory, as not to admit many words which may also be considered as adjectives. PRONOUNS. Ill and the corresponding ones express the simplest relations, which answer that question. The general correlatives have been stated above^ viz. : the pronoun interrogative rig^ ivho ? the demonstrative 6, oSs, ovrog, this : the indefinite tIq, any one, some one : th.e pronoun relative oc? compound octtiq, which : the negative ovtlq^ fxriTiQ, (§ 77, 4.) or ov^hq, nn^ug, (§ 70, 1 .) no one, none, each, of course, with its /em. and neut, 2. When these expressions are expressly confined to two objects, or two parts, the interrogative is Trorcpoc, a., ov, ivhich of the two ? the demonstrative the same with the above. the indefinite 6 hepog, (77 eripa, &c.) 07ie of the two. the relative b-n-orepoQ, ivhich of the two. the negative ov^ktpog, iuiY]diTEpog, neither, Obs. 1 . "O eVfpoe is exactly the Latin alter ; and when one of two is ah'eady named, 6 sVfpo^ becomes definite, and must be translated the other (4). See about the crasis uTspoc, Oarspov, &c. § 29. Obs. 5. 3. The answer to rig and Tror^pog may also be each. This has in Greek the form of a compar. and sitperl. EKarepog, a, ov, each of the two, EKaGTog, rj, ov, each or every one (of several). 4. Other general answers may be given to Tig, as aXXog, another (§ 74, 1) irag, iravTEg, all (§ 62, 4). The question iroTepog may be answered by 6 ETEpog, in the sense oi the other (see Obs. 1). afi^OTEpog, a, ov, ajKliorEpoi, ai, a, both, and in some connexions, instead of aficporspog, simply the dual. N. A. afKpbj, G. D. afKpolv with the accent removed, which is used for the three genders. Obs. 2. In Poets a/Lt^w is sometimes indeclmable, and used for the gen. and dot. See about aXXog and 'irepog, § 127, 5. §79. 1. Independently of these general correlatives, there are also some definite or particularising ones, referring to the properties and relative circumstances of the object, {of what nature ? in 112 A GREEK GRAMMAR. lohat place ?) These are formed in Greek after a very distinct analogy ; but as they are partly adjectives and partly adverbs, we shall treat of the latter separately, § 116. 3. Each series of C07Telatwes has a common root and inflec- tion^ but distinguishes itself by the initial letter. The inter- rogative begins with a ir, for instance, iroaog, quantus ? hoiu great ? how much ? The same form, but usually with a change in the accent, serves for the indefinite, Troo-og, aliquantus, of a certain size or number. When there is a r instead of the initial tt, it is the deinonstrative, roaog, tantus, so great, so much ; but if the initial consonant is dropped, and the word begins with the spiritus asper, it is the relative, oaog, quantus, as great as, as much as. There is in common language no negative to answer to these questions. 3. Beside the simple relative, there is also a compound one, which in some circumstances is generally preferred. It answers to the correlative octtlq, otov, and is formed by prefixing an o to the interrogative, TTOdog, relative oiog and oTroaog {poet. binrocTog). 4. The simple pronoun demonstrative (roo-oc) is mostly used as a perfect demonstrative by poets only ; but in prose some^ times merely in the restricted instances, when there is no par- ticular stress on the relations of quantity, (or quality, in roToc?) ex. gr. oaci) (deXriwv ectti, Toaio juloXXov (^tvXaTrzTai, (Xen. Cyrop. 1, 6, 26.) TOfTog KoX Toaog. Hence we generally find a more emphatic form used, and just as the article 6 (the old and weaker demonstrative) is strengthened either by the enclitic ^e, {ode,) or by being changed into ovrog, the same is done here ; -og in the second instance is changed into -ovrog, as- — rocroc — roaoade or Toaovrog. The former is declined in the middle of the word — TOdotTCE, T0(7r}de, TOdovde, gen. rocrovdE, &c. (see about the accent, § 14. Obs. 3.) The latter conforms en- tirely to ovTog respecting the diphthongs ov and av, but has in the neuter both ov and o, thus — TO(TOVTog, TOfravrrj, roaovTOv and toctovto, gen. roaovrov, roaavrrig. Sec. pi. TOGOVTOi, ToaavTat, rocravTa, &c. gen. togovtlov, tocjovtwv, togovtojv, &c. 5. The following are the three completest series of this kind: — PRONOUNS. 116 Interrog, Indef Demonstr. Rel. TTOGOQ ; TOCTOg, 070 g, ^ how great ? how much ? TTOGOg, Toaodds, oTtoaog, quantus ? rocrovTog, TTOLog ; Toiog, OLog, of what kind ? TTOLOg, tolocjSb, oTTolog, of what nature ? roLOVTog, qualis ? irrikiKOQ ; TTTjXlKOg, Tr}XtKog, TjXiicog^ how old? rr]\nc6(Tde, oTTiiKUog hoio great ? rr}\iKOVTog, See about the Ionic forms Koaoq, Kolog, oKoaog, &c. § 16. Obs. 1. c. Ohs. 1. There are also a few incomplete correlatives, yvhich,like 7r6Tepoc,67r6Tepog in the preceding Section, have only the compound relative beside the interrogative *,' of this kind are especially TToSaTTog, oTTodaTrbg, (icJiere born, of lohat country, of what place,) the derivatives of Tvocrog, like ttooto^, TrocrTalog, TroaaTrXdcnog, — ottootoc:, &c. : and the demonstrative rvvvog, rvvvovrog {tiny, so very small, tantilliis,) is also a correlative. Obs. 2. This class of words derive their correlative power from the initial letters TT, T, &c., hut some of them denote also other relations, when compounded, espe- cially with the general correlatives, srepog, dWog, Trdg (§ 78) ; for instance, the interrogative irolog is also answered by tTspoTog, dWolog, of another hind, of a different nature, -rravTolog, of all sorts, of every kind. It is the same with 7ro8a7r6g, wliich gives dXXodaTrbg, TravrodaTrbg, yfisSaTrbg, {belonging to our country, our countryman,) and the like. Obs. 3. To consider Toaovrog, &c. as a compound of ovTog is improper. The final syllable ovrog here, and in the word ovrog by itself, is nothing but the strengthening of the termination og in the way of a superlative, as will be clearly shown below, in treating of the particles, IvravOa, IvrevOev, § 116. § 80. — Appendages, 1. The compound and strengthened pronouns relative, like oGTig, oTovj oaTTEp, oTToaocj &c., annex to all their cases the little word ovv, which retains the accent, and in this composition exactly answers to the Latin cunque, denoting the completeness of the relation ; as oarig, who, ogtktovv, quicunque, ivhosoever, rjTKJovv, oTiovvy oTtoovvy ace. ovTivaovv or bvTivovv, &c. — odTTEpovv, biroaoaovv, ottyiXikovovv, &c. Obs. 1. The form drjTroTs imparts still greater force to this signification ; as oo-rttr- tq-KOTk k(jTiv, ichosoever it may 6e, oaovdrjTroTs, but it is frequently written separate. 2. In the language of familiar intercourse, the Attics, to give greater intensity to the pronoun demonstrative^ annex to all its forms the t demonstr atlvum, 1 114 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Avhicli likewise draws the accent on itself, is always long, and absorbs all short final vowels ; for instance, ovToc — ouroori, this here, (Latin hicce, French cehi-ci,) avrrfi, (from avTrj,) rouri, (from tovto,) eKeivom, [celui-la,) Ikuvovl, &c. TO(jovTov\, TOCTovSi, (viz. SO much, so great as you see there,) &c. See about long vowels and diphthongs being made short before this \, § 7. Obs, 16. Ohs. 2. Whenever the encHtic ye is annexed to the pronouns demonstrative, the I takes the place of the e, as tovto yf, rouroyi. Obs. 3. If there be an and iTTToijfxai, 'iitTianai. Obs. 2. The same kind of augment, peculiar to verbs beginning with p, may have taken place in the old language with other semivowels ; hence the two perfects ffifxopa and facvfxai, see the Anom. fisipofiai and asvoj. — The Epics double all liquids for the sake of the metre, but only in the hnperf. and aor. EXXa[3ev, efxfJiaOe. — See the Anom. dsiaai about eddeiae. Obs. 3. A few verbs of the common language, beginning with liquids, have, instead of the reduplication, the syllable ei or ti, ex. gr. dXtjipa. See the Anom. Xajx^dvit), Xayxdv(x), Xkyo), fjceipofxai, and PEQ under utthv. Obs. 4. Homer's ptpvitiankva is the only instance of a reduplication before p. Obs. 5. In the three verbs jSovXofiai, {to be willing,) Svvafiai, {to be able,) and /usXXw, {to be about to do, intend to do,) the Attics commonly strengthen the syllabic augment by the addition of the temporal one ; ex. gr. ridvvdfirjv instead of kdvvdfxrjv, the same in ditoXavco, see § 86. 06s. 2. — See about the syllabic augment before a vowel, § 84. Obs. 5, &c. Obs. 6. Non- Attic poets often omit the augment in the historical tenses ; ex. gr. pdXe for 'i^aXe, (Sfj for 'ij3t), ysvovro for kytvovro, &c.2 Compare about the accent, Obs. \, 2, to § 103. — This omission in the plusquamp. is also very common in prose : Ttrvipeiaav, tstvttto, for tTtTv^iiaav, krhrvTrTo, dediu (Plato, Phcedr. 251. a.) for edsdiei, and the like. But the omission of the real reduplication is very rare and doubtful. See about tdiKro and the like, § 110, 8, and about the Epic redupl. dei, instead of ds, the Anom. ducxai and dsiKvvfii. Obs. 7. The aor. 2. (of the actice and middle voice) has also frequently the redupl. in Epic poets, and this redupl. continues through all the moods, (see § 82, 6, with the Note,) ex. gr. TrsTrXrjyov, XtXaOijJV, TreTnOelv, XfXa/3icr0ai, &c. In some ^ Observe that yv, yX, fSX, belong to those instances of muta cum liquida which are also excepted from the rule of the others in prosody (see § 7» 10). The other exceptions stated in that Section do not occur in a way which applies hex'e ; for Sid/xiTixai is a syncope. See the Anom, dsfioj. ^ With Attics for the sake of the metre but seldom ; see Herm. on Eurip. Hec. p. xxxii. In prose never, not even in Ionic prose. The sole exception is XP^^- See the Anom. xp^'^y XPV- VERBS. 119 few verbs the simple augment is added in the indie. ^pdZu) i-iritppadov (see the Anom. and compare icIXo/iat and $'ENQ). — T\\q present and the fut. active have this redupl. only in some mostly poetical forms derived from reduplicated tenses ; see §111. § 84. — The Temfporal Augment, 1. When the verb begins with a vowel^ whether it has the sp. asper or lenis, the augment coalesces with the initial vowel into a long vowel; and this kind o^ augment, called the temporal augment, (see § 82^ 1.) continues unchanged ixiQ\\.the. prceterites, A or £ generally becomes r?, and o — w, ex. gr, avvis), imperf. I'jvvov^ perf, yjvvKa, plusq. tivvkhv, apiuLo^df, imperf. i]piuLoZov, perf. r\piioKa, plusq, rjpiLioKEiv, eXTTiZdJ} imperf. i^XinZov, perf. liKiriKa, plusq. riXTriKuv, ojuiXiu), imperf wfiiXzov, perf wjiikriKa, plusq. (l>jUL\r]icHv, 2. The following verbs^ e^^w, I have, laoj, I let, fX/cw, / drag, (see the Anom.) 'ipirto and ^pirvZu), I creep, eOi^w, I accustom, i\ia(T(jj, I ivind, ^(TTiacj, I give a feast, fVo) (see the Anom.) and EiroiuLai, I follow, epyaZofxai, I work, do not change the e into rj, but into u, for instance, imperf elxov, perf upyaaiiai, &c. (See Obs. 4.) Obs. 1. See also dXov, kXilv, in the Anom. aXgkoi, tlujOa in the Anom. iOu), and the verbs belonging to the root "EQ, § 108. ^ 3. The vowels i and v can only be augmeiited when they are short, and they then become long through the augment : ex.gr. U^T&vd), (Eurip. Med. 971.) aor. iKirevaa (338); and even when the syllable is already long by position, the aug- ment must be rendered sensible in pronunciation, ex. gr, latino 'ia)(yov, vfivib) vfxvovv. 4. Of the vowels long in themselves, a (according to Text 1.) commonly becomes rj ; the others -q, w, 7, v, are not susceptible of the augment, ex. gr. -qTTaoum, imperf riTTu)iur}v, perf rjrrrjjuai, plusq. 7]TT{]fxi]v, except by the removal of the accent. See Obs. 4. 5. A diphthong may be augmented when its first vowel can be changed in the way mentioned above ; and if the second vowel be an l, it is subscribed thus : avXkio — y]v\ovv, ^v^ofxai — r]v\6iir\v, alrid) — yrovv, qdio — y^dov, oIkeix) — oJkovv, ^ The following are improperly considered as belonging hither, viz. ettw and ipeoj. See the Anom. t'nreXv — s^w about elaa. See § 108,2. — epvu) and sjowrdw about ei'puaa, tipwrcov, which forms belong, however, to the Ionic eipvw, eipojrdu). 120 A GREEK GRAMMAR. But many verbs neglect this augment, [Ohs. 2.) and it never takes place with ou and £i : oura^w — ovTaX^ov, ukcj — eiKOv, a$a ; with the solitary exception of hkciZoj, which^ however, is only augmented by the Attics, and that but rarely, uizaaa, EiKacrfjiai, Att. r/'/cao-a, ijKaGfiaL. In the verbs beginning with £i> the usage is fluctuating; 7jvxofjir]v and £u;;^ojur]v, evpiOriv, very seldom Obs. 2. Those vei-bs in which the augment would produce a cacophony or indis- tinctness, remain in general unchanged, especially a few beginning with a, av, oi, followed by another vowel, dtu), dr][ii, d?^^j^o/iai, avaivio, oiaKiZco, oiow, and some others ; only that the short a, for instance in diw, is lengthened : hnperf. d'iov, (long a,) avaivsro, oiccKiK^v, &c. But dsido) makes ^eidov according to the general rule. Neither do some other verbs beginning with oi take the augment, Olvi^U), OlKOVpkd), olCTpku). Obs. 3. But the lonians and non- Attic poets frequently neglect this augment as well as the syllabic one in any verb, ex. gr. dfj.ti(3£To for yjjxeifStTO, lujv for t'lMv, (of saw,) &c. even in \he perf. and plusq. pass., ex. gr. aix[iai, o'lKrjixaL, (of utttoj, oikeio,) Herod. The Dorians, instead of changing those beginning with a into 77, merely alter the quantity, a. 06s. 4. The temporal augment arose unquestionably from the contraction of the syllabic augment a with the vowel of the verb, ex. gr. dyw, e-ayov ijyov : the con- traction of ee into t], and eo into w, is, how'ever, a deviation from the general custom (§ 28, 3. b) ; but that of ta into rj, and es into £i, (i'xw, i-exov tlxov,) agrees exactly with it. — Hence the accent of some compound verbs is accounted for. As the accent (according to Obs. I. 1. to § 103.) always rests, as far as possible, on the antepenultima, dvrJTTTov of dvaTTToj, for instance, has the circumflex on the penultima, because of the contraction. And thus the augment sometimes is to be known only by the accent, ex. gr. Trpoor/jfcw, (from iy/cw,) imperf. 7rpo(Tr]KOV : uTreipys is the imperatite of aTTf/pyw, and dirtipyi the third person of the imperf. Obs. 5. But the syllabic augment has actually been retained in some instances befoi'e a vowel. Beside several Epic forms, the following three verbs of the com- mon language, which by the rule are not susceptible of the temporal augment, have the syllabic one : ujO'sii), ujvBOfxai, ovp'sio, imperf. ImBovv, swvovfirjv, lovpovv. The case is the same with the verb ATQ, (see Anom. dyvvjXL,) I break, aor. ea^a, &c., to distinguish it from dyw, / lead. Obs. 6. The temporal augment arose from the f eA^en in the perfect. For as the usual redupl. (§ 82.) consisted in the repetition of the first consonant with an f, this 6 alone could be prefixed when the verb began with a vowel, and it formed the temporal augment along with this vowel. The s is still found unchanged in the first-mentioned verbs, (as 'iaya, tioa^ai, Idjvrjiiai, lovpijKa,) and besides in ioiKa, 'ioXTTa, 'iopya, from HKb), ikiruj, epyu). The in these perfects comes from the change of the vowel in the root, (of which below,) and e is redupl.: tpyw 'i-opya, like ^epKw dsdopKa. Obs. 7. This augment retains the sp. asper of the verbs, which have it, ex. gr. kdXwv, kdXwKO, from 'AAOQ. See Anom. dXioKOfxai, also dv^dvu), evvvfii. Obs. 8. Just as we have seen above (§ 83. Obs. 5.) the syllabic augment increased by the temporal one, the latter is commonly increased in the verb bpdio, {I see,) by the syllabic one, and retains the spintus : imperf. eibptov. See about the perfect VERBS. 121 edipaKa, bpaoj, and also olyoj, dvoiyu), among the Anomalous Verhs. The Epic poets do this likewise with other verbs, ex. gr. ei^voxoei of oivo')(^o£a>, efjvdavs of avSdvoj. Obs. 9. When a verb begins with eo, it is the second vowel which takes the aug- ment. This occurs in the verb eoprd^w, eMpra^ov, and the perfects of Ohs. 6. in the jjlusq. etjJKeiv, eivXTreiv, Iwpysiv. § 85.— Attic Reduplication, 1. There is no redupl. in verbs beginning with a vowel^ as we have seen above (compare § 84. Obs. 6). But several of them^ all radical verbs, have in the perfect a peculiar redupl. called the Attic redupl., which, however, is not exclusively peculiar to the Attics; most verbs, which have it, disdaining the above simpler form. It consists in the repetition of the first two letters of the verb, with the vowel unchanged, before the usual temporal augment in the perfect ; for instance, aydpu), {I'lyepKa,) ay-i]y£pKa, ayr}yEpf.iai, Ifxku), [rip^Ka,) Ifi-rip^Ka, opvTTd), (wpuxo,) op-wpvxd, oowpvypai, o^w, (wSa,) 6d-(i)da. 2. This form is fond of a short vowel in the third syllable, and on that account makes long vowels short, as, for instance, in aXeicpd), perf. aXrjXKpa, a\i]\ippaL, clkovio, perf. a/c/^/coa. Obs. 1. This shortening of the vowel enabled Homer to make IprjpkdaTai even of speidoj, which commonly gives tpfjpsKyfiai : see Obs. IV. to § 103. — Even the temporal augment of the second syllable is sometimes neglected by the Epic poets for the sake of the metre, ex. gr. tpspiTTTO, dpdpvla, of ip£i7r(x),''AVQ. — See about other peculiarities of this redupl. the Anom. aipkio, kyiipo), ^/ivw, i%w, o'ixo}xai. 3. The plusquamp. sometimes adds a new temporal augment, most commonly in aKrjKoa, riKr^Koeiv : but it is omitted in the generality of instances (compare § 83. Obs. 6). Obs. 2. The aor. 2. of some verbs among those which belong to this §, (as § 83. Obs. 7.) has in the poets a redupl. corresponding to that of the perfect, yet so as to give precedence to the temporal augment ; ex.gr. APQ, Pf. dpapa, {Ion. apripa,) aor. ijpapov. The case is the same with ijKaxov, wpoptv, and some other forms (see the Note below). The verb dyoj (see Anom.) has this aor. iiyayov in the common language. This redupl. continues also in the other moods, which only reject the temporal axig- ment : dpdpy, ukux^^v, dyaywv (see § 82. Obs.).^ ^ Grammarians formerly used to explain the Epic forms i'jpapev, wpcps, as pierfects made by transposition of dprjpa, opcupa : but ripdpa or other p)erfects of this kind are nowhere to be met with in the genuine old Poets. These third jyersons have every- where the signification of the aor., and there are in Homer and other Poets other aorists as 3 pK dpapov for iipapov, part, dpapdjv. The other similar aorists do also agree with them, as dyaytiv, a/ca%fTv, drrax^h', aTzacptlv, dXaXKtlv, and tveyiceXv, (for which see the Anom.) and also those beginning with a consonant, as TrtiriQilVj XtkaQtlv, &c. § 83. Obs. 7. 122 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Obs. 3. A very extraordinary redupl. of the aor. at the end of the word is found in the Epic poets in ipvKOj, aor. rfpvKaKov, epvKUKseiv, (for — eli>,) and also in svitttco, r'jv'nraTrs. See the Anom. § 86. — Of the Augment in compound Verbs » 1. With regard to compound verbs, the principal rules are the following : when the verb is compounded with a prep., the prep, stands before the augment in the augmented tenses. It is therefore advisable, first to place the augment before the simple verb, and then to prefix the preposition. In the case of two vowels coming together, the vowel of the preposition (with the exception of tte^i and Trpo) undergoes an elision. Several other changes will be best seen in the examples : Trpoacfyipii) — TTjOocr-l^ejOov ; (TvWijMy avv-e\eyov ; cnro^vtjj — air-idv(7a, uTro-di^VKa, air-tda^vKEiv ; GVppaTTTW, Gvv-EppaTTTOv ', awoXXaTTtJ, air-rjWaTTOV ; irepijdaXXu), Trepi-bjdaXXov. In the moods of the aorist, the preposition resumes of course its original form, after having cast off the augment, ea?, gr, (TvXXeytj, aor, avviXe^a, conj, cruXXcSo;, infi avXXi^ai^ cnrodvu), — cnriSvaraj — aTTO^vau), — airo^vcrai. 2. Verbs not compounded with prepositions take the aug- ment in the beginning, e^. gr, fxeXoTTOilii), IfieXoTToiovv, jUfjueXoTTOtTj/ca, TrXrjfifxeXect), 7rETrXr]fijuiXr}Ka, cif^QOviii), r]<[)p6vovv, oiKoSojuau, (jJicooOjUrjo'a. But verbs compounded with ev and the inseparable particle ^v(T- take the temporal augment in the middle, as evepysTtw, Evi^pyirovv ', SuaajOEOTEW, cv(Tr}pic>Tovv ; but when an immutable vowel or consonant comes after those particles, the augment is in the beginning, as dv(TTVX^(j^j edvaTV)(^r}(Ta^ dsdvcTTVXriKa, evdoKifiiii), rivSoKifjLovv ; only those in ev are more generally (§ 84. Obs, 5.) without any augment, LvcppaiveTo, EVio\ovixy]v {tvivxtLaOai), Obs. 1 . The prep. 7rp6 frequently makes a crasis with the syllabic augment, Trpo- £7r6/i^a, TrpovTrefitpa: see § 120. Obs. 7. Obs. 2. Some compound verbs, which frequently occur in the language of familiar intercourse, and of which the primitives are to be found only in the dialects or poets, take the augment before the prep.; as kicdOevdov, UdOi^ov, i^cpiovv, (of d^irifii,) yet we find also ex.gr. KaOrjvdov in most authors, and avr oXai/w always gives aTTEXavov, and VERBS. 123 sometipaes (according to § 83. Obs. 5.) with the double augment dw^XavoVf though there is no primitive verb to it. See also ajit7r6%a> in the Ano7n. £%w, and dfi^isvvv}iif § 108, 3. About sfiTToX^v, see 06s. 3. Obs. 3. We must principally know, whether verbs are merely compounded with another icord, or derived from a word already compounded. With respect to this dis- tuiction a general rule may be observed, the principle of which cannot be shaken, although it is subject to many exceptions. Compound verbs of i\\e former kind have the augment always in the middle, and most verbs compounded with prepositions follow this rule ; for instance, avv-sXelia. Compound verbs of the latter kind have the augment in the beginning. To these belong, 1, all verbs not compounded with prep., (the adv. ev and dva- included,) though their second part should be perfectly similar to the primitive vei'b; for instance, neXoTroikco, which is not derived from /xsAof and TToiEu), but from 6 fieXoTroibg, and which has therefore tfieXoTToiovv. 2, many verbs too, though they be compounded with prep.; ex. gr. kpavriovfiai from the compound evav- TLog,'qvavTiovfir]v ; dvrijSoXsoj fvova dvri(3oX7],rjvTil36Xovv. Yet the usage of verbs, compounded with prep., having the augment in the middle, has occasioned a deviation from this principle, so that even in verbs derived from words compounded with prep, the augment is most usually after the prep. Homer tias dvrsjSoXrjcrs ^. The Attics generally have l^SKXrjaiaaav, iveKoJiJ.iaZov, TrpoefrjTevcra, avvrjpyovv, tTriTerr]- devKa, svexdpovv, and many more, though there are no simple primitives of all these verbs, (£K/cX?/(na'^w, tyfccti/iia'^fe), Trpotprjrevo), crvvspysoj, kTririjoevd), gyxftpew,) which are derived from £KKX?jo-ta, syfcw/xtoj/, Trpo^jjrJ^g, avvspybg, k7rir)]deg, and from kv and x^'^P' 'EjureXav (to trade, from lyiiTroX/), merchandise,) has indeed commonly rjixTT6Xr]Ga, — jjKa, but Lucian has sfjnrsTroXrjKa. — Even verbs compounded with sub- stantives have the redupl. in the middle, having no augment in the beginning, as iTTTTorsrpo^TjKa from tTTTrorjOo^gw. Obs. 4. The following verbs commonly take the augment in both places together : dvopOoot) rjvwpOovv, IvoxXsoj 'qvM-)(Xr](ja, dvexo/xai 'qvi.i\6nr]v, TrapoivtXv TTSTrap- f^v7]Ka. The anomaly is still greater in the verbs SiaKOvelv, diaiTq,v, Ci.dii]ic6vr]Ka, KarediyTTjcra, since they come from diaKovog, Siaira, in which the a does not belong to another word. Common practice has been betrayed into this irregularity by the mere similarity of the composition. CONJUGATION. § 87. — Numbers and Persons, Connecting Vowel, 1. All the terminations of the Greek verb in its tenses^ numbers, and persons, may be divided into two very distinct principal classes, one for the active, the other for the passive voice. Hence, though the import deviates in some tenses, one class is called the active conjugation, the other the passive, 2. The principal tenses of either conform in some respects to a particular analogy, by which they are distinguished from the historical tenses. 3. This appears more distinctly from the following table, which shows the terminations of the three persons and numbers ^ See Buttm. Lexilogus, 63, 13. 12i A GREEK GRAMMAR. in the different tenses and their conjugation. But it refers merely to the indicative : the way in which it is to be appUed to the conjunctive and optative will appear from the following §. Principal Tenses, Sing. Dual. Flur. Active, 1 Person, 2 Person, 3 Person, g TOV TOV re aiv. ai Passive. 1 Person, 2 Person, 3 Person, wanting fltV fiai fieOa ((joa) (t9ov rat (tOov vrai. Historical Tenses. Sing. Dual. Plur. wanting jUSV c TOV T£ firiv -fiedov (t9ov TO adr}v VTO, Tr]v V or aav 4. Here must be also noticed the doctrine of the so-called connecting vowel. Such is the term applied to that letter, by means of which the above-noted terminations are annexed to the root of the verb. For instance, in \v-o-iizv^ \v-zts, eXuo-- a-fxr^v, the letters o, e, a, are the connecting vowels; Xu is the root. 5. The general rule is, that all the tenses of the verb, with the exception of the perf, and plusq. pass., and the irregular verbs in fii, annex those terminations noted above to the root, by means of the connecting vowel. But this vowel being variable, the manner in which the connecting vowel is used in the different tenses and moods is most easily learned from the paradigm. There are eight connecting vowels, viz., five simple vowels : a, £, tj (r?), o, w ; and three diphthongs : ai, et, and ol, Ohs. 1. Thus for instance the termination [xsv of the 1 pers. plur. act. is annexed to the root of the pres., fut., &c. by means of o (Xu-o-jufv, Xv(r-o-fxev) ; to the root of the aor. 1. and perf. by means of a {k\v(T-a-fx,tv,\e\vic-a-nev) ; to that of the plusq, by means of u (eXtXvK-ei- fiev); to that of the aor. I. pass, by means of tj (eXvO-rj-fiev); to that of the conj. by means of w {Xv-aj- fjitv) ; to that of the lores, opt. &c. by means of OL {Xv-oi-fxtv); to that of the opt, aor. by means of at {Xv : Wherever the indie, has £, u, y, the conj. has -q or yj. Hence : Ind. tvtttojjlev, tvtttovgiv, TvimTai, ruTrrei^, Tvirrrj, i&c. Conj. TV7TTh)}iev, rv7rr(jj(7L, TV7rTi}Tai, TVTTTrig, rvTrrrj, &C. The terminations of all the conj. are therefore in the Act. w, yg, y — r}roys tjtov, loiuiev, rjTe, wai(v), in the Pass, w/iai, y, r]Tai, w/ieOov, 7]adov, rjadov, (v/ieda, r]aQ^, (jjvrai. 5. The characteristic letter of the optative is f : it coalesces into a diphthong with the preceding vowel, (whether radical or connective,) which diphthong continues the same through all numbers and persons. The termination of the first person in the active is either jmi or rjv, (as tvtttoiiii, TiQdr\v,) and in the ^ Thus, for instance, the opt. even of principal tenses always has t]v in the third person of the dual, and in the passive constantly to in the third person sing, and pi. (§ 87. Obs. 5.) VERBS. 127 last instance this rj continues along with the diphthong in all the other terminations : oijui, oig, 01, &c. — eir]v, eirjQ, eirf, dij^av, &c. In the passive the diphthong is immediately before the historical termination (ruTrrot-jurjv, tiOeI-to, &c.). 6. The imper. has a second and third person in all the num- bers ; its terminations in all tenses are — 2. 3. 2. 3. 2. 3. Act. sing, . . , rw. dual, tov, rcov, pi. rs, TMcrav or vrwv* Pass. sing, [ao,) adw, dual, aOov, aOcvv, pi. aOe^aOwcrav or gOivv. 7. The infin. has the following terminations : — act. uv, or vai or m, pass. gOql. 8. All participles are adjectives of three terminations; and the fern., of course, (according to § 58, 2.) always follows the first decl. The masc. of the active has in the gen. vro^, w^hich gives c or V for the nom., and era for the fein., thus — (t)v or ovQ, ovaa, ov, ag, aaa, av, gen. ovtoq. gen. avrog. Eig, eiaa, ev, vg, vera, vv, gen. evrog. gen. wrog. The participle of the perfect active deviates from this ; it always has u)g, via, og, gen. orog. For the declension of these participles, see § 103. The participles of the passive voice all end in IJ.evog, T], ov. Obs. These terminations experience some modifications in their application ; they undergo a contraction not only in the conti'acted verbs, (§ 105.) but also in some parts of the usual conjugation, which are grounded in contraction. See § 95, 7. and Obs. I. 3. to § 103. § 89. — Active, Passive, and Middle Voice. 1. The idea of a passive includes also the case, when the action, which I suffer, is inflicted or done by myself. It may therefore be expressed by the passive form, as versor in Latin does not merely signify ' / am turned about,' but also ^ / turn myself about.' This meaning of the passive is called the reflective ^ ; but the Greek goes still further, and employs the ^ Compare, above, the Note to § 74, 4. 128 A GREEK GRAMMAR. passive voice in connexions, where the verb has only a col- lateral relation to the subject (for instance, ' I prepare a dwell- ing for myself')* All these cases, which will be more fully explained in the Syntax, give the significatio media ; and the passive, when it has this signification, is called medium, Hhe middle voice.' 2. With regard to their form, we have already shown the difference between the passive and active voice, § 87. Each active tense is accordingly changed into its natural passive in the way which we are going to point out here for the first pe7'sons of the indie, of all tenses. Active, Passive. Active, Passive, Present Perf , (i), Ofiai a, Ka, fxat Imp erf ov, Plusq. eiv, ojurjv KEIV, JULYtV Put. ( a(v, aofiai \ tj, ovjuai Aor. (^"^ (ov. ofjiriv. 3. The four following tenses of this natural passive, viz. the pres. and the imperf the perf and the plusquamp. comprise the medial signification in all cases where that medial signification occurs, so that through the connexion or context alone we can discover whether they are of the passive or middle voice. But in the aor. and fut. the above natural passive is generally only a medium, or middle voice : the passive has a particular form for both these tenses, which have this peculiarity, that the aor., notwithstanding its passive signification, assumes the active form in its conjugation, whilst the future, formed from this aor., passes again into the passive form. Aor. pass, l^""' Fnt. pass. I ^,^'"''""' ( r}v, ^ {^ 77cro/xat. In contradistinction to those forms, the above natural passive of the /w^. and aor. is called in grammar /w^. and aor. medii : Fut. med. I "J'"'' Aor. med. ( ':"'""'' ( ovfiai, I 0{xr]v. But the first four tenses, which have only the natural passive form for both significations, and consequently should be called passivomedia, are simply denominated passiva in the theory of grammatical forms, and can only take the name of media when they have the niedial signification in the context, that is to say in the syntax. VERBS. 129 The following table brings at once under review the double forms of the fut. and aorists of the three voices of the verb : Active. Fut. \ Z"^ Aor. \ ov Passive. Medium Or](TOfjiai aojLiat 7](T0jiLaL ovjuai 6r]v (jafxriv r}v OfXYJV, Ohs. The medial or middle form of the aor. is omitted in all verbs which have not such a medial signification ; it is the aor. pass, in 9r]v or r]v, which assumes this signification in several verbs, (§ 136.) and tlierefore the medial form occurs only in a limited, though considerable, number of verbs. V/e begin, however, by consider- ing every Greek verb as perfect, and shall notice, further on, Avhich tenses are actually in use in each verb. 4. The old Greek grammarians have in their grammars a complete medium, or middle voice, in which the present and imperf. of the passive are given at length as tenses of the medium ; but instead of letting them be followed by the perf, and plusq. pass., which also have the double signification, they have a separate Perf. and plusq. medii, the import of which is the following. 5. The perf. act. has two different forms, each of which ends in a in the first person. The common form, as will be seen below, either aspirates the radical consonant, or introduces a K, (Ki-ybj XiX^x^a, (pvM Trt^usca,) the uncommon one does neither {(pevjh) Tricpsvya, ^auo d^dr]a). In most instances the latter form, which differs so little from the other, really is the true practical perfect belonging to the regular prts. of the act. from which it is derived; and in but few instances the present has a transitive, and this perfect an intrans. signification. (See § 113.) This anomaly of a small number of verbs ought not to have had any influence on the theory of the Greek verb in general ; yet because the intrans. signification is in some instances the same with the reflective signification of the medium, (as, for in- stance, '^ / have frightened myself^ or ^ / atn frightened,^) and because both forms of the peif. exist together in a few verbs, the old grammarians placed this perf . with its dependent plusq. in the conjugation of the medium, though in every instance, where a verb has a medium, it is only the perf. and plusq. pass., which have the true medial sig- nification along with the passive one. (See § 13G.) 6. Modern grammarians have therefore abandoned this mis- K .130 A GREEK GRAMMAR. leading method ; and as the double formation of other tenses is marked by numbers in the theory of the Greek conjugation, § 90. I. they now call this more uncommon joer/*. and plus q, Perf, and plusq, secundum, but it occurs only in the active voice. The perfect of the passive is always made in a uniform way from both forms of the perfect of the active. § "dO.— Tenses. 1. The Greek tenses partly have a double form, marked in grammar by the first and second, though this does not establish a difference in the signification. The perf. has a double form only in the act. voice, (§ 89, 6.) but the futures and aorists have double forms in the active, passive, and middle voice. 2. l^he passive has besides a peculiar fut. 3, or what is called paulo-post-fut., which takes the reduplication of the perfect (§ 99). See Syntax, § 138. 3. All the tenses of the Greek verb are distributed or classed in the following table under the head of what is more correctly called the active, passive, and middle voice. This table notices the augments and terminations of the first person. The longer line is the space left for the root of the verb, the smaller one in front for the initial letter repeated in the augment. The sp. asper over the termination denotes the aspiration of the preceding consonant. Act. Pass. Med. Pres. — w — ojum as in the pass. Imperf £ OV £ — ofxriv Perf 1. -f — a or Ka -£ — juai Plusq. 1. £-£ — av or jc£iv £-£ liir}V Perf 2. £ — a Plusq. 2. £-£ — eiv Fut. 1. (TO) OfjCTOlUaL — aofxat Aor. 1. £ — era f — 6r]v I — oajuriv Fut. 2. U) — ijcjofiai ' — oDjLtat Aor. 2. £ — oy £ — rjv £ — GjUrjV Fut. 3. wanting -£ — aofiai wanting. 4. The manner of combining these terminations of the tenses with the root of different verbs requires a particular explanation, called the theory of the formation of the tenses, previously to which we have to state what is called in grammar the charac- teristic of the verb, and the theme of the verb. VERBS. 13X § 91. — Characteristic of the Verb. 1. The letter immediately preceding the principal vowel of the termination of a tense is called the characteristic (dis- tinctive mark) of that tense. Thus^ for instance, in the above table (T is the characteristic of the fut. 1. and of the aor. 1. in the act. and med, 2. But that letter which remains at the end of the root of the verb, after having rejected all which serves merely for the terminations of the inflections, is more particularly the charac- teristic of the verb. On rejecting, for instance, the w of the present, we find that the letter, or two letters, which precede the (jj, constitute the characteristic of that verb, eoe. gr. in Aey-w the y, in (povev-oj the ev, Obs. The question is not here about the etymological root of the verb, which in ^ovevoj is the syllable ^ot*, but about the radical letters of the verb (compare the Note to § 39.) to which ev belongs. Thus in ^tXlw, nixdu), it is c and a, not X and [Xj which are the true characteristics. 3. Verbs are divided into different classes, according to their characteristics. Hence verbs which have a vowel before the (i) of the present, that is to say, whose characteristic is a vowel, are called verba pura. See § 28, 1. Verbs of which the characteristic is s, a, o, admit of contraction in the pres. and imperf in the act. and pass. ; they are therefore called verba contracta. See § 105. Verbs of which the characteristic is one of the letters A, ju, v, p are called verba liquida or verba X, fx,v,Q. See § 101. Verbs not included in these classes are called verba muta. For a similar division into classes see § 100, a. § 92. — Double Themes, 1. In Greek, as in Latin, the present is considered as the principal tense, that is to say, the tense which serves for the formation of all the other tenses. This process is easy in most verbs, since, on rejecting the w, we find the root and charac- teristic of the verb, which are the basis, on which all the other forms of the verb are built. 2. But in many verbs, that which remains after rejecting the o) of the present, is not to be immediately taken for the pure root of the verb ; for on stripping other tenses of the same verb of their peculiar terminations and augments, we find a root left, which is more or less different from the root of the present, k2 133 A GREEK GRAMMAR. SO that we must discriminate which form of root is the primi- tive one. 3. This difference consists, in one part of these verbs, merely in the vowel, and chiefly in the alteration of the three short vowels £, a, o. As there is nothing in simple vowels why one should be considered as the radical vowel preferably to the other, the vowel of the present tense is, for uniformity's sake, considered as the radical vowel, as, for instance, in rpicpw, lTpafl)r}v, TbTpo(l>a, exactly like cleave, clave, cloven, in English. 4. But the root of the verb in the present tense is in many verbs of a lengthened and fuller form, partly through a long vowel, or through a diphthong, whilst the other tenses have a short vowel, and partly through a greater number and variety of consonants; ex.gr, Xd-rrw tXiirov, ttikix) Itukyiv, jSaAXw t[5a\ov, rvTTTw hv7rr]v, raacrio Irdyriv. There is even a considerable number of verbs, of which the present offers a still greater variety, and sometimes an additional syllable, as Xujaj^avw, where the root is Xa/ij3av, whilst other tenses tXajSov, \r}\poiuLai, make the root \aj5, Xrj/3. This is the principle on which the present tense of a verb frequently appears in a fuller form than other tenses of the same verb. 5. It is, no doubt, more natural and easier to adopt the simple root rather than the fundamental one; but as it would disturb the uniformity of the grammatical process, \i \\iq present of such verbs were derived from other tenses, grammarians have introduced the following theory. As there are verbs with double forms of the present, one simple, and the other fuller, for instance, Xdiro) and Xijunravw, tdu) and kaOiw, one of which generally is less used or even obsolete, we assume for tenses not analogous with the present another disused verbal form, and give to it the form of a present tense for grammatical purposes; for instance, fXajSov is considered as coming from a disused pres. Xa/3w or X/;j3w, and such imaginary or sup- plementary forms oi^ presents are printed in grammars in capital or initial letters and without any accent, AAB12, to point them out as not being in use. (See the second prefatory remark to the List of Anomalous Verbs.) 6. Any present tense, whether in use or obsolete, which serves for the formation of other parts of the verb, is called a theme, Oifia, and any verb which requires a supplementary verbal form along with its real present tense, is said to have a VERBS^ 133 double theme. The characteristic of the simple theme in con- tradistinction to other forms^ where it is not easily recognised^ is called the pure characteristic of the verb ; as y in the theme TAri2 in contradistinction to the era- in raGGio \ 7. This plurality of forms in one and the same verb is pro- perly an anomaly; hence the annexed List of Anomalous Verbs mostly contains verbs of that kind. But when the difference between the usual theme^ and the obsolete or imaginary one, is not very great^ or common to several verbs which have the same characteristic in the usual present tense, it is considered merely as a variety of the usual conjugation, that the anomalous one may not be needlessly increased. 8. We reckon here chiefly verbs of which the pure charac- teristic in their usual present tense is disfigured by the intro- duction or change of a letter. They are of three sorts : — 1.) In verbs with the characteristic ttt, the r is a strength- ening addition; their pure characteristic is one of the labials j3, tt, 0, (compare § 20.) ex. gr. KpVTTTiO, TV17T(x), paiTTU), KPYBO, TYna, PAOQ. 2.) Most verbs with o-a or tt have as pure characteristic one of the palatal letters y, k, x : for instance — TrpaacTU), (pplcrcrd), (^rjcrcru)} nPArO, ^'PIKQ, BHXO, in some few it is also a lingual letter. See Obs. 2-4. 3.) Most verbs with Z (Dor. crS) have S for their pure characteristic ; as — (ppaZw—^FAAQ^, 6?w— OAQ, but several have also y, as — K/)aSw— KPATO. All these verbs retain the fuller form and impure charac- teristic only in the present and imperf. of the act. and pass. voice ; the rest of the tenses are derived from the simpler theme. But for the sake of brevity and uniformity we gram- matically treat the two themes as one conjugation, and con- sider the matter as if, for instance, in ru^w, rvirEig, and the like, the r of the pres. tvtttm had been rejected, or as if ?, and not the pure characteristic S, had been dropped before the a- in (ppadu) (fat. of 0pa^w). ^ To avoid too great an accumulation of such themes, this Grammar, instead of noticing disused themes in Q, simply states the root, TTIT, TAT, &c. 134 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 9. To these verbs must be added those which in the present tense barely differ in quantity, the pure characteristic being doubled in the present, which in common language is done only with the A, as jSoXXw tjSaXor, ariWio (mXtj eaTaXrjv, or the pres. tense having, instead of the short vowel of the other tenses, a diphthong or long vowel ; as Xsittlo Xd^Lo tXiirov, tijku) T{}E,(i) lTaKr]v, (paiviij cpavu) Trti^ayfco, (fytvyco (psv^M t(pvyov. They, too, have a simple theme, as BAAO, Aini2, YrO, (Lot. fugio,) etc. : but such trifling differences are not sufficient to throw these verbs out of the usual grammatical method, which con- siders the present tense as a basis; hence they are stated below, among the regular conjugations^, as mere abbreviations of the root oi th.eiv present tense. Obs. 1. Verbs in Z,, with the simple characteristic ^, exceed the others in number less by their primitives, as x^^^> X^^^> Hofxai, axiW, than by the multitude of derivatives in tZw and d^v}, which follow the same conjugation. To the charac- teristic y belong all verbs denoting a call or sound, as Kpa?a>, arevd^iOf rpt'^to, oifiu}<^(i), &c. with a few others, of which we meet in prose with ord^w, (rriZit), (rrrjpic^oj, a(pv^bi, fxacrTiZo), and some which are fluctuating between the two formations ; see the Anoni. dpTrd^u), Trai'^w, [3a(TTd^(D, vvard^u).^ We even find in some other vei'bs the pure charac- teristic to be yy. See the Anom. TrXd^w, fcXd^w, craXTri^w, fut. TrXdy^w, &c. Obs. 2. The simple characteristic of some verbs in aa or tt is not one of the palatals, but linguals, and hence follows the analogy of those with ^, as 7rXdo-(7a>, Trdffcrio, Trricfao}, /3Xtrri«>, (Spdaaoj, Kvaaoio, Xeucraw, iixaGaix), tpscraw, KopvGcroj, Xiacroixai, VKraofxai, (fut. TrXdffw, &c.) and two are fluctuating : see the Anom. d(pv(Ta(D, vdacru). Obs. 3. Some verbs have the present tense indiff'erently with ^ or tt, but follow only one of these double presents in the rest of their tenses ; as, in particular, (T(pdTT(j>} or (T^d^uj, {to kill, slay,) fat. acpd^oj, &c. and dpfi6^(jj or dpjxoTTio, {to join, jit,) fat. dpjxocTdj, &c. Obs. 4. It will be stated, § 95. Obs. 2, that the Doric dialect has a palatal letter in some tenses of the verbs, of which the characteristic is a lingual. Obs. 5. We have remarked above, in general, that the characteristic ttt always contains one of the three mutes of the labial organ, and (T(t, tt, either a palatal or (according to Obs. 2.) a lingual. But which letter it be, is generally indifferent : we shall see below that most verbs are used only in those tenses {fut. 1. aor. 1. perf. 1.) which must also change this pure characteristic according to the general rules, (§16. &c.) and the three mutes constantly in the same way. For instance, the fiU. (irj^uj merely shows that the pure characteristic of the verb jSrjaaio is a palatal letter, but does not indicate which palatal it is. This may indeed be inferred in these instances from other kindred words ^, but as it is of no importance with regard ^ It is obvious that in most of these verbs we cannot suppose the real original characteristic to have been y, but that the anxiety to avoid the meeting of a (rtrwTT-a). But In series III. the simple characteristic remains unchanged, ex.gr. arvTrov, riTvira. When the verb has but one characteristic, the first and third series retain it unchanged, but it is commonly changed in the second. 5. Although one of these tenses may not be used in a verb, yet grammar states it, to serve as a uniform basis for others actually in use. I VERBS. 137 94.. 1. The formation of the tenses^ and their differences among themselves, are pointed out for each tense in only one of its forms, which always is the first person of the indie. All the other personal and modal forms are conjugated alike in all verbs^ as soon as that first person is known, as will be seen below in the paradigms (compared with §§ 87, 88). Obs. Only the per/, pass, is of such a nature that its formation must be studied in its several modal and personal terminations ; see § 98. 2. Several tenses are formed in a manner so simple and constantly uniform, that they are easily known from the ex- amples below. We will only previously state those of the usual conjugation in oj : — 1.) The present to gives the irnperf. ov — tvittw, trvTrTovc 2.) Every tense in w is in the pass, ofxai. Thus the pres. w gives the pres. of the pass, rvirrh), TvirTOjULai : and the fut. the flit. med. Tvif^oj, TVipofiai. The § 95, 7, shows that the fut. 2, or circumflexum in w, med. -ovfxai, is comprised in this rule. 3.) Every tense in ov is in the pass, ofirjv. Thus the imperf. ov gives the imperf. pass. trvTrrov, hvirTOfiriv : and the aor. 2. the aor. 2. med. hvirov, hvTrojwnv. 4.) The aor. 1. med. annexes merely the syllable firjv to the aor. 1. trvipa^ Irvtpaibiriv. 5.) The perf. always gives the plus quamp. in the act. voice by changing a into etv— rtVu^a, It^tvc^hv : and in the pass, by changing juat into jiriv — rarvfifiai, iTSTVfijurjv. See about the other persons of the plusquamp. pass, in particular, § 98. 6.) Both forms of the aor, pass, give the fut. pass, by changing y\v into ijaoiiaL — lTv(pdr]v and Irvir^v — rv^di^- aofxai, TVTri}(TOfAaL. The rest of the tenses require particular rules. § 95. — Futurum Activi. 1. The principal form of the fut. in Greek is the termination od). It occurs in by far the greatest number of verbs, and is on that account called /m^. 1., ex. gr. iravcjyfut. iravaw. 138 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 2. When the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, it causes the changes usually connected with (t, ex. gr, \iyoj, TrXtKijt), T^v^ii), flit. \i^M, irXi^ts), rsvE,io, 6Xi(3u), X^TTw, ypafpio, OXiipdj, Xsiipoj, ypaipiv, GTrevdo), tthOoj, TripOu), airevcrw, ttuglo, Tripao). Obs. 1. When the characteristic of the verb is a lingual letter preceded by v, a change takes place before the a of the fut. according to § 25, 4. But the case is of rare occurrence ; it is most distinct in cnrkv^ix), fut. arnicu). See also the Anom. 3. The verbs in ttt, aa or tt, and Zs having the pure cha- racteristic^ (according to § 92.) change irr into -ip, acr {tt) into 2, and Z into (j, ew. gr. TVTTTw, (TYnO,) \viPu), paTTTio, {PA^Q^,) pa-ip(i), TCLcratOy (TAri2,) TaE,Wy (j)paZ(i), ($PAAO,) 0oa(7W5 and in rarer instances (§ 92, with the Obs.) Z is changed into ?_, and acr {tt) into (t, ex. gr, KpdZ(j>}} (KPAra,) Kpa^u), irXaaad), (HAAGO,) TrXdcrio. Hence, when the characteristic of the verb is a labial, the fut, ends in xpd), a palatal, „ „ 5w, a lingual, „ „ crw, a vowel, J, 55 (7w. 4. When the characteristic of the verb is a vowel, {verba pura, § 91. Obs.) the syllable which precedes the termination o-o> is generally long, let its quantity in the present tense be what it may ^, ex. gr, ^aKpvWj {v,) daKpvao), {v,) Tito, (t,) ^ Tiaiijy {!,) and consequently £ and o become rj and w, ex. gr, 0fX£W, ^r}X6(i), ^^^ XP^^^> ^^' contrary to the analogy of Spdu), dab). Obs. 7. That the lonians have in verbs, which usually make their tenses with a long a, an 7i instead of this long a, (as Ottjcroixai, Trfpijcrw,) and the Dorians, on the contrary, instead of the r] in verbs in aw always a, {rifidacj, Iftodcra,) follows of course from the general principle stated § 27- 06s» 5, 7- Only taw has in all the dialects idam. Ohs. 8. But the Dorians also frequently introduced d in the conjugation of verbs in fw, as (piXdcruj, ddaac, sirovdO)], from (piXsM, ^Iw, ttovsco. It is particularly fre- quent in the later Doric writers. Obs. 9. The following six verbs, ttXIw, I navigate, ttv'soj, 1 blow, vko), T swim, Gsu), I run, psco, I flow, %£a», I pour,] have in the fut., ov at least in its derivatives, tv^, ex.gr. TrXeixroixai, t-Kvivaa, Xivjxa, See. : and the two following, Kaib), I burn, KXa'no, I weep, the primitive form of which, peculiarly retained by the Attics, is Kaio, KXdw, with a, have av : Kavao), tKXavaa, See. See the Anom. Obs. 10. That several verbs in lo have jjo-w in the fat., is noticed below in § 112,8. 7. The trisyllabic and polysyllabic futures, which have a short vowel before the final syllable , j3ij3a£fc, &-C. not in use,) fat. Att. (5il3(0, ag, o, pL wjuev, are, tJcrt(i'), T^Xioj, f. TiXlau), Ion. again rtXsw, reXieiQ, fut. Att, rtXCj, aC) £1, pi. OVflEV, HTE, OU(Tt(l')5 with which the fut. med. likewise agrees, wjxai, g, &c. ovf^iai, u, &c. Compare the present tense of the verba contracta in the active and passive voice, § 105. wdth the Obs. 9. No contraction of the vowels can take place in the fut. in lau} after the a has been dropped, but the second vowel (o alone takes the circumflex, and they are then conjugated like the contracted verbs in £w, w, ea^. gr. KO/itJw, / KO/XtCrW, {-ItO,) fut. Att. KOILllM, LeiQ, LH, pl. LOVjulBV, teiTE, 10V(7l{v), med. KOjUlOVjUai, LUy IHTat, &C. Obs. 11. This fut. Att. thus has its first foundation in the Ionic dialect, to which the dropping of the c between the two vowels is peculiar. See above, § 28. Obs. 4, and compare Obs. III. 2. to § 103. The Attic dialect afterwards contracted the two vowels whenever it could be done, and something analogous was remarked in the vei'bs in 'ktm. Obs. 1 2. We have instances of a fut. in ew in this resolved form : reXsei, II. 9. 415. Kopseig, V. 831, for Kopecreig. See the Anom. Kogkvwui. But the form a), ag, like the corresponding ji^res. tense of the verba contracta, is not resolved by the lonians, (Herod. diKav, e\^g, iXwv,) but the Epics have the lengthened form, (Homer, Kpenooj, eXda, Trepdav,) like the present tenses of § 105. Obs. 10. The instances, however, of both the resolved and contracted forms are not frequent. The most uncommon are those verbs in which the usual jD?'^se;?i itself ends in gw and aw: reXeu), ti\u>, fut. TeXksi, (Homer,) rtXtX, (Plato Protag. 331.) kuXsu), KaXCJ, fut. KaXtiadi, (Demosth. Lept. 5.) KaXovvTag (Xenoph. Hell. 6,3, 2.) for KaXkaovrag. See likewise the Anom. %£w. No change can take place in most instances, that is to say, either when the Jut. (TO) comes from a, pres. in a'^w, {ex. gr. diKq:v for diKaafiv, of diKa^u), (SifS^ Plato Phoedr. 7. for /3t/3aVfi &c.) or when the simple present tense m Iw and o'w is obso- lete (ex. gr. d.