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 http://www.archive.org/details/forestprotection01sche 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Guide to Lectures 
 
 Delivered at the Biltmore Forest School 
 
 by 
 
 C. A. SCHENCK, Ph.D. 
 
 Director 
 
 1909 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 OISCARDED B^ 
 
 Guide to Lectures 
 Delivered at the Biltmore Forest School 
 
 Cf A^i^SCHENGE, Ph. D. \<kC:X 
 
 Director. 
 
 1909 
 
 The Inland Press, 
 Asheville, N. C. 
 
€ 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This book on "forest protection" is being printed, pre-eminently, for 
 the benefit of the students attending the Biltmore Forest School. 
 
 In American forestry, the most important duty of the forester consists 
 in the suppression of forest fires. 
 
 If forest fires were prevented, a second growth would follow invariably 
 in the wake of a first growth removed by the forester or by the lumberman; 
 and the problem of forest conservation would solve itself. 
 
 If forest fires were prevented, a second growth would have a definite, 
 prospective value; and it would be worth while to treat it sylviculturally. 
 
 If forest fires were prevented, our investm^ents made in merchantable 
 timber would be more secure; and there would be a lesser inducement for 
 the rapid conversion of timber into cash. 
 
 The issue of forest fires stand paramount in all forest protection. Com- 
 pared with this issue, the other topics treated in the following pages dwindle 
 down to insignificance. 
 
 I write this with a knowledge of the fact that the leading timber firms 
 in this country place an estimate of less than 1% on their annual losses of 
 timber due to fires: 
 
 These firms are operating close to their holdings; and if a tract is killed 
 by fire the operations are swung over into the burned section as speedily 
 as possible; and the salvage may amount to 99% of the timber burned. 
 
 These firms do not pay any attention, in their estimate, to the "lu- 
 crum cessans," nor to the prospective value of inferior trees, poles, saplings 
 and seedlings. 
 
 The "prospective forest" is the forest of the future; and this forest 
 is annihilated by the fires. 
 
 Merchantable trees of immediate value cannot be killed any "more 
 dead" by fires, nor by insects, nor by strom, than by the legitimate use of 
 axe and saw. 
 
 Where the means of transportation are ready, the damage inflicted 
 upon the forest and upon its owner by catastrophies may be reduced to a 
 minimum. 
 
 In writing the paragraph on "forest insects," I have availed myself 
 of many hints obtained from Dr. A. D. Hopkins. My own knowledge of 
 forest insects amounts to little; and on the basis of past experience, I strongly 
 recommend to all foresters a "lack of self-reliance" in forest entomological 
 questions. Consult Dr. Hopkins before spending any money for fighting 
 insects I 
 
 Mr. C. D. Couden has revised and rewritten my manuscript on forest 
 insects, eliminating many mistakes made by a layman. My sincerest thanks 
 are tendered to him herewith. 
 
4 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Whatever I know of American tree diseases and of timber diseases in- 
 duced by fungi, I have learned from Dr. Hermann von Schrenk. The 
 errors only which may have crept into the 7th paragraph of this book deal- 
 ing with fungus diseases are my own. 
 
 The graduates of the Biltmore Forest School, and all other gentle readers 
 are earnestly requested to assist me in the elimination of errors and mis- 
 takes contained in this book on forest protection. 
 
 Biltmore, N. C, October 1, 1909. C. A. Schenck. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 DEFINITION AND SYNOPSIS. 
 
 The term "Forest Protection" comprises all the acts of the forest-owner 
 made with a view to the safety of his investments. 
 
 Forest Protection as a branch of science is divided into the following 
 parts and chapters: 
 
 PART A: Protection Against Organic Nature. 
 Chapter I : Protection against man. 
 Chapter II: Protection against animals. 
 Chapter III: Protection against plants. 
 
 PART B: Protection Against Inorganic Nature. 
 
 Chapter I: Protection against adverse climatic influences. 
 
 A— Heat. 
 
 B— Frost. 
 
 C — Snow and sleet. 
 Chapter II: Protection against storm, erosion, sanddrifts, noxious 
 gases. 
 
 D — Wind and storm. 
 
 E — Erosion. 
 
 F — Shifting sand. 
 
 G — Noxious gases. 
 
 The English literature on Forest Protection consists, in the main, of 
 the following: 
 
 Dr. Wm. Schlich, Vol. IV. of "Manual of Forestry." 
 
 Dr. A. D. Hopkins, Bulletins of the West Virginia Agricultviral 
 Station. Bulletins of the U. S. Bureau of Entomology. 
 
 Tubeuf and Smith, "Diseases of Plants." 
 
 Dr. H. von Schrenk, bulletins of the Shaw School of Botany, bulle- 
 tins of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry and of the U. S. Bureau 
 of Plant Industry. 
 
 Lectures on game protection, on protection of forest-roads and forest- 
 railroads, on protection of forest industries — of vital interest to the owner 
 of forests — are not included in the following paragraphs. The author's 
 excuse for this omission lies in the word "precedent." 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 CONTENTS IN PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 Par. 1. Protection against adverse possession. 
 
 Par. 2. Protection against forest fires. 
 
 Par. 3. Protection against domestic animals on pasture. 
 
 Par. 4. Protection against wild vertebrates. 
 
 Par. 5. Protection against insects. 
 
 Par. 6. Protection against weeds. 
 
 Par. 7. Protection against fungi. 
 
 Par. 8. Protection against parasites other than fungi. 
 
 Par. 9. Protection against frost. 
 
 Par. 10. Protection against heat. 
 
 Par. 11. Protection against snow and sleet. 
 
 Par. 12. Protection against wind and storm. 
 
 Par. 13. Protection against erosion. 
 
 Par. 14. Protection against shifting sand. 
 
 Par. 15. Protection against noxious gases. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Part A : Protection Against Organic Nature 
 
 CHAPTER 1. PROTECTION AGAINST MAN. 
 
 Par. 1. Protection Against Adverse Possession. 
 
 Adverse possession and its consequences are best prevented by con- 
 tinuous, open and notorious possession of every acre of land comprised in 
 the property. To that end, a 'proper survey is necessary, coupled with de- 
 markation of the boundary lines by proper marks or by fences; of the cor- 
 ners by proper corner trees and witnesses. 
 
 Wooden stakes as corner signs are objectionable; iron "T" stakes, 5' 
 long, costing 35 to 60 cents apiece, are extensively used at Biltmore. 
 
 The exactness of the survey depends on the acre-value of the forest. 
 
 The lines of the property, established by the demarkation, must be 
 maintained by continuous patrolling. The posting of trespass notices and 
 the trimming of bushes along the lines are advisable, if not legally required. 
 Foremen, tenants and guards should know the lines perfectly so as to be 
 witnesses available in lawsuits. 
 
 In the case of disputes with neighbors, refuge to "processioning pro- 
 ceedings" is taken. 
 
 The forester should endeavor to straighten the lines of the forest by 
 purchase or exchange, and to substitute natural boundary lines for arti- 
 ficial lines. 
 
 Squatters, with the help of state grants or other colorable title, — or 
 without title but with distinct boundary lines and with distinct possession — 
 become owners within a few years. 
 
 In real estate law, the written word is decisive rather than the gist 
 of a contract. 
 
 The lessee surrenders to the lessor all claim to the property on which 
 he lives. 
 
 All deeds pertaining to a piece of property shoiild be placed on pub- 
 lic record. 
 
 Suit should be brought in the federal courts, preferably. 
 
 In the distant future, the increased value 'of real property will force 
 the states to "legalize" the individual holdings after careful survey. 
 
 The administering forester must command a good knowledge of real 
 estate law; he should leave no means untried to ferret out the trespasser 
 and to secure his conviction. 
 
 The most important laws in this connection are those concerning 
 Destruction of corner marlis 
 Larceny of wood and timber 
 Entering land when forbidden 
 Arrest 
 Proceedings at court. 
 
8 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Par. 2. Protection Against Forest Fires. 
 
 Protection against forest fires means, practically, protection against 
 man who, intentionally or carelessly, causes the very large majority of all 
 forest fires. Fires due to lightning are of rare occurrence in the East. 
 
 A: Causes of Fires: 
 
 I : — Fires are intentionally set : — 
 
 To improve pasture. 
 
 To imcover minerals for prospecting. 
 
 To gather chestnuts. 
 
 To force the owner of woodlands to purchase interior holdings. 
 
 To chase deer or turkeys. 
 
 To drive bees or coons from trees. 
 
 To improve the huckleberry crop. 
 
 To facilitate access to thick woods. 
 
 To get a job at stopping fires. 
 
 To surround farms, pastures or forests with a safety belt of burned 
 land. 
 
 To mask trespass by fishing and himting. 
 
 To take revenge for supposed acts of animosity. 
 II: — Fires carelessly started result from: — • 
 
 Locomotive sparks and cinders. 
 
 Sparks from forest cabins. 
 
 Campers' and himters' fires. 
 
 Charcoal burning, rock blasting, tobacco smoking, burning ad- 
 joining fields or pastures. 
 
 B: Kinds op Forest Fires: 
 
 Fires are distinguished as: — 
 Surface fires. 
 Underground fires. 
 Top fires. 
 
 C: Damage by Fires: 
 
 The damage done by forest fires consists of the loss of present values 
 or of the loss of prospective values; seedlings are killed; saplings burst open; 
 stool shoots replace seedling growth. 
 
 A heavy growth of weeds, frequently following in the wake of forest 
 fires, prevents natural or artificial regeneration. A deterioration of pro- 
 ductiveness is the natural consequence of deteriorated soil, due to destruc- 
 tion of humus. 
 
 Trees weakened by fires cease to resist the attacks of insects and fimgi. 
 Trees burned at the stump are subject to breakage by sleet or snow. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 9 
 
 D: The Factors Influencing the Amount of Damage are: — 
 The age of the woods. 
 The aspect of the slope. 
 
 The severity of the wind, and the uphill or downhill direction of the wind. 
 The season of the year and the preceding duration of drought. 
 The silvicultural system. 
 
 The amount of debris and hxmius on the ground. 
 The species forming the forest (conifers have less reproductive power; 
 
 light demanders usually have fireproof armor of bark; thin or thick 
 
 layer of sap wood.) 
 
 E: The Measures Taken Against Forest Fires are Either op a Pre- 
 ventive OR OF A Remedial Nature: 
 
 I. — Preventive measures: — 
 
 Education of the people and of the legislature through the news- 
 papers and from the pulpit. 
 Friendly relations with all neighbors. 
 Securing proper fire laws and publishing notices giving the essence 
 
 of such laws. 
 The purchase of all interior holdings. 
 Settlements of tenants within the forest. 
 Telephone connection in the forest. 
 
 Fire lanes (in India up to 400' wide) kept clear from inflammable 
 material. Such lanes exist along all European railroads. In 
 America the main advantage of a fire lane lies in the possi- 
 bility of back firing with the lane as a basis. 
 Trails or roads, further strips of pasture along the ridges and strips 
 of farmland along the creeks form the most useful fire lanes. 
 Burning all around the forest at the beginning of the dangerous 
 
 season. 
 Burning debris after lumbering— a measure of doubted expediency. 
 Removing debris from the close proximity of valuable trees. 
 Proper contracts for all work in the woods by which the liability 
 for damage caused by fires is thrown upon the contractor. 
 Annual burning of the woods intended to prevent the accumu- 
 lation of vegetable matter or mould. (Pineries of the South). 
 Removing duff from the close proximity of turpentine boxes. 
 Stock la\iv. 
 
 Associations of forest owners, as in Idaho, Washington and Oregon. 
 Pasture by cattle and hogs to cause a more rapid decomposition 
 
 of the vegetable carpet. 
 Unceasing patrol of the forest during the dry season or during dry- 
 spells, day and night, by an increased staff of watchmen, thor- 
 oughly acquainted with their beat and with the people living 
 in the neighborhood. 
 
10 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 II. — Remedial Measures: — 
 a. — Main principles: — 
 
 Have one man in full charge and hold him alone responsible. 
 
 Have helpers and relays for helpers ready in the various ranges 
 {scattering the work) during droughts, employing them in 
 lumbering or in silviculture until their help is required 
 at a fire. 
 
 The foreman, upon arrival at the fire, must first ascertain the 
 speed of the fire and the length of the line of attack; fur- 
 ther, the distance from the next fire lane (trail, brook, 
 pasture), and the amount of help locally available. 
 
 The foreman must not hesitate to abandon the burning dis- 
 trict, up to the next or second next fire lane. 
 
 Food and water for the fire-fighters must be provided. 
 
 The fire is subdued only when the last spark is extinguished. 
 The edges of the burned area must be watched for 24 
 hours succeeding the fire. 
 
 b.— Tools:— 
 
 The axe, hoe, spade, shovel, rake (preferably wooden teeth); 
 brooms; plows on abandoned fields; water buckets and 
 sprinkling cans; pack-train, or railroad- velocipedes prop- 
 erly equipped; fire extinguishers. 
 
 c. — Actual Work: 
 
 (1) Underground fires can be stopped only by digging ditches 
 and by turning water into them. 
 
 (2) Surface fires are stopped 
 
 By plowing or digging a furrow around the fire. 
 
 By beating the fire out with brooms or green twigs. 
 
 By removing the humus and debris from a narrow line 
 in front of the fire by hand or rake. 
 
 By throwing dirt on the fire. 
 
 By sprinkling in front of the fire. 
 
 By the use of extinguishers against the flame itself. 
 
 By back-firing from the next point of vantage with due 
 regard for the speed of the fire — the best and only 
 remedy in the case of heavy conflagrations. 
 
 (3) Top fires can be stopped only by providing broad fire 
 lanes on which the trees are cut, and by back-firing from 
 such lanes. 
 
 (4) Stem fires burning in hollow trees are stopped by filling 
 the holes in 'the trunk with dirt or by cutting the tree 
 down. 
 
 Fires going down hill, against the wind and in the hours following mid- 
 night are the easiest to subdue. 
 
 For the history of some famous forest fires, see Pinchot's Primer, Part I. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 11 
 
 For a number of tree species (notably Douglas fir, Yellow pines, Jack 
 pine, Lodgepole pine, Aspen) fire must be considered as an excellent silvi- 
 cultural tool or as a means of securing regeneration. 
 F: — Treatment op Injured Woods. 
 
 The treatment of injured woods differs according to species, age of 
 woods, market facilities and severity of damage inflicted. 
 
 I — Thickets of broadleaved species it is best to coppice, or else to clip 
 down with the help of long handled pruning shears. 
 Thickets of conifers are either so badly damaged as to require re- 
 generation anew or are so little damaged as not to require any help. 
 
 II— Pole Woods. 
 
 Pole woods of broadleaved species are most severely damaged by 
 spring fires, and should be cut where salable. 
 Pole woods of conifers, if apt to die, should be made into money 
 immediately, where possible. 
 
 If coniferous pole woods are apt to live, careful trap-tree prac- 
 tice will tend to. avoid more severe injury from insect plagues. 
 
 III.— Tree Forests. 
 
 Broadleaved tree forests are not apt to be injured by surface fires 
 sufficiently to cause the death of the trees. Hence, usually, the 
 trees are allowed to stand. If, however, a majority of the trees 
 are killed, speedy utilization is necessary. 
 
 In coniferous tree forests, trees are either at once killed by 
 the fire, requiring immediate rem.oval, or else not sufficiently touched 
 to be doomed. In the latter case, the use of trap trees is required 
 to prevent insect plagues from developing. 
 
 The presence of permanent means of transportation connecting 
 the forest with a ready market is, under all circumstances, the most 
 important factor in preventing material damage from striking the 
 owner of merchantable forests killed by conflagrations. 
 
12 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 CHAPTER II: PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS. 
 
 Par. 3. Protection Against Domestic Animals on Pasture. 
 
 A — Introduction. 
 
 Forest pasture is a legitimate forest industry. The waste pro- 
 duction of the soil, in addition to shoots and branches of trees, are util- 
 ized by pasturing stock. Vegetable matter transformed into flesh or 
 wool adopts a more marketable and a more profitable shape. 
 
 Forest pasture is, obviously, best adapted to woods of low stump- 
 age prices; of difficult access; of scant timber production (East slopes 
 of the Cascades; ridge between Pisgah and Balsam mountains). 
 
 Forest pasture plays a role in the forest similar to that which field 
 pasture plays on the farm. 
 
 Whether forest pasture pays better in connection with tree growth 
 or regardless of timber production, — that is a financial question to be 
 answered by every land owner on the basis of local experience and of 
 individual forecast. 
 
 Abroad, since times immemorial, forests have been pastured and 
 are still pastured to a surprising extent. 
 
 Pasture frequently acts as a silvicultural tool; hogs are used to 
 break the soU and to destroy insects; cattle or sheep driven over seed 
 plantations or through the woods after seed-fall imbed the seeds to a 
 proper depth; they destroy rank weeds overshadowing valuable seed- 
 lings. 
 
 B — ^The Damage by Pasture in the Forest is Threefold: — 
 I. — To soil. Pasture hardens hard soil and loosens loose soU. 
 II. — To trees. This damage consists of: 
 
 a. — Browsing on buds, leaves and shoots. 
 
 b. — Eating seeds and uprooting seedlings. 
 
 c. — Tramping down seedlings and over-riding saplings. 
 
 d. — Tossing-off the tops of saplings. 
 
 e. — Peeling hardwood poles in spring. 
 
 III. — To roads and road drainage. 
 C. — Factors of Damage are: 
 
 I. — Species of trees: Those most exposed are ash, maple, locust, chest- 
 nut, linden, elm; less exposed are yellow poplar, willows, oaks 
 (horses like oaks), birch, fir, hickory and walnut; least endangered 
 are larch, spruce, pine. Practically safe is red cedar. 
 
 II, — Age of trees: The seedling stage suffers most. 
 III. — Silvicultural system: Systems in which the age classes are mixed 
 suffer most, notably selection system and group system. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 IS 
 
 IV. — Locality: Steep slope, loose soil and shifting sand suffer severely. 
 
 V. — Species of animals: The animals may be arranged in the follow- 
 ing schedule, placing the damage done by a horse at 100: 
 
 Horse or mule foal 150 
 
 Horse or mule 100 
 
 Yearling cattle 75 
 
 Grown cattle 50 
 
 Goats 25 
 
 Sheep 10 
 
 Since a goat weighs 80 lbs. and a horse 10 times as much, the dam- 
 age done by the goat is relatively great. In addition, goats prefer 
 woody shoots and buds to mere grass. 
 
 The rates charged for forest pasture in Pisgah Forest correspond 
 
 more or less with this schedule, viz: 
 
 Horses 90 cents per head per month 
 
 Cattle 50 cents per head per month 
 
 Sheep 10 cents per head per month 
 
 In the pineries of the South, the lease receipts from pasture offset 
 the taxes frequently. Foals destroy pasture more by their mere 
 frolics than by their appetite. After Himdeshagen, 10 to 12i/^ 
 acres of forest are required for the pasture of one head of cattle. 
 VI. — Season of the year. Spring pasture is more destructive than 
 summer or fall pasture. 
 
 D. — Closed Time. 
 
 In Central Europe young woods are closed to pasturage for a number 
 of years. 
 
 AGE OF WOODS WHEN PASTURE BEGINS, IN YEARS. 
 
 SPECIES OF 
 ANIMALS 
 
 HIGH FOREST, 
 BROAD LEAF 
 
 HIGH FOREST, 
 CONIFERS 
 
 COPPICE 
 FOREST 
 
 Horses 
 
 Cattle 
 
 18 to 24 
 14 to 18 
 
 12 to 20 
 9 to 16 
 
 6 to 14 
 4 to 10 
 
 E. — Duration of Pasture 
 
 In Western North Carolina, cattle are pastured in the woods from May 
 1st, to October 15th, whilst sheep and hogs are kept on pasture dur- 
 ing the entire year, fed only slightly after a heavy snow fall. 
 In the pmeries of the South, cattle, sheep and hogs are kept in the woods 
 durmg the entire year. Cattle are fed slightly, in addition to the pas- 
 ture, during the four winter months. The much disputed pasture in 
 the Sierras and Cascades is used only during the three summer months 
 when the pasture in the lowlands dries out. 
 
14 • FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 F. — Pasture in the National Forests: 
 
 The pasture of sheep and goats is generally prohibited; cattle pasture 
 generally allowed. 
 
 Sheep ranges and cattle ranges are kept strictly apart. 
 The Secretary of Agriculture determines annually the amount of pas- 
 turage permitted for each forest, viz: 
 
 a. — The number of horses, cattle, sheep and goats to be admitted; 
 
 b. — The beginning and the end of the grazing season; 
 
 c. — The ranges actually to be grazed. 
 The stock of residents owning holdings within the forests is given pre- 
 ference over "neighboring stock." Only citizens of the State are en- 
 titled to grazing privileges. 
 
 Under any circumstances, permits must be obtained through the super- 
 visor by stock owners intending to pasture on the reserve (the stock 
 of travelers and prospectors excepted). Sheep must be herded by a 
 herdsman. 
 
 The sheep ranges are allotted separately, usually according to the re- 
 commendation of the local Wool Growers' Association. Promiscuous 
 sheep grazing is strictly prohibited. 
 
 Permit holders are required to prevent and to fight fires without com- 
 pensation. 
 
 G. — Protective Measures Meant to Safeguard the Timber Interests 
 OF the Land Owner: — 
 I. — Animals : 
 
 a. — Limit the number of animals admitted. 
 b. — Exclude goats. 
 
 c. — Prevent cattle from following sheep. 
 II.— Time: 
 
 a. — Prevent pasture in early spring. 
 
 b.^ — Insist on close time during regeneration and up to the thicket 
 
 stage, 
 c— Close forest pasture periodically so as to allow tree seedlings 
 to escape the mouth of browsing animals. 
 
 III. — Fencing: 
 
 For cattle pasture, two or three strings of barbed wire are suffi- 
 cient. For sheep pasture three or four strings. 100 lbs. of barbed 
 wire form a string 1,600 to 1,900 feet long. 
 
 Individual trees or seedlings, like orchard trees, are sometimes 
 protected by screens placed around the tree. 
 
 IV. — Seedlings should be planted within the "bays" of tree stumps 
 after clear cutting wherever artificial regeneration is resorted to. 
 Seed planting should be avoided. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 15 
 
 Par. 4. Protection Against Wild Vertebrates. 
 
 Amongst the wild animals preying upon the forest the mammals figure 
 as well as the birds, the role played by the vertebrates in the "house- 
 hold" of the forest is little known. 
 
 Birds and mammals may injure the forest directly — by eating vege- 
 table matter produced in the forest,— or indirectly— by killing the 
 friends of the forester. Utility of a wild animal is frequently combined 
 with noxiousness, e. g. in the case of the crow, blue-jay, fox. 
 Useful animals may help the forester either directly— by seed distri- 
 bution,— or indirectly— by killing the enemies of the forest. 
 
 A.— Protection Against Mammals Forming the Object of Chase. 
 I. — Deer. 
 
 a. — The damage done consists in: — 
 • Eating fruits. 
 
 Browsing on shoots and seedlings. 
 
 Peeling the bark of saplings and poles (notably of spruce, 
 
 oak, ash). 
 Rubbing off the bark when freeing the antlers of velvet. 
 Tramping down plantations or natural regenerations. 
 
 The objects of damage are, above all, the rare species, or species 
 arousing the curiosity of the deer. 
 
 b. — Protective measures are: — 
 
 Proper regulation of the number of deer. Compatible with 
 the objects of silviculture are, per 10,000 acres, 50 head of 
 elk or 150 head of Virginia deer, provided that nurseries are 
 fenced. 
 
 Feeding during winter by cutting soft woods or by providing 
 hay stacks. Mast-bearing trees should be encouraged; grass 
 meadows should be maintained; a few patches should be planted 
 m turnips, potatoes, clover, etc. Maintaining salt licks, es- 
 pecially with a view to preventing bark peeling in spring. 
 Hohlfeld's game powder is said to answer the purpose still 
 better. Fencing nurseries and young growth. 
 Sprinkling seedlings with kerosene, liquid manure, blood, 
 cotton residue or, better, covering the fall shoots, exclusive of 
 bud, with coal tar. Coal tar is especially effective in the case 
 of fir and spruce. Thinnings should be delayed as long as 
 possible. Planting is preferable to sowing, especially to sow- 
 ing in the fall. 
 
 II.— Wild Boar. Boar are particularly disastrous to nurseries, nat- 
 ural regenerations and plantations. The only remedies are strong 
 fences. 
 
16 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 III. — Hares and Rabbits. The damage done consists in the biting- 
 off of top shoots (notably of oaks, maples, firs, but also of pine); 
 further, in gna wing-off the bark of locust, Crataegus, cherry, hard 
 maple, linden. 
 
 At Biltmore, rabbits feast especially on the shoots of the Buffalo 
 nut (Pyrularia). The seedlings of Pinus echinata, in certain years, 
 were bitten-off in the nurseries. 
 
 Plantations of acorns at Biltmore have been annihilated by the 
 rabbits, the shoots being clipped year after year. Thus the oak 
 seedlings were prevented from successfully competing with the 
 weeds (broom sedge). Nurseries require a fine meshed fence. 
 Remedies lie, above all, in the protection of the fox, 'possum, skunk, 
 marten, weasel, hawk, coon, mynx. 
 
