: t<> •'^ ^^^c9 • .♦^^r^. v^^ I'/'o 4? .♦^llf* "> *^ '^-^.^^ ^oV* .•^•' .^ S^, oji When William heard of Harold's election and coronation, he was highly indignant, and immediately despatched Harold op- an embassy to him, reminding him of his former posed, oath, and demanding the surrender of his kingdom. Harold replied, that his oath had been given through fear of violence, that he had been made king by the suffrages of the nation, and that he had neither inclination nor right to surrender his charge. William determined at once to enforce his claims. He was a person of great popularity, and pre-eminent for his courage and noble bearing ; and when he publicly announced wLiiiam's his intended expedition, great enthusiasm was mani- preparation, fested in neighboring states, and many princes and valiant lead- ers, with numerous followers, hastened to enroll themselves under his leadership. His own subjects were at first indifferent, and reluctant to sanction or assist an enterprise whose field of operations was out of their own country. But William finally succeeded by his personal address in enlisting their co-operation and assistance. The Pope also gave his gracious approval, and sent to the duke a consecrated banner. 12. In the early autumn of 1066, the Normans crossed the English Channel with nearly a thousand vessels and ^^^ ^^^_ an army of sixty thousand men, and landed in mansinEng- Sussex, and pitched their camp on a range of hills ^^"'^* ' at Senlac, near Hastings. Harold was at a banquet in York, soon after his successful repulse of the Norwegian invasion, when he heard that the Normans were encamped on English soil. He immediately set out for London, with all the forces he could collect, without delay, and hastened to confront the invaders, and intrenched his army on the hills opposite the Norman camp. The night before the battle is said to have been spent by the Enghsh in revelry and riot, and by the Normans, in prayer and consecration. 13. Early on the morning of Oct. 14, the conflict began, and raged for nearly the entire day. Solid column met solid column, 34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1066. and the slaughter was terrible. Several times during the day, Battle of victory seemed about to perch on the English ban- Hastings, ners ; but thrice William adroitly feigned retreat, and drew his foes down into the plain, where he suddenly wheeled upon them, and inflicted most signal defeat. Harold received an arrow in his eye, and was soon after despatched by the lances of French knights, of whom Count Eustace was one. Two of Harold's brothers also perished in the midst of the conflict. The battle of Hastings was decisive. Although the English at London soon chose as their king Edgar Atheling, the young grandson of Edmund Ironside, he was never crowned ; and the Norman duke hastened to im- prove the advantage his recent victory had given him. The submission of Dover, Canterbury, and Winchester, soon fol- lowed ; and London, after some resistance, surrendered to William, who was chosen king, and whose descendants have to this day occupied the throne of England. 14. This event, commonly called the Conquest, is one of the Importance Vi\Q)%\. important landmarks in English history. It of the event, introduced the Norman element into the kingdom and upon the throne, and had an important bearing upon the future of the country, and its relations to other lands. 15. More than eleven hundred years had now elapsed since the island of Britain appeared in history. The Celts, the Roman Growth of occupation, and the Saxon and Danish invasions the nation. and Settlements, had all contributed to the growth of the English nation and to its civilization. These different elements had become so blended, that the people were more like one nation than they had ever before been. 16. The state of society at this time was not refined. Some progress was made under the Saxons, but much was also lost by the devastations and barbarous practices of the Danes. But there was a wide difference between the condition of the nobles and of the lower classes. The nobles held large tracts ic66.] DANISH KINGS. — SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 35 of land under the king, for whom they were obliged to fight and to render assistance when called upon ; while the people occupied and tilled the soil, with similar obligations to the nobles, by whom they were often greatly oppressed. 17. Manual labor, except in the arts, was performed chiefly by slaves, some of whom enjoyed a* degree of freedom, while others were bought and sold with the land upon which they were born, but could not be separated from it. Many of the freemen were compelled to work a certain number of days each year for the lord, or owner of the land, receiving in pay the rent of land for their own cultivation. There was a feeling of dependence by all orders of people upon those above them in rank, and also a kind of obligation, on the part of the higher classes, to provide in a measure for their dependents. This feature in the relation of the different classes seems to have been brought by the Anglo-Saxons from their early home on the Continent. 18. The dwellings of the people were built m clusters, or villages, around which were common fields for pasturage, in care of the village herdsmen and the pound-keeper. All could cut wood from the forests, and dig turf from the bogs, for fuel ; and deer and wild fowl could be hunted free, for there were no game-laws until the time of Canute. The dwelling of the nobleman, or lord of the village, usually consisted of one large room, which served as a family apart- ment, a banqueting-hall, and sleeping-room ; bunks or berths being arranged around the walls for beds, before which curtains were sometimes suspended. But the females had separate sleeping-apartments, called bowers, built outside. The attend- ants slept upon benches or upon the floor. Chairs elaborately carved were kept for distinguished guests, only benches and* stools being in more common use. The fire was built in the middle of the room, the smoke escaping through an opening in the roof; and the floor, often of earth, was strewn with rushes or straw, to which flowers were added on soecial occa- 36 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1066. sions. The windows were furnished with lattice or cloth, instead of glass, which had not yet come into common use ; and the walls were sometimes hung with tapestry and curtains of silk richly embroidered. But the dwellings of the lower orders were rude huts or hovels, covered with turf, and containing no furni- ture but a few rude benches for seats, and beds of straw and rushes. Cups, spoons, and dishes were rudely formed of horn, bone, and wood. Candles of tallow were used for lighting these huts, while those of wax were used by the higher classes. ig. In the eighth century the dress of the males consisted of a linen under-garment, over which was a tunic of linen or woollen, open at the neck, and extending to the knees, with long sleeves reaching to the wrist. The borders and collar of those of the higher classes were orna- mented, and the garment was confined around the waist by a belt. Over this was worn a short cloak, fastened at the shoulder or breast with a kind of brooch. Linen or woollen drawers and stockings were worn, and shoes of leather formed coverings for the feet. The lower garments and the tunic of the poorer classes were often made of leather and untanned hide. The upper lip was shaven, but otherwise the hair and beard were worn long. The garments of the women were similar to those of the men, except that a long dress with full sleeves took the place of the short tunic, and the outer garment was a kind of mantle instead of a cloak. The hair was curled with hot irons, and dressed with much care ; and the head-dress consisted of a veil, or strip of linen or silk cloth, wound round the neck and head. They also wore necklaces, ribbons, ear-rings, and brooches. 20. The Anglo-Saxons and Danes were great eaters, and those who were able had four meals a day. Food was abun- dant. For meat they raised cattle, sheep, swine, fowls, and goats, and hunted deer and hares ; and meats were salted for preservation. They had fish, such as salmon and herring, also oysters, lobsters, and eels ; and in io66.] DANISH KINGS. — SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 37 cooking they boiled, baked, and broiled their food. Bread, sometimes eaten hot, was made from wheat and barley ; and beans, eggs, cheese, and honey, were in common use ; and mention is made of grapes, apples, pears, nuts, and figs. At meals, knives were used for carving, but not for eating ; and fingers supplied the place of forks, water being passed round after eating, with which to wash the hands. The tables were spread with cloths so large that they covered the knees of the guests, and could be used as napkins. The people were all fond of exhilarating drinks, such as ale, mead, and wine, which were served in silver cups, and in horns ornamented with rims and knobs of silver. On festive occasions, both eating and drinking were carried to excess, and were accompanied by songs, dancing, and the harp. Public ale-houses were much frequented, and were the scenes of bois- terous conviviality and rioting ; but priests were prohibited by law from eating or drinking at such houses. 21. The principal amusements were hunting, hawking, jug- glery, songs and instrumental music, chess, dice, and other similar games. Backgammon, which signifies '' little Amuse- batde," originated with the Welsh. The musical ments. instruments in use were the harp, lyre, viol, horn, trumpet, drum, cymbal, and flute. The harp was probably introduced from Ireland, where music in early times was much cultivated, and where church music was especially noted for its excellence. 22. The domestic life of the early English was very far above that of savage nations. The sexes were not separated at meals, nor on festive occasions. In household affairs and Domestic in society, woman was well treated, and exerted a ^'^e. good degree of influence. Personal cleanliness was regarded as a prime virtue ; the bath was in frequent use ; and children were well cared for at home. In case of poverty, a father could consign his son, after childhood, to slavery for a period of seven years, provided the boy consented to the contract. The marriage-ceremony was performed by the priest, and 38 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1066. was an occasion of joy and festivity. Before the age of fifteen, a girl could be given in marriage by her father at will ; but after that age she was allowed to select her own husband. Before marriage, the bridegroom gave a pledge to support his wife and her children in a style becoming her position in society. The women of the higher classes were skilful in the use of the needle, and spent much of their time in embroidering with golden and colored thread. In Bayeux, France, there is still preserved an historical tapestry, a pictorial representation of the Conquest, wrought with worsteds of various colors on a roll of linen two hundred and fourteen feet long and twenty inches wide. This is believed to have been made by English women, though some have attributed it to Matilda, the wife of the Conqueror. 23. During the latter part of the Saxon period, agriculture received much attention. Farms were divided into pasture, meadow, and wood land ; but fences were not used, gricu ure. (j^^igiQj^.iii^gg being formed by hedges, ditches, and brooks. The farmers used ploughs, rakes, sickles, scythes, forks,' flails, wagons, and carts ; also mills for gritiding grain. Bees were kept quite extensively, furnishing honey in great abundance, which was an important article of food, sugar being then little known. The raising of cattle was the leading industry ; and much attention was also given to sheep ; the warm, moist climate of the island being favorable for good pasturage. As the fields were not enclosed, many people were occupied in tending cattle, sheep, swine, and goats. Vegetable and flower gardens were cultivated to some extent. Forests were protected by law from destruction ; and the value of trees, especially the oak, walnut, and the beech, was determined according to the number of swine that could feed under them. 24. The Anglo-Saxons acquired considerable skiU in manu- facturing and in the various useful arts, and had quite a reputation as workers in iron and other metals, including the manufacture of jewelry. Such occupa- io66.] DANISH KINGS. — SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 39 tions as masons, carpenters, blacksmiths, wagon-makers, armor- ers, weavers, tailors, and tanners and shoemakers, and others, were represented in the principal communities. But some of these were itinerant in the pursuit of their calling ; the black- smith with his portable forge and tools, and the shoemaker and the tailor with the implements of their craft, being accustomed to go round to the dwellings of the people, and to perform their work when their services were needed. Glass-making was learned from the French, and its use was slowly introduced. 25. Ship-building and commerce were industries of consider- able importance. The oak of the island was noted for its strength ; and English ship-carpenters were skilful, commerce and held in high esteem. Foreign vessels, especially and traffic, from the East, came to the country for traffic ; and English ships visited the ports of Western Europe and of the Mediterranean, carrying cattle and other animals, wool, skins, the various agri- cultural products, lead, iron, and manufactured articles. The trade in slaves was quite active ; young men and women bought for the purpose being sent from the port of Bristol to Ireland for sale. Traffic was carried on to a considerable extent in barter, or the exchange of one commodity for another. About the close of the tenth century, the barter price of a slave was twenty shillings ; a horse, thirty shillings ; an ox, six shillings ; a cow, five shillings ; a swine, one shilling and threepence ; a sheep, one shilling ; and a goat, twopence. Land, also, was cheap, selling sometimes for four shillings an acre. But the value of money was much greater then than at the present time. 26. The Witan, established by the early Saxons, continued to be the great Council or Parliament of the nation for making laws, and for the administration of jus- tice in its higher forms. Its principal meetings were at Christ- mas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. In courts of justice, a person accused of crime was acquitted if he could bring a number of friends, owners of property, to 40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1066. swear to his innocence : otherwise he submitted to the trial by *' ordeal," where he was compelled to walk over hot plough- shares, to hold hot iron in his hands, or to plunge his arm into boiling water. If no harm from the ordeal was found upon his person at the end of three days, he was considered innocent. 27. Long before the Conquest, Christianity was the religion of the nation, and every town and settlement had its church and priest. In the tenth and eleventh centuries ^ *^'°"" considerable attention was given to the architecture of churches, which were generally built of wood ; though the one at York, built by Edwin, was of stone, with glass windows introduced from France. At times there was much corruption in the Church, and many of its officers were immoral and worldly ; but there is reason to believe, nevertheless, that its influence did much to improve the condition of the people, to furnish an asylum for the op- pressed, and to mitigate the evils of slavery. 28. Before the time of Alfred there were no schools except the monasteries, which were institutions of learning as well as of religion. The Venerable Bede did much for the cause of learning as a teacher of monks and of youth, and by the preparation in Latin of text-books in nearly all branches then taught. Canute and others, during the century preceding the Conquest, founded several higher seminaries of learning, with which many distinguished scholars were con- nected. The principal branches taught in these schools were Latin, Greek, theology, astronomy, grammar, and arithme- tic. In these branches the monks were well versed ; also in painting, music, sculpture, and architecture. Dunstan was largely instrumental in introducing the Benedictine monks, who for a long time were the principal teachers of youth. These monks showed great skill with the pen in copying and illuminating books upon vellum, or parchment ; and it is to their labors that we are principally indebted for much of the ancient literature that has io66.] DANISH KINGS, — SAXON KINGS RESTORED. 4 1 been transmitted to modem times. But the common people were not educated; and some of the Saxon kings could not write their names, but made their mark instead. The brothers of King Alfred never learned to read. The Saxons were a practical people, with strong common-sense and quick judg- ment; but learning was not generally considered by them necessary, even among the high classes, except for those holding offices in the monasteries, and in connection with the Church. But physical education, and excellence in manly sports, were highly prized, and were attended to. To draw the strong bow, and wield the battle-axe, the broadsword, and the spear in war, and to engage in the chase, — where men sometimes found themselves in close personal combat with wild animals (which were then numerous), — rendered great physical strength not only serviceable, but necessary for success and safety. The first library mentioned in England is said to have been collected at the minster, or cathedral, in York. 29. London was the most important ^own, with considerable trade. It is mentioned by the Roman writers of the first cen- tury, and it is supposed, that, a century or two later, important the Romans surrounded it with walls. The East towns. Saxons made it the capital of their state (Essex) ; and, when Egbert united the states of the Heptarchy, he made it the me- tropolis of his new kingdom. It was soon afterwards sacked and burned by the Danes, but was rebuilt by King Alfred. The land along the riverside was marshy, and the streets were narrow and winding. There was no drainage, and the streets abounded in pools and rivulets reeking with filth, that sometimes caused sickness and disease of an epidemic and pestilential character. The dwelling-houses were constructed of wood, with thatched roofs ; the churches were crowned with wooden towers ; and beautiful flower-gardens were cultivated around the monasteries and other religious houses. The city was surrounded by several villages, which are now included within the present metropolis ; and beyond London. 42 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [fo66. these were the country residences of the wealthy Saxons, with their orchards and pleasant fields. There were other towns of considerable importance, and some of them were of great antiquity. Winchester, a town of the early Britons, was for a long time the capital of Wessex and of England. Manchester was a seat of the Druids ; and at Birmingham, in the kingdom of Mercia, now the great centre of the iron-industr}'', the Celts manufactured their arms before the Romans visited Britain. Chester, York, Exeter, Sheffield, Worcester ( JFoos/er) , Cam- bridge, Bath with its warm springs, and Brighton (the pleasant seaside summer resort), were all well-known Roman stations, and at the time of the Conquest were places of more or less business and importance. The sea-roving Saxons early saw the importance of the harbor of Harwich i^Harridg), and from their day it continued to be an important seaport. 30. London had not yet become the established capital of the kingdom, though S9me of the kings were crowned there, and at times had made it their place of residence Capitals. and of the meeting of the Witan. The Saxon kings held court wherever it pleased them ; their favorite place being Winchester, the old capital of Wessex. This city con- tinued to be the chief capital of the kingdom until after the reign of Henry H., and was one of the favorite residences of the sovereigns until the time of George I. Edward the Con- fessor held his court at one time in the village of Windleshore, on the Thames, now Windsor, the principal residence of the British sovereigns. Co a?car 3i 03 7.r^t u i: B H A JV E A I^ r-^ -^-^--^-..--.^^^^ i-7 » SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. I. — Early Britain. Name, ancient and modern. People; their character, mode of life, and dwellings. Their government, wars, religion, and worship. Bards, festivals, and Druids. Origin of Britons. Civilization, mining, and trade. Language. The Gaels. II. — Roman Occupation. Caesar's first invasion and its incidents. Caesar's second invasion. Caswollon. Native kings. Cym- beline. Claudius. Caradoc. Suetonius, Mona, and Boadicea. Agricola. Picts and Scots. Roman walls. Benefits of Ro- man rule. Roads. Towns and their ruins. Mode of life. Habits. Mining. Christianity. Romans leave Britain. III. — Saxon Conquest. Raids by Picts and Scots. Saxon freebooters. Hengist and Horsa. Conquests. King Arthur. Sa.xons and Christianity. The Heptarchy. Kent and Ethelbert. Sussex. Wessex. Essex. Northumbria. East Anglia. Mercia. Egbert. The Saxons ; their government. The people. Religion, mode of life, and education. IV. — Saxon Kings, &c. Egbert. Danish raids. Alfred's reign and character. Edward the Elder. His contests with the Danes. The first king of all England. Athelstan. War with the Danes and others. Edmund. His tragical death. 43 44 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Edred. Subjugates the Danes and others. Strengthens the kingdom. Dunstan. Edwy. His marriage. Contest with Dunstan and Odo. Edgar. Peaceful reign. Protects commerce by a fleet. Tax upon Welsh nobles. His marriage. Edward the Martyr. Ethelred II. A weak king. Danegeld. Massacre of the Danes. Svveyn. The Danes. Danish words. V. — Danish Kings. Canute and his reign. Harold I. Canute II. Saxon kings restored. Edward the Confessor. His history. Candidate for the throne. Godwin. Edward's reign. Godwin in disgrace. Harold, and William the Duke of Normandy. Edward's death and character. Harold II. King. Norwegian invasion. William opposes Harold. Invades England. Battle of Hastings. Result. Its importance. Growth of the nation. Society. Slavery. Dwellings and furniture. Dress. Food, meals, amusements, and domestic life. Bayeux tapestry. Agriculture, trades, commerce, and traffic. Government. Trials in court. Religion. Schools. Bede. Benedictine monks. Towns. Capitals. PART IL THE FEUDAL PERIOD. FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO (HENRY VH.) THE TUUOR FAMILY. 1066 to 1485, — 419 years. CHAPTER I. THE NORMAN FAMILY. 1066 to 1154,-88 years. William I., the Conqueror. Henry I. Williani II., Rufus. Stephen. WILLIAM I., known as William the Conqueror, was crowned at Christmas (1066) in Westminster Abbey. When the Saxons and the Normans were asked, wiiiiam's each by their own bishop, if they would have Wil- coronation, liam for their king, both peoples signified their assent with loud applause. This noise was mistaken by the Norman soldiers, outside of the abbey, for a hostile demonstration against the new king ; and they immediately set fire to the neighboring houses, when a great tumult occurred. But the ceremony of coronation and anointing went on, and William took oath to govern as justly as the best of the Saxon kings had governed before him. 2. Although William was in possession of the south-eastern part of England, a considerable portion of the kingdom was still in revolt against his authority ; and nearly four state of the years were spent in wars to secure the consolidation kingdom, of his realm. But many of the nobility, including Edwin and 45 46 . HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [,o66. Marcar, the powerful earls of Mercia and Northumbria, and Edgar Atheling, gave in their submission to the king, either before, or soon after, his coronation. 3. He seemed anxious to govern acceptably to the people of London ; yet he built in their midst a fortress, now a part of the Tower of London, and filled it with soldiers, IS po cy. ^^^ ^^ might hold in check any symptoms of dis- content or disloyalty. This was his policy wherever he went ; and many of the casdes and strongholds of England had their origin in his reign, including one he built on the site of the present palace of Windsor. He confiscated the lands of Harold and his friends, and gave them to his Norman followers and favorites, who were promoted to the principal offices of impor- tance ; and he also caused the Norman language to be adopted in the service of the church, as well as in the courts of justice. 4. Accompanied by a retinue of distinguished English noble- men, William spent the summer following his coronation in Normandy, looking after his Continental possessions. The management of affairs in England during his absence was left in care of his half-brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, and William Fitz Osborn ; but these officers did not at all times govern wisely. The building of castles for Norman garrisons, and the exclusion of Saxons from office to make places for Norman officials, went on, and occasioned much dissatisfaction among the P^nglish. Frequent oppo- sition to Norman oppression was manifested ; and an open revolt of the people in some parts of the country seemed immanent, when, late in the autumn, William suddenly returned from Normandy, and took measures to quell the rising storm. He proceeded to London, and, by his presence and skilful manage- ment, secured the co-operation of the nobility and people. But there were mutterings of discontent at the north and the west. 5. After holding the winter session of the Witan, he marched against Exeter, a strongly fortified city in the south-west, which ,069.] THE NORMAN FAMILY. 47 he besieged, and compelled to surrender. The mother and sons of Harold were in the city ; but they escaped, and left the country. He made two expeditions to the north- Exeter and east, quelling insurrections, and fortifying such York, positions as would enable him to check the future movements of the insurgents. Two castles were built and garrisoned at York. 6. During the year 1069 the most formidable uprising of the people took place which William had been called upon to encounter. In the west the spirit of hostility was bold and aggressive ; and in the north-east the people were joined by the Danes, who came in a large fleet, either to regain the position they once held in England, but had lost, or to assist the English in their attempt to rid themselves of their Norman masters. The fleet entered the Humber, where it was joined by another from Scot- land, under Edgar Atheling, and by a number of English earls and their numerous followers. The combined forces immedi- ately moved upon York, where the Norman garrison felt secure within their casdes ; although they immediately set fire to the neighboring houses, that the invaders might not use their mate- rial to fill up the castle ditches. The fire spread Disaster at with amazing rapidity, and continued to rage for York, two or three days, consuming the greater part of the city, with its ancient cathedral. The Normans sallied forth from their strongholds to repel the invaders ; but they were completely defeated, the castles destroyed, and the garrison, numbering three thousand, put to the sword. When the news of this disaster reached William, while hunt- ing in Dean Forest, on the Severn, he swore terrible vengeance upon the Northumbrians. He immediately pro- wniiam's ceeded with a large force to York, which he found movements, deserted. The Danes had retired to their fleet in the Humber, and gave no further trouble ; and as in the following spring, when joined by another of their fleets, under the command of 48 niSrORY OF ENGLAND, [10G9. King Svveyn, they entered the Thames, and then withdrew with- out doing harm, it is believed that in both instances Wilham tried successfully the effect of bribery upon these sea-roving adventurers. 7. William's Christmas season was spent in repairing his castles, and in plans for making an example of this rebellious _ ^ . district that should admit of no doubtful interpreta- Devastation i in Northum- tiou ; and his plans were formed and carried out ^"^- with a deliberation and energy worthy of a better cause. Sending forth his troops, he laid waste the whole coun- try, from the H umber northward beyond the Tees, for a hundred miles. Every human habitation and other buildings, with furni- ture and farming utensils, were burned ; domestic animals were killed ; and of the inhabitants, those who offered resistance were put to death ; while others fled to the woods and the marshes, many of whom afterwards returned to the smoking ruins of their homes, and perished of starvation. One hundred thousand lives are said to have been lost in this work of devastation. The desolation of the land was complete. Fifteen years after- wards it was spoken of as a " waste ; " and even at the end of half a century, it is related that the country for more than sixty miles was "totally uncultivated and unproductive." This act of William savors more of Vandalism than of legiti- mate warfare, and has ever been severely condemned ; but. How re- "^^hile he had no wolfish delight in shedding blood, garded. or in Causing misery to others, it was his policy to leave no foe unconquered, and no aggressive enemy unpunished. Those who were friendly and loyal to him shared his confidence and generosity ; but those who opposed him, or plotted against him, found that his vengeance was quick and sure. 8. From York, the king led his army across the country to Chester, an old Roman town, where he quelled an Chester. . . , , , , . r msurrection, and ordered the erection of a castle. This virtually completed the Conquest ; and William was now the acknowledged sovereign of his realm, although occasional 1069.] THE NORMAN FAMILY. 49 revolts of a local character required his attention. Scottish invaders were several times driven back into their own country ; an expedition was made against Wales ; and Here- Minor re- v/ard, a rebel Saxon, intrenched himself with his ^oits, followers upon the island of Ely, in the fen country of Cam- bridgeshire. William laid siege to the island, using flat-bot- tomed boats, and constructing a causeway through Ely. the marshes. The nature of the country made the siege a very difficult one, but the monks of Ely came to William's assistance. They were fond of good living ; but the siege cut off their supplies, and they showed him a way of approach to the island, by which he speedily compelled the insurgents to surrender, g. Several years afterwards, while upon the Continent, the king had a serious difficulty with his oldest son Robert, who rebelled against him because he could not have the ^ family duchy of Normand^ bestowed upon himself. Father trouble, and son met in battle, clad in armor, and not knowing each other, until William, having been wounded, called for help ; when Robert, recognizing his father's voice, immediately asked his forgiveness, — a favor which the stern old Norman granted very grudgingly. 10. The king's favorite recreation was hunting ; and, although there were several royal forests for that purpose, he wished to have another near his palace at Winchester. For ^ew Forest, this purpose he laid waste the country for thirty and laws, miles in extent, destroying more than thirty pai-jsh churches and all the dwellings of the people, who were driven out, and obliged to seek homes elsewhere. This was called New Forest. A hunting forest includes not only woodland, but open land uncultivated and unoccupied. This act could not be called a war measure, like the devastation of Northumbria, but seems to have been done to gratify William's excessive fondness for mere sport. His forest laws were very severe, reserving to himself the almost exclusive privilege of killing game, and making it as so HISTORY OF ENGLAND. loS; great a crime to kill an animal without permission as to kill a man. He " loved the tall deer as though he were their father ; " and whoever killed a deer or a boar had his eyes put out. II. The most notable event in the reign of the Conqueror was his survey of the kingdom in 10S5, the results of which Doomsday ^^CrC rC- Book. corded in a book called Dooms- day Book. This book, in two volumes, is still preserved ; and con- sidering the time in which it was made, and the thoroughness of the survey, it is probably one of the most remarkable his- torical documents in existence. The record give:] the different classes of people, as barons, thanes, inferior land- owners, tenants, slaves, and " free women." The list of offices and occupations is quite full. In the upper classes there were chamberlains, stewards, butlers, constables, and treasurers, pro- viders of the king's carriages, standard-bearers, hawk-keepers and bow-keepers, foresters, hunters, law men, and mediciners. Of the common workmen there were goldsmiths, carpenters, smiths and armorers, farriers and potters, ditchers, fishermen, millers, salters, bakers, tailors, and barbers, also mariners, watchmen, moneyers, and minstrels. On the farm there were ploughmen, bee-keepers, shepherds, neatherds, goatherds, and *gs^^^_ A NORMAN KNIGHT. io85.] THE A'OA'MAA' FAMILY. 51 swinclierds. The ownership, extent, and value of land, is given, as grain land, meadow, pasture, and wood land ; also the marshes, whose rent was i)aid in eels. There is a list of vine- yards, gardens, salt-works, iion mines and works, and fisheries, 'i'he number of manors owned by the king and his favorites is given, and is very large ; and the number of dwellings, with their rents, is recorded for many of the principal cities and burghs, though not for Lon- don and a few other l^aces. The enu- meration included churches and castles, and the number of houses destroyed and the land wasted for the building of the castles. Altogether, Doomsday Book gives us a very good index to the state of society, the occupa- tions of the people, and the products of the land, of England, for the latter part of the eleventh century. 12. The political a saxon peasant. and social system of England was greatly modified by the feudal system introduced by William. When he gained pos- session of the country, he claimed that the entire Feudal sys- land belonged to him by the right of conquest, tem. At first the lands of Harold's family and of some of the leaders of the revolts against him, were confiscated ; but the other occupants retained their possessions by paying a heavy rent, or ransom. After the survey, the country was divided into a large 52 HISTORY Of ENGLAND. [1085. nuaiber of portions (some say sixty thousand), called "kniglu's fees." Many of these fees the king kept for his own, use ; but the greater part of them were assigned to the earls, barons, and other officers, all of whom were called " tenants-in-chief," and who were obliged to swear allegiance to the king, and to defend him in all wars. These tenants were obliged to furnish, at the king's command, for every fee, one mounted soldier and attend- ants, to serve free for forty days in each year. The holders of these fees sublet portions to under tenants, who were also com- pelled to furnish service, either military or otherwise; and all freemen and slaves were bound to, or were the property of, some master. It was essentially a military system, and for centuries was a heavy weight upon the progress of the country. It gave the king a ready and a large army when needed ; and the many taxes and exactions which it imposed, for the assumption and transfer of tenures and rights, also gave him a full treasury, especially when added to the frequent confiscations of property. The relation of the different classes under the Saxons had a seeming resemblance to some features of the feudal system : but the tenure of land was materially different with the Saxons ; there was less harshness and severity in the system of the Sax- ons, and more general and individual freedom. 13. William was an avowed friend of the Church; but his ecclesiastical policy, like his management of civil and military William and affairs, made it necessary for him to displace English the Church, officials, to find places for the hordes of Normans who were constantly importuning for offices and their emolu- ments. Bishops and priests and their subordinates were alike compelled to vacate their offices and their livings. Even Stigand, the Archbishop of Canterbury, one of the officiating prelates at William's coronation, was not spared. The monasteries were searched ; and the money, deposited there for safety by those who feared confiscation, was seized and converted into the royal treasury. The king gave much time and personal attention to ecclesiastical affairs, and was instrumental in the found- iOcS5.] THE NORMAN FAMILY. 53 ing or rebuilding of many cathedrals, abbeys, and churches, and in the introduction of an improved style of architecture. As to the standard of the Church, intellectual and moral, it was probably raised somewhat ; but the relations between the Norman clergy and the English people were neither cordial nor profit- able in a religious sense. Yet many of these Norman prelates were men of great learning and ability, and of fine tastes ; and they made their influence felt in all the civilization of the age. William's half-brother, Bishop Odo, who was also Earl of Kent, was active and influential in church affairs, but became arrogant and ambitious, and even aspired to the Papacy. This so exasperated the king, that he immediately seized him and cast him into prison, and, when remonstrated with by Odo, remarked that he did not imprison the Bishop of Bayeux, but the Earl of Kent. When Harold fell at Elastings, William made a vow to erect a sacred monument on the very spot where Harold's standard was placed ; and that vow was fulfilled in subse- Battle quent years by the erection of Battle Abbey, — an Abbey, extensive structure, as its ruins fully testify. 14. The latter part of William's reign was spent in Normandy, where he had a war with the kings of France, during which much loss of life and destruction of property took wiiiiam's place. Having burned the town of Mantes, William last days, was riding through its smoking ruins, when his horse stumbled and fell, from which his royal rider received a serious injury, and was carried back to Rouen. It is related, that, when he became sensible that his end was near, he expressed much sorrow and contrition for the blood he had shed and the misery he had caused in his numerous wars. To his son Robert, Bequests. then in Paris, he left the duchy of Normandy ; the sovereignty of England was bestowed upon William, who imme- diately set out to take possession ; and to Henry he gave five thousand pounds of silver, realized from the possessions of Queen Matilda, who had died a few years before. As soon as 54 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1135. the king ceased to breathe, his attendants all fled, taking as plunder whatever articles were within their reach ; and the body of the dead conqueror was left alone. A friend His funeral. 1 • ^ i , . , conveyed it to Caen ; and, as. the procession neared the church which William himself had built, a great conflagra- tion broke out in the town, and again the corpse was deserted, and left alone in the street. Having been taken into the church, it was about to be lowered into the grave, when a person cried out that the land upon which the church was built had been seized from his father without pay ; and the ceremony was not completed until money was raised to satisfy this demand. 15. William possessed great abilities, both as a statesman and a warrior. He ruled England with a strong hand, and left the William's impress of his genius upon all her institutions. He character. was not greatly beloved by his subjects, for he in- truded upon them a foreign people and a foreign civilization ; and his unprincipled greed for wealth, and the inflexible military element of his character, were not calculated to make him popular. Yet his court was one of brilliance and splendor. His personal appearance was fine, being tall and well propor- tioned ; and he is said to have been so strong that scarcely any other person in that age could bend his bow, or handle his arms. 16. William II. (1087), surnamed Rufus from his red hair, was, like his father, ambitious and tyrannical, but inferior William II. to him in talent, and without the generosity and and his reign, humanity which often governed the acts of the Conqueror. After a reign of thirteen years, which was disturbed by insurrections, and by quarrels with the ecclesiastics, particu- larly with Anselm the primate, he was accidentally shot by Sir Weaker Tyrrel with an arrow aimed at a stag in the New Forest. 17. Henry I. (i 100), surnamed Beauclerc, or the scholar, on account of his learning, was the younger brother of William Rufus. He took advantas^e of the absence of his Henry I. ^ eldest brother, Robert (11 00), the rightful heir, who was on a crusade to the Holy Land, and secured the crown for ,t35-] THE NORMAN FAMILY. 55 himself. He invaded his brother's Norman dominions; and Robert, on his return, was defeated, taken prisoner, and con- fined in Wales till his death. i8. Henry married Matildaof Scotland, great- grand-daughter of Edmund Ironside ; and in this way the Saxon and Norman flmiilies were united. The latter part of his life was ^^.^^ ^^ rendered disconsolate by the loss of his only son, saxon and who was drowned on his passage from Normandy ; f^^[J|^^ and from that fatal moment he was never seen to smile. Henry was an able, courageous, and accomplished sovereign, but ambitious, licentious, and ungrateful. 19. On the death of Henry (1135) the crown fell by right to his daughter Matilda, or Maud, married first to Henry V., Emperor of Germany, and afterwards to Geoffrey Accession of Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou. By the latter she had Stephen. several children, of whom the eldest bore the name of Henry. But Stephen, a nephew of the late king, the most popular nobleman in the kingdom, and distinguished for his ambition, valor, generosity, and courtesy, seized upon the crown. Matilda immediately landed in England, and, raising a small army, defeated Stephen, and took possession of the crown : but her haughty and despotic behavior caused a revolt ; and Stephen in his turn defeated her, compelled her to quit the kingdom, and again obtained possession of the throne. 20. Henry, the son of Matilda, afterwards invaded England ; and, during the heat of the contest, Eustace, the king's eldest son, was removed by a sudden death. Soon after secures the this event the jarring interests of the two parties throne, were reconciled, Stephen being allowed to retain the crown during his life, and Henry being acknowledged as his succes- sor ; "and this transaction was shortly afterwards followed by Stephen's death. During this reign England was harassed and desolated by a succession of civil contentions and wars, which were carried on with unrelenting barbarity, by the pillage and destruction of the inhabitants and the conflagration of the towns. 56 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ["35- 21. The political consequences of the wars of this reign, though disastrous in the extreme, could hardly be more so than Social were the injuries inflicted upon the social condition distress. of the people. So sharply were the lines drawn be- tween the adherents of Matilda and of Stephen, that neighbor- hoods and families were divided, and arrayed against each other in the bitterest strife. Nearly every baron, intrenched in his castle, became the head of a band who engaged in plunder and robbery almost without discrimination. Extensive tracts of country were uncultivated, and many considerable towns and districts were deserted by the inhabitants. The dead re- mained unburied; and the churches and graveyards became places of refuge to the poorer people, with their slender means. But even there robbery and conflagrations drove them forth, and everywhere misery seemed their only lot. 22. Stephen was a man of fine presence, gentlemanly and courteous in his bearing, and very cheerful in his disposition. Stephen's Although thoroughly trained to war, and an able character. commander, he was neither wanton nor cruel. But when he violated his oath in regard to the succession, usurped the throne, and found the country ])lunged in civil war, he became the cause of much suffering and misery among the people. 23. The second husband of Matilda, Geoffrey, Earl of An- jou, gave the name to the family of fourteen kings, his descend- ants, who followed the reign of Stephen. It was Plantagenet. , ^11 • 1 • • ,- the custom of the earl to wear m his cap a spng of the broom-plant, the Plaiita genista^ or Plania a genet, from which was derived the royal family name Plantagenet. Sur- names (sire names) began to be commonly used in England at this period. THE PLANTAGENET FAMILY, INCLUDING THE BRANCHES OF LANCASTER AND YORK. CHAP. II.-IV. 1154 to 1485,-331 years. CHAPTER n. THE PLANTAGENETS. 1 154 to 1399,-245 years. Henry II. John. Edward I. Edward III. Richard I. Henry III. Edward II. Richard II. HENRY II., the first of the Plantagenets, — being de- scended by his grandmother fi-om the Saxon kings, and by his mother fi-om the Norman family, — succeeded Henry 11. to the throne (11 54), to the great satisfaction of and his do- the nation. He is sometimes called Shortmantle, "^^"'°"^- because he brought the use of short cloaks out of Anjou to England. In addition to England, he possessed by inheritance, and by his marriage with Eleanor, heiress of the duchy of Guienne, nearly one-half of France, and during his reign he conquered Ireland ; so that he had more extensive dominions than any English monarch who had preceded him, and was the most powerful sovereign of his age. Of Eleanor, his queen, Sir James Mackintosh says, " She was the firebrand of his family, in whose eyes the fair dowry of Aquitaine appeared a cover for every crime." 57 58 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1170. 