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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
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 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
THE ARMENIANS, 
 
 The People of Ararat, 
 
 A Brief Historical Sketch of the Past and 
 
 THE Present Condition of Armenia, Tk.> 
 
 Armenians, their Religion, and 
 
 Missions among them. 
 
 -®- 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. ^-^^V coa^^^ 
 
 "'— t JUL 28 1892 
 
 / 
 
 Rev. M. C. GABRIELIAN, M. D. 
 
 Allen, Lane & Scott, 
 
 PRINTERS AND PUBLISHERS, 
 
 229-233 South Fifth Street, Philadelphia. 
 i8q2. 
 
 K- 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1892, 
 
 By M. C. GABRIELIAN, 
 In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 
 <s 
 
a 
 
 TO THE FRIENDS OF 
 
 CHRISTIANITY AND HUMANITY 
 
 THIS VOLUME IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 
 
 BY THE AUTHOR. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ARMENIA. 
 
 Cradle ol human race — Boundaries — Ancient testimonies — A 
 higliland — Mount Masis (Ararat) — Description — Volcanic ori- 
 gin — The earliest name of Armenia— A blunder — Ancient ref- 
 erences — The great rivers — The Garden of Eden — Lakes — 
 Climate — Products — Flowers — Birds — Mines — Cities — Present 
 condition 1-31 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Origin of the people — Biblical testimony — Haig, the founder of 
 the race — Successors— Aram — -Armenia from Aram — Ararat or 
 Arardhi of Inscriptions — Its antiquity — History furnished by 
 cuneiform inscriptions — Kings ' of Van — Assyrian culture — 
 Not Assyrians — Tigranes I. — Grecian invasion — Rise of Arsa!- 
 cide dynasty — Tigranes the Great — Roman invasion — Antony, 
 the Roman general — Artavasdes 32-49 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. 
 
 Overthrow of the Parthian Empire — ^^Division of the Roman Em- 
 pire- — Armenians between Persia and Eastern (Greek) Em- 
 pire — Armenia's change of religion — Revival of Zoroastrian- 
 ism in Persia — Constantine the Great — Intestine troubles in 
 Armenia — Struggle for liberty — Self-called prophet and his 
 followers — Condition of the Christians — Rise of a new dynas- 
 ty — Tartar and Turkish tribes and their invasion — Downfall 
 
 (5) 
 
6 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 of the Armenian independence — Gakig — Fall of Ani — Inva- 
 sion of the Seljukian Turks — Seljukian rule oppressive — Reu- 
 ben I., Armeniaii Independence in Cilicia — Crusades — Con- 
 dition of the new dynasty — Genghis Khan — Conduct of the 
 Crusaders — Armenians surrounded by Mohammedan pow- 
 ers — Defeat of the Armenians — Leo VI., his family captives — 
 Liberated and his death . 50-67 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE ARMENIANS IN THE PERIOD OF SUBJECTION. 
 
 Changes in Western Asia — Origin of Turkish Empire — Othnian — 
 Standing army — ^Janissaries — Conquests — Armenians — Cruel- 
 ties of Tamerlane — Capture of Constantinople — Letter of Pope 
 Pius II. — Contest over Armenia — Shah Abbas — Captive Arme- 
 nians — Russian and Persian contests over the land of Ararat^ — 
 Bravery of the Armenians — Russian perfidy — Armenians scat- 
 tered — Villages — Houses — Occupation of villagers — Patriarchial 
 family life — Shepherd's life — Farming — Fertility— Churches — 
 People in larger towns and cities — Occupation — Ancient mer- 
 chants — Cruel jealousy of the Turks — Patriarchate of Con- 
 stantinople — Mode of government — Armenians in India — In 
 Persia — In Russia — Unjust policy of Russia — Number of Ar- 
 menians — Their language — Literature — Moral character . 68-96 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. 
 
 Christianity persecuted under a political garb — No safety for 
 the Christian — No justice in Turkish courts — corruption ot 
 officials — Atrocities — "The tears of Armenia" — Bishop Ner- 
 ses — Russo-Turkish war — Treaty of Berlin — Anglo-Turkish 
 agreement — England responsible — Reluctance of the govern- 
 ment to protect her Christian subjects — Thirteen Armenian 
 villages destroyed — Moussa Bay — Persecutions — Massacres — 
 Outrages — European powers — Condition of unjustly impris- 
 oned — Armenia lamented — Must be regenerated . . . 97-120 
 
CONTENTS. 7 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PRE-CHRISTIAN MONOTHEISM AND POLYTHEISM. 
 
 Primitive monotheism — Instances — Primitive religion of ancient 
 Aryans — Armenians Aryans — Corruption of religion — Sabe- 
 ism — Polytheism — Babylonian and Assyrian influence — Zoro- 
 astrianism — Its corruption by Babylonian and Grecian poly- 
 theism 121-127 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. 
 Religious condition of Western Asia in the time of Christ— Chris- 
 tianity in Armenia — First Christian nation — Anak — Gregory — 
 Artaxerxes — Tiridates — St. Gregory's return and work — Con- 
 version of the king and the nation — Scriptures — Persian 
 persecutions — Religious wars — Zoroastrianism enforced— Final 
 victory of Christianity — Council of Chalcedon — Its decision re- 
 fused—The Armenian Church not Eutychian or Monophysite — 
 Greek oppression — Mohammedanism and its fanatic followers — 
 Cruelties — Gashem — Lack of Christion love 128-148 
 
 CHAPTER Vni. 
 THE ARMENIAN CHURCH. 
 A national Church — Surrounded by hostile forces — People scat- 
 tered — Patriarchates necessitated— Papal missionaries — Influ- 
 ence of Jesuits — Division — Claim of the Church — Bishops or 
 presbyters — Priests or elders — Support of clergy — Deacons — 
 Vartabeds or evangelists— Points of diflference from Roman 
 Church — Orthodoxy — Essential doctrines — Need of reforma- 
 tion .■' 149-159 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 
 Signs of reformation — The Bible — American missionaries — Clergy- 
 men — " Oriental Melanchthon, " Revs. Goodell and Bird — Mis- 
 sionaries at Constantinople — Romish opposition — Armenian 
 opposition — A young martyr — Liberty granted — Bishop Mat- 
 teos's conduct — First Evangelical Armenian Church — Other 
 
8 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Churches — Protestant community — Rapid progress — Dr. Cyrus 
 Hamlin and the Crimean war — Futile promises of the Porte — 
 Statistics^Bible — Its power — Hinderances— Reports— Martyr- 
 dom of Avedis and Sahag — Schools — Scholars — Statistics — 
 Influence of schools — Governmental opposition — Restrictions — 
 Missionaries — Their work — Publications — Missions in Persia — 
 Teheran — Hamadan — Tabriz — Rev. S. G. Wilson's school — 
 Girls' school — Scholars — Medical missionary work — The need 
 for medical missionaries 160-203 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 INSCRIPTIONS OF ARMENIA. 
 (Translated by Professor A. H. Sayce, of Oxford, England.) 
 Inscription of Sarduris I. — Inscription of Ispuinis — Regulations of 
 sacrifices to the gods — Inscriptions of Menuas — Inscriptions of 
 Argistis — Inscription of Sarduris II. — Inscriptions of Rusas — 
 Inscription of Xerxes, the Persian king — Hatti Humayoun 
 of 1856 205-220 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 A LITTLE over ten and a half years ago the author of 
 this volume landed at the city of New York, without 
 means or friends, but with an imperfect knowledge of 
 some English words. His sole purpose for coming into 
 this country was to prepare for the Christian ministry, 
 to which end he had devoted several years' study in 
 Marsovan, Asia Minor. 
 
 After the unimagined, touching, and romantic experi- 
 ences of six months in the city and State of New York, 
 a good Providence led him to meet the late Rev. Dr. H. 
 J. Van Lennep, of Great Barrington, Mass., by whose 
 direction and kindness he went to Wheaton College, 
 Wheaton, 111., where he studied two years. 
 
 By the kind suggestion of Dr. Van Lennep he came 
 to Princeton, N. J., and there entered the Theological 
 Seminary. 
 
 It was his great delight there to meet the late Rev. 
 Dr. A. A. Hodge, then Professor of Theology in the 
 Seminary, whose kindness as a ftfend and influence as 
 an exemplary Christian instructor are indelibly written 
 upon the heart and character of the author, who took a 
 great interest in him. He enjoyed the confidence and 
 friendship both of his professors and fellow-students in 
 
 (9) 
 
lO THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 an unusual degree. Rev. Dr. A. A. Hodge, in recom- 
 mending him to some of the leading ministers of New 
 York, wrote from Princeton, N. J., May 5th, 1886 : — 
 
 " Mr. Gabrielian is a native of Armenia, a candidate 
 for the ministry under the care of the Presbytery of 
 New Brunswick. He has the respect and confidence of 
 his professors and fellow-students in a very unusual de- 
 gree. He is intelligent, diligent, studious, pious, mod- 
 est, honest, frank, and entirely reliable. He is decidedly 
 and in all respects the best of foreign students we have 
 had for years." 
 
 He graduated "with credit at Princeton Theological 
 Seminary" in 1888, and with the hope of soon returning 
 to his native land he has been ordained by the Presby- 
 tery of New Brunswick. But some circumstances and a 
 deep conviction of the importance of a medical knowl- 
 edge in his future work, both as a means of finding access 
 to all classes of people and of doing good, led him to 
 take a full medical course at Jefferson Medical College 
 of this city, which course he has completed this spring, 
 and received the degree of Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 Meanwhile the Turkish government, always hostile 
 to Christian civilization, has grown worse and worse. 
 The Kurds, the Circassians, the Turks, and officials, en- 
 couraged by the attitude of the government, have reached 
 the height of injustice, cruelty, and barbarism. 
 
 The author, not b#ing indifferent to the condition of 
 his people, but as one suffering with them, has taken great 
 pains in gathering such authentic facts to bring them to 
 the attention of the friends of Christianity and humanity, 
 who will undoubtedly take great interest in these down- 
 
PREFACE. 1 1 
 
 trodden sons and daughters of Ararat, and lend their 
 sympathy and help to ameliorate their condition and 
 hasten their emancipation from the iron yoke of the 
 " unspeakable Turk." 
 
 In order to make the work the more interesting and 
 instructive in giving a general and brief outline of the 
 history of the people, their past and present condition, 
 no pains have been spared in consulting the ancient and 
 modern, native and foreign, historians of note. 
 
 The last chapter, on Missions, from the beginning to 
 the present time, is the longest chapter, but by no means 
 an adequate account of that grand work. It is given in 
 a very succinct manner. 
 
 The author's thanks are due to the Rev. Dr. Judson 
 Smith, Secretary of the American Board of Foreign 
 Missions, who has so kindly furnished him with the 
 Annual Reports of the Board, to which free references 
 have, been made. 
 
 In regard to the style and language of the book, no 
 one can be more deeply conscious of its defects than the 
 author himself. But if the esteemed reader will imagine 
 the condition and circumstances under which this work 
 has been prepared, his criticism might be a little modi- 
 fied. 
 
 The grateful acknowledgments of the author are also 
 due to the friends who assisted him and encouraged the 
 publication of this work. May the Lord bless and 
 make it the means of advancing His Kingdom and liber- 
 ating His oppressed creatures. 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa., July, 1892. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 ARMENIA.' 
 
 The student of the Bible will find a great delight in 
 perusing any biblical and historical work, for the dis- 
 coveries of the Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Moab- 
 itish, and Persian monuments and tablets, with the de- 
 cipherment of their cuneiform inscriptions, have verified 
 much of biblical narrative, satisfied the honest doubting 
 minds, and silenced the idle cavilers. Armenia, indeed, 
 does not equally rank with these countries in the im- 
 portance of its discoveries, or in its immediate relation 
 to the land of the Israelites. Yet Armenia played an 
 important role in the drama of the history of Western 
 Asia in the past, and who can tell what she may still do 
 in the future. 
 
 Moreover, Armenia was the cradle of the human race, 
 the home of infant humanity, and the history of the 
 human race begins from Armenia. It has also sources 
 of information in its ruined cities non-exhumed, castles, 
 caves, and in the old monasteries. And when this in- 
 formation is gathered and compiled it will shed a great 
 deal of light upon many historical subjects, both sacred 
 and secular. 
 
 The country of Armenia lies directly north of the 
 Mesopotamian plain. It is a mountainous country, and 
 
 (13) 
 
14 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 contains all of the great river resources of Western Asia. 
 The Euphrates, the Tigris, the Araxes, the Cyrus (Kur), 
 the Acampsis, and the Halys take their rise in the high- 
 lands of Armenia, and flow into three different seas, 
 fertilizing the subjacent countries through which they 
 run. Armenia is well likened to Switzerland in its 
 relation to the western part of Asia, as the latter is to 
 Western Europe. 
 
 Its boundaries have varied at different times. Accord- 
 ing to the native historians, the country reached its 
 greatest extent under the administrations of the kings, 
 Aram and Tigranes II. The former drove out the 
 Babylonian and the Median invaders, and enlarged his 
 territories by the annexation of a large portion of Asia 
 Minor to his dominions. According to some authori- 
 ties, the neighboring nations began to call the country 
 Aramia, which in the lapse of time was changed to 
 Armenia. 
 
 On the north, Armenia reached almost to the Cau- 
 casian Mountains ; on the west, the Black Sea and Asia 
 Minor. Mesopotamia lay on the south, the upper part 
 of which was included in the Armenian provinces, " the 
 Nairi " of the cuneiform inscriptions. On the east, the 
 Caspian Sea and Media bounded Armenia.* In the 
 time of Herodotus, Armenia must have been about five 
 hundred and fifty miles from east to west, and about two 
 
 * Pliny agrees with the Armenian historians in bringing the east- 
 ern boundary to the Caspian Sea, and Herodotus makes Armenia 
 to border on Cappadocia and Cilicia on the west, stating that 
 "this stream (the Halys River) rises in the mountain country of 
 Armenia." 
 
ARMENIA. 1 5 
 
 hundred to two hundred and fifty miles from north to 
 south. The country was divided into two parts, namely, 
 Armenia Major and Armenia Minor; the latter lay to 
 the west of the Euphrates, the former was again divided 
 into fifteen provinces. 
 