 In addition, sprinkling with coal tar (not on buds!) and wrapping 
 of top shoots in cotton waste is recommended. 
 The planting of rabbit-proof species (notably Picea pungens and 
 Picea Sitchensis) is advisable. 
 
 B. — Protection Against Mammals which do not Form the Object of 
 THE Chase. 
 
 Obviously, all carniverous animals are friends of the forester, whilst 
 most herbivorous animals appear as his enemies. Amongst the plant 
 eaters, the rodents excel in the amount of harm done. 
 
 I. — Squirrels. 
 
 a. — Damage done. 
 
 Squirrels eat the seed on the tree as well as the seed planted 
 by nature and man, preferring sweet oaks, beech, chestnut, 
 walnut, cucumber-tree, hickories, pines. They eat the coty- 
 ledons, buds and cambium of young shoots and destroy the 
 nest brood of some useful birds. In the Pink Beds, the top 
 shoots of white pine are cut off by the squirrels. Plantations 
 of the heavy seeded broad leaved species have been destroyed 
 at Biltmore repeatedly. 
 
 b. — Protective measures. 
 
 Protect the fox, marten, skvmk, coon, o'possum, hawk, owl, 
 
 cat (wild and tame) and all other enemies. 
 
 Remove hollow trees forming the hiding and nesting places 
 
 of the squirrel. 
 
 Plant seedlings or, possibly, nuts after sprouting, and if seeds 
 
 must be planted, resort to spring-planting of the same. 
 
 c. — Remedial measures. 
 1 — Shoot the squirrel. 
 
 2 — Poison it by bathing the seeds in strychnine before plant- 
 ing, a means found ineffective at Biltmore. 
 
 II. — Chipmunk. Similar damage and same remedies as for the squirrel. 
 Its main enemy at Biltmore is the black snake and the rattlesnake. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 17 
 
 III. — Mice. 
 
 a. — Damage done. 
 
 The mice live on buds, seeds, seedlings and the cambiima layers 
 
 of seedlings. 
 
 The field mice undermine the ground in nurseries and planta- 
 tions following the rows of plants and cutting the roots about 
 one inch below the surface of the ground. Frequently they 
 seem to follow in mole mines. The damage done by gnawing 
 is conspicuous in plantations of locust and black cherry. In 
 seed plantations on abandoned fields at Biltmore, mice have 
 done enormous damage to. oaks and hickories. Planted locusts 
 are bitten-off below ground. In the Biltmore nurseries, oak 
 seed beds have suffered severely by the mice cutting the roots. 
 Transplanted white pines were severely decimated, by gird- 
 ling, in February, 1909. 
 
 b. — Protective measures. 
 Avoid autumn sowing. 
 
 Plant seeds broadcast instead of planting in rills. 
 Have nurseries far from grain fields and from abandoned fields. 
 Keep deep and clean pathways between the beds. Surround 
 nurseries by deep and steep-walled trenches. Insert pit falls 
 in the bottom of such trenches. Work the nurseries contin- 
 uously. Do not cover the nurseries with mould or moss form- 
 ing hiding places. 
 
 Keep the sedge grasses and weeds down in nurseries and re- 
 generations, possibly by pasturing with cattle and sheep, thus 
 disturbing the mice and tramping down their mines. Burn 
 abandoned fields before planting. 
 
 Pigs admitted to the woods just before a seed year destroy 
 the mice whilst preparing the soil for natural regeneration. 
 Protect the mouse-eaters, especially those which are fond of 
 voles as owls, crows, fox, o'possum, cats. 
 
 c. — Remedial Measures. 
 
 Kill the mice by trapping or poisoning. In this latter case, 
 place grains of wheat poisoned by immersion in strychnine, 
 arsenic or phosphorus into drain pipes so as to check the possi- 
 bility of accidentally poisoning singing birds or quail at the 
 same time. Comp. Farmers bulletin No. 369, Biological Survey. 
 The root of certain Scylla species, chopped into sausages, kills 
 the mice by causing their bladders to burst. Gypsum is said 
 to have a similar effect, solidifying in the stomach. The lat- 
 ter remedies are not injurious to the mouse-eating animals 
 which are frequently poisoned by catching the poisoned mice. 
 The vaccination of the mice with the so-called "typhoid dis- 
 ease" has not been suflaciently successful so far. 
 
18 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 d. — Treatment of injured plants. 
 
 Broad leaved seedlings merely chewed above ground should 
 be clipped back. Oak seedlings, cut off below groimd, have 
 been successfully transplanted at Biltmore and have replaced 
 the lost tap-root by a multitude of rootlets. 
 
 IV. — Ground Hog or Wood Chuck. Dr. Fernow reports that his 
 coniferous nurseries at Axton were badly plundered by woodchuck. 
 After Schaaf, white oak saplings are peeled by woodchucks up to 
 five feet from the ground, near fields. Stomach analysis at Bilt- 
 more show only ferns. 
 
 V. — Porcupine or Hedgehog. It peels the bark, especially that of 
 spruce, basswood and hemlock, close to the base of the tree, pre- 
 ferring saplings up to 5" in diameter. 
 
 VI. — Beaver. It is now so rare that the damage done to the forest 
 is insignificant. 
 
 C. — Protection Against Birds. 
 
 I, — Grouse. The grouse bite-off buds and cotyledons, and eat the 
 fruit of certain tree species (buds of birch, maple, cottonwood; 
 seeds of red cedar, beech, witch hazel, calmia and rhododendron). 
 On the whole the damage done by grouse is inconspicuous. 
 
 II. — Wild Turkey. The turkey is useful by eating some noxious in- 
 sects and by scratching the leaves, thus burying certain tree seeds. 
 At Biltmore, however, on Ducker Mountains, plantations of scarlet 
 oak acorns have been practically destroyed by the turkey. In 
 forest nurseries, as well, the turkey is apt to do considerable harm 
 during the winter. 
 
 III. — Pigeons and Doves. Pigeons live during spring and winter 
 on coniferous seeds, beech nuts, buds and cotyledons. 
 Remedies in nurseries are lath or wire screens or coverings of thorny 
 branches. Pigeons may be shot at anise licks. 
 
 IV. — Crows and Bluejays. These birds live on large seeds (acorns, 
 beech nuts, chestnuts) and are especially dangerous in nurseries. 
 They plunder the nests of useful birds. On the other hand, they 
 may assist the forester in destroying mice and noxious insects; 
 they uriderplant whole forests with acorns, beech nuts, hickory 
 nuts and chestnuts. 
 
 V. — Finches and Cross-bills. The damage done consists in the de- 
 struction of seed plantations of conifers made in nurseries or in 
 the open. It occurs during the spring migration of the birds when 
 they appear in large swarms. 
 
 The cotyledons are bitten off and eaten as well as the seeds. Some 
 cross-bills split the scales of coniferous cones into two, withdraw- 
 ing the seed from underneath the scales. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 19 
 
 Protective measures are: 
 Screens of wire or lath over nursery beds. The mesh must be fine, 
 and the distance between the lath must not exceed % inch. 
 Shooting some birds, keeping the balance scared off. 
 Coating the seeds in red lead (very efficient), one pound of red 
 lead being sufficient to cover seven poimds of coniferous seeds. 
 Shortening the period of exposure by planting the seeds in late 
 spring after three to eight days mxilching. 
 VI. — Woodpeckers. Woodpeckers withdraw the larvae of wood boring 
 insects from their mmes with the help of a long, thin tongue. They 
 withdraw useful as Well as harmful insects. They do damage by 
 opening cones and by eating the seeds thereof. 
 The damage done by picking holes into the cambium layers of 
 certain trees is small. The holes made in sound yellow poplars 
 rather denote a high quality than the presence of defective tim- 
 ber. The holes made in oak and chestnuts are usually made in 
 rotten or decaying wood, or in wood of no commercial value. 
 There exist four theories attempting to explain the curious girdles 
 of holes made by the woodpecker. 
 a. — Incubator Theory. 
 
 Holes are picked to invite the ovipositing of insects in such holes, 
 b. — Napkin Theory. 
 
 The woodpecker cleans its beak from particles of rosin. 
 c. — Calendar Theory. 
 
 Due to observation that woodpecker returns at regular inter- 
 vals to same tree. 
 d. — Sap-sucking Theory. 
 
20 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Par. 5. Protection Against Insects. 
 
 A. General Remarks. 
 
 I. Insects are the most serious animal enemies of the forest. More 
 than that, they are the worst enemies of the forest within 
 organic nature. 
 
 But in a certain sense, many insects seemingly injurious, are 
 in fact beneficial, since they form one of the means by which 
 nature selects the fittest individuals for the propagation of 
 our trees. 
 
 II. Almost all of the orders of insects contain families, some or 
 all the members of which are directly beneficial. These bene- 
 ficial forms are usually zoophagous, and may be — 
 
 a. Predaceous insects feeding on eggs, larvae, pupse, or 
 imagines of injurious species, notably — 
 
 Order Coleoptera: Families Coccinellidce, Cicin- 
 
 delidce, Carabidoe, Elateridce, Cleridce, Trogositidce, 
 
 Colydiidce. 
 
 Order Diptera: Families Asilidce, Syrphidoe. 
 
 Order Hymenoptera: Superfamily Formicoidea. 
 
 Order Hemiftera: Family Reduviidce. 
 
 Order Orthoptera: Family Mantidoe. 
 
 Many Neuropteroid insects.* 
 
 b. Parasitic insects, ovipositing on or in the bodies of 
 injurious species. The more important are — 
 
 Order Diptera: Family Tachinidce. 
 
 Order Hymenoptera: Superfamilies Ichneumon- 
 
 oidea, Proctotrypoidea, Chalcidoidea. 
 
 e. Parasitic insects, paralyzing their prey by stinging, and 
 carrying them into their nests where the eggs of the 
 parasite are deposited. 
 
 Order Hymenoptera: Superfamilies Sphegoidea, 
 
 Vespoidea. 
 
 Many families are neither injurious nor beneficial, and are there- 
 fore of no economic importance. Other groups which may be 
 either injurious or beneficial to man, are not mentioned here, 
 because they bear no direct relation to forest trees. Amongst 
 the phytophagous insects, there are however, very many forms 
 that are injurious to our forests. Those living on tree weeds 
 must, of course, be considered as beneficial; but speaking gen- 
 
 *The old order Neuroptera, has been divided into several orders in modern systems of 
 classification. The group as a whole is of little economic importance to the forester, and 
 for that reason, the inclusive term, Neuropteroid, is used. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 21 
 
 erally, phytophagous insects found in the forests, are more or 
 less injurious. The families which contain most of the injur- 
 ious species are — 
 
 Order Coleoptera: Families Cerambyddce, Bu- 
 prestidce, Elateridce, Ptinidce, Scarabaeidce, Chryso- 
 melidce, Curculionidce, Brenthidce, Scolytidoe. 
 Order Lepidoptera: Families Ardiidce, Bomby- 
 cfidcB, Cossidce, HesperidcB, Liparidcs, Noctuidce, Par- 
 'pilionidce, ZygaenidcB. 
 
 Order Hymenoptera: Superfamilies Tenthredi- 
 noidea, Cynipoidea. 
 
 Order Hemiptera: Families Cocddce, Aphididce, 
 Cicadidce. 
 
 Order Diptera: Families Cecidomyiidce, Syrph- 
 idce. 
 
 Order Orthoptera: Families Locustidce, Phas- 
 midce. 
 
 III. Insects are divided into three groups, according to the rela- 
 tion that exists between the younger stages and the adults, 
 
 a. The Ametabola, which includes a single order, the 
 Thysaneura, in which the young and adults differ 
 only in size. 
 
 6. The Hemimetabola, in which are included the Orthop- 
 tera, the Hemiptera, etc., etc. In this group the 
 young and adults differ not only in size, but in several 
 other characters, and the young become more and 
 more like the adults after each molt. 
 
 c. The Metabola, in which are included the Coleoptera, 
 Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, etc., etc. In 
 this group, the young and the adults are totally un- 
 like, and before taking the mature form, the larvae go 
 through a resting stage. 
 
 The first stage of the insect is the egg, and after hatch- 
 ing, it arrives at maturity through a series of molts. 
 On hatching, the young of the Metabola are called 
 larvce (caterpillars, maggots, grubs); and in the Ameta- 
 bola and Hemimetabola, they are called nymphs. There 
 are several molts during the larval or nymphal stage, 
 and the period between any two of them is called an 
 instar. The quiescent stage during which the larvae 
 of the Metabola change to imagines, is called the pupa; 
 
22 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 and the mature or reproductive stage of all insects 
 is called the adult, or imago. The pupa of a butterfly 
 is very often called a chrysalis, and the silken sack 
 spun by many insects in which to pupate, is the co- 
 coon. Larvffi of Diptera and of some other insects, 
 pupate within a tough outer covering commonly sup- 
 posed to be simply a pupal skin. The true pupa is, 
 however, entirely within it, and the tough outer cover- 
 ing is distinguished hj the name puparium. After 
 reaching the adult stage, the insect does not become 
 any larger, and does not m^olt; its only function is to 
 mate, and lay eggs. Some species are unable even to 
 feed after becoming adult, and in almost all cases, the 
 larvse or nymphs are much more voracious than the 
 mature insects. In general, then, the greater part of 
 the insect damage to our forests is done before the in- 
 sects responsible become mature. The Ambrosia 
 beetles form a notable exception to this rule. 
 
 The sum total of the stages of development of an 
 insect is termed a generation, and a given species may 
 be single-brooded, double-brooded, treble-brooded, etc., 
 according to the number of generations which occur 
 during a single year. Many insects require more than 
 a single year to complete a generation, and are then 
 called biennial, triennial, etc. A species of the Cica- 
 didse is known to have a life round of seventeen years. 
 
 IV. Climatic and Seasonal Conditions Affecting Insect Life. 
 In general, the number of species of insect life decreases as 
 altitude or latitude increases, v/hile at the same time, the num- 
 ber of individuals of a species becomes larger. The number 
 of generations of a given species is also affected by the climate; 
 for instance, a species which is "double-brooded" in the Mid- 
 dle States, may become "treble-brooded" in the Southern 
 States, and "single-brooded" in Canada. 
 
 Insects spend the winter months in a resting or hibernating 
 stage which varies for the different species. That is, a given 
 species may hibernate either in the egg, larval, pupal, or adult 
 stage. They are protected against the cold either by their 
 own coverings, or by the hiding places selected by them in the 
 trees, in the bark, in the moss and leaves, in the stumps, or 
 in the ground. Extreme cold is no more likely to injure the 
 insect than it is to kill the tree itself; but sudden changes of 
 temperature and moisture, especially cold wet spells in late 
 spring, or after a premature thaw has drawn the hibernating 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 23 
 
 insects from their winter quarters, may be disastrous to large 
 numbers of certain species, particularly during the molting 
 periods of the larva3. 
 V. Insect Plagues. A succession of favorable springs, free from 
 late frosts and wet spells, is apt to result in an anomalous mul- 
 tiplication of a species. Hence, according to European re- 
 cords, insect plagues, hke successions of favorable climatic 
 conditions, occur and recur after periodic intervals. The ef- 
 fects of parasitism however, are very likely to be confused with 
 climatic effects in these records, and too much dependance 
 should not be pla'ced on them. These periodic plagues of in- 
 sects are very likely to occur in spite of all human ingenuity. 
 But experience teaches us that, in the great majority of cases, 
 nature may be trusted to restore the balance that has been 
 so disturbed. An abnormal increase in the numbers of a given 
 species not only is likely to reduce the natural food supply of 
 such a species so that many individuals will die of starvation, 
 but the parasitic and predaceous enemies of the species also 
 enormously increase in niunbers, being encouraged to do so 
 by the abundance of the food on which they exist, and by the 
 ease with which it may be obtained. For the same reason, 
 bacterial and fungous diseases have a better opportunity to 
 spread from one individual to another. The years following 
 an insect plague are, therefore, very likely to be exceptionally 
 free from the particular species involved. Consequently, a 
 plague of this sort usually lasts for but one or two years, al- 
 though in exceptional cases it may last for three or four years. 
 In the forest, an insect plague, in which several species are 
 often involved, is likely to follow in the wake of a destructive 
 fire or storm, or of an attack by fungi. In any case where 
 such a plague has swept through the forest the dead trees should 
 be marketed immediately if the conditions are at all favorable. 
 Otherwise the resulting loss will be much more serious. 
 The amount of damage done by a serious outbreak of insects 
 in a forest will depend very largely on the nature of the species 
 involved. If the species is "monophagous," that is, depen- 
 dent for its food supply only on a single species of tree, it is 
 likely to cause serious losses only in localities where pure stands 
 of the particular tree occur, or, at least, where the trees of 
 that species are not so scattered through the forest as to make 
 it difficult for the adult females of the injurious insect to find 
 a suitable place for oviposition. Polyphagous insects, on the 
 other hand, affect many host trees; and while they are likely 
 to distribute their injuries, so that their effect on the forest 
 is less noticeable, still the ultimate losses extending over a 
 period of years, may be very great. A species imported ac- 
 
24 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 cidentally from one country to another, is much more likely 
 than a native species to cause serious losses, because of the 
 absence of native parasites and other enemies which serve 
 to keep it in check in its original habitat. The extensive 
 ravages of the Gipsy Moth in Massachusetts, which have lasted 
 over a long period of years, is without precedent in European 
 countries, although the species has been abundant over a 
 large part of the continent of Europe, probably for several 
 centuries. 
 
 It may be that insect plagues play a role in the natural change 
 of species of plants coinciding with geological periods, but 
 the question is one of speculation, not demonstration. 
 
 VI. Species of Trees Affected. There are no species which 
 are not liable to insect attack, but some are much less sus- 
 ceptible than others. Conifers have, on the whole, less re- 
 cuperative powers than broad-leaved species, and consequently 
 succiunb much more readily to insect attacks. In this coun- 
 try, the spruces and pines, wherever occurring in pure and 
 even-aged forests, are the species which suffer most, 
 
 VII. Condition of Trees Affected. We may divide injurious 
 insects into three classes according to the condition of the 
 trees attacked. 
 
 a. Certain species, notable those that feed on leaves 
 and pith, usually prefer healthy to diseased plants. 
 They may either kill the tree outright or weaken it 
 to such an extent that conditions are made favor- 
 able for the attacks of — 
 
 b. species which generally prefer unhealthy trees. Or- 
 dinarily these species never attack healthy plants, 
 but in years of plagues they may -be forced to do so. 
 Thus in years of extreme abundance, millions of 
 bark-beetles may be drowned in the resin of healthy 
 pines before the trees are weakened to an extent 
 sufficient to allow subsequent millions to propagate 
 the species. 
 
 c. Certain other species only attack the trees after they 
 have been killed. Dead timber, either standing or 
 on the ground, should be marketed as soon as pos- 
 sible as a precaution against damage. Decaying logs 
 and stumps are always found infested with numerous 
 species of insects which cannot be classed as injur- 
 ious since they merely hasten the process of decay. 
 Those insects of this class which are injurious are 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 25 
 
 of less importance to the forester than to the pur- 
 chaser of his product. Some of them cause serious 
 losses in lumber yards, ship yards, bark sheds, fac- 
 tories, etc. 
 
 Insects of classes "a" and "b" above are sometimes called 
 "parasitic" because they attack living plants, as distinguished 
 from those of class "c," which feed only on dead timber, and 
 are called "saprophytic." The term "parasite," however, is 
 commonly used in Entomology to denote a species of insect 
 which has another species for its host, and the student should 
 be careful in his reading to distinguish between the broader 
 and narrower uses of the term. 
 
 VIII. Part of Tree Attacked. No part of the tree is entirely 
 free from insect injury. According to species, insects may 
 feed upon the buds (caterpillar causing the fork in the ash), 
 the leaves (elm leaf -beetle), the fruit (chestnut and acorn 
 weevils), the pith (locust shoot-borer), the cambium (larvae 
 of the so-called bark-beetles), the heart- wood (chestnut borers), 
 the sap-wood (many of the longicorn borers), the roots (larvae 
 of May-beetles), and the bark (notably tan-bark). 
 
 IX. Degree op Damage. According to the amount of damage 
 done, insects may be classed as a, Damaging insects; b, Des- 
 tructive insects, and c. Pernicious insects. Insects are called 
 physiologically obnoxious if they check the growth or propa- 
 gation of plants, and technically obnoxious if they destroy or 
 reduce the technical value without checking the growth. The 
 Hemlock bark-maggot furnishes a good example of the last 
 named class. 
 
 B. REMEDIES AND PREVENTIVES IN GENERAL AGAINST 
 INSECT INJURY. 
 
 I. Select the proper species for reproduction on a given soil. 
 
 II. Encourage mixed forests. 
 
 III. Avoid large continuous clearings. 
 
 IV. Use the ranger staff in controlling the insects. 
 
 V. Remove the weak trees, and strengthen the remaining indi- 
 viduals by means of thinnings. 
 
 VI. Protect and improve the productiveness of the soil. 
 
 VII. Protect the forest from damage by storm, sleet, or fire in the 
 wake of which insect plagues frequently follow. 
 
26 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 VIII. Remove or poison stumps if they are found to form the incu- 
 bators or food-objects of a noxious insect during one of its 
 stages. 
 
 IX. Peel off the bark where logs are left on the ground for any 
 considerable length of time. 
 
 X. Encourage hog pastures in the case of certain species of in- 
 sects. With other species, steep walled ditches may prevent 
 the enemy from spreading in nurseries and plantations. 
 
 XI. Protect the insectivorous animals, notably: — 
 
 a. Bats, moles, weasels, foxes, etc. 
 
 h. \¥oodpeckers, tits, owls, etc. 
 
 c. Amphibia. 
 
 d. Spiders. 
 
 e. Centipedes, millipedes, etc. 
 
 XII, Collect and destroy the insect in that stage which best allows 
 remedial measures to be taken. 
 
 a. Eggs may be tarred or covered with creosote when 
 they are placed in masses in conspicuous positions. 
 
 h. Larvae may be destroyed by spraying the food plant 
 with arsenicals or other stomach poisons, or the in- 
 sects themselves with kerosene or other contact poi- 
 sons; by trapping them on or below bands of burlap 
 or tree tanglefoot; by the use of ti-ap trees; or by 
 burning their winter quarters or the object (bark) 
 forming their abode. 
 
 c. Pupae may sometimes be collected and burned, par- 
 ticularly^ when the insect hibernates in this stage. 
 
 d. Adults may be beaten off the bushes during the early 
 morning; may be collected during the hot hours of 
 the day in artificial hiding places; or may be caught 
 by means of pit-falls, tanglefoot or burlap rings, trap 
 trees, or electric lights. 
 
 The selection of a method of treatment depends not only upon 
 the species of insect concerned, but upon many factors enter- 
 ing into the local conditions. In general, prevention is better 
 than the application of a remedj^ This is particularly true 
 in the present status of American forest conditions; and the 
 use of insecticides is only profitable in rare instances. Indeed 
 in America the forester vnll frequently he -prevented from adopt- 
 ing any measures whatever, remedial or preventive, because the 
 cost will exceed the value of the benefit to be derived. But in no 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 27 
 
 case should a remedy be attempted by one who is not fully 
 informed as to the life history and food-habits of the insect 
 enemy, and with the remedy to be used. In either event 
 more damage than benefit may result. For instance, trap- 
 trees may often be successfully used against certain insect 
 pests; but unless destroyed at the proper time, just before 
 the emergence of the adults, the numbers of the enemy will 
 be increased rather than diminished. The advice of a com- 
 petent Forest Entomologist should be obtained wherever pos- 
 sible. 
 
 C. INSECT ANATOMY. 
 
 I. The body of an adult insect is divided into three regions. 
 
 a. The head consists of a single segment, and bears 
 exteriorly a pair of antennce, a pair of compound eyes, 
 the ocelli, which vary in number and are often absent, 
 and the mouth parts, consisting of the labrum, two 
 mandibles, two maxillce, and the labium.. Maxillary 
 and labial palpi are also present, sometimes so modi- 
 fied however as to be not easily recognizable. The 
 difference between "biting" and "sucking" mouth 
 parts is important both in classification and as re- 
 gards methods of treatment. 
 
 fe. The thorax consists of three segments, the prothorax, 
 the mesothorax, and the metathorax. Each segment 
 bears a pair of legs, and the mesothorax and meta- 
 thorax normally bear the fore and hind urings. The 
 legs are also segmented, the joints bearing the fol- 
 lowing names: The segment attached to the thorax 
 is called the coxa, then come in order the trochanter 
 (sometimes made up of two short segments), the femur, 
 the tibia, and lastly the tarsus made up of several 
 segments on the last of which are borne the claws. 
 The wings are composed of two membranes held to- 
 gether by supporting rods called veins, or nerves, and 
 are sometimes covered with hairs or scales. In the 
 case of the Coleoptera, the fore wings (Elytra) are 
 hard and leathery, and the veins are absent. 
 
 c. The abdomen consists of several segments, some or 
 all with stigmata or breathing pores. The external 
 reproductive organs are iisually borne on the last or 
 anal segment of the abdomen. In certain species 
 an ovipositor (laying-tube), or a saw-like instrument 
 assists the female in oviposition. 
 
