S B '589 .c 54 %^ ^^ ^ ci^ ^t^-?^ .S> S> .^ Sti 6'-^ CONTENTS CHAraEE I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Hardiness of natives and exotics Effects of mildew and excessive changes . Cost of houses ..... Skill easily acquired Botanists' distinctions .... Circumstances favorable to development . Evils of dogma and prejudice . Acclimatizing .... Gratification and advantage of the Grapery . CHAPTER II. HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. Double pitch, curve, and straight line Single pitch ..... Ridge and furrow .... Cold Grapery : Most suitable houses for . Position for double pitch single pitch Inclination of roof Explanation of Frontispiece Ground Plan to Frontispiece . Calculations of profits House not to be used for other purposes Foundations, ventDators, &c. Internal fixings, &c. . Evil of cold water .... Situation .... Early Grapery : Suitable designs for and remarks on Aspect ..... 11 11 12 12 13 14 15 16 16 18 18 18 18 19 19 20 21 22 24 2fi 27 27 28 29 29 30 IV CONTENTS. PAGE DiflSculties with outside temperature ... 30 Description and plan of house . . , . .31 Plan of ventilator . . . ... 32 Advantage of inside planting . . . . .33 Plan of house heated by flue . . . . 34 Grapery for pot culture : Plan of house for . . . , , . 35 Other houses suitable . . ... 36 Retarding House : Objects of . • . .... 36 Position and aspect . ..... 37 Plan of double detatched house . . . .38 Mr. "Webster's method of ventilation ... 39 CHAPTER III. ARTIFICIAL HEAT AND APPARATUS. Reasons why it is required . . . . .40 Steam not suitable, and why . . . . .41 Hot water the best . . . . . .41 Difference of material for pipes, &c. . ' . . .42 Plan of boiler . . . , . . .43 Brick flues, general remarks on .... 44 Drying and parching effects of flues . . . .45 Size and capacity of flue and furnace .... 46 Polmaise heating, remarks on . . . . .47 Plan of flue and polmaise combined .... 48 CHAPTER IV. BORDERS, OR PREPARED BEDS. Importance of right preparation . . . . .49 Bad effects of unsuitable materials . . • . 49 Nitrogenized manure not permanent . . . .50 Good properties of bones and lime .... 52 Evil of over-deep borders . . . . .52 The strongest growth not the best .... 52 Advantages of well drained borders . . . .53 How to make the borders ..... 53 Oood drainage retains the moisture . . . .54 Advantages of making only a part at first ... 55 Too much stimulating matter not good . . , .66 CONTENTS. Width of borders How to retain natural longevity Useless expenditure PAGE 66 57 58 CHAPTER V. PLANTING AND MANAGEMENT THE FIRST YEAR. Choosing of vines for planting .... When to plant ...... How to plant ..*... Careful watering required .... Planting vines previously started into growth Management through the summer . Attention to the roots ..... Necessity of a warm temperature Attention to the tops ..... Increase of air as ripening progresses . How to prune, &c. ..... Wash to kill insects ..... Covering for winter ..... Top-dressing of compost .... CHAPTER YI. MANAGEMENT FOR THE SECOND YEAR, AND PERMANENT TREATMENT FOR THE COLD GRAPERY. Retarding of the buds How to manage the advancing growth Reducing of bunches Regulation of temperature Fertilizing the flowers . . . Application of water after blossoming Further reduction of fruit Thinning out the superfluous berries . Inside watering through the summer Outside watering through the summer Application of liquid manure A drier atmosphere and more air required later in the season House to be closed on frosty nights Fall management Weight of fruit to be allowed 59 59 60 61 61 62 62 63 64 64 64 65 65 66 . . 67 , 67 , . 68 , 68 . . . 69 . 69 . . 70 , , 71 • . 72 , 72 , . 73 in the season 73 . 74 . . 74 , , 75 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER VII. THE EARLY GRAPERY, OR FORCING HOUSE. Practical skill required, and remarks Yearly forcing not injurious . Covering for outside borders Injury from the roots being in a cold bed Time to prune, and commencing to force Evils of cold drafts of air . General treatment "Watering outside borders, and free ventilation Second early crop Journal of temperature and remarks CHAPTER VIII. POT CULTURE. Advantages, care required, &c. Comparative difference in crop How to economise space Suitable vines, compost, and potting General treatment .... Management for second fruiting . Application of liquid manure CHAPTER IX. RETARDING HOUSE Objects of the Retarding House General remarks, and treatment Caution required in pruning How long in the year grapes may be had CHAPTER X. LIST OP VARIETIES. Remarks on the confusion of kinds Exotics, descriptive list Cold Grapery, the best kinds for . Forcing House .... Retarding House . . , V\GK , . 11 79 . . 80 ■«0 . . 83 84 , . 85 86 , . 87 88 91 92 93 93 95 96 97 98 98 101 102 104 105 112 112 113 CONTENTS. VI i Pot culture ..... Remarks on Muscats Native Grapes, varieties of . CHAPTER XI. PRUNING AND TRAINING. General remarks .... Double spur method .... Single close spur method Long rod ** Renewal " . Extension " ... To produce temporary full crop Longevity of the grape vine . Weight of fruit that a vine will produce Advantages of extension Summer pruning .... Evils of shortening in too close Curtailing the plant's energy shortens life CHAPTER Xri. PROPAGATION AND THE RAISING OF NEW KINDS. Propagation by eyes ..... ■ cuttings . . , . . coiling . layers . ... • layers suspended grafting ..... — inarching — seed The raising of new kinds Improvement that may be made . National profits Hybridizing, or cross-breeding CHAPTER Xin. DISEASES. Mildew ; Different kinds, and first indication Oidium, its appearance 113 lU 115 116 117 119 120 121 122 124 125 125 126 126 128 129 131 132 133 134 13i 135 1.37 138 138 139 140 141 143 143 Vlil CONTENTS. PAGE Time of appCxarance ...... 144 Sulphur a remedy . . . . . . ' 145 Botryiis described . . . . . 145 How fungolds A'egotate ..... 146 Kinds not injurious ...... 148 Shrivel and shank : General remarks . . . . . .148 Various causes — how produced . - . .149 How to prevent ..*.... 150 Dry rot in the roots : Indications ....... 151 Other kinds of rot, and how to prevent . . .151 Rot in the fruit : The cause, and how to remedy . • . . 153 Spot: The probable cause ..... 154 Remarks on watering overhead .... 154 CHAPTER XIV. INSECTS AND HOW TO DESTROY THEM. Remarks and different kinds . . • . . 156 Red spider, scaly and mealy bugs .... 157 Green and black fly, thrips, fretters, rose bug . . 158 Beetles, moths ...... 159 CHAPTER XV. THE VINEYARD AND OUT-DOOR CULTURE. General remarks . . . . . .161 Bad effects of damp air and undrained land . . .162 Carbonate of lime, its good effects .... 163 Choice of situation . . . . . .164 Preparing the land . . . . . .165 Action of cold air . . . . . .166 Formation of terraces . . . . .167 Trellises and supports . . . . . .168 Planting and choosing plants . . .. .169 After-treatment ....... 170 Training over arbors, &c. ..... 171 PREFACE. Owing to tlie favorable reception of my monograph, the Cold Grapery, by those who are interested in grape culture, and the commendations of intelligent practical cultivators of this luscious fruit, I have determined to comply with the rec[uest of friends, by giving a more comprehensive edition, with the hope that my humble efforts may be of service to the public. What is recorded is simply an explanation of my own experience and observation, and an expression of my deliberately formed opinions. The method here given has been successful hitherto, and is founded upon the practice of the last quarter century. I have endeavored, as much as possible, to give a common-sense view of the whole routine, to embody every idea required in each department, and labored to make the detail concise, yet plain. Such as it is, I submit it to a discerning and intelligent public, and shall be amply repaid for my trouble, if it shall hereafter be the means of extending a true know- ledge, of the subject on which it treats. William Ohorlton. Axiv BrigUon, Staien Island. • OHAPTEB I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. "VVe find, from history, that the grape-'vine has been one of the most esteemed and essential fruits from the most remote periods of antiquity. Its cultivation has followed the migrations of civilized man into all climes suitable to its prosperity, and, since the erection of glass houses has been understood, has become adopted into many countries where it otherwise could not succeed. In the United States, the different varieties of the native, Viiis Labrusca, as Isabella, &c., and those of the native Vitis vulpina, as Scuppernong, &c., with ordinary treat- ment, flourish, and ripen their fruit in the open air ; while those of the exotic, Vitis vinifera, as Chasselas, Ham- burgh, &c., have, excepting in a few solitary instances, proved a complete failure, from their tendency to become mildewed. In most parts of the Union, there is sufficient light and heat to bring the different varieties of the latter species to maturity, and they are hardy enough to resist the cold, but unfortunately, when the disease (allow the expression) attacks them, the free action of growth is checked, the energy is impaired, and instead of well- hardened wood, there is nothing but an unripened, sappy substance, to withstand the severe winters. The fruit also is rendered worthless from the same cause; and although many attempts have been tried, with the most sanguine expectations, they have been as often abandoned. This evil is the result of the growth of fungoid vegeta- Cll) 12 THE GRAPE. tion, the development of which is accelerated by the ex- cessive changes from dry to moist, from heat to cold, and vice versa. Fortunately> the erection of glass houses is now so well understood, and material is so cheap, that we have a ready antidote ; for, by planting inside these structures, Ave are enabled to equalize the temperature and overcome the difficulty. There is also the advantage, if we take the whole range of the subject, of being able to cut ripe grapes nearly the whole year round ; and even as a general crop in the cold grapery, with a proper selection of sorts, a sup- ply may be obtained from the middle of July, or the be- ginning of August (according to locality), on to near the end of December. Generally it has been thought that the cultivation of this desirable fruit was prohibited to all but the most wealthy, on account of expense, and peculiarly myste- terious skill. As to the first difficulty, good and suitable houses can be erected, when heating apparatus is not attached, at from $8 to $14 per running foot, on the length of the house, with all conveniences included, and proper fertilizing materials are no great expense ; so that this obstacle can be removed even by those of humble means. In making the above assertion as to cost, it is not presumed that the lesser amount will complete a stately building, but a snug and well adapted small house, such as many would like, can be finished for that amount ; and the greater sum will furnish a profit to the builder, on a structure sufficiently elegant and commodious to gratify the most wealthy or fastidious. With regard to the skill, if the directions hereafter laid down (with a little observation added) be acted upon, a sufficiency of prac- tical knowledge will soon be acquired ; for these direc- tions are the result of the author's experience, and arc only what have been and are still being actually INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 13 accomplished by good grape-growers. Many have been prevented from commencing by seeing the many fail- ures that have occurred, the small number of successful cases, and the hitherto almost general " say," that it is absolutely necessary in all cases to have fire heat. But we are dawning upon a new era in these respects, and the alacrity and determined enthusiasm with which many have now come into, and others who are beginning to €nter the field, will go far towards dispelling these fears, and will eventually drive out prejudice. ISTo fruit-bearing plant will give greater satisfaction than the grape-vine, and nothing horticultural will continue to prosper without it. All that is wanted are a few right ideas, and the writer has done his best to discharge his duty, feeling convinced that ere long the grape-house will be considered as neces- sary an adjunct to an estate, however small, as at present is a peach-orchard. Botanists disagree with respect to the classifying of the genus vitis, some making the species very numerous, and others only dividing it into well-marked specialities, thereby simplifying and rendering the differences more distinct. There are some men so fond of dividing and subdividing nature's distinctions according to their own fickle whims and fancies, that, Avere we always to follow them, it would take a lifetime to begin to understand their abstract con- nections ; and as these individuals have in many cases become authors, and consequently are referred to as au- thority, there is some apology for the novice wandering in the maze of misunderstanding which they have to some extent established. Such men ought to take a course of practical lessons in hybridization, and see the results, be fore publishing their manuscripts, when they would dis cover that many of their so-called species are no more distinct than some of the varieties which may be artifi- 14 THE GRAPE. cially produced. However, this has little to do with us in the present subject, further than the understanding of the difference between our natives and the exotics, and here it would appear that the constitutional properties alone are sufficient to make a true natural division ; for, unless we are greatly mistaken, there has not been one variety of foreign origin, or yet a seedling, direct from the same source, which can be truly verified as withstanding the changes of our climate, with the same pertinacity as the natives. The exotic grape-vine is a native of, and flourishes the best in warm, even, and comparatively dry climates ; its organization is such as to require a long, steady, and warm season to perfect its growth. Under favorable circum- stances, it pushes forth a vigorous development, and ab- sorbs a large quantity of nutriment from the soil, if encour- aged to the full extent of its powers. The broad and ample foliage perspires and respires very freely. Hence it follows, that the atmosphere in which it is growing should be most particularly adapted to the various stages of growth. Practical experience shows this to be deci- dedly the case ; for, when not attended to, the most inju- rious consequences follow. Heat is the cause by which the sap is set in motion in the spring, and when it is once excited, the action is grad- ually increased along with the rising temperature, until eventually the whole energies of the plant are brought into active play. Light and moisture, combined with heat, are essential to its welfare ; they encourage this action, and enable the plant to develop and mature its growth to its fullest capacity. This being the case, it is easy to see that in so vigorous a grower as the grape-vine a great amount of these three elements is required. This I would most particularly impress upon all grape-growers. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 15 Heat, light, and moisture are the main requisites; yet these elements are generally too sparingly administered, although the grape-vine requires them all in abundance while growing freely. It would be well if all cultivators were to study more closely the laws by which the vegetable world is gov- erned ; were it so there would be fewer failures. We are attached too much to set notions, and follow the blind practice of prejudice oftener than we ought ; and if we add to this the great number of pretenders who swarm over the country, there is no occasion to wonder at the many failures. Let it not be thought that I wish to de- preciate the character of the skilful horticulturist, for we have many men who are an honor to the calling, — well qualified to give advice, and under whose care the grape vine is as well managed as in any part of Europe ; but while wishing to do all in our power to uphold the pro- fession, we should raise our voice against those egotistical empirics who often deceive the unwary, waste the pro- perty of those who employ them, and bring ruin to many a horticultural establishment. In no department is this more often seen than in the grapery, where the weak growth, the ill-fed papery leaves, and spare fruit tell a woful tale of mismanagement. Yet no fruit-bearing plant, yields more readily to the wishes of the cultivator, or will bear more illtreatment than the grape, and if other fruits had to be managed as artificially as this requires to be under glass, there would be in them more failures, than it is subject to under inexperienced hands. Although there is much skill required in the cultivation of this fruit in all its bearings, there are none of those superannuated nostrums, or mysterious dogmas required, that these quacks prate about, and the necessary know- ledge is readily acquired. The main secrets are, to under- IG THE GRAPE. stand tlie constitiitional habits, and adapt our treatment accordingly. Now, if Ave take into consideration, as stated above, that the exotic grape-vine is indigenous to, and flourishes best in those countries Avhich have long and steady summers, and that those same localities are com- paratively dry during the periods of rest, it seems only reasonable that we should keep up a warm and equable temperature during growth, and also have the roots in a well-drained, or naturally dry substratum, — so far for its natural recpirements. All that we have so far done, by attempting to acclimatize the grape, has not yet overcome these physical difficulties, neither will any future attempts succeed, unless we get a race of seedlings, crossed with the native varieties, and raised in our own climate. By en- couraging vigorous development, by a moist atmosphere, added to this required steady heat, and afterwards concen- trating the collected juices by a further continuance of the latter principle, with air more freely admitted until the approach of maturity, afterwards reducing the tem- perature, and moisture as ripening progresses, it will bend to the will of the most fastidious enthusiast. By the aid of glass houses, either with or without arti- ficial heat, all this can be accomplished, and as they can be erected of any size to suit the pecuniary means, or caprice of different persons, a grapery is within the reach of a poor man. How gratifying would it be to the me- chanic, and small tradesman, to have attached to his homestead a small house of grapes, — what an appendage to his little domain, and with what exulting feelings would he view his crop as "he sat under his own vine," and watched with an enthusiastic pleasure the several stages of bursting buds, flowers, and fruit, knowing that he could enjoy his own luscious grapes, equal in quality with those of the most wealthy proprietor in the land, or the great- INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 17 est nabob in aristocratic Europe. This pleasure may be en- joyed by most persons. Half the money that is often spent in " gingerbread" decorations, miscalled ornaments around a dwelling-house, would erect a little grapery, which in many places might be attached to, or cover one end of the building, having a door leading into it from the house : and let not the wife or daughters think the neces- sary attentions required during the absence of the " gude man," to be a degrading pursuit, for it is no mean occupa- tion. Woman never yet lowered herself by being seen in the garden, or by obtaining a knowledge of plants, and rural affairs, and it is surely far better to be employed in healthful exercise, such as is here furnished, than to be lolling from morn to night, inanimate, as it were, upon the downy sofa, reading exciting and voluptuous novels, and assisting the seeds of consumption to germinate. "Would that we could induce our accomplished matrons, and fair belles to take a more active part in the operations of hor- ticulture. Why should these departments be considered too masculine for woman's position in society ? CHAPTER 11. HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. There has been from time to time, much controversy respecting the various kinds of structures which are most suitable, for cultivating the grape vine. Some advocate the curved line, double pitch; others again, the straight line, double pitch. Some, from a preference for old no- tions, think none so suitable as the common lean-to, while a few who have advanced a step out of this position, will admit instead of the common plane lean-to, a roof with a curved line. Latterly a new notion has sprung up, and we find the ridge-and-furrow-formed roof is gaining an ascendancy. In order to make this part more easily understood, it is divided into the Cold Crapery, or growing without artifi- cial heat ; Forcing House, Forcing House for Pot Culture, and Retarding House. Cold Grapery. — The Jbrm of the house for this pur- pose is not so material, as the having it so constructed, that it may be shut up tight in cases of emergency. With this precaution, good glass, and good management, any style will answer the purpose; consequently the build- ing may be erected to suit almost any fanciful design which the architect may choose, providing there is con- venience for training the vines properly, and at a suitable distance from the glass ; and if thought proper the whole surface may be of glass, for while this house is being worked, there is not much cold weather to contend with. HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. 19 nothing more than can be guarded against by closing up. If there is any preference for general utility, the curve line double pitch ought to be chosen, as from the convex surface which is exposed to the sun's rays, at whatever altitude he may be, the intense heat is somewhat scat- tered, there is less danger of the leaves being scorched, and the light is also more equally distributed ; this form is also generally considered the most agreeable to the eye. Whatever style of double pitch be adopted, the ends ought to face north and south, or as near these points as may be convenient, — although a few degrees, variation either way is not of much consequence. By placing the house in this position, both sides receive the influence of the sun equally ; besides in the middle of the day, when his rays are most intense, they are partly warded off by striking obliquely upon the sash-bars above, which on the whole length of the house, acts as a considerable shade. In some cases, it may be desirable to cover a dead wall or side of a building ; or it may be requisite that the cold grapery should be connected with a line of early forcing, or plant houses, when the lean-to roof will be most con- venient, but there is no other advantage in adopting it, for with a double pitch, having two rows of pillars inside, one on each side of the central pathway, both sides may be planted, thus accommodating a double quan- tity of vines ; besides there is no back wall seen, and it shows better taste in the proprietor. Where the avoiding of expense is an object it is also the cheapest, considering the number of plants provided for. Where the lean-to is adopted, the south-east, or south-west aspect is best, though full south is not objectionable, and grapes may be well ripened when the house faces due east or west. Further north than these two points cannot be considered suitable. In case it may be wished that the Cold Grapery 20 THE GRAPE. should correspond with some peculiar style of architecture in the dwelling-house, or other contiguous buildings (and these points ought often to be considered), the ridge-and- furrow roof ofiers the greatest facilities, as it nlay be adapted to almost any form, without destroying its effi- ciency, for the vines can be trained horizontally under the roof; the grapes also look very handsome in this position as they hang perpendicularly down from the whole sur- face above. The canes in this case may be conducted along the under surface of each furrow, and the side spurs fixed at right angles, which enables the operator to arrange the bunches with the nicest regularity. With respect to tha inclination of the roof, it is desira- ble that it be not less than 45, '^ for the following reasons : our almost vertical sun at midsummer, when there is the greatest danger of scorching, will, at mid-day, strike the glass at an oblique angle, thus lessening its intensity and to a certain extent counteracting the evil. The glass being more upright, the wind or draft admitted through the laps, will be somewhat intercepted, and confined more immediately to the inner surface of the roof, which will ensure a more equable temperature around the leaves and stems, preventing somewhat the tendency to mildew. A steep roof also gives an additional length of rafter on a given width of house, which is an advantage, as the vines with the general modes of training, have more extent to develop their energies, and produce individually greater crops. The frontispiece to this work is designed for the pur- pose of showing a comple arrangement of the grapery to suit all purposes, and at the same time to form a beautiful architectural structure. Allowing the Cold Grapery to be fifty feet long by twenty feet wide, and the others col- lectively to be one hundred feet long by twenty-five feet HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. 21 wide, the whole could be finished and every convenience included for about $2500. The main front is shown in the ground plan, Fig 2, to face full south. In such case it will be understood that the Retarding House would have a due north aspect, which is somewhat a disadvantage, as the sun would have little effect upon it. In order to remedy this, one-third in depth of the upper part of the central longitudinal division wall might be of glass, which would allow a considerable portion of light to pass through from the southern side, and thereby obviate the evil. Such a contrivance is now under the charge of the writer in a house for flowering plants, and answers admirably. There is, however, no objection, where circumstances will permit of choice in location, to the placing of the front aspect a few degrees east of south, which would in an equal ratio turn the northern side towards the west, indeed all things considered it would be as well for aU requirements. If a Retarding House be not wanted, the northern side might be converted into a neatly finished row of convenience rooms, or if this were objected to, it would make as fine a house for apricots, camellias, oranges, or such like, as could be desired. It is intended by the plan to fix the heating apparatus in a cellar beneath the northern divi- sion, and the boilers or furnaces near each other and adja- cent to the chimney, each flue being conducted into the main outlet as shown in Fig. 10. If the cellar were re- jected, the north-east portion might be employed for the same purpose ; but in the former case all nuisance is prevented, and the whole building would be composed of a surface of glass, from the wall plates to the ridges. Fig. 3 shows an interior view of a Cold Grapery, now under the writer's charge, which is 74 feet long, 20 feet wide, and 14 feet high, from the base level; there is a cistern sunk beneath near the centre, 12 feet deep by 12 22 GROUND PLAN TO FRONTISPIECE. ^J?K^'* nun HOUSES AND CONVENIKNCES. 