2. The different countries of Europe had for a century been Church and agitated with the contest between Church and State, State. Qj. ^Q ecclesiastial and civil authority. This con- test reached its height in England during Henry's reign, of which it forms a prominent feature. Thomas a Becket, the Thomas \ hcro and martyr of the ecclesiastical party, a man Becket. Qf extraordinary talents and great ambition, exalted his power to such a degree, that it would admit of a question whether the king or the archbishop was the first man in the kingdom. Becket had for some time held the office of chan- cellor, and lived in the manner of a prince ; but, on assuming the office of Archbishop of Canterbury, he dismissed his splen- did train, cast off his magnificent apparel, abandoned sports and revels, and wore the habit of a monk. 3. During the preceding reign the power of the clergy had increased to a most exorbitant height ; and Henry resolved to Council of restrain their authority, and reform their abuses ; Clarendon. ^^^ fQj, ^j-^jg purpose he Summoned in 11 64 a general council of tlie nobility and clergy at Clarendon, and submitted to them sixteen propositions, which were agreed to, and are known under the title of the " Constitutions of Claren- don." With other things, it was enacted that clergymen accused of any crime should be tried by temporal judges. Becket, however, made the most resolute and formidable re- sistance to the changes proposed by Henry ; and, after a long series of contests with the haughty primate, the king was on a certain occasion so exasperated by his conduct, that he rashly exclaimed, " What ! among all those whom I have obliged is there none who will avenge me of that insolent priest? " The Death of words were scarcely spoken, when four knights of Becket. distinguished rank, interpre<"ing the king's com- plaints as commands, set out with a resolution to avenge the wrongs of their sovereign. They pursued the prelate into the cathedral, and assassinated him before the altar. The account of this transaction filled Henry with consterna- tion, and caused great excitement in England. Becket died a 1173-] THE PLAXTAGENETS. 59 martyr to ecclesiastical authority, and the manner of his death effected the triumph of his cause. He was canonized by the Pope as a saint, by the title of St. Thomas of Canterbury ; and numerous miracles were said to be wrought at his tomb, which became a celebrated resort of pilgrims. Henry publicly ex- pressed his sorrow for having used the rash words which had ocasioned the death of the primate, and expiated his offence by a humiliating penance at his tomb. Having approached within three miles of Canterbury, he dismounted, walking bare- foot over the flinty road, which in some places he marked with blood, to the consecrated spot ; spent there, in fasting and prayer, a day and night ; and even presented his bare shoulders to be scourged by the monks with a knotted cord. The assas- sins did penance by a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where they died ; and this inscription, in Latin, v;as put on their tomb : " Here lie the wretches who murdered St. Thomas of Canterbury." 4. The latter part of Henry's life and reign presents an in- volved and deplorable scene of family discord and contention, — sons against their father, wife against husband, Henry's and brother against brother. His three eldest sons, family Henry, Geoffrey, and Richard, instigated by their *'^°"^i"- mother, and assisted by Louis VH., King of France, engaged in a series of rebellions, with a design to wrest the crown from their father. Queen Eleanor left her husband, and openly associated herself with the rebellion of her sons ; but she was, while making her way to the court of France, taken (dressed in male attire), brought back to Henry, and kept in confine- ment during the rest of his life. The queen had been irritated against her husband by his neglect and infidelities, and particu- larly by his attachment to Rosamond Clifford, who, under the title of the " Fair Rosamond," is described as a woman of ex- traordinary beauty, and who made a conspicuous figure in the romances and ballads of the times. Henry had manifested for his children, in their more early years, an affection bordering on excess ; and when he at last found that his youngest, unworthy, but favorite son, John, like 6o HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1189. all the rest, had joined the confederacy against him, he felt that his cup of affliction was full, gave himself up to transports of ungovernable grief, cursed the day of his birth, uttered impre- cations against his sons (which he could never be prevailed upon to retract) , and, worn out with cares, disappointments, and sorrows, died of a broken heart. 5. The character of Henry may be regarded as a mixture of the qualities, good and bad, naturally arising out of strong in- Henry's tcllcct, a stroug will, and strong passions. He was character. distinguished both as a warrior and a statesman, and he is ranked among the ablest and most useful sovereigns that have occupied the throne of England. The government was still despotic ; but the power of the barons was restrained during this reign, and the laws better administered than they had been since the conquest. Trial by jury, sometimes errone- ously ascribed to the time of Alfred, probably had its origin in this reign ; and Henry was the first who appointed travelling judges to hold court in different parts of the kingdom, thereby saving much time and expense to the accused and witnesses. He abolished the absurd practice of trial by ordeal, in use since the time of Edward the Confessor ; and taxes were first levied on personal estate in England during this reign. 6. Henry was a patron of the arts, particularly of Gothic architecture ; and his reign is remarkable for being the period The arts ; when many of the sumptuous English edifices were comforts of ercctcd, and also for the introduction of various life improvements with regard to the conveniences and comforts of life. The arts of luxury, however, were yet in a rude state. Glass windows were regarded as a mark of ex- traordinary magnificence ; and the houses of the citizens of London were constructed of wood, covered with thatch, and the floors were covered with straw. The description of the magnificence displayed by Becket while he was chancellor of the kingdom will afford some idea of the rude state of the arts. Nobody, it is said by contem- iiSq.] the riANTAGENF.TS. 6l porary writers, equalled him in refinement and splendor. '' Every day, in winter, his apartments were strewed with clean straw or hay, and in summer with rushes or leaves, that those who came to pay their court to him might not soil their fine clothes by sitting on a dirty floor." 7. Richard I., surnamed Coeur de Lion {kur diih le-ong), or lion-hearted, who succeeded his father Henry 11. (1189), commenced his reign by a cruel persecution of the Richard i. Tews The frenzy for the crusades was at this and the J^ / . crusades. period at its height in Europe. These crusades were military expeditions undertaken by the Christian nations of Europe for the recovery of the Holy Sepulchre and Pales- tine from the Mussulmans. To a prince of the adventurous spirit and military talents of Richard these enterprises pre- sented irresistible attractions ; and, after making preparation, he, in connection with Philip Augustus of France, embarked on an expedition to the Holy Land. They took Acre in con- cert ; and Richard, especially, acquired great renown by his exploits, and defeated the heroic Saladin, the famous Saracen chief, in the battle of Ascalon, in which about forty thousand of the Saracens were slain. On his voyage homeward, being shipwrecked, he disguised himself, with an intention of travel- ling through Germany ; but he was discovered, and imprisoned by'' the emperor. He was ransomed by his subjects for the sum of three hundred thousand pounds, and, after an absence of nine years, returned to his dominions ; but he died not long after of a wound which he received at the siege of the castle of Chains, in France, belonging to one of his rebellious vassals. 8. Richard, who has been styled the Achilles of modern his- tory, was pre-eminent for his valor, which was almost his only merit. Even a century after his death his name His charac- was employed by the Saracen cavalier to chide his ^^''• horse, and by the Saracen mother to terrify her children. His ambition, tyranny, and cruelty were scarcely inferior to his valor. His laurels were steeped in blood, and his victories were purchased with the impoverishment of his people. 62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [1199. g. Richard was succeeded by his brother John (1199), who is supposed to have murdered his nephew Arthur, who was the son of Geoffrey, an elder brother, and the rightful heir. Phihp Accession of Augustus of France supported the claim of Arthur John. |-Q the throne ; and, on account of his being mur- dered, he stripped the English monarch of his possessions in that country. In consequence of this loss of his territories, John received the surname of Lackland. 10. John excited against himself the displeasure of Pope Innocent III., who proceeded to lay the kingdom under an Quarrel with interdict, and afterwards excommunicated the king, the Pope. 2Xidi. absolved his subjects from their allegiance. The wretched monarch was intimidated into submission, and on his knees solemnly surrendered his kingdom to the holy see, consenting to hold it as the Pope's vassal. In this manner he made peace with the Church ; but he brought upon himself the universal contempt and hatred of his people. 1 1 . The barons, under the direction of Langton, the primate, formed a confederacy, and demanded of the king a ratification Magna of a charter of privileges. John, bursting into a Charta, furious passion, refused their demand. They im- mediately proceeded to open war ; and the king, finding him- self deserted, was compelled to yield. He met his barons at Runnymede, and, after a debate of a few days, signed and sealed ( 1 2 1 5 ) the famous deed of Magna Charta, or the Great Charter, which secured important liberties and privileges to every order of men in the kingdom, and which is regarded as the great bulwark of English liberty. John granted at the same time the Charter of the Forest, which abolished the exclusive right of the king to kill game all over the kingdom. 12. The character of John is represented as more odious than that of any other English monarch ; debased by every vice, John'-; with Scarcely a single redeeming virtue. His reign, character. though most unhappy and disastrous, is, notwith- standing, memorable as the era of the dawn of English freedom. I2i6.] THE PLANTAGENETS. (i?, 13. Henry III. succeeded (12 16) to the throne at the age of only nine years, under the guardianship of the Earl of Pem- broke. He was a weak monarch, timid in danger, Henry iii.: presumptuous in prosperity, and governed by un- character worthy favorites. His lot was cast in a turbulent ^" reign, period of English history ; and his long reign of fifty-six years consisted of a series of internal conflicts, though it was little disturbed by foreign war. The incapacity of the king was more productive of inconvenience to himself than of misery to his subjects. Under his weak but pacific sway the cause of popular freedom was advanced, and the nation grew more rapidly in wealth and prosperity than it had done under his military and more renowned predecessors. 14. Towards the latter part of the reign of Henry, the barons, with Simon de Montfort (Earl of Leicester) at their head, entered into a confederacy to seize the reins popular of government ; and they compelled Henry to freedom delegate the regal power to twenty-four of their number. These divided among themselves all the offices of government, and new-modelled the Parliament by summoning a certain number of knights chosen from each county. This measure proved fatal to the power of the barons ; for the knights, indignant at Leicester's usurpation, concerted a plan for restoring the king. A civil war ensued. Leicester, at the head of a formidable force, defeated the royal army at Lewes, and made both the king and his son Edward prisoners. He compelled the feeble king to ratify his authority by a solemn treaty, assumed the character of regent, and called a parlia- ment, summoning two knights from each shire, and deputies from the principal boroughs (1265). This is regarded as the era of the commencement of the House of Commons, being the first time that representatives to Parliament were sent from the boroughs. Prince Edward, having at length regained his liberty, took the field against Leicester, and defeated him with great slaughter in the famous battle of Evesham. In this battle 64 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1272. Leicester himself was killed ; and Henry, by the assistance of his son, was again placed on the throne. 15. Edward I., surnamed Longshanks from the length of Edward I ^^^ ^^to^f ^^ Succeeding to the throne (1272), and the causcd two hundred and eighty Jews in London to }^l' be hanged at once on a charge of having cor- rupted the coin ; and fifteen thousand were robbed of their effects, and banished from the kingdom. He soon after undertook to subdue Wales ; and having defeated and slain the sovereign. Prince Llewellyn, he annexed the country to the crown of England. He created his oldest son Prince of Wales, — a title which has ever since been borne by the oldest sons of the English monarchs. 16. The conquest of Wales inflamed the ambition of Edward, and inspired him with the design of extending his dominion to War with the extremity of the island. On the death of Alex- Scotiand. ander HL, who left no son, Bruce and Baliol were competitors for the throne of Scotland ; and Edward was chosen umpire to decide the contest between the two rivals. He adjudged the crown to Baliol, who engaged to hold it as a vas- sal of the King of England. Baliol, however, soon afterwards renounced his allegiance : hence arose a war between England and Scotland, which lasted, with little intermission, upwards of seventy years, and drenched both kingdom.s with blood. Ed- ward invaded Scotland with a large army, defeated the Scots with great slaughter in the battle of Dunbar, and subdued the kingdom ; and Baliol was carried captive to London. 17. While Edward was prosecuting a war in France, the Scots were roused to exertion for the recovery of their inde- pendence by their renowned hero. Sir William Wallace ; but, William after gaining a series of victories, they were at Wallace and length defeated by the King of England, with Robert immense loss, in the battle of Falkirk. Wallace Bruce. ' became a prisoner of Edward, who put him to death with barbarous cruelty. The Scots found a second r,07.'] THE PLANTAGENETS. 65 champion and deliverer in Robert Bruce, grandson of the competitor of Bahol, who, having expelled the English from the country, was raised to the throne of his ancestors. Edward prepared to make a new invasion with an immense army, but died after having advanced as far as Carlisle. 18. Edward, who was one of the greatest of the English sovereigns, was eminent as a warrior ; and, on account of his wisdom as a legislator, he has been styled the Eng- Edward's lish Justinian. But he was in disposition a tyrant, character. and, as often as he dared, trampled on the liberties, or invaded the property, of his subjects. He was, however, admired by his contemporaries ; and his barons respected the arbitrary sway of a monarch as violent and haughty as themselves. , His reign was highly advantageous to the kingdom, particularly for the improvements made in the national code and the administra- tion of justice. He repeatedly ratified Magna Charta, and an important clause was added to secure the people from the imposition of any tax without the consent of Parliament. Ever since that time there has been a regular succession of English pariiaments. 19. Edward II., surnamed of Caernaiiwn {^Kernaiiwii) from the place of his birth, soon after succeeding to the throne (1307), in compliance with his father's dying in- Bannock- junction, invaded Scotland with an army of one ^^'^"• hundred thousand men, which was met at Bannockbum by thirty thousand Scots under their king, Robert Bruce (1314). A great battle ensued, in which the English sustained a more disastrous defeat than they had experienced since the battle of Hastings. 20. Edward IL, who possessed little of the character of his father, was of a mild disposition, weak, indolent, fond of pleas- ure, and governed by unworthy favorites, the most Edward 11. 's famous of whom were Gaveston and the two Spen- character cers. His inglorious reign was characterized by ^" reign, the corruption of the court, and by contests and war between 66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1327. the king and the barons ; and his life was rendered unhappy by a series of mortifications and misfortunes. Isabella, his infamous queen, fixed her affections, which had long been estranged fi-om her husband, upon Mortimer, a powerful young baron ; and she, together with her paramour, formed a con- spiracy against the king, and compelled him to resign the crown to his son. Edward was then thrown into a prison, and after- wards murdered, by order of Mortimer, in a barbarous manner. Before his death, and while he was in prison, Parliament declared the throne vacant, thereby establishing its right to depose a sovereign. 21. Edward III. succeeded to the throne (1327) at the age of fourteen years. A council of regency, consisting of Edward III. twelve persous, was appointed during the minority and Mor- of the king ; yet Mortimer and Isabella possessed timer. ^|^^ chief coutrol. A treaty was made with the Scots, virtually acknowledging the independence of their king and parliament. But Edward, on coming of age, could not endure the authority of a man who had caused the murder of his father, or of a mother stained with the foulest crimes Mortimer was condemned by Parliament, and hanged upon a gibbet ; and Isabella was imprisoned for life at Castle Risings, and continued for twenty-eight years a miserable monument of blasted ambition. 22. Tiie king, soon after he was established on the throne, made war with the Scots, and defeated them with great slaugh- warwith ^^^ i^ t^^^ battle of Halidon Hill (1333). On the the Scots and death of Charles IV., he laid claim, in right of his mother, to the crown of France, which he attempted to gain by force of arms, in opposition to Philip of Valois, who was acknowledged by the French nation as the rightful heir. This claim involv^ed the two countries in a long and sanguinary war. After having made his preparations, Edward sailed from England with a powerful armament. His fleet, consisting of two hundred and fifty sail, encountered that of France, amount- I3-|6.] THE PLANTAGENETS. 67 ing to four hundred ships, off the coast of Flanders, and gained one of the greatest naval victories recorded in history. The loss of the English is stated at four thousand men and two ships, that of the French at thirty thousand men and two hundred and thirty ships. Edward then invaded France at the head of thirty thousand troops, and in the famous battle of Cressy (1346) gained a splendid victory over Philip, the French king, who cressy had an army of upwards of one hundred thousand the Black men, and whose loss exceeded thirty thousand. ^""*^^- This battle is noted, not only for the greatness of the victory, but also for being the first in English history in which cannon were made use of, and likewise for being the scene in which Edward, the king's eldest son (called the Black Prince from the color or covering of his armor) , then only sixteen years of age, commenced his brilliant military career. Edward after- wards besieged and took Calais, which remained in the posses- sion of the English till the time of Queen Mary. 23. While the English monarch was in France, the Scots, un- der their kinof, David, invaded England, and were de- ^ & ' Philippa. feated at Neville's Cross, near Durham, by Philippa, Edward's heroic queen ; and their king was led prisoner to Lon- don. Of the four generals under the queen, three were prelates. 24. John, who succeeded his father on the throne of France, took the field with an army of sixty thousand men against the Black Prince, who, with only sixteen thousand • , . ^ . • X r, Poitiers. troops, gamed a signal victory at Poitiers {Fwa- tiers), 1356. King John was taken prisoner, and led in triumph by the victorious prince to London, where he was kept a fellow- captive with David of Scotland. 25. Edward, in the latter part of his reign, sank into indo- lence and indulgence, and experienced a reverse of fortune ; and, before his death, all his conquests, with the possessions exception of Calais, were wrested from him. His ^°^*- son, the Black Prince, falling into a lingering consumption, was f8 HISTORY OF EXGLAND. [1377 obliged to resign the command of the army ; and Charles V. of France, an able sovereign, recovered most of the English possessions in that country. The death of the Black Prince, illustrious for his amiable virtues, as well as for his noble and heroic qualities, plunged the nation in grief, and broke the spirits of his father, who survived him only about a year, having occupied the throne fifty years. 26. Edward was the most powerful prince of his time in Europe, and in personal accomplishments is said to have been Edward's Superior to any of his predecessors. His domestic character administration was in many respects excellent, and and reign. advantagcous to his subjects. The astonishing vic- tories which cast so much military splendor on his reign, and which are accounted the most brilliant in English history, appear to have dazzled the eyes both of his subjects and foreigners, who placed him in the first rank of conquerors. But his wars with France and Scotland were unjust in their object; and, after having caused great suffering and devastation, he at last found that the crowns of those kingdoms were beyond his reach. In this reign chivalry was at its zenith in England ; and in all the virtues which adorned the knightly character, in courtesy, munificence, and gallantry, in all the delicate and magnanimous feelings, none were more conspicuous than Edward III., and his son the Black Prince. Their court was, as it were, the sun of that system which embraced the valor and nobility of the Christian world. 27. The title of Duke, now one of the highest orders of Order of nobility, was first applied to the Black Prince ; and dukes. i-jjg father first introduced the order of the Knights of the Garter. During this reign the black death, a terrible pestilence which came across Europe from the East, prevailed ; and it is said that nearly half the popu- lation of London died, and many villages and towns were depopulated. 1377.] THE PLANTAGENETS. 69 28. The language of the people underwent great changes during Edward's reign, and towards its close the English lan- guage was used instead of the Norman or French The English in the courts and in the schools. Sir John Man- language, deville, whose account of his travels in the East is one of the oldest books written in English prose, lived during this reign. 29. Richard II., the unworthy son of Edward the Black Prince, succeeded to the throne (1377) ^t the age of eleven years. He was indolent, prodigal, perfidious, and Richard 11. a slave to pleasure. The administration of the and his re- government during the minority of the king was ^^^ ^' in his own name, but was conducted by a council chosen by the peers; and this council was greatly influenced, though oftentimes secretly, by the king's three uncles, — the Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, — whose contests embroiled all the public measures. Of these the Duke of Lancaster, John of Gaunt, or Ghent (so named from the place of his birth), was the most distinguished, and was possessed of great wealth and power: but he became unpopular, particularly with the courtiers and clergy ; and he was noted for being (for political reasons, as is supposed) the protector of Wickliffe the re- former, whose preaching for a number of years against the corruptions of the Church had made him prominent, and gained for him many adherents. 30. A poll-tax of three groats (about one shilling), imposed by Parliament upon every male and female above the age of fifteen years, excited universal discontent among ^^^^yier. the lower classes, on account of its injustice in re- quiring as much of the poor as of the rich. One of the brutal tax-gatherers, having demanded payment for a blacksmith's daughter whom the father asserted to be below the age speci- fied, was proceeding to improper familiarities with her, when the enraged father, named Wat Tyler, dashed out the tax- gatherer's brains with a hammer. The spectators applauded the action. A spirit of sedition spread through the kingdom, 70 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [13SS. and a hundred thousand insurgents, under Tyler, were soon assembled upon Blackheath ; but the leader was slain, and his followers were finally compelled to submit. This movement is known in history as the Peasants' Revolt, or Wat Tyler's Rebellion. ' 31^. While the kingdom was convulsed with domestic contests, it was also engaged in hostilities with France and Scotland. At War with Ottcrburn (1388) was fought, between the Enghsh Scotland and under Percy (surnamed Hotspur on account of his France. ^^^^ temper) and the Scotch under Douglas, a battle, in which Percy was taken prisoner, and Douglas was" slain. On this battle is founded the celebrated ballad of Chevy Chace. 32. Richard unjustly banished his cousin Henry, the eldest son and heir of John of Gaunt (Duke of Lancaster), and on The king de- the death of the duke he seized upon his estate ; posed. ]3^^-^ ^1-^g Y\Xig having afterwards undertaken an ex- pedition to Ireland in order to quell an insurrection, Henry, the young duke, took advantage of his absence, returned to England, landed at Ravenspur, soon found himself at the head of a numerous army, and compelled Richard, on his return, to resign the crown. The king being very unpopular, the Parlia- ment readily confirmed his deposition : he was then imprisoned, and, as is generally supposed, afterwards murdered. 33. During this and the preceding reigns, John Wickliffe, the early reformer, lived. He was educated at Oxford, where Wickliffe he was also master of one or two colleges, and and Chaucer, divinity profcssor. Wickliffe was reputed to be highly distinguished for his theological knowledge and for his scholastic ability. He engaged in controversies with the men- dicant friars, preached against the corruption and temporalities of the Church, and made the first English translation of the Bible. John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, was his friend and protector. Contemporary with him was Geoffrey Chaucer, called the 1399] THE PLANTA GENETS, 71 " father of English poetry." He was educated at Oxford and Cambridge, and was a man of rare genius, and very popular at the brilliant court of Edward III. His principal work was the " Canterbury Tales," in which he represents a party of thirty persons, of various occupations in life, journeying from London on a pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury, and relieving the tiresomeness of the journey by telling stories. These stories contain an accurate picture of the manners and customs of his time, and his work is still regarded as an English classic. Chaucer was one of the first celebrities buried (1400) in the Poets* Corner in Westminster Abbey. 34. The Duke of Lancaster was raised to the throne with the title of Henry IV. ; though Edmund Mortimer was the true heir to the crown, being descended from Lionel, the third son of Edward HL ; whereas Henry was the son of John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward HL Hence began contests between the houses of York and Lancaster. 35. At the close of this period (1399) nearly three centuries and a half had elapsed since the landing of William . Changes. the Conqueror, and during this tnne^great changes had taken place in the kingdom. 36. Many of the most objectionable features of the feudal system had disappeared. After the Conquest, and especially during the reisrn of Stephen, the number of baronial ° "=' ^ Castles. castles erected was very large. These structures, generally built upon a hill or rocky eminence, usually consisted of a stone tower, or keep, in some cases square, in others round, with walls several feet in thickness, and often more than a. hun- dred feet in height, and with very narrow windows, or loopholes. The upper part of this keep was generally the residence of the baron, or lord of the castle ; while the underground and the lower parts were used as a dungeon and for storerooms. Around this, in the larger structures, were one or two walls ; the outer one being flanked with towers, enclosing courts within, where 72 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1399. were the residences of the soldiers or knights, and the retainers of the baron, and the storehouses of the estabhshment. Outside of the whole .was a moat, or deep ditch, filled with water, over which was thrown a drawbridge, taken up' at night and in times of danger. The main entrance was protected by strong iron doors, and a portcullis, which consisted of a heavy iron grating, or framework of timbers, pointed at the lower end with iron, and hung by chains, so as to be let down from the archway above, and effectually bar the entrance against intruders and hostile invasion. Some of these castles were very large, covering several acres of ground ; and they were so substantially built, that many of their ruins, after the lapse of seven or eight cen- turies, are at this day so strong, and so little affected by time, as to excite our admiration and wonder. 37. Around these gloomy walls were often witnessed some of the bloodiest encounters to be found in history. The barons and their followers, sallying forth from their strong- holds, made war upon each other and upon the king, and committed murder and robbery in the most wanton and inhuman manner. So great became the danger from this source during the reign of Henry 11. , that that monarch deter- mined to exterminate those "robbers' nests," as he was accus- tomed to call them ; and he accordingly caused a thousand castles to be demolished or dismanded. This gave greater security to life and property, and put a check upon the lawless- ness and rapacity of the barons. 38. The power of the clergy was very great during these centuries, and the Church was often the controHing element in the government of the kingdom. The Norman prelates far excelled the Saxon church officials in their ability to manage the affairs of Church and State ; and their policy, inaugurated at the Conquest, took strong hold of the control of the government. The strife among ecclesiastics for places and their emoluments, and for worldly possessions, was intense, and not unfrequently led to quarrels and bloody 1399.] THE PLANTAGENETS. 73 contentions. They were politicians and warriors, as well as church officials, and were active participants in all matters of public interests, and sometimes among the foremost in meas- ures and acts of oppression. At the close of the fourteenth century, the power of the clergy had been greatly curtailed as compared with its exercise a century or two earlier. 39. This was pre-eminently the age of cathedral and church building. During the reigns of Henry III. and Edward I., Westminster Abbey was rebuilt in nearly its present condition, some alterations and additions having since been made ; and York and Canterbury Cathedrals, and many others, were either rebuilt or begun during the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries. Great improvements were made in the architecture of these edifices ; and elegant stained- glass windows became quite common, many of which are at present in a good state of preservation. Church clocks began to be introduced at the clos'e of the thirteenth century, one being placed upon the Canterbury Cathedral in 1292. 40. It is said, that, in the thirteenth century, nearly one-half of the landed estates belonged to the Church, and that the revenue received by the pope from England was church reve- greater than that paid to the crown. Several new ""e. religious orders were introduced, including the Dominican and the Franciscan friars, often called, from the color of their dress, Black Friars and Gray Friars. 41. There were often exhibited, for the entertainment and religious instruction of the lower classes of people, rude theat- rical plays, of which the subjects were scenes from Miracle the Old and New Testaments ; such as the Creation, piays. the Fall of Man, Cain and Abel, the Deluge, the Crucifixion, and also the lives and miracles of the saints. The exhibitions' were given in the churches and monasteries, and the priests and monks were among the principal actors. The incidents of the plays were all literally given, with representations of the persons of the Trinity, angels, devils, saints, and martyrs. In this the 74 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1399- simple laith of the common people at that time saw no impro- priety, and their religious sense was probably edified rather than shocked. The representations were very lengthy ; the one on the Creation and Fall of Man occupying six days. To prevent these plays from becoming tedious to their rude audiences, comical scenes and jesting were introduced ; but this finally degenerated in revelry, and the ecclesiastics were prohibited from taking part in them. 42. Judged in the fight of modern times, the state of morality was then low among all classes ; and the sabbath was so openly profaned by secular labor and every species of dis- sipation and worldly pleasure, that in 1359 the Archbishop of Canterbury issued a proclamation forbidding the opening of markets and fairs on Sunday, and commanding " all persons to go to the parish churches on that day to ask pardon for their offences," instead of devoting it to business or sinful amusements. 43. The principles set forth in Magna Charta were subse- quently ratified by several sovereigns, and began to give the House of lower classes of people a better chance for justice. Commons. For two centuries after the Conquest, the great council of state consisted of the immediate vassals of the king ; that is, of the nobility, including bishops, abbots, barons, and earls. About the middle of the thirteenth century, during the reign of Henry III., knights of the shires and citizens elected by the people were admitted, and occupied the lower end of the hall in which the council sat. This was the beginning of the House of Commons, although it did not meet in a separate chamber until the time of Edward HI. 44. The cause of learning received considerable attention during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Several colleges and schools were established at Oxford and Cam- Education. ,-1 ,., r ri ... ^ bridge, which now form a part of the universities of those well-known seats of learning. To these schools a large number of students came, not only from England, Scotland, and 1399-] THE PLANTAGENETS. 75 Ireland, but also from the Continent. Law schools, called " Inns of Court," were established in that part of London known as Westminster, in the fourteenth century. Schools were likewise founded in London, St. Albans, and other large towns. But these institutions received their patronage very largely from the higher classes of people. In the science of astronomy consid- erable advancement was made ; and metaphysics, mathematics, and alchemy were leading subjects of study. Roger Bacon, a Franciscan monk and teacher at Oxford, who died about 1292, was a distinguished scholar, learned in the ancient languages and in almost all departments of rq knowledge. He prepared several text-books and Bacon. treatises, and, with apparatus of his own construction, made extensive investigations in the natural sciences as they were then known. It is generally believed that he was famihar with the composition of gunpowder. Some of Bacon's experiments were so wonderful and so little understood, Jhat the ignorant and superstitious accused him of sorcery, and he was imprisoned for many years. 45. Much time and investigation were wasted in the study of alchemy, by which it was supposed that a universal solvent could be discovered that would dissolve all other Alchemy, substances. The philosopher's stone was also sought Astrology, for, that would change the baser metals into gold. Attention was likewise given to astrology, which was the pretended art of . foretelling future events by studying the heavenly bodies ; and it was intimately connected with fortune-telhng and kindred practices. Magic-lanterns were invented in the reign of Henry HI. (1260), and spectacles probably soon after, in the time of Edward I. Gunpowder and cannon were first used by the EngHsh in the fourteenth century. 46. From the Conquest to the death of Chaucer, changes in the language had been slowly though constantly taking place. With William came the Norman tongue, which was the language ^6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [i399- of the court and polite society. The Saxons spoke their own tongue ; while Latin was the language of the church, of the The Ian- higher institutions of learning, of the laws, and of guage. books. For a long time the Saxon refused to learn the language of his oppressor ; while the proud Norman looked with equal disdain upon the speech of the Saxon, whom he regarded as belonging to an inferior class. Some pecuharities of the English language grew out of the relation which the different classes held to each other at that time. Menial labor was performed by the Saxon, such as the tending of the flocks and herds of domestic animals ; and by him those animals were called by such Saxon names as ox, cow, calf, sheep, and fowl. But, when those animals were killed, their meat was not for the poorest class, but was served upon the table of the nobles, where, in Norman-French, it became beef, veal, mutton, and poultry. But in course of time the better class of Saxons rose above their inferior condition, and occupied a more friendly and inti- mate relation to the Norman, which eventually resulted in an assimilation of the languages, as well as of the races. The language at the close of the fourteenth century had assumed that form called Middle English, having grown up from the languages of the Saxons and the Normans, with a slight intermixture of words from the Celtic, the Latin, and the Greek. It was now spoken at court, and was the language in which books began to be written. 47. In addition to the amusements and recreations to which the Saxons had been accustomed, the feudal system introduced the tournament, a kind of military sport or exercise, Tourna- ' , ,.,.,. ments. Chiv- in which mailed knights sought to exhibit their ^^"■y- courage, address, and skill in arms. The knights, imbued with the spirit of chivalry, professed to be actuated by a high sense of honor, and to be the defenders of the Church and its clergy, and of noble and defenceless women, as well as to present in their own persons the embodiment of loyalty, truth, and all the nobler virtues. Some of their defensive armor 1399-] THE PLANTAGENETS. 77 was made of small steel plates, overlapping each other like the scales of a fish ; or of small rings, interlinked, or sewed on leather ; and sometimes of large heavy plates, bent to fit differ- ent parts of the body, and jointed to make it pliable. The usual armor of a knight on the occasion of a tournament consisted of a helmet and visor, breastplate, or coat-of-mail, gauntlets, greaves, a shield, and a spear or lance, with its point blunted, or protected with a block of wood. Mounted upon spirited horses, and with their lances extending far before them, these knights rushed upon each other with such terrific force as not unfrequently to unhorse the riders, and even to maim and kill them. He was adjudged the bravest knight who kept his seat the longest, or broke the greatest number of lances. The prize, awarded by judges, was usually a ribbon, a scarf, or a banner, and was received by the victor at the hands of some fair lady. These tournaments were given on great occasions, such as the coronation of a king, a distinguished victory, or a birth or marriage in royal and noble families ; and they were accom- panied by much ceremony and display, and witnessed by vast crowds of the nobility, among whom ladies were always promi- nent. But they were demoralizing in their influence, and were at times interdicted by church and civil authorities. Chivalry was a strange mixture of religious enthusiasm, mili- tary ardor, and gallantry. It had a few redeeming features : it softened the manners of the people in a barbarous age, and infused humanity into war when war was almost the business of life. It introduced courtesy of manners when the people were rude, required a scrupulous adherence to truth when falsehood was notoriously common, and exacted a respectful and delicate attention to the female sex in an age when such attention was needed. But it was also a school of vice, and a vaunting and hollow-hearted institution, originated and conducted for the benefit of the nobility. It never had for its object the rehef and the improvement of the lowly and the poor, however worthy they might be. Tournaments ceased when the feudal system began to decay. 78 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [1399. Horse-racing and hunting were common sports of the Eng- lish, as, indeed, they have continued to be until the present time. 48. The large number of vessels brought to England by the Normans gave quite an impetus to trade and commerce. In Trade and the reign of Henry H. trade was very flourishing ; commerce. but at Other periods it was greatly hindered by petty legislation and by jealousy of foreigners. Wool was a large article of export ; but Edward HI. introduced Flemish weavers, and the manufacture of cloth at home became an important industry. Dublin became the seat of an extensive commerce, and was a rival, in this respect, of London, which was considered the principal mart of the kingdom. London became the capital in the twelfth century, and is supposed to have had a population of about fifty thousand during the reign of John. Domestic trade was commonly carried on at fairs, or in small stalls or sheds ; and persons who dealt in silks, ribbons, and other goods imported from Milan, received the name of " mil-' liners." Coal is said to have been discovered at New Castle upon Tyne, about 1234, during the reign of Henry HL Its use was at one time prohibited in London, as its smoke was supposed to be injurious to health ; but in 1381 the trade in coals from New Castle to London had become quite extensive. 49. It is not thought that agriculture made very much prog- ress during the three centuries and a half following the Conquest. The prevalence of war is unfavorable to agricultural Agriculture. •,. t-i • . • r • pursuits. 1 here was some improvement in farming utensils ; hand-mills for grinding grain continued in use among the lower classes, while water-mills were numerous upon the great manors. Flowers were generally cultivated by all classes ; and vegetable-gardens, fruit-orchards, and vineyards were common. 50. In the reign of John, the poorer classes were still living 1399 J THE PLANTAGENETS 79 in rude, thatched huts ; but the dwelHngs of those in better circumstances gave evidence of more comfort and convenience. They are described as generally * ^ * oblong in shape, two stories high, and with a gable at each end. Movable stairs on the outside were used in reaching the cham- bers ; and a ladder led to a common room under the roof. But at the close of the fourteenth century, great advance had been made in domestic architecture, and the houses of all classes were improved in comfort and style. The furniture of the rich was elaborately carved, and the upholstering was of silk and other costly materials. The will of an earl, made in the reign of Richard 11. , mentions beds of black satin, of white, red, and blue silk, and of black velvet, embroidered with gold, silver, and colors. 51. When the Normans came to England, they were more abstemious than the Saxons. They were fond of meat ; and their bread was made of rye, oats, or barley. But on special occasions their feasts were costly, and served with much cere- mony and display. An old proverb implies that they had but two meals a day : — "To rise at five, to dine at nine, To sup at five, to bed at nine, Makes a man live to ninety-nine " In the thirteenth century, the daily allowance of a farm-laborer consisted of a loaf of bread, two herrings, and milk from the dairy, or beer. But in course of time luxurious living increased. The boar's head was the favorite royal dish, and was ushered into the dining-hall with the sound of trumpets. Rich food, spiced wines, and fermented liquors were used ; and finally gluttony and excessive drinking became so common, that a law was enacted limiting the number of courses at meals. 52. Fashions in dress were sometimes most absurd. In the twelfth century, fops wore long-pointed shoes twisted in the shape of rams' horns. Two centuries later these projecting points 8o HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1399. turned up in front, and were fastened to the knees by chains of gold or silver ; while the head was covered with a richly em- broidered hood. His hose were not both of the same color, and his jacket was party-colored, and fantastically trimmed. The style of ladies' dress was equally odd and extravagant. Head-dresses sometimes towered three feet above the head, and were decked with silken streamers several feet in length. Much elegant embroidering was done, for dress and for house decoration, by the ladies of good families ; and some of the vestments of the clergy wrought by them are spoken of as wonderful specimens of needlework and ornamentation. Side-saddles, for ladies' use, were introduced in the reign of Richard H. 53. The system of villenage, which had so long kept the peasant-class in a kind of slavery, was much mitigated, though not entirely abolished. The peasants were now Villenage. , , . , , ,. . tenants rather than serfs, and the condition of the common people was much improved. They enjoyed more of the comforts of life ; and their rights, their property, and their lives were better protected by law. CHAPTER III. THE BRANCH OF LANCASTER. 