 Armenia is a highland from four thousand to seven 
 thousand feet above the level of the sea. Its surface is 
 undulating, with beautiful dells and hills, with fertile val- 
 leys and forest-covered mountains, with fecundant and 
 extensive plains and pasture lands, and lofty snow-capped 
 mountains with glittering snowy peaks piercing the clear, 
 blue sky. The highest mountain of Western Asia is 
 situated at the centre of Armenia. It is Mount Masis 
 of the natives, and Mount Ararat of the Europeans, 
 which is of unsurpassed beauty, magnificence, and grand- 
 eur. No traveler has yet ever seen it and not spoken 
 of it in admiration. " The impression made by Ararat 
 upon the mind of every one who has any sensibility of 
 the stupendous works of the Creator is wonderful and 
 overpowering, and many a traveler of genius and taste 
 has employed both the power of the pen and of the 
 pencil in attempting to portray this impression, but the 
 consciousness that no description, no representation, 
 can reach the sublimity of the object thus attempted to 
 be depicted must prove to the candid mind that, whether 
 we address the ear or eye, it is difficult to avoid the 
 poetic in expression and exaggerated in form, and con- 
 fine ourselves strictly within the bounds of consistency 
 and truth."* 
 
 •* "Journey to Ararat," page 146. 
 
i6 
 
 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 " Nothing can be more beautiful than its shape, more 
 awful than its height. All the surrounding mountains 
 sink into insignificance when compared to it. It is per- 
 fect in all its parts ; no hard, rugged feature, no unnat- 
 ural prominence ; everything is in harmony, and all 
 combined to render it one of the sublimest objects in 
 nature." 
 
 
 MOUNT MASIS (ARARAT). 
 
 Mount Masis (Ararat) is situated on a wide and fertile 
 plain, which is watered by the Araxes with its tributaries. 
 This river traverses the plain, running on the north of 
 the mountain, and fertilizes the plain, which is dotted by 
 numerous villages. This plain is, in fact, a plateau, about 
 seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. The 
 
ARMENIA. 17 
 
 mountain still rises over ten thousand feet higher than 
 the plain, thus making the total height of it over seven- 
 teen thousand feet from the sea level. It is, therefore, 
 perpetually covered with snow and ice, that dazzles in 
 splendor the eyes of the spectator.* 
 
 Mount Masis (Ararat) and other mountains have been 
 visited at times by violent earthquakes and eruptions. 
 Though Mount Masis itself is formed of volcanic rocks, 
 no record of its volcanic activities is preserved for us by 
 the ancients. However, a German traveler makes men- 
 tion of his seeing a terrifying sight more than a century 
 ago, and says : " Some distant southern volcanoes, or 
 Ararat itself (the terrible gorge of which, distant from 
 Caucasus in a straight line one hundred and fifty miles, 
 one can hardly look at without shuddering, and which, 
 on the 13th of January and 22d of February, 1783, began 
 again to throw out smoke and fire), must have burned 
 the top of Caucasus, and thrown upon it those mineral 
 ashes," 
 
 In the year 1 840, on the 20th of June, a terrible earth- 
 quake shook the foundation of the mighty mountain. 
 The monastery of St. James and the village of Aicuri 
 were buried in the ruins, and the inhabitants of the vil- 
 lage, about one thousand in number, were buried alive. 
 The towns of Nakhjevan and Erevan did not escape the 
 calamity. In both of these towns hundreds of houses 
 were thrown down and thousands of human beings 
 
 *Sir Layard saw the mountain from a distance of about one 
 hundred and forty-five miles on the south side of it, and a German 
 traveler from the Caucasian mountains on the north, a distance of 
 one hundred and fifty miles. 
 
1 8 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 unexpectedly, within a few minutes, were swept out of 
 their earthly existence. 
 
 Undoubtedly must such calamities have been repeated 
 in the past, but we are not informed concerning them by 
 the ancient writers. But sad it is still to hear such news 
 as the following : — 
 
 "Paris, May 17th (1891). — T\i& Dix-Neiivieme Steele 
 states that commercial advices have been received at 
 Marseilles from Trebizond to the effect that a new vol- 
 cano has appeared in Armenia at the summit of Mount 
 Nimrod, in the District of Van, vomiting forth flames 
 and lava. The villages at the base of the mountain have 
 been destroyed, and many persons are said to have been 
 killed or injured. The fugitives are camping Outside the 
 range of destruction. They are almost entirely desti- 
 tute, and the greatest misery prevails among them." 
 
 The earliest name of Armenia, by which it was known 
 to the ancient Hebrew and Assyrian writers, was Ararat. 
 We are told, in connection with the Deluge, that when 
 the waters of the great flood subsided " the ark " of 
 Noah " rested upon the mountains of Ararat." The 
 language of the Bible is both accurate and precise. Not 
 upon Mount Ararat, as it is generally and incorrectly 
 said and written by many, but upon the uiowitalns of 
 Ararat. 
 
 The author of the book of Genesis is accurate in his 
 expression and precise in his knowledge of the fact that 
 Ararat is the name of the country upon whose mount- 
 ains the tempest-tossed vessel of the patriarch rested. 
 Whether his knowledge was the result of Divine inspira- 
 tion, or as a historical fact preserved and handed down 
 
ARMENIA. ■ 19 
 
 to the author's time, we cannot tell. The accuracy of 
 the statement, however, which stood the criticisms of 
 centuries, and especially this age of criticism, has a 
 rightful claim to its acceptance by all. 
 
 The following is a specimen of such absurdities and 
 blunders so often ignorantly, or by carelessness com- 
 mitted : — 
 
 A traveler, well known in this country, writes to one 
 of the leading daily papers as follows : " At daylight we 
 were in a broad, flat valley lying between the greater and 
 lesser Caucasus. The latter, to our south, lifted, not far 
 off, from twelve to fifteen thousand feet, and were clothed 
 in snow. In the far distance were others. I saw a sharp, 
 conical burnished peak, which I took to be Ararat. I 
 could not help thinking what a hard time the mighty 
 line of living things had when marching by twos, male 
 and female, from those cold, bleak heights down into 
 the plains below, after the great flood had subsided ; and 
 what a "time good old Noah must have had to keep 
 some of his warm-blooded pets from freezing on that 
 lofty sixteen-thousand-feet-high pinnacle. What a pity 
 our theologians do not boldly preach that the Bible is 
 a mighty system of truth, but that its truths come to 
 us clothed in Oriental legend and fable — that the truth 
 is there, pure and undefiled, as the grain is pure and 
 uncontaminated by the chaff in which it is housed — 
 instead of trying to make a reasoning world swallow 
 the chaff for solid kernels." 
 
 Undoubtedly our honorable traveler will claim to 
 belong to that " reasoning world " of which he speaks. 
 But if all who make up that " reasoning world " will 
 
20 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 reason as he does, namely, to take that erroneous expres- 
 sion of the common people, and call that highest mountain 
 peak — which is over seventeen thousand feet from the 
 sea-level — Mount Ararat, and add to this error, or com- 
 paratively a modern designation, another, namely, that 
 the ark of Noah rested upon this mountain, then turn 
 around and condemn the Bible as an " Oriental legend 
 and fable," it must be said that this kind of" reasoning" 
 of the so-called " reasoning world" is absurdity, and not 
 reasoning at all. 
 
 Ararat is mentioned in three other books of the Old 
 Testament, beside the above, in connection with the 
 flood : IL Kings xix. 37 ; Isaiah xxxvii. 38, and Jeremiah 
 li. 27. None of these passages speaks of it as a mountain, 
 but as a country. The first two passages, identical 
 in import, speak of the escape of Adrammelech and 
 Sharezer "into the land of Ararat," after having com- 
 mitted the crime of assassinating their own father, 
 Sennacherib. 
 
 The prophet Jeremiah summons the forces of Armenia 
 to combine with the Medes to overthrow Babylon, in 
 these words : " Set ye up a standard in the land, blow the 
 trumpet among the nations, prepare the nations against 
 her (Babylon). Call together against her the kingdoms 
 of Ararat, Minni, and Ashchenaz. * * * 
 
 " Prepare against her the nations with the kings of 
 the Medes." (li., 27, 28.) 
 
 The following is from an inscription of Assur-Natsir- 
 Pal, the king of Assyria, and the date of his reign is 
 assigned by Professor Sayce from B. C. 883 to B. C.858 : 
 " The cities of Khatu, Khotaru, Nistun, Irbidi, Mitqia, 
 
ARMENIA. 2 1 
 
 Arzania, Tela (and) Khalua, the cities of Qurkhi, which 
 in sight of the mountains of U'su, Arua (and) Arardhi, 
 mighty mountains, are situated I captured." Professor 
 Sayce remarks that " Arardhi seems to be the earhest 
 form of Urardhu (of later Assyrian inscriptions), the 
 Biblical Ararat." (Records of the Past, vol. 2, page 140.) 
 These passages from the Bible and the Assyrian inscrip- 
 tion show, beyond doubt, that Ararat was the earliest 
 name of Armenia, and it was not the name of a mountain ; 
 and finally, that the ark of Noah rested upon the 
 mountains of Ararat or Armenia. Thus the history of 
 the human race began anew from the land of Ararat. 
 
 It has been said that the great rivers of Western Asia 
 take their origin from the highlands of Armenia. The 
 river Acampsis of the ancients, identified by some with the 
 Pison of the Bible, has its sources from the southwest of 
 Erzerum. It receives several streams, and with beautiful 
 windings flows into the Black Sea. About the Araxes, 
 according to some the Gihon of the Bible, there is an 
 interesting statement in an Armenian history: " Aramais 
 (king of Armenia) built a city of hewn stone on a small 
 eminence in the plain of Aragay, and near the bank of a 
 river before mentioned, which had received the name of 
 Gihon. The new city, which afterwards became the 
 capital of his kingdom, he called Armavir, after his name, 
 and the name of the river he changed to Arax, after his 
 son Arast." The river Araxes is fed and swollen by 
 many streams, rivulets, and brooks, which run from the 
 sides of numerous glens, through picturesque ravines, 
 and mingle with it. Along its tortuous course it carries 
 a great fertility, and finally mingles with no less than the 
 
22 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 famous river Cyrus (Kur), and pours itself into the bosom 
 of the Caspian Sea. 
 
 The two other rivers of Armenia are the Euphrates 
 and Tigris, whose identity with those mentioned in con- 
 nection with the Garden of Eden is beyond doubt. Both 
 of these rivers take also their origin from the highlands 
 of Armenia. The Euphrates, from the springs which are 
 not very far from Mount Masis (Ararat, so-called) takes 
 a westward course along the Taurus mountain chain on 
 the northern side of the mountain. Near Malatiyeh the 
 river turns towards the southeast and approaches the 
 source of the Tigris, but within a few miles distance 
 From this point onward, with a southeasterly course, 
 these rivers flow, and finally they unite and pour into 
 the Persian Gulf 
 
 The student of the ancient Babylonian and Assyrian 
 history and civilization knows what fertility these rivers 
 carried along their course through the Mesopotamian 
 plain, and how, with numerous canals and channels, they 
 irrigated the land of the great empires and became the 
 means of commercial intercourse with the neighboring 
 nations. 
 
 The claim of Armenia to the possession within its 
 bosom of the Garden of Eden ought not to be disputed. 
 No country, indeed, has attempted to contend with Ar- 
 menia for this honor. Her natural beauty, salubrious 
 climate, her exuberant fertility, the fragrance of her 
 flowers, the variety of her singing birds, above all, her 
 mountainous bosom and overflowing breasts from which 
 the mighty waters run down on her sides and fill the 
 great channels of those rivers, which fertilize the subjacent 
 
ARMENIA. 23 
 
 countries and replenish the three adjacent seas ; all 
 these do justify her claim, and render it almost a histor- 
 ical fact that Armenia was the cradle of infant human- 
 ity, "Ancient traditions place the province of Eden in 
 this highest portion of Armenia, anciently called Ara- 
 rat, and it appears to furnish all the conditions of the 
 Mosaic narrative."* 
 
 If variety makes beauty Armenia furnishes such a 
 variety, making her one of the most beautiful countries 
 in the world ; not only has she those gigantic mountains 
 with their snow-crowned heads looking down upon the 
 clouds that envelop their skirts while they mock at the 
 ambient air and the winds, not only has she hundreds 
 of murmuring streams and rippling brooks gliding 
 along the sides of thousands of hills, which swell those 
 kingly rivers and cause them to overflow their banks ; 
 but she also has some beautiful lakes, like jewels set in 
 their respective caskets. The lake of Sevan, which lies 
 between the Araxes and the Cyrus, occupying the cen- 
 tre of a fertile plain of northern part of Armenia, is 
 called " Sweet Lake," in contradistinction to the others, 
 which are salt-water lakes. Lake Sevan, near the city 
 of Erevan, is now in the Russian provinces of Armenia. 
 The lake of Ormi, or Orumiah, lies in the southern part 
 of the country, now in the Persian provinces of Ar- 
 menia. These lakes, and some others, are surrounded 
 by romantic views and poetic scenery, but the lake of 
 Van, surpassing them in size, in importance, and splen- 
 dor, causes us with her to linger a little longer. 
 
 *" Bible Lands," page 21. Van Lennep. 
 
24 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 The area of Lake Van is about fourteen hundred 
 square miles ; its surface is over five thousand feet high 
 above the level of the sea. It is embosomed at the cen- 
 tre of a verdant and rich plain, which plain also is en- 
 circled by an exceedingly beautiful, romantic, undula- 
 ting mountain-chain, which culminates on the north in 
 the sublime monarch of mountains of Western Asia, 
 Mount Masis (Ararat). 
 