23 feet wide, and a force pump, hose, and tank for tempered water. The house rests upon strong cedar posts, and the borders are 20 feet wide each, outside; the inside like- wise is prepared in the same manner, which gives an ex- tent of 60 feet extreme breadth. For proportions and Fig. 3. Inside View of the Cold Grapery of J. C. Green, Esq , Staten Island. style, this house is considered, by most persons who have seen it, to be satisfactory in every respect. The vines were planted in March, 1850, and there has been the fol- lowing number of bunches, of good quality, cut in the respective years mentioned below : 1851, ... 262 bunches 1852, .... 618 " 1853, ... 918 1854, , . . .1147 Making a total of 2945 24 THE GRAPE. There is nothing extraordinary in the above produce, more than others may accomplish ; it is only an average of what proper management and attention will do, and is more par- ticularly introduced, as an answer to the oft repeated question, *'will iKpay?" The average weight of these re- spective crops, if taken collectively, would be one pound per bunch, all of which might have been sold at whole- sale for fifty to seventy-five cents per lb. The following calculation of expenses, which is as correctly stated as can be, will show the balance of profits : 2945 lbs at 50 cts. . . . $1472 50 Deduct labor 1st year. . . $50 00 "2d " ... 100 00 " " 3rd "... 150 00 " " 4th " , . . . 200 00 " " 5th " . . • 225 00 Yearly dressings, $20. . . .100 00 Repairs, painting, &c., ... 200 00 1025 00 $447 50 By the above example it will be seen, that there is $447 above the lowest wholesale market prices and as the house, borders, &c., cost about $2000, it leaves a surplus profit of 4|- per cent, per annum, upon invested capital, which in the present position looks somewhat low, but it must be considered, that in this case, profit was not the object, everything was done, regardless of expense, to make a good and fine looking structure ; the best French crystal glass was used, and all labor paid by the day, besides, in the first year there is no return profit, and the last season is the only one, in which a full crop has been taken ; take into consideration too, that the labor account for after management is reckoned at $2 per day, and it will readily be seen, that a good nnd suitable house may HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. 25 be built and tended so as to give a large return of profit. A bouse of equal dimensions, and well finished can be erected at $12 per lineal foot, with the exception of cis- tern, force pump, hose, and tank ; and if we make an es- timate of all incidental expenses on a house eq[ual to the above, and 50 feet long, it will stand thus : House finished with two coats of paint, 50 feet long at $12.00 , . . $600 00 Brick cistern, cemented, 10 ft. by 10 ft. . 70 00 Tank, Force Pump, and Hose. . 25 tons manure for borders at $2. . Material for drainage. 90 bushels bones, at 50 cts. 100 do. charcoal, &c. Labor making borders, &c. 48 vines, at 50 cts, . $934 00 The comparative weight of fruit that may be taken from the latter will be about two-thirds, or 1964 lbs. at the same prices, making the total value for the five years of $982, and allowing the labor, expenses, &c., to be the same com- paratively in both cases, we may put down $298 gain upon a capital of $934, wdiich shows a profit of about six per cent, per annum, and this too at the commencement. If we were to reckon upon after years, when the vines, would bear regularly full crops ; it will readily be seen that the profits would be much greater, and that with good management, there is no loss in having a Cold Graj>cry even though partial failures may occur. When the grape-vine is to be grown to the greatest per- fection, the house ought not to be applied to any other purpose. It appears, at first thought very reasonable to suppose, that for a general or summer crop of grapes, the 2 90 00 . 50 00 20 00 . 45 00 15 00 . 20 00 24 00 26 THE GRAPE. house may serve as a winter conservatory for flowering plants, but experience shows, that however late the vines may be kept back in the Spring, the buds will burst before the weather is suitably mild to turn the plants out, and into the open air ; and at this time the vines will require a temperature peculiar to themselves, which would gene- rally be too damp and close for the plants, many of which at the time, will be in a blooming state, requiring more air and a cooler atmosphere, than will be suitable for the vines ; besides it is almost impossible to keep down insects in a house where plants are kept. There is some excuse in an early forced grapery, which is so congenial to the well being of some natives of the tropics, but as a general greenhouse requires heating and the cold grapery does not, the expense of two houses is not so great, compared with the advantage to be gained ; therefore if possible, it is much better to have two houses where both arc wanted. If pecuniary benefit be an o])ject it is also more profitable, for the grape if well dealt by, will be honest in return, and pay a large per-centage upon capital, independently of ordinary expenses of labor, &c., but when neglected the reverse is the case. In order to give free range to the roots it is advisable to erect the house upon stone pillars, or locust, or cedar posts, (each of which ought to bo directly beneath a rafter,) which will allow them free egress to the outside borders. There are several ways by which these houses may be ventilated, perhaps the most convenient is to admit air at the top, and near the bottom, or under the wall plate. The lower opening ought to be made so as to shut very tight, as the admission of cold drafts from below has a tendency to reduce the heat in the lower base of the house — the very part which, if possible, ought to be the warm- est. Nature here teaches us a lesson, and it would be well HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. 27 if we always gave ear to her instructions — the sun's rays strike the earth, and produce the greatest heat at the sur- face. She has no fixed confining canopy over the plants under her charge to prevent the heat from passing up- ward, and if we are obliged to have such, we ought not to render our necessities more unnatural than there is occa- sion for. Keep the head cool and the feet warm, is ad- vice often given by our physicians, and the same rule applies to plants generally, with very slight modifications. If the roof be made with sashes to slide over each other, which is the method best adapted for removal of the house at any future time, the upper ones will become the top ventilators ; but when it is fixed, and composed of a con- tinuous row of sash bars over supporting rafters underneath, the openings require to be lifted up from the bottom, and hung on the opposite end by hinges, or suspended by the middle on each side, and opened- on a pivot. When hung by hinges the sides may rest upon the rafters, and the lower end project a little over the next squares of glass, thereby making it proof against drip, and this is perhaps the best plan, for beside being safer against rain, air can be admitted and the temperature lowered, without cold draughts striking down into the house. If hung from the sides there are no effectual means of capping, and however good the joints may be, the rain will find its way through more or less in time of violent storms. The internal fixings required, are wires to support the vines, a tank to hold water while being tempered in the house, a hose with a pipe attached to distribute the water, and a force-pump to supply the hose. The wires are most convenient when placed parallel with the sash-bars, and about fifteen inches below the glass, which will be sufficient to clear the leaves from contact ; if less space is allowed, the foliage of vigorous vines will touch 28 THE GRAPE. the roof, and are more exposed to tlie changes of tempera- ture, their action also will be impeded by being cramped, but a greater distance than is actually required is objec- tionable, as the nearer the glass the better. For a large house, a tank that will hold about two hun- dred gallons will be requisite, and for a smaller house, one in proportion. This tank during the earlier growing season ought to be kept full of water, so that when used it may be of the same temperature as the inside of the house. Cold water applied immediately Jrom an under- ground cistern, or well, suddenly checks the action of all plants, and ought by all means to be guarded against. The force-pump may be attached to the tank, and if an air-tight metal globe be fixed over the discharge pipe, on the same principle as a fire engine, a steady stream will be propelled through the hose. By having two faucets on the lower pipes, one leading to the tank, and the other from the cistern below, there is no need for two pumps, as they may be shut, and opened, so as to answer the double purpose of drawing water from the cistern, or distributing it from the tank over the house. For a small grapery where economy is an object, a common syringe may be used instead of the hose, but in a large house the force- pump is more economical, and has the advantage of ena- bling the operator to drive the water well into the crevices of the wood-work, which greatly assists in keeping clear of insects. If there is not a good supply of soft water close at hand, it is desirable to have a cistern sunk under or immediately near the house, and the water conveyed into it from the roof by gutters and pipe, which saves much labor, beside the benefit of always having rain water, which is the best for all plants. The situation of the Cold Grapery is a matter of import- HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. 29 ance, and in making arrangements ought not to be lost sight of. It should be freely exposed to light and air on all sides, if possible, away from the shade of trees or sur- rounding buildings, and if sheltered on the north, east, and west, so much the better ; but it is best for this to be a sufficient distance, so as to secure a free action of the air around. Shelter is not indispensably necessary, but if practicable, is of use, as it assists in warding off the cold winds, which often prevail until late in spring, and after the vines have begun to grow. The Early Grapery. — When the grape is produced as an earlier crop than the cold grapery will furnish, we have to resort to artificial heat, and with our ever variable climate, particularly during the frigid blasts of the latter part of winter, it becomes requisite, that we should have a tight and well protected house to work with ; so that variety of design has in this case to succumb to circum- stances. When a warm temperature has to be kept up by means of fuel, economy ought to be a prominent fea- ture ; and further, it is indispensable that a wholesome and growing atmosphere be maintained, which cannot be the case unless there is a command of genial moisture during the earlier stages of growth ; both these require- ments are best secured by close built structures, in which there is as little cubic bulk of air to be heated as may be consistent with sufficient convenience. It will be readily understood from this that, the different forms of curvilinear and plane lean-to roofs are the best, the wall plate upon which the lower ends of the rafters rest, being only a short distance above the ground level. Where there is nothing to interfere with choice, the curve line is preferable, so far as beauty, and the equalizing of the sun's rays is con- cerned, but there may be a set-off against this form, from the greater surface of glass, which may be thought to 30 TUK GRAPE. conduct the applied heat away with a more than eq[ual ratio. Balancing all points, what is gained by one, is lost in the other, and both are equally suitable. ^ With regard to aspect, full south is the best, where con- venience will allow. South, south-east, is sometimes re- commended, but, although with care, it answers well enough, there are the following objections. It often hap- pens, that the most severe cold, or lowest grade of the thermometer outside, is immediately before, or at the time of sunrise, on the clearest mornings, and the heating ap- paratus must not be allowed to cool down ; now as the sun rises direct, or nearly perpendicular from the horizon, the rays strike (with this aspect) very quickly upon the plane of the roof, which in conjunction with the internal action, suddenly raises the temperature, at the time when the ex- treme cold, and often severe winds, will not admit of air being given, consequently there is danger from the quick transition unless the greatest caution be exercised. If the house face full south, the sun at this time will strike more obliquely on the end, which will to some extent counter- act the evil, and there is also an advantage in having greater natural warmth later on in the evening. The following cross section, and ground plan, figs. 4 and 5, and description of an Early Grapery, now in care of and erected under the supervision of the writer, and which has answered every expectation, may be of service here, and will illustrate our own practical ideas on the subject. The dotted outline shows a house, which, in this example is devoted to the growth of Camellias, and, being fixed in this position does away with the necessity of a shed, and assists in keeping the grapery from exposure. The same arrangement will apply where there is a building already erected, and which, would become the back wall of the intended house. HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. 81 In this case the house faces south, south-east (owing to convenience), with a slope on the roof of 40°, it is 78 feet long, by 13 feet wide, 2 feet high in front from the ground Fig. 4. Fisr. level, and 14 feet at the back. The foundation posts are Red Cedar, placed six feet apart, and sunk four feet in the ground, with the upper or exposed part, dressed off square, and cut at the top so as to form an even horizontal line ; upon these the wall-plate is fixed, and made firm by being let in about an inch, the lower end of the rafters, which are six feet asunder, and the sash bars are socketed 32 THE GRAPE. into the wall-plate, and it is made sufficiently v/lde to allow of five inches projection on the outside, this part is scooped out on the upper side, and becomes the gutter, by which the water is conveyed to the cistern pipe ; be- side this there are cross bars every four feet on the length of the rafters, that stay and make the sash bars firm ; venti- lation is obtained by slides in the front wood work, imme- diately beneath the wall plate, and by sashes 2 feet six in- ches long and the same width, fitted by hinges at the ridge pole, these are lifted by a three-eights iron rod, having a hook at the upper end which is slipped through a hole in a small plate affixed to the middle of the lower end of each sash ; the rod is steadied by being passed through two apertures at the end of a shaft three inches long that is welded, each into a small plate, and this screwed to the back side of the house ; one about nine feet, and the other five feet from the ground. In the front of the lower hole is a screw worm, and a thumb screw to fit, which on being turned either way liberates or fastens the bar, and the sash is kept firm at any desired height. Fig. G, shows the sash open This simple contrivance, costs very little, is effective, has the advantage of never HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. 33 getting out of repair, and is as permanent as the liouse it- self. It will be understood that this style of building glass houses, is simply a frame work covered with glass, with- out any double sash, and consequently there is no use for any additional portion of the rafter above the sash bars (as is the case where the sashes are made to slide), which is a decided improvement in appearance, and equally suit- able. The house is heated by one of Hitchins' of New York middle sized boilers, and there is a lineal measure of 340 feet of four inch pipe employed, giving a double row of flow and return, beside the necessary appendages. One row is fixed close along the front, and the other at a dis- tance of seven feet nearer to the back, which leaves room for a pathway, without any dip in the pipe, and there is the additional advantage of having all the heat arising from the front, and lower part of the house, thereby se- curing as much as possible, an equal temperature over all parts. There are two rows of vines planted, one to the back wall, and the other about a foot nearer to the middle of the house than the front row of pipes, which makes a distance of eighteen inches from the extreme front ; the lower part of each of the roof vines is curved towards the bottom of the rafters, and consequently project partly over, but are some distance above the pipes, and to prevent injury from the heat when the apparatus is at work, there is affixed behind each, a short board, about ten inches wide, which protects the stem most effectually. The ob- ject of this arrangement was to insure warmth in front, and more particulary the lower part, and at the same time with the vines planted inside. It is a plan which we have not seen elsewhere adopted, and was conceived from a know- ledge of its being somewhat in accordance with natural re- quirements ; so far it has fulfilled all that was predicted, and what answers in our own practice, may be justifiably 2* 84 THE GRAPE. recorded, even though it should conflict with the notions of others. As to pLanting an exotic grape vine outside of the house, so long as the roots have free egress, or expos- ing the stem to the vicissitudes of climate, such as we have in this country ; we never yet saw the argument, often though it has been attempted, and as often eloquent- ly advocated, that could bring conviction, as to its being philosophical, or reasonable. In nature, we find the heat greatest near the ground, from the fact of the atmosphere being compressed, and the reflection, which take places by the sun's rays striking the surface ; and although we know that the stems of some plants are injured by his direct ac- tion upon them in hot weather, they are seldom afiected by the same temperature if kept in the shade. This is the only explanation that will allow any amount of advocacy in the present instance, and it stands to reason that it serves little purpose. Fiff. 7. Figs. 7 and 8 will explain how a suitable structure may be adapted by a brick flue and furnace, with a shed at- tached, and it is preferable that it should extend the whole length on account of the shelter. As the flue will occupy more room than hot water-pipes, it is advisable to HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. 35 plant the vines close to the inside front; and in making calculations, the entrance to the house should be elevated fo that the pathway may pass over the top of the flue, Fiar. 8. ft^ithout which it will always be troublesome when walk- ing through the house. This only requires a little inge- nuity in each individual case, according as the details of arrangement may suit the particular circumstance. Grapery for Pot Culture. — If a house were to be erected purposely for pot-culture, the most suitable and economical would be as shown in fig. 9 ; the inside floor- Fiff. 9. ing sunk a foot being below the ground level, and the under base well drained around the outside founda- tion, to prevent cold moisture from penetrating laterally, 36 THE GRAPE. and if the heating apparatus be fixed around the inside, near to the walls, there will be an equal distribu- tion over all parts. Such a house, if only ten feet wide, would accommodate three rows of vines, and leave room, for a pathway ; one row being placed near to the back with the path next, and the other two nearer the front. With this arrangement, there would be no occasion to elevate the roof more than to give sufficient headway, as the path would be directly under the ridge, — say six feet above ground, and seven feet from the inside level, by which the exposure to cold, and severe winds is consider- ably avoided, and a steady heat maintained with much saving of fuel. There may be some objection to the short back lights, which should be of glass, but as these may be readily covered by shutters at night, and in severe dull weather the evil is less than the common form of lean- to, which has to be elevated according to the width of the house, and inclination of the roof. It is only for pot cul- ture that this will become serviceable in grape growing, but for the purpose named, it is most suitable, can be erected cheap, and is a compact and easily -managed struc- ture. Where the house is already built, or it may be in- convenient to adopt the above plan, on account of other- wise general arrangement, an ordinary lean-to, and more particularly the curve line will answer the purpose to almost equal advantage, and the design is only given as the best adapted, where the intention is to be as perfect as possible. The Eetarding House. — As the object of the retard- ing house is to have grapes beyond the time when the Cold Grapery, or least forwarded house will furnish them, it ought to be so situated as to assist in checking the early growth of the vines, it is also desirable that it should be capable of being rendered thoroughly dry inside, and like- HOUSES AND CONVENIEXCKS. 87 wise erected on a plan, by wliich it may be readily and economically heated, or rather that the applied heat may not be wasted, consequently, a lean-to form ofiers the greatest facilities as regards the latter, and a west front the former requirement. There are several reasons why this position is preferable. The coldest winds, more particularly in the early part of the season, being from the west, and north-west, there is a better chance of keeping back vege- tation in the spring, and of preventing the invigorating power of the sun at that time, thereby helping the vines to rest for a time, and retarding the buds. It is also ad- visable on account of the young and sappy growth being liable to mildew during the damp and close weather of July and August, at which times this pest is more than usually prolific, and generally when the wind is south, or south-east ; so that if the house be turned, as it were, away from these points, the influence is somewhat des- troyed. It may be thought, from these considerations, that north-west would be better still, — so it would, but for the deficiency of sun light that in such case would be the result, for under any and all circumstances, the grape- vine delights in a free exposure to the action of powerful light, and without a due proportion, the after growth will not become sufficiently concentrated to store up the re- quired elaborate juices, or produce healthy and active roots. Improvement, and greater perfection in all buildings, is now advancing with rapid strides, and these lean-to glass houses are beginning to be looked upon as obooleto, and whenever, or wherever such shed-looking structures, with bare back-walls can be, they ought to be avoided- Under some circumstances they are better adapted to the situation of the garden, but it is only where they compose a boundary line of a parallelogram, and when the back part is not seen ; in such positions they are admissible* 38 THE GRAPE. and, also, where strong heat has to be kept up all the winter, but there are many instances where such might be avoided in outside appearance, and yet the inside re- main the same in character, and so with the retarding house. Any person who wishes to erect a house for this pur- pose, is sure to have one or more graperies, and most likely one for the general summer crop, which is only partially forwarded; in which case, a double span, with the ends north and south, and divided longitudinally through the centre, would answer both purposes ; the west side being used for the late, and the east for the Fisr. 10. earlier crop. We do not advise the east front as the best in a general way, but when it gives the advantages here mentioned, there is no reason why it may not be adopted, and we speak from experience in saying that good grapes may be grown as a second early, or general crop, with an eastern slope of the roof. The annexed end section, fig. 10 will explain better than words, how such double detached HOUSES AND CONVENIENCES. 39 houses may be constructed, so as not to show even the convenience for the heating apparatus, further than a door to shut down over the under-ground vault, and even this, if thought objectionable, may be made to form a part of one of the pathways inside. The example given is an arrangement of, and now under the charge of, the writer, and answers admirably. Hot water is here used for heat- ing, but the same is equally applicable to the furnace and common flue, with the difference of placing the chimney at the opposite end. Since the above was written we have been apprized of a method of ventilating double pitch curvilinear houses, which has been invented by Mr. William Webster of Rochester, and for which he is about taking out a patent. His plan consists in having a movable chamber along the whole length upper part of the house, and which he can lift or lower at pleasure. If the machinery can be made to work well and kept in permanent order, he has con- ferred a great benefit upon the public, and deserves the thanks and support which all such useful improvements ought to receive. CHAPTER III. ARTIFICIAL HEAT AND APPARATUS. In tlie first stages of civilization, man was contented to eat tlie fruits of tlie earth as nature produced tliem in each division of climate, or separate locality, but as luxury crept in, he began to wish for those of more favored climes than the one in which he, in many cases, happened to be placed. His earlier peregrinations into more southern countries enabled him to see the splendor of tropical flowers, and taste the luscious fruits which there abound, and to enable him to enjoy these desirable additions at his own home, it became necessary to imitate as near as could be done, the climate from whence they came ; and here is the first inducement to use artificial heat, which though of imperfect character so far, to a certain extent, answered the purpose. This partial success set ingenuity to work, houses constructed partly of glass were erected, and so the thing has progressed from the half-glass, half- slate building, with clumsy stone or brick flue, to the Crystal Palace, and the elegantly modelled and scientific hot-water apparatus, until, even in most inhospitable regions, the fruits and flowers of the torrid zone are pro- duced in equal, and sometimes superior quality, to that which is found in the places to which they are indigenous ; besides which, skill has so far triumphed, that by a judi- cious application, or withholding of the artificial caloric, a succession of crops may be had to suit the desires of the most fastidious mind. (40) ARTIFICIAL HEAT AND APPARATUS. 