28 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 II. The Larva. In the larvse of the Metabola, as in the adult 
 insect, the first segment is the head, the next three make up 
 the thorax, and the remainder of the body is called the abdo- 
 men; but the three regions are not so distinct as is the case 
 with the imago. The mouth parts are almost always for 
 "biting," and have the same names as in the imago. The 
 spinnarets of certain caterpillars, situated in the mouth, are 
 the apertures of long glands, which traverse the entire body. 
 If present, the antennae are rudimentary. If legs are present, 
 there are always three pairs, situated on the ventral side of 
 the thoracic segments. Sometimes there are also legs on 
 some of the abdominal segments, but these are more prop- 
 erly called pro-legs, and are not segmented. 
 
 III. The Nymph. In the Ametabola and the Hemimetabola, the 
 anatomy of the younger stages is similar to that of the imago. 
 
 IV. The Pupa. The pupa is called carved or masked, according 
 to the ease with which legs, antennae, mouth parts, etc., can 
 be distinguished through the pupa case. The outer web of 
 silk spun for protection by many Lepidoptera and Hymen- 
 OPTERA is called the cocoon. 
 
 V. The Egg. Insect eggs vary greatly in form. They may be 
 cup-shaped or kidney-shaped, crater-formed or mucronate, 
 round, oval, or canoe-shaped. Very rarely they are stalked. 
 
 VI. Internal Anatomy. In an insect, this consists of a, the 
 Endoskeleton; b, Musculature; c, the Digestive System; (oesopha- 
 gus, crop, proventriculus, stomach, hind-gut, salivary and 
 other glands, Malpighian tubes, etc.); d, the Nervous System, 
 (brain, suboesophageal ganglion, thoracic and abdominal gang- 
 lia, nerve cord, motor and sensory nerves); e, the Circulatory 
 System, (the heart and blood); /, the Respiratory System, 
 I (stigmata and trachse or trachagal-gills) ; and g, the Reproduc- 
 tive Organs, (ovaries, ovarian tubes, and oviduct in the female; 
 spermaries and vasa deferentia in the male). 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 29 
 
 INSECT FAMILIES ARRANGED ACCORDING TO FOOD OBJECTS 
 IN THE FOREST. 
 
 Compare Page of 
 Ent. Bul. No. 48 
 I. Infesting the Cambial Bark. 
 
 Bark Beetles Scolytidse (excepting Platypini, larvse and adults) ... 9 
 
 Flat and round Buprestidse, Cerambycidse (mines often extending into 
 headed borers: wood prior to pupation) . 10 
 
 Bark weevils: Curculionidse 10 
 
 Powder post 
 
 beetles: Ptinidse, (in peeled tan bark) II 
 
 II. Infesting the Wood. 
 Ambrosia or 
 
 timber beetles : Scolytidse (larvse and adults) 10 
 
 Wood-boring 
 
 caterpillars: Sesiidse 10 
 
 True woodboring 
 
 beetle-grubs: Lymexilonidse, Brenthidse 10 
 
 Bark and wood 
 
 boring grubs: Curculionidse, Cerambycidse, Buprestidse 10 
 
 Carpenter worms: Cossidse 11 
 
 Horn tails: Siricidse 11 
 
 Powder post 
 
 beetles: Lyctidse, Ptinidse, Bostrichidse (dead wood only). . . 11 
 
 III. Injuring Leaves or Needles. 
 True Caterpillars 
 and measuring 
 
 worms: Lepidoptera (practically all families of the order). . . 11 
 
 False caterpillars Tenthredinidse 12 
 
 Leaf beetles: Chrysomelidse 12 
 
 Gall insects: Cynipidse, Cecidomyiidse, Aphididse 12 
 
 Plant lice: Aphididse, Psyllidse 12 
 
 Scale insects: Coccidse 12 
 
 IV. Infesting Twigs. 
 Twig mining 
 
 beetles: Scolytidse, Buprestidse, Cerambycidse 12 
 
 Twig weevils: Curculionidse 13 
 
 Twig caterpillars: Tineidse, Tortricidse 13 
 
 Scale insects: Coccidse 13 
 
 Plant lice: Aphididse 13 
 
 Gall insects: Cecidomyiidse and Cynipidse 13 
 
 Cicadas: Cicadidse 13 
 
 V. Infesting Young Seedlings in Nurseries. 
 
 Cutworms: Noctuidse 
 
 Junebugs: Scarabseidse 
 
30 
 
 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Click beetle-larv£e 
 (Wire worms) 
 Weevils : 
 Crickets : 
 Cicadas : 
 
 Weevils : 
 Cone and 
 nut worms: 
 Gall flies: 
 
 Elateridse 
 
 Curculionidae 
 
 Gryllidae 
 
 Cicadidaj 
 
 VI. Infesting Fruits or Seeds. 
 Curculionidffi 13 
 
 Tortricidse, Phycitidse 14 
 
 Cynipidse 14 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 31 
 
 Means of Protection 
 
 I. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INFESTING THE CAMBIAL 
 BARK OF THE TRUNK. 
 
 A. Against Scolytid.^e (Bark Beetles). 
 
 (1) Conduct the logging operations at that season of the year at which 
 the logs are apt to become infested; and after infection, remove the bark, 
 entirely or partially; or move the logs rapidly to water or mill. In other 
 cases, conduct logging at that season at which the debris left are not apt 
 to form incubators for Scolytidss; or else long before swarming (e. g., cut 
 pine at Biltmore in early winter, to avoid Dendrodonus frontalis). Com- 
 pare Agric. Year Book, 1902, p. 275 for D. frontalis and p. 281 for D. po7i- 
 derosce. 
 
 (2) Girdle, peel, lodge, fall or blaze trap trees of inviting diam_eter, 
 shape and position prior to the time of the swarming of the Scoiytidis. Com- 
 pare Agric. Year Book, 1902, p. 269. Trap trees might be prepared in the 
 district to be logged next. Try to destroy the trapped Scolytidse without 
 injury to the Cleridse and their allies. 
 
 (3) E,emove or burn logging debris; or swamp the tree tops left, thus 
 creating unfavorable conditions of moisture. Sometimes it is possible to 
 use the debris as traps. Compare, however, Entom. Bui. No. 21, p. 23, for 
 advice to leave the debris, so as to divert predatory Scolytidse from sound 
 trees to debris. 
 
 (4) Leave all trees (also trap trees) in the woods which prove to be 
 incubators for Ichneumonidse, Braconidse, Clialcididse. Remove the outer 
 bark so as to assist ovipositing Ichneumoias in reaching their prey. Intro- 
 duce and breed parasites. (Bui. West Va. Agr. Station, p. 32G.) 
 
 (5) Counteract reckless deadening by farmers engaged in clearing their 
 fields. 
 
 (6) Adopt proper diameter limit in logging where a Scolytid attacks 
 only trees of certain diameter classes. Remember, e. g., that the spruce 
 having under 10" d.b.h. is safe from D. piceaperda. 
 
 (7) Begin logging in districts recently damaged by fire, storm, sleet. 
 
 (8) Remove even worthless trees, if they are apt to act as incubators. 
 Keep in mind, on the other hand, that trees with dead cambium are not 
 attacked by cambium boring Scolytidse. 
 
 (9) Have at hand, ready for use, permanent means of transportation 
 so as to be able to operate when and where you ought to operate; particu- 
 larly, when and where timber begins to die. 
 
 (10) Conduct thinnings in a manner and at a time counteracting in- 
 fection by Scolytidse. Remove dying and injured (by lightning) trees, 
 also trees weakened in vigor. 
 
32 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 (11) Watch for spider webs showing saw dust; for drops of rosin (pitch 
 tubes) appearing on the bark; for a local increase of woodpeckers indicating 
 an increase of food material; for a slight change in the tint of the pine-crowns. 
 
 (12) Apply sprays or washes, twice or thrice per season, to particu- 
 larly valuable trees (Forest Bui. No. 22, p. 56), e. g., lime and Paris green, 
 mixed to a mass of light green color; or soft soap, adding enough washing 
 soda and water to reduce the mixture to the consistency of a thick paint; 
 or a thick wash of soap, Paris green and plaster of Paris; or a mixture of one 
 pint of carbolic acid, one gallon of soft soap and eight gallons of soft water. 
 Arsenate of lead may be used instead of Paris green, and has a greater in- 
 secticidal value. 
 
 B. Against Buprestid^ and Cerambycid.e (Flat-headed 
 AND Round-headed Borers). 
 
 (1) Prepare trap trees, or use trees accidentally injured or weakened 
 as such. 
 
 (2) Remove, peel, burn or immerse in water, trees in weakened con- 
 dition. Begin logging in districts containing such trees (e. g., blowdowns, 
 burns). 
 
 (3) Prevent ground fires which weaken the trees, burst their bark and 
 render them liable to successful attacks by Buprestids and Cerambycids. 
 Try to retain the fertility of the soil. 
 
 (4) Protect insectivorous animals (compare Bureau of Entomology 
 Bulletin No. 28, p. 23.) 
 
 (5) Prevent trees left in the course of logging from being recklessly 
 injured by axe, by felled trees striking them, etc. 
 
 (6) Where you remove a portion only of the trees standing in the woods, 
 log in winter (not in spring and summer). 
 
 C. Against Curculionid.e ("Bark Weevils")- 
 
 (1) Remove the trees which appear injured by axe, lightning, storm, 
 sleet or the fall of a neighbor. 
 
 (2) Prepare trap trees, and destroy the brood of Curculionids develop- 
 ing therein in due season. 
 
 D. Against Ptinid^. 
 
 Mind that the bark is safe from powderpost beetles for two years, and 
 do not store any tan bark for more than two years. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 33 
 
 II. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS BORING IN WOOD 
 AND TIMBER. 
 
 A. Against ScoLYTioiB ("Ambrosia Beetles")- 
 
 (1) Remove infested trees or logs prior to swarming. 
 
 (2) , Cut low stumps, or poison or char the stumps. 
 
 (3) Remove bark from all logs liable to be affected or throw the logs 
 into water. Do not leave in the woods any summer-felled logs. 
 
 (4) Xiog all blow-downs and brules as rapidly as possible. 
 
 (5) Have all parts of the woods continuously accessible to logging, by 
 establishing permanent means of transportation. 
 
 (6) Prevent ruthless deadening by farmers. Girdle cypress, oak and 
 ash — preparatory to driving or rafting — after the swarming season of the 
 Scolytids. 
 
 (7) In orchards or gardens, coat the treetrunks with dendrolene; spray 
 them with kerosene; plug the holes bored, leave a nail therein, or use a de- 
 terrent wash (compare Bureau of Forestry Bulletin No. 46, p. 66). 
 
 (8) Do not leave any logs in the woods or in the log yard for any length 
 of time. In case of logging in spring and summer, peel off the bark. 
 
 B. Against Ltmexylonidte and Brenthid^.. 
 
 (1) Reproduce the chestnut from seedlings, not from sprouts. Re- 
 move dead limbs quickly, and cover the scar with tar. 
 
 (2) Prevent the bark of the chestnut from being injured and opened 
 by fires, by the fall of neighboring trees, by axe wounds, etc. 
 
 On the other hand, scarify a number of trees to be cut and removed in 
 the course of your operations in the near future. Strip off the bark in nar- 
 row bands, or blaze and hack through it as high as the axe will reach. Do 
 this towards the time when the chestnut begins to bloom. The swarming 
 insect deposits her eggs into the scars made, and all trees thus treated act 
 as trap trees. 
 
 (3) Do not leave any cord wood or any logs of chestnut in the forest 
 after June 15, so as to remove insects contained therein before hatching. 
 
 (4) Keep the forest dense, dark, moist, cool. 
 
 C. Against Cerambycid^ (Round-headed Borers). 
 
 (1) Cut in summer and peel the bark of the logs cut; or remove a hor- 
 izontal strip of .bark along and on top of the log. The moisture gathering 
 in the gutter thus made prevents the grubs from developing. 
 
 (2) Log rapidly after heavy conflagrations, blowdowns or plagues of 
 bark beetles. Readiness to remove dead timber minimizes the damage by 
 Cerambycids. If removal is impossible, throw the logs into water, char or 
 peel them. 
 
 (3) For shade trees, prevent oviposition by a wash consisting of soap 
 and carbolic acid (compare Report N. Y. Forest, Fish and Game Commis- 
 sion, Vol. IV, p. 21). The borer-holes might be stopped with putty after 
 inserting a little carbon bisulphide (explosive). 
 
 B 
 
34 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 D. Against Lyctid^, Ptinid^, Bostrichid.e (Powderpost Beetles). 
 
 (1) Use heartwood sticks for sticking in lumber piles. 
 
 (2) Do not dead pile. 
 
 (3) Spray piles with naphtaline or creoline-Pearson three times, peri 
 Beason. 
 
 (4) Impregnate all sapwood before using it. 
 
 (5) Keep an eye on all parts of the yard continuously. 
 
 (6) Infested pieces of timber should be thoroughly steamed, or im-ji 
 pregnated, or liberally treated with gasoline, kerosene, creoline, or kept J 
 submerged for a number of weeks (compare Bureau of Entomology, Circu-J 
 lar No. 55). 
 
 III. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INJURIOUS TO LEAVES, 
 NEEDLES AND BUDS. 
 
 A. Against Lepidopterous Caterpillars. 
 
 (1) Remove — possibly by fire — leaf mould, mosses, brush found at 
 bases of trees where such material forms the winter quarters for the insect. 
 
 (2) Apply to the trees bands of burlap, 10" wide (compare Farmers' 
 Bulletin No. 99, p. 20), or bands of "Tree Tanglefoot"; in the latter case 
 either after the removal of the ross on the tree, or on a sheet of oiled paper 
 fastened round the tree. Usually, heavy thinnings precede the application. 
 
 (3) Burn the webs of web worms. 
 
 (4) Moisten egg heaps with creosote oil (e. g., for tussock moth). Use 
 a steel brush to destroy the eggs by rubbing. 
 
 (5) Spray with washes, remembering, that the underside of the leaves 
 must be sprayed and that the job is well done only when the tree drips. A 
 common wash consists of one pound of Paris green and one pound of quick 
 lime dissolved in 150 gallons of water. An excellent wash is made from 
 arsenate of lime which adheres long, shows its presence by its white color 
 and is harmless to the leaves. See for recipe, also for description of power- 
 spray. New York Forest, Fish and Game Commission, IV. report, p. 10. 
 
 (6) Protect insectivorous birds, snakes, lizards, toads. 
 
 (7) Confine collected caterpillars as closely together as possible, so as 
 to breed deadly diseases amongst them (e. g., Empusa), or so as to invite 
 counter-plagues (Microgaster, Pimpla, etc.) 
 
 (8) Catch the swarming moths by exhaust fans placed near strong 
 electric lights. 
 
 (9) Allow of hog pasture. 
 
 B. Against Tenthrbdinid^ (Nemattjs), Aphidid^e, CocciDiE, 
 
 PSYLLID^. 
 
 (1) Use of soap wash, j^repared by dissolving soap in boiling water, 
 adding kerosene (New York Forest, Fish and Game Commission, IV. re- 
 port, p. 31); or arsenical insecticides, caustic washes, etc., (for which com- 
 pare Bureau of Entomology, Bui. No. 7, pp. 33, 37, 45, 51). 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 35 
 
 (2) Protect insectivorous animals. 
 
 (3) Destroy infested plants or, in the case of Nematus erichsonii, in- 
 fested woodlands. 
 
 IV. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INFESTING BRANCHES, 
 TWIGS, SHOOTS. 
 
 A. Against Scolytid^e. 
 
 (1) Collect and burn affected shoots before the larvae begin to pupate 
 therein. 
 
 (2) Use logging debris as -traps. 
 
 (3) Burn logging debris, or swamp the crowns of felled trees. 
 
 B. Against Curculionid^ (Twig Weevils). 
 
 (1) Avoid logging and thinning of pinewoods near young pines in the 
 seedling or in the sapling stage. 
 
 (2) Remove the top shoots of white pine attacked by Pissodes strobi, 
 and keep them in a barrel covered with netting, in the nursery, so as to kill 
 the weevil without destroj'ing its parasites. 
 
 (3) Remove, char, peel or poison fresh pine stumps. 
 
 (4) Apply to the terminal shoots of white pine, during April or May, 
 a spray consisting of fish oil soap, Paris green and carbolic acid diluted in 
 water (Bureau of Forestry, Bui. No. 22, p. 59). 
 
 (5) Use trap trees for oviposition, consisting of fresh-cut pine billete 
 buried obliquely with one end protruding above ground. Burn these traps 
 after the eggs have hatched. 
 
 (6) Collect the adults underneath large pieces of fresh pine bark placed 
 on the ground. The adults spend the hot hours of the day imderneath the 
 bark attracted by the smell of rosin. 
 
 C. Against CERAMBYCiDiB. 
 
 (1) Collect limbs broken off by wind and infested by Elaphidion (Oak 
 pruner). 
 
 (2) Cut off shoots or saplings affected by larvae. 
 
 D. Against Tineid^ and ToBTRiciDiE. 
 
 (1) Remove infested shoots. 
 
 (2) Apply insecticides. 
 
 E. Against Cicadidjb. 
 
 (1) Collect larvae. 
 
 (2) Protect crows and owls. 
 
36 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 V. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS AFFECTING SEEDLINGS 
 IN NURSERIES. 
 
 A. Against Curculionid^. 
 
 (1) Do not leave any pine stumps in or near nurseries. 
 
 (2) Raise healthy transplants, on well-manured soil. 
 
 (3) Collect adults under bark traps, and collect larvse on billets buried 
 obliquely. 
 
 B. Against Scarab^eid^ ( June Bugs). 
 
 (1) Collect adults in early morning from bushes. 
 
 (2) Cultivate four or five times that section of the nursery which is 
 lying fallow. 
 
 (3) Protect insectivorous birds. 
 
 (4) Trap the larvse beneath reversed sods of grass. 
 
 (5) Separate the beds by deep trenches. 
 
 (6) Irrigate freely — if possible, raising the water in the trenches from 
 time to time to the level of the beds. 
 
 (7) Cultivate the beds heavily and frequently, particularly during 
 the winter months. 
 
 C. Against Noctuid^ (Cut Worms). 
 
 (1) Catch adu.ts at night with sugared apples. 
 
 (2) Poison caterpillars with cabbage sprinkled with arsenic and laid 
 along the nursery beds. 
 
 (3) Irritate caterpillars by continuous cultivation of soil. 
 
 D. Against Cicadid^. 
 
 Do not keep any broad-leaved trees or bushes in or near the nursery 
 on which the eggs might be deposited. Injection of bisulphide of carbon 
 into soil is recommended by Bureau of Entomology, Bui. No. 14, p. 111. 
 
 I E. Against GryllidjE (Crickets). 
 
 (1) Protect moles, crows, etc. 
 
 (2) Keep deep trenches between the beds, and use short beds. 
 
 (3) Insert earthenware pots at the intersection of trenches. 
 
 (4) Propagate a fungus disease (Empusa Grylli) for which see Bureau 
 of Entomology, Bull. No. 38, p. 53. 
 
 (5) Plow the beds deeply before using them. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 37 
 
 VI. PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS INFESTING FRUITS OR SEEDS, 
 
 I. E., AGAINST CURCULIONIDiE, TORTRI- 
 
 CIDiE, PHYCITIDJE. 
 
 (1) When wintering chestnuts or acorns, store them in the natural 
 way, not allowing the seeds to become dry. See lectures on Sylviculture. 
 
 (2) Plant seeds as soon as possible after collecting. 
 
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FOREST PROTECTION 39 
 
 REFERENCE LIST 
 
 Compiled by F. D. Cotjden and C. A. Schence 
 The following pages will refer the student to publications, most of which 
 should be in the library of the up-to-date forester, where accounts, more 
 or less complete, of certain species of insects injurious to forest and shade 
 trees may be found. The list is by no means complete, and it is very likely 
 that a few even of the important species have been omitted. The study 
 of Forest Entomology is still in its infancy; but the literature, whHe not 
 yet voluminous, is so scattered thut it would not be profitable for the pre- 
 sent purpose to go through it with a fine-toothed comb. A great many 
 errors wUl undoubtedly be noticed by Entomologists, particularly as to 
 synonymy; but it is hoped, nevertheless, that the list wUl be of some value 
 to the students of Forestry for whom it is designed. 
 
 The arrangement is faulty in that many polyphagous species of msects 
 are not listed under all of their host trees. Porthetria dispar, for instance, 
 is listed only xmder Quercus, whereas the caterpillars of the Gipsy Moth 
 feed indiscriminately on the foilage of almost any tree within their range. 
 The use of the "index," however, will enable the student to find the refer- 
 ences to any insect listed, without regard to the host under which the re- 
 ference is given. 
 
 Here follow the complete titles of all the publications used in the pre- 
 paration of the list. The abbreviations used in the list proper are printed 
 here in Black-Faced Type, and are followed by the titles, names of authors' 
 and years of publication. 
 
 UNITED STATES PUBLICATIONS 
 
 5th Rept. Ent. Com. U. S. Fifth Report of the United States Entomolog- 
 ical Commission. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. By 
 A. S. Packard. 1890. 
 
 Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1895 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department 
 ' of Agriculture for 1895. The Shade Tree insect problem in the eastern 
 United States. By L. O. Howard, pp. 361-384. 1896. 
 
 Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1902 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department 
 of Agriculture for 1902. Some of the principal insect enemies of coni- 
 ferous forests in the United States. By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 265-282. 
 1903. 
 
 Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1903 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department 
 of Agriculture for 1903. Insects injurious to hardwood forest trees. 
 By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 313-328. 1904. 
 
 Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1904 U. S.— Yearbook of the United States Department 
 of Agriculture for 1904. Insect injiiries to forest products. By A. D. 
 Hopkins, pp. 381-398. The nut weevils. By F. H. Chittenden, 
 pp. 299-310. 1905. 
 
40 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1905 U. S. — Yearbook of the United States Department 
 
 of Agriculture for 1905. Insect enemies of forest reproduction. By 
 
 A. D. Hopkins, pp. i-iii and 249-256. 1906. 
 Ag. Yr. Bk. for 1907 U. S. — Yearbook of the United States Department 
 
 of Agriculture for 1907. Notable depredations by forest insects. By 
 
 A. D. Hopkins, pp. i-iii and 149-164. 1908. 
 
 Bulletins of the Bureau (Formerly Division) op Entomology, 
 United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Ent. Bui. No. 7 U. S. — Some miscellaneous results of the work of the Di- 
 vision of Entomology. The ambrosia beetles of the United States. 
 By H. G. Hubbard, pp. 9-30. Insect injuries to chestnut and pine 
 trees in Virginia and neighboring states. By F. H. Chittenden, pp. 
 67-75. 1897. 
 
 Ent. Bui. No. 14 U. S.— The Periodical Cicada. By C. L. Marlatt. 1898. 
 
 Ent. Bui. No. 21 U. S.— Preliminary report on the insect enemies of forests 
 in the Northwest. By A. D. Hopkins. 1899. 
 
 Ent. Bui. No. 28 U. S. — Insect enemies of the spruce in the Northwest. By 
 A. D. Hopkins. 1901. 
 
 Ent. Bui. No. 32 U. S. — Insect enemies of pine in the Black Hills. By A. D. 
 Hopkins. 1902. 
 
 Ent. Bui. No. 37 U. S. — Proceedings of the fourteenth annual meeting of 
 the Association of Economic Entomologists. On the study of forest 
 entomology in America. By A. D. Hopkins, pp. 5-32. 1902. 
 
 Ent. Bui. No. 38 U. S. — Some miscellaneous results of the work of the Di- 
 vision of Entomology. Notes on the Rhinocerus Beetle. By F. H. 
 Chittenden, pp. 28-32. 1902. 
 
 Ent. Bui. No. 48 U. S. — Catalogue of exhibits of insect enemies of forest 
 
 products at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, Mo., 1904. 
 
 By A. D. Hopkins. 1904. 
 Ent. Bui. No. 53 U. S. — Catalogue of the exhibit of Economic Entomology 
 
 at the Lewis and Clrak Centennial Exposition, Portland, Oregon, 1905. 
 
 By Rolla P. Currie. 1904. 
 Ent. Bui. No. 56 U. S.— The Black Hills Beetle. By A. D. Hopkins. 1905. 
 Ent. Bui. No. 58 U. S. — Some insects injurious to forests. Parts I, II, and 
 
 III. By A. D. Hopkins and J. L. Webb. 1906-07. 
 Ent. Bui. No. 71 U. S.— The Periodical Cicada. By C. L. Martlatt. 1907. 
 
 Circulars of the Bureau (Formerly Division) of Entomology of the 
 United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Ent. Cir. No. 24 U. S.— The Two-lined Chestnut Borer. By F. H. Chitten- 
 den. 1897. 
 
 Ent. Cir. No. 29 U. S.— The Fruit-tree Bark-beetle. By F. H. Chittenden- 
 1898. 
 
FORESTIPROTECTION 41 
 
 Ent. Cir. No. 55 U. S. — Powder-post injury to seasoned wood products. By 
 F. H. Chittenden. 1903. 
 
 Ent. Cir. No. 82 U. S. — Pinhole injury to girdled cypress in the South At- 
 lantic and Gulf States. By A. D. Hopkins. 1907. 
 