 The beauty of Lake Van and its surroundings always 
 did and will more intensely enchant the poets and ar- 
 tists who are more fortunate and enjoy the beauty of 
 nature more than the rest of us. The following is the 
 language of a distinguished explorer : " A range of low 
 hills now separated us from the plain and lake of Van 
 We soon reached their crest and a landscape of surpass- 
 ing beauty was before us. At our feet, intensely blue 
 and sparkling in the rays of the sun, was the inland sea, 
 with the sublime peak of the Subban Dagh (mountain) 
 mirrored in its transparent waters. The city (of Van), 
 with its castle-crowned rock and its embattled walls and 
 towers, lay embowered in orchards and gardens. To our 
 right a rugged snow-capped mountain opened midway 
 into an amphitheatre, in which, amid lofty trees, stood the 
 Armenian Convent of Seven Churches. To the west of 
 the lake was the Nimrod Dagh, and the highlands nourish- 
 ing the sources of the great rivers of Mesopotamia. The 
 hills forming the foreground of our picture were carpeted 
 with the brightest flowers, over which wandered the flocks, 
 while the gaily dressed shepherds gathered around as we 
 halted to contemplate the enchanting scene."* 
 
 *Layard's " Nineveh and Babylon," pages 333-4. 
 
ARMENIA. 25 
 
 Many a scene like the above has enchanted the for- 
 eign traveler and inspired the native authors and poets, 
 and caused the wandering, expatriated sons and daugh- 
 ters of Armenia to remember her former majestic beau- 
 ty and splendor, but marred by the vicissitudes of the 
 ages, and especially under the iron heel of the present 
 tyrant, her indescribable misery, and weep like Jere- 
 miah : " Mine eye runneth down with rivers of water 
 for the destruction of the daughter of my people." 
 (Lamentations iii. 48.) 
 
 It might easily have been understood that the climate 
 of Armenia cannot be mild in winter on account of the 
 altitude of the country, which is from four thousand to 
 seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. In gen- 
 eral it is very healthy, but in winter the cold is severe, 
 and it lasts from the middle of October until the begin- 
 ning of May. 
 
 In the valleys the weather is a good deal milder and 
 very pleasant. The summer is short, but warm ; this 
 especially is so in certain valleys, which are far away 
 from the reach of the sea breeze, too much inclosed by 
 high mountains and too deep for the mountain breeze. 
 The length of the winter should not mislead the reader, 
 for neither is it uniformly long nor is the degree of cold 
 weather the same all over the country. 
 
 Such a variety of climate combined with a naturally 
 fertile soil will produce a vegetation rich in quantity 
 and splendid in quality. There are, indeed, a very few 
 large forest and timber lands left on account of their 
 being inaccessible to the people and for want of good 
 roads. The government is entirely indifferent, both in 
 
26 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 cultivating or protecting the people who would culti- 
 vate such forest trees for the two-fold use of them as 
 timber and fuel. Consequently the people suffer very 
 much for the want of these; especially is this true in 
 certain districts. 
 
 But such vegetations as wheat, barley, cotton, tobacco, 
 and grapes are almost unexcelled in quality, although 
 they are cultivated with very rude instruments and un- 
 der many disadvantages and difficulties. Almost all 
 the fruits, and such vegetables raised in gardens com- 
 mon in this country, are in the list of the products of 
 Armenia. 
 
 The fertility of the country is unquestionable when 
 we remember the fact, that not only the country is very 
 old and therefore more or less would naturally decline 
 in its productivity, but the method of cultivation itself 
 is also very old, started by Adam, Noah, and their 
 immediate descendants, compelled by .the necessities of 
 life. 
 
 It has been said that ancient traditions place the 
 province of Eden in Armenia. Such a statement itself 
 might have aroused an expectation in the mind of the 
 reader to know something about the environment and 
 conditions which will give a paradisiacal aspect to a 
 place. The flowers of Armenia will, not a little, con- 
 tribute to this aspect, which, though growing wild and 
 uncultivated, are of rare beauty, fragrance, and hue, and 
 hardly known to the Europeans and Americans. 
 
 The writer well remembers his going out into the 
 fields with the missionary of his native place, who was 
 eagerly digging up some of these flowers to send them 
 
ARMENIA. 27 
 
 to his friends in England while the snow hardly had 
 melted away from the fields. " Some slight remains of 
 Paradise are left even to our days in the form of the 
 most lovely flowers, which I gathered on the very hill 
 from whence the three rivers take their departure to 
 their distant seas. Though one of them has a Latin 
 scientific name no plant of it has ever been in Europe, 
 and by no manner of contrivance could we succeed in 
 carrying one away. This most beautiful production 
 was called in Latin Ravaiiea, or Pliilipea cocciiiea, a 
 parasite on absinthe or wormwood. This is the most 
 beautiful flower conceivable; it is in the form of a lily, 
 about nine to twelve inches long, including the stalk ; 
 the flower and the stalk and all the parts of it resem- 
 ble crimson velvet ; it has no leaves ; it is found on the 
 side of the mountains near Erzerum, often in company 
 with Morans orientalis, a remarkable kind of thistle, 
 with flowers all up the stalk, looking and smelling like 
 the honeysuckle. An iris, of a most beautiful flaming 
 yellow, is found among the rocks, and it, as well as 
 all the more beautiful flowers, blooms in the spring 
 soon after the melting of the snow."* 
 
 In regard to the singing birds of Armenia we do 
 not attempt to say much, but undoubtedly must they 
 have performed a noble service by their melodious 
 music in that great assembly of all creation, gathered 
 to witness the nuptials of our innocent parents. 
 
 Many of the children of Adam and Eve, even now, 
 do not have any other musicians than the same. The 
 
 *"Curzon's Armenia," page 117. 
 
28 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 birds, in general, are numerous, belonging to various 
 tribes, " which," says the author above quoted, " in 
 thousands and millions, would reward the toil of the 
 sportsman and the naturalist on the plains and mount- 
 ains of the highlands of Armenia." 
 
 Nothing was more delightful and amusing to the 
 writer, when a child, than to watch the armies of birds 
 flying towards the north in the spring or south in the 
 autumn in a beautiful array, led by a general, as it were, 
 until they were lost out of sight in the clear and bright 
 Oriental sky ; nor even now would it give him little 
 delight, if it were possible, to retire into one of those 
 solitary watchmen's cottages in the vineyards and or- 
 chards of the East and listen to the most melodious an- 
 thems of those songsters, who were then, it seems to 
 him now, vying more with each other to render their 
 praises acceptable to their Creator than many of our 
 noted singers in the magnificent churches and cath- 
 edrals do. 
 
 The animals that are generally found in a temperate 
 climate like the climate of the Northern States are also 
 common in Armenia. In the days of old the Armenian 
 horses were as famous as are the Arabian horses now. 
 "The rich pastures of Media and Armenia furnished ex- 
 cellent horses for the Medo-Persian army." (See also 
 Ezekiel xxvii. 14.) 
 
 The reader might well have anticipated that a mount- 
 ainous country might possess some other valuable things 
 beneath the surface. Such an anticipation is decidedly 
 justifiable when we remember the fact that the mines of 
 Armenia are rich, numerous, and varied. Traces of old 
 
ARMENIA. 29 
 
 gold mines are found midway between Trebizond and 
 Erzerum. Some even think that the locality of " Ophir, " 
 from whence King Solomon fetched gold to decorate 
 the temple, was in this region. It may be interesting to 
 some to mention that the ancient river Acampsis, identi- 
 fied by some with the Pison of the Bible, " which com- 
 passeth the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold," 
 does really run through this part of the countr}^. 
 
 There are very rich silver and copper mines in the 
 vicinity of Karpert (Harpoot); the copper mines alone 
 annually yield two million two hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand pounds. There are mines of sulpher, sulphuret of 
 lead, antimony, and silver. The mines of iron and coal 
 are found in abundance, but the coal mines are entirely 
 neglected and the iron and other mines are very poorly 
 operated. There is a little town situated on one of the 
 tributaries of the Euphrates called Divrig, where the 
 writer spent some time in the capacity of a teacher and 
 preacher for the Reformed Armenian Church, and he 
 well remembers how the people used to easily avail 
 themselves of the native masses of iron with primitive 
 skill, converting them into rude implements and tools for 
 farming or other purposes. 
 
 The mineral springs, hot and cold, at various places, 
 with their peculiar curative powers, have become the 
 " Bethesdas " of the invalids, and are frequented, like the 
 places of pilgrimage, by those who suffer any ailment and 
 are able to repair to such restorative resorts. Rock salt 
 and salt springs also abound in Armenia. They are es- 
 pecially inexhaustible in the vicinity of Moosh. A salt 
 stream, whose springs are from the salt rocks, which 
 
30 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 would bring a good income in the hands of a wise gov- 
 ernor, unprofitably. flows into and mingles with the 
 waters of the Euphrates. . 
 
 What an immense wealth yet lies in the entrails of 
 Armenia ! A ruler that loves the well-being of his sub- 
 jects, and loves to know both the condition of the country 
 and of the people, instead of struggling for existence in 
 extreme poverty would render both his government 
 wealthy and his people happy, having in possession such 
 a country as Armenia and other parts of the empire. 
 But Turkish rulers have been destitute in prudence and 
 have gloried in cruelty, deceitfulness, and exaction. 
 Had the long-expected and delusively-promised reforms 
 of the Turkish government been fulfilled, then would we 
 have xmfolded this wealth to the world. 
 
 Some of the ancient cities of Armenia are still in 
 existence, however, not in their former magnificence, and 
 some are in complete ruins. Among the former. Van, 
 Amid — now Diarbekir, Erevan, Malatiyeh, Palu, and 
 Manazghert might be mentioned ; among the latter, ' 
 Armavir, Ardashad, Valarshabad, Dicranaghert, Ani, 
 and others are mentioned. There are yet other cities, 
 some of them not of equal antiquity with some of the 
 above named, but of great importance, both in the past 
 and in the present time.. These are Kars, Erzroom 
 or Erzerum, Moosh, Bitlis, and Karpert (Harpoot). 
 
 Armenia is now divided among three powers ; the 
 northern part belongs to Russia, the eastern part to 
 Persia, but the southern and western part, which is 
 larger than the other two, is under the Turkish Empire. 
 Consequently some of the cities mentioned above are in 
 
ARMENIA. 31 
 
 the Russian provinces of Armenia, but the most of 
 them are in Turkish Armenia. 
 
 The English traveler Sandys, who visited the Turkish 
 Empire over two centuries and a half ago, "has described 
 with truth and eloquence the unhappy condition of the 
 regions subject to its destructive despotism " in the fol- 
 lowing words : — 
 
 "These countries, once so glorious and famous for 
 their happy estate, are now, through vice and ingratitude, 
 become the most deplorable spectacles of extreme 
 misery. The wild beasts of mankind have broken in 
 upon them and rooted out all civility; and the pride of 
 a stern and barbarous tyrant, possessing the thrones of 
 ancient dominion, who aims only at the height of 
 greatness and sensuality, hath reduced so great and 
 goodly a part of the world to that lamentable distress 
 and servitude under which it now faints and groans. 
 Those rich lands at this present time remain waste 
 and overgrown with bushes, and receptacles of wild 
 beasts, of thieves and murderers ; large territories dis- 
 peopled or thinly inhabited ; goodly cities made deso- 
 late, sumptuous buildings become ruins, glorious tem- 
 ples either subverted or prostituted to impiety ; true 
 religion discountenanced and opposed ; all nobility 
 extinguished ; no light of learning permitted, no virtue 
 cherished ; violence and rapine exulting over all, and 
 leaving no security, save an abject mind and unlooked 
 on poverty." These are the unhappy effects of the 
 Turkish Empire on these once so glorious and famous 
 countries, and after two centuries and a half this descrip- 
 tion is still literally true. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 The traditions of the Armenians make them to have 
 been descended from Togarmah of the Scriptures : Gen- 
 esis X. 3. Among the Armenian writers, calHng the 
 people by the appellation of " Torgomian Doon," the 
 house of Togarmah, as also by the prophet Ezekiel, 
 xxvii. 14, was and still is very common. 
 
 Togarmah is mentioned once in the book of Genesis 
 as one of the sons of Gomer, who is the son of Japheth, 
 the son of Noah. The prophet Ezekiel mentions this 
 name twice, but not as a mere name of the patriarch, but 
 as a nation descended from him, and known by the ap- 
 pellation " of the house of Togarmah." The prophet 
 does this in connection with other names as representa- 
 tives of different nations. 
 
 It is strange to say that as far as the writer has been 
 able to look up the matter all the commentators on the 
 above passages admit that " Togarmah '' and "the House 
 of Togarmah" represent the Armenians. It seems to be 
 the fashion nowadays with some writers not to agree 
 with others, nor even with themselves, but on this point 
 their agreement is almost unanimous. Here we may 
 adduce the statements of one or more distinguished 
 writers on this subject: "The third son of Gomer is 
 
 (32) 
 
THE ARMENIANS. 33 
 
 Togarmah ; the people descending from him is called 
 the house of Togarmah — Ezekiel xxvii. 14 — where they 
 are named after Javan, Tubel, and Meshech, as bringing 
 horses and mules to the mart of Tyre; and xxxviii. 6, 
 where it appears after Gomer as a component of 
 the army of Gog. The Armenians regarded Thorgom 
 (Togarmah), the father of Haick, as their ancestor; and 
 even granting that the form of the name Thorgom was 
 occasioned by Thorgama of the LXX. (Septuagint ver- 
 sion), still the Armenian tradition is confirmed by Til- 
 gariininu being in the cuneiform inscription the name of 
 a fortified town in the subsequent district of Melitene 
 (Malatiyeh), on the southwestern boundary of Ar- 
 menia."* 
 
 " Togarmah. — The people thus designated are men- 
 tioned twice by Ezekiel; in the former passage as trad- 
 ing in the fairs of Tyre with horses and mules, in the 
 latter as about to come with Gomer out of the north 
 quarter against Palestine. Neither passage does much 
 towards fixing a locality, but both agree with the hy- 
 pothesis, which has the support alike of etymology and 
 of national tradition, that the people intended are the an- 
 cient inhabitants of Armenia. Grimm's view that Togar- 
 mah is composed of two elements, Toka, which, in 
 Sanskrit ' tribe ' or ' race,' and Armah (Armenia), may 
 well be accepted. The Armenian tradition which de- 
 rived the Haikian race from Thorgon (m), as it can 
 scarcely be a coincidence, must be regarded as having 
 considerable value. Now, the existing Armenians, the 
 
 *Pelitzsch's Commentary on Genesis, volume I., page 310. 
 