[X(piu>, dn^inre, for dj-Kpiscru), &c. of AMIEQ) : see below, ivvvixi, § 96, and KopseLQ above ; aKiCq, for cKiddcrei, see the Anom. CKecdvvVfxi and others. To this Obs. belongs also the fut. of some verbs in uw, which is like the pres. See the Anom. epvija, ravvoj. Obs. 13. The long vowel, especially the w in the futures in wcw, is very seldom shortened so as to admit this contraction ; ex. gr. kprjixoure for sprjuwaere, oiKSLovvrag for oiKeiojGovrag, Thuc. 3, 68. 6, 23. (See about this and some doubtful similar instances, Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 95. Obs. 16, with the Note.) Obs. 14. In the verbs in i?a» the fut. in iw really is more in use than the regular form in iffo* : it also occurs with the lonians, but never hi the resolved form, ex. gr. ciyXditiaQai, Qtainuv, vojxiovyLiv, &c. in Herod and Hippoci'. 142 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 10. The tense, which is called in grammar Futurum Secundum, after having shortened the radical syllable, annexes in the Ionic dialect the termination tw to the pure characteristic of the verb^ and in the common language contracts it into w, conjugating it in both the act. and the medial voice according to the rules of contracted verbs. Thus for instance rvTrrw, short radical syllable rv7r,fut. secund. tvttw, (See Obs. 16.) 11. This fat. occurs only in verbs whose characteristic is \, ju, V, p, and which in general have not the future in aoj. We shall treat of them in particular in § 101 . Grammarians for- merly assumed afut. 2. in all verbs, even in those in which it never was used, for the bare purpose of deriving from it the aor, 2. J of which the formation will be shown in the following §. The fut. 2. pass, stands in a very different predicament ; for, as it is derived, not only in grammar, but in the regular process of the language, from the aor. 2. pass, (see § 89, 3.) it really occurs in every verb which has this aor., about which see below, § 100. Obs. 15. To bring all this under an analogous point of view, we take the termina- tion ao) {fut. 1.) for the basis. To this was prefixed s, either with or without any connecting vowel ; but the short form was preferred in common use, and ecrw was also abbreviated into sw, w, {fut. 2.) chiefly in the verbs of which the characteristic is X, fi, V, p. Whenever a short vowel of the root of the verb was placed before k(X(x), the two vowels coalesced, and the word was lengthened, Text 4, 5. {(pikrjffu), Ti(Toj.) But when such a short vowel was prefixed to aio, {reXs-croj, vofxi-aoj,) these forms remained unchanged, or the same purpose which originated the fut. 2. pro- duced in this instance the several forms of the fut. Att. Obs. 16. There are in the verbs with \, jx, v, p, a few exceptions respecting the fut. 1. in (Tw, which will be stated below, and also instances where the form of the fut. 2. occurs without the characteristic \, jjl, v, p. ^° The instances are all of the middle voice, viz. fiaxovfiai) and along with it the fuller form [xaxs, pi. jSaXsoixiv, (SaXevfisvj compare § 105. Obs. 13. But the Dorians also circumflex the common fut. 1. in cw, and conjugate it as if it were a contraction of sw, ex. gr. ru(//w, TVi\'tv}itv, (for -ovjjisv,) TVipsirs, Tv^ivnai, (for -ovixai,) &c., and this form is more or less used in some verbs by Attic and other winters by the name of the Futurum Dorlcum, but merely as a fut. of the middle voice, (compare § 100, 4.) and always with the Attic contraction ov, ex. gr. ^8vyoj,fut. usual (psv^ovnai. See also among the Anom. TraiZoJ, X^^'^'j KXaiu), ttXsoj, Oeio, vsu), TTtTrro). Obs. 18. We meet Avith a very deviating form of a fut. in Trionai, I will drlnJcj and edofxai I will eat, which have the exact form of the jyres. tense of the pass, voice of the simple themes, to which they belong, and about which see the Anom. Trivm and iaOnx). § ^Q.—Aor, 1. and 2. Act. 1. The aor. in a is called aor, 1. Whenever the fut. ends in o-w, the termination of the aor. 1. is aa, and it undergoes the same change as we observed respecting orw^ for instance, KOjUlZh), KOflLfTii), EKO/ULLda, (piXiu), (pi\i](jW} — - e(j)iXr] in the peif. of the Anom. priywiii, (PHFQ,) 'ippojya *, and related to both are the w and intercalated in some ^:>^?/., which else would be dissyllables ; the o according to the Attic reduplication : for instance, e9(o, {tWa,) e'iwOa, dyo), ^%a, dyi^oxa. See also in the list of Anomalous Verbs, edrjdoKa under iaOico, tvrivoxct under (pspu), dvf]vo6a and IvrjvoOa, each for itself, and the 2^<^iss. forms awpro under a'ipoj, sojvrai, in a Note to tjjjtii, § 108, 1. ^ Obs. 3. That according to the Attic redupl. the vowel is shortened in d.Kov(o aKrjKoa, d\ei^(o dXrjXicpa, 'EAEY9Q e\r]\v6a, has been noticed, § 85. Epic poets were allowed for the sake of the metre to rechange the r] of this per/, into a short d ia the paHic'iples fern., as aetrapyXa, reOaXvla, dpapvla. Obs. 4. The case is the same with the few instances of the per/. 2. in verbs in ia» and cicj, like plykij) epplya, }xvKdo}xai, {aor. e/xvKov,) fisfivKa, as with the aor. 2. in § 96. Obs. 5. They point to simple forms PITQ, MTKQ. See also the Atiom. yr]96(i}, dovTr'sb), firjKdopiai. Obs. 5. That the number of per/. 2., taking even those into the account which oc- cur only in poets, is but vei'y limited, has already been noticed in Text 5. We will just mention in particular s, among those belonging to transitive verbs, dKrjKoa, XkXonra, tstoko, tKTova, TrkivovQa, oWa, 'icnropa, 'iaTopya, oirojTra, csdopKa, and among the intransitive, KSKpdya, XeXdKa, rerpTya, "nk^p'iKa, epplya, toiKa, e'lioQa, 'idda, odojda, sXr]Xv9a, trsarjpa, TsOrjXa, rsOrjTra, [xsfxrjva, Ksx^va, ysyova, Ks^o^a, TrsTropda, jisuvica, (fivKaofiai,) along with some, which properly are intransitive, and only become transitive in particular connexions, as XsXrjOa, Trs^tvya, dsdia. To these may be added from § 113. Obs. 3, 4, those belonging to verbs which are partly transitive and partly intransitive in some of their tenses, and in which the 2)erf. 2. in particular has the intransitive signification. 06s. 6. But as the perf. is not so much needed in the copious Greek language as in other languages, the ^:ie?/. act. does not occur, or occurs but very rarely, in many verbs, which have no perf. 2., and of which the per/. 1. would sound harsh or strange ; it is supplied by the aor. or by a circumlocution with the p)erf. pass. (See below, § 134. 06s. I.) 7 2 The usual aor. 2. pass. UXaTrrjv shows that the pure characteristic is not (in which case KSKXocpa might as well be the perf. 2). 2 Terpocpn, as coming from rpkcpco, (when it may also be considered as perf. 2.) occurs i)ut seldom ; in Od. \p. 237, it is intransitive ; in Soph. Q^d. C. 186, it is transitive. As perf. of rpsTru) we find it without any various readings in the old writers. Soph. Track. 1009. We meet in later writers (Matthise's Gr. Gr., English transl., § 183, 3, p. 228.) with rerpacpa. * Compare TrsTrrw/ca in the Anom.. Tr'nrru). ^ See in Buttm. Lexilogus 1., towards the end, a more detailed explanation of these forms. ^ We merely state here the perf. themselves, and observe that, though they all are formed from tlieir themes according to the above rules, they mostly belong to Anomalous Verbs stated below in the list, with which the learner must already be familiarly acquainted, to trace every one of the perf. mentioned here to its right verb. 'It was a genei-al rule with the Greeks, that if any form of a verb sounded dis- agreeably or strange, or was attended with obscurity and equivocation, it was dis- 150 A GREEK GRAMMAR. See about the pof. of the conj., opt., and imper., § 137. Obs. 11. Obs. 7- The K of the perf. 1. in rca is sometimes dropped by the lonians, when it is m verbs pure, whereby the perf. 1. becomes the perf. 2. Hither belong the Homeric participles, KtKa(pr]ojQ, Ti.Tir]ojQ, rsrXrjijjg, and others, for -rjKcjg. The same is done in Epic poetry, on making the vowel short, in the 3 pers. pi. and in the participle of some words, as — ^tfidaai, (3el3au}Q, for (3e(5f}Ka(n, (5t[5rjKijjQ, from BAQ, {Anom. /3aiVw,) Tre^vacri, 7npa-G6w, for OdOto, — '^(tOcj ; but instead of the 3 pers. pi. vrai, vto, there generally is a cir- cumlocution used with the verb uvaij to be, TarvfXfxivoL (ai) u(t\v, and in the plus q. Tjaav. Ohs. 1. We suppose for uniformity's sake, that in verbs having a lingual letter for their characteristic, ex. gr. {TzeiOoj) TrsTrei-aOov 2 jje^s. dual, the radical letter 6 has not been ejected before (rOov, but the letter (T in 9cj9ov, and thus 69ov has become g9ov, according to § 24, 2. Obs. 2. The lonians, however, have no occasion for this circumlocution, because instead of -vtul -vro, they may use -arai -aro, which the Attic writers sometimes imitate in these tenses. See more detailed I'emarks about this in Obs. IV. 3. § 103. 3. When the characteristic of the verb is a vowel^ the terminations ij.ai, am, rai, &c. are annexed to the voivel of the fat,, and the third pers. pi. is regularly formed by vrai and vro, since three consonants do not meet here together, ex. gr. TTOiioj {7roii](Tw) — irf-TTGiri—fxai, crai, rat — TTETTOtrjyrat veil) {vEV(Tto) — vlvev — fiai, crai, rat — vivevvTai. Obs. 3. The change of e into o does not take place in the pass, voice ; ex. gr. kXetttoj, {kskXo^u,) fCfiKXtjUjuat. But the three vei-bs rpsTrw, (to turn about,) Tpk, K'sxjOajLta(,) — l(j)(i)pa9r}v. 3. With regard to other changes the ao7\ 1. pass, chiefly follows the perf. pass., taking cr in the same cases; for in- stance, reXid) {rErD^Eajuiai,) — eTe\lAQ. " Even the per/'. 1. act. fluctuates between the two formations, and as it was sel- dom wanted, (§ 88. a. Obs. 5.) the Greek writers probably consulted their ear for the most part of time. We meet, but not in the old writers, with 7r'suv, Dual, — Plur. h£TV(l)£ijuev, tTETVCpeig, tTtTV(l)eLTOV, IriTlXpElTe, ItETV^H, ETETV I had struck, &c. or eaav, ) rvxl^oijuii, imper. is TV\p£lV, TVxf^LJV, like the pres. wanting. like the pres. Tv^paiim rvxpai. Tvipag, Tvipaig or Tv\fjuaQ *, Tv^ov, strike. Tv\paIUe9ov, TVTTTedOoV, Ti>7rTr](j9ov, tvtttegQov, TV7rTr](j9ov, Plur. TVTTTOfXiOa, TV7rTWfJLE9a, TVTTT^aOE, TVTrTr](j9E, TVTTTOVrai, TVKTWVraL, Imperf. Sing, hvirroiijiriv, Dual, etvtttoiul^Oov, Plur. ETV7rT6lilE9a, IrvTTTOv, ^rvTTTEcrOov, ErVTTTE(j9E, trvTTTEro, IrvTTTEaQriv, ETVTTTOVTO, Perf. Sing. rirvjuiuai, TETVlpai, See the Note to TETVTTTai, \ Dual, TETVfXfJLEdoV, TiTV(f)OoV, TtTV(p6oV, Plur. TETVjU/UiEOa, 3 pers. wanting, in its stead TErvjipLEVoi [ai) EiaXv, Plusq. Sing. hsTviuinriv, Dual, h^rviifi^Qov, Plur. lTErvfXfxE9a, ETtTVT^O.) lTirV(l)9oV, etetv^9e. tTirVTTTO^ tTET{)(pOr}V, Z pers. wanting. Fut. rv^Q{]aop.ai, rv(l>6{](Trf, or £<, and so on like the pres. conj. is wanting. Aor. 1. Sing. ETV(pOrtV, rv^9ix>. IrvcpBng, rv(j)9yg, iTxxpdr], TV(p9ij, Dual, — — — — lrv(pdr\TOv, rv(p9r\TOV, iTVfpOijTYjV, TV(j)9r}TOV, Plur. ETV(p9rilUlEV, TV(J)9mjUEV, ETVfOriTE, rv(p9r]TE, ETV(p9r}(Tav, TV(l>9iofn{v), Fat. 2, TvirrtGoidai, through all the mooc is Hke the Fut. 1. Aor. 2. hvTTTjv, through all the mooc !s like the Aor. 1. Fut. 3. TETvipofiai, through all the mooo (s hke the Fut. 1. * The abbreviated form is most generally employed in VERBS, 167 « [to be struck). Opt. Imper. Infin. Part. TV1TToifXr\V, TV7rTsa9aiy TVTTTOIUEVOg, rVTTTOLO, TVTTTOV, T], OV. TvirroLTo, TVTTTia9b)j rvTrroijueOov, tvtttokjOov, rv7CT£a9ov, TV7rTOi(j9r}v, TV7rTe(j9iov, TV7rTOllULt9a, TV7rTOl(T9£, rv7rr6(70£, TVITTOIVTO, TVTTria9ii}<7av or rvTrT£(T9(i)v, the Table, p. 162. TtTV(p9aL, TErvfifiivog, TeTV(j)9(i), Tji OV. T£TV(p9oV, T£TV(f)9(i)V, TiTV(l)9£, TSTV(j)9w(jaV or T£rV(f)9(i)V, in its stead Tervfifxivoi ( at) Tjcrav. TV(})9i](J0ijur}v, TV(p9ri(TOlO, and so on like the pres. imper. is wanting. TV(l)9{](T£a9ai, TV(p9ri(76iiavog ri, OV. TV(})9dY]V, TV(p9eir]Q, rv(j)9t]Ti, TV(j)9rivaL, TV(p9£\g, TV(t)9£L9ur]fX£Vy TV(p9aLlbl£V} TV(p9eir}T£, TV(p9dTe, TV(p9{]Tli)V, TV(f)9r]TE, TV(p9{]T(jJ(jaV, the _^rsf and second jjej's., and almost always iii the thh-d. 168 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Med- [To strike The pres. and imperf., perf. and Indie. Conj. Fut. 1. TV\pOfJiaL, like the j^re^. wanting. Aor. 1. Sing. sru^a/zrjv. TV1pli)liaL, tri/^oj, Tvipy, sril^aro, TVlprjTUl, Dual, Irv^ajiieOov, TV\pC0fAt9oV, Irv^aaOoVi TviprjcrOov, hvxjjdaOijv, TvipTjaOov, Plur. IrvipaiueOa, TVlpMfjlEOa, ervil^aaOe, TV\pr]T6£, ervxpavTO, rvTptJVTaiy Aor. 2. Sing. hvTTOiuriv, rvTrwjum, like the imperf. pass. these two moods as Dual, Plur. Verbal Adjectives, (§ Declension At r. 1. C5c/. Aor. 2. act. Sing. Sing. N. Tvxpag, Tvipaaa, rvxpav, TVTTUJV, TTOucra, irbv. G. Tvipavrog, TV^aariQ, rv-ipavrog, TVTTOvTog, 7roi»(7r]C) irovrog, D. TVlpaVTL, TV\pa(Tr), TvipavTi, rvirovTi, TTOvarj, irovrii A. Tv\jjavTa, TV^aaav, rvipav, TVTTOvra, iroixrav, rrov, V. ri^^act Tvipa(ja, TV'ipav, TV7rwv,'[ TTOVcra, irov, Dual, Dual, N. TVTpavre, rv^aaa, Tv^avre, TVTTOVTE, TTOVaa, TTOVTE, G. TV^paVTOLV, Tvipaaaiv, rvpavTOiv, TVTTOVTOIV, irOVdCUV, TTOVTOIV) Plur. Plur. N. TvxpavT^g, Tvipaaai, Tvpavra, TVTT6vT£.g, wovaai, Trovra, G. rvxpavTwv, TV^afTOJV, TVpaVTWV, TVTTOVTljJV, TTOVaC)V, TTOVTIOV, D. Tvipaai, Tvxpaaaig, tviLckti, rvirovai, TTOvaaig, wovai, A. TVipavTaq, Tvipacfag, Tvipavra, TVTTOvTag, TTOvaag, ttovtu, * See Herod. 2. 40. VERBS. ium. one's self.) * plusq. are the same as in the pass. 169 Opt. Imper. Infin. \ Part. 1 rvxl^oi/uriv, hke the pj^es. pass. wanting. TVTpeaOai, rvxpo/jLevog, rj, ov, rvifjaijuriv, TVXpaiTO, rvxpaijuLtOov, TvipaiaOoV} TVXpaiineOa, rvxpaiaOe, TV^aiVTO, rvipai, TVipdaOijt), Tv^paaQov, TvipaaOojv, TvipaaOe, TVipdaOujaav or rvxpdaOcov, TVxfjaaOai, TV^djXivog, Y], ov, rvTroifxr\v, the pres. pass. TVTTOl), TvireaOd), TvireaOov, rvTvidOiov, TviTEcrOe, TVTrlaOojcrav or TVTriaOiov, TviriaQai, Tv-rrojUivog, V, ov. 102.) Tvirriog, rvTrrog. of the Participles. Perfl. act. Sing, reTvcpiog, (pvla, (pog, TETvcpoTog, (pviag, (poTog, TSTvcpoTi, (pviq, (port, TtTV(poTa, (pvTav, (pog, r£rii0(t>C)t (pvla, (}>og, Dual, Tervcpore, (pvia, (pore, TaTVCpOTOlV, (pViaiV, (pOTOlV, Plur. TETV(p6Teg, (pv7ai, (pora, rtTV(p6r(i)v, (pviwv, (porcov, T^TVcpocFL, (pviaig, (poai, TiTVcporag, (pviag, (pora, Aor. 1. pass. Sing. TVcpOng, Otiaa, Olv, TVipOlvTog, OEitrrjg, OivTog, TV(pOi:VTi, Oticry, OivTi, TV(p9evra, Oeicrav, 6lv, TvcpOeLg,^ Oeiaa, 6lv, Dual, TvcpOtvTE, Oeiaa, OtvTE, TV(p9ivT0lV, dtlGULV} OtVTOlV) Plur. TvcpOivTEg, duaai, Oivra, TV(pOivTlOV, OsiGiOV, OtVTUJV, TvcpOelai, Oeiaaig, Odai, TV(pOivTag, Oeiaag, Oivra. f See § 45, 1. 170 A GREEK GRAMMAR, EXAMPLES OF OTHER BARYTONE VERBS, AS THEY ARE IN USE. For an alphabetical list of verba barytona, partly for practice and partly with the particular use of each, see Appendix. Traidtvd) {to educate). Med. {to cause to be educated.) Activum, Pres. Ind. Conj. Opt. Imper. Trai^ivd), Trai^EVM Trai^ivoiiiiif Tra/^eue, naiSevsig, TTaidEvyg, irai^Evoig, TraidtviTU), &c. waiSwei, &c. TraiSEvrj, &c. TraiSevoi, &c. Infin. Part. irai^EveiV) TraiBsvijJv, iraiSevovGa, Tratd&vov. Imperf. liraidEvov, Eg, £{v), &c. Per/. Ind. TTETTaiSEVKa, ag, e{v), &c. Conj. Opt. Imper. TTETTaideVKLO, TTETTaidEVKOlflL, not iu USC^ Infin. Part. TrETraidevKEvai} TTETTaLdEVKwg, v7a, og, Plusq. Eig^ EL, Slc. Put. 7rai^EV(j(xi, Opt. irai^EvaoijuiL, Infin. TTaLdEVdElV, Part. irai^EV(T(i)V) Aor. ETraidEVcra, ag, e{v), &C. Conj. Opt. Imper. TTaL^EvcHi), TraLOEvaaifjit, Trai^Evcrov, rjg^ y, &C. TraidEixjaLg \ TraidEvaarti), irai^Evam, ikc, Slc. Infin. Part. TraidEvaai, nai^Evaag, TraidEvaaoa, Trai^Evaav. * Tlie three forms, -rraidevating, ne, eiai^, are understood here of course, as well as in the i'uWowing jjaixidigms. VERBS. 171 Passivum. Pres. Ind. ConJ. Opt. Imper. 7raidi:V0iuLai, Trai^svwibLai, Trai^Evoifir^v, wai^Evov, irai^tvij or el, iraicevr), Traidsvoio, TraLdEviadd), Trai^Everaif irat^evriTai, TraL^svoiTO, &c. &c. &c. &C. Infin. Part. TTai^evsaOai, Traidevofxevog-, 17, ov. Imperf. ETraicEvofiriv, ETraLCEvov, EiraicEVETO dEV( &C. Pe?/. Indie. TrEiraicEVjuaLi TTETrai^Evcrai, iTETrai^EVTaL, Diial^ TTETrmdEVjUEOoV, TTETraicEvaOov, TTETrai^evaOov, Plur. TTETrai^EVjUEOa, TTETTaidEVaOE, TTETTai^EVVTai, Conj. and Opt. are wanting. Imper. Infin. Part. TTETrai^Evao, TTETraidEixjOaii TrEiraiSEVjLiEvog, TTETraidEvcrOa), &C. Plusq. l^EVi ETTETraiCEVjULriV, ETTETrai^EVGO, ETTETTaideVTO, Dual, ETTETraidEVjUEOoV, ETTETTaiBEVcrOov^ ETTETraidEvaOrjv, Plur. ETTETraL^EVfJLEda, ETTETraidEVGOE, ETTETraiSEVVTOy Fat. Ind. Opt. Infin. Part. TraLCEuQ^GOjiaii 7raiEEvdriaoiiur]v^ 7rmdEvO{](7EG9ai^ naidEvOr^cfoiLLEvog, Aor. Ind. E7raidEv9r]v, Conj. Opt. Imper. TraidEvOu), TraidEv6Eir]v, 7rai^Ev6r]Ti, Infill. Part. Trai^EvOrivati Trai^EvOEig, Fut. 3. Ind. Opt. hifin. Part. TTETTai^EVGOfim,^ Trai^EV(joifir]v^ TTEiraidEVGEaOai^ TTEirai^EVGOfXEvoQ. Medium. Fut. Indie. Opt. Infin. Part. irai^EvrjOfiai, TraidEvaoljurjv, Trai^EvcFE&Oaii irai^EVcroiuiEvog, Aor. Ind. j Conj. Opt. Imper. ETrai^Evadjuriv, 1 7raL^EV(T(opaL, 7rciL^EV(jaiiir}v, TraidEvaai, y, r}Tai, &c. mo, atro, &c. TraidEvadaOd), &c. Infin. Pai't. TraiBEvrraaOai, Trai^EvcrdiuiEvog. rrw, (TaTO, &c. Verbal Adjectives, irailEvHog, TrmdEvrog. 172 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Scj'w [to shake). Med, [to he agitated.) Activum. Pres. (T£iu)y conj. adw^ opt. auoLfxi, adoig, ddoi, &c. imper. (rai^, (reiirw, &c. infin. (rdeiv, part, atiwv, auovaa, craov, imperf. tauov^ perf. aiauKa^ plusq. eaeaeiKeiVffut. adcFU), aor. £(T£i(Taf conj. adau), opt. adGaifxi, adaaiQ^ adaaiy &C. imper, adaov, arw, &c. infin. Guaai^ part, (jdaag^ (jdaaGa, adaav. Passivum. Pres. (T£iofiai, imperf. fo-ffo^rjv, perf. aiauajum, dual, oreadaiieOoVy plur. (JEadafi^daf aiauGaiy (jiaEiaOov, (riaiKrOE, aiauGTaif aiauadov, ^ pers. wanting. conj. and opt. wanting, imper. aiau&o, GEadaQu), &c. infin. GEGdaQai, part, aiauan^voQ, plusq. la£ad(Tfxr\v, dual, lazadKTfx^Qov, plur. koreadcr^^Oa, Icfiauao, laiauadov, iaicreKrOe, laiauGTo, ^(TecTehOriv, 3 pers. wanting. fut. GHGdr]GOnaif aor. kadiaQ^v, fut. 3. G^adGOiiau Medium. Fut, GdGOfiai, aor. eaeiGcifirjv [imper. Gdaai). Verbal adjectives, Geiariog, aEiGTog. Adirw [to leave). Med. poetical. Activum. Pres. Xdwco, conj. XsiTno, opt. Xdiroijui, Xdiroig, Xdiroi^ &c. imper. Xdire, infin. Xdireiv, part. Xei7ru)V) imperf. cXefTrov, perf. (2.) XiXonray plusq. eXD^oitteiv, fut. XffYw, aor. (2.) tXiTTov, conj. Xiwu), opt. XlTroifii, imper. Xitte, infin. XnreXv, part. Xi7ru)v, ovGa, 6v. VERBS. 173 Passivum, Pres. XsLTToinai, imperf. sXszTrojur/y, perf, XiXeififxai, conj. and opt. wanting^ \iXei\pai, imper. XiX^ipo, XeXsi^Ow, &c. XiXsiTTTaL, &c. infin. X^Xd(pdai, part. XeXsififxivog, plusq. lXiXufifir]v, xpo^ ttto, &c. aor. IXeicpOrjv, fut. Xu(pdr](JOfxaL, fut. 3. XeXeLxl^ojuai, Medium, Fut. XdxpOjULai, aor. (2.) eXi7r6jj.r]v, conj. XiirMiuat, opt. XnTOiju-nv, imper. Xtirov, &c. pi. XiTTEcrOe, &c. infin. XnriaOai, part. Xnr6f.uvog. Verbal adjectives^ XsLTrriog, XeiTTTog. rpal. ysveaOs, XdOsaOe. c. In the s'uig. of the imper. aor. 2. act. merely in the following verbs : £(-£, kXOs, evpk, and according to the connect Attic prouimciation also \a[3k, Ice. The compotmd ii/per. follow again the general rule, e;rt\a0ou, d-eXOe, elffLce. 2.) The innn. andpa/i. of the pcrf.pctss. are distinct from the rest of the pass. conjugation even by their accent, which they always have on the penultima, T£-v(p9ai, 7re—oi}iv and kaQai, and the lonians, who were fond of vowels, let this accentuation dwindle into a lengthened termination. 3 It is by this and the third pers. (§ 12. Obs. 3.) of the opt. never taking the cu'- cumflex on the penultima, that the three similar forms of the aor. 1. are distin- guished, ex. gr. — infin. act. 3 opt. act. imper. med. TTaiSti'crai, TraLdsvaai, TraiSevcrat. But as the number of syllables, or the nature of the penultima, seldom allows this accentuation, we generally can distinguish only two of these forms ; and in such verbs as tvtttu} we cannot even distinguish any of the three. See, for instance, below in crduj, KOfii^u), ypa^w. 182 A GREEK GRAMMAR. for the purpose of denoting the repetition of an action. They are used only in the indic.y and commonly do not take the augment. In the verb rvTrna they would look thus, TVTTTStTKOV, TVTTTeCTKOfilJV, frOUl eTVTTTOV, SfirjV, TvipaoKov, Tv\l/a(yK6[xi]v, from 'irvipa, dfjit]Vf TV7rs(TKov, TVTTf., Cyrop. 3, 1, 11. (pavoirjv, Soph. Aj. 313. In barytone verbs it occurs merely in the per/. ; ex. gr. 7rt(p8vyoir]v, i\r]kvBoiriv^. 4. Instead of the opt. aor. 1. act. in aijut, the Cohans had a form in tia, (rvxpHa, stag, eiev, &c.) of which we have given in the paradigm three terminations, sing, second pers. rv^jjeiag, third Tv\psLs{v), for -aig, -aiy pi. third pers. rviptiav, for -aisv, which are far more usual than the regular ones. 5. The form of the third pers. pi. of the imper. in -vrojv, pass, -(rdwv, is called the Attic, because most usual with the Attics, though it occurs in other dialects. In the act. form it always is like the gen. pi. of the part, of the same tense, excepting the perf. {TnTroidkroxynv or 7re7roL96vro)V, — part. TrsTroiOorojv). III. — Second Pers. Sing. Pass. 1. The primitive termination of the second pers. of the pass, form ffai and ffo (see § 87- the Table f) has maintained itself in the usual conjugation only in the perf. and plusq., and in the verbs in fit (§ 106. Obs. 2). It is merely in the less polished dialects that we find the second persons rvTrreaai, kTvirrtao, imper. rvirTtao, aor. 1. med. lTv\pa(jo, — conj. rvTrrrjaai, &c.^ 2. The lonians rejected the a of this old form, and thus made it eat, rjai, eo, ao, v/hich the common language again contracted into y, ov, w, for instance, ^ Except these instances, it is only the anomalous aor. 'iaxov from £%w, which always has (T%oij;v in the op)t. 5 The second pers. pres. pass, of the contracted verbs appears to have been of frequent occuri^ence in the popular language ; we find, for instance, in the JVeio Testament, Kavxacfcct for Kavxdeaai, commonly kuvx^', the contraction of Kavxay (see below tiixcim}. VERBS. 183 lon.f common^ Ion., common, 2 pres. ind. TvitTsat, Tvirry, imper. rvTrreo, tvtttov, — conj. TVTrrijai, Tvirry, 2 imperf. ervTrreo, ervTrrov, 2. aor. 1. med. Ion. kTvijyao, common krvxl/oj. Thus the opt. okto was made oio, which continued to be the common form, not being susceptible of contraction. — But the joi^a». 5. We find in editions of Homer verbs formed in this manner, which have neither d nor K in the pres. 'Eppdcarai (from paivcj, 'ippaaiiai, § 101. Obs. 8. b.) may, how- 184 A GREEK GRAMMAR. ever, be derived from a collateral form PAZQ^from which pmnan occurs in Homer. The others cannot be safely relied on in grammar *". V. — Miscellaneous Remarhs. 1. Some unpolished dialects, and especially the Alexandrian, (§ 1. Ohs. 10.) gave to the third pers. pi., in the liistorloal tenses, and the opf., the termination aav: hence we frequently meet, particularly in the Greek translation of the Old Testament, with forms like Itpaivoaav, ktpvyoaav, XuTTOKrav, (for f.(paivov, 'icpvyov, XeiTroiev,) &c. 2. The Dorians and the poets, on the contrary, have in some cases a bare v, with a short vowel instead of aav, the termination of the third pers. pi. This occurs especially in the aor. third pers. pi. eTVerf. den the {historical) termination ou' : hence in the New Testament ^yviOKav and upr]Kav, in the Batrachom. 178. 'dopyav. See about the interchange with the third pers. of the dual in a narrative, ex. gr. II. k. 364. diwKETovj instead of -nv, § 87. Ohs. 2. 4. The third pi. of the principal tenses has commonly vti instead of aiv or ct in the Doric dialect, as we remarked § 87. 06s. 3. explaining by it the long vowel before the tr in the usual form : thus, TVirrovTi, rerixpavTi, for rvTrToycn, Tsrvfaaiv, COnj. TVTtTuJVTl, for TVTTTCOfflV, fut. 2. nsvsovTi, ixevtvvTi, for (/lei^lovcri) fxevovaiv. This form does not take the v l(pi\icv(JTiK6v. — Another Dorism is rvTrroiai for TVTtTOVai. 5. Even in the terminations ovaa and clq, dcra, of the participle, the long vowel comes from the omission of v or vr, which appears from the gen. masc. The Dorians always have oi and ai in its stead : TVTTTOKJa, for TVTTTOVaa, aor. 2. Xa(5oTaa 7, for XafSovaa, TV^aig, rutpaiffa, for rvtpag, aaa. 6. The Epic poets allow themselves to make the accented o long in the oblique cases of the part. perf. : for instance, rtrpiyijjTaQ for -orag. See about the Doric part. perf. in lov, ovaa, § 111. 7. The Dorians also introduced their a into the terminations irvTrronav, irervfji' fiav, TVTTToiixav, &c. for -yiriv, and (though less frequently', and only in the later Dorisms,) into the termination of the aor. pass., ex. gr. Irvirav (Theocr. 4, 53). 8. The first pers pi. act. in [xev is in the Doric dialect fisg, {tvtttoixsq, ervipafieg,) and the first pers. dual and pi. pass. fxeOa, p.tQov, is with the Dorians and poets [xeaOa, fieaOov, with an a inserted : rv7rrdjU£cr0a, TvitTOjitaQov. 9. The infin. in nv and vai had, in the old language and the dialects, the form of liivai and /xev, thus, TVTTTSfJievai, rvTrTSfiev, for tvttthv, TtTvcpkixtvai, rtTV(pkixtv, for rerv^kvaif TVTrfjjxevai., rvTrrj^tv, for TVTvrivai, •^ II. p. 637- aKrjx^^arai from cLKrjxepi-ai, (see Anom. aKax'iK(^,) and Od. r). 86. IXriXddaTo from IXciw, kXfjXaixai, both with doubtful various readings. See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 98. Ohs. 13. '^ Not Xa^tvaa, because there is here no contraction. See § 13. Ohs. 13. Note. VERBS. 185 and sometimes tliey were syncopated, idfisvai. — (See also below the Contracted Vei'bs and the Verbs in jui.) 10. But the Dorians in particular make the infin., instead of slv — sv or r]v, with- out either removing the acute accent backwards, or changing it ; for instance, Hfpiadev, evSev, atiSev, for [xepiZ^Lv, evdecv, deictiv, aor. 2. ciyayiv for dyayeXv — Xaipriv for xaipeiv (not ^ai'p^v). 11. We also sometimes find in Doric ^\Titers the second pers. pres. act. eg instead of eig, likewise Avithout any change in the accent ; ex. gr. djisXyeg for dfiiXyeig, Theocr. 12. The old language had in the second pers. act. instead of g, the final syllable c6a, v.hich in Homer and other poets is frequently annexed to the conjunctive, and less frequently to the opt. ; ex. gr. lOsXyaOa for lOkXyc, KXaioicrOa for KXaioig, but which has maintained itself in the common language only in a few anomalous verbs (see below, § 108, 109. 6f/.a, ci/zt, (prjjjii, and oUa). 13. The three terminations which are considered as peculiarities of the conju- gation in /It : 1 sing, jut, 3 sing, cri, imper. Bi, probably belonged to the verb itself in the most ancient language. Hence the inq^er. 6t, not only in the aor. pass, but also in the syncopated j^^^K'^- (§ HO.) The first pers. fxi has maintained itself in the usual conjugation only in the opt., but the oldest Epic poets had it also in the con- junctire, ex. gr. iK(i)^i, ayayWjUi, for iKio, ayayuj. Lastly, the third pers. sing, ot or aiv is also very usual in Epic poetry in the conj.j ex.gr. TVTTTytnv, exV^h ^c>v tvtztjj, exy. (See about the indie, rja instead of the usual form, § 106. Obs. 10.) 14. The circumflexed forms are either resolved or lengthened by the lonians, viz. the infin. aor. 2. act. tlv is kuv, as (pvyUiv for (pvytlv from icpvyov, (see the 2^ote to Obs. 1, 4.) and the conj. of the two aor. pass, ai is ew. Epic eiu), (see the Note to Obs. I. 3.) thus : conj. aor. l.pctss. ivpeOsoj, for tvptOCj, (from evp'E9t]v,) conj. aor. 2. pass, rvrrku), Epic Tvirtno, for tvttu). In the persons of this conj., which end in v, the Epics sometimes lengthen the pre- ceding e in this manner, and sometimes double it, (/jj?,) for instance, {}ddyLi]v danu), ^afieiu},) ^ajxdyg, dafieiy, II. y. 436. %. 246, {kcraTrrjv, craTrid, (Tairdu),) aaTrrjy, r. 27. Compare below the dialect forms of the verbs in /.a, which must be here considered as a basis ^. 15. The conj. in Epic poetry sometimes loses its long vowel, and takes o and e for 0) and T], ex. gr. lofnv, let us go, (see below dfxi, conj. iw.) sysipofiev for -wnev, (II. (3. 440.) epvaaofxtv for conj. aor. 1. epvcrujfiev, (a. 141.) ifieipsraL for -rjrai, [Od. a. 41.) vavTiXXerai {d. 672). See also e'ldoixsv under oUa (§ 109. III. 6). It occurs most frequently in the co7ij. aor. pass., for instance, dansioixev, Sandere^. 8 There is a third reading in the quoted passages, (11. y. 436. %. 246.) and others, where it clearly is the conj.,\iz. Safxurjg, ^a^ufi?;, without the iota subscriptum. See about it the Xote to § 107. Obs. IV. 9. ^ This has been attempted to be considered a mere deviation from syntax, as if it were the indie, instead of the conj. But as this interchange occurs only where the metre does not allow the conj., it is obvious that, whilst the language was not settled, pronunciation came to the assistance of the metre. And tliis view of the matter is placed beyond all contradiction by instances where there is no indie. similar to the abbreviated conj. This is the case with t'lSofitv, Qtiojitv, (for 6'euj[iev,) lofjisv, and all conjunctives of the aor. pass. We cannot presuppose in Homer an indie, ddio, I knoic, Oeiuj, I 2nit, loj, I go, for else these forms would as readily occur as real indie, and be met with also in the other persons, (e'ldu) iUov(jL, &c., with the signification to know,) which, however, is not the fact. 186 A GREEK GRAMMAR. §104 1. The rules which we have just given show merely the manner in which the different tenses are formed. But no language affords fixed rules to know which formation each par- ticular verb follows, when there is a diversity of formations possible. A great part of this is matter of memory, and just as we are obliged in Latin to remember the perf. and supinum of every verb, especially of the third conjugation, we must in Greek remember in each verb every one of the tenses, of which we have been hitherto treating in particular Sections, 2. It is of the most material importance to know whether the aor. 2. act,, the perf. 2., and the aor. 2. pass, of a given verb are in use. These tenses are certainly related to each other in form ; but it does not follow (as has frequently been observed) that a verb which has one of these tenses has also the others. On the contrary, we have seen that the aor. 2. act, and pass, seldom occur together in one verb. The Lexicon, or the lists in the Appendix, must be diligently consulted. Actual instances must have been met with of each of these tenses, which is a very uncommon occurrence, or it may safely be assumed that the verb barely has the other tenses, viz. the aor. 1. act. ^ perf . 1., and aor, \,pass,^ 3. It may be considered as an invariable rule that all trisyl- labic and polysyllabic derivative verbs which end in a^w, iZ,(i), aivw, vvu), £uw, ow, aw, £W, as (TKsvdZ(Jt) from (jKevrj, voiuLit^it) from vo/iog, GTifiaLVd) from GYifxa, evOvvijj from evOvg, 7rai^£i)(jj from ttoiq, ^ouXow from dovXog, TLfiaw from TifXT), (piXid) from (plXog, have only the aor. 1. act., perf, 1. (in jca,) and aor, 1, pass, Obs. 1. Some of these terminations, however, are not derivative in some verbs, that is to say, not derived from a noun subst. or adj.^ but mere lengthened forms of a simple radical pres. tense, and thereby rendered anomalous. (See § 92.) These 1 Exactly as in English the greatest number of verbs by far have ed, in the imperf. and part. p)cist, {I love, loved, have loved,) and the smallest number have the monosyllabic imperf. and ?i part. pass, differing from it (/ see, saw, have seen). And in German most verbs have the imperf. te and tlie p)art. pass, t, (' ich sage, ich sagte, ich habe gesagt,') and comparatively few a monosyllabic imperf. and the j^art. n, (' ich traf/e, ich trug, ich habe geti-agen^); the first form alone is used in German for deri- vative verbs, which in Greek have also merely the aor. 1, &c. VERBS. 187 verbs may make a second aor. from this simple form, ex. gr. dXtraivo) from AAITQ ijXiTov, da[xd(o from AEMQ eddfiriv: they are all stated in the list of -4 nojHaZows Verbs. Obs. 2. Hither belong also those derivative verbs which, according to § 119, 4. end in aaw, irtd), \Xw, &c., and ai'e derived from nominatives. The verb dWdaaoj is the only one of these verbs which has an ao7\ 2. 2^ciss. {rjWdyrjv). § 105. — Conjugation of Verbs contracted. 1. The Greek verbs in tw^ aw, and ow, conform in the main to the rules stated and examples given, and in the Section on the formation of the tenses we have attended to their peculi- arities. But in the^re^. tense and imperf., act. andjo«55., when the vowels a, £, and o happen to stand immediately before the vowels of the termination, (and partly remain unchanged in the Ionic dialect, see below Obs. 1.) they undergo in both the Attic and the common language a contraction. 2. This contraction follows the general rules of § 28, except- ing some terminations in the verbs in ow. Instead of con- tracting o£i into ov, and oy into tu, according to the general rule, the I of the second and third person predominates, and the final syllables oeig and oyg are contracted into oig, and oh and oy into OL. Thus — Second pers. indie, act. likjOoeiq, ) , ^ ^ „ C071J. iLH(TUoyg,i ^ "" Third pers. indie, act. ukjOoei, 1 . n - ^ . Q^ } contr. fiLaOoL. „ conj. iLU(j6oy, j ^ ' and in the same way Second pers. indie, and conj. pass. imiaOoy^ contr. juligOoX, and as ool is likewise contracted into ot, three moods, viz. the indie, conj., and opt. of the act. voice become perfectly like in these two persons. The infin. 6hv is correctly contracted : fiKjOoeiVi contr. julgOovv. 3. The whole indie, and conj. act. and pass, of the verbs in aw are also perfectly similar, being contracted according to the general rule, viz. as and at] into a, au and ay into g, and ao as well as aov and aw into w. 188 A GREEK GRAMMAR, f ^'^ ^'^ •^^ r\ ■ O O w> w ^ Oi to ^ »3 ^o o .b '^ Qi <3i IS IS IS IS IS IS o o o o o o o o > s s ^ '^ ^ '^ <^ «I5 v2 o -IS KS b b b b b b b b b •^ <3:. IS <:ci « b o b s^ 2. S. S. 3.5.3.^3. 2. ^ a S Qb 2 b =1- c =L *§ »\ § g g 8 •♦o . . '^ ^ S^J^ r5^ UJ U.) O WJ O rt «Ki d W W 3 "C ---v© ^o ^o '^O "^O "^O "'O *^o ^O v© »3 <^ ^ <^ ^^ ^^) ^^ ^^> ^^> Oi Qb ?» vT- ^ , O O w w ;- ^ ^^13 ic^'s-^ I is 's >3 IB i3 'e-^ "Ka ;:^ ?^ ?^ > ce ^ if j^ e s 1 s*^ 1 ^^ VC5 vc vc ve ^B ^C ^B ^B ^B =L S. S. S- =L 5. rs. S, 5. ^ ^ I- I- I- I- ^ i- I- o »3 -i 3- g s'3 g t^ gS,g ■SJ cc «3i - .1 Ph J^' rx a. 3 ?^ OJ _ „j ^ ^ 'll ^s" 1 o 1 S_ w b IS ,fc IS 2 5 2 I— e 1 o o i O o o o o IS N ^ t= N N t^ t= t^ Ic i^ iii s vS 1= ;i IS N •\ ■€ *> g S i ?r <3J -g c^ 3 ^ ;;r ^r ^ •o "^2 1 o o I- VJ \>J •^ b s2 vS v2 S3 t3 «i •-J 1 ■«> o o O o o o o o t= 1= b 1= tc N t= 1= t: t N ^ -O I5* ^- •l 1 1 § ?j * ■+^ L?? 5^ (2 VERBS, 189 <^> '^ <^ b b b s. S. 2. 3 ?- ?r- v© ^o ^o ^ ^^ <^ b b b s. s. 2. ;4 g g 5.fc b i3 i3 ^313 13 '^ 1^ ^> ^ '^ b b b b b 2. 2. 5. s- 2. ^ S ^ -^ 5=- sr- ci s=-^3 vo "^o '■o ^o ^o '^1 ^ ^1 '3S ^ b b b b b o o o ^1 <^ ^ b b b 2. 2, 2. 3- 5^ ^'^ o o o ^O "O ^o Qi ^ '^ b b b o o o o o ^ g b b b b b ^v? u V? 2. 2. 2. 2. 2..^ ® "5"-S »^ ^ . O - t O •2_ K wj =LS.S,S.=L =L=L=L bvfc ^ ^ ^ o o o o o ^t> '^^ ^& ^& ^^ b b b b b 2. 2. 2. 2. 2. ? O > 1^- ^^^ *" ,-^ «\ S > ^ ,^ '^ .'-^ 3 g s 1 e B is IS »3 is »3 2.0J . •3-»3-'3- 3-3-3- 1 3-3-3-3-3- 3- =^ =^ I 3- 3- 3- 3- 3- ^- .^.H h t- i- 1 i- h C t- h I- P C 1 h I, I, I, I, -^ 41--:: :! ,»N ^ W +3 O1 ;r It- -M ?-l ?=■ ?=• f^ -3- £^3- J „^ •> »\ «N -V? ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 1 1- g J i- ^ ^1 - -'^ ?^ c^ £ £ ^S § 3- ^ •^ b .t 3- b S 1 4i 3 ?r- S-- ?=•<=• 3 sr 3 000 00000 ^s vc ^s vs ^C ^B ^« "S vs ^s ^s ^B S ^S ^C ^S =L S- s. 3-3-3-3-3- 3-3-3- 3-3-3-3-3- o ^J I- u l> f^ b! P u C K Ci h C! C! p p f; 1 m ^" ;r > ^ •^ ^ ^ ?^ »3 ?s. IS- IS" 13 if ^ .s-13 ,3-1$:^ 2 1-r '2 -b '1-5 ^S -J •J «j 1 p 1 ,^ i^i:^ 1= t= 1= 1 1= t: l^ tc N tc t^ t= 1 fe t= t= N t.|^ •Si ■+SJ CO ^ CO s ^- vi »\ ° fe-° & 4 0; «\ 2. 0^ s- ■vb 2 1^ ^ w p- ??- ?=■ ^R- v| ST 3 c ^9 g ^? VUJ v^ vu^ ^uy ^ty ruj Vyj •^UJ ■^v/J vcj -tu Viy —» -0 »j ^ 1 I t= Ic l5 1 N t^ fe 1= N N N t= 1 N t= t= t= t: i. i ^-^ s "*-* .^ Q Qs f^ ftn •^ **«* S a- 190 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 3 o 5 (^ 2 v5) 5 v;s ,- vp ,:5 ^ ,^ c o o o o s b vS S to S S^ =^ =L =L =L =L =L 5 ^'^ ^ . g £■ S, f ;^ ^^-? COOo© vS vS vS b to b b ^to »^W "SJJ "-lU I »-wU •-UU <-wVly'-W ^ o ;r ^' 3 51 u ^ ^•^ 5. b 5. 3 o 3 w 3 o r> ^ K t- K h. w ^UJ ^w o c "O o ^O O b "^ -^ OS ^> '^ Qi 5- b b h b b b S. =L =i- :i- :^ 5. O) c^ 5> o ^> Qi <^ b b b V^ v^ V^ =1. =L =L ^ > ? ^ .^J ^VJ O UJ o ^o o ^o ^o o ^> "^ ^> <^ '^^ b to b b ^b 2, 2. 2, 2.^2. S 3 3 § 3 «r 3 -3 =L ^'^ ^ -> S- =^ 5- S-v^ v2- 3- 3- 1- t- J- ^S )S ^« 2- S- =^ 3 c « ^ U J, u u C p! p! ^P c c u s o 3 •^W "UJ rw 1 •^W t^uj «-W '-W fUJ 3 o 3 uT b 3 1 £ «." ^ ^ 1^ ^ O S- S w*^ - •N ^ u I- t- f- O tu uj w .w O w O W Vyj W VWJ w voj CSS ''B c ^s ^e s 3- ^ 5, K .^.S-vS- , S~ S- 3~ S--S- l~ K (^ u p! f! f^ f; ^^ C i^ P C^ C r-W <~UJ f-yU I "W "^W '^W "^W ''W o *\ ;ik > 3 ^ ^ c u ^•^ -T ^ ^^ 3 § 3 uJ^ b 3 ?4 o ;s 0> ^ O Cu UJ > ^ W „ »N afcvb'|~.fc g w w O w ^O W IJJ VJ LU VJ IJU o •^ N o o o O O O o O ^O I i o o g N N N fc t= fc t: fc fc •^«J r.^ '• — «} s ?;; fl D -'§ 4j cu 2- c3 w S I— 1 ^ nS 4 '■" ^ b 03 I % 1 bi) 3 1 vS- O (. .^W l- »^w m 5^ O) CO G .w yZ> OJ o I "b 5~ ?- -^ ^s5-^^ ?- to,^ »3 isois ^3 15 IS ^3 IS i3 IS ^3 '3 's is ^c is is ^3 is ^3 3- S- 3~ S- 3- S- S- 5- S- 5- S- S- 3- S- S- 3- =2, 2. s, s, ?S 5- 3- - ^ ,=^^ b,2,b^ b,=2- i--S3-tob^3-b^ ^ ^ --s ^s ^s s ^s ^s s ^s ^s vs s ^s ^s ^s s ■"s ^s s ^s ^s 3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3- 3-3- 3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3- tl-^^atvg-^b ,to,^ b,§ b.i- S. ^g S.^^^^^ ^ 2 i" S 2 5 ^ 2 ^ 2 5 2 i ^i"'? I '5" 'i" I '^^^ pppoopoco 00 coooSoooo 3--Sv3-tob^5-b^ bv3- l--::tvi-tob^3-b> ^«J V^ V^ Vy «>^ V.y ly V^ V^ V^ UJ Vcv V^ VfJ UJ V^ V^ tU ^«j Vjj OOOOOOCOC CO ccoooooco ^i •s ^ -^ ^ 5S ,^ =? i=i a^ . . j? q s: ^^ a- ]93 A GREEK GRAMMAR, b b b b b bbbb bbbbbb=^ fesSSSSSSS o ^S" S S "? ?; "S ^S S S 5 to b b b ° ^o o b ^o S -S ^o S o bbbbbbbbb bbbbbb=^ SSSSsSSSS o ^ I- ^ I, t, ^ I, •N »\ •N ^o°=l.bbS.bS 4^^ ^ ^ ^ '^ § .^ =^ ® .=t b b =t b S a. =L s. =L =1- s. =t =L =L 3- 3- =L =L s, s, ^ §■ ?■ §~ ?~ ?~ ?~ ?" r^ P" I- I- t- I- t- t- t- t- h l- b- I- I- t- t- "iU "VJ "VJ - N t; N N t= .5 .g .5 .g .g .5 rg -5 ^5 o *-=; s s ^?; s ^;:; ^?; S X ^ b b b b b S ^o o w ^o S vg ^o S o OOOOOOOOO oooooo N OOOOOOOOO "■kW »^W «^W »-W riu *>(« '^W •^W »~i»W a^ VERBS. 193 The rest of the tenses suffer no contraction. We give, how- ever, the complete conjugation of the perf. and phisq. pass., to render the analogy with the same tenses of Traid^vii) more evi- dent. Perf, T&TLJJilf]fXaiy TSTijurirjaij TeriiariTai, rETijur]jUE6ov, TeTif.i{]fj.E6a, TETijuyjaOe, TeTljUY}VTaL, Indie. Sing. Dual, Plur. Treiroiijiuiai, TreTTOirjaai, TreTToirjraif 7reTroi{]juieOov, TreTTOLYjcrOov, TTETTOirjaOov, 7re7roii]jue9a, Treiroir^crOe, TreTToirjvrai, fXEfxidQwfiai, fJLE}.U(jBiOGaL, juefiLdOajTai, juejukjOcojueOov, ILiEfiicrOioaOov, fiefiLcjdwdBov, jueiuKjOiojueOa, luejuiL(jO(ji)(j6e, jUEjULaOijjvTai, TTETTOLYiCydai, TTETTOir^lULEVOg, Conj. and opt. wanting. In fin. Part. TETifXr](TUai, TETljH1]jUEV0g, jUEjULcrOCjcjOaL, jUEjuiadiDfjiEvog, See the few verbs which can form them, & 88, 6. Obs. 2. Mper. sing. Sing. Dual. Plur, TTEiroirjaro, TTETroirjaOb), &c. EWE7roirjjur]v, ETTETTOirjCrO, ETTETTOirjTO, ETTETTOajjUtOov, ETTETToiriaOov, E7rE7roir](jOr}v, ETTETTOLl^lJLEda, ETTETTOir^arOE, tTrETroirjvTo, TETlfXTl\(JO, TETljUlJCrOcOi &C. Plusq. ETETifjir]iJir]Vi ETETl/iirjCrO, ETETljUrjTO, ETETLfx{]{lE9oV, ETETljiirjaOoV, Er8Tiiiii]aOi]v, ETETlfJi^^flEQa, ETETijuiqaOe, ETETLfXriVTO, Fut. 1. I 'n'OLif]B{](j9E, EflEllLG9(i)VT0, fM(T9(i)9r)(TOILLai, EfH can only so far be called Ionic, as Epic poets made use of it on but few occasions, ex. gr. doidtciei, Truvdovra, vauTciovaiv, &c. — The verbs in oa> are found resolved only in the first person ; they else generally occur contracted or lengthened in a way peculiar to the Epic poets (see below). The verbs in aw and dw never are used in Ionic prose, but either contracted, as in Herod, vik^v, ev'iKMV, viK(i)Sv, stpMTa, (3iCJ for fSidov, drjXol, sfxiaOovvro, trepoiovro^ &c., or with the pecu- liar deviations in point of formation and contraction, stated below, Obs. 7- etc. Obs. 2. In the Attic and common language none of the contractions of this con- jugation were ever neglected, not even in Attic" poetry (that is to say, in the dramatic scenery). Little words in sw, of which the pres. act. is dissyllabic in the resolved foi-ni like rpew, are alone excepted. They only admit the contraction £i, ex. gr. rpti, trpn, ttvuv : they are resolved in all their other forms, ex. gr. psw, ykojiai, Tp'sofxev, Trvkovai, Trvky, &c., excepting however, ^{iv, {to tie,) ex. gr. to dovv, T<^ SovvTi, Plato Crat. (6) dvadiSjv, Aristoph. Plut. 589, Siadovnai, &c. But (^tlu {to ioant) makes ro dkov, dsofxai, &c. '^ Obs. 3. The third pers. sing, imperf. takes the movea,ble v in the resolved form, (Homer, ippesv, ?jTsev,) but not in the contracted one. Yet Homer once lisis fjaKttv of daicso). (Compare the plusq. Obs. II. 2. to § 103.) Obs. 4. The form known by the name of the Attic opt., peculiar to contracted verbs, (see Obs. II. 3. to § 103.) has been given at length in the paradigm, p. 181. that its analogy may be thoroughly understood. It must, however, not be forgotten that the Attic language, guided merely by euphony and clearness, employed parts of both forms ; especially 1.) the pi. of the Attic opt. was little used, (particularly of the verbs in eb> and 6(11),) because of its length. The third pers. pi. in oiriaav, (frjffav, was much less used. The Attic always said Troiolev, TifK^tv, ixiaQouv. 2.) But the opt. in oiriv of the verbs in gw and om was much more in use in the sing, than the other. 3.) In the verbs in aw the Attic opt. {Ttixt^rjv, &c.) is used in the sing, almost exclusively, and also much more employed in the pi. (the third pers. excepted,) than the other two. Ohs. 5. Some verbs in aw take after their contraction ri for a, as in the Doric dialect (see below Ohs. 15). This is particularly known of the following four verbs, ^yv, {to live,) ;y;pj7(T0ai, {to use,) -TTsivyv, {to be hungry,) di'ipyv, {to be thirsty,) from ^aw, %paw, (see both among the Anom.) Treivdoj, dixl^dco {KyQ, Kv, ?^»7j XP*?^*^'? &c.). But the following three verbs, which approximate much in their signification, Kvdo), {to rub,) afido), {to wipe,) \pdoj, {to cleanse,) were contracted in the same way, at least by correct Attic writers. Obs. 6. The verb piyow {to be cold) deviates in its contraction ; it has w and <^ instead of ov and ot, ex. gr. ivfin. piyCJv, opt. piyi^riv, but it is not constantly observed, at least not in our editions. The lonians have the same deviation in a vei'b of the ^ See, however, the Anom. Ssm. — The third pers. sing. aor. 1, f %« a, of the verb xsw, (see the Anom.) must not be confounded with the third pers. sing, imperf.: the latter is contracted, {txte, t^u,) the former not, ex.gr. Aristoph. Nub. 75. Karfx^ev. VERBS. 195 opposite meaning : 'iSpouj {to perspire) gives idf^CJaa, II. S. 27- 'i-^p<<^il, Hippoer. cle Aer. Aq. Loc. 17- Dialects, Obs. 7- As the lonians form the second per s. pass, in their usual conjugation in tai and £0, they have in the verbs in ew an accumulation of vowels, which the Ionic prose-writers retain in the pres. (Trotseat, 67raiv££at, &c.) The Epic poets sometimes contract the two first vowels, ex.gr. fxvQuai (just as [xvOssTai, iivOCirai). Sometimes one £ is elided, that of keo always is ; ex. gr. fxvOeai, {jxvQ'eojxai,) Od. /3. 202. (polSso, {(pofSEOfiai,) Herod. 9, 120. a'lvso, a^Tjyso, &c. The forms of this second pers. in hj, ay, 6y, eov, dov, 6ov, which we inserted in the paradigms for the sake of uniformity in the analogy, do not occur any where. Obs. 8. The lonians, as we have seen, do not commonly resolve the verbs in doi into theii* proper vowels, yet frequently change the a into e, ex. gr. bpkix), opsofxev, for opdoj, opdofxeVf (poiTsovrsg, for (pOLrdovTsg, Xpssrai, fxr}x<^vki.<7Qai, for drai, aaQai, and the like. Sometimes they change ao into hd, (§ 27. Ohs. 1, 10.) ex. gr. ixrjxc-- vsojvTai, xp^(t)p-ai, &c. Obs. 9. In the third pers. pi., where the lonians (according to Obs. 4. to § 103.) change the v into a, {iaro for ovro,) they sometimes use this termination for sovro, (eliding one £,) but probably only of verbs in aw, as kurjxavsaro for -dovro, sovro usually IfirixavwvTO. In the jyerf. and plusq. they not only change 7]VTai and tjvrat into rjarai^warat, {ex. gr. TreTrorfjarai, Kexo\(jJaTo, Hom.) but commonly use s instead of rj, ex. gr. oiKtarai, STSTifitaTo, for (pKrjvrai, IrsTifiTjvTO. Obs. 10. The old Ionian Epic poets employ the contraction at times, and at cthei's not. The verbs in dw, however, were seldom resolved, {Obs. 1.) but the Poets were at liberty to lengthen again the contracted vowels by placing a similar short or long vowel before ; thus they made of a in {opdsiv,) bpav, — dpdg.v^, (d(T%aXdft,) d(7;i^aX^, — acrxct^dq.) 2 pers. pass, {fivay,) fiva, — H-^da, dyopaaOe, fjiva(y9ai, — dyopdaaQs, fivdaaQai, and of or w in {bpdo),) bpCJ, — bp6(t), imper. pass. {dXdov,) dXw, — dXoujy (jSodoucrt,) jSouKTi, — (3o6(jJcn, opt. {aiTidoiro,) aiTK^ro, — airioc^TOf {dpdovai,) SpOJai, — dpthaxri, part. fern. {r)j3dovaa,) r/jSwcor, — rjf3oJ(ij(7a. Such lengthened syllables seldom occur in Ion. prose, Herod. 6, 11. j/yopowtro, 4, 191, fcojuowcrt, — Sometimes the o is put last, ex. gr. t'ljSoJovTSQ, rjfSojoijxi, for t)j3u)VTsg, r)(i(^jxi (from — dovreg, doiixi^). Thus Poets could use instead of ysXwvreg either yeXocjvTsg or yeXojovreg according to the exigency of the metre. — Homer's ^«/t. /em. vaierdcocra for — dovaa or owcra is a peculiar anomaly. Obs. 11. All the forms lengthened with ow are also common to the verbs in oa», ^ See about the iota subscriptum the Note to Obs. 15. ^ This lengthening by means of the w produced in some verbs a peculiar forma- tion — (t)(i), (jjeig, oju. See the Anom. ?da», /xdw, and fxvdoj (in fiifivrjcrKOj). o2 196 A GREEK GRAMMAR. though they cannot originate in them either by resolution or lengthening ; for instance, {apoovcL,) apovai, Epic apouxn, (j£i]"i6ovTO, ^ij'ioouv,) SijiovvTO, ()rfioTtv, Epic drj'iocijvro, dri"i6(^i.v). Obs. 12. The lonians make a less frequent use in these verbs of the imperf. iterative in (tkov, {Obs. II. 1. to § 103.) ex.gr. ^iKhctkov in Herod. [SovKoXseaKsg ia Homer. This form is never contracted, but sometimes syncopated by the old Poets, (by dropping the t,) ex. gr. fixi &c. The Dorians, on the contrary, who genei-ally use a mstead of 77, prefer the rj in these contractions, omitting, however, the iota subscriptum in the contraction of au ^', (compare Obs. V. 10. to § 103.) for instance, bpriv, Iprj for Ip^, ToXfifj-e for ToXudri, and tlie like, whilst in conjugating they nevertheless say ToXixdaai, and so on. They have the same contraction in the injln. of the verbs in £w, ex. gr. KOdfxriv for KoafxeXv. Obs. 16. The Epic Poets have likewise the »/ as a contraction, but only in some forms of both aw and ew, and chiefly in the dual rrjv, ex. gr. TrpocravdijTTjv, bnaprri- TT]v, (from avddu), ofxaprsitj,) and in the lengthened infin. in rjvai, rjfxtvai, instead of eiv and av, ex. gr. ^oprjvai, (from ^opeco,) (pLXfj^evai, yor}}izvai (for yodv '2). ^o The Doric koi(Ja becomes through contraction ivoa, not dlaa, which occurs only in the part. aor. 2. (\a/3oTcra,) where there is no contraction ; see Obs. V. 5. to § 103. ^^ The omission of the iota subscriptum was formerly genei-al in the infin. of verbs in d(j),ex. gr. nixdv, jSodi/, ^fjv. It is but lately that the correct ortliography has again been generally ado])ted. See Buttm. Comp)lete Gr. Gr. § 105. Obs. 17. — Some gi-ammurians always omitted this iota subscriptiim in lengthened syllables ; bpdav, ondac. 12 Consequently opriai mentioned in st Note to the last Obs. in § 106. and QriaQai, (see the Anom. 9du>,) belong hither. Compare also iOijrjro in the Anom. 9dofiai. VERBS. 197 Obs. 17. The Epic apoixfjievai for apovv is the only instance of this in verbs in 6a;. See a list of Contracted Verbs in the Appendix;, IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. § 106. — Verbs in }xl. 1. We begin the anomaly of the Greek verbs with what, from the termination of the first pers. pres. indie, is called the con- jugation in iiL, This does not include a great many verbs, like the two preceding conjugations, but only a small number of verbs, and parts of verbs, which in some essential points deviate from the numerous other verbs^ though connected by a common analogy. Ohs. 1. The verbs which are conjugated in Grammars as examples of this con- jugation, are pretty nearly the only ones which adopt this formation in all the parts where it is applicable ; whatever else belongs hither, consists merely in isolated parts of some anomalous or defective verbs, or of Epic forms. But even the verbs m m, which are in use, do not all agree among themselves in all their parts ; each verb must, on account of its peculiarities, be stated completely as an anomalous vei-b. 2. All verbs in fii have a root, which, according to the usual formation, would end in w purum, (§ 28, 1.) and chiefly in £w, aw, ow, vb). Hence it is usual in grammar to refer the former more uncommon formation to the latter more usual one, and to say, for instance, that the verb TiO-ninL comes from a simpler form GEO. 3. The peculiarity of the conjugation in jut is confined to these three tenses, the pres., imperf., and aor, 2. and consists chiefly in this, that the terminations of the in- flection, e9sir]v, TV(p9r]vai, &c. see above § 100. Obs. 10.) and isolated Epic forms, like (poprivai, (pi'Ki]^evai (§ 105. Obs. 16). Obs. 10. Some Doric dialects, however, really had the ftrst pers. pres. of many verbs in fii instead of cj, ex. gr. opr]iJ.i, (piXrjiii, for b^du), (piXkio, and the third pers. sing, ai, ex. gr. Kpivqai for kqivsl. Hesiod has a'lvtjfii, and grammarians also rank in this class some Homeric forms, especially the tJiird p)ers. rjcn, ex. gr. II. £. 6. 7raix)jV. 4. This is the peculiar opt. of the verbs in [xi, to which the aoi\ pass, of the com- mon conjugation corresponds, and this, too, has a very usual abbreviated foi'm for the dual and pi, which is used almost exclusively for the third pers. only. Dual, Plur. TldELTOV, tiOeitt^Vs tlQeXp-ev, tiOeTte, tlOeIev, LGTOLTOV, l(JTaiTl]V, LGTolfXEV, LGToirE, laTOLEV, ^idolrov, dLSoirriv, didol/jiEv, ^lSoTts, SldoTEV. V. TiOeri, irw, &c. aT(ji). &C. ^idoOi, 6t(x), &c. SeikvvOi, comm. SeIKVV, VTd), &C, TLOirti) (jav or T(JJV, IdTarw LGTaV aav or Tlx)V, di^OTiotrav or Sl^OVTWV, dEiKvvTwaav or dElKVVVTUJV. Imper. SpL 5, See about riOeri instead of -6i, § 17, 6, 4. The second pers. sing, in 6i is not much used ; the abbreviated form with lengthened vowel is preferred, SiSov I deiKVV. Imperf. Sing. Dual, Plur. rlOei ETlOrjV, ETiOrig, ETiOr], etlOetov, etiOettjv, etlQejiev, etiOete, ETidEorav, KTTT] l(JT)]V, '[(TTaTOV, l(jTa.Ty]v, ^arafiEV, Igtute, ^'iGTaaav, I'^i'^wv, E^idujg, e^lSu), E^i^OTOV, iSl^OTipj, E^l^OfJLEV, eEiSote, E^i^oaav^ eBeikvvv, ESElKVVg, eSeikvv, EdElKVVTOV, E^ElKVVTr]V, eSeikw/uIev, e^eikvvte, IdeiKVVdav. 6. Excepting 'i(jtt)ixi, the sing, of this tense is most usually after the contracted conjugation and the form -voj : kriOovv, £iQ, ti \ Widow, ovg, ov \ kdeiKwov, eg, e{v). Perf. Plusq. TiOEiKa, eteOeikelv, EGTTJKa, e(jt{]kelv or EI(Tt{]KEIV, E^Ed WKa. WKEIV, of AEIKG. 7. With respect to 'iarrjuL we must notice in this perf. and plusq. 1.) The augment; since, contrary to the other verbs, (see § 76, 5.) the s, which is here instead of the redupl., has the spiritus asper, and i\\e plusq. frequently has its augment incx'eased by the temporal augment ti. 2.) The more usual abbreviated forms 'iarafJiev, &c., instead of the regular conjugation. (See below, Obs. II.) 3.) The deviating signification, {ibid.) FUT. AOR. 1. di]a(jj, Wr]Ka, (TTl]res. tense, and the plusq. of course an imperf. (§ 113. Obs. 11.) 'iarrjica, I stand ; kgr/". the two aor. or a circumlocution. (See § 97- Obs. 6.) 6. There is in some editions of Homer the syncopated form of the plusq. 