1399-1461, — 62 years Henry IV. Henry V. Henry VI. HENRY IV., surnamed Bolingbroke from the place of his birth, who succeeded to the throne by the deposition and murder of the lawful king (1399) and the ex- a usurper elusion of the rightful heir, soon found that the and persecu- throne of a usurper is but a bed of thorns. A combination was immediately formed against him. The Scots under Douglas, and the Welsh under Owen Glendower, took part with the rebels ; but their united forces were defeated in a most desperate and bloody battle at Shrewsbury, and their leader, Percy (Hotspur), was killed (1403). While a subject, Henry was supposed to have imbibed the religious principles of his father, John of Gaunt, the patron of Wickliffe and his followers ; but, after he was raised to the throne, he changed his faith, endeavored to suppress the opinions which his father had supported, and was the first Eng- lish monarch who caused a subject (William Sawtree) to be put to death on account of his religious opinions. 2. Henry was distinguished for his military talents and for his political sagacity ; and, had he succeeded to the throne by a just tide, he might have been ranked as one of character the greatest of English monarchs. He had been ^^^ ""^'e"- one of the most popular noblemen in the kingdom. Yet, al- though his reign was in many respects beneficial to the nation, 81 82 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [14 13. he became a most unpopular sovereign. His peace of mind was destroyed by jealousy and by remorse ; he was an object of pity even when seated on the throne ; and he felt the truth of the language which Shakspeare puts into his mouth, — "Un- easy lies the head that wears a crown." 3. The latter part of his life was imbittered by the extreme profligacy of his son Henry, Prince of Wales. One of the Prince princc's dissolute companions having been indicted Henry. before the chief justice, Sir William Gascoigne, for some misdemeanor, he was so exasperated at the issue of the trial, that he struck the judge in open court. The venerable magistrate, mindful of the dignity of his office, ordered the prince to be committed to prison. Henry quietly submitted, and acknowledged his error. When the circumstance was re- lated to the king, he is said to have exclaimed, in a transport of joy, " Happy is the king who has a magistrate endowed with courage to execute the laws upon such an offender ; still more happy in having a son willing to submit to such chastisement 1 " 4. Henry V., on succeeding to the throne (1413), imme- diately assembled his former riotous companions, acquainted A reformed them with his intended reformation, forbade their king. appearance in his presence till they should imitate his example, and dismissed them with liberal presents. He commended the chief justice for his impartial conduct, and encouraged him to persevere in a strict execution of the laws. This victory which he gained over himself is incomparably more honorable to him than the martial exploits which have immortalized his name. 5. The WickUffites, or Lollards, were now numerous in Eng- land, and had for their leader the famous Sir John Oldcastle (Lord Cobham), a nobleman of distinguished tal- ents, and high in favor with the king. But Henry, in matters of religion being under the influence of the clergy, and particularly of Archbishop Arundel, gave up to his enemies the virtuous and gallant nobleman, who was condemned for heresy, and put to death. /4'5] THE BRANCH OF LANCASTER. Zt, 6. Before Henry came to the throne, his father (Henry IV.) had advised him to keep his subjects occupied with foreign wars, as that would prevent them from inquiring into Affairs in his title to the throne. France at this time was France, much distracted by two rival factions, — the houses of Orleans and Burgundy, — each striving to exercise control in the king- dom during the insanity of the king, Charles VI., and the minority of his son the Dauphin, afterwards Charles VII. 7. Taking advantage of these disorders in France, Henry decided to revive his claim to the throne of that kingdom. Having hired, from Holland and other countries, a fleet of more than twelve hundred vessels, he set sail with an army of thirty thousand men, and landed at Har- fleur, at the mouth of the Seine, which, after an obstinate resist- ance of a month, was compelled to surrender. Henry used in this attack some large cannon, called '' bombards," which he obtained from Germany, with officers to work them, and which did effectual service. An old writer says they ^' vomited from .their fiery mouths vast quantities of stones with a vehement explosion and a terrific and intolerable noise." Sickness soon after prevailed to such an extent in Henry's army, that it was reduced to about ten thousand, or one-third of the number with which he left England. 8. Leaving Harfleur, Henry marched towards Calais, his army being terribly harassed and annoyed by the French -,_.,., , Asincourt. for nearly a fortnight, until an engagement took place at Agincourt i^Azhankoor) in October, 1415. The French army numbered sixty thousand ; but, notwithstanding their gi'eat superiority in numbers, they were terribly defeated, leaving dead upon the field seven princes of royal blood, a hundred nobles, eight thousand knights, and many common soldiers ; making their loss eleven thousand killed, besides fourteen thousand prisoners taken by the English. Henry's loss was small. This was a memorable battle, and was fought not far from the famous battlefield of Cressy. The first musical composition in English 84 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1422. was made in commemoration of this battle. It was written upon vellum, and is still preserved in Cambridge University. The English king immediately returned to London, where he was received with great display, and demonstrations of joy. g. Henry made other expeditions to France, during which he overran Normandy, and occupied Caen and Rouen, and also Henry, heir ^cld his court at Paris. There he married Cathe- of France. nne, the Princess of France, and daughter of King Charles VI. By a treaty with the queen, the king being insane, Henry was made Regent of France, and declared heir to the crown. Two years afterward (1422) he died of a mysterious disease, at Vincennes ; and his funeral and burial, in Westminster Abbey, are spoken of as one of the most magnificent occasions of the kind recorded in history. Tapers were kept constantly burning upon his tomb for more than a century. 10. Henry V. was one of the most heroic of the English sovereigns, eminent as a warrior, beloved and adored by mili- Henry's tary mcu ; and his short reign is one of the most character. brilliant in English history for military achievement.- But his conquests were of little benefit to his people. Henry's widow married Owen Tudor, a Welsh chieftain, from whom were descended the line of English sovereigns called the Tudor family. 11. Henry VI. succeeded to the tlitone (1422) when an infant only nine months old, and was proclaimed king both of Henry's England and France. His education was intrusted guardians. to Cardinal Beaufort, brother of his grandfather, Henry IV. ; and his uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and Glouces- ter, were appointed protectors or guardians of his dominions, — the former for France, and the latter for England. Charles VII., the Dauphin of France, being supported by the French people, recovered the kingdom by degrees ; and the English, being compelled by that extraordinary heroine, Joan of Arc. ^ _ . ... /- /^ 1 >• Joan of Arc, to raise the siege of Orleans, were afterwards stripped of all their conquests in that country, except Calais and Guienne {Gheai). HJi] THE BRANCH OF LANCASTER. 85 12. During these successes of the French, Orleans had been besieged by the EngUsh several months, and was upon the point of surrendering for the want of food, when the city was saved by a young peasant-girl from Lorraine, called Joan of Arc, but whose real name was Jeanne Dare {^Zhaun Dark) . She had never attended school, but had spent her time in tending her father's flocks, and in solitary musings upon the stories and lives of the saints and martyrs. She was of a deeply religious nature, and declared that she had seen visions, and heard voices, urging her to undertake the deliverance of France. Her first offer of her services was rejected, and she was thought to be insane or a sorceress ; but, having gained an audience with the young king, she succeeded in being ap- pointed to a command. Mounted upon a snow-white charger, she rode forth at the head of ten thousand troops, whom she inspired with such enthusiasm and courage, that they routed the English, who fled, saying it was useless to contend with a witch. She gained some other victories, and accompanied the king to Rheims, and assisted in his coronation there. In a battle at Compiegne (^Kom-pe-aiti) she was taken prisoner by the Duke of Burgundy, and sold to the English, who, in revenge for their loss of Orleans, gave her up to a court of French ecclesiastics, to be tried for sorcery and magic. After a trial of several months, she was convicted, and burned at the stake, in the market-place at Rouen, in May, 1431. This act reflects lasting disgrace upon the French and the English, and also upon the king for not saving her. She was neither bloodthirsty nor cruel, and had done no wrong, but had achieved success by her en- thusiasm and signal courage. She is often called the Maid of Orleans. 13. Henry, on coming of age, proved himself to be mild and inoffensive, but totally incapable of managing the Margaret of reins of government. He married Margaret of Anjou. Anjou {A?izhoo), — a woman whose distinguished talents, ambition, and heroism well fitted her to supply the defects of ^6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, ['455 her husband in the wars which distracted his reign; but her intriguing disposition and cruelty multiplied the number of her enemies. Discontents prevailing among the people, an insur- rection broke out, headed by Jack Cade, who assumed the name of John Mortimer, and collected an army of twenty thousand rebels ; but he was defeated and slain. The Duke of Gloucester, a favorite of the nation, the chief pillar of the house of Lancaster, and presumptive heir to the crown (that is, heir in case the king should die without issue), had opposed the marriage of Henry with Margaret. From this circumstance he became odious to the queen, and his death soon after took place in a suspicious manner. This event, added to the imbe- cility of the king, encouraged the Duke of York to assert his claim to the crown. 14. The houses of York and Lancaster were both descended from Edward IIL, — that of York from his third son, and that Wars of of Lancaster from his fourth. The rightful title was, the Roses. ^f course, on the side of the former. Each party was distinguished by a particular badge, or symbol : that of the house of York was a white rose, and that of Lancaster a red one : hence the civil contests were styled the wars of the Roses. This fatal quarrel, which nov/ (1455) broke out into open hostilities, lasted thirty years, was signalized by twelve sangui- nary pitched battles, and marked by the most unrelenting bar- barity. During the contest more than one hundred thousand of the bravest men of the nation, including eighty princes of the blood, fell on the field, or were executed on the scaffold. In the battles of St. Alban's and Northampton the Lancastrians were defeated, and the king was taken prisoner ; but Queen Margaret, having collected a large army, gained the battle of Wakefield (1460), in which the Duke of York was defeated and slain. But his son and successor, at the head of a numer- ous army, entered London amidst the shouts of the citizens, and was proclaimed king (1461) by the title of Edward IV. CHAPTER IV. Edward IV. THE BRANCH OF YORK. 1461 to 1485, — 24 years. Edward V. Richard III. THE new king, Edward IV. ( 146 1), was not permitted to enjoy the crown in peace. The heroic Margaret again collected an army of sixty thousand men, which Edward iv. was met by the Yorkists to the number of upwards ^^^ Towton. of forty thousand, under the command of Edward and the Earl of Warwick. A tre- mendous battle was ^^m- '^^fts;=- fought (146 1 ) at Tow- i~ ton, in which Edward ~ ^^ "obtained a decisive victory ; and upwards of thirty-six thousand Englishmen, slain by one another's hands, were left dead on the field. Henry, having been taken prisoner, was confined in the Tower, and there (after being liberated, and a second time impris- oned) was finally mur- dered (1471), as was supposed, by the Duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard HI. 87 THE TOWER OF LONDON. 88 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1464. 2. The unfortunate queen, accompanied by her son, a boy eight years old, while flying from her enemies, was benighted in The queen Hexam Forest, and fell into the hands of ruffians, a fugitive. ^}^q stripped her of her jewels, and treated her with great indignity. After she was liberated from them, being overcome with fatigue and terror, she sank in despair, but was suddenly roused by the approach of a robber with a drawn sword. Seeing no way to escape, she rose, and presented to him her child : " My friend," said she, " here is your king's son, whom I commit to your protection." The man, pleased with this unexpected confidence reposed in him, afforded every assistance in his power, and conducted the mother and son through numerous perils to a small seaport, whence they sailed to Flanders. 3. The house of York had been hitherto supported by the important assistance of Nevil, Earl of Warwick, the most power- Eari of ful baron in England, and the greatest general of Warwick. j^jg ^y^^ . \^^'^^ Edward having given offence to his benefactor, Warwick was induced to abandon him, and to sup- port the Lancastrians. By his exertions Edward was deposed ; and Henry, after having been a prisoner six years in the Tower, was released, and again proclaimed king. Thus Warwick, hav- ing restored Henry (whom he had deposed) and pulled down Edward (whom he had placed on the throne), obtained the title of " King-Maker." But, in the bloody battle of Barnet, Edward prevailed, and the brave Warwick was slain. The intrepid Margaret Margaret, having returned to England, made a last defeated. effort for the crown in the desperate battle of Tewksbury (1471), which proved fatal to her hopes. Her son was slain, and she herself was taken prisoner, but was after- wards ransomed by the King of France ; and in that country she passed the remainder of her life in obscurity and neglect. 4. Edward, being now secured on the throne, gave himself up to unrestrained indulgence in acts of tyranny, cruelty, and debauchery. His brother, the Duke of Clarence, who had 1483.] THE BRANCH OF YORK. 89 assisted him in gaining the crown, he caused, with the con- currence of his other brother, the Duke of Gloucester, to be impeached and condemned ; and he is said to have ^ been drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine. Edward iv.'s char- was possessed of talents, and was reputed the hand- ^^"^^ ^"^ 1 111 /-1-. . conduct. somest and most accomplished man of his time m England. The love of pleasure was his ruling passion. " His character," says an elegant writer, " is easily summed up : his good qualities were courage and beauty ; his bad qualities, every vice." 5. It was in this reign that the art of printing was introduced into England by William Caxton, a London merchant and a fine scholar. He had spent several years abroad, in the service of the government, and returned from Flan- "'^ *"^* ders about 1474, bringing with him a knowledge of the new art, which had been discovered in Germany more than thirty years before. He set up a printing-office near Westminster Abbey (1477) ; and one of the first books printed was a translation from the French called the " Game and Playe of the Chesse." 6. Edward IV. left two sons, the eldest of whom, being only thirteen years of age, was proclaimed king {1483) by the title of Edward V. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Richard in., brother to Edward IV., being appointed protector, *he usurper, caused Lord Hastings and other distinguished persons to be executed without trial, seized the crown on the pretence that his nephew (Edward V.) and his brother (the Duke of York) were illegitimate, and procured himself to be proclaimed king (1483) by the title of Richard III. After two months the young princes disappeared, and are said to have been smoth- ered in the Tower by order of Richard. 7. In seeking the throne, Richard III. had unscrupulously trampled upon the rights of the people, and had probably shed the blood of some of his nearest relations. But his Battle of wicked career found an avenger in the Earl of Bosworth. Richmond, the only surviving heir of the house of Lancaster. 90 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [<485- The armies of the two rivals met at Bosworth in Leicestershire, in the central part of England (1485), where a desperate battle was fought, which, by reason of Lord Stanley's going over to Richmond, proved fatal to Richard, who was defeated and slain ; and his rival was crowned on the field by the title of Henry VII. 8. Richard, who was a man of talents and courage, could conceal the most bloody projects under the mask of affection and friendship ; and his insatiable ambition led him iii'^'s^char- ^^ perpetrate the most atrocious crimes. He was acter and somcwhat dcfomied in person, but could be affable ^^*^' in manners when it suited his purpose. His sole ambition was to be king of England ; and to the accomplish- ment of that end he sacrificed principle and friends, or whatever stood in his way. But some of his acts were beneficial. He rewarded those friends who were faithful to him, and restored to their owners many confiscated estates. Trade and commerce were encouraged by him, and he established a kind of post system by regular couriers for the transmission of information. g. The battle of Bosworth terminated the long and bloody conflicts between the t\yo houses of York and Lancaster, which , had reduced the kingdom to a state of almost Influence of ^ . the wars of savage barbarity ; laws, arts, and commerce bemg the Roses. entirely neglected for the practice of arms. During these wars constitutional liberty received a severe check, and the whole course of civilization was turned backward. But out of much evil some good was derived. The power of the ancient nobility was gone forever; for, during the long and bloody wars, the greater part of the nobles perished, and feu- dalism almost disappeared. 10. But the wars of the Roses were not fought in the interests of the people : they were the melancholy result of most bitter The wars and ^nd malignant feuds among rival families of the the people. nobility. And as these wars were carried on prin- cipally by and for the nobility, so their immediate effects fell at 1485] THE BRANCH OF YORK. 91 first more directly upon that dass than upon the common people at large and the industrial classes. But the long continuance of the wars, and the almost exclusive devotion to arms by those who ought to have been leaders in good government and in business, finally involved the whole nation in consequences most disastrous to the welfare of the people and to the progress of freedom. 11. It is difficult to find in the annals of the past a sadder and more disgusting chapter of history than that which details the wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, character of The conduct of these wars was everywhere savage ^'^e wars, and brutal, and was destitute of that spirit of chivalry which had before been characteristic of the English people. The most wanton exhibitions of revenge were common on all sides, and often resulted in the execution of personal enemies in the most inhuman and disgraceful manner. Patriotism did not actuate either party, nor characterize their conduct in the wars. Selfish- ness and revenge seemed to be the leading motives ; and the most unblushing treason went unrebuked, and was often at a premium. The nobler traits of human character seemed to be extinguished or repressed, and the baser passions reigned tri- umphant. But for all this suffering and shame, the nation has nought to show that redounds to its credit. 12. The serfs and the lower orders of the people served in the wars of the Roses ; and they could never after- The serfs, wards be reduced to their former state of servitude, &c. but enjoyed greater privileges, living in better houses, and having more of the comforts of Hfe. 13. Several new institutions of learning were founded during these reigns, — King's and Queen's Colleges in Cambridt,-e (1441-48), and Magdalen College (1457) at Ox- Newcoi- ford, three of the finest specimens of Gothic archi- leges, tecture in existence. Eton College, near Windsor, a preparatory school for the sons of the nobility, was founded in 1440; and the Bodleian Library at Oxford was erected in 1445-80. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. PART II. — FEUDAL PERIOD (pp. 45-91). I. — The Norman Family. William I. His coronation. State of the kingdom. His policy. Absence. Exeter and York. Revolts. The Danes. Disaster at York. Devastation of the country. Cruelty. Chester. Ely. Family troubles. New Forest. Doomsday book. Feudal System. William and the Church. Odo. Battle Abbey. William's last days, funeral, and character. William IL His character, reign, and death. Henry I. Norman and Saxon families united. Character. Stephen. Accession and reign. Wars. Social distress. Character. II. — The Plantagenet Family. Henry II. His dominions. Church and State. Councils of Clarendon. Thomas a Becket. Family troubles. Henry's character. The arts. The comforts of life. Hichard I. and the Crusades. His character. John. Quarrel with the Pope. Magna Charta. John's character. Henry III. His reign and character. Popular freedom. Leicester. Edward I. The Jews. Wales. War with Scotland. Wal- lace and Bruce. Edward's character and reign. Ed^ward II. Bannockburn. Character and reign. Isabella and Mortimer. Edward III. Mortimer. War with the Scots and France. Cressy. The Black Prince. Philippa. Poictiers. Posses- sions lost. Edward's character and reign. Dukes. Pesti- lence. The English language. Richard II. His regents. Wat Tyler. War with Scotland and France. The king deposed. Wickliffe and Chaucer. Progress. Castles. The barons. The clergy. Cathedrals. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. 93 Church revenues. Friars. Miracle Plays. House of Com- mons, Education. Roger Bacon. Alchemy,^ &c. Lan- guage. Tournaments and chivalry. Trade and Commerce. Agriculture. Dwellings. Food. Dress. Villenage. III. — Branch of Lancaster. Henry IV. A usurper and persecutor. Character and reign. Prince Henry. Henry V. His reform. Oldcastle. France invaded. Har- fleur. Agincourt. Henry's character. Origin of the Tudors. Henry VI. His guardians. Joan of Arc. Margaret of Anjou. War of the Roses. IV. — Branch of York. Edward IV. Towton. The queen a fugitive. Warwick. Defeat of Margaret. Edward's character and conduct. Art of printing. Edward V. His fate, Richard III. A usurper. His character and acts. Bos- worth. Wars of the Roses. Their character and influence. The serfs. New colleges. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF ENGLISH AND LEADING CONTEMPORANEOUS SOVEREIGNS AND IMPORTANT EVENTS, From the Norman Family to the Tudor Family. A.D. 1000. 66. William I. — Henry rV, Germany, 56. Pope Greg- ory VIL (Hildebrand),73. Malcolm IIL, Scotland, 57. Booksellers first known. Surnames first used by nobil- ity. Tower of London built, So. Papal power ver\- great. 87. William II. —Pope Urban II., Duncan IL, Scotland. First Crusade, 96. Jerusalem taken by the Crusaders, 99. 1 100. Henry I. — Alexander I, David L, Scotland. Henry IV., Germany, died, 1106. Knights Templar instituted. Writing- paper used. 35. Stephen. — Conrad III, Germany, 38. Moscow built, 44. Second Crusade, 47. Mag- netic needle known in Italy. 54. Henry II. — Frederick Barbarossa., Germany, 52. Malcolm IV., 53. William, 65. Scotland. Saladin. Genghis Khan, 76. Bank of Venice founded, 57. Bills of exchange used. 94 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 95 A.D. 1 100. 8g. Richard I. — Pope Clement III., Henry VI. (the Cruel), Germany. Philip Augus- us, France. Papal power supreme. Third Crusade, 88. Richard defeats Saladin at Ascalon, 92. Jews the principal bankers of the world. gg. John. — Pope Innocent III. Otho IV., Germany. Fourth Crusade. Afghan Empire founded. The Troubadours. Jerusalem taken by the Turks. 1200. 16. Henry III. — Alexander II. and III., Scotland. Louis IX. (St. Louis), France. Coal discovered, 37. Astronomy and geog- raphy revived by the Moors. 72. Edward I. — John Baliol, Scotland, 92. Philip IV., France, 85. Marco Polo travels in the East. Parliaments at Paris, 94. Spectacles invented, 99. Otto- man Empire founded, 99. Mariner's compass invented, 1302. 1300. 7. Ed^vard II. — Seat of the Papacy removed to Avignon, 8. William Tell. Dante died, 21. Swiss confederation established, 7. Knights Templar suppressed, 12. 27. Edward III.— Philip VI., 28; Charles V., 64. France. Pope Innocent VI. Two hundred thousand Moors invade Spain. Fire-arms, 45. Gunpowder invented at Cologne, 40. Turks first enter Rome, 52. Tamerlane, 70. Great Plague in Europe, 47. 77. Richard II. — Popes return to Rome. Charles VI., France, 80. gg. Henry IV. — Solyman, Turkey. The Medici su- preme in Florence. Canary Islands discovered, 5. 1400. 13. Henry V, — Sigismund, Germany. Paris taken by the English, 20. Madeira discovered. 96 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, A.D. 1400. 22. Henry VI. — Charles VII, France. James I. and II., Scotland. Joan of Arc. The Azores discovered, 32. Invention of printing, 36. Famine and plague in Paris, '^. Vatican Library founded, 46. Wood-engraving. 61 . Edward IV. — Louis XI., France. End of Tartar rule in Russia. Watches made at Nurem- berg, 77. Copernicus born, 73. 83. Edward V. — Charles VIII., France. Pope Inno- cent VIII. 83. Richard III. — Luther born, ^sop's Fables printed by Caxton. Cape of Good Hope discovered, 86. PART III, MODERN ENGLAND. FROM THE REIGN OF HENRY VH. (14S5) TO THE PRESENT TIME. CHAPTER I. THE TUDOR FAMILY. 1485 to 1603, — 118 years. Henry VII. Henry VIII. Edward VI. Mary. Elizabeth. THE hereditary right of Henry VII. (14S5) to the crown was very defective ; but he strengthened his claim by marrying EUzabeth, daughter of Edward IV. ; Henry vu.'s and in this way the two houses of York and Lan- ^'*^^- caster were united. Henry was the son of Margaret (great- grand-daughter of John of Gaunt) and of Edmond Tudor. The sovereigns of the house of Tudor were arbitrary in their principles and character ; but their reign, though disturbed by conflicts both domestic and foreign, was, notwithstanding, less convulsed by war than that of any other family of English kings. 2. The policy of Henry was pacific, and his reign was com- paratively tranquil ; yet it was disturbed by several plots and conspiracies, two of which were of a singular char- Two pre- acter. One of these M^as the attempt of Lambert lenders. Simnelj the son of a baker, to counterfeit the person of the 97 98 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [14^^ 5. Earl of Warwick : the other w^s a similar attempt of Perkin Warbeck to counterfeit the Duke of York, who is said to have been smothered in the Tower by the order of Richard III. Both of the adventurers aspired to the crown, and met with considerable support from the people. Simnel, after being pro- claimed King of England and Ireland at Dublin, was taken prisoner, and, instead of being executed, was made a scullion in the king's kitchen, and afterwards promoted to be falconer. Perkin Warbeck, who maintained his cause by force of arms for five years, was supported by many of the nobility, and acknowl- edged by the kings of France and Scotland ; but, being at last taken prisoner, he w^as executed as a traitor. And, near the same time, the real Earl of Warwick (the son of the Duke of Clarence, and nephew of Edward IV.), the last male of the Plantagenets, who had been imprisoned from his childhood for no other crime than his birth, was condemned and executed on a charge of treason. 3. Henry VII. was more deficient in the feelings of the heart than in the qualities of the mind,' and, though much respected, Henry VII. 's was litUc bclovcd. He is described as a tall, thin character. man, with a very grave countenance, and reserved in his manners. He manifested no interest in public amuse- ments, but was wholly devoted to business, which he conducted with much prudence and sagacity. But he was suspicious in his temper, and in government very despotic. The love of money was his ruhng passion ; and his avaricious disposition showed itself in all his acts, public and private. To obtain money for his own treasury, he often descended to acts of meanness and extortion. Richard Empson and Edmund Dud- ley, two lawyers, were his unprincipled agents in this work of rapacity and oppression. They looked up old and obsolete laws, by which they contrived to impose enormous fines, and to decree the forfeiture of much property, and many estates and privileges, which could be redeemed only by paying the most exorbitant sums of money. By his frugality and arbitrary exac- 1492. J THE TUDOR FAMlLY. 99 tions Henry accumulated immense wealth, and is said to have left at his death, in ready money, the sum of one million eight hundred thousand pounds, — an enormous amount of specie for that age, equivalent to ten million pounds, or, according to some, to sixteen million pounds, at present. 4. His reign was prosperous at home, and respected abroad ; and, though not a popular sovereign, he was, perhaps, next to Alfred, the most useful prince that had hitherto sat His reign on the throne of England. Many wise and salutary usefur. laws were enacted during his reign, habits of industry were promoted in business and in all the affairs of life, and commerce was greatly encouraged. His fondness for money prevented him from expending it in unnecessary wars, and hence he taught the peaceful arts of civilized life to a warlike and turbulent people. The most troublesome class with whom he had to contend was the aristocracy who had survived the wars of the Roses, and who were fractious and insolent. But he succeeded in reducing them to subordination ; and, by permitting the nobles to ahenate their lands, he weakened their power, raised the respectability of the lower orders, and gave a mortal wound to the feudal system. He expended fourteen thousand pounds in building one ship, named " The Great Harry," which may be considered as the beginning of the English navy, inasmuch as the government, before this period, had no other mode of raising a fleet than by hiring or pressing the vessels of merchants. 5. It was during the reign of Henry VH. (1492) that America was discovered by Columbus, under the patronage of Isabella, Queen of Spain. This event gave a great impulse spirit of ad- to the spirit of maritime adventure throughout venture. Western Europe, and eventually contributed much to the im- provement of trade and commerce. Under a commission from Henry, John Cabot, a Venetian residing at Bristol, with his son Sebastian, made a voyage to the New World (1497), and dis- covered the coast of North America from Labrador southward. The Cabots received no assistance from Henry, except their 100 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1509. charter, but promised to give him one-fifth of the profits of the adventure. This was the origin of the English claim to a portion of the New World. Sebastian Cabot published the first map of the world which included both hemispheres. Maps and sea- charts now became common in England. Great interest was manifested in new discoveries, and the study of geography received much attention. 6. There was also, during this period, a remarkable revival of learning, which had been neglected and in low repute during Revival of ^^"^^ \^d,x^ of the Roscs. This was brought about learning. jn large mcasurc by the introduction of printing. Hitherto books had been made only by the slow, laborious, and costly process of transcribing by hand. About the year 1400, when the pay of a laborer was but a penny or two, a book of homilies cost from ten to forty pounds. But the art of printing rapidly increased the number of books, and lessened their cost, and caused a general dissemination of information. In the reign of Richard III. the laws which were to be obeyed by the English people were for the first time enacted in the English language, and these laws were also the first laws printed in England. 7. The Star Chamber Court was instituted by Henry VII., so called from the gilded stars on the ceiling of the room in Star Cham- Westminster Palace where it met. It was composed ber. of seven members, was entirely under the control of the king, and had charge, without jury, of high crimes and misdemeanors against the government and the administration of justice. In later years it became tyrannical and odious. 8. Henry's son Arthur married Catherine of Aragon, daugh- House of ter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain ; and his Stuart. daughter Margaret became the wife of James (Stuart) IV. of Scotland, from whom descended the house of Stuart. 9. Henry died of consumption, in 1509, and was buried in the Chapel of Henry VII., so called, which he had built as a 1509] THE TUDOR FAMILY. lOI considerable addition to the east end of Westminster Abbey. It is very elaborately finished in the style called Per- Henry's pendicular Gothic, and is probably one of the best death. specimens of Tudor architecture in existence. 10. No monarch ever succeeded to the throne of England with brighter prospects than Henry VIII. (1509). Uniting in his person the claims of the two houses of York prospects of and Lancaster, his title was undisputed. The treas- Henry viii. ury was well stored, the nation at peace, and the state of the country prosperous. He was eighteen years of age, and of beautiful person and accomplished manners. He possessed fine talents and considerable learning, being master of four languages, a good student in theology, of a fine musical taste, and familiar with the sciences of medicine, engineering, and ship-building. In his disposition he was frank and open, and was regarded by the people with affection and high expectations. But these expectations were wofully disappointed. As the character of the king developed itself, he was found to be destitute both of wisdom and virtue ; and he proved himself to be unprincipled and cruel. Like his father, he was immoder- ately fond of getting money ; but, unlike him, he spent it with a prodigal hand. In his friendships he was fickle, and in his resentments merciless ; and he was capable of sending a min- ister or a wife to the scaffold with apparently little feeling of compunction. II. With the aristocracy his government was but little short of despotism ; but, when dealing with the great mass of the people, he was sometimes compelled to yield to the popular will. In general, however, there was a degrading servility of the people and Parliament in tamely submitting to his tyranny, or becoming the passive instruments of its exercise. He chose for his ministers men of eminent talents, but he made them feel the effects of his caprice and cruelty. Archbishop Cranmer was the only one of great distinction among them who had the good fortune to retain to the last his confidence and regard. 102 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1513. 12. By his profusion and expensive pleasures he soon ex- hausted the treasures which he inherited from his father. Foreign Though his miHtary operations were not numerous, war. yet in the early part of his reign he made war against Louis XII. of France, invaded the country, and at Guinegate gained the battle of the Spurs, so named from the rapid flight of the French. The Scots sympathized with the Fiodden French ; and, having invaded England, their army Field. was met by the English, under the Earl of Surrey, at Fiodden Field, near the Cheviot Hills. A desperate engage- ment ensued (15 13), in which the Scots were utterly defeated; their king, James IV., and more than ten thousand knights, being slain. Henry was also, in some degree, involved in the wars of the two great rivals of the age, — Charles V. of Ger- many, and Francis I. of France. In 1520 Henry visited France for a conference with the French king in regard to an alliance against Germany. They met near Guines {Ghee?i), not far from Calais ; and so gorgeous and costly were the preparations made by both courts, that the place of meeting was called the " Field of the Cloth of Gold." Interviews and entertainments were continued more than two weeks ; but Henry was already favorably disposed towards the German emperor, and no alli- ance was formed. 13. During this reign, an important change took place in the Church in England, in its relations to the central ecclesiastical The Refor- authorities at Rome, and afterwards in its faith mation. and doctrinc. Some years before, a movement was started upon the Continent which resulted in dividing the Catholic Church into two sections, from one of which sprang, at different times, the various organizations embraced under the general name of " Protestants." It was at first a religious and ecclesiastical movement, in whose discussions were prominent such subjects as the sale of indulgences, the nature and rule of faith, good works, the rights of conscience and private judgment, and the Bible as the rule of faith and practice. But afterwards 1529.] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 103 the movement assumed also a political and social character, and engrossed the attention of a large portion of Europe, and mate- rially affected the whole framework of society and its institutions. This is called in history the great Reformation. The term " Protestants " was derived from a protest made by some Ger- . man princes and deputies against a decree of the Diet of Spires,' about 1529, to support the Church of Rome. The leader of the Reformation in Germany was Martin Luther. Before he arrived at the age of thirty, Henry wrote a book, in Latin, on the Seven Sacraments, against Luther, which pleased the Pope so much, that he conferred on him the title of " De- fender of the Faith," — a title which his successors have ever since retained. 14. The most important public character in England at this time was Thomas VVolsey {IVool'-ze^, a fine scholar, an able statesman, and a man of magnificent and courtly cardinal bearing. He held successively the offices of bishop, Woisey. archbishop, cardinal, lord-chancellor,. and papal legate. His style of living was princely in the extreme. He was clad in silks and satins of scarlet or crimson, with gloves and hat of the same colors, and shoes inlaid with pearls and diamonds. His train was composed of eight hundred persons, with a body- guard of knights and squires ; while his domestic servants were richly clad, his cook wearing silks and satins, and a gold chain around his neck. When he appeared in public, he equalled, in display and ceremony, royalty itself. Woisey was the prime mover in all the principal events of Henry's reign for more than fifteen years, and on one or two occasions was a prominent candidate for the papal chair. He built a splendid palace, still in existence, at Hampton Court, near London, which he pre- sented to his royal master. 15. But the most memorable transactions of Henry's reign were his matrimonial alliances and the consequences Matrimonial which flowed from them. His first wife was Cath- troubles, erine of Aragon, widow of liis elder brother Arthur, daughter I04 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [15^- of Ferdinand of Spain, and annt of Charles V. He had been contracted to her at a very early age by the influence of his father ; and, after having lived with her about eighteen years, he professed to feel conscientious scruples respecting the law- fulness of the marriage, on account of her having been the wife of his brother ; ancT, conceiving a passion for the beautiful and accomplished Anne Eoleyn ^^An Bid' -en), he applied to the Pope for a divorce. Having experienced various delays, and imagining that his favorite minister. Cardinal AVolsey, was the chief obstacle in the way of effecting his object, the king resolved on his ruin, and ordered him to be arrested for high treason. But the haughty cardinal soon after fell sick and died, having exclaimed, in the pangs of remorse, " Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs." Wolsey was succeeded by Sir Thomas More, a distinguished scholar and public man, who was the author of a book in Latin called " Utopia," in which he describes an in:iaginary commonwealth in an island of that name; The opinions of various universities favorable to Henry's views having been obtained, and the Pope failing to grant the Quarrel with divorce, the king caused a court to be held under the Papacy. Cranmer, which pronounced his marriage invalid ; and Lady Anne Avas soon after crowned queen. The papal jurisdiction in England was immediately abolished (1534), some alterations made in the doctrines and forms of religion, and the king was declared the supreme head of the English Church. Thomas Cromwell i^Kniui'-wel), liis prime-minister, and after- wards the Earl of Essex, was appointed vicar-general of the Church. He was favorable to the reformers, and was instru- mental in the su})pression of many monasteries and religious houses, from whose treasuries and lands large sums of money were realized. 16. This bold measure greatly aided the reformation in reli- gion ; but such a result was probably no part of the king's 1547] THE TUDOR FAMILY. T05 intention. Though Henry ceased to acknowledge allegiance to the Church of Rome, he was far from being a a perse- Protestant. He arrogated infallibility to himself, cutor. and caused the law of the Six Articles of religion, termed the " Bloody Statute," to be enacted, and condemned to death both Catholics and Protestants who ventured to maintain opinions in opposition to his own. The venerable Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More, two conscientious Catholics, were beheaded for refusing to acknowledge his supremacy and the vahdity of his marriage with Anne Boleyn. In less than three ,. ^ ^ More matn- years after his new marriage he caused Anne Boleyn moniai to be condemned and beheaded, in order to gratify *''°"^^es. a new passion for Jane Seymour, whom he married the day after the execution, and who died soon after giving birth to Prince Edward. He next married Anne of Cleves, but soon discarded her because he did not find her so handsome as she had been represented ; and Cromwell, his prime-minister, having been instrumental in bringing about this joyless marriage, lost the favor of his sovereign, and suffered death on the scaffold. Catherine Howard, whom he next married, was condemned and executed for adultery. But Catherine Parr, his sixth wife, had the good fortune to survive him. During the latter part of his life Henry became quite^ infirm and gross. He died in 1547, aged fifty-six years. 17. Some recent historians take a view of Henry's life and character more favorable than that entertained by the enemies of the Tudor family. It is thought that the circum- Henry in stances of the age, in which this sovereign lived, history, should mitigate somewhat the severity with which he has been judged. 18. Henry's reign was one of considerable activity, during which events took place that were important, and far-reaching in their consequences. Trade, commerce, and ship- important building were encouraged ; and free labor, instead events. of that of serfs, gave the lower classes better homes and more lo6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. V^M- of the comforts of life. The printing-press gave a quickening influence in the diffusion of knowledge ; and an English transla- tion of the Bible was used in the churches, and the services were, in part at least, conducted in the English language. In learning, a revival took place, which found able patrons in Wolsey and More ; and Erasmus, a distinguished Dutch scholar, was for a few years professor of Greek at Cambridge, and did much to promote classical scholarship and learning. William Lilly, one of the first scholars of his age, had a private school in London about 1509, and is said to have been the first person who taught Greek in that city. Soon afterwards he became the first master of St. Paul's School, founded about that time in London ; and he published a Latin grammar, which was for a long time used in all the schools of England, and which, indeed, may be called the foundation of all the Latin grammars since published. The science of medicine, and its application to the saving of human life and the amelioration of suffering, made great progress at this time. Pins were first introduced from France by Queen Catherine Howard, and were an expensive luxury ; and the gold coin representing the value of a pound sterling was first called a sovereign during this reign. Wales had its first representative in Parliament at this time. 19. Henry VHL left three children, — Maiy, daughter of Catherine of Aragon ; Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn ; Reign of ^"^^ Edward, son of Jane Seymour. The last suc- Edwardvi. cecdcd him (1547), with the title of Edward VL, in his tenth year; Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, uncle of the young king, being appointed protector ; and after his fall the Duke of Northumberland was raised to the same office. Edward's short reign was distracted by contests between those to whom the direction of public affairs was intrusted. But the Protestant influence prevailed in the government, the cause of the Reformation was promoted, and the reformed liturgy and Book of Common Prayer was modelled under the direction of IS531 THE TUDOR FAMILY. 