34 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 legitimate descendants of those who occupied the country 
 in the time of Ezekiel, speak a language which modern 
 ethnologists pronounce to be decidedly Indo-European; 
 and thus, so far, the modern science confirms the Scrip- 
 tural account." * 
 
 This Armenian tradition, which the great scholar says 
 " must be regarded as having considerable value," runs 
 something like the following: About 2350 B. C, Haig, 
 the son of Togarmah, like the rest of the descendants of 
 Noah, was in pursuit of a new location for himself and 
 his posterity, and had descended with the multitude into 
 the country of Shinar of Mesopotamia. Here the people, 
 for fear of another destructive flood, attempted to build a 
 high tower, " the Tower of Babel." Haig and his sons 
 distinguished themselves by wisdom and virtue in the 
 erection of this tower; but ambitious Belus, for suprem- 
 acy, yea, even requiring homage to his image, became 
 too repulsive to virtuous Haig and his sons. Haig, 
 therefore, left the plains of Shinar with his large family 
 and retraced back to the home of his nativity, the land 
 of Ararat, in the vicinity of the lake of Van. 
 
 Belus, on hearing that Haig had withdrawn from his 
 authority, pursued him with a large force. Haig, when 
 he heard that Belus was coming against him, mustered 
 the male members of his family and those who were will- 
 ingly under his authority, and armed them as well as he 
 was able and set out to meet the enemy. He charged 
 his little army to attack that part of the enemy's force 
 where Belus commanded in person, " for," said he, " if 
 
 * " The Origin of Nations," page 183. By G. Rawlinson. 
 
THE ARMENIANS. 35 
 
 we succeed in discomfiting that part the victory is ours; 
 should we, however, be unsuccessful in our attempt let 
 us never survive the misery and disgrace of a defeat, but 
 rather perish, sword in hand, defending the best and 
 dearest right of reasonable creatures — our liberty." Then 
 did the brave leader move on with his force and faced 
 the invaders. After a bloody conflict Belus fell by an 
 arrow discharged at him by Haig. The army of Belus, 
 soon after this, was dispersed. 
 
 Thus the first battle for liberty the progenitor of the 
 Armenians fought and won for himself and his posterity. 
 
 The Armenians, therefore, call themselves after his 
 name Haigs, and the country Haiasdan. 
 
 Haig, following the manner of the ancient patriarchs, 
 founded towns and villages, and after a long life died in 
 peace. 
 
 Haig was succeeded by his son Armenag — some think 
 Armenia was named after this prince. The son and suc- 
 cessor of Armenag was Aramais, who built a city of hewn 
 stones, near the banks of the river Araxes ; he named 
 the city after himself, Armavir, and made it the capital 
 of the government. 
 
 The son of Aramais was Amassia, who, soon after the 
 decease of his father, took the lead of the government. 
 Our historians tell us that it was Amassia who gave the 
 name Masis, after himself, to that magnificent and huge 
 mountain (Mount Ararat so-called). Harmah mounted 
 the throne of his father Amassia after the latter's depart- 
 ure from this life. 
 
 Aram, about 2000 B. C, the son and successor of 
 Harmah, towers among the monarchs of the first period 
 
36 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 of the Armenian history ; he was, like King David, 
 a great warrior and conqueror. He chased out the 
 Babylonian and Median invaders, penetrated into the 
 heart of Cappadocia, and the countries which he thus 
 subjected to the west of the Euphrates composed the 
 Armenia Minor. 
 
 After the long and glorious reign of Aram the coun- 
 try slowly came into a subordinate condition to the As- 
 syrian Empire, though the kings of the Haikian dynasty 
 continued to rule over Armenia, but they were very 
 much overshadowed when the Assyrian Empire was at 
 the zenith of her glory. 
 
 It, however, should be understood that Armenia was 
 not completely subjugated, for every ruler of a district 
 was a king by himself, and on account of the inaccessi- 
 bility of some districts an entire subjugation of a coun- 
 try like Armenia was an impossibility in those days. 
 Tiglath-Pileser I., the king of Assyria (ii 10-1090 B. C), 
 tinconscioiisly confesses in his famous inscription, which 
 contains the most of his great achievements, that some 
 of these districts never knew subjection. 
 
 " The lands of Laraus and Animous, which from the 
 days immemorial had not known subjection, like the 
 flood of deluge I overwhelmed. With their armies on 
 the mountains of Ariiina I fought, and a destruction of 
 them I made." 
 
 Here let us ask the permission of the reader to devi- 
 ate a moment from continuing the history of the Ararat- 
 ians, or Armenians, to give the probable derivation of 
 these names. 
 
 Aruma is mentioned again by Tiglath-Pileser in the 
 
THE ARMENIANS. 37 
 
 following passage : "At the mountain of Aruma, a diffi- 
 cult district, which for the passage of my chariots was not 
 suited, I left the chariots, I took the lead of my soldiers." 
 Nov/ it is very probable that Tiglath-Pileser's Aruma 
 is the same name of the Aram of the Armenian histori- 
 ans, who tell us that the country was called after the 
 name of Aram. It is*also not uncommon with the for- 
 eigners to spell and pronounce differently the very words 
 or names from the natives. So Aruma possibly is the 
 Semitized form of the Armenian Aram. From the fol- 
 lowing quotation from " The Cuneiform Inscriptions of 
 Van," by Prof A. H. Sayce, of Oxford, England, also 
 will be seen that Aram was not only applied or used to 
 represent the country by the Assyrian kings, but also 
 some kings of Armenia were known by that name to 
 them. 
 
 "Shalmaneser II., however, the son and successor of 
 Assur-Natsir-Pal, seems to have been the first Assyrian 
 king who actually came into contact with Urardhu.* 
 He tells on the Black Obelisk (I., 44) that in his third 
 year (856 B. C), after quitting the Hittite city of Pethor, 
 now represented by Tash-atan, a few miles south of Jera- 
 blus or Charchemish, he overran Alzu,t in the neighbor- 
 hood of Palu.t then Dayaeni f and Nimme,t and finally 
 
 * Professor Sayce mistakes, for Shalmaneser was not the first 
 Assyrian king who came into contact with Urardhians. Tiglath- 
 Pileser I. claims to have made an overthrow of "all the twenty- 
 three kings of the countries of Nairi, " and as we have seen, Assur- 
 Natsir-Pal, Shalmaneser 's father, too, had come into contact with 
 Arardhi. See Ararat, chapter i, pages 20 and 21. 
 
 t These are cities in Armenia ; some exist to this day. 
 
38 the'armenians. 
 
 reached Arzascun,* ' the royal city of Arrame of the 
 land of Urardhians.' He next made his way to Gozan,* 
 and then to Khupuscia* Tiie inscription of Kurkh 
 (twenty miles from Diarbekir) informs us that Shalman- 
 eser had already, in the year of his accession, come in 
 conflict with Arrame (or Arame, as the name is there 
 written). After leaving the city of Khupuscia, in the 
 land of Nahri, he had attacked Sugunia, a stronghold of 
 Arame, 'King of Urardhians,' and had then marched 
 to ' the sea of the land of Nahri,' or Lake Van, where 
 a figure of himself and a cuneiform inscription were 
 engraved on the rocks." f 
 
 Again do we assert that Arame of Shalmaneser's in- 
 scription, Aruma of Tiglath-Pileser's inscription, and 
 Aram of the Armenian historians is the same name, 
 while differences of these three ways of spelling are very 
 slight, but the intervening period between Tiglath- 
 Pileser and Shalmaneser is two centuries and a half, and 
 that of the reign of Aram, according to the native his- 
 torians and Tiglath-Pileser, is about eight centuries. 
 
 Such long intervening periods easily will account for 
 the slight difference in spelling of the same name. 
 
 Shalmaneser II., in the inscription of the Balawat 
 Gates, " states (III., 23) that he ravaged the land of Kute, 
 ' from the city of Arzascun to the country of Gozan, 
 and from Gozan to Khupuscia,' the context indicating 
 that this was the tract of country over which the power 
 and influence of Aramu, the Urardhian king, extended." 
 
 * These are cities in Armenia ; some exist to this day. 
 
 t "Journal of Royal Asiatic Society," volume XIV., page 393. 
 
THE ARMENIANS. 39 
 
 Professor Sayce himself here gives another form of 
 spelling the same name. There is no force in the ob- 
 jection that Tiglath-Pileser uses the name Aruma as the 
 name of the country.* Shalmaneser uses it as the name 
 of a king. When we remember that the Armenian 
 tradition, handed down and preserved in their history, 
 states that the neighboring nations called the country, 
 after the name of King Aram — Aramenia, afterwards 
 contracted into Armenia, and while the Armenians called 
 their country, after the name of their progenitor Haig, 
 Haiasdan, it would not be improper for any of the 
 descendants of Aram to wear that name. It is more 
 than possible that Arame of Shalmaneser II. was a de- 
 scendant of Aram of the Armenian historians, and 
 probably the last of the Haikian dynasty, at least in the 
 vicinity of Van, for Shalmaneser's antagonist's name 
 
 * Professor Rawlinson accepts Grimm's view that Togarmah is 
 composed of Toka, in Sanskrit "race" or "tribe," and Armah 
 (Armenia). Now, this may be the same name also. Aram, 
 Aruma, Armah, Arame, Aramu — these different ways of spelling 
 are not serious objections when we remember that these are done 
 by entirely different people or nations. It is very easy for a name 
 to imdergo great changes in the hands of different people. Arame, 
 taking the suffix ni or na, will be Arameni or Aramena. Professor 
 Sayce explains the function of these suffixes of Vannic language 
 as follows: ''Side by side with this suffix ni we find another 
 adjectival suffix na, which has what may be termed a territorial 
 sense. Khaldi-nas means ' belonging to the land of Khaldis,' as 
 opposed to Khaldinis, 'belonging to Khaldis.' " Arameni, when 
 it is contracted, will be Armeni. If some doubted whether it 
 ought to be Armeni or Armena, and added both of these suffixes, 
 then we would have it as it is — Armenia. So much change might 
 have been effected by Vannic literature. 
 
40 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 changes after his invading Armenia once more. " Shal- 
 maneser, in his fifteenth year (of his reign), was again in 
 the same region. After setting up an image of himself 
 at the sources of the Tigris, he marched into the low- 
 lands of the country of Dhunibun, and there destroyed 
 ' the cities of Arame of the Urardhians as far as the 
 sources of the Euphrates.' " Twelve years after the 
 above event we find Shalmaneser contending with Sar- 
 duris, the king of the Urardhians, or Araratians, and 
 Professor Sayce suggests a solution of the difficulty 
 which he meets in the following language : " A more 
 serious difficulty exists in the fact that Sarduris I. calls 
 himself the son of Lutipri(s), whereas the king of 
 Urardhu, against whom Shalmaneser had to contend in 
 B. C. 857 and 845, was Arame, and already, in B. C. 833, 
 only twelve years later, his antagonist was Sarduris. It 
 is, however, quite possible that the reign of Lutipris had 
 been a short one of less than twelve years. But I am 
 more inclined to conjecture that Sarduris I. was the 
 leader of a new dynasty, the ill success of Arame in his 
 wars with the Assyrians forming the occasion for his 
 overthrow." If we, admit Professor Sayce's conjecture, 
 that Sarduris is a leader of a new dynasty, it is easy also 
 to explain why the kings of this dynasty do not call 
 themselves the kings of Ararat, and have no reference 
 to Arame, and much Assyrianism exists in their culture. 
 In regard to the origin of Ararat, or Arardhi, " it is 
 certainly not a Semitic word," neither is it an Accadian ; 
 if it were so Professor Sayce would have told us. Moses 
 of Khorene thought it was called Ara-arat, in reference 
 to a defeat of Ara, the king of Armenia, in a bloody 
 
THE ARMENIANS. 41 
 
 conflict with the Bab3donians, about eighteen centuries 
 before our era. Another Armenian historian makes 
 Arardhi to derive its name from King Ara, in honor 
 of the king, it being composed of Ara and Ardh," field" 
 or "plains," on account of his wise administration and 
 improvements which he made in the land. "Arah 
 considerably improved the kingdom, and so great was 
 the content of the people residing near it (Armavir), 
 that by common consent that part of his dominions was 
 called after him, Ararat. 
 
 " The administration of public affairs at that period was 
 so highly appreciated, that by way of excellence it was 
 named Araratian government."* 
 
 If we accept Brockhaus' definition and derivation of 
 Arardhi, we will strike on the right meaning and true 
 derivation of the word, namely, Ar, in Sanskrit the root 
 of "Aryan" or "nobles," and Ardk, in ancient Armenian 
 " field " or " plains ;" thus Arardhi or Ararat meaning 
 " the plains of Aryans " or " nobles. "f 
 
 The antiquity of the name of Ararat is not disputed. 
 It first comes to our notice in the book of Genesis, as 
 we have seen in connection with the resting of the ark 
 " upon the mountains of Ararat." The book of Gen- 
 esis is considered by the best and almost all the critics 
 to be the oldest book in the Scriptures, and its author- 
 ship is assigned to Moses, who lived in the fifteenth 
 century before the Christian era. Ararat was known as 
 the name of Armenia even several centuries before the 
 
 * "History of Armenia," by Chamich, page 22. 
 tSee Brockhaus' Lexicon, II., page 60. 
 
42 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 time of Moses. " An ancient bilingual tablet (W. A. I,, 
 II., 48, 13) makes Urdhu the equivalent of tilla, of 
 which the Accadian pronunciation is given as tilla, the 
 latter, as Sir H. Rawlinson long ago pointed out, being 
 probably a Semitic loan-word, and meaning ' the high- 
 lands.' Tilla, the equivalent of Urdhu, usually signifies 
 the land of Accad or northern Babylonia, but since it is 
 not glossed in this passage, and stands, moreover, be- 
 tween Akharru or Palestine, and Kutu Kurdistan, it 
 Avould seem that it is here employed to denote Armenia. 
 Urardhu, therefore, contracted into Urdhu, would have 
 been the designation of the highland of Armenia among 
 the Babylonians as early as the sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth century B. C."* 
 
 We thus find that the sacred historian's statement is 
 confirmed by this bilingual tablet, by the traditions of 
 the Araratians, and especially by the consecrated scholar- 
 ship of the nineteenth century. God's truth, indeed, has 
 its confirm.ation in itself and needs no confirmation from 
 outside, but in order to condemn those who boast of 
 science and philosophy and imagine that science and 
 philosophy are doing away with the Bible, God con- 
 demns them by the very things that they boast of, de- 
 fending his truth by them. 
 