3 pers. pi. saracrav in both the transitive and the intrans. signif. ; but the correct reading seems to be saracrav as usual in the sense of the imperf. they were standing, and * But in some compounds, of which the middle voice has the intrans. signif., the perf. act. may be conceived as a real perf in English, ex. gr. aviarr-jyn, I raise up, dviaraixai, I rise, stand up, dvscrtjKa, 1 have risen, stand. From this /), CTO), no(rev, UTCikvai, juravit se abiturum, he swore to go away. See also Plato Phced. 103. 16 It is plainly the fut. in Xenoph. K. A. 2, 3. extr. "H^w avcrKsvaaafxtvog, ojg cnra^uiv vixag sIq tyjv 'EXkdda, Kai avrbg cnriujv eiri rrjv sjuaurov a.pxV'^- 1^ The part. 1^£v. — The radical vowel i was also shortened, conj. Idecjjpart. iSvla (Homer''). A GENERAL VIEW OF THE ANOMALY OF VERBS. § 110. — Syncope and Metathesis. 1. It is true that whatever deviates in language from the larger mass of what is regular, still follows some analogy even in this deviation ; but this, especially in a dead language, is not always apparent, a variety of instances of the usage in common life, and of the different dialects, not having been assimilated to the language of books. Such isolated instances, which can only be learned and remembered singly, constitute anomaly in proof that practice retains sometimes several forms at once, and sometimes a single one ; the part, of 'ioiKa occurs in the three forms, Ioikojq, tiKihg, oiicojg, but that of ol8a occurs only in one, slSmq. — The plusq. required a new augment : toiica com- monly took it according to the analogy of eopra^w eoopraZov, hpKfiv : but there was likewise a reguleiv plusq. with the syllable ot shortened. This appears from the pass, form, {of the perf. 'iiynai,2)Iusq. r]iy}ir]v^ ^ pjers. plusq. i'/iKTo, without the augment 'Hkto. In the same way arose from 'ioida, plusq. [rjLSeiv,) ySeip. To this was added the syncope, which, as we shall see below, produced out of ioiKa, (altering the vowel,) the 1 jjers. pi. of the per/, eoiyfisv, 3 dual of the plusq. and out of ot5a, (with the same alteration,) the foi-ms {old-(r6a) olaQa, "idfxtv and lofiev, 'hre, but in the i^lusq. out of yddv yapitv, ycTTS, yaav. Homer's laav (instead of l8-aav) differs from this yaav, (instead of yS-/. ^ To facilitate the use of most Dictionaries and Indexes, we observe that all the above statements must be looked for in the pres. tenses of t'ldu), tldeuj, and icr^^jut, and in their compounds. 221 A GREEK GRAMMAR. its strictest meaning ; bat deviations which occur in several instances are consequently smaller analogies, which ought pro- perly to be added in particular rules and conjugations to the more general ones. This, however, would be rather incon- venient; those smaller anomalies and isolated instances are, therefore, investigated separately, and considered as the ano- maly of the language, which in the Greek verb in particular is very considerable. 2. Part of this anomaly has already been stated as excep- tions ; the rest is arranged in an Alphabetical List, But to promote individual observation, and guard against a mere mechanismus, not only the smaller analogies to which these deviations conform are mentioned under the head of each verb in the List, but we previously review some classes which com- prise a greater variety of instances. 3. A main class of deviations is produced by syncope. The conjugation in fii being, as we have seen above, a kind of syn- copated form, those parts of a common verb which agree with that conjugation must be ranked in this class of anomaly. 4. Some verbs drop the vowel out of their root, ex. gr. wiXw, S pi. imperf. eireXs or eirXs, TreXaw, ao7\ 1. pass. eirXaOr^v, irhofxai, fut. TTTYidoiuLaL^. Thcre are two things principally to be at- tended to here : — a.) In some verbs the aor. 2. is formed merely in this way, TreTOjLiaiy [imperf. ETrero/irjv,) aor. 2. £7rro/zrjv, lyeipio eyti- pofxai, aor. 2. riypojuiriv, (IwoJce,) ayupw^ part. aor. 2. med. aypofievog (assembled ; but part. pass. ayHpomevoi, who are assem,bling). Further t(jx<^v and lairov, (see tyuj and £7rw,) and 7]Xvdov, ^XOov (see ep^oixai). b.) This syncope is most natural after a redupl. : hence wnrpaGKtj from irspdio, tt/tttw from DETll, fiifjivu) from MEN12, and in the perf., as dejuLix), perf. [dE^eiuYiKa,) ^i- ^fxr^Ka, (see, however, other similar forms at 11. under Metathesis,) wEirrafiaL from IIETAO, see TT&ravvvpn. See also juLsiuijdXErai in lueXw. Hither belong also the aor. iKeKXofxriv and e7re(pvov from fcAo/zat and ENO with a double augment according to § 83. Obs. 7. 5. The most usual syncope is that of the connecting voweP, ' Many instances, which seemingly belong to this syncope, are more properly ranked under a metathesis. See below, 11, 2. 2 That we call this a syncopated formation, merely because the usual connecting VERBS. 225 of which the principal instances will be investigated, viz. under A the pres. and imperf., under B the aor., and under C the perf. A) In the pres. and imperf. (when this continues to be the imperf.) the syncope takes place in ol^ai, (fjuLr^v, for oiofxai, loofiriv, and in the Epic pvaOai, 'ipvaOaij tpvTo, for pveaOai, eoveaOaiy eovsto, (see Ipvw,) compare also below in the List (tevu), and edfievai from £§w. Hither belongs likewise the Epic (Trevrai, (ttevto, {to strive, threaten,) and (according to § 106. Obs, 6.) all the verbs in fxi. 6. Several verbs have (B) an aor. with this syncope, which must be compared with the aor. 2. or considered as such. In the 1 pers. act. nothing remains as termination but the v, and as this can take place only with a vowel preceding, it produces a form which mostly agrees with the aor. 2. of the conjugation in fiL in all its moods and part. And the vowel of these aor., whether long or short, whether a or rj, conforms generally to the perf. 1. of the same verb, and remains unchanged in all its persons and moods, except that r? and w are commonly changed in the opt. into h, ai, oi, and in the part, into ai, a, ov. Thus, G^ivwui, SBE12, ia(3r]Ka, — tafSiqv, ecrfdrj^sv, afSrivai, crjSttr^v. (5aivu), BAO, jStjSrjJca, — "iprjv, £/3rj/x£y, [drfvai, (5air]V, f5rj0i. Si^pa(7K0), ^idpaKa, — idpav, 'i^pajdev, dpavai, Spatrjv, 3pac ^« KT£LV(i), a/craica, — eKTav, iKrafiev, KTavai, /cratrjy, Krag. yi-yvdxjKU), tyvdJKa, — syvwy, E-yvw/iEv, yvujvai, yvoirjv, yvovg. /3 in the participle ttXojq, {sttlttXojq, II. Z,. 291.) and which undoubtedly had Cjvtoq (for ovq, ovtoq). The same is s[3io)v, the only one in common language which has ^ instead of oi, in contradistinction from ^ioir]v, {opt. pres.) and in more ancient poets occur also aXcftiv, yv(^r]v. 5.) the shortened 3 pers. plur. in v, instead of aav, has, like tarrjv, the vowel before v always short, ex. gr. j3av, 'idpav. See § 107. IV. b. 06s. 2. As we have seen above, § 106, 107. that the termination 6i of the imper. belongs likewise to the syncopated formation, since it has an immediate connexion with the root, the imper. of the above forms, as far as it occurs, is formed in the same way ; ex. gr. (BrjOi, 8pd9i, yvatOi, dv9i {pi. (Brjre, Svre, &c.). Thus the follow- ing iour imper. in 9l and its abbreviation g {% 106, 4.) must be ranked among the aor. mentioned here, viz. TTtOi, k\v9i, (7Xfe> ^psQ. See in the Listy Tvivta, /cXuoi, £X'^> (ppsoj. 7, To these aor, act. must be added a corresponding pass, ao7\ in iur}V} (jo, to, 8lc., which thus corresponds to the aor, 2. med. of the regular conjugations. But it must be remembered^ 1.) that most instances have not the medial, but the perf. pass, signif. ; 2.) that with regard to the vowel they conform to the perf. pass. ; and, 3.) that they are exclusively confined to the most ancient poets. Some of them actually belong to one of the mentioned aor, act, as pass,, viz. £j3X?7jurjv, opt, j^Xd/uLYiv, — of £j3Xrjv, {^vfx(5\r)Tr)v,) see jSaXXw, £/crajur]v, KTaaOai, Kra/mevog, — from tKTav, see /cretvw. See also in the List in the proper place the forms GvyyvoXro, ovrajizvoQ, and in reference to the mentioned Kkvdi, the old part, KXvfievog, Whence it follows that those which follow the same analogy without any act, form occurring, must be considered in the same light : ex, gr, TTvew, iraTrvvfiai, — {siTvvfJLYiv,) a/unrvvro, Xvoj, XeXvfxai, • — (iXujUrjv,) Xvto, (pOiw, t^O'tpiaL, — ^(pO^fjLYiv, (pOifxevog, opt, ^Oijulyiv. See the List, See also IwXriiurjv in iriiunrXrjfjLi, lEvaaOe in vatcj, Idavpmv in (7£V(i), l\vpir]v in ^^fWjand i\\e part. Krifxevog, TrrajuLEvog, (in Treravvvidi,) Ovfievog, apirafxevog, 8. Neither must the syncopated aor, pass., having a conso- nant before their termination, (JeXekto, Slx^ai, &c.) be sepa- rated from them. They are derived from the simple theme of the verb, and when this simple theme is at the same time the usual one, they distinguish themselves from the imperf. VERBS. 227 and the moods of the pres. tense barely by this syncope, on account of which they also agree exactly, like the preceding^ with their perf, and plusq. pass, without a redupl., with which tenses they may be compared, but with which they must not be confounded. In their act, and pass» and medial signif. they all follow the pres, in ^lai, and they too belong exclusively to the most ancient poetry, daxofiaij eSe^sjjuriv, l^ede^o, &c. ^edexOai, — aor. syncope, {ldiyiur}v,) £§£^0, eSekto, infin, ^ix^ai, imper. M^o. jUiyvvfjiLi {Mini,) — (^fxiyfir^v,) jullkto. XiKaaOai, — {l\lyjur]V,) XI Jo, XIkto, Xi^^^^* naXXu), — (£7raX/ir/v,) TraXro, &C. opvvfjii, (OPil,) — imper. 6p<70, wp/zrjv, wpTo, infill. opOai, part. opfjLsvoQ, and some others like tyevro for eyivtro, EVKTo, (see Evxofxai,) clXto^ (see aWoimai,) hXeXiKTO, (see kXEXiZtt)}) 'UjUEvog-, apfJLEvog, Obs. 3. That the cr is dropped in terminations beginning with ad, is understood of course here as in the^je?/. pass. Hence dex^ai, bpOai. Hither belong also the dual nidvdrjv, (see below, jutaiVw,) and dropping two consonants, TrepOai (see below, TTSpOo) 5). Obs. 4. When the indie, of these pass. aor. retains its augment in any verb, of which the redupl. is the simple augment, it cannot be distinguished from the plusq. in point of form : wpfxrjv, tKranriv, i(p9ini]v, taaviiriv. 9. Lastly (C) in the perf. and plusq. lengthened forms are sometimes shortened by this syncope, and when such perf. have, as we shall see in § 113, the signif. of the pres., they have a 2 pers. imper. with the termination di (§ 106, 4. with the Obs. 8). This is the case with KEKpaya, — KEKpayjiEv, EKEKpayixEv, imper. KEKpaxOi} (see KpaZw,) avijjya, (see the List,) — avwyfiEv, imper. avwxOi. ElXrfXov6a,^EiXf}Xov9iJLEv, Epic forms for EX{]Xv9a (see ipxo- fxm). The syllable ol from el generally becomes i through this syn- cope, TTETTOiOa, from TTEiOa), — ETriTrLOjULEv, (Homer,) EoiKa, from eIkio, — EoiyfiEv, ^ pers. dual, ^ These considerations will enable us to appreciate the merit of the usual state- ment, that not only X'ekto, dsxOai, Sec. but also j3\rja6at, ktiixsvoq, &c. are instances oi p)^^'f- a.nd plusq. rejecting their redupl. It is obvious that Xskto, ^kyjxtvoQ, are in the same predicament with Xvro, Krifievog, and these again with ^\i]aQai, KrdfiEvog. But to separate the latter from the act. (5XriTrjv, Iktuv, would be contrary to all grammatical criticism. All the above forms must, therefore, be placed in one category ; they are aor. like Iktuv, ijSijv, and explained by their syncopated forma- tion, which in one part of their forms contains the formation in (jli. q2 228 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Perf, tiKTov, plusq. uKrrjv, all poetical forms, and this proves the correctness of our afore-stated derivation from '/o-jU£v^ &c. viz. ol^a, (from eldw,) — '/3/i£v or '/(t/iev^ 'lgte, S per s. plusq. Epic 'iGav, imper. 'laOt, Infin. Epic iSfiivai for eldEfisvai, (commonly ddevai,) with the Att. plusq. yarjuev, ycrre, ycrav, for y^u/mev, ydEire, ydeaav. See about the forms from toiKa and olda, the Note to § 109. III. 5. 06s. 5. When through this syncope the consonant of the radical form comes before a r in the termination, this r, because of the similarity of sound with the terminations of the joass. {TSTvcpOe, ffOapOe, and the like,) sometimes becomes a 6. Thus the rest of the persons of the imper. dvcjx^'- becpme instead of dvcjyere, avwysrw, — avw^^fj arw%0(i», and of the pe7'f. kypriyopa, lypjjyopare, — eyprjyopOSf (see sydpu),) and this accounts most naturally for the Epic TreTroGOs, (see below, TTSTTovOa, TrsTrovOars, — TrsTToaOs, that is to say, as soon as the 9 came before the t, it was changed into c, (as Wjxsv, tors,) and the v was dropped, {-TrsTroffre,) which was erroneously made a,pass. TrsTroaOe. 10. This syncope is more natural whenever the characteristic of the verb is a vowel. But, as we have seen in § 97, 7. it is but in a very few verbs that this vowel is pure before the termination a of the pe^-f,, ex. gr. in SsSfa, (see '^tiaai in the List,) whence perf. pi. ^iBi/nev, SidiTs, for SsdiaiuLsv, te, Plusq. E^idifiev, eSEdirs, e^LSiaav, for e^EdieijUieVy re, l^EdiEcrav, Imper. SidiOi, and as some of the perf. in rjKa, when shortened by the Epic poets, have their radical vowel (a) before the termination, /3f- [5r]Ka, (j3£j3aa,) [5e(5aa(n, jSejSawc, this ancient form and this syn- cope jointly serve to account for such perf. in the Attic and common language in the dual and pi. of the indie, and in the infin., ex. gr. of rirXrjKa, (see the Anom. rXrivai,) TETAAA — rirXajLiEv, &c. infin. TErXavai (for TETXa-Evai). This agrees per- fectly with the pres. of the conjugation in fxi, laTafXEv, IcrravaL : hence most of the other parts of the conjugation in jut adopt this form of the pe7f. thus, Perf. TEtXcLJULEV, TEtXcLTE, TETXa(JL{v), dual, TirXarov, Plusq. pi. ETirXaidEv, etetXclte, ETETXaaav, dual, etetXcltov, ETErXaTriv, Infin. TErXavai, (short a,) I VERBS. 2.29 Lnper. ri-XaOi, rirXartj, &c. Opt. rerXainv* The conjunctive of this verb is not used in this form ; we give that of J5ej3riica. jSejSo/.iEi', &C. ConJ. /3£/3w, yc, y. &c. The part, alone does not follow the conjugation in jui, but is contracted of acbg — wg, so that the tnasc. and neut. became homonymous^ [awg and ahg, gen, aoTog, contracted wg, wTog^) and this contracted form has a peculiar fern, in Coaa, ex. gr. of j3ti5r]Ka, part. j3ej3r]Ktog, via, bg. jSe/SwC; jSejSwaa, (^e^ujg, gen. jSe/Swroc. Of these perf. there is none in common use but the sing, indie. of the pe?'/. and plusq. (reVXrjk-a, ag, e, — herXi^Keiv, sig, ei) : all the other parts have the above collateral forms, which mostly are more in use than the regular ones. See in the List, be- sides rXiivai and (5aivii), dvi]GKw, Tidvt]Ka, and above in 'larriiui, (§ 107. Obs. II. 2, 3.) the perf. ^'a-rJ^:a. Obs. 6. We observe fui'ther, a. that except the 3 per s. pi. of the perf . (TerXdcrt, reOvacnv, tcrracriv, &c.) the a is short in all the other forms, the short vowel of the termiuation having been removed by syncope, not contracted with the radical vowel ; and that consequently we ought not to write rtTXavai, nOvavai, earavai^. b. that it is only the contracted part, which has the fern, era : the Epics em- ployed it regularly in via in the resolved form, ej:. gr. j3i[3a(hg, fSelSdvXa, — j36j3wg, j3ej3u)g in /3£j3ptuc7Kw). 11. Sometimes a metathesis of the vowel with a liquid, (§ 19. Obs. 2.) changes the radical verb, chiefly, in two cases : 1.) In the aor. 2. see § 96. Obs. 7. and compare also the Anom. ajuapravoj, and ripTru). 2.) In several verbs, of which the simple theme has a liquid for its characteristic, ex. gr. in the root 0AN, aor. Wavov, fut. Oavovjuat, a transposition of the vowel 0NA takes place to facilitate the conjugation ; hence ^ The quantity in comedy, ex. gr. rtQvdvai, Aristoph. Ran. 1012. shows that the s?iort a was in common use. But this did not prevent poets, particidarly an old one like ^Eschylus, from employing in the infin. for the sake of the metre, the con- tracted form TtOvdvai {Agam. 550). The Epic infin. TiQvdfiivai, reOvdnev, are explained on comparing them with § 107. Obs. lY. 1. 230 A GREEK GRAMMAR. rWvrjKa, riOvajULEv, &c. and this transposition in some verbs produces the new usual pres., in this instance OvijaKU). The same is done with the root MOA. But owing to the difficult pronunciation of fjX, a j3 is in- serted between these letters in the middle of the word, according to § 19. Obs. 1. jul/xjSXwica for /neijXwKa, and the ju itself is changed in the beginning of the word into a /3, j3Xw(TK:w^ This supposition renders the ana- logy of the three following verbs evident and com- plete, 6vr)TKO,) from 7ri(j)VKa, to which also belong the 3 pers. like yiyijjve, av{]voBe, avwye, which in Homer are not only perf, (that is to say, pres, tenses,) but frequently also imperf, (or aor.) Hither belong likewise the fut, Ictd'jJw (see § 107. Obs. II. 4.) and Tt9v{}^u) {Anom. 9v{](tk(v). Obs. 1. The statement of this anomaly is rendered rather difficult by the circum- stance, that we have unquestionable vestiges of part of the Dorians having given to several persons of the actual perf. in general, terminations similar to those of the pres. : as the infin, yeydKtiv, Find. {Anom. y'lyvoiiai,) dtSvKijv, (for -uv,) Theocr. instead of SsSvKsvai, ttsttovOtjc, TrecpvKT], (for -eiQ,H,) instead of ag, e, Theocr.; and the part, in wv, ovaa, instead of mq, via, ex. gr. TrtcppiKovTag, Find. fxefxevdKovcra, (from fiffx'svrjKa,) Archimed. See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 88. 06s. 11. and 14. § 111. Obs. 2.— Reduplicated aor. Hke Trkitidov, apapov, &c. (§ 83. Obs. 7- § 85. Ohs. 2.) are erroneously considered as belonging hither. Obs. 2. The accent of some Epic part, and injln. points likewise to a p)erf. pass. having assumed the form of a pres ; ex. gr. dKT])(ijjievog and dKa)(rjfievog, uKdxr](T9ai, under aKox/^w, aXaX/j/zoi — dXdXrjaOai, dXaXijuevoc, tXijXdfievoCy dprjpkfievogj taGVjxtvog, see under kXavpuj, dpapicrKoj, crevuj. 232 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 3. B. The aor. 2. produces in some verbs a new formation as if from iio, and the aor. 2. act. in particular, because of the infin. in dv. It cannot be presupposed that there have been verbs ^vplu), Tvxld), &c. but the aor. evpov, evpelv, Ietvxov, rvxetv, gave birth to the formation svprjaw, £upr?/ca, TervxnKa, &c. which produced, but later, a pi^es., see evpicTKOJ, ruyx^^^w? ^i^d similar forms in juiavOdvit), jSXaaravo), yiyvofxai, &C. In some other verbs, of which the aor. 2 pass., as deponens, has an act. signif , there was a perf. in r}Ka formed of rjv in the same way : eppvr^Ka, from lppvr}v, {I flowed,) see piw, K^xapn^a and jcexa/or^juat, from cxaprjv, (/ rejoiced,) see ^£Sa»]K:a and deSaYijULaL, from tSaijy^ (/ learned,) see AA. § 112. — Anomalous Mutability of the Root. 1. By far the greatest part of the anomalies of the Greek verbs consists in the intermixture of forms derived from dif- ferent themes, so that several derivative tenses conjugated regularly presuppose another pres. than the usual one. Some instances of this kind have been treated of above, § 92. sepa- rately for practical purposes, and as belonging to the usual conjugation. We shall now review those which either deviate too much, or offer little uniformity in their class of verbs. 2. The different way in which the root of a verb is conju- gated constitutes the diversity of themes ; and these different radical forms very frequently co-exist together through the whole verb, or some of its parts, especially in the pres. The relationship of some letter, love of euphony, anxiety of the old poets to have a variety of forms of words for their verses, and lastly also some less important motives, which to us have the appearance of mere chance, occasioned the formation and combination of such collateral forms. The language of daily intercourse generally adopted either one or the other of such forms. But it was also very natural that, considering the great number of parts of a verb, the differences arising from the different radical forms were necessarily intermixed. This is the anomaly which actually is so frequent in the Greek verb. 3. We must remember here what is evident from § 92. that the regular process of the verb is by no means the primitive VERBS, 233 and natural one, and in particular that it did not proceed from the pres., but that in the most essential verbs expressive of natural wants, the most ancient and true root lies in other tenses, and most readily in the aor, 2. when there is one ; and that the pres. is merely a derivative form, in which the root is enlarged, and made fuller and more sonorous ; ex, gr. from AHBO or A ABO, — Xan^avio. But this radical form generally does not extend beyond the pres. and imperf., so that this alone already renders such a verb anomalous, when the whole is considered as conformable to method ; ex, gr, XajLijdavu), IXoijujSavov, — \r]-tpofxaL, eXaf^ov, &c. 4. The circumstance that there is a double form of a pres. in actual use, occurs even in common prose ; and many double forms, like Xdiroj and Xiiunravu), ktuvm and ktivwilu, are found in the best prose-writers. But one of the forms frequently belongs to a certain dialect, as, for instance, aytvi(v for ajd), (pvyyavd) for ^Euyw, were more familiar to the lonians. Poets of all times were particularly fond of such collateral forms as were handed down to them from days of yore. Frequently also such a fuller collateral form became most current in po- pular language, and was completely conjugated with aor. &c., whilst the equally complete radical form receded from the language of daily intercourse, as TrepOw tirepaa, gave way to TTopOioj £7rop0rj(7a. Obs. 1. Such modifications of the radical form were frequently attended with differences in the signif. Instances of this kind belong to Dictionaries, or to the Section on the Formation of Words. But here, too, it is impossible to draw a strict line of demarcation. The idea of duration, which in those fuller forms was to be rendered more sensible as a stronger contrast to the idea of the aor., gave rise to the modifications of repetition, {iterative,) of frequency, {frequentative,) and of habit {habitual, usual). Thus it was very natural that of two co-existing forms of the pres. one adopted such a modification preferably to the other. For instance, the verb (popsu) made of i'es., this also produced, it is true, an anomaly in the language ; for the same writer being obliged to render the thought, for which he used, for instance, XifXTrdvu) in the pres.^ by Xei-ipo) m the fut., it may be 234 A GREEK GRAMMAR. said that the fut. of \ifx7rdvi0 is Xeixpu). Yet as in this case it is not two defective verbs which constitute an anomalous whole as in the former, but there merely is along with a regular pei'fect vei"b (\ei7rw, ^fl;//WJ &c.) a defective one, (Xt/xTravw,) which poets and orators use for their own purposes, all such defective coUatei'al forms must be left to dictionaries. The grammarian can only direct the attention of the learner to the analogy according to which the lengthened forms resemble each other in many instances, as will be seen in the following §§. 5. But it does not follow that all the themes, which are or appear to be the basis on which some tenses were formed, have, therefore, existed. It is, indeed, possible that the simple radical form which is in the other tenses may have existed formerly in a pres. (compare § 83. Obs. 6.) ; but on the whole it is not probable : and it often would happen that the habit of seeing various formations combined ^in one verb, led to the preference of an easier conjugation, or introduction of some change, neither of which circumstances necessitates the suppo- sition of a corresponding pres. of a similar theme. Of this nature is, beside the instances mentioned in the two preceding §§, the transition of the verbs in w to the formation (Iw), tjo-w, &c. (see 8.) 6. There are frequently several of these circumstances con- curring, so that the conjugation of a verb is mixed up with that of three or more forms. Thus we have of the primitive form IIHGO or IlAGll, barely the ao7\ iiradov : another form, strengthened with v by position, IlENGQ, maintained itself in the perf. Triirovda, &C.5 but both were forced to give way in the pres. and imperf. to the form Trao-xw, which now gives its name to the whole verb. From riETAQ comes Treratrw, &c. in the perf. pass, through the syncope iriirTafxai, whilst the lengthened form ireravwiuLi is alone in use in the pres. and imperf., &c. 7. Some of the derivative forms of verbs are of such a nature, that there are scarcely any instances remaining in the language of a similar change of the radical verb ; ex. gr. in ayiviio from ayw, Trao-^w from nA912, IgBlw from f^w, iXavvuj from fXaw, &c. Most of them, however, conform with others to the same obvious analogy, which must be comprised under one point of view, the better to commit to memory the anomalies of their conjugation, and the numerous collateral forms of the whole verb, or its pres. tense, which occur especially in the Greek poets. Remember that, when in the following examples two forms are combined by AND, they are both in use; — where from is VERBS. 235 mentioned, the latter verb either is quite obsolete, and to be recognised only in the tenses derived from it, or is found merely in the old poets; — and when for is mentioned, the first form is peculiar to the poets. Verbs belonging to the first and third category are not stated again in the list of Anomalous Verbs, unless there be some particular reason for it. 8. One of the readiest changes was (i) — into fw, more rarely aw, contr. w : pLTTTd) and pnrrioj, KTviriw from KTYnO, (whence ektuttov,) yafiiw from FAMQ, (whence EyrjfjLa,) fivKaofiai from MYKQ, (whence eiuvkov,) Bafxau) from AEMO, (whence l^afx-nv,) Kvio and kuIw, ojQiw from Q0O (whence wo-w). Whenever the regular inflection of a verb was attended with any difiiculty, or might be productive of cacophony and in- distinctness, it was conjugated as if the pres. ended in iw. (See above, 5.) Obs. 3. To this class belong the verbs, of which the characteristic already is ^ or ip in the pres.. t\po},fiit. erpriacj, — av^oj, av%r]a()}. It is the same with the perf. of verbs in juw, see above, § 101. Obs. 9. Further, ju£i/a» fiifxkvrjKa, tvtttm, tvi^ko and rvTrrrjau}, fxkWoj fis\Xr]cro), 'ippoj spp^crw, KaOevdu) KaOsvSrjcro), &c. When the f lit. and other forms of such verbs have an s, as o-xOonat a.'xQiooiiai, (see also fidy^oiiai, edb), and aw, 2.), it may be viewed in the same light, yet it is more correct to re- cognise hei-e the old formation mentioned above, § 95. Obs. 15, which maintained itself from the same causes \vhich in other instances induced the formation of the fut. in 7], Swjuaw, and also ftpiopaw, vwfJLau}, rpwTTau), arpto- (paoj, for Ppipw.) vipw, rpinu); crr|ol«/>w. 236 A GREEK GRAMMAR. The verb Trtrojuat alone has, beside the collateral forms Trorlojuat and TTioTCLOfiai, another Troraojuat. 10. Verbs in w purum sometimes take the termination -(jkw, retaining their radical vowel, jr]pau) and yrjpaaKco, iXaoimaL and iXaaKOjuaij (paaK(o from OAH, (whence (jyrjaw, see § 109. I. 2.) pvojiai and pvGKo- juai, and lengthening the radical vowel yiyvuxiKu) from TNOO. But those in eoj most commonly become -i, {to be like, resemble,) riTvaiao for r£v%w. The case is different with a.\v(TK(i), hdd9AO. 13. The trisyllabic and polysyllabic verbs in avw, and some in aivio, have, however, a theme in w for their radical form, which (coming from the aor. 2., see § 111, 3.) produces some tenses, as if of iw : av^ix) and av^avo), jdXaaravii) from BAAST12, aor. 2. £j3Xa- oTov, fut. piiXaGTi](Hx)y airex^dojuiaL and aire-xOdvoimai, see also below djuaprdvM, alcTOdvofjiai, &c. — oXiaOdviiJ and oXicrOaivoj, a07\ 2. wXicrOov, fut. oXiaOiiaoj. The verbs in dvw usually insert a nasal sound in the radical syllable of the verb, and shorten the radical vowel, when it is long, in this manner, Xdiro) and XifiTrdvu), cpevyu) and ^uyyavw, Ipevyto and epvyydvtx), X/j^w and XavOdvu). See also below, avdavio, Oiyyavoj, Xa/xjSavcu, Xayxo^voj, fxavOdvw, TrvvOdvofiaif Tvy\dvii), Ohs. 8. With respect to the quantity of the doubtful vowels before the final syl- lable v(t}, it may be remarked in general that tVw and vvm are long, ex. gr. Kpiv(o, opivio, j3paSvvio, but dvu short. However, if we follow the Epics, ^9dvb), iKavo), Ki\dv(3i), are long : but the Attics are so far deviating, that they not only make riv(t), a and I'lpntov ; aKiXKio, Tp's(p(o, oruygw, dpdpiaKd), opvvfxi. Even in those instances where there is no aor. 2. the aor. 1 . observes the same analogy, ex. gr. fieOvu), I am drunk, ttXtjOoj, I am full of something ; sfxsQvcra, I made drunk, e7rXr](Ta, I filled {fieOvaKM, TrifnrXrjfxi). In all those instances where there are two futures, the fut. act. has the cans, meaning of the aor. 1. and the fut. of the middle voice that of the immediative. II. Perfect. In all those forms where the active forms separate into the immed. and caus. meaning, the perf. 1. and 2. have always the immed., and side therefore with the aor. 2.- ; ex. gr. ^vb), (pvaio, e, {vivcofiai,) oixvvfxi, bpdu), 7caiZ,u), 7racr;i^w, TrtTrrw, ttXsuj, irvku), psoj, tiktu), rp£%w, rpwyw, (psvyii), x^^^' ^^ must, however, be observed that practice was as little fixed and constant in this respect as in others : many fut. of the act. may be met with where other writers used the fut. med.^ ; but we must carefully examine 1.) whether such passages may not be corrupted, and 2.) whether the writer does not belong to the late writers, or what are called Koivoi, who often forsook again the Attic usage in this respect *. 6. But the fut. med. was also employed as pass. : yet this usage was not so steady in particular verbs as the preceding ; it depended chiefly on the exigencies of euphony, and conse- quently, with poets, of the metre. In polysyllabic verbs the still longer fut. pass, was thus avoided ; ex. gr. u)(f)e\i)(jovTaL for io(pE\ri6rf(jovrai, iripd-^^adai (Herod. 7, 149.) for 7rtpLe(})9ri(T£(j6ai, and the same in aficpiajdriTdv, ojuLoXoyttv, ctTraXXaTTtiv, (^vXcltthv, 3 Notliing, for instance, is more easy or common than to mistake the Attic form of the 2 2^^'>'^' ''*^^' "^ ^h (foi" y?) f^J^ t^^-t of the act. in tiq. Hence in several passages, where we have ^evK^Lg, for instance, we ought to read tpev^H, which form of the 2 pers. was not so familiar to transcribers. ^ The learner must be careful not to mistake the conj. aor. 1. for the fut., ex.gr. in Nvv oLKOvad) avOig, § 139. Obs. 1. VERBS. 243 yviivaZeiv, a^iK^v, Zvi^iovv. There are, however, instances also of shorter verbs, as j^Xaiperai, Opixperai^ ola^rai, Obs. 8. It may easily be supposed that this was rather uncommon in verbs, of which the med. voice had a siguif. which corresponded too closely with the trans- itive act. one ; but it occurred still less, and perhaps not at all, in those verbs of which the fut. med., according to Text 4, steadily had the signif, of the act. Obs. 9. There are very few instances, and these few chiefly in Epic poetry, where the aor. ined. too occurs as pass. Yet some compounds of ax^oOai are also used passively by the Attics, as Karaax^aOai, ofxtvoQ, Eurip. Hipp. 27. Plato Phcedr. 49. (TV(Tx6[j,evog, Thecet. 58. 7. We rank among the instances of an anomalous signif. of the tenses those in which the perf. has the signif. of the pres, tense. We shall easily conceive this transition from the former tense to the latter, when we consider that in using the perf. we generally think less of the action which is past than of the state which resulted from it. Thus TWvrjKa properly signifies / have died, but on thinking of the state which resulted from it, as still continuing, it means / am dead : and in this sense it is a pres, tense. In other verbs the original perf. was still more lost sight of, ea^. gr. Kraofxai, I acquire, consequently KeKT-niuLaL, I have acquired. But the consequence of acquisition is possession; hence KiKTmiai was taken to denote I possess, without thinking any longer of any previous acquisition. In all these cases it follows of course that the plusq. becomes the imp erf. Obs. 1 0. Thus it is not exact to assign to the verb ddm in the pres. tense both significations / see and hiow ; e'iSoj meant / see, perceive, and the perf. olda, I have perceived, and consequently knoio. Obs. 11. But when ideas were nearly related^ the pres. tense itself miglit easily take the meaning of the new derivative pres. expressed by the perf. or vice versa. Thus it happened, especially in poetry, that the pres. and perf. frequently had the same signif. ; ex. gr. [xeXsi, properly, it goes to the heart, it concerns, fisfxrjXe, it went to tlie heart; hence both signify ii grieves; ^IpKw, I perceive, deSopKa, I have per- ceived ; hence both mean / see. Obs. 12, The application of these principles to occurring instances, of which the most familiar are noticed in the list of Anomalous Verbs, must be left to individual notice, as the same case may often be viewed in different lights. But we must particularly notice some instances, where in Epic poetry the plusq. supplies the place of the aor. or of the imperf., though the perf. of that verb does not occur as a pres. tense. See in the list ^aivu), (SdWu). Obs. 13. The case of the perf. becoming the pres. tense, is particularly frequent in verbs denoting a sounding and raising of the voice ; Ksicpaya, I cry out ; and further, XsXaKa, ysyujva, dvcjya, (3i^pvxa, [i'E[iVKa, nkfxriKa, KSKXayya, rsrpiya. R 2 214 A GREEK GRAMMAR. § 114. — List of Anomalous or Irregular Verbs, PREFATORY REMARKS. The following List comprises the anomalous verbs which occur in common prose^ in the most familiar dialects^ and in poetry. Whenever such a verb is not of frequent occurrence, or when it is poetical, it is printed in small type ; the same is the case with verbs in use, stated merely on account of some anomaly, with which they are attended in poets. Whatever refers in all other verbs to their use in prose is printed in a larger type. 2. Forms which are completely obsolete, and merely pre- supposed for the purpose of explanation, are printed in the List and in the whole work in capital or initial letters, that the eye may not accustom itself by the usual print to a number of use- less imaginary verbs, and thus become less able to detect barbarisms. But every theme which really occurs, were it but once, in the ancient poets, is printed in the usual type ; yet it does not follow that the 1 pers. of the pres. tense must occur on that account. Any form of thejore^., and even imperf., may in most instances serve as a proof or evidence of the whole pres, 3. The imaginary obsolete themes (which, however, have not been stated in every place, as the more advanced scholar may supply them of himself) are grammatically formed after the analogy of other existing verbs, but their existence is by no means historically proved ; whence it happens that the same form is often derived from different themes in different Gram- mars, according as one grammarian judges of the origin of a form differently from the other. 4. In addition to the anomalous part of each verb stated in the List, its use, as far as it is not understood of itself, is fully explained ; but always (according to § 104, 2.) under the sup- position that the usual /z<^., the aor, 1. and j^er/. 1. are the tenses in use of any verb of which the fut., aor. and perf. are not expressly mentioned. Whenever there is an aor. 2. or perf. 2., or when the fut, med. supplies the fut. act.^ these forms are fully stated. The numbers 1 and 2 are seldom annexed to these tenses, because they are known of themselves. If, for in- stance, a/mapTuvio is solely attended with aor. rtfiapTov, it shows that this verb barely has this aor. 2. and no aor. 1. — When ANOMALOUS VERBS. 245 MED. is found alone, it denotes that the med. or middle voice occurs. 5. The verbal forms to be met with in Greek writers are generally indicated simply by the 1 pers. indie, of the tense employed, but sometimes single forms are stated, as a. pers. of the pi., a conjunctive, &c. This is done for safety, because in some more uncommon Epic and other forms we cannot always conclude that the 1 pers. indie, belonging to them must have been in use. 6. The same signif., be it act., pass., med., or intrans., which \\\e pres. has, is likewise that of every tense to which there is no particular signif. subjoined. Thus, for instance, if with j3ouAo/xat ihefut. med. P>ov\i]GOixai, and the aor.pass. e(5ovX{]9riv are noticed, it show^s that only these two forms occur in the sense of the pres. tense f^ovXofjLai, and that consequently there is neither an aor. t(5ov\Y)(Tdjur)v, nor afut. j3ouXr]0//cro/iat occurring. 7. To enable the student to consult the List more readily, obsolete and imaginary forms have been inserted in alphabetical order wherever it was thought necessary, and not only those of which the supposition is calculated for elucidation, but also many specious ones, when a change not grounded in the regular conjugation (by syncope, for instance) is referred to a fic- titious theme. Supposing, therefore, that he knows, on read- ing the inflections which occur, how to form a regular theme according to the general rules, he will find the radical form in its proper place along with the needful information of what is actually in use; thus, for instance, for k-n-pdOr^v, he will find nPA, see TTtTTjOaO-fCW. 8. The List, moreover, is so complete, that nothing occurs in known prose-writers and poets which does not find its expla- nation here. Whatever is met with in authors of less note, or in less familiar dialects, has been noticed here, and in the whole course of this Grammar, only as far as it explains the connexion between the grammatical forms and the dialects, or tends to elucidate one particular dialect. 9. With regard to Epic poetry, the student must bear in mind that the later Epics of the Alexandrian and subsequent periods, like Callimachus, Apollonius, were mere learned poets, who did not by any means derive all the forms which they em- ployed, from the actual stock of the language, but copied or imitated them from Homer and other ancient poets. Nothing 246 A GREEK GRAMMAR. but what is found in Homer and Hesiod, and in some frag- ments of those old times, can safely be looked on as belonging to the general analogy of the language. The peculiarities of later writers may also belong to it, since they had older authors, lost to us, before their eyes ; but historical certainty is wanting. Whenever we have been able fully to trace the form- ation and use of a verb in the old writers, we have had no regard to the peculiarities of the later ones, or it is only in very important instances that we have referred to them by name. — It also follows from § 1, 11. that whatever is noted as Homeric, (expecially with the mention of Homer,) does not exactly occur exclusively in Homer's Poems, but is likewise to be met with in the subsequent Epic Poets, to whom Homer served as a model. 10. And lastly we observe that we have generally omitted those collateral forms, which, though perfectly synonymous with a form more in use, do not create any difficulty, being either a pres. tense, or easily reducible to a pres. tense, and consequently readily found in the Dictionary. All which Gram- mar can do wdth respect to the formation of such collateral forms is to direct the attention of the learner to some general analogies; and this has been done in the preceding Sections, A. 'Aaw (/ hurt). Homer has, of this theme, the 3 pres. pass. aaTai, aor. 1. act. aaaa, contr. acra, {Od, A. 61.) pass, and med. adcrOrjv, aaaajurjv^. Both a are sometimes long, some- times short; the case is the same with the verbal adj. aarog, whence with the a priv. aaarog ( v^ — ow ), invincible, which cannot be hurt, inviolable^ Horn. From this old form came the subst. arr] (a), and thence shortening the a the new verbal form draii) used by the Attic Poets. Compare also aw, / satiate. ayafxai, {I admire,) pres. and imperf. like "iGTaixai, fut. ayaGo/uiai, aor. rjyadOrjv, Epic r^yacrdfjirjv. The Epic jyres. tenses dydofiai, dyaiofiai, occur with the collateral meanings of to envy, to be angry. * AQ might also be assumed as the radical theme, from which the other forms Avere derived by lengthening. But the lengthening of a long vowel which did not originate in contraction, (aw, acw, daa,) would be contrary to analogy : ddrai, on the contrary, really belongs to aw, I satiate. The Homeric verbal adjectives ddarog and oLTog are, moreover, best explained in this way. See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 56. ANOMALOUS VERBS. 247 ayeipu), {I assembk,) per/, pass, dyrjyfpfiai, aor. 2. med. infin. Epic dyepeaOai) part, dypofxevog. See § 110, 4. For rjyepkQovTai see § 112, 11. ayvvixL, (/ break,) fid. a^u) (§ 106, 8). The preterites have the syllabic augment, (§ 84. Obs. 5.) aor. ta^a, (Horn. ri^a,) aor. pass, layrjv («). The per/. 2. eaya {Ion. tnya) has the pass, signif. I am broken, forced asunder (§ 113. Obs. 3). The aor. 2. pass. Idyrjv was also shortened in the Epic metre. Compare e7rXt)yT]v and KaTETrXdyijv, This augment is found even in forms which from their nature ought not to have any; ex. gr.,2^art'icip. compos. Kared^avTeg, Lysias p. 158. Reiske^. — The Kavd^aiQ of Hesiod stands for icard^aiQ {opt. aor. ^). dyopevuj, see httuv. \ dypofisvog, see dyeipu. ayw, {I lead, bring,) has in aor. 2. a redupl., i\yayov, ayayuv, &c. (§ 85. Obs. 2.) perf.^xP- ^^^ «7^'?ox«5 (§ ^^- ^^^' ^•) P^'^f* pass, ^yiiai. — MED. The aor, 1. T/^a, d%ai, a^acrOai, occurs also, but seldom in the Attics *. See § 96. Obs. 9. about the Homeric imper. d^sre. 'A A — The forms ciao), aaai, {to satiate,) which are classed under this root, may be seen below in a(o, but the following belong hither, viz. adrjaai, adrjKlvai, {to be satiated, weary of a thing,) as if from AAEQ, which in Homer are commonly written a'^'^r\Gai, &c.' aSfTv, &c. see av^avuj, dsipu), see alpcj, \ 'AEQ, see dijfii and aw, 2. drj^u, (J bloic, breathe, see aoj,) keeps its t] everywhere, injin. di]vai, pass, drjuaij commonly with the act. signif., but also to be bloicn, Od. ?. 131. alvkw, see § 95. Obs. 4. atpEw, {I take,) aipi]art. dX/xevog, liraXfitvog^. The conj. is also commonly, but erroneously, found with the lenis, dXrjrai, and shortened dXerai {Ohs. V. 15. to § 103). AAO, — see aXio-zcojuat and avaXiaKU). aXv(TK(i), {I shun, escape,) fut. aXv^w ^, &c. It is different from aXvu) or aXvacTU), Hom. (I am beside myself.) aX(l}aivu) or aXcpdvtj, [I acquire,) aor. 2. ^X^ov, aX<^ot/xf. ajuLapravu), {I err,) fut* afiapTrjcroiJiai, perf. r]}iapTr]Ka, aor, r]fiagTOv (§ 113, 13). Instead of ijfjLaprop Homer has i'][i(3poTov with the lenis, (compare aXXofxai,) with a transposition, (§ 96. Obs.T.) and with the insertion of j3 according to § 18. 06s. 1, and compare § 110, 11,2. Note. ai.ip>Xi, &c. opt. yvoirjv, part, yvovg, (§ 110, 6.) perf. tyvwKa, pass. iyvwa^iaL. In the causative signif. (§ 113, 2.) to persuade, which the compound ava- yiyv(o(XK(t) has, pai'ticularly with the lonians, it forms the aor. 1. dv&yvojaa. yodo), (/ bewail,) aor. 2. eyoov, II. ?. 500. (§ 96. 06s. 5.) yprjyopsu), see kydpu). rQN, see ysyu)va. A. AA, — daioj. The forms belonging to these themes have four principal signif. : to divide, give to eat, burn, teach. 1. 5a'uo, (/ divide, particularly with a sharp instrument, / distribute,) in this form and signif. has merely the jip?'€s. and imper/., and is only poetical ; but the fut. Sd(TOfjiai, aor. kdaadfiijv, as depon. med., have the same meaning, and are also employed in prose ; the per/. d'sSa(7fjiai has the pass, tense, (/ am divided, distributed,) and its third pers. pi. dtSaiarai adheres again to the root daicj for the sake of euphony. Compare fiaiofxai kfiacrdnrjv, vaiu) kvacrdjxriv. The pres. dareoixai (which see below) bears the same relation to these forms as Trarlojuai to TrdaaaOai. 2. daivvfii, {I give to eat, treat, feast,) med. daiwixai, {I consume, revel,) 2 pers. daivvo, (see § 107. Obs. 4, 4.) according to the analogy of verbs in vvfxi, makes its tenses from Saioj, which, however, never has this signif. in the pres. tense, dalcroj, daiaofiai, &c. 3. daiuj in the pres. tense signifies also to burn,hlndle ^''. In i\\Qperf. dsdrjUj (§ 97j 4.) it has the intrans. sense of the med. daio[jiai, (Z burn, am on fire,) aor. 2. {eda6[xt]v,) 3 conj. Sdrjrai. 4. AAQ combines the causative sense to teach with the hnmediative one to learn. In the first we have only the aor. 2. tdaov or dedaov, (§ 83. Obs. 7.) to which belongs also the Homeric dsdae, but in the sense of learning, perf. {Skdaa,) deddaai, dtda that the intrans. signif. is given to this form. Compare II. a. 206, 227. 1^ Compare Ki'na in KUfiai. Both are old fut. from AAQ, KEQ, in the form of the fut. 2. instead of da'sw, Kt'su), with the contr. of the first two vowels, as in the gen. K\eiog, (from KXteog,) for kKsovq. See § 53. 06s. 5. 256 A GREEK GRAMMAR. KaTaSapOeiQ) (fallen asleep,) which form may be considered as aor. 1. for i^dpa9r)v, (compare KiKcipQai for -adai, and iripQai in 7r£p0w,) or as a solitary instance of an aor. 2. pass, with Q. (see § 100. 06s. 9.) darkofiai, (see daiu) 1.) aor. 1. injiii. duTkaaOai, Hesiod. E. 795. See § 96. 06s. I. AAQ, see daioj. dkarai, see doarai. \ del, see dsto. | deiScj, see diire?s. of the indie, occurs only in later Poets,) the pass, form tidofxai, eladnijv, (iu(jd}jir]v, hiadixevog,) for to be seen, and to seem, Lat. videri. See about the signif. of this verb, § 113. Obs. 10. and about the special forms used in the sense of knowing, {olda, ydeiv, sicrojttai, &c.) § 109. III. siKU), perf. toLKa, [I resemble, appear,) used as a pres. part. loiKihg, Attic uKihg, especially in the neuter elkoq, see § 109. III. 5. Note {Ion. oTk-a, oIkujq, oIkoq,) plusq. ewkelv, (§ S4i. Obs. 9.) fut. a|w. (The verb I give ivay is altogether regular.) Like uKujg, eiKa and elicivai occur now and then in Attic Poets for the sake of the metre. The^r^s. e'lKio occurs nowhere, and the imperf. elics (for i(iJKei) merely II. , (see below,) in the particular signif. of which to beat, strike, the aor. iXcrai (ex. gr. Od. £. 132.) occurs in Homer. Hither belongs also, according to § 112, 9. the j^^^'^Q- ^oXriro, icas crowded, pressed, Apoll. 3, 471. See Buttm. Lexilogus, II. 88. and 7t>, 7- (ifiapTai, see MEIPOMAI. | eifxl and eJfii, see § 108. IV. V. S2 260 A GREEK GRAMMAR. eiTTHv, {to say,) an aor. 2. indie, nirovy {Epic hnrovy) imper. unl, (comp. 7rpo£t7r£, see Obs. I. 4. 1. to § 103.) more usual than the rather Ionic aor, 1. uira, (§ 96. Obs. 1.) imper. Iwov, (erroneously httov, see Exc. I. ad Plat. Menon), The Attics^ however, use uirag as well as Hireq, and preferably UTjaTE, dirdrto, &c.^^ With this aor. are intimately connected the fut. Ipw, {Ion. Ipeoj,) from t'ipio, which Poets use as the pres. tense — and of PEQ the pei-f. tlpijKa, (§ 83. Obs. 3.) pe)-f. pass. e"Lp7jfiai,aor. pass. IpprjQ rjv &nd eppeOrjv, (un-Attic dprjOrjv, (ipsQrjv,) pr]9)]vai, fut. 3. as usual /^t^. pass. eiprjGop.ai^'^. Verbal adjective^ prjTtog, prjTOQ. ^rifxl is used as the pres. tense of this verb, (as we remarked above, § 109. I. 2.) on some occasions ayopevtiv, which properly signifies to speak in public^ for instance, /ca/cwg dyopeveiv Tivd, kokuiq ehroi' : — dyopiveiv is always used in most of the compounds, ex. gr. aTrayopevu), I forbid, dirtiTrov, I forbade ; in some \kyio, for instance, a^riXsyw, dvTtiTTov. The Poetical imper. lairtTe comes from a collateral form with an inter- calated a. Compare XdaKO), ItaKOJ, fxicyyo). The Poetical ivkiru} or kwirru) is also very anomalous ; it is identical with itiriiv, of which (r/j/jcTTrov) eviOTrov is to be considered as the aor., since we meet with no pres. indie. kvicTTru),^^ and the infin. is circumflexed, [evicr'Trtiv, Od. y. 93.) fut. Evi(T7rr](T(o or kvitpio. 26 ei^yti), {I conclude, shut outj) fut. dp^w, &c. iLQjvvfxi, with the spiritus asper, I confine^ shut up, fut. up^to, &c. The ancient and Epic language has for both signif. tpyw, whence 3 pl.perf. kepxaTai, and without the augment, epxarai, they are shut up. Hpw, see ftTTtty and IpicrOai. But in the sense of connecting in order, it is a particular verb, aor. 1. upa, (Herod. 3, 87. l^dpag, exserens),perf hpfxm.part. kppivog, (Horn.) sppevog (Herod. 4, 190). ^^ To assume the theme EIIQ, as is usually done, is needlessly adopting the ano- maly, which the augment si continues thi'ough all the moods. A theme EIIIQ agrees perfectly well with a radical form EII — (whence errog). 2^ Grammarians increase the number of the themes of this verb, without any reason, by admitting kpsot, which absolutely is either the regular /wi. of dpu), or the pres. tense in the sense of asking, (see below.) It is assumed as a theme liere on account of t'IprjKa, and merely for this spso) is ranked among the verbs which take the temporal augment ti. But as PEQ unquestionably is one of the themes of this verb on account of lppr]Brjv, pfjfia, the analogy of tiXrjcpa, ufxaprai, (§ 83. Obs. 3.) is a most natural inducement to connect e'ipijKa with the same theme. 2* II. X. 839. and elsewhere IviaTTO) is co}ij. aor. 2° Just as diSdaKO) and dXixTKu) omit the (T in the fut., so does ivi(nrM. This fut. is, therefore, no ax'gument to class ivnTTio here, (though from its form it certainly might belong hither,) and as the ^p/rs. iviiTTtiv, and its kindred forms riviTTaTTiv and ivicrau), when they stand alone in Homer, never signify to say, but to scold, they must be I'emoved from the radical form f'nrtXv, and be stated separately below (see kviiVTU}): though there is alsoap-es. kv'nrTb) from evsTToj used at least in Pind. Pyth. 4, 358. where we have tviTTTwv for tvkirojv. See a moi'e detailed account of both verbs in Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 63. p. 279. ANOMALOUS VERBS. 261 e'iwOa, see 10 a>. aXavvw, (J drive,) fut. eXaau), {a,) &c. perf. IXrjXaKa, pass. perf. lX7]Xaij.ai, aor. riXaQr\v. Verbal adjective iXaroq (with later writers iXiiXaafxai, y]XaGdr]v, cXaoro^). The theme tXaw seldom occurs in the pres. tense, but IXw, «Xag, i\^, &c. infin. k\q.v, is in pi'ose the Attic fut. (§ 95. 06s. 12.) See also iiKio, IXaai, and about i\r}\ddaTO, see p. 176. the Note, and about iXrjXaixevog, {^proparox. ex.gr. Av3.i. 176.) § 111. 06s. 2. EAEYG— , EAG, see fpxo/iai. cAkw, (/ drag,) augment ei, § 84, 2. fut, cX^o) and IXkiictu), aor. elX^a and stX/cvca, pass, merely ciXjcuo-juat, dXKVdOr^v, from EAKYQ.— MED. eXttw, {I give hopes, I cause to hope,) tXirofxai, (I expect, 1 hope,) perf. toXira the same with iXirofjiai, plusq. as imperf, IwXtthv (§ 84. 0^5. 6 and 9). 'EA — , see elXo). 'EA — , see alpeu). ENErK — , ENEIK, &c. see ^spoj. \ svsttui, see s'nrelv. ivijvoda, an old perf. which presupposes a theme ENE9Q, EN9Q : sTrevrjvoOt, KUTevrjvoOe, (is, sits, lies on something,) Horn. See § 97. 06s. 2, and compare above di>r}vo9a. ei^Qtiv, i]i'9or, see Ep^Ojiai. iviTTTU), (I scold 27j) has two forms for the aor. in Homer, either Ivsvitttov, more correctly Iv'svLttov, (see Buttm. Lexilogus, 1. 63, p. 282, and compare above § 85. 06s. 2.) or according to § 85. 06s. 3, with the rediipl. at the end (3 pers.) i^viTraTTSv. IviaTTfi), kvvsTTuj, see (iTrelv. | evvv/jn, see § 108. III. koXrjTO, see e'iXu). \ iiravpdv, k-navplaKonai, &c. see AYP. 'En — , see siTreiv. ETTLCTTaiuLaif (/ know, understand,) 2 pers. iTriaraaai, poetically eTTLCTTa or liriaTtj, (see the Note to Soph. Philoct. 798.) imperf. ^Trio-ra^rjv, (so far it goes after iarafxai, conj. and opt. see § 107. Obs. III. 5.) fut. l-nrLGry^GOfiaL, aor. rjTnarijOrjv. Verbal adj. kirtaTrjTog. tTTO) (/ am busy, or occupied, about something, see Schneider^s Gr. Diet.) This old verb, of which some compounds (especially- dik-rrcj) have been retained in prose, has the augment u, {dulTTov,) and an aor. tairov, ciriiv, cTTrojv (sTTEcrTroi/, linaTrdv, [xsracTTrihv, but all rather poetical). To avoid mistakes, compare 'iaTitrt and Ivetto; in dirtiv. STToiiai, {I follow, attend,) inr6ixr]v, t\ponai. This middle voice, which is much used, has an aor. corresponding to that of the act. sttoj, excepting that it has 27 See, about the difference of the forms IvIttw and the fut. evkxpuj, the preceding NoU. 262 A GREEK GRAMMAR. the sjnntusasper in the indie. : iaTr6f.ii]v, aTtkaBai, airov, {air'io, (jttiIo, Horn.) which Lattex' foiniis occur chiefly in the compounds, iTriaTrov, &c. The okl poets have the £ also in the other moods of the aor. scrTrwjuat, eaTTscrOai, kaTrofxevoQ'^^. But the pres. scTrtrat, Od. 6. 