107 Cranmer ; yet a great part of the people were still attached to the Catholic faith. 20. Edward, a prince of great hopes and virtues, died in his sixteenth year, deeply lamented. So different was his character from that of his father, that he is said never to have His charac- signed an order for an execution against any per- ter. son without shedding tears. Just before his death he had been prevailed upon, by the interested influence and intrigues of the Duke of Northumberland, the protector, to set aside his sisters Mary and Elizabeth, and bequeath the crown to Jane Grey, great-grand- daughter of Henry VII., who was married to Lord Guilford Dudley, a son of the protector. 21. Immediately after the death of Edward, Lady Jane Grey, who had been appointed successor by the intrigues of her friends, was proclaimed queen by her adherents ; Lady jane but, after wearing the crown ten days, she resigned Grey. it, and would gladly have returned to private life. Mary was soon acknowledged the rightful heir, and succeeded to the throne in 1553. The youth and innocence of Lady Jane and her husband (neither of them exceeding their seventeenth year) pleaded strongly in their favor ; yet they were both seized, and cast into the Tower. 22. In the second year after she succeeded to the throne, Mary was married to Philip II. of Spain, — a union unpopular with her subjects, and productive of little happiness Her mar- to herself. Upon the announcement of this pro- "^ge. jected marriage several rebellions took place, and in one of these some of the friends of Lady Jane Grey took part. This sealed the fate of the unfortunate lady, and she and her husband were soon after put to death. 23. Lady Jane Grey, who is described as a rare scholar, and a young woman of singular virtues and accomplishments, sent, on the day of her execution, a message to her hus- character of band, who desired to see her, informing him that 1^"^ ^rey. the tenderness of their last interview would be too much for joS HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [i555- her to bear. "Tell hira," added she, "that our separation will be only for a moment. We shall soon meet each other in a place where our affections shall be forever united, and where misfortunes will never more disturb our eternal felicity." Lady Jane's tutor was Sir Roger Ascham, one of the most eminent scholars of the time, and a distinguished teacher, who numbered among his pupils Queen Elizabeth, Edward VL, and many of the children of the nobility. 24. Mary was educated a strict Catholic ; and she caused to be annulled many of the acts of her father, Henry VIIL, and Mary and o^ ^^^^ brothcr, Edward VL, in favor of the Prot- her religion, estauts ; and the Catholic religion was restored.- Northumberland was beheaded ; and Archbishop Cranmer, who assisted Henry VHL in his divorce from Mary's mother, was imprisoned in the Tower. 25. Mary's early life was one of sorrow and suffering. The unfortunate influence of her father's domestic life, and the fear , , and persecution which she suffered at the hands of Mary s char- ^ acter and her cncmies, unfavorably affected her health and policy. temper: hence, in her efforts to re-establish and protect the Catholic Church, which she sincerely believed to be the true church, she was led to. extreme measures. A general persecution was commenced against the reformers. The men Per-ecu- ^^^^'^ ^'^^^ h^^w most forward in establishing the Prot- tions. estant religion in England were singled out for pun- ishment ; and among the most eminent martyrs who were burnt at Smithfield and at Oxford about 1555 were Archbishop Cran- mer, John Rogers (canon of St. Paul's), and Bishops Latimer, Ridley, Hooper, and Ferrar. More than two hundred and eighty persons perished at the stake, including fifty-five women and four children. By these proceedings the feelings of the people were shocked. The excellent character of most of the sufferers, and the undaunted spirit which they exhibited, produced a strong sensation in their favor, and diminished the influence of the Church of Rome ; so that these measures tended to forward, rather than to check, the progress of the Reformation. I55S-] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 109 26. Through the influence of her husband, Mary became involved in the war between Spain and France; and in 1558 the French, under the Duke of Guise {Gweez), The loss of besieged and retook Calais, which had been in the Calais. hands of the English more than two hundred years. The loss of this stronghold, the last of her possessions in France, was a severe blow to the queen ; and soon after this event she died, feeling bitter vexation for the loss, and for being. aware that she was an object of aversion to her husband and to a great part of her subjects. Mary's history has been oftener written by -her enemies, and in a partisan spirit, than by her friends ; and it is more than probable that full justice has not been done to some of her virtues and good qualities, which are matters of history, though seldom mentioned or made prominent. 27. The accession of Elizabeth to the throne in 1558, was hailed by the nation with joyful acclamations. Scarcely had she entered upon her new duties when she received Elizabeth's an offer of marriage from Philip II. of Spain, the offers of husband of her late sister Mary. Philip's kingdom "^^"^^e^- at this time embraced Spain, Portugal, Italy, the Netherlands, and portions of the East and the West Indies ; and he hoped, by marrying Elizabeth, to add England also to his realm. But the offer was declined, as were similar ones from the kings of Denmark and Sweden. In the following year the Commons asked the queen to fix her choice of a husband : but she re- plied that she had espoused the kingdom ; England was her husband, and all Englishmen her children ; and that, while en- gaged in rearing such a family, her life could not be considered unprofitable. 28. Elizabeth had a long and auspicious reign, during which tranquillity was maintained in her dominions, while the neigh- boring nations were convulsed with dissensions ; and character England rose from the rank of a secondary king- °f ^^r reign, dom to a level with the first states of Europe. The Protestant religion was again restored and protected, and the Church of England w^as established in its present form. no HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [1566. Two important acts were passed soon after her accession to the throne. The first, called " The Act of Supremacy," required all officers, spiritual and temporal, to acknowledge Elizabeth under oath as " Supreme Governor " of the Church, as well as of the realm. Severe penalties were inflicted upon those refusing. The other statute was *' The Act of Uniformity ; " compelling all the subjects of the kingdom, under penalty of a fine, to attend the service and mode of worship prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer, and forbidding any one to conduct any other service. Several bishops and other ecclesiastics refused the oath, and resigned, or were deprived of their places. Many Catholics, also, fled to foreign lands ; and a large number of Protestants who had sought homes abroad during the reign of Mary, and had now returned, refused to obey the law. Believing in a simpler mode of worship than that prescribed, and in a purer life, they were reproachfully called "Puritans." In 1566 they separated from the Established Church, and were called, also, " Dissenters " and " Nonconformists." The nation attained a higher state of prosperity than it had ever before known in agriculture, commerce, arts, and literature. This reign, often called the " Augustan age of English literature," was illustrated by the great names of Hooker (one of the most eminent divines), Bacon the philosopher, Spenser the author of " The Faery Queen," and Shakspeare. 29. Elizabeth is charged with treachery and cruelty in her treatment of Mary, Queen of Scots, — a woman whose extraor- Mary, Queen dinary beauty and misfortunes seem, in the minds of Scots. of many, to have thrown a veil over all the defects of her character. Mary was great-grand-daughter of Henry VH., and next heir to Elizabeth to the throne of England. She had been educated in France as a Catholic, and married, when very young, to the dauphin, afterwards Francis H. She had been persuaded, imprudently, to assume the title of " Queen of England," — a circumstance which proved fatal to her peace. On the death of Francis she returned to Scotland, at the age of 1567.] THE TUDOR FAMILY. in eighteen years. At this period the Reformation, by the zealous labors of John Knox, had made great progress in that country ; and the people regarded their Catholic queen with abhorrence, and looked to her enemy Elizabeth for support. Mary married, for her second husband, her cousin Henry Stuart (Lord Darnley), who soon became disagreeable to her, and was in less than two years murdered. In about three months after this tragical event she married (1567) the Earl of Bothwell, who was stigmatized as the murderer of Darnley. Her conduct excited against her the whole kingdom of Scot- land. Public indignation could no longer be restrained. The nobles rose against her and her husband Bothwell. She was taken, confined in the Castle of Loch Leven, and was at length compelled to resign the crown to her infant son, who was proclaimed James VL ; and her illegitimate brother, the Earl of Murray, a friend to the Reformation, was appointed regent during the young king's minority. In less than a year Mary, by the assistance of friends, effected her escape from Loch Leven Castle, and fled into England, hoping to secure the favor of her rival, Elizabeth. In this, how- ever, she was disappointed. After being kept as a prisoner more than eighteen years in different places, she was tried on an accusation of having been accessory to a conspiracy against the Queen of England, was condemned, and beheaded in one of the rooms of Fotheringay Castle, in the forty-fifth year of her age. 30. Elizabeth warmly espoused the cause of the Netherlands in their revolt against the authority of Philip II. of Spain ; and her admiral. Sir Francis Drake, had taken some of The Spanish the Spanish possessions in South America. To Armada, avenge these offences, and to subjugate the leading Protestant power, the Spanish " Invincible Armada," a more formidable fleet than Europe had ever before witnessed, was fitted out for the invasion of England. This armament consisted of a hundred and fifty ships, three 112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1567. thousand pieces of cannon, and twenty-seven thousand men. It entered the EngHsh Channel in the form of a crescent, extending its two extremities to the distance of seven miles. It was met by the English fleet, consisting of a hundred and eight ships, commanded by those distinguished maritime chiefs, Howard, Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher, and Raleigh. Being gradually weakened, and finally overtaken by a storm, the Armada suffered an entire defeat. Only fifty vessels, with six thousand men, returned to Spain. 31. The age of Elizabeth was fruitful in men of talents ; and she was assisted in her government by eminent statesmen, Eminent among whom were Sir Nicholas Bacon, Sir Francis statesmen. Walsingham, an able statesman and diplomatist, and William Cecil {Ses'-il), who was prime-minister of the realm for about forty years, and was the principal director and man- ager of the government. These men were wholly devoted to the interests of the nation. But her chief personal favorites were unworthy. Of these, in the early part of her reign, the principal was Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. After his death, Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, a young nobleman of accom- plishments, talents, and high spirit, possessed the first place in her affections. The queen and Essex had many quarrels and reconciliations ; but his brilliant career was finally brought to a sad and tragical end. 32. Elizabeth's attention was frequently called to the un- settled state of Scotland and Ireland, both of which had re- Eari of ceived sympathy and assistance from France and Essex. Spain. An Irish chieftain, whom the queen had made Earl of Tyrone, raised the standard of revolt, and for some time defied all attempts to reduce him and his clan to subjection. Finally Essex was intrusted with an army for quell- ing this rebellion. But his blunders and delays soon brought upon him a reprimand from the queen : whereupon he hastily returned to London, thereby incurring the displeasure of Eliza- beth, who immediately curtailed his liberty, and caused his 1603] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 113 movements to be closely watched. Failing to regain the queen's confidence, and to secure the continuance of some commercial monopolies which he had formerly enjoyed, Essex finally broke into open rebellion, and attempted to seize the government; but his plans were frustrated (1601), and he was convicted of treason, and beheaded. 33. Elizabeth, who had surprised the nations of Europe by the splendor of her course, was destined to close the evening of her life in gloom and sorrow. Some ascribe the Elizabeth's deep depression and mental suffering which she at last days, this period endured, to the neglect which she imagined she ex- perienced on account of her age and infirmities, when, to use her own expression, " men would turn their backs on the setting to worship the rising sun ; " others, to the revival of her regret for the death of Essex, whom she had given up for his invinci- ble obstinacy, but who, she now discovered, had actually thrown himself upon her clemency, while his enemies had found means to conceal his application. The Countess of Nottingham, now upon her death-bed (according to various historians), sent for the queen, to confess to her that Essex, while under the sen- tence of death, had desired her to convey to Elizabeth a ring which she had given him with the assurance that the sight of it would at any time recall her tenderness ; but that she had neglected to deliver it. The queen, in a frenzy of passion, shook the dying countess, exclaiming, '" God may forgive you, but I never can ! " From that moment she sank into a deep melancholy, rejected all sustenance, and died (1603) in pro- found grief, in the forty-fifth year of her reign and the seventieth of her age. 34. Elizabeth was distinguished for her learning, and spoke fluently Greek, Latin, French, and Spanish. She possessed extraordinary talents for government, was great as a ^^^ charac public character, and commanded the high respect ter as a of her subjects and of foreign nations. Her three sovereign, leading maxims of policy were to secure the affections of her 114 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1603. subjects, to be frugal of her treasures, and to excite dissensions among her enemies. She manifested less regard for the liberty than for the prosperity of the people. In the former part of her reign, she was comparatively moderate and humble, but afterwards haughty and severe. Both her disposition and her principles were despotic. With regard to religion, she perse- cuted both Catholics and Puritans ; but, like her father, she had a leaning towards Rome in almost every thing except the doc- trine of Papal supremacy. 35. Her private character is less to be admired, being tar- nished with insincerity and cruelty, and destitute of the milder Private ^^^ softer virtues of her sex. Her manners were character. haughty and overbearing, and her conversation grossly profane. Not only was she vain of her beauty (which she only could discover), and delighted with the praise of her charms, even at the age of sixty-five, but was jealous of every female competitor to a degree which the youngest and silliest of her sex might despise. She was also subject to sallies of anger which no sense of dignity could restrain ; and on the whole she furnished a remarkable instance of great moral weak- nesses united with high intellectual superiority. 36. The reign of Elizabeth was signalized by the circumnavi- gation of the globe by Sir Francis Drake (1580), the first Eng- important lishman who accomplished that feat ; also by the events, introduction of potatoes and tobacco from America, pocket-watches from Germany, paper-making, and coaches. In 1563 knives began to be manufactured in London, the first branch of cutlery established in the country. The population of London in that year is said to have been a hundred and sixty-three thousand. Trinity College (Dublin), Westminster School (London), and the famous school at Rugby, were all established in this reign. Sir Thomas Gresham, a wealthy London trader, erected (1566) a magnificent edifice for the merchants as a place of meeting, and which the queen named the Royal Exchange. 1603] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 115 In 1600 a company of London merchants met at the house of one of their number, and subscribed a capital of thirty thou- sand pounds to purchase a vessel to trade with the East Indies ; and they received a charter soon afterwards from Ehzabeth. This was the beginning of that great commercial monopoly, the East-India Company, which ultimately led to British rule in India. EVENTS AND SOCIETY OF THE TUDOR PERIOD. 37. The reign of the Tudor family in England covers the entire period of the sixteenth century, with a slight overlapping at each end of that century, — or, more exactly Political (1485-1603), a period of one hundred and eigh- events, teen years. Politically the period was an important one on account of the practical extinction of the feudal system and the checking of the power of the nobles ; the bold assertion and exercise of the prerogative of the sovereign, especially by Henry VIII. ; the enactment of many important laws relating to the Church ; and the progress made by the House of Commons, the people's branch of Parliament, in influencing legislation, and particularly in making its assent necessary in granting supplies of money. 38. But the prominent feature of the century was the revo- lution in ecclesiastical and religious affairs. From entire devo- tion to the Roman-Cathohc Church, and yielding The Refor- a large revenue to its support and treasury, England mation. became essentially Protestant, although many people still re- mained devoted to the Church of Rome. Instead of the Pope, the sovereign was made the ecclesiastical head of the Church ; the Bible was translated into the English language, and, by the aid of the printing-press, began to be widely read by the people. This change in religious affairs was not brought about without great convulsions, that shook society to its foundations. Passion and violence entered largely into the controversy on both sides, and neither party could claim much credit for the exercise of toleration. The consequences of the political and religious Ii6 HISTORY OF ENGLANP. [1603. events of this century affected very materially the history of the century that followed. 39. Trade and commerce flourished during this century ; and so successfully was ship-building carried on, that English ship- Trade and carpenters were in great demand in other countries, commerce. xhc Spirit of nautical adventure, so prominent at the close of the previous century, continued to stimulate the minds of English merchants and adventurers. Cod-fishing on the Banks of Newfoundland was followed as early as 1536 ; and some time afterward vessels were sent into the northern seas to engage in whale-fishing. An attempt was made to discover a north-east passage to China, which was unsuccessful ; but it resulted in opening a trade with Russia. Japan and Greenland were visited. Sir Walter Raleigh and others made voyages along the coast of North America, and attempted, though unsuccessfully, to form settlements in the country. Many bold navigators in the time of Elizabeth sailed on marauding expeditions against Spanish commerce, from which they sometimes returned laden with rich booty. 40. The activity of trade stimulated some branches of manu- factures. Silk was produced to some extent by foreign weavers ; Manufac- great improvement was made in the tanning of tures. leather; and the manufacture of cloth became a very extensive and profitable industry. In one year in the time of Elizabeth, English merchants exported to the Nether- lands, principally to Antwerp, cloth to the value of twelve mil- lion dollars. In this reign many London merchants became very rich. Silver shilHngs were first coined in England in the reign of Henry VII. 41. In the early part of the century, agriculture was not greatly improved. Large tracts of land which had been for- merly cultivated were used for pasturage, partly on account of the scarcity of laborers after the abolition of villenage, and also on account of the great demand for wool. ^^03-] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 117 The suppression of the monasteries occasioned a similar change in the use of much land. Numerous flocks of sheep were pas- tured by the peasants, and on some of the large estates there were to be found flocks numbering from ten to twenty thousand. But during the latter half of the century more attention was given to the cultivation of the soil, and a greater variety of products was the result. The introduction of clover made the land capable of supporting more cattle, sheep, and horses ; and hops were extensively cultivated. From the Continent were intro^luced and cultivated salads, cabbages, melons, and arti- chokes, as were also several delicious fruits, such as apricots, currants, plums, cherries, gooseberries, and pippins from the East and from Southern Europe. Pleasure-gardens were well laid out with terraces, and ornamented with vases and fountains ; and there were introduced the gillyflower, the carnation-pink, and several varieties of roses, including the musk-rose. The farmers' wives performed their full share of labor in the support of the family. They spun and wove wool and flax for the clothing of the household ; and an old writer Labor of says it was the duty of a good housewife " to win- women, now all manner of corn, to make malt, to wash, and to make hay, shear corn, and in time of need help her husband fill the muck-wain, drive the plough, to load hay, corn, and such other, and to go to market and sell butter and pigs, fowls, or corn." 42. The common people were generally industrious and con- tented ; though begging and robbery were common, and often called for the interposition of the strong arm of the condition of law. Henry VIII. regarded poverty as a kind of the people, crime ; and he had severe laws passed to prevent begging, in- cluding one against the gypsies, so called because they were supposed to have come originally from Egypt. But in the time of Elizabeth charitable efforts were made to relieve and encour- age the worthy poor, although idlers and vagabonds were placed in the stocks or in the house of correction. 43. The Tudor style of architecture, which was a combination Il8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. {'^(yo:},. of the Italian and the Gothic, was an improvement on what had Dwellings preceded it. In point of elegance and convenience and furni- it reached its great excellence in the time of Eliza- ^"'■^- beth. The hall of the noble and the manor-house of the squire were built for comfort and elegance, and not, like the old baronial casdes, for defence. These manor-houses and the dwellings of the wealthier classes were well built, and were generally of a style in which two projecting wings, with an inter- mediate porch, were supposed to represent the letter E, the queen's initial, and hence called the Elizabethan style. In accordance with the Italian custom, the principal apartments were above ; and hence the entrance-hall and stairway were finished with much style and decoration. Furniture was costly, and elaborately carved and inlaid. Chairs were covered with velvet, and beds and bedsteads were rich in material and finish. Glass mirrors were introduced from France, and floor carpets from the East ; and the latter soon began to be woven in England. Turkish carpets were used in the time of Edward VI. as table-covers. Ornamental clocks began to be used in the best houses ; and one placed in the palace at Hampton Court (1540) is still in existence. The houses of the farmers and peasants were improved much during the century. In the time of Elizabeth they were usually built of stone or brick, instead of timbers and wattle ; and many articles of useful furniture were introduced. Feather-beds had taken the place of the pallet of straw. 44. The style of living among the nobility during the latter part of the sixteenth century was luxurious, and attended with style of liv- much ccrcmony and ostentation. In this respect ing- the royal household of Elizabeth was surpassed by none. Her dining-hall resounded with the music of drums and trumpets. Twenty-four courses were served at dinner on gilded dishes, and were brought in by gentlemen and lady attendants in gorgeous costume. As a protection against poisoning, every person who brought in a dish of food was obliged to taste of the same before it was placed upon the royal table. 1603] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 119 45. Among the nobility, entertainments and feasting were conducted in a more stately and dignified manner than in the preceding century ; the boisterousness, jesting, and Feasting buffoonery of earlier times having been laid aside, and food. On such occasions enormous quantities of food and beer were consumed, and servants were numerous. Lord Burleigh's house- hold was served by a hundred servants. Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, entertained Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth Castle for a period of seventeen days at an expense of eighty-five thousand dollars, equivalent to half a million dollars at the present time. On that occasion it is stated that three hundred and sixty-five hogsheads of beer were consumed. Meat, bread, and fruits were the principal articles of food at feasts, sweets and confections being only occasional luxuries ; and beer and wine were the common drinks. Only the nobility and the rich could afford wheaten bread all the time ; the farm- hands and the lower classes using bread of barley and rye, and sometimes mixed and ground with peas, beans, and oats. Table-cloths and napkins were in common use, and pewter plates had begun to take the place of wooden trenchers. On the tables of the wealthy, there was a great display of plate, which was valued according to its weight, and not for its finish, which was not elaborate. Table-forks were not yet used in England. It is mentioned that guests washed before eating, and that men wore their hats at table. Thomas Tusser, who flourished in the time of Elizabeth, and was " musician, schoolmaster, husbandman, and poet," wrote a work in verse on " Good Husbandry and Good Housewifery." In this work he gives the following conditions for good cheer : — " Good bread and good drink, a good fire in the hall ; Brawn, pudding, and sauce, and good mustard withal; Beef, mutton, and pork, shred pies of the best ; Pig, veal, goose, and capon, and turkey well drest; Cheese, apples, and nuts, jolly carols to hear. As these in the country is counted good cheer." 120 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1603. 46. The styles of dress were various, and often extravagant and grotesque, although not so absurd as in the last century. The unsightly tall head-dresses for a long time in vogue were discarded ; and in their place were worn caps or bonnets of velvet, and felt with feathers, which were often quite picturesque. Broad turn-over collars of fur or velvet were worn by both sexes. In the time of Henry VIII. men were required to cut their hair short, but the beard and mustache were allowed to grow long. In the reign of Elizabeth, knit stockings of silk or worsted began to take the place of hose made of cloth. Women wore their hair curled and frizzled about the head, and also hanging at length upon the back and shoulders. False hair was common, the color being governed by fashion. At the age of sixty-seven. Queen Elizabeth wore false hair of red color, which was the original hue of her own. Perfumed gloves trimmed with gold and silver and jewelry were much worn ; and pins with heads, for fastening garments, became quite common, in place of loops, strings, and other contrivances formerly in use for such purposes. The personal appearance of the ladies was greatly marred by the dark color of their teeth, occasioned by smoking tobacco, which became fashionable after Sir Walter Raleigh introduced that weed into England. Several laws were passed during the century, forbidding excess and extravagance in dress ; but they were little regarded during the reign of Elizabeth, who herself set the people an example of extravagance. It is related that she would never allow a dress to be given away, or otherwise disposed of; and at her death the number in her wardrobe was three thousand. 47. Amusements and festivals of various kinds were partici- pated in by all classes Costly pageants upon land and upon Amuse- the water, music and dancing, moralities (a kind of ments. allegorical dialogue), cock-fighting, horse-racing, and bull and bear baiting, were popular forms of recreation. Christmas was a joyous time for the whole people, and St. 1603.] THE TUDOR FAMILY. 121 Valentine's Day was the time for love-making. May Day was one of the great national holidays. The young people went to the woods on the morning of that day to obtain the May-pole, which was drawn into the village by many yoke of oxen, with their horns decorated with ribbons and flowers. Around this pole, adorned with gay streamers, the young people danced in holiday attire. The milkmaid's dance, a common pastime, also took place on this day. With huge piles of borrowed silverware upon their heads, they danced from house to house, receiving a small gratuity in money from the occupants. 48. Weddings were occasions of great joy and hilarity among all classes. The village bride was escorted to the church by her young friends, decked with ribbons and rose- mary, and bearing the bride-cup of wine, and ^ ^^' followed by maidens carrying cake, and garlands of wheat, and filling the air with music and joyous shouting. 49. The printing-press became the means of diffusing much information among the reading classes, and the colleges gave a good education to those who resorted to them. Girls were generally taught at home by private tutors. Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and Lady Jane Grey were all fine classical scholars, and distinguished for their varied attain- ments. Grammar or secondary schools were established for the middling classes, in which were taught the common and some of the higher branches. But the great mass of the people were deplorably ignorant. It is related that Shakspeare's father, though an alderman, was not able to write his own name. 50. Art made little progress in the time of the Tudors, though portrait-painting was cultivated somewhat. Hans Hol- bein the younger, a distinguished German portrait and historical painter, spent most of his life in England, and was patronized by Henry VI II., who was the first person that made a collection of paintings in England. CHAPTER II. THE STUART FAMILY (PART I.). (FROM JAMES I. TO THE COMMONWEALTH.) 1603 to 1649, — 46 years. James 1. Charles I. ELIZABETH, on the approach of death, nominated for her successor the son of her rival Mary, James VL of Scot- Character of land, who was the rightful heir by descent. He the Stuarts, took the title of James I. of England (1603), and in him the two crowns were united. He was the first of the Stuarts, — a family whose reign was one continued struggle for power between the monarch and the people, and who were characterized by despotic principles, injudicious conduct, and such a want of gratitude and good faith as to be proverbial for leaving their friends in distress. 2. James had scarcely arrived in England when a conspiracy was discovered for subverting the government, and placing on A con- the throne his cousin, Arabella Stuart. The cele- spiracy. bratcd Sir Walter Raleigh, who had been distin- guished in the preceding reign, was sentenced to death on an accusation of being connected in this plot. He was, however, reprieved, and cast into the Tower, where he remained thirteen years, during which time he wrote his " History of the World." He secured his release from prison by bribery, it was said, to engage in a gold-hunting expedition in Guiana, which proved unsuccessful. During an exploring-tour up the Orinoco, some of his party had a hostile engagement with some Spaniards at '^°5J THE STUART FAMILY. 123 St. Thomas. After his return to England, the Spanish court demanded that he should be punished ; and James, reviving the sentence passed upon him fifteen years before, caused him to be barbarously beheaded. He was a valiant soldier and a famous navigator, and as a scholar and writer was one of the first men of the age. He is said, to have gained the favor of Elizabeth by an act of gallantry. In passing from her carriage to the palace, the queen was about to step into the mud and water, whereupon Raleigh threw his richly embroidered cloak upon the ground, over which she walked with great compla- cency. 3. The Catholics had been hopeful of favors from James, as his mother had been a devout Catholic ; but in this they were doomed to disappointment. The severity of the r^ I . , •' Gunpowder laws agamst them was not relaxed. The king es- plot, poused the cause of the Established Church, and became intolerant of both Catholics and Dissenters. Another conspiracy followed, of a more daring nature. This was the famous "Gunpowder Plot," —a design of some fanatical Catholics to blow up the parliament-house, and involve in one common destruction the king, lords, and commons. The leader of the conspiracy was Robert Catesby, a country gentleman of an ancient and wealthy family; and all the members were pledged by oath to the utmost secrecy. They hired a cellar under the parliament-house, ostensibly for business purposes, into which they conveyed thirty-six barrels of gunpowder, and covered it with fagots. Guy Fawkes, a Yorkshireman who had done military service in the Netherlands, was hired as keeper of the cellar, and to carry the plot into execution. Lord Mounteagle, a Cathohc member of Parliament, received an anonymous letter urging him to absent himself from the opening session on the 5th of November (1605). This led to an investigation and to placing a watch upon the premises. During the night of the 4th, as Fawkes opened the door of the cellar, he was seized by soldiers, and secured. Slow-matches 124 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1611. for firing the magazine were found in his pocket, and behind the door was a dark-lantern burning. This lantern is still pre- served in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Upon the arrest of Fawkes, the conspirators fled into the country, whither they were pursued ; and som^ of them were shot, while others were arrested, and, with Fawkes,. were tried, convicted, and exe- cuted. Before his execution, Fawkes was put to the torture ; and, although he boldly avowed his purpose, he made no con- fession concerning his confederates. The exposure of this plot led to the enactment of still severer laws against the CathoHcs. 4. Soon after James's accession, a convention of divines was held for the discussion of religious subjects, at which he was one of the principal speakers ; and he declared, that, if the dissenters did not " conform," he would '* harry them out of the land," — a threat afterwards not wholly unaccomplished. He visited Scodand for the purpose of intro- ducing the Established Church there, but was not favorably received. His countrymen even accused him of being a traitor to the religion in which he was educated, and to the promises he made while King of Scotland. 5. The version of the Bible known as King James's Version, the one now in use by Protestants, was made during The common ^ English the reign of James (161 1) by a large committee Bible. Qf divines and scholars appointed by the king for that purpose. 6. The spirit of commercial enterprise, so active in the time of Elizabeth, gave rise in this reign to extensive schemes of American colouization, ouc of which resulted in plandng a Colonies. colony on James River in Virginia, the oldest Eng- lish town in the United States, and which, in honor of the king, was called Jamestown. During the reign of Mary, the Puritans first made their The Puri- appearance ; and in the time of Elizabeth they tans. became, in a considerable degree, conspicuous. They were strenuous advocates for freedom in the state, and a i62o ] THE S TUAR T FA MIL V. 1 25 more thorough reformation in religion. A great majority of the Puritans remained in the Estabhshed Church, though protesting against some of its doctrines and practices. At the accession of James they cherished high hopes that their views would meet with more favor than during the reign of the late queen, inas- much as he had been educated in Presbyterianism. But, of all persons, they were the most disappointed. So great was their dissatisfaction, that some of them sought refuge from their restraints and persecutions in Holland. Having withdrawn from the Established Church, they were called "Separatists," or " Independents," and afterwards, from their wanderings, were known as the " Pilgrims." After a residence of several years in Holland, a company of them left Delfthaven (1620), and, being joined by friends from England, sailed across the ocean to the wilderness of America, and began at Plymouth the first settle- ment in New England. 7. It was the characteristic weakness of James to attach him- self to worthless favorites : such were Carr, Earl of Somerset, and Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, — men on whom ^^^ asso- he bestowed his favors with the utmost ^prodigality, ciates. though they were of profligate character, odious to the people, and were possessed of no merit, except external beauty and superficial accomplishments. 8. But some of the king's counsellors were men of ability and distinction. His first prime-minister was Rob- ert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, who had held the ^°""^^"°'"^- same office during the latter part of Elizabeth's reign, and who was the son of Lord Burleigh. He was an able statesman and an adroit negotiator, but is censured for promoting or permit- ting the ruin of his rivals, — Raleigh and Essex. Francis Bacon was attorney-general, keeper of the seals, and lord high chan- cellor ; but he was accused and convicted of bribery, fined forty thousand pounds, and imprisoned for a time in the Tower. He was a man of great ability, of the highest distinction as a scholar and an author, and inaugurated a system of philosophy 126 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [,625. that laid the foundation of modern science ; but his greatness was sadly shaded by his moral weakness, if not by corruption. Pope gave him the stinging characteristic of " The wisest, bright- est, and meanest of mankind." g. The leading characteristic of James was his love of arbi- trary power. The divine right of kings to govern their subjects James as a was hls favoritc topic in conversation and in his ruler. spcechcs to Parliament. He wrote a book in de- fence of this doctrine, and maintained that sovereigns should govern according to their own will, and that the duty of subjects is obedience. Some of the bishops and nobility supported him in these views ; but the House of Commons gave no counte- nance to such doctrines, and it was the misfortune of the king to be often at variance with his Parliaments. His habits led to frequent calls for money ; but the Commons seldom made a grant until some grievance complained of was redressed. To replenish his empty treasury, he created the title of baronet, an hereditary dignity between a baron and a knight, and sold two hundred of them for a thousand pounds each. 10. The increase of commerce and the consequent influx of wealth, the diffusion of information, the disappointed hopes Spirit of lib- ^"^^ ^^^ privations of the Puritans (who had become erty. numerous) , and the controversies in which they were engaged, all conspired to diffuse widely the spirit of liberty. The current of pubHc opinion was now strongly turned to an extension of the rights of the people and to a retrenchment of the power of the sovereign ; and it was during this reign that the seeds were sown of that spirit of resistance to despotic power, on the part of the people, which in the next produced a subversion of the monarchy. 11. James died of ague in March, 1625. While King of Scotland, he had married Ann of Denmark. Of several chil- Death, and dren, but two survivcd him, — Elizabeth, who mar- famiiy. ned Count Palatine, — a German prince, and for a short time King of Bohemia, — and Charles, the Prince of Wales, who succeeded his father upon the throne. 1625.] THE STUART FAMILY. 127 12. In person James was tall and exceedingly awkward ; and, akhough very fond of the chase, he was a very bad rider. His costume is described as consisting of a doublet, Person and or short jacket, quilted to avoid assassination ; character, breeches in large plaits, and stuffed ; long tight-fitting silk hose ; shoes with rosettes ; and a high-peaked hat with a feather. His subjects had little respect for his personal character ; for his morals were far from being pure, drunkenness being one of his besetting sins. The sight of a naked sword almost caused I him to shudder, and he lived in constant fear of witches. He possessed a good deal of learning, but more pedantry, and was the author of several books, including one on "The Divine Right of Kings," a " Counterblast to Tobacco," one on " De- monology," and a " Book of Sports," in which he recommends wrestling, archery, and other games, to be practised on Sunday, "after evening prayers." The religious public of all classes condemned this book. The king's greatest weakness was his excessive fondness for flattery, which was dealt out to him with an unsparing hand by his bishops and parasites, who styled him the " British Solo- mon ; " but the Duke of Sully called him "The wisest fool in Europe." But the best part of his character was his pacific disposition ; and his reign, which lasted twenty-two years, though ignoble to himself, was in many respects happy to his people, who were enriched by peace and commerce. 13. During this reign (16 14) logarithms were invented by Napier, a Scotchman ; copper halfpence and farthings were first coined ; and Harvey made his famous discovery Events and (1619) of the circulation of the blood. The last persons, burnings for heresy were in 161 1 ; but the fagots were often lighted afterwards for the punishment of supposed witches. Among the celebrities of the age were Coke, an eminent judge and jurist ; Inigo Jones, the architect of Whitehall Palace ; and four distinguished poets and dramatists, — Ben Jonson, Beau- mont and Fletcher (who wrote plays together), and Shakspeare, 128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [,625. who revolutionized the national drama of England, and who was the greatest writer of this class of his own or of any age. He died in his native place, Stratford-on-x^von, in 1616, and was buried within the chancel of the village church, where the inscription written by the poet's own hand still meets the eyes of pilgrims to that shrine of genius : — " Good frend for Jesus sake forbeare To digg the dust encloased heare : Blest be ye man y* spares thes stones. And curst be he yt moves my bones." 14. Charles I. ascended the throne (1625) in his twenty- fifth year, under favorable circumstances. His title was undis- state of the puted, and the kingdom was in a flourishing condi- kingdom. tion. But within the last fifty years public opinion in the nation had undergone a great change ; and many of his subjects were extremely jealous of their civil and religious liberties, and would no longer be governed by precedents which had their origin in times of ignorance and slavery. He soon gave proof that he inherited the same arbitrary principles with his father; and the same worthless favorite, Buckingham, re- tained his influence and authority. Soon after his accession, Chailes married Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. 15. In the latter part of the reign of James, Charles, accom- panied by Buckingham, had visited the court of Madrid in , ^. order to solicit the hand of the infanta in marria2:e. Arbitrary ° measures of The negotiation, however, failed through the mis- the king. conduct of Buckingham ; and England was involved in a war with Spain. Soon after Charles ascended the throne, he was offended with the Parliament for refusing to grant him sufficient supplies in carrying on this war, and for resisting his arbitrary designs; and, having adopted the resolution to rule without their aid, he proceeded to levy money in various Avays, independent of their authority. One of these methods was by a tax on merchandise, called " tonnage and poundage ; " i628.] THE STUART FAMILY. 129 and another by a tax called " ship-money." The money raised by the latter was now levied not only on seaport towns, but over the whole kingdom ; and Charles 'P-"^oney. claimed the right to command his subjects, without an act of Parliament, to provide and furnish ships, together with men, victuals, and ammunition, in such numbers 'and at such time as he should think proper, — a claim which struck at the vital principle of a free government. This assessment of ship-money is the famous tax which first roused the whole nation at length to fix and determine, after a long continuance of an unsettled constitution, the bounds of their own freedom and the king's prerogative. 16. A noble stand was made against the payment of this im- position by John Hampden, a man who, on account of his high character for talents, integrity, and patriotism, pos- john sessed the greatest influence in parliament and in Hampden, the nation. But although the venal judges decided the cause against him, yet he obtained the end for which he sacrificed his quiet and his safety. The people, believing that the decision was unjust, were roused from their lethargy, and became fully sensible of the danger to which their liberties were exposed. 