 Returning now to our history we will occupy the read- 
 er's attention with a brief account furnished by the 
 " Cuneiform Inscriptions of Armenia," which extends 
 from 856 B. C. to some time after 640 B. C. 
 
 *" Cuneiform Inscriptions of Van" in "Journal R. A. S. 
 volume XIV., page 392. 
 
THE ARMENIANS. 43 
 
 After the overthrow of Arame, the king of the Arara- 
 tians, Lutipris succeeds him, though he is not called 
 king by his son, Sarduris L, but the new dynasty seems 
 to commence with him. When we say that a new 
 dynasty began with Lutipris or his son Sarduris I., we 
 by no means intend to say that the Haikian dynasty 
 was at an end, but it is very probable that that dynasty 
 was thrust in the shade and driven farther north. 
 
 The list of the kings of this new dynasty is as follows : 
 Arame was succeeded by Lutipris. Sarduris L was the 
 son and successor of Lutipris. Ispuinis was the son of 
 Sarduris 1. Menuas succeeded his father Ispuinis. Ar- 
 gistis reigned with and succeeded his father Menuas. 
 Sarduris II. is the son of Argistis. Ursa mounted the 
 throne after Sarduris II. Argistis II. is the successor 
 of Ursa. Erimenas is the son of Argistis II. Rusas is 
 the son and successor of Erimenas. Sarduris III. suc- 
 ceeds Rusas. 
 
 The reign of these kings is characterized by a marked 
 Assyrianism, in their adopting the Assyrian civilization, 
 in following the custom of the Assyrian kings by record- 
 ing their conquests and achievements on the rocks, and 
 by setting up monuments wherever they carried their 
 arms and subdued their neighbors, and took possession 
 of their enemies. They conform to the Assyrian style 
 of cuneiform writing, but do not use the Assyrian lan- 
 guage, unless it be in the early part oi the reign of 
 Sarduris I. They have a distinct language of their own, 
 though their culture and civilization are much influenced 
 by the Assyrians. 
 
 Monuments they have erected at various parts of the 
 
44 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 country. Some of them are found beyond the banks of 
 the Araxes, near the ancient city of Armavir, on the 
 shores of the lake of Erevan, or Sevan, in the southeast 
 part of the country, near Lake Urumiyeh. Some of 
 them are found near Erzerum, and engraved upon the 
 face of the rock at Palu, and their conquest over, and in- 
 vasion into, the land of Hittites show the extent of their 
 dominions. The boastful expression of Tiglath-Pileser 
 II. is an unconscious confession of the greatness of the 
 Araratian Empire, for he claims that he traversed the 
 country of Ararat for four hundred and fifty miles with- 
 out resistance. These kings often were at war with the 
 Assyrians and other independent principalities in the 
 limits of their own dominions and in the neighboring 
 countries. But Assyria was the worthy opponent and 
 a common enemy of all, so it is very probable that these 
 principalities were allies of the Armenians against the 
 common foe. 
 
 It has already been said that the Assyrian influence, 
 civilization, and culture had characterized this period, 
 moulded the customs of the people, and wrought changes 
 in the names of some places and persons. It has been 
 inferred by some historians and scholars from these 
 changes that these kings and the people of Ararat or Ar- 
 menia were not Aryans, and do not belong to the Indo- 
 European race or family. But they, unfortunately for 
 them, have no better argument to support their hypoth- 
 esis than two or three names found in the Behistum in- 
 scription. The unhappiest aspect of their position is 
 this : One of the two scholars mentions those names as 
 an argument to prove the existence still of these non- 
 
THE ARMENIANS. 45 
 
 Aryan people and language, and the other adduces the 
 same names as evidence of the Aryans making their ap- 
 pearance at that period or just a little before that time. 
 " That the Vannic language was still spoken in Armenia 
 is pretty clear from the names of Khaldita and of his son, 
 Arakha, who had settled in Babylonia, and claimed to 
 be Nebuchadnezzar, son of Nabonidas." The following 
 is the language of the other distinguished scholar : " In 
 the Behistum inscription we have three Armenian 
 names, Dadarshish, Arakha, and Handita.* Of these 
 Dadarshish is manifestly Aryan, being a reduplication of 
 darsh ' to dare.' Arakha has root Ar (-arya, ' noble '), with 
 the Scythic akh suffixed to it. Handita has the same par- 
 ticiple ending as Khshathrita (Xathritis) Arshita (Arsis- 
 tos), and like, but its etymology is otherwise obscure." 
 
 Whatever Assyrianism or non-Assyrianism may exist 
 in the civilization and culture of these kings and people, 
 and even had they some non-Aryan names, all these 
 would neither be sufficient nor conclusive evidences to 
 show that they were non-Aryans. For we often find, 
 even in our days, that a people, coming into contact with 
 another nation, are influenced, and adopt certain customs, 
 words, and names which they fancy to be better than 
 their own, or they actually may be so. But in regard 
 to what family of languages the inscriptions of Armenia be- 
 long, the following statement of Dr. Hincks is, we believe, 
 a decisive one : " I flatter myself, however, that those 
 who read this paper will admit that I have made a 
 
 *Handita must be the same with Khaldita of the first quotation, 
 for he is the father of Arakha ; both, therefore, must be either 
 Aryans or non- Aryans. 
 
46 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 beginning, and gone a considerable way in the decipher- 
 ment and interpretation of a set of inscriptions, which, 
 however slight may be their value in a historical point of 
 view, are invaluable to the philologer, as being beyond 
 all comparison the oldest specimens of the Asiatic branch 
 of the Indo-Germanic family; nay, for aught we know to 
 the contrary, they are more ancient than any Greek 
 which has come down to us."* 
 
 Tigranes I.,t the king of Armenia, was contemporary 
 with Cyrus, the Persian king, who, with the forces of 
 Ararat, Minni, and Ashclenaz, swelled the Medo-Persian 
 army, and, according to the summons of the prophet 
 Jeremiah, accomplished the overthrow of the empire of 
 Babylonia. (Jeremiah li. 27, 28.) 
 
 The descendants of Tigranes I. reigned over Armenia 
 until the invasion of the country by the Macedonian 
 king, Alexander the Great. King Vahi, while contend- 
 ing with the Grecian army, in defense of the rights 
 of his people and country, fell. From this time the 
 country was governed by the Macedonian rulers until 
 the defeat of Antiochus, the Great, by the Romans. At 
 this time Armenia recovered her independence ; how- 
 ever it did not last very long. 
 
 *Journal Royal Asiatic Society, volume IX., page 422. 
 
 tThere must have been a great friendship between Tigranes and 
 Cyrus, to furnish Xenophon with such a fertile subject to expand 
 his romantic genius. "And you, Tigranes," said he (Cyrus), "at 
 what rate would you purchase the regaining of your wife ? ' ' 
 Now- he happened to be but lately married, and had a very great 
 love for his wife. " Cyrus," said he (Tigranes), "to save her from 
 servitude, I would ransom her at the expense of my life." (Cyro- 
 paedia, book III., chapter i.) 
 
THE ARMENIANS. 47 
 
 The rise of the Arsacide dynasty of Parthia was a 
 complete overthrow of the Macedonian influence in the 
 East. Arsaces, the Parthian king, appointed his brother 
 Valarsaces king over Armenia, and these two countries, 
 governed by one reigning family, were in full sym- 
 pathy with each other and in firm alliance for a time 
 and a worthy antagonist and opponent of the Romans, 
 who were pushing eastward over the territories once 
 subdued by the Macedonian prince, Alexander the 
 Great. 
 
 Among the successors of Valarsaces of the Arsacide 
 dynasty of Armenia, Tigranes the Great, or the Second, 
 immortalized himself, not only in the history of Ar- 
 menia, but also in universal history. 
 
 His name was the glory of his people, as it was also a 
 terror to his enemies. He extended his dominions from 
 the Caucasian Mountains to the Mesopotamian plains, 
 and from the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean, includ- 
 ing Media, Atropatene, Assyria proper, Cilicia, Syria, 
 and Phoenicia. He built a new capital of an immense 
 size, and called it after his name, Tigranaghert* (built by 
 Tigranes). 
 
 Before this period the Romans already had crept 
 into Western Asia. Had the Parthian and Armenian 
 
 * According to Strabo, twelve Greek cities were depopulated to 
 furnish Tigranacerta with inhabitants (XL, 14, section 15). Ac- 
 cording to Appian, three hundred thousand Cappadocians were 
 translated thither (Mithrid, page 216 C). Plutarch speaks of the 
 population as having been drawn from Cilicia, Cappadocia, 
 Gordyene, Assyria, and Adiab^n^ (Lucull., 26). "Sixth Oriental 
 Monarchy," by G. Rawlinson. 
 
48 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 monarchs recognized the fact that Rome was a common 
 enemy to both, and had kept their allianro firm and un- 
 shaken by the intrigues and enticements of the Roman 
 generals and had encountered the foe with their united 
 forces, the Roman power would never have been able 
 to make her appearance, or maintain it, in Western Asia. 
 However, whether with bravery or with treachery, we 
 rather think with the combination of the two, the 
 Romans pushed their way into that country. 
 
 Antony, the Roman general, in his expedition into 
 Parthia, entered into alliance with Artavades of Armenia, 
 and he was allowed to attack Media through the former 
 country. Media was dependent on Parthia at this time 
 (35 B. C). Ill success compelled him to retreat into 
 Armenia and winter there. Meanwhile, the king of 
 Media, having been provoked by the Parthians, and with 
 the hope of a possible recovery of his country by the 
 Roman army, entered into alliance with the Roman 
 general. Then Antony, desiring to reduce Armenia to 
 a vassal state, by enticing Artavasdes to enter into his 
 power, while the Roman legions were stationed at the 
 most important posts in the country which had afforded 
 to them such a hospitable shelter during the winter, 
 " He (Antony) professed the most friendly feelings to- 
 wards Artavasdes, even promising an alliance between 
 their families, that prince (Artavasdes), after some hesi- 
 tation, at length entered into his presence. He was im- 
 mediately seized and put in chains, and he carried off 
 Artavasdes and a rich bounty into Egypt."* 
 
 * "Sixth Oriental Monarchy," XIII., page 206, 
 
THE ARMENIANS. 49 
 
 The son of Artavasdes recovered the country by the 
 aid of the Parthians and massacred all the Romans 
 found in it. 
 
 Armenia, thus between the Parthians on one side and 
 the Romans on the other side, was in a fluctuating con- 
 dition for a length of time, and the battle-ground for 
 these ambitiously combating powers. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. . 
 
 Some great changes were slowly taking place in the 
 East as well as in the West, which were to give a dif- 
 ferent aspect to the history of the civilized world. The 
 Parthian Empire was approaching the verge of its down- 
 fall. In the royal family dissensions were undermining 
 the power of the empire. Persia proper, which had been 
 a tributary province of the Parthian reign, was not 
 much pleased with her servitude, and very anxious to 
 throw off the yoke of subjection, which for nearly five 
 centuries she had patiently borne, but which was now 
 too burdensome to endure any longer. So, under the 
 leadership of Artaxerxes, Persia proper regained her 
 independence and overthrew the reign of the Parthian 
 branch of the Arsacide dynasty. On the other hand 
 the Roman Empire was too great to be under one emper- 
 or ; the leading people of the empire were divided into 
 two, the Greeks and the Latins. The division of the 
 empire into the eastern and western was not only a de- 
 sirable, but even a natural, one. The Greek city Byzan- 
 tium was rebuilt and honorably made the capital of the 
 Eastern Empire, and called Constantinople* after the 
 
 * According to the ancient authorities, Byzantium was built by 
 a Grecian colony about 658 B. C. 
 
 (50) 
 
CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. 5 1 
 
 name of Emperor Constantine the Great (about A. D. 
 328). 
 
 This metropoHs of the Eastern Empire soon became 
 a worthy rival of Rome, both in civil and ecclesiastical 
 matters. 
 
 These changes, however, in the East and in the West 
 did not mitigate the sufferings of the Armenians, nor 
 ameliorate the condition of the country, but rather in- 
 creased the trouble of the people and made them furnish 
 the field for the new actors, on either side, to perform 
 their almost unheard-of cruelties at various times, es- 
 pecially after the conversion of the Armenians to Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 In the minds of the Greeks, Armenia was associated 
 with some terror and hatred. For the Armenians were 
 m alliance with the Persians when they invaded Greece ; 
 afterwards the conquests of the distinguished monarchs 
 of Armenia, like Tigranes the Great and his immediate 
 successors, over the Greeks, recorded by their own his- 
 torians in a more exaggerated manner than the Arme- 
 nian historians themselves f, would most naturally make 
 them to foster such a deep-rooted malice in their hearts 
 and cause them to wish for opportunities to avenge 
 themselves. We do not fail to find them doing so when- 
 ever an opportunity was offered them. 
 
 Hardly would Armenia sound pleasantly to the ear of 
 the Persian any longer. Armenia lived in peace with 
 Persia for centuries. The reason of these comparatively 
 
 t An Armenian historian says Tigranes translated thirty thousand 
 inhabitants of Cappadocia, the Greek historian three hundred 
 thousand. See note page 47. 
 