 Ent. Cir. No. 83 U. S. — The Locust Borer, and methods for its control. By 
 A. D. Hopkins. 1907. 
 
 Ent. Cir. No. 90 U. S.— The White-pine Weevil. By A. D. Hopkins. 1907, 
 
 Ent. Cir. No. 96 U. S.— The Catalpa Sphinx. By L. O. Howard and F. H. 
 Chittenden. 1907. 
 
 Ent. Cir. No. 97 U. S.— The Bagworm. By L. O. Howard and F. H. Chit- 
 tenden. 1908. 
 
 Bulletins op the Forest Service (Formerly Bureau op Forestry) 
 
 OP THE United States Department op Agriculture. 
 For. Bui. No. 22 U. S. — The White Pine. Insect enemies of . By 
 
 F. H. Chittenden, pp. 55-61. 1899. 
 For. Bui. No. 31 U. S.— The Western Hemlock. Insects of the . By 
 
 A. D. Hopkins, pp. 16-21. 1902. 
 For, Bui. No. 38 U. S.— The Redwood. Insects of the . By A. D, 
 
 Hopkms. pp. 32-40. 1903. 
 For. Bui. No. 46 U. S. — The Basket Willow. Insects injurious to . 
 
 By F. H. Chittenden, pp. 63-80. 1904. 
 
 Other Publications op the United States Department op Agriculture. 
 Far. Bui. No. 99 U. S. — Farmer's Bulletin No. 99. Three insect enemies 
 
 of shade trees. By L. O. Howard. 1899. 
 Far. Bui. No. 264 U. S.— Farmer's Bulletin No. 264. The Brown-tail Moth, 
 
 and how to control it. By L. O. Howard. 1906. 
 Far. Bui. No. 265 U. S.— Farmer's Bulletin No. 265. The Gipsy Moth, and 
 
 how to control it. By L. O. Howard. 1907. 
 F'ld. Pr'g'm. F'st. S'ce.-April, 1907, U. S.— Field Programme of the Forest 
 
 Service for April, 1907. 
 
 STATE PUBLICATIONS. 
 New Jersey. 
 Geol. Rept. for 1889. N. J. — Annual Report of the State Geologist of New 
 Jersey for the year 1899. Part III. Report on Forests. The role 
 of insects in the forest. By J. B. Smith, pp. 205-232. 1899. 
 New York. 
 G'de. L'fl't. No. 16 A. M. N. H.— Guide Leaflet No. 16, American Museum 
 of Natural History. The insect galls of the vicinity of New York City_ 
 By William Beutenmuller. 1904. 
 Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 233 Cornell. — Cornell University. Agricultural Experi- 
 ment Station of the College of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 233. De- 
 partment of Entomology. Saw-fly leaf-miners on European elms and 
 alders. By M. V. Slingerland. 1905. 
 
42 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Ex. Sta. Bui, No. 234 Cornell. — Cornell University. Agriciiltural Experi- 
 ment Station of the College of Agriculture. Bulletin No. 234. De- 
 partment of Entomology. The Bronze Birch-borer. By M. V. Slinger- 
 land. 1906. 
 
 For. Rept. No. 4 N. Y. — Fourth annual report of the Commissioners of Fish- 
 eries, Game, and Forests of the State of New York. Report for 1898. 
 Insects injurious to maple trees. By E. P. Felt. pp. 367-395. 1899. 
 
 For. Rept, No. 7 N. Y. — Seventh annual report of the Forest, Fish, and Game 
 Commission of the State of New York. Report for 1901. Insects 
 affectmg forest trees. By E. P. Felt. pp. 479-534. 1902. 
 
 St. Mus. Bui, No, 53 N, Y.— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 53. (En- 
 tomology 14). 17th Report of the State Entomologist on injurioiis 
 and other insects of the State of New York. By E. P. Felt. 1901, 
 
 St. Mus. Bui. No. 103 N. Y.— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 103. 
 (Entomology 25). The Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths. By E. P. Felt. 
 1906. 
 
 St. Mus. Bui. No, 109 N, Y,— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 109. 
 (Entomology 27). White-marked Tussock-moth and Elm Leaf-beetle. 
 By E. P. Felt. 1907. 
 
 St. Mus. Bui. No. 110 N. Y.— New York State Museum Bulletin No. 110. 
 (Entomology 28). 22nd Report of the State Entomologist on injur- 
 ious and other insects of the state of New York. By E. P. Felt. 1907 
 
 St, Mus, Mem. No. 8 N. Y. — New York State Museum Memoir 8. 2 vol- 
 umes. Insects affecting park and woodland trees. By E. P. Felt. 
 1905-06. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Ins. Bui. No. 7 Ohio, — Ohio Department of Agriculture. Division of Nur- 
 sery and Orchard Inspection. Bulletin No. 7. The insects affecting 
 the black locust and hardy catalpa. By E. C. Cotton. 1905. 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 For. Rept. 1901-02 Penn. — Statement of work done by the Pennsylvania 
 Department of Forestry during 1901 and 1902. 1902. 
 West Virginia. 
 
 Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 35 W. Va.— Bulletin of the West Virginia Agricultural 
 Experiment Station No. 35. Defects in wood caused by insects. By 
 A. D. Hopkins. 1894. 
 
 Ex. Sta. Bui. No. 56 W, Va.— Bulletin of the West Virginia Agricultural 
 Experiment Station No. 56. Report on investigations to determine 
 the cause of imhealthy conditions of the spruce and pine from 1880 
 to 1893. By A. D. Hopkins. 1899. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Comstock's Manual.- — Manual for the Study of Insects. By J. H. Com- 
 stock. 1895. 
 
 Ratzeburg Vol. III. — Die Forst-Insecten, volume III. By J. C. Ratzeburg. 
 Berlin, 1844. 
 
 The Forester for 1901. — The Forester. A periodical published by the Amer- 
 ican Forestry Association at Washington, D. C. 
 

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 95 
 
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 ■p ._-_,„ 
 
 
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 1 
 
 
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 U. S. 
 
 G'de. L'flet. 
 
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 1 
 
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 Genus 
 
 Species 
 
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 Family 
 
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 No. 16 
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 Literary References 
 
 Family 
 
 5th Rept. 
 
 Ent. Com. 
 
 U. S. 
 
 G'de. L'flet. 
 
 No. 16 
 A. M. N. H. 
 
 
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 FOREST PROTECTION 
 Damage to Juglans spp. by Hemiptera 
 
 103 
 
 Family 
 
 Genus 
 
 Species 
 
 Parts 
 Suffering 
 
 Literary References 
 
 Geol. Rept. 
 
 for 1899 
 
 N.J. 
 
 
 ccidse 
 
 
 y 
 
 Twigs - - - 
 
 210 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Damage to Hicoria spp. by Hemiptera 
 
 Family 
 
 Genus 
 
 Spbcies 
 
 Parts 
 Suffering 
 
 Literary References 
 
 Geol. Rept. 
 
 for 1899 
 
 N.J. 
 
 Guide Leaflet 
 
 No. 16 
 A. M. N. H. 
 
 St. Mus. Mem' 
 No. 8 
 N. Y. 
 
 jhididae 
 
 )ccidae 
 
 Phylloxera - 
 Lecanium.- 
 
 cary 
 sp.- 
 
 cBcaulis Fitch. 
 
 Lvs. & Twigs 
 Tw «■« 
 
 209 
 210 
 
 
 38 
 
 331 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Damage to Alnus spp. by Hemiptera 
 
 
 Genus 
 
 Species 
 
 Parts 
 Suffering 
 
 Literary References 
 
 Family 
 
 5th Rept. 
 Ent. Com. 
 
 U.S. 
 
 Com- 
 stock's 
 Manual 
 
 St. Mus. Mem. 
 No. 8 
 N. Y. 
 
 
 phididse 
 
 Pemphigus 
 
 tessellatus Fitch.— 
 
 Lvs. & Twigs 
 
 1637 
 
 U61 
 
 195 
 
 
 lAs Schizoneura tessellata. 
 
 Damage to Fagus spp. by Hemiptera 
 
 
 Genus 
 
 Species 
 
 Parts 
 Suffering 
 
 Literary References 
 
 Family 
 
 Com- 
 stock's 
 Manual 
 
 
 phididse 
 
 Schizoneura 
 
 imbricator Fitch. _. 
 
 Lvs. & Twigs 
 
 161 
 
 
104 
 
 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
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FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 105 
 
 
 Damage to Uhnus spp. by Hemiptera 
 
 
 
 Genus 
 
 Species 
 
 Parts 
 Suffering 
 
 LiTEHAET References 
 
 Family 
 
 St. Mus. Mem. 
 No. 8 
 N. Y. 
 
 
 Uphididae 
 
 ^occidae 
 
 Callipterus 
 
 Schizoneura 
 
 Colopha 
 
 Chionaspis 
 
 Gossyparia 
 
 ulmifolii Monell._ 
 americana Riley. ^ 
 ulmicola Fitch 
 
 americana Johns.. 
 spuria Mod 
 
 Leaves 
 
 Leaves 
 
 Leaves 
 
 Bole & Twigs 
 Bole & Twigs 
 
 176 
 177 
 186 
 
 207 
 203 
 
 
 Family 
 
 Joccidse. 
 
 Damage to Liriodendron spp. by Hemiptera 
 
 Genus 
 
 Eulecanium. 
 
 Species 
 
 tulipiferae Cook. 
 
 Parts 
 
 Suffering 
 
 Twigs. 
 
 Literary References 
 
 Geol. Rept. 
 
 for 1S99 
 
 N.J. 
 
 1210 
 
 St. Mus. Mem. 
 No. 8 
 N. Y. 
 
 208 
 
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 FOREST PROTECTION 
 Damage to Various Woods by Isoptera 
 
 
 107 
 
 Family 
 
 Genus 
 
 Species 
 
 Pabts 
 Suffehing 
 
 Literary References 
 
 Ag.Yr.Bk. 
 
 for 1904 
 
 U. S. 
 
 St. Mus. Mem. 
 No. 8 
 N. Y. 
 
 
 Termitids 
 
 Leucotermes 
 
 flavipes Koll 
 
 seas'n'd wood 
 
 »389 
 
 187 
 
 
 lAs Termes. 
 
 Damage to Various Conifers by Orthoptera 
 
 Family 
 
 Genus 
 
 Species 
 
 Parts 
 Suffering 
 
 Literary References 
 
 For. Rept. 
 
 No. 7 
 N. Y. 
 
 Com- 
 stock's 
 Manual 
 
 
 Giyllidse 
 
 Gryllotalpa 
 
 Gryllus 
 
 Oecanihus 
 
 borealis Burm. 
 
 spp 
 
 ■pini Beut 
 
 Rts. nurse'ies 
 Rts. nurse'ies 
 Leaves 
 
 '512" 
 
 117 
 117 
 
 lis 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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FOREST PROTECTION 109 
 
 CHAPTER III: PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS. 
 
 Par. 6. Protection Against Weeds. 
 
 Weeds are plants, herbaceous or lignaceous in character, the pre- 
 Bence of which in the woods is financially undesirable. 
 
 A. Influencing Factors. 
 
 I. A plant may appear as a weed in one locality whilst 
 it is useful in another. Kalmia, e. g., is useful 
 on steep slopes by holding the soil; whilst it is 
 harmful on areas in regeneration. Grasses and 
 herbaceous weeds are valuable on forest pas- 
 tures; they may interfere, however, with natural 
 regeneration from seeds. 
 
 II. A plant may be considered as a weed at a certain 
 stage of certain sylvicultural operations. This 
 is the case with black gum, witch hazel, box 
 elder, halesia which forms a superstructure in- 
 terfering with the regeneration of yellow poplar, 
 chestnut, and yellow pine. On the other hand, 
 these same species may be valuable as an un- 
 dergrowth or as a companion growth with yel- 
 low poplar, chestnut, pine and oak after the 
 thicket stage. 
 
 III. A plant of a usually valuable kind may be classed 
 as a weed when it is hopelessly deformed; e. g., 
 decrepit, hollow, burned chestnuts; fire shoots 
 of hickory and oak. 
 
 Thus the forester might distinguish between "ab- 
 solute weeds," which are always damaging, and 
 "relative weeds," which are damaging only 
 under a given set of conditions. 
 
 B. Most weeds injure the forest only indirectly. Direct damage is 
 
 done by parasitic weeds, in rare cases. The most note-worthy 
 cases of indirect injury are the following: 
 
 I. Smilax, grapevine, blackberry interfere with the 
 transportation of wood goods and with the ease 
 of access to the woods. 
 
 II. Sedge grass, heather, blueberry form a matting through 
 which water or air cannot pass. 
 
110 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 III. The mineral fertility of the soil is absorbed by the 
 
 weeds (especially the fruiting weeds) competing 
 with the trees for a food supply. 
 
 IV. The weeds, notably those produced after fires, inter- 
 
 fere with the natural regeneration of the best 
 species of the forest; they prevent, through dense 
 shade, the lignification of the valuable seed- 
 lings during summer. Instances are: Chinqua- 
 pin and gum in the case of yellow pine regener- 
 ation at Biltmore; witch hazel, dogwood in yel- 
 low poplar regeneration in Pisgah forest; black 
 jack oak in long leaf pine forests. 
 V. Some weeds distort and oppress the seedlings and 
 saplings after climbing to their tops. Grape- 
 vine on yellow poplar; Convolvulus on many 
 tree seedlings. In tropical coimtries, the tree 
 climbers (sometimes parasitic) are particularly 
 troublesome, notably in felling trees. 
 VI. Certain weed species (notably Ericacce) produce, 
 through their leaf fall, an unfavorable, dusty 
 humiis. 
 VII. Weeds harbor and hide mice and damaging insects. 
 
 VIII. Dead weeds increase the danger of fires, especially 
 in the spring. 
 
 IX. The dead mould spread on the ground by many weeds 
 prevents the germinating seed of valuable species 
 from sending its rootlets into the mineral soil. 
 X. Certain weeds play an important part in the path- 
 ology of the trees, the weeds acting as hosts 
 for the second generation of certain fungi. 
 C. Means of Protection. 
 
 I. Preventive measures. 
 
 a. Maintain a complete cover overhead — 
 
 a pious wish in the primeval forests. 
 
 b. Underplant light demanding species with 
 
 shade bearers at a time at which 
 the leaf canopy overhead, through 
 friction of crown against crown, be- 
 comes excessively open — another 
 pious wish under the present con- 
 ditions confronting American silvi- 
 culture. 
 
 c. Work towards immediate reforestation 
 
 after making a clean sweep of the 
 old crop. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 111 
 
 d. Insist on thorough protection against 
 
 ground fires which, above all, foster 
 the growth of weeds and are in- 
 jurious to the nobility amongst the 
 forest species. Kalmia, chinquapin, 
 alder, soft maple, gum, halesia ob- 
 tain the upper hand in the forest 
 through fires. On fertile soil the 
 growth of annual and biennial weeds 
 after fires is especially luxuriant. In 
 the Adirondacks, the reforestation 
 of fire-swept tracts is handicapped 
 by the excessive growth of forest 
 weeds. 
 
 e. Admit for pasture cattle, hogs, sheep 
 
 and goats, thus checking at the 
 same time the danger from fires, 
 
 II. Restrictive Measures. 
 
 a. Cut (with a mowing scythe) herbaceous 
 
 weeds before the seed ripens. 
 
 b. In forest plantations, cultivate the rows 
 
 of plants, or raise farm crops to- 
 gether with seedlings. 
 
 c. Plow abandoned fields thorouglhy before 
 
 reforestation. 
 
 d. Crush blackberry briars; decapitate ferns; 
 
 skin thorns; deaden gum, dogwood, 
 maple, beech; remove the bark for 
 2 ft. above the stump on cotton- 
 woods to prevent the growth of root 
 suckers. 
 
 e. Cover the stiunps of undesirable hard- 
 
 woods with dirt or brush; poison the 
 stumps; peel the stimips down into 
 the roots; set fire to brush heaps 
 massed upon such stumps in cop- 
 pice woods. 
 D. Weed Species. 
 
 I. Andromeda, huckleberry, etc., are expelled by the 
 continued use of a briar scythe, preferably in 
 early August. Valuable seedlings are planted 
 on reversed sods when placed in thickets formed 
 by the above species. 
 
112 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 II. Kalmia and Rhododendron may be checked by burn- 
 ing. They sprout luxuriantly after such burn- 
 ing. They do not catch up, however, with the 
 more rapid development of the seedlings planted 
 at the same time. In other cases, it is better 
 to allow ivy and laurel to grow unharmed. The 
 stems when over 4" in diameter can be dead- 
 ened readily. 
 
 III. Chinquapin may be deadened with crushing tongs 
 
 in spring. 
 
 IV. Dogwood may be deadened. Dogwood sprouts grow 
 
 vigorously from the stumps; hence it will not 
 suffice to cut the dogwood with an axe. 
 V. Large trees of black gum are skinned or deadened. 
 
 It is impossible to get rid of small shoots. 
 VI. Hazel, Vaccinium and Azalea on moimtain pastures 
 can be checked by the use of a colter, by re- 
 peated mowings or, possibly, by pasturing goats. 
 VII. Blackberry is expelled by crushing its shoots or by 
 skinning them between two pieces of timber. 
 VIII. Ferns should be decapitated in early spring. 
 IX. Climbers (Clematis, Vitis, Ampelopsis and others) are 
 checked by cutting close to the ground. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 113 
 
 Par. 7. Protection Against Fungi. 
 
 The diseases of our American trees caused by fungi have been studied by 
 Dr. Hermann von Schrenk, of the Shaw School of Botany. Still, it must 
 be admitted that our knowledge of the diseases of trees induced by cryp- 
 togamic parasites is deficient or inadequate. In the forest, obviously, the 
 present conditions confronting forestry do not allow of "tree doctoring." 
 Nurseries and young plantations in which fungi may cause enormous dam- 
 age are practically absent from our forests. Fungi directly causing the 
 death of trees, of over 12 inches d.b.h., are practically unknown. 
 
 ^ Saplings and poles killed by fungi die from below, whilst those killed 
 by insects die from above. 
 
 A. Effect of Fungus Infection. 
 
 Observations in the United States are at hand only with re- 
 ference to fungi of a technically damaging character. 
 
 Such fungi may cause : — 
 
 I. Disintegration of lignin, leaving the shining white 
 fibres of cellulose untouched. 
 
 II. Disintegration of cellulose leaving a brittle brown 
 mass resem.bling charcoal. 
 
 III. Disintegration of entire cell walls, leaving a hole 
 
 or holes. 
 
 IV. Liquification of the rosin incrustating the heart- 
 
 wood, in which case the rosin exudes at branch 
 holes where it solidifies by oxidation, forming 
 knots, galls or streaks of rosin. 
 
 B. Parts of Tree Infected; and Methods of Infection. 
 
 Fimgi may attack the heartwood, or the sapwood, or 
 both heartwood and sapwood. Heartwood fimgi (which never 
 kill a tree directly) enter through insect mines; through axe 
 scars; through branch stubs having heartwood, or through 
 tops broken off by snow, by sleet, by falling neighbors or by 
 Storm. For the latter reason, diseased timber prevails fre- 
 quently along wind swept ridges and shores. 
 
 Sapwood fungi may use the same channels of access, or 
 may enter the wood through lightning streaks and through 
 fire clefts. Sapwood resists the attack of fungi much better 
 than heartwood as long as the tree lives. The sapwood is the 
 life zone of the tree in which it defends itself readUy, by thick- 
 ening its cell walls or by cell wall incrustations, or by form- 
 ing cork against the spread of hyphse. 
 
 In dead trees, on the other hand, sapwood decomposes 
 much more readily than heartwood owing to the absence of 
 
 F 
 
114 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 incrustating substances and owing to the presence of more 
 moisture, more starch and more albumen. 
 
 The insects co-operate with the fungi to an unknown ex- 
 tent. Corky bark being fungus-proof, many spores enter the 
 galleries of boring insects either carried by the wind or car- 
 ried in the "fur" of borers and enemies of borers. It might 
 be stated that the insects distribute spores in the same man- 
 ner in which the birds or the rodents distribute seeds. A par- 
 ticularly interesting case is that of "Ambrosia," a fungus 
 supposed to be raised by the Ambrosia beetles. Cyllene ro- 
 binise makes possible the inroads of Polyporus rimosus. Dis- 
 coloration of the sapwood coincides with the attacks of Den- 
 droctonus frontalis and follows the "steamships" in oak lum- 
 ber. A fungus-lawn is foimd in the mines of Lymexylon. 
 
 Infection is performed 
 
 (a) most frequently by spores, 
 
 1. in dew or rain (notably — the lower fimgi); 
 
 2. by wind (notably — the higher fungi); 
 
 3. by insects (rarely, after Tubeuf); 
 
 4. by forcible ejection of spores from sporocarps, asci 
 and sporangia. 
 
 (b) more rarely by mycelium, 
 
 1. notably when the myceliimi lives in the earth, or rather 
 in the roots {Trametes radiciperda, Agaricus melleus "(Rhizo- 
 morphs)"; 
 
 2. also above groimd, the mycelium spreading from plant 
 to plant {Trichosphceria, Herpotrichia). . 
 
 Many fungi appear immediately after the affection of 
 the tree by other detrimental influences (e. g. after insects, 
 fire, storm, drought), so that it is possible to decide upon the 
 immediate cause of damage inflicted only by the test of arti- 
 ficial infection. The fungi found present upon a dead tree 
 can never be considered, eo ipso, as tree killers. 
 
 In many cases the mycelium of the tree killer has dis- 
 appeared when the tree is dead; and only sporocarps may be 
 still present. Many parasites on the other hand develop 
 sporocarps only saprophytically on a dead substratum. 
 
 Certain timber fungi stop work at once when the tree is 
 cut, e. g., the yellow rot fungus of black locust and the peck- 
 iness fungus of bald cypress. The progress of decay, in such 
 cases, ends with the death of the tree. 
 
 The speed at which a fungus disease spreads from a given 
 point of attack is entirely unknown. This speed is very fast 
 in the case of saprophytes working in dead sapwood; it is prob- 
 ably very slow in the case of parasitic fungi attacking the 
 hea.rtwood of grown trees. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 115 
 
 The tales of cruisers to the effect that a tract will "be- 
 come punky in ten to fifteen years" do not seem to deserve 
 any credit. 
 
 An old tree is, ceteris paribus, more readily affected, and 
 more apt to be found affected by disease, than a yoimg one. 
 
 C. Beneficial Fungi. 
 
 The symbiosis of certain fungi with certain trees (dis- 
 covered by Frank) seems to be beneficial to both; possibly 
 essential to both. 
 
 Many of our trees and shrubs are dependent upon cer- 
 tain fimgi, at least for such foods as are derived from humus. 
 These fungi consist of delicate, cobwebby threads such as 
 are seen on mouldy bread. These threads spread through 
 the soil and either enter the outer cells of the root or simply 
 form a mantle (Mycorrhiza) about the root. The fungi live 
 upon decaying animal and plant matter, and transfer a por- 
 tion of this food to the root and doubtless secure in return 
 certain benefits from the root. This mutual helpful relation- 
 ship of two plants is termed commensalism. 
 
 The majority of our heaths, evergreens, poplars, willows, 
 beeches and oaks have become dependent upon these fungi 
 and do not thrive in soils where the fungi are not found. 
 
 Some herbaceous plants, like the Indian-pipe, have be- 
 come entirely dependent upon these fxmgi for food and have, 
 as a consequence, lost all their chlorophyll. 
 
 This field of forest ecological study is practically vm- 
 touched, though it will form the basis of future silviculture. 
 Certain fungi might be used, technologically, for the prepar- 
 ation of pure cellulose. 
 
 D. Signs of disease. 
 
 The signs of disease are visible only on a tree, usually, 
 when it is too late to save the patient. 
 These signs are: — 
 
 A. Hypertrophical swellings, f.i., knots on Spanish oak 
 
 and tumors on yellow pine at Biltmore. 
 
 B. Exudations of rosin in galls or in seams. 
 
 C. Appearance of sporophores, which are rare in some 
 
 species, but are frequently seen on diseased red 
 oak, locust, and ash. When decaying holes ap- 
 pear on a tree, the forester is apt to find the 
 whole tree diseased. Yellow poplar trees are 
 sound within one foot, and white oak logs are 
 sound within two feet from the actual end of 
 a cavity. 
 
116 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 The tree weeds, e. g., Halesia (Mohrodendron) , gum and 
 calmia, might be exterminated in days to come with the help 
 of their fungus enemies. 
 E. Synopsis of the orders of damaging fungi. 
 
 I. Order Phycomycetes. Family Peronosporeoe. 
 
 The mycelium is unicellular. The propa- 
 gation is effected by niunerous branching hyphae 
 forming at their tips little sacs or sporangia in 
 clusters or chains (conidia). These are carried 
 by wind to other plants where they germinate 
 at once, forming a tube that penetrates the leaf. 
 If the leaf is wet, the contents of the sporangia 
 break up into a number of zoospores which de- 
 velop the characteristic hyphse of the fungi. 
 Sexual reproduction occurs in most species and 
 consists of a gametangia cut off from the ends 
 of the hyphse and fertilized by male gametes 
 developed on branches (antheridia) of the game- 
 tangia bearing hyphse. The resulting thick walled 
 gametospore tides the fungus over winter. 
 