17. An important measure passed by the Commons early in the reign of Charles was called the "Petition of Rights," — a law which the king was compelled to sign, securing Petition of the observance of certain rights guaranteed by Rights. Magna Charta, but which Charles had often disregarded. The principal grievances complained of were martial law, and the quartering of soldiers in private houses, forced loans and taxes without consent of Parliament, and arbitrary imprisonments. An important provision in Magna Charta provided that " no penalty shall be laid on any man but by the judgment of his peers, and according to law." This Petition of Rights has been called the "Second Great Charter" of the people of England. 18. The Duke of Buckingham having been assassinated (1628) by Felton, an Irish fanatic, Thomas Wentworth, Earl 130 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1640. of Strafford, the most able and devoted champion of the claims Strafford ^^ ^'^^ crown, and the most formidable enemy of and Laud. the liberties of the people, became the chief coun- sellor of the king ; and William Laud, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, a thorough hater of the Puritans, had the prin- cipal influence in ecclesiastical affairs. The current of the public sentiment was now running strongly towards Puritanism, in favor of a simpler form of v\^orship. But Laud, so far from countenancing this tendency, had overloaded the church with new ceremonies, which were displeasing to the people, and which he enforced with the most intolerant zeal. Not satisfied with attempting to enforce conformity in Eng- land, the king undertook to estabhsh episcopacy in Scotland also, and to impose the use of the Ens^lish liturgy Opposition ' ^ o t).7 toepisco- upon the national church. This measure excited a pacy. strong sensation among all ranks, from the peer to the peasant : even the women were not backward in manifesting opposition. In one of the churches of Edinburgh, on the day when the introduction of the liturgy was first attempted, no sooner had the service begun than an old woman, impelled by sudden indignation, started up, and, exclaiming aloud against the innovation, threw the stool on which she had been sitting at the preacher's head. The assembly was instantly in confusion, nor could the minister finish the service. The people from without burst open the doors, and broke the windows ; and a scene of great disorder brought the services to an end. The prelates were equally unsuccessful in most instances, throughout Scotland, in enforcing the liturgy. The National Covenant, which was first framed at the Reformation, and which renounced Episcopacy as well as Roman Catholicism, was renewed, and subscribed by all ranks. 19. After eleven years' intermission, the king found it neces- The king and sary in 1640 to convoke a parliament; but the parliament. House of Commons, instead of listening to his de- mands for supplies, began with presenting the public grievances 1640.] THE STUART FAMILY. 131 under three heads, — those of the broken privileges of Parlia- ment, of illegal taxes, and of violence done to the cause of religion. Charles, perceiving he had nothing favorable to hope from their deliberations, soon dissolved the Assembly. By an- other parliament not long afterwards assembled, which continued twenty years, and was called the '' Long Parliament," Strafford and Laud were sent to the Tower on several charges of endeav- oring to subvert the constitution, and to introduce arbitrary power. Strafford was brought to trial on a charge of treason, and was condemned and beheaded ; and five years afterwards Laud suffered the same fate. 20. Charles had, in 1629, violated the privileges of Parlia- ment by causing nine members to be imprisoned for the part which they had taken in debate. But he was now _, , , -' Bold meas- betrayed into a still greater indiscretion, which con- ures of the tributed much towards kindling the flame of civdl ^^^^' war. This was the impeachment of Lord Kimbolton and five distinguished commoners, — Pym, Hampden, Hollis, Hazlerig, and Strode, — and his going himself to the House to seize them, leaving two hundred armed men at the door. Having entered the House, he ordered the speaker, Lenthal, to point them out. " Sir," answered the speaker, falling on his knees, " I have neither eyes to see, nor tongue to speak, in this place, but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am ; and I humbly ask pardon that I cannot give any other answer to what your Majesty is pleased to demand of me." The king with- drew without effecting his object, amidst low but distinct mur- murs of " Privilege, privilege ! " This ill-advised and abortive attempt, which was condemned both by his friends and enemies, completed the degradation of the unfortunate monarch. He afterwards apologized to Parliament for this conduct. But the day of reconciliation was past : he had lost the confidence of that body ; and they were now prepared, not only to confine his power within legal bounds, but to strip him of his constitutional authority. 132 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1642. 21. Both parties resolved to stake the issue of the contest on' the sword, and the standard of civil war was now (1642) erected. Civil war '^^^ cause of the king was supported by three-fourths and its of the nobility and superior gentry, by the bishops, parties. ^^^^ advocates of episcopacy, and by the Catholics ; that of the Parliament, by the yeomanry of the country, the merchants and tradesmen in the towns, by the Puritans, or opponents of episcopacy, comprising the Presbyterians, Inde- pendents, and other dissenters. The supporters of the king were styled " Cavaliers ; " those of the Parliament, " Round- heads," — an appellation given to them by their adversaries be- cause many of them cropped their hair short. 22. A religious spirit, un- fortunately tinctured with fa- naticism, extravagance, and party feeling, was at this period widely diffused throughout Great Britain ; and it formed a prominent characteristic of most of the leaders in Parlia- ment, and also of those who took up arms in defence of their liberties. The charge of license and excess fell chiefly on the royalists, a great part of whom were men of pleasure, disposed to deride the sanctity and austere morality of their opponents. " All the sober men that I was acquainted with, who were against the Parliament," says the celebrated Richard Baxter, "used to say, 'The king had the better cause, but the Parliament had the better men.' " A CAVALIER, 23. England had been comparatively but little engaged in war since the accession of Henry VII., and it had but fc ;v men of military experience. The chief commanders in the royal i643.] THE S TL 'A K T FA MTL Y. -^zz army, besides the king, were the Earl of Lindsey, Prince Rupert (nephew of Charles, and son of the King of Bo- Leaders and hernia), and Sir Jacob Astley ; and in the parlia- battles, mentary army the Earl of Essex (son of Essex, the favorite of Elizabeth) had the chief command at first, then Lord Fairfax, and afterwards Oliver Cromwell (a cousin of John Hampden). 24. There were but few battles in the civil war that could be called great ; but there was much skirmishing, and many ma- rauding and plundering expeditions, as is common ^^ ^.^^ in wars of this kind. The first engagement of im- ])ortance was at Edgehill (October, 1642), at which the king was present in person ; his troops being commanded by Rupert, while Essex was in charge of the parliamentary forces. Several thousand were slain ; but the battle was not decisive, although the royalists seemed rather to have gained the advantage. Charles had coined his plate into money to raise the troops employed on this occasion. Soon after the battle, he retired to Oxford, which was strongly fortified, and made his headquarters during the war. Here he occasionally held parliaments of such members as were friendly to his cause. In some of these parliaments he had at tildes a majority of the peers of the realm ; but the greater number of the commoners remained at Westminster. ^'^^^ST^S' A ROUNDHEAD. 25. Attempted negotiations for peace failed. In the winter of 1643 the queen returned from the Continent Foreign aid. with four ships, containing troops which she had_^^"^P'^^"- raised with funds obtained by selling the crown jewels in Hol- land. In the spring Essex took Reading ; and at a skirmish in 134 HISTORY OF ENCLAA^D. [1643. Chalgrove Field, near Oxford^ in June, John Hampden was killed. He was an able advocate of human rights and a stanch friend of the people. Before the war, he and Cromwell had decided to emigrate to America; but the vessel in which they were to sail was detained by order of the king's Council. 26. In the summer, Bristol and the west surrendered to Ru- pert, and in the north the royalists more than held their own. Gloucester was besieged by the king, but was soon Newbury. , , , 1 , -vt 1 abandoned ; and the two armies met at JNewbury (in September), where a fiercely contested battle lasted an entire day, and closed at night with no decisive results, although the royalists claimed it as a victory. Lord Falkland, a warm friend and secretary of state of the king, was slain. In former years he had belonged to the opposite party ; but believing that the king was right, and being desirous of peace, he espoused his sovereign's cause. 27. The parliamentary party now sought an alliance with Scotland, for which purpose Sir Henry Vane was sent to Edin- burgh. Vane had resided in America, and had been AUiance ° with the governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, and a rep- Scots. resentative in the General Court from Boston. The Scots were Presbyterians, with an intense dislike for the Papacy ; but, in matters of religious liberty and toleration, they were not as liberal as the Independents, of whom Vane, Crom- well, and many of their associates, were members. As a condition of alliance, the Scots required the acceptance of their National Covenant, by which they hoped to introduce ^ , their form of religion into England. After much Solemn ° * league and discussion, that instrument was modified, named the covenant. Solemn League and Covenant, and adopted by both parties. It required its supporters to unite for mutual defence, and for the extirpation of popery and prelacy, profaneness, superstition, and heresy ; also to maintain the king's authority, and the rights and privileges of Parliament. This covenant was subscribed to by more than two hundred members of the 1 644] THE S TUA RT FA MIL V. 135 Parliament at Westminster, and ordered to be signed by all under their authority. This virtually made Presbyterianism, for the time being, the national religion of the realm. 28. Two or three years previous to these events, Charles had sent troops to Ireland to suppress a serious insurrection that had arisen there. These troops he now recalled Re.enforce- for his own assistance ; but, soon after their arrival ments. in Wales, they were entirely defeated by Fairfax. As one of the fruits of the recent alliance, an army of forty thousand Scots, under Earl Leven, joined Fairfax in January, 1644. In April the queen left O^rford for Exeter as a means of safety, afterwards crossed over to France, and never saw her husband again. 29. Soon after midsummer (July 2) the opposing forces met at Marston Moor, a broad open plain a few miles from the old historic city of York, where the royalists, under Marston Rupert and the Marquis of Newcastle, met with a Moor, most signal defeat. Fairfax received efficient and timely aid from Oliver Cromwell, in command of a company of picked horsemen, whom he named Ironsides. The field was strewn with more than four thousand of the slain ; and Rupert left in the hands of the victors fifteen hundred prisoners, all his cannon, and more dian a hundred banners. Newcastle, against whose advice Rupert rashly brought on the engagement, abandoned the cause, and went to France. This battle left the authority of Parliament supreme in the north ; although the Earl of Montrose, who had espoused the cause of Charles in Scotland, gained some victories over the Covenanters. 30. In the west and south Essex met with some reverses, and nearly another year was spent in skirmishing movements and in the adjustment of difficulties that had arisen between different factions in Parliament. The army was remodelled, and recruited by the addition of many reli- gious enthusiasts, with Sir Thomas Fairfax as general-in-chief. 136 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1645. Members of Parliament were made ineligible to office in the army ; but, in spite of this rule, Cromwell was appointed lieu- tenant-general. 31. In June, 1645, ^^ ^^^^ great battle of the war was fought at Naseby, at which the king was present in person. His army was totally routed, with a heavy loss in killed and ^^^ ^* prisoners ; and all his artillery, ammunition, and arms were left upon the field. The parliamentary party had a thousand killed. This victory was really due to the rashness of Rupert and the superior generalship of Cromwell. The king's cabinet was taken with his baggage ; and in it were found letters which proved that there was no sincerity in any of his efforts for reconciliation with Parliament, and that some of his proposals to secure assistance for his restoration were highly dishonorable. This circumstance was as disastrous to his cause as any battle he had lost. Rupert soon after surrendered Bristol, and, in disgrace with End of the ^^ ^Ji'^gj ^^^ the country. The war was now virtu- war, ally at an end ; although Montrose continued his operations for a time in Scotland, and some of the king's garri- sons held out several months longer. 32. Upon his defeat at Naseby, Charles retired to Oxford ; and, after several months of fruitless attempts to negotiate a Charles with peacc with Parliament, he escaped to the army of the Scots. the Scots at Newark, and thence to Newcastle, where he received protection, but was kept a prisoner for nine months. The king had hoped that the Scots would replace him upon his throne ; but the conditions they proposed were blindly rejected by him, and after much negotiation he was surren- dered to parliamentary commissioners upon the payment of four hundred thousand pounds. The transportation of this sum in silver northward from London required thirty-six carts guarded by an escort of infantry, and seventeen days' time for the journey. 1649J THE STUART FAxMILY. 137 33. For nearly two years the king was a prisoner of Parlia- ment, during which time all attempts at reconciliation with his enemies were fruitless. He was confined first at charies a Holmby House, one of his own residences, not far prisoner. from Naseby; then at Hampton Court, whence he escaped, and fled to the Isle of Wight, where he was kept in the castle, and from which he unsuccessfully attempted to escape ; next at Hurst Castle on the mainland ; and finally at Windsor, whence he was taken (Jan. 19, 1649) to St. James Palace in London. On the following day he was brought into Westminster Hall, to be tried on a charge of treason before a High Court of Justice composed of one hundred and thirty-five jnai and persons, of which John Bradshaw was president, execution. This court had been appointed, without the consent of the peers, by a minority of the House of Commons, after having expelled some of their colleagues, and being under the influence of the parliamentary army. Charles denied the authority of the court : but the trial proceeded ; and he was convicted, and received the sentence that "the Court, being satisfied that Charles Stuart is guilty of the crimes of which he has been charged, do adjudge him — as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good people of the nation — to be put to death by severing his head from his body." 34. Charles was no longer the man he had been before the civil war. Affliction had chastened his mind. He had sought and found relief in the consolations of religion, submission and his conduct during his trial exalted his char- and death. acter even in the estimation of his enemies. He forgave those who were the cause of his death ; and (Jan. 20) upon a scaf- fold in front of Whitehall Palace, he submitted to his fate with fortitude and composure. Having laid his head on the block, one of the masked executioners severed it from his body at a blow : the other, holding it up, exclaimed, " Behold the head of a traitor ! " while the sobs and lamentations of the specta- tors were mingled with the acclamations of the soldiery. 138 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1649. 35. Such was the end of Charles I., — an awful lesson to kings to watch the growth of public opinion, and to moderate Feelings of their prctcnsions in conformity with the reasonable the nation. dcsires of their subjects. His execution, however, was contrary to the general feelings of the nation, and was the deed of comparatively a few men, actuated by ambition or the madness of the times. The event was new in the experience of Englishmen, for never before had they seen their sovereign die at the hands of the public executioner. Even of the com- missioners appointed to sit in judgment on him, only about half could be induced to attend his trial. But the manner of his death has tended to exalt his posthumous reputation : for his friends have styled him the " Royal Martyr ; " and even many of his enemies have been disposed to look forgivingly upon his misdeeds, which brought him to the scaffold. 36. It was the misfortune of Charles to inherit despotic principles from his ancestors, to be educated in a servile and His char profligate court, and to be surrounded by wretched acter and couHsellors. He was onc of the last men to learn abihty- ^^^ important lesson, which princes in all ages have been slow to learn, that the influence of authority must ulti- mately bend to the influence of opinion. But his greatest defect, as well as the principal cause of his ruin, was the system of duplicity and insincerity upon which he acted in his public character. Such was his want of fidelity in his engagements, that the- Parliament could never confide in his promises. But, weak and reprehensible as he was as a king, he was by no means destitute of abilities. He was possessed of considerable learning, and good talents as a speaker and writer, and in his private character was exemplary. In his manners he is repre- sented as cold, stiff, and formal ; and with respect to religion, " he was," says Bishop Burnet, " much inclined to a middle way between Protestants and Papists." 37. The proceedings of Charles were at direct variance with every principle of civil and religious liberty ; and, had they been 1649.] THE STUART FAMILY. 139 acquiesced in on the part of the people, England might now have been a despotism. Mr. Hume, the great ^ot a friend apologist for the Stuart family, acknowledges the o^ liberty, services of the Puritans, ^' by whom alone," according to him, " the precious spark of liberty had been kindled and was pre- served, and to whom the English owe the whole freedom of their constitution." 38. The intention of those who first resisted the despotic and intolerant measures of the king and his court was doubtless upright and patriotic. Yet it must be acknowledged His oppo- that those who opposed the intolerance of the king nents. and of Laud, had themselves no consistent principles of religious hberty. In the progress of the contest, party spirit and fanati- cism were called into powerful operation ; and the leaders of the popular party in many cases acted on the principle that the end sanctifies the means, and appeared to think themselves absolved from all obligations of honor and honesty. Right and justice were outraged by those who professed to have drawn the sword in their defence. But such inconsistency is charac- teristi-c of revolutions. 39. Charles left six children, of whom two, Charles and James, became kings of England ; and Mary, who married William II., Prince of Orange, became the mother of William III. of England. Henrietta Maria *^ ^'"^^* married Philip, Duke of Orleans, a brother of Louis XIV. of France. 40. Vandyke, a Flemish artist, and probably the most cele- brated portrait-painter of modern times except Titian, resided in London during this reign, and was patronized by Charles ; and it was through him that Charles ob- tained the celebrated Cartoons of Raphael, representing Scrip- ture scenes, and now in South Kensington Museum, London. Rubens, another eminent Flemish painter, came to the court of Charles as an ambassador from Spain. The ceilings of the Whitehall Palace banqueting-hall (still in existence) are deco- rated with pictures on canvas by him, painted abroad. I40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1649. 41. In 1643 the famous Westminster Assembly of Divines, mostly Presbyterians, met in London, and continued its sessions Westminster ^bout six years. This body prepared a directory Assembly. for public worship, a confession of faith, and two catechisms, all of which, with slight modifications, are still the standards of the Presbyterian Church. The Shorter Catechism was introduced into New England, and became a part of the New-England Primer, which was used for primary instruction in Puritan families. 42. Roger Williams, a Puritan reformer, emigrated from England to America in 1631, where he became conspicuous in the early history of Massachusetts, and the founder of the Colony of Rhode Island. 43. In 1635 the postmaster- general was ordered to establish " a running post between London and Edinburgh (a distance of over two hundred miles), to go night and day, and come back in six days; " and in 1644 a weekly conveyance of letters was ordered into all parts of the nation. CHAPTER III. THE COMMONWEALTH, OR PROTECTORATE. 1649 to 1660, — II years. Oliver Cromwell. WITHIN a few hours after the execution of Charles I., a sergeant-at-arms appeared in the streets of London, and proclaimed that the House of Commons had voted that whoever should proclaim the Prince of Wales, or any other one, king or chief magistrate of England, without the consent of Parliament, should be deemed a traitor. Not long afterwards the statue of the late king in the Exchange was thrown down ; and on its pedestal was inscribed, " Exit tyrannus, regum ultimus " ("The tyrant is gone, the last of the kings "). The Commons voted to abolish the office of King and the House of Lords as " unnecessary, burdensome, and dangerous to the liberty, safety, and public interests of the Monarchy people," and caused proclamation to be made that abolished, the supreme authority of the nation resided in the representa- tives of the people. A republican form of government was established, and a Council of State appointed as the Republican executive branch of the government. Of this coun- government, oil, John Bradshaw was president, and John Milton the poet, secretary. Only a few royalists (less than a half-dozen) were executed, and in matters of religion considerable toleration was allowed. 2. After the execution of Laud, episcopacy had been abol- 141 142 ///STORY OF ENGLAND. ['649- ished, and Presbyterianism substituted in its stead. But the The army in Presbyterian interest soon began to decline, and power. the Independents gained the ascendency ; and the power whicli the Parhament had wrested from the king was at length, by the management of Cromwell, transferred to the army. Before the trial of Charles, measures had been taken to exclude the Presbyterians from Parliament ; and that part of the House which remained, distinguished by the ridiculous name of the " Rump," was composed of Independents, under the influence of Cromwell. In this manner the Presbyterians, who had overturned the church and the throne, fell victims to tlie military power which they had used as the instrument for accomplishing their designs. 3. The attention of the new government was early called to the condition of Ireland, where civil war was imminent or was Condition of already prevailing. The greater part of the peo- ireiand. pjg were royalists, and generally Catholics also. Through the Marquis of Ormond, their leader, they had invited the late king's son, Prince Charles, — then on the Continent, — to come to Ireland, and be proclaimed king. They were in possession of all the principal places of the island, except Dublin and Derfy ; and Prince Rupert was hovering about St. George's Channel with a large fleet. Towards the Protestants, English and Irish, this party entertained the bitterest hatred, and had inaugurated among them a complete reign of terror. 4. In this emergency Cromwell was appointed general-in- chief and lord-lieutenant ; and with his son-in-law Ireton, and Cromwell's 1^^"^ thousaud troops, he set out for Ireland. While campaign. \^q tarried briefly at Bristol, a portion of the army preceded him, and relieved Dublin, which had been besieged by Ormond. Cromwell's arrival caused much rejoicing among the people, who were in constant fear and alarm, as they had good reason to be when they recalled the Ulster massacre in 1 641, when men, women, and children were ruthlessly butch- ered, and so many homes were made desolate. 1650.] THE COMMONWEALTH, OR PROTECTORATE. 143 Cromwell's first movement was against JDrogheda, which had a garrison of two thousand men ; and, when a surrender was refused, they were summarily put to the sword, piaces Cromwell himself reported that only a few escaped, taken. Dundalk and Wexford shared a similar fate ; and in this way for ten months he went through the land. Where the terror of his name had not gone before him to induce submission, the sword did its quick work with terrible effect. Those who thpwght such warfare revengeful were told by Cromwell that the hand of Providence was in this visitation, and that " this present bitterness would save the effusion of blood " in future. During this campaign he destroyed or greatly damaged many of the fine old castles^vhose ivy-covered ruins form ^^---jr . , r X 1 1 Castles. such a picturesque feature m the scenery of Ireland. The commander-in-chief was soon recalled to repress hostile movements in Scotland. 5. The Parliament of Scotland took no part in the trial of the late king, but soon afterwards began to negotiate with his son to be proclaimed as Charles II. Montrose, the prince stanch royalist, and hater of the Covenanters, had Charles and left Scotland for the Continent after the king was ^^^ ^"*^' taken prisoner; and now young Charles, in the Netherlands, commissioned him to raise troops, and re-enter Scotland. He did so, but was soon taken prisoner, and executed. Charles entered Scotland, after being compelled to sigh the Covenant, and, when going into Aberdeen, saw the limbs of Montrose fastened upon the gateway above his head. 6. Cromwell was appointed captain-general of the army for the campaign in Scotland, and immediately marched towards Edinburgh. In September, 1650, he was at Dunbar, cromweii. with twelve thousand men, surrounded by twenty- Dunbar, seven thousand Scots under Lesley, who attacked him vig- orously; but Cromwell's troops fought with such skill and desperation, that the Scots were completely routed, leaving three thousand dead upon the field, and losing ten thousand 144 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [1651. prisoners, some of whom were sent to New England, and sold into penal servitude. Cromwell entered Edinburgh, and laid siege to the great Castle, which surrendered after a stout resist- ance of three months. 7. Charles was crowned at Scone in January, 165 1, and, after a varied campaign of several months, marched southward into England with an army of eleven thousand men. Cromwell followed with ten thousand troops, and overtook him at Worcester, on the anniversary of the battle of Dunbar, gave him battle, and completely routed him. Charles's army were nearly all killed or taken prisoners. Crom- well called this victory his crowning mercy, and returned in triumph to London. Gen. Monk was afterwards made com- mander of the forces in Scotland, and brought the country into a state of subjection to the government. 8. Young Charles escaped with difficulty. He assumed the disguise of a peasant, journeying in the least-frequented roads, Charles II. travelling only in the night, and passing the day in a fugitive. obscure cottagcs, where he was unknown, and where his food was generally a little coarse bread and milk. On one occasion he sought safety by concealing himself for a day in the top of a large oak. In that precarious situation he saw and heard his pursuers, as they passed by, talking of him, and expressing a wish that they might discover the place of his concealment. After two months of romantic adventure, he found an opportunity of escaping to France. 9. The republican Parliament passed (165 1) the famous Navigation Act, which, by prohibiting the importation of all War with foreign merchandise, except in English bottoms or Holland. in those of the country producing the commodities, tended greatly to promote the naval superiority of Great Britain. This act, the object of which was to wrest the carrying-trade of Europe from the Dutch, was the cause of a war between England and Holland, which was declared by Parliament in 1652. The contest was carried on by sea, by Admirals Van 1652.] THE COMMON WE A L Til, OR PR OTEC TOR A TE. 1 45 Tromp, De Ruyter, and De Witt, on the part of the Dutch, and by Admiral Blake of the English fleet. Van Tromp, with a fleet of eighty vessels and ten fire-ships, attacked ^avai the English fleet of thirty-seven ships in the Downs battles, (in November), and gained a victory after-a day of hard fight- ing. Van Tromp was so elated with his success, that he sailed through the Channel and into the Thames, carrying a broom at masthead ; thus indicating his determination to sweep the English fleet from the ocean. During the winter another engagement took place, lasting three days, in which Blake was victorious, losing only one ves- sel, and sinking eleven of the enemy's ships. The war was finally terminated triumphantly for the English, by a hard- fought battle, in July, in which Van Tromp was killed, and thirty of his ships destroyed, while the English lost but two vessels. 10. The Parliament, which had been in session twelve years, known by the name of the " Long Parliament," had lost the confidence of the people. It had been subservient „ ^ * Cromwell to the views of Cromwell ; but, having at length and Long become jealous of him, it formed the design of Parliament, reducing the army, intending by that means to diminish his power. Cromwell perceiving their object, and being secure of the attachment of the army, resolved on seizing the sovereign power. While sitting in a council of oflScers, on being informed of an unfavorable reply of Parliament to a petition which they had presented, he rose up on a sudden with an appearance of fury, and, turning to Major-Gen. Vernon, cried out that he was compelled to do a thing which made the very hairs of his head stand on end. Taking with him three hundred soldiers to the door, he speedily entered the House, with marks of violent indignation in his countenance ; and, after listening a while to the debates, he started up, and began to load the Parliament with reproaches. Then, stamping upon the floor, he gave a signal for his soldiers to enter, and, addressing himself to the members, "For shame!" said he. '''Get you gone 1 Give 146 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1653 place to honester men ! I tell you you are no longer a parlia- ment : the Lord has done with you ! " Having turned out all the members, he ordered the doors to be locked, and, putting the keys in his pocket, returned to the palace. 11. In this manner Cromwell seized the reins of government. But he was willing to give his subjects a parliament, not, indeed, Cromwell, elected in the usual form, but modelled on principles Protector. entirely new. The ministers took the sense of the " Congregational churches " in the several counties, and returns were made containing the names of such persons as were deemed qualified for this high trust. Out of these the council, in the presence of Cromwell, selected a hundred and sixty- three representatives, to each of whom a writ of summons was sent, requiring his attendance ; and on the appointed day a hundred and twenty of them presented themselves in the council-chamber at Whitehall. Thie body, composed of men who were deeply imbued with the fanaticism of the times, is known by the name of the " Little Parliament ; " and is also often called " Barebone's Parliament," from a leading member, a leather-dresser, whose name, given according to the taste of the age, was Praise-God Barebone. The Little Parliament assembled on the 4th of July, 1653, and was dissolved in the following December. At the time of its dissolution a new con- stitution was published, and Cromwell assumed the title and office of Protector, having now obtained the great object of his ambition, — the station and authority, though not the tide, of king. He was assisted by a council of twenty-one members ; and, instead of the title of Majesty, he received that of High- ness. He afterwards aspired to the title of king, which was at length tendered to him, yet under such circumstances of oppo- sition and danger that he thought proper to decline it. 12. The government which he had usurped he administered with unrivalled energy and ability, and he was the most able and powerful potentate of his time in Europe. Abroad, his fleets and armies were victorious ; and the Island of Jamaica, 1658.] THE COMMONWEALTH, OR PROTECTORATE. 147 and the strong town of Dunkirk in the north-eastern part of France, were taken from the Spaniards. At home he defeated and punished the conspiracies formed his^Idmtn ° against him, granted rehgious toleration, and caused i^tration. justice to be ably and impartially administered by upright and learned judges. He also made himself to be respected and dreaded by the neighboring nations, and his friendship to be sought by every foreign power ; and the splendor of his character and exploits rendered the short period of the protectorate one of the most brilliant in English history. Nor were the rights of England, under the reign of any other sovereign, more re- spected abroad. But, notwithstanding all his efforts, his enemies were numer- ous among both the royalists and republicans. His domestic afflictions were also many and severe. A son was Affliction killed in batde ; and a favorite married daughter and death, died of a lingering disease ; and another married daughter was so extreme in her ideas of liberty, that she did not wish to see any one person at the head of the government, not even her own father. He passed the last part of his life in constant fear of assassination, wore armor under his clothes, kept pistols in his pocket, and never slept more than three nights in the same chamber. At last, after having usurped the government nine years, he died of a tertian ague (1658), in the sixtieth year of his age. 13. Cromwell was one of the greatest and most extraordi- nary men that England has produced ; and, till the rise of Bonaparte, his name was without a parallel in His abilities modern Europe. Men were accustomed to look and career, with a feeling of awe upon the individual, who, without the aid of birth, wealth, or connections, was able by the force of his talents to seize the government of three powerful kingdoms, and impose the yoke of servitude upon the necks of the very men who had fought in his company, to emancipate themselves from the arbitrary sway of their hereditary sovereign. 148 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1658. He owed his elevation to his influence with the army ; and the character of that body and that of their leader were, in a great measure, mutually formed by each other. The officers and soldiers made high professions of religion. Religious exer- cises were of as frequent occurrence as those of military duty. The generals opened their proceedings in council by prayer ; and among them Cromwell was pre-eminent in spiritual gifts, and was regarded by them as the favorite of Heaven. The name of Cromwell has been subjected to the almost universal charge of unbounded ambition and deep hypocrisy. His place ^^'^ ^^""^ ^^P^^ ^^ ^'^'^^^ ^^^^ lessened somewhat the in history. severity of judgment passed upon his acts and mo- tives, and many regard the principles for which he contended as the foundation of constitutional liberty as enjoyed in Eng- land at the present day. 14. Cromwell, in private life, in the several relations of a husband, a father, a neighbor, and a friend, was exemplary. Private From his early days to the close of his career, reli- character. gion, or religious enthusiasm, formed a distinguished trait in his character ; and it frequently manifested itself in the senate and in the field, and also in his domestic retirement. Some writers have maintained that he was a dissembler in reli- gion as well as in politics; "but this supposition," says Dr. Lingard, " is contradicted by the uniform tenor of his life." 15. Richard Cromwell, after the death of his father, was proclaimed protector. But the contrast between the father and Richard SOU was vcry great. Richard was neither a states- Cromweii. niau uor a soldier, had no experience in public business, and possessed feeble talents and little ambition ; and after a few months he resigned the office, and retired to private life. A state of anarchy succeeded, when Gen. Monk, the mil- itary commander in Scotland marched his army into England, and crushed the contending factions. A parliament was assem- bled ; and on the 29th of May, 1660, Charles II., now thirty ears ot age, was restored to the throne of his father. This event is generally called the " Restoration." CHAPTER IV. THE STUART FAMILY (PART II.). FROM THE END OF THE COMMONWEALTH TO THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 1660 to 1714, — 54 years. Charles II. James II. William and Mary. Anne. THE nation, indiscreetly trusting to the general professions of Charles II., suffered him to assume the crown (1660) without imposing on him any conditions ; Accession of and his reign and that of James II. exhibit a repe- Charles 11. tition of struggles similar to those which had occurred under the first two princes of the house of Stuart. The first impres- sions with regard to the new king were favorable. His man- ners were easy and familiar, but his habits were indolent ; and experience soon proved his character to be profligate and worthless. 2. The change in the public sentiment observable at this period is not a little remarkable. The same people who but a few years before were so jealous of liberty, and p^^^^c senti- exclaimed so loudly against monarchical govern- ment ment, are now exhibited as soliciting with eagerness *^^*"8:ed. the return of arbitrary power. A number of the regicides were condemned ^nd executed ; and the bodies of Cromwell, Ireton his son-in-law, Bradshaw, and the naval hero Blake, were dug up from their graves, and hanged upon the gallows, to gratify the vindictive spirit of the king and the cavaliers. High-Church or Tory principles, and the servile doctrines of passive obedience and non-resistance, now came in vogue. An 149 15° HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1662. act of Uniformity in religion was passed (1662), by which about two thousand nonconforming ministers were deprived of their Kvings ; and another attempt was made to estabhsh episco- pacy in Scotland. 3. The prodigality of Charles kept him always in want. Dunkirk, which had been acquired by Cromwell, he sold to the Charles's Frcuch for four hundred thousand pounds, which prodigality. ]^g g^Q^ squandered upon his pleasures. He en- tered into hostilities with the Dutch, which were carried on for some time with spirit. While this war was raging, London Fire and was visitcd (1665) by a terrible plague, which plague. carried off about ninety thousand inhabitants ; and that was followed the next year by a fire, by which seventy-nine churches and many other pubHc buildings, and more than thirteen thousand houses (comprising about two-thirds of the metropolis), were reduced to ashes. 4. In consequence of the unsuccessful issue of the war (which was terminated by the peace of Breda, 1667), and of Dissatisfac the sale of Dunkirk, the government became un- tion. popular ; and the celebrated Lord Clarendon, on whom the odium was chiefly cast, was banished, and passed the remainder of his life in France. After the fall of Clarendon the government became more unprincipled ; and the five minis- ters by whom it was conducted have been stigmatized by the term of "Cabal," so called from the initial letters of their names, Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, Lauderdale. 5. The Duke of York (afterwards James II.), who had now the chief influence at court, was an avowed Catholic : Charles, Duke of so far as he had any sense of religion, was a con- '^°'"^' cealed one, and had the baseness to receive from Louis XIV. of France a pension of two hundred thousand pounds • a year for the purpose of establishing the Catholic religion and despotic power in England. A general consterna- tion for the safety of the Protestant religion and of public liberty prevailed ; and the latter part of Charles's reign exhibits 1685.] THE STUART FAMILY. 151 an uninterrupted series of attacks upon the lives, liberty, and property of his subjects, and a disgusting scene of party in- trigues, and of plots and conspiracies. Yet it was Habeas at this period that Parliament passed the Habeas Corpus. Corpus Act, — a most important security to the subject against personal oppression. 6. A pretended Popish plot to murder the king, disclosed by the infamous Titus Gates, occasioned an unjust execution of Lord Stafford and some other Catholics. Another pretended conspiracy in favor of reform was called the " Rye-House Plot," from the place where the conspirators held their meetings, in which those eminent patriots Lord Rus- sell and Algernon Sidney were accused of being concerned, and, on testimony supposed to be perjured, were condemned and beheaded. 7. The character of the court, as well as that of the king, was notorious for its profligacy ; and it had a most unhappy influence upon the nation. A general dissoluteness character of of manners characterized the reign. All appear- court and ance of devotion, and all regularity of morals, were regarded as puritanical, and exploded as unfashionable. Charles II. was a man of wit and good-humor, and possessed such talents as enabled him to shine among his gay and profligate companions ; but he had no qualities as a man or a king that entitle him to the respect or gratitude of posterity. 8. Among the distinguished men who flourished in the reign of Charles were John Milton, the author of "Paradise Lost;" Sir Matthew Hale, the incorruptible chief justice ; Distin- John Bunyan, the author of " Pilgrim's Progress ; " guishedmen. Sir Christopher Wren, the architect of St. Paul's Cathedral in London ; the poet Dryden ; John Locke, the philosopher and metaphysician ; and Sir Isaac Newton, the discoverer of the law of gravitation. Halley the astronomer made the first success- ful prediction of the return of a comet (the one bearing his name) in 1681. 152 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [16" 5. The astronomical observatory at Greenwich was founded by Charles II. ; also the Royal Society for the Promotion of Sci- ence, — an association which soon included among its members many scholars who became eminent in the various departments of learning. 9. James II., who succeeded (1685) his brother Charles, was inferior to him in talents, but much more devoted to busi- Character of ncss. Like his prcdcccssors of the Stuart family, James II. jjg ^y^s arbitrary and impoUtic ; and his short and inglorious reign was mainly employed in attempts to establish the Catholic religion and despotic power. On assuming the government he expressed his contempt for the authority of Par- liament, and his determination to exercise an unlimited despot- ism. Although the Catliolics at this time formed but a very small proportion of the people of England, yet he undertook to set aside the Protestant religion, and, instead of it, to estab- lish the Roman-Catholic faith. 10. The Duke of Monmouth, a natural son of Charles II., who during the preceding reign had defeated the Scottish Monmouth Covcuauters at Bothwell Bridge, having now excited and Jeffreys, g^ rebellion with a view to seize the crown, was de- feated, taken prisoner, and beheaded. The most inhuman rigor was exercised against those who favored him. The atro- cious Chief Justice Jeffreys, the most noted as an unscrupulous and profligate judge in English history, exercised the most un- relenting cruelty. He gloried in his barbarity, and boasted that he had hanged more men than any other judge since the time of William the Conqueror ; and his bloody career was styled by James, with unfeeling jocularity, "Jeffreys' campaign." 11. The efforts of James in favor of the Catholic religion were, for a considerable time, attended with success ; but hav- Revoiution ing caused seven bishops to be committed to the of 1688. Tower for refusing to read a proclamation suspend- ing the Test Act, which required all officers to conform to the Estabhshed Church, the passive spirit of the nation disap- i688.] THE STUART FAMILY, I53 peared, and a general indignation was roused. William, Prince of Orange, who had married Mary, the eldest daughter of James, was invited over, and landed at Torbay with an army, in order to assume the government. The principal nobility and officers soon joined his standard ; and James, being deserted by the people, and even by his own children, escaped to France, where he passed the remainder of his life. A convention-parliament declared the king's flight an abdication, and settled the crown upon William III. and Mary. This event is styled by British writers the glorious Revolution of 1688. 