52 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 peaceful relations between these two countries was two- 
 fold : both the Armenians and the Persians were Aryan 
 and coreligionists. But Armenia, of late, had aposta- 
 tized from her former religion, Zoroastrianism, and her 
 devotion to Magism. In Persia, by the founder of 
 the Sassanian dynasty, Zoroastrianism was revived and 
 enforced upon the inhabitants of the country. In his 
 charge to his son and successor before his departure 
 from this life, Artaxerxes dilated himself on the subject 
 of religion, and maintaining it, and enforcing upon the 
 Iran or non-Iran to become worshipers of Zoroastrian 
 faith as a necessary basis for the stability of the empire. 
 His successors were found very faithful and zealous in 
 the performance and execution of their master's orders. 
 In Armenia the fire-temples and the temples of the lead- 
 ing deities were swept out of existence, and the Christian 
 churches and schools were established all over the 
 country, Zoroastrianism had received such a blow from 
 the hands of King Jesus and fallen in pieces, like Dagon 
 of Ashdo'd, before the ark of the Lord in the days of old, 
 that seven hundred magi and an immense army of Per- 
 sians could not gather its fragments or keep the fires 
 unquenched on its altars in Armenia. 
 
 Constantine the Great also avowed his allegiance to 
 the religion of Christ. Persia, therefore, would most 
 naturally reason that these two nations, the Armenians 
 and the Greeks, being the believers in, and defenders of, 
 a common faith, would be united to defend as well as 
 propagate it. The Persians naturally thought that a 
 common religion should produce a harmonious relation 
 between, and a united action of, these two nations. The 
 
CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. 53 
 
 heathen often think and reason more naturally than some 
 of the professing Christians, and some of the professing 
 Christians often act more unnaturally than even some of 
 the heathen. Accordingly some of the Persians looked 
 upon the Armenians with the profoundest suspicion and 
 dealt towards them with the utmost cruelty. 
 
 Although the Armenians nationally embraced Chris- 
 tianity, but by no means all of them, unfortunately, were 
 in full sympathy with the faith of the majority. Some of 
 the nobility especially, at times, did ignobly unite with 
 Persia's hordes, whether with a mercenary object in 
 view or with a blind zeal for the restoration of the abol- 
 ished Zoroastrianism, thus aggravating the misery and 
 trouble of their own people, and causing much blood- 
 shed in the country. For the sake of truth we must say 
 that ignoble persons so debased in character and purpose 
 are, even at this present time in the hands of the Turk- 
 ish officers, daily contributing a good deal to form a 
 large portion of the present Armenian troubles. It will 
 be almost impossible to enumerate all the agencies, the 
 internal, but not less infernal, than the external and oc- 
 casional causes which precipitated the country into in- 
 describable misery and irrecoverable dissolution. How- 
 ever, we have cursorily reviewed some of these facts which, 
 the reader bearing them in mind, will have the key to 
 unlock the mystery of the Armenian troubles and 
 misery. 
 
 The king of Persia could not feel secure as long as 
 the Arsacide dynasty had yet any existence. The Par- 
 thian branch of that reigning family was overthrown, 
 but the Armenian branch continued until A. D. 433, 
 
54 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 nearly two centuries longer. But within this entire pe- 
 riod Armenia was in contest with Persia. The Persians 
 had two reasons for their doing so, namely, the existence 
 of the Arsacide dynasty in Armenia and her change of 
 religion. 
 
 After the extinction of this reigning family, Armenia 
 was divided between the Eastern Empire and Persia, the 
 former having the western part of the country, the east- 
 ern part being possessed by the latter. The usurpers of 
 Armenia tried to govern their respective possessions by 
 various methods, but they succeeded better when they 
 had native rulers, than with foreign governors. 
 
 Western Asia seems to be made for a theatre, and al- 
 most all the great actors in the annals of the dramatic 
 history of the world enact their roles there. Towards 
 the close of the sixth century the sunny and sandy 
 plains of Arabia had given birth to a person who was to 
 be no less than a hero, a warrior, a lawgiver, and a 
 founder of a new religion which shaped the destiny of 
 millions of human beings and flooded many a country 
 with the blood of its inhabitants. This was our self- 
 made and called prophet of Arabia, Mohammed, who, 
 with great difficulty, after finding some adherents, began 
 to contend with his opponents, often attacking unawares 
 wayfaring merchants on their way from the northern 
 countries. The plunder and the booty taken from the 
 conquered were freely distributed to his followers. This 
 surely was a great attraction to the pillage-loving and 
 war-delighting Arabs to swell the army of the prophet 
 Mohammed. Arabia, Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, and 
 Persia, one after the other, within a comparatively short 
 
CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. 55 
 
 time, fell under the followers of Mohammed. Baghdad 
 was made the capital of the Saracens, and the Persian 
 portion of Armenia was governed by the rulers ap- 
 pointed at Baghdad by the Caliphs or successors of Mo- 
 hammed. Now let the reader stretch the compass of 
 his imagination to picture the most oppressed condition 
 of the Christian Armenians under the zealous mission- 
 aries and soldiers of the Mohammedan religion, whose 
 founder had only two alternatives for the conquered, to 
 believe in his religion or to die. For there is no danger 
 of overstating the cruelties, outrages, massacres, and 
 tortures poured upon the conquered by Mohammed's 
 missionary soldiers. Even a picture drawn by the wild- 
 est imagination will fall far below the sufferings of the 
 people and the atrocities of the Mohammedans, The 
 Armenians were often willing to let everything else go 
 if they were left with their preferred faith, the religion of 
 Christ. But even then were they not left alone. There- 
 fore, compelled so to do, they often took arms to defend 
 their religion and rights and perished sword in hand. 
 It was thus since the introduction of Christianity into 
 Armenia : "The history of Armenia presents but a mel- 
 ancholy picture to the friend of humanity. Rapacious 
 neighbors, the enemies of Christianity, found a theatre 
 for their unheard-of cruelties and oppressions in that 
 beauteous land, the inhabitants of which were equally 
 exposed to the outrages of Paganism and of Islam." 
 
 The condition of the provinces of Armenia governed 
 by the Greeks was hardly any better. The Saracens 
 were pushing their way westward and towards the north. 
 The Greeks were becoming unendurable on account of 
 
56 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 their prejudices and persecutions occasioned by such 
 trifling differences in the rituals and ceremonies of the 
 Armenian from the Greek Church. The state of things, 
 indeed, was in a deplorable condition. 
 
 There is something marvelous in the annals of our his- 
 tory. Though the Armenians were surrounded by hos- 
 tile and uncivilized nations and had such internal dissen- 
 sions and contentions, yet the spirit of bravery, courage, 
 and unconquerable love for liberty, as it were, sprang up 
 from the very ashes and the dust of the burnt and ruined 
 cities and towns ; yea, even from the carcass-covered 
 and blood-drenched soil of Armenia. Thus it was that 
 about the end of the ninth century of our era a new 
 dynasty in Armenia began to lift up the banner of lib- 
 erty over the oppressed sons and daughters of the 
 House of Togarmah. The worthy kings of this dy- 
 nasty maintained their almost absolute independence 
 nearly two centuries ; they would have maintained it to 
 the present time had matters not still grown worse and 
 worse. 
 
 It was in the period of this dynasty that the Mongo- 
 lian and Tartar tribes, who were scattered over the plains 
 and table-lands of Central and Northern Asia, began to 
 move westward in search of plunder and pasture-lands. 
 These tribes had distinctive names in their country, but 
 after leaving it they began to be denominated by the 
 names of their leaders, like Seljukians, after Seljuk; 
 Othmanlis or Osmanlis, after Othman or Osman. The}' 
 were pastoral in their occupations; in disposition they 
 were warlike ; rapacious and predatory in their habits ; 
 nomadic in their mode of life, and surely Pagans in 
 
CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. 5/ 
 
 practice of religion. They first settled in Persia, and 
 there, having come into contact with the religion of 
 Mohammed, they accepted it and entered the Moham- 
 medan army. They excelled the Arabs in enthusiasm, 
 in intolerance, and cruelty, especially upon the Chris- 
 tians. Indeed, the entry of the Mongolian hordes or the 
 Turks into Western Asia was and still is the worst of 
 all evils and the severest of all the calamities that ever 
 befell the Armenians or any other Christian nation in 
 Western Asia. 
 
 But the downfall of that dynasty which had main- 
 tained its existence nearly two centuries was not brought 
 about by the hands of the merciless. Arabs, nor by the 
 hands of the barbarous Turks ; though cruel and bar- 
 barous these are, but seldom do they with treachery and 
 perfidy what they cannot with bravery. 
 
 Gakig was the last king of this dynasty, who had 
 made himself both popular and beloved on account of 
 his just and wise administration of the government. 
 The Greek Emperor Monomachus demanded from 
 Gakig the surrender of the capital Ani for some pre- 
 tense, which King Gakig was not willing to do, and 
 his reply to the emperor was, " I can never be prevailed 
 upon quietly to relinquish my paternal inheritance to 
 any individual." Hereupon the emperor sent a large 
 force against the king; however, his troops were de- 
 feated. He again tried by force to accomplish his object, 
 but it was unsuccessful ; he then entered into an alliance 
 with the Mohammedan governor of the districts border- 
 ing on the provinces of Gakig to ruin the latter, but this 
 also proved a failure. The emperor pretended to be 
 
58 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 appeased and entered into a friendship, inviting the king 
 on a visit to Constantinople. Gakig doubted very much 
 the sincerity of the emperor, but, alas ! some of his 
 chiefs who had conspired against him and were sharers 
 of the guilt of the emperor prevailed upon him. Confid- 
 ing in the solemn assurances of the emperor, and in 
 compliance with the requests of his chiefs, he did go to 
 Constantinople. 
 
 He was exiled by the prefidious emperor to an island. 
 This dethroned king, deprived of his rightful crown and 
 sceptre and paternal inheritance, after a period of thirty- 
 five years of exile, was assassinated by the Greeks. 
 
 While King Gakig was an exile the Greeks took pos- 
 session of the capital Ani and a large territory. The 
 Seljukian Turks, who had settled themselves in Persia, 
 were increasing in number and in power, and invaded 
 Armenia. At their first incursion they desolated twenty- 
 four provinces; at their second attack ruined many cities 
 and towns and carried an immense number of the in- 
 habitants into captivity. For the third time did they 
 besiege the city of Arzu, where many had taken refuge, 
 being a walled city. The inhabitants made a desperate 
 resistance, but the enemy was too strong, and the 
 Armenians too fatigued to fight any longer surrendered. 
 The Seljukian Turks, after having taken possession of 
 them, displayed a barbarism which almost equals that 
 of Tamerlane ; they massacred in cold blood one hun- 
 dred and forty thousand of the people and carried as 
 many into captivity and destroyed the city by fire. 
 This doleful calamity took place in the year of our 
 Lord 1049. 
 
CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. 59 
 
 Several times during every year the Turkish and Tar- 
 tar incursions took place, and the country devastated, 
 plundered, and the people indiscriminately massacred 
 or made slaves. These circumstances compelled the 
 people to emigrate into safer districts. Some of the 
 Armenian princes exchanged their vast territories with 
 the Greek emperor for other provinces. Thus King 
 Sennacherib transferred his immense territory of Vas- 
 puragan to the emperor, and took instead of it the city 
 of Sebastia (now Sivas) and the country about it, extend- 
 ing to the banks of the Euphrates. 
 
 The Armenians were rapidly increasing in the prov- 
 inces of Cappadocia and Cilicia on account of the fre- 
 quent invasions and incursions of the Seljukian Turks. 
 Alp Arslan, the "^ Valiant Lion," succeeded Togrul 
 Beg, Seljukian king, and invaded Armenia and wrested 
 the entire country from the Greeks and captured Em- 
 peror Romanus in battle. His fearful career, how- 
 ever, was ended by the dagger of an enemy. His 
 successor, Maiek Shah, extended the empire from the 
 shores of the Mediterranean on the west to the borders 
 of China on the east. "In religion Seljukian sovereigns 
 surpassed the other Moslems of their age in fierce in- 
 tolerance, and thereby inadvertently provoked the fa- 
 mous crusades of the western nations. Upon wresting 
 Jerusalem for a time from the dominion of the Egyp- 
 tian caliphs, they visited with such hardships the resi- 
 dent and pilgrim Christians that Europe armed for their 
 deliverance from oppression." 
 
 Only sixteen years before the last event had taken 
 place one of the three attendants of the unfortunate 
 
6o THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 King Gakig, who had effected his escape with the other 
 two when they were attacked by the assassins, was 
 Reuben, a relative of Gakig, a man of warlike character 
 and personal prowess. He resided with his son Con- 
 stantine in Cilicia; his condition must have been very 
 much like that of David when he was a fugitive from the 
 face of Saul. Reuben was invariably victorious in his con- 
 tests with the Greeks. He attacked and wrested the fort- 
 ress of Parzhrpert (lofty fort), and from this time (A. D, 
 1080) he styled himself Reuben the First, assuming in- 
 dependent reign over the Armenians) who had increased 
 in this region, having been driven from their original 
 home by the cruelties of the Seljukian Turks. 
 
 In honor of the founder, this new dynasty was styled 
 The Reubenian Dynasty, which lasted about three cent- 
 uries. Meanwhile Malek Shah died, and the vast Sel- 
 jukian Empire was divided into various principalities. 
 One of these principalities occupied a large portion of 
 Western Asia bordering on the Greek Empire, having 
 its capital the city of Nice. 
 
 It was during the reign of Constantine, the son and 
 successor of Reuben I., that the immense army of the 
 Crusades for the first time marched into Western Asia, 
 took Nice and various places, and laid siege to Antioch. 
 But a terrible famine broke out in their camp. When 
 the information of it reached Constantine and his chiefs, 
 they sent an abundance of provisions to the army of 
 the Crusaders. 
 
 This last dynasty of the Armenians in Cilicia was 
 by no means in a favorable condition, while Western 
 Asia was in a fearful agitation and in a tumultous situ- 
 
CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. 6 1 
 
 ation. The Seljukians, after losing their capital, Nice, 
 made Iconium — which over ten centuries before had 
 listened to the famous missionaries, Paul and Barnabas, 
 tell the story of the cross — their capital, and made it 
 resound with the " ezzen's " of the " Muezzin " from the 
 numerous minarets, and become a source of great 
 trouble to the Armenians., The Greeks, inflamed with 
 like hatred and prejudice as before, were more or less 
 in constant conflict with them. The Armenians, over- 
 exultant because of the presence of the Christian forces 
 of the Western nations in the East, were willing to en- 
 list in aid of their cause by entering into an alliance 
 with them. But the suspicions of some that these for- 
 eigners were anxious to bring the Armenian Church 
 under the control of the Pope of Rome were sustained 
 by the facts revealed in due time. Though their at- 
 tempts proved unsuccessful, a schism originated in the 
 Church, which, with its detrimental effect upon the 
 Church and the people, still continues. 
 