82G, is a false reading for £p;^frat : see especially id(pBi] above. £|Oati), (/ love,) poetically Ipafiai, (after '[(rrafim,) takes its tenses only from the pass, form, ao7\ i)pd(76r}v (poetically i)pa(Ta- ju>]v). The pres. tense epwfxai, epaaOai, £pw/ifvoc, is a real pass. Another I'egular Ipdu) is used merely in compounds, i^epdaai, fo pour out ; Ka-epdaai, Sec. EPFQ and ^pdio, see ps^w : — tpyw, see also in etpyw. EpELKU), to tear to pieces, in the transitive sense, but in the aor. 2. i]piKov it is intrans. (§ 113, 2.) ipuiTWi {I throw down, overthrow,) has this causative (§ 113, 2.) signif. in the fut., aor. 1. &c. ; epipnrro, plusq. pass. Epic, instead of Ipiipi-ro, § 85. Obs. 1. but the aor. 2. and perf.2. 7]pi7rov, kpiipiTTa, have the immediative signif. to fall down — Epic med. avrjptiilap-nv, he carried off on high, carried away. spsio, see s'nreiv and epsaOai. epitiw, (/ strive, contend,) is regular, perf. pass. IpripLafiai with a strengthened signif. of the^?'e5. There is another form Ipicaivio, and (according to § 112, 13.) IpdriaaaQai, II. \b. 792, where the i is long for the sake of the metre. Ipiadai, [to ask,) inf. of i]p6p.r]v, c. tpwjjiai, imper. ipov, an aorist. Flit. kpi](JO}iaL. The lonians in their prose have also a pres. tense, eipofiai, but use the imperf. elpofirjv, with elpecrOai, thus accented, and this is likewise aor. in the other moods, fiit. alp{]/. l^oixm, (§ 95. Obs. IS.) perf. kdiidoKa, perf. pass, ^^ij^eafxai, aor. pass. rjSiaOriv, — aor. act. ecpayov (from (PAFO). — Verbal adj. l^earog. Part of the forms of edio come fi'om the old formation, fut. iSsao), &c. (§ 112. Obs. 3.) where the e in the pe^f. act. was changed into o, (compare § 97. 06s. 1, 2.) which in Homer remains also in the pass. kdridoijiaL, Idrj- dorai. Homer has also the perf. idrjda, and the infin. pres. 'iSfJievai, (§ 1 10, 5.) for ideiv, eCsfxtvaL. Poets have a shorter form in the pres. £cr0a>. iarrere, 'idTtov, icTTronrjv, see tiirelv and sttw. evade, see avddvoj. £vd(i), KaSsvdd), {I sleep,) fut. tuSr^orw, Ka9£V^r}(j(i), augm. KaOr^vBov, KadavBov, and eKaOevdov. cvpio-Kcu, (/ fi7id^) from 'EYP12, aor. £tIpov, imperf. evp£, fut. avp{](TiD, &c. (§ 112, 10.) aor. pass. evpWijv, (§ 95. Obs. 4.) Verbal adj. EvpeTog.—Augm. § 84. Obs. 2.— MED. Uu- Attic writers form the aor. med. like the aor. 1. evpdfir]v, instead of tvp6iJ,r]v (§ 96. Note to Obs. 1). 264 A GREEK GRAMlMAR. txO(i), {T hate,) only in the pres, tense, and poetical, whence a MED. [Ix^avofiaij) cnrex^dvoiLiaL, (/ incur hatred,) fut, aTTfx^'Vo/xaf, &c. aor. 7]\06iir]v, a'Trr]xd6fXYiv ^^, perf, cnr- i)xd}]fiaL, I am hated. See § 112, 13. tX'^} [I have,) imperf, flx^^? A^* ^'5^^' (with the spiritus asper, see § 18. Obs. 4.) — aor. (as if it were from EXO,) i(Jxov, (Tx^^v, conj. (TX^s ^XV^y ^^' (compounds i7apacr;(w, irapaaxyQ} opt. axoLr]v, (see the Note to Obs. II. 3. to § 103.) imper. (Tx^Q} (§ ^^^} 6*) but in the compounds also irdpadx'^i med. laxofinvi imper. crxow, [nagdaxov^) — whence a new fut. axriJ, perf. Eo-^rj/ca, &c. — aor. pass. Icrx^Oriv. — Verbal adj. EKTog and ax^Tog. The aor. (rxtlv has produced a collateral foi'm of the pres. to-xtu, which is preferred in some particular signif. {to Jiold, occupy, &c.) to which of course the fut. (rx?7(Tw more properly belongs ^o. There is an old per/, of ix(o, 6x(*iKa {II. (5. 218. cruyoxwKort^^). We must also notice the following anomalous compounds of fxw : dvsxo). This verb, when in the middle voice {avsxsaOai) it merely signi- fies to endure, bear, has the double augm. in the imperf. and aor. T^vsixof^rjv, riviaxofxriv (§ 86. Ohs. 6). a[X7rex(j^, {T wrap round, environ,) imperf. afnruxov, fut. dfKpsKbi, cior. riinnaxov, ajUTrtaxtir ^^, MED. dfiTrexofiai or diiinaxvovnai, {I clothe my- self in, wear,) d^cps^ofxai, aor. tJ/xttictxojuj/v. v-maxvovnai, {I promise,) Ion. viriaxoiiai, (Hom. Herod.) fut. viroaxn- aojxai, aor. vTreaxofirjv, imper. vrroaxov, perf. vTrtaxj^juat. txfjuj, {I boil, cook,) fut. k\pr)i the spiritus asper was converted into a lenis on account of the x (which was done much more frequently in the old language). 31 This is erroneously derived from OXOQ, and so is olx^^Ka (see o(%o/Ltat) from OIXOQ. Its true derivation becomes obvious from the comparison with the subst. oKwxd. The simplest pe7f. of t^^ is oxa, and with the augm. ibxa ; thus that of 01 XQ is £rf , tK(jJov. (§ 105. 06s. 10. Note.) Zevyvv/bii, {I join,) fut. Z^v^oj) &c. (§ 112, 14.) aor. 2. pass, IZyyW' Zi^vvvfXL, [I gird,) fut. ^wcrw, &c. perf. pass. tZ^afxaL (§ 112, 14). MED. H. J7fiai. see § 108. II. | rj}ii, ijv, see (prjfjtl, § 109. I. i^fivb) {I sink). The Homeric vTrsixvrjfiVKe {II. %. 491.) is most correctly derived from this verb. It may be assumed that, whenever a verb began with a long vowel, this vowel was shortened by the redupl. : thus IfxrifivKa. The metre required a doubling of the first ft, instead of which the poets used fj,v, as is done in other words ; ex.gr. aTrdXafivoQ from TraXafir], vojvvfxvog for vojvvfxog. rirrdofiai, riffadofiai, only in the pass. The Ionic writers have kaaoviiai^ aor. kaaa)9r}v. e. eA"N — , see Qvr]r]v, (§ 18.) aor. 1. lOd^Oriv (Herod.), pei'f. pass, ridafiixai, reOdcpOai. 9A$ — ;pe?/. as pres. TsOrjTra, {I am astonished,) where the second aspirata is changed, whilst in the aor. eraipov the first is changed. (See § 18, 2.) QAQ, an Epic defective verb, of which there occurs the aor. 1. act. 9rj(7ai, {to nurse, suck,) and the med. 9ri — , see rplpw. [ GPEX— , see rp^xw. OpvTTTfjj, {I break ifi pieces,) aor. 2. pass. Irpvcpriv (§ 18, 1). OpwcTKO), (I leap, skip,) made of GOPtl, aor. Wopov, fat. Oopov- fiai, Ion, Oopiofxai, see § 110, 11. eY4>— , see rixpu). \ Ovu), see § 18. Obs. 2, and § 95. 06s. 4. I. iSpooj, see § 105. Obs. 6. ISpvio, {I set, place,) has in Homer and in the later koivoi the aor. 1. pass. IdpvvOrjv, as if it were from 'lAPTNQ ^*. "iZ^, KadiZ^i {I seat, sit down, Med, I sit myself down^ fat. KaOitj, (for KaOiad), according to § 95, 9.) MED, KaOiZv- (TO/biaL, aor. eKdOicra, compare eZojuai, LKvioum, (/ come,) more commonly d(l>iKVEO}.iai, fut, 'iE,oiuiai, aor, LK6fir)v, perf, lyfiai, d(j)XyfJLaL, infin, dcpi^^Oai, The Epics use in the pres. and imperf. the radical form Vkw with the aor. l^ov (§ 96, 9). This pres. Vkw has a long i, hence in the Epic all the foi-ms belonging to the act., which are merely the pres. and imp>erf., always occur as long only. The aor. 2. IkojUJ^j/ properly has a short i, which is long in the indie, simply through the augment ; hence in the Epics, who may neglect the augment, it is sometimes short and sometimes long, but in the collateral moods {iKsaOai, iKoifirjv, Sec.) it is constantly short. The derivative form hcdvoj has a short i in the i^res. tense. See about ccTriicaTai the 06s. IV. 3. to § 103. iXdcTKojuaL, [I conciliate, propitiate,) fut, iXdaojuLcu, (a,) from the more uncommon 'IXd/uiai, for which Homer also has IXdoiuai, The act, had the intrans, signif. to be propitious, whence 33 The forms Oiyeiv, Oiycjv, which occur, ought probably to be accented like the aor. 3* Compare § 112, 12, and dfjLTrvvvOr] under 7rv8w,and the Epic superl. iOvvrara from iOvg, § 115. 06s. 6. ANOMALOUS VERBS. 267 poets had the imper. tXrj^i and "ika^i, conj, and opt. perf. (as ap?'es. tensej i\i]Kii}, 1\i]koihl. 'iTTTanai, see Traronai. | 'i(TT]f.ii, see § 109. III. K. KAA — 5 1.) KSKaajjiai, KSKadiuai, see Kaivvfiai. 2.) KSKuSeXv, fut. rjcjeiv, &c. see KTjdoj and x^Z^- KaOs^ofxai, KciOevCo), KaOrinai, KaOi^co, see s^o^tat, evCio, rjnai, t^w. Kaiivfiat (/ a??i of' distinct'iGn, excel). To this rer6 belongs the per/. KSK.a(T[j.ai., Dor. KSKaSfxai ^^, which has the same signif. Kaiwy (/ bio'n, set fire to.) is transitive^ Attic kcllo, (a and with- out contr.) fut. KavG(i}, &c. (§ 95. Obs, 9.) pass. aor. 1. kKavOi]v, and aor. 2. eKarjv (a). Verbal adj. KavarioQ, KavGTog, KavTog. The Epics have an aor. 1. without the a, iKrja (§ 96. 06s. 1) ; whence arises, through sliortening the j] into e, the part. Ksag m Attic poets (^sch. Agarn. 858. Eurip. I^hes. 97). With the Epics this f is again changed into £1, (compare (jreluj, fSeicj, &c. § 107- Obs. 4.) imper. Ktiov,med. iceiavro, and the cow/. ne'ioiLtv, (for Ki)wjxiv, see O65. Y. 15, to § 103.) which is in the II. ij. 333. instead of t\\efut. (see § 139. Obs. 1. I. 4.) The 2^^'^s. tense kt^o), ke/w, and inf.n. KaTaKsisp.iv, {II. //. 408.) are doubtful. KaXi(jt), {I call,) fut. koXectoj, Attic koXw, licaXeGra, KEKXr]Ka, ejcXi}- 6r]v, &c. (§ 110, 11.) peif. pass. KEKXvfJ-cih (^ «^^^ called, named^) opt. KEKXijimriv, KEK\yjo, &c. § 98. Obs. 9. — MED. Kctfivu), (I grow iveary,) from KAMO, (§ 112, 12.) aor. sKainov, fut. Ka^uov/ucu, perf. KiKjuriKa, (as if it were of KMx'VQ, § 110,, 11.) 'Epic paii. KeKiiYjiog, gen. orog and wrog. Kavd^aiQ, see dyvvjii. \ fceT/iai, see § 109. II. KiXofiai, [I exhort., command^ fut, KeXrioojuiai, &c. aor. EKeKXojuriv, (§ 110, 4, 6). As for etcXio, see /cXiw. KSVTSw, {I prick, sting,) is regular, but Homer has 11. -ip. 337- the iiif.n. aor. 1. Ksvcrai from the radical form KENTQ (whence kovtoq, a long pole). KEoavvvjiL^ {I mix,) or Kipvdu)} rjini, old; KEpdtJ} (§112,14,15.) fut. KEodau), aor. EKEodaa : there is a syncope, or rather a metathesis ^^, with a long a in the pe?f. KEKpaica, pass. KEKpafiai, EKpdOtjV, Ion. K£KplJ/iaf. But KEKEOaCJfjLaL, EKEpdaOr^v, were also used. 2^ The signif. of these forms, and the analogy of paivo), pdcrcrars, tppdcarai, show that they belong together. 35 The £ not being omitted, but rather coalesced with the a, whence it became r], but a with the Attics (as usual after p). Compare § 110, 11. 268 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Homer has the aor. 1. act. KpfjaaL, Od. t]. 164. Observe also the accent oil the Homeric conj. Kspujvrai {11. d. 260 ^^). KEpdaivd), {I gain, earn,) is regular in the Attics [aor, icEpSavat) ; with the lonians and several later writers Kep^rjaofiai, eKip^r}(ja, Sec. perf. KEKipdana, (§ 101. Obs. 8. Note,) and -riKa, Ksu), see Ktifiai and Kaiio. k//Sw, (/ afflict, grieve,) KijSojuat and KUrj^a, {I take care, care for,) whence the Homeric fut. KSKa^r^croiuLaL, {II. 6. 353.) shortened, (as rWrfXa, TtOaXvIa,) imper. aor, med. KijEeaa for -r^aai. KLxdvu) and Kixavoimai, {I reach, attain,) Ki)({]aofxai, lKi\Yi(jafir]Vj aor, 3. Iklxov, as if of KIXQ. It has a collateral form of the imperf. and the dependent moods of the pres. from KIXHMI, which, in most cases, keeps the »/ unchanged : lKL)(r]iizv, lKixy]Tr\v, — KixJivaL, [kl\C}^ KLxdco, Kix^Lrjv, Kix^).g, KixhiuLEvog, &c. fut. KLxfidOfiai, aor. 1. s/ct^^rjo-a/xrjv, aor. 2. £/cfxo»^» Ktx<^v (as if from KIX12). — See about the quantity, § 112. Obs, 8. KixptiiJii, see XQ"'^- Kiuj, {I go,) occurs little in the indie, pres., but we meet so much the more fre- quently in poets with the imperf. tKiov, and the dependent moods, ex. gr. Kioifii, part. Kih)v, which has the accent on the final syllable without being an aor., exactly like ia (§ 83. Obs. 3).— MED. The lonians have \e\d[3i]ica, (§ 111, 3.) and (from AAMBQ) \dix\po[j,ai, i\dfj.(pOT]v, XeXannai, XafXTrrsvg. XavOdvu), more rarely Xt/^w, (/ am hidden,) Xriaco, eXaOov, XiXrjOa. — Med. XavOdvojuLai, more rarely XrJ^o/iat, [I forget,) Xriaojuai, tXa^Ojurjv, XiiXr](Tfj.ai. Homer has in the aor. XtXaOuv, XsXaQeaOai, but the former merely as a causative of the middle voice, to cause to forget, make one forget, in which sense he uses the pers. XtjOdvoj. The Ionic dialect has in the peyf. pass, a, XeXacTnai (§ 27. Obs. 6). ^0 This tense in common language was not used from this verb ; they had, instead of it, tOavov, dirkQavov, in a,pass. sense {aTreQavtv vtt' avTOv). *i The usual reading Kvaaafiivrj rests barely on the seeming relation to eKvffa from Kvvkui. ANOMALOUS VERBS. 271 XdcTKto, (/ emit a sound, speak, Ion. XrjKsw, Dor. Xajcfw,) from AAK12; aor. 2. IeXcikov, and as med. XEXaKOjuriv, [Hymn. Merc. 145.) whence (according to § 111^ 3.) fid. XaKriao/jLat, aor. 1. l\aK.i](Ta,^'^ perfi (as pres., see § 113. Obs. 14.) XeXofca, Ion. XeXrjfca : as an Epic shortening, XeXa/cuta. Xaw, see Xw. | AEFX — , see Xayxavix). Xiycj, to say, has no p erf . act. whatever, and the perf. pass, is XiXtyfiai^ iXex^^v. But in the sense of to collect, in which it has some compounds, the perfi act. is elXoxa, {) and theperfi. pass, most commonly is siXejiuLai^ (§ 83, Obs. 3.) aor. £Xiyr}v {ex. gr. KareXljTqaav). — MED. SiaXlyojuai (/ converse) has SieiXejiuLai, but in the aor. ^leXexOriv. Homer has likewise the syncopated aor. eXsyfxtju, Ocl. i. 335. joi7ied X'skto, Od. ^.451. counted. The old poetical Xe^ai, {to lay down, put to sleep,) Xk^acrOai, {to lie down, rest,) has along with this form the syncopated aor. (§ 110, 8.) IXeyixrjv, Xkicro, imper. Xs^o, and according to § 96. Obs. 9. Xs^eo. But that this verb is a quite different radical foi'm, has been shoAvn in Buttm. Lexilogus, II. 78. 9, 10. XfXffXi^oTfCj {moving the to7igue, licking, lapping,) a defective part, perfi. in Hesiod. See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 1. p. 7. Note. XtXirjuai, {I am hent on,hasten, strwe,) an Epic joer/*., which seems to belong to AIAQ, but squares with none of the signif. of this radical form. Hence the ex- planation is very probable that it stands for XtXiXrjfxki^og for the sake of euphony, omittiijg the last X, from XiXaw, XiXaiofJiai, {I desire ardently, strive for^^.) See 'QMitm. Lexilogus, I. 21. AHB— , seeXa/ij8aVw. | Xrj9u), see XavOdvo). XrjKioj, see XdcTKOJ. | AHX — , see Xay%aVw. AIA — , see XtXhjfxat. Xiaaoixai, seldom XiTOjuai, {I implore, supplicate,) fut. Xiaofim, aor. iXiaafxriv and lXiT6fir]v. Xovu) {I wash). In this verb the Attics have, instead of the pei^s. forms with the short connecting final vowel, shortened forms, ex. gr. 3 pers. imperfi sXov, pi. eXovfieVi pass. Xovjuai, &c. Xov(70ai.— MED. The lengthened forms are a contraction of the old Xo£a», (Horn. IXSevv, *2 The a in these forms is short, ex. gr. Aristoph. Pac. 382, The passage in Aristoph. Nub. 410. {CLuXaKriffaaa,) is a deviation. *3 Such sacrifices of analogy to pronunciation are not uncommon in a language, which is just beginning to be polished. We have a similar instance in the poetical word eKTTayXoQ, {dreadful,) which is admitted to be derived from tKirXayrivai, not by a transposition, but with the termination Xo^, (§119, 13.) instead oi iKirXayXog. — Exactly in the same way we have TrueXog for irXveXog, from irXvio, ttXvvoj. 272 A GREEK GRAMMAR. XosaffUL,) but the shortened ones did not originate in a syncope {Xovfxai, like olfiai, according to § 110,5): the accentuation tXovfxev, iXovTo, (not eXovfiiv, fXovro, like Ikilto, tpvTo,) and the injin. Xovv, which also occurs, show that they are a contraction of the radical form AO^, whence the Homeric aor. X6e. Xvw, see § 95. Obs. 4. and about Xvto § 110, 7. opt.perf. XeXvro, § 98. Obs. 9. X(o, {I wish, long for,) Xrjg, Xri, Spers,pLXwvri, a Doric defective verb. M. fxaivoiiai, (/ am mad,) fut. fiavov/mai, aor. ^ludvr^Vi perf. (with the same signif. as the pres. tense) juLtfir^va. But the aor. act. efxr]va (Aristoph. Thesm. 561.) has the causative meaning, to make mad, in which sense the compound iKfxaivis) is, however, more usual (§ 135, Obs. 1). Theocr. (10, 31.) has fiiiiavrifiai (§ 111, 3), with the signif. of the pres. tense like fiaivofjiai. Haiofxai, see MAQ. { MAK — , see ixrjKaonai. fxavOdvu), {1 learn,) from MHGO, aor. ejuaOov, fut. ixaBrtnoixai, perf lUB/jidewa (§ 112, 13. and 111, 3). The fut. fiaQevfjiai, see § 95. Obs. 16. HaTTseiv, see fidpTTTd). /mapvajum, {I fight, combat,) after 'Idrafxai, has merely a pres. and imperf, imper. juapvao, (§ 107. Obs. IV. 4.) opt. fjLa^voLiJLr}v (§ 107. Obs. III. 5). ftapTTTw, (/ catch, seize,) ixdp'^pw, &c. part. perf. fjLZfxapTrwq, aor. 2. (£/zaf>7rov,) fxifxaQirov, and abbreviated ejuairov, iiairiuv, Spers.pl. opt. fiEixdiroL^v (for juctTrotEv). lxd\ofiaL, [I fight,) fut. juLax^aojuai, commonly iJ.a\oviuai, (§ 95, Obs. 15, 16.) aor. eiuiax^(ycLiuLr]v,perf. jnEfxaxniuLaL. Verbal adj. fxa^^TioQ diwdi fia\r]TioQ. The fut. produced the Ion. pres. tense fxaxeofjiai, and Homer has not only jxax^iofitvoQ, but even [xax^ovixsvog, both as pres. tenses. Epic Poets use, for the sake of the metre, the fut. naxqaonai, but the aor. eHaxsTog,) and with the syncope fiifiafxev, fikjxare, 3 pers. pi. plusq. fj,kfia(7av, (§ 110, 10.) to strive, desire ardently. 2.) Pres. med. fidfiai, {I long for, seek or search for,) /jLoJ/JievoQ, contr. of jxdofiai; ** Some critics write also sfxaxrjcraTo, &c. for the sake of uniformity, contrary to the text, which has been handed down to us. ANOMALOUS VERBS. 273 but the (1) prevailed : hence, for instance, injin. fiaxrOai, and iniper. juwao, (like [xvujio from fivdofiai, ^vuifxai,) see § 105. 06s. 10. Note. 3.) Pres. med. naiofxai, (/ stir myself, seek,)fut. and aor. med. fidcroixai, kfiaad- fir]v, especially in compounds : thus in Homer the imperf. iTrsfxalero, Od. I. 441. corresponds exactly to the aor. iTTinaaaayLEvoQ, ibid. 446 • Compare ^aid) ddaaaQai, vauo vdaaaQai. fxM(jj, [I am intoxicated,) takes its tenses from the pass, {lli^d{)adr]v, &c.) : the other act. tenses, except the imperf., belong to fieOixjKco, (/ intoxicate, make drunk,) hp.idvaa (§ 112. Obs. 6). Med. fxeOvcTKoiaaL {I get drunk). liupofjiai, [1 obtain,) aor. t^ifiopov, perf. iiifxo^a^^ (§ 83. Obs, 2). From the causative sense (§ 113, 2.) of the act. MEIPQ, to ajyportlon, allot, (whence ixepog, a part, portion,) comes the per/, pass, as an impersonal verb, and with the syllable ei instead of the redupl. (§ 83. 06s. 3 ) ti[Jia.pTai, it has been ordained by fate, part, elfiapfjisvog. We also meet with fx,efi6pT]Tat and fie[j,opixivog. lj,iXX(t), (I intend, am about to do,) fut. jucXXrjo-w, &c. See about the augment, § 83. Obs. 5. lniXii), {I am concerned about, take to heart,) is, in its act. form, mostly used in the 3 pers, fi^Xei, fxiXovai, fut . juLsXrjaEL, &c. ; pass. fiiXofiai, {I have the care of) more usually iTrifiiXofxai, fXiXy](TOfiai, €iJ.eXr]9r}v. Poets employ the pass, indifferently for the act. ; instead of ixkXei they have fieXerai, and the perf. in the sense of the pres. act. fikixriXtv, and pass. fjisfi(3\£Tai, (Horn., Hesiod,) which came from ixeixkXrjTai, according to § 19. 06s. 1. and by shortening ; compare juIjUveo and dp-qpEfiai. fiivio, (/ remain,) has in the perf fXEfxivriKa, § 101. Obs. 9. — Verbal adj. meverEog. From another MENQ, (whence nsvog,) which does not occur in the pres. tense, comes the Ionic and Poet. perf. li'sjxova {I resolve, intend, compare fisveaivit)). This /xg/xova is related to fxsixaa, compare ysyova, ysyaa^^. METIli, fxefierifxivog, see § 108. I. 5. juL-nKaofxaL {I bleat). The old poet, forms of this verb are part. aor. fxaKujv, perf. /i£ju?//ca, whence the Homeric shortened jxefidKvXa, (§ 97. Obs. 3.) and of which, as it has the signif. of the 2y)'es., there is again an imperf. six'sfxijicov (111, 2). *5 We meet only with the 3 pers. timogs in the old Epic poets, and in most passages as a distinct ^e>/., like KSKTtjTai, ex. gr. Od. t. 335. Only in the II. a. 278. it is a distinct aor. *s The Lyric passage in Eurip. Iphig. Aul. 1495, where fisfwva is the perf. of the usual verb fisvu), cannot, as a solitary instance, be of any avail against the general usage, not only of the Attic poets, but even of Herod, in his prose, (6, 84.) and the two verbs must be carefully distinguished, though they may be supposed to be ety- mologically connected. T 274 A GREEK GRAMMAR. jjLialvio (7 }>ollute). The aor. takes the ij. The Homeric fiidvOrjv, II. d. 146. is ex- plained as the 3 pi., for nidvOijcxav, fxiavOev : it is, more probably, the 3 dual of the syncopated aor. {sing. sfxiav-To,) dual kfxidv-crQrjv, efudvOrjv, § 110. Obs. 3. fxiyvvjiL^ and jLuayto, (I mix,) fut. fxi^to, &c. (§ 112, 14.) fiLfiv{](jKw, {I remind,) from MNAO, /«^^. fivy^aoj. Sec. ; pass, /ii- /mvYiaKOjuai, {I remember, recollect, it occurs to me, I men- tion^ hjUVijaOr^v, iuvr)aOr](TOjuaL, fwr^crTog, The perf. juijuvr^imai becomes the pres. [I recollect, still remember,) conj. jul^jllvu)- juai, y, 7}Tai, &c. (see § 98. Obs. 9.) opt. fxefxviiiuriv, Attic lUEjuLvoijULriv or fxznvii^jiy]v, fi^iivi^To, a contr. of the Ionic luL£fxvswij,Yiv, luLEijLvic^To {II. ip. 361 *^). To thls pcrf. belongs the fut. 3. iiziivi]GOfxaL [I shall remember). Abbreviations occur in Homer's fi'sfivy, (/isjuvfai,) for fisfivrjffai, and in Herod.'s imper. fxefivso for fi'sfxvrjao. Compare above nkji^XtTai. The simple form, (fivdoixai,) juvwjuai, is barely Ionic in the above sense, and fiveM[xevog, fivMovro, fxvMio, &c. (see § 105. Obs. 10. Note,) are Ionic lengtlienings. But in the sense of to sue for in marriage, to woo, we also meet with fxvdcrOai in the common language. jxoXelv, see jSXwctkw. fjivKaofiai, {I roar, bellow,) from MTK12, must be noticed on account of its Epic forms ijxvKOv, imifivKa. Compare jmriKaofJiai. N. vaiu), {I dwell,) takes its tenses from the pass, and med. from NAG, with short a, fut. vacrojULai, aor. IvacrOr^v or kvacrafjLrjv, perf. (with later writers) vivaafim. The act. evaaa (j^vacrcra) has the causative signif. to cause to inhabit, to settle. vcLGGw, [I stuff,) va^ii), &c. — vivadfxai, vaaroQ (§ 92. Obs. 2). vi}i(jj, [I distribute, apportion,) fat. vt/xw and vefirjcrtt), aor. 'ivsL/mu, perf. vEviinriKa, &c. aor. pass. lvEfxr}6r]v and hsfULWrtv. — MED. V8(jj, 1.) I heap up, occurs chiefly in the pres. and imperf. only with the Ionic and Epic lengthenings vijw, vijsoj, vr}vkia,fut. vrjcroj, aor. evrjcra, Ion. svrjrjcra, &c. 2.) / spin, is regular, vrjcju), &c. The contractions o, ov in the pres. tense are not in ov, but, contrary to analogy, in w : vaxri, vCJvrog, &c. The new pres. is vrfQu). 3.) I swim, fut. vtvaoixai and vsvaovfiai, (§ 95. Obs. 17-) evevaa, &c. 4.) The poet. ve7^b vitaOai {to go away, return,) has commonly the signif. of the fut. in the indie, pres. vkofxai, or vsvjxai, 2 pers. vtXai (§ 105. Obs. ?)• viZo), (I wash,) takes its tenses from the verb viirroj, which is used in the^re^. vi\pio, &c. — MED. ^^ See about all these forms, Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 98. Obs. 15 — 17- ANOMALOUS VERBS. 275 void) in the Ionic dialect contracts the orj as in j3oa(i)^ ex. gr, vwo-w, tvioaa, Ivevuyro. vvarnZto, (/ nod the head with drowsiness, I sleep,) wgtckjijj and vvara^w, &C. (§ 92. Obs. 1.) O. 6^(1), (/ smell, viz. emit a smell,) fut. 6Z7](7U), (Ion. otiicrw,) &c. : the perf. odto^a has the power of the pres. tense. otyw or otyvvfiL [I open). The Epics separate the diphthong in the augmented forms, wtyvvvro, wt^f. The following compound is most used : dvoiyu) or dvoiyvvfii, (J open,) has the augment in the anomalous way stated in § 84, Ohs. 8. imperf. dvscpyov, aor. dv's(^^a, infin. dvoX%ai, perf. 1. dviiiixa. The perf. 2. dvsii)ya has the signif. of a neuter verb, I stand open. The forms ijvoL^a, rivoiyrjv, belong to later writers. olda, see § 100. III. oioixai, [I am of opinion, mean,) imperf. (o6fxr}v, the 1 pers. sing, is also oifjiai, imperf. (ffir)v^^, fut. olriaoimaL, aor. ioyjOyjv, olr]9rivai. The Epics make also use of the act. form, and resolve the diphthong : 6iw, otofxai, (i,) whence diiadfiriv, wtaOrjv, &c. oLxofiai, [I go away, am off,) ol^^aojiai, perf. mx^juql or o'/x^fca (see the Note to e;)^^, o^wKa). Homer has also ^'x??/ca, Tropt^'^jj/ca, II. k. 252. — See about the verb Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. 01 — , see olofxai and (pepoj. oXiaOavw, commonly -aivio, (/ slide, slip,) oXiaOriait), wXktOov (§ 112, 13). oXXvjui, {I ruin, destroy,) from OAQ, fut. oXw, aor. wXeaa, perf. 6X(o\eKa. — MED. oXXvjuaL, {I am undone, perish,) fut. oXou- fbiaL, aor. wXg/xijv, inf. 6\i(TBai,to which belongs jse//. 2. oXwXa. The poet. part. oXofievog, ovXofxsvog, becomes an adj. with act. signif. ruinous, pernicious: the collateral Epic form oXekw came from the i:>erf. — Compare § 111, 2. ofxvvfjLi, {I swear,) fut. bfiovixai, u, urm, &c. ojUHaOat from 0M12, (§ 112, 14.) aor. coiuoaa, perf. o/xw/uoica, perf pass. bfiiljixodfiaL, but the rest wdth the aor. more usually without g, ofxojjuoTai, o)fi66riv, as if from OMOQ.— MED. ofiopyvvjuLi, [I wipe off,) fut. ofiop^u), &c. § 112, 14. — MED. ^8 The old grammarians observe that the forms ot/xai, (^/J-rjv, were used only of a firm conviction, which Attic urbanity thus stripped of the harshness of a strong affirmation. T 2 276 A GREEK GRAMMAR. bvLvi)fiL^^, [I benefit, am of advantage to,) after "kjtyijxl: it has no imperf, active (for which hx^tiXow is used) ; it makes from ONAO, 6v{](yw, wvr](7a. — MED. bvivafiai, {I am benefited, derive advantage from,) aor. 2. Mvrjitjir}v, {ncFo, riro,) or wvafxriv, opt, 6vaifxr]v, infin. ovacrOai. The indie. 6}vafji,r]v is used by later writers, and in Homer belongs to ovofiai. We meet with the aor. pass. o)vri9r)v in Xen. Anah. 5, 5, 2. ovopiai, [I insult,) radical form ONOO, whence the pres, and imperf after didoiuai, the 2 pers. sing, ovoaai, imper. ovoao, fut. ovoao/Jiai, aor. wvoerOriv and Mvorrafxifjv. Homer has from the still simpler form ONQ the 2 pei's. pi. pres. ovveaOs, aor, MvaTO. on — , see opdoj. bpad), [I see,) imperf. Ion. lopcov, commonly Iwpwv, (§ 84. Obs. 8.) pe7f. kwpaKa ^"5 aor. eidov, C. tSw. O. 'l^oi/lu, l^elv, tSwv, Att. Idl, &c. Med. £lB6iur}v, [^^(jOai, Idov, (and as an interjection L^ov, lo !) see above aSw, fut, o^pofxai, (I shall see,) from OIITO. — Pass, perf iiLpa/uiai, or (Lfji/am, w^ai, (Ltttgi, &c. (l)(j)Bai, aor. w(l)Or]v, ocjiOrivai (in later writers also opaSnvai). Verbal adj. opareog, oparbg, b-rrTog. The perf. 2. ojrajTra (/ have seen) belongs to the dialects and the poets. — See about Homer's oprjai, § 105. Obs. 16, with the Note. The antiquated ETriovpojuat, aor. €7rtau//ajwr;v, to select, must be carefully dis- tinguished from l7r6\po[jiai. opyvfii, (/ rouse, excite,) from OPQ, fut. bpcrtj, aor. 1. oi/oo-a (§ 101. Obs. 3). — Med. opwinai, {I rise,) aor. o)p6fxr}v, 3 pers. sing, lopero and iLpTo, (see § 110,8.) infin. 6p9ai,part. bpfiz- voQ, (for bpiaOai, bpofxsvog,) imper. opao, and according to § 96. Obs. 9. 6p(7eo, The per/. 2. bpwpa belongs to this intrans. or immediative signif. (§ 113, 2 ) I am risen; but Mpoptv (see § 85. Obs. 2.) is aor. {ex.gr. Od. r. 201.) like rigaptv, and most generally has, like it, the transitive or causative signif. (he excited). The passive-like form opwptrai agrees in sense with the perf . opcjpe (compare above dprjpa, apr^pefiai). Lastly, Homer has likewise the pres. and imperf. of opofiai and opkajxai, I hasten, move about, {Od. ?. 104 II. (S. 398.) but they are attended with some difficulty : see Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. ba^paivofxai, [I smell, trans.) bcr^prifToiiaL, aor. wo-^po/ir^v, § 112, 13. Ion. ba(l>pafxr]v, (Herod. 1, 80, 26.) according to § 96. Obs. 1. with WieNote. ^9 This is derived from ONAQ through a, redupl. with t, (vvhich, as in tVr»]ftt, &c. does not take place in the aor. 2.) whereby the redupl. of verbs beginning with a consonant {Sioojfxi) is imitated in the same way as the redupl. of the perf. by what is called the JlMic redupl. Compare drtraXXwaud oTriTrrtww, from draXogand OIITQ. ^^ In Attic poetry it was either pronounced as a synizesis in the Ionic way wpa/ca, or written and pronounced kopaKa. — See Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 84. 06s. 11. I ANOMALOUS VERBS. 277 ovXSfievoc, see oXXvfii. \ ovvicrQf, see ovojxai. ovoid), [I make water, stale,) impf. lovpow, &c. fat. ovpriaofxai, § 84. Ods. 5. ovrdti), [I wound,) ovri^aw^ &c. ao7\ syncope, [ovrav, § 110, Q, 7.) 3 sing, ovra, infin. ovrafjiev, (for ovravm,) part. pass, ovrd- fxtvog: ovTa(Te, ovTa&iiivog, belong to ovraZio, a collateral form. oipeiXu), 1. (/ oive, ex. gr. money,) 2. {I ought, am to,) fut. 6^£i- XricTb), &C. The form axpsXov, sg, s, (commonly o^sXov,) occurs merely as a wish. — See the Syntaj:, § 150. Homer has also 6(pkXXu} {II. r. 200.) for oipsiXcj, and for ojtpsXov for the sake of the metre oI^eXXov, {II. ?. 350.) which forms must not be mistaken for ocpsXXnv, to increase, magnify. Homer also uses this verb in an anomalous way in the opt. aor. 1 . b(p'iXXtuv, 3 pers. sing. {II. tt. 651. Od. 13. 334.) oipXiaKdvu), (/ am guilty, condemned,) fut, orpXrjaw, perf w^Xr^jca, aor. cJ^Xov. n. TraiZd^, {I sport. Joke,) fut. Tral^ojuai, 7raLE,ovjuai. In later writers we also find after this formation 'itrai'^a, TreTraiy/xai, &c. but the correct Attics always have eTraicra, tt'stt aKSjiai, notwithstanding the similarity of the tenses of the followdng verb : Traiwi {2 strike, beat.) fut. Traiaoj and 7rat//(rw, but the rest of the tenses are e-rraKra, TriiraiKa, kTraiadrjv. — MED, IIAP — , TTBTTapsiv, see in Tropuv. TrdaaaOai, [to acquire,) liraGafinv, perf. TreTrdiuai, I possess, dif- ferent from lirdadfiriv, TrtTracr^ai, see wareofiai. Trdax^tJ, {I suffer,) from IIHGO, aor. eiraOov, from IlENGCt, pe?f. 7riTrovOa,fut. ireidoiuaL (according to the rule, § 25, 4). Verbal adj. -naQnrog. From nH9Q are also derived the less frequent forms 7n)(7o^ai, t7rr](Ja, and the perf. {TrsTrrjOa,) whence the Homeric TreTraOvla. — See about TrsiroaOt for 7reTr6v9aTe,% 110. Obs. 5. TTaraaaoi, see 7rXrj(j(TENQ (whence (povog). The part, of this aor. has the accent, contrary to analogy, on the first ANOMALOUS VERBS. 279 syllable, 7rs(pv(jjv.^^ Pass. 2^^}'/- Tt'f., Trtp^v, aor. kiriQaaa from Trtpaoj, which we have seen above in a cognate signif., and with d in its conjugation. This Trtpdaat afterwards gave the remaining forms through the metathesis, which has been stated above in § 110, 1 1, 2. and in the Note to Ksgdvvvjxi. TTiiTTOj, {I fall, 1, whence the imper. nXTrTs,) formed from IlETQ, (see § 112, 16.) fut. (in the Doric way,) Tricjovfim, (Ion.) neaeofxai, aor. e-ireaov, (§ 96, 9.) perf. TraVrwjca. Poetical abbreviations of the part. perf. axe Attic TreTrrojg (compare (St- (Sput-eg from j3sj3pioKa,) and TrsTTTecog. The latter points to the original form 7rs7rrr]Ka, (from IIETQ, like dsdjJirjKa horn SkjKo,) whence came Tr'sTrTUJKa, by changing the vowel. See Buttm.L^^a'i^^ws, I. 63. p. 295. We also meet with the regular aor. of IIETQ, aor. 1. lirtoa, Eurip. Troad. 291. Ah. 465. aor. 2. lizirov in the Doric dialect (Pind.). TTLTVEw, (I fall,) aor. eiriTvov (§ 96. Obs. 5). But Trtrvaw, Trtrvrj/zt, is the same with irETavvvfjiL. TT^dZw, (/ chase about, pass. / 7'ove, wander,) fut. TrXay^w, &c. (§92. Obs. 1). IIA — , see TTsXw. | IIAA — , TrXrjQo), see ireXaKo and 7rt/i7rXr/jui. TrXew, (/ navigate,) fut. irXevaofiai, TrXsurrovjuat, — eirXevaa, &c. pass. 7r£7rXff(7/xad, lirX^vcjOriv. Verbal adj. TT\sv(TTiog. The Ionic dialect has ttXojw, TrsTrXw/ca, &c.; whence the verbal adj. TrXwrog, and the Epic syncopated aor. IttXwv, wg, w, wjuer, Sec. part. TrXtic, see § 110, 6. with Obs. 1, 4. ttXtJo-ctw, TrXrjrrw, [I strike, irXriyvviii is a more uncommon form,) in the aor. 2 pass, it retains the r], lirXriynv, except in those compounds which denote a striking with dismay, I^ETrXayi/v, Kamr\a'yr]v. The Attics do not use the act. of this verb in the sense of striking, but ■KUTdaab), which they never employ in the pass. The perf. 2. TrsrrXrjya has mth later winters a, pass, signif. (§ 113. Obs. 4.) Homer has also the aor. 2. act. and med., but with the redupl. Tr'sTrXriyov, 7re7rXj]y6fJiT}v. TTveu), {I hloic,)fiit. rrvevcoixai, Trvtvcrovfiai, — iTrvevaa, &c. aor. pass. iivvivaQT]v. The perf. pass. TrsTrvvfxai (§ 98. Obs. 4.) is merely poetical in a particular sense (to be spirited, icise) ; and according to the same analogy, the synco- pated aor. dfiTTvvTo, (Homer, for dvsTrwro, § 110, 7-) and cunrvvvOt], (for avnrvvQt), compai'e J^pyw, IdpvvQijv,) and the imper. dfnrvvi. iroOko), see § 95. 06s. 4. TTopCiv, (Hesych.) tiro^ov, {gave, supplied,) part, ttoqwv, a defec- tive aor. with poets. The same theme in the sense of supplying has produced, according to the principles of metathesis, (§ 110, 11.) the perf. pass. TrgTrpwrat, {it is decreed by fate,) paH. TreTrpcJusvog. Pind. Pytk. 2, 105. has an iyifn. TreTraptlv or Tmropdv in the sense of ANOMALOUS VERBS. 281 showing, ejckibiting, which ought rather to be derived from a diflferent radical form, and written TreTrapsiv. See Boeckh. no — , see TTivu) : — TrkirocxBe, see Tra^xw. nPA — , 7rpr]9o), see TrnrpdcrKO) and 7rifj.7rpr]fj,i. TTpiaaOai, {to buy,) a defective verb, of which the forms are used only as aor. of uivuaQai, viz. sirpidfirjv, conj, irpiwiuai, opt. irpiaijULr^v, imper. irpiaao, Trpiw, infin. irpiaadai, part, irpi- djuevoQ. The pres. indie. Trpiajxai, stated in Dictionaries, is not met with any where : iTrpidjJirjv must therefore be considered as a defective aor. 2. med. after the analogy of ETTTdfxrjv (see irkToiiaC). nPO — , see Tvopiiv. nTA — , nTO — , see Trsravvvni, Trsro/zai, Trrrjffauj, and 7ri7rra». 7rTr}(Taci), {I crouch,) is regular^ but has with poets some forms as if from riTAQ, part. per/. Treirrriiog, and 3 pers. dual aor. 2. 7rri]Tr]v (§ 110, 6). Trwddvojiiai, {I learn by inquiry, hear,) from irtvOofxai (Poet.) fut. TT^vaofiai, aor, lirvdon^v, perf. ireirvaiLLai. Verbal adjec- tive, TrevGTiog, ttsvcttoq, P. paivw, (I sprinkle,) see about pdaaare and Ippd^arai, Obs. IV. 5. to § 103. piZisi and iplw, [I do,) fut. pi^uj, or (from EPra) f'pSw, &c. perf. eopya. piu), {I flow,) fut. pivGOfiai, aor. ipp^vaa. We find, however, in the same act. sense, only the aor, 2. pass. lppm]v with the fut. pvr]aoiuai, and a new perf. formed from this aor. £ppVl)Ka (§ 111, 2). "PE — , see tiireXv. p-nyvvjuL, (I rend, trans.) fut. p{]^ii), (§ 112, 14.) aor, pass. Ippdynv, perf. 2. 'ippwja, (§ 97. Obs. 2.) with the intrans. signif. I am rent. See § 113. Obs. 4. piyiw, (/ shudder,) perf. ippiya, (§ 97. Obs. 4.) identical with the^re^. tense. piyou), see § 105. Ohs. 6. piTTTLj and pLWTiu), {I th7'ow,) both forms are in use in the pres. and imperf : the rest of the tenses are derived from the first only, pi\pu), &c. long i, whence plTrrs, pl^ai, aor. pass. lppL(^y]v. — See about jOiVrao-Kov, Obs. II. 1. to § 103. poilaaKt, see Ohs. II. I. to § 103. 282 A GREEK GRAMMAR. PT — , see psu) : — pyo/^ai, see Ipww. 1 PQF — , see prjyvvfii, pwyvvfii, [I strengthen,) puyaw, &c. (§ 112, 14.) pe7'f. pass, tppu)- Hai, imper. tppMao, [farewell!) aor.pass. IppwcrQriv. o-aXTTi^w, {I sound a trumpet,) fut. daXiriy^w^ &c. (§ 92. Obs. 1.) (TaXTrhu) is a later form. aaou), see cw^w. adw, an old form for (jr}6(jj, {I sift,) whence we find (in Herod. 1, 200.) (jwai. (j[5hvvfiiy {I extinguish^) o-jSeo-w, &c. tajdeafiai, iGJ^EaOiyv. — The perf. iafdrjKa, (with the rj,) and the aor. 2. tajSijy, pi £(T/3r?- juf V, infin. ajdrjvai, have the intrans. signif. to be extinguished, which else is expressed by the pass. o-jSlvvu^m. at'iu), avaaanaoKi, see Ohs. II. 1. to § 103. o-fvw, [I push on,) has most commonly the augment in the same way as the verbs beginning with q, (§ 83. Obs. 2.) and takes no a in the aor. 1. taa^va, kacjEvdinrjv, perf . pass, iaavjiai, (I 7'ush forth, I strive, I require,) part. Iggvixevoq, [proparox., see § 111. Obs. 2.) plusq. eaavjurjv, which form is at the same time a syncopated aor. (§ 110, 7, with Obs. 4.) whence (TVTo, (TVfjiEvog, 2 pers. b(T(tvo, (for 'icrcyvcro, see Obs. III. 2. to § 103.) aor.pass. (of the same signif.) iaavQriv (Sopho- cles). — The forms with a single a [ex. gr. lavOrjv, l^ecrvdr},) are less frequent, and those without any augment [cr^va, (TVTO,) belong to the Ionic Epic dialect. — We also meet with a syncopated pres. pass. (§ 110, 5.) ex. gr. aevrai, (Soph. Trach. 645.) but more commonly with the change of the vowel into ov, cjovfxai^ [I hasten, run,) imper. aovao, aovadb), aovaOe [calls or exhortations, used in common life). — Hither belongs, lastly, that Laconic airicraova, [he is gone,) known from Xenoph. Hell. 1, 1, 23, which is ex- plained as aor. 2. pass, (for go-o-urj.) (TKB^dvvvfii, [I scatter,) fut. a-zcfSao-w, (tkeSw, &c. perf. pass. laKt^aaiiim (§ 112, 14). (TKeXXoj or GKeXih) [I dry, desiccate, pass. / am dried up). To this immediative sense of the pass, belong the act. forms aor. e(jK\r]v, cTKXrivai, o-jcXatijv, (§ 110, 6.) perf. i(jK\r]Ka, I have been dried up, and the fut. aKknaoixau The Homeric aKriXeie {aor. 1. tOKtiXa) points to tr/caXXw, (which has the ANOMALOUS VERBS. 283 widely different signif, to dig, scratch,^ whence come, through the metat 2KAA, stated § 110, 11, the forms — , see QpinrToj. Tpvxd^} (^ '^ub to pieces, consume,) forms its tenses from the less common rpvxoii}, iTpv^yycra, r^TQv\(i)fiivoQ, &c. TQioyu), {I eat,) fut. rpM^ojum, aor. hpayov (from TPHFQ). ruy%ava;, TBTVKelv, see tsv^^m. TVTTTCt), {I strike,) has with the Attics commonly rvirT-nad), tetv- TrrrijULai, ruTrrrjTfoc? aor. pass, krvirriv. — MED. Tv(j)(i), (/ 7'aise a smoke, set on fire,) fut. Ov^pw, &c. (§ 18^ 2.) aor. pass. lTv(l>r}v. Y. vTria')(vioixai, see 6%a>. ^. $Ar — , see scOio). ^aivcj, (intrans. / shine, trans. I show,) aor. e(pr}va, perf. 1. TrscpayKa, pass, (paivoixai with aor. 1. s(pdv9r]v, I am shown. — MED. The pass, (pa'ivofiai also signifies / shine, apijear, aor. 2. Itpdvrjv, fut. (pavovfjiai, and with perf. 2. Trscpriva (see § 113. 06s. 3). The Homeric iterative (pdviCKt. {shone, a2')peared) is rather anomalously formed from the pass, s^dvrjv. Homer has also (pdavOsv for k^dv9r](jav, in the sense of shining: compare Kpaivoj. $A — , (pdeyKeiv is erroneously considered as a compound with tv : it is like qyayov, oKakKiiv, &c. (§ 85. Obs. 2.) a redupl. of EEKQ, of which again ENEKQ, ENEIKQ, are length- enings (like AAKQ, AAEKQ), — See Buttm. Lexilogus, I. 63, 23. Homer has in the imp)er. pjl. (p'spn. — See about pi(yYZ — , see (pevyoj. (pvpu), (I mix, knead,) fut. old (pvpauj, ecl)vp(Ta, commonly (pvpaau), &c. Ion. (^tvpiiaw, perf . pass. iriclivpixaL and ir^cpvpapiai. (})V(i), {I produce,) (pvmo, '^(pvcra. But the perf. 7ri(pvKa, and the aor. 2. £^uv, (l)vvai, conj. (pvuj, part, (pvg, (§ 110, 6.) have a 288 A GREEK GRAMMAR. pass, or intrans. signif. to be produced, to arise, for which there is in the pres. and/w^. (jivofiai, (jtvao/j^ai. Un- Attic writers use instead of ^avSavw.) )(aiv(t)) see ')(d(TK(i). Xaipw, {I rejoice,) fut. xaiQr]aii)y aor. (from the pass.) I^aprjv, and from this again Q.perf. with a more intensive signif. of the pres. Kexapr^KU or K^xAprifiai (§ 111^ 3). Poets have also of the regular formation /c£%ap/xai, aor. 1. med. kxri^a(xr}v, and aor. 2. with the redupl. Kfxapo/xTjr, The fut. x^cp^'^ofiai belongs to the later writers ; Homer has Ksxaprjau) and -ojxai. Xav^avoj, {I contain, hold,) aor. ex^^^ov, (§ 112, 13.) perf. k:£x«i^^«j (the same with the pres.) fut. x^'^^^ofiai, [Od. g. 17.) as if from XENA12 (compare GTrivluj cnraiau), and TrewovOa TrdcTOjULai). XcKTKw, [I gape wide, yawn,) forms of the pres. tense x^'^^^y which is not used by ancient writers, the aor. e'xavov, fut. Xavovfiai, perf. kbxvvcI} I ^^ open, yawning. X^^oy,fut. xeo-oujuat, aor. 'ix^aa and ex^aov, perf. Ksxoda (§ 97, 4. a. c). Xi'i(^oiiat, see [j^ov^aj/w. Xiii), {I pour,) fut. again x^^-> X^^^' X^h f'^t' inf^^d. x^oiJ,ai, (see Buttm. Compl. Gr. Gr., and above § 95. Obs. 8.) aor. 1. e'x^aj (§ 96. 0^5. 1.) ex^ag, 1ex^^{v), infin. x^<^h imper. x^^v, X^aTM, &c. joer/". fc^xu/ca, joer/. jo<255. KsxyfJ-ai^ aor. pass. ExvOriv (§ 98. 0/^5. 4).— MED. The forms x^^^^> ^X^^'^'^^ ^^^ unusual, though they were the primitive ones, as appears from the suhst. x^^l^^t ^^^ the forms £xv9r]v, tx^va, &c. — See § 95. Obs. 12. Nott. The Epics have the aor. 6%fi;a, (of which the conj. xaww becomes a fut., Od. [3. 222. see § 139. Obs. 1. I. 4.) syncopated aor. pass. £%v/xj7v, &c. (§ 110, 7). XpaiGfxdv, {to aid, help,) txpaiajULov, a defective aor., whence came again xp«'o-jur](7Wj ixQ^'^^M^^ (§ ^^^y ^)' X/oaw. There are of this verb five different formations with dif- ANOMALOUS VERBS. 289 ferent signif. ; all of them with the contraction commonly rj, Ionic (contrary to analogy) «. 1.) xpaw, {I deliver oracles,) is regular, j^;p?7(Tw, &c. pass. KsxpV^^H''^^} ^XP'^' (never 'dxpr],) fut. %pj7(7£t. 5.) cLTToxpr}, {it is sufficient,) un-Attic clttoxp^, pi- a7roxP'^<^'-i', infin. a—oxpyv, part. airoxP^V} ^\>vy7]v, see § 100. O65. 8. Q. wdkw, (/ push,) has the syllabic augment according to § 84. Obs. 5. [Ididovv,) fut. w9r]u)g, croj^pwv, {(Jw(ppovog,) (J(x)(j)p6v(x)g, ^apisig, evTog, \apiivT(jt)g, EvOvg, iog, evBiwg, part. XvcnreXtJv, {serviceable,) ovvTog, XvCTLTEXovVTWg, a\r]9rig, iog, contr. ovg, aXrjOetjg, contr. aXriOwg. Obs. 1. All adv. derived from adj. in rjg, eog, should properly have a circumflex on the syllable oig as being a contraction of kwg into ujg. Some, however, are paroxytona, PARTICLES. 291 and formed from the nomin., which has the same accent without any contraction, ex. gr. svf]9i]g, 6vr]9(ug, compare § 121, 9, I. and above § 49. Obs. 4. Adverbs made of adj. in -voog -vovg have the accent after the same analogy, as the adj. in their declension (§ 36, 06s.) ; thus from evvovg — ivvoiog ivviag, but agreeably to the fol- lowing Obs. better svvo'iKwg. Obs. 2. Adj^ of one termination, which, as it were, waver between subst. and adj., take first the usual termination of adj. to form the adv. in ojg, ex. gr. voiiadiKwg, i3XaKiKu>g. Compare § 63. Obs. 3. and the Note to § 66. 4. Particular cases and forms of nouns frequently supply, by virtue of a power to be explained in the Syntax, and by an ellipsis, the place of particles, and when such a form occurs rather frequently, it passes altogether for an adv. ; ex. gr. the dat. KOfjLiSy, properly with care, hence very much ; (TTTovSij, — with diligence, difficulty, hence hardly, scarcely, beside a number of adj. feminine, where originally the dat. oSto from T7 oSbg, the ivay or manner, w^as understood ; ex. gr. ireZy, on foot, kolv^ jointly, Idla, privatim, privately, SrjiJLOdiq, pvbl.ic:e, publicly ; and the like. Compare in the following §, Obs. 7. aXXy, and the like, —the Accus. apxnv and rrjv apx^v, properly, in the beginning, outset, hence wholly, TrpolKa, GRATIS, ivifhout compensation, (from TrpolJ, a gift,) juaKpav, {6^0 V,) far, far off. See also Obs, 3. — The neuter of an adj. is also an adverbial accus,, when in the sing, or pi. it supplies the place of an adverb. But excepting the compar. and superl., of which we shall treat presently, this is chiefly peculiar to poets, (see § 128. Obs. 4.) and there are also a few adj., which are used adverbially in the neut. gender in prose ; such are, for instance, Taxv^ quickly, fiiKpoV} or fiiKpa, little. Obs. 3. There are many particles which originated in this manner, whose radical noun is not in use, or used ouly by poets. Datives of this kind are written without the I subscript ; ex. gr. eiKrj, in vain, ^i%^, doubly, compare the following §. Of this kind are also the gen. e^rjg, in order, dyxov, near, ofiov, together {adj. ojxbg with the Epics) ; the neuters TrXrjaiov, near, {adj. 7rXr}(jiog with poets,) (Jrjfifpov, to-day, a'vpiov, to-morrow ; and especially several in a, like fxaXa, Kccpra, greatly, ^I'xa, separately, ro-xa, quickly, perhaps ; and many more. Obs. 4. If beside the neuters ev6v and lOv, we also meet with evOvg and iOvg as adverbs, (see § 117, 1.) it is only accidentally that the latter form is identical with the nomin. masc. of the adj., and in these words as well as in eyyug the g is as much a part of the adverbial form, as it is in d/x^ig from dfi(pi, fiexptg for {isxpi, aTpsfiag for cLTpsna. V 2 29.2 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 06s. 5. Some are cases of nouns preceded by a prep. ; ex. gr. 7rapa\pri}ia, immediately, on the spot, (properly at the thing itself,) KaQa and KaOdirep, (for KaO' a, KaO' uTrep,) as, did, {di 0,) wherefore ; but diori, {di o, n,) because, comes from Sia tovto, on — Trpovpyov, (for 7rp6 epyov,) literally for the benefit of the thing, (see § 147. ^po,) that is, for the purpose, and among these too there are some, of which the noun is not in use by itself, ex. gr. i^ai(pvr]Q, suddenly. Slight differences are to be observed in the spelling and accentuation of some compound expressions of this kind ; ex. gr. s/ctto^wv, out of the way, aside, (for ek tto^wv,) sfXTroSujv, in the way, a hindrance, (this is at the same time contrary to syntax, instead of kv ttocfiv,) 67ricr;!^fpw, (for — <^, from a noun, cxtpof,) in order, successively. 5. With respect to the degrees of comparison, it is almost generally the case^ that the neut. sing, of the compar.., and the neut. pi. of the superl, serve at the same time as degrees of comparison for the adv. ; ex. gr. aocpwrepov ttoluq, thou doest more wisely, aldxiGTa ^leteXe- (7SV, he lived most shamefully. The degrees of comparison of the adv. are very seldom formed by annexing wq to the degree of comparison of the adj., and when it is done, it is to heighten the expression ; ex. gr. KaWiovwq is not merely more beautifully, but in a much more beautiful way ; hence jusyaXwc? magnificently, can have no other comparative than juHZovwg. 6. There is an old adverbial termination w instead of wg, whence ovrojg and ovtm (§ 26, 4). This termination is peculiar to adverbs derived from adj., which are not in use, as acpvu), suddenly; oTricw, behind, backwards; and also to some adverbs formed from prep, as e^w, without, outwards, so-w or ao-w, dvuj, Kario, irpodh) and iroppu) \ These form their degrees of comparison in the same manner, avojTspii), avMrdru). And degrees of compari- son are similarly formed in some other particles ; ex. gr. airo, {far from, § 117. Obs. 3.) cnriDrdrw, {very far off, most remote,) Evdov, {within,) evdoTarii), EKag, {afar,) EKaaTipiv, ay)(^ov, {near,) ay^OTaru), juaKpav, {far off,) juaKporipit). 7. The analogy of adj. in the formation of the degrees of com- parison is strictly followed in all particles, which are susceptible of degrees of comparison without being derived from any adj. in use ; ex.gr. lyy ug, {near,) lyyuTEpu) or lyyvTEpov, &c. — or 'iyyiov, Eyyiara, and they are liable to the same peculiarities and devia- ^ These two particles and the intermediate Doric Tropcrw are properly of the same signif,, but in common use Trpocrw means before, in front, a,nd iroppu), (Tropaoj,) at a distance, far. PARTICLES. 393 tions, which we have just noticed. (See Obs. 6.) — Compare in particular with the forms of § 67, 3. and § 68. ayx«5 {near,) aarjov, ay^iaTa, fiaXa, {greatly i) fxaXXov, fxaXidTa, and the following adverbial form of the compar. r\aau)v, (§ 68j 2.) viz. ri but y, ry, ravry, dXky. The former, however, are frequently written like the latter for the sake of uniformity. Obs. 9. Whenever the forms tots and ore occur twice (and sometimes even only once,) for Trore ■jrore — sometimes sometimes — (§ 149.) they are accented rorh — , ore — . Obs. 10. Dialects, a.) The Epics double the tt for the sake of the metre in OTTTTdtg, OTTTrOTS, &C. b.) the lonians substitute a k in all the above forms for the tt, for instance, Ktjg, Kov, oKwg, oKoOev, ovkoj, see § 16. Obs. 1. c. c.) the Dorians have for Trore, ore, &c. — ttoku, oku, &c. — ibid. d.) the Poets have the shortened form 6s, ex.gr. dXXoOe, iicTocOe. e.) instead of y there is an Epic form yxi or rjx*- f.) Tsiwg, e'lwg, are Epic forms for rewg, ewg, whence follows that retof and eiog must be read in all those verses of Horn, where reojg and ewg are met with in a Trochaius. § 117. — Mutability of some other Particles. A. hi the Letters. 1. There are some steady rules for varying ou, ou/c, ov^, and eS, Ik, according to § 26. for euphony's sake ; and some particles end for the same reason in a moveable v or g. This is some- times attended with a difference in the signif. Of this kind are iripav, [trans,) beyond, chiefly of rivers and waters; — but Tripa, [ultra,) over, across, farther, where the object is 5 Compai'e the gen. of the same terminations in some pronouns with the termina- tion Bov : see § 72. Obs, 6, 5. 298 A GREEK GRAMMAR. considered as a limit or boundary. Both are preposition and adverb: see Buttm. Lexilogus, II. 69. avTiKpv and avTiKpvg (with a different accent). Homer uses the first form in all signif. indiscriminately ; but with respect to the Attics the grammarians state it as a rule that avriKpu is employed only in the physical sense over-against, straight-forward, but avriKQvg, in the figu- rative sense, straight-forward, without any ceremony, &c. But there are numbers of contrary examples each way. See Buttm. Compl. Gr. Gr, evdvg and av9v (see § 115. Obs. 4). As adverb of time, (im- mediately,) EvOvQ alone is used; but as adverb of place, [straight -forward, directly to,) commonly ivdv^ [ex.gr, £vdv AvKelov, svOv 'E(/)£(TOf,) but before a vowel rarely evOvQ (Eurip. Hipp. 1197). The Ionic forms lOvg, Wv, are used indifferently, and barely as adverbs of place, 2. The following varieties take place, without any diflference in the signif. ; they belong to the Attic poets, or are used by them, though Ionic forms : — kav, rjv, av, if, (see § 139. A. 2.) : the a is long in lav and av, (yrjujiEpov, Att. TTjiuepov, to-day, -^OIq and exOlg, yesterday, (Tvv, anciently ^vv, with, elg, Ion. eg, in, ev, Ion. £vi, in, see below 3. aei. Ion. and poet. aU\ and alev, always, EVEKa, or EVEKEv, (thc latter even before a consonant, ex, gr, Xen. Hier, 3, 4, 5, 1.) Ion. EivsKa, eIvekev, on account of, ETTELTa, Ion. ETTEiTEv, afterwards, on, in the popular language, (Aristoph.) and otlyi, because, compare § 77, Obs. 2. instead of ov, not, no, and vol, yes, the Attics emphatically use ovxh (Ion. ouki,) vaixh § H* ^^^* 2- Obs. 1. There are some other 'varieties in the dialects: for TTpoQ, (to, at,) anciently Trport, Dor. ttotl, for /ierd, {with, &c.) ^ol. rrtdcCf for ovv, {therefore,) Dor. and Ion. wv, for avOig, (again,) Ion. avrig, for Ke, Ksv, (an enclitic particle used by Poets instead of av, § 139,) Dor. /ca, for y^, (ai least,) Dor. ya, for £(, (if,) Dor. ai, which the Epics also use, but only in a'i Kt, at yap, and aiOe. There are besides some Epic forms i^k for ^, {or, than,)—iii:ufj for e7r(idij> {as, since,) — tiV, sivi, for sv or evi. PARTICLES. 299 A few prepositions, especially irapd and virb, take, in the old poets, the termination ai instead of a and a, Trapai, vTval. See some other dialectic varieties in the preceding Section. Obs. 2. The conjunction apa, and the prepositions Trapa and dva, with the Dorians and Epics frequently throw off the vowel even before a consonant, ap, Trap, dv, (or dv,) ex. gr. ovT dp ^psvag, ndp 6f(p, dv dk. When in this case dv comes before a labial letter, the old practice is to write, instead of dv TrkXayog, dv fisya, and the like dfiTTsXayog, dfi.[xsya : see § 25. Obs. 4. The same apocope takes place with the prep. Kara, but as no word can end with a r, this prep, is closely joined to the following words, and con- stantly converts the r into the following consonant, which consequently is doubled, or if it be an aspirata, (according to § 21, 3.) with the kindred tenuis before, thus, KUTTOv, KadSk, icafxixsv, Kayyovv^, KUTTcpdXapa, for Kara rbv, Kard Se, Kara [xev, Kard yovv, Kurd (pdXapa, &c. The Doric ttoti (for Trpbg) does the same, but merely before another r, ex.gr. TTOTTov, for TTOTi Tov^. All tliesc changes also take place in the compounds, as : TrapOsnevoi, Trapcrrdcra, dvaravTiQ, dwi-iji-y, dXXk^ai, dy^rjpaivo), Karravvaai, KarOavelv, Ka(5(3dg, KaKKsiovTeg, KaXXiirov, Kafifivoj, Kavvevcrag, KaTTTTfcrs, KappiZ,(x), KUKX^vai, and on account of the meeting of three consonants KUKTave, Kaax^Os, for KUKKTUve, KacrcrxiOs, and the prep, dirb and virb are abbreviated in the same manner in compounds, but only rarely and merely before kindred consonants, aTntkinniv, vj3j3dXX£iv. B. — Mutability of the Accent. 