12. The English navy became quite large and efficient during the reign of James, who, before he came to the throne, had gained some distinction as a naval ^ "*^^* commander. When Duke of York, he first invented a system of marine signals. The national anthem, " God save the King," was composed and first sung in the reign of this sovereign. 13. The British Constitution now became, in many important points, fixed and determined. The Protestant succession was secured, religious toleration granted, and Presby- Principles terianism re-established in Scodand. A declaration established, was made, fixing the rights of the subject and the prerogative of the king. Some of the most important articles are the following : i . The king cannot suspend the laws or their execu- tion. 2. He cannot levy money without the consent of Parlia- ment. 3. The subjects have a right to petition the crown. 4. A standing army cannot be kept in time of peace, but with the consent of Parliament. 5. Elections and parliamentary debates must be free, and parliaments must be frequently assembled. Archbishop Bancroft, seven other bishops, and a considerable number of the clergy, who held the doctrines of passive obe- dience and the divine right of kings and bishops, looking upon James as still their lawful king, refused to take the oath of alle- giance to William, and were deprived of their stations. From this circumstance they were styled Non-jurors, High-Church- men, and Jacobites. 154 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1697 14. Ireland still adhered to James, and the Parliament of that country declared William a usurper. Being assisted by Louis Opposition XIV. of France, James landed with some French to Wiiham. forccs in Ireland, where he was joined by a large army ; but he was defeated by William at the River Boyne, and the country submitted to the new king. A large fleet which Louis XIV. had prepared in favor of James was destroyed by Admiral Russell off Cape la Hogue ; and by the Peace of Ryswick, which followed (1697), the title of William to the crown was acknowledged. 15. William was a man of feeble constitution, but of distin- guished talents, especially in war, to which his taste strongly in- wiiiiam's cHncd him ; and he was esteemed one of the great- character. gg|. commanders of his age. He was rather fitted to command respect than affection, as he excelled more in the severer than in the milder virtues, being wholly deVoted to business, and his manners being cold, grave, and reserved. He was a firm friend to civil and religious liberty. But he was less popular with his subjects than some other sovereigns of far less merit. Mary, his queen, and partner of the throne, who died seven years before him, was a woman distinguished for her virtues. 16. The Bank of England was founded during William's Bank of reign ; and the national debt had its origin about England. ^^ same time, occasioned by borrowing money to meet the great expense of foreign wars. 17. The material progress of the country during the seven- teenth century was considerable, and the condition of the Progress of lowcr classcs was improved. This was particularly the century, j-j.^^ ^fj-^j. ^^ period of the Commonwealth. A dis- tinguished English merchant, who was also chairman of the East-India Company, wrote, near the close of that century, " that in 1688 there were on the 'Change more men worth ten thousand pounds than there were in 1650 worth a thousand; that gentlewomen, in those earlier times, thought themselves 1702.] THE STUART FAMILY. 155 well clothed in a serge gown which a chambermaid would, in 1688, be ashamed to be seen in; and that, besides the great increase of rich clothes, plate, jewels, and household furniture, coaches were in that time augmented a hundred-fold." Trade and commerce flourished, especially with the East and with the American Colonies. The cotton manufacture was com- menced at Manchester ; and many French Huguenots, driven from France, came into England, and set up their business of silk- weaving. Roads and turnpikes were improved, stage-coaches introduced ; and the mail was carried in bags on horseback, the first post-office being established in 1635. Tea, coffee, tobacco, and spices were introduced ; also calico from Calicut in India. In 1670 the Duke of Buckingham introduced into England the manufacture of plate glass and crystal by importing work- men from Venice. A few newspapers were irregularly published during the middle and latter part of the century ; but they were frequently interfered with by the rigid censorship of the press. Many Dutch painters of distinction were in England during this period, and the fine arts received considerable attention. At the close of the century the population of England was somewhat more than seven millions, and that of London was more than half a million. Its streets, as described by the writers of the time, were narrow, unpaved, and dirty, with no lights except the lantern or torch of the nightly traveller. 18. On the death of Wilham the crown devolved upon Anne (1702), the second daughter of James II., who was married to George, Prince of Denmark. In the first year of this reign. Great Britain, Germany, and Holland, in alliance with each other, declared war against France, called the war of the Spanish succession. The Duke of warof Marlborough, one of the greatest commanders of Spanish modern times, was appointed generalissimo of the s"^^^ss*°°- allied army ; and the imperial general was the celebrated Prince Eugene. In this great contest the allies had greatly the advan- tage, effectually checked the ambition and encroachments of 156 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1704 Louis XIV., and gained the splendid victories of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet (1709). Gibraltar was captured by Admiral Rooke in 1704, and has ever since remained in the possession of the English. The war was terminated by the Peace of Utrecht in 1713. 19. An important event of this reign was the constitutional -, . , union between England and Scotland (1706), which Union of ^ \ I / y England and put an end to the contests which had harassed Scotland. \^qi\^ couutrics, and included them under one com- mon title of Great Britain. Scotland was immediately repre- sented in Parliament by sixteen peers in the House of Lords, and forty-five members in the House of Commons. This union proved especially beneficial to Scotland, being followed by a rapid development of her business-interests, and by a healthful improvement in the condition of the people and society. 20. Queen Anne was respected for her virtues, and she has been honored by the appellation of " Good Queen Anne ; " Anne's though, according to Lord Mahon, " she was a character. ygj.y ^yeak woman, always blindly guided by some female favorite." Her principal advisers were the Duchess of Marlborough and her husband, — the duke above mentioned. The duke was not only an able commander, but a Marlborough. , ,. , successful diplomatist, and one of the most accom- plished gentlemen of his age ; but at heart he was treacherous, mean, and exceedingly avaricious. After a brilliant career he and the duchess lost favor with the queen, and retired to the Netherlands. Anne's reign was distinguished not only for military achieve- ments, but also for eminent attainments in philosophy and literature, and is sometimes styled the Augustan age of England, during which many distinguished writers flourished, including Addison, Swift, Pope, Steele, and Bolingbroke. The queen died suddenly, in August, 1714. She had eighteen children, all of whom died young, one only reaching the age of eleven years. 1714.] THE STUART FAMILY, 157 21. The party names of Whigs and Tories, which are some- times used to designate parties in England, first became com- mon in the reign of Charles II. The Whigs were p^^^y„^^^^^ advocates for the rights of the people : the Tories favored those of the crown. The accession of William and Mary was advocated chiefly by the Whigs. During the reign of Anne, parties ran high : the nation was thrown into a ferment by the preaching of Dr. Sacheverell, who inculcated the Tory principle of passive obedience ; and towards the close of the reign the Tories supplanted the Whigs in the queen's favor, and came into power. 22. The sovereigns of the Stuart family were not friends of popular liberty. While they had not that vindic- The Stuart tiveness towards opponents and offenders so often ^^"^^^y- exhibited by the Tudors, they were firm believers in the divine right of kings. In their judgment, laws were for subjects, and not for sovereigns ; and their " high prerogative " seemed to them a sufficient justification for whatever policy was dictated by tlieir pleasure, interest, or caprice. It was their misfortune, perhaps, to live in an age when parliaments had come to mani- fest considerable boldness and independence, and when the people were noticeably clamoring for freedom of opinion and popular rights. Hence factions and convulsions were the rule rather than the exception. Some of this family had the welfare of the people at heart, and contributed in no small measure to the general prosperity of the realm ; but they lacked that sym- pathy with the people, and that instinct for progress, necessary for their position. The age of the Stuarts was one in which the opportunity of kings was imperfectly understood, and sinfully abused and neglected. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. PART III. CHAPTERS I.-IV. THE TUDOR AND THE STUART FAMILIES. Pages 97-157. I. — The Tudor Family. Henry VII. His title. Character of the Tudors. Pretend- ers. Henry's character. Useful reign. Feudal system. The navy. Spirit of adventure. Revival of learning. The Star Chamber. Origin of the Stuarts. Henry VIII. Prospects and disappointment. Henry's real character. Foreign wars. Flodden. The Reformation. Defender of the Faith. Wolsey. Matrimonial troubles. More. Quarrel with the Papacy. A persecutor. More matrimonial troubles. Henry in history. Important events and persons. lEdward VI. His character and reign. Lady Jane Grey. Sffary. Her early life ; marriage; religion; character ; policy. Persecutions. Loss of Calais. Mary's death. Her treat- ment in history. Elizabeth. Offers of marriage. Character of her reign. Acts of supremacy and uniformity. Mary, Queen of Scots ; her career. Spanish Armada. Eminent statesmen. Earl of Essex. Elizabeth's last days. Her character, public and private. Important events. Mode of Life and State of Society Political events. The Reformation. Trade, commerce, and adventure. Man- ufactures and agriculture. Labor of women. Condition of the people. Dwellings and furniture. Style of living. Feasting and food. Dress and personal appearance. Amusements. Weddings. Education. II. — The Stuart Family. James L Character of the Stuarts. A conspiracy. Raleigh. Gunpowder Plot. Dissenters. English Bible. American 158 SVNOPS/S FOR REVIEW. 159 colonies. The Puritans ; New England. James's associates and counsellors. James as a ruler ; spirit of liberty. James's death and family ; person and character. Important events and persons. Charles I. State of the kingdom. Arbitrary measures of the king. Ship-money. John Hampden. Petition of Rights. Strafford and Laud ; opposition to Episcopacy. The King and Parliament. Bold measures; civil war and its paities; leaders. Edgehill. Charles at Oxford. Foreign aid. Death of Hampden. Newbury. Alliance with the Scots. League and Covenant. Re-enforcements. MarstonMoor. The army. Naseby. End of the war. Charles with the Scots ; his ransom ; a prisoner. His trial, execution, and death. Feel- ings of the nation. Charles's character and abilities ; oppo- nents ; family. Artists. Westminster Assembly. Roger Williams. Posts. III. — The Commonwealth. Cromwell. Change of government. The army in power. State of Ireland. Cromwell's campaign. Places taken; castles. Prince Charles and the Scots. Dunbar. Worces- ter. Charles II. a fugitive. War with Holland; naval bat- tles. Cromwell and Long Parliament. Protector. Little Parliament. Cromwell's administration; affliction and death; abilities and career ; place in history; private char- acter. Richard Cromwell. The Restoration. IV. — The Stuarts Restored. Charles II. His accession. Public sentiment. Charles's prodigality. Fire and plague. Dissatisfaction. Duke of York. Habeas Corpus. Plots. Character of court and nation. Distinguished men. Learned societies. James II. His character. Monmouth and Jeffries. The Revolution of 1688. William III. and Mary. The navy. Principles established. Passive obedience. Opposition to William HI. His char- acter. The bank of England.- Progress of the century : increase of wealth ; trade and com- merce ; glass ; newspapers ; art ; population. London. Anne. War of the Spanish succession; battles. Constitu- tional union. Anne's character. Marlborough. Eminent persons. Party names. The Stuart family. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF ENGLISH AND LEADING CONTEMPORANEOUS SOVEREIGNS AND IMPORTANT EVENTS. Houses of Tudor and Stuart, 1485-1714. A.D. 1400. 85. Henry VII. — Charles VIII, France, 83-98. Louis XII., France. Freder- ick III., Germany, 93. Pope Alexander VI., 92. Ferdi- nand and Isabella, Spain, 74. Map of the world published at Nuremberg, 90. America dis- covered, 92. Diet at Worms, 95. 1500. 9. Henry VIII. — Francis I., France, 15. Charles v., Germany, 19-56. Popes, — Leo X., 21; Clement VII.; Paul III. Gustavus Vasa, Sweden, 28. St. Peter's Church begun, 13. Council of Trent, 45. Albert Durer. Loyola. Michael Angelo. Raphael. Cortez. 47. Edward VI. — Henry II., France, husband of Catherine de Medici, 47-59. Orange-trees brought to Europe. 53. Mary. — Philip II., Spain, 55-98. Pope Paul IV. 58. Elizabeth.— Francis II., France, husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, 59. Charles IX. Henry IV. Popes Pius v., Gregory XIII., Clement VIII. James ' VI., Scotland, 67. Only two carriages in Paris. Republic of Holland, 79. Kepler. Decimals invented, 2. 160 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. l6l A.D. 1600. 3. James I.— Louis XIII., France, 10-43. Pope Paul V. Virginia settled, 7. New York, 14. Plymouth, 20. Maine, New Hampshire, 23. Logarithms, telescopes, and ther- mometers invented. 25. Charles I. — Ferdinand II., Germany, 19-37- Pope Urban VII. Salem, Boston, and Rhode Island settled. Harvard College fomided, 38. Conde. Turenne. 49. The Common- wealth.— Louis XIV., France, 1643-1715. Leopold I., Germany. Pope Alexander VII. Air-pump invented. 400,000 people died of the plague at Naples in six months. Fenelon. 60, Charles II.— Louis XIV. Pope Innocent XI. Bombay taken by the Eng- lish. Steam-engine invented, 63. Bees introduced into New England, 70. Mississippi dis- covered, 73. King Philip's war, 75. Great comet. William Penn. 85. James II.— Louis XIV. Suppression of New-England charters. 89. William and Mary. —Louis XIV. Pope Innocent XII. Charles XII., Sweden. Peter the Great, Russia. Salem witchcraft. Yale College founded (1700). Poland dismem- bered, 2. 1700. 2. Anne.— Louis XIV. Pope Clement XL St. Petersburg built, 3. St. Paul's rebuilt, 10. Ruins of Herculaneum discovered, II. CHAPTER V. THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK (PART I.). 1714 to 1837, — 123 years. George I. George III. William IV. George II. George IV. ON the death of Queen Anne (1714), George I., Elector of Hanover, succeeded to the crown, in the fifty-fifth Character of year of his age. He was the son of the Duke of George I. Brunswick, Elector of Hanover, and, on his mother's side, was the great-grandson of James I. of England. Before he ascended the throne he had acquired some reputation as a politician and a general. He was plain in his manners, and not of elevated character or taste ; but he was a man of great application to business, and his reign was pacific and prosperous. Some faults in his government were attributed to a venal ministry ; and he was esteemed to the end of his Ufe, in his views and conduct, much more the Elector of Hanover than the King of England. Sir Robert Walpole was George's principal adviser, and was one of the most eminent statesmen of his time. 2. The two parties, which had long divided the kingdom, now, for a time, changed their titles : the Whigs being styled The Pre- Hanoverians ; and the Tories, Jacobites. The for- tender. j^^gj.^ being strenuous advocates for the accession of George, received, in return, from him favor and support, and were restored to power. This circumstance alienated and enraged the Tories to such a degree, that many of them took part with the Pretender, son of James H., who was proclaimed 162 1727.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 163 king in Scotland, and made an effort to obtain the crown ; but the rebeUion was suppressed, and the leaders executed. 3. A pacific reign like that of George I. furnishes few events of importance in history. One, however, of disastrous conse- quences, occurred, commonly called the " South-sea south-sea Bubble," — a wild scheme of speculation by the bubble. South Company, who had the exclusive right to trade with the Spanish Colonies in America, and who bought up the govern- ment annuities, paying for them in its own stock. In this way it promised to pay off the national debt, and to loan the govern- ment money at a low rate of interest. It was a base imposture, giving a great shock to public credit, and involving thousands in ruin. 4. The Septennial Act made the length of a parliament seven years, instead of three as before. One object septennial of this change was to avoid the excitement of fre- ^'^^' quent elections, and changes of parliament. 5. During this reign Daniel Defoe wrote " Robinson Crusoe," Dean Swift gave to the world his " Gulliver's Trav- Literary els," Watts composed many of his sacred lyrics, celebrities, and Thomson published the first part of his poem called " The Seasons." King George died of apoplexy, in Germany, in 1727, leaving one son, who became his successor. 6. George II., who succeeded his father (1727) in the forty-fourth year of his age, was an able general of great per- sonal courage, but was too fond of war, and de- ,.,,..,. , ^1 • Walpole. hghted in military parade. The most prominent person in the administration in the former part of the reign (as in the previous reign also) was Sir Robert Walpole, a man whose policy was pacific, and who was distinguished for his talents, and not less so for the system of corruption and venal- ity which he practised while in office. 7. The military operations of this reign were extensive and numerous; and the British arms were, for the most part, tri- t64 history of ENGLAND. [1743. umphant. Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, who died in 1 740, was succeeded in his dominions by his daughter, the celebrated The Aus- Maria Theresa {Te-re-zah) , who was married to trian sue- Fraucis of Lorraine. But Charles, the Elector of cession. Bavada, asserted his claim to the throne, and, by the aid of Louis XV., was elected emperor. This gave rise to a war, which involved the principal states of Europe, called the war of the Austrian succession, during which the allies under George IL defeated the French in the battle of Dettin- gen (1743), and the French under Marshal Saxe routed the allies at Fontenoy (1745). Great Britain was the principal support of Maria Theresa ; and by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle {Akes-lah-cha-pel) in 1 748 her claim to the throne was con- firmed. 8. While George IL was absent on the Continent at the head of the British army, Charles Edward, the young Pretender, assisted by Louis XV. of France, made an effort to recover the throne of his ancestors. Having landed in Scotland, he put himself at the head of an army, and defeated the royal forces in the battles of Preston-Pans and Falkirk, but was afterwards entirely defeated by the Duke of Cumberland in the decisive battle of Culloden (1746). This was the last battle that has been fought on the soil of Great Britain ; and it terminated the last effort of the Stuart family to re-ascend the throne, which had been forfeited by the most egregious folly and the most flagitious attempts. g. In the latter part of this reign the war between Great Britain and France, called the " Seven-Years' War," was re- newed, in which their American Colonies also took Seven- ' Years' War. part. In an expedition by the English and Ameri- ^^^^^" cans against the French at Fort Duquesne {Dii- kdne), now Pittsburg, Penn., George Washington, then a young officer in the Virginia militia, distinguished him- self in conducting the retreat of the forces after their com- mander. Gen. Braddock, had been slain. In the course of a I759-] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 165 few years the English took Duquesne, Louisburg (on the Island of Cape Breton), Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Niagara; and finally, under the command of Gen. Wolfe, they gained pos- session (1759) of the city of Quebec. These successes were followed by the surrender of all Canada, on the part of the French, to the English, in 1763. 10. Extensive conquests in India were made by the English during this period. In the time of Elizabeth a company was chartered for trade in the East Indies ; and by sub- East-India sequent renewals of its charter, and acts of Parlia- Company, ment, its business and operation became very extensive under the name of the " East-India Company." Its principal factories or trading-posts were at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. The French had similar stations in India, and were making vigorous efforts to monopolize the trade and control of the country. 11. In 1 75 1, Robert Clive, a former clerk of the East-India Company, with a few soldiers, and by the aid of some of the friendly native princes, made a sudden attack upon the French and their allies, and completely routed them, and secured to the British the country along the east coast called the Carnatic. A few years later, Clive, with three thousand men, met and defeated Surajah Dowlah, the Nabob of Bengal, with an army of sixty thousand men, and added that rich and populous province to British India. 12. During the reign of George II. Great Britain made great progress in wealth and general improvement. The national debt, however, was more than doubled during the National reign ; and at the end of the Seven-Years' War, in ^^^*- 1 763, it amounted to nearly a hundred and thirty-nine million pounds. This debt was commenced during the reign of William and Mary, and at the end of the reign of George III. it amounted to upwards of eight hundred million pounds. 13. George's temper was violent, his talents respectable, though little cultivated by education, and his internal ad- ministration generally equitable and popular; but his private l66 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1760. character was licentious, and the morals of the court during George's his reign were very corrupt. His partialities in character. favor of his Continental dominions are represented as still stronger than those of his father, and he has been cen- sured for involving Great Britain in expensive wars on account of the interests of the electorate of Hanover. He died sud- denly in 1760 at the age of seventy-seven, after a reign of thirty-three years. The distinguished musical composer Handel, a native of Germany, though long a resident in England, died in London in 1759. 14. George III., grandson and successor of George H., was the first king of the house of Brunswick that was born in State of the England. He commenced his reign (1760) at an country. auspicious period, when the arms of Great Britain were triumphant, and the administration able and popular. The war with France was, not long afterwards, brought to a close ; and, by the Peace of Paris, Canada, and other territories in North America, were confirmed to England. 15. William Pitt (aftenvards Lord Chatham) was at the head of the administration during the last years of the preceding William reign ; and in the former part of this he was the ^^"- most prominent public man in the nation. At this period oppressive measures were adopted by the British Govern- Oppression "icnt with regard to the American Colonies. These of American Chatham opposcd with his powerful eloquence ; but o onies. ^^^^ y^QXQ persisted in by the king and Parliament. The Colonies were taxed, but had no representation in Parlia- ment ; and a law called the " Stamp Act," requiring a stamp, purchased of the government, to be affixed to every legal docu- ment in the Colonies, was passed by Parliament in 1765. The British Government found great difficulty in enforcing this act, and other measures obnoxious to the Americans were stoutly resisted by them. 16. In 1775 hostilities commenced, and a very stubborn spirit 1783.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 167 of resistance was everywhere manifested by the Colonies. The first engagements took place at Concord and Lexington, and Bunker Hill, in Massachusetts : and the Americans ^^ » ' ^ The Amen- soon after captured important forts on the west side can Revoiu- of Lake Champlain. In the following year (July *^°"' 4, 1776) a declaration of the independence of the United States was made, in which were boldly set forth the grievances of the Colonies, and their right and determination to be free and independent. The war continued nearly seven years (dur- ing which more than fifty engagements took place), and was virtually teminated by the surrender of the British army, under Cornwallis, at Yorktown, Va., in October, 1781. The inde- pendence of the Colonies was finally acknowledged by Great Britain, by a treaty signed at Paris in September, 1783. 17. The East- India Company had now become a powerful political organization for English supremacy in the East ; and by it vast acquisitions of territory were made, and warren great injustice and robbery were practised upon the Hastings. natives. Warren Hastings was appointed Governor-general of British India in 1774. He was a man of distinguished ability and dauntless courage ; and his administration was highly beneficial to British interests in India, which he successfully defended against an invading army of ninety thousand men, under Hyder Ali {Hider Ah' -lee) , a noted Mohammedan chief- tain of Mysore. But the expense of numerous wars, and his efforts to satisfy the repeated demands of the East-India Com- pany for a larger revenue, induced Hastings to resort to meas- ures that were unjust, and which finally resulted in his downfall. He was accused of repeated exaction and extortions towards the natives ; of seizing provinces, and selling them for money to the chiefs of rival districts ; of plundering the holy city of Benares ; and finally of imprisoning two princesses of Oude, until they paid him a ransom, or fine, of about six million dol- lars. After an administration of eleven years, 'he resigned his office, and returned to England, where he was afterwards im- 1 68 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1795. peached by the House of Commons before the peers of the realm. 18. The trial of Hastings was one of the most remarkable upon record. It was held in Westminster Hall, which was Hastings's begun by William Rufus, and which had been the trial. scene of the trial and conviction of Wallace the Scot, Oldcastle, Thomas More, Somerset, Essex, Guy Fawkes, Strafford, Bacon, and Charles I. There, also, had been held the coronation festivities of nearly thirty of England's kings. The opening of the trial took place in the presence of many of the most distinguished personages of the land. The peers sat clothed in gold and ermine ; and there were present the high officials of the kingdom, ambassadors of foreign powers, civil and military celebrities, Mrs. Siddons the celebrated actress, Sir Joshua Reynolds the painter. Gibbon the historian, the eminent scholar Dr. Parr, and many of the distinguished women of court and society. The prosecution was conducted by Burke, Fox, Sheridan, and others, all eminent as orators and public men. The open- ing speech of Burke occupied nearly four days, and was one of the most masterly efforts of the kind ever delivered. Has- tings afterwards declared, that, at times during its delivery, he began to look upon himself as a guilty man. The trial was continued from time to time, during each session of Parlia- ment, for seven years, occupying altogether one hundred and forty-eight days; and at its close, in 1795, Hastings was ac- quitted. 19. In the latter part of the century there was much discon- tent in Ireland, occasioned principally by a party who wished to ,, . , sever their connection with Endand. An insurrec- Union of o England and tion occurrcd, in which two hundred and fifty thou- ireiand. ^^^^ people took part ; but it was soon suppressed, and in 1800 Great Britain and Ireland were united under one Parliament, and took the name of " The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." 1805.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 169 20. In 1 7S9 the French Revolution broke out, convulsing all Europe ; and it was thought to threaten . the overthrow of all established government. The government of Great General Eu- Britain, alarmed respecting its own safety, embarked ropean war. zealously in the European war with a view to check the dis- semination of democratic principles both at home and abroad. The system of operations was devised and managed under the direction of William Pitt, the son of Lord Chatham, who was now at the head of the administration. This calamitous war continued to convulse the Continent for a quarter of a century ; and, during a part of the time, Great Britain alone had all Europe arrayed against her. But, after various alternations of failure and success, she came off victorious, yet not without an immense loss of the blood of her subjects, and a vast increase of her national debt. 21. Some of the British victories during this war were im- portant, and are conspicuous in military history. In 1798 Napoleon Bonaparte, at that time commander-in- Battle of chief of the French armies, invaded Egypt, intend- the Niie. ing to get control of that country, and then to menace the British possessions in India. Lord Nelson, in command of an English fleet, followed, and, after a long search through the Mediterranean, came upon the French fleet in Aboukir (^Ah- boo-keer) Bay, near Alexandria. A brilliant engagement, gen- erally called the Battle of the Nile, soon followed, by night (Aug. i), in which Nelson was the victor, and the French fleet was nearly annihilated. Brueys {Bru-a), the French admiral, was killed, and his flag-ship, "The Orient," took fire and exploded, causing the death of his youthfiul son, Cassabianca, — an event touchingly commemorated in a poem of that name by Mrs. Hemans. 22. In October, 1805, Nelson fought another naval battle, a2:ainst the combined French and Spanish fleets, off" ^ ^ . Trafalgar. Cape Trafalgar', on the coast of Spain. Before going into action, he signalled to his fleet the order which has 170 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1809. rendered his name famous ; " England expects every man to do his duty." The contest was a fierce one, with a heavy loss on both sides; but the English were completely victorious, although Nelson was mortally wounded by a musket-ball, and died on board his flagship, " The Victory." 23. The Spanish Peninsula was the scene of many brilliant campaigns during this war. In 1809 Sir John Moore, a cele- Sirjohn brated English general, was in command of the Moore. allied forces against the French under Marshal Soult, and fought a successful battle at Corunna (Jan. 16), in which he lost his life. His hasty burial at night, on the ram- parts of Corunna, has been made historic by the poet Wolfe, in one of the finest odes in the English language, commen- cing, — "Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note." 24. The Duke of Wellington won many of his laurels in the peninsula. In 1809, in command of the English and Spanish forces, he gained a decisive victory over the French, Talavera. ^ t> ^ ' at Talavera, in what he himself called one of the hardest fought battles of modern times. It continued two days and a night, and each party lost a fourth of its numbers. Wellington fought an equally decisive battle at Salamanca (181 2), in which, taking advantage of some mistakes of the enemy, his movements splendidly displayed his Salamanca. .,. •" . , 1 V , 1 /. • military genius, and established his reputation as one of the greatest commanders of the age. To be able to avail one's self fully and safely of the flood-tide of opportunity, is one of the surest high-roads to successful military achieve- ment. A third contest was waged, with similar good fortune, at Vittoria, in 181 v The victory here was complete; Vittoria. , ' ^ ^ ^ \ . ' and the captures of cannon, wagons, ammunitions, treasure, and cattle, were very large. 25. But the crowning battle of this general war in Europe iSi5.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. lyj was fought on the i8th of June, 1815, near the village of Water- loo, in Belgium, a few miles south of Brussels. The Waterloo allied troops, composed of English, Belgians, and The forces. Germans, were commanded by Wellington, and the French by Napoleon. The armies engaged were of nearly equal num- bers, each having more than seventy thousand troops; those of the French being mostly tried veterans, with two hundred and forty cannon, while the allies were made up of several nationalities, with some raw troops, and a hundred and forty- nine cannon. A large body of Prussian allies, under Blucher {Blook'-er), were a few miles distant, holding in check the enemy in that quarter, with instructions, if defeated, to join Wellington. Napoleon sent Marshal Grouchy {Groo-shy), with more than twenty thousand men, to watch Blucher, and to prevent him, if possible, from coming to the aid of the allies. 26. On the night of the 17th the two armies took their positions on two opposite semicircular ridges, separated by a shallow valley, or plain, varying from a fourth to less than a half of a mile in width. During the '^^^^^"'^• night the rain fell in torrents, much to the discomfort of the troops and to the embarrassment of their movements during the ensuing forenoon. The attack was begun by the French at eleven o'clock a.m. ; and a terrific battle, hotly contested, con- tinued until dark. The French made some important gains during the day, but towards evening they were driven back with great loss; and when Blucher arrived, at about seven o'clock, the rout became complete. Grouchy, by a literal inter- pretation of his orders, neglected to come to the relief of Napoleon. The last rally and charge by the French was made by the Old Guards, nearly all of whom perished; and the battle was lost. Blucher continued in pursuit of the fugitives during a considerable part of the night. The total loss was not far from twenty-five thousand on each side, and two hundred and twenty-seven of the French cannon were taken. Several distinguished English officers fell, and the 172 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1812. French Marshal Ney had five horses shot under him. Napoleon escaped to Paris, and attempted to embark for America, but was taken by the allies, and impris- oned upon the Island of St. Helena. The battle of Waterloo was one of the most important in its consequences in modern times. It put an end to the ambi- Effect upon tio^^s career of Napoleon, who had been a disturb- Europe. ing element in European affairs for many years, gave to England the -first position among the great powers of Europe, and inaugurated a better poHcy for the progress of civilization. 27. In 1 81 2 the United States declared war against Great Britain. English men-of-war had repeatedly searched Ameri- warwith ^^"^ ships, and impressed English sailors found the United thercou. The United States denied the right of states. British authorities to make such search, and hostili- ties ensued. The war was carried on principally upon the water, where more than twenty naval actions took place. A few engagements upon land occurred along the Canadian frontier and in the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay ; and at New Orleans, Jan. 8, 1815, the last batde was fought, in which the Americans, under Gen. Andrew Jackson, gained a decisive victory over the British under Packenham {Fak'n-a??i). A treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, Dec. 24, 18 14, before the battle of New Orleans, although at that time no news of such a treaty had reached America. In that treaty no mention was made of the question of the right of search, which had oc- casioned the war. 28. The reign of George III., who died in 1820, was longer than that of any other English monarch ; and it forms a dis- character of ^J^g^^shed pcriod in the history of the kingdom, on George iii.'s accouut of its military events and the progress of reign. ^.j^g nation in commerce, wealth, and the arts. Dur- ing the last ten years of his life he was afflicted with insanity to such a degree as entirely disqualified him for all business, and i82o.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 173 the Prince of Wales acted as regent. His talents were not brilliant, nor were his views as a statesman enlarged ; but his private character was exemplary, and he was much respected by his subjects. 29. A large number of persons distinguished in the various walks of life lived during this reign. Among the eminent orators, statesmen, and barristers, were Burke, Fox, Eminent the elder and the younger Pitt, Curran, and statesmen. Grattan, and Sheridan, a dramatist also. To these may be added Blackstone, a jurist, legal writer, and author of "Com- mentaries on English Law," a standard text-book in the legal profession; Lord Mansfield, chief justice of the King's Bench for more than thirty years ; Lord North, prime-minister to George IIL, and a bitter enemy of the American Colonies ; and Lord Chesterfield, a noted courtier, orator, and wit, and regarded as a model of politeness, and, in fashionable society, a kind of oracle of taste. 30. Some of the numerous literary celebrities were the poets Burns and Byron, both of extraordinary genius ; Gray, author of "The Elegy written in a Country Churchyard ; " Literary Coleridge, poet and critic ; Cowper {Koo-per), au- celebrities, thor of " The Task ; " Walter Scott, novelist and poet ; Gold- smith, poet and miscellaneous writer, and author of " The Vicar of Wakefield ; " and Sterne, who wrote "Tristram Shandy" and "The Sentimental Journey." Samuel Johnson, a great scholar 'and distinguished writer, was the author of an English diction- ary, of "The Lives of the Poets," and of many poems and critical writings. 31. In the department of historical literature, Hume was the author of a " History of England : " Gibbon , ■' ° Historians. wrote "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- pire ; " and Robertson is best known by his " History of the Life and Times of Charles V. of Germany." 32. In 1769 a series of political letters and satires, over the signature of " Junius/' appeared, and were condnued for about 174 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1820. three years. They were written with remarkable abihty, and Letters of Criticised the government and pubhc men with un- junius. usual severity. It has generally been supposed that they were written by Sir Philip Francis, though their real authorship was never known. 33. Sir Joshua Reynolds stands unsurpassed among English Art and the portrait-paintcrs ; and Mrs. Siddons, a native of drama. South Wales, was the most celebrated actress Great Britain has ever produced. David Garrick was also an emi- nent actor and dramatist. 34. Whitefield {Hwit' -feeld) and John Wesley, both dis- senters, were distinguished popular preachers, and both visited Prominent America. Wesley became the founder of the de- dissenters, nomination of Methodists ; and his brother Charles, a preacher also, was the author of many religious hymns of great merit. 35. In the military and naval history of Great Britain, there Military and ^^^ many examples of brilliant achievement and naval patriotic devotion to their country's welfare ; but in heroes. ^^^ rcspcct nonc are surer of lasting fame, and a place in the hearts of their countrymen, than Nelson and Wel- lington, some of whose exploits have been mentioned. 36. Toward the latter part of this reign a new kind of peri- odical publication had its origin, in "The Edinburgh Review" Periodical (1802), the Organ of the Whig and reforming reviews. party, which was followed (1809) by its rival, "The London Quarterly Review," which became a bold advocate of Tory principles. In 181 7 " Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine " (monthly) was established under the editorship of Professor John Wilson, known as Christopher North. This magazine has also striven to be a check upon the doctrines advocated by ^'The Edinburgh Review." These publications are still con- tinued, and have always been edited with great ability, and have exerted among the educated classes a wide influence in politics, literature, social and religious affairs. i82o.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 175 37. During the period of a hundred and twenty years, be- tween the beginning of the eighteenth century and the close of the reign of George III. (in 1820), very considera- Progress blc progress was made by the government and peo- made. pie of Great Britain. Gradually the power of the sovereign had come to be administered through his counsellors or min- istry, rather than by himself personally. 38. The condition of the common people had long been one of hardship and suffering ; but in the early part of the present century, even amid burdens grievous to condition of be borne, some improvement began to be realized, t^e people. During the latter part of the general European war, nearly a milHon of people were engaged, directly and indirectly, in carrying on war's destructive work. This lessened the number of laborers at home, and greatly increased the demand for some products needed by the army ; in consequence of whicli, wages became more remunerative, and afforded a better sup- port to the poor. Carpenters, masons, and hand-loom weavers, earned variously, in Scotland and England, from seventeen to twenty-five shillings per week ; while field-hands and unskilled laborers received from eleven to fifteen shillings for the same time. After the close of the war, many of the industries of the country were less profitable : employment was not always to be found, and the pay was greatly reduced. The introduction of the power-loom caused much distress among the hand-weavers, compelling them to labor, for sixteen or eighteen hours per day, for the pittance of from nine to sixteen pence. 39. But war-prices of bread, meat, clothing, and other neces- saries of life, more than kept pace with war-wages. In 1792 wheat sold for five shillings and tenpence per costof bushel, while in 1801 the price rose to twenty-two living, shillings and sixpence. Legislation was mostly controlled by land-owners, and hence land-owners and farmers were pros- perous. The importation of wheat was prohibited by law. 176 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1820. until it became very scarce and the price high ; and cattle could not be introduced from abroad on any terms. Thus prices were kept high, and the farmer was able to pay large rents for the benefit of the landlords ; while the laboring classes were kept poor, and were often reduced to the verge of starva- tion. Famines were of not uncommon occurrence. In Edin- burgh, at one time, one-eighth of the people were supported by charity ; and at Paisley the whole population were some- times absolutely without bread or meal. The magistrates of some districts prescribed the amount of bread families were expected to consume. 40. The expenses of living were greatly increased by high taxes on many of the comforts of life. Tea and sugar were so exorbitantly taxed, that their use was much re- stricted ; and the tax on salt was forty times the cost of its manufacture. The windows of houses were also taxed ; and this compelled many poor people to build them up, and the shutting-out of light resulted. in much discomfort and sickness. The revenue from paper was three times greater than the amount of wages paid to all the laborers engaged in its manufacture. Toward the close of the eighteenth century, newspapers, which had come to have considerable influence in public affairs, were taxed ; and, as their influence was frequently in favor of liberal principles, the government made this tax, in 1 8 14, fourpence on every copy printed, partly for revenue, but also to keep them from the common people. The aggregate of taxation for the support of government was enormous. At the close of the war with the American Colonies, it was about one pound for each person of the entire population, and in 18 14 it rose above five pounds for each inhabitant. 41. The criminal laws of Great Britain in the eighteenth Criminal ccutury wcrc very severe. They designated more laws. than two hundred capital offences, three-fourths of which originated in the legislation of the time of the i82o.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 177 Georges. Shooting rabbits, stealing property of the value of five shillings or more, or stealing any thing from a bleach-field, appearing in disguise on the highway, cutting down young trees, writing threatening letters to extort money, and numerous other similar offences, were all punishable with death. In 1816 one hundred and four persons were convicted of forgery, of whom eighteen were executed. Felons seemed to be regarded as incapable of reform, and their fives as useless to themselves and to society. 42. The execution of the laws was barbarous in the extreme. The bodies of persons hanged were often afterwards beheaded and cut in pieces, and exposed in public places ; Execution and special indignities were shown to those con- of laws, victed of treason. Prisons were small and unventilated, with little light, damp floors, and without beds, and infested with vermin. In such apartments, prisoners were huddled .... , . Prisons. together irrespective of age or sex, where prison- fevers and other diseases often found more victims than the law. Jailers received no salary, but derived their income from sell- ing food, straw for bedding, and other favors, to the prisoners. Those acquitted of crime by the courts were obliged to pay all dues to the jailer before they could be released ; and this some- times resulted in additional imprisonment for months, and even for years. 