 American representatives are not fully known. 
 Some bad nursery fungi belong to this family 
 (notably Phytophtora omnivora). 
 II. Order Ascomycetes. 
 
 1st. Family — Pyrenomycetes. 
 
 Flask-shaped frutifications (peri- 
 thecia) are characteristic of this fam- 
 ily. Within the perithecia, which are 
 open at the top (angiocarpous), occur 
 nimierous asci, each containing eight 
 spores. Preceeding the formation of 
 perithecia, conidiospores are usually 
 formed which are especially efficaci- 
 ous in disseminating the fungi. Ex- 
 amples: Nectria on maple and beech. 
 
 2nd. Family- — Discomycetes. 
 
 Distinguished by open gymnocar- 
 pous apothecia (cup-shaped recepta- 
 cles, bearing freely exposed asci). 
 
 The Discomycetes are unimportant 
 for the American forester, none being 
 observed as damaging our trees. Rhy- 
 tisma acerinum frequently forms large 
 black incrustations of pseudo-paren- 
 chyma on the leaves of maple, conidia 
 developing in the summer and mature 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 117 
 
 apothecia in the succeeding spring. 
 The most important representative of 
 this family in Europe is Peziza. 
 III. Order Basidiomycetes. 
 
 Spores carried on basidia of definite shape 
 and size, and bearing a fixed number of spores. 
 
 1st. Family — UredinecB. 
 
 All are injurious parasites, the 
 myceliimi being in the intercellular 
 spaces of the tissues (particularly iu 
 the leaves) of higher plants. These 
 fimgi change their hostplants, showing 
 a double generation, and develop sev- 
 eral kinds of asexual spores, according 
 to the season and to the host; aecidio- 
 spores and pycnoconidia in spring; 
 uredospores in summer; teleutospores 
 in autumn, which in the following 
 spring develop basidiospores. The my- 
 celium from the basidiospores enters 
 the first host and develops the aeci- 
 dium stage (formerly the genus Ae- 
 ddnim) with aecidia and pycnidia. The 
 next stage on a different host develops 
 the uredospores (formerly genus Ure- 
 do), and in autiman the thick walled 
 teleutospores. 
 
 2nd. Family — Hymenomycetes. 
 
 Basidia imbedded in a common 
 hymenimn which clothes, in Agari- 
 cacece, a series of radial lamellae on the 
 imder side of the pileus, and in Poly- 
 poracece and Boletacece, the inner sur- 
 face of pores. 
 
 In a few genera no distinctive 
 fructifications are formed (Exobasi- 
 diurn vacdnii, parasitic and causing 
 hypertrophy on Ericaceae). 
 
 Another arrangement of the orders 
 and families of fungi might be made 
 with reference to pathogeny: 
 a. The groups 
 
 Uredinece 1 
 
 Ustilaginece contain parasites only, 
 
 (so-called "Smuts") so that no proof of 
 
 Peronosporece ( parasitism is required. 
 
 Exoascece 
 (witch broom) ^ 
 
118 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 b. The groups 
 
 Pyrenomycetes 
 
 Discomycetes I contain parasites as 
 
 Hymenomycetes V well as saprophytes so 
 
 Myxomycetes / that proof of parasi- 
 
 And several groupsV tism is required. 
 
 of lower fungi and| 
 
 bacteria. 
 
 This proof is obtained by artificial infection only. 
 
 Infection reveals, — 
 
 (1) parasitic nature of a fungus, 
 
 (2) exact species of fungus, 
 
 (3) relationship of hetercecious Uredinece and 
 
 their host plants (uredinal, telial and 
 secidial stages), 
 
 (4) various forms of reproductive organs, 
 
 (5) conditions favorable to attacks. 
 
 The fungi might be further divided into two 
 large groups, namely: 
 
 (a) Physiologically obnoxious species (tree killers 
 
 and tree deformers) belonging to the 
 orders Phycomycetes and Ascomycetes and 
 to the family Uredinece of the order 
 Basidiomycetes. 
 
 (b) Technically obnoxious species (wood disin- 
 
 tegrators) belonging notably to the fam- 
 ily Hymenomycetes; this group may be 
 sub-divided into fimgi living on dead 
 trees (Saprophytes) and fungi living on 
 live trees (Parasites). 
 
 Group (a) is of greatest importance 
 in Germany and France; whilst group 
 (b) is of greatest importance in tha 
 United States. 
 
 F. According to parts attacked, the forest fungi might be subdivided 
 as follows: 
 
 I. Nursery fungi and plantation fvmgi. 
 II. Root fimgi in saplings and poles. 
 
 III. Leaf and twig fungi. (Bulletin Bureau of Plant In- 
 
 dustry No. 149, page 18). 
 
 IV. Fungi causing hypertrophical formations (witch 
 
 brooms). 
 V. Fungi discoloring lumber or timber. 
 VI. Fimgi destroying the cambivun and the sapwood of 
 standing trees or poles. 
 
 i 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 119 
 
 Vn. Fungi destroj-ing the sapwood of dead trees and of logs. 
 VIII. Fungi destroj-ing the heartwood in li%-ing trees. 
 IX. Fiingi destrojdng timber, ties, poles and posts after 
 manufacture and •n-hilst in use. 
 
 G. Fungus species worthy of note which are physiologically obnoxious. 
 I. Agaricus meUeiis (honey fimgus) is a champignon 
 attacking and killing conifers four to fifteen 
 years old. "^Tiite pine suffers ven,- badly. The 
 disease spreads underground through the so- 
 caUed rhizomorpha (strong threads of mycel- 
 ium). The soU at the basis of affected plants 
 is charged with exuded rosin. Comp. Biill. Plant 
 Industry, Xo. 149, page 23. 
 II. Aecidium pint attacks the needles and the yoimg 
 bark of pine saplings. The spores enter by a 
 woimd and the spread of the mycelium in the 
 cambium causes hj-pertrophical formations, es- 
 pecially on the main stem. The teleutosporous 
 generation has a Senecio species for its host 
 {Coleosporium senecionis). 
 
 III. Peridemiium cerebrum (family UredineoB) kills two 
 
 year old lodgepole pines as well as other pines. 
 (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 200). 
 
 IV. Peridermium strobi, known as the blister of the white 
 
 pine, has Pinus cembra for its original host. 
 Whilst it does not injure this species serioiisly, 
 its attacks are deadly to our white pine during 
 its juvenile stage. In old trees well protected 
 by hea-vn,- bark, the tops and branches alone are 
 affected. The disease is frequent abroad; and 
 stringent measures should prevent it from en- 
 tering into the Tnited States. The uredal form 
 of the fimgus [Crotwrtiurti ribicohi}7}) forms blotches 
 on the leaves of the currant (Ribes). Compare 
 Quarterly Journal of Forestry-, July, 1909, p. 232. 
 V. A Gymnosporangium causes the "Cedar apples" of 
 red cedar; see Bull. 21, Div. of Pathology, p. 8. 
 For. Bull. 31 (Red Cedar) p. 25. 
 VI. Hysterium pinastri causes the shedding disease dreaded 
 in nurseries. Pine seedlings up to foiu* years 
 old drop the needles of a sudden in spring. White 
 pine is little affected; strong seedlings are im- 
 mune. The disease spreads through old needles 
 on which the fungus lives saprophj-tically. Not 
 observed in America so far. 
 
120 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 VII. Diaporthe parasitica (discovered by Dr. Murrill) is 
 the worst treekUling disease yet described in 
 the United States. It tends to exterminate the 
 chestnut trees from New York to Virginia, and 
 is spreading southward. Entering the cambial 
 layers of the tree and notably those of its branches 
 without the requirement of preceding wounds, 
 the mycelium actually "girdles" the living trees 
 (W. A. Murrill, in Jour. N. Y. Bot. Garden 7: 
 143-153; Bull. No. 149, Bureau of Plant Indus- 
 try, p. 22). 
 
 VIII. Hypoderma sirobicola is the "needle blight" of the 
 wliite pine and appears to be a dangerous para- 
 site on Pinus Strobus. Compare Tubeuf's "Dis- 
 eases of Plants," english edition by W. G. Smith, 
 p. 233. Tubeuf claims that the disease may 
 devastate whole tracts of forests. A disease of 
 the white pine similar to that described by Tubeiif 
 has been reported from Massachusetts (various 
 articles in Woodland and Roadside), from Wes- 
 tern North Carolina and from eastern Tennessee, 
 and is being studied by the pathological divis- 
 ions of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Compare 
 Circular No. 35, Bureau of Plant Industry. 
 
 IX. " Damping-off " is a disease of seedlings soon after 
 germination dreaded by all nurserymen, and 
 decimating many natural regenerations (birch!). 
 The fungi causing the disease are imdescribed. 
 H. Fungus species worthy of note which are technically obnoxious. 
 The genus Polyporus (including Trametes, Fomes, Boletus, 
 Polysiictus, and Dcedalea) is responsible for the decomposi- 
 tion of heartwood in living trees frequently brovight about 
 by the help of an enzym. 
 
 Overaged timber is almost invariably attacked by Poly- 
 porus. The sporophores may appear in branch holes or scars, 
 and are, although the disease might be common, rare in many 
 species. 
 
 Most noteworthy are the following Polypori: — 
 
 I. Polyporus annosus (or Trametes radiciperda) , a root 
 fungus of conifers, attacks pole woods. Sporo- 
 phores under ground in roots. Wood turns brown 
 to begin with and is finally hollowed out. (Agric. 
 Year Book 1900, p. 207). 
 II. Trametes pini causes the heartwood rot (known as 
 "red heart") of pine; the punkiness and per- 
 haps the ring cracks of fir, long leaf, short leaf, 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 121 
 
 and sugar pines; the speckled rot or red heart 
 of Douglas fir; the cork of western hemlock. 
 It is found only in trees over forty years old, 
 usually more in the top of the tree, — but in 
 Pinus monticola close to the gound. The wood 
 never rots out entirely and the absence of cavi- 
 ties is characteristic of this fmigus. It enters 
 through branch stubs containing heartwood. 
 Reference Bull. For. 33, p. 15; F. & I. 1902, 
 p. 62; Agric. Year Book 1900, plate XXII. and 
 XXIV. and page 206. 
 
 III. Polyporus juniperinus creates long holes coated white 
 
 in the heartwood of red cedar. (For. Bull. 31, 
 p. 25; Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 208; Bull. 21 
 of Div. of Vegetable Pathology). 
 
 IV. Polyporus carneus causes the red rot of red cedar 
 
 and of arbor vitse. The wood splits into small 
 cubes, charcoal like. (Bull. 21 of Div. of Vege- 
 table Physiology and Pathology; For. Bull. 21, 
 p. 26). 
 V. Polyporus versicolor causes the soft rot of live catalpa, 
 Polyporus catalpce the brown rot of the species; 
 Bull. Bureau Plant Industry, No. 149, page 47 
 and pp. 53 to 56; Bull. 37 of Bureau of Forestrj', 
 pp. 51-58; also in oak and hemlock and beech 
 (For. Bull. 51, p. 31) as a saprophyte on ties. 
 VI. Polyporus rimosus causes the yellow rot of black 
 locust, in its heartwood. Holes made by locust 
 borers {Cyllene rohinice) serve as entrances. 
 (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207); Contr. Shaw 
 School of Botany, No. 17; Bureau Plant Indus- 
 try Bull. No. 149, p. 45. 
 VII. Polyporus schweinitzii causes the "butt rot," "groxmd 
 rot" or "root rot" of all conifers, notably of 
 Douglas fir and hemlock. Fungus enters at the 
 base of the tree through insect mines. Trees 
 die in patches; sporophores are short-lived. 
 (Bull. For. 33, p. 15; F. & I. 1902, p. 61; Agric. 
 Year Book 1900, p.p 203 and 206, and plate 
 XXIV). 
 VIII. Polyporus fraxinophilus occurs in white ash having 
 over seven inches d.b.h. The hyphae seem to 
 enter by the water niches left by broken branches. 
 Wood becomes straw colored. Very frequent. 
 Reference Bull. 32 and Bull. 149, page 46, of 
 Bureau of Plant Industry. 
 
122 
 
 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 IX. Polyporus nigricans attacks beech, birch and poplar 
 in the New England States causing standing 
 timber to rot. (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207; 
 Bulletin Bureau Plant Industry No. 149, p. 42). 
 X. Polyporus sulfureus causes the brown rot of many- 
 conifers, also of oak, walnut and cherry. (Bull. 
 Bureau Plant Industry No. 149, page 37; Agric. 
 Year Book 1900, p. 207). 
 
 XI. Polyporus igniarius occurs everywhere on beech and 
 oak. (Agric. Year Book 1900, p. 207; Bulletin 
 Bureau Plant Industry, No. 149, pp. 25 to 37). 
 XII. Polyporus libocedris causes the peckiness of bald 
 cypress and the pin rot of incense cedar. The 
 pecks consist of disconnected holes (or pockets) 
 about 4" long ending abruptly and partially 
 filled with brown powder. Foxmd in trees over 
 100 years old. Reference: Contr. Shaw School 
 of Botany, No. 14. 
 
 XIII. Polyporus pinicola. Western conifers, four years after 
 
 death, are found entirely destroyed by Poly- 
 porus pinicola. Reference: F. & I., 1902, p. 60; 
 Agric. Year Book 1900, pp. 202 and 209 and 
 plate XXV. 
 
 XIV. Polyporus obtusus is a common cause of the sap rot 
 
 in dead oak trees (Bull. Bureau of Plant In- 
 dustry, p. 41). 
 XV. Polyporus fulvus causes the so-called "red heart" 
 of the birch (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, 
 p. 47). 
 XVI. Polyporus squamosus causes "white rot" in various 
 hardwood trees, e. g. maple, oak, beech, birch 
 and ash. (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, p. 48). 
 
 XVII. Polyporus pergamenus causes the "sap rot" of trees 
 
 and logs — often after fires — in many hardwoods 
 (notably oak); its work is particularly quick, and 
 so is the rapidity of its fruiting (Bull. Bureau of 
 Plant Industry, No. 149, p. 56). 
 
 XVIII. Polyporus betulinus and fomentarius may parasiti- 
 
 cally weaken living birches and beeches (Mayr), 
 or may be satisfied to cause the decomposition 
 of weakened and of dead wood (Von Schrenk), 
 (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, No. 149, p. 49). 
 XIX. Polyporus applanatus is reported as the killer (?) of 
 cottonwoods (Bull. Bureau of Plant Industry, 
 No. 149, p. 58). 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 123 
 
 XX. Polyporus ponder osus n. sp., described in detail by 
 H. von Schrenk in Bull. 36 of Bureau of Plant 
 Industry, p. 37 f.f.g., causes the red rot of Pinus 
 ponderosa killed by insect pests at the lapse of 
 two years. The fimgus is a saprophyte closely 
 resembling Polyporus pinicola. 
 Aside of the Polypori, the following technically obnoxious fungi 
 deserve attention. 
 
 I. Lenzites sepiaria is a saprophyt preying on hemlock, 
 long leaf and short leaf pine — notably on rail- 
 road ties. (Reference For. Bull. 51). 
 II. Schizophyllum commune attacks railroad ties of short 
 leaf pine, hemlock, etc. saprophytically. (Ref, 
 For. Bull. 51). 
 
 III. Unnamed fungus, the sporophores of which are un- 
 
 known, attacks Sequoia sempervirens and causes 
 "brown rot" (or "butt rof or "pin rot"), the 
 decay beginning in the inner rings of heartwood 
 near the ground. The fibre is converted into 
 pockets, usually twice as broad as long, filled 
 with dark brown matter. (Reference: For. Bull. 
 38, pp. 29-31, and plates X. and XI). 
 
 IV. Ceratostomella (Sphceria) pilifera, a saprophyt of the 
 
 family Discomycetes, causes the bluing of sap- 
 wood in the Itmiber and in the dead boles (killed 
 by Dendroctonus) of Pinus ponderosa. This fungus 
 does not interfere with the strength of the tim- 
 ber; it decreases its fissibiiity- — a disadvantage 
 in cutting of railroad ties. The spores seem to 
 enter through the ladder mines made by the 
 Ambrosia beetles — but do not seem to develop 
 into Ambrosia. Reference: Bull. 36, Bureau of 
 Plant Industry entire. 
 
 "The bluing" of the sap wood in logs and 
 limaber is disastrous notably to the value of 
 poplar logs driven or rafted to destination dur- 
 ing spring and summer, of poplar sap lumber, 
 pine saps, sap gum and the like, sawed and slowly 
 air dried during spring and smnmer. These in- 
 juries are due to undescribed fungi. 
 V. Echinodontium tinctorium attacks western hemlock 
 causing "cork," — like Trametes pint; also in 
 spruce and red fir. (Reference: For. Biill. 33, 
 p. 15). 
 
124 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 J. General remedies against fungi on live trees. 
 
 I. Extermination or removal of the fimgus itseK; 
 
 (1) in case of seeds, by sterilization with hot 
 
 water, or copper "steep-mixtures." 
 
 (2) in case of leaf-fungi, by dusting or spray- 
 
 ing with mixtures containing copper or 
 sulphur. 
 
 (3) in case of Agaricacece and Polyporacece, by 
 
 removal of sporophores, by excision; 
 
 (4) in case of dead parts of plants carrying 
 
 sporocarps, or other reproductive stages 
 of fungi, by dead-priming, or removal 
 of dead litter on ground. 
 II. Extermination of living host or of affected parts of 
 same. 
 
 (1) Removal of living host. 
 
 (2) Removal of complimentary (hetercecious) 
 
 host. 
 III. Avoidance of conditions favoring infection. 
 
 (1) no woimds, or antiseptic treatment of same; 
 
 (2) avoidance of localities favorable to disease; 
 
 (3) no large, even aged, pure forests; 
 
 (4) no selection systems, no summer cutting; 
 
 (5) rotation of crops; 
 
 (6) no planting of hetercecioios hosts together; 
 
 (7) mixed forests; short rotation; suppression of 
 
 boring insects; no artificial priming of 
 living branches; 
 
 (8) raising strong trees of individual power of 
 
 resistence and independent for help from 
 neighbors; 
 
 (9) improvement cuttings and thinnings. 
 
 K. General remedies against fungi in nurseries. 
 
 (1) Change of species, notably in nursery beds. 
 
 (2) Sterilized soil in nursery beds. 
 
 (3) Deep trenches between nursery beds. 
 
 (4) Drenching the beds with a weak solution of sulphuric 
 
 acid (one ounce of acid to one gallon of water) 
 prior to seed planting and after the sprouting 
 of the seedlings. Compare Circular No. 4, Bu- 
 reau of Plant Industry. 
 
 (5) Production of fungus proof varieties. 
 
 (6) Spraying of affected leaves or shoots, or beds with 
 
 Bordeaux mixture, consisting of a 3% solution 
 of copper sulphate and lime (Recipe, Tubeuf 
 & Smith, page 69). 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 126 
 
 L. General remedies against fungi in young regenerations. 
 
 (1) Use very strong plants. 
 
 (2) Do not buy plants from nurseries known to be infested. 
 
 (3) Toungya.. 
 
 (4) Avoid foreigners. 
 
 (5) Plant only kinds known to suit the locality. 
 
 (6) No regeneration from mother trees in pine {Hyster- 
 
 iumf) in beech {Phytophtora\) etc. 
 
 (7) No seedlings of conifers near stumps of hardwoods. 
 M. General remedies against fungi in lumber, ties and poles. 
 
 (1) Wet storage; preservation in ponds (mUl), saltwater 
 
 (tamarack), running water (Caesar's Rhine bridge), 
 swamps (Ky. walnut). 
 
 (2) Dry storage (like furniture) xmder shelter; dry kiln!! 
 
 (3) "Antistain," or "painting," or exposure to sim and 
 
 wind; or else interruption of logging and mill- 
 ing from April to September. 
 
 (4) Impregnation either of the wood, or of the medium 
 
 in which the wood is kept. (Compare H. von 
 Schrenk, in Bull. 14, Bureau of Plant Industry; 
 further Lectures on "Utilization" by C. A. 
 Schenck, paragraph XLIV). 
 
126 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Par. 8. Protection Against Parasites Other Than Fungi. 
 
 A. A number of phanerogams live parasitically upon various trees, 
 
 notably in the tropics. 
 
 In the United States, the common mistletoe (Phoraden- 
 dron flavescens) and the dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium cryp- 
 topoda and pusillum) are worthy of note. (Bull. Bureau of 
 Plant Industry No. 149, pp. 14 to 17). Arceuthobium occi- 
 dentale deforms the bole and the branches of western hem- 
 lock, causing cancerous tumors (Plate VI, Forestry Biilletin 
 No. 33, p. 16). 
 
 The damage done by these parasites is so insignificant 
 that remedies are nowhere indicated. 
 
 B. Tree mosses, tree algse and tree lichens are variously reported as 
 
 malefactors when occurring in such quantities that young 
 leaves and fresh shoots are smothered by them. It is possible 
 also that they interfere with the function of the "lenticels." 
 Tillandsia usneoides and Usnea barbata may be mentioned 
 as representatives of this group. The former called "Spanish 
 moss" is a flowering plant, common on trees in the Southern 
 States; the latter, a lichen, is abundant in northern swamps 
 and woods. Compare Bulletin No. 149, Bureau of Plant In- 
 dustry, page 17. 
 
Part B : Protection Against Inorganic Nature. 
 
 CHAPTER I: PROTECTION AGAINST ADVERSE 
 CLIMATIC INFLUENCES. 
 
 Par. 9. Protection Against Frost. 
 
 Fkost May be Beneficial 
 
 By checking insect plagues (late frost), also mice and other rodents, 
 decimating them in cold and protracted winters; 
 
 By clipping back inferior species competing with aristocrats (beech 
 vs. oak at Viernheim); imdesirable coppice sprouts, cut in Aug- 
 ust, are apt to die; 
 
 By furnishing ice on lakes and on iced roads, creating conditions favor- 
 able to transportation by sleds, and steady weather for logging, 
 skidding, etc.; 
 
 By increasing the value of firewood, and oftentimes by forcing men 
 to take employment in the woods when other occupations are barred 
 by frost. 
 
 A. Frost is Injurious to Utilization 
 
 By Interfering 
 
 1. in the south with the logging operations, — owing to the 
 
 unreliability of the occurrence of frost; the necessity 
 of shoeing cattle; the formation of jams in flumes; 
 the interference by late frost with tan bark peeling, 
 etc.; also by bursting trees, when felled in frozen con- 
 dition; by toughness of fibre so as to retard the feed 
 of the saw-carriage; by danger to water pipes, con- 
 nected with engines, boilers, locomotives, donkey 
 engines, etc.; by necessity of changing the setting of 
 the teeth, and the temper and the speed of the saw. 
 
 2. in the north with water transportation on the lakes (no- 
 
 tably Great Lakes) and rivers (notably St. Lawrence). 
 
 B. Frost is Injurious Physiologically (Sylviculturally) 
 
 By killing leaves, buds, shoots, branches (notably sappy 
 shoots), flowers and fruits, seedlings and (rarely) saplings. 
 
 There is no proof at hand of poles or trees of native species being 
 killed by frost. 
 
 Foreigners (e. g., palms, eucalypts and many species tried in nor- 
 thern prairies) are subject to frost. 
 
 127 
 
128 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Absolute cold is not injurious, eo ipso, to native species, which 
 know how to protect themselves 
 
 by leaves dropped 
 
 by non-freezing cell contents 
 
 by lignification 
 
 by cork layers, bud scales, hairs 
 
 by color 
 
 by position (rolled up rhododendron leaves) 
 
 by beginning growth late and by finishing it early. 
 The death of a specimen, or of parts of it, is brought about, in all 
 probability, by a rapid transition from cold to warm (cite 
 various theories, and experiments made to support them). 
 Hence it is that the severe frost of winter, or frost occurring 
 at a time at which plants are protected, is less injurious than 
 a light early frost in fall or a light late frost in spring. 
 Frost occurring unexpectedly is most injurious, — and particularly 
 so to the young parts of an old plant or to a plant, all parts 
 of which are young and tender (e. g., germinating seedlings). 
 
 (a) Influencing factors are: 
 
 Locality (frost holes), latitude, altitude, exposures 
 (eastern); 
 
 Atmospheric conditions preceding and following 
 a cold spell; 
 
 Snow cover; 
 
 Condition of plant (germs sprouting; buds open- 
 ing; shoots lengthening; lignification unfin- 
 ished) ; 
 
 Size (age) of plants; 
 
 Presence or absence of wind. 
 