3. Several dissyllabic prep,, which have the accent on the final syllable^ as Trapa, airo, Trspl, Sec, draw the accent back in the following two instances : — 1.) When in the Anastrophe % they stand behind the noun, which they govern^ ex. gr. rovTOv iripii for Trepl rovrovy OeCjv airo, for cnrb OeCjv : the prep, aficjil, avrl, dia, and ava, are, however, excepted; 2. When they are employed instead of compounds with the verb elvat ; or rather, when, this vei^b being omitted, they ^ It follows of course that, in this single instance, yy is not pronounced like ng, but like gg. 2 Many modern editors write separately dfj, TrsXayog, Kdd ds, Kdfi yihv, fcdy yovv, TTor rbv, and so on ; whereby writing separates what pronunciation combines. If we wish for consistency, we must, since we part the EMIIYPI of the ancients into kv TTvpl, write also dv Tr'sKayog. But then /car bk follows of course, and this is objectionable. It is therefore better to write Kabbt, Karrbv, and the like, as we write doijxdriov, ovtti, tyo)ba, and the like. ^ This denomination was already equivocal among the ancients, since it was used for the withdrawing of the accent in both the instances stated. See Buttra. Compl. Gr. Gr. 300 A GREEK GRAMMAR. stand alone as adverbs, in which case the common language also has the Ionic Ivl instead of Iv, ex. gr, eyw -Kapa for TrdpufjLi, £7ri, £Vf, VTTO, for tir^GTiVy &c. to which belongs also ava for ava(jTr]di, up I up I Obs. 3. Strict critics accent the prep, in the same way, even when they come in poetry after tl^e Tet'b ; ex.gr. Xoixry cltto for cnroXovay, and when they attend the terh as an adverb, ex. gr. Trspi, tery, pre-eminently. We likewise write cltto, when this prep, does not merely signify from, but severed from, at a distance from (com- pare § 115,6). There is, however, as yet no unifox'mity in our editions in this respect, or with regard to the exceptions stated above. Another rule is that, when in the anastrophe the prep, is elided, it is not to have any accent whatever ; QtCiv air — not Qtiiiv dir' — but not in the second instance, ex. gr. ov ydp Itt' avri^ (for eTreariv). See the mutability of the accent in monosyllabic prejJ. § 147. Obs. 13. and about l^ and l^, ihg and wg, and the like, § 13, 4. Obs. 4. The interjection w has likewise a double accent : the circumflex only in the sense of a call or exiiortation, consequently before the vocative ; but in the sense of an ejaculation, that is to say before any other case, the acute or grave accent ; ex.gr. Soph. ^y. 372. w dvaixopog, og fxtOrjica, (0, how unhappy I am!) a> Tfjg dvaiSiiag, {0, what impudence I) w /jIoi, (woe is me!) and the same in the Epic exclamation a> ttottoi. But it is with this rule as with the preceding ones : see Buttm. Complete Gr. Gr. § 118. — Of the Formation of Words. 1. The formation of words, in the full sense of the expres- sion, is not within the compass of grammar. The analogies of the primitive stock of any language are generally so obscured and disjointed by time, and the intermixture of tribes, — they are combated by such a variety of contradictory opinions, and so difficult to be cleared up with any reasonable degree of cer- tainty, that they require extensive and deep philological re- searches, which are necessarily kept distinct from the theory of grammatical forms. Grammar presupposes the existence of a number of words to be found in dictionaries, and leaves the in- vestigation of their relative bearings and analogy to individual observation. 2. There is, however, a kind of derivations (which on that account may be considered as more recent) so complete and steady, that they may be brought under one point of view; this facilitates and accelerates so much the knowledge of the lan- guage, that grammar cannot refuse to them a place, especially as the analogies of this kind of formation of words are mostly DERIVATIONS. 301 grounded in the analogy of inflections, and may even be re- garded as a continuation of the inflections \ 3. This Section, however, is necessarily confined to verbs, substantives, adjectives, and adverbs ; the other parts of speech belong to the primitive stock of the language, and have already been partly investigated in other Sections. Derivation itself regards either, 1.) the terminations of words; or, 2.) their com- position. § 119. — Derivation by Terminations. 1. The annexion of terminations was regulated in Greek by two principles ; the endeavour to give a similar termination to similar signif, and the wish to adapt that termination to the radical word in the best manner possible. But the collision of these principles tended to confuse the analogy in two ways : — 1.) The same signif. is frequently allotted to several different forms ; 2.) Terminations confined at first to particular forms of the radical words, [ex. gr. verbs in aw from a, — ow from oc? ov,) were transferred to other radical words, whose form no longer agreed with them, (as aw from oc, — ow from a, &c.) whenever a certain fixed signif. had been attached to several words of the same termination. 1. — Verbs. 2. Our attention here is chiefly directed to verbs derived from nouns [substantive and adjective). This derivation is most com- monly effected by the terminations, d(i), i(jj^ oil), evu), a^w, t^o), aivM, vvio. These terminations take the place of the final syllable of the nomin., when the radical noun is of the first or second declen- sion, and, if the noun be of the third declension, whenever its nomin. ends in a vowel, or a c preceded by a vowel, ex. gr. rijuri Tifxdu), TTTBpov TrrEoou), Qavjia Oavfidt^io, dXr]6iig aXriOevii) : in other words of the third declension the verbal terminations take the place of the og of the gen. ; ex. gr. jcoXaS KoXuKeviv, wvp [irvpog) TTVpOd). Obs. 1. The nomin. of the third declension in a, ag, and ig, which take the conso- nant in the gen., can only pass over into kindred verbal terminations, (a and ag into 1 We only give a general outline ; the filling up is left to individual study and observation. Several distinct, but less extensive analogies have purposely been omitted, that the review of the main points might not be too much encumbered. 302 A GREEK GRAMMAR. dt^io, aivio — ig into i?w,) ex. gr. Oavjxa OavfiaKd) and Qaviiaivd), iKiriQ sXTrt^w : any other termination, whicli is not congenial to that of the noun^ is appended to the consonant of the gen.^ ex. gr. . 3. With respect to the signif. of these terminations^ we can only refer to the common use of the language, and notice the fundamental meanings of the majority of the vei^bs of each given termination. a. — i(jj and svio : these verbs are derived from almost all terminations, and denote chiefly the situation or the action of him whom the radical noun designates ; ex. gr, Koipavog^ a ruler, Koipaviio, to rule ; kolvcovoq., a partner, KOLVioviix), to take a part, to share in ; ^ovXog, a slave, ^ov- XevQj, to be a slave, to serve ; /coXa^, a flatterer, KoXaKevu), to flatter; aXriOrjg, true, a\r]9ev(jj, to be true, speak the truth ; fdaaiXevg^ (dacnXevw, &c. : most commonly they are intrans., but sometimes also trans,, as ^iXog, a friend, ^tXlw, / love. These two terminations are in general the most fre- quent derivatives, and denote besides a great many relations, which also are partly expressed by the follow- ing terminations, especially the practice of what the radical noun denotes, ea?. gr. iroXqiuv, aOXeXv, Trojunrtveiv, XopevEiv, (j)ov£VHv, j3oi>Xfu£iv, or what is most usually done with the object which the nou7i designates, ecc. gr, avXog, a flute, avXdv, to play on the flute ; ayopa, a public assembly, ayopevsiv, to address an assembly ; iTnrsveiv, to ride on horseback, &c. The termination to), as the easiest of all, is mostly used in compound derivations, as iVTVXi^w.) liTL^upib), oifcoSojUsw, hp^oXaptiw, fivrtfJiKaKiu), &c. ; and most verbs in £w are generally intrans. b.— aw: These verbs come most naturally from nouns of the first declension in a and r/, but pass also to others, and express chiefly having a thing or quality, and per- forming an action ; ex. gr. kojuy], hair of the head, xoX?), bile, — KOjuav, to let the hair grow long; '^(oXav, to be bilious, or irascible ; Xlttoq, fatness, fat, Xnrav, to be fat ; j3o77, a clamor, joog, griefs mourning, — j3oav, yoav ; ToXfia, boldness, roXfiav, to be bold. Hence, when any of these verbs denotes the applying of such a thing to another, it is transitive; rf/x??, honor, rifiav riva, to honor any DERIVATIONS. 803 one^. — See also below the verbs denoting diseases, 5,1. c. — 0W5 mostly from nouns of the second declension. These verbs denote, 1.) making the object to which they are applied the thing expressed by the radical word, ^ooXouy, to make one a slave, drjXow, to make known (from SriXog, known) ; 2.) converting into what the radical noun ex- presses, or imparting the qualities of that noun, by labor: -x^pvaotx), I gild; fiiXTou), I stain or color with red {juiXrog, red-lead); irvpow, I set on fire; ropvou), I turn with a lathe ; 3.) providing with the thing expressed by the noun; arecpavow, I croivn; Trrepooj, I furnish with wings, {-Trrepov,) (rravpoto, I crucify, &c. d. — aZoj and t^w — the first termination is most naturally used with words in a, r}, ag, &c. ; but for the sake of euphony also with other terminations. Both termina- tions comprise so many meanings, that they cannot be reduced to particular classes, ea^. gr, ^iKaZoj, ^hixoZw, opi^w, jusXfJw, OtpOiii), Xokt/Jw, &c. It may, however, be noticed, that, when these terminations serve to make verbs of the proper names of individuals and nations, they denote adopting the manners, party, and language of those persons or nations ; for instance, Mrj^iZ^tv, to have the sentiments and opinions of a Mede ; 'EW^vi^hv, to speak Greek; AwpiaZeiv, to speak in the Doric dialect ; (ptXiTnriZ^Lv, to be of the party of Philippus : see also 5, 2. e. — aivw and vvii) : — this last termination always is derived from adjectives, and denotes imparting the quality of the adj., ex.gr. rjdvvHv, to sweeten, asfivvvuv, to make vene- rable, revere. The adj., whose degrees of comparison in L(ov, ifTTog, seem to presuppose an old positive in vg, form their derivative verbs after this positive, ex. gr. alaxpog, [ai(jXLwv, from AI2XYS,) — aicryyvLo, and fiaKpog^ KoXog, firjKvvw, KaXXvvu), &c. The verbs in aivto frequently have the same signif., XsvKaiviiv, to whiten; KoiXaivuv, ^ It may be matter of surprise here, and in similar instances, that the abstract noun should be the parent of the verb ; but this frequently is the case when the subst., as is very usual in all languages, is derived from an old simple verb, and then forms a new verb, which renders the old one obsolete. This is evidently the case with Tiu), nuri, Ti[id(i) : we may therefoi"e presuppose it in others, as /3o>), vUrj. Analogy, at all events, requires us to derive, if there be no other reason, the fuller termination from the lighter one ; though it may occasionally happen that such a word as /3oa'a» existed before, and that the simple word (Soij was derived from it according to the analogy of others, which were exactly the reverse. 304 A GREEK GRAMMAR. to hollow out, &c. Yet several of these verbs are also neuter : yakiiraivuv, "^vay^^aiv^iv, to he angry, &c. and sometimes they are derived from subst., especially from those in jxa, [arifxa GriixaivM, du/uLa SeL/aaivii),) with various signif. 4. There is another peculiar way of making verbs of nouns, by merely changing the terminations of the latter into w, in which case the preceding syllable is^ according to this conso- nant, strengthened in the manner in which we have seen pres. tenses strengthened above § 92. Thus iroLKiXog gives TroLKiXXw, ayyeXoQ ayyeXXu), KaOapog KaOaipd), jULoXaKOQ juaXacFcru), (papjuaKOV (papfidcrcru), fisiXi^og /uel- Xl(J(T(x), TTvpSTog TTvgkaab), ^aXeirbg ;^aX£7rr6L)5 &c. The signif. is constantly derived from the most general signif. of the radical noun. 5. To these must be added the following more limited classes of derivative verbal forms : — 1.) Desideratives, verbs expressive of a desire or longing for ; they are most commonly formed by changing the fut. (of the verb, the purport of which is desired,) crw — into a pres. tense, creiw, ysXao-etw, / long to have a laugh, should like to laugh, TToXefxr^deiu), I wish for war, long to fight, &c. There is another form of desideratives in aw or idu, which properly comes from substantives, e from xaipdj, — and with a change of the vowel into o, (in the way of the perf. 2.) TOfii) from rijuivb), ^9opa from (pOeipio, cioi^i) from addto, &c. Some of them take a redupl. corresponding to the Attic redupL of the perf. and constantly having an w in the second syllable, e<2?. _^r. aywyri from ayw, Idojdi) from eSw, (eSr^^a,) oKijJxni from ex(t), compare the Note to p. 264. Some are paroxyto7ia, as j3Xa|3r], damage, from jSXa/rrw, /SXajSw, fJia\r\, battle, from juaxofiai, vt/cj], victo7'y, from vLKah). To this class belong also the words in -da, which are formed only from verbs in £uw by changing eu into cf, ex. gr. iraideia from TraLdeinv. They always have a, and consequently the acute accent on el. Obs. 6. With respect to the accentuation of all nouns in tia, compare first § 34. Obs. II. 3. and keep to the following rule : The /em. of oxytone adj. in vg, ex. gr. t)lvg, r'jdela, B.re proper isj)omena. 1.) The abstracta oiadj. in rjg, ex. gr. aXr]Qua, (see 10. a.) (SorjOsia from l3or]9bg, and 2.) The fern, of nouns masc. in tvg, ex. gr. Ikgna, priestess, (see § 12, 3. d.) are proparoxytone ; and the just-mentioned abstracta of verbs in tvu) 2ive paroxytona. d. — oc masc. By far the greatest number of these w^ords have in the principal syllable an o, either naturally or changed from an e, ex. gr. kqotoq, clapping of the hands, from KQOTiijj, (pOovog, envy, from ^Oovlw, \6yog, speech, from Xiyuj, poog, (povg,) from piio, — yet also tXtyxog, refutation, from IXiyxw, tvttoq, from tvittw, iraXog from TToXXu), &C. x2 308 A GREEK GRAMMAR. To these may be added the subst, in toq, which com- monly are oxytona, ex, gr, afiY]TOQ, harvest-time, kwkvtoq, ivaUing, partly with some little alteration, as verog, rain, from vco, Trayerog, ice, from irriyvvfii. The accent is drawn back, for instance, in (^lotoq, life ; -noTog, drink (from TTLvci), iriTTOfxai). e. — OQ, neut., ex. gr. to kTi^oq, care, from kZ/Sw, \axogf lot, from \ajx^^^) Trpayog the same as irpay^a, &c. These verbal nouns never have an o in the principal syllable ; hence to yivog, offspring, but 6 yovog, generation. 8. The subject of the verb, as man, is denoted by the termi- nations. a. — Tr]Q, [gen. of,) rr]^, Tuyp. The termination rrjc after the first decl. is the most common, and the words are in part oxytona, and in part par oxytona, ex. gr. a9\r}Trjg, athlete, ivrestler, from a&Xiw, fjLa6r]Trig, disciple, scholar, from fiaOalv, OeaTrig, spectator, from Oidofiai, SiKacTTrig from SiKciZd), KpLTYjg from Kpivw, &c. but Kvj3epv{]Trig^ pilot, from KtijSfovaw, irXdaTrjg, (from TrXarrw, Tri-iiKadjiai,) Svva(JTr}g, \paXTr]g, &c. — rijp and Tojp are more uncommon forms, which frequently occur in the dialects and in poetry along with Tr]g, but are also in use in several words of the popular language, ex. gr. (jwTrip, deliverer, pijTwp, orator, (from oraow and *PEO,) laTLCLTWp, &C. Obs. 7- Some sliorten the vowel before the termination, {Obs. 2. b.) ex. gr. bttsv- SvTTjQ, OvTtjp, dsTijg, aLpsTTjg, particularly derivatives compounded with subst. and Tjykofiai, as odrjysrrjg, 'MovtirjysTTjQ or MovcraysTijg. b. — Evg, ex. gr. -y^a^tuc, writer, (pOopevg, destroyer, seducer. Obs. 8. The terminations under a and b have also been partly given to things which may be considered as agents or subjects of an action ; ex. gr. dfjrrjg, a gale of wind, iTTSvdvrrjg, tipper tunic, Trpj^crr^p, storm, ^wariiip, girdle, in(3oXevg, dibble, bolt, piston. The use of masc. forms in connexion with fern, ones is a syntactic licence; see § 123. Obs. 1. c. — og, mostly in compounds only, ex. gr. Zog, painter, waTpoKTovog, parricide. Sic. ; but Tpo^hg, {6,7},) one who educates, aoiEog, singer, and some old words like apxog, leader (Horn.). d. — r]g and ag, gen. ov, only in a few compounds, as juLvpo- irwXrjg, Tpirjpdpxvg, (and -eg,) 6pvL9o9{]pag. 9. The names of tools and other implements, necessary to the DERIVATIONS. 309 performance of an action or operation, are derived from the pre- ceding denominations of subjects or agents^ or at least presup- pose them in point of form ; especially — Ti]giov, Tpov, and Tpa, from the termination rrjp, ex. gr. \ovTi]Qiov, bathing-tub, \ovtqov, water for bathing, a bath, aKpoaT{]pLov, hall of audience, lecturer^s room, ^varpa, currycomb, op^^arpa, place for dancing, — uov, from the termination ^.vg, esc. gr. kovquov, barber's shop, from kovo^vq, barber, and this from kuquv, to shear, shave, rpocpuov, recompense for educating, from rpocpevg. 10. Another principal species of subst. are B. Those derived from adj. and attributes, and chiefly for the mere purpose of expressing the abstractum of the adj. Of this kind are the terminations a. — ia, constantly with a, (Ion. r],) ex.gr. aot^oq, ivise, aocpia, ivisdom, and KaKia, deiXia, &c. Also jSXajcm from [5Xa^, eiiSaiiuovia from Evdaifiwv, ovog, avdpia ^, from avrip, avdpog, Treifia from Trevrjg, Y}Tog, a/aaOia from ajua- Orig, eog. The adj. in rjg commonly make their subst. in eia, as will be seen presently. Compound adj. in rog very generally change the r into (T in the subst., ex.gr. aOavarog aOavaaia, ^ixnreTTTog dv) ^^^^^ ^^^2/ w^^^^^j afiax'^^i, without a contest, avTox^ip^i, "f^^th one^s own hands, ajuLLdOX, gratis, without compensation, vrjTronn, (from the negation vii, § 120. Obs. 12.) with impunity, &c. d. — S, an uncommon form, which generally attaches itself to palatals, and takes an adverbial signif. ; eic. gr. ava- jui^, promiscuously, confusedly, wapaWaE,, alternately, okXcl^, (from oKrXa^w,) with bent knees, squatting, odaK, with the teeth (from odovg). § 120. — Derivation by Composition. 1. The first part of any compound word is a noun, verb, or indeclinable word. 2. When the first word is a noun, its declinable termination is generally changed into an o, which, however, is usually elided whenever the second word begins with a vowel ; ex. gr. XoyoTTOiog, iraidoTpifd-ng, crw/xaro^iiXaJ, lxOvoiru)\rig, (from i)(^dvg, voq,) dLKO'Ypa(j)og^ (from St/c*],) voiJ,ap\r}Q, (from vo/uLog and ap^ao,) TraidayMjog, (from ayw, ayuyyy),) Ka\eE>La (from KaKog, t^ig). But in most instances, where the noun ends in either v or i, there is no o assumed; for instance, evOvdiKog, 'jTo\v^ayog,iTo\LiTopdog, (from ev9vg,Tro\vg, TToXig,) the same after ov and av, ex. gr. j3ov(})op(5og, vavfiayia, (from (5ovg, vavg,) and frequently also after v, ex. gr. jLteXay^oAm, jueXajUTTtTrXoc? (from ju^Xag, avog,) irafx^ayog (from irag, iravrog). Obs. 1 . The o sometimes remains before vowels, especially such of which it may be supposed (according to § 6. 06s. 3.) that they had the digarama in the old lan- guage ; ex. gr. fjLrjvoeLdijg, [xtvoeiKijQ, dyaQospyog. But in the compounds with ipyov or EPFQ, the o is usually contracted with'the 6 : drjfiiovpydQf Xeirovpyog. Obs. 2. The w comes from the Attic, or the contracted declensions ; ex. gr. vecjKo- poQ, (from vsijjQ,) dpSMKOfiog, (from opevg, gen. opsojg,) icpioj^dyog (from Kpeag, gen. aog, wg). In all the compounds of yrj, earthy it becomes ytio, ex. gr. yeu)ypd(j)og, instead of yao- from the old form TAA (see § 27. Obs. 10). Obs. 3. Some primitive nouns in fia, gen. arog, frequently simply change their a into 0, or drop it altogether ; ex. gr. a\}ioaTayrig, (rrofiaXyia, from alfia, arofia. Obs. 4, In some compositions, especially in poetical ones, the form of the dat. sing. or dat.pl. is taken into the compound word ; ex. gr. Trvp'nrvovg, vvKrnropog, yatrrpi- fxapyoc, opeivofjLog, (from opog, eog,) vavanropog, lyxi^aimopog. — This latter form is frequently shortened into eg, (from og, gen. sog,) ex. gr. reXeacpopog, aaKt(T7rdXog, from TO TsXog, aaKog. Obs. 5. There are some other peculiainties, which must be left to individual I DERIVATION BY COMPOSITION. 319 notice ; ex. gr. fxecTanroXiog from ^sgoq, odonropog from oSbg, dpy'nrovQ from dpyrjg or dpybg, TTodaimrTTjp from Trovg Trodbg, uKpaxo^og fx'om dicpog, QrjjiayEvrjg, fioiprj- yevrig, e\a(pr]l36\og, \anTraSr](p6poc, Qy)^r], /.lolpa, from eXacpog, XafXTrdg, — and the og of the Jiomin. seemingly retained in OeoaCorog, Xaoaaoog'^. 3. When the first word is a verb, its termination is generally- made either in e with the unaltered characteristic of the vei^b before it. or in en, ex. gr. apy^iicaKog from cipy^siv, ^aKsOvfiog from daKV(jj, e^aKov, XvcFLTTOvog from Xvm, Tp^^i->^pwQ from TpiTro), iyfoori^^opoc from kyEipii), Here too the vowel is elided, ex. gr, (pipaaiTigi pi-ipacririQ. Obs. 6. The instances are less frequent where the i is without the a, as in rcpTri- Ktpavvog, and in several compounds of dpxif-v, ex. gr. dpxi'Q^(^pog, or where the xerb also takes the a, as in almost all compounds with Xai/rw, ex. gr. XftTTord^iov. — We must also notice the form raiitaixpiog, (from rkyLVix), irafiov,) \nrs.(yrjvu)p, (from XeiTTw, IXiirov,) and the shortened one in 7, honor, is to be negatived by the a priv. {dishonor^) there is first an adj. arijuog made, and from it a new subst. arifxia. In this kind of compositions the adj. in vg generally take the termination rig, ex. gr. rjBvg, pleasant, arjdrig, unpleasant, fiapvg, oivo(^aprig, and the like. 5. But in most compound nouns the second part does not convey the principal meaning, or the subject of the proposition, on which it is founded, but merely its object, though this second part frequently is the unaltered denomination, and this is the case whenever the noun itself has a termination, which is not in contradiction to the gender of the new noun to be formed. Thus awoiKog, BsKTidaifxtov, is not an olKog or Sat/xwv modified by the first part of the denomination, but the former is one ivho is airo rov oikov, distant from his house, the latter one ^siaag rovg ^aifuLovag, fearing the gods. Thus airaig, one who has no child, childless ; juiaKpox^i^pi one who has a long arm; 'ivOeog, inspired by a divinity ; IwixaipUaKog, one who eTTLxaipei ToXg KaKoTg, delights in the misery of others, &c. But when the termination of the noun does not correspond to the intended denomination, the noun takes the most congenial final syllable of a declension, viz. either a bare g, or the termi- nations og, (xjg, gen. w, i]g, gen. ovg, ig, gen. dog, or wv or top pro- duced by the change of vowel stated in § 63, 2. ex. gr. ciBaKpvg, (from daicpv,) tearless ; Tps\id£nrvog, (from Tpe\it) and duTTvov,) one who hunts after dinners ; svdvdiKog, who practises strict [BiKr]) justice, an upright judge; arifiog, stripped of {tijui)) honor, dishonored; (l)i\oxpvfJiarog, ivho loves [xprifJ-a, xpiipara,) money ; evyeivg, of a good soil {yi], yew-), fertile; Xenrovsiog, loho quits his ship {vavg, v£wc) ; KaK0i]9r]g, of a wicked disposition {riOog) ; avaXKig, (dog,) cowardly (ciXki]) ; o-w^pwv, of sound understanding {(ppriv) ; ^vTranop, bom of a noble father {irarrip), noble. I DERIVATION BY COMPOSITION. 323 Compare § 63. with all these forms. This is the origin of a great number of compound adj. or attributive subst. 6. Generally when a compound novM is to be formed with the help of a verb, the verb comes last, and takes the termina- tion of a noun, and the first word contains either the purpose or the object of the action of the verb ; ex. gr. lpyo\d(5og, who undey^takes a ivorTc ; iiriroTpocpoQ, who feeds horses. The simple termination og is the most common in compounds of this kind, and for subst. the terminations rjg and ag after the first de- clension, (see the examples, § 119, 8. d.) but for adj. rjc after the third declension {ex. gr. ev/uLaOrig, neut. Ig, apt to learn, who learns easily) ; and also the other terminations of nouns, (stated in § 119, 8.) ex. gr. vofxoOiTrig from vojuog and ridriiii, &c. 7. Other derivative words are again formed from such primi- tive compounds as ^cicriSat/xovta, vojioQeaia, voiuLoOeriKog, &c. and from the compound verbs, stated sub 3. as iTnroTpo}p, yovtlg, Traig, Qtbg, and others; principally in their oblique cases; and 3.) before such nppellatices,v/hich. have some similitude with proper names, as 7]\iog, aeXrjvr], yrj, OdXafxaa, oipavbg, ^aatXiiig, king of Persia; see Heind. ad Plat. Eiithyd. 8. Phcedo 17 and 108. §125. 1. The art. is frequently separated from its subst., not only through the adj\ (6 kqXoi; ttolq — ol vTrapxovTsg vofioi, the existing laws,) but also through other more particular modifications of the subst., ex. gr, Ifxifivriro rf/c Iv jiavia BiaTpijdrjg, he i^emembei^ed the time spent in madness, in which case a participle as yevojuivt} and the like may often be mentally supplied ; ex. gr. 77 wpog FaXarag fiaxVi t^^^ battle against the Gauls ; r} irplv ap^ai avrov apBTrj, the virtue which he showed before he reigned (Xen. Ages. 1, 5). Ohs. 1. The lonians even insert the pronoun rig between the gen. dependent on it and its art., ex. gr. tCjv rig Upsojv, instead of tu>v itps^v rig. 2. If the intercalated modification begins with the art. there may be two or three ai'ticles one after the other, provided they differ in their forms from each other, ex. gr. to rfjc aperrig KoXXog, the beauty of virtue, 6 ra Trig iroXeoog Trpdyiaara irpdr- Tii)v, he who manages the affairs of the state, rov ro rrig 'AOrjvag ayaXjua Ipyaadfievov, — 'ivoxpg £otw ra> rfjg tu)v eXevOEptjjv (pOo' pag voiuicl). 3. But the modifications of the subst. may also come after for emphasis or distinctness, in which case the art. must be repeated; ex. gr. rov Tralda rov (tov, thy son, 6 ^^iXiapxog o rag ayyeXtag elaKOjuiZwv, the military tribune who has to bring in the reports. It may, however, be omitted in the first place, ex. gr. (TvvsijUL avdpwiroig rolg ayaOoig. Obs. 2. The gen. partitive can never be intercalated in that way, nor, when placed after the governing noun, can the art. of the latter be repeated before the gen. part. The only exception to this rule is, where several other words are placed between the art. and the gen. part. ; ex. gr. Thuc. VI. 102. 01 Trpbg rr^v ttoXiv avrwv to TrpCJTov KaratpvyovTig, where avTuiv depends upon 01 KuraipvyovTeg. The pronoun demonst. is intercalated in an analogous manner in many passages ; as for instance in Xen. Anab. VI. 2, 6. r) arevij avTt] 6S6g. The repetition of the article is necessary with the part., because the proposition would else constitute that particular construction of the part., which is so usual in the Greek language, and of which we treat below, §144. Obs. 3. When the adj. without an art. stands close to a subst., which has the art., 330 A GREEK GRAMMAR. without, however, coming between the two, the adj. stands in the place of an acces- sory proposition, in which it would be the predicate, ex. gr. ijdtro IttI TzXovaioig toTq TToXiraig does not mean, he rejoiced at the toealthy citizens, but, he rejoiced at his citi- zens when they were, or, as far as they were, wealthy ; Itt' uk^oiq toIq bpsaiv, on the mountains, where they are the highest, i. e. on the top of the mountains ; o\r]v Trjv vvKra, the ichole night ; 6'%£i tov TrkXtKvv b^vrarov, which we can only translate by, he has a very sharp axe, but the exact idea is, the axe which he has (and ought to have for the undertaking) is very sharp. 4. When the subst, is understood from the context, it is commonly omitted, and the art. stands alone before the modi- fications, ecc. gr, 6 '^fjLog narrip /cat 6 rov <^iAou {my father and THAT of my ftiend). 5. There are certain customary omissions in such cases, (as above, § 123, 3. with the adj.) ex, gr. vlog, iralg, Ovyarrjp, 'AXiKavSpog 6 ^lXlttitov, or also alone : 6 Sw^joovto-Kou, the son of Soph., i. e. Socrates. X'^9^3 7^' ^h TYjv (piXiinrov, into the country of Philippus, oiKog or olKia' (more usual without any art., see § 133. Obs. 9. 147. Obs. 5.) dg UXarwvog, into the house of I Plato ; ug aSou, into the Hades. av6p(i)7roL' OL Iv aarei, the inhabitants ; ot Kar Ijulb, my con- temporaries. The same with regard to friends or rela- tions : ot irepL or aju^L riva, (see § 150.) ot (tvv tivl, &c. Xprijuara or Trpciy juara* ra rrig iroX^wg, the affairs of the town ; ra (or to) rrig aperrig, that which relates to virtue. Hence arises a circumlocution of the simple subst. See § 128. Obs. 1. and 2. Tip-ipa" 7\ iTTiovcra, the following day. 6. As any indeclinable modification may be declined with the help of the article, adverbs are converted into adj. by the mere addition of the art., ex. gr. fxtTa^v, between, 6 fxeTa^if TOTTog, the intermediate place, the place situated between ; wiXag, near, al iriXag KWfxai^ the neighbouring villages, ot roTh avOpwTroi, ol TToXaL 0-000/ avBpeg, 17 avM iroXig, the upper town, elg rov avwraTU) tottov, (see § 115, 6.) 77 t^at^vrjc juerdtrTaaig, the sudden removal, &c.^ Under this head comes also 77 ov didXvaig, and the like, see below, § 148. Obs. 3. Or the adverb comes after, and the art. is repeated : "Orav '^yeip7](j9e ek rrig afieXdag Tavrrtg Trig dyav, when you awake from this excessive remissness. 7. If the subst. being sufficiently known from the context or ^ The Latin language, not having any art., must resort to a kind of juxtaposition to use such expressions, and that only in comedy, heri semper lenitas, Terentius. SYNTAX. 331 idea itself^ be altogether omitted, the adv. assumes the appear- ance of a subst., ex. gr. avQLov, to-morroiv, omitting the word ?7/.(€po, day, gives 77 avQLOv, the morrow ; 77 AvStcrrt, the Lydian music {apiuovla being understood) ; ol tots, the men of that time ; £g Tov7ri(7(s), (for to biriaio, with the probable omission of luepog,) backwards, towards the hind part ; Anacreon has, To G{\\x^pov juiXei fjLoi, I care only for to-day, i. e. for ivhat is to-day, what occurs to-day ; for it is not always possible to supply a definite subst. Avhen the art. is neut., nor is there any occasion to supply a subst. 8. On the other hand, Infinitives, and any word or phrase considered in itself as an object, become actual substantives by the art. being prefixed : 1.) Infinitives, ex, gr. to irpaTTuv, the acting, being en- gaged in business, to kukC^q Xiyeiv, the evil-speaking, backbiting, ri^o/iai r<^ TrepiiraTdv, I find pleasure in walk- ing. The use of the infin. as a subst. is very extensive in Greek, as will be seen § 140. 2.) Any word or phrase, considered in itself as an object, ex. gr. to Xejlo, i. e. the word Xiyai. — Plato Protag. 345. JlSjOt kavToi) XtjSL TOVTO TO tKwv. Phccdr. 129. KaTa\prj- aaaOuL Set avTov to, UCjq S' clv kycj Toioads toiwSe k7ra\i:L- prjcra, he must make use of this speech, Hoiv could I have attacked such a one ! 9. The short particles, as Si, t\, yl, Si), yap, pev, julv dri, toivvv, are usually placed between the art. and the subst. or its repre- sentative : 6 yap avOpioiTog, 77 plv yap texvy], &c. 06s. 4. Any word denoting an object is generally considei-ed as of the neuL gen- der ; but in grammar it is customary to give to every word the gender belonging to the denomination of that part of speech, ex.gr. as we say r] avTuiwu'ia, (the pronoun,) we also say 7) syuj, (the lyronoun lyoj,) and 6 £7r6i, because of 6 (Tvvdiafxog {conjunction). Obs. 5. There is, however, another peculiarity to be attended to. The article to with its accompaniment, omitting any connexion, becomes adterhial, ex. gr. to TsXevTalov, finally, Tavvv, (properly to. vvv.) now, to cltto Tovde, hencefoHh (com- pare below the accus. § 131, 8). — See about isvai tov Trpocrw, the Note to § 132, 4, 2. c, and about some other expressions with the art. to or to., below the adj. neut. § 128. and the accus. § 131. Obs. 6. In an elliptical sentence the article sometimes stands even before a pro- noun relative, ex.gr. To 6fj.oioj6sv Trpbg to (^ ojixoiwOt], (Plato Hep.dlO.) the thing com- pared contrasted icith that to which it is compared, where IkeTvo might have been used instead of to : Ovliv tu>v oaa ai(rxvvr]v sort (pspovTa (Herod. 3, 133) : Tolg o'loiq y'lfilv xaXf/r;) 77 STjfxoKpaTia, to men like us (compare below, § 143, 6.) a democracy is prejudicial (Xen. Hist. Gr. 2, 3, 17) : T^fjg {(jvvovaiag) oOev av (ppovinwraTog tir}, (Plato Phcedr. 34.) 76 waTrep Kupvov, the walnut-like thing {Pollux 7, 75) ; and the 332 A GREEK GRAMMAR. same before other words connected with a subsequent proposition, ex. gr. To ttote del Xlyciv didacTKs. fis, literally, the when one ought to speak teach me, i. e. teach me when it is proper to speak ; "Ev In Xi'nrBTai, to r)v 7rei &c. Real exceptions to this rule are only those instances in which substantives are added to the above-mentioned pronouns, which, when taken even in a definite sense, do not require the art., ex. gr. ; oot 'ApiaTupxog avrbg jSaaikevg, Trdvreg dvOpiiJTTOL, i. e. all icho are called men. 7. The pronouns possessive are frequently rendered by the genitives of the pron. personal or reflexive. The usage of speech is the following : 1.) Instead of the pron. poss. of the 1 and 2 pers. sing., the enclitical forms fxov and aov are used, and they are either put before the art. or after the subst. ; hence niov, aov 6 (jyiXog or 6 (piXog jULOv, GOV ; or the pron. reflex, liuavrov, (Tsavrov, are employed for the sake of emphasis, and they are placed either between the art. and the subst. or after the subst., the art. being repeated. Hence 6 l/iiavTov, (jsavTov (piXog, or 6 (piXog 6 sjULavrov, cr. 2.) Instead of the third pers. of the pron. poss., which is scarcely ever employed in prose, the gen. avrov, rig, ahrCyv are used, and these again either before the art. or after the subst., if the words signifying possession do not refer to a subject con- tained in the principal proposition ; hence ahrov, &c. 6 0tXoc or 6 (piXog avTOv, &c. The pron. reflex, kavrov, rjg, aavrCov, is used (taking the same position as has been pointed out in number 1. b.) if the word signifying possession refers to the subject of 338 A GREEK GRAMMAR. the principal proposition; hence 6 kavrov, &c. ^tXoc and 6 (piXog 6 kavTov, &c. 3.) The first and second pers. plur. of the pron. poss. are by far more usual than the circumlocution with rt/niov and vjjliov. Obs. 10. This is the usage constantly observed in Attic prose ; for examples see Rost's Grammar, § 99. The pron. poss. lubg, cog, &c. are used like adject. ; hence okfibQ (piXoQ or 6 (piXoQ 6 sfiog. That avrov, auTwv, may be employed instead of the pron. reflex, iavrov, &c. follows from text 3. 8. With words expressive of constantly relative ideas, as a son, father, friend, master, the hand, foot, &c. the pron. poss. is never used, but supplied by the art. alone. See about the premised enclitic gen. fxov, aov, instead of the Dat. commodi, § 133. Obs, 5. §128. — Of the Neuter Adjective, 1. The neuter of all kinds of adj. is used alone without a subst, or even as a subst. for any indefinite or vague object, and in many instances it is, as in Latin, in the pi. when we should use the sing. : eiirs ravra, he said this ; to. koXo. [the beauty, the beau- tiful, viz. all which is beautiful) ; ovde ra dvajKoia dvvavrai TropiZsiv, they cannot even procure the needful [the necessary things). Hence, ra Ifxa, for instance, signifies not only my effects, but also more indefinitely whatever concerns myself. 2. The neuter in the sing, rather denotes the abstract idea of objects, ex. gr. to koXov, the beauty {the beautiful abstractedly considered in itself) ; to Quov, the divinity {any divine nature, of which we have but an obscure notion) ; to Tr\g yvvaiKog SovXov KoX OspairevTiKov, the slavish and submissive condition of women. Whence also the neuter of a part, is employed as an abstractum, ex. gr. to (7vyKEX(i)pr]Kog, the yielding, i. e. an indulgent, yielding disposition. Obs. 1. The neuter of the article alone with the gen. is still more indefinite ; it denotes a mere reference, derivation, and the like : To Sk rwv X|0'/i^«''wv fidXicTTa TToOtlre aKovaai, Troaa Kai ttoOsv larai, with respect to the money, you are particularly anxious to hear how much it is, and whence it is to come ; Demosth. Td rwv OeuJv / apari] e(ttlv sTrau'erov, virtue is praiseworthy ; ovk ayadou TroXvKOipai^irj, Horn. ; f'tO' fiBv, e'tV dvLapov Tvaldeg yiyrovrai, dyvoei, — xaXeirov aKpoari/JQ davveroQ, where we could say in English more fully, a stupid hearer is a disagreeable thing, — Aristoph. Eccl, 236. Xprjpura Tropi^eiv evTropojTarov yvvri. It is most usually done when the adj. refers to several separate objects, which have been named before, and which are all, or the greatest part of them, things : Top ov^tVa Kcd TYiv KecpaXrjv (pairei Ksxpyawf-iiya, Herod. : ^Avr)p KapfidviOQ Kal Kvwv dixiporepa dypiMraru, jElian, H. A. 3, 2. Obs. 7. The predicate is often expressed by an adverb, either when the adjective form of an adverb does not exist, (compare § 125, 7-) or when the adverb andi copula coalesce into one idea. Such adverbs are : dXiq, alya, dicr]v (Horn.), eKccc, lyyvg or kyyvOev, TcXrja'iov, ^fX«j X^^pt^) ^^- 9^- (Xen.) ore. ayyvg, %wpig r]aav, eyyvTepov lyiyvovTo: further Ka\a>g, KaKU)g, xf^Xeirwg dvai, ex.gr. 41 n TiSJvd' ecrriv KaXwg. Eurip. 7. The subject, as in Latin, commonly is not expressed, whenever the termination of the verb and the context sufficiently show it, and when there is no particular stress on it, whilst in such a case we always use the pronouns personal, I, thou, he, she, it, &c. Obs. 8. Any substantive (or word) in a principal sentence, although it be in an oblique case, needs not be repeated in a collateral sentence, on its becoming the subject of the latter. Herod. 9, 8. top 'laOfjcop treix^op Kai a, 16. iyw y/xof CLKOvii) Tovg'AOijvaiovQ diivovg dvai KXtTTTSiv to. ^/jjuocrta. Compare Krueger in 1,7? 7» 8. The noun of the subject is likewise omitted, when the verb denotes the usual occupation or profession of a definite individual known by this occupation, ea?. gr. GaXiriZ^i or arifxaivei, the trumpeter gives the signal with the trumpet. Thus Demosth. says, avayvu)(j£Tai vfuv, he shall read to you, (speaking of the usual appointed reader,) and Herod, in speaking of usual occupations at sacrifices, the chace, &c. (2, 47. 70.) Compare below, Obs. 9. 9. The same is done, where we say it, meaning some effect of nature, or the result of circumstances, ex. gr. vu, it rains (w^here we must not understand Zfuc, although the Greeks often said 6 Zeuc ^^h ^^^ the like) : irpodr^fiaivH, it atinounces itself [ex. gr. in the atmosphere) ; l^/^Xwo-e ^£, and so it showed itself (Xenoph. Mem. 1, 2, 32). 10. Impersonal verbs, that is to say, verbs which have no reference to any person or subject, are of a very different nature ; the subject with them is not a kind of mystery, or left in the dark, but the action, to which they refer, whether it be expressed by an infin. or any dependent proposition, is the real subject of such verbs, of which verbs the peculiarity consists simply in their subject not being expressed by a noun or infin., with an article^ supplying the place of a noun ; ex. gr. I^^gti ^jloi cnriivai, i. e. to airiivai t^Eari fioi, {to go away is permitted to me,) it is permitted to me to go away (I am at liberty to go). Of this kind are Sa, X9^' (I'^oxpri, ^oku, (look for all these above among the Anomalous,) irpeiru, it becomes, Iv^ix^Tai, it is possible, and others, of which some also admit of personal constructions, which are easily understood ; hence complete phrases, like t^st X070V, [consentaneum est,) are to be considered as imper- sonals of this kind. 11. The French on is most commonly rendered (according to § 127, 4.) by the pronoun rlq, in some cases also by the 2 pers., ex.gr. ipmrjQ av, {on diroit,) ^you would say;' or, as in Latin, by the 3 pers. pL, or by the pass., chiefly in the expres- sions, (pacTi, \iyerai, but also in other expressions (Thuc. 7, 69). "Ottep iraaxovcnv ev roXg fjieyaXoig aytJariv. SYNTAX. 343 06s. 9. The word rig may also be omittedj and consequently the 3 pers. sing, used alone, if by the French general pronoun on, the Eng. one, we understand either 1.) the person wJio performs the action, (compare 8.) ex.gr. Tbv XaixTrrrjpa TrpocreveyKaroj, (qu'on apporte la lanterne,) "^let the lantern he b'ought," Xenoph. Sijmp. 5,2 ; or 2.) the indefinite subject of a preceding verb, ex.gr. Ovk 1(jtiv opOiog ijytlcrOaL lav firj ^povijjLog y, it is impossible to he a good commander in chief, if one he not prudent, Plato Meno 38. 12. The copula is also frequently omitted, though only in the pres. indicat., for instance in general sentences : ra rwv (ptXwv KOLva ; or when no obscurity ensues from it : "EWriv tyoj, I am a Greek ; ^ifiuividy ov p^^iov cittkttsXv ; Osfxtg, Kuipbg, utpa ; the adject. SToifxog, (ppovdog, alriog, pg,Siog, xaXsTrbg, and others ; the locutions : 6av[xa- GTOV oaov, dfirjxavov oaov, (§ 150.) and the neuter terhal adjectives in rkov or (plur.) Tsa. Examples : ov Kal rovro dvdyKri ; is not this also required? even with- out lyoj, Luc. Catapl. 10. — Troirjrsov, faciendum est (see § 134, 10). Compare Heind. ad Plat. Phcedr. 69. Gorg. 68. Valch ad Phoen. 976. § 130. — Object. — Oblique Cases. — Omission of the object. 1. The person or thing, on which an action is performed,, or to which that action refers — the object — is always in one of these three cases, ge?!., dat., accus., which on that account are called dependent, oblique cases. 2. The proximate object, or necessary relation of the trans- itive verb, without which this verb cannot be conceived, com- monly is in the accus., Aa^jSavw Tr)v daTri^a, I take or seize the shield ; but the remote object named along with the accus. and with intrans. verbs is connected by ?i prep., Xajuf^avd) rriv darTTL^a aTTo Tov TraacrdXov, I take the shield from the nail ; ecrrriKa ev roj lEd(f)£L, I stand on the ground. 3. The relations of more remote objects, which return most frequently, are generally expressed by a mere casus, which in the European languages, which have cases, is chiefly the gen. and dat., ex. gr. I give the money to the man, he assured me of his benevolence. 4. But languages differ greatly in this respect : what is ex- pressed in one by one case, is rendered in another language by another case ; and very frequently one language employs a prep., where the other simply uses a case, or some may use either the ^jre/?. or the casus : ex. gr. in English, I gave the letter to him, or / gave him the letter. When we therefore meet with a mere casus in Greek, where other languages use a preposition, we must not be too hasty with the interpretation 344 A GREEK GRAMMAR. of an omitted preposition ; we had better assume that the casus involves ah'eady that idea, which we would render apparent through the medium of a preposition. 5. Nothing, however, is more common in the ancient lan- guages, (and it may be considered as one of their fundamental principles,) than that, whenever the object has already been named, and the reference to it is abundantly apparent from the verb itself, they do not express either of the two objects, (just as in other instances they do not express the subject and the pronoun possessive,) and thus avoid that multiplicity of pro- nouns, which greatly obstructs our modern languages. It will be sufficient to direct the attention of the learner to this parti- cular nature of the ancient languages, with the addition of a few examples : Xen. Cyrop. i. 2, 12. 'Ev ^ S' av tCjv (pvXbJv ttXhcttol uxTLv dvdpiKWTaTOi, kTraivovaiv ol TroXlrai (here we must mentally supply TavTr\v before iTraivovGLv). — Xenoph. Hell. 3, 4, 3. 'Erray- yEiXajuivov tov ' Ajr](ji\aov rr)v cxTpaTEiav, [ivlien Agesilaus offered himself to command the army,) S participle and the definite tense of another verb, which have but one object, the Greek expresses that object commonly but once, and places it in the casus, governed by that verb, to which it is nearest. For examples see Krueger to Dionys. Historiogr. p. 119. Ohs. 2. Another kind of omission of the object is that of the reflective eavrdv, inavrhv, &c. which may take place or be understood, whenever a terh, which else is altogether transitive, becomes intrans. in particular combinations, as, for instance, several compounds of dyeiv, to lead, where the intrans. idea of going is the fundamen- tal meaning, commonly, however, with the accessary idea of going with pomp, or in a crowd, ex.gr. 'E|f%wp?j(7£ tyiq odov, Trpoadyovrog tov Tvpdvvov,lie went out of the road, when the tyrant approached (as if it were, moved towards him). Such cases belong to dictionaries, and we must remember 1.) not to be too ready with this explanation, and not to adopt it in prose-writers in particular, but when we are fully convinced that the phrase in question is really customary ; nor 2.) ought we to consider the omission of kavrbv as necessary in every instance, since in a great many verbs the assumption of their primitive, immediative, and causative signif. (according to § 113, 2.) is the mosf philosophically correct, ex.gr. in opng,v, to rush forth, excite. Obs. 3. Properly it is only the part, of a vei-b, which can be construed with the same case, as that verb governs. Subst. and adj. derived from a verb, convert the case of the latter into the gen., or necessitate a circumlocution. But we frequently find in the Attic writers the accus. as well as dat. of the verb joined to the noun with a peculiar energy and precision, ex. gr. clkoXovQ^tlkoq nvi, j^rone to, t) kKacFTtii diavkixrjaig, the action of distributing to each, Trpbg eTtiSn^iv Tolg ^kvoig,for a display to strangers; — rd pereojpa (ppovriarrjc, one who meditates on superhuman things, Plato Apol. 2. from (ppovrl^eip Ti,to meditate on; — 'Avrjicoov eivai 'ivid ye x6^i?a re Kal SYNTAX. 345 TrpcoiZd ■yeysvrifj.eva, not hearing of something, which had occurred,, Plato Alcih. II. 7 (usually avrjKoov dvai rivog). The case is the same with sTricrTrjuiov, and in poets (pv^ijxoQ, tvvia-iop, from i-KiaTajxai, (pevyoj, ^vvoidd ri. The adj. i.U,apvoQ is always construed in this manner, and hence combined with the terh suhst., it signifies to deny, and (like apveXaOai) governs not only the infin. {'i^apvog ei/Jii Troifjaai,) but also the accus., ex. gr. ottujq /x?) t^apvoQ laei a vvv Xeysig, Plato Euthyd. 283. Ohs. 4. !Many terhs may be construed either with an object, or in its stead with another sentence or proposition by means of a conjunction. Sometimes both con- structions are found together with one terh, Plato Gorg. 77- ^al %p?7//ara irapa- crKSva^ovTai ical (piXovg, Kal OTTUjg av wcriv (hg iriQavLOTaToi Xkysiv, Rep. 6. jO. 496. Twr TToWoJp iicavoJg ISovreg t))v [j.aviav,Kai on ov^elg aurQv ov8ev vyieg Trpdrrsi. § 131 »■ — Accusative. 1. The use of the accus. case^ denoting any proximate and immediate object, governed by a transitive verb^ is supposed to be sufficiently known from other grammars. But there are often instances^ where in one language the object is proximate to a verb, and in another it is more remote in the gen. or dat. case, or it is construed with a preposition ; and ia like manner verbs in Greek are construed in a transitive sense, which in other languages have no object belonging to them. The follow- ing verbs govern the accusative case in Greek, thus deviating from the German, (and for the most part also from the Eng- lish,) or they are at least usually translated into verbs which govern another casus or a preposition : ovLvavai, w^eXav to be useful to, (but \v/ adiKia, fjy ij^itcovv ae, {the wrong, with which I wronged you,) the injustice, which I did you, (compare 5.) yXvKvv virvov Koipdadai, — k-mpeXovt'Tai Trdaay eirifxiXeiav. The Greek thus avoids the power- less accumulation of our to do, make cause, have, &c. (See the same construction with the ^as5. § 134. Obs. 2.) Obs. 2. Even the predicate with the verb elvai sometimes has such an additional kindred accus., ex. gr. AovXog Ictti rag fifyiaTag SovXeiag, dCiKog eKoicrTr^v dSiKiav, (To^bg TTiv Iksivcjv (ToaXrig, (properly^ / ain broken . in part of my head.) i. e. have a fracture in the head ^ ; and hence with all verbs which express to have a share in or to take part in a thing ; ex. gr. with tivai, psTelvai, fieTi)(jcLv, fieTaXajLifSaveiv, KOivcoveXv, (adj. KOLvwvog,) and others ; — to be patiaking of: rvyxaveiv, \ay)(^av£Lv, dvriav, Kvpuv^ KXrjpovopeiv ; — and to touch, to seize: aTrreaOai, XujujddveaOai, with their compounds^ £Xf<''^«'3 "^av^iv, OiyydvELv, and similar ones ; compare 5, 8. and 6, 3. Examples : ijdeXe rwv pevovTwv ilvai. — riiq ftovXrjg elvai, to be mem- ber of the council. — psTeari (Jlol toiu TrpuypciTOJr. — dvr]Tov aujparog tVv^ec, adavciTov ce -ipv^^ijg. — Xen. Anab. 7, 6, 41. yf (Toj(f)poviopet^, k^oneda aiiTOv. d.) with all verbs denoting enjotjment of or deriving 1 We may in this way understand many instances of gen., by which a verb refers rather indefinitely to an object, (Herm. ad Viger. 881.) especially the Homeric O'iuv TTtoioio, as if it were to run through part of the plain. Thus also the expression ikvai TOV TvpocFuj, to go forwards, onicards, as if it were to go part of the farthermost road, Xen. Anah. 1, 3, 1. Soph. Aj. 731. with Lobeck's Note. — But it would be rather overstraining to explain the Homei-ic expressions, ex. gr. \oviaBai TroTafj-olo, Trprycrai irvpcg, as a part ov portion, and it is probably more accurate to say of tliese, and other similar poetical expressions, that the gen. in the old language denoted any general relation, whenever the proximate one was obvious of itself, pretty nearly as is the case with the prep, /card and the accus. 352 A GREEK GRAMMAR. benefit from any thing: airoXavuv, ovivaoOm, yeveiv, yev- a(T9aL; and with verbs denoting eating, drinking, when- ever the thing enjoyed is mentioned^ ex.gr. egOUlv Kpfwv, TTivuv v'^aTOQ, to eat meat, to drink water (eaOhiv ra Kpia would signify to eat the meat up, and irivuv u§wp might mean to drink water habitually, to be a water-drinker). 3.) The gen. is farther used to denote the material or stuff of which something consists, ex. gr. aricliavog vaKLvOwv, a garland of hyacinths, or made of hyacinths ; ex. gr. hog XWov irav TTtTTotrjrai, the whole is made of one stone. 4.) The circumstances or pecuUarities on which things are^ as it were, dependent, are expressed in the gen. : ^iv- dpov iroXXbJv hu)v, a tree of many years (standing). Obs. 4. The consti'uction of the gen. with dvai corresponds entirely with the Latin esse and i\\e gen. or ahl. It is used to express : 1.) possession, as iraaa tj yrj sari iSaffiXstoQ, belongs to the hing ; eavroii tlvai, to be one's own master, to be free ; 2.) the quality of any thing, as r}v yap d^iMfxarog [xeydXov ', 3.) habit, usage, ex. gr. tort ^povifiov dvdpoQ, est prudentis, or with abstract nouns: TroWrJQ dvoiag larl to OripdaQai Ktvd, (Soph. El. 1054.) it is the sign of, «&c. ; 4.) possibility or chance, ex. gr. in the proverb : ov iravroQ dvdpbg eig TLopivOov iaQ' 6 TrXovg, 5.) The following kinds of words are generally con- strued with the gen. : 1.) Adjectives derived from verbs have the object of the verb in the gen., ex. gr. from iTTLGTaadai n, to under- stand something, comes iTriarrjiuLtov rivog, experienced in a thing ; Trpoartyopog ovSsvog, {irpoaayop^vio riva,) he who does not address any body ; 6(j)iig, dvOpwirtw ovda- juwg ^r}\{]iuLoveg, tvhich are not dangerous to man ; espe- cially the numerous adj. derived from verbs, and ter- minating in LKog, ex. gr. from l^^raZuv ri comes l^eTa- (TTiKog TLvog, skilled hi investigating any thing; ol TrpaKTiKol tCov diKatdJv (from tcl ^iKaia), About the exceptions see § 130. Obs. 3. 2.) All words denoting plenty or want, as irXrjpovv, iri^- TTAavai, KopivvvaOai, daai, yifiuv, jSpt^siv, Sa, (see § 131, 1.) ceiaOai^, diropuv, tWdiriiv, GiraviZ^uv, ^ripovaOai, &c, and the adj. irXiwg, fitiGTog, Kevog, lirid^rig, tpYjjuog, ipiXog, and others ; the adv. dXig, adi]p, ex. gr. ^uaOat Xprjjudrwv, to want money; fiearov Igtl to Znv (^povri^wv, 2 Owing to the idea of wanting, needing, StlaOca in the sense of requiring, asking, entreating, with the gen. of the person. — With regard to oXiyov, ttoXXou dtlv. see § 140. Obs. 5. I SYNTAX. 353 3.) All words denoting worth or unworthiness : a^iog, ava^iog, aE,iovGOaL; see 6, 2. 4.) All words denoting experience, skill, reminiscence, and their opposite : ifnru^og, 'i^pig, ctTretpoC) IdLwr-qg, aSarjg, (hence in poets the participles like to^wv ev eldwg, II. j3. 720.) and the verbs to remember, to for- get : fxLfxv{](jKHv with its compounds, ixvnuovEvziv, Ittl- XavOavHV. 5.) Several other verbs, especially those denoting cai^e, concern, and their opposite : eTrijuiXeaOm, Kri^eaOai, ^povTiZeiv, /liXsL jULOL TivoQ, cLjusXeXv, uXsyiZ^iv, oXiyo)- pHv ; to spare, ^£t§f o-^at ; to disregard, and to admire^ Kara^povsLV, Oav/naZ^iv. 6.) desire, lirSvfiElv, opiyeaOai, l(l>Uadai, Ipav^^ ipaaOai, to aim at something, aroxaZEGQai, TiTvaKeaOai, hence also To^eveiv rivog, aKOVTiZ^iv rivog, 7.) indicting, condemning : Karrjyopuv, KaTayiyvdxTKHv, 8.) the verbs which have a relation to the senses, ex- cepting the sight ; ex, gr, oZetv fivpMv, to smell of per- fumes ; Tovg SovXovg cyfucre Trig iXsvOepiag ; — aKovoj iraidiov KXaiovrog, I hear a child crying * (comp. 4, 2, c. and d.) ; and in general the verbs denoting to per- ceive, to learn : aiGOav^aOai, TrvvOavecrOai, luavOdvuv, (JwiEvat^ eTTdieiv. 