43. In the latter part of the century, John Howard, called the " Philanthropist," became so impressed with the inhumanity of the Enghsh prison system, that he heroically set john How- himself to work to secure its reform, — a task slow ^rd. of accomplishment, but one which eventually resulted in great improvement in the prisons and in the comfort of their unfor- tunate inmates. 44. The poor, also, about this time began to receive addi- tional attention. The magistrates were authorized, by a special law, to contribute to their relief from the public treasury. 178 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. \i^^o. This power was too freely exercised ; and abuses of the law fol- lowed to such an extent as to greatly increase the The poor. , r j j number of paupers, and to produce among the lower classes a general disinclination to labor. The expense, too, became alarming. In 1801 the aggregate poor-rates for England and Wales were four million pounds, and in 1818 they reached twice that sum. This burden became a prominent subject of reform in a subsequent reign. 45. Trade and commerce were extended in all directions. The trade with the American Colonies before the war had been Trade and Considerable, but after that event it was greatly in- commerce. creascd. Ricc, tobacco, and other products were extensively imported ; and, from the West-India Islands, sugar was obtained in large quantities ; while mahogany and other •ornamental woods, and logwood, were brought from the Central- American states, and especially from British Honduras, which had been acquired in 1783. Many vessels and much capital were engaged in the East- India trade, which brought to England a great variety of useful products, and yielded a revenue to the government and large profits to the adventurers. The trade with Holland and some other European countries had also become more extended and lucrative. The importation of foreign commodities added much to the wealth of the nation and to the comforts of the people. The navigation of the English Channel was rendered safer by the erection, in 1759, of the Eddystone Lighthouse, a sub- stantial stone structure, on a dangerous reef of rocks on the south coast of England. 46. The manufacturing interest was prosperous, and great improvements were made. This was noticeably true in articles Manufac of porcclaiu and earthenware. In 1759 Wedgwood tures. established an ornamental pottery, and soon after produced the delicate cream-colored ware, covered with a glaze, called by his name, though better known as queen's ware. It i82o.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 179 was furnished at a rate which brought it within the reach of the common people. He also executed copies of antique vases, sculpture, and cameos, of most exquisite workmanship. This branch of manufactures became very extensive and lucrative, and did much to refine the national taste. About the middle of the century, forty thousand people were engaged in the manufacture of cutlery at Sheffield, where the business had been introduced in the fourteenth century, and fifty thousand were employed at Birmingham in producing hardware, and various articles of iron and steel. The invention of the spinning-jenny and other machinery, and the use of steam, gave an impulse to the production of silk, woollen, and cotton fabrics. When the spinning-jennies were first introduced, they were often destroyed by the ignorant hand-spinners, who feared that they would take from them their occupation. Steam-power was also employed in many of the large iron-works, and in the coal-mines, which had come to be extensively worked. 47. Agriculture received more attention, and was much improved. Flower and vegetable gardens were very common among all classes : the potato was introduced and cultivated, and became an article of common food. Before 1720, greenhouses, for the cultivation of flowers and tropical fruits, had been introduced. 48. The state of religion was low, in the Established Church and among dissenters, in the early part of the eighteenth cen- tury. Many of the clergy were better known for their high living, worldly-mindedness, and their fondness for fox-hunting, than for their spiritual gifts and min- istrations ; and among laymen, corruption and vice were fearfully prevalent. But later in the century there was an improvement in religion and morals, brought about largely by the preaching of Whitefield and Wesley and their followers. Sabbath schools were established by Robert Raikes in 1781. '49. The severe laws against the Catholics, passed in the I So HISTORY OF ENGLAND. . [1820. reign of William and Mary, extended their imbittering influence ^^ into and nearly through the eighteenth century, against No Catholic could teach school, hold a civil office, Catholics. ^^ couduct any religious rites ; and all Catholic youth were obliged to abjure their religion at the age of eigh- teen, or forfeit all their rights to property, which could be claimed by their Protestant relatives. An act was passed in 1 788, called the Catholic Relief Bill, which removed those disabilities, except in relation to holding office. This law met with much opposition among Protestants, and was so stoutly resisted in Scotland, that it could not be carried into operation. In London, in 1 780, it occasioned riots, which continued for a week, and were suppressed only by mili- tary power after the loss of five hundred lives and the destruction of a vast amount of property. 50. The general literature of this period does not take a high rank. In 1709 Steele started a tri-vveekly publication, called Literature "The Tatler," devoted to essays rather than to and authors, ncws ; and this was followed, in 1711, by "The Spectator," a daily of a similar character conducted by Addison. The essays in these publications were of a high order, and are regarded as models of good style. The number of noted authors, aside from those already men- tioned, in the reign of George III., was not large. Daniel Defoe, a miscellaneous writer of considerable power, published in 1 719 "Robinson Crusoe," a work of remarkable popularity; and Dean Swift, a celebrated divine, satirist, and wit, gave to the world in 1726 "Gulliver's Travels," a kind of satire on mankind and the institutions of civilized countries. Fielding, who flourished about the middle of the century, is often called the father of the English novel ; and to the same school be- longed Richardson and Smollet ; but the merit of their works has not secured for them a prominent or an enduring place in literature. 51. The introduction of many articles from China, Japan, i82o.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. iSi and India, the use of mahogany and other ornamental woods, and the improved quahty of some kinds of house- Articles of hold furniture, such as chairs, tables, bedsteads, and comfort, cabinets, gave to the dwellings of all classes a better furnishing and adornment. Old furniture of that period is now often sought for on account of the excellence of its style and manu- facture. The Kidderminster carpets began to be made about the middle of the century, and soon after came into general use among the wealthier classes. 52. The fine arts were not neglected. The Royal Academy of Art was founded in 1768 ; and the names of Kneller, West, Hogarth (the painter of morals and manners in high life, as well as low), and Reynolds* (the founder of the English school of painting), are classic names in art. Much progress was also made in music in its various de- partments, and especially in sacred music. Many of the productions of that period are still in use. The oratorio was first brought out in London by Handel in 1720. 53. The state of society can hardly be spoken of in terms of praise. The principles of religion and morals had but little restraining influence upon the people in domestic state of and social life. The men were much given to dis- society, sipation and gambling ; and the women, generally very ignorant, were addicted to frivolity and gossip. The principal amusements of the different classes were hunting, fishing, music, dancing, dice, cards, puppet-shows, football, fairs, and the frequenting of watering-places. The man of fashion is described as dressed in a cocked hat, powdered wig, and gold-laced scarlet coat ; while the lady, with powdered hair, and patches upon her face, was attired in flowered brocades and immense hoo])s. 54. But there was an improvement in society during the latter part of this period, and especially after the close of the Euro- pean war. The education and the morals of the Education better classes received more attention, and the youth and morals, of all classes began to receive instruction in Sunday schools. l82 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [182a Literary clubs were formed ; periodical literature became quite common ; bitterness of feeling towards the Catholics was less- ened ; and the general tone of public sentiment was more elevated and improved. 55. Several events of general importance took place during Notable the period now under review. The uniform of the events, English navy (blue faced with white) was adopted by George II. in 1748, who saw and admired those colors in a riding-dress worn by the Duchess of Bedford. In 1752 an act of Parliament changed the mode of reckoning time, which in the course of many centuries, since the adoption of the Julian calendar, had ceased to be correct. Eleven days, from the 3d to the 14th of September, were left out of the calendar ; and this is known as the change from Old Style to New Style, so called. It met with decided opposition among ignorant people, who believed that it had shortened their lives by that number of days. The first canal in England was constructed in 1755, for the purpose of carrying coals from the mines to Manchester. The first savings bank in England was established at Totten- ham, in 1 798, for the earnings of poor children ; and the first London savings bank was opened in 18 16. In 1805, at Methyr Tydvil, in Wales, a steam-carriage was first drawn over an iron railway by a locomotive, carrying ten tons of coal, at a speed of five miles an hour ; and the first passenger steamboat in Great Britain, called "The Comet," made its appearance upon the Clyde in 181 2. A portion of London was lighted by gas in 1807; but the measure was fiercely opposed by capitalists and seamen, who contended that it would throw out of employment thousands of men engaged in the whaling business and in the building of whale-ships, and render idle millions of capital invested in that enterprise. No agency in modern time^ has interposed so effectual a check upon the commission of crime in cities and towns by night as gaslights in the streets. 1 820.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 183 In 181 7 a new bridge over the Thames in London was com- pleted, and, in honor of the recent victory, was named the Waterloo Bridge. It is nearly fourteen hundred feet long, cost over five million dollars, and is regarded as one of the finest bridges in the world. 56. The population of England and Wales is believed to have been, in 17 10, somewhat more than 5,000,000; that of Scotland, about 1,000,000; and of Ireland, more than 2,000,000 ; making a total of over 7,000,000. °^" ^^'°"' The first official census of England was in 1801, but it is not regarded as fully reliable. The first in Ireland was in 182 1. In 1 80 1 the whole population, exclusive of Ireland, was about 10,500,000, and in 181 1, nearly 12,000,000. Soon after the close of the reign of George III. (1821), the total population was 21,000,000, of which more than 6,000,000 belonged to Ireland. The population of London in 1801 was 958,000; in 181 1, 1,138,000; and in 1821, 1,378,000. Liverpool, with a popu- lation of 5,000 in 1700, rose to 77,600 in 1801, and to about 119,000 in 1821. Edinburgh then numbered more than 100,- 000, and Glasgow, 147,000. 57. George IV., who succeeded his father in 1820, was a man of talents and accomplishments : but his life, during both his youth and his manhood, had been marked by character of great prodigality and dissipation ; and there was George iv. little in his character or his conduct, while a sovereign, to entitle him to the affection or respect of his subjects. While a prince, and not in power, he connected himself with the opposition, or Wliigs ; but, both as regent and king, he adhered to the Tories, to the neglect of his former friends. 58. Soon after the accession of George IV. a bill for divor- cing and degrading the queen, Carohne, on charges Queen Caro- of misconduct, was introduced into the House of "ne. Lords, and, after being carried by a vote of a hundred and eight to ninety-nine, was abandoned. The queen died soon after. t84 history of ENGLAND. [iSaS. 59. The Greeks having for some years maintained a sangui- nary struggle for independence against the Turks, aq interpo- dreek sition in their favor was made by England, France, affairs. and Russia ; and the united fleets of these three powers obtained, in 1827, a great victory over the Turkish and Egyptian fleets in the Bay of Navarino (see map, p. 195). 60. In 1828 the Corporation and Test Act, which had long operated to exclude Catholics and Dissenters from all corporate Relief of offices, was repealed ; and it was followed (in 1829) Catholics. by the Still more important measure of Catholic emancipation. By this act the laws imposing civil disabilities on Roman Catholics were repealed ; and Daniel O'Connell, the Irish agitator, took his seat in the House of Commons. In addition to these great national measures, many other important alterations and improvements were made in the laws of Great Britain during the reign of George IV. The penal code was improved by rendering punishment more certain and much less sanguinary. During this reign (1824), Lord Byron the poet died at Missolonghi, in Greece. 61. George IV. was succeeded (in 1830) by his brother, the Duke of Clarence, with the title of William IV. In about William IV. a- month after his accession, a revolution took place and reform, jn France, which caused the dethronement of Charles X. A widespread feehng of uneasiness and disaffec- tion was felt in England, and the country was alarmed by numerous incendiary fires. For many years the subject of a reform of the representation of the people in the House of Commons had been much agitated, and it was now more loudly called for than ever before. On the meeting of the new Parliament, the Duke of Wellington, the prime-minister, un- expectedly expressed himself strongly against any reform ; but the duke and his colleagues, not finding themselves supported by a majority of the House of Commons, resigned, and were succeeded by a Whig ministry, with Earl Grey at the head. 1837.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 1^5 62. On the I St of March, 1831, Lord John Russell, as the organ of- the cabinet, brought into Parliament the first reform bill ; but this bill, and also a second one, the min- Reforms istry failed to carry through both Houses. But a secured. third bill was, after a violent struggle, carried, and enacted into a law, in June, 1832. This important measure, which renders the House of Commons a body much more effectually repre- senting the people, occupied the greater part of the first two years of the reign of William, to the exclusion of almost all other measures. The first Parliament elected under the new system assembled in January, 1833; and the reform of the representation was soon followed by the reform of the Irish Church, and the abolition of slavery in \he British West Indies. William Wilbeiforce was the foremost champion of this last- named measure, by which eight hundred thousand slaves were set free (1834), and twenty million pounds were paid to their owners as compensation. For a long time the poor-laws had worked great harm to society, by their encouragement of pauperism and their inter- ference with honest industry. A commission was . . Poor-laws. appointed in 1832, whose mvestigations led to the enactment of a law (1834) which established work-houses for the able-bodied poor, and a judicious system of dispensing rehef to the infirm and helpless. The beneficial efi'ects of this act were soon apparent in a great reduction of poor-rates, and in the improved condition of the poor. In 1835 a much-needed reform took place in the local man- agement of towns and municipalities. Their officers had been almost self-appointed. Funds were expended with- Municipal out being accounted for, the administration of government, justice had been neglected, and general corruption prevailed. A new law placed incorporated towns under the control of a mayor, aldermen and council, elected by resident tax-payers. The criminal laws received the attention of the reform party. While convictions under those laws had been comparatively easy, the execution of the laws was attended with great un- 1 86 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1837. certainty; and crime had long been on the increase. In 1824 more than a thousand persons were condemned to death, of Criminal whom Only forty were executed. There were then laws. thirty-one offences punishable by death ; but, previ- ous to 1837, that penalty was abolished for twenty- one of those crimes ; and in that year the convictions were reduced to less than one-half their previous number. It was found that the prevention of crime was not secured so effectually by the severity of law, as by the certainty of its execution. In 1834 the charter of the East India Company was re- newed, with important modifications. Sir Walter Scott, the distinguished novelist and poet, whose name and genius have become indelibly associated with Scottish history, social hfe, and scenery, died during this reign, in 1832. 63. William IV. had been a sailor in his youth, and had the free and easy manners of that class. He was a hearty friend Character of of reform, ruled with justice, and was beloved by William IV. hig people. Hls death occurred, at the age of seventy-two, in 1837. CHAPTER VI. THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK (PART II.). From 1837 to the present time. Victoria. VICTORIA, who came to the throne in 1837 at the age of eighteen years, was the daughter of the Duke of Kent, and a niece of the late king, William IV. She had Auspicious been carefully educated, was of pleasing manners, beginning, and of great amiability, and firmness of character. Her acces- sion was the occasion of much rejoicing among her people, and gave promise of an auspicious reign ; which subsequent events have fulfilled. In 1840 she married her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 2. The little kingdom of Hanover in Germany, since the time of George I., had been an appendage to England, and was under the same sovereign, though with an in- union with dependent administration ; but, as the law of sue- Hanover cession in Hanover does not allow females to occupy '^solved, the throne, the union with Great Britain was dissolved upon the accession of Victoria, and this state became once more independent. 3. The youthful queen did not find her kingdom entirely peaceful and harmonious. In some of the colonies there was much dissatisfaction with the government ; and at Sources of home great discontent prevailed among the labor- discontent, ing classes on account of low wages, want of employment, and the high price of provisions. In the manufacturing districts 187 1 88 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1838. Strikes were common among the operatives, and at one time fifty thousand people in Scotland were out of employment on that account ; but the arrest of some of the ringleaders, who were intimidating new laborers, soon restored quiet and a re- newal of business. 4. In 1838 a class of agitators for refonn, called " Chartists," began to occupy a large share of public attention. In a docu- ment called by them the people's charter their Chartism. ... r 1 i • 1 1 tt • prmciples were set forth under six heads: i. Uni- versal suffrage ; 2. Vote by ballot ; 3. Paid representatives in Parhament ; 4. Equal electoral districts; 5. The abolition of the property qualification ; and, 6. Annual parliaments. These subjects were widely discussed at mass meetings numerously attended ; and in 1839 the charter, signed by a large number of people, was presented to Parliament. Its refusal by that body led to some scenes of riot and violence ; but the government soon restored order. 5. Chartism was apparently thrust aside for several years by the Anti-Corn- Law League, — an organization formed in 1838 for the repeal of all duties on breadstuffs. Richard Cobden and John Bright, two of England's ablest statesmen, were zealous advocates for this measure ; and after much agitation the repeal was passed in 1846, and carried fully into effect in 1849. The navigation laws passed in the time of Cromwell, and which were now considered a restriction upon trade, were repealed the same year. 6. Upon the occurrence of a revolution in France in 1848, chartism was revived for a time in Great Britain, and many Chartism re- threatening demonstrations were made throughout vived. ^j^g country. These were successfully quelled by the government ; and, after the presentation in Parliament of a monster petition in favor of the people's charter, the movement seemed -to lose its organization, and soon passed from public notice. 7. In 1 84 1, under the leadership of Daniel O'Connell, the sub- i84i.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 189 ject of a repeal of the union between Ireland and Great Britain was extensively agitated. Mass meetings were held separation throughout Ireland, inflammatory speeches were of Ireland ° . -1 1 /-ni attempted. made, and great excitement prevailed. The gov- ernment finally took measures to prevent the riotous assembling of the people. O'Connell and some of his followers were tried, and convicted of sedition ; but the House of Lords reversed the judgment, and they were set at liberty. The leaders of a similar agitation in 1848 were transported for life, some of whom escaped to the United States. 8. One of the most beneficent influences upon social and domestic life at this time was the result of an extensive tem- perance reformation, which began in Ireland in Temperance 1 84 1 under the direction of Father Mathew, an reform. Irish priest. Its effect in reheving poverty and diminishing crime was most salutary. Numerous temperance societies named from Father Mathew were organized, and the movement extended to other countries. 9. In 1843 more than a third of all the ministers of the EstabUshed Church of Scotland seceded, in order to free them- selves from the interference of the civil courts in Scottish Free ecclesiastical matters. This movement caused Church. much excitement, and resulted in the formation of what has since been known as the Free Church of Scotland. 10. Ireland experienced one of the most terrible famines in modern times in consequence of the failure of the potato-crop in that country in 1846-47. Most shocking scenes Famine in of suffering and death by starvation were witnessed Iceland. on all sides. The government generously ministered to the relief of the suffering ; and a national vessel was sent from the United States, laden with supplies purchased by private contri- bution. 11. A most notable event occurred in London in 1851, known as "The World's Fair," or exhibition of the industry of all nations. It took place in a mammoth buflding called "The 190 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1861 Crystal Palace," constructed mostly of iron and glass, and was World's participated in by nations in all parts of the globe, fair. ji^jg project Originated with the prince-consort; and its influence upon the social and industrial interests of the world was so apparent, that it has since been imitated, with some improvements, by several countries. 12. Prince Albert, the husband of the queen, died in Decem- Deathof ^^^' 1861, much lamented. He was a man of Prince refined tastes, a friend of progress, and a benefactor ^'^*' to the poor and to all charitable institutions. To the queen he was a wise and judicious counsellor, and was greatly beloved by the people. 13. Several wars have taken place in the British Colonies and with foreign nations during the reign of the present sov- Canadian creign, and there have also been some important rebellion. changes and events in colonial administration. Upper and Lower Canada had for some time been in a dis- turbed state ; and in 1837 an insurrection broke out, which was put down after great alarm and some bloodshed. In 1840 the two provinces were united under a constitutional government. 14. The Afghan war was between 1838 and 1842. England undertook to support the Afghans against Persia, and finally to place on their throne a prince of a former reigning Afghan war. \ ..... & & house, to maintain whose authority a small English force was left in Cabul. Violent opposition to the new rule sprang up. These troops, seeing their danger, attempted to cut their way to Jelalabad, and were nearly destroyed. A fresh English force, in turn, destroyed Cabul ; but Afghanistan was abandoned. During this war, Scinde, a rich territory around the lower waters of the Indus, was annexed to British India by Sir Conquests Charlcs Napier. The Sikhs, living in the district in India. called the Punjab, north of Scinde, invaded the Brit- ish territories in 1845 ; and a war followed, which ended in the annexation of their country also to the British domain. These conquests secured to British India the whole peninsula of Hin- i8s2.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 191 dostan. In 1852 a war with Birmah resulted in the acquisition of Puge; and in 1856 the kingdom of Oude, long under British protection, was formally annexed, on the ground of extreme misgovernment. MAP OF INDIA. 15. The English army in India is largely composed of sepoys, or native soldiers. Early in 1857 there were signs of a muti- nous spirit in the Bengal division, which was by far sepoy the largest, and contained many high-caste sepoys, rebellion. The government had resolved to arm the troops with Enfield 192 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1857. rifles, in the use of which greased cartridges were employed. A behef spread among the native troops that this was an attempt to make them give up their religion by compeUing them to bite the fat of swine and cows : the use oi the former being defilement to the Mohammedan ; and of the latter, sacri- lege to the Hindoo. Although the old cartridges were still used, the greatest excitement prevailed, and the discontent spread like wildfire. 16. The first outbreaks were quelled ; but in May several regiments mutinied at Meerut, killed their English officers, and marched to Delhi, where the garrison joined them. Cawnpore, The Europeans were massacred, and Delhi became and Luck- ^^g rally ing-poiut of the rebellion. Several thou- sand sepoys also revolted at Cawnpore, and placed themselves under the Nana-Sahib. Few native regiments could be trusted ; and the European troops were too few to check the mutiny, which now spread with frightful rapidity. The scenes at Delhi were repeated at Benares, Allahabad, Futteh- poor, and all over Oude, where many Bengal sepoys had been recruited. The rebels gradually gathered around Lucknow, and began to besiege the Europeans there about July i. 17. The first movements of the English were against Delhi. The memorable siege of this city lasted from June till Septem- Memorabie ber, and it was taken only after the most desperate sieges. fighting withiu as well as without the walls. Mean- time Gen. Havelock moved with a small force from Allahabad towards Cawnpore, where a few English were besieged by the Nana-Sahib, who, on the approach of Havelock, murdered them all with horrible atrocities. He, after defeating the Nana in several battles, marched to relieve Lucknow, where a garrison of less than a thousand was holdfng out against ten thousand rebels. He fought his way into the city with dreadful loss, and staid with the besieged until November, when Sir Colin Camp- bell reheved them, and withdrew his troops to Cawnpore, which, after a great batde with the Nana-Sahib, was made a centre of [859.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 193 operations against Oude. Troops had now arrived from Eng- land, and the rebels were followed up with great vigor. Early in 1859 the revolt was at an end. The horrible outrages on men, women, and children, and the relentless punishment of their perpetrators, have no parallel in modern history. One of the most important results of the mutiny was the transfer by Parliament of the government of India from the East-India Company to the British Queen, the company remaining simply a commercial corporation. r \ SK.ETCH MAP OF O EASTERN CHINA A.ND VICINITY, MAP OF CHINA. 18. The principal military operations of the British with China, in the present reign, have originated mainly in commer- cial difficulties. The importation of opium was warwith forbidden by the Chinese Government ; but English ^^ina. merchants smuggled the drug over the frontier. Its seizure led to a war, by which China was compelled (1842) to cede Hong 194 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1857 Kong, and pay twenty-one million dollars to Great Britain, and to open five seaports to British commerce. In 1857 the Chinese were charged with having broken their treaties ; but it was not until the sepoy rebellion in India was quelled, that, some massacres having occurred in Chinese waters, France and England formed an alliance against the aggressors. They captured Canton, and negotiations were begun; but in 1859 the war was renewed. The allies were at first repulsed on the Pei Ho River ; but the next year the forts and Tien-tsin were taken ; and the Chinese, being defeated near Pekin, came to terms, and this inglorious war was ended by a commercial treaty. 19. Since the time of Napoleon, a compact has existed among the five great powers of Europe — England, France, The balance Prussia, Russia, and Austria — to preserve what is of power. called the balance of power ; that is, ostensibly to protect the smaller states against the encroachments of the larger ones, and to prevent any one state or sovereign from exercising an undue influence in the affairs of other states. In pursuance of this policy, England has twice, during the present reign, been drawn into collision with the Eastern powers. 20. In 1840 Mehemet-Ali {Mdhemef Ah'le), Pacha or Vice- roy of Egypt, revolted against the Turkish Government, and also Rebellion in attempted, with some success, to get possession of Egypt. Syria. France remained neutral upon the subject, but was suspected of sympathizing with Mehemet, either for the purpose of placing him upon the Turkish throne, to which Abdul-Medjid had just succeeded at the age of seventeen years, or to lessen Turkish influence by making Egypt and Syria an independent kingdom. The other allies interfered. A fleet, under the command of Sir Charles Napier, soon cap- tured Acre, the key of Syria, and Beyroot, and then made its appearance in the harbor of Alexandria. A treaty soon followed with Mehemet, making the viceroyalty of Egypt hereditary in his family ; since which Egypt has been, in all respects except the name, an independent state. 1853-] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 195 21. The other interference in the affairs of the Eastern powers was in the Crimean war, which began in 1853. Russia had demanded to be named protector of the Greek The Crimean Christians in the Turkish Empire. By the advice ^^'■• of England and France, this demand was refused; and the TO ILLUSTRATE CRIMEAN WAR. GREECE IN 1827, AND THE ALLIED FLEET AT ALEXANDRIA IN 184O. Czar at once occupied the Danubian principahties where these Christians lived. The Russians, failing to take Silistria, were defeated on the Danube, and withdrew from Turkish terri- tory. Meantime the allied fleets blockaded the Russian fleet in the harbor of Sebastopol, in the Crimea ; and the reduction 196 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1855. of this strongly-fortified city became the main purpose of the aUies, whom Sardinia now joined. In the course of this siege were fought the batdes of the Alma, of Balaklava (where the "six hundred" made their famous charge), of Inkerman, and of the Tchernaya; and furious assaults were made on the Russia'n works, especially upon the battery of the Malakoff, which was captured by the French, and that of the Redan, upon which an attempt of the English failed. After sustaining a siege of eleven months, Sebastopol was evacuated Sept. 9, 1855 ; and a treaty of peace was signed in the following year. 22. England undertook some naval operations against Russia in the Baltic Sea, but with very small results. The losses to all Florence parties in this war were immense. The allies Nightingale, suffered terribly from disease ; and it was by her efforts to improve the hospital service, and relieve the wants of the soldiers in the Crimea, that the name of Florence Nightin- gale became so memorable. She visited hospital and camp, and, like an angel of mercy, everywhere mimstered to the sick, the wounded, and dying; one poor soldier remarking, that, owing to the large numbers in the hospital, all could not be spoken to or receive a recognition by her ; " yet," said he, " we could kiss her shadow as it fell, and lay our heads on our pillows content." 23. The discovery of rich gold mines, also of deposits of iron, copper, and coal, in New South Wales and Victoria, in 1850, formed an era in the history of the Australian Australia. ^olonies. Liberal constitutions were granted to them at about the same time, since which they have enjoyed a rapid and prosperous growth. The agricultural and mineral resources of the country have been extensively developed, and a large population no.w finds occupation and support in this distant pordon of the British Empire. 24. Among the public enactments and leading measures of Victoria's reign, there are some which reflect great credit upon the government and the leading statesmen by whom they 1858.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 197 were initiated and carried out. In 1840 the penny-postage bill was passed, reducing the rates on letters, which Penny had previously been very high, to one penny for postage, all distances, and establishing also the money-order system. This measure was at once felt to be a public convenience in business and social hfe, and a relief from a heavy tax on corre- spondence. 25. In 1858 an act was passed modifying the oath required of members of Parliament, so as to make Jews Jewish dis- eligible to that body. A few years later the elec- abilities, tive franchise was greatly extended in Wales, Ire- " ^^^^' land, and Scotland, thereby giving to the people greater power and influence. 26. By a land bill (1869) the peasants of Ireland were allowed to acquire an interest in the soil which they cultivated and in its improvement, and a prospective owner- irish land ship of the same. This measure conferred sub- bin. stantial benefit upon the country, lessened political excitement, checked emigration, improved agriculture, and increased the demand for labor, with a greater remuneration. 27. A long-standing source of discontent among the Cathohc population of Ireland was the tax which they were compelled to pay for the support of the Established Church Disestabiish- of Great Britain. In 1868 Mr. Gladstone intro- ment of the duced a bill into Parliament to disestablish the Irish Church, and to make the support of religion among all sects a voluntary matter. This bill met with violent opposition, but was passed, and went into operation in 1870. It was an act eminently wise, and does tardy justice to an oppressed people, who for centuries have been compelled to support a church with which they had no sympathy. 28. Another measure of great importance was the education bill of 1870, establishing a system of public schools, Education which are fast bringing the elements of an English *'"'• education within reach of every child in England. Extraor- 198 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1872. dinary activity has been displayed in the erection of school- houses, the organization of schools, and in aiding the lower classes, so that poverty shall be no bar to a common-school education. Already there is a diminution of that class of crimes common among ignorant people, and educated labor is receiving a better reward. 29. During the late civil war in the United States, American commerce suffered extensively from privateers built and fitted Alabama out in English ports. At the close of the war the claims. United-States Government claimed of Great Britain damages for these depredations, on the ground that no efforts were made to prevent the privateers from leaving British ports. These claims were known as the Alabama claims, from the name of one of the privateers. After some negotiations at Washingto-n between the two governments, the matter was re- ferred to a board of arbitration composed of representatives of five different nations ; viz., the United States, Great Britain, Italy, Brazil, and Switzerland. This board met at Geneva in 1872, and awarded to the United States the sum of fifteen million dollars, which was prompdy paid by the British Govern- ment. 30. In 1875 the Prince of Wales made a visit to British Empress of India, where he was received with great enthusi- india. 2&vci j and, upon his return, the Queen added to her former title that of Empress of India. 31. The subject of United-States fisheries in British-Ameri- can waters became a matter of arbitration in 1877, at Halifax in Nova Scotia, before a board called the " Fish Com- Fish award. mission," composed of one person appointed by the United States, one by Great Britain, and the Belgian minister at Washington. The question at issue was, whether the advantage accruing to the United States for taking fish in British-American waters was greater or less than the benefits derived by the British-American Colonies by having entry for their fish free of duty in United-States markets. The decision of the arbitrators 1878.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 199 was not unanimous ; but a majority adjudged that the United States must pay to Great Britain a balance of values of five million five hundred thousand dollars. Although this award was considered by the United States as excessive, Congress appropriated the money for its payment iw June, 1878 ; and it was paid to the British Government in November following. 32. In 1877-78 hostilities existed between Russia and Tur- key, originating principally in difficulties concerning the pro- tection of Greek Christians in the European provinces tributary to Turkey. This war was terminated by the Treaty of Berlin, July, 1878; but, a few weeks previous to that event, a de- fensive treaty was secretly made in 1878 between Great Britain and Turkey, by which the former power guarantees a con- ditional protectorate of certain Turkish provinces in Cyprus. Asia, and is allowed, in return, to occupy and ad- minister the Island of Cyprus, upon the annual payment to Turkey of the present excess of the revenue of the island over its expenditures. English occupation of Cyprus is to terminate, however, in case certain provinces recently acquired by Russia are restored to Turkey. 33. In the autumn of 1878 a Russian envoy arrived at Cabul, the capital of Afghanistan, and was kindly received by the ameer. Soon after, an embassy from British ., . Afghan war. India arrived to inquire the purpose of such a step, and to guard British interests. This embassy was not allowed to enter the country. By order of the home government, armed forces were sent from India ; one division going by the Khyber Pass, who soon took and occupied Jelalabad and some other places. The ameer, Shere Mi, fled from the country, and died soon after, leaving affairs in the hands of his son, Yakoob Khan, who succeeded him as ameer. A treaty was made, the terms of which were, that a British agent might reside at Cabul ; the foreign affairs of the ameer were to be conducted under British advice ; and Great Britain was to de- fend the ameer against foreign invasion, and to pay him an 200 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, [1879. annual subsidy of sixty thousand pounds. Tlie Khyber and Mincee mountain-passes were also to be under British control. After signing the treaty, the ameer issued a proclamation of gen- eral amnesty, and of peace and friendship with the British people. But, owing to the treachery or the inefficiency of the ameer, peace did not immediately follow. The Afghan soldiers became dissatisfied concerning their pay, and a mutiny took place \ when, accompanied by a mob, they attacked the British Resi- dency at the palace and citadel of Bala-Hissar in Cabul, and murdered the British envoy and minister. Major Cavagnari, with nearly all his officers and escort. The British forces, in three divisions, under Gen. Roberts and others, at once made an advance movement, occupied Candahar, Cabul, and other important places, and took possession of the country, and placed it under a military governor. Forty-nine of the mur- derers of the envoy and his party were brought to trial, and executed. The ameer became unpopular, and was obliged to abdicate, and was succeeded by Abdurrahman. In several en- gagements that took place the losses of the British were severe. This war met with opposition and censure in Parliament, but was defended by the ministry as necessary for the safety of British interests. But a re-action took place, and the prime- minister, Mr. Disraeli {Diz-ra'-el-e), resigned, and was suc- ceeded by Mr. Gladstone, by whom a more liberal policy towards Afghanistan was adopted, and the principal part of the army withdrawn ; and the country was left with better prospects for peace. 34. Difficulties arose in the British South African Colonies, in 1878-79, which led to warlike operations of a decisive char- acter. The Zulus, a troublesome and warlike tribe Zululand. of brown-colored East Africans, under their chief, Cetywayo, had some local disputes with their neighbors, includ- ing the Transvaal, which was a Britisl? dependency. Zululand was invaded by British troops, who suffered signal defeats in several engagements ; one detachment being almost annihilated ^] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 20I at Isandula; but at Ulundi they were successful. Cetywayo was soon after taken prisoner, and his country placed under British protection. During this war the young French prince imperial, son of the late emperor, Napoleon III., lost his life, having been sur- prised by the natives while reconnoitring with a small escort. An unwise attempt to disarm the Basutos, a half-civilized agricultural tribe, led to some difficulties with that people, which were finally compromised. 35. War soon followed in the Transvaal. This country had for many years been a free state, but in 1877 was annexed to the British possessions. In 1879-80 the Boers of The Trans- the Transvaal rebelled, set up a provisional govern- vaai. ment at Heidelberg, and demanded a repeal of the act of annexation. Hostilities ensued, the Boers proving themselves desperate fighters, signally defeating the British at Middleburg and in several other engagements. Negotiations followed, and in 1 88 1 they again became a free state, their foreign relations only being under British protection. 36. A crisis in Egypt brought England into hostile relations with that country in 18S2. The Khedive of Egypt, who is the 202 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. [1882. viceroy of the Sultan of Turkey, declined to approve of cer- tain administrative acts of Arabi Bey, his minister of war, espe- Egyptian cially the sentence of a court-martial ordering the affairs. degradation and exile of a number of army officers who had been accused of disloyalty to the war minister. The ministry, under the leadership of Arabi Bey, endeavored to induce the Chamber of Notables to depose the khedive. But the attempt failed. Meantime the consuls-general of Eng- land and France telegraphed their governments for military assistance, to protect their countries' interests in Egypt ; and demanded that the Egyptian ministry should resign, and that Arabi Bey should leave the country. The resignations took place, although Arabi Bey, at the demand of the military authorities at Alexandria, was soon afterwards re-instated as minister of war. But he immediately assumed a rebellious atti- tude towards the khedive ; and a riot occurred at Alexandria, during which a wanton massacre of Europeans took place. Meantime efforts were making, under the direction of Arabi Bey, as was supposed, to strengthen the fortifications which command the Bay of Alexandria, the seaport ahd commercial capital of Egypt. Admiral Seymour of the English fleet demanded that this work should cease ; and, as the demand was not complied with, he began a fierce bombardment (July 11), which soon reduced the forts and the foreign quarter of the town to a mass of ruins. England claimed the right to thus intervene in the affairs of Egypt, on the ground that Egyp- tian securities, whose value depended upon the permanency of the government, were held largely by English people ; and that the English Government was a majority owner in the Suez Canal, — a water-way for ships, extending from Port Said on the Mediterranean Sea (about a hundred and forty miles east of Alexandria) southward nearly one hundred miles to Suez, at the head of the Red Sea, — the use of which is of great importance in communicating with her possessions in India. The Great Powers advised Turkey to send troops to Egypt ; and England demanded that the sultan should proclaim Arabi i882.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 203 Bey a rebel. The British Government immediately despatched a large force to the seat of war, hostilities still continuing. 