 (b) Consequences of frost are: 
 
 Failures of nursery beds; 
 
 Failure of natural seed regenerations; 
 
 Failure of seed years; 
 
 Failure of seedlings to compete with weeds (e. g., 
 sedgegrass and walnut at Biltmore), and with 
 rabbits (e. g., maple and chestnutoak at 
 Biltmore) ; 
 
 Saplings and seedlings growing . bushy or forking 
 (cherry, loosing tips of shoots incessantly; 
 larch, at Biltmore, on Bradley Plantation, 
 due to September frost, 1906; echinata at 
 Biltmore, everywhere, due to September frost, 
 1906); 
 
 Aristocrats smothered by mob (walnut at Bilt- 
 more overtopped by hard maple, owing to 
 frost); 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 129 
 
 Shortened growing season; 
 
 Restricted number of species locally producible; 
 
 Double rings of wood, and possibly windshakes 
 in wood; 
 
 Weakened condition of a tree, subjecting it to 
 insects and fungi, and also to breakage by 
 storm, snow and sleet, owing to the reduced 
 elasticity of the fibre. 
 (c) Species afflicted: 
 
 The species known to suffer, in one way or an- 
 other, from frost are called "sensitive;" the 
 others are known as "hardy" species. 
 
 SENSITIVE 
 AT BiLTMORE 
 
 Chestnut Beech 
 
 Maples Oaks 
 
 Black Gum Catalpa 
 
 Scotch Pine Oregon Ash 
 
 White Pine Oregon Maple 
 
 Rigid Pine Box Elder 
 
 Halesia Pinus ponderosa 
 
 Cottonwood Pinus lambertiana 
 
 Hickories Pinus echinata 
 
 Spruces Edgeworthia 
 
 Douglasia Walnut 
 
 Yellow Poplar Buckeye 
 
 (d) The remedies against frost are almost entirely 
 
 PREVENTIVE: 
 
 (Restrictive measures are possible only in nur- 
 series, and consist in watering the beds after 
 very cold nights). 
 
 1. In nurseries: 
 
 Late planting of seeds in spring, where late frost 
 is dreaded; or else early planting where early 
 frost is feared in fall; 
 
 Lath screens, or nursery under cover (unless 
 lignification is handicapped); 
 
 Clouds of smoke on frosty mornings; 
 
 Avoidance of east aspects; 
 
 Heeling-out transplants, so as to retard sprout- 
 ing in spring; 
 
 H 
 
130 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Avoidance of dense stands in seed beds (ash seed- 
 lings at Biltmore failed to lignify in 1905, 
 excepting those at outer edge). 
 
 2. In plantations: 
 
 Remark: A seedling once crippled by frost is 
 apt to be crippled again, and again, and 
 again, owing to the fact, that the replace- 
 ment of organs once lost takes time; so that 
 the growing season is shortened. The wal- 
 nuts and buckeyes at Biltmore, once clipped 
 back by frost have been clipped back an- 
 nually. 
 
 Early planting in spring to avoid early frost; 
 
 Late planting in spring to avoid late frost; 
 
 No experimenting with the introduction of new 
 species; 
 
 Natural regeneration of Pinus echinata (also 
 White Pine in Adirondacks) to avoid for- 
 mation of double whirls; 
 
 Planting sensitive species beneath a light cover 
 overhead, so as to prevent excessive height 
 growth, or premature formation of spring 
 shoots. 
 
 Use of strong stocky seedlings, since minute 
 plants are prevented from lignification by 
 shading weeds. 
 
 Selecting species suiting the soil (walnut on best 
 soil, where it will lignify; echinata on poor 
 soil, where it will form one shoot only), 
 the exposure, and the climate (prairie plant- 
 ing); 
 
 Cultivation, so as to stimulate insolation and 
 lignification; possibly pruning to same end; 
 or else to give the lead to one side shoot 
 amongst several when the leader is frost- 
 kUled. 
 
 3. In natural seed regeneration: 
 
 Progress of the axe in shelterwood-types accord- 
 ing to the requirements of the seedlings, 
 viz., slow, where late frost is feared, so as 
 to retard the act of sprouting in spring; 
 or else rapid, where early frost is feared, 
 so as to allow of lignification; 
 
 Untimely and sudden removal of mother trees 
 may shock tender plants (even spruce 5' 
 high), on the other hand. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 131 
 
 Frost may be invited on purpose to check a less 
 desirable species in mixture with a hardier 
 and more desirable species. 
 C. Frost is Injurious 
 
 BY LIFTING (UPROOTINg) SEEDLINGS IN NURSERIES AND PLANTATIONS. 
 
 Subject to damage are: 
 
 Flat rooted species growing slowly in early youth, notably 
 
 conifers (yellow pine yearlings, white pine yearlings, 
 
 spruce, hemlock); 
 Moist localities and loose soil; 
 East exposures, and notably steep east aspects. 
 
 (a) Remedial m^easures are: 
 
 Pressing seedlings back, soon after accident. 
 
 (b) Restrictive measures are: 
 
 1. In nurseries: 
 
 Drainage by deep paths (middlings) between the 
 
 beds; 
 Proper aeration of soil; 
 Seedbeds planted broadcast; 
 Strong seedlings, and long roots; 
 Shading beds, and covering space between the 
 
 • rows of plants; 
 No weeding in early fall. 
 
 2. In plantations: 
 
 Planting on reversed sods; 
 Mound planting; 
 
 Planting three year-olds (two year old trans- 
 plants in case of yellow pine); 
 Planting ball plants; 
 Planting under shelter overhead. 
 D. Frost is Injurious 
 
 By CAUSING frost cracks 
 
 in hardwoods only, notably in case of injured trees and of 
 
 species having strong medullary rays. 
 Insect disease and fungus disease follow in the cracks. 
 Remedy: Timely thinning or improvement cutting. 
 Cracks occur, notably, 
 
 along lower part of bole; 
 
 on standards over coppice; 
 
 on south side of trees; 
 
 on medium sized trees (13^'-3'). 
 
 in moist localities. 
 
132 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Par. 10. Protection Against Heat. 
 
 A. Heat Causes Harm Only: 
 
 When it invites forest fires; 
 
 When it fails to be balanced by the moisture in the air or soil (wood 
 lots in the prairies; old park trees); 
 
 When it occurs suddenly, striking the trees in a state of non-pro- 
 tection (e. g., new plantations and trees isolated of a sudden). 
 
 B. The Plants Protect Themselves Ordinarily Against Heat: 
 
 By dropping leaves; 
 
 By resinous cell contents; 
 
 By closed stomata; 
 
 By color and position of leaves; 
 
 By coverings of cork, hair and that like. 
 
 C. Remedies: 
 
 1. In infant forests: 
 
 (a) in nurseries: 
 
 Secure irrigation; 
 
 Provide lath screens or cloth screens; 
 Maintain a cover of mould on the soil; 
 Cultivate so as to increase the porosity of soil; 
 Plant the seeds early in spring before the winter 
 
 moisture has vanished; 
 Transplant early and transplant deeply. 
 
 (b) in plantations: 
 
 Use strong transplants; 
 
 Adopt mound planting; 
 
 Plant under cover; 
 
 Adopt ball planting; 
 
 Avoid loss of root fibres during act of out-planting; 
 
 Cultivate. 
 
 (c) in natural seed regenerations: 
 
 Remove mother trees slowly; 
 
 Remove trees reflecting heat unto young growth. 
 
 (d) Generally: 
 
 Maintain a dense cover overhead, and a good 
 layer of humus underneath. 
 
 2. In pole forests and tree forests: 
 
 Characteristic for damage (so-called sunscald) is: 
 
 Bark scaling off; 
 
 Sap wood turning brown; 
 
 Discoloration and decay within a distinct sector of bole, 
 (a) Prevent simscald by avoiding sudden changes of the 
 
 influx of light; 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 133 
 
 Notably so in the case of dense stands of beech, 
 spruce, white pine, ash; 
 
 Notably on the West-South- West edge of a wood 
 lot. 
 
 At Biltmore, Oak saplings along the macada- 
 mized roads; chestnuts on the arboretiun 
 road; and hickories of small diameter have 
 been visited by the disease. 
 
 (b) Do not remove the trees affected by sunscald; their 
 
 removal will merely expose the trees in the rear, 
 and the damage will continue. 
 
 (c) Do not remove, from endangered trees, by priming, 
 
 any living branches. 
 
 (d) Time the progress of the axe properly in thinnings, 
 
 preparatory cuttings, seed cuttings and removal 
 cuttings. 
 
134 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Par. 11. Protection Against Snow and Sleet. 
 
 Snow is Beneficial: 
 
 By preventing fires; 
 
 By storing water and by preserving soil moisture; 
 
 By facilitating the logging operations; 
 
 By covering sensitive plants; 
 
 By removing dead side branches; 
 
 By preventing frost from entering deeply into soil; 
 
 By reducing the felling damages. 
 
 A. Snow is Technically Obnoxious: 
 
 By preventing the use of wagons or railroads; 
 By endangering skidding on steep slopes; 
 By increasing sledding expenses (when snow is too deep); 
 By causing extra outlay in cutting stumps low to the ground; 
 By reducing the accessibility of the woods. 
 
 Remark: Winters of excessive snow are known as winters of re- 
 stricted output of lumber. 
 
 B. Snow is Physiologically Obnoxious: 
 
 By bending down saplings and poles with or without their roots; 
 By breaking off branches and crowns or by breaking down poles 
 
 and trees with the roots; 
 By causing rodents and game to attack trees and saplings for food; 
 By exposing trees after breakage to the attacks of insects and fungi; 
 By increasing storm damage at a time when the trees are loaded 
 
 with snow or sleet. 
 
 C. Factors of Damage. 
 
 Species and mixture of species; 
 
 Age and size of trees; _ 
 
 Method of regeneration and notably the density thereof; 
 
 Climatic constellations (e. g., coincidence of storm; succession of 
 
 thaws and snows; occurrences of snow in Octover, before the 
 
 fall of the leaves); 
 Preceding treatment by thinning; by removal cuttings; by leavin] 
 
 standards after coppiceing; by road making. 
 Locality, elevation and aspect: 
 Steepness of slope; 
 Depth of soil (Coxehill); 
 Rate of growth (fast grown yellow pine and top whirls of fast grownj 
 
 white pine at Biltmore;) 
 Prior injuries by fire, by boxing, by insects and fungi (black locusts). 
 Remark: Remember the following illustrations: 
 White cedar in swamps of South Carolina; 
 Cuban pine in Alabama; 
 
FOREST PROTECTION I35 
 
 Poplar tops in Pisgah Forest; 
 
 Topped white pines in the Pink Beds; 
 
 Black locusts and hickory on mountain tops; 
 - Plantations of rigid pine in Black Forest; 
 
 Spruce saplings in the Balsams, in the early spring of 1908, 
 D. Remedies: 
 
 Selecting the proper species for planting or for natural seed re- 
 generations, in keeping with the requirements of the locality 
 and of the climate; 
 
 Group system of natural seed regeneration; 
 
 Planting in rows instead of planting in triangles (Hess); 
 
 Thinnings properly made beginning early in very dense regenerations; 
 
 Pollarding; 
 
 Readiness of permanent means of transportation so as to make 
 possible the salvage of broken timber. 
 
CHAPTER II: PROTECTION AGAINST STORM, EROSION, 
 SANDDRIFTS, NOXIOUS GASES. 
 
 Part 12. Protection Against Wind Storms. 
 
 Wind is Beneficial: 
 
 By restoring the chemical balance of the atmosphere; 
 By distributing pollen and seeds; 
 By preventing excessive formation of side branches; 
 By bringing rain. 
 
 A. Damage is Caused by Wind Storm (aside of forest fires spread or fanned) : 
 
 (a) in plantations: 
 
 By loosening the anchorage of tall seedlings and 
 saplings; (notably, after planting in furrows, 
 in the prairies, on sand dimes); 
 
 By drying out roots and shoots and leaves and 
 soil (notably in the early spring); 
 
 By removing the protecting cover of snow; 
 
 By allowing the "mob" to whip the top shoots 
 of "aristocrats." 
 
 (b) IN EXPOSED localities: 
 
 By one-sided (seashore or Pisgah ridge) or stimted 
 growth. 
 
 (c) IN TREE forests AND IN LAEGE POLE WOODS: 
 
 By breakage of crowns or branches, thus allow- 
 ing access to fvmgi and to insects; 
 
 By breakage of stems at their point of least re- 
 sistence; 
 
 By uprooting trees singly, in avenues, or in large 
 blocks; 
 
 By endangering the logging operations. 
 
 B. Factors of Damage ake: 
 
 (a) Species: 
 
 Flat-rooted conifers are most endangered; a mix- 
 ture of species in advisable. 
 
 (b) Size class: 
 
 Poles and trees over 8" in diameter are most 
 subject to damage. 
 
 (c) Locality: 
 
 Leeward sides of lakes; 
 
 Mountain slopes and mountain tops on leeward 
 
 side; 
 Moist spots; 
 Shallow soil. 
 
 136 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 137 
 
 (d) Prior Treatment: 
 
 Partial logging, leaving a freshly bared front 
 exposed to the prevailing storm; 
 
 Standards over coppice; 
 
 Single seedtrees over regeneration; 
 
 Borggreve thinnings; 
 
 Turpentining by the box system; 
 
 Interference with anchorage of roots by making 
 ditches or roads. 
 
 (e) Shape of trees: 
 
 Cylindrical trees are more top heavy than coni- 
 cal trees. 
 
 (f) Accompanying circumstances: 
 
 Heavy rains soaking the soil; 
 
 Heavy seed years when the tops of the trees are 
 
 loaded with cones; 
 Sleet; 
 Snow. 
 
 C. Preventive measures: 
 
 (a) Sylviculturally: 
 
 Ball planting, deep planting, sod covering on 
 
 shifting sand. 
 Fostering hardwoods or mixture therewith; 
 Early and moderate and regular thinnings; 
 Pruning or lopping to reduce top-heaviness; 
 No standards; 
 
 No single tree method of natural seed regeneration; 
 Proper preparation in due time of trees intended 
 
 for an isolated position; 
 Short rotations. 
 
 (b) Technicai^ly: 
 
 Avoidance of logging methods leaving points 
 favorable to the attack of storms; 
 
 Progress of the axe against the direction of the 
 barometric minima; 
 
 Herty method of terpentining; 
 
 Proper "cutting series;" 
 
 Timely "severance cuttings." 
 
 D. Restrictive Measures: 
 
 Readiness of means of transportation (railroads and roads) after 
 
 wind falls; 
 Removing the bark from wind falls; 
 Throwing wind falls in water. 
 
138 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Par. 13. Protection Against Erosion. 
 
 The adult forest does not require any protection from erosion — usu- 
 ally so. 
 
 It must be remembered, on the other hand, that "civilization" (by 
 ditching the slopes on the hills; by cutting roads and railroads into the soil; 
 by draining the bottom-lands for farming purposes) increases the rapidity 
 of the subterranean and of the superficial drainage; that it results in a par- 
 tial destruction of the soil on the hill sides. 
 
 Erosion, in the present geological acra, is not so active, nevertheless, 
 as it was in prior periods. 
 
 A forest plantation on the hill side suffers during its early stages from 
 erosion where the soil consists of clay, and where the plough has preceded 
 the establishment of the embryo-forest. 
 
 Some seedlings are washed out of the soil whilst others are covered 
 by detritus. 
 
 At Biltmore, erosion has harmed particularly the so-called "old school 
 house" plantation, in its earliest stage of development. 
 
 As soon as the forest covers the ground fully, viz.: when the branches 
 of neighboring specimens interlace, all erosion is usually stopped and stopped 
 for good. 
 
 Oftentimes deep gullies are cut into the side slopes during and after 
 agricultural occupancy of the soil; in such cases, the stopping of the gullies 
 by wicker works or hurdles can be recommended. 
 
 These wicker works should not protrude more than one-half foot above 
 the surface of the soil. 
 
 They should be made, particularly, at the upper end of the gully. It 
 is useless to make them at the lower end alone. 
 
 These wicker works will hinder erosion to a certain extent; wUl quiet 
 the soil within the gully; and will allow the grasses and the weeds to occupy 
 the sides of the gully. 
 
 The most interesting case of erosion met in Eastern America is, pos- 
 sibly, the erosion exhibited in the immediate proximity of the smelter works 
 at Ducktown, Tenn. 
 
 Here, the hillsides were laid bare entirely at a time at which the smelters 
 used the timber for charcoal. 
 
 Following this deforestation, the bared areas were used for roasting 
 (by the open heap method) of the copper-bearing ores. As a consequence, 
 every vestige of vegetation has been annihilated on the hillsides and eros- 
 ion has had a chance to work in an amazing degree of intensity. 
 
 Erosion may be checked by horizontal ditches — or ditches running 
 at a very light grade; by the planting of grasses or weeds between horizon- 
 tal ditches; and finally, by afforestation. 
 
 There is no means better than successful afforestation by which the 
 soil can be fastened or anchored to the underlying rock. 
 
 Afforestation as a topic of lectures belongs into "Sylviculture" and 
 into "Forest Policy." 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 139 
 
 Par. 14. Protection Against Shifting Sands. 
 
 Instances are rare in which the forest requires any protection against 
 shifting sands. 
 
 On the other hand, the forest frequently tends to protect from damage 
 the farms, the raihoads and other human interests. 
 
 In other words: The forest requires, rarely, protection against shift- 
 ing sands; and it acts freque-ntly as a protector against shifting sands. 
 
 Famous instances of the role which the forest plays in this connection 
 are those of Cape Cod, Mass.; of Hatteras Island, N. C. (Compare Collier 
 Cobb's article in the National Geographic Magazine entitled "Where the 
 wind does the work"); in Central Hungary; in the Landes of Gascogny, 
 France; in the Rhine Valley near Darmstadt, Germany; along the Colum- 
 bia River in Oregon and Washington; and so on). 
 
 A. Shifting sand along the seashore is found notably in the form of sand 
 
 dunes moving landward, fed and driven by ocean winds. 
 It would be unwise to attempt any afforestation of the dunes nearest 
 
 the ocean. Afforestation may set in at some distance from the 
 
 ocean in protected depressions foimd between parallel dimes. 
 The dunes are fixed, to begin with, by rough palings forming the heart 
 
 of the dunes and causing a constant growth of the height of the 
 
 dunes. The sides of the dunes are fortified by sandgrasses and 
 
 sandweeds. 
 The species used for afforestation belong to particularly modest genera: 
 
 Cottonwoods, willows and pines are recommended. 
 Obviously, the forester restocking shifting sands is interested in the 
 i fixation of the sands more than in a direct revenue derivable from 
 
 plantations made at a very high expense on very sterile soil. 
 
 B. The case lies somewhat different on sand areas foimd inland. Here, 
 
 afforestation is frequently indicated as a means toward a revenue 
 obtainable from soil lying otherwise unproductive and threaten- 
 ing, at the margins of the sand fields, destruction to adjoining farm- 
 land. 
 
 The usual method of proceeding is the following: 
 
 Sods of grasses or else sods of heather are laid on the soil, checker-board 
 fashion. Within the sods are planted longrooted yellow pines, 
 preference being given to transplants two years old or else to ball 
 plants one year old. There is no harm in "deep planting." 
 
 Afforestation should begin on the windward side of the sand area, in 
 protected spots. 
 
 The most famous attempt made in America toward the afforestation 
 of inland sands is that of the Forest Service trying to establish, 
 on the "Bad Lands" of Nebraska, a. planted forest on a large scale. 
 
140 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 It is obvious that small plants are pulled out of a loose soil readily by 
 the wind — notably so in the case of evergreens; and that large 
 transplants suffer badly from the shock of outplanting and from 
 the inadequacy of the water supply available on sterile sand. 
 
 Wheresoever the soil is apt to become shifting, the law should prohibit 
 the removal of the trees by their owners. 
 
 The influence in that direction exercised by a commonwealth is dealt 
 with in the lectures on "Forest Policy." 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 141 
 
 Par. 15. Protection Against Noxious Gases (Sulphurfumes) . 
 
 By the term "sulphurfumes" are understood certain gases formed by 
 the oxidation of sulphiu-. Huge amounts of these gases are produced wher- 
 ever sulphur-bearing minerals are treated in the presence of atmospheric air. 
 
 Contamination of the atmosphere is one of the evils adherent to civili- 
 zation, or, which is the same, adherent to an increase of population at cer- 
 tain centers. The breath of any man or any animal and, more than that, 
 the srnoke rising from any building (dwellings as well as factories) contami- 
 nate the air. 
 
 After Angus Smith, the atmosphere at Manchester, England, contains 
 a little less than the one-millionth part of SO 2 on the average of the year. 
 
 The rain water investigations made by the same English author show 
 the rapid increase of sulphuric acid in rain water near industrial centers. 
 
 The sulphur contained in common coal averages 1.7%, of which 1.2% 
 develop into noxious sulphurfumes. In other words, 85 tons of coal will 
 develop on the average 2 tons of noxious SO 2. 
 
 Since the consumption of bitimainous coal in the United States is in 
 excess of 200,000,000 tons per annum, it appears that we send into the at- 
 mosphere (pre-eminently in the northeast) annually about 4,700,000 tons 
 of sulphurous acid. 
 
 A. Natuhe of Damage to Leaves. 
 
 There is not at hand, at the present time, any scientific explana- 
 tion of the strange physiological effect which sulphur fumes 
 exercise upon vegetation. 
 
 After Prof. Naegeli, SO 2 checks the normal movement of the live 
 plasma in the leaves. 
 
 Von Schroeder finds that the transpiration from the leaves is that 
 function which is most vitally reduced by inhalation of SO,. 
 
 During night, transpiration from the leaves is naturally reduced 
 to a minimum, and it is interesting to note that there is little 
 difference in the evaporative function of leaves during night, 
 whether they be exposed to SO 2 or whether they be left in 
 an atmosphere free from SO 2. 
 
 When the sun shines, the difference between the evaporation in 
 leaves exposed to SO 2 and in leaves exposed to a pure atmos- 
 phere is very striking. 
 
 Reduced transpiration appears to be noticeable before discolora- 
 tion of leaves occurs in a sulphurous atmosphere. 
 
 After von Schroeder, very small quantities of SO 2 continuously 
 acting produce the same final result (always in the glass case) 
 which large quantities will produce acting for short periods 
 only. This observation does not tally with the results of 
 Freytag's experiments made in the open air. 
 
142 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Darkness reduces the damage by SO 2 more than dryness. In the 
 presence of light, heat and humidity, the discoloring and dead- 
 ening action of SO 2 is most intense; which is to say: It is 
 strongest when the vital functions of the leaves are most active. 
 
 Parallel experiments show no discoloration as a consequence of the 
 absorption of SO 2 in the dark room (at night), although such 
 absorption takes place actually. 
 
 Wet leaves show much more discoloration than dry leaves in the 
 same sulphurous atmosphere. 
 
 The main difficulty met in ascertaining the dilution at which SO 2 
 becomes innocuous lies in the disturbing influence of light 
 and moisture. 
 
 After Freytag (experiments in the open air) damage is possible 
 only in humid air, or when the leaves are slightly wet from 
 drizzling rain and from dew. 
 
 Again, after Freytag, air containing less than 0.003% (of weight) 
 of SO 2 is innocuous, even under adverse hydrographic con- 
 ditions and in spite of continuous fimiigation, applied during 
 a number of weeks. 
 
 Freytag's experiments are the only open-air experiments which 
 have been conducted with scientific correctness. 
 
 SO 2 and SO 3 are absorbed in the same absolute quantities by the 
 leaves when present in the air in equal proportions. Discol- 
 oration of leaves, however, and decrease in transpiration from 
 leaves are, simultaneously, much smaller in an atmosphere 
 of SO 3 than in an atmosphere of SO 2. Consequently, all 
 conditions which favor the formation of. SO 3 in the air before 
 the air touches the leaves must decrease the damage — espec- 
 ially so in the case of chronic affections. 
 
 The assumption that clouds of smoke interfere with the admis- 
 sion of light and hence with the assimilation of the leaves is 
 erroneous. 
 
 There is no such thing as the "stuflSng up" of the so-called stomata 
 found on the leaves (through which inhalation and transpira- 
 tion takes place) caused by soot or solid particles contained 
 in the fumes. 
 
 Experiments made by Stoeckhardt prove this thesis beyond a doubt. 
 
 B. Chemical Remarks. 
 
 Sulphurous acid (H 2SO 3) is unknown in the free state; it is likely 
 
 to be contained in the solution of gaseous SO 2 in the water. 
 Sulphurous acid forms primary and secondary sulphites; its salts 
 
 are obtained by saturating a base with a watery solution of SO 2. 
 If siilphurous acid is eliminated from its salts by the action of stronger 
 
 acids, then it forms its anhydrid and water. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 143 
 
 Since a large number of calories of heat are set free by the union 
 of S and O, in forming the SO 2, the anhydrid is a constant 
 combination. 
 
 SO 2 is readily reduced, by H2S, into water and sulphur. 
 
 In watery solutions as well as in gaseous form SO 2 readily oxidises 
 into SO 3, when exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, 
 32 calories of heat being liberated by such oxidation. 
 
 On the other hand, SO 3 at red heat dissolves into oxygen and SO 2. 
 It stands to reasofi that with increasing distance from the 
 smoke-stack the contents of the smoke are more SO 3 than SO 2. 
 
 After von Schroeder, the gases of SO 3 are, without a doubt, less 
 damaging to vegetation inhaling them than the gases of SO 2. 
 
 Within the leaves SO 2 is very quickly converted, by oxidation, 
 into SO 3. 
 
 A few hours after gas-poisoning, only SO 3 (not SO 2) can be proven 
 to be present within the leaves. 
 