41 To say the best we can of artificial lieat, it is only a necessary evil, but as we cannot do without using it, we ought to put in practice the best and most economical method that is at present known. The only advantages arising from this necessity, is the raising of the tempera- ture of, or drying the atmosphere in any given house under care, so as to suit the particular purpose intended, and so far, by adopting the latest improvements and fore- casting as to what is required, we can work along with comparative surety. There is no use of entering into a theoretical disquisition of the relative properties of caloric, nor of showing up the science of chemistry in combustion, our object is to find out how we can at the least expense, and with the more certainty, apply this subtle principle. Suffice it then to say that there are about four Avays in which we can adapt it to our use, viz. : by steam, hot water, brick flue, and what may be considered a modification of the latter, the technical term Polmaise Steam is of no practical use, unless where a large ex- tent of houses, all. in the immediate vicinity are to be heated, neither can it be used with any certainty, unless the water is kept up to the point when the steam is given off in great quantity, so as to force it through the pipes, and the heat along with it ; besides there is the great dis- advantage of a want of bulk of heated substance, which is sufficient reason why this mode should not be adopted, for on the fire going down, the house immediately becomes cold, and consequently without the most careful attention, there is danger at almost any moment in severe weather, of injury to, or the loss of a crop. Hot Water has of late years become, and most deser vedly so, the popular favorite for warming plant and fruit houses. This method possesses the advantage of raising the temperature without parching the air, or giving out 42 THE GUAPE. any noxious gases, and if constructed on tlie best plan, may be placed on the credit side of expenses, there is also a steady heat in the working, and a sufficiency of bulk in the quantity of water, which, when once put in motion, continues to flow with increased or lessened velocity, ac- cording as the fire is kept up, and for some time even after no further heat arises from the furnace. There have been different methods adopted, as reservoirs for circula- ting hot water, such as lining the inside of brick flues with cement ; tanks of wood ; tin or sheet iron troughs, with the tops left loose, to be covered or not, as circumstances may dictate ; circular copper, tin, zinc, and cast iron pipes. The cemented flue is objectionable, as the material is so non-conducting, that there is great loss, and the cement is also liable to crack, which causes leakage. The open tank, and trough is well enough for a propagating house, which is generally small, and kept very damp, but is not suitable for a grapery, in which is required, a moist or dry atmosphere, according to the different stages of growth ; this plan also occupies much space, and looks un- sightly. Tin pipes are not advisable from their tendency to corrode, and unendurable qualities. Zinc softens when hot, and is next to useless, copper if made strong enough to resist hard knocks, and be really serviceable is very expensive, so we are driven to the last substitute, cast iron, which answers every purpose, is lasting, erected comparatively cheap, strong, and the different lengths are readily cemented, the joints becoming as firm and tight as any other part. The construction of boilers for this pur- pose is also various, and there is a great difference in the consumption of fuel, according with the ratio of heat dis- tributed to the water. In the most primitive boilers, the fire only played on the under surface, and the consequence was, a great waste of heat, unless the residue was con- ARTIFICIAL HEAT AND APPARATUS. 43 conveyed around the liouse in a flue, wliich almost nullified tlie improved principle, but of late years a great improve- ment has been accomplished, so much so, as to make it al- most perfect. After having been acquainted with nearly all kinds, I have not found any to give so much satisfaction as the one constructed by A. E. Hitchins, of New York, of which fig. 11, is a longitudinal section, and fig. 12 an Fig. 11. Fig. 12. external view. This boiler is a double casing, between which, and the internal connections, the water is con- tained. It occupies very little room, and requires no masonwork, excepting a fcAV courses of bricks below, to raise it up sufficiently to give an ash-pit underneath, and a chimney or pipe to convey away the smoke. This apparatus when completed, with pipe four inches in dia- meter, boiler included, will cost from one dollar to one dollar twenty-five cents per lineal foot on the measure of the pipe, and a house forty feet long for early forcing would need about two hundred feet, so that reckoning the 44 THE GRAPE. greater price mentioned, the expense would be two hun- dred and fifty dollars, but for a longer house, or when a larger order were given, the comparative cost would be less. Brick Flues. — Heating by brick flues is often practised, and if they be constructed on the best method, with good workmanship, they answer very well ; the expense on first erection is less it is true, but they often want repair, besides which they are unsightly and cumbersome, and as a general thing, will consume more fuel than a hot-water boiler on the above plan. If the situation, or circum- stances, make it more convenient to burn wood instead of coal or coke, then the flue is to be preferred ; in such case the furnace should be large, and the draft be under the control of the operator, by having a door in front of the ash-pit, and a damper in the chimney, which, when closed, more or less, as may be wished, will keep the fire steady. There are some cultivators who still cling to the flue for grape-growing, on account of the drying effects of the heat evolved, which, as they assert, is of some importance in damp weather, when the grapes are coloring, or ripe, and that at other times they can use evaporating pans. True, it is dry enough, even to parching ; and were this the only time when it would be required, the flue would answer the best purpose. But this point is a matter of very little consideration, as the same can be secured by pipes heated with hot water. Nothing can be more erroneous than to suppose that heat given out on the latter principle con- tains moisture ; were it so, the water would waste consid- erably through the pores of the metal, which is not the case, for all or nearly the whole of the evaporation which takes place is at the filling up tank, and if this be kept covered, the working of a night will not lessen the water more than a few pints. Heat, from whatever sources ob- tained, will absorb moisture, and as glass houses are not ARTIFICIAL HEAT AND APPARATUS 45 hermetically sealed glass bottles, the generated heat is constantly passing off through the crevices, more particu- larly those in the upper part of the roof, and the moisture along with it. The main difference, then, between the two is, that one only raises the temperature, while the other does the same ; and, in addition, imparts a certain amount of sulphuretted hydrogen and other injurious gases that escape through the joints and the bricks, in quantity according to the good or bad workmanship, or the porosity of the material. " Smoke has thin shoulders," is an old adage among gardeners, and we often find it verified in the use of flues. Notwithstanding these disadvantages, good grapes may be forced by flue heat, and in some cases this is the only means at command ; when so, it is advisa- ble to make the best arrangement we can. If a steady and continuous heat be required, there ought to be enough room in the furnace to hold a large bulk of fuel, and if it is situated somewhat below the level of the flue, the heat will flow more evenly, and disseminate itself more equally, as it travels along with the draft, by which a greater por- tion will be absorbed by the bricks, and given off into the house. A small furnace, with a quick draft, is never eco- nomical, as a considerable portion of heat passes off by the chimney and is lost. A narrow and small flue is also ob- jectionable, as the heat acts directly upon the mason-work, and the bricks become so hot as to abstract the oxygen of the air, rendering it so devoid of moisture as not to be fit for the leaves to respire in. To a certain extent, this evil may be counteracted, by keeping shallow vessels filled with water upon the flue, and damping the floor of the house ; but most of the moisture produced in this way is in a vaporous state, and not in the exact solution required by the absorbing stomata of plants. The analogy be- 46 THE GRAPE. tween plants and animals is in this respect the same, and every body who is possessed of ordinary observation must be able to discern how different is the air that is raised in temperature by a red-hot stove, even though a vessel of water be kept upon it, to what it is when raised to the same temperature by the sun's power. We also know, that if we were able to control other circumstances accord- ing to our wants for the time being, success would more often attend our operations, providing we could exactly imitate the warmth of nature. If this be true, it must then be certainly to our own interest to approach as near as we can to this desideratum. To come to our point, a capacious flue gives a greater surface exposed to the ac- tion of the heat, without becoming hot enough to bring- about so much chemical action as to burn the air inside of the house, while a small one is sure to do so, at any rate, in that part next to the furnace. To be effectual in this respect, a flue ought not to be less than eighteen inches high, by twelve inches wide in the clear ; and if raised up by placing supports underneath at intervals on the length, w^ith fire-proof tiles to form the bottom, so much the better, as it then is free to give out the heat on all sides. The furnace ought to be not less than eighteen inches wide, and equal height, independent of the arch above, and two feet long. A furnace of these dimensions is qualified to work a house of forty to fifty feet long, by twelve or fourteen feet wide, the flue being conducted along the front and two ends. Double the length will need two fires, and so on in proportion. When two furnaces are required, there may be one placed at each end of the house, and conveyed to the same chimney, midway in the back wall, so as to unite into one outlet ; but in such case there ought to be an acute level upwards at the place of union, or the two ARTIFICIAL HEAT AND APPARATUS. 47 opposite currents are subject to check the even flow of the smoke, and drive it back. The Polmaise method of heating is a plan that ori^n- ated with a Mr. Murray, of Polmaise, in Scotland, and, like many other ingenious contrivances, was the result of pecu- liar necessity. At the time of its introduction, it caused a great furor amongst the seekers after novelties, and like the fugacious follies of such persons, it soon fell into dis- repute with all, excepting those who were determined not to acknowledge their error. To say the best we can in its favor, it is only a modified flue. The principle, if so it may be called, consists in having a hot air chamber over and outside the furnace, and conducting the heat therein generated through one or more apertures into the house at one end, and at the other having a hole level with the floor, which forms the top of a drain that is conducted along under ground to the furnace, and which supplies the fire with fresh air to support combustion. By these means the heat from the chamber is drawn through the house, and a partial current produced, and from this it was at first predicted that a great benefit would arise, on account of the near imitation to nature's invigorating breezes. If glass was not a rapid conductor of heat, this plausible theory might have been a practical good ; but as it is, and as heat will ascend, in opposi- tion to such a weak power to repress it, a great portion flows along at the top and back part of the house, leav- Fig. 13. 48 THE GRAPE. Fig. 14. ing tlie lower part, or frout, cold ; which, if there he a dif- ference, ought to be the warmest. The only way in which this plan can be tolerated, or be of advantage, is, to combine the cham- ber and flue, and make use of both. This is economizing, as the whole of the heat which radiates from both sources is made available. Figs. 13 and 14 show a longitudinal and transverse cross section of both com- bined. In concluding, we may say, that after many years' practice with most kinds of heating apparatus for hot-houses, we are thor- oughly convinced that none is so efficient or economical as hot water, and have never found any on that principle to supercede the boiler, as exhibited in Fig. 12. CHAPTER IV. BORDKRS OR PREPARED BEDS. The formation of beds, or more teclmically borders, in ■which to grow the grape vine is of great importance, per- haps more so than any other portion of the whole routine of culture, for without a proper matrix in which the roots may luxuriate, it is impossible to succeed. The more important any branch of horticulture is, often the greater the number of opinions respecting it. This is strictly true, in the present instance. Some have advo- cated the admixture of great quantities of raw animal car- casses, in such quantities, and large masses, that one would think, if their reasoning were true, that a recently filled cholera burial-ground, would be the best place on which to erect a grapery, or plant a vineyard. Others again have recommended large doses of blood, and the stink- ing offal of slaughter-houses, in so fresh a state that the very idea is enough to nauseate the strongest stomach, and forbid the cultivation of this luscious fruit. Fortu- nately these materials are not required, although when thoroughly decomposed and well mixed with maiden earth, there is no objection to the using of a portion incorporated through the mass. It often happens when thus applied, that a very vigorous growth is produced for a time, but sufiicient strength can be had without these stinking nui- sances. If used at all, it should be in the form of top- dressings in after years, and forked in, by which the fer- tility will be assisted, without making the whole bed into 3 m 50 THE GRAPE. an unctuous paste, more fit to puddle a duck pond with, tlian for tlie tender and fleshy roots of the grape vine to luxuriate in. If proof of this were wanted, there are plenty of examples if they were to be examined, where the roots that have come into contact with these masses of soajD-like substances, before they were thoroughly de- composed, have been found quite rotten, and if the vines have continued to do well, it is not from the nutriment derived from them, but from their ready adaptability to form fresh spongeoles from the back roots, which may have travelled in other directions, and with good treat- ment added. The advocates of this putrid animal matter, contend for the greater invigorating powers and more lasting proper- ties, than is to be found in barnyard manure, or decayed vegetable substances. To the first we will agree, pro- viding the stimulating portions be administered in a proper manner, and here ends this part of the difference ; but how it is to be more lasting, is another part of the subject. It is a well-known fact, that highly nitrogenized manures, during decomposition, give off very freely the volatile ammonia con- tained in them, and as this is a great stimulant to vegeta- tion during active development, it is easily seen how such wonderful effect is produced ; as this exciting principle, from its evanescent properties, porcolates into every aper- ture in its escape, and no doubt a portion is taken up in a gaseous state by the young and readily absorbing spon- geoles. But does it follow, that this is any proof of per- manent action. Judging from the premises it would appear the very reverse, and the frequent use of other manures of a similar character — guano, for instance — have clearly demonstrated, that oft-repeated applications with occa- sional additions of carbonaceous organic bulk, and other inorganic assistance, have to be applied to maintain fer- BORDERS OR PREPARED BEDS. 51 tility, wliere the same spot is constantly cropped. In the present subject we are precisely in this position, and there ought to be great regard for the future constitutional power, if a healthy after-life be cared for, which is not to be acquired by the excessive quantity of these helps, that only act upon the vegetable, in the same manner as do alcoholic drinks upon the human system. All our best physicians acknowledge the good effects of stimu- lants in particular kinds of disease, when administered with skill, and everybody knows how soon the strongest constitution is broken down by the great quantities that too many indulge in. So it is with the grape vine ; we all commence with endeavoring to gain strong, and more than natural growth, but there certainly is no reason why we should keep our plants in a continual state of intoxica- tion, from the moment of their first awaking in the spring, till they finally rest on the approach of winter, and still leaving the same baneful influence, to diffuse itself over the whole outer surface of the roots (which are equivalent to the mouths of animals), until the next season's warmth again arouses their action. We would not by any means have it understood, that we are opposed to the judicious use of ammonia, or any of the other compounds that are to be found in more abundance in the animal, than in the vegetable body ; but do protest against the inordinate mixture of such, often to the exclusion of other, and more necessary bases, and which leaves the plant after a few years of undue excitement, a prey to disease and prema- ture decay. If success has seemed to attend the progress in some instances, the failures have been much greater, and unprejudiced experience shows, that more injury than benefit has arisen from the admixture of animal matter, even in small quantities, and in anything like a fresh state. These remarks are only intended to apply to the fleshy 52 THE GRAPE. and quickly putrefying portions of the animal body, with- out any reference to the bones. Here we will subscribe to the recommendation, because it is consistent with na-, ture, and furnishes along with other useful properties, the often most wanting requirement, lime ; in this all grape growers are agreed, and the invariable prosperity of our pet, in places where limestone abounds among the soil, produces the most conclusive evidence. There is little doubt but the want of this substance is the reason why some of our vignerons have occasion to complain of rot and want of success in various ways ; and here we may ask, whoever saw a grape vine that did not do well, and produce fruit of good quality, providing the climate was suitable, and the roots could creep along under the soil, and lie upon the surface or in the fissures of a limestone rock. There are other persons who make the beds from three to four feet deep of suitable materials, but use such quan- tities of the richer quality, with insufficient drainage, that the whole bulk, after a time, becomes sodden, and imper- vious to either sun or air, in which no root can exist, much less extend itself. These are some of the many causes why our graperies so soon become weak and unproduc- tive; yet the natural constitutional powers of the grape vine are very strong, and of great longevity ; it is a gross feeder and can absorb a large amount of food, but when thus maltreated, although it may bear such usage for a time with much pertinacity, it will in the long run (like an overgorged glutton) become deranged, its physical func- tions will be weakened, and it either dies of plethora, or wears on an exhausted existence, producing little or noth- ing but watery leaves, and weakly branches. If such very strong growth were really requisite to pro- duce the finest bunches, or berries, and could be obtained BORDERS OR PREPARED BEDS. Od by these means, there would be some excuse for thus abusing nature ; but such is not the fact, for the most superior and best flavored fruit, is had from solid, well ripened, and vigorous, but not over-fed wood. When the bearing shoots are unduly strong, there are frequently two or more developed from a bud, while with moderate growth only one is formed, and as each of these buds having: received its share of nutriment, wherewith to start future development, thus takes from the others a portion, the consequence must be (as only one can remain) a weaker action at first, and correspondingly less power afterwards, than would be the case if there was only one centre. The bunches emenating from such a bud, will also contain generally a greater number of florets, and shoulders, equal to the concentrated accumulation in the embryo shoot ; for it is formed previous to bursting, and before the leaf of the previous season falls, in the axil of which it is fixed. In all cases of permanent success, the grape vine luxu- riates upon a naturally, or artificially well-drained bottom. It is best suited in warm, arid comparatively dry climates, and the constitution which nature has fixed, man cannot alter. We must then adapt as near as we can, its position in cultivation to its wants, and if we produce artificially a greater than ordinary amount of growth, we ought to have a corresponding medium whereby to mature that growth. Well-drained borders is one of the means by which this can be accomplished, as the superabundant moisture is taken away, and the air and the sun's heat can more readily penetrate the soil. If the following directions are followed, there will be no reason to complain of Avant of success on this point. Take out to the depth of two feet, the whole of the up- per surface, then dig a trench two feet wide and one foot deep, with one or more outlets for the water to escape, all 64 THE GRAPE. around tlie margin of the excavated space, which will form a drain, three feet deep from the top, and one foot below the lower base of the borders ; fill this trench with rough stones, or brick-bats, the rougher the better ; after- wards fill in over the whole surface, about six inches of oyster, or other marine shells if to be had readily, but if not, broken stones, or pieces of brick and lime rubbish will answer, and if a quantity of broken bones are to be got, strew them over the top of the other drainage ; cover this with turf-sods, or any rough litter, to prevent the soil from falling through and among the drainage, and throw in the prepared compost to one foot above the top level ; this will give a depth of three feet, which will settle down about six inches, leaving the permanent depth two feet six inches, viz. : two feet below and six inches above the ground level. In some situations the original base will be a dead level, when the excavated surface ought to slope from the house towards the outside of the borders, which will cause the water to run the more readily towards the lower drains. Care should be taken in this respect, whatever the level may be, that the bottom is so arranged as to allow the water to escape freely ; the means of securing which will occur to any ordinary mind, according to the level he may have to deal with. It may be thought, that with this amount of drainage, and raised, and not over deep borders, the soil will be- come too dry throughout the summer to maintain vigorous growth, but experience testifies to the contrary, for al- though the under parts will not be over wet, the moisture is equally divided through the whole, and if the upper surface be mulched, examination will prove that every portion is equally damp, and the innumerable small root- lets are ramifying in every direction, each taking its BORDERS OR PREPARED BEDS. 55 allotted portion of work, to supply the structure of the plant with wholesome food. Efiectual drainage has not until lately received that share of attention among culti- vators generally which its benefits ought to command, and even at the present day, there is a great want of proper understanding respecting it. To a person who is contented to go along scratching over the ground, sowing seed, and leaving the rest to Nature, it is a difficult problem to solve, how the conducting away water in land that is already too dry and hard in summer can be of any ser- vice. Thanks to science and agricultural chemistry, this is now made so clear, by having been so often explained, with examples here and there as proofs, that the mystery is, how men can still remain so blind to their own interests, or entertain any prejudice against what has been so prac- tically demonstrated. Although it is recommended above to make the whole of the borders at once, which is only one trouble and ex- pense, and will answer very well ; yet it is much better to prepare the drainage as advised, and make only half, viz. : that part next to the house, of properly prepared compost, filling in the other with the intended base soil a little enriched, and after the first season's growth, work up in the following fall, into the half of the unfinished portion, the same quantity of fertilizing materials as the former half was mixed with. In the spring, before grow- ing commences, this may be again forked over, which will incorporate all more evenly, and the next fall the remain- ing quarter may be done likewise. By this method the borders are kept loose for a longer time, the air is more freely admitted, and the whole is better adapted for the healthy progress of the roots, which, as they extend from year to year, will penetrate more readily, and fill every portion. The tendency to become solid, is much reduced 66 THE GRAPE. after tlie borders become filled with roots, as tliey are always more or less drawing nutriment and moisture, thereby rendering the base soil more porous, when the gases of the^ atmosphere, Avhich are very beneficial, have a chance of occupying the interstices, and forming chemical combi- nations with the material ; thereby producing a continual renewal of suitable food for the support of vegetable life. We have ample proofs of the correctness of this, and where borders are constructed as above advised, there Avill be an admission of air, not only from the openings to the drains and from them under the whole bed, but also from above. It is not by administering such enormous doses of stimu- lating, or fertilizing material all at once, and before the roots have progressed in sufficient numbers, or distance, to appropriate it to their use, that we are to calculate upon the most permanent results, or immediate success. So long as we supply from time to time what is required, it is enough, and if we have got well drained and porous bor- ders, Ave can the more readily apply top-dressings and mulchings in after years, without injury, or covering the roots too deep ; for if, in efficiently drained ground, a layer of dung be spread over the surface, it will be found after a time, that there is little but dry chaff left, all the soluble parts having been washed by the rains down into the soil below, and the plants will have received th.e bene- fit of it. With reo-ard to the width of these borders there are o many opinions, and different persons have been led by the dictation of fancy into dogmatic assertion, without duly