37. The disturbed state of Ireland in 1880-81 led to the passage by Parliament of the Irish Land Bill, by which a court is established to decide upon rents when appealed irish Land to by landlord or tenant ; outgoing tenants are Bin. allowed compensation for improvements made by them ; and tenants are allowed to occupy land fifteen years without in- crease of rent. But this bill did not receive the general approval of the Irish people, and failed to produce the imme- diate good results anticipated by its friends. This act was followed in 1882 by the Repression Bill, which aims to restore good order in Ireland. 38. Various causes combined to produce considerable dis- tress in Great Britain in 1878-79. The manufacturing interests were much depressed, owing to over-production Business and the competition of other nations. Numerous depression, failures occurred, and many people were out of employment. There was also a deficiency in some of the crops. In Octo- ber, 1878, the City of Glasgow Bank failed disastrously, on account of fraud by its directors. By this event a large num- ber of persons lost their savings of many years, and their only means of subsistence. 39. The population of the United Kingdom has increased during the reign of Victoria, as shown by the last census (1881), more than thirty per cent. During the ^ ^' , ^ ^ , , . Population. first half of the present century the population nearly doubled, which is believed to be equal to the increase during the eleven centuries between the landing of Julius Caesar and that of William the Conqueror. The population of London in 1801 was 958,000. In eighty years it has increased to 3,814,000, and including its suburbs, to more than 4,700,000. 40. Many eminent statesmen have participated in public 204 HISTORY CF ENGLAND. [1:^82. affairs during this reign. Brougham, Pahiierston, Russell, Peel, Eminent Derby, Gladstone, Disraeli, Cobden, Bright, and statesmen. others, havc Contributed largely to the develop- ment and welfare of their country. 41. The number of persons distinguished in literature and science has also been large. Among those who have died dur- Literary J^g the reign are John Wilson ("Kit North"), celebrities. critic, poct, and philosopher ; Thackeray, novelist and critic ; Dickens, novelist ; Tom Moore, poet, author of " Lalla Rookh," and " Irish Melodies ; " Macaulay, critic and historian ; Hood, poet and humorist, author of the "Bridge of Sighs,". and " Song of the Shirt ; " Carlyle, essayist, historian, and philosopher ; Wordsworth and Southey, poets ; Arnold, teacher and historian ; Lingard, historian ; Hugh Miller, geologist ; Darwin, naturalist ; and Dean Stanley, preacher and historian. 42. During the last half-century the fruits of a ripening civilization have rapidly accumulated in almost every phase of Ensrlish life. In improved am-iculture and manu- General ^ ^ ^ progress of facturcs in general, in architecture as seen in the the nation. homcs of all classcs, as well as in public buildings and bridges, in hospitals and asylums for the unfortunate and the poor, in modes of travel, in the use of the telegraph and the printing-press, and in literary institutions and the varied agencies for the diffusion of knowledge, the evidences of a most wonderful progress are everywhere seen ; while in the special manufacturing of cotton, woollen, and metallic goods, in the mining of coal, iron, copper, and tin, and in commerce and naval power. Great Britain stands in the front rank of nations. 43. More than a thousand years have elapsed since Egbert united the little kingdoms of the Heptarchy, and nowhere can the progress of civilization be more profitably of English Studied than in tracing the events of English history history. |-j.Qj^^ ^j^^l- period to the present. We here see the gradual rise of a people from a low state of barbarism to the highest rank in national power, in the arts both of peace and i882.] THE HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. 205 war, in commercial wealth, and intellectual and moral great- ness. In England liberty has maintained frequent and bloody conflicts with tyranny. No nation can boast of more ardent patriots, of firmer and more enlightened friends to the rights and liberties of mankind, or men of higher excellence, or of greater intellectual endowments, than are presented to us in the eventful pages of English history. 44. To the citizens of the United States the history of Eng- land is next in importance to that of their own country ; for it is to a majority of them the history of their own its lessons to ancestors, as it is also of the country from which Americans, have been derived in a great measure their language and litera- ture and their civil and religious institutions. 45. The Great Britain of to-day exhibits many of the best characteristics of conservatism and of healthy progress. The extent of her political power, and her judicious prominence policy at home and abroad, equally challenge ad- of Great miration ; and whoever contemplates the vastness of her empire, including her numerous colonial possessions, will recognize truth as well as poetry in the assertion that '* on the British Empire the sun never sets." PARLIAMENT HOUSE. THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT. The government of Great Britain is of that form usually known as a limited monarchy. The sovereign is hereditary; and, when there is no direct male heir, a female may succeed to the throne, and she takes the title of queen-regnant. The wife of a king is called queen-consort; the widow of a king, queen-dowager; and the mother of a sovereign upon the throne, queen-mother The power of the sovereign is limited by constitutional restric- tions. While the crown can declare war, the action of Parliament is necessary to raise money and men to carry it on. But the sov- ereign has full power to assemble or to dismiss Parliament, coin money (though not to fix or change its value), to receive and send ambassadors, to grant pardons, to confer titles of nobility, to ap- point judges and magistrates, to issue and cancel commissions in the army and navy, to sign or veto acts passed by Parliament, and to nominate bishops, &c. The power of the sovereign is not exercised personally, but through a ministry composed of leading officials, the most impor- tant of whom are the following: The first Lord of the Treasury, called also Premier or Prime-Minister; Chancellor of the Exche- quer; Lord Chancellor, President of the Council; Lord Privy- Seal ; Home Secretary ; Foreign Secretary ; Secretary for the Colonies; Secretary of War; Secretary for India, First Lord of the Admiralty ; President of the Board of Trade ; and President of the Board of Works. The ministry is responsible for the acts of the government ; and hence the saying, that the king can do no wrong. The members of the ministry usually tender their resignations when any of their important measures fail to receive the support of the House of 206 THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT 207 Commons. When a new ministry is to be formed, the sovereign appoints the premier, and he names his associates. Although the ministry has long been regarded as an important branch of the gov- ernment in the administration of public affairs, it exists as the result of custom only, never having been created, nor recognized by law; and no official record of its proceedings is kept. The legislative department of the government is called Parlia- ment, and is composed of two houses, — Lords and Commons. The House of Lords, or Peers, at present consists of nearly five hundred members, and is composed of English hereditary and titled peers, English archbishops and bishops, and Scotch and Irish peers elected by their own order. Peers, or lords, are often created by the sovereign for distinguished services, or merit. The House of Commons is elective, its members representing counties, cities, boroughs, and some of the universities. The present number of members is about six hundred and fifty. All bills for raising money, or which directly affect the people, must originate in the House of Commons. No Parliament can exist more than seven years ; and, whenever its dissolution takes place, a new one must be called within three years. Many of the colonies and other dependencies of the empire have parliaments of their own for the management of their loca\ affairs. THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. The Empire of Great Britain is composed of a variety of states and dependencies in various parts of the world, as follows : — JN EUROPE. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with the adjacent islands, including the Shetlands, Hebrides, Orkneys, Scil- lies, Man, and the Isle of Wight. The Channel Islands, near the coast of France, comprising Jer- sey, Guernsey, &c., having been a part of the dominions of William the Conqueror. Heligoland, a small island in the German Ocean, off the mouth of the Elbe River. Obtained from the Danes in 1807. The town and fortress of Gibraltar, on the south extremity of Spain. Captured in 1 704. Malta, an island naval station south of Sicily, with Gozo, a small island adjacent (taken from the French in 1800), and Cyprus. IN ASIA. British India, including the peninsula of Hindostan, and several states east of the Bay of Bengal. The Island of Ceylon, south of Hindostan, taken from the Dutch in 1795; Malacca, on the Malayan peninsula; and the adjacent Islands of Singapore and Penang or Prince of Wales Island; Sarawak a small state on the north side of the Island of Borneo; and Labuan, a small island north of Borneo; Hong Kong, an island off Canton in China, obtained from the Chinese in 1843; and Aden, a commercial and naval station on the Gulf of Aden, in the south-western part ot Arabia, obtained from Turkey in 1838. 2^)8 THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 209 IN AFRICA. Cape Colony, obtained from the Dutch in 1806; Natal; Trans- vaal; Sierra Leone; Gambia; and the G-old-Coast settlements. Also the following islands adjacent to Africa, — Mauritius, or Isle of Prance, east of Madagascar ; the Seychelles and Amirante islands, north of Mauritius; St Helena (obtained from the Dutch in 1654) and Ascension Islands, in the Atlantic Ocean, south lati- tude, west of Lower Guinea; Lagos and several other small islands and settlements along the coast of Upper Guinea. IN AUSTRALIA, &c. Victoria, New South ^Wales, Queensland, North Australia, West Australia, Alexandra Land and South Australia, and Tasmania and New-Zealand Islands^ IN NORTH AMERICA. The Dominion of Canada, composed of the following prov- inces, — Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, British Columbia, including Vancouver Island and the North-west Territories. The Island of Newfoundland, and the Bermuda Islands east of South Carolina. IN THE WEST INDIES. Jamaica, Trinidad, Barbadoes, Grenada, Antigua, St. Lucia, Tobago, St Vincent, St Christopher, Dominica, Montserrat, Nevis, Barbuda, Anguilla, Turk's Island, the Virgin Islands, the Bahamas, and some other small islands. IN SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA. British Guiana, Balize or British Honduras, in Yucatan, and the Falkland Islands. The Norfolk, Chatham, and Fiji Islands, and some others in the Pacific Ocean, belong to Great Britain. The combined area of the British Empire is estimated at more than eight and a half million square miles, and its population at two hundred and fifty million. SYNOPSIS FOR REVIEW. PART III. CONTINUED. CHAPTERS V.-VI. Pages 162-206. The House of Brunswick. George I. His character and habits. Walpole. Parties. The Pretender. The South-sea Bubble. The Septennial Act. Literary celeb- rities. George H. Walpole. The war of the Austrian succession. Its battles. The Pretender. His movements. Battles. Culloden. The Seven-Years' War, Its incidents. Washington. The East-India Company. Lord Clive. Progress. The national debt. George II.'s character. Distinguished composer- George IIL State of the country. William Pitt. Oppres- sion of the American Colonies. The American Revolution. Warren Hastings. His career and trial. Union of England and Ireland. General European vi^ar. William Pitt, the younger. Battle of the Nile, Trafalgar. Sir John Moore. Talavera. Sala- manca. Vittoria. Waterloo; its effects. War with the United States. Character of George III.'s reign. Eminent statesmen, histo- rians, and literary persons. Junius. Art and the drama. Prominent dissenters. Military and naval heroes. Progress: condition of the people; cost of living; taxes. Criminal laws and their execution ; prisons; John Howard. The poor. Trade and commerce. Manufactures. Agricul- ture. Religion. Laws against Catholics. Literature and authors. Articles of comfort. Fine arts. Music. State of society. Education and morals. Notable events. Popu- lation. George IV. His character. Queen Caroline. Greek affairs- Relief of Catholics. 210 SVJVOPS/S FOR REVIEW. 211 "William IV. Reform ; what attempted and what secured in Parliament. Slavery. Poor-law reform. Municipal gov- ernment. Criminal laws. The East-India Company. Wil- liam IV.'s character. VI. — Victoria. Auspicious beginning. The queen's marriage. Union with Hanover dissolved. Sources of Discontent, Chartism. Corn-laws. Chartism revived. Irish separation attempted. Temperance reform. Scottish Free Church. Famine in Ire- land. The World's Fair. Death of Prince Albert. Cana- dian rebellion. Afghan war. Conquests in India. The Sepoy rebellion ; Delhi ; Cawnpore and Lucknow ; memo- rabk sieges. Havelock. Nana-Sahib. The East-India Company. War with China. Free ports. Canton. Pekin. The balance of power. Rebellion in Egypt. Mehemet-Ali. Settlement of the troubles. Crimean war. Its causes; inci- dents; battles. Florence Nightingale. Australia. Public Measures of Victoria's Reign. Penny postage. Relief of Jewish disabilities. Suffrage. Irish Land Bill. Disestablishment of the Irish Church. Education Bill. Alabama claims. Empress of India. Fish award. Cy- prus. Afghan war. Zululand. The- Transvaal. Irish Land Bill. Egyptian affairs, and English intervention. Business depression. Population. Eminent statesmen and literary celebrities. General progress of the nation. Importance of English history. Its lessons to Americans. Prominence of Great Britain. The British Government. The British Possessions. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF ENGLISH AND LEADING CONTEMPORANEOUS SOVEREIGNS AND IMPORTANT EVENTS. House of Brunswick. 1714 to the present time. A.D. 1700. 14. George I.— Louis XV., France, 15-74. Charles VI., Germany, father of Maria There- sa. Popes Clement XI. and Ben- edict XIIL First post-office in America at New York, 10. New Or- leans founded, 17. Great earthquake at Palermo, 26. 27. George II.— Louis XV., France. Pope Bene- dict XIV. Frederick the Great, Prussia. Baltimore founded, 29. Bal- loons invented. Vermont and Georgia settled. Washington born, 32. New Style introduced in England, 52. Earth- quake at Lisbon, 55. Braddock's de- feat; capture of Louisburg and Que- bec. Hogarth, Joshua Reynolds, Ben- jamin West, Wesley, Hume, Newton. 60. George III. — Louis XV. and XVI, Napoleon, of France. Popes Clement XIV., Pius VI. and VII. Frederick the Great. Frederick William III, Prussia, 86. Alexander I., Russia. Wellington. Brown University found- ed, 64. American Revolution. Sand- wich Islands discovered, 78. First census in the United States, 90. French Revolution. First locomotive, ENGUSH SOVEREIGNS. 213 A.D. 1800. 4. Fulton's steamboat, 7. War be- tween England and the United States. General war in Europe. Waterloo. Napoleon at St. Helena. Johnson, Goldsmith, Burns. 20. George IV.— Louis XVIII. and Charles X., France. Pope Leo XIL Missouri Compro- mise in the United States. War be- tween Greece and Turkey. 30. William IV. — Louis Philippe, France. Pope Greg- ory XVI. Revolution in France. Goethe and Lafayette died. Slavery abolished in the British Colonies, 34. 37. Victoria.— Louis Philippe, Louis Napoleon, France. Popes Gregory XVL, Pius IX., 46; and Leo XIII., 78. Guizot. Nicholas, 25; Alexander 11., Russia, 55. William, Germany, 71. Electric telegraph invented, 44. Thomas Arnold. War between Mexi- co and the United States, 46-48. French Republic, 48 ; the Empire, 52. Revolutions in Austria, Prussia, and Hungary, 48, &c. First Atlantic cable laid, 58 ; second cable successful, 66. War between France, Sardinia, and Austria, 59; between Prussia, Italy, and Austria, 66. Cavour. Emanci- pation of serfs in Russia, 61. Civil war in the United Slates, 61-65. Proclamation of Emancipation, 63. War between Germany and France, 70. France a Republic, 71. Bismarck. Telephone invented, 76. War between Russia and Turkey, 77. Humboldt, Agassiz, Thiers. GENEALOGY OF THE ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS. sons of Ethelwolf. SAXON LINE. Egbert, son of Alchmund, Prince of Wessex. Ethelwolf, son of Egbert. Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelred I, Alfred, Edward the Elder, son of Alfred. Athelstan, \ Edmund I., > sons of Edward the Elder. Edred, ) ___ \ sons of Edmund I. Edgar, ) Edward, I r t^j Ethelred 11, r°"^ ^^ ^^g"^- Edmund II., Ironside, son of Ethelred II. Canute (Danish), son of Sweyn, who was declared King of England, but was never crowned. Harold I. (Danish), son of Canute. Canute II., or Hardioanute (Danish), son of Canute. Edward the Confessor (Saxon), son of Ethelred II. by his second wife, Emma of Normandy. Harold II. (Saxon), son of Godwine, Earl of Wessex, a Saxon nobleman, but not of royal blood. NORMAN FAMIL V. William I., the Conqueror, son of Robert, Duke of Normandy; born 1027 ; died 1087 ; married Matilda of Flanders, a descendant of Al- fred the Great, 1054 (William's great-aunt, Emma of Normandy, was the mother of Edward the Confessor); had four sons and five daughters. 214 . GENEALOGY OF THE ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS. 215 William II., Rufus, third son of William I.; born 1060; killed iioo; not married. Henry I., youngest son of William I.; born 1068; died 1135; married Maud of Scotland iioo, and Adelais of Louvain 1121 ; had one son and one daughter. Stephen I., grandson of William I. by his daughter Adela ; born about 1 105; died 1154; married Matilda of Boulogne 1134; had three sons and two daughters. PLANTAGENET FAMILY, Henry H, son of Geoffrey Plantagenet, Duke of Anjou, and grandson of Henry I. by his daughter Matilda; born 1133; died 1189; married Eleanor of Guienne 1150 ; had five sons and three daughters. Richard I., son of Henry II.; born 11 57; died 11 99; married Berenga- ria of Navarre 1191 ; no legitimate children. John, son of Henry II.; born 1165; died 1216; married Isabel of Gloucester 1189, and Isabel of Angouleme 1199; had two sons and three daughters. Henry III., eldest son of John; born 1207; died 1272; married Eleanor of Provence 1236; had two sons and two daughters, besides five chil- dren who died in infancy. Edward I., eldest son of Henry III.; born 1239; died 1307; married Eleanor of Castile 1254, and Margaret of France 1299; had six sons and ten daughters. Edward II., son of Edward I.; born 1284; murdered 1327; married Isabella of France 1308; had two sons and two daughters. Edward III., son of Edward II.; born 1312; died 1377; married Phil- ippa of Hainault.1328 ; had seven sons and five daughters. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, and grandson of Edward HI. ; born 1366; died about 1400; married Anne of Bohemia 1382, and Isabella of France 1396; no children. BRANCH OF LANCASTER, Henry IV., son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, fourth son of Edward III. ; born 1366; died 1413; married Mary de Bohun 1397, and Joan of Navarre 1403; had four sons and two daughters. Henry V., son of Henry IV. ; born 1388; died 1422; married Catherine., daughter of Charles VI. of France, 1420 ; had one son. Henry VI., son of Henry V. ; born 1421 ; died 1471; married Margaret of Anjou 1445; had one son. 2i6 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. BRANCH OF YORK. Edward IV., son of Richard, Duke of York; born 1442 ; died 1483 ; mar ried Elizabeth Woodville Grey 1463, had three sons and seven daugh- ters. Edward IV. was the grandson of Richard, Earl of Cambridge, who married Anne Mortimer, the great-grand-daughter of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the third son of Edward III. Richard, Earl of Cam- bridge, was son of Edmund, Duke of York, fifth son of Edward III. Edward V., son of Edward IV.; born 1470; murdered about 1483; not married. Richard III., son of Richard, Duke of York, and brother of Edward IV. ; born 1450; killed 1485; married Anne of Warwick 1472; had one son. TUDOR FAMILY. Henry VII., son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, and a descend- ant of Edward III. by his fourth son, John of Gaunt; born 1456; died 1509; married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV., i486; had three softs and four daughters. Henry VIIL, son of Henry VII. ; born 1491 ; died 1547 ; married Cath- erine of Aragon 1509, Anne Boleyn 1532, Jane Seymour 1536, Anne of Cleves 1540, Catherine Howard 1540, and Catherine Parr 1543; had one son and two daughters. Edward VI., son of Henry VIIL; born 1537 ; died 1558; not married. Mary, daughter of Henry VIIL by Catherine of Aragon, and grand- daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain; born 1516; died 1558; married Prince Philip (afterwards Philip II.) of Spain; no children. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIIL by Anne Boleyn; born 1533; died 1603 ; not married. HOUSE OF STUART. James I., son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry Stuart (Lord Darnley), her cousin. James I. was great-grandson of Henry VIL on the side of both father and mother; born 1566; died 1625; married Anne of Denmark 1590; two sons and one daughter, besides several children who died in infancy. Charles I., son of James L; born 1600; beheaded 1649; married Hen- rietta Maria of France 1625; three sons and two daughters. Oliver Cromwell, Protector; born 1599; died 1658; married Elizabeth Bouchier ; had five sons and four daughters. GENEALOGY OF THE ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS. 217 Charles II., son of Charles I.; born 1630; died 1685; married Catherine of Braganza; no legitimate children. James II., son of Charles I.; born 1633; died 1701 ; married Anne Hyde 1660, Mary of Modena 1673; ^"^ ^o" ^"^ two daughters. V/illiam III. and Mary II. William, Prince of Orange, and grandson of Charles I.; born 1650; died 1702; married Mary 1677. Mary, daughter of James II.; born 1662; died 1694; married as above. They had no children. Anne, daughter of James II.; born 1665; died 1714; married George, Prince of Denmark, 1683; nineteen sons and daughters. All died young. HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. George I., son of the Elector of Hanover, and great-grandson of James I.; born 1660; died 1727; married Sophia Dorothea of Zell; had one son and one daughter. George IL, son of George I.; born 1683, died 1760, married Caroline of Anspach 1705; three sons and five daughters. George III., son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and grandson of George II.; born 1738; died 1820; married Charlotte of Mechlenburg-Stre- litz 1761 ; had nine sons and six daughters. George IV., son of George III.; born 1762; died 1830; married Caro- line of Brunswick 1795; one daughter. William IV., son of George III.; born 1765; died 1837; married Ade- laide of Saxe-Meiningen ; two daughters, who died young. Victoria, daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent, and grand-daughter of George HI.; her mother was Maria Louisa Victoria of Saxe-Coburg; born 1819; married her cousin Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 1840,' four sons and five daughters. The Prince-Consort died in 1861. The descent of Victoria from William the Conqueror will be readilj understood from the following : — Victoria is the daughter of Edward (the Duke of Kent), the son of George HI., the son of Frederick (Prince of Wales), the son of George II., the son of George I., the son of Sophia (Electress of Hanover), the daughter of Elizabeth (Queen of Bohemia), the daughter of James I., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, the daughter of 2l8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. James V. (of Scotland), the son of James IV. (of Scotland) and Margaret Tudor, the daughter of Henry VII. (and Elizabeth of York), the son of Margaret Beaufort, the daughter of John Beaufort (the Duke of Somerset), the son of John Beaufort (the Earl of Somerset), the son of John of Gaunt (the Duke of Lancaster), the fourth son of Edward III., the son of Edward II., the son of Edward I., the son of Henry III., the son of John, the son of Henry II., the son of Matilda, the daughter of Henry I., the fourth son of William the Conqueror. The descent can also be traced from Henry VII. through the House of York. ? Through the York Branch. Elizabeth of York (queen of Henry VII.) was the daughter of Edward IV., son of Richard (Duke of York), son of Anne Mortimer, daughter of Roger Mortimer, son of Edmund Mortimer and Philippa, daughter of Lionel (Duke of Clarence), third son of Edward IIL THE PRESENT ROYAL FAMILY OF GREAT BRITAIN. Her Majesty Alexandrina Victoria, Queen of the United King- dom of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India, Duchess of Lancaster, Defender of the Faith, &c, ; born May 24, 1819; crowned June 28, 1838 ; and married, Feb. 10, 1840, Albert, Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (who died December, 1861). Her children: — 1. Victoria Adelaide Maria Louisa, Princess Royal ; bom Nov. 21, 1840; married, Jan. 15, 1858, Frederick William, Crown Prince of Prussia. Seven children. 2. Albert Edward, his Royal Highness the Prince of Wales; born Nov. 9, 1841 ; married, March 10, 1863, Princess Alexandra, daughter of the King of Denmark. Five children. 3. Alice Maud Mary; born April 25, 1843; married Frederick William, Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, July i, 1862; died Dec. 14, 1878. Six children. 4. Alfred Ernest Albert, Duke of Edinburgh; born Aug. 6, 1844; married, Jan. 23, 1874, the Grand Duchess Alexandrovna, daughter of the Czar of Russia. Two children. 5. Helena Augusta Victoria; born May 25, 1846; married, July 5, 1866, Frederick, Prince of Sleswick-Holstein, &c. Four chil- dren. 6. Louisa Caroline Alberta; born March 18, 1848; married, March 21, 1871, John Douglass Campbell, Marquis of Lome, and now (1879) Governor-General of the Dominion of Canada. 7. Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught, &c. ; born May i, 1850; married, March 13, 1879, Princess Louisa Margaret of Prussia. One child. 8. Leopold George Duncan Albert, Duke of Albany; born April 7, 1853 ; married, April 27, 1882, Princess Helena of Waldeck Pyrmont. 9. Beatrice Maria Victoria Feodore; born April 14, 1857. 219 220 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. TABLE OF THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. — No. i. From the Accession of Egbert, 827, to the Death of Richard III,, 1485. A.D. Kings. Ys. 800 Saxon Line. 27 Egbert . . . II First sole monarch of England; end of the 38 Ethdwolf . 20 Saxon Heptarchy. gth 57 Ethelbald . 3 { The Darces begin their hostile attacks, and bo Ethelbert . 6 continue for more than two centuries to 66 Ethelred I. . 5 scourge the country. An illustrious king; has a prosperous reign. 72 Alfred 28 900 00 Edward the Elder . 25 The Danes defeated. 25 Athelstan . 16 Defeats the Danes, Welsh, Scots, &c. 41 Edmund I. . 7 Murdered by the robber Leolf. xoth 48 Edred. 7 Ascendency of Dtinstan. 55 Edwy .... 4 59 Edgar 16 Dnnstan archbishop. 75 Edward the Martyr-. 3 Assassinated by order of Elfrida. 78 Ethelred II. 37 Massacre of the Danes at the festival St. Brice. 1000 15 Sweyn, Dane . h Conquers England, and is proclaimed king. 16 Edmund \\., Ironside, I Defeated by the Danes, and murdered. Danish Kings. 17 Canute, the Great . 1^9 Completes the conquest of England. 36 Harold I., Harefoot . 4 39 Canute II. . 3 The power of the Danes terminates. •LXth Saxon Line restored. 41 Edward, Confessor . 24 First king that touched for the king's-evil. 65 Harold II. . . . Defeated and slain at Hastings. Norman Family. 66 William, Conqueror . 21 Conquers England; introduces the feudal system and Nor)nan lajiguage. 1 100 87 William II. 13 Is shot while hunting ; A rchbishop A nselvt. 00 Henry I. . 35 Usurps the throne of his brother Robert. 35 Stephen {0/ Blot's) . 19 Usurps, and has contests with Ufatilda. Family of Plantagenet. \ith 54 Henry II. . 35 Conqyicrsfreland; assassination of Becket. 89 Richard I. . 10 Engages in a Crusade, and Aeiezx%Saladin. 1200 99 John, Lackland 17 Foreign dominions lost; Magna Charta. 16 Henry III. . . . 56 Montfort; firsl House of Commons. 13M 72 Edward I. . '' Subdues Wales; William Wallace; Rob- ert Bruce. 1300 7 Edward 11. 20 Defeated by the Scots at Bannockburn. 27 Edward III. . . 50' A splendid reign; chivalry in its zenith; victories of Cressy, Poitiers; the Black \*,th Prince. 77 Richard II. 22 Deposed and murdered; Wickliffe; Chau- cer, Branch of Lancaster. 1400 99 Henry IV. . 14 Gains the throne instead of the rightful heir. 13 Henry V. . 9 Victory of Agincourt. Oldcastle burnt. 22 Henry VI. . 39 Civil wars of the White and Red Roses. ■i.'bth Branch of York. 61 Edward IV. 22 Battlesof Towton,Barnet,anA Tewksbury. 83 Edward V. . Murdered after a reign of seventy -four days. 83 Richard III. . 2 Defeated and slain at Bosworth. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 221 TABLE OF THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. — Xo. 2. From Henry VII., 1485, to the Death of George II., 1760. A.D. Kings. Vs. House of Tudor. 85 Henry VII. 24 Marries £"//.2rt^^if/(!, daughter of Edward IV., uniting the houses of York and Lancas- ter; commerce encouraged; the /eiidal system declines. 1500 T Henry VIII. . 38 A cruel tyrant; victory of Flodden by Surrey; introduces the Rc/orviatioii; two queens divorced, two beheaded; IVolsey disgraced; Bishop Fisher, Sir Thomas More, Crotnivell, and Siir- rey beheaded. 47 Edward VI. 6 Promotes the Reforviation, aided by Craniner. 53 Mary. 5 Restores Catholic religion; marries P/i//- 16M ip IL of Spain; Jane Grey beheaded; many Protestants burnt. 58 Elizabeth . 44 Plas an auspicious reign, assisted by Bacon, Burleigh, U'alsingham, &c.; agricul- ture, commerce, and literature flourish; the Chnrch of Englar.d established; Mat-y, Queen of Scots, beheaded; the Spanish Armada destroyed. 1600 House of Stuart. 3 James I. . . , " Unites the crowns of England and Scot- land; the Gunpowder Plot defeated; the Bible translated; the Puritans settle at Plytnouth, Mass. 25 Charles I. . 24 Despotic; attempts to raise money without consent of Parliament; c/z'/7w«r rages; Strafford z.x\d Z-rt 7/ ^z" beheaded; Charles defeated and beheaded (1649) ' the Com- ivealth begins. 17M 53 Croinivell . 5 Dissolves the Long Parliament, and becomes Protector; Navigation Act; Dutch war. 60 Charles II. 25 Profligate; his reign injurious to liberty and morality; plague and ffre in London; Clarendon banished; Kussell and Algernon Sidney executed. 85 James II. . 4 Attempts to establish the Catholic religion, and is obliged to abdicate : hence the Revolution. 89 William III. & Mary . 13 Constitution confirmed; battles of ^^j«^ 3ind La Hogue; Peace of Rystvick; na- tional debt begins. 1700 2 Anne .... 12 Marlborough and Eugene's victories of Blenheim, Rajnillies, Malplaquet, &c. ; literature flourishes. House of Brunswick. 14 George I. . 13 Rebellion in favor of the Pretender sup- 18M pressed; South-Sea scheme; VValpole minister. 27 George IT. . 33 The Pretender overthrown at Culloden; war with France carried on in Europe, Asia, and America ; battle of Dettingen ; conquest of Canada. 222 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. TABLE OF THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. — No. 3. From George III., 1760, to Victoria. A.D. 1800 60 Kings. Vs. George III. 60 House of Brunswick, concluded. Along and eventful reign; hostilities with and loss of the American Colonies; long war with France, terminated by the battle of Waterloo ; possessions in India greatly extended; commerce and the arts flourish, but the national debt greatly increased; Regency 1811. 20 30 37 George IV. . . William IV. . Victoria 10 7 Proceedings against Queen Caroline; hsX- i\&oi Naziarino; Corporation zx^A Test /i ^99 Agincourt (Azhankoor) 83 Agricola 8 Agriculture 2,38,78,116,179 Alabama claims 198 Albert, Prince 187, 190 Albion 2 Alchemy 75 Alexandria 202 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of 164 Alfred 22 Allahabad 192 Alma 196 America 99> 124 American Revolution 166 Amusements 37> 78, 121, 181 Angles 12 Anglesey 7 Anne i55 Anne Boleyn (Bnl-en) 104 Anne of Cleves 105 Anselm 54 Anti-Corn- Law League 188 Antoninus 8 Arabi Bey 201 Architecture 73> "8 Aries II Armada, Spanish m Arms and armor 2 Arnold, Thomas 204 Art and artists . . . . 121,139,155,174 Arthur 13. 16 Ascalon 61 Ascham, Roger 108 PAGE Astrology and astronomy 3, 75 Athelstan 24 Athelwold 26 Augustan age of England 156 Augustine 14 Australia 196 Backgammon 37 Bacon, Francis 125 Bacon, Sir Nicholas 112 Bacon, Roger , 75 Balance of Power 194 Balaklava 196 Baliol 64 Bank of England 154 Bannockburn 65 Barnet , . . . . 88 Bards 3 Barebone's Parliament 146 Barons 72 Basutos 201 Bath 42 Bayeux tapestry 38 Beaumont and Fletcher ., ... 127 Becket, Thomas a 58 Bede 40 Birmah 191 Benares •. . . 167, 192 Berlin, Treaty of 199 Bernicia 16 Bertha 14 Beyroot i94 Bible II, 24, 124 Black Death 68 Black Prince 67 Blake, Admiral i45 Blackstone i73 Blenheim 156 Blucher (Blook'-er) 171 Boadicea 8 Boers 201 Bolingbroke 156 225 226 INDEX. PAGE Bonaparte, Napoleon 169 Bosworth 90 Bothwell, Earl of 1 1 1 Boyne, Battle of the 154 Braddock, Gen 164 Bradshaw , 141 Bretwalda 14 Bright, John 188, 204 Brighton 42 Britain i Britannia 2 British Empire i British Government 206 British possessions 208 Britons 4> 12 Bronze i Brougham 204 Bruce, Robert 64 Brunswick, House of 162 Bruyes ('5rz<-«^, Admiral 169 Buckingham 125 Bunyan, John 151 Burke, Edmund 168, 173 Burleigh, Lord 112 Burns, Robert 173 Byron, Lord 173, 184 Cabal, the 150 Cabots, The 99 Cabul 190, 199 Cade, Jack 86 Caedmon (Ked-tnon) 20 Caedwalla 17 Caen 54 Caesar, Julius 6 Calais 67,109 Calendar, The 182 Caledonians 5, 8 Cambridge i7> 42 Campbell, Sir Colin 192 Canadian rebellions 192 Canals 182 Candahar 200 Candles 36 Cannon 67, 75, 83 Canute 1 28 Canute II. 28 Caradoc, or Caractacus 7 Caribert 14 Carlyle, Thomas 204 Caroline, Queen 183 Carthage 4 PAGE Carthaginians ... i Castles 46, 71, 143 Caswollon, or Cassivelaunus .... 7 Catesby, Robert 112 Cathedrals 73 Catherine of Arragon 100 Catherine of France 84 Catherine Howard 105 Catherine Parr 105 Catholic Emancipation Act .... 184 Catholic-Relief Bill 180 Catholics, Laws against 180 Cavaliers 132 Cavagnari, Major 200 Cawnpore 192 Caxton 89 Ceaulin (Ke-au-lin) 15 Cecil (Ses-z'l), Robert 125 Cecil, William 112 Celts 2 Cerdic 16 Cetywayo 200 Chalk II Chariots 5 Charlemagne (Sharl-inahn) ... 17 Charles I. . 128 Charles II 142, 144, 148 Chartists 188 Chatham, Lord 166 Chaucer 70 Chester . 42, 48 Chesterfield, Lord 173 Chevy Chace 70 China, War with 193 Christianity 11, 14, 40 Chivalry 68, 76 Churls 18 Cimri 2 Cissa 15 Clarendon, Constitutions of ... . 58 Clarendon, Lord 150 Claudius 7 Clergy 72 Clive, Lord 165 Coal 78 Cobden 188, 204 Cobham, Lord 82 Coke 127 Coleridge 173 Colleges .91, 114 Columbus . . . ' 99 Commerce . . 1,39,78,99,116,155,178 INDEX. 227 PAGE Commons, House of 63, 74, 207 Commonwealth, The . . . . . . . 141 Compiegne (Ko}7i-pe-ain) ..... 85. Conquest, The 34 Constitution, British 153 Copper i> 4. II Cornwallis, Lord 167 Corporation and Test Act 184 Corunna . 170 Covenant, Scotch 134 Cowper 173 Cranmer, Archbishop . . .101, 104, 108 Cressy 67 Crimea 195 Criminal laws 18, 176, 185 Cromwell, Oliver ....... 133, 142 Cromwell, Richard 148 Cromwell, Thomas 104 Crusades 61 Culloden 164 Cumberland, Duke of 164 Curran . 170 Cymbeline 7 Cyprus 199 DaNEGELD 27 Danelagh 22 Danes 21,27,47 Danish kings 28 Darnley, Lord in Darwin 204 David of Scotland 67 Defoe, Daniel 163 Deira 16 Delhi 192 Derby, Earl of 204 De Ruyter 145 Dettengen 164 DeWitt 145 Dickens, Charles 204 Disraeli (Diz-rd-el-e) .... 200, 204 Domestic life 37 Doomsday Book 50 Douglas 81 Drake, Sir Francis .... iii, 112, 114 Drama 174 Dress 4. 10, 19, 36, 79, 120 Drogheda 143 Druidism 2 Dryden 151 Dublin 78 Dudley, Guilford 107 PAGE Duke 68 Dunbar 64, 143 Dundalk 143 Dunkirk 147 Dunstan 25, 40 Duquesne (Du-kane), Fort .... 194 East anglia 13, 17 East India Company . . 115, 165, 186, 193 Eddy stone Lighthouse . . . ■ . . . 178 Edgehill 133 Edgar 25 Edgar Atheling 31, 47 Edinburgh (Ed-in-bur-ro) ... 17, 144 Edmund 25 Edmund Ironside 27 Edred 25 Education . . .20, 74, 100, 121, 181, 197 Edward the Confessor 29 Edward the Martyr 26 Edward the Elder 24 Edward 1 64 Edward II 65 Edward III 66 Edward IV 87 Edward V 89 Edward VI 106 Edwin 16 Edwy 25 Egbert . 16, 17, 21 Egypt 194, 201 Eleanor of Guienne 57 Elfrida 26 Elgiva 25 Elizabeth 109 Ella 15 Ely 49, Emma of Normandy 26 Empress of India 198 England, Name of 13 Erasmus 106 Essex i3> 16 Essex, Earl of 112 Ethelbald 21 Ethelbert 21 Ethelbert of Kent 14 Ethelburga 16 Ethelredl 21 Ethelredll 26 Ethelwolf 21 Eton College gi Eustace, Count 30, 34 228 INDEX. PAGE Evesham 63 Exeter 42, 46 Fairfax, Lord 133 Fairfax, Sir Thomas 135 Falkirk 64, 164 Falkland, Lord 134 Famine in Ireland 189 Fawkes, Guy 123 Feudal period 45 Feudal system 51, 115 Fielding 180 Field of the Cloth of Gold .... 102 Fire in London 150 Fisher, Bishop 105 Fishery award 198 Fitz Osbom, William 46 Flodden Field 102 Fontenoy 164 Food 2, 19, 36, 79, 118 Fotheringay Castle 11 1 Fox, Charles J 168, 173 France, English claim to 66 France, 66, 83, 84, 102, 109, 154, 155, 164, 169 Francis, Sir Philip 174 Free Church of Scotland 189 French Revolution 169 Freya 19 Friars 73 Frobisher 112 Furniture 10, 35> 118, 181 Gaels 5,8 Garrick, David 174 Garter, Knights of the 68 Gas 182 Gascoigne, Sir William 82 Gauls 6 Gaveston 65 George 1 162 George II 163 George III 166 George IV 183 Gibbon 168, 173 Gibraltar 156 Gildas 20 Gladstone 197, 200, 204 Glasgow Bank 203 Glendower, Owen 81 Godwin, Earl 29 Gold II Goldsmith, Oliver 173 PAGE Grampian Hills 8 Grattan 173 Gray 173 Great Britain i Grecian affairs 184 Greenwich Observatory 152 Gregory, Pope 14 Gresham, Sir Thomas 114 Grey, Earl 184 Grey, Lady Jane 107 Grouchy (Groo'-shy), Marshal . . . 171 Guienne 84 Guines (Gheen) 102 Guise (Gwees), Duke of 109 Gunpowder 75 Gunpowder Plot 123 Guthrura 22 Gypsies 117 HaBEUS Corpus 151 Hadrian 9 Hale, Sir Matthew 151 Halidon Hill 66 Halley 151 Halloween 3 Hampden, John ...... 129,134 Handel 166, 181 Hanover 187 Hanover, Elector of 162 Hardicanute 28 Hardrada 32 Harfleur 83 Harold 1 28 Harold II 30 Harvey 127 Harwich 42 Hastings, Battle of 33 Hastings, Warren 167 Havelock, Gen 192 Hawkins 112 Heidelberg 201 Hengist 12 Henrietta Maria 128 Henry 1 54 Henry II 57 Henry III 63 Henry IV 81 Henry V . 82 Henry VI 84 Henry VII. ......... 97 Henry VIII . loi Heptarchy .... ,0 ... . 13 INDEX. 229 PAGE Hereward 49 Hexam Forest . . 88 Hogarth 181 Hong Kong 193 Hood 204 Hooper 108 Horsa 12 Hotspur 70 Houses . . 2, 4, 10, 19, 35, 41, 6c, 78, 118 Howard 112 Howard, John 177 Hume 173 HyderAli (Hider Ah-lee) .... 167 ICENI 8 Ida 16 Ina 16 India 115, 165, 190 Inkerman 196 Innocent, Pope 62 Ireland i, 5, 142, 168, 189 Ireton 142 Irish Church 197 Iron, and iron furnace 11 Isabella of France 66 Isandula 201 Jackson, Gen 172 Jacobites 153, 162 James IV. of Scotland 102 James VI. of Scotland . . . . . . iii James 1 122 James II 152 Jane Seymour 105 Jeffries, Chief Justice 152 Jelalabad 190, 199 Jewish disabilities 197 Jews 64 Joan of Arc 84 John 62 John of France 67 John of Gaunt 69 Johnson, Samuel 173 Jones, Inigo 127 Jonson, Ben 127 Junlus's letters 173 Jutes 12 Kent 13, 14 Khyber Pass 199, 200 Knights 76 Knox, John iii PAGE Lancaster, Branch OF . 71,81,86 Land Bills, Irish 197, 202 Language, English 69, 76 Latimer, Bishop 108 Laud, Archbishop 130 Lead i, n Leicester, Earl of 112 Leven, Earl of 135 Lighthouses 9> 178 Lilly, William 106 Lingard 204 Llewellyn 64 Loch Leven Castle 1 1 1 Locke, John 151 Logarithms 127 Lollards 82 London . . . .41, 78, 114, 155, 183, 203 Long Parliament 145 Louisburg 165 Lucknow 192 Luther, Martin 103 MaCAULAY 204 Macbeth 31 Magic 3 Magic lanterns 75 Magna Charta 62 Malakoff, The 196 Malplaquet 156 Manchester 42 Mandeville, Sir John 69 Mansfield, Lord_ 173 Mantes 53 Manufactures . . . . 5, 38, 116, 155, 178 Maria Theresa 164 Marlborough, Duchess of 156 Marlborough, Duke of 155 Margaret of Anjou 85, 87 Marston Moor 135 Mary 1 107 Mary II 153 Mary, Queen of Scots no Matilda of Flanders 53 Matilda of Scotland 55 Matilda Plantagenet 55 Matthew, Father 189 May Day 3. 121 Meerut 192 Mehemet Ali (Ah'-lee) 194 Mercia i3> ^7 Middleburg 201 Miller, Hugh 204 230 INDEX. PAGE Milton, John 141, 151 Mining 4, u Miracle plays -73 Mona 7 Money .... 5, 11, 20, 106, 127, 136 Monk, Gen 144 Monmouth, Duke of 152 Montfort, Simon de 63 Montrose, Earl of 135, 143 Moore, Sir John 170 Moore, Tom 204 Morals 74, 181 More, Sir Thomas 104 Mortimer 66 Mounteagle, Lord 123 Music 37> 181 Nana sahib 192 Napier, Sir Charles 190 Naseby 136 National debt 165 Navarino, Battle of ....... 184 Navigation Act, and laws . . . 144, 188 Navy 99, 153, 182 Needles 5 Nelson, Lord 169 Nero 7 Neville's Cross 67 Newbury 134 New Forest 49 New Orleans, Battle of T72 Newspapers 155 Newton, Sir Isaac 151 Nightingale, Florence 196 Nile, Battle of the 169 Non-jurors 153 Norman family 45 Normans 29 North, Lord 173 North, Kit 204 Northumbria 13, 16 Northumberland, Duke of 107 Nottingham, Countess of 113 OaTES, TITUS 151 O'Connell, Daniel 184, 188 Odo 25 Odo of Bayeux 46 Oldcastle, Sir John 82 Ordeal, Trial by 40, 60 Orleans 85 Ormond, Marquis of 142 PAGE Otterburn 70 Oude igj Oudenarde 156 Oxford University 24 PaCKENHAM (Pak'7i-am),G&xi.. 172 Palmerston 204 Paris, Peace of 166 Parr, Dr 168 Pegu 191 Pei Ho River 194 Pekin 194 Penda 17 Percy 70 Petition of Rights 129 Philip II. of Spain 107,109 Philip of Valois 66 Philippa 67 Phoenicians i Picts 5, 8, 12 Pilgrims 125 Pins 5, 106 Pitt, William 166, 173 Pitt, William, the younger . . 169, 173 Plague, The great 150 Plantagenet 56 Plantagenet family 57 Plautius (Plan-she-us) 7 Plymouth 125 Poitiers (Piua-tiers) 67 Pope, Alexander 156 Population 155, 183, 203 Port Said 202 Posts 140, 155 Postage, Penny 197 Pottery and porcelain 4, 178 Prayer, Book of Common 106 Preston Pans 164 Pretenders, The 162, 164 Prince imperial, French 201 Prince regent 173 Printing 89 Prisons 177 Protectorate, The 146 Punjab 190 Puritans no, 124 Quebec 165 RaIKES, ROBERT 179 Raleigh 112, 116, 122 Ramillies 156 INDEX. 231 174 153 181 61 69 PAGE Ravenspur 70 Redan, The 196 Reform bills 184 Reformation 102, 115 Religion 2, 19, 40, 179 Repression Bill 203 Restoration, The 148 Reviews, Literary Revolution of 1688 Reynolds, Sir Joshua . . , 168,174 Richard I Richard II Richard III 89 Richardson iSo Ridley 108 Roads 9, 155 Robert of Normandy . 49 Roberts, Gen 200 Robertson 173 Rogers, John 108 Romans in Britain 6 Roman relics 10 Rooke, Admiral . 156 Rosamond Clifford 59 Roses, Wars of the 86, 90 Rouen 53 Roundheads 132 Round Table, Knights of the. ... 13 Royal Academy 181 Royal family 219 Rubens 139 Rugby 114 Rump Parliament 142 Rupert, Prince 133 Russell, Lord John 185, 204 Russia 195 Rye-House Plot 151 Ryswick, Peace of 154 SaCHEVERELL, Dr St. Alban St. Alban's St. Brice . . . St. Helena . St. Paul's Cathedral Saladin Salamanca Sancroft Savings banks Sawtree, William Saxe, Marshal Saxons i 157 II 7 27 172 9, 16 61 170 153 183 81 164 PAGE Saxon kings 21, 29 Schools 10, 40, 114 Scinde iqq Scott, Sir Walter 173, 186 Scotland . i, 5, 8, 64, 65, 68, 70, 104, 124, 130, 134, 136, 143 Scots 5, 8, 12, 81 Seator 19 Sebastopol . . . 195 Sebert 16 Senlac 33 Sepoy Rebellion igi Septennial Act 163 Serfs qi Seven- Years' War 164 Severus „ g Seymour, Admiral 202 Shakspeare no, 127 Sheffield 42 Shere Ali 199 Sheridan 168, 173 Ship-money 129 Shrewsbury 81 Siddons, Mrs 168, 174 Sidney, Algernon 151 Sidon 4 Sigebert 17 Silistria 195 Silver II Simnel, Lambert 97 Slaves and slavery ... 9, 18, 35, 185 Smollett 180 Somerset, Duke of ...... . 106 Somerset, Earl of 125 Soult, Marshal, ...... 170 Southey 204 South-sea Bubble ........ 163 Spectator, The . 180 Spenser no Spoons .... 5 Spurs, Battle of the 102 Stafford, Lord ......... 151 Stamp Act . 166 Stanley, Dean 204 Star Chamber 100 Steamboat, and steam-engine .... 182 Steele 156, 180 Stephen 55 Sterne 173 Stigand 52 Stonehenge 3 Strafford, Earl of . 129 232 INDEX. PAGE Stuart, Arabella 122 Stuart family .... 122, 149, 157, 164 Stuart, House of 100 Suetonius 7 Suez Canal 202 Surrajah Dowlah ' . . 165 Sweyn 27, 49 Swift 156, 163 Swords 5 Syria i94 Talavera 170 Tatler, The 180 Taxes 60, 176 Tchernaya 196 Temperance reform 189 Tewksbury 88 Thackeray 204 Thanes 18 Thomson 163 Thor 19 Tien-tsin i94 Tin I, II Tonnage and poundage 128 Tories i57 Tostig 32 Tournaments 76 Tower of London 46, 87 Towton 87 Tudor family 97 Tudor, Owen 84 Tuisco 19 Trafalgar 169 Transvaal 201 Tyler, Wat 69 Tyrone, Earl of ,112 Tyrrel, Walter 54 ULUNDI 201 United States, War with 172 Utrecht, Peace of 156 Van tromp 145 Vandyke i39 Vane, Sir Henry i34 Victoria 187 Villenage 80 Vittoria 17° Vortigern 12 PAGE Wakefield 86 Wales I, 2, 21, 31, 34, 64 Wales, Prince of 64 Wallace, William 61 Walpole, Robert 162, 163 Walsingham 112 Warwick 87 Warbeck, Perkin 98 Washington, George 164 Waterloo 171 Waterloo Bridge 183 Watts, Isaac . 163 Welsh 2,81 Weddings 37, 121 Wedgwood 178 Wellington, Duke of .... 170, 184 Wesleys, The 174 Wessex i3> 17 Westminster Abbey . . . . 9, 16, 31, loi Westminster Assembly 140 Westminster Hall 137, 168 Whigs 157 Whitefield (Hwit-feeld) 174 Wickliffe, John 70 Wilberforce, William 185 William 1 45 William II 54 William III 153 William IV 184 William of Normandy 31 William of Orange 153 Williams, Roger 140 Winchester 42 Windsor 42, 46 Witan 18, 39 Woden 19 Wolfe, Gen 165 Wolsey (fFi^tpZ-z^^, Cardinal . ... 103 Women 18, 38, 117 Worcester 11, 42, 144 Wordsworth 204 World's Fair 189 Wren, Sir Christopher 151 Yakoob khan 199 York 16, 32, 40, 42, 47 York, Branch of T^, 86, 87 York, Duke of ......... 150 Yorktown 167 Zulus H 66 891 **'^^*'y* V^i^'*.o'> n^ .^*..riif.'* <^ ••"• <*' *. :.* , **-»* :1«V \/ •»• V* : IP'Ji, V- J'-^'h v.*^" '' ^m. JUN 89