 A new tremendous army of the Mongolians, under 
 the command of Genghis Khan, made its appearance in 
 Western Asia ; they spread all over Persia, Armenia, 
 and Asia Minor destruction, devastation, and death, 
 committing wholesale massacres, consuming the cities 
 and towns by fire, and carrying away hundreds and 
 thousands into captivity. Armenia has been over and 
 over inundated with the blood of her inhabitants, en- 
 riched with their carcasses scattered upon her face; her 
 beautiful and bright sky was often rendered foggy and 
 smoky on account of the conflagrations of her immense 
 cities and numerous towns, kindled by the enemies ; 
 
62 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 her beautiful sons and daughters were torn away from 
 the bosoms of their parents, carried away as captives 
 and sold for slaves ; her magnificent churches and mon- 
 asteries were converted into mosques and " tekes." Yet 
 " the House of Togarmah " marched on through these 
 tremendous seas of oppression, persecution, cruelty, 
 and injustice, from a remote antiquity to the end of 
 the fourteenth century of our era, lifting up. the old, 
 centuries old, flag of liberty, torn to pieces and ready 
 to fall into an irreparable dissolution. 
 
 No doubt the object of the popes, who urged the 
 Western sovereigns to raise crusades against the Mo- 
 hammedans, and kept them engaged in this unsuccessful 
 enterprise for a length of time at the expense of an im- 
 mense wealth and millions of human lives, was two- 
 fold ; to exercise their sublunary power over these 
 potentates, and to further their influence over other 
 Christian nations in the East. 
 
 But they signally failed in their purpose. There 
 came a time that the popes had no influence over the 
 kings of Europe. And the Crusaders in the East ren- 
 dered their names detestable forever, both to the Chris- 
 tians and non-Christians. " In 1204 (Christian era) the 
 capital (Constantinople) was captured by the Crusaders, 
 whose conduct fixed an indelible stain upon the name 
 of the Franks throughout the East, especially as it is 
 contrasted with that of the Mohammedans, who, a few 
 years before, had conquered Jerusalem. When Saladin 
 entered the latter city the Church of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre was respected, and the conquered Christians re- 
 mained in possession of their property; no confiscations 
 
CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. 63 
 
 were made of the wealth of the non-combatants. But 
 the vaunted chivalry of the Papal Church plundered a 
 Christian city without remorse, desecrated its shrines, 
 and maltreated its inhabitants, while the profane cry of 
 " God will it ! " was raised to excite each other to act 
 the part of brigands and debauchees. Sacred plate, 
 golden images of saints, and silver candelabras from the 
 altars ; bronze statues of heathen idols and heroes, 
 precious works of Hellenic art; crowns, coronets, 
 thrones, vessels of gold and silver; ornaments of dia- 
 monds, pearls, and precious stones from the imperial 
 treasury and the palaces of the nobles ; jewelry and 
 precious metals from the shops of the goldsmiths ; silks, 
 velvets, and brocaded tissues from the warehouses of 
 the merchants, together with coined money, were ac- 
 cumulated in vast heaps as spoils to be divided by the 
 victors. A few of the crusading clergy endeavored to 
 moderate the fury which the bigoted prejudices of the 
 Latin Church had instilled into the minds of the sol- 
 diery against the Greeks ; but many priests were as 
 forward as the most abandoned of the troops in robbing 
 the temples of a kindred faith."* 
 
 Our Saviour's words were literally fulfilled ; with 
 what measure the Greeks so often had measured and 
 dealt with the Armenians, it was meted to them by the 
 hands of the Crusaders; yet such a conduct of the Cru- 
 saders with the Christians, and undoubtedly a conduct 
 ten times worse than this towards the Mohammedans, 
 accounts for the determination and fury of the latter 
 
 * " The Turkish Empire," pages 238, 239. 
 
64 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 against the Christians. The reply of Mehck Nasr, the 
 Egyptian sultan, to an application of the Armenian 
 King Leo II. for a treaty of peace, was the following : 
 " I will never make peace with you until you promise 
 on oath not to hold any correspondence or communica- 
 tion with Western nations." Often did the Moharn- 
 medan powers imagine that the Armenians had again 
 stirred up the Western nations, that they were marching 
 against them in greater force than ever before, and then 
 they would attack the cities and towns of the Armenians 
 and commit all manner of atrocities, thinking that this 
 might be their last opportunity. 
 
 The Armenian independence of Ciliciawas surrounded 
 by the Ottoman power on the west, constantly grow- 
 ing in strength and in numbers ; on the east and north 
 by the Mongolian invaders under such leaders as Togrul 
 Beg, Alp Arslan, Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, and others 
 who deserve to be called the greatest warriors and the 
 most cruel sons of the world ; on the south by the 
 Mohammedans of Egypt, under the reign of the Mame- 
 luke sultans, who were no less formidable than the pre- 
 vious two both in hatred and cruelty toward the Chris- 
 tians. 
 
 After the withdrawal of the Western nations — or 
 rather their being driven out from the East — in full 
 satisfaction of their complete failure either to maintain 
 their position or ameliorate the oppressed condition of 
 the Oriental Christians under the Mohammedans, the 
 latter had but little difficulty in destroying the inde- 
 pendence of the Armenians in Cilicia. By various in- 
 cursions of the Mohammedans of Egypt into Cilicia, 
 
CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. 65 
 
 the Armenians were reduced in strength and in num- 
 bers ; finally a vast army of the enemies marched against 
 them. These missionary soldiers of Mohammed, indeed 
 brutes in character and nature, though clad in clayey 
 garments of human forms, spread themselves all over 
 the country. No city, town, or village, no building of 
 any value, whether church, monastery, or dwelling, and 
 no human being of any age or sex that fell in their 
 hands, was spared ; they slaughtered every human be- 
 ing and burnt to ashes .every building or razed it to the 
 ground. In their execution of the unfortunate victims 
 fallen into their hands they did not leave any mode 
 untried ; " the deceitful above all things and desperately 
 wicked heart " of a depraved human creature could not 
 have suggested any new method of torture that these 
 Mohammedans did not devise and experiment upon 
 their captives. King Leo VI. and the garrison surren- 
 dered on the condition that their lives would be spared ; 
 the Egyptian general promised this on oath ; Leo was 
 fettered, and with his family carried to Cairo in the elev- 
 enth year of his reign (A. D. 1375). 
 
 The king and his fam.ily, after serving a period of im- 
 prisonment at Cairo, were freed by the mediation and 
 valuable presents of the king of Spain from their im- 
 prisonment. Leo, with his queen and daughter, went 
 to Jerusalem ; there he left them at their own request 
 and then visited the European countries. On the 19th 
 of November, A. D. 1393, he ended his mortal career 
 at Paris. " Leo, king of Armenia, was of small stature, 
 but of intelligent expression and of well-formed features. 
 His body was carried to the tomb clothed in royal 
 
66 
 
 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 robes of white, according to the custom of Armenia, with 
 an open crown upon his head and a golden sceptre in 
 his hand. He lay in state upon an open bier hung 
 
 CATHERINE KORNARO, THE LAST QUEEN OF ARMENIA. 
 
 with white and surrounded by the officers of his house- 
 hold, clothed all of them in white robes. He was buried 
 by the high altar of the Church of the Celestine." 
 
CONFLICTING FORCES IN THE EAST. 6/ 
 
 The enemy had rendered the country a complete 
 desert, and it still remains so. The people also fell 
 under the iron yoke of the Mohammedan power, and 
 still suffer all the injustice and cruelties of such a gov- 
 ernment as that of Turkey, which has no excuse for its 
 existence. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE ARMENIANS IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR 
 SUBJECTION. 
 
 The Mameluke sultans of Egypt were the unhappy- 
 instruments in overthrowing the Armenian dynasty of 
 Cilicia, but they did not enjoy the privilege of ruling 
 over Armenia or the Armenians. The course of events 
 was taking a different shape. 
 
 By a successive influx of the Mongolian hordes into 
 Western Asia, during the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth 
 centuries, the power of the caliphs of Baghdad was 
 broken into pieces and a vast empire was formed by 
 the Seljukian Turks. After the death of the third 
 sovereign, Malek Shah, the empire was divided into 
 various principalities. One of these became a king- 
 dom of considerable importance, and lying on the 
 frontier of the Greek Empire, having first Nice, after- 
 wards Iconium, its capital. The same influx of the 
 Mongolian invaders had not stopped yet on the one 
 hand ; on the other hand the Western crusaders did 
 render some service in reducing or annoying this 
 kingdom, while the Mameluke sultans of Egypt were 
 by no means at peace with the Seljukian Turks. 
 
 The turbulent condition of Western Asia at this 
 period (thirteenth century) could afford the growth of 
 
 (68) 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION, 69 
 
 a new power or dynasty, provided this dynasty was 
 in sympathy with the prevalent religion, Mohamme- 
 danism, and congenial with the invading hordes. Un- 
 fortunately for the Christians, both in Western Asia 
 and Eastern Europe, we find a power, growing out of 
 a nomadic tribe into a formidable empire, which held 
 the Christian world in terror for several centuries. The 
 following is the origin of this empire: — 
 
 "About the middle of the thirteenth century a tribe 
 of Turks, not of the stock of Seljuk, driven forward 
 by the Mongol invaders, left their camping grounds 
 in Khorasan and wandered into Armenia in search of 
 undisturbed pasturage. After seven years of exile, 
 deeming the opportunity favorable to return, they set 
 out to their ancient possessions. But while fording 
 the Euphrates the horse of their leader fell with him, 
 and he perished in the river. A spot upon its banks 
 now bears the name of the tomb of the Turk. Upon 
 this accident occurring the tribe was divided into four 
 companies by his sons, and Ertogrul, the warlike head 
 of one division, resolved to turn to the westward and 
 seek a settlement in Asia Minor. While pursuing his 
 course he descried two armies in hostile array. Not 
 willing to be a neutral spectator of the battle, he joined 
 himself to the apparently weaker party and his timely 
 aid decided the victory. The conquered were an in- 
 vading horde of Mongols, the conqueror was Aladdin, 
 the Seljukian sultan of Iconium, and Ertogrul received 
 from the grateful victor an assignment of territory in 
 his dominions for himself and his people. It consisted 
 of the rich plains around Shughut, in the valley of the 
 
70 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Sangarius, called the " country of pasture," and of the 
 Black Mountains on the borders of Phrygia and Bithy- 
 nia. The former district was for his winter abode ; the 
 latter for his summer encampment. In this domain his 
 son Othman, or Osman, was nurtured, who became the 
 founder of a dynasty and an empire. From him the 
 Turks of the present day have the name of Ottoman, 
 or Osmanli, which they universally adopt, rejecting that 
 of Turk with disdain' as synonymous with barbarian."* 
 " The shepherd, warrior, and freebooter were united 
 in his (Othman's) character." He was dependent on 
 the sultan of Iconium during the life of the latter, 
 "but he was otherwise free to prey upon his neighbors 
 and govern his dependents." After the death of the 
 sultan, who had no sons to succeed him, his kingdom 
 was divided, and Othman practically became an inde- 
 pendent ruler. He increased and extended his power 
 and territories by gradual encroachments upon the 
 Grecian dominions and repeated inroads year after year. 
 He captured Broussa and made it the capital of his 
 government. His son and successor, Orchan, extended 
 the bounds of Othman's territories with astonishing 
 rapidity. He crossed the Straits of Hellespont and 
 Bosphorus. He appointed his brother, Aladdin, vizier. 
 Aladdin created the system of the standing army in the 
 year 1330. "But the soldiers (taken from the Turks) 
 proved intractable and could not be brought to submit 
 to the strict discipline involved in military organization. 
 To obviate this difficulty the expedient was resorted to 
 
 *"The Turkish Empire," pages 6, 7. 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. /I 
 
 of rearing up in the doctrine of Islam the children of 
 the conquered Christians, inuring them from youth to 
 the profession of arms and forming them into a sep- 
 arate corps. This * black invention,' as Von Hammer 
 truly characterizes it, was adopted by Aladdin at the 
 instance of Kara (the black) Chalil Chendereli, the judge 
 of the army, and he adds, has ' a diabolical complexion, 
 much blacker than the gunpowder almost contempo- 
 raneously discovered by Schwartz (black) in Europe.' 
 
 " Hence arose the Janissaries, a name which the west- 
 erns have corrupted from the Turkish Jenicheri, signify- 
 ing the ' new troops.' 
 
 " The corps continued to be recruited by the children 
 of captives taken in war, or by those Christian subjects, 
 an inhuman tax of every fifth child, or of one child every 
 fifth year, being rigorously levied upon the families. 
 The number of the Janissaries, originally one thousand, 
 was successively raised to twelve, to twenty, and to forty 
 thousand, immediately connected with the court, besides 
 a much larger number scattered through the provinces. 
 Hence it has been estimated that not less than half a 
 million Christian children were cruelly torn from their 
 parents, compelled to embrace Islamism, and trained to 
 maintain it with the sword. At length, in the reign of 
 Mohammed IV. (A. D. 1648-1687), the custom began of 
 admitting into the regiment the children of the soldiers 
 themselves ; and, after this innovation, the Janissaries 
 became a kind of military caste, transmitting from father 
 to son the profession of arms. 
 
 " In the days of their pristine vigor the new troops 
 were distinguished by their fanaticism and valor. 
 