9.) But it is especially the Comparative which always has the object, with which the com- parison is made, in the gen., ex, gr, fxd^wv bjuov, taller than I, G0(pd)TEp6g IrrTi tov ^L^aaKoXov, he is wiser than his master, koXXlov lp.ov ^^eig, you sing better than I do ; apETY\g ovdlv ktyijuo. ectti (jefivoTEpov. 10.) Hence, lastly, all verbs denoting the idea of com- parison in their signification^ ex, gr. TTporiiuav, to value more; — to excel: TrepiyiyveaOai, TTEpiiXvai, ^^(pipuv, vTTfp/BaXXftv, apLGTEvEiv, diaTTpETTEiv ', to bc infcrior, i]T- TaaOai, varepHv ; also to ride : ap)(^tiv% avcKTGEiv, KparEiv, ' Hither belongs also the verb ep^v Tivog, to love in the sense of desinng, seeJcing after ; whilst ^tXelv, aTspysiv, dyuTr^v Tivd, is to love in the sense of having an affection for. * aKovHv most commonly governs the accus. of the sound, and the gen. of him who produces it ; there are, however, exceptions in both instances. See Steph. Thes. ^ dgx^iv, dp)(^eG6ai, and their compounds, are also construed with the gen. (and accus.) in the signification oi beginning any thing, A a 354 A GREEK GRAMMAR. i)ye'i(j9ai, tTTforarav, and similar ones ; the adj. lyKpa- TrjQ, aicpariig. — ijTTti) tivai with the gen. has the pecuKar signification of to be subject, to be given to ; ex. gr. r]TTh)v IcjTi TYiQ yaGTpQQ, lie Is g'wen to drinking, Ohs. 5. The more complete construction of the compar. is with r], {than, Lat. quam, see below, the jyarticles, § 149.) but it is used only where the gen. cannot be employed. The Greeks are so fond of this latter construction, that they even put into the gen. the object, to which the comparison does not directly apply ; fxiiZova tfiov disTrpa^ev: — Aristoph. Eccl. 235. airia tlq ttjq Tsicovcrrjg fjidWov aTrnrsfi'^psuv dv ', {who more than the mother ?) The ambiguity, which sometimes arises from this construction, can only be explained by the thing itself from the context, Herod. Hvpafiida cnre- X'nrero ttoWov IXdacru) rod Trarpoc, tohich was much smaller than his father ; or smaller than that which his father left behind. — The following construction is of a different kind, Mei^ojv rep e'nrovTi yiyverai (3\dj3rj rov TmroirncoTog, i. e. 17 rqi ttsttoii^koti. Ohs. 6. The words dWoq and erepog sometimes imitate the compar. ; ex. gr. dXXog efiov, anot^ier than /, 'irepa tovtmv, different from this. 6. Lastly, the following relations are expressed by the gen. : 1.) The more precise sense of a general expression, where we say with regard to, with respect to, ^ Ey yvrara avTM elfiX yivovQ, I am very nearly related to him, {with respect to family, with regard to origin, descent,) Herod. ; awaLg appivtov -rrai^biv^ childless with respect to male descend- ants ; irapOevoQ lopaia yafxov, (7'ipe with respect to marriage,) marriageable; daavg ^iv^pwv ', very frequently in the ex- pressions wg, TTtog, oiTMg e^^^ icaXhjg, fiergiiiyg t\Hv ', ex. gr. uyg IviaTipog Tig evvoiag i) fivi]fir]g tyot, Thuc. ; wg irodCov elxov, Herod. Hither belong also the expressions, where av£Ka, on account of, because of, is usually supplied, ev^aifxo- viZfjj (T£ Tov rpoTTou, / account you happy, because of your disposition; okrftpw as rov waOovg, Compare the infin. § 140. Obs. 4. 2.) The relation of value ; when the value itself, or the price may be in the gen. [genitivus pretii.) Spaxi^rig ayopd- Zhv ri, to buy something for a drachm ; TrXdcrrov tovto TijuLwfiai, I esteem this of the greatest value ; and the mer^ chandise or article purchased may equally be construed in the gen. [genitivus mercis,) rpeig iivag KaridriKe rov 'ittttov, he paid three minas for the horse ; ^QW^"^^ tovtcjv irpaTTsrai, (he stipulates money for it,) he gets paid for it : see ad Plat. Meno. 28. 3.) With the constructions of the verbs to seize, &c. (4, 2. c.) may be compared such propositions as rrig x^'-P^^ aysiv Tiva, to lead him {take him) by the hand, i. e. by his I SYNTAX. 355 hand ; lirLGTraaag tlvo. KOjwng, to drag one by the hair ; rov XvKov Tu)v wTLov KpaTLo, 1 hold the wolf fast by the ears ; iXai^ovTo Tr\Q t,^)vy]Q rov ^Op6vTr}v, ILen. Anab. 1^6, 10. But Xaj3av TLva x^fjoi means to seize one, lay hold of him with the hand. 4.) To the question when ? but only of an indefinite time of some duration, (compare § 133, 3, 4.) vvktoq, -nfxipag TTOLuv ri, to do something by night, in the day-time; ttoWCjv -niuepCov ov juEfiEXlTriKa, I have not practised for several days ; iKslcTe ovK a(l>iKVHTaL Itu)v fivpiijjv, he will not get thither within 10^000 years, Plato Phaedr. 248. e. Ohs. 7. In this sense the prep. Trtpi, of, (Lat. de,) is sometimes omitted ; Od. A. 173. EiVe ds fiOL Trarpog re Kai visog, where the gen. may be explained, ' this con- cerning my father,' for the this never needs to be expressed, when the thing itself follows. See the Note to Soph. Philoct. 439. Obs. 8. Sometimes it happens, that the word, to which the gen. refers, is omitted ; ex. gr. rZv ddlKMV b(ttiv, it is one of the unjust things (i. e. simply, it is an injustice). Hither belong also the instances of the gen. with dvai in Obs. 4. Obs. 9. The word oIkoq, house, is most commonly omitted on putting the name of the owner or tenant in the gen. ; ex. gi: sicryfisv elg 'A\Ki(3ia.dov, we went to Alci- hiades's {house). Hence the expression kv q.dov, tig adov, properly in or to the house of Hades (i.e. in or to the shades beloio). — The instances, where the article of the word omitted (vlbg, x^P^} &c.) is retained, are stated above, § 125, 5. Obs. 10. The omission is not so evident with exclamations of astonishment or so7'- row, sometimes with. a,n interjection, ex. gr. o'lfioi tuiv kukCjv, alas, what misfortunes! w Zev, rijg Travovpyiag, Jupiter, tchat cunning! and sometimes without, r^f tvxVQj fate! (0 wretched fate !) Trjg TraxvrijTog, tchat stupidity! See about the gen. [xov, coij, &c. before their sM6sf. instead of the dativus commodij § 133. Obs. 5. § ISS.—The Dative. 1. The dat. properly is the opposite of the ^e^., since it de- notes an approximation. It is pretty nearly the same in Greek as in English^ and comprises similarly several relations, which are more distinctly expressed by the prep, for, towards, to, &c._, and require no explanation, as dovvai nvi, to give to one ; ex^pog Tivi, hostile to one ; TrdOEcrOaL tolq vofioig, and the like. 2. Hence the dat. is used in Greek : 1.) with verbs denoting coming together, meeting, ap- proaching, and where we commonly use prep., ex. gr. oiliiXhv TivL, to have intercourse with one; fxiywadm, KaToXXaT- TEaOai {to reconcile one's self with something or somebody) ; ixax^adai, Ipi^uv, afiiWaaOai, TroXsfiELv, and the like. 2.) with verbs, compounded with prep., which express A a2 356 A GREEK GRAMMAR. to approach^ to meet together, or with such verbs as acquire a similar signification through composition^ as ir^ocr- eXOelv, liTLcrrpaTevEaOaif avyyiyv^aOai, diaXeyecTOaiy espe- cially with such verbs as denote to attack, as irpoal^aXXuv, tiriTiOtaOaiy iTriKUGOai. 3.) with verbs (mostly compounded withjorejo.) denoting commanding, exhorting, ex. gr. irapaivuv, irapeyyv^v, vttotl- OeaOaL with the dat, of the person, KeXeuay, jubere, prefers also in Greek the construction with the accus. c. inf, 4.) with ve7'bs denoting censure or reproach, especially fiifX(p^ovov 'E.paK\tl ytvofJiivoQ, Theseus, who lived at the same time as Hercules. But here two ambiguities may arise, as rd avrd Xeyw iKiiv(i), I ^^y ^^^ ^^'^^^ ^^ ^''^) or the same as he says. 7.) with words denoting any action which has a ten- dency to be useful or hurtful. This is the so-called dativus commodi et incommodi, which is known from the Latin grammar, but its use is in Greek of a nature by far more frequent and peculiar ; see Obs. 2, 3. 8.) Peculiar is the use of the dat. with substantives, which are either derived from such verbs as govern that casus, or as admit a relation to behig useful or hurtful ; ex, gr. (Hes.) Ifp?] ^oaig avOpumoiaiv, — tyiv tolq (piXoig (5or)- Ohqv, Plat. ; — (piXia Tolg ^AOrjvaioig, Thuc, 3. The dat. further supplies the Latin ablative, denoting, 1.) the tool or instrument, or, in general^ that wherein or whereby one is or one does something {dat. instru- menti). The Greeks say in general ^priaQai rivi, {to make use of a thing,) and more particularly, ex. gr. waTarraeiv SYNTAX. 357 paj3^co, to beat ivith a stick ; (jfxiXri TmroLr]p.ivov, made with a chisel; TiTp(L(TK£rai j3lXsi eg tov w/ulov ; ry jusy t^ovala rvpav ve7, Toig ^' evepytdiaig drjfxaywyu, by his power he is a rulei\ but by his kind acts a leader of the people ; iracn roXg tolov- Toig (the virtues of the Lacedaemonians having previously been enumerated) TralSa av i]y<](yaio aavTov. Plat. Alcib. I. 38. roj TEKfiaipEL tovto ; see Obs. 5. 2.) the manner, ex. gr. ravra ^yivero T(Zde tco rpoTrw, this happened in this manner ; Spo/x6[3(i) £7rparrov; jca/xvay voVw nvl; riOvriKev cnroTrXr^^ia.. ov yap aypoiKia ttolCj tovto. Hence in general the verbs denoting the affections of the mind, as aXyuv TLVL, though they are more usually construed with ETTi and the dat., or with the accus, (See § 131, 1.) 4.) with comparatives and verbs implying similar signi- fication, the degree how much any thing is better or more preferable than another, is placed in the dat., ex. gr, TToXXw ajudvojv, oXiyto fxeiZiov. duiveyKS T(f peyWei, ry dpeTij, &c. 5.) a fixed definite time, (corap. § 132, 6, 4.) ex.gr. irapriv Tij TpLT^ Tifiipc^, he came on the third day ; tij vgoGvvY]v, the boys are taught modesty ; dcpaip^Oaig rrjv dpxrjv, ivho has had the command taken from him. 7. The two last-mentioned instances are frequently found combined in one proposition, so that the dat. of the person, which stands as the more remote object with the act., becomes the nomin. of the pass., and the accus. of the act. continues to be the object of the pass., ex. gr. iTrirpi-Kuv rw ^w/cpartt Tyiv ^lai- rav, {to entrust the arbitration to Socrates,) becomes 6 Swfcpctrrjc £7rirp£7r£rai ri)v ^lairav, Eurip, rijv S' £k x^9^^ dpirdtiofiai, she is 860 A GREEK GRAMMAR. snatched away from my hands, Plato Tim. 60. To St viro Trupoc TO voTEpov TTCLv l^aQTTaadlv, this from ivhich all moisture has been withdrawn by the fire; diXrog eyyeypafifiivt) ivv9f}juara: — v7ro TToXsLjg Ti]v riysiuLOviav TreiricTTevTO : — npo/ir^Oevg vtt' derov tKUpero TO rjirap (where KeipEiv signifies to tear from) : — kicoTrac Tovg 6(l)9aXjuovg, Obs. 2. Respecting the accus. case with the pass, mice, see § 136. Obs. 1. The a^cus. in those instances quoted above in No. 6, and similar ones, (see § 135, 4.) has nothing peculiar in itself. It is merely the idea of teaching or of taking away, which, independent of the pass, and middle wice, demands an accus. for its object. The German language is not capable of this construction, but we meet with it in Latin, ex. gr. humus poscebatur segetes. The verb in some instances (like the act. ac- cording to § 131, 3.) governs even as pass, an accus., which contains the import of the verb as subst., to add an additional determination adjectively ; rvTrrtrai irXriyaQ TToXXdg, he is struck many strokes. 8. That the verbal adjectives in reog and rog are pass, by their nature follows from § 102. Obs, 3. and about their signification see ibid. 9. Precisely on account of this their pass, nature^ (the verbal adj. rog, however, merely when it conveys the idea oi possibility, compare below Obs, 6.) they refer in their connexion to the subject of the act., which is in the dat, in the way mentioned above, at 4. eon. gr, Tof/ro oi> prjrov Igti fxoi, this is not to be spoken by me, i.e. I dare not say it, 'H iroXig ox^eXrjrla (toi Igti, the state must be assisted by you, i. e. you must be useful to the state. But frequently this relation, as being of a more general nature, is omitted, w^hen the sense is, one must, one can ; Avriog 6 ToiovTog vofiog /cat ovk lariog Kvpiog uvai, this law must be abolished, and not permitted to be valid. 10. The neut. reov in this way, with or without IgtXv, corre- sponds to the Latin nomin. neut. in dum, Xf/crlov eotiv, or merely XiKTiov, it must be said, one must say ; it then assumes all the relations and connexions of the verb, ex. gr. dpeTrjv ex^iv Trsipa- Tiov, one must endeavour to be virtuous ; ToXg Xoyoig irpoaeKriov Tov vovv, one must apply the mind to the speeches ; tuvtu irdvTa TTOLT^riov /ULOL, all tMs must be done by me, I have all this to do. The corresponding use of the neut. top (but without any such verbal connexions) is, ex. gr. jStwroy Ian, one can live ; Tolg ou/c e^iTov Igtl, who cannot go out, Hesiod. 0. 732. Obs. 3. The Attics employ the verbal tsov in the same sense in the pi. : (iadiffrka, it is necessary to go ; avvtKTTors lori tijv rpvya, the lees must be drunk along icith it, (Compare § 129, 1.) 06s. 4. Another Attic peculiarity is the verbal adj. in rkov, which, as it were by I SYNTAX. 361 virtue of its intrinsic meaning del, sometimes has the subject of the act. in the accus. instead of the dat., Plato Gorg. 507- Tov (3ovX6jj.svov evdainova dvai Goj(ppoavvT]V SicuKTsov Kai dcTKrjTsov (Heind. ad Plat. Phcedr. 128). Ohs. 5. Verba deponentia (§ 113.) being also employed passheli/ in some of their foi*ms, also give verbal adj. in the same sense as if they came from regular actives ; spyd^ofxai, I work, epyacrrbv, what can be worked, or is worked, spyaarkov, one viust work, the work must he done. Even in some terbs, whose 2^<^<-ss- oi' med. assumes a signif., which may be considered as a new simple meaning, and as active, the verbal adj., in some current or familiar connexions, also has both meanings, that which proceeds from the real active, and that which proceeds from the ^x^ss. or med. ; TTSiarkov one must convince, from tthQu), and one must obey, from TreiOofxai. — But it is very remai'kable that in rpsTroixai, (/ turn to, go to,) the aor. 2. pass, krpdnrjv for-ms a particular verbal adj. in this sense, TpaTrrjrkov. Obs. 6. The verbal adj. in toq have sometimes the same signification, but not the same construction with the part. perf. pass. ; for with regard to the latter it is a mere adjective ; ex. gr. TronjTog made, ttXektoq plaited, arpfKroQ twisted. § l^^.—The Middle Voice. 1. Before we enter on the use of the middle voice, we must exclude all verbs deponeiit properly so called^ for with regard to their signification they have become real actives. On the other hand we must not exclude such middle voices^ as take their aorist from the passive voice, a part of w^hich we have already enumerated in § 113. Obs. 5. 2. The main signification of the medium is 7'eflective. A verb has a complete reflective signif. whenever the subj. of that verb is at the same time its immediate object, which in the active voice stands in the accus. Thus, for instance, Xovfiai is equivalent to eyu) Xoviv £^£ or Ifiavrov, I wash myself, I bathe. But it must be remembered, that this first and proper meaning constitutes a real medium only in a very limited number of verbs. When the same relation is to be expressed in any other verb, it can only be done by means of the reflective pronoun, IfiavTov, kavrov, &c. Examples of real media are : d7ray)(£o-0at, to stranyle one^s self ; awex^adai, to keep ones self off, to abstain ; afxvytadai, to defend one's self; (pvXaTTEcrdcu, to guard one's self against any thing, to take care ; eyyvdadai, to bail one's self (to become bail) ; Kpeixavvvcdcu and its compounds, to hang one's self ; TrapaaKsvai^Effdai, to arm one's self, and those verbs which denote an operation on one's own body, and where in the active voice to a^fxa may be supplied instead of the accus. of the person, ex. gr. Xovcrdai, y^pieadai, yvjiva^eadai, hcvaaaQai, cnrofjiupypv- adai, KEipeffdai, (7T£(})avovcrdat, 363 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 3. Many verbs lose their original reflective meaning, and become either real intransitives or are at least translated in an intransitive way, for want of a corresponding reflective ex- pression. Examples : (rriWeiy, to send; creXXecrQai, to send one^s self to some place, i. e. to travel; ^aivvadai, to feast. The case is the same with iropeveadai, to travel; (paireaQai^ to appear; iraveadai, to cease; ttXci- ^eadai, to wander, to rove ; Evio-^^eiadai, to feast ; KoifLaadai, to rest. Ohs. 1. These media bear the same relation to their act. xerhs as the immediate verbs do to the causatives ; hence thei'e are some passlw-media, which having such a simple signif. appear exactly like deponents, as yevofiai, I taste, ar]7rofiai, I rot, iXiToixai, I hope, of which the actives, which seldom occur, can be expressed only by a circumlocution with causing to : ysvo), I cause to taste, give to taste ; arjirw, I cause to rot, make putrid ; eXttw, / cause to hope, give hopes. See also fiaivofiai in the Anom. 4. But the medium also becomes a verb transitive just as easily and may have in most cases an object in the accus. with it. This is most readily the case, when the active is construed with two accus., in which instance one of these continues with the medium, ex. gr. Ivdixjj riva ^iTbJva, I put a coat on one, evdvofiaL ^^rcova, / put a coat on myself. To this class belong most verbs de- noting an operation on one's own body, though in German one of the accus. casus, expressing the person, is to be translated with the dat. Examples. 'iaaaaQai, to put on clothes, KEipeaQai, to cut one^s hair {ex. gr. KeipofXUL rrjy K5^a\?)r, for Kiipoj sfxe t))i' k:.) arrecjyavovadai, dTrojjiopYyvcTdai, Xovadai {ex. gr. rag ^(fTpac, i. e. one's own), vTrodijcraff- 6ai and viroXveaOai, to put on or to take off {one's shoes), eyKaXvirreadai, to wrap one's self up, and others. 5. But the medium may also have an object of its own, when a new meaning, as we have just seen, arises from the reflective action of the verb, which is conceived as transitive; irepaiovv TLva, to carry over {across a river), med. irepmovaOai, (properly to carry one's self over,) to cross over, pass. ; hence it then has the river in the accus., Tr^paiovaOm rov Tiypiv, to cross the Tigris, Examples, (poftelp Tiva, to frighten any one, ({)ol3e~iadai, (properly to frighten one's self,) to fear, likewise (poj3e7adaL tovq deovg, to fear the gods; riXXeiv, to pluck, riXXeadai, to pluck ones self, to pull out one's own hair ; and as this is an action by which one mourns over a person, TiXXeadai rira, to mourn over any one {by pulling out one's own hair), SYNTAX. 363 al(T')^vveiy, to shame, to confound^ alffxvi'eadai riva, to feel shame in the jpresence of somebody ; (pvXcKraEadai tlvci, to be on one's guard against somebody. That all these verbs adopt in the middle voice a new meaning, is very obvious from our not being able to substitute for alffxyyofiai as the words cda^vvLo efii ae. It is the same with a'/juj crdai TLva, to defend one's self against somebody. n'E- 6. In all the instances mentioned, the medium arises from the usual trans, construction of the act. with the acciis. {(poj3ov~ fim, for lytb (pojdu) fis). But just as (according to § 134, 5, 7.) the pass, proceeds sometimes from the construction with the more remote object, namely the dat., so does the medium; and the other object, which was in the accus. with the act., is put in the accus. also with the medium, ex. gr. 7rpocnroiri(jaL rivi n, to acquire something for any one, [ex. gr. a country for a state,) '7rpo(j7roii](Ta(j6aL ri, to acquire for one's self appropriate to one's self. — Hither belong the great number of middle voices, in which the more reflective meaning becomes less and less promi- nent ; it is often merely hinted at by the form of the verb that something happens which may be hurtful or useful to the subj., or that the action of the verb stands in some inward relation to the subj. Thus for instance OeXvai vofxovg, to impose laivs, ap- plied to a conquered state, where the conqueror is not subject to the law^s, whilst OiaOaL vo/^ouc means to propose laws, said of a state, which gives to itself its own laws ; — aTi]aa(jQai rgoirmov, bIkovq, to erect a trophy, a statue to one's self, for one's own d^eds. Though it be true that Greek writers do not always strictly observe this difference, since in these cases they often use the active instead of the medium, still they rigidly observe this difference in so far as they never use the middle voice where the active ought only to be employed, that is to say, where the action stands in no inward relation whatever to the subject of the verb. (Compare below, text 8.) Examples : Tvopii^EaQai rt, to procure something for one's self, i. e. to acquire or obtain something; KXaUerdat, to bewail, to lament, ex.gr. -a TTciOr], one's own sufferings ; but KXaletv to. irddr} tivoq, to bewail the sufferings of another ; — aviinayov rroieTadat rivet, to make an ally of some one; — KaTaaT^aaadaL (pvXaKac, to place guards; — aipecrdai, to fake up something, ex. gr. TToXepor, to undertake a war; crvraipeadai -lil 7r6Xe}xov, to share the dangers of war with somebody, i. e. to support another in a ivar ; — svpiaKoiJiai, I find for my own use, i. e. I get (nanciscor) ; — 364 A GREEK GRAMMAR. ayecdai yvvaiKa, to take a wife ; — KXrjpojffacrdaif to win by drawing lots; KaraTrpaTTEadai, to execute, to do something on one's own behalf; — - ElaKofili^eadai, to get for one's self or for one's own kindred, for in- stance, to ^procure provision for a town, and the same with ei^Kofjiii^e.aOai ; — hadiadaL to. Trjg TroXeojg. — Hence the ideas of pushing something away (from one's self), or of disdaining, despising, are usually expressed by the middle voice : aVoo-wo-aaOat, d-KOKpovaaadai, aTrodiadai, and many others compounded with aVo, irpoiadai, 7rpo(5a\\e(xdai, &c. 06s. 2. Thus it comes that a verb having two accus. in the active, may retain both in the middle voice, whenever a relation to the subject of the verb is to be pointed out. Airoj as rovro, I ask this of you (leaving it undetermined whether it be for my- self or for another person) ; but airoi'ixai as rovro can only mean, / request this of you for myself. This construction however occurs but rarely ; see Schneider on Xen. Anab. I. 1. 10. 7. The medium expresses a reciprocal action just as fre- quently; vEfiecrOai, to distribute amongst ourselves, diaXiysdOai, to converse {with each other). Examples : (jovXeveadai, ^laWdrTeadai, uirivlsaQai, (nroi^^OTroieiadai, ciaXvaraardaL ; besides all verbs denoting to differ, to quarrel : cia(l)€peadai, KpivEoQai, ^laKOprii^etrdai, Sia^oparic^effdai, dKpoj3oXi^€adai, (piXoTiiJLeladai, dyiovii^eadai, which for the most part, as ^dyEaQai, change into the signification of a deponent. 8. Another kind of reflective action is when something is done to me or for me by my orders, which is expressed in English by the verb ^ to get,' ' to get a thing done.' Thus Ku^ofxat signifies I shave myself, but also I get myself shaved ; the pass. Kaprivai refers only to a state of passiveness, ' to be shorn,' like a sheep. Here too the more remote relation occurs; TrapariOefxaL rpd- TTsZav, I get a table set before me ; fxicrOod), I let out for hire, fiLGOov/uai Ti, T hire for myself; ^i^aZaaOai viov, to get one's son taught ; KaTadiKaaaL tlvu, to condemn one, /carcSfkacra/ijjv avrov, as it were^ / have got him. condemned to my advantage^ i. e. I had him cast, I won a law-suit against him. But we also meet with a medium of this kind even without any reference to the subject, when it ought to be rendered simply by the infin, act. with the verb 'to cause' or Ho get ;' Cyrop. \, 4, 18. where it is said that the young Cyrus took the arms, a 6 irainroQ iireTToirjTo, which his grandfather had got made. Hence TrpEcrjdLvw, I go as ambassador, TrpeajdEvoiiai, I send ambassadors, Obs. 3. The above instances are sufficient to give a general idea of the reflective SYNTAX. 365 I^ower of the middle voice, and to show that the nature of the relation to the subject always is determined by the nature of the Terb, and by the context, which must be learned by practice and comparison. But it must be observed that the relation to the subject frequently is very remote and weak, so that its designation might be omitted without impairing the sense, especially when it is pointed out by the nature of the verb itself ; and in some verbs and individual instances, the relation has completely vanished ; ex.gr. idtlv and the poetical IdsaOai are exactly the same, and so are in prose aTro^aivtivand cnrocpaiveaOai, to manifest, prove ; 7rap£%fiv and 7rapsxietition of what has happened is to be expressed, the hnperf. may be also used instead of the plusqp. in modei'n languages. Compare Krueger on Xen. Anab. I. 1, 6. 4. The idea of one thing taking place simultaneously with another, is nearly connected with that of duration. Hereby it is not meant, that any thing, which takes place simultaneously with another, must really occupy a certain length of time ; it 368 A GREEK GRAMMAR. simply means, that it is to be conceived as something lasting, on account of its occurring, during the time that something else happens, should even that action fill but the space of a moment ; ex. gr. all were asleep, when a scream was heard; or / was just opening my mouth to call for him, when he entered. Hence arose a second usage of the imperf in Greek, according to which this tense is employed Avhenever the related occurrence is to be described as of some duration, but the aor. whenever it is to be conceived as only momentary ; ex. gr. Xen. Anab. 5, 4, 24. roue p^y ovv TTsXracTTag Ide^avTO ol /3ap/3apof, {they re- ceived them, MOMENTARY,) /cat IjuaxovTo (and were fighting with them, A DURATION,) £7r£t S' eyjvg riaeiv ol oTrXtraf, {as they ap- proached, NATURAL IMPERF.,) erpaiTovTO, {they took to flight, MOMENTARY,) Kat OL TTeXTadTOL evOvg eiTrovro [pwsued them, dura- tion). This often points to a difference in the sense, which is easily overlooked ; for when it is said, for instance, 'O kvmv kE^idpajuLE, KoX KuOvXcLKrei avrovg, it necessarily conveys the idea of a continued barking ; but if the expression be KaOvXaKTria^, it would be the barking of an instant, as momentary as the l^i- cpajuev. The imperf. is thus constantly employed, when some- thing, which was customary or done habitually or frequently, is related of a time ivhich is gone by ; MiXwv 6 KpoTwvidrrjg ijaOis juvag KpEu)v eiicocn, Milo of Crotona ate twenty minas of meat, i. e. used to eat. 5. This difference between what is momentary, and what implies a duration, occurs also in the time present, and in the future. The language, however, has no double form for it in the indie, but in the dependent moods the Greek language can always make the distinction. Of these, the moods of the^er/! 2iXi^ future express the time of their indie. '; but the moods of the pres. and aor. do not mark any time whatever '. In this case there is a double form, which is perfectly indifferent with regard to time, Tvirreiv or rvipai, «^fXiJ^ or ^fX/yo-^jc? &c. ; and the Greek writers •» * The moods of the aor, however have sometimes the signif. of what is past, as for instance in Aristoph. Ran. 1416. rov 'irepov XafSojv olttei, 'iv eXOyg fiij fidrnv, that thou mightest not have come in vain. The infiuit. is frequently to be understood in a similar manner, as in Xen. Anab. III. 1, 6. vTroTrrevaag firj rt Trpbg rijg rroXsojQ, oi vTrairiov thi Kvpq) (p'ikov ytvioQai, i. e, ti Kvpti) ^iXog ysj/oiro. — For the pat't. of the aor. see text G. and for the conj. aor. instead of the Latin fut. exact. § 139, 4. SYNTAX. 369 avail themselves of this double form, so as to employ chiefly the moods of the pres. tense to denote an action or occurrence of some duration, and the moods of the aor. for a momentary one. For instance, when Demosth. says, {Phil. I. p. 44.) TpLYjpeig TrevTr]KOVTa TrapaaKevaaaaOai (^yijil ^uv, ut avrnvg ovtio Tcig yvdjjLiag e'x^'i'? he wants the men of war to be immediately equipped, hence the momentary aor. ; but the feeling or disposi- tion, which he recommends by jvajjiaQ '^x^iv, has some duration. Again, (p. 45.) "Iv' rj dia tov ij,sv eXovTtg — (Siorov d' avToi Kai Krrjfjiar' exioixev, daaadfiivoi — oiKla 6' airs Ktivov fxrjrspi doXfisv t^fiv, t)^' oarig OTrvlot, 2,) with dv, see 3, 4. 374 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Obs. 2. Tlie usage of the Epics respecting the moods in simple propos. coincides with that of the Attic writers. The only peculiarity of the Epics is that they use the ^ar^. av and ks by far more fi'equently. (See below 3.) 2. The conj. and optat. are principally and properly em- ployed in dependent sentences. The remark that the C07ij, mostly accompanies the principal, the optat. the historical tenses, is based on the nature of these moods; see Text 1. The Greek says, for instance, ovk ol^a ottol TpaTrLOjULai, {non habeo, quo me vertam,) because I suppose that the future will decide whither I am to turn. Hence the conj, follows after a perfect^ (the latter implying by its nature a present time,) and after a future ; and even after an aorist when it stands for the joe//., according to § 137, 3. But in a narration the mind is carried back to the past, and thus identifying itself with the person which acts or speaks, abstracts completely from any future time which is to decide or has already decided on what has been stated; ew. gr. ovk ydeiv ottol rpa7roifir]v {non habebam, quo me verier em). 3. The use of the moods is intimately connected with that of the particle av; whereby this part of the syntax becomes so very complicated and difficult. The nature of the part, av consists in its modifying the meaning of apropos, construed with the conj. or optat., and hence arose a second usage of this part., that of being annexed to other words. It points out that the import of a sentence is to be considered as depending upon a certain condition, without however explicitly mentioning it, (at least in most cases,) but leaving it to be inferred. The part, av therefore implies in fact always a whole sentence con- taining a condition. — We shall now treat of the particular cases in which it occurs : — 1.) av with the indicat. of the present Siud per/, is a combination which is im- possible, since the certainty and positive nature of any assertion would become uncertain by its being made dependent upon a condition. When we therefore meet with dv in a propos. construed with the pres. or perf.^ the part, av does not belong to the indicat. but to another word in the sen- tence; ex. gr. in olfiai dv, ovk dv old' on — , the part, dv belongs to the de- pendent propos. (see for more examples in Obs, 4. below). But it may be connected with the indicat. of the fat. by way of softening down the deci- sive character of any assertion made with regard to future things, similarly to the conj. aor. instead of the/w^. ; see Obs. 1. I. 4.,ex.gr. Od. y. 80. fi'psai, oTTTToOev iliikv' syw dk ks toi /caraM^w. II. a. 174. Trap' ifioiye Kal aXXot, 01 KS [xe rifXTjaovcn. 2.) dv with the indicat. of the historical tenses signifies — a.) the rep>etition of an action, in so far as this same repetition is to be i SYNTAX. 375 conceived as dependent upon certain conditions, but the existence of which is merely hinted at by the addition of dv ; for instance, tTroin av, he used to do, viz. as often as cix'cumstances would admit of it. This usage is very common with all writers, b.) In the same manner is av used with the historical tenses, whenever the sense is to be conveyed that any condition under which an action may or might take place, may or might possibly not be fulfilled. The hnperf. is then employed with av, respecting an action the im- possibility of which exists in the present time ; if in the past, the plusq. or the aor. with av, ex.gr. Ittolovv civ tovto, I should do so (the idea in the mind of the speaker is dW ov ttoTu)) ; and with a ne- gation : oiiK av i7roir]<7a, ovk dv kTreTroirjKeiv, I should not have done so (mentally supplied : dW eTroirjcra). Obs. 3. Omitted in gj^ with verbs denoting that something ought to be done, or might be permitted, as xP'7'^j ^^^h 7rpo(T^K£v, t^fjv, Ivriv, ex. gr. Soph. EL 1505. XP^v ^' tvQvQ flvat TTjvSe rolg Trdaiv diicTjv, oarig irspa Trpdacruv ye riov vojxwv 6L\ei, KTeivsiv' TO yap Travovpyov ovk dv rjv ttoXv. Here the reason of the omission is, that the idea in the mind of the speaker is not dW ov xp^ > for the necessity of the fact is not here denied, but the fact itself. To the latter words, however, the reply is, dW tan ttoXv. — 'E^rjv yap divotptv- yeiv, I might have fled (mentally supplied, dXX' ovi: dirs^vyov). But as soon as one may reply, dWd del, t^eari or ov Sal, the part, dv is again employed. It is for the same reason that dv is usually omitted with the verbs axptXov, s/itXXov, 'iriaQaL, hut when you have given them ; kireiZav uTravra aKovar]TE, Kpuare, when you shall have heard all, then judge ; avrr] yj Trapafftcevrj Siafj.elvaL hvvii^ (TSTai, eu)Q au TrepLyepiOf^eda tu)v kyBpCjv. — hiatpdepEi o, tl av XajSr].^ 5. Any conditional, contingent, or uncertain expression which is expressed hypothetically, may, owing to its construction, be rendered in Greek by the infinit. or the participle with the addition of av. This advantage of imparting the power of the opt. or indicat. with ay to the participle- and infinit. gives to the Greek a great superiority over all known languages. The infinit. or participle however can never be employed instead of the conj. with av, since, according to text 3, 3, the part, av is never to be construed with the conj. mood, but is to be con- nected with certain conjunctions or pronouns.^ and therefore must be omitted whenever the conjunction or pronoun be omitted. Examples : O'iovtul avajUa^tcacrQai av avfxp.d\ovQ TrpoaXaf^oiTeg, they think they might repair their defeat, if they had allies (dvaya- yiaaivT ay, el TTpu(xXd(3oi£r, see below, A.) ; 7-dXXa aicoTro), ttoXV dy eyjjjv stTrely, whilst I could say a great deal more. Herod. 7, 139. vvy CE 'AQ-qvaiovQ ay Tig Kiywy, {who might say,) acorfjpaQ yEviaQai Trig 'YXXdhog ovK ay kiafidproi. Plat. Crit. 9. oi pa^'iiag dTroKTiyyvvreg /cat dyal^noaKOjiEvui y ay, el oioir iiaay, who lightly put to death, and would probably restore again to life, if they but could {dre^mcTKoyT ay, see 3, 2. b.) The part, av, if placed after the verbs Bokuv, ohaOat, IXttIZ^iv, OVK iari, and similar ones, imparts to the infinit. of the aor. the power of the infinit. future. Examples: Ovk earty eya dyhpa ay hvyrjdfjyai ttote diravra ravra TTpa^ai, it is not to be supposed that any man should ever be able to perform all this (^SvyrjOfjyai ttote widiout av means, would have per- formed all this) ; eEokei dv ri/juv fjhiiog iravTa hiaTrpd^ai, (on the position of aV, see Obs. 4.) it appeared to us that he would gladly perform all this. The same applies to the part, of the aor. with ay after such verbs as are construed with the participle instead of the infinit. See § 144, 4. a. Ohs. 4, As to the position of av, it is to be remarked that it never can begin the sentence. But the question after which word in the sentence it is to be placed depends in many cases upon the choice of the writer, or upon the intention of I'en- dering the uncertainty sensible either a little sooner or a little later, or in some SYNTAX. 377 instances it is added to some word or other without any such reason. Thus it is frequently placed directly after the opt. or indicat., but never after the conj., for the reason quoted above in 3, 3. The part, av is hkewise frequently annexed to the adverbs tIq, irwg, yap, and to ovk, ovSelg, &c. not only in sentences construed with the conj., but also in such as are construed with the opt. or indicat. We have already mentioned the expressions cZ/xai dv, ovk av olSa, in text 3, 1. Examples of this kind are: Plato Phcedo 116. oi/^ai dv, wq tyw Xgyw, -itoigTq, where dv belongs to ttoioIq. Tim. p. 26. b. ovk dv old' el dvvai^rjv airavTa iv fxvnuy TvaXiv XafSnv, i.e. ei dvvaiix)]v dv, ' ichether I coidd, ' y'\z. if I were asked. 'EdoKSi dv ijfilv r'jdeojQ Trdvra dLa—pd^ai, where dv belongs to the infin'it. The position of dv in sentences like the following is to be noticed, Demosth. 01. 1, 13. (5.) ri ovv dv TiQ si—OL Tavra X'sysig jy/iiv vvv, where dv, though belonging to sXttoi, is connected with tL ovv of another sentence. Plat. Phcedo p. 87. a. ti ovv dv (pah] 6 \6yoQ tri dwKyTtiQ, instead of rl ovv d-maTtiQ, (pair] dv b X, Demosth. c. Arlstocr. 680, 26. £fc rovTOv rov ■>p7](piafiaT0Q KvpooOsvrog dv, a fxij Si yfJ.dg, rjS'iKrjvTO ol [SacriXsig, i. e. ei to ^. eKvpujOr], ol (3aaiXelg ■)]6iK7]vr' dv, {would be tcronged, see below,) ei ju?) Sl i]ndg (i.e. if it were not for tis, see § 150). Obs. 5. The paiiicle dv, like a negation, is often repeated twice or three times without imparting any additional strength to the sense. This is the case principally in such propositiojis as those in which dv is combined with one of the words quoted in Obs. 4., and where dv is repeated with the mood, (viz. either with the indicat. or opt.) ex. gr. irwg dv ttot dcpiicoiixrjv dv — ovk dv (pOdvoig dv ; or when sentences are intercalated: Soph. EL 333. locrr' dv, ei cOsvog Xa/3ot/it, St]Xw(toih' dv ol avroXg (ppovoJ. See Heind. ad PL Plicedr. 138. Herm. Opusc. IV. p. 188. 6. The dependent propos. in which the moods are principally employed, are of a manifold nature. The rules respecting the moods in these propos. are not to be separated from those in simple propos. J and the conj. and opt. stand therefore in de- pendent propos, only when their usage agrees with the general rules noted above. Hence it is a mistake to consider the moods as dependent upon the preceding particles ; on the contrary, the particle is frequently modified by the following mood. We think it useful to take a short review of the different kinds of dependent propos., in order to follow up the general definition in the various instances in which the moods are applied, and to be thus enabled to see which constructions oxe predominating in dependent sentences, and the reason why they are made use of. We shall treat, 1.) of conditional propos., 2.) of relative propos., 3.) o^ propos. beginning with the particles of time, 4.) of j9ro/?o5. containing a reason or cause, 5.) o^ propos. ex- pressing any purpose or aim, 6.) of propos. expressing conclu- sions, 7.) of transitive propos. with otl, wc? that, 8.) of direct and indirect interrogative propos. § 139. A. — Conditional Propositions, In every conditional propos. the condition is considered either as possible or as impossible. The possible case is either o7b A GREEK GRAMMAR. expressed as quite certain and positive, or as the partial and subjective meaning of the speaker, or as dependent upon a future time and experience. This gives rise to the following cases : — 1. Possibility, without any mention of uncertainty, d with the indie. : u ll5p6vTr]t. (where the inf. might have been used equally well,) see II. (p. 580. and for the op*, with av see Xen. Hell. 2, 3, 48. D. — Propositions compressing any cause or reason. 1. Besides some particles of time, as Itth, liru^r], which may likewise convey the idea of reason or cause, there are the conj, on, dioTi, ovvEKa, which belong to this section. They are con- strued, either with the indie, when any reason or cause is to be represented as a fact ; or with the opt. when the former is to SYNTAX. 383 be stated as merely existing in the mind of the speaker. We therefore meet with the latter mood for the most part only in a narration. 2. The cojij. cannot be construed with these particles ; for every sentence containing the reason (even w^hen it refers to the future) of the action expressed in the principal proposition^ stands to the latter in a relation on which experience and time have already completely decided. For when I say^ for instance : ''I ivrite now, because he ivill soon be liere^^ it is just the same as if I said : " because I know he luill soon be hereP 3. The o'pt. with av, and the historical tenses with av^ are but modifications of sentences expressed by the indict and are therefore sufficiently explained by what we said in § ] 39, 3. Examples will be furnished by attentive reading. For an example of the indic. with av see IL o. 228 ; of the oj)f. with civ see Aristoph. Plut. 120. E. — Propositions expressing any aim or purpose. 1. The conjunctions denoting purpose or design are wg, Iva, (Epic 6(j)paf) and ^^77, to which we may also reckon onwg, when it is to be rendered by that ; this is the case when it stands after certain verbs which signify to exhort, to be afraid of, to endea- vour, to be cautious, ex. gr. TrapaKaXelv, (l>v\aTT£(j6ai, bpav, liri- fiiX^Gdai, fxiXa juoi, irparreiv, &c. Their usual construction is with the conj., even after historical tenses, whenever any pur- pose is not distinctly to be represented as the intention of the subject. Nothing, however, is more usual than that the conj. is alternately employed with the indic. fut.; the same as was the case with the part, i^elative, when they imply any aim or purpose, (see B. Obs. 2.) ex. gr. Thuc. 2, 3. ^weXiyovro — oirwg fii) dia tCjv o'^Cjv (pavEpol waiv lovTEg, &c. — 3, 4. tTrpaaGOv, uTTijog rig (doi^Osia ij^ct. — 1, 56, ItwpacrcTev OTTiog iroXefiog jlvr^rai. 1, 65. E,vvi:(5ovXEV£ Tolg ciWoig iKTrXsvaai, oirdjg 6 aXrog avricrxy' Xen. Cyrop. 4, 1, 18. opa^ fiy) ttoXXwv Ijcao-rti) r\fiCov koi 6(p9aXfiCjv KoX \Eipiov ^erjcrei. Obs. 1. The elliptical constructiou of orriijg is here to be noticed, since the verb, which denotes exhortation, is to be supplied, and the sentence with ottojq stands thus in the place of a strengthened mjyerat. In this case, too, the part, oirwg is either construed with the fut. indic, or with the mere conj.: ex. gr.'X.en. Anah. 1, 7} 3. OTVijjQ tcrecxGs dvdpeg li^ioi rriQ IXsvOsuiag, shoio yourselves truly men, &e. ^sch. Prom. 68. oTrojg firj aavrov o'lKTulg ttots. Xen. Cyrop. 4, 1, 16. owiog fxiij avayKdao)Hiv avTOvg, dyaOovg yevkaOai '. ' In consequence of remarks, which were however of too narrow a compass, 381 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 2. With regard to the use of ottwcj tog, and hm, it is further to be remarked, that ottwq and 6)g, in the construction with the conj., frequently take av, whilst tva in the signification of in order to (German damit) stands without av; hence iv' av can only mean ubicunque. Again, ottwc and u)q, as particles de- noting purpose or design, can only be construed with the indie, fat., w^hilst "iva with the fut. only signifies where. For examples see Herm. Op. IV. p. 121. 3. All these conjunctions may of course, when coming after historical tenses, be likewise construed with the opt., ex. gr, Xen. Laced. 2, 2. eowkev ahn^ iiaGriyo^opovg, owit)g rifxwQoir] (roue TroLi^aQ), u ^loi. Plat. Rep. 3.- p. 393. E. awiivai St t/cAeue (roy Xpvariv) kol jurj IpeOiZ^iv, iva o-wc o'tKa^E tXOot, or after another opt., see Xen. C?/r. i, 4, 25. 06s. 2. We have seen in text 1. tha,t propos. expressing design and purpose may he construed with the conj. after historical tenses ; in the same way it is to be ex- plained from the nature of the opt. when ottvjq or 'Iva are construed with the opt. nitev principal tenses; ex.gr. Xen. ^?2«6. 1, 6, 9. (TVfx(3ov\tv(t) tov avdpa tovtov eKTToSihv TToulaOai ojg rdxicrra, wg firjKSTi Skoi tovtov ^vXaTTeoOai, dXXa cr')(^o\rj th] j'lfuv. Obs. 3. When av is annexed to oTrwg or mq with the opt., the same mood is then formed, which we noticed in § 139, 3, 4. Thus, for instance, v, (TTrevdojv, &c. {Anab.) e^rjyyeXOr] rrfv "OXvvBov TroXiopKoJv, Sec. See § 144, 5. a. and § 151. I. 7- Obs. 2. The German conj. dass (that) may be rendered also by ots als (when) after the verbs to remember, to hear ; ex. gr. Thuc. 2, 21. jjisuvrjfiEvoi Kal IlXticrro- dvaKva, ore da^aXojv d7r£%wp>;(7£ iroXiv : literally, remembering the time, when PL Sec. ; compare II. o. 18. Obs. 3. The German conj. dass (that) may also be rendered by el, after the verbs Qavjjid^u), I wonder, dyaTrdcj, I am content, aiax^vofxai, I am ashamed, and some other verbs denoting the affections of the mind ; since the Attics avoided speaking in a positive manner even when making the most positive assertions. This el, how- ever, can only be properly translated by dass (that) when it is construed with the indie. Xen. Cyrop. 4, 5, 20. oudkv Oavfidt^oj, el Kva^dprjg oKveX irepl rjixcov. Demosth. Mid. 29. ovk ^c^^wv^j? el toiovto kukov kitdyei r^, that he brought such a SYNTAX. 387 misfortune upon somebody, ^sch. c. Ctes. p. 537. R. ovk aycnrq. d fiy) c'iktiv eduKev, that he remained unpunished. The same after x'^^^'^^Q 0£pw. Xen. Cyr, 5, 5, 12. Obs. 4. "On stands in a pleonastic manner when the very words of an individual are quoted ; ex. gr. Xen. Cyrop. o, 2, 9. 6 Kvpog aTreKpivaro, on, icprj, w Toj(3pva, olofxai, &.C. H. — Direct and indirect interTogative propositions. 1. Direct interrogative propos. are usually introduced by a particle of interrogation^ as {apa, aWo tl rj, ovkovv, fiwv; double questions by Trorepov — rJ ; see § 150.) or by a pron. inter- roff., to which also the interrog. adv. pronouns belong, as ttou, TToT, &c. They are construed as independent propos., being such by nature. The Greek, however, is fond of using in questions the opt. with av, as the more uncertain way of speaking : ri ELTToiQ av ; TTtog av oioiTo ', — On the conj. in interrogations, im- plying doubt, see § 139, 1, 1. 2. Indirect interrogative propos. are introduced either by the part, d {fjv), ivhether, u fxi], ivhether not, (double questions by are — aVf, Trdrfpov — ?),) or by the indirect interrogative pro- nouns or adv. 'pron. : oarig, ottov, ottojc, o7rr]XiKog ; in lieu of which the direct interrog. pron. rig, ttov, &c. are also very fre- quently employed. The construction of these sentences agrees with that of dependent propos., and is therefore in its material points explained, by what we said in the preceding sections. We have but to add, that in the construction with the conj., av is not to be referred to the interrog. part., as was the case with the part. 7'elative. But the Greek makes use of this construction only after negative propos., so that this conJ. is nothing else but the conj. deliberativus, explained in § 139, 1, 1, which will be seen by the following examples : Soph. (Ed. R. 1367. ovk oIS' OTTwg as (pio f^epovX^vaOai Ka\Cog. Xen. Cyrop. 8, 4, 16 (8). ra ^£ iKirwfiara^ £0rj, oi)ic oW, u. Xpvaavra tovtm du). Eurip. Or. 713. KOVKET elaXv iXTTic^eg, oTrrj rpaTTOfxzvog Oavarov (^vy b). Obs. After affirmative propos. either the indie, (or the mood representing it) is used or the opt. ; the latter principally after historical tenses ^. Attentive reading will furnish sufficient examples. Respecting the indie, see the following Obs. 1 That we sometimes meet with the conj. also after affirmative sentences, cannot appear strange, since there are certain affirmative modes of speaking, where the conj. dubltatims maybe admissible ; ex.gr. in double questions : ^sch. Prom. 779. kXov ■'^ap, rj TO. Xoiird croi (ppdau), f] rbv eKXvaovr' efis. Comp, II. v. 742. a. 307. t. 702. Herod. 1, 53. Kpolrrog everkWeTo k—iipu)T^u rd ;^p/]0Ti7pta, ti a t p a- TevTjraL stti Uspaag Kpolcrog, ichether he was to risk a tear against the Persians ; yet afterwards we meet with: Kai tl nva arparbv TrpoaGsoiro v TraTdaQ fig erspovg oiKiovg (.la 7:0 lov aiv, "iva [ii) /icracrxajcrt rrjg Tov TTarpbg drifJtiag. ovtol Se dpa eig vTTOXptMV ovaiav Kal oiKoOev eideTToiovv ag (that) and the dependent interrog. sentences are not readily to be met with, containing the mere o/jf. without dv, when dependent upon a principal tense (see G. and H.). „ Obs. 2. We have observed, respecting the part, dv, that it is frequently found in dependent propos, construed with the conj., whilst the opt. does not admit of it. But it is by no means unfrequent that, whilst the part, dv in propos. construed with the conj. is intimately connected with the conjunction or pronoun, the opt., after the same propos. has undergone the change into this mood, retains nevertheless the part, dv with the conjunction or pronoun, without, however, forming on that ac- count that mood which we mentioned in § 12L9, 3, 4. (We would advise the be- ginner to consider in the mean while such and similar instances as exceptions to the general rule,) Hence we not unfrequently meet with instances of cxTTig dv, ETTfiddv, 'iwg dv, irplv dv, otcotuv, oTViog dv, nay, even orav and tdv with the opt, mood ; ex.. gr. Xen. Cyrop. 5, 5. init. STrkareXXev avTip rJKeiv, oTrwg (TvfijSovXov yiyvoLTO, o,Ti dv doKoir] Trpdrruv. Anab. T, 5, 8. efi'sfivrjTO, Mg, eTreiddv sttI OdXarrav aTr kXOoi, Trapadwaoi avTt^ BicrdvOrjv. ibid. 7> 7j 57. tdsovTO [xrj drctXBtXv, Trplv dv utt ay dyoi to crrpaTtVfxa Kal Qi}ij3pa)vi 7ra padoif]. De- vnosih. Mid. 5. ttjv 7rapa(TKevr)v,7]v dv iro p iaaiTO Tig,({Jti(^Eiv,) ro KaKwg 7raiXavTOL dvai, they live for their own interest, because they are selfish: — Ar]/iocr0£vr]c (j^wvv&TaiTt^ ypacpelg a7roers. either with the subject in the accus., II. y. 285. Tpwag — i-m^ovvai, then are the Trojans — to give back, Hesiod, yvf-ivov cnreipeiv, yvjxvbv de (3oo)Tei}/, where the subject is to be supposed an indefinite 3^;er50?i — rie-«-which is omitted, though A^irgil has the same recommendation in the 2 j^ers. * nudus ara, sere Hindus,' or with the 'verb being hnijersonal, Herod. 5, 105. ""Q Zew eKytvsaOaL [iOL 'AOrjvaiovg Tiaa(j9ai,that I might be alloiced. But we have still more frequently the infin. instead of the imper. of the 2 pers., and in this case the subject, and what belongs to it, if it be expressed, is always in the nomin. II. p. 692. 'AXXa cvy aTxp' 'A%iX^i, Osojv sttI vrjag 'A%atwv, EiVav — Plato Soph. 218. "Av S' dpa n T(p firjKSi ttovujv ax^y, ix)) ip.k airidcrOai TovTixJV {then do not impute it to me). Verbs like dfi, fXB^vrjcro, &c. are usually supplied, but it is better to do without them. See Dorv. Vann. 341. Heind. ad Plat. Lys. 18. Matthi^'s Gr. Gr. 544. p. 824. Engl. Tram. 4th ed. 06s. 6. The infin. with and without to, sometimes serves as an exclamation ex- pressive of surprise : Se TavTa dpdaai, ' that thou couldst do such a thing /' To Aia voniZeiv, ovTa TtjXiKovTovl, ' that thou, being ofi such an age, canst still believe in Jupiter!' Aristoph. iVM6. 816. § 14:S.—Const7'uction with the Pronoun Relative, 1, The construction of relative propos. with regard to the moods, has been explained in § 139, B. We shall now make some few isolated remarks^ before we treat of the attraction in relat. propos. 1.) A relat. propos. may not only express purpose or object, but also cause and reason, ex.gr. davf^iaarov ttoi^Iq, Bq r)iLuv ov^lv ^idwg, loho givest to us nothing or by giving to us nothing. Herod. 1, 31. al ^Apydai IfxaKapiZov tyiv fitiripa. 396 A GREEK GRAMMAR. o'/wv T^Kvcov licvpr](T£, i. e. OTL roLovTMv T. I. fov haviug such children. Similar is the use of the pron. oaog and oloq in Horn, in passages as //. c 95. uyKvixogog ^rj fioi, tIkoq, E(T(7£aL, oV ayopEVEiQ, where the pron. relat. approaches the signif. of 2ipron. demonst. Comp. ^y, 347. (ola fx tooyaq.) Od. d, 611. ^sch. Prom. 915. 2.) oLog and oaog frequently stand after toiovtoq, roaovTog, precisely for mctte, and are then construed like the latter, i. e. usually with the infin., yet so that the pron. relat. takes the gender, number, and case of the preceding pron. demonstr. Examples : Plat. Charm, p. 156. b. eari yap Toiavrrj (ji ^vvajjug) o'la fjL}] hvvaaQat t))v KEcpaXrjv vyid ttoieiv. Xen. Mem. 2, 1, 15. hovXog roiovToc, olog fj-rjhvl ^saTrorr] XvatrzXeiv. Herod. 6, 137. eiovrovg Ee yeviadai toctovtm efceivcjv av^pag afxeivoyac, oao), Tzapeov cntoKrelvat — , ovK edeX^aat. An example of the pron. demonstr. being omitted is in Thuc. 1, 2. venofitvoi to. avrCJv EKaaroi, oaov awo^jji'. Plat. Theag. p. 127. C. (popOVfXClL VTTEp TOVTOV, fXl] TLPl CtXXw (sC. TOIOVTU)) £V7U^r;, o'lO) 70VT0V ^LCKjiQelpaL. Thus o\oq with an infin. becomes quite an adj. : of such a nature as, ex. gr. ol Trpoadev oCovtsq iracn ^ojoig oIol rijJLj'eLv elair, ol ^e yofxcpLoi oIol Trapa rovrojy ^e^cifxevoi Xeaiveiv. 