considering the requirements of nature. Now, if we take this for our guide, and, generally speaking, it is the best reasoner, we must provide a large superficial area ; for the roots of the grape vine are great travellers, and will, if allowed their own way, extend over much space, BORDERS OR PREPARED BEDS. 67 consequently free egress and plenty of room must cer- tainly be essential, where the intention is to retain unin- terrupted fertility for a long time ; beside which we ought to consider the close proximity of the vines as they are most commonly planted, and it then becomes still more evident that we ought not to be penurious in this respect. Our own recommendation is to make them ten feet wide at the commencement, add five feet more the next season, and five feet again the year following, making a total of twenty feet, Avhich will give ample space for a long time ; but if success should attend the same stock some ten or fifteen years, and the roots at the end of that time are found so closely interwoven, as to be in want of more ex- tension, it would be advisable to add another five feet, so that in making first designs, it is well to forecast after ne- cessaries. Many will, no doubt, think that this is a waste of land that might be turned to advantage in other ways, and others may not have so much ground at command for the purpose. As to the first objection, it may be answered by the simple question of, what more paying crop can be put on the added fifteen square feet that will be required for each vine, than the increase of two or three pounds of good exotic grapes, beside the benefit secured by retain- ing the natural longevity of the plant, where considerable capital has been invested at the outset in erecting a suita- ble house. In the latter case there is the opportunity of reducing the number of vines inside, and extending the branches of those left so as to keep the whole roof covered, thereby giving more root room individually. The very .common notion, that a grape vine is so often worn out, deserves to be classed with the things that were, — depend upon it, if all its wants are duly supplied, and the house substantially erected, a grapery may be left as a legacy 3* 68 THE GRAPE. to our offspring, instead of being, as it too frequently is, only calculated to become the pleasure of a few years. The most suitable materials for composing the borders are, a good friable loam (the top sod, grass included, of a pasture), with a suitable quantity of partly decomposed stable manure, in proportions of one-fourth of the latter to three-fourths of the former, and a good dressing of broken or ground up bones, say one bushel to every cubic yard in bulk. If the soil contains much lime in its own base, the bones may be dispensed with, but generally they are of much benefit, being a very lasting manure, giving out slowly, and when all the phosphates are exhausted, they still remain as a carbonate of lime, among which the grape vine delights. When the base soil, where the house is to be erected, is of the above nature, it may be used, and the other mate- rials added on the spot, which will save expense. There is often much useless expenditure caused in this way. Never remove away the existing base unless absolutely bad, excepting with little outlay, a much better substitute can be procured ; for by good mixing of the fertilizing matter and drainage to correspond, a poor soil may in many instances be made good, and often when it is consi- dered impracticable, most likely all that is required. Im- perfect drainage is frequently the cause that prevents success, Avhen it is attributed to an unsuitable constituent base. The grape vine is not so capricious in its food as is generally supposed, but a dry bottom it must and will have to prosper. CHAPTER V. PLANTING AND MANAGEMENT THE FIRST YEAR. In choosing vines for planting, see tliat the wood is well ripened and solid, and the roots clean and healthy. One year old, propagated from the eye are best for the grapery, or from cuttings for the vineyard, but those of two years are not objectionable. The most proper time for planting is about the beginning of March, under glass, or so soon as the ground is in good working order, out of doors, when the vines have not been prematurely started into growth, as they are then just commencing to move from a long repose, and have no great time to remain in their new q^uarters before fresh rootlets begin to push forth. When deferred much longer, these fibres are sub- ject to injury, being very brittle. If the vines have been grown in pots, which is generally the case, with the ex- otics, the soil ought to be entirely shaken from them, and the entangled roots carefully straightened out, care being used when planted, that they are spread in all directions diverging from the stem. After loosening up well, and smoothing over the surface around on the base, where it is intended to fix them, have in readiness a quantity of the same material as the border is composed of, broken up fine and mixed with a third portion of leaf-mould, if to be had — if not, it is not of much consequence., but the young rootlets soon lay hold of it, and a good start is half the battle. Strew two inches of this compost over the sur- (59) 60 THE Git A PI-:. face, place the plant tlms spread out upon it, and cover with three inches of the same mould. It will be under- stood that this mode of procedure will elevate the crowns of the roots a trifle above the general level, which will prove advantageous afterwards, as a top-dressing can be added without their being buried down below the surface. Avoid deep planting in all cases, for it leads to cankered roots, and places them out of the reach of the warming influence of the sun, and the exhilirating action of the air, both of which are as beneficial to them as are light and heat to the leaves and branches. It is not to be expected that this particularity can be applied to the vineyard, but so far as can be done economically, the same rule holds good. Before planting, cut off the top of the plant to about six or nine inches, or down to two or three good buds. The advantage of leaving more than one being the choice it gives of retaining the most promising when started, when all the Avorst can be rubbed off. It is sometimes inconvenient to plant at the time above recommended from some local cause, in which case, the plants may be removed into pots, if so situated, of a larger size than those that they were previously in, put to groAv in some other house, and attended to as regards heat and moisture, in the same manner as if in their final resting place ; as the young shoots progress in growth, they will require to be carefully tied to a stake fixed up- right in each pot, and as the roots increase, larger sized pots will be requisite to prevent them becoming pot-bound, by which the vigor is consideraby checked. By attending to these points, they may be kept on till June or July, after which, if carefully turned out of the pots, without disturbing the roots any more than can be avoided, a good cane may be obtained the same season, though not often strong enough to bear fruit the following summer; but PLANTING AND MANAGEMENT. 61 which, if planted in March, can generally be accomplished. After planting, give a good soaking of water to settle the soil around the roots, but do not allow it to become satu- rated afterwards by too oft repeated applications, the ob- ject being to keep it moderately moist, but not sodden, as the tender roots are soon rotted when not drawing freely. If the vines have been prematurely started into growth, which is not desirable ; or it is thought fit to plant those that have been raised from the eye the same spring, the planting ought to be deferred till the middle of April, or beginning of May, even though the house may be ready in due time ; for if planted sooner, they would, under such circumstances, receive a sudden check, from their being removed into a much colder atmosphere than the one they had previously occupied, and which would militate very much against their future prosperity, if not be the cause of failure. We will now suppose that the house is planted and all ready for a favorable beginning. For the first two or three weeks keep all as close and cool as possible, only giving sufficient air to lower the temperature. After this time the house may be kept a little warmer, and the' vines syringed overhead two or three times a-day. Do not yet apply much Avater to the roots, only maintaining moisture enough to keep the soil damp, without becoming soaked, as they have not yet got into brisk action, and conse- quently cannot draw much of it up. Avoid dry winds, and retain a moist atmosphere, allowing the thermometer to rise from 70'^ to 75^ in the middle of the day. By the middle of April the buds will be mostly started, rub oft' all but the strongest one, and mind that it is not injured, or the top broken out. As the young growth continues to extend, the paths, and the whole interior of the house, and likewise the plants, should be damped with the syringe or 62 THE GRAPE. hose morning and evening, and during dry weather in the middle of the day, avoiding the application in the brightest sunshine. Do not give any bottom air until a vigorous {ind strong action is obtained, and not then without great caution, for it causes cold drafts in the lower parts of the house and checks growth, rendering the vines subject to mildew. Shut up early to retain a genial warmth before sunset, and gradually increase the temperature, so that at the beginning of May the thermometer may stand at 90° at mid-day ; in cloudy weather keep all closed and en- deavor to keep as steady a neat as possible. By the latter end of the month, the vines ought to be growing vigor- ously : tie the canes up carefully as they progress, leaving the ties somewhat loose to give room for after swelling, and as the laterals push, pinch them off to one joint, re- serving one or two entire at the top at each pinching in case of accident to the leader, and likewise take clean out the lower ones, or those last left with one leaf, at each future operation. By this mode of proceedure they are gradually reduced, and finally taken away, without endan- gering the bursting of the buds in the axil of the leaf- stalks, the which are wanted for the next year. The heat may now be increased to 95^, still recollecting to ply the syringe freely, excepting in dull or cold nights, when water ought to be withheld, as under such circumstances it is apt to starve and check the circulation — a matter of great importance. The roots will now be extending in proportion to the expansion of head, and must have some attention ; for here are the mouths, and here are also the digestive organs, and woe betide the other members of the body if they are not well supplied. Equally with the amount of healthy foliage will they draw moisture from the base in which they are located, so long as free development is PLANTING AND MANAGEMENT. 6S progressing, and water ought to be applied to the soil ac- cordingly. As there may be reason in all things, so in this, and the borders ought not to be saturated by too often repeating the application, but of this there is not much danger if the under base is well drained. A fork- ing, both inside and out, over the whole surface, will now be of service, but do not injure or disturb the roots ; this will loosen up and render the bed more porous, and the small rootlets will feel their way more freely, after which a mulching of dung or short grass, four or five inches thick, will prevent evaporation, keep an equal tempera- ture and moisture in the soil, and, during hot and dry weather, will almost entirely prevent the want of that greatest of evil necessities, artificial watering, to the out- side beds. Gradually increase the heat as the vines pro- gress more rapidly ; by the beginning of June it may be allowed to rise from 95° to 100^ at mid-day, and if the air is kept damp, scorching from so high a temperature will be prevented, and both combined will enable the plants to develop their fullest energies. Many persons do not give heat enough ; even some of our very best grape growers are sparing in this respect. We ought to consider that, as the grape vine is generally grown under glass, we place it in a position, by the sup- ply of rich food, to produce a more than natural disten- tion of cellular tissue ; the larger leaves also are capable of doing more work, in elaborating the juices drawn up from the roots, and these large leaves being filled with an un- common amount of sap, require a corresponding assistance in the form of heat and light, to properly chemicalize (excuse the expression) this extra quantity of crude fluid. Hence the necessity of a warmer temperature than would suffice for the same plants, if they were growing in the open air, and the roots in a soil only ordinarily fertile. 64 THE GKAPE. When tlic canes have grown to the top of the roof do not stop them, but train the tops between the vines on the opposite side, if the house be a double pitch ; and if a lean-to, they may be allowed to hang down by the back wall, stopping the leader when it has advanced somewhat dowuAvards, and leave the laterals on the same length. Thus the plants will go on swelling their growth without check, and adding bulk to their structure. Towards the middle of August, the air may be allowed to become somewhat drier, and syringing overhead gradu- ally lessened, as the wood will begin to mature : the lower ventilators may also be opened on clear days — a little at first, increasing more from day to day. By the third week in September, Avater should be withheld altogether, and as the wood will be ripening, air ought to be freely admitted through the day, and the temperature decreased as the canes approach maturity. When the bark becomes brown and the wood solid, the house may be thrown open day and night, excepting in case of frost or heavy rain, as the object noAv is to let all go quietly to rest, and the leaves to fall off yellow and fully ripe, when we may rest as- sured that nature has done her work according to her own will, and we have assisted her in accordance to her own laws. So soon as the leaves are fallen, proceed to pruning. If all has gone on as it ought to have done, the canes will average five-eighths to nearly one inch in diameter, ac- cording to the natural vigor of each individual variety, and a corresponding length when not stopped, of twenty-five to thirty-five feet. Cut off the strongest to about seven, and the weakest to five feet. Aftervv^ards take out with the point of a knife each alternate bud, which will leave the remainder about fifteen to eighteen inches apart, the object of which is explained in the chapter on pruning, Commence at the PLANTING AND MANAGEMENT. 05 top, leave three buds, one for next year's leader, and tlie two others for side spurs ; proceed downwards, leaving each alternate pair (one on each side) to the wall plate, and as beneath this, the leaves and fruit would be out of the sun's influence, and only subject to encourage mil- dew, all buds ought to be removed. The vines may now be carefully washed over with the following preparation, which will destroy the larvae or eggs of insects, if any should be existing. Whale oil soap, one-fourth pound; sulphur, four pounds; tobacco, one-fourth pound ; and nux vomica, one ounce : pour over these boiling water, three gallons, and stir all up until thoroughly mixed ; as the nux vomica is a deadly poison to animals, care should be taken that it is not left care- lessly about. A soft painter's brush is the best for the purpose, and after the operation the canes may be slung loosely to the wires till the weather begins to be severe, when they should have a coating of straw three or four inches thick tied around them, and the heads brought down one over the other in a horizontal position, about two feet above the ground level, in rows along the lines of plant- ing; this will leave the lower parts of the stem nearly upright, and prevent the crown of the roots from being strained or disturbed. At the same time, be prepared with a quantity of recently rotted turf sods, or fresh earth, which has been mixed up two or three months with a third part of good stable or barnyard manure ; fork over the borders both outside and inside of the house, and add a dressing of three inches thick of the above compost. If the crowns were planted slightly elevated, as before recommended, this dressing will make the surface level, and greatly assist the production of young rootlets next sjiring, besides protecting the tender fibres through tlie winter. Over the whole area may be put a good coating 66 THE GRAPE. of littery dung, tree leaves, or other such material to keep out the frost, and which may remain as a mulching next summer. Nothing further is now required, but to shut up the house on severe nights and wet weather, till the buds show signs of bursting in the following spring. CHAPTER VI. MANAGEMENT FOR THE SECOND YEAR AND PERMANENT TREATMENT FOR THE COLD GRAPERY. The following observations contain directions for the treatment of a planting of vines in the second year, the permanent management of the Cold Grapery, and some other details of a general character. As the winter milds off, and warm sunny days com- mence, give air sufficient to keep the house cool, and to prevent the buds from pushing as long as possible. If too soon excited, the young shoots are in danger of being injured by the late spring frosts, and cold storms. When it is perceived that the buds are swelling, and can no longer be kept back, take the covering off carefully, and tie the vines down in the form of an arch, with the heads leaning from the glass, as in this position they are not so subject to injury in case frost should occur; there is also the advantage of causing a more lateral propelling force to the rising sap, which is compelled to develop the lower buds with more certainty, and this action once gained, with after good management always remains. Give a good and thorough soaking of water to the inside borders, which by this time will have become very dry, also syringe overhead two or three times a day, excepting when the weather is cold, or frost is to be expected, they will be assisted thereby to break uniformly and strong. (67) G8 THE GRAPE. The temperature should now be regulated as advised for the same period last year, in the preceding chapter. When the young shoots begin to elongate, sling the canes loosely to the wires, but some distance from the glass, as the further off for a short time the safer they will be from accidental frosty nights. So soon as danger is past, tie them finally in their places, leaving the strings loose enough for future swelling, and be careful in training the leading shoot upwards, as at this time it is very brittle and easily broken. If not quite straight with the older cane, the better way is to bring it into the right position, a little at a time, when the woody fibre begins to form in the base. The bunches will now be clearly discernible, and when they have fairly unfolded from the buds, so as to show their form, and comparative strength, take out all except- ing the strongest and handsomest one upon each shoot, and remove likewise the tops of the side branches, beyond the third or fourth leaf above the bunch. These will again break from the top eye, and as they do so, from time to time, nip out the leader to one leaf above where it was last stopped ; this keeps the branches within bounds, and at the same time leaves sufficient foliage to mature the fruit and perfect growth. When the blossoms begin to expand withhold water overhead, let the atmosphere become somewhat drier, and keep up a little more heat, and if the weather will allow it, a freer circulation of air, from 85^ to 90° at mid-day is not too much, close with good warmth in the afternoon and open soon enough in the morning, to prevent a scald- ing smell in the house. At all times, with a clear sun in the morning, ventilate so soon as the house begins to warm a little, and close early ; the temperature by these means rises and falls gradually. Nothing is worse in all plant MANAGEMENT FOR THE SECOND YEAK. 69 culture, than allowing a house to be closed until it becomes hot, and admitting at once a great quantity of cold air ; in grape growing, it leads to the most baneful results. Open soon, and close early, ought to be a maxim well riveted on the mind. Always have a thermometer hanging mid- way in the house, about four feet from the ground, and shaded from the sun ; observe it closely, and be guided by it, and experience in ventilating will soon be acquired, better than can be described by words — always remem- bering that a gradual rise and fall are the desiderata. Attention for a little while will teach, that early closing tends to regulate the heat in the after part of the day, and a due observance will lead to exact adaptability. As the flowers continue to open, go over the house once a day, and shake the bunches by a light flirt of the finger, which assists in distributing the pollen, and enables impregnation to go on with more certainty. This opera- tion is best if performed in the morning, about the time or immediately after giving air, as the flowers of all plants are then in greater activity, and consequently there is the chance of more perfect fertilization. There are certain kinds, as the Alexandrian Muscat and its allies, — purple damask, &c.., which do not readily fertilize with their own pollen in a cold house ; that may be much assisted by shaking over the flowers a bunch of Hamburgh or other hardy sort, and as there are more bunches than is required for ripening, there is always enough to spare for this purpose. When blossoming is past, and the berries are fairly set, a good syringing over-head will clean all the decayed portions of flowers which cling to and among the berries, and will invigorate the whole plant. Let water now be freely administered over every part, being careful that at no time it is driven with force against the fruit, as in such case it injures the surface, and produces " rust." 70 THE Gil APE. It will now be plainly seen whicli are the best set and handsomest bunches, and as there are more than it is ad- visable to ripen off, on account of the youth of the vines, and the consequent danger of overbearing, thereby injuring their permanent prosperity, it will be better to reduce the number according to the strength of the plant, or weight of the bunch. A cane of three-fourths inch diameter may be allowed to carry from six to seven, and one of half an inch, five to six pounds ; but when they are smaller than this, only one, or at most two bunches ought to remain. Some kinds form much larger bunches than others, which may be ascertained in some measure while young, and the number may be calculated accordingly. A well shouldered Hamburgh will weigh from one and a half to two and a half pounds; if very large, from three and a half to four pounds ; while the Malvesia is a large bunch of its kind at ten ounces. Better to be guided by comparative weight than number of bunches, as greater equality is gained, and the vines are rendered more uniform in vigor afterwards. Be it remembered, that it is much more diffi- cult to bring back energy where a part is injured, than when the whole is so, for the well-doing will take the lion's share of nutriment from the borders. In removing the superfluous clusters take out the worst formed and most weakly, and let the greater part be near the top of the plant, leaving the bottom spurs as free as possible ; for a vine while young is prone to push its strongest growth upwards. By bearing the upper part the heaviest, the circulation is equipoised, and the lower laterals are re- lieved, and if the flow is encouraged to take a lateral course at first, it is much easier to retain the same after- wards. There is no occasion to crowd all the crop at the top, only let the greater part be there and the object is accomplished. MANAGEMENT FOR THE SECOND YEAR. 71 All is now to be considered in full action, — the grapes about the size of peas, and swelling fast, when it becomes necessary to commence thinning out the superfluous berries. First, tie out the side branches, in a horizontal position to the wires, if not already done ; then fasten a string to the end of each shoulder, and sling it up, at right angle with the stalk, to the wires also ; the smaller clus- ters may now be opened out by inserting small strips of wood, notched on the two ends, under them, and supported upon the projecting stalks below. This will open out the bunch, and prevent the weight of each cluster from bear- ing upon the lower berries. Next, proceed to cut out a part of the berries, commencing at the bottom, and leaving those for ripening far enough apart to allow the aggregate to swell up, without squeezing each other individually . when fully grown. Some care is required in this operation, and also a little idea, for the object is to leave to each berry sufficient space to allow for full development, and yet not so far apart as to make the bunch loose and stragghng. No exact rule can be given as to distance required, but generally, one half to two thirds ought to be cut away ; the larger berried kinds will need more thin- ning than the smaller, there is also a great difference in the setting, but a reference to the descriptive list hereafter given will be a guide ; the latest sorts too, and those in- tended to hang longest, should be more distant than the others ; for, when a little assunder from each other, the grapes keep much longer than when they are crowded. An experienced hand can tell pretty accurately how to thin, so as to make once going over nearly suffice, but for beginners, it is perhaps better to perform the operation at two or three times as they swell up. After the first year's practice the right idea is gained, and there is no difficulty afterwards. When thinning, do not handle the berries, 72 THE grapj:. or let the hair rub tliem, for while young, the skins are very soon injured, when they become disfigured, and marked with a russety roughness which is technically called rust. Continue to keep up a temperature of 90^ to 100° through the day, and use water freely ; damp the lower part of the house two or three times between morning and evening, and, when syringing at sundown, force the water into all crevices and corners of the wood-work, to dislodge insects. Where this is attended to, red spider, or other such pest, will never do any harm. Do not wait until these vermin make their appearance, but always act on the principle, ** prevention is better than cure.'