 Chemical analysis of leaves can only fix the territory infested in 
 a random way. It can never be used as a measure of damage 
 locally foimd. The damage can be assessed only according 
 to the effects discernible with the naked eye. So-called "in- 
 visible damages" have never been allowed by the Courts. 
 
 The chemical analysis of leaves suspected to be poisoned deals 
 only with an abnormal (unnatural) surplus of SO 3. 
 
 All leaves contain, in nature, certain amounts of SO 3, the amoimts 
 depending on the composition of the soil and on the species. 
 
 Hence a comparative analysis of the leaves is absolutely necessary 
 where it is intended to establish the influence of sulphurfumes 
 on vegetation. This analysis must allow for the difference 
 in the soil and the difference in the distance from the smelters. 
 At the same time, the leaves examined must be taken from 
 the same part of the tree and from the same side of the tree; 
 further, the leaves must be in the same stage of development. 
 
 After recent experiments the sulphuric contents in the leaves within 
 .the lower part of the crown are much higher than the sulphuric 
 contents in the upper part of the crown. 
 
 The ashes obtained from trees growing in low lands are relatively 
 poorer in SO 3 than the ashes from trees growing on mountains. 
 Weak limbs show more SO 3 than strong limbs. 
 
 The Merits of the Chemical Analysis. 
 
 Science has not established any absolutely reliable means to 
 connect death or injury of trees with a poisoning effect of 
 SO 2 or SO 3 suspended in the air surroimding such trees. 
 
144 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 An anatomic — microscopic proof of injury due to SO 2 or SO 3 can- 
 not be given (Haselhoff and Lindau, p. 93 and p. 37). 
 
 A number of injurious influences (frost, heat, desiccation of soil, 
 insects, fungi (Schroeder and Reuss, p. 110) fire, etc.) bring 
 about, within the leaves and needles, identical or similar al- 
 terations of the cell-structure (Haselhoff and Lindau, p. 12 ff). 
 
 The consensus of opinion, amongst scientific specialists (R. Har- 
 tig, p. 6; Winkler, p. 379; Schroeder and Reuss, p. 126) is to 
 the effect that excessive contents of SOs within the leaves 
 are not necessarily injurious. 
 
 Injury due to sulphurfumes can be assumed only when there are 
 at hand 
 
 A. death visible to the naked eye; 
 
 B. no other plausible cause of such death; 
 
 C. contents of SO 3 in the leaves which are unmistak- 
 
 ably increased by the reaction of the leaves 
 and needles on sulphur fiunes. 
 
 Unmistakably increased contents of SOi 
 proven chemically within the leaves are 
 
 a. not identical with abnormal con- 
 
 tents; 
 
 b. not such contents as exceed the av- 
 
 erage contents of leaves within 
 territories acknowledged to be 
 beyond the reach of sulphur 
 fumes; in other words, 
 
 c. not particularly high percentages of 
 
 SOs found within the leaves. 
 General averages holding good 
 for the contents of SOs within 
 the leaves of healthy tfees do 
 not exist (Haselhoff and L ndau, 
 p. 67). 
 If the contents of SO 3 found within the in- 
 jured or uninjured leaves and needles of 
 a given tree exceed those obtained by 
 averaging a large number of analytic re- 
 sults obtained from the tests of healthy 
 leaves and needles, then and in such case 
 the excess is frequently due to any one, 
 or to a combination of the following 
 causes: 
 , (a) Soil: A soil naturally rich in 
 
 SO 3 or irrigated with water 
 containing SOs, produces 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 145 
 
 leaves and needles sur- 
 charged with SO 8. Such 
 surcharge has no detrimen- 
 tal influence on the state of 
 health of the trees (Hasel- 
 hoff and Lindau, p. 46, p. 
 51, p. 55, p. 56). 
 
 (b) Age : Old needles contain more 
 
 SO 3 than yoimg needles. 
 (Haselhoff and Lindau, p. 
 67; Schroeder and Reuss, p. 
 128). 
 
 (c) Season: Young leaves contain 
 
 more SO 3 than old leaves. 
 
 (d) Position: On the same healthy- 
 
 tree, the sulphur contents 
 of the leaves vary accord- 
 ing to the position of the 
 leaves,which position might 
 be 
 
 at the base or at the 
 
 top of the crown, 
 
 ' on the inside or on 
 
 the outside of the 
 
 crown. 
 
 (e) Elevation: On the slope of a 
 
 hill, the sulphur contents in 
 the healthy leaves of the 
 same tree-species exhibit 
 variations depending on the 
 elevation above sea-level 
 (Schroeder and Reuss, p. 
 126). 
 The sulphur contents of given leaves and need- 
 les are "unmistakably increased" by 
 the reaction on sulphur fumes in all cases 
 where it can be proven that none of the 
 causes of increase above enumerated has 
 or have brought about such increase. It 
 is advisable, as a consequence, 
 
 (1) to back the chemical analysis of 
 the leaves by the chemical 
 analysis of the soil on which 
 such leaves were produced, 
 so as to prove that an in- 
 
146 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 crease of leaf-sulphur is not 
 due to an increase of soil- 
 sulphur (Haselhoff and Lin- 
 dau, p. 378); 
 
 (2) to compare the analytic results 
 of such leaves and needles 
 only which were picked 
 equally old; 
 
 equally situated with- 
 in the crown of the 
 trees; 
 equally situated with 
 reference to eleva- 
 tion. 
 All experts agree that short, sudden, strong 
 attacks by sulphur fumes are apt to be 
 deadly; still, such attacks do not cause 
 a VERY MABKED increase of SO 3 in the 
 leaves. 
 On the other hand, long-continued, but slight 
 attacks by sulphur fumes result in a 
 heavy increase of SO 3 in the leaves; 
 still, such attacks do not cause a very 
 marked injury to the trees (Wislicenus, 
 Journal of Applied Chemistry, 1901, p. 
 28). 
 It is evident, consequently, that conclusions 
 based on the chemical analysis of leaves 
 and needles are apt to be rash; and that 
 so-called chemical proofs miist be viewed 
 with great precaution (Wieler, p. 380). 
 
 D. Unreliability of Glass-Case Experiments. 
 
 Experiments touching the poisonous effect of fumes made with 
 plants placed in a glass case cannot be so telling as experi- 
 ments made in the open, because: 
 
 a. In the glass case, the gas is admitted from below so 
 
 as to infest the lower surface of the leaves, which 
 lower surface is known to be more subject to 
 sulphur attacks than the upper surface. 
 
 b. Sulphurous anhydrid, in statu nascendi, is increas- 
 
 ingly active and pre-eminently corrosive. 
 
 c. The discoloration of the leaves in nature differs from 
 
 the discoloration usually observed in glass case 
 experiments. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 147 
 
 d. In nature, SO 3 is largely mixed with SO 2, the former 
 being less active than the latter. In the glass 
 case, usually, only SO 2 is developed. 
 
 E. Factors of Damase. 
 
 Without a doubt, a slight admixture to the atmosphere of either 
 SO 2 or SO 3 has a certain influence on vegetation; such in- 
 fluence being irregularly proportioned to the amount of the 
 admixture. 
 
 After Stoeckhardt, the- one-millionth part of the air consisting of 
 SO 2 results, in the course of time, in discoloration (335 fumi- 
 gations discolor wet leaves in six weeks, dry leaves in eight 
 weeks). 
 
 The degree of injury depends on 
 
 a. The continuity of the fumigation which is governed 
 by the steadiness of the wind direction and which 
 decreases, step by step, with increasing distance 
 from the smelters. 
 
 h. The sensitiveness of the plants which is governed 
 by species, quality of the soil, preceding injury 
 by fire, pasture or general neglect. 
 
 c. The number of months per anniun during which the 
 
 leaves show physical activity. In the case of 
 hardwoods, this niimber is about 3J^, extend- 
 ing from May 1 to August 15. 
 
 d. Atmospheric conditions which may allow the gases 
 
 to remain in bulk after emission from the smoke- 
 stack, thus concentratmg the damage on such 
 parts of the coimtry toward which the smoke 
 happens to drift in hvlk. 
 It has been proven by experiments as well as by the experience 
 of all observers in natiire, that days of great atmospheric hu- 
 midity, days on which fog forms and days following nights 
 of heavy dew are particularly prolific in breeding acute dis- 
 coloration or damage. On the other hand, very bright weather 
 as well as heavy rains seem to minimize the damage by inten- 
 - sive dilution and may prevent damage entirely. 
 The toxic influence of sulphur gases might be considered either 
 as an acute or as a chronic disease. Acute cases appear only 
 in the near proximity of smelters where clouds of smoke kept 
 in bulk under certain atmospheric constellations actually ex- 
 ercise a corroding influence on the leaves. 
 On the other hand, where the diluted gases are inhaled by the plants 
 during a long number of days under the influence of a steady 
 wind, there chronic discoloration and chronic disease will enter 
 an appearance. 
 
148 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 F. Damage to the Soil. 
 
 Conclusive experiments prove that soluble sulphuric salts of cop- 
 per (like blue vitriol) fail to cause any damage to the plants, 
 whether applied in the form of dust or in the form of watery- 
 solution. Very concentrated solutions, however, cause cor- 
 rosion; also dust falling on leaves wet with dew. 
 
 Although the roots of plants are unable to refuse entrance to dam- 
 aging liquids, it has been found that soluble salts of copper, 
 when entering the soil, form at once an insoluble chemical 
 combination with the bases of the soil. It is possible, how- 
 ever, that poor quartz-sand, in the immediate proximity of 
 the smelters, can be affected by soluble salts of copper. 
 
 Insoluble salts of copper are, obviously, harmless in the soil. 
 
 Absolute proof for or against soil-poisoning can be obtained only 
 by planting seeds and seedlings into soil supposed to be poi- 
 soned, after removal to a point far from the smelters. Plant- 
 ing experiments made by Reuss have failed to prove any posion- 
 ing of the soil, even under extreme conditions. 
 
 The sulphuric acid contained in the soil is by no means propor- 
 tioned to the damage appearing in the trees. On the other 
 hand, trees stocking on sulphuric soil (e. g. gypsum soil) show 
 invariably a high percentage of sulphuric acid within the leaves. 
 It seems as if sulphuric acid obtained through the roots is 
 innocuous, whilst sulphuric acid inhaled through the leaves 
 is noxious. 
 
 If by condensation of the gases at the smelters the atmosphere 
 is purified, the soil in the proximity of the smelters is as ready 
 to produce as ever. In other words, there is no such thing 
 as irreparable damage caused by smelterfumes. 
 
 Experiments with plants watered with a solution of SO 2 prove 
 conclusively that no damage results from such watering. On 
 the contrary! After Freytag, plants watered with a solu- 
 tion of SO 3 have shown better yields than those which were 
 not watered with SO 2. 
 
 In other words, sulphuric acid has a chance to become a blessing 
 to agriciilture, especially where the soil contains insoluble 
 phosphates; and there is, decidedly, no such thing as the "poi- 
 soning of the soil" through SO 2 or SO 3, applied in gaseous 
 form or liquid form, as salt or acid. 
 
 G. Damage to Farm Crops and Fruit Trees. 
 
 Within the vegetation economically used, farm crops suffer less 
 from fumes than trees. In the case of farm crops potatoes 
 seem to be least sensitive, cereals follow next, whilst legumi- 
 nous plants are more sensitive. 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 149 
 
 Farming can be carried on remuneratively in closer proximity of 
 the smelters than forestry. Obviously, in the case of annual 
 plants, there is. no cumulative influence of SO 2 due to many 
 a year's exposure. 
 
 The fact that farm crops are more resistant to smoke than forest 
 crops may be explained ,also, by the higher reproductive power 
 of the former and by the greater height of the latter, the leaves 
 of which are exposed to more concentrated gases of SO 2. 
 
 In case of fruit trees, mulberries seem to be least sensitive; then 
 follow apples, pears, peaches, plums, with cherries as the most 
 sensitive fruit trees at the rear end. 
 
 Wherever fruit trees are well attended by cultivation and by fer- 
 tilizing, the damage by sulphur fumes is minimized. 
 
 The "floral organs" of the fruit trees seem to be less affected by 
 smoke than the "pulmonary organs," which means to say 
 the fruiting of the trees is not badly interfered with by SO, 
 and SO 3. 
 
 H, Damage to Forests. 
 
 The forest trees, according to species and individuality, exhibit 
 a very varying degree of sensitiveness to the influence of sul- 
 phur fumes. The degree of liability to damage is in no way 
 proportioned to the readiness with which the trees inhale sul- 
 phuric fimies. For instance, the conifers are more affected 
 by sulphur fumes than are the hardwoods. Still, exposed to 
 the same atmosphere charged with sulphuric fumes, the coni- 
 fers will inhale smaller quantities of toxic gases than the hard- 
 woods. 
 
 The power of resistence which the various species show to the in- 
 fluence of sulphur fumes is, on the other hand, directly pro- 
 portioned to the power of reproduction (power of recovery) 
 which the various species show. It is obvious that this power 
 of recovery is particularly good in hardwoods, which must 
 recover, every spring, from the natural loss of foliage sustained 
 in the preceding fall. 
 
 In the case of broad-leaved species, any loss of vital organs is readily 
 made up, whilst in the case of conifers the reproductive power 
 is comparatively low. 
 
 Amongst the conifers, those which retain their needles for a num- 
 ber of years are more apt to suffer from sulphuric fumes than 
 those which retain their needles for one or two years only. 
 
 Inasmuch as the resistence which the trees offer to injury by sul- 
 phurfumes is proprotioned to their power of reproduction, 
 and inasmuch as this power of reproduction largely depends 
 on the fertility of the soil, it is obvious that all species suc- 
 cumb on impoverished soil more rapidly than on good soil. 
 
150 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 This observation is backed by the facts exhibited near Ducktown, 
 Tenn., where the shade trees in the gardens seem to do re- 
 markably well in close proximity to the smelters. 
 
 Ceteris paribxis, the following schedule has been arranged as the 
 result of investigations for the trees in the Ducktown region 
 having over 7" diameter, the trees most easily kUIed by SO, 
 being placed at the top of the schedule: 
 
 Susceptibility to Actual Injury. 
 
 White Pine 
 
 Hemlock 
 
 Scrub Pine 
 
 Pitch Pine 
 
 Birch 
 
 Chestnut 
 
 Hickory 
 
 Oaks 
 
 Yellow Poplar 
 
 Maple 
 
 Black Gum 
 This schedule tallies well with the schedule given by European 
 
 authors for closely related species. 
 If a similar schedule is formed according to the ease of discolor- 
 ation, entirely different results are obtained: 
 
 Susceptibility to Discoloration. 
 
 VERY easily medium NOT APT TO BE 
 
 discolored discolored discolored 
 
 Black Oak Poplar Black Gmn 
 
 Hickory White Oak White Pine 
 
 Scarlet Oak Chestnut Oak Maple 
 
 Chestnut Post Oak Pitch Pine 
 
 Spanish Oak Hemlock 
 
 Noteworthy it is that the power of resistance to fumes is more 
 increased by the power of reproduction than decreased by • 
 the sensitiveness of the leaves. 
 
 In nature, wherever grave deviations from exact schedules of sen- 
 sitiveness are found, it stands to reason that other influences, 
 aside from sulphurfumes, are simultaneously responsible for 
 the death or for the discoloration of the trees. 
 
 The best time for any observations in the forest is the late sum- 
 mer or early fall (the time between August 15 and October 1). 
 
 Sulphurfumes cannot be held responsible for the local death of 
 trees within a "smoke region," 
 
 (1) if species known to be more sensitive are less affected 
 than species known to be more resistent; 
 
FOREST PROTECTION 151 
 
 (2) if tall specimens are no more affected than short 
 
 specimens; or if the trees die from below; 
 
 (3) if the dying trees are affected with a fungus-disease 
 
 (e. g. White Pine blight and Chestnut blight) 
 or an insect disease causing the death of the 
 trees outside the smoke region; 
 
 (4) if death and discoloration are confined to one species 
 
 only; 
 
 (5) if the owner of the forests, allowing indiscriminate 
 
 logging, or allowing forest fires to rage, is guilty 
 of contributory negligence; 
 
 (6) if discoloration is caused by late frost, or draught, 
 
 or leaf fungi; 
 
 (7) if the death rate within the smoke region is no greater 
 
 than the death rate without, under otherwise 
 equal conditions (of geology, soil-fertility, as- 
 pect, forest fires, desiccation, storms, insects, 
 fungi and prior treatment of forests); 
 
 (8) if dying and living trees are normally covered with 
 
 tree mosses, algae and lichens; 
 
 (9) if the death rate at the windward edge of the for- 
 
 ests is not larger than the death rate in the in- 
 terior; 
 
 (10) if the size of the annual rings of accretion is not ab- 
 
 normally small; 
 
 (11) if there are at hand, in the affected region, other 
 
 plausible causes of discoloration and of death. 
 
 1. Preventive Measures. 
 
 1. In the source of damage: 
 
 (a) Dilution of fumes 
 
 by emission into the upper atmosphere from 
 mountain tops or from high smoke-stacks; 
 by accelerated conversion of SO 2 into Sd; 
 
 by artificial draught increasing the rapidity of 
 
 dilution; 
 by manufacture of sulphuric acid. 
 
 (b) Other means suggested: 
 
 by running smelter plants at night (possible in 
 pygmean operations only); 
 
 by discontinuing operations in May, Jvme and 
 July (impossible where himdreds of workmen 
 depend on continued employment); 
 
152 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 by smelting in the regions where the hardwoods 
 prevail; where the forest has little value; on 
 islands; in deserts or prairies. 
 2. In woodlands adjoining: 
 
 (a) Conversion of woodlands into farms or pastures; OJ 
 
 of high forest into low forest; 
 
 (b) Cutting affected and dying trees; 
 
 (c) Maintaining the fertility and, notably, the water con- 
 
 tents of the soil through protection from fire and 
 by keeping a dense undergrowth; 
 
 (d) Avoidance of partial logging. 
 
I. Index to Malefactors. 
 
 Acanthocinus nodbsus Fab., 48. 
 
 Acanthocinus obsoletus Oliv., 48. 
 
 Acmceo pulchella Hbst., 57. 
 
 Aecidium pint, 119. 
 
 Aegeria acerni Clem., 88. 
 
 AgaricacecB, 117. 
 
 Agaricus melletis, 114, 119. 
 
 Agrilus anxius Gory, 64, 65. 
 
 Agrilus bilineatus Web., 67, 68. 
 
 Agrilus otiosus Say, 73. 
 
 alder 111. . 
 
 Allorhina nitida Linn., 62. 
 
 Ambrosia, 114. 
 
 Ametabola, 21. 
 
 Ampelopsis, 112. 
 
 Andromeda, 111. 
 
 animals, 12< 
 
 Anisota rubicunda Fab., 88. 
 
 Anisota senatoria S. & A., 85. 
 
 Anisota stigma Fab., 85. 
 
 Apatela americana Harr., 86, 88. 
 
 Aphididce, 21, 29, 34, 101, 102, 103, 
 
 105, 106. 
 Aphrophora paralella Say, 101. 
 Apion nigrum Hbst., 73. 
 Arceuthobium cryptopoda, 126. 
 Arceuthobium ocddentale, 126. 
 Arceuthobium pusiUum, 126. 
 Archips fervidana Clem., 85. 
 ArctiidcB, 21, 77, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88. 
 Arhopalus fulminans Fab., 43, 67, 
 
 68. 
 Ascomycetes, 116, 118. 
 Asemum mcestum Hald., 43, 48, 50. 
 Asemum nitidum Lee, 53, 54. 
 Asilidce, 20. 
 
 Aspidiotus pernidosus Comst., 104. 
 Aspidioius tenebricosus Comst., 106. 
 Asterolecanium variolosum Ratz., 
 
 104. 
 Attelabus arialis, Web., 62. 
 Automeris io Fab., 88. 
 Azalea, 112. 
 Balaninus, 67. 
 
 Balaninus nasicus Say, 63, 68. 
 Balaninus probosddus Fab., 67. 
 Balaninus rectus Say, 63, 67. 
 Basidiomycetes, 117. 
 Basilona imperialis Dru., 77, 82. 
 beaver, 18. 
 beech. 111. 
 
 Bellamira scalaris Say, 65. 
 birds, 18. 
 
 blackberry, 109, 111, 112. 
 
 BlastobasidoE, 85. 
 
 blueberry, 109. 
 
 bluejay, 18. 
 
 boar, wild, 15. 
 
 Bombycidce, 21. 
 
 Bostrichidce, 29, 34. 
 
 box-elder, 109. 
 
 Brachys ceruginosa Gory, 66. 
 
 Brmthidoe, 21, 29, 33, 57, 66, 67, 68, 
 
 69. 
 BuprestidcB, 21, 29, 32, 43, 48, 49, 
 
 50, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 63, 65, 66, 
 
 67, 68, 73, 74. 
 Buprestis apricans Hbst., 48. 
 Buprestis aurulenta Linn., 43, 48, 
 
 50, 56. 
 Callidium cereum Newm., 67. 
 Callidium antennatum Newm., 48, 
 
 61. 
 Callidium janihinum Lee, 59. 
 Callipterus ulmifolii Monell, 105. 
 Callosamia promethea Dru., 90. 
 Camponotus herculeanus Linn., 97. 
 Carabidce, 20. 
 
 Carphoborus, 44, 47, 51, 54. 
 caterpillars, Lepidopterous, 34. 
 Catocala spp., 85. 
 Ceddomyia carycecola O. S., 100. 
 Ceddomyia clavula Beuten, 100. 
 Ceddomyia holotricha O. S., 100. 
 Ceddomyia liriodendri O. S., 100. 
 Ceddomyia niveipila O. S., 100. 
 Ceddomyia pilulce Walsh, 100. 
 Ceddomyia pinirigidce Pack., 99. 
 Ceddomyia poculum O. S., 100. 
 Ceddomyia rednicola O. S., 99. 
 Ceddomyia tubicola O. S., 100. 
 Ceddomyia tulipifera O. S., 100. 
 Ceddomyiidce, 21, 29, 99, 100. 
 Cedar apples, 119. 
 Cerambyddce, 21, 29, 32, 33, 35, 43, 
 
 45, 47, 48, 50, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 
 
 58, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 
 
 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76. 
 Ceratocampidce, 77, 82, 85, 88. 
 Ceratogr aphis pusillus Kby., 48. 
 Ceratomia amyntor Geyer, 86. 
 Ceratomia catalpce Boisd., 91. 
 Ceratomia undulosa Walk., 90. 
 Ceratostomella pilifera, 123. 
 Chaitophorus aceris Linn., 106. 
 Chalddoidea, 20. 
 
 153 
 
154 
 
 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Chermes abietis Linn., 102. 
 Cherm.es pinicortids Fitch., 101. 
 Chermes sibiricus Chold., 102. 
 Chermes strobi Hart., 101. 
 Chion cinctus Dru., 63, 67, 68. 
 Chionaspis americana Johns, 105. 
 Chionaspis pinifolice Fitch., 101. 
 chinquapin, 110, 111, 112. 
 chipmunk, 16. 
 Chalciphora virginiensis Dru., 43, 
 
 48, 50. 
 Chramesus icorice Lee, 63. 
 Chrysobothris dentipes Germ., 48. 
 Chrysobothris femorata Fab., 63, 67, 
 
 68, 74. 
 Chrysobothris Q-signata Say, 65. 
 Chrysomela scalaris Lee, 75, 
 Chrysomelidce, 21, 29, 48, 63, 68, 69, 
 
 73, 75. 
 Cercopidce, 101. 
 Cicada, 104, 106. 
 Cicadidce, 21, 30, 35, 104, 106. 
 Cicindelidoe, 20. 
 Cimbex americana Leach, 97. 
 Citheronia regalis Fab., 82. 
 Clematis, 112. 
 Clerida, 20. 
 climbers, 112. 
 Coccidce, 21, 29, 34, 101, 102, 103, 
 
 104, 105, 106. 
 Cocdnellidce, 20. 
 Cochlidiidoe, 85. 
 Coleoptera, 20, 21, 38, 43-76. 
 Colopha ulmicola Fitch., 105. 
 Colydiidce, 20. 
 Componotus pennsylvanicus Deg., 
 
 94 
 Conotrachelus elegans Say, 63. 
 Conotrachelus juglandis Lee, 62. 
 Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst., 63. 
 Convolvulus, 110. 
 Corthylus columbianus Hpk., 66, 68, 
 
 70. 
 Corthylus punctatissimus Zm., 74. 
 Cossidce, 21, 29, 85, 86, 87, 88. 
 Cotalpa lanigera Linn., 64, 68. 
 cotton woods, 111. 
 Crepidodera rufipes Linn., 73. ' 
 Cressonia juglandis S. & A., 82. 
 cross-bills, 18. 
 crows, 18. 
 