3.) In the Greek language, similarly to the Latin, the mere pron. relative is often used, where we must say: with regard to, as to. Examples : Xen. Anab. 6, 1, 129. 6 ^' vf-ieig Evvoelre, 6 tl rirrop av crraaig e'iy] kvog dp\()VTog i) iroXXioy, ev 'iffVE 6 ri, &C. Hell. 2, 3, 45. a ^' av eItvev, log iyu) elfiL olog fXETaPjoXXEcrQai, KaravoijcraTE, &C. Eurip. Or. 564. £0' oig b' cnrEiXElg, (og Trerptjjdfjrai fxe ^e'i, ctKovaop. Comp. § 151. IV. 5. Obs. 1. When in two coordinate relative propos., the pron. relat. of the second propos. requires to be put in another casus, it is either changed into a pron. demonstr., or the pron. relat. of the first propos. is to be considered as sufficient for both propos. See § 151. II. 4. — About the subject of the dependent interrogat. jorqpos. being frequently placed in an oblique case in the principal propos, see § 151, I. 6. — ■ About the construction /card (rvveaiv in r elat. propos. see % 129, 3. — About saTivo'ljiffriv OTE, some, sometimes, see § 150. — For those instances where in prose the jorow. relat, m is used for the pro/i. demonst. see § 126. — The pronoun relative is not so frequently ■ used in Greek as in Latin, instead of the corresponding demonstrative, and of a con- nexion with what went before, and probably always is expressive of some emotion, Ol i}xol doKoixTiv ala^vvriv ry ttoXel TrepiaTrTsiv, Plato Apol. p. 35. and other examples quoted by Matthias, § 477' whilst passages like that of Apollod. 1, 1, 3. Kpovog TrpojTtjv [xkv 'EoTtav KaTSTTiev, elra Arjfirjrpav xai "Hpav [xeO' ag JlXovTOJpa Kal SYNTAX. 397 UoaeiSwva, where this form simply serves to vary the connexion, belong to a period when the Greek language had already lost its purity. 2. The nature of the construction with the pronoun relative requires properly that there should be with the first verb a noun, and with the second the pronoun relative, which refers to it^ and each in the casus, which the proposition demands, to which it belongs ; Ovrog ecrriv 6 avT)p, ov uSeg : — Mete^wkev rifxiv iravTtJv, oaa irapriv : — ^lXov ovk s'x^u, wtlvl Triar^ixjaL av ^vvaifxr\v. But the subst. of the first verb is frequently omitted, and added to the second part of the proposition with the pro- noun relative in the same casus; ovTOQ Igtlv, ov eiSsg av^pa, ovK 'iariv, i]vTLva ou/c rip^sv ap)(riv, there is no magistracy but ivhat he has exercised, and the last sentence is very often put first for the sake of emphasis : ov a§£C av^pa^ ovrog eaTiv. 3. Here too an Attraction takes place, similar to that of the construction with the infin. When the pronoun relative on account of its verb should be in the accus., but the noun, to which it refers, is in the gen. or dat., and is not attended with any p7'onoun demonstrative, (like ovrog, iKeXvog,) the pronoun relative is attracted by it, and takes the same case instead of the accus. : M-Bradidiog avrto rov airov^ ovirep avrbg e'x^'Ci thou givest to him of the bread, ivhich thou hast (thyself), where ovmp stands also in the gen. on account of airov, to which it refers, instead of being in the accus. ovirep, which the verb EX^fv required; again: Eu 7rpoG(piperaL rolg (jyiXoig, olg c'x^^j ^^ coriducts himself well toivards the friends whom he has. — Anab. 1, 3, 16. Toj rjj^fiovL TriarsvcroiLiBv, m av Kvpog Bto, for ov av K. d. : — 'EfCjOarrjo-E fXEjaXcov ^prjfiarwv, (j)v 6 TiXtov kire- rpairtro avr(^. Even when the requisite accus. properly is that of the remote object, Demosth. Mid. 35. Aifcrjv (Lv av a^iKrfiyj ng Xap(3avsLv, of the expression a a^iKovfAai, by which I am injured. This attraction of course takes place only when the pron. relat. expresses- a nearer and as it were an adjective determination and modification of the subst., and can therefore not be applied in 398 A GREEK GRAMMAR. sentences like the following : iTryvaOrj vtto iravrMV tCjv kavrov ttoXltCjv, oiig fx^yaXa w^tXrjcrav. See § 151, 1, 2, Obs. 2. The ear being once accustomed to this construction, the pronoun relative was mostly put in the same case as the pronoun demonstrative, even when the latter was expressed in the first part of the proposition ; Plato Gorg. 452. Oi drjiiiovpyol Tovrtjv, o)v hiryvtaiv 6 to (tkoXiop Troirjaag ^ : Xenoph. (Ec. 2. 'Ytto ye rovruuv, h)v (TV dtCTToivwv KaXsig ov KwXvonai, which is at the same time an instance of the accus. (SscTTToivag,) which is dependent on the second proposition, being also placed in the attraction. 4. In this instance too the noun frequently is removed from the first part of the proposition to the second, so that it remains along with the pronoun relative in the casus, which the word governs, on which it is dependent : MeraSiowc avn^, ovirep avroQ t'x^^C c^ltov : — Eu 7rpo(T(l)tp£Tai, olg 'i\ei ^lXolq : — ttTToXauw, wv £^(0 ayaObJV i ^(pwjuei'oi olg elttov Trpodraraig, euSat/xovfc rjcrav, (from ^(^pYiGOaL Trpocrrarr/, to have a leader, patron,) ivhilst they had the leaders, whom I mentioned, they were happy. This contraction appears still more strange to us, when the proposition is an inverted one ; Olc £X^^ (piXoLQ, £u TTQO(j(pip£Tai, towards the friends he has, he conducts himself well. 5. When the noun conveys no precise definite idea, or when it has been mentioned once before, it is frequently altogether omitted, so that the pronoun relative stands alone in a casus, to which it properly is a stranger ; MeiivnuivoQ 42. Kai ToXg ^vpaKocrioig KaraTrXrj^LQ ovk oXiyrj tykvero — opuivreg (i. e. KaTi~Xa.yr](Tav); after an accus. ; Eurip. Hec. 964. aiSibg fj,' ?%ft, ev reside ttotju*^ rvyx^vovcr', "iv t/jui vvv (i.e. aidovj-iai) ; after a gen.: Herod. 4, 132. Aapeiov y yv(x)fj.T] trjv — eiKaZujv (i.e. Aapeiog Ti)v yvwfiiiv f ixO 5 ^^^^ <^<^'^- ^fter a, gen.: Thuc. 1, 61. rjv Sk yrcoixt] rov 'ApiaTeojg, TO fxkv fxi.0' eavTov (yrparoTrecov e^ovTi, eTnrrjpHv &c. 5. Propositions, which serve as a completion to the imperfect sense of some verbs^ are frequently construed with pai^ticiples, where we introduce the propos. by using the conjunction, that, or to, for, of. Such a pai^t. considered as a verb, either has the same subject with the preceding verb, as in the other constructions with the participle, and consequently is in the nomin. or has a different subject and is therefore along with this subject^ as the proximate or remote object of the preceding verb, in one of the oblique cases. This construction, however, can only be employed, when the nature of the par^f. admits of it, i. e. when the meaning is to be conveyed that something is really in existence ; quite independ- ent of whatever notion the writer may have of it. (Objective.) If this is not the case, the infn. is used, which besides may be employed in some instances for the part., but the reverse never takes place. Wherever the pai^t. is used, the sentence can always be considered such as may be resolved by means of since, because, such a one as, &c. The difference between these two constructions may be easily understood by the following Examples : (baivofxaL u)v, apparet me esse, (f)aivop.ai shai, esse videor ; — fiavQavo) wr, I remark that I am, pi, dvai, I learn how to be ; — uv ■Keptopu) ae tovto Troo'/o-ai'ra, / shall not quietly overlook your having done so, oh tt. cte tovto TroLfjaai, I shall not suffer that you do so. Hence, since there is no particular class of vei'bs which as such absolutely demand this construction with the part., and since it depends entirely upon tfte meaning which is to be conveyed by the sentence which contains the completion to the imperfect sense of the preceding verb, we think it to be suf- ficient to point out merely the general nature of those verbs, D d 403 A GREEK GRAMMAR. with which this construction with the part, is most readily combined. These are the verbs, denoting perception either by means of the senses or of the mind ; those expressing the idea of any thing being apparent or to be made apparent ; of being filled with any thing, of letting to happen, of persevering, ceasing, beginning, acting wrongly, &c. a.) Examples on the nomin. — (here the proper subject may, as usual, be wanting,) Alcr^xy^'o/JLai ravra ttoimv, or TvoiiiaaQ, I am ashamed of doing this, or of having done this (whilst mayyvofjLca TToieiv means, / am ashamed to do this, yet hesitating about doing it) ; — Me/ivr)(To ardpcjirog wv, remember being a man, that thou art a man : — Ou awieaav }iaTr]v Trov^ovvTeg, they did not perceive that they laboured in vain : — Herod. 3, 1. Aiap£J3Xr)i.iipoQ oh jjLavdarsig ; do you not understand that you are deceived ? Demosth. Mid. 18. 'Ei^ ^ yap avrbg evdaifxioy fjht yeyoviog iroXiTeiq., in which state (i. e. the state in which) he knew that he had been happy ; — (ol^a yeyovibc, I know that I am be- come ; — ) Isocr. ^KOTrovjJLevog evpiaKov ov^a}x{i)g av ctAXoc tovto Btairpa^dfjiEvoc, weighing it in my mind, I found that I could not accomplish it otherwise (compare § 139, 5). Hence also in particular with passives, (arising from the following construc- tion,) 'E^eXj^XtyKTat rjjjidg airarCJv, he has been convicted of imposing on us ; aTnqyyeXQr) 6 ^/XiTTTTog Triv"0\vvQov TcoXiopicCjy, it was reported that Philippus besieged Olynthus. And the case is the same with the following expressions, which are con- strued in an analogous manner : ^rjXog, (pavepog dfxi ttoiujv, &c. for which see § 151, I. 7. b.) Examples of the accus. — 01 TLipaai Zia^vrifiovevovcn tovKvoov e^ovTa (pvcTLv, the Persians relate that Cyrus had, literally, they remembered him as one who had, hence in the pass. 'O Kiipog BiajbLrrjjjioyeveTaL e'xwv, see the preceding construction : — Ot^a avvolaoy rJ to. ^iXriara eIttovti, I know that it will be ad- vantageous to him, who shall have given the best counsel, from the impersonal expression aviK^ipei, it is expedient, profitable. c.) Examples of the genitive and dative. — 'Yipdofxriv avrcoy olofxiviop elvai cro^wraVwv, I perceive that they fancied them- selves very wise, aocpuyTariov for -ovc, because of the attraction according to § 142, 2, 2. : — OvdeTrore iiETEfiiXrjffi p.oi aiyriaavri, 00£y|ajU£%'w ce TroXXaKiOff (from iderajjeXei poi, I repent,) I never yet repented having been silent, but frequently that I had spoken, a saying of Simonides : — Plato de LL. 857, 6. Oi/^eV Bta(j)epei tw KXi-KTovri [xkya i) afxiKpov v(f)eXofieva}) it is of no con- sequence, makes no difference to the thief (viz. when he under- SYNTAX. 403 goes his punishment) whether he has stolen much or little, Thuc. 1, 118. EirEpu)Tii}v Tov dedy, el (sc. avrdlo) iroXey-ovatv (ifXtLVOV icTTaL. Obs. 2. With verbs construed with the pronoun reflective, as (Tvyoida kfiavrti), I am conscious, this part, may stand in two different cases, "Evvoida ajxavnf (to^oq Cjv, Plato, and, 2avr<^ avvydeig adiKovvri, Demosth, : — 'Eavrbv ovdtlg ojuoXoyeT KUKovpyoQ S)v, {G-nom.) might also have been KUKovpyov ovra. Obs. 3. When aKoveiv signifies to hear with one's own ears, it can only be construed with the part.: ctKOvoi le with the other action, it is almost always conceived as co-existing, or anterior, or posterior, Dd2 404 A GREEK GRAMMAR. and stated accordingly in the requisite tevse. But there is frequently another view of the matter possible, than that with which we are familiar, and thus it happens that we often find in books the part, aor., where we expected the part. pres. and vice versa. For instance in Homei''s"St; ctVwr a)Tpvve [xsvog Kal Ovfxbv f/cdoTov, we expect the pres. Xsyu)v: for, whilst he is speaking thus, the commander by his speeches encourages his soldiers, but he must already have said something affecting, since they are affected. Hence we have also in Xenoph. 3fem. 3,6, 2. Toidda X'e^ag KaTS(Tx^v avTov. — The part. pres. may be used when both actions have a duration^ and are continually rejoeated ; Xenoph. 3fem. I, 2, 61. (speaking of Socrates,) BiXriovQ yap ttoimv tovq crcijyyLyvofisvovQ aTrkiviixTrfv. Here 7roir](Tag would I'efer to a thing which happened but once, but the meaning is, he {constantly, every time,) rendered those more happy who came to him, and then dismissed them. — The part. pres. is also used for several actions necessarily connected and almost co-existing toith the fol- lowing action, as to go, run, lead, bring ; O'Uad' iwv MvpfiiSovecraiv dva;) cpspojv, ri TraOojp and ri (laOojv, see § 150. For the cii-cumlocution with t'xfu' see ibid. SYNTAX. 405 § 145. — Casus Absoluti. 1. In the instances hitherto enumerated, the part, was dependent on one of the nouns belonging to the principal verb, and was therefore construed in the same case as that noun. But if a new object is introduced as subject, it is construed in the same case with the part., which case is independent of the principal verb ; whence this construction is called casus absoluti. 2. The casus, in which such words stand, commonly is the gen., and these genitivi absoluti are the same as what are called in Latin ablativi consequentice. Their original signif. refers to time, the gen. denoting the time according to § 132, 6, 4., and just as wKrhq means by night, so does 'E/xov KaQiv^ovrog ravra lyivero, this happened ivhen I slept [at the time when I lu as sleeping) : — Ilavrwy ovv aiatTrwvTujv CdTTs roiaSe : — Mera ravra KVfiaivovrog 7]^r] rov Yl^XoTrovvricnaKOV TToX^fiov tireKTE rov ^rifj.ov, K^pKvpaioig airocrrdXai jdoriOeiav. When this time is denoted by an historical person, the gen. often is at- tended by the prep. £7rt, ea^. gr. 'Etti Kvpov jdacnXevovrog, [Cyro regnante,) in the reign of Cyrus. Hence lirl generally is con- sidered as omitted, when the question is oi time (see Obs. 2). 3. But this construction serves also for any other connexion by means of when, as, because, whilst, &c. For instance, ^iTriKUfiivwv 0£ rCjv ttoXejuiwv ry iroXei, Xi^og i^nrero rCjv 'Pw^atwy, when the enemy assailed the city, famine attacked the Romans ; TeOvrjKorog rov j5av Trovrjpiov avOpujTTujv, ojg ttjv tovtujv b[xi\iav ^laXvaiv ovcrav dpsrtig, parents keep their children from wicked men, since (they are convinced) intercourse with them is destructive of virtue ; Tlato Phced. 'ETriKeXevti ^ovffiKi^v kouTv, wg x^~o ^^i- Kavvov,6v — rj "icrcjg ovdev avT(^ jxk\ov tqv toiovtov. Hence it happens that the part, tv^ov (from t-vxiv, it happened,) is used as adverb, properly since it so happened, by chance, and consequently also perhaps. Even the adj. Svva-bv (with the part, ov omitted) is used thus, Plato Rep. 7. p. 519, d. TLoiTjaoiJisv ^apov Kyv, dwarbv avrolg diieivov (viz. Zyv), we icill contrive that they shall live icorse, while they might have lived better. Herm. ad Viger. n. 214. § 146.— 0/2^7^6 Particles. 1. Adverbs partly have, like the adj. which they resemble, the noun, to which they refer in a particular case^ 'A^twc 17/uwv TToXmi^Goinv [ive ivill carry on the war in a manner worthy of ourselves) . They do the same in the compar. and superl. ; ^laXiGTa iravTOJv, most of all ; 01 TrtvriTeg twv ev^aiidovtov fxaWov tvvavraL eaOieiv re koX KaOevSsiv, {better than the rich,) see § 132, 5, 4. 2. Prepositions properly are adv. having a constant reference to a noun, (while with adverbs this is only partially the case^) and merely denoting a certain relation without any other power or energy. Thus we have particles, which sometimes are mere adverbs, and sometimes real prepositions. For instance. 408 A GREEK GRAMMAR. ♦ o^ou and ajua both signify together as adverbs; but they frequently are construed with the dative, (hke the kindred prep, avv,) and they then, ^^prep., signify together loith. Others, and especially the adverbs of time and place, govern the geyi. ; eyyvg, near, iyyvg tivoq, close by one ; xu^giQ, apart, separately, XioQiQ TivoQ, concept one ; ^I'x*^? doubly, apart, ^ixa tivoq, apart from, i. e. without ; evOv, straight-forward, evOv nvog, in the way to meet one, Lat. obviam, (see § 13 7, 1.) &c. There is a great difference between the particle wc, 1.) when adverb and con- junction signifying that, as, &c. of which see § 149; and 2.) when a prep, signifying to in answer to the question whither ? but referring constantly to persons ^, ElarjXOev djg kfil, he came in to me, avrjxOrjcrav tjg tov fiaaiXia, they went (journeyed) to the king. 3. There are adverbs referring to verbs, and whole proposi- tions, which serve to connect two sentences, especially the relative ; lia^icjojiaL ottots KEAsuo-aic? I shall be there, whenever you bid me. This is the origin of conjunctions ; for the construc- tion of which with regard to the diiferent moods of the verb, see § 139. Obs. 1. "Axpi and /i£%pi properly signify at once, at a continuance, loithout interrup- tion ; in connexion with a verb, ' as far as, until,'' in connexion with a gen. ^ con- tinually up to,^ or simply ' until.'' — liXrjv means except, and may be connected with a proposition, ttXtjv ei, except if; but it also takes the gen. : liXrjv irdw oXiyoJv, with the exception of very few. Obs. 2. Strictly speaking, those particles only, which commonly are used alone, and without any reference, should be called adverbs ; those, which usually are con- strued with a particular case of the noun, prepositions ; and those, which generally connect whole propositions, conjunctions. Thus, for instance, dvtv and artp, without, IvwTriov, before, (in later authors,) and xaptv, on account of, (the latter of which, like the Latin gratia, almost always comes after the gen., as well as eviKa,) and others, are xe2i\ prepositions governing the gen. It is ti'ue that x^P'-'^ properly is a sulst.- as well as diKTjv, in the manner of, Lat. * instqr ' {Siktjv TroraixoJv, and the like); such words are not adverbial subst., but rather subst. which are become prep. Those mentioned above never occur without the case of a 7iou7i, and therefore are still more justly called prepositions, than some of the single words thus named, which some- times are employed adverbially without governing any case (§ 147. Obs. 8). 4. Some adverbs serve at the same time as adj. : I\\r\GLov ' Modern critics make it evident that, whenever passages occur in good writers, in which ojq does not refer to persons, they are probably corrupt ; eig is the correct reading in such instances. The particle wg, however, is not one of the old prep. strictly so called, which are stated in the following Section ; it does not make any compound ve)'b : see § 115, 2. 2 Hence poets also say £/i»}v, }v x^P''-''^} (/^^ "^2^ *^^^j 2/^^^^ sake,) instead of ejxov, (jov xapiV' I SYNTAX. 409 earl, atya Ian, he is near, he is silent (see § 129. Obs, 7). That paiiicles by being construed with the article become nouns^ has been noticed above, § 125, 6, 7. § ]47. — Of the Prepositions. 1. Besides those mentioned in the preceding Section, the following are the old prep, expressive of locality in general, with their cases : avTi, ano, It, (ffc,) irpo govern the gen. Iv, ai)v, the dat. ava, £(c ^ the accus. ^la, Kara, virlp, the gen. and accus. OjU^i, £7rt, iiEra, Trapu, irepX, irpog., virby the ge7i. dative and accus. 2. Those, which govern different cases, generally have the accus. to the question whither f and the dat. to the question ivhere ? The gen. suits most significations, but chiefly conveys the idea of a removal {from off, out) . Obs, 1. The simplest and easiest of the above prepositions, in point of signif. are arch, from, of, tC, out offrom^ tig, in, into, to the question ichither, Iv, in, to the question where, TTpb, before, avv, with, for though they have many collateral meanings, these, with the exception of a few peculiarities, are easily deduced from the radical signif. : as when tg denotes a cause, and may be rendered because of, Ik tovtov, on that account, or when it merely denotes a succession of time, Nvv ysXoJfisv Ik tCjv TrgoaBiv daKpvojv: again when tig, like the Latin in, denotes towards, against, or when it simply means with respect to, Twv dg TrokiyLov kiriarrimov iariv : lastly, when Trpo is the Latin pro, for, (but only in the sense oi protection ov adtantage,) AiaKivdvvevtiv 7rp6 roij jSacnXiojg. Cyrop. 4, 5, 44. Ovk apKscrw Trpdrrojv 7rp6 Vjuwv, o, ri av Ssy, I shcdl not be able to do ichat is needful for you,— for your adtantage. Compare Trpovpyov, § 115. Obs. 4. See belovv Obs. 5. very particular signif. of elg. Obs. 2. The signif. of the following prepositions must be more particularly remembered: — dva is originally up, (compare dvii), and the compounds,) and in this sense it is also construed with the dative by the poets {11. a. 15. Od. X. 128). But the most usual signif. in prose is in, on, through, both in point of time and place ; 'Avd Trdcrav TTjv yfjv, all over the country; 'H 0J7/i7j rjXOtv dvd ttjv Tr6\iv,the report spread through the city ; Oi avd to TTsdiov, those in the open fields; 'Avd Trdcrav rrjv riiJispav, the whole day through. But when there is no ai'ticle, and Trdg consequently is tant- amount to 'iicaarog, (§ 127, 6-) it refers to a number of days, years, &c.: dvd rcdaav T)iJ.epav, daily, every day ; Cyrop. 1, 2, 8. dvd rrdv irog, every year, Herod. 5, 114. dvTi, as a single prep., has lost its original meaning of towards, against, (see ^ See about the pj-ep. (bg, § 1 46, 2. 410 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Obs. 10. about compounds,) and most commonly signifies instead of, for , in the sense of exchanging, bartering, buying, valuing, &e. did Tov, through, in point of space and of ways and means; — did rbv, on account of, Aid AaKsdaiixoviovQ icpvyov, they were driven into exile on account of the Lacedas- vionians ; Aid at i]\9ov, I came for your sake ; but also through as a cause, Aid tovq Oiovg IV TTpdrru), through the gods I am doing well, 1 am well off. fxerd TOV, after, Lat. post; — nerd tov, with ; — fiSTd t(^, only with poets among, Lat. inter. dfi 6. Kara tov, however, occurs more fre- quently in the signif. of against, chiefly with the verbs ' to speak, think,' and the like ; tiTrtiv to dXijOeg kutu tivoq, to speak the truth against one, give true evidence. It is less rarely used in the sense of praising, "'ETvaivog Kara tov ovov, Plato Phoedr. 260. Kara tov denotes any locality in general, when the particulars of the situation are not to be, or cannot be, attended to, or when they are sufficiently known ; Kara yijv Kai Kara OdXaTTav, by land and by sea; oi Kara rfjv ' Kaiav vtto jSacnXtl ovreg, those w'ho are in Asia under the king. Hence, in general, time, place, and cir- cumstances, which are obvious, are denoted by Kara, OUovai Kara KOJjxag, they dwell in villages, Lat. vicatim ; 'EaKtivovv /cara rd^eig, they were encamped in battle-array ; hence Kara Svo, two by tico ; TavTa fisv kykvero Kara tijv voaov, this happened during the illness ; Kara ravTTjv Trjv dia^opdv 6vt(ov AaKedaiixovio)v Trpbg 'A9r}- vaiovg, during the disp)ute of the Lacedcemonians with the Athenians; At Kara to awjia rjSoval, the pleasures of the body ; Kara Trdvra TiTgvx^vTai, they are in every respect worn out, and many other relations of this kind. Kara frequently is the Latin ^secundum,' according to, Kara tovtov tov Xoyov dfxuvov kaTiv (bde, accord- ing to this statement it is better thus ; Kara IlXdrojva, according to Plato, i. e. as Plato says: ILaTa T-qv KdQerov, perpendicularly ; Hoihaix) Kara rd tov (SacnXsiog ypajLt- fiara, I shall act according to the king's letter ; Akofxai avTOv Kara Ttdvra Tpoirov, I want him every way, need his assistance in any way. Obs. 5. The prei?. eig referring to persons signifies to, but always meaning the person's dicelling, Horn, tig 'Aya/xsuvova, to Agamemnon, to his tent ; KaXsei ts jxiv eig £ £/caoToc, every one invites him to his house ; Lysias, ElcrsXOujv tig tov Trarepa TOV kfiov, coming to my father's house. Eig with the elliptical gen. (§ 132. Obs. 9.) means more generally, into the house of Alciblades, &c. Obs. 6. The prep, kv is also used by the Dorians instead of i'lg, Avith the accus. (Find. Pyth. 2, 21. 5, 50. See Greg. Cor. Dor. 159, with the iV^o^^s.)— See about dirb employed seemingly for kv, § 151. I. 8. 06s. T. We shall see below, § 151. Ill, 1, 6, that prep, are sometimes separated from their cases by an intercalation. Sometimes the object of a, prep, seems to be wanting, when a reference has taken its place ; Soph. Philoct. 469. Tvpog TraTpbg, Trpbg d tI aoi Icttiv (piXov, where t'i ti (according to § 149. el,) is used for on, and the requisite gen. to Trpbg (Travrbg) is wanting, by the father, (/ implore thee,) by — if any thing be dear to thee, i. e. by all which is dear to thee. Obs. 8. And sometimes the object is not expressed, because it would be repeating 412 A GREEK GRAMMAR. what had gone before ; most languages then make an adverb of the prep, {loherein, therein, &c.) and if the prep, itself is used, it is only adverbially. In prose this is done in Greek only with the prep. Trpbg, ex. gr. Kal Trpbg, Trpbg de, and besides, &e., and by the lonians and later writers also with [lerd : jxera Ss, but aftenoards. But poets have also irapa, along icith it, kv, within, and the like, and the prep. Trepi or TTspi, frequently is with the Epics an adverb: very much, very (§ 117- Obs. 3). Obs. 9. All compounds with prep, originated in this manner. They all consist of a radical word with a j^rep. taken adverbially : diajSaivai, I pass through, cross over, and the like, § 121, 2. The meaning of all such compounds is easily dis- covered from the signif. of the prep. We will only remark that the compounds with dvTi chiefly convey the idea of opposition, against; avTiTdTTHv,to oppose, dvri- \kynv, to contradict : — those with dvd mean up, and those with Kara, down ; dva~ (SaiPiii', icarafSaiveiv, to go upj, down. Of the collateral signif. of such compounds, which are not clearly obvious through the meaning of the prep., we must parti- cularly notice d}xv,the non-destriiction of the bridges, the fact that the bridges were not destroyed (a direct and real negation with ov) : dnvov IcTTiv r] jxri £jW7r£ipia, it is grievous to have no experience, it is a sad thing when one has no experience (a mere assumption with /^j)). 8. We have just seen (2, c.) that ju?? is used in ' particular with the verbs ^ to wish, request, command^' Whenever it is E e 418 A GREEK GRAMMAR. construed with a wish, it requires the opt. ; M77 ykvoiTo — fxri "l^olq tovto, that you may not get to see it ! In a negative re- quest or command it requires the present tense or the aor., according as the action^ which is requested or commanded, is of some duration, or momentary, (which, however, is frequently optional,) according to § 137,5, but always with this restric- tion, that of the present it only takes the imper., and of the aor. only the conj. : consequently, fxr) jue jSaXXe, or jur/ jue jdaXyg. To the very few exceptions from this rule belong some passages in Homer (//. S. 410. Od. w. 301. u). 248). 4. The idea of apprehension or fear, which we express posi- tively in German and English, / am afraid that some accident will happen to him, is introduced in Greek, as in Latin, with a negative ; AtSoiKa jii] rt TrdOy, vereor ne quid illi accidat, which is also done in French, je crahis qu^il ne lui arrive quelque chose de fdcheux. That this conj. becomes an opt. in connexion with time past, and in a dependent proposition, appears from § 139. (after H.) Ohs, 1. Ohs. 4. Expressions of fear or precaution are likewise frequently construed with the fut. ; Fla.to PJiileb. p. 13, ^o^ovixai fxij svptjaofxev. Aristoph. jE/cc?. 486, irepi- CKOTTOVfikvlf] fJLT) yevi]) ovx} i^t'''*'^ avTov OVK av dvvaiixrjv, not to hate him is not in my power, i.e. / must hate him. Obs. 8. Hence the negations cancel each other in the expression, ovSsig offTig ov, (nemo non,) because the verb dvai generally is here omitted after the first negation. It should strictly be, for instance, ovdelg (sc. icTTiv) o(TTig juj) 7roir]<7ei, there is no one who icill not do this, i. e. every one will do it. But this omission of tort is so com- pletely forgotten, that not only ju?) becomes ovk, but, exceptmg the nomin., the ovddg is attracted in the construction (according to a particular form of attraction, which will be stated below, § 151, I. 4.) to the following principal verb ; and we conse- quently find, for instance, ovdevl '6t(ij ovk apkaKSi, ' nemini non placet,^ there is no one whom it does not please, i. e. it pleases every one. — Demosth. (c. Aristocr.yYyitXg fxav u) a. 'A. ovdkva vrpovddjKaTS tmv cpiXojv, QsTTaXoi de ovdsva ttojttoO' ovTiva ov (sc. TTjOou^wKav), i. e. they have betrayed all their friends ^. ^ The omission of oaTig in this phrase in Xenoph. Symp. 1, 9. is doubtful ', see Schneider's 06s. But it is unquestionable in the Oracle in Herod. 5, 56. E e2 420 A GREEK GRAMMAR. Obs. 9. But the Greeks being so accustomed to the idea that an additional nega- tive merely serves to strengthen the other, a verb, in the signif. of which there is alresidy tinegation, is yet construed with an additional negative particle/ RvavTiwOriv avTi^ ixi]dkv TToieiv Ttapa tovq v6}iovq, I opposed him, i. e. I prevented his doing any thing contrary to the laws ; Anab. 1, 3, 2. Mik^ov k^'s(pvys tov fxij KaraTnrpcjOrjvai, he scarcely escaped the danger of being stoned. See Ind. ad Plat. Meno. v. [xi]. Exc. XI. ad Demosth. Mid. Obs. 10. The expression ei ^l [xii), but if not, should properly come after affirmative sentences; but it is so familiar as a complete contradiction to the preceding propo- sition, that it also stands after negative sentences, and consequently affirms in such cases; Anab. 4, 3, 6. See Heind. ad Plat. Hipp. 134. See the following Section about ovde and fjirjds, § 149. — Of some other Particles. 1. The use of the Greek particles is so various, and in part attended with so many difficulties, that it will be proper to review the most important ones with particular attention. cjg, as a relative adverb, has the follow signif. : 1.) as, when; hence in speaking of time, tog Be 7]X6ov, ov Tra^rjv, when I arrived, he was not there ; 2.) it strengthens the superl., especially of adverbs, mq TaxiGra, as quickly as possible, and also the positive of some, particularly d>c aXy]- Qh)Q, most truly, wg irepwg, very differently, and some other examples in Heind. ad Plat. Apol. S. 23. Pr6ef. The in- stances where it comes after an adverb, OavfxacTTiog wg, virt^- (pvLog wg, are explained below, § 151, 1. 5. 3.) About, nearly, (jjg 7rEvrr}KovTa, about fifty. 4.) To prep, answering the question whither, eirX, elg, irpog, ex.gr. 'Ewopsvero log kwl tov TTora/xov, it gives the signif. towards, ^ versus^ (properly, in the direction as if he w^anted to get to the river). — Thuc. 6, 61. 'AttIttAeov fiera rrig ^aXafiLviag Ik Tr\g ^iKeXiag ujg £c 'A6{]vag. This expression properly denotes merely the direction taken, and leaves it undecided whether the place was reached. Hence it may always be employed about a Journey which is not yet finished, Soph. Philoct. 58. TrXac S' wc Trpog oT/cov, you sail homewards. As a conjunction, it means, 1.) that, UavrEg ofioXoyovjuev^ wg 17 aperrj KpaTiarrov Igtl : see § 139, G. 2.) in order that, see § 139, E. 3.) so that with the infin. (more usually Ioctte,) see § 139, F. 4.) since (see § 139, C). 5.) because, see § 144. Obs. 6. and § 145. Obs. 5. hence also 6.) the Latin '■quippe,' for, Kqcltlgtov iarai (Tvy^w prjaai, wg ai) SoKug ovk cKpfiaEtv jue, it will be best to yield, for you seem not to intend to release me. SYNTAX. 421 About the prep. (Jc? see § 147. Ohs. 6. wVj (with the accent^ § 116^ 5.) for ovrbiq^ is very usual with poets, especially the lonians ; but in prose it is chiefly used only in the expressions icai wV, even thus^ i. e. even in these ch^umstafices, and its opposite ovS' mq, not even thus, yet not. oTTfog, as adverb, also signifies as, ivhen, and as conjunction, in order that. We have seen its construction above, § 139, E. and only notice here that it also supplies the place of an energetic imper. ottojq eaeaOe, Anab. ] , 7, 3. be by alt means, i. e. take care that you be. *iva, as adverb, 'where/ as conjunction, (§ 139, E.) likewise in order that ;• — 'Iva ri ; wherefore ? why ? (as it were, in order that something be done.) w(TT£, so that, commonly with the infin. (§ 131, F. 142, 4.) oTt, that, instead of the Latin accus. with the infin. see 1 39, G. We must also notice the peculiarity, that it is used before the very words of another quoted, 'ATreKpivaTo on fiaaiXdav ovK av ^e^aifini', he answered, I will &c. It also means because ; elliptically for ^la tovto on, or its ab- breviation dion (§ 115. Obs. 5) : but later writers often have dion for on, that. It strengthens all superlatives, (compare (oq,) ex. gr. on \xi- yidTog, as great as possible, on fiaXiaTa, &c. TovvEKa, (barely in the Epic poets,) on that account^ therefore. ovvEKa 1.) wherefore; 2.) as conjunction, because (for rou %viKa, ov evEKo). But poets also use ovveku, 1.) for evsKa, for the sake of, 2.) for on, that. oOovvEKa, (see § 29. Obs. 10.) in the tragic poets, as much as ovv£Ka, because, that. el, 1.) if; § 139. A. — 2.) to the indirect question whether, see § 139, H. 2. and § 148, 2, b. When el comes after Oavfiat^M and some other verbs expressive of feelings, it should be used of uncertain things, {ex. gr., if you are not sensible of it,) but the Attic custom, to avoid being positive in speaking, has caused this particle to be employed not only for very pro- bable, but also for very certain things, consequently for on and the like. See the instance above, § 139, G. Obs. 3. — Demosth. Mid. 29. Ovk yaxvvOri el tolovto kqkov errayei rw, he has not been ashamed to bring such a misfortune on — 422 A GREEK GRAMMAR. ^sch. c. Ctes. (537. Reiske,) Ovk ayawa h nirj S/kt^v e^toKsv, he is not satisfied with being left unpunished. — ft Kai, with the indie, though. But koX d, and kciv h, if even, suppose even. The last is construed with the indie, in spite of av : see the Note to Demosth. Mid. 15. Heind. ad Plat. Soph. 59. — HTit;, HTL, properly if any one, any thing ; but this expression emphatically supplies the pronoun oang, ex. gr. "E^^ftpov HTL x^T^o-'/uov riv Iv rw irs.'^iw, ivhatever. Compare § 147. Obs. 7. — £1 yap is also used to express a loish, O that ! else a0£. Ittu, after, 2:) since, Lat. quoniam, § 139^ C. D. 3. before inter- rogatives and imper.it means /or; 'Ettei ttwc clv diaKpivoifxEv avT6;for how else could we discriminate it P 'EttsI Oiaaai avTog,for look only yourself. oTTov, where, {there where,) 2.) as a conjunction, since, if indeed, Lat. siquidem. oTTore, is also often used for since, like the Lat. quandoquidem. av, (poetically ke, kIv,) see above § 139. eav, rjv, av, — orav, ETTstdav, see the same Section, — lav in particular has after verbs signifying to investigate, examine, see, the power of the Latin an, ' whither, iff SKOTTft lav iKavov 1^, look whether it be sufficient. But fre- quently the verb is wanting, and must be mentally supplied. M?)§£ TovTo apprjTov £(7rw poi, lav ai ttwq 7ru(no, neither will I leave this untold, (to see) if I can prevail with you. See Ind. ad Flat. Meno. &c. Schneid. ad Xenoph. Mem. 4, 4^, 12. — Homer's a'//c£, //. o. 420. is employed exactly in this way. ri, or, which signif. it always retains even in questions, Ovrwg Igtiv, ri OVK oiu ; so it is, or do you not think so ? woOev i^kel; rj ^rjXov on £$ ayopag ; whence comes he ? or is it certain (and then the question is unnecessary) that he comes from the market-place ? See Ind. ad Plat. Meno. in v. — In comparisons it is than, Lat. qua^n ; 2oi tovto fxaXXov api~ (TKEi, rj f,uoij this pleases you better than it does me. — When the compar. refers to a proportion, we have rj rrpbg or rj Kara, ex. gr. M£i^wv r\ Kar av6p(i)7rov, taller than a man usually is ; 'H ^o^a Igtlv lAarrwv r) irpoq to KaTopOto/na, the glory is less than is due to the deed (Lat. ' quam pro '). SYNTAX. 423 Quite different is ri, which originally signifies iruli/, certainly ; it is most com- monly a mere interrogative particle, Lat. num ? KiiL and tI are exactly the Lat. et and que, and kol also signifies also, even, &c. If rl comes before koI, it means not only, and /cal then means but also; Avtoq r£ TVQavvoq lyivero, KOL Toig TTaiGi TYiv TVQavvL^a KareXiirev : in other instances these particles signify — as well — as. But this double connexion is often used where we simply have once and, tI is very frequently redundant in Epic poetry. This arises from the circumstance, that in the old language this particle imparted to several words the connecting power, which these words retained in the more polished language without retaining the particle itself. Hence we frequently meet in the old poets with iiiv re, de re, yap re, and even Kai re, (also,) for juev, de, yap, and Ka\ alone. But the particle re most commonly comes after all kinds of relatives, because in the old language they were all merely forms of the pronoun demonstrative, which through this re obtained the connecting power, and thus became the relative which. As soon, however, as these forms were exclusively allotted to the relative signif., the particle re was dropped as superfluous. Hence we often find in Homer og re, octov re, &c. in- stead of og, ocrov, and the like. The particles Ibare and are^ and the expressions olog re and e^' w re (§ 150.) of the common language ^ are a remnant from the ancient usage. (Respecting r apa see rot.) But Kttt alone in the sense of also is often introduced in familiar conversation, seemingly without any neces- sity ; Plato Alcib. 1, 6. (/ admit all your questions,) ha KOL eldu), on Kttj epe7g, where we should use different particles, ' that I may know what you will say.^ Before ixaXa and -rravv it has a peculiar energy ; Tovro yap Kttl fxdXa aKpL(5(dg, I know this, and indeed very accurately. ^ This is, in my opinion, the best way of accounting for the above-mentioned Epic expressions. Yet I readily grant that there may be other suppositions to account for them. But I cannot agree with Hermann in explaining all this by an hypothesis of his own, that kul and re, and the Latin et and que, were originally difterent, and that re signified the Lsithi forte. 424 A GREEK GRAMMAR. — KOL, in comparisons, like the Latin atque, see Ind, ad Plat. Meno. cet. KOL — ^l, see after dL Se, [but,) is far from having a constant adversative power ; in most instances it is a mere transition and connexion to announce something new^ where we use either the copula AND, or no conjunction at all. The Greeks employed it, where they could not make use of any other particle, merely to avoid an asyndeton, i. e. a new proposition un- connected with what came before introduced in the midst of a speech, such as good writers never admit, unless it is to produce some rhetorical effect.- In the old language Se also served for other conjunctions, especially yap [Od. §. 369) : particular attention must, therefore, be paid to the context in Homer to be able to judge which of the three principal signif. and^ but, for, it has in a given sentence. Homer also frequently uses §£ merely for a limitation of time, which else is connected by tuc, ore, &c. Od, j3. 313. Whenever K.ai and hi are together in a proposition, • Koi can only mean also ; kol ovtoq hi irapriv, but this also was there. But they likewise frequently signify and also. As KoX KoX cannot be used in Greek, ^£ supplies the place of kqI in such instances, e.g. Nvy irspX ipvx^v tCjv vjueTEpwv £(tt\v 6 aywv, kol irepl yvvaiKtJv cl koX rtfcvwv. Were KoX—hl — to be rendered here literally, but also for your wives and children, it would give a false emphasis to the context. The meaning is simply this, noiv you have to fight for your own life, and also {and additionally) for wives and children. In common language, the ex- pression can take place only when the principal word, to which KOL refers, comes before dl, but in Epic poetry KOL hi constantly follow close on each other ; //. £. 700. Kap7raXi/i(x)g irpo veiov l\ifxev \a6v re /cat ittttouc ^Orpv- vijjv, KoX h' avTog lv\ TTpofiaxoidL fxayeaOai. fxlv and hi are two particles, which go together, and serve as ^£ alone. They connect like it is true — but — and are much more frequently employed, as they merely combine twa different propositions, without denoting any contrast or opposition. Thus a Section, Chapter, or even part of a SYNTAX. 425 whole Work, often ends with, for instance, Kat Tama fxlv ovrwQ lyivETOy {things happened so,) when the next Chapter, Section, or Book, must necessarily begin with something- like, T^ S' vGTspaia {on the following day). It is only when the context clearly requires it, that juev is to be rendered, it is true indeed. Two propositions often are united by ixlv and ^£, of which the second alone belongs to the context, the first being premised merely to give more effect to the second by its contrast ; Demosth. Olynth. II. 'AXX' Ikhvo Oav- fiaZit), H {that) AaKsdaifiovLOic; fiiv ttote, w av^peg 'AOy}- valoL, virlp tCjv ^^Wyivlkwv ^iKaiwv avr^pare, /cat, — \va ol aXXoL Tvy(jb)Gi tCjv diKaitov, ra v/ULir^pa avTU)V avriXiaKSTE ao-^Epovrsc, — vvvX S' oKvure l^iivai, Kal fieXXere {delay) uar^ipuv inrlp tCjv vfxeTepwv avTwv KTYifxaTwv. Demosth. here is not surprised at the first proposition, that the Athenians once defended the rights of all the Greeks against the Lacedaemonians, but at the second propo- sition, that they, who once acted thus, would not take proper measures for the protection of their own pro- perty. AIg\qov lariv, ei lyii) fxlv rovg Trovovg vfj.Hg Se jUTidl TovQ Xojovg avTiov avE^eaOs, pro Cor. 281 : it is obvious that the first proposition here is praiseworthy, and the second alone shameful, not in itself, but in con- trast with the first. The following example, which is misunderstood by most interpreters, shows what atten- tion it is necessary to pay to such connexions ; Eurip. Iph. T. 115. OvTOL liaKpov filv rjXdojUEv Kwiry Tropov, 'Efc repfxarojv Ss voarov apovp,EV iraXiv. Here the negation properly belongs only to the second proposition, and the first as a contrast may come after, we will not, when we are at the goal, sail back again, after having performed such a long voyage. The con- nexion of the two propositions is still more striking in this sense, it shall not be said of us that tve performed a long voyage, and went back again, when ive had reached our destination. It is the same if we take the whole for a disapproving question. See Seidler ^ 2 The same phrase is also used sometimes in Latin, but agreeably to the syntax of that language, without snch particles : Horace, Sat. 1, 2, 84. Quod venale habet, ostendit ; nee, si quid honesti est, Jactat, hahetque palam ; qucerit quo turpia celet. 436 A GREEK GRAMMAR. This jU£y — ^£ — affords an emphatic way of connecting two ideas belonging to the same proposition instead of the more usual te — kuX — ^ so that one word of the propo- sition is repeated; Xenoph. Mem. 2, 1, 32. 'Eyw Se (jvvEijULL filv Oeoig, avvufxi 8' avOpwTToiQ tolq ayaOoig, in- stead of the cooler avvHiii OeoTg t£ /cat a. r. a. And even without julv in the first part of the proposition^ when the usual connecting form would require simply Km. See Soph. Philoct. 827, and about the repetition of the bare preposition of compound verbs in such a phrase, § 147. Obs. 10. Strictly speaking, jU£v never can be used without ^e, or a pai^ticle of similar import, (aXXa, juevtoi,) correspond- ing to it in the subsequent proposition. Yet 1.) from rhetorical motives the second proposition is sometimes omitted, or differently expressed; 2.) in some usual phrases, where the second proposition must be con- sidered as having completely vanished, filv is used alone, (like the Latin quidem,) to isolate a person or thing, and remove any thing, which else might be expected ; thus in particular lyu) ixlvy [equidem,) and the like. See Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 36. Thecet. 49. In Epic poetry ixlv also frequently occurs for /ii^v, which see below. We have already seen above (§ 126.) the expression 6 jjLEv — 6 ^£ — or oc ixEv — 6c Sf — derived from fxlv — §£ — . The same particles afford similar distinctions for adverbs ; and not only demonstrative and relative, but also indefinite forms are thus employed : ttote jjlev — ttotc ^£ — {sometimes — sometimes — ; or at one time — at another time); it is the same with tote and 6te — (see § 116. Obs. 9.) and r?? juev — ry Be — or ttyj juev—ttyi ^e — {in this way — in that ivay), tvOa juev — EvOa §£, and others. In such distinctions it sometimes happens that, for instance, 6 JUEV, 6 S' ov are without a verb in reference to a pre- ceding proposition, when fxlv appears to have an affirma- tive signif. nearly like the English much, indeed, Ylavrag (})LXr}TEov, aW ov tov julev tov 8' ou, we ought to love all, not one much, and the other not at all ; liagriaav ovx o jU£v, 6 S' ou, aWa TrdvTEg, there were present, not one INDEED, and the other not, but all. ovTE and iutite. SYNTAX. 427 ov^e and jujjSs. Both forms serve to connect negative proposi- tionsj and correspond to the Latin ' neque,' neither — nor ; with this difference, that ovn, fxi]Ts, affect parts of proposi- tions, or represent the negation as belonging to that with which they connect, it, whilst oh^l, /aridE, rather serve to connect whole propositions, partly as a strong contrast, and partly as a transition. Oute and /x/jts are more copulative, like kol when it is not employed in a negative proposition; ov^l and ^rjSs more disjunctive, like SI. Whenever ovre or ii{]Te is repeated, the negations generally refer one to the other, as in Latin ' neque — neque' — neither — nor; but when oh'^l or /iijSf is repeated, it only gives successive negations of the same kind as oh^l alone. Besides being connecting particles, ov^l and ^rjSe also correspond to the particular signif of koi, just as this signifies affirmatively 1.) also, 2.) even, so do these signify negatively 1.) neither, 2.) not even, and always have the latter signif. when they are in the middle of a proposition. Originally ov^l and fxri^l signified ^ not however,^ and must still often be understood thus in Epic poetry ; they then are frequently written separate % oh ^l, firi di. In common language the coalition of §£ with the negative particle was avoided, either by placing these words dif- ferently, or by employing aXXa or arap. aXXa has the intensive signif of ^l, and is at the same time the English adversative but. It is, however, applied in various ways in a lively style, which are only learned by study. It is especially used abruptly at the beginning of a speech, or even of a whole work, when it often is in translatable, and may but seldom be rendered yes^ truly, indeed, or the like. —aXXa yag, see the Notes to Soph. Philoct. 81, 874. yap, for, always comes after other words, like the Lat. enim. It has a very varied elliptical use, especially in conversa- tion, when it must be mentally prefaced by / believe it — no wonder, or the like ideas, which a careful attention to 3 Even in Ionic prose, Herod. 5, 35. IloXXac £1%^ tXiriSag ixiTr], (see § 29. Ohs. 8.) with p.oets lipa, strengthened by TOL. ^rj, properly at present, now (for which yjSrj is used) ; hence it serves in various ways to enliven a speech ; ays ^rj, come on then ; tl dri, what then ? — It also means forsooth, truly, and After the pronoun relatives, ogtlq ^t), ottov ^t) ^ who- soever it may be, wherever it may be, &c. ; or any one, I know not where, fxriv, (Doric fxav. Epic jmlv and /uav, is 1.) an affirmation, truly, indeed, 2.) but indeed, yet. Plat. Soph. 1. Kai julol doKu Oebg fiev ov^ajuiog uvai, Odog fxr]v. yl fXYiv, (Epic yl fxlv,) true, certainly ; hence it is also a more powerful §£, see Exc. 1. ad Aral. Kal /.177V, Lat. immo, yes, by all means I and opposed to a contradiction, it is the Latin atqui, and yet. After interrogatives following an interlocutor's nega- tion TTore fxriv ; when then ? Tig juriv ; who then ? (i. e. when, who else then ?) whence tl /ariv is as much as why not F rj fxriv, (Ionic and Epic ^ jllIv,) is the common formula of asseverations and protestations, sometimes with the indie, ri fjiriv tyu) 'iiraOov tovto, {I swear that I have suf- fered this,) sometimes with the infin. dependent on other verbs, as ojulvvjuil ri fxriv ^wg^lv {I faithfully promise to give) ; and also in the 3 pers. 'YTradi^aTo f/ juriv juiri cnrops'iv ^ Attic poets, however, interchange the quantity, and use apa for therefore, and apa as an interrogative particle ; but its place in the proposition is the same. '^ This particle is derived from fjLtjv (Epic fiev) and rot, compare § 150, 1. ^ They are generally written separately, but whenever they receive the addition of the strengthening ttote, (see § 80. 06s. 1. and § 116, 6.) they are most usually written as a single word. SYNTAX. 433 avToijQ rpo<^i]Cj ^^ took it on himself, faithfully promised that they should not want food. ov juriv, 1.) yet not, 2.) a negative protestation, answer- ing to the affirmative rj ju^v : in a dependent proposition Orjv, (encliticj, peculiar to the Ion. and Dor. poetsj is also an affirmation, conveying pretty nearly the idea of / should think so ; hence it is used especially in an ironical and sarcastical sense ; ^ Orjv, ov Oi]v, even so, not so I should think, vv, vvv, short and enclitic, used only in the Ionic dialect and in poetry, 1.) properly the same with vvv, for which it is some- times used; 2.) for ovv, therefore, now ; 3.) like the English too, QvriTog di vv kol (tv rirv^m, thou too art born mortal, II. IT. 622. ttIq, (enclitic, and probably derived from irigi in the sense of very, § 147. Obs. 9.) gm/e;— hence wairE^ properly means entirely as — Kaiir^Q, though ever so much, i. e. although, in which sense we also have ttIq, alone. 7ro7£j (enchticj) at any time ; used interrogatively, it expresses surprise ; Tig irore kcmv ovrog ; who can this be, who may this be ? TTov, (enclitic,) 1.) somewhere, anywhere; 2.) by chance, perhaps; 3.) in conversing on putting indirect questions to found an argument on the affirmative answer of the interlocutor. See Ind. in Plat. Menon. in v. A777rou is the same as ttov, but more emphatical, and if a little irony is used so as to hint that the opposite is impossible, it is Si^irovdev. Demosth. Mid. 26. 'Earavat yap l^itjTai ^yittovObv avTU),for T should think that he will be alloived to stand there. § 150. — Of some particular Locutions. ov jurjv aAAa, or ov fxivToi aXXa, (compare § 149, 2.) is properly yet no, but no ! rather — : but it commonly means merely yet^ however ; sometimes also rather. ov\ oTL and ohx ottojq. These two phrases are gene- rally considered as identical, while they rather are anti- thetical : the verb Xiyoj, or some such verb, must be supphed in both. When the phrase with on follows, the Ff 43i A GREEK GRAMMAR. proposition is affirmative; Xen. Memor, 2, 9, 8, Kat ovx OTL juovoc 6 KpiTtjv Iv yiav^ia ^v, aWa koI ol (piXoi avrov, (where juovog belongs only to Kpirwv). Theophr. Ov^ on avi(f)V av, aXXa kol Evav^earepag kol KaWiovQ eiroir^aE^ it would not only have blown, but also, &c. Dio. Cass. 42. p. 285. AavEiZojuEVOQ ovx ^''' "^^P^ '^^'^^ IdicjrCjv, aXXa /cat irapa tCov TToAfwvj not only by private persons, but also by cities. When this phrase is to introduce a negation, the negative must lie already in the proposition itself^ and may then be heightened by aXX' ov^e, Demosth. c, Timocr. 702. Ov\ OTL Tiov ovrujv a7r£(Tr£p?7jLtrjv av, aXX ovd^ av £?rjy. Thuc. 2, 97. TavTTf 8£j, {Scytharum potentia,) a^vvara l^KjovaBai ovx OTL TO, ev Tyj ^vpMTrij, aXX' ouS' kv Ty ^Aala Wvog ev irpog av ov/c eaTiv, k. t. X. Whenever the negative is to be ex- pressed, ovx oTTcjQ is more usually employed, in which case oTTMQ, how, as, means that not, Demosth. c. Polycl. 1225. 'H ^f yri ovx OTTwg tlvcl Kapirbv 7]VEyKEv, aXXa fcai to v^wp — £K tu)v (l)pEaT(i)v ItteXlttev, not only the earth bore no fruit, &c. Xenoph. Hellen. 5, 4, 34. 'E^i^aaKov tov ^v.fxov, wq ol AaKE^aiiuovioi ovxottwq TijULOjprjaaivTO, aXXa Ka\ liraivEdaiEv tov ^(podpiav, that the Spartans not only would punish, &c. 2, 4, 14. Ovx oiT(x)Q adLKOvvTsg, aXX' ouS' lirLd-njuovvTEg, l^vya^EvofiEda, having not only done them no harm, but not having even entered their country, we were banished. OvKOvv, (i. e. ovK ovv, see above,) oirwg iiivi)(j9r}vaL av Tig ItoXji^ge — (pXavpov Ti, aXX' log ev b^daXfxoXg — (dacriXlwg — ffcacrroc ^ieksito ^. ovx o(7ov and ovx ^^^^ ^^^> ^^^ ^^^^ frequently, used in the same sense, the former for ovx otl : Thuc, at least, has it with an additional second ov, 4, 62. for the nega- tive, 01 /lev ovx oyw. Xenoph. Hell. 2, 3, 35. Ovdl ttXuv, firj on avaiguaQai rovg avSpag dwarov rjy : — Lucian has ov\ oiriog in the same sense, Vial. Mort. 27, 5. OuS' ecrravai x^f^^'- ^^X ottwc (5aSi^Eiv l^vvaro. ovx on sometimes serves to introduce a seeming ob- jection, which is immediately after refuted, (commonly with aXXa,) not that — but ; when there is no refutation, ov\ on also signifies although : Heind. ad Plat. Lys. 37. Protag. 