* As the leading shoot continues to progress, train it over the top to the opposite side, as advised for last year, and when it interferes with the fruit spurs in its downward course, pinch out the top, as it would cause too much crowding, and deprive the leaves from receiving due light. In very dry weather it will be necessary to use water on the outside borders ; generally, one or two applications is enough for the season ; but if severe drought should continue, it will be advisable to repeat the operation every two Aveeks, till the fruit begins to color ; after which there is no occasion for more, as there will be plenty of moisture in the ground for all purposes. Were it not so generally considered that large berries are a part of perfection, we should be disposed to recommend the withholding of water at an earlier period ; and those who would prefer a rich, sugary grape, regardless of size, will be more sure to get it by using water very sparingly after the stoning process is fairly secured. Under these circumstances there is also a better chance of producing gpod color, as the drier the atmosphere and borders of a Cold Grapery, the less danger MANAGEMENT FOR THE SECOND YEAR. 73 of mildew ; consequently, n greater supply of fresli air may be admitted with safety, tlie result of which is, more solid- ity of fruit, a greater concentration of saccharine matter, and, as a matter of course, a nearer approach to tlie natural shades of color. When water is applied outside, let it be a thorough soaking — no mere dribbling, but sufficient to penetrate down and through the borders. The mulching which was applied previous to winter should also be ex- amined, and if the surface is not well covered, add more. If the licjuid drainings of a dunghill can be had, so much the better ; but, first, dilute with an equal portion of soft or rain water, and never use it but in a clear state, as otherwise it clogs up the porosity of the soil, and renders it sodden and " sour." The drainage from a cow-house is also very good, but ought not to be applied until some- what fermented, as, while caustic, the salts contained in it are very destructive to the roots. Many persons apply liquid manures, of various kinds, without caution, and often do much injury thereby, while, if rightly used, they are of the greatest advantage. By the second week in July, some of the earliest sorts will begin to change for ripening, when water may be dispensed with overhead, but still applied to the roots in clear weather, which will cause the atmosphere to be drier. With the ripening of the fruit comes also an approach towards maturity of the wood, and during this period, water is only essential to keep up a healthy action, and should be gradually discontinued. As a little quantity, often distributed, only damps the surface, and the evaporation resulting therefrom produces a moist at- mosphere when a dry one is wanted, the times of aj)plying it ought to be less often ; but when done, a good soaking should be given. Once a week, for two or tliree weeks, will be enough, and after that time once in two weeks, up to the middle of September, when it may be withheld entirely. 4 74 THE GRAPE. As the grapes continue to color, admit more air in clear days, open the loAver ventilators, a little at first, gradually increasing, till a free current is obtained, which will assist very much in improving the quality in all respects, and likewise help in ripening the wood. After all are ripe, the house may be thrown open day and night, excepting in storms or wet weather, when it ought to be partially closed, so as to exclude the rain, and at the same time leave air to prevent the grapes from be- coming mouldy or cracked. When frosty nights begin to occur, the house ought to be closed in the evening, and opened again early in the morning. Let the temperature gradually cool down, but keep the leaves from injury, for the grand object now is to preserve them until they fall off perfectly ripe, when we know that nature is satisfied, and the wood sufficiently matured to insure all requirements for another season's development. Immediately after the leaves are fallen is the best time to prune ; and as we are now considered to be dealing with vines which have had two summers' growth, cut down the cane of the present season to the same length, according to size or vigor, and likewise disbud it, as ad- vised for the last fall pruning, which will make a total length from the bottom of nine to twelve feet. Cut the side spurs to tlu'ee or four buds from the extreme base, according as they may be plump or well rounded, and at the same time peel off the loose bark from the outside of the stem which has tv/o seasons' growth, but do not injure that which is immediately beneath the loose outer cover- ing, nor remove any from the side spurs, or the present summer's cane. The object of this peeling is to prevent the lodgment of insects ; with this exception, it would be better left on, for nature never forms any covering but MANAGEMENT FOR THE SECOND YEAR. 75 what is useful ; but as tliis outer and loose bark is virtu- ally dead, it is of no further use than protection against cold ; so that if the vines are carefully covered from ex- treme frost, there is no harm in taking it off. The vines may now be washed over with the prepara- tion, as advised for last year, and brought down into the same horizontal position ; and as it is not easy to cover the spurs, if wrapped around with straw, the better way is to have long, narrow boxes, open at the ends, or to cover loosely with marsh hay, or evergreen boughs. Let the house remain open through the winter, excepting in stormy, wet, or very severe frosty weather, and shut up the doors at night, to prevent rats or mice from getting in, as they will gnaw the bark, and do much mischief. It is a good plan to keep a cat inside. A week or two previous to the leaves falling, fork over the borders carefully, both outside and inside ; by doing it at this time, any small rootlets which may be unavoid- ably broken will have time to heal up before winter sets in. When severe weather is apprehended, cover over the whole surface with three or four inches of good stable ma- nure, and add an additional layer of litter or leaves of about the same depth to prevent the frost from entering, and make " assurance doubly sure." As the general routine of this season's practice will ap- ply to all others, so far as the Cold Grapery is concerned, it is useless to follow this part of the subject further, than by stating (as we are treating of a set of vines in the first bearing), that the average crop may be doubled next year, according to robustness and health, which will admit of ten to fourteen pounds of grapes being taken off each, pro- viding all are healthy. It is well to observe the progress of any which do not keep pace Avith the rest, and where there is a want of vigor, to ease accordingly, by not allow- 76 THE GKAPfi. ing them to cany so much fruit as the stronger ones. A much larger weight than the above might be left to ripen under some circumstances, but, as a general rule, it would not be advisable, where permanent prosperity is desired. What is mentioned is easily attainable, and nothing is advised that I have not practically found to succeed as described. In pruning in the fall of the third season there is some difference, which will be found fully described in the chapter on pruning. CHAPTER VII. THE EARLY GRAPERY, Olt FORCING HOUSE. When the gardener aspires to the high attainment of modifying or improving landscape, he ought to possess the marvellous ideality of the poet, and should be acquainted with those nice perceptions of light and shade that the most sensitive painter is endowed with ; but when his abilities are applied to the forcing of the grape, it may be said that he puts his best practical talent and observing faculties in the most elevated position. It is true that there are many details of another character which require as much skill, and they may be as successfully carried out, but the popularity of this justly esteemed fruit eclipses everything else, and he looks with feelings of enthusiastic pride upon the crop, as he views the fine clusters hanging from his thrifty vines. Those who are satisfied to have ripe grapes by the mid- dle or latter end of June, need incur no very extraordinary expense, but Avhoever would require the same at the be- ginning of May, must expect to swallow dear morsels, and there are not many, excepting those Avho have wealth at command that will attempt it. There is, however, a grow- ing desire to enjoy the luxury, and increased encourage- ment is given to the commercial cultivator in the higher prices that are now to be obtained. May we hope that this encouragement will progress, and that, although it has not hitherto been sufficient, yet it may become so great as to (77) 78 THE GRAPE. bring a larger supply into market. However energetic our most scientific fruit-growers may be, and in tliis they are, to say the least of it, on a par with any other profes,- sion, yet it cannot be expected, that they will supply an article which will not meet with some profit. To this they are entitled by the standard of reward which is given to other attendants upon refinement, and Avhy slioukl there be a lack in this instance, for those who set a dish of lus- cious, tempting grapes before their guests at so early a period, not only show their own hospitality to the invited, but also pay a compliment to scientific horticulture, give a stimulus to the exertions of the skilful practitioner, and encourage the development of that important contributor to the country's wealth, Pomology. It has become fashion- able to display a handsome arrangement of flowers on the festive board at a time when every blade of vegetation seems withered by the frigid blast ; no expense is here spared, and why should it not be as much desired, to have an e(|ually rare representation of fruit ? Let Pomona and Flora meet on equal terms at our entertainments, recognize each alike, and we shall prove that we can appreciate all parts of the garden which the all wise Designer of the universe has committed to our care and keeping, and which he has commanded us to improve. When very early forcing is desirable, it ought never to be attempted with plants that have not been previously subjected more or less to the same process. If the vines are young, they may, in the first year of bearing, be for- warded somewhat, and in the next year they will be in a fit state to be worked early. With older plants the case is somewhat different, particularly if they be spur-pruned, for there is a greater tendency to burst the buds ; still, even in this case, it were better if they had been forwarded the season previous. It is often argued that the continual THE EARLY GRAPERY OR FORCINQ HOUSE. 79 forcing of the same stock weakens, and eventually wears out the plant, in consequence of which it is best to alter- nate ; to a certain extent we may admit, that there is some truth in this, but not so much as some would seem to think ; if the borders were to be kept warm, and the roots attended to with the same care as the tops, there would not be so many examples of early imbecility to complain of. True, all may be done that ingenuity can invent, and yet the exact growing temperature of summer will not be obtained — artificial heat is not so stimulating as that of the sun, but in our cloudless clime, even in the winter time, there is much bright and clear weather, which con- siderably assists our action, and if not quite so favorable as Ave could wish, it is sufficiently so to enable us, with good management and proper conveniences, to so far suc- ceed that a house of vines will admit of being uninter- ruptedly forced for many years in succession, and with far more certainty than the exploded notion of resting. It is more reasonable, and much more consistent with nature, that the same periodical action should be allowed to go on, provided it is not opposed to the peculiar consti- tution of any particular plant, and in the case before us, there does not seem to be anything unnatural, unless the allowing of a greater length of time for the full concentra- tion of the juices can be called such, and it is well known that the finest grapes, and most prosperous vines, are to be found in those countries which have longer and steadier summers than our own. So that, if all is well done that ought to be done during the earlier stages of development, the plants have all the remainder of the summer to mature their wood from the embryo fruit buds, and prepare for the more willing start the next season. Of course we may over-do this like most other things ; as the grape vine, with the great amount of heat that Ave have through the 80 THE GRAPE. summer, and that which is given in the greatest ex- tremes of forcing, will be subjected to as much if not more of that element than is to be found in the very hottest; parts of the world, in which regions our present subject does not thrive ; but in the most extreme cases, it is better to commence anew when nature is so far exhausted as to be no further remunerative, and as in establishments where this is required, there are always several houses at work, there is no difficulty in having the worn-out lot replaced by another planting. Where grapes are required so early as above mentioned, it is necessary that the outside borders" should have a share of attention, and we here take the opportunity of offering a few general remarks on this head. If we refer to those localities or climates where vegeta- tion prospers best, and to the most fruitful regions, we shall find that there is no great disparity in the average degree of heat between the atmosphere and the ground in which the roots of plants exist ; consequently, there is a reciprocity, and an equal action, or equal quiescence over all parts. We know likewise from experience, that if the head of any plant were exposed to summer heat, and the roots in the cold of an ice house, prosperity could not long continue ; in such a case, if it were positively seen, Ave should know the evil results that would follov,^, and alter the circumstances accordingly, yet strange to say, there are some men at the present day, strongly at- tached to planting the grape vine cutside of the house, and still stranger, the same persons are more particularly so when forcing is intended ) such men will argue that in this position, the roots more readily progress through the outside borders, and that it is indispensably necessary, as they have seen fine grapes grown in this way. Such logic is, however, contrary to all true physiological reasoning. THE EAKLY GRAPERY OR FORCING HOUSE. 81 for we all know the benefit of keeping all parts of other plants in an equal temperature, or if there is any difference to be made, a gentle bottom heat under and among the roots, and also about the lower parts of the stems, con- duces to healthfulness and success. Why then should the grape vine be made an exception, for it is subject to and is governed by the same laws as other parts of the vege- table kingdom, and the reason why it does not so soon resist the bad treatment which is so often practised upon it, is on account of its greater docility of constitution. For late crops the planting outside is not of so much conse- quence, as the natural temperature only differs compara- tively little from the inside, but for early forcing, it is absolutely requisite that the stems should be in the house, and if possible, the roots ought to be kept in the same temperature as the tops. To accomplish this desideratum, some of the best cultivators in Britain cover over the bor- ders during winter and spring, with a sufficient depth of fer- menting manure, and replenish it as the heat decreases ; this may do well enough Avhere the winters are not severe, but in such a climate as the Middle and Northern States of America, the same practice cannot be satisfactorily adopted, for, owing to the severity of the weather, there Avould be no end to labour, and the quantity of material required ; so that we ought to have recourse to other and more con- venient means to accomplish the same end, if we wish to acquire the best results, and endanger as little as possible the welfare of the plants. We may get along pretty well ])y covering over with a good depth of tree leaves, or other like material, that will arrest the escape of the heat contained in the soil, and prevent the penetration of cold, and this will answer well enough when gentle forcing only is practised, but it is nothing more than a make-shift job for earlier crops, and answers a very poor purpose. A 4* 82 THE GRAPE. better substitute, and a much more e£Pectual plan, is to cover the border with glazed sashes, or wooden shutters, and to conduct an extra pipe from the hot-water apparatus-, or a length of flue, which may be conveyed around tlie outside, and sunk in a cavity, so that the top may be open, and even with the surface. During the time when forcing is going on, the heat may in this way be made to circulate over the surface, and forms a stratum of warm air within the chamber made by the covering, which need not to be elevated more than six inches above the upper level of the border, so as to keep the collected heat more im- mediately near the roots, and by limiting the space to be heated, prevent waste. Wooden shutters are best, so far as retaining the heat is concerned, there is likewise no dan- ger of breakage, but glass sashes have the advantage of collecting a considerable degree of caloric during sunshine, and will somewhat counterbalance the loss occasioned by its conducting properties. No doubt some persons, who may be disposed to have early grapes, may think such appurtenances very troublesome and expensive, to which we would answer, if a thing is worth doing at all, do it well, for all horticultural products are cheapest w^hen well attended to, and such a convenience once obtained will last many years, as it may be removed in the summer sea- son, and packed away, and the channel in v»^hich the out- side heating apparatus is placed, may at the same time be covered over, to prevent any unsightly appearance, further than the row of boards or flags, as the top will be level with the surrounding surface. That good grapes have been and still will continue to be forced eaily without such an appendage is reasonably admitted, but is it not more in accordance Avith nature, to supply the roots with warmth at the same time as the branches, and is there not a greater probability that success will be more certain, and the yield THE EARLY GRAPKRY OK FORCING HOUSE. 83 comparatively superior, besides the enabling the plants to go througli the various stages of development, and after concentration, with less injury to the whole body. As stated above, it is generally conceded that a house cannot be forced very early, for many years, without the vines becoming weak and exhausted, consequently many growers go on the plan of alternating from one house to another, each, or every other season ; thereby, as they ac- knowledge, resting the vines. Where all other requisites are added to good culture, there is no necessity for this, for, when once a plant has been induced by forcing to break early, it is afterwards disposed to the same, and it only requires half the amount of heat to start such a plant that will be necessary for one that has not been brought llie season previous to the same condition. As to the weak and slender bearing wood, it is quite reasonable that that is a consequence of the tops being unduly excited while the roots are confined in a cold base, and therefore have not the power to supply the plant with the proper juices in sufficient quantity for its own development. The best cultivators are aware of this fact, and the adoption of the above plan has resulted in the most marked success, and vre have known houses v/hich were forced year after year, produce heavy crops of tine fruit, when the borders were covered as advised above. It is not to be expected that as fine bunches or as large berries can be obtained from the earliest forcing, but that a good quality may be had uninterruptedly, is a fact that needs no further demon- stration. For the first early crop, the vines ought to be pruned in October, and if the leaves are not fallen at the time, let what are still left remain on — for, until they become fully ripe and change color the structure of the jjlant is receiv- ing more matured body. Commence operations the latter 84 TOE GRAPE. part of November, by tying clown tlic Ijeads of tbc vines as before advised, and as it is presumed tliat the inside borders have become very dry, give a tliorougli soaking of water over the whole interior, v/ash well into all chinks and cre- vices of the wood-work to dislodge insects, their eggs, or larvae; maintain for eight or ten days a night temperature of 4:5^, allow^ing it to rise to 60^ or 65° with clear sunlight; at the end of this time increase the heat for the next two Aveeks to 50^ by night, and 65° to 70^ by day, with a free use of the syringe over the vines, and keep a quantity of evaporating pans on the flues or pipes constantly filled with "water. All artificial heat, excepting the open tank, has a tendency to dry the air inside forcing houses more rapidly than that from the sun, and as in the earlier stages of de- velopment, a damp atmosphere is particularly requisite, this point cannot be too carefully attended to. According as the heat is increased, let the moisture correspond — fancy a warm April morning, and imitate that as near as possible. The buds Avill be swelling by this time, and most likely the weather severe, when care must be used in ventilating. Our own practice in all plant culture is, not to admit any bottom air from the front lights through the winter months, being convinced from repeated experiments in different ways, and with many plants, that is one of the most injurious methods that can be resorted to. The temperature may be sufficiently lowered, and a current of wholesome air maintained, by letting the heat pass off at the top ventilators, which it is sure to do from its own re- duced specific gravity, and accordingly as it escapes there is a certainty of a fresh supply being drawn in through the laps of the glass, and other apertures, which occur even in the tightest constructed houses; depend upon it the lower or front part of any winter worked house, -will at all times be cool enough, without purposely introducing a THE EARLY GRAPERY OR FORCING HOUSE. 85 stream of cold air to pass over and amor.g tlie leaves, as it traverses upwards, and forces the beat out ; most of the mildew that attacks roses and verbenas in the winter time is produced by this cause, and if such plants as these suffer, surely the grape vine must share the same fate. One of the Avorst things that we have to deal with in forcing this fruit is the extreme difference of the outside temperature from that which is essential for its well-doing inside of the house ; and particularly during its more easily injured stages, there are the most frigid blasts to contend against, and very sudden transitions, from dull or cloudy weather, to bright sunshine ; owing to which it behooves us to study carefully how we proceed, and imitate as nearly as we can those peculiarities of natural climate which observation shows to be conducive to the most healthy development. This is more particularly mentioned here, because many persons are prone to take advantage of all the little oppor- tunities that occur to admit "fresh air," without taking into consideration these principles in trying to accomplish the object in view. So soon as the buds are well burst, the vines may be tied to the wires in their permanent position, and the heat very slowly but gradually increased ; if it were possible to be so exact, about two thirds of a degree per night and one each day in clear weather would be about an average, until 65° at night, and 80° to 90° by day (according as it might be cloudy or sunshine) were arrived at. As the shoots continue to elongate, tie them to the side wires, but be careful not to commence this operation too soon, as they are very brittle, and subject to break off at the axil when young. The bunches by this time will be readily seen and as the future treatment with regard to fertilization, stop- ping, thinning, &c., is the same as explained in the last chapter, there is no occasion for repetition. The greatest 86 THE GRAPE. difference now required between tliis and the Cold Grapery, is, in maintaining as nearly as possible the same growing temperature, wliicli is more simply obtained when the weather is genial ; and from what explanations are given, it will only require a little observation on the part of tlie cultivator to carry out these instructions. When the fruit begins to ripen, the front lights may be opened on soft and mild days, but not otherwise, for any- thing like a sudden check will injure the color, and stay the carbonic chemical change which at this time is going on in the fruit, by which the sugar may more or less abound, according as this action is encouraged or inter- cepted. It is also advisable at this exact period, that the night temperature be kept very carefully up to the average until the fruit is fully ripe ; a trifle of prolonged iiring more than pays for the small extra quantity of fuel and labor, by the better sample which is thereby gained. If the outside borders are covered by glass or shutters they will require an occasional supply of water, say three or four times between the period of the fruit setting and the final swelling, which may be accomplished by lifting the covers, one by one, for the time being, when the wea- ther is mild, and never use water which is cold for this or any other purpose in grape-growing. Have a triik large enough for all uses situated in some convenient part of the house, and keep it filled, so that what is applied may be of an equal temperature, or nearly so with the air. When the fruit is all well ripened, it is desirable to keep a part of it for successional use, and the house may now be freely ventilated during clear and warm weather, but when fog, damp, or cold prevails, the air ought to be only partially admitted. There is no occasion to fear mil- dew in an early forced house, but no advantage is to be gained by submitting the fruit, or even leaves, at this THE EARLY GRAPERY OR FORCING HOUSE. 87 stage, to the extreme changes that freqneutly occur. This free ventilation will, in the course of a week or two, prepare the leaves for the fall and uncontrolled action of the air, and the house may then be left open night and day throughout the remainder of the season, and there will be no further trouble than stopping the too extended growth, or an occasional thorough syringing over all parts to check the red spider, thrips, or other insects, the two first of which become a great pest to early forced vines when not attended to. To obtain a second early crop, which may be considered to be ripe by the middle of June, or early part of July, it will be necessary to apply fire heat from the beginning or middle of February, as the case may be ; and as all the details of management have been heretofore explained, the same practice, with slight modifications, will be appli- cable. The annexed journal, which was kept by the writer, during the progress of a house of this character last year, giving the temperature inside the house, and outside in the shade, at sunrise, noon, and ten o'clock at night — with the current kind of weather, and occasional remarks, will, perhaps, supply any deficiency that may have accidentally occurred. DATE. INSIDE. OL'TSIDE WEATHKR. REMARKS. eb. 3d 40. 60. 4-! ] l7.2-i.l5fCloudv% with snow. House thoroughly cleansed 4lh 41.63.41 16.21 .12 C'ear. and the inside borders 5lh 41.6.5.4-^ 18.38.24 Partially cloudy. well soaked with water. t3l!i 43.62.45 12.26.14 Uear. Till 43.62.47 14.36.24 Cloudy afternoon. Forked inside, and covered eth 41.61.45 34.48.44 Heavy rain all day with rotted manure. 