 Cryphalus, 50, 55, 56. 
 Cryptorhynchus, 67. 
 Cryptorhynchus parochus Hbst., 62. 
 Crypturgus atomus Lee, 43, 50. 
 Crypturgus pusillus, 48. 
 Curculionidce, 21, 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 
 
 37, 43, 44, 48, 50, 51, 56, 57, 62, 
 
 63, 67, 68, 69, 73. 
 Curius dentatus Newm., 57. 
 Cynips spp., 96. 
 Cyllene picta Dru., 63. 
 Cyllene robince Forst., 73, 114, 121, 
 Cynipidce, 30, 96. w;_-- i^.;^ 
 
 Cynipoidea, 21, 29, ' ""'', 
 
 damping-off, 120. ;\; . ^^j 
 
 Dantana angusii G. & R., 85. , 
 Dantana integerrima Dru., 82. 
 Dantana ministra G. & R., 82, 83, 
 
 85, 89. 
 deer, 15. 
 
 Dendroctonus, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49. 
 Dendroctonus approximatus Dtz., 47. 
 Dendroctonus brevicomis Lee, 44, 
 
 47. 
 Dendroctonus engelmanni Hopk., 51. 
 Dendroctonus fontalis, 31, 43, 48, 50, 
 
 114. 
 Dendroctonus monticolce Hopk., 44, 
 
 45, 46, 47. 
 Dendroctonus obesus Mann., 48, 51. 
 Dendroctonus piceaperda Hopk., 31, 
 
 50. 
 Dendroctonus ponder osce Hopk., 47. 
 Dendroctonus pseudotsu^a Hopk., 54, 
 Dendroctonus similis Lee, 49, 54. 
 Dendroctonus terebrans Oliv., 43, 48. 
 Dendroctonus valens Lee, 43, 46, 47, 
 
 48. 
 Diapheromera femorata Say, 108. 
 Diaporthe parasitica Murrill, 120. 
 Dicer ca lurida Fab., 63. 
 Dicer ca obscura Fab., 63, 74. 
 Dioryctria reniculella Grote, 78. 
 Diptera, 20, 21, 38, 99, 100. 
 Discomycetes, 116, 118. 
 dogwood, 110, 111, 112. 
 Dolurgus pumilis Mann., 51. 
 doves, 18. 
 
 Drepanosiphum acerifolii Thos., 106. 
 drought, 114. 
 Dryocartes, 43, 50. 
 Dryocartes affaber Mann., 51. 
 Dryocartes autoyraphus Ratz., 50. 
 Dryocartes eichhoffi Hopk., 65. 
 Dryocartes granicollis Lee, 50. 
 Dryophilus, 59. 
 
 Eburia quadrigeminata Say, 63, 76. 
 Ecdytolopha insiticiana Zell., 87. 
 Echinodontium tinctorium, 123. 
 Elaphidion villosum Fab., 63, 68, 74. 
 Elateridoe, 20, 21, 30. 
 Enarmonia bracteatans Fern., 77. 
 Enarmonia caryana Fitch., 82. 
 
INDEX TO MALEFACTORS 
 
 155 
 
 Epargyreus tityrus Fab., 87. 
 Eraunis tiliaria Harr., 89. 
 Er gates spiculatus Lee, 47, 48. 
 Ericacoe, 110, 117. 
 erosion, 138. 
 
 Endocimus mannerheimii Boh., 57. 
 Euclea delphinii Boisd., 85. 
 Eulecanium tulipiferce Cook, 105. 
 Eulia politana Haw., 77. 
 Eunomos magnarius Guen., 84. 
 Euproctis chrysorrhea Linn., 85. 
 Eupsalis minuta Dru., 57, 66,' 67, 
 
 68, 69. 
 Euschausia argentata Pack., 77. 
 Euvanessa antiopa Linn., 86. 
 Evetria comstockiana Fern., 77. 
 Evetria frustrana Comst., 77. 
 Evetria rigidana Fern., 77. 
 Exoascece, 117. 
 Exobasidium vaccinii, 117. 
 ferns. 111,, 112. 
 finches, 18. 
 fire, 8, 114. 
 Formiddce, 94, 97. 
 Formicoidea, 20. 
 frost, 127. 
 fungi, 113, 115. 
 Galerucella luteola Mull., 69. 
 Gaurotes cyanipennis Say, 62. 
 Gelechiidce, 77, 78. 
 Geometridce, 78, 84, 86, 89. 
 Glyptoscelis pubescens Fab., 48. 
 Gnathotrichus, 47. 
 Gnathotrichus materiarius Fitch., 43, 
 
 48, 50. 
 Gnathotrichus sulcatus Lee, 53, 54, 
 
 55, 59. 
 Goes oculatus Lee, 63. 
 Goes pulchra Hald., 63. 
 Goes pulverulentus Hid., 66. 
 Goes tesselata Hald., 68. 
 Goes tigrina DeG., 63, 68. 
 Gossyparia spuria Mod., 105. 
 grapevine, 109, 110. 
 Graphisurus fasdatus DeG., 68. 
 groimd-hog, 18. 
 grouse, 18. 
 Gryllidce, 30, 36, 107. 
 Gryllotalpa borealis Burm., 107. 
 Gryllus spp., 107. 
 gum, black, 109, 110, 111, 112. 
 Gymnosporangium, 119. 
 Halesia {Mohrodendron) , 109, 111, 
 
 116. 
 Halisidota caryce Harr., 82. 
 Halisidota maculata Harr., 86. 
 
 Halisidota tesselaris S. & A., 85, 86, 
 
 88 
 hazei, 112. 
 
 hazel, witch, 109, 110. 
 heat, 132. 
 heather, 109. 
 hedge-hog, 18. 
 Hemerocampa leucostigma S. & A., 
 
 86, 87, 88, 89. 
 Hemileuca maia Dru., 85. 
 Hemimetabola, 21. 
 Hemiptera, 20, 21, 38, 101-106. 
 Hepialidce, 84, 87. 
 Herpotrichia, 114. 
 Hesperidce, 21. 
 
 Heterocampa bilineata Pack., 89. 
 Holcocera glandulella Riley, 85. 
 Homoptera lunata Dru., 88. 
 huckleberry. 111. 
 Hylastes cavernosus Zimm., 43. 
 Hylastes porosus Er., 47. 
 Hylastinus rufipes Eichh., 69. 
 HyleccBtus americanus Harr., 68, 
 Hyleccetus lugubris Say, 67. 
 Hylesinus, 53, 54, 55. 
 Hylesinus aculeatus Say, 76. 
 Hylesinus granulatus Lee, 55. 
 Hylesinus nebulosus Lee, 54. 
 Hylobius pales Hbst., 43, 48. 
 Hylotrupes amethystinus Lee, 59. 
 Hylotrupes ligneus Fab., 61. 
 Hylurgops glabratus Zeff . , 43. 
 Hylurgops pinifex Fitch., 48. 
 Hylurgops rugipennis Mann., 51. 
 Hylurgops subcostulatus Mann., 44, 
 
 45, 46, 47. 
 Hymenomycetes, 117, 118. 
 Hymenoptera, 20, 21, 38, 92-98. 
 Hyphantria cunea Dru., 87, 90. 
 Hyphantria textor Harr., 85. 
 Hypoderma strobicola, 120. 
 Hysterium pinastri, 119. 
 Ichneumonoidea, 20. 
 Incurvaria acerifoliella Fitch., 88. 
 insects, 20. 
 Isoptera, 107. 
 
 Ithycerus noveboracensis Fst., 68. 
 Janus integer Nort., 95. 
 Kaliosphinga dohrnii Tischb., 95. 
 Kaliosphinga ulmi Sund., 97. 
 Kalmia, 109, 111, 112. 
 Kermes, 104. 
 
 Lachnus strobi Fitch., 101. 
 Lagoa crispata Pack., 85. 
 Lapara bombycoides Walk., 77. 
 Lapara coniferarum S, & A., 77. 
 
156 
 
 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 LasiocampidcB, 85, 88. 
 
 Lecanium, 101, 103. 
 
 Lecanium nigrofasciatum Prg., 106. 
 
 Lenzites sepiaria, 123. 
 
 Lepidoptera, 21, 29, 34, 38, 77-91. 
 
 Leptostylus aculiferus Say, 70. 
 
 Leptura canadensis Fab., 50, 52. 
 
 Leucotermes flavipes KolL, 107. 
 
 Liparidce, 21, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89. 
 
 Lithocolletes hamadryella Clem., 85. 
 
 Locustidce, 21, 108. 
 
 Lophyrus abbotii Leach, 92. 
 
 Lophyrus lecontei Fitch, 92. 
 
 Lyctidce, 29, 34. 
 
 Lyctus spp., 63, 76. 
 
 Lyda, 92. 
 
 LygoBonematus erichsonii Hart., 93. 
 
 Lymexilonidce, 29, 33. 
 
 Lymexylidce, 67, 68. 
 
 Lymexylon sericeum Harr., 67, 68. 
 
 Magdalis armicollis Say, 69. 
 
 Magdalis barbata Say, 69. 
 
 Magdalis olyra Herbst., 66. 
 
 Malacosoma disstria Hubn., 85, 88. 
 
 Mallodon dasystomus Say, 63, 68. 
 
 Mallodon melanopus Linn., 68. 
 
 man, 7. 
 
 Mantidce, 20. 
 
 maple, 111. 
 
 Mecas inornata Say, 64. 
 
 Megalopygidce, 85. 
 
 Melandryidce, 50, 56. 
 
 Melanophila, 49. 
 
 Melanophila drummondi Kby., 63, 
 
 54. 
 Melanophila fulvoguttata Harr., 52. 
 Melasoma lapponica Linn., 64. 
 Melasoma scripta Fab., 64. 
 Metabola, 21. 
 mice, 16. 
 
 Microcentrum laurifolium Linn., 108. 
 Mohrodendron {Halesia), 116. 
 Monohammus confusor Kby., 48, 
 
 50. 
 Monohammus scutellatus Say, 43, 45, 
 
 48. 
 Mycelophilidoe, 100. 
 Mytilaspis, 101, 103. 
 Myxomycetes, 118. 
 Nectria, 116. 
 Nematus, 34. 
 Nematus erichsonii, 35. 
 Nematus integer Say, 94. 
 Neoclytus caprcea Say, 76. 
 Neoclytus erythrocephalus Fab., 57, 
 
 71, 74, 76. 
 Neophasia menapia Feld., 77, 79. 
 
 Neuroptera, 20. 
 
 Noctuidce, 21, 29, 36, 85, 86, 88. 
 Notodontidce, 82, 83, 85, 89. 
 Nototophus antiqua Linn., 85. 
 Nymphalidoe, 86. 
 oak, black jack, 110. 
 Odontota dorsalis Thunb., 73. 
 Odontota rubra Web., 75. 
 Odontota scutellaris Oliv., 73. 
 Oecanthus pini Beut., 107. 
 Oeme rigida Say, 57. 
 Oncideres cingulata Say, 63, 68. 
 Orthoptera, 20, 21, 38, 107, 108. 
 Orthosoma brunneum DeG., 48. 
 Pachylobius picivorus Germ., 43, 48. 
 Pachyta monticola Rand, 56. 
 Paleacrita vernata Peck, 86. 
 Pantographia limata G. & R., 89. 
 PapilionidcB, 21. 
 
 Paralechia pinifoliella Cham., 77. 
 Parharmonia pini, Vrell., 77. 
 pasturage, 12. 
 
 Paururus hopkinsi Ashm., 92. 
 Paururus pinicola Ashm., 92. 
 Pemphigus tessellatus Fitch., 103. 
 Peridermium strobi, 119. 
 Peronosporece, 116, 117. 
 Peziza, 117. 
 Phasmidce, 21, 108. 
 Phenacoccus acericola King, 106. 
 Philedia punctomacularia, 78. 
 Phlarosinu^, 57. 
 
 Phlarosinus cupressi Hopk., 58, 60. 
 Phlarosinus dentatus Say, 61. 
 Phlarosinus punctatus Lee, 59, 60. 
 Phlarosinus sequoice Hopk., 58, 59. 
 Phoradendron flavescens, 126. 
 Phycitidce, 30, 37, 77, 78. 
 Phycomycetes, 116. 
 Phylloxera pallida Linn., 64. 
 Phymatodes decussatus Lee, 58. 
 Phymatodes variabilis Linn., 64. 
 Physcenemum andrece Hald., 57. 
 Phytophtora omnivora, 116. 
 Pieridce, 77, 79. 
 
 Pinipestis zimmermanni Grte., 77. 
 pigeons, 18. 
 Pissodes, 44. 51. 
 Pissodes dubius Rand, 56. 
 Pissodes strobi Peck, 43, 48, 50. 
 Pityogenes, 43, 45, 55. 
 Pityogenes carinulatus Lee, 47. 
 Pityogenes cariniceps, 47. 
 Pityogenes plagiatus Lee, 48. 
 Pityophthorus, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 
 
 50, 55, 65. 
 Pityophthorus cariniceps Lee, 50. 
 
INDEX TO MALEFACTORS 
 
 157 
 
 Pityophthorus confinis Lee, 47. 
 PUyophthorus minutissimus Zimm., 
 
 68. 
 Pityophthorus nitidulus Mann., 45, 
 
 51, 54. 
 Pityophthorus pruinosiis Eichh., 68. 
 Pityophthorus pubipennis Lee, 68. 
 Pityophthorus puncticollis Lee, 45, 
 
 47, 51. 
 Pityophthorus guerdperda Schw., 68. 
 Plaqionotus speciosus Say, 74. 
 Platypus, 43, 53, 54. 
 Platypus compositus Say, 57, 67, 
 
 68. 
 Polygonia interrogationis Fab., 86. 
 Polygraphus rufipennis Kby., 50. 
 Polyporacece, 117. 
 Polyporvs annosus, 120. 
 Polyporus applanatus, 122. 
 Polyporus betulinus, 122. 
 Polyporus carneus, 121. 
 Polyporus catalpce, 121. 
 Polyporus fomentarius, 122. 
 Polyporus fraxinophilus, 121. 
 Polyporus fulvus , 122. 
 Polyporus igniarius, 122. 
 Polyporus juniperinus, 121, 
 Polyporus libocedris, 122. 
 Polyporus nigricans, 122. 
 Polyporus obtusus, 122. 
 Polyporus pergamenus, 122. 
 Polyporus pinicola, 122, 123. 
 Polyporus ponderosus, 123. 
 Polyporus schweinitzii, 121. 
 Polyporus sguamosus, 122. 
 Polyporus sulfur eus, 122. 
 Polyporus rimosus, 114, 121. 
 Polyporus versicolor, 121. 
 porcupine, 18. 
 Porthetria dispar, Linn., 85. 
 Prionoxystus robinice Peck., 85, 87. 
 Prionus laticollis Dru., 48, 64 67 
 68. ' ' . 
 
 Proctotrypoidea, 20. 
 
 Pseudococcus aceris Goeff., 106. 
 
 Psychidce, 81. 
 
 Psyllidce, 29, 34. 
 
 Pterocyclon fasdatum Say, 57. 
 
 Pterocyclon mali Fitch., 50, 57, 66 
 
 68, 72. 
 Pteronus ventralis Say, 95. 
 Ptilinus ruficornis Say, 74. 
 Ptinidce, 21, 29, 32, 34. 
 PtininidcB, 47, 59, 63, 74, 76. 
 Pulvinaria innumerabilis Rathv 
 
 106. *^ 
 
 PyralidoB, 89. 
 
 Pyrenomycetes, 116, 118. 
 Recurvaria obliquestrigella Cham., 78. 
 
 ReduviidcB, 20. 
 
 Rhagium lineatum Oliv., 43, 48, 50. 
 
 Rhizococcus, 101, 102. 
 
 Rhododendron, 112. 
 
 sand, shifting, 139. 
 
 Saperda, 72. 
 
 Saperda calcarata Say, 64. 
 
 Saperda concolor Lee, 64. 
 
 Saperda discoidea Fab., 63. 
 
 Saperda tridentata Oliv., 69. 
 
 Saperda vestita Say, 75. 
 
 Saturniidce, 82, 83, 85, 88, 89, 90. 
 
 ScarabcddoB, 21, 29, 36, 62, 68, 76. 
 
 Schizoneura imbricator Fitch., 103. 
 
 Sciara ocellata O. S., 100. 
 
 Scolytidce, 21, 29, 31, 33, 35, 43-61, 
 63, 65-70, 72, 74-76. 
 
 Scolytus, 50, 55. 
 
 Scolytus prceceps Lee, 55. 
 
 Scolytus quadrispinosus Say, 63. 
 
 Scolytus rugulosus Ratz., 72. 
 
 Scolytus subscaber Lee, 55. 
 
 Scolytus unispinosus Lee, 49, 54. 
 
 Schizoneura americana Riley, 105. 
 
 Schizophyllum commune, 123. 
 
 sedge, broom, 16. 
 
 sedge-grass, 109. 
 
 Selandria diluta Cress., 96. 
 
 Serica trociformis Burm., 68. 
 
 Serropalpus barbatus Schall., 50, 56. 
 
 Sesiidce, 29, 77, 80, 88. 
 
 Sinoxylon basilare Say, 63. 
 
 Siriddce, 29, 92, 94, 96, 98. 
 
 sleet, 134. 
 
 smilax, 109. 
 
 snow, 134. 
 
 Sphingidce, 77, 82, 86, 90, 91. 
 
 Sphinx Kalmice S. & A., 90. 
 
 squatters, 7. 
 
 squirrels, 16. 
 
 Sthenopis argenteomaculatus Harr., 
 
 84. 
 storm, 114, 136. 
 sulphur fumes, 141. 
 sunscald, 133. 
 
 Symmerista albifrons S. & A., 85. 
 Syrphidce, 20, 21. 
 Systena marginalis 111., 63. 
 Telea polyphemus Cram., 82, 83, 85, 
 
 88, 89. 
 Tenthredinidce, 29, 34, 92, 93, 94, 
 
 95, 96, 97. 
 Termitidce, 107. 
 Tetr opium dnnamopterum Kby., 50. 
 
158 
 
 FOREST PROTECTION 
 
 Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis Haw. 
 
 81. 
 Tibicen septendedm Linn., 104, 106. 
 Tillandsia usneoides, 126. 
 Tineidce, 29, 35, 85, 88. 
 Tomicus, 45, 50, 55. 
 Tomicus avulsus Eichh., 43, 48. 
 Tomicus halsameus Lee, 50, 56. 
 Tomicus cacographus Lee, 43, 48, 
 
 50. 
 Tom,icus ccelatus Eichh., 43, 48. 
 Tomicus calligraphus Germ., 43, 47, 
 
 48. 
 Tomicus condnnus Mann., 51. 
 Tomicus confusus Lee, 47. 
 Tomicus integer Eichh., 46, 47. 
 Tomicus latidens Lee, 44. 
 Tomicus m,onticola Hopk., 44. 
 Tomicus oregoni Eichh., 47. 
 Tom,icus pini Say, 43, 46, 48, 50. 
 Tortriddoe, 29, 30, 35, 37, 77, 78, 
 
 82, 85, 87. 
 Tortrix fum/iferana Clem., 78. 
 Tortrix querdfoliana Fitch., 85. 
 Trachinidce, 20. 
 Tram,etes pini, 120. 
 Trametes radidperda, 114, 120. 
 Tremex columba Linn., 96, 98. 
 Trichosphceria, 114. 
 Trogositidce, 20. 
 Trypodendron, 65. 
 Trypodendron bivittatum Mannh., 
 
 48, 50, 51, 52. 
 Trypodendron fasdatum Say, 74. 
 Trypodendron mali Fitch., 74. 
 turkey, wild, 18. 
 
 Uredinece, 117. 
 
 Urocerus abdominalis Harr., 94. 
 Urocerus albicornis Fab., 94. 
 Urocerus flavipennis Kby., 94. 
 Urographis fasdatus Horn., 62, 63, 
 
 67, 68, 71, 74. 
 Usnea barbata, 126. 
 Ustilaginece, 117. 
 Vacdnium, 112. 
 
 Vespamima sequoia Hy. Edw., 77, 
 
 80. 
 Vespoidea, 20. 
 Vitis, 112. 
 weeds, 109. 
 windstorm, 136. 
 woodchuck, 18. 
 woodpeckers, 18. 
 Xyleborus, 57. 
 
 Xyleborus, ccelatus Zimm., 50, 74. 
 Xyleborus celsus Eichh., 63, 68. 
 Xyleborus dispar Fab., 70. 
 Xyleborus fuscatus Eichh., 68. 
 Xyleborus obesus Lee, 52, 68, 74. 
 Xyleborus politus Say, 50, 66, 74. 
 Xyleborus pubesceus Zimm., 48, 67, 
 
 74. 
 Xyleborus saxeseni Ratz., 52, 54, 
 
 63, 64, 66, 68, 72, 74. _ 
 Xyleborus tachygraphus Zimm., 70, 
 
 74. 
 Xylochinus, 50, 56. 
 Xylotrechus colonus Fab., 63, 67, 
 
 68, 74. 
 
 Xylotrechus undulatus Say, 52, 54, 
 
 55. . ^ 
 
 Zeuzerafpyrina Linn., 86, 87, 88. 
 ZygoenidcB, 21.^ 
 
 I 
 
II. Index of Species Affected. 
 
 Abies balsamea, 56. 
 
 Abies concolor, 55. 
 
 Abies fraseri, 56. 
 
 Abies grandis, 55. 
 
 Acer, 74, 88, 98, 100, 106. 
 
 Alnus, 103, 111. 
 
 Alnus glutinosa, 95. 
 
 Arbor-vitse, 121. 
 
 ash, white, 121, 122, 133. 
 
 basswood, 18. 
 
 beech, 18, 121, 122, 129, 133. 
 
 Betula, 65, 83. 
 
 birch, 18, 122, 150. 
 
 black gum, 129, 150. 
 
 buffalo-nut, 16. 
 
 Castanea, 67, 84. 
 
 Catalpa, 91, 121, 129. 
 
 cedar, incense, 122. \ 
 
 Chamcecyparis, 61. . 
 
 Chamcecyparis lawsoniana, 60. 
 
 cherry, 16, 122, 128. 
 
 chestnut, 19, 109, 120, 129, 133, 150. 
 
 conifers, 107, 119, 120, 122. - 
 
 Cornus florida, 100. 
 
 Cottonwood, 18, 122, 129, 139. 
 
 Cratcegus, 16. 
 
 currant, 119. 
 
 cypress, bald, 114, 122. 
 
 Douglas fir, 121, 129. 
 
 Fagus, 66, 103. 
 
 fir, 16, 17^120. 
 
 fir, Douglas, 121. 
 
 fir, red, 123. 
 
 Fraxinus, 76, 90. 
 
 hazel, 18. 
 
 hemlock, (see Tsuga), 18, 121, 123, 
 
 131, 150. 
 hemlock, western, 121, 123. 
 hickories, 17, 129y 135, 150. 
 Hicoria, 63, 82, 100, 103.^ 
 Incense cedar, 122. 
 Juglans, 62, 103. 
 Juniperus, 81. 
 Juniper us virginiana, 61. 
 Kalmia, 18. 
 Larix, 93. 
 
 Larix occidentalis, 49. 
 linden, 16. 
 Liquidambar, 71. 
 Liriodendron, 70, 100, 105, 129. 
 locust, 16, 17, 114, 121, 135. 
 
 maple, 16, 18, 122, 128, 129, 150. 
 
 oak, 16, 17, 19, 121, 122, 129, 150. 
 
 oak, chestnut, 128, 150. 
 
 oak, scarlet, 18, 150. 
 
 oak, white, 18, 150. 
 
 Picea, 50, 51, 78, 94, 102. 
 
 Picea engelmanni, 51. 
 
 Picea pungens, 16. 
 
 Picea sitchensis, 16, 51. 
 
 pine, 16, 120, 135, 139. 
 
 pine, seedlings, 119, 131. 
 
 pine, white, 119, 131, 133, 150. 
 
 pine, yellow, 109. 
 
 Pinus, 76, 92, 99, 101. 
 
 Pinus cembra, 119. 
 
 Pinus echinata, 16, 48, 129, 130. 
 
 Pinus flexilis , 45. 
 
 Pinus jeffreyi, 47. 
 
 Pinus lambertiana, 44, 129. 
 
 Pinus monticola, 45, 121. 
 
 Pinus murrayana, 46. 
 
 Pinus palustris, 48. 
 
 Pinus ponderosa, 47, 123, 129. 
 
 Pinus resinosa, 48. 
 
 Pinus rigida, 48, 129, 150. 
 
 Pinus strobus, 43, 120, 129, 130, 131. 
 
 Pinus tceda, 48. 
 
 poplar, 122. 
 
 poplar, yellow, 109, 115, 135, 150. 
 
 Populus, 64, 95. 
 
 Pseudotsuga, 54. 
 
 Pyrularia, 16. 
 
 Pyrus, 72. 
 
 Quercus, 68, 85, 96, 100, 103. 
 
 red-cedar, 18, 119, 121. 
 
 Rhododendron, 18. 
 
 Ribes, 119. 
 
 Robinia, 73, 87. 
 
 Sequoia, 58, 80. 
 
 Sequoia sempervirens , 123. 
 
 spruce, (see Picea), 18, 123, 129, 
 
 130, 131, 133. 
 Taxodium distichum, 57. 
 Tilia, 75, 89. 
 Tsuga, 79. 
 
 Tsuga canadensis, 52. 
 Tsuga heterophylla, 53. 
 Thuja gigantea, 59. 
 Ulmus, 69, 86, 97, 105. 
 walnut, 122, 128, 129, 130. 
 willow, 139. 
 
 159 
 

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