66. on firj after negations means concept. TO §£, an elliptical expression, not easily supplied, which introduces a proposition opposed to w^hat has been stated before, nearly Uke the English as, however, but as yet^ Heind. ad Plat. Theaet. 37. Buttm. ad Me- non. 37. TO fJLri, more commonly to ju?) ov, with the infin. as much as wgte fxri, so that not, that not, Lat. ' quo minus, quin.' See Escc. 11. ad Demosth. Mid. 142. Compare also Tov iLi-n, § 148. Obs. 9. t\ frequently becomes a limiting or also generalising particle, ' in some degree,' — ' in anything f hence ovti, iiy]Ti, not at all ; but these particles may be separated, ovTi^ tl tpya, //. a. 115. See about the tmesis with t)., {vtto ti,) § 147. Obs. 10. ILii]Ti ye, much less^ Lat. nedum, probably derived from ju?) oti. ov TTfpi, ex, gr. Ov TrepX tov TLfHi)pi](jaGdai, aXXa jcai — , to say no- thing of revenge, (i. e. revenge is out of the question,) but we will even — (Thuc. 4, 63). Ff 2 436 A GREEK GRAMMAR. vdov ov or ocTovov, (Lat. Hantumnonj') nearly, almost ; Tov fxi\- Aoyra kol oaovov Trapovra iroXejuiov, the war which is imminent and almost at hand, i. e. only Just so much is wanting, that we are not actually at war. o(Tov and olog with the infin. for wars, see § 143, 1, 3. ocTog, T}, ov, in Qavfiaarov oaov, and the hke, is the Lat. ' mirum quantum,^ ivonderfully much, i. e. a very great deal. It is used in the same way before or after superl. of words ex- pressive of a quantity ; TrXuara oaa, oaa TrXeiara, Lat. ^quamplurima,' a great many. See § 151, 1, 5. o(ym -q/uiipaL, daily, (Plato Charm. 51. eictr.) and also oaog with any limitations of tim.e. The former is also written close together, and contracted oarjfjLepai. avO' u)v, (according to the rule of § 143, 5,) is used for avA Ikei- vwv a — ex. gr. AajSe tovto avO' wv t^ioKag fxoL, take this for that, which you have given to inc. But it is also used for avrl rovTOv on, for this, that, ILapiv aoX oTSa, av6^ ojv ^\6eg, I thank you for this, that you are come. £0' (J, is properly for ettX tovtco, o — , but commonly for etti tovtm (jjg — ; and as eirl with the dat, conveys the idea of a con- dition, l(f w means on condition that ; Ai^u) croX £^' (5 aiyji- aeig, 1 will tell it to you on condition that you he silent. l(f cjr£ is the same, (for lirX tovtm, wore,) but is more usually construed with the infin. : ex. gr. 'Yiipidr]Gav i(f wra avyypaipai vojuovg, they ivere chosen on condition that they should make laws. £ffT£, (not eg r£, for it is used instead of ig ote. Dor. toTE,) until, as long as — , § 139, c. olog, see above oGog. otog r£ (olo(Tr£,) means, in speaking of persons, able, — of things, possible ; Olog ri Igtl ttclvt airodd^ai, he is able to do any thing ; aXX ovx olovre tovto, but that is not possible. Com- pare § 143, 1, 2. oiov eiKog, as may be imagined, as may be supposed. ovdlv olov properly there is nothing like, (French, ^ il n'y a rien de let,') whence for instance, OvEev olov aKovaai tojv Xojmv avTov, i. e. the best thing we can do is to hear him, there is nothing like hearing him. aXXo is used negatively or interrogatively to strengthen an affij'- mative proposition, in Avhich case there generally is a verb omitted, Cyrop. 1, 4, 24. 'EfcfTyoe ov^lv aWo i) Tovg TreTrroj- SYNTAX. 437 KOTag TTepieXai)v(i)v Wearo. Memor. Socr. 2, S, 17. Tt yap aXXo i) KivSvvtvcreLQ kiridH^ai, av jutv ^(pj^crroc — ^Ivai, k. t. A. When aXXo is spelled with an apostrophus in this connexion^ it commonly loses its accent: Plato Apol. p. 20. At' ovdlv aW i) dta Gocpiav tlvu. tovto to ovofia £(T^rj/ca, Phcedr. 231. *'i2oT£ ov^lv VTroXdirsTat a\X rj iroitlv iTQod\)}iwQ o, tl av, k.t.X. Menon. 9. "On ov^lv a\X rj eiriTaTreig, because you do nothing but command, ^schin. c. Tim. "Qare juri^ev aXX rj rag ala-)(i)vag avrw TTEpislvai. This accentuation gives to aXX' the appearance of the abbreviated aXXa : hence it frequently is accented aW in such instances. To these phrases belongs also the interrogative ex- pression aXXo tl: Plato Gorg. 81. El juev yap rvyxavEi ravTa aXrjOri ovra, a \iyug, aXXo tl i) -^fiCjv 6 (5iog avaTE- Tpaiifiivog av ui] ; if this were true, would not our life be destroyed ? The particle i) is also frequently omitted in this interrogative : Plato Rep. 369, "AXXo ti yewpyoc fJLev ac? 6 §£ otKo^o/ioc ; is not one a husbandman, a?id the other a builder ? These connexions gave rise to aXX' r\ being used for the Latin ' nisi^ unless, but except, Aristoph. Ran. 1105. Oufc i]TrLaTavT aXX rj fiaZ,av KaXiaai kol pvTnraiTaX HTTuv. But in most cases there is an abbreviation of the thought before this aXX rj^ which it is impossible to supply by words; Isaeus de Aristarch. Hered. 261. 'O vofiog ovK la tCjv Trig fTTiJcX/^jOou KvpLOV slvai, aXX'rj Tovg Tral^ag — KpaTuv twv \pY]fiaT(i)v. Plato Ph(jedr. 89. Tivog pXv ovv EVBKa Kuv Tig, ojg htthv, ^Mt], aXX rj tCov toiovtwv r}^ov(l)v EveKa ; See also Aristoph. Acha?^. 11 12 ^\ TaXXa for TO. aXXa, in other respects, otherwise, ex. gr. "Earfv aTTaig, TaXXa ev^aipovd, he is childless, in other respects he is happy. Hence Ta de aXXa — and in the next proposition Ka\, as in general— so in particular, Ta re aXXa ei/^at/xova, /cat Traldag e\ei icaTriKoovg avTw, (compare tca\ and tI in the preceding Section,) whence the elliptical phrase to. te aXXa ^0 This evidently shows the affinity between all the above-mentioned phrases. The accent, according to general custom, should therefore remain unchanged on dW. But the expression dW r) for nisi is too abrupt, particularly as there are pas- sages, in which the word aXXoe is already used once in what went before, so that the ellipsis before dW rj is not clear; Plato Aiyol. p. 34, T'lva dWov \6yov ixovai jSorj- OovvTSQ EjLtot, dW ri 6p96v re koI diKawv; even the ancient grammarians seem to have derived this dW rj fx'om dWd. As it here loses the accent, the latter is commonly also omitted in the other above-mentioned phrases, which are connected with it. 438 A GREEK GRAMMAR. KaX — properly among others, but it may always be rendered by in particular. aXXiog TE KOL, also in particular, especially ; and has the same origin as the preceding. aiK^oTEQov, used by poets adverbially, (or elliptic ally,) and means both, as well — as, as — as ; ydxraro 3' alvwg ^Ajm^oTEpov vikyiq T£ KaX ty\EOQ, o ^vviaE,Ev. In prose it is the same when the accus. ajuL(l)6Tepa unites two preceding modifications, ex- pressed in a different case, Am^tpovrec v Goc^iia rj kuXXel rj aij.(p6T£pa, (Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 3.) and also in another corresponding instance, QarEQa, Plato de LL. 6. p. 765. ^ "Ecrro) tteWlov yvijcnov Trarrjo juaXidra ulv vUmv /cat Ovyaripivv, ■ £1 §£ fxi), Oarepa, if not yet one of the two. ravTo Tovro, TovvavTiov, to Xeyofievov, and similar intercalations, see § 131. 0^5.6. ovTOQ,avTr}, as exclamation, see § 76. Obs, 3. Ka\ Tavra, and that too ; Tr\\LKavTr\v TrapOivov kv KE(l)aXy WpEipag, KoX ravra evoTrXop, Such a virgin (Pallas) have you had in your head, and that too armed I TovTo p.\v, rovTo dl, is often used adverbially. See § 128. Obs. 4. avT(f, avTyj, omitting ahv, see § 134. Obs. 7. avTo SeiE^el, avTo (rnfiavEl, the thing will show it, the deed will prove it* TTpo Tovy better Trporov, formerly, ere this, [irph tovtov or ekeivov rov xpovov,) see ad Flat, Alcib. I, 14. Tov XoLTTov, [sc. xp^^^^s) hereafter, (compare § 132, 6, 4.) — to XotTTov or merely Xolttov, henceforth. TToXXov dEl, impersonal, ^ far from/ (French, it s'enfaut de beau- coup ;) personal, iroXXov ^Ed), I am far from, ex. gr. XkyEiv Touro (see the Note to § 151^ 1, 7). ttoXXou ^eIv, see § 141. Obs. 5. The contrary is fxiKpov or oXiyov BeT, ^eu), StTv, nearly, very near, Lat. ^ non multum abest quin/ wanting but little, almost ; bXiyov ^ico eItteIv, I had almost said, was very near saying. Frequently oXiyov or juiKpov alone is used in this sense. TTEpl TToXXov ECTTL fioi, OY TTEpl TToXXov 7roiovf.iai OX rjyovfiai, I make much of, value highly, it is of importance to me, I ivish very much ; irEpi irXEiovog, iTEpl ttXeigtov is the same, and TTEpl luiKpov, &c. the contrary. fxaXXov Se, when alone, is always to be rendered ' or rather.' SYNTAX. 439 fxaXiG-a fxlv, (in reference to h §£ /.iri coming afterj it ivould be bestjif possible, properly indeed; KaTayiyvu)(7ic£Te avrov fxd- Xi]y awiibv, I had gone aivay before. Hence it is also used to express celerity ; Herod. 3, 78. ^OavsL 2.) In a negative sense also with the part., and con- nected with another proposition by jcai, it means hardly, no sooner — than — Ovk e^^rj^uEy IXOovt^q koL vocrotg kX{](p- i)i]p.^v, (Isocr.) we were no sooner arrived than we were attacked by diseases ; Ou/c tcpOriaav vf-iag Kara^ovkojaajue- voi KOI TrpwTOV avTov (pvyrjv Kariyvu^aav, (Isocr.) they no sooner had subjugated you than he ivas the first ivhom they condemned to exile. Compare above ap.a. 3.) In the negative sense with the part., (or the part. being mentally supplied from the context,) but without any necessary further connexion, it means to be ready, not to fail, which imparts to the verb in the part, an idea of unavoidableness and rapidity. (pOavetv in this sense occurs only in the opt. with av ^^, and that a.) in- stead of the imper. ovk av ^Qavoig Xiytov, do not tarry, hesitate telling to us, i. e. tell to us immediately, b.) as a sure foretelling, promise, &c. Ovk av (pOavoiini, (the answer to a request,) I will not fail, am ready; Ovic av (pQavoL a7roOv{](JK(i)Vi he tvill not escape death, will not fail being killed, is sure to be killed : El ovv fjii) Tifiwp{]ar£(jO£ TOVTOvg, OVK av (pOavoi to ttXyiOoq tovtoiq roXg Oripioig SovXevov, if you do not punish than, the multitude will infallibly become the slaves of these brutes. — It is as ob- vious as it is striking that this negative sense is the same with the f^Yst positive or affirmative one. To explain this contradiction, we must assume that ovk av rpOdvoig is properly an interrogative formula instead of a direct imper. {will you not immediately — .^) and that it gradually lost its interrogative power in familiar intercourse. Hence the ov comes after in poetry ; Eurip. Heracl. 721. c^Qdvoifj S' av ov, — And as soon as ovk av (l)Odvoig passed for a direct imper. it was very natural for the people to begin to say in the same sense, ovk av (l>ddvoifxi, and oujc av 12 The only instance which Stephanus adduces without an opt. is the second above suh 2. garbled. 4J4 A GREEK GRAMMAR. (p9dvoi. Thus the meaning was unquestionably altered in practice ; but all non-interrogative sentences beginning with ovKovv are in the same predicament : for just as ovKovv air^ifii is the same with cnrHjxL ovv, so is ov/c av (pOdvoijui itolCjv identical with ^ddvoiii av Trotwv. ilvai. This infin. seems to be used redundantly by Attic wTiters in some expressions, especially in Ikwv uvai, (which probably w^as a complete phrase originally, so that I am free to act,) i.e. ivillingly^ ofone^s own accord, &c. ; Ouk av tKwv elvat ip£vdoLiLLr}Vj I ivill not intentionally tell an untruth. The uvat in to vvv uvai, for the present, is different : TO r{]fiepov elvat ^pridoimeO' avrw, to-day at least we ivill make use of him. (See about all the formulce belonging hither, Reiz ad Viger. n. 178. ed. Herm.) 'ix^iv, with an adverb, means to be circumstanced, but may gene- rally be rendered to be ; KaXCog 'ix^h it is good, it isivell; tog alx^, as he ivas {ex. gr. undressed). It is often used with a definite gen. ; wg a^^ }iop(^rig, [in shape or size,) a^g raxovg HXovTo, they followed as quickly as they could, see § 132, 6, 1. It is the same before j!;re^. 'AjU^i rqv KCLfxivov 'ix^L ra TToXXa, he is mostly to be found near the stove ; ot otju^j yr\v £;)(ovr£c, husbandmen; Hvdojievoi rov Trepi to lqov s^^^ovra vo/uLov, the laio concerning the temple, Herod. 2, 113. — Poets sometimes employ this verb in the same ^vay before adj. and pronouns ; t^j^ei TavTov, it is all one, all the same, Eur. Or. 308. Ix ^«^^Xo?5 ^^^- '550. Sometimes ex^iv makes an emphatical circumlocution with the part, of the prcBterite; liaKai Oavfidaag a'xw, (for OavjuLaZto,) I have long been ivondering at, Soph. El. 590. Tovg iralSag h(3aXova ex^ig, you have rejected your children; Plato ^/c. II. 5. ^d£fXr/0or£c ^'x^i^o'i- SeeValck. ad Phoen. 712. Herm. ad Viger. n. 183. s'xwv is added to some verbs like Xrjoav, ^Xvaouv, iraiZ^iv, in the 2 pers. to make a good-humoured observation ; as, you are joking! [iraiZ^Lgix'^'^i) you trifle ! (Ar^pac e'xwv.) The origin of this expression may be traced to the interrogative, TL £xtt>v diaTpiPsLg; ivhat makes you loiter? Compare Ruhnk. ad Tim. 257. Brunck ad Ar^istoph. Thesm. 473. Herm. ad Viger. n. 228. Ti iraOwv and tl fiaOujv, are both angry interpellations instead of the weaker tl alone : why ? why then ? The former SYNTAX. 445 may be accounted for from Arlstoph., where we have OvTOQ, ri wdhx^iQ ; you yonder ivhat befalls you, ivhat is the matter with you ? iVgain, Ti iraOwv iX^vOipovg tvtttuq ; what business have you to strike free-men ? The expres- sion seems to have been originally directed to check ebul- litions of passion, bordering on madness. The second ex- pression, which is analogous to it, is more ironical : tl fiaOdtv; — lohat have you learned? what has got into your head? where have you learned that? (See Wolf ad De- mosth. Lept. 348.) And just as the positive s'x^^ comes from the interrogative ri ix^'^^ ^^ ^^ juaOwv also used in positive sentences, but only with on, Plato Apol. 26. Tt dE,i6g elfjLi airorXaai, on fiaOojv kv rw j3i(^ ovx r], 19. "A^tot ye julevtoi Itr/zev tov yeyevrjiuivov irpayfiaroQ TovTovy {of a mishap occasioned by imprudence,) airoXavGai tl ayaObv, to fiaOeiv, k, t. X. not we deserve, but a^iov kariv, it is proper^. Adj. Hke ^riXog, (j)av£pog, have in that case the follow- ing verb in the part., Demosth. Mid. 9. "Earn §£ keTvo, ovk adrjXoQ epcjv, for ovk adr}\6v lartv, avTov Ipeiv Iviuvo, it is evident that he will say what follows, or also with otl. See Sturz's Lex. Xenoph. in Sr)Aoc, P' 660. b. extr. In order to form but one proposition in all these instances, the subject of the prin- cipal proposition attracts the common adj. 8. There is lastly an attraction, when a relation belonging to the noun, being attracted by the verb, becomes the relation of that verb : thus the relation answering the question where ? being drawn on by the verb, is made to answer the question whence ? 'O iKeiOev TroXefiog, ^svpo tj^el, the war there will come hither. Thuc. h, 35. the Lacedcemonians demand that the Athe- nians withdraw their partisans from Pylos, loaTreo kol uvtoX rovg airo Qpq.Kr}g, as they will ivithdraw their troops from Thracia. Theophr. Char. 2, 4. "Apag n rwv airo Tr\g TpawiZrig. The same is done with the relation whither, Herod. 7, 33. 'Eg tov Ilpwrc- (TiXeu) to Ipov, TO kg 'EXaiovvTa, (for to Iv 'EXmovvTi,) ayive- ofjiivag. See Heind. ad Plat. Gorg. 61. et ad Phasd. 2. et 57^ where there are other instances of such constructions (with virlp, TTspi), II. Anacoluthon. 1. An anacoluthon [avaKoXovBov) is a construction, of which the close does not grammatically correspond to its beginning, though it has yet been intentionally used. But we must be careful not to be over-ready to apply this explanation to any passage, of which the construction is rather uncommon, or which has been corrupted by the transcribers. Any anacoluthon is suspicious, when its origin is not natural, and the proposition has not gained any thing in point of elegance, distinctness, emphasis, or conciseness. 2. The usual kind of anacoluthon is that of a writer com- mencing a period in the way, which the process of his speech requires, but afterwards, and especially after some interpola- ^ Exactly in the same way, IJoXXov Sti t[X£ irouXv, {much is wanting that I do it, I am very far from doing it,) was the origin of the more customary IloXXoi) dkia TTOltlV. 450 A GREEK GRAMMAR. tions, which make the hearer forget the beginning of the con- struction, passing over to a new construction ; (Plato ApoL p. 19.) TovTwv EKaL(n ^vveTvai. Here the tovtwv in the beginning refers to some sophists named before, and both the process of the speech and its emphasis required the new period to commence with, Any one of them is capable of persuading young people, &c. The following proposition must then have had the infin. irdOeiv to correspond to oToo-r' lariv. But further on, the mention of the young people being inter- polated with circumstances rendered necessary to establish a contrast, (the young people who are at liberty to have a gra- tuitous intercourse with any of their fellow- citizens whom they like,) the writer forsakes his first construction, of which the grammatical junction is now obscured, and finds it more na- tural to refer with a second rovTovg to the viovg, and to com- mence a new construction, rovrovg irdOovcji — i. e. those sophists persuade the young people, &c. 3. We will take another example from Plato Phcedr, 17. — {p. 307. Heind.) Toiavra yap 6 epiog eTnddKvvTaL' ^vdTvxovvraQ filv a firj \v7rr]v toiq aXXoig irapi^u, aviapa iroiu vofxiZ^uv* ev- TV)(^ovvTag ^£ Kal to. p,rj r}dovrig aE,ta Trap* Ikelvojv liraivov avajKa- ^et TvyxavBtv : such are the effects of love, it makes the unfortu- nate consider as sad that which gives no displeasure to others— the writer now wishing emphatically to establish the contrast {it forcibly causes even indifferent things to be praised). But the logical order in that case required the second proposition to begin with I{ap EVTv^ovvrMv Se — this, however, would have destroyed the symmetry, Awo-ruxoi^vrcic jwtv — irap' evTvxovvrcov Si — the writer, unwilling to sacrifice either symmetry or em- phasis to logical order, retains the accus. evrvxovvTag, which the analogy of the first proposition demanded, as an accus. absolute, and refers by means of Trap' EKeivwv to the same ob- ject to be enabled to close energetically with Eiraivov avayKoZu ru7x«^£'^' It is only to us, who are not accustomed to such transitions from one construction to another, that such a double reference seems obscure. 4. The motive of the following short anacoluthon is still more obvious (Plato Alcib. I. p. 134) ; '^i2t yap av t^ovaia p.iv rj iroidv 6 jSovXfrat, vovv ^l pi) ^XV^ ^^ dKog avpfdaiveiv ; Here two SYNTAX. 451 propositions are dependent on one relative, which each requires to be in a different casus; to put it twice (w fxlv — og ^l — ) would have impaired the symmetry and distinctness of the speech. The anacoluthon renders the period far more compact, the second proposition being appended as if the relative had gone before in the nomin., which is immediately made evident by the nature of the second proposition {vovv ^l firi txy)' The case is the same in Phmdo, p. 82. 'EjcaTvot oIq tl jLiiXei rrig tavrtjv ■ipvxng, aXXa jurj awpLara irXaTTOVTEg Zioai, When the second proposition presupposes the relative in an oblique case, Horn. 'Oil £7rt TToXX Ijuoyricra, ^ocrav Si juoi vhg 'A^j^atojv, Plato Protag, 313. ligijjTa'yoQaQ ov ovt^ jiyvtocrKSiQ ovre Si£iXeE,aL ovdsTriLTrors, the object {avTov, ai/rw, &c. Hom. e, fxiv,) may be considered as omitted : it really occurs, for instance, in the following propo- sitions, //. a. 79. og fiaya iravrijjv ^A^yuwy Kparhiy KaX ol ttel- Oovrat 'A;(afO(, Plato Men. 27. Ylapa rovrtoV} ol /XT^rf TTpocnroLovv- rai ^i^cLGKoXoL sivai jutjt e(jTiv avrCw fiad^rrig ovdu.g, though this does not improve the anacoluthia. See other examples in Thuc. 2, 74. Od, a. 70. j3. 54, 113, and comp. Herm. ad Viger. 28, § ^07. 5. For another very common anacoluthon with the part., see § 144. Obs. 1 ; and for the nom. absolute see § 145. Obs. 1. 6. The instance when a singular is immediately added to a plural to define the latter more precisely, can hardly be con- sidered as an anacoluthia ; 01 §£ oh^ug avTM Trpoo-axov, which is more emphatical than Twy St ouSaic— Trpoo-axe^ of those, how- ever, no one attended to him. III. Inversion. 1. Inversions and involved constructions are on the whole far less common in Greek, even with poets, than in Latin. In some instances, however, the inversions even in prose are more strained. This arises from the anxiety, peculiar to Attic writers, to place together the words of one or two propositions which resemble, oppose, or refer to one another. Thus, for instance, they would say, XlavTbyv yag Traai Travr^g t^OLaroi elai Kap)(^r}- ^ovioi 'I^wjuaioig, for Travrag K. iravTcov t^OLcjToi elai iraai 'P. — Plato Phcedr. p. 277. c. IlofjctX^ fxlv iroiKiXovg ^^xf '^"^ iravapfiovLOvg ^i^ovg Xoyovg, airXovg Be cnrXy. To attain this they even sever the article from its 7ioun, AI(t)(vvel ttoXlv Ttjv avTog avTov — and pi^ep. from their casus, ev aXXora aXXy, for aXXoTE Iv (iXXy : Trap' ovk lOlXwv kOeXovayy Od. £. 155. G g 2 453 A GREEK GRAMMAR. 2. Inversions are also caused by the very natural endeavour to enounce first that part of a proposition, on which the stress is to be laid; Demosth. Olynth. III. p. 37. To filv irpCoTov — ayaTVTi]Tov y]V Tvaga rov ^rjjuiov tCjv aWii)v tjcaorr^ /cat Tifxi]Q koH aQ\riQ KOI ayaOov tivoq jU£raXa/3av, vvv ^e rovvavriov. Here the dat, kKacTTM is dependent on ayairriTov riv, [formerly each of the other citizens was highly pleased, when he obtained honours from the people, now it is quite the reverse,) but irapa rov druaov, which is dependent on ideTa\al5tiVi has the greatest stress^ and therefore comes before it. 3. Thus the emphasis sometimes removes the adverb, which should come after the relative, before it^ Nuv §>) a cXtyov, what I said before, Plato Euthyd. 288. which sometimes may cause ambiguity, Theocr. 10, 17. s'x"? TraXai wv lirSviiug, where TraXat does not belong to ix^ig, but to iTTidvfxug (compare Spalding ad Demosth. Mid, § 30). 4. In the following instance obscurity is avoided by the in- version, Demosth. OL III. towards the end, 'A^iw viiag — /x)) 7ra^a)(wpav rr\Q ra^uog, rjv vfxlv ol TrgoyQvoi ttiq clq^ttiq fxeTa TToXXwp KOL KttXwv Kiv^vvujv K:r)]crajU£vot KariXiTTov, here the gen. Trig aperrig is dependent on the other gen. ra^ewg, {ra^ig Trig apETTig, the order of virtue,) but both together would have created confusion. 5. But it frequently happens that we perfectly feel that a proposition has gained by being inverted, though we cannot elucidate it by any of the above observations. Take for ex- ample that beautiful passage of Plato Phmdr. 10. "Qo-TTfp yap OL TO, TTSLvCJvTa OpijULjiaTa OaWov tj Tiva Kapirov TrpocrdovTeg ayovcn, fTv Ifiol Xoyovg ovtu) irpordvcjv — (paivsL Tr£pia.E,Eiv, &c. where ol is the article of TrpoadovTeg, and ra irHvivvTa OpippaTa depend on ayovaiv^: Cyrop.6,4t,S."]AZeiv avTM dl ttoXu ^ApcKJirov avdpa Kot iriaTOTEpov koX apdvova, where ttoXu strengthens the compar., and the gen. ^ApaaTrov depends on them ; exactly as in Demosth. Mid.4Q. 01 Se TjTipijjpivoL diairoWif tovtmv da\v ^Xclttw irpaypaTa, instead of rjTipuyptvoL dai dia irpaypara ttoXXw iXarrio tovtiov* 6. In the forms of supplications, irpog Oeiov, yovaTwv, and the like, the emotion of the mind puts the personal pronoun ere first, without placing it before the prep., because this orthotoned 2 But I leave the reader to choose between this explanation, and that by ajiaco- luthia, viz. that the writer commenced with oi, to employ the part, dyovrtg, but after- wards preferred the nerh dyovaiv to avoid the clashing encounter of two participles (oi — TTpoatiovreg dyovreg, ha,t. ii — qtii porrigeiido ducunt). SYNTAX. 453 emphasis would announce a contrast^ which does not occur. It is therefore inserted between the prep, and its casus : w irpog ce yovarivv, Trpog as Oeiov, (viz. iKeTEvw, which mostly is omitted,) Soph. (Ed. C. 1333. Ylphg vvv o-e kq^vCjv, irpog O^wv ofjioyviwv IV. Ellipsis, 1. Ellipsis or omission opens a wide field in the Greek Syn- tax, We shall confine ourselves to a few general remarks. It is commonly used only in cases, where the words omitted are easily supplied from the nature of the proposition, or from the context, as in all phrases hke KoijLiaaOai ftaOvv {sc. vttvov,) -rrorepav TpaTrr\(jri (sc, o^ov,) IrvimTo TroXXag {sc. TrXriyagy) and the like. 2. Those instances of ellipsis, where more or less words of the first half of a period are to be repeated in the second, are easily supplied, though the Greek indulges in a greater lati- tude in this respect than other languages ; it frequently has only the pai^ticle or pronoim, which introduces the proposition. Thus we find aTrtp or eltt^p apa, {if by chance,) instead of if it he so J or the like; in Plato Euthyd, 296. the supposition that something might mislead, is answered by, Ovkovv rj/iiag ye, aXX, eiTrep, o-£, i. e. not us, but if any, you {if it could mislead any one, it luould mislead you). The relative is used in the same way in Plato de LL. 4. p. 710. Ylavra o-;^£S6v cnrdpyaaTai rw 0£w, airsp orav (dovXrjOrj ^ia(l)£p6vT(i)g £i) irpa^ai tlvu ttoXlv, all has been done by the god which {he is ivont to do,) ivhen he intends to render a state peculiarly happy. Again, Ei SrJ tijj docpwrepog (pairjv elvai, tovtio av, {sc. (l)airiv sivai,) if I could think myself iviser in any thing (rw,) it would be in this. 3. Thus negations are used with the omission of that, which is denied, which must be supplied from what has gone before. Mt) often comes in the middle of a period, (see § 148, 2, h.) so as to be before other words, and thus renders the proposition obscure to the unlearned, Tov IpCivra rz koi p.y] Kpivovpev, where KOi jui] stands for /cat tov jult] f/owvra : — Tig ovv Tpoirog tov KoXiiJg koX juri ypacpeiv; where KaXCog is omitted after ju/j : — ^AyaOoX rj jun) av^psg, good meuy or such as are not {good) : — Kat ottote, kgX firj, for KoX OTTOTE firj, Plato Alcib. I. 13. 4. Attic writers are very familiar with a striking ellipsis ; 3 See MatthiEe's Gr. G-r. § 465, 3. p. 671. -EnrjJ. transl. 4th edit. Person's Adv. 220. That crs must be left enclitic in this connexion, is evident of itself. But even correct editors ai'e very often in fault in this respect. 454 A GREEK GRAMMAR. ^ of two opposite conditional propositions the first is often left without a conclusion. But this is done only when the first pro- position is understood of itself from the nature of the thing, and the speech therefore hastens to the second^ on which alone everything depends : Plato Protag, 325. (after the pains, which fathers take for the education of a son, have been enumerated,) Kat lav iilv Efcwv ndOiqTai, d ^e fxri^ locnrsp E,v\ov ^La(JTpi(p6ixivov £v6vvov(nv oLTreiXaTc /cat TrXnyalg, and if he readily obeys — (here the conclusion is indifferent, it is good, nothing else is required, or the like,) but if not, they make him straight again, like a warped piece of wood, with threats and blows, 5. After a proposition beginning w^itb the artic, postpos. 6, a, the TovTo k(7TLv OY TavTCL IdTiv, which refers to it, is also commonly omitted ; Kat o juaXiaTa rjviaai jiie, on Kai MveidiZiv jule, and what vexed me the most, {was) that he abused me. Or even without oTi, see Demosth. Mid. 2. b. w^here ravra lanv is to be supplied after a 3' ev vfuv larXv vTroXonra, and then the proposition is re- sumed as in the beginning. The most usual phrases of this kind are with a superL, partly with, and partly without on, for instance, o dl 7ravTU)v SeivoraTov, on irpoQ rovg (5apj5apovg (rvji- juaxiav kiroirtdaTo, (where first tort, and then rovro lanv is omitted,) but what is the most grievous of all, is that he has formed an alliance with barbarians, Kol 6 TTavTWv y^XoioTarov, Kat tov Kvva Trjg ^Hptyovrig avriyayev, but what is the most laughable of all, he has even raised up the dog of Erigone, Lucian Deor, Cone, 5. The particle yap is usually interpolated after this ellipsis ; with us it is superfluous; '^O Se fxiyiarov, ov yap riOeXev, &c. (Com- pare above § 149. yap.) — Compare § 143, 1, 3. 6. The words tovto e) dSoXeaxilQ} prattler, 'A6r]va, Minerva, Aiveiag, JEneas, UKavOa, thorn, aixiWa, contest, dpovpa, ploughed field, a(7xo\ia, business, yaXrj, weasel, yf}, eaiih, y\(x)(T(ja, tongue, do'ia, opinion, tXi'^va, Tip)er, ^u)Vi], girdle, rinkga, day, daXaaaa, sea, Ovpa, (v,) door, KeKpoTTidrjQ, (X,) KS^aXr], head, KX'sTrrrjQ, thief, Kopt], girl, KpiTTiQ, judge, KTLtJTiijg, founder, Xavpa, lane, \virr], (v,) grief, jxaQr]TrjQ, disciple, H'eXiGaa, bee. [xspi{.iva, care, Midag, (X,) fiolpa, share, v'lKT], (T,) victory, vviKpr], bride, opyi), anger, 6pvi0o9f)pag,gen. a, fowler, Usparig, Persian, TrXevpd, side, 7rvicrr]g, pugilist, TTvXrj, {v,) gate, pi^a, root, CKid, shade, IiKvOr}g, (v,) Scythian, UTsyr], roof, arod, portico, G(paipa, globe, G(pvpa, hammer, aXoXrj, leisure, Gwr-qpia, preservation, rafxiag, steicard, TexviTujg, artist, vXr], (v,) wood, ^iXia, friendship, Xapd,joy, yXalva, upper garment, X^pc-} country, xpvxn,soul. SECOND DECLENSION. Feminines ha. og. 1. Besides the trees, (see § 32, 3.) the following jofa^^^ rj f3i[3Xog, or (3v(3Xog, and ri, 6, TraTTvpog, papyrus. ^ The lists of examples for declensions and conjugations are arranged in alpha- betical order, that the learner may exercise his own judgment, which of the rules stated in the G-rammar he is to apply to each word. 456 APPENDIX. 97 KoKKOQ, kermes, but 6 kokkoq, any berry, and especially the scarlet berry of the kermes, cxoTvoe, rush, vdpdog, spikenard, pd^avog, cabbage. To these words may be added, ^vaGOQ,fine linen, (3i(5XoQ, and dsXrog, book, doKog, rafter, pct^dog, rod, PdXavog and aKvXog, acorn. 2. The following stones and earths , 6, T^jXiOog, in the /em. chiefly a precious stone. apyiXog, clay, KpvaraXXog, crystal, but 6 KpvcTToXXog, ice, a(x), commonly l^era'^w, / put to the proof. ivQvvix), I make straight. eiixofiai, dep. med. I pray, augm. § 84. 06s. 5. rj^u), I delight. TjKbi, I come, am here. OdXXoj, I sprout or bud, — perf. 2. OdXTTCj, I warm. QavndZ,(t}, I admire, marvel, fut. med. BkXyb), I charm, beguile. Oepi^u), I reap. 9r}yo), I whet, sharpen. 6Xif3(t), I squeeze— pass. aor. 2. § 100. 06s. 6. Opavo), I break in pieces, crumble : pass. takes the tr. Ovcj, see the Anom. Idpvu), I place, set. lOvvio, I direct, make straight. LKETevb), I implore, ifxeipo}, act. and pass. dep. I desire, wish for. iTTTrtvu),! ride on horseback. ia-)(v(t), I am able. Kudaipoj, (no compound,) I clean : aor. 1. takes the a. — Med. Kaivb), I kill, aor. 2. ; perf. is wanting ; pass, only pi'es. and imperf. KaXvTTTb), I conceal, veil. — Med. fcaftTTrw, I bend, pass, perf § 98. 06s. 8. Ksipci), I shear, crop, pass. aor. 2. — Med. KtXtvcj, I order, bid ; pass, takes the a. k'sXXu), 1 come into poi-tjland, fut. KsXaco, § 101. 06s. 3. KYipvaaii), TTU), I proclaim, publish. Kivdvvevu), I incur danger. KXeiu), see the Anom. kXstttu), I steal, pilfer, fut. med. — pe^f. § 97. 06s. 1. § 98. 06s. 3.— pass. aor. 2. kX'lvu), I recline, lie down, § 101, 9. pass. aor. 1. and 2. — Med. rare. kXv^u), I rinse. APPENDIX. 463 Kvi^o), I excite an itching, scratch, burn. KoXd'Co), I chastise, fut. med. KoXovoj, I maim, pass, with and without the (T. KoniZ,u), 1 bring, Med. / receive, obtain. Kovib), T cover with dust, {kov'ktcj, kskovT- fiai.) KOTTTti), I cut off, hew. — perf. 1. (Epic perf. 2.) — pass, aor, 2. — Med. Kpaivit), I finish, fulfil. Kpivdj, I judge, try as a judge, § 101, 9. Med. Kpovb), I knock, push ; 2^ass. takes the a. Med. KpvTTTii), 1 hide, chai-act. /3. — pass. aor. 1. and 2. — Med. KTiZ^u), I found, establish. KvXiu), I roll ; pass, takes the cr. kijjXvoj, I hinder. Xey(o, I say, Med, See this verb, on account of some of its compounds, in the List of Anom. Xei(3o), I spill, shed. XeiTTii), I leave, aor. 2. — perf. 2. — Med. XkiTd), I peel, scale ; pass. aor. 2. accord- ing to § 100. 06s. 7. Xrjyoj, I leave off. Xoyi^ofiai, dep. med. I reckon, conclude. Xvixaivoj, I corrupt, aor. 1. takes r], Med. XvM, see Anom. fxaivofxai, see Anom. HaXdacroj, ttu), I soften. fxapaivoj, I tcither, aor. 2. takes a, pass. T am withered. lisjjKpoiJLai, dep. med. I blame, fi'svix), see Anom. fiep'iZcj, I distribute, Med. fir}vv(i), I point out. fxiaivu), I stain, pollute, aor. 1. takes r]. fxoXvvo), I defile. vsfxct), see Anom. vevbi, I nod. v)JxojU«i, Med. / sicim. vl, exasperate. oveiSi^oj, I reprove. bvo}xaC(x), I name. oTrXi^b), I arm, furnish with arms, Med. opkyo), I stretch forth, reach, redupl. Att. Med. bpi^b), I mark bounds or limits, Med. dpvcrau), rru), I dig, redupl. Att. Med. TTaidevu), I educate, Med. TtaXaiit), I icrestle, pass, takes the a. TrdXXoj, I brandish, pass. aor. 2. TTciaaoj, I sprinkle, fut. (tio, Med. Traraffaci), see the Anom. Travd), I put an end to, pass. aor. 1. § 100. Obs. 1.— Med. tthQu), see the Anom. TTsipoj, I pierce, pass. aor. 2. TTs/XTTw, I send, perf. § 97. Obs. 1. perf pass. § 98. Obs. 8. Med. 'TTSvofiai, I am poor, only the pres. and imperf Trepaivoj, I accomplish, aor. 1. § 101, 4. Med. TTiE^w, I press. Tricrravu), I believe. irXdaaiA), ttoj, I form, fashion, fut. cm, Med. ttXc'kw, / plait, twine, pass. aor. 2. — Med. ttXvvco, I wash, § 101, 9. Tcviyo}, I suffocate, trans, fat. med. — pass. I choke, intrans. aor. 2. § 100. Obs. 6. TTopsvu), I transport, conduct, pass. I travel by land. TTopiZo, I procure, Med. I acquire. Trpdaffb), TT(t), I do act, find myself, has everywhere the a long, § 7- Obs. 4. pejf. 1. / have done, perf. 2. TrsTrpa- ya, I have found myself, (see how- ever, § 113. Obs. 3. and Buttm. Compl. Gr. Gr.)— Med. Trp'sTTOJ, I am becoming, only act. Trpio), I sow, pass, takes the cr. TTTuio), I stumble, trip. — pass, takes the , I am at leisure. Tapd(T(j(o, TTO), see Anom. TdcTffio, TTOJ, I arrange, pass. aor. 1 and 2. Med. Teyyu), I bedew. Tiivbi, I stretch, § 101, 9. TEKfiaipu), I determine by certain limits, aor. I. takes rj. — Med. / demonstrate, prove. TtKTaivit),! workinwood, aor. 1. takes ri. rkXXu), an old verb, which occurs chiefly in compounds, ex. gr. gTrtrtXXw, I enjoin, § 101, 8. — Med. r£t;%w, see Anom. TrjKU), I melt, soften, pass. I am melted, has the aor. 2., to which belongs also'the perf. 2. TiWoj, I pluck, § 101, 4.-~Med. Tiu), see Anom, TLvdaaoj, I shake, Med. rpknw, I tremUe, has neither aor. nor perf. Tp'eTTio, I turn about, § 97. 06s. 1. § 98. 06s. 3. § 100. 06s. 3. ; the aor. 2. is most in use in the act. pass, and Med. rp'spu}, I feed, see Anom. — Med. Tpi(3(t), I rub, pass. aor. 2. § 1 00. 06s. 6. TpiZoj, I chirp, fut. ?w, perf rsTplya. v/SpiKoj, I insult, abuse. v(paiv(tj, I weave, aor. 1 takes j/. v(t),Irain, pass, takes the a. (paivu), see Anom. ractise. abXk(x),I play on the flute. (5l6u), see Anom. j3od(jj, I cry out, bawl, § 95, 5. fut. med. (3ovKoXs(o, I feed herds. (5povTd(t), I thunder. ysXdoj, I laugh, fut. med. — the a is short in the conjug. — pass, takes a. ytvvdix), I beget, Med. ^airavdi)), act. and pass. dep. I consume, spend. di^ioofxai, dep. med. I take by the rigid hand, receive kindly, dsu), see Anom. drjXsoj, I hurt, Med. dijXooj, I make knoicn. diairdb), (no compound,) I arbitrate, pass. I live or dwell in a certain place, augm. § 86. Obs. 4. SiaKOv'su), (no compound,) / serve, wait on, augm. § 83. 06s. 4. Med. with the same signif. df^d(o, I am thirsty, § 105. Obs. 5. SovXSo), I reduce to slavery, Med. dpdw, I do, jmfoinn, different from the Anom. didpdcTKOJ. dvGTvx^<^, I Clin unhappy. law, I let, leave, augm. ei. kyyvdb), I p)Udge, Med. I make myselj responsible for another. sy%£tjO£a), / deliver into any one's hands, augm. § 86. Obs. 3. kXekoi), I pity. ifiEOJ,! vomit, — e in the conjug. — redupl. Att. — pass, takes a. kvavTiooixai, dep. pass. I oppose, resist, — augm. before. sv9vfisofxai, dep. pass, I revolve in mind, — augm. § 3. IvoxXkd), I molest, augm. § 80. Obs. 4. £7rt0y/ila», I desire, augm. § 86. Obs. 3. epdo), see Anom. epevvdoj, act. and med. I search, investi- gate. Ipijixoio, I lay waste. H h 466 APPENDIX. epvOpidb), I blush. epcJTdd), I inter. earidu), 1 entertain as a guest, — augm. ei. tvtpyersoj, I practise beneficence, augm. § 86. 06s. 2. tvaej3s(j), I am pious, augm. § 86. Obs. 2. evbjx^io, I regale, pass. I am entertained, augm. § 86. Obs. 2. ^dio, see Anom. Z,koj, I boil up, intrans. retains s in the ^conjug. ??;X6a»j / emulate. t^rjixiooj, I ptmisJi. (^rfTku), I seek. Kioypa^ko), I paint. r'lPdu), I am young. r)ysofiai, dep. med. I think, believe. rifxspoio, I tame. ■tjTrdoixai, merely pass, I am worsted, de- feated, rix^i^, I sound. Oappso), 6apas(t), I have coiifidence in, take courage. Oedo/xai, dep. med. I contemplate. Orjpdoj, I hunt, fwt. med. 6Xd(o, I bruise, crush, the a is short in the con jug., pass, takes the a. 6pr}vsoj, I bewail, lament. Qviiidit), I fumigate. Ovixoci), I irritate. idofiai, dep. med. I heal. idpow, I perspire. ifjido), I draw, (as water,) / draw up, Med. i(TTops(jj, I learn by inquiry. KaKooj, I ill-treat, injure. Kavxdofxai, dep. med. I boast. Ksvrsoj, I sting, prick. Kivsu), I set in motion, excite. KXdu), I break, the a is short in the con- jug., pass, takes the a, not to be confounded with /cXdw, /cXatw, see Anom. Kkripou), I choose by lot, Med. / draw Kvdu), I gnaw, grate, § 105. Obs. 5. KOifiaM, I put to rest, pass. {Epic med.) I sleep. Koivow, I make common, communicate. Kotvojveo), I partake. KoWdoj, I glue, paste. KoXvfjL^db), I swim. Kops(jj, I sweep, different from Kopsv- vvfii, see Anom. KO(Tfikwva, voivels and conso- nants ; afpwva, {mutcje,) i]fXL^b)va^ {semi-vocales,) vypa\ [liquidce,) ^aaia, xptXa, fiiaa, [aspiratce, tenues, medics,) Iwia^iiov, an aacient letter, used only as a num,eral figure, see p. 9. Trpoo-wSiai, accents, but they commonly comprise also quan- tity, spiritus, apostrophus, and hypodiastole (§ 15^ 2) ; b^ua, jdapua, TTB^pLGTTwuivr), acute, grave, circumflea; ; TrvEv/uLara, spi- ritus, datjua KaX ^iXj), {sc, irpotjijjdia,) asper and lenis ; (jTiyjurj, TeXsia GTiyfxri, full stop, fiicrt} GTLyfirj, colon, vTroariy^i), comma ; XQovog, quantity, avWa^ri Stxpovoc, (^ anceps,') doubtful syl- lable ; yaafiw^ia ^, hiatus. Parts of speech : ovo}xa,noun, {ovofia TrgoanyoQiKov, substan- tive, — IttiOetikov, adjective, — Kvpiov, proper name,) avT(jjvviuLia, pronoun, apOpov, ai^ticle, {7rpoTa(j(T6f.avov, vTroraaaofievov, prcs- ^ They are also called dfHTd^oXa, because they undergo no change on being declined and conjugated. 2 To write this word %ao-/>tf/j^j'a is incorrect ; there is nothing of ^^w in it ; the word comes from %a(T/>iw^j;g,/MZZ of chasms. H h 2 468 APPENDIX. positivus, postpositivus,) fii^roxi], participle, pijima, verb, Inipprifjia, adverb, npoOecng, preposition, avv^Eajnog, conjunction, {Inter- jections are comprised among adverbs.) yivoQ apasviKov, Or}\vKov, oh^irepov, masculine, feminine, neuter gender, aQidfiog kvLKog, ^vIkoq, 7r\ri9vvTiKog, singular, dual, plural number ; KXhig, declension, TTTiodig, case ; opdri or evOeia, or also ovopaaTiKi], nominative, yeviicri, genitive, Sotikt), dative, aiTiariici], accusative, kXyjtiktj, vocative, irrcodeig irXayiai, casus obliqui. ovofia airoX^Xvpivov or clttoXvtov, also arrXovv and Ostikov, the positive, (TvyKpLTiKov, comparative, vttepOetikov, superlative. orvZvyia, conjugation, which in Greek means only the different classes of verbs, which are conjugated alike ; ex. gr. the verbs \, p, Vi p'. what we call to conjugate ' and conjugation, is in Greek the same as declining, kXlvelv, KXhig. — 9epa, thema, see § 92, 6. IT p6(Tb)iTa, persons. av^if\aig (Tv\\a(5iKrj kol xpoyiK:i75 augmentum syllab. et temp. avadnrXaaiacrpog, reduplication. ^taOEcrig, the nature of the verb, in consequence of which it is a pripa IvepyriTLKov, TraOrirLKov, piaov, activum, passivum, medium, avTOTraOeg, intransitivum, aXkoTraOlg, transitivum. lyKkiaeig, moods ; opiariicri, indicative, viroTaicTiKri, conjunctive, evKTLKrj, optative, TrpocrraKTiKrj, imperative, cnrapepfparog, infinitive. Xpovoi, tenses ; IvEartbg, present, Traptox^jusvocj prceterite, piX- Xmv, future, irapaKupEvog, perfect^ irapaTaTLKog, imperfect, virep- avvTeXiKog, plusquamperfectum, aopiarog, aorist. {uaparadig, duration, extension, awTiXeia, consummation, perfection, momen- taneous action.) avvOiGig, composition, TrapaOaGig, juxtaposition, irapaavvOEra, words derived from compounds. Flourishes and Abbreviations. For understanding the old editions of Greek works, it is necessary to be acquainted with a far greater number of abbre- viations than those stated p. 9, which are met with in the printed text of modern times. A complete list of all the flourishes which occur would only confuse the learner; the selection of the principal in the following Table appears better calculated to be retained by the memory along with the expla- nation, and to be consulted on occasion. It contains, 1.) some APPENDIX. 469 simple characters or figures, which frequently recur in the more complex ones ; 2.) such as will assist to explain others, which are not stated, by analogy. The first row or line contains the forms of letters, which no longer occur in common writing ; they are found in old manu- scripts only as elements of greater flourishes ; particularly the forms of £, which will be recognized in the abbreviations of kv and £7ri in the fourth row, and the form of the c, which will be found in the fifth row, in the abbreviations of era, (to, aoj. But both letters are also the elements of other flourishes or figures not mentioned in the Table. The learner must especially guard against mistaking the rather uncommon character of k in the first row, 1.) for rj as element of the flourish r/v, in the second row ; 2.) for the flourish TL at the end of the same row, particularly when the upper part of the figure is not sufficiently leaning backwards, which is the case in some printed books. The first of the three forms of v in the first row was formerly very much used ; the second is the same character with the con- necting stroke to the right. It is obvious that this letter in this form bears the same relation to the usual jul as N to M. The third form of v was used as a final r, and occurs in several very current editions, especially in those printed at Basle in Switzerland, for instance, in Eustathius ; it must be carefully compared with the flourish for aa in the fifth row, to guard against mistaking it for that character. The second row places together some flourishes, which are not easily guessed at ; they are selected from the alphabetically arranged third and sixth rows. This might also have been done with some of the flourishes beginning with l-n- in the fourth row, but it appears preferable to leave them together in order to facilitate their comparison. The third, fourth, fifth, and sixth row contain flourishes, of which the initial letter is easily guessed at with the assistance of the first row; they are in alphabetical order except the last £^, which has been added to complete the Table, 470 APPENDIX. I. ^ C V V V C ^•li ^^ « 4 C § ^ <^ S" •i' 5 <^ 2^ -=-ov 'yap yap u U £A nv ov TO) U Of Kttl Tl ITT. IV. Y. VI. 2<^ a9i ^ uvat MS^ jua> r rriv <^ a\ cV Iv j^S jUWV ^ Trig ^ a\\ 'O^ lirei^n oTov f Trig d\/J av %i eirev cSm, OUK S^ TO ^ ap u% Ittl ^ oCroc ^ TOV ud^' ahro ^ IttX to-^* Trapa TOV ■/rf 77 uJuV lirl ^ TTfp TOV >^' yap tUi' IttI s^ TTEpl Tovg ^ yap Aj EV rrp TTO ';$ ^p }% ye\ ^' Kara a po "S TpO ■^ yav x^ KScpaXaLOv (^ aa w TU) >^ yep M^ fjLarisyv o£ (7£ T-"^ TlOV 7^ ytveraL ^ p.S ^s ad at r TU>V V yo /a jjlIv 6 GO y VL :^ ypi fxlv - C4^ GIT VUJ VV 7Z? ypo mJ^ lUEV OJ GG x» u ^£V fxevog D rai ?e Xo Hs- Sia F^' jueTo. r Tolg i (O ^h Eia ^ fiETa ravSa ^ ^p ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. The Numex'als refer to the Pages. Abbreyiatioxs, 9, 468 Abbreviated nominal forms, 77? 79 Abstractum becoming concretum, 307 ; in the acciis. with the verb, 3-46 Abiindans, 75, 76 Accent on verbs, 180, sqq. ; in compounds with eig and dbg, 204, Obs. 13; compare 206, Obs. 19 ; on the Gen. and Dat. 51 ; drawn back, 27, 66, 181 ; transposed in the contraction, 44 ; in composition, 323, seqq. ; see also Anastrophe. Accusative in v, 65 ; of adverbs, 290, 348 (9) ; Sunt. Accusat. of the abs- tractum with the verb, {iidxrjv, /xa%.) 346, 360; with tv, kukCjq \iyiiv, TTOitiv, 346 ; G-reek accusat. 347, below ; of time, 348 ; as ap- position to the whole irroposition, 349 ; as the more distant object, 347, and Obs. 4 ; with the pass. 350, sqq. ; with the middle toice, 361, sqq. compare 365, 06s. 1 ; accus. with the injin. 394, 06s. 2 ; absolute, 406, 06s. 4. 407, 06s. 7 ; after o'ica, dicovuj, in lieu of the siibj. of the foUo"v^"iug verb, 448, 06s. 6 Adjective, 314, sqq. ; of one termina- tion, 86, 90 ; Synt. Adj. instead of subst. 326, below ; instead of ad- verb, ibid. ; without the art. before a subst. 329, Obs. 3 ; before a gen. 350 ; instead of the neuter, {6i- Kaioc,) 448, 06s. 7 ', verbal adj. in rkog and rbg, 159, 160 ; Synt. 360; from the deponens, 361 Adverb, 316, sqq. ; instead of adj. and subst. 330 (7) ; adverb as predicate, 341 Ampliativa (subst.), 310 Anacoluthon, Aid Anastrophe, 299 Aorist Synt. 366, sqq. ; in lieu of the 2)erf. and plusq. 367 ; in lieu of the present, 370, 06s. 9 ; in the signif. of to use, 370, 06s. 5 ; in the hy- pothet. constr. 379 ; aorist and im- perf. in Homer, 369, 06s. 4. — See besides partic. of the aor. Aorist, Alexandrian in a, 143, 267 (fcaiw) ; aor. in (ra in verbs of X, 11, V, p, 157, 06s. 3 Aorist 2, its accentuation, 181 ; syncopat. active (in riv, (dv,vv, &c.), 146, 06s. 8, and note ; syncopat. pass. {Xvro, dsKTo), 226, 227 ; with reduplica- tion, 119, 06s. 7. 121, 06s. 2 and 3 ; forms new themes, 232 ; is wanting in contracted verbs, 144 ; in aov, o6ni)v, 146, 06s. 9 ; aor. 2. pass. more usual than aor. 1. 153, 06s. 4 Aorist pass, as med. 241, 365 ; med. as pass. 245 ApJiceresis, 47 ' Apocope, 299 Apostrophus, 47 ; prevents the inclina- tion of the accent, 30 Artie, prcepos. (crasis), 45, 46 ; its sig- nif., 107, Note ; Synt. 327, sqq. ; with nouns proper, 328 ; with jo;-o- nouns, ibid. ; left out, 328, 06s. 4 ; separated from the sm6s^. 329 ; repeated, ibid.; with the injinit. and whole propositions, 331, 391, 392, 395 ; with the part. 399 ; be- fore the relat. 331, 06s. 6 ; in Homer, 333 ; artic. postpos. as the original demonstrat. 332, sqq. ; in- definite, 327, 328, and compare ibid. Obs. 3,399 (1) Aspiratce, 33, 35, 36 ; changed into 472 ENGLISH AND LATIN INDEX. 5, 32; the lonians neglect aspi- ration, 33, Obs. 1. 213, 249. See (aXXojLiai) Atona, 28 Attraction, 393 ; with the relative, 397, sqq. ; with the part. 403, Obs. 5 Augment, before a vowel, 120, Obs. 5 ; before the prep, of a compound verb, ] 22, Obs. 2, 3 ; syllab. omitted, 118, Obs. 6. 119, 06s. 2, 3; augm. temp. 119; syllab. with the temp. 120 ; before and after a, prep. 123 ; in 'iia- coluthon. Numerals, 9. 98, sqq. Object, not expressed, 344 sqq. ; only once expressed, 344, 06s. 1. compare 450 (4) Omission of the subst. See Ellipsis Optative, its formation, 126; 3 pers. in OL and at (accent) 181 ; in oirjv, i^rjv, 182, 06s. 3. compare 194, 06s. 4 ; in vr]v, vfxrjv, 209, 225 ; optat. aor. in tia, 182, 06s, 4 ; opt. ^^er/". 152, 182 (3) ; opt. Synt. 372 sqq.; as the expi-ession of a wish or command, 373 ; with av instead of the fut. 375 ; after principal tenses, 388 ; after sTreiddv, orav, &c. ibid. ; in the oblique speech, 388, 06s. 3 ; ex- pressing repetition, 382 ; opt. per/. and /Mi. 37 1; with ju)}, 418 Oratio obliqua, being changed into the direct speech, 388, 06s. 3. Participia (form), 127; in cjq and eig (accent), 181 ; in e, augm. 120, 06s. 2 dKriKoa, 149, 06s. 3 dKoveiv, constr. 353 and Note, 403 aKpodofxai, 140, ^)6s. 6 dXaXKiv, 145, 06s. 3 d\r]9eQ, 439 d\r]XL(pa, 149, 06s. 3 dXXd, dXXd yap, 427, 434 aXXofiai, aor. 157, 06s. 2 dXXoQ, srepog, 336 ; with the gen. 354 — dXXo ri, dXX' rj, 437 — aXXo ri fi, 437 I — dXXcjQ re Kai, 438 ciXq, 61 aX0i, 79 dXwTTJ?^, 59 ajLta, ( — Kai,) S^mtax, 441 dfisXei, 439 dfiirexo), 34, 06s. 3 d/i^t, dfKpiQ, 291, Obs. 4; ot dficpi, 441 dn^oTtpov, 111; S^-ntax, 438 dfi(pu). 111 dj/, sdv, ^v, 298 ; Syntax, 375; dv with the infin. and particip. 376; du omitted, 375, 378, 385 dj^d, shortened, 299; 06s. 2 dvd, ujJ ! up ! 300 ava, vocat. QQ, Obs. 5 dvdyK-i], Syntax, 343, 06s. 10 dvrJTrTov, (augment,) 120, 06s. 4 dvrjp, 20; dvep, 66, Obs. 1; dvi)p, with personal denominations, 327, q6s. 2. dv9' m>, 436 dvla, 19 -avoQ, quantity, 61 dvvu), dvvTd), 139 -dvb), (verba,) quantity, 237, 06s. 8. avwiarog, 286, ^'epoj dvb)T£pog, 98, Note; dvoJTspoj, 292 dvujxOe, 228 d^tT6,li6, Obs. 9 ao, changed into eto, 41, 06s. 10. 44 -ao, 2 pers. pass., 182 -aog, -eojg, 41, Note uTrag, Syntax, 337 direTpye, (augment,) 120, 06s. 4 d7rt(p9og, 34, 06s. 3 dwXoJg iiTTtii', 391, 06s. 5 GREEK INDEX. 477 cnrb, shortened, 299 ; ciTro, ibid.; words compoimded with, 412, Obs. 11 cnrodidpddKeiv, with accus. 345 'AttoXXwv, 66; with long a, 21, Obs. 14; accus., 74 awovkeaQai, (long a,) 21, 06s. 14 a—wraVoj, 292 ap, apa, 299, Obs. 2; apa and apa, 431; ap' ovv,ibid. Note apa, {aprj,) and ap^, 20, Note ape-)) and *Ap?jf, 96, Note 1 "Apt],;, (a,) 20 dpEd/jievog, Syntax, 442 dpvoj, dpvToj, 139, Note 6 apX>7V, adv., 291 direjua, 306, Note -aai, local termination, 294 -aoKov, temp, iterat., 182 doaa, d(T7, SjTitax, 432 dijXSg a>i. Syntax, 386, 394, 402, 449 -C)}v, -5ov, adv. 317 drjTTore, appended, 296 SfiTTov, SrjirovOsv, 433 dTa, (a,) 86, 06s. 1 Sidyeiv, diaylyvsaOai, SLareXtiv, with part., 404, 06s. 8 SiKaiog tifxi Ttpdrreiv, 394, 448 SiKTiv, Syntax, 348. 408, 06s. 2 Slo, SioTi, 292, 06s. 5. 421, h->Pyu, 194, 06s. 5 doio), doioi, 99 60KOVV, absol,. Syntax, 407, 06s. 7 dopv^s, 56, Note 1 478 GREEK INDEX. dvvafxaif augm., 118, Obs. 5 dwarov, Syntax, 407, Obs. 7 du(T-j compos., 122 dvaeo, 146, Obs. 9 Sio, 79, Obs. 3 e, for a before liquids, 40, 06s. 9 £, in verbs in aw, 195, Obs. 8 e, inserted, 43, 106, 109 £, connecting vowel, 124 £, for £t, 40, Obs. 3. £, changed into et, 38, 40 «, for tj, 185, Obs. 15 a, Syntax, 335 -ea for -rjv, 209 -fat, -£o, 2 pers. sing, pass., 182; com- pare 195, 06s. 7 eav, Tjv, av, 298,375, 378 ; compare 422 -earo, 3 pi., 183, 195 eavToVj Syntax, 335, 336; omitted 344, 06s. 2 kd(x), retains the a, 140, 06s. 7 ej3rf 06s. 7 fIXov, 119, 06s. 1 -Eiv, instead of -r}v, 211, 212 f ivai, verbum, omitted, 343; tivai, infin., Syntax, 444; tort and iarl, 214; 'iariv 01, 439 ; 'iari, phrases, ibid. eiTTsp, elliptical, 453 eig, with persons, 411, 06s. 5 elaOa, Homer, 216 f tra, 429 f ira, eirsiTa, after particip., 403 iirig, 422 eicoQa, (augm.,) 119, 06s. 1 ; 149, Obs. 2. kic, see £? : ek unaltered before all the consonants, 36, 39 UdrspoQ, eicacrrog, 111 fKraorlpw, 292 kKdvfxev, 258, Note ffCfT, sKfT^fv, g/cficf, 295 SKsivy, SKiivijjQ, 297, 06s. 7 «/c8xitpta, 34, 06s. 3 eKTrayXog, 271, Note £X?7Xy0a, 149, 06s.3 fX/itrc, 38, 06s. 2 £/X0i ^OKflr, 391 kv I'emains unaltered before , ■'I'yv, 194, 06s. 5 ^t;%w, inflection, 154, 06s. 8 w, in the Attic termination, short, 23 ; compared with the 3d decl. 77, Note; w for o, 41, 06s. 13; for o and ov, 40, 06s. 4 ; in the particip. perf. 184; contracted from or], 2b3,^odio: in composition, 318, 06s. 2 ; -lo for -cjg, (adverbial termination,) 292 -(1), (i)v, cop, (t)g, nomina, 76, 06s. 6 w and w, 300, 06s. 4 ; w jusXt, see fxsXe -u) Tav, see rav wWoi, 46, 06s. 6 -ojv, nomina, (decl.) 74, 76, 77, 310 a)vaK, &c. 47, 06s. 10 Mvriviov, (accent,) 30, 06s. 2 '(ao, (2 decl.) 57, 06s. 3 tj TTOiToi, 300, 06s. 4 -(og, -u>g, (adv.) 290 -ojg, nomina, 77 u)g, bjg, 28 ; Syntax, 380 ; praepos., 408'; with ca>sus absol. 406, 06s. 5 ; iog evi, ijjg '^TTog eiTrelv, 391, 06s. 5 ; wg TTsp, 403, 06s. 6 wOTf, construction, 385, 390, 394, 403 ; ^ wtrre, after comparat. 386, 06s. 2 -u)(T(t>, shortened and contracted, 141, 06s. 13 (OV, dipth. 13, 41, 106 (jjvTog, 41, 06s. 11 ijpeXtlv, with accus. 345; with double accus. 348, 06s. 4 uKpsXov, 293, 06s. 7 ; Syntax, 439. n Gilbert & Rivington, Printers, St. John's Square, London. ,^0 %^ ^ A< -:.^° "b. ^^ -^^^ ^<. , ^\ ^ ,^ , i-'caoiuMiuu ubiiiy iiie DooKKeeper process^ ^^"^ Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide l^v., ^ Treatment Date: July 2006 ,'' ' PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township. 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