9th 47.70.52 35.47.34 Clear. 10th 48.73.50 33.46.20 " Syringed regu'arly over- lltli 46.76.49 16.21.18 11 head morning and nighi. 12th 47.71.50 2 1.3-2. 24 n 13th 49.68.55 36.41.36 Foggy all day. 14th .51.65.58 36.40.34 " loth .52.66.6a 34.38.36 u 16th 50.65.54 36.41.24 Cloudy till noon . 17th 51.75.56 20.39.16 Clear. I8th 55.80.58 22.37.32 C( 88 TBE GRAPE. Feb. 19t!il:'4.74.5. March April 56.71. .52.74. 60.82. 5S.8-i. 57.85. 58.88. 57.69. 55.79. 59.85. 60.87. 61.88. 58.81. 60.77. 5 1.1-3. 58.85; 59.86. 60.73. 59.72. 5-. 73. 61.80. 60.84. 61.87. 59.^7. 61.88. 62.90. 6a. 89. 61.91. 19thj62.92. 20thi59.87. 21si|60.89. 22d 15;). 81. 23d |61.S;i. 24ili 59.91. 25th 60.88. 26th'6].87. •z7th 59.87. 28llije0.85. 29lhi59.89. 20lh 21si 22d 23d 24ili 2oili 26th 27tii 28 1 h Isi 2d 3d 4lli 5th Gth 7il) 8th 9lh 10th 11th 12th 13lli I4ih loll 16th ]7th 18th 60 30. 59 SOlii 3! St Isi 2d 3d 4lh 5th 6th 7ih 8th 9th 10th lllh r2th 13th ]4th 15th 16lh 17th 18th 59.80. 57.74. 59.75. 58.86. 59.90. 50.83. f->0.9l. 59.92. 61.93 60.03. 61.95. 60.86. S2.93. 61.96. 62.97. 63.86. 61.78. 60.75. 58.74. 59.85, 61 t V 61 00 6- 61 60 61: 60 6li.J7 6ui.i7 6i Go 64 05 65 70 70 6 64 59 62 60 64 62 64 62 64 67 63 6;j 6o 62 54 65 6y 68 64 69 OS 70 66 71 70 67 65 64 62 ,61 ,6 19th 60 8?.70|36 Cloudy till noon Severe snow storm ■'torn; continued. Clear. Clenr. strong wind Martially clouded. _..:ie.66 41.68.49 . <; 9th 66.88.67 40.74.59 u loth 65.89.6b 34.81.59 ParliaDy cloudy. lllh 53.90.65 55.81.60 Hazy. 12th 66.95.67 58.82.54 Clear. 13th 65.92.61 58.77.6) Foggy niorninsr. 14lh 63.88.67 57.79.59 Fog, with showers. 15th 61.90.65 .5S.84.58 Clear. 16th 61.97.68 58. 84.. 59 Foggy niorning- ITlli 65.90.65 5j.73.5S Fog with showers 18th 64.87.70 58.81.59 Foggy. 19ih 63.91 .67 57.81.56 Clear. 20tli 65.87.6t .56. 78.. 58 '' 21sl 64.86.67 56-75.57 Cloudy 22d 63.91.65 56. 78. 58 Clear. 23d 85.92.66 54.77.54 u 24ih 6'>.93.e5 -53.74.54 u 25th 63 .84.76 53-70.58 cloudy. Water overhead discon- 26th 65-91 .66 56-79.58 Clear. tinued. 271 h 64.93.65 59.. 79. 56 " Commenced to open lower 28lh 66-95. 7C 59.84.66 (1 ventilatory. •.9th 64-93.65 ■54.73.56 1 i 30 th 65-90.67 57.71.-56 Cloudy. Grizzly Frontignan begin 3! SI 6G.91.71 .56.72.58 Clear. to color. June Is! 84.90.6S 47-72.48 " Chasselas begin last swcll- 2d 66.90.61 48.82.54 a iu?. 3d 67.91.68 57-81.62 a Water entirely discontinued. 4lh 66.92.71 59 - 82 . 0.'i (1 5th 68.61.69 61.89.66 ;( e.lli 67.92.68 61-82.03 i.: Hamburghs begin to color. 7lh 66.90.67 61-78.66 Cloudy afternoon. 1 8lh 6S.92.66 62-85.64 Misty till noon. 9th 65.90 64 60 -72.. 57 Clear. lOlli 88.91.7C 61-84.64 u Muscats begin to color. nth 69.92.69 64-88.63 Hazy, 12th 66.93.60 61.83.64 I'huiider Storm. 13th 69.94.65 64.86.63 -Showery. 14th 68.93.67 62.88.60 Thunder showers. 15th 67.92.68 61.86.66 Showery. 16th 66.91.64 65.81.60 Clear. 17th 64.92,63 60. 72.. 58 Hazv . 18th 65.92.71 57.91.70 Clear. 90 TUE GRAPE. DATE INSIDK. OUTSIDE. WEATUEH. REMARKS. J ane 19th 69.9-I.6y 65.96.68 Clear. 20tli 72.94.73 71.95.74 u Cut ChasselasFontainebleau, 2lsl 73.93.65 71.90.61 Cloudy afternoon. ripe. 22d 71.92.64 68.72.61 U 11 23d 65.87.63 60.73.61 Cloudy with rain. Cut White Fronti^nan. 24th 66.90.63 57.81.60 Clear. Cut Grizzly Frontignan. 25tli 65.91.62 •58.77.58 (. 26lh 67.93.69 59.82.68 Partially cloudy. 27th 70.97.69 65.98.66 Thunder showers. Cut Hamburghs. 28th 68.91,73 68.85.72 u u Cut Cannon Hall Muscat. 29th 71.93.68 68.86.65 Clear. Cut Muscat of Alexandria, 30th 64.87.71 58.81.70 Cloudy with rain. After this lime tlie house was kept open at all times, excepting during very etrong winds, or severe storm, and an occasional soaking of water was given over the leaves to destroy insects and keep up a healthy action. CHAPTER VIII. POT CULTURE. The growing and fruiting of* the grape-vine in pots or tubs is, in some parts of Europe, very much practised at the present day, and some of our best practical men in this country are in favor of its being more generally adopted. As this mode requires the most vigilant care, we must consider the annual amount of labor incurred in watering, potting, and other attention which is required, besides the expense of pots or tubs in which to grow the plants, and also the continual raising of fresh stock. On the other, or credit side, there is the difference with regard to accom- modation and conveniences ; pot culture takes up no space outside the house ; the expense of outer borders, covering, &c., is avoided ; but there is a yearly item in prepared compost which only amounts to about the sum that top- dressings would require — a manure-water tank, or cistern, is absolutely necessary to supply the vines with nourish- ment, while growing freely; but this is a thing that ought to be on every place that pretends to good gardening. As to house-room, what will produce a given quantity of fruit by the usual mode, will do the same in pot culture ; and ail things considered, if sufficient care and attention can be relied on at all times, the latter mode has the prefer- ence ; still it ought to be borne in mind, that without all this, a poor sample of watery fruit will be the only reward, while with it, fine grapes, of good quality, can be realized ; and, considering the contingencies, it is only advisable to adopt this system as a first early crop. (91) 92 THE GRAPE. If we consider that eacli fruiting plant in this case will occupy one square yard, which is about an average, a house twelve feet wide will accommodate three rows, and admit room for a pathway ; and allowing forty feet as the length, there will be house-room for thirty-nine vines, upon each of which may be ripened six to seven pounds of grapes, which will make the whole crop from two hun- dred and thirty to two hundred and seventy pounds weight. If the vines were planted out three feet apart, in the usual way, the same house would contain thirteen plants to the roof, and the same number on the back wall ; but as the latter will only hold good for two or three years, on account of shade, or may have been used up by previous cropping, they can only be put down as a small set-off against the advantages on the other side. These thirteen vines, if forced equally early, cannot be expected to produce more than an average of fifteen pounds, which will give a total of one hundred and ninety- five pounds. If the above calculations be correct — and we judge from practical experience in the matter — the weight of produce is in favor of pot culture ; but as we would not mislead, it is necessary to repeat, that the same quality is not to be obtained without skill, and the most careful attention. There may appear to be an objection to pot culture, from the general understanding, that Avhen the roots of a grape-vine are confined in so small a space, it will only bear one remunerative crop, and is afterwards useless; also, that a preparatory house will be needed for succession plants ; thus keeping occupied two compartments. As to the first, it is an error to suppose that a second, or even a third fruiting, may not be obtained from the same plants, if the roots are allowed to pass through the bottoms of the pots into the base beneath, which ought to be made suita- POT CULTURE. 93 ble and fertile for the purpose. Under tliese circumstan- ces, and with the addition of liquid manure, there will be enough organized matter stored up for another season to maintain and develop all the next year's requirements. But allowing that only one fruiting could be realized, it is presumed that the crop would be ripe by the middle of May at the latest, and either all cut, or fit for removal to another and cooler apartment ; and as in such case the plants would not be wanted again, the roots that may have gone into the base below might be cut off, without any detriment to the quality of the fruit. The young succes- sion plants previous to this will have been only in a state of propagation, and have occupied no more space or head- room than a tolerably deep hot-bed frame Avould furnish ; so that, after the flooring of the house is again forked over, and a quantity more manure added, this young stock may be brought in, and established in their permanent position. Thus will one house, with the exception of a small pit, or hot-bed, answer all purposes, and v^ill be kept constantly at work. Vines for this purpose may be propagated from " eyes " in the usual way, by coiling, and by layers — (see Propaga- tion). When eyes are used, the young plants, after being well rooted, ought to be encouraged by plenty of pot room, and a fine genial, growing temperature maintained, similar to that used for fruiting. The most suitable compost is the peeling, or upper sward of a good pasture, which has laid together until the grass is dead, but not further de- composed. Chop this into small pieces with the spade, add an equal quantity of well decomposed barn-yard ma- nure, and if there are any clean broken bones to be had, or, what is the next best substitute, lime-rubbish, mix a quantity, say one-eighth part, and as much or more of charcoal lumps. This furnishes an open, porous, yet rich M THE GRAPK. material, in wliicli the roots will ramify very freely. At the first move from the striking-pot an ordinarily fertile soil is best, and the pot may be a quart in measure. As the young plant continues to progress, and has grown a foot or eighteen inches in height, it will be safe to remove into one of a gallon size, using the prepared compost, and make sure of efficient drainage by throAving over the bot- tom a couple of inches of crocks, or, still better, pieces of charcoal ; over this put a portion of the roughest of the compost, and fill in to near the top with the finer part, after having placed the plant in its proper place and position. Be careful not to break the ball of earth, during removal, when the pot is turned upside down, which may be pre- vented by giving the upper edge a smart rap on any solid substance near at hand, and keeping the fingers over the under surface, so as to receive the whole as it becomes liberated. After potting, give a good watering, and as the stems continue to elongate, tie them up carefully to stakes, until they have attained the height of seven feet, when the tops may be pinched oft'. Throughout the season the uppermost eyes will continue to push fresh growth, which ought to be stopped, each time, one leaf above the pre- vious operation. The object of this is to prevent the young vines from extending so much growth as would cause the lower leaves to be shaded, and consequently not able to elaborate the juices sufficiently to produce matured buds in the axils, the result of which is, a deficiency in the formation of the embryo fruit. If the plants are kept in a brisk and moist heat, and properly attended to by syring- ing and watering of the roots, they will progress fast, and by the middle of July will be ready to be placed in the fruitlng-pots, which ought to be from three to four gallons, according to the luxuriance of the vine, or robustness of the variety. The same process as to potting must be POT CULTURE. 9^5 gone tlirougli at this as at the last remove, and the same material used, and particular care should be taken that no worms, or the larvse of beetles ]pe in the compost. It is a good plan to use a little caustic powdered lime through the mass, a short time previous to using, which is sure to have the desired effect, and is likewise beneficial to the plant. Throughout the whole summer the same treatment, with regard to heat, moisture, &c., that is suitable for planted- out vines will be right for those in pots ; and if the best management has been observed, at the end of the growing season, the canes will be Avell matured, correspondingly thick, and in a fit state for fruiting the next year. In the fall they may be cut back, the strongest to three feet, and the weaker ones to two feet six inches above the pot, and if there be a portion that are not strong enough to bear fruit, it is best to head them back to the lowest good bud at the same time. These latter, in the spring following, may be removed out of the pots, and the soil shaken from the roots, which ought to be someAvhat shortened in, and the plant again replaced, using fresh compost of the same kind, with the exception of a small quantity of good, fresh earth, but only sufficient of this to merely cover the roots, and keep the richer material from coming in close contact until the young fibres are emitted. Young, healthy roots will push into and luxuriate in a base that would destroy those which are mutilated ; hence the caution. When the coiling method is adopted (see Propagation, page 133), the fruiting-sized pot may be used at once, and the after treatment will be the same as for the others. This is the best method for obtaining strong vines for pot culture in the least possible time, and -vvhen there is a surplus supply of canes from other houses at pruning time, they may bo used to advantage for this purpose. A pot-vine, if properly managed, is certainly a pleasing ^ boxes with holes in the bottom, as may be needed, throw in an inch or two of small lumps of charcoal or broken crocks ; over this, place a layer of moss, and fill up wdth soil, of loose but moderately fertile texture ; make it somewhat solid, and press the prepared buds into it, an inch apart, so that the tops be level with the surface; place them in a gentle hot-bed, or a house where a night temperature of o5° to 60^^ is maintained; keep the earth moist, but not too wet, as the young shoots vt'hen they begin to protrude are liable to be injured by (181) 13*2 THE GRAPE. dampness. For the same reason, if a hot-bed be used, great care shouhl be taken tliat there is no accumulation of rank steam, or condensed moisture. In five or six - Aveeks they will have elongated an inch or two above the soil, when they may be potted off singly into half-pint pots, and still retained in the same or a similar situation. When they have grown some five or six inches more, these pots will be filled with roots, and the plants may be trans- ferred into those of quart size, which will be sufficient for the season, if only stocky plants for future planting be required, but when the intention is to make strong plants for fruiting next year in pots, it will be requisite to re- move from time to time, according as they progress, into gallons and two gallons. The shoots will also need to be tied to stakes as they continue to grow. If healthy stock is wanted it will be necessary to place the plants, during the summer, in the same growing temperature as is recom- mended for fruiting vines, and by care and encouragement these young canes may be extended to twelve or fifteen feet long ; it is however desirable that the tops should be nipped out at the height of about six feet, which will pre- vent crowding, and allow the light to act more freely on the lower leaves, which in their turn mature the buds on each axil. As stated above, this strong growth is not neces- sary, unless for pot culture ; for a small well-ripened vine, with plenty of healthy roots, is quite as good for perma- nent planting, and with after good management will make headway equal to a stronger one. - Cuttings . — A cutting as generally understood is a length of the last season's cane containing several buds. Fig. 23. To propagate by this plan proceed as follows : So soon as the ground is in good working order after the breaking up of winter, dig, and break up well with the spade, a sufficient plot for the quantity intended ; string a line across one PROPAGATION AXD KAISTNG. 133 end, cut a trencli about six inclies deep, prepare the cut- tings as shown above, and place each six inches apart against the bank so formed ; leave one or two eyes ^^^ 23. above ground, press tlie soil tight to them, and afterwards level with the spade ; eighteen inches from this row open another trench, and so proceed until all is done. If the season should prove dry- before the roots have got sufficient hold, it is ad- visable to use water ; and if such be required do not dribble, but give enough to soak down, that the earth may be moistened below. One application in this way will do more good than a dozen sprink- ik lings, which only bake the ground on the surface, without any benefit. This method is the most economical, and all things considered, it is the best for the hardy kinds, for which alone it is suitable. Another mode of increase by cuttings, technically termed coiling is to take a length of cane, say from three to four feet fong, and coil the lower part around on the inside of a large pot, which is afterwards filled up with earth (such as is recommended for fruiting in pot culture), leaving a few eyes above the top. Fig. 24. This is of service only when strong and vigor- ous plants are wanted in the least pos- sible time for pot culture, and when there are any long prunings to spare, it is the best method that can be adopted, but it is only in such cases that it is of any use. Layer's are branches of the plant bent down, a part of each being covered with earth while the base remains attached. Fig. 25. These layers throw out roots and may be afterwards cut off from the mother 134 THE GRAPE. plant. The most common process is to merely cover with Boil, leaving the ends protruding, any time from the fall of the leaf until the rise of the sap, but as there is a ** best" in all things, so in this, and we may as well show it. Early in the summer, when the young growth has Fig. 25. attained to the length of six or eight inches, bring down the branch intended to be laid, cover the whole length to the depth of three inches, and peg it down, leaving the tops that were the previous laterals above the soil ; during the summer roots will be emitted at every joint, and of course there will be as many plants as there are shoots. The same operation may be performed any time up to the middle of July, but if sooner done, a better stock of good and well-rooted plants will be the result. It sometimes so happens, that an increase is wanted from some favorite or new variety that may be in bearing and trained in the grapery, without having to wait so long as the more ordinary methods require. In such case, one or more of the side branches may be drawn through the bottom of a flower-pot, the hole of v/hich has been made large for the purpose, or the pot m.ay be divided into halves and again fixed together by a copper wire; at the same time a sharp knife should be passed round the stem Fig. 26. PROPAGATION AND RAISING. 135 inside so as to sever the bark, but no deeper, which will facilitate the emission of roots : the pot may be then filled up with earth, and suspended in a very convenient posi- tion, and if kept moist will soon be filled with roots ; after which it may be cut away and treated as other stock. Fig. 26 is an example of this kind of layering. Grafting can be only considered as just coming within the scope of propagation, the object being not so much to increase the number of plants, as the changing or one kind on to the root or stock of another. It is generally adopted to obtain a superior or more favorite variety than the one that is occupying some particular spot, and has been recommended as capable of increasing the hardi- ness of the future plant, providing that the stock is of that nature ; the theory being, that a hardy sort imparts a portion of its character to the new parts. There is no doubt some advantage gained by the process, but it must not be put down for certain that a native root will so far alter the constitution of the exotic as to make it prosper out of doors under all circumstances, and in all situations where the former would thrive, all that will or can be gained is the greater hardihood of the roots, which may in some cases give a more steady or un- interrupted flow to the branches, and consequently a better chance of resisting that bane to the exotic grape-vine, the excessive climatic changes. It is a method that is of no service excepting for the above reasons, as young and healthy plants will answer a better purpose generally. As the grape-vine is subject to "bleed," if cut early in the season, and does not do so after the leaves are ex- panded, it is necessary to defer the operation until growth has somewhat progressed ; or, rather, it gives the greater certainty of success. And as the same heat that excites the stock into activity will also start the intended scions 136 THE GRAPE. it is requisite to keep tlie latter in a cool but damp place Where there is an ice-house, they may be laid on the inside upon the covering, or, in want of that convenience* they should be buried beneath the soil, in as cool a place as can be found. There is no occasion to enter into a sci- entific disquisition on grafting, or to explain the various methods of doing it; our object is gained in this case, if the best be illustrated. Cleft grafting is, perhaps, the most suitable, while it is also the most -simple, and is as follows : When the shoots have grown som.e eight or ten inches, cut off the head close to the ground, smooth over the top, and with a knife or sharp chisel cleave down the stem about two inches, put in a wedge to keep it open for the time being, and cut the graft to fit, making a notch where it rests upon the stock, to keep it firm ; if two be fixed in the same way, only each on opposite sides, there will be a double chance of certainty, when, if both take, the weakest may be cut out. Care must be used in fixing the graft, that the bark unites with that of the stock, for on this nice point all success depends. Take out the wedge, and wrap around v»-ith soft woollen yarn, or bast-mat ; cover over the top of the stock, and to a little below the graft, with grafting- v/ax, or moistened clay ; afterwards heap over the whole a portion of soil, so as to form a small mound, leaving the top of the graft uncovered. Fig. 27 shows (a) the scion, {b) the stock, and (c) both, after the operation. Another way, termed Side- Grq/l- ing (fig. 28), is to cut in a slant- ing direction, one-third through the stock, and prepare the graft to fit wedge-form into it, care being taken that the bark of both fits exactly on one side ; the tying, PROPAGATION AND RAISING. 137 Fig. 29. &c„ is the same as in the former case. This is somtimes useful when it is desirable to preserve the head, and jjg 28. perhaps the fruit on it, for the season; but the ^. newly-introduced part does not often get strong during the time, and, on the whole, there is no ad- vantage gained. Inarching is sometimes practised (fig. 29), which is simply the uniting of two branches that are each attached to neighboring plants. Where it is intended the union is to be made, the bark, and also a thin slice of the wood (in thickness according to the size of the intended new sort) must be cut away so that the bark on both sides will unite ; the two are then brouccht together, tied, &c., as in the former cases of grafting. There is no advantage in this plan, excepting that it may be performed any time during' the summer. It is, how- ever, best to do it immediately after the full expansion of the first leaves, which better insures a perfect adhesion. When it is thought that the union is complete, which ought to be in five or six weeks, the lower part of the introduced branch may be cut half through, and left so while attached to its own parent. In another week, or ten days, it may be entirely severed, and again left a sim- ilar length of time, when the head of the dishonored kind may be cut away, and the new one allowed to take its place. Without these latter precautions, there is great danger of failure, as the sap may not have begun to flow freely into the new parts. It should also be observed, that in all the examples, when it is seen that the ligatures begin to grip the bark, from the increase of growth, they 138 TUE GRAPK. should be loosened a trifle, and in a week or two after- wards tliey may be removed entirely. Seed. — The preparation for seed, and the after manage- ment, may be exactly the same as for eyes ; so there is no occasion to give any directions on this head, farther than by stating that it should not be buried deeper than half an inch. If there is not the convenience of a hot-bed or hot-house, the hardy kinds may be sown in the begin- ning of April, in a cold frame, or, where there is no glass accommodation at all, they may be made, with care, to vegetate in the open ground, but not with the same cer- tainty. The Raising of New Kinds. — ^NeAv or different varieties of any plant are generally raised from seed ; in fact, it may be said that all permanent ones are so. It occasion- ally, thougli very rarely, so happens, that a plant will pro- duce a sport in some particular branch, which, if budded or grafted on to other stocks of the same genus, will con- tinue to produce the like from which they were taken. The Tottenham Park Muscat Grape, and Fern-leaved Beech, are examples of this kind ; but such sports are not always to be depended on, as they are apt to again pro- duce offshoots like the original parent ; consequently we cannot say that they are really permanent, although the return backwards only occasionally occurs ; still it is pos- sible, and sometimes is the case. In varieties raised from seed we very rarely find a change, either in the original plant, or any buds or branches Avliich may be taken from it or from them in after years. Not- withstanding which, there are some species so prone to sport from the seed, that no two will be alike, or exactly similar to the parent from which they were obtained, and the grape-vine is among this class. Without stopping to discuss the question of what is a species, it may be stated PROPAGATION AND RAISING. 1^39 that, when once the apparent fixedness of natural distinct- ive characters is broken, either by accidental or purposed hybridization, there is no end to the variety that may be produced. So prolific has this variation been in the exotic kinds, that some European catalogues enumerate several hundred sorts ; and although many of these are merely duplicates of others, there are still left enough to prove the case. In our country the same is being verified by the many new kinds which are at present being intro- duced to public notice, and as the community become more awake to the improvement that may be made, we shall have a long array of names, containing in the aggre- gate all sorts, from fine and good, down to middling and bad ; and, in connection with this, we may look forward to a far superior quality to any we now possess ; for there is nothing to prevent a progressive movement, or ultimately attaining to the same perfection Avhich the exotics at present possess, with the additional property of a hardy constitution, that will prosper in the open air, without the great drawback of mildew, to which the foreign kinds are so subject, and which consequently renders them worth- less for out-door culture, with very few exceptions. So important is this matter as a national profit, that the sub- ject cannot be forwarded or discussed too much. Our own vineyards are now supplying a great part of the home demand ; and if the present grape-blight of Europe con- tinues much longer, the making of wine, and the cultiva- tion of the grape, will be so much curtailed there, that it is not unlikely we may become a large exporting nation in this commodity. Taking this view of the subject, all those who may be attempting to improve this valuable boon may be considered as public benefactors, and we in- troduce what experience we possess for the guidance of those who have not investigated the subject. 140 THE GRAPE. Physiological theory teaches, and practical experience proves to us, that the progeny of a plant, the floAvers of which have been fertilized by another, is more likely to retain the constitution and habit of the maternal side, while any peculiarities as to flower and fruits of the father are introduced into the same body : consequently, the native kind should be fertilized by the pollen of the exotic, when a hardy vine would most probably be the product, with an approach to the fruit of the foreign sort. So de- cided is this fact, that the operator may predict tolerably closely what the result will be ; and it is as sure as a demonstrated fact, thrtt we can produce, by care and per- severance, by this course, a tribe of grapes suitable for every purpose of the vigne?-on, and also satisfactory to the palate of the most fastidious epicure. For producing a fine table grajDC, perhaps no better varieties can be chosen than Isabella, or Concord, fertilized with Black Hamburgh, for a black ; and Diana, crossed with Chasselas Fontainebleau, for a light-colored class. For this purpose, it is not advisable to make use of the Frontignans, or Muscats, for the natives have already too much of the musky fiaA^or, and by introducing the sweet- ness of the Hamburgh and Chasselas, we shall be most likely to produce a Muscat flavor, with the size or beauty of berry, and form of bunch of the two paternal kinds. Beside the production of a fine class of grapes for dessert, this is likely to lead to a quality most suitable for the sweeter and mild-tasted Avines ; but for those of rougher and fuller flavor, the probability is that the Frontignans would answer the purpose better. This is, however, only conjecture, and must be left to futurity for proof. To insure success, some care and attention is necessary ; more will be accomplished Avith these, from a dozen seedlings, than by a thousand Avithout it. The plants to be operated PROPAGATION AND RAISING. 141 upon should be in robust health, neither having at any time shown symptoms of mildew, and the flowers of both selected from fine and well-formed bunches. The opera- tion of fertilizing is also a delicate one, and there is some difficulty in getting the two sorts to bloom at the same time ; for the exotic will, almost without exception, have to be under glass ; and the native, on account of producing hardiness, should be planted outside. A temporary glass frame to forward the latter would be of service, and the former might be retarded by excluding the light until the buds burst, and keeping the head down in a cold house. The most convenient and certain way is to treat one or more plants of the native kinds as advised for pot culture, and, when the plants are strong enough, to introduce them into a Cold Grapery early in the season, so as to have them in blossom as near as possible to the time of the others which are in the same apartment ; and if attention be paid to the applying of liquid manure, there will not need be any doubt of the fruit lacking nourishment. When the hardy sort begins to open its flowers, the sta- mens should be immediately cut out, and the stigma fer- tilized by the pollen from the anthers of the exotic; indeed it is necessary, if the greatest surety is intended, that the corolla (which fits like a little cap over the parts, and rolls up from the bottom, instead of, as in most flowers, expand- ing at the top) should be carefully removed before its natural liberation, for the anthers generally burst just pre- vious to being exposed ; and as they encircle the stigma, and are immediately over it, impregnation may have then taken place, which will most likely frustrate all hopes; for any hermaphrodite plant, providing all the sexual organs are perfect, will be more readily fertilized by its own than another's pollen. While the mother plant is in bloom, care must be taken to keep off insects. This may be done, by 142 THE GRAPE. tying a fine net-work bag over the bunch, and, if there be a suitable place on the premises for its healthy action, the vine ought to be removed away from any other plant of the same family which may be in bloom at the same time, for the pollen is a very subtle substance, and a proximity to others might destroy all success. ■*^. CHAPTER XIII. DISEASES. Mildew. — ^Nearly all attempts to cultivate tlie exotic grape-vine in the open air, in tlie United States, have ended in total failure and disappointment. In a few soli- tary instances, and under peculiar circumstances, where the excessive changes have been counteracted by shelter or otherwise, a partial success has been obtained, but the climate of the whole eastern and middle parts of the Union, is too variable for its easily checked, though vigorous constitution, and by which the vital energy is impaired at the time of greatest activity — when mildew in its various forms completes the works of destruction. This mildew is the growth of fungoid vegetation, the seeds of which are so small in many kinds as to be invisible to the naked eye. There are two kinds which are most troublesome to the grape-vine — one, which we presume to be the Oldium Tuckeri, that is at present devastating the vineyards of Europe ; and the other a Botrylis, or some analogous genus. The first indication of the former is shown by the leaves having brown spots upon them, and which permeate quite through the tissue. Afterwards, are seen small white patches of the soft and delicate fungus at- tached to the under side of the leaf, and which, if not speedily destroyed, will soon extend to the fruit stalks, penetrate to the berries by the rhizoma or spawn, and make them in appearance like a diseased potato in the first stage of infection, stopping their growth, and render- (143) 144 THE GRAPE. ing them useless ; the leaves also will fall off after a short time, and the whole plant become seriously injured. These white patches are the fructification of the parasite; when viewed under the microscope, there is exhibited a multitudinous congregation of little mushroom-looking sub- stances, and if suddenly jerked, the finy sporules may be seen detached, and floating in the atmosphere, so minute and subtle, and in such countless numbers, that it is not unreasonable to suppose (beside the immediate develop- ment and rapid vegetation of thousands of them under favorable influences) many are absorbed by the stomata or breathing pores on the under surface of the leaves, and conveyed into the interior, simply by the descending movement of the elaborated sap, which is afterwards con- verted into woody-fibre, and in its turn becomes the organized medium by which the ascending sap, in the fol- lowing spring, flows with greater velocity to the unfolding leaves. The secreted sporules may then be re-conducted upwards, and conveyed onwards to the foilage, and there remain donaiant, until the favorable circumstances occur for their germination, when they spring into renewed life, and speedily produce another crop of seeds for a future generation. This kind of mildew seldom does any mis- chief after the growth approaches towards ripeness, or the fruit is in the last swell, and as it generally begins to appear about the early part of July, during damp and close weather, those plants which have been more or less forwarded by artificial heat are almost free from its attacks ; but in the Cold Grapery or Eetarding House we should be on our guard, and when storms or damp weather occurs, strew sulphur on the floor of the house, in the proportion of one pound to each fifteen or twenty square-yards, and withhold water for the time being, keeping the house quite close, if cloudy, and allowing the temperature to rise some- DISEASES. 145 what higher for tv.o or three days. This will cause the sulphur to throw off fumes, which are readily perceptible to the smell, and will check the further progress of the past if present, or prevent its appearance if not so. "\Ye have used all the supposed remedies that we could collect a knowledge of, by way of experiment, without being able to discover anything more than temporary relief, while the fumes of sulphur, as above recommended, have never failed to immediately check, and if water be with- held during the continuance, to finally overcome it. There need be, no fear of sulphur doing harm to the foliage ; so long as igtiition dees lut take j^lace, it may he used with confidence. Herein lies the secret. If allowed to burn, chemical action goes on, and sulphurous acid is produced, which in its then gaseous form will speedily destroy all foliage with which it comes in contact. The other kind {Botrytis ?) appears like a fine and delicate hoary mouldiness, and vegetates along the young wood and tender growth of the stem, the leaf stalks, over the surface of the berries, and tipper side of the leaves ; enveloping and covering the parts so as to prevent the ftirther progress of the fruit, cause the leaves to fall, and the branches to cease growing. It is not, as in the previous example, confined to late crops, but will attack those started early also, and is often most prevalent when too dry and cold a temperature has been allowed, more particularly if a strong moist heat has been previously kept up ; cold drafts will increase the tendency — hence great caution is necessary in ventilating, or the producing of that atmospheric peculiarity which takes place when the moisture that is in solution in the atmosphere becomes condensed by a sudden transition to a lower temperature. Observation will show that those forms of fungus which at- tack peas, gooseberries, &c. — and the kind now spoken of is 7 140 THE GKAPE. similiar in structure, if not positively of tlie same genus — are most prevalent when a slow steady under current of dry air is passing in hot weather, which, Ly exciting to an extraordinary degree of evaporation, leaves a damp clamminess upon the surface of all plants by drawing out a portion of their collected juices, which then becomes food for the sporules to vegetate upon. This may be considered somewhat similar to the bottom draft in a hot-house — a very different thing, by the way, to a healthy and free ventilation overhead, where the air is made to circulate evenly over the whole cubic bulk, without that continual stream from small apertures below. In our present case, moisture combined with heat will counteract the fungus, and it may be effectually got rid of by syringing with water, in which a portion of sulphur is mixed; one pound of the latter will be enough for ten or fifteen gallons of the former. If the fruit be approaching to maturity, this kind of application will disfigure it, and the same purpose may be as effectually gained by dusting a small quantity on the heating apparatus where it will not ignite ; or if a cold house, by strewing it over the floor in the same quantity as before advised. The peculiar circumstances under which parasitical fungoids luxuriate, are wonderfully dependent on the state of the atmosphere. This is demonstrated, not only by the different sorts of grape mildew, but in all others. All plants indeed are not alike susceptible to these influences. The constitution of various plants may be able to withstand the effects of atmospheric changes without revulsion or excessive flow of the sap, and therefore they will not afford those precise requirements which favor the germination of the fungi. But as a general rule like causes produce like effects. It follows, then, if the above observations are correct. DISEASES. 147 that the main preventive of mildew is to keep the plants in a steady and healthy action, not only by supplying a due proportion of food moisture and heat according to their constitutional requirements, but by preventing sudden changes in the atmosphere with which they are sur- rounded, and particularly avoiding cold drafts in the lower parts of the house. Heat accelerates the circulation, and if the whole bulk of the air is uniformly heated, the circu- lation will be equal in its action and distribution in every part of the plant. In our practice, bottom air is not admitted until the fruit begins to change color. Although the above remarks may not harmonize with the opinions of others, an extensive experience has convinced us of their correctness. We have then the whole matter in a " nutshell." During the time when the vines are growing freely, keep up a strong steady heat, avoid damp or cold drafts, and south and east winds during cloudy weather or storms ; keep the house closed in such cases. Be careful that the house is not suddenly heated up when the sun breaks out, afterward regulate the moisture according to the external atmosphere. Close early in the evening, and open early in the morning. Observe and remember that to counteract the eifects of sudden changes in the atmosphere is the great desideratum. The best of us may sometimes find our utmost skill tested, but a per- severance in the course here marked out with close attention will overcome all difficulties, and we will be amply repaid for all our trouble. Many think that when mildew makes its appearance sulphur is the only antidote, without anything further than merely dusting the affected parts, or strewing a portion over the floor. From our previous remarks it will be seen, that this will sometimes be sufficient, but it is not merely lri:8 THE GRAPE. the immediate contact, in all cases, that produces the remedial effect. The further spread of the Botrytis 1 may be arrested on particular spots where the sulphur is applied, but it will not suffice for the Oldium, for we have seen it push through a thick coating after the application had been repeated for several days together, and we would more forcibly repeat that the fumes emanating from sul- phur exposed to a high temperature, are the only radical cure that we have yet discovered. There are several other sorts of fungi which are seen at times in the grapery, but which are not any further de- structive than by extending a mouldiness to the ripe fruit, or decaying leaves or branches, which may be prevented by circulating a free current of air through the house, or if that be not practicable, as sometimes happens with late crops or the Retarding House, by lighting a slow fire, and lifting the top ventilators. This will dry up the moisture, and be beneficial to the vines, by assisting them to ripen better. These last mentioned fungi may be considered as epiphytical, for they feed iipon a tendency to decay in the body upon which they vegetate ; while the first and dan- gerous kinds are strictly parasites, which germinate and progress upon the living substance, and destroy the or- ganization of all parts in their course. Shrivel and Shank. — These two terms may be considered as one disease, only in a more modified or virulent form. The difference being, that when a bunch of grapes is said to shank, the whole or a part of it dies off; while in shrivel, the footstalks of the berries, individually, are only at- tacked. The first stage is seen as brown spots on one side of the stem of the bunch, or the footstalk of the berry, and which, if not cut away, soon encircles the whole, the consequence being a certain stop to the circulation, and worthlessness to all parts below. From the earliest time, DISEASES. 149 there has not been anything in grape culture that has ex- cited more discussion than this disease, and the most eminent and best cultivators have come to diametrically opposite conclusions, according as it has shown itself to their individual observation. In some houses this is the greatest bugbear that the grape grower has to encounter ; for after the anxiety of the season appears to be past, and he is looking with pleasing satisfaction on his success, his hopes are suddenly blighted by the instantaneous appear- ance of this pest. His crop is just arriving at maturity, the berries are fast coloring, well swelled up, and to all appearance safe, when upon close examination, they are found to have become flaccid, the footstalks of the berries or a part of the stems of the bunches are turned brown and withered, in consequence of which the fruit receives no more nourishment, the carbonizing action is arrested, and the affected berries remain intensely sour. One find- ing that his borders are not well drained, and the roots partly rotted, and seeing no other cause, comes, and with reason, to the conclusion that it is the effect of this, and in his honest belief heralds his opinion to the world ; an- other takes an opposite inference, for his borders are too dry ; a third discovers that his house is badly constructed as regards the means of ventilation, or that it is situated too low, producing a stagnant, or unwholesome damp at- mosphere ; a fourth states as positively that the keeping of the house closed too late in the morning, and the sun's rays striking directly upon the wet or damp footstalks produces the disease ; a fifth, that it arises from extremes of heat between the roots and the tops ; a sixth, that sud- den changes of temperature in the house are the cause, and in this way we might go on enumerating opinions respect- ing the nuisance. It is a common saying that, "when doctors disagree, who is to decide ;" a very sensible ques- 150 THE GRAPE. tion, certainly, in this case. After careful study — now for the Last twenty-five years — we are led to believe, that anything which arrests, or interferes with the healthful action of the vine at this particular stage will he likely to produce this disease. If we argue from the analogy between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, we know that as immediately before parturition there is a very great stress u]3on the constitution, requiring all the strength with which the animal is endowed to carry through nature's action — so with plants. As proof of this, Avlien the fruit is taking its last swell, the size in many kinds increases one-third in a very short time, and in some instances with such rapidity that the tender skin is not strong enough to withstand the inward pressure, but bursts open. It is most likely that the change by chemical expansion has something to do with this, and if the plant is -not enabled to perform all its functions uninterruptedly, the stalks of the fruit, which are the conductors of the re- quired fluids, do not receive a full supply of the needful elements, but perish from the extraordinary demand that is made upon them for the time being, for w^e find them only affected in this particular manner at the period mentioned. If this argument be correct, it will be well, when there is a disposition toward the disease, for all grape-growers to ascertain where the deficiency is most likely to be, and remedy it accordingly, without any reference to dogmati- cal opinions. In the course of this work, an endeavor has been made to explain all the necessary appliances and conveniences required for successful grape culture, and as in our own practice we are very little troubled in this respect, the advice is given with some confidence, and a belief that if fully carried out the same results will accompany the operations of others. When the injury is done, the only DISEASES. 151 alternative that remains is to ciTt away tlie parts injured, and remove tliem immediately from the house, and insure the prevention of any contamination to those which are liealthy. Dry Ixot in the Roots. The upper indications of this disease are flaccidity, and deficiency of solidity, accom- panied by a sickly yellowish color of the foliage, weak growth of the branches and paucity of fruit ; a prolonged increase of the malady will at length cause the vine to die, and that most commonly about the time when the berries are half grown. All this arises from the want of nourish- ment from the roots, which, if examined, will be found to be rotted, and often covered by a mouldiness or fungus. There is no doubt but the primitive cause of this affection is a check to constitutional vigor ; and extremely close summer pruning has much to do with it, as it prevents the plant from equalizing its expansive and centralizing powers, thereby keeping up a perpetual excitement through the vessels, which at last brings on an enfeebled condition. When a vine becomes aflected in this way the best plan is to take it out, renew the soil in the immediate vicinity, and afterwards plant another in the same place, for it is seldom that the diseased one does any more good. The roots sometimes become rotted from other causes, such as being too deep under the surface, or when the borders are very retentive of moisture, or composed of over-much undecomposed materials, &;c. For this there is a remedy if taken in time, and the best thing to be done is to thoroughly drain, if that only is the mischief, but if it be from the other sources mentioned, the roots will re- quire to be lifted, and the operation needs great care ; so soon as the leaves fall, proceed to uncover them; trace each one, and as they are respectively liberated lay them in a straight length until all are secured, after which they 152 THR GHAPK. ought to be wrapped in a clamp mat or cloth, the border thoroughly trenched over, and a thin layer of good turfy loam put on the top, when the roots may be again spread over the surface ; all the decayed parts cut away with a sharp knife, and covered by four or five inches of the same kind of earth that was put under them. Care must be taken however before winter sets in, that a good layer of tree lejJves, or weak littery dung be spread over, to keep out the frost. There have been many examples, when this has been skilfully attended to, where a stock of vines have been entirely rejuvenated, that were previously worthless and thought to be worn out, but which have afterwards borne good crops of fine fruit for many years. It is necessary to give a partial shade in the early part of the following summer, or until the leaves get pretty well expanded, and it is better not to let them carry much, if any, fruit during the first year after the operation. Cloudy or damp weather is the best time for removing, and the roots should be as little time as possible out of the ground. Ret in the Fruit. — This has of late years caused con- siderable loss in the cultivation of vineyards. It generally shows itself at the time when the fruit begins to " stone," after continued wet weather, followed by bright sunsliine, when the berries become discolored and fall off. All the symptoms of this disease go to prove that it is the result of the plants imbibing too much moisture at the time when nature could better do with a reduction of it, for the grape- vine at this stage of growth would be considerably bene- fited if no rain were to fall during the after part of the season. Seeing this to be the case, we ought, so far as circumstances will allow, to try and remedy the evil by the choosing of a situation that is open and airy, but not exposed to the violence of storms — a free porous subsoil, DISEASES. 163 or efficient drainage ; tliorough and deep trenching or sub- soil plowing, and not over-close planting, so that the air may pass freely between and among the plants, in order the better to drive off all superabundant atmospheric moisture, and also enable the plants to exhale the over- plus fluids with which, at such times, they are surcharged. For the same reason, where the vines are trained over arbors, or on trellises, the branches ought not to be too close, or the summer growth to become crowded. This object is not to be gained, however, by plucking off the leaves as some persons very ignorantly do, but by atten- tive disbudding of all those shoots that will not be actually wanted, in the early part of the season, or so soon as it can be plainly seen which branches will produce the finest fruit, and by laying them in, at pruning time, sufficiently distant — eighteen inches is near enough. In the grapery we are not much troubled by this nuisance, except in damp, ill-ventilated, or badly-glazed houses, which is an- other proof that the cause is an excess of moisture, for it is a common practice, when the fruit begins to color, to use very little or no water in any form, consequently at the critical period the -grapes are in a drier atmosphere and the absorbing foliage is prevented from inhaling any more moisture than is necessary to suppport health. Where the vines are planted and the fruit is found to be subject to the affection, it will be well to drain deeply between the rows in the fall, and when the ground is forked over to apply a good dressing of fresh powdered lime ; indeed a very confident opinion will not be much liazarded by stating, that a well drained calcareous soil, in an airy but not exposed situation, would be sure to give grapes nearly, if not quite free from rot. Sjpot. — The spot, although by some pe'rsons confounded with the preceding disease, is certainly a different thing ; 154 THE GRAPE. it is not so injurious, as the berries only become marked by a black spot on the surface, fbut \yhich penetrates through the skin), and remains on the vine to ripen ; the quality, however, is considerably deteriorated, for it con- tinues to be a " spot" to the last, and gives a bitter taste to the flavor, not only for table use, but also to the wine Avhich may be made from the affected fruit. After some years of careful watching for the cause of this, we are led to the conclusion that it is produced by the direct striking of the heat of a midsummer sun immediately upon the berries, after heavy rain, the individual drops of which fall with great force, and knock clear off a spot of the "bloom" or farina that the berries are covered with, and which, no doubt, is a protection against its intensity, thereby leaving the tender cuticle exposed, and subject to be more readily acted upon, just the same as the concen- trated focus of a burning glass, on a previously covered and delicate skin would be, if it were to be acted upon in the same way. With this paralizing action upon the par- ticular parts, they are more easily attacked by a fungus, which, when once it becomes established, will progress so long as the same weather continues, and hence is ex- plained how the disease increases with a similarity of cir- cumstances, and likewise the cause of its cessation. There are several trifling matters connected with the subject, which may not be considered as disease, that may be traced to some of the causes previously mentioned, but which if carefully observed may be remedied in time, without permanent injury ; and in connection with this it may be mentioned, that although it has been recommended to keep up a moist atmosphere with repeated syringing, it is by no means to be inferred that it is intended to water overhead in the middle of the day, or yet in the morning unless very early. In such a climate of " grey sunlight" DISEASES. 155 as that of England, there will not be mucli harm done by such a practice; but with our " bright and sunny skies," the same practice will lead to scald and to brown spots on the tender bark and under side of the young leaves, thereby interrupting, to a certain extent, the luxuriant and free development, and sometimes will entirely check the elong-ation of the branches, which causes a revulsion of the sap, and, of course, injury to the whole body. / CHAPTER XIV. INSECTS, AND HOW^ TO DESTROY THEM. Where the treatment described in the foregoing pages has been adhered to, there will be little trouble with in- sects in the late grapery, but in early forced houses, with the most careful watchfulness, they sometimes make their appearance during the middle and after part of summer ; also in the vineyard and all out-door culture of the grape, either one kind or other will, at times, commit great rav- ages, or do much mischief if they be not speedily de- stroyed ; and " prevention is better than cure," was never more apropos than in this case, for if a plant of any kind is suffered to remain infested with these pests, you may bid good-bye to health or productiveness. Therefore be on the look out, and when the enemy shows his advance guard, rest assured that if not speedily routed, a numer- ous army will follow. Attack his outposts, carry war into his centre, destroy his flank and rear, and completely annihilate him, or you will find that he Avill continue to give annoyance. Give him no quarter, for he keeps no truce, and so long as he has one helpmate of the opposite sex, he will persevere in bringing up his myriads of off- spring, which are soon ready for active operation and renewed destruction. The insects which attack our present subject, are red spider (acarus,) several species of ccccus, as brown tur- tle, and white scaly bug, mealy bug, brown and white (156) IXSECTS. 157 tortoise-shell scale, black and green fly, (aphis,) thrips, fretters [cycadcB,) three or four kmds of beetles, as the rose bug, cockchafer, &c., and occasionally the caterpil- lars of some moths. The red spider is a very small, dark red insect, almost invisible to the naked eye, which locates on the under side of the leaves ; it delights in a dry, hot atmosphere, and if left long unmolested, will spread over the whole house, spinning a delicate network, among which it travels with the greatest facility, feeding upon, poisoning, and disfiguring the plant. It may be destroyed by syring- ing and a damp air, and can be completely eradicated by the use of sulphur, used as advised for mildew. Indeed it is doubtful if it will exist at all if sulphur be exposed occasionally to a high temperature, without heijig ignited. The writer applies it at times in his plant houses, and is never troubled with either red spider or mildew ; even among roses when forcing in the winter, and the only trouble is, to sprinkle a small quantity over the hot Avater pipes, or coolest end of the flues, three or four times during the season. If proper use be made of the ' syringe, the sulphur will not always be required, but when applied it answers the double purpose of preventing the spread of both red spider and mildew. The different species of scaly and inealy hugs may be destroyed by the preparation recommended for the vines as the wash to be used in the fall, page Q)D. The scales generally adhere to the bark, and the brown ones are often so near the color of it as to require a close look to see them ; here they stick, sucking the juices, and ejecting their sugary excrescence, which spreads over the leaves, and stops up the breathing pores. The mealy hug is to be found in the crevices between the bark, in the joints, and among the bunches, in the form of little cottony-looking 168 THE GRAPE. substances, in wlilcli case it should be taken out with a small brush or pointed stick, for if left in its lurking places, the bunches among which it is located will be disfigured and too dirty for use. The tortolsc-shcll scale is more solitary in habits, and in appearance like a small tor- toise-shell ; it is to be found in the same places as the brown scale, lives upon the juices of the vine, and can be destroyed by the same means. Ap/iidae, or green and black fly, are small insects, sluggish in movement, having prominent antennae, a large abdomen, and a long probos- cis, with wliich they pierce the cuticle of the tender shoots, and draw out the sap, which quickly brings decrepitude into the advancing extremities. They are viviparous and gregarious, and increase amazingly fast. Thrips are small, active, linear-shaped little insects, which congregate on and run over the under surface of the leaves, disfiguring them, and eating the epidermis or outer covering; Siud the J'retters (a species of cycado') move by short flights, or rather jumps when disturbed ; they are somewhat linear and triangular in form, small, and of a palish yellow color, and like the last they feed on the outer covering of the leaves. All the last three varieties can be destroyed by fumigating with tobacco, but care should be used in the operation, so as not to apply too much while the leaves arc young and tender, for in that state they are soon injured. The rose, hug is a lightish brown little beetle, with a small head, and long proboscis. In some parts of the country it is very destructive to hardy grape-vines, before and about the time of blossoming. It congregates through the day-time often in great numbers, and eats the tender flower stems, thus destroying all future prospects for the season. The most effectual way of keeping this trou- blesom.e customer in check, is by hand-picking, at inter- INSECTS. 159 vals through the clay, more particularly early in the moru- ing, for although it may be caught at any time when at rest upon a plant, it is more sluggish before the heat of the day commences. Being only the visitor of a period, annu- ally, a careful watching for three or four weeks is requi- site at this time, after which it disappears, and is no more trouble. The cockchafer heetles are larger, more oval in form than the foregoing, and of several colors; they attack the leaves and young shoots through the season, but are not so destructive. The same process (hand-picking) will have to be resorted to for their destruction. There are also several kinds of the larvae of humming bird moths that occasionally feed upon the young stems, and edges of the leaves, and which, being so near the color of the parts they feed upon, and cylindrical in form, are somewhat dif- ficult to find ; consequently when it is seen that injury is bemg done, a sharp look-out ought to be practised, and a quick eye will soon get accustomed to the detection of these, and any other kind of caterpillars that occasionally may be annoying. And here we may state that the best advice which can be given in this matter in a general way is, to remember the old saying, that a " stitch in time saves nine ;" and if we do not wish to cultivate our de- structive propensities, by having to destroy an immensity in number of God's links in creation, we ought to have a benevolent feehng, and recollect that the earliest and first onslaught upon the precocious subject will render un- necessary the putting to death of countless myriads after- ward, each of which, in the true sense of reason, has as good a right to live as ourselves. With regard to the grapery under glass, if the insect world is " legion," and the generations quick in succession, they are easily kept down, and nothing but gross negli- gence or ignorance will permit them to get ahead. Use If^O THE GRAPE. water freely during the earlier periods of growth, drive it into all crevices of the house, and judiciously over the vines, and you may generally defy all the host of them. If after the fruit begins to ripen they should make an attack, the sulphur and tobacco may be applied as recom- mended, when their comparatively small numbers will be speedily put to the rout. CHAPTER XV. THE VINEYARD, AND OUT-DOOR CULTURE. So far, the grape-vine lias been treated of in a general way, as regards the natural disposition of the various kinds in cultivation. The practical details also are more par- ticularly explained for the treatment of the exotics, but to make a clean breast of our present business, there is required some more notice of the natives, and out-door culture. If we could be satisfied with a stand-still position the thing might remain as it is, for almost everybody who has a yard of land thinks of a grape-vine; and yet a greater number know how to grow grapes, if we are to believe the many metaphysical conversations that often take place. The fact is, that all the species and varieties will more or less prosper with almost any kind of treat- ment, providing they be in a suitable climate ; but this does not argue against the best cultivation, and there is little fear of contradiction when the statement is made that skill and care will be as amply repaid with any or all of the kinds. It matters not whether for wine or table use, this still holds good, and the only difference is in what is required. If, for instance, the produce be intended for wine, it will be necessary to combine, as much as possible, those peculiar characteristics which the best samples are found to possess, and in such case it is not advisable to in- troduce too much stimulating matter to the roots, but let nature have her way, with help directed towards her own 162 THE GRAPE. course, and still further to make use of those varieties that contain within their original structure more than usual of those ingredients which are suitable for the purpose. Now generally, with due maturity, there is enough of the car- bonaceous property, that can, by the plant's own action, be converted into sugar, and of course by proper fermenta- tion a sufficient proportion of the alcoholic principle may be obtained ; but this does not give the particular nor yet the varied aroma for which some wines are so prized. Too much encouragament to the production of exterior develop- ment delays the formation of concentrated sugary matter, and those constituent properties which are derived from hydrogen and other gases, that form in the exact propor- tion those very desirable accompaniments which connois- seurs delight in. Oonsecjuently it is easily seen that moderate growth, with efficient drainage; must be the best, and that as these peculiar properties are invariably more highly concentrated under the influence of light and free air, ample space is essential to vineyard culture. Although our country is said to be " the land of the vine," it by no means follows that we may plant with impunity in any situation, or under any circumstances, and notwithstanding it is found that some varieties grow even in swamp land, and produce fine fruit withal, when left to ramble among the branches and overtop the loftiest neighboring trees, if we try the same in culture for wine purposes, it would in the greatest number of cases be nothing but a miserable failure ; firstly, on account of deficiency in the quality of fruit ; and secondly, there would be no certainty of it becoming ripe, from the liability to the rot. On the other hand, the locality may be in all respects suitable, but yet so exposed to violent storms, that the foliage may be in- jured and torn to the detriment of both fruit and plant, and therefore such should not be made choice of. Again, VINEYARD AND OUT-DOOR CULTURE. 163 some caution should be exercised with regard to those aspects which lie open to the winds that bring with them tlie damp and fogs of summer ; consequently, it is objec- tionable to choose a slope toward the sea. Each tract of country has its own peculiarities, and an acqaintance with the neighborhood will enable any observant mind to de- cide in this particular. There is no advantage in following to the letter the advice of those avIio, too often, persist in believing a south-east slope to be imperatively necessary — men who may have prospered well enough in their own country and climate, are sometimes wedded to a certain faith, and have not always sufficient tractability of mind to alter their practice or adapt it to a difference of circum- stances. If we consider that along the eastern shores the damp air which is brought from the ocean almost invariably brings on a tendency to mildew and rot, it is evident that in such a region it would be much better to adopt a spot which is sheltered by higher ground on the eastern side. At the same time, a low or moist situation should by all means be avoided, or one where the air is liable to be stagnant at times. The next most important item is a dry under base ; a rough rubbly gravel subsoil, Avith a con- tinued descent below, will generally prove naturally well- drained, but in all examples to the contrary it ought to be made so by artificial means. Nothing conduces more to prosperity than a soil strongly impregnated with carbonate of lime, or having limestone rock beneath. If any body is sceptical in this, they may be easily convinced by referring to analysis, or more simply by examining the incrustation left on the edges of the leaves after the evaporation of that excessive perspira- tion, which sometimes takes place in hot and cloudy weather, while the growth of the plant is young. There is perhaps no plant which exhibits more clearly than does 164 Till*: GRArE. the grape-vine, the oft-disputed fact that these inorganic substances are really absorbed. Here is a plain proof that they are, for according to the greater or less amount of lime in the soil, so will this appearance be manifest. It is most likely, that if all plants were so situated as to be enabled to take up the exact proportions of the various elementary food required by them, most of the diseases to which they are subject would disappear ; and certain enough it is, that all would be prevented, if we could con- trol the elements to suit the different stages of growth, and adapt the light and heat to all respective constitutions. In making choice of a piece of land for a vineyard, it is not always convenient to gain possession of the precise spot which our intelligence would covet ; but if it could be done, and there are many opportunities where it may be, we should accept an elevated tabk-land, lying high and dry upon a limestone base, and screened from the damp easterly and cold north and north-west winds by a distant range of hills, which would protect without pro- ducing a confined atmosphere, and give shelter against the most frigid blasts of a below zero temperature. We may also take a more philosophical view of the method of planting than is generally practised, and in- stead of fixing the plants in the position of so many hills of corn, and about the same distance apart, Avhen each stool requires a stake, and the bearing cane has to be curved over, thereby being only half supported, we would consider the aspect that might have to be dealt with, the inclination towards the sun's rays, and all such matters as would give opportunity for the most prevalent drying winds to blow through each row of vines, and in addition to expose the upper side of the leaves as much as possible to the action of the mid-day sun, in order the better to concentrate true growth, and prepare the plants to resist VINEYARD AND OUT-DOOR CULTURE. 165 the violent and sudden changes of weather for which our climate is so proverbial. The following explanation will perhaps show more clearly what is here meant. After making choice of a suitable soil and situation, and making sure that the subsoil is well drained, commence to trench with the spade, or plough deeply the Avhole piece. If the spade be used and the soil shallow, this operation may be performed as follows : Take out a trench at one side, three feet wide and one spit deep; wheel or cart this to the other end, then loosen up the under soil another spit, break it up well and leave it in the bottom ; throw the next upper crust on the top of this, and so on until all is finished. Where a large extent is to be cultivated, it would become too expensive to trench, and the plough will have to do the work ; in which case, the subsoil plough ought to follow the top loosening. Where the soil is equally good the two spit -deep, the bottom may be turned to the top to advantage. Very little manure will be needed if the earth be in good heart, and well incorporated with vegetable matter, but otherwise it is advisable to work in at the same time, from ten to fifteen tons of decomposed barn- yard dung to the acre ; and if there be a deficiency of the alkaline bases, a dressing of lime and wood ashes will prove very beneficial. Although the roots of the grape vine, when established delight in an open turfy soil, a cross ploughing and harrowing will be required to pul- verize, sufficiently, the soil before planting, and give the young fibres a better chance to lay hold of it at first start. The work, also, ought to be done during the summer or previous early fall, so as to get into good condition by the time it may be wanted. There are many cultivators who think it absolutely necessary to choose a side-hill situation for the vineyard, and it must be admitted that such is often the best, but 166 THE GRAPE. there is no reason why it shouhl be invariably accepted to the entire exchision of any other. However, where the disposition leads that way, and all the above-mentioneel considerations are not to be acquired, it will answer the purpose, and if the slope be anything like steep, the whole extent will have to be formed into terraces. This becomes more or less expensive according to the angle of ascent. It should also be remembered, that on a hill-side, the cold air, more particularly in the night, is constantly moving along the surface, from the top towards the bottom, there- by preventing that health-producing evaporation of warmth from the soil which is obtained from the solar heat of the previous day, and causing, in our extreme climate, a con- densation of the moisture as it radiates upwards, which is then carried along towards the lowest level in the form of a damp and cold draft among the under parts of the plants ; and it does not require a second thought to under- stand how injurious such a circumstance is in all other kinds-^of culture. No doubt many will think that such notions as these are not worthy of consideration, but as we are being troubled with rot, mildew, and other hurtful affections, it is well to guard against all things that are likely to provoke, or produce the evil, and avoid them accordingly. Arguing from the culture of the grape- vine, or any other plant under glass, we know that such action would bring on these very diseases; and it is not to inside cultivation alone that we are at all times dependent for proof, for there now and then happens an example where a plant is trained on two aspects, or the head is in different positions, when one part is quite free from disease, while the other is badly affected ; aiid it is just possible that these cold currents of damp air is one of the causes of mischief. To pro})are a side-hill for a vineyard, it will be requisite VINEYARD AND OUT-DOOR CULTURE, 167 to form terraces from the bottom upwards, in width according to the steepness of ascent. If very abrupt, only one row of vines can be accommodated on each, but with a more gentle inclination the breadth may be sufficient for two or even three rows. The front will also require to be banked up to render the upper surface level, and there is nothing more suitable for the purpose than thick turfs of grass-sod, fixed on the edges, inclining from the perpendicular towards the bank. Generally speaking, these sods may be cut from the imm.ediate surface, when a portion of each length to be laid out will furnish enough material for its own front, and as there is a right and a wrong in this operation, like most other things, it may be of service to show the right. When a bank of this charac- ter is made of square sods, as seen in Fig. 30, they are subject to give way during the rains of the first summer, from the fact of there being no mechanical holdfast. Fig. 31 Fiff. 30. Fig. 31. — Vr7 □ ///// // shows how this may be obviated, and the trouble or ex- pense of workmanship is the same in both cases. The way to get these latter is, to simply cut down a few inches with the spade in a slanting direction, by a straight line at equal distances, as much as may be wanted, and after- ward cut to the same width, with the line placed diagon- ally to the first cutting, which will give each individual sod of the right size and form to push together, by merely reversing the bevelled edge at each rise on the height. The trenching, plowing, manuring, &c., will be the same in this as the before-noticed plan. The next thing to be 168 THE GliAPE. done, is the preparing of supports upon wliicli to train the vines. The most common method of planting is, in straight rows from five to six feet apart, and at right angles with each other, and to simply have a pole to each vine ; the method of training being the long rod, explained page 120. This answers the purpose very well and has be- come the most customary, in part from the introduced routine of Europe, and in some measure as a consideration of economy. As to the latter, there miiy be some saving to the pocket, but unless there are more than counter- balancing advantages, there is no use in following old customs, so long as better ones can be introduced, and in the present case, an improvement may be accomplished by cheap trellises, which may be made in the following manner : Prepare a quantity of good strong poles of locust, chestnut, oak, or ash, seven feet six inches; point and char these three feet on the lower end and drive them into the ground two feet six inches, in rows six feet apart, extending east and west, or as near these points as may be practicable, and the poles nine feet assunder ; next fix horizontally long narrow strips of wood, or straight but thin saplings, to the uprights, at a distance of one foot ; this will make a substantial trellis on which to train the vines, and be far superior, with very little more expense than the pole-to-one-vine that is so often made use of. It is high time for us to adopt a principle of neatness com- bined with utility, and endeavor to supersede all such primitive machinery. If we are to imitate, let it not be a retrograde movement, but onward progress ; and a still further improvement might be introduced in the trellis re- commended, by using galvanized iron wire for the hori- zontal supports. There is some prejudice existing against the use of wire as it has been thought that it does injury VINEYARD AND OUT-DOOR CULTURE. 169 to the vines by the rusting' and their friction against so hard a material, but practically we do not find it so. Let the superintendent only attend to his duty without nurs- ing his old prejudices, and see to the proper tying, and our word for it, there will be no more detriment in wire than anything else. However, let everybody go along as he thinks best, only move onward, and as we are a great, and daily becoming a greater nation, let us not disappoint the expectations of the world by our want of originality. All may now be considered as ready for planting, and here again we have many notions to contend with. Cut- tings — one-year old, two-year old, and even three-ye'ar old plants, have each been considered as the best, accord- ing to the whims and fancies of pedantry. The fact is, we want a healthy start, at the least expense ; and as the plants must have a length of time to become profitable, what can be more economical, or insure future success better, than good one year vines 1 The more than half part of this business depends on previous preparation ; but, as this costs money, it is Avell, at the same time, to be getting- ready the future occupants ; consequently it is good advice to say ; raise the plants on one spot, and be preparing on the main superficial area ; or, if it be not convenient to propagate, adapt all contingencies so as to make sure of after results. A young and well-rooted plant will, if properly managed and attended, produce a greater growth than a stunted older one, with the additional advantage of being alike in all its parts ; what is true individually, will be so collect- ively, over the whole vineyard, and a greater uniformity will be obtained. In transplanting, take care that the roots are lifted carefully, and removed to their new quar- ters, before they become dried ; nothing produces more evil to any plant than this often careless practice. Roots 8 170 THE GRAPE. are organized beings^ containing fluid matter, and intended to convey most of the nutriment upward to the Avliole superstructure ; and if their tender cells become shrivelled, they are not capable of again performing their offices with the same degree of energy, but remain comparatively inactive for a length of time, or die immediately. If the top languishes, a weak start is the consequence, with per- haps the loss of a whole season. If the trellis be accepted, the rows may be six feet apart, and the plants four feet asunder ; but, in the ordi- nary way of staking, five feet each way will be the nearest possible distance. In putting down the roots, dig a hole six inclies deep, and wide enough for them to be spread out all around ; cover carefully Avith well pulverized soil ; cut off the head to two or three good eyes ; and, when the vines begin to start, mulch over, so far as the roots extend, with rotted barn-yard manure; or, if that cannot be had, then with any vegetable refuse, that is free from seeds, that may be at hand. When the shoots begin to elongate somewhat, it will be seen which is going to be the strongest, and all the others may be rubbed off. As this continues to grow, tie it up to the stake or trellis, pinch out the laterals (the small side- shoots which grow at the base of each leaf) to one eye, as they are produced, and rub off all superfluous suckers or branches. Nothing further will be required than to keep the ground free from Aveeds, by hoeing, or the plough, through the summer. The long-rod method of training is one of the best for the vineyard, but a periodical extension is still better, as it is more in accordance Avith the consti- tutional poAvers of the grape-vine, more particularly the strong, groAving natives, and alike applicable to all the varieties. Here is one of the greatest ad\'antages of the trellis versus the pole method, as Avith the latter no greater VINEYAKD AND OUT-DOOK CULTURE. 171 bulk of plant than is acquired after the tliird year is practicable. A reference to the chapter on pruning will explain all respecting this part ; so there is no use in pur- suing the subject further, excepting to state that cleanli- ness is one of the first demands of the vineyard, and is sure to more than repay for the invested labor. The training over arbors, around dwellings, and all such positions, will require the same fundamental culture that has been explained for the vineyard, the only differ- ence being in the peculiar desires or fancy of the culti- vator with regard to the form of the plant. As the grape- vine is so lavish with its embracing arms, they may be entwined around or over anything that will give them support ; the whole plant will continue to delight the eye with its beauty, and gratify the palate with its luscious sweets, if kindly treated. Even with worse than careless- ness, we may enjoy a portion of its liberality ; but, accord- ing as kindness is bestowed, so may we expect to meet with an abundant gratitude ; for, like the hetUr part of humanity, it can appreciate, and will fully return former benevolence. m^L?" CONGRESS ' oooo^iiati^Q