72 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Through upwards of three centuries, marked by a long 
 series of great battles, they sustained only four signal 
 reverses, chiefly from Tamerlane in 1402, and John 
 Huniades, the Hungarian general, in 1442. But during 
 that period they extended the petty kingdom of Broussa 
 over the vast dominions of Constantine the Great, and 
 made known their prowess from the walls of Baghdad to 
 the gate of Vienna, and from the Caspian Sea to the 
 Nile, while their name was the common terror of 
 Christendom."* 
 
 The reader will see at once the reason of our ap- 
 parent deviation and giving this brief account of the 
 origin and growth of the empire of the Turks, with 
 whom the Armenians mostly had to do during the last 
 five centuries, that the brilliant conquests have not been 
 accomplished by the Tartar Turks, but by the Christian 
 youths, who were cruelly torn away from their parents 
 and paternal Christian religion, from their early child- 
 hood and compelled to embrace Islamism, and inured to 
 the profession of arms to maintain the religion of Mo- 
 hammed with the sword. 
 
 A considerable number of the Armenians, driven from 
 the faces of the Mongolian invaders, had chosen for 
 themselves the life of voluntary exiles in the Grecian 
 
 * "The Turkish Empire," pages 18, 19, 20. 
 
 The Janissaries, who had refused submission to the mandate of 
 Sultan Mahmoud II. to enter into a regular military discipline, were 
 assailed by the "faithful" as rebels against the lawful successor 
 of the Prophet, "and three hours sufficed to annihilate the body 
 whose military ascendancy had once made the sovereigns of Eu- 
 rope tremble abroad, as it had the sultans at home." This event 
 took place in 1826 in the capital of the empire. 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 73 
 
 provinces, and after the overthrow of their Christian inde- 
 pendence, towards the end of the fourteenth century — at 
 this time the Turkish Empire was nearly a century old, 
 Othman began to reign in A. D. 1299 — many Armenians 
 became a ready prey to the fanaticism of the Turks. 
 
 How many thousands of their children v/ere alienated 
 from their paternal homes and home altars to adopt Mo- 
 hammedanism, to swell the number of the Janissaries ; 
 how many thousands of families were compelled to ex- 
 change the religion of Christ, which is the religion of 
 love and chastity, with the religion of Mohammed, 
 which is the religion of sensualism and tyranny ; how 
 many thousands were massacred because they could not 
 obey such an infernal behest, it is surely impossible to 
 tell. But suffice it to say that these questions are not 
 imaginary possibilities, but actualities performed by our 
 fanatic Mohammedans, and instances are not wanting 
 even at this present day. 
 
 While the expatriated Armenians were so cruelly 
 treated by the Turks in the western and central part of 
 Asia Minor, those in Armenia proper received one of 
 the severest calamities ever inflicted upon men. The 
 scourger of this infliction was the famous Mongolian 
 savage and warrior, Lenk Temour, commonly called 
 Tamerlane. He made himself the master of an empire 
 extending from the walls of China to the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, having Samarcand for his capital. He 
 marched with an immense army in 1387 against the 
 Persians and subdued them within a short time, and he 
 then fell upon the Armenians ; from the city of Van to 
 the city of Sebastia (Sivas), from the one end to the 
 
74 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 other of Armenia, no city, town, or village escaped the 
 notice of this rapacious potentate, but he reduced them 
 to ruinous heaps and ashes; he slaughtered a great 
 number of the inhabitants, sparing the youths as cap- 
 tives. The inhabitants of the latter city (Sivas) surren- 
 dered on his solemn promise that " no soldier of his will 
 lift up the sword on them." He, however, was true to 
 the letter, but not to the spirit of his promise. Four 
 thousand soldiers were roasted to death, great multi- 
 tudes were buried alive, and thousands of young and old, 
 whose hands and feet were tied, were thrown together 
 and trampled under the feet of the horses. The spot 
 upon which this barbarous mode of massacre took place 
 to this day bears the name of Sev Hokher, signifying in 
 |-he Armenian language the " Black Plains." 
 
 He then attacked the Turks, who received a signal 
 defeat, and Sultan Bajazet I. in vain attempted to effect 
 his escape ; he was captured, and he possibly died in 
 captivity about 1402. 
 
 " For a few years Timour was the undisputed lord of 
 Asia, master of the original seat of Ottomans, reigning 
 in all the splendor of the ancient caliphs of Samarcand, 
 till death removed him to the presence of that awful 
 Being whose laws he had violated and whose creatures 
 he had destroyed." He died in 1406, in his capital, 
 Samarcand. 
 
 The magnificent city of Constantinople, after being 
 the metropolis of a Christian nation over eleven cent- 
 uries, fell into the hands of the barbarian Turks. In 
 vain, and too late, did the Greeks realize their critical 
 condition, and struggle against the angel of death. The 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 75 
 
 capture of Constantinople by the Turks filled the Euro- 
 pean nations with consternation. The following is from 
 the letter of Pius II., the Pope of Rome, who tried to 
 raise a crusade against the Turks : — 
 
 " The Strait of Cadiz has been passed, and the poison 
 of Mohammed penetrates even into Spain. * * * In 
 the other direction, where Europe extends eastward, the 
 Christian religion has been swept away from all the 
 shores. The barbarian Turks, a people hated by God 
 and man, issuing from the east of Scythia, have occupied 
 Cappadocia, Pontus, Bithynia, Troas, Pisidia, Cilicia, 
 and all Asia Minor. Not yet content, counting on the 
 weakness and dissensions of the Greeks, they have 
 passed the Hellespont, and got possession of nearly all 
 the Grecian cities of Attica, Boeotia, Phocis, Achaia, 
 Macedonia, and Trace. 
 
 " Still, the royal city of Constantinople did remain 
 the pillar and head of all the East, the seat of patriarch 
 and emperor, the sole dwelling-place of Grecian wis- 
 dom. * * * This, too, in our own day, while the 
 Latins, divided among themselves, forsook the Greeks, 
 has that cruel nation of Turks invaded and spoiled, 
 triumphing over the city that once gave laws to all the 
 East. 
 
 " Nor is their savage appetite yet satiated. The lord 
 of that unrighteous people, who is rather to be called a 
 dark brute than a king, a venomous dragon than emperor, 
 he, athirst for human blood, brings down huge forces 
 upon Hungary. Here he harasses the Epirotes, and 
 here the Albanians ; and, swelling in his own pride, 
 boasts that he will abolish the most holy gospel and all 
 
76 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 the law of Christ, and. threatens Christians everywhere 
 with chains, stripes, death, and horrid torments." 
 
 Even the great reformer, immortal Luther, "composed 
 a once popular prayer, suited to the times, to be sung as 
 a hymn in the churches; and Robert Wisdome, after- 
 wards Archdeacon of Ely, appended a translation of it 
 to the metrical version of the Psalms, by Steinhold and 
 Hopkins. It commences with the lines : — 
 
 ' Preserve us, Lord, by thy dear word, 
 From Pope and Turk, defend us, Lord.' " 
 
 The cruelties of Tamerlane had already caused thou- 
 sands of Armenian families to emigrate still westward ; 
 all these, and those dwelling in Cilicia, Cappadocia, 
 Pontus, and Asia Minor, became subjects to the Ottoman 
 Empire. Sultan Mohammed II. appointed Bishop 
 Ovaghim, of Broussa, patriarch over the Armenians in 
 his dominions in 146 1, with certain privileges, and as 
 well as the representative, and the responsible one, for 
 his nation. This patriarchate was established at Con- 
 stantinople ; after its capture it became the capital of the 
 Ottoman Empire, and so it continues to this day. 
 
 After some bloody conflicts in Persia and Armenia by 
 hostile claimants for supremacy over these countries. 
 Shah Ismail had founded the Suffavean dynasty of Per- 
 sia in 1499. The Suffaveans claimed that Ali, the fourth 
 caliph, would have been the immediate successor of 
 Mohammed and the head of Islamism had Abubeker 
 Omar and Osman not usurped themselves and seized 
 his right. They, moreover, claimed lineage from Ali, 
 and thus the lawful successors of Mohammed. The 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. // 
 
 Osmanli sultans repudiated this right and descent 
 This difference between the Mohammedan Turks and 
 Persians furnished these two Islam nations with an oc- 
 casion of constant war and bloodshed. But alas ! the 
 noble land of Ararat had to furnish them the battle- 
 field, and the unfortunate " House of Togarmah " to 
 suffer the doleful consequences of their sanguinary con- 
 flicts. 
 
 Shah Abbas, " a magnificent barbarian," was one of the 
 shahs of Suffavean dynasty, and he was preparing for 
 war with the Turks in 1605. Fearing that he might be 
 compelled to cede Armenia to the latter, he gave orders 
 to his army to immediately vacate as many cities and 
 towns as possible, and to burn them to ashes, and drive 
 the inhabitants into captivity. Within a short time many 
 a city and town lay in ruins, and the country was convert- 
 ed into a fearful condition of desolation. Thousands 
 sought refuge in the mountains and caves. Some found 
 a refuge but others found only the enemy, and fourteen 
 thousand families were led into captivity. 
 
 This great host of captives was composed of the ven- 
 erable patriarch, bishops, priests, vartabeds, old men and 
 women ; the children of all ages ; mothers with their in- 
 fants in their arms, baptizing them with their tears ; 
 the gallant looking young men and beautiful maidens. 
 These all indiscriminately were driven by the Persian 
 soldiers to the banks of the Araxes, where some rafts 
 and galleys were in readiness to hasten their crossing 
 the swift waters of the river. Many gallant husbands 
 and knightly brothers who were determined to protect 
 their beautiful but unfortunate wives and sisters, even 
 
78 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 unto death, found watery graves in the river Araxes 
 from the hands of the brutally lustful soldiers and offi- 
 cers. Opposite Ispahan these captives were settled and 
 built New Jula (some write Julfa). The Jula proper in 
 Armenia was destroyed by Shah Abbas. The contest 
 between the Turks and Persians over Armenia lasted 
 more than two centuries, beginning in 15 12 by Sultan 
 Selim I. till the early part of the last century. Hardly 
 had they signed a treaty of peace when there was an- 
 other power creeping down the Caucasus. Peter the 
 Great of Russia was too great to miss the opportunity 
 of taking a portion of that historic land of Ararat. His 
 successors, too, very faithful to the charge delivered to 
 them by- him, though faithless to their promises, did the 
 same. 
 
 The Russians contended with the Persians over a por- 
 tion of Armenia and other provinces belonging to the 
 latter from 1 772-1 829. In this contest the Armenians 
 rendered a signal service to the Russians and decided 
 the victory for Russia. The promise of liberty for 
 their heroic service and bravery made by the Russians 
 was intended to be abject servitude and ignominous 
 exile. 
 
 "From 1813 to 1829 the- Armenians appeared to 
 think their emancipation at hand. Russia stood in need 
 of them to make a diversion against the Ottoman forces, 
 and held out to them the hope of becoming an inde- 
 pendent principality, under the protection of the Czar. 
 Her promises were believed, and, in their devotion to 
 their destined liberator, they withstood for more than 
 six weeks an arm)' of eighty thousand Persians who 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 79 
 
 were marching against Russia, and prevented them from 
 crossing their frontier; but these services reaped a poor 
 reward, for not only were the Russians faithless to their 
 promises, but they seized the opportunity of some 
 trifling disturbance in the country to lay violent hands 
 on the venerable Archbishop Narses, who was dragged 
 in the first place to St. Petersburg and afterwards ban- 
 ished to Bassarabia, whilst several of the Armenian 
 chiefs were scattered in exile through foreign coun- 
 tries, or carried off to Russia to be heard of no 
 more."* 
 
 Russia also wrested from the degenerate Turkish Em- 
 pire at times, especially in 1878, after the Russo-Turk- 
 ish war, a large territory and the important city of Kars 
 of Armenia. As it has been already said, the unfor- 
 tunate land of Ararat is now divided among these 
 three empires ; the Russian, Persian, and Turkish, the 
 largest portion of it being still under the rule of the 
 latter. 
 
 From the above brief history given in a cursory man- 
 ner it will be easily understood that the Armenians have 
 been subjected to all kinds of cruelties. Owing to the 
 calamitous wars, merciless persecutions, voluntary and 
 involuntary exiles, and emigrations into different coun- 
 tries, they have been often justly compared to the Jews. 
 Scattered like them all over the globe the Armenians 
 are met with in every commercial city throughout 
 Europe and Asia. But the great majority of the nation 
 still dwells in the land of Ararat and in the Turkish 
 
 * " Letters on Turkey," volume II., page 2,40. 
 
8o THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Empire. There are over two hundred thousand Arme- 
 nians in the city of Constantinople and as many in 
 other cities of European Turkey and other European 
 countries. The number of the Armenians in Asia 
 Minor and Armenia proper under the Turkish rule does 
 not fall below two millions and a half. " The three 
 Eyalets, 'Vihets' (government) of Erzroum, Diarbekir, 
 and Kurdistan contain many villages, peopled entirely 
 by Armenians ; and in these provinces, notwithstand- 
 ing frequent emigrations (owing to the atrocities of 
 the Kurds and Turks), the Armenians preserve a nu- 
 merical superiority over the Turkish and Turcoman 
 races." 
 
 The Armenians live in their respective villages, towns, 
 and cities. In those cities and towns where they are not 
 the only inhabitants, but there are other nationalities 
 like the Turks and Greeks, the Armenians live in certain 
 districts clustered by themselves, having sufficient num- 
 ber of churches and schools attached to them for their 
 religious and educational wants. The dwellings in the 
 villages and towns in the interior are of primitive style, 
 either being of unhewn stone entirely, or half of stone 
 and half of sun-dried bricks with flat roofs; first large 
 logs or beams laid crosswise and supported with-'strong 
 pillars, then covered with roofs and earth and dirt, with 
 a thickness of two or three feet, and then hardened to 
 prevent leaking. But sometimes " through idleness of 
 the hands the house droppeth through." (Ecclesiastes 
 X. 1 8.)* 
 
 * See also Proverbs xix. 13 and xxvii. 15. 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 8 1 
 
 Some of these villages are founded on the hillsides, 
 and the roofs of the lower row of houses are on the 
 same level with the street above, or with the yards of 
 the houses above. Some travelers, careless in their 
 observations or basing their statements on the information 
 of others, betray incorrectness in their assertion in re- 
 gard to these houses when they state that " the inhab- 
 itants (are) literally dwelling under ground." 
 
 The villagers and some inhabitants of the towns are 
 exclusively occupied with agricultural pursuits and rais- 
 ing and tending cattle and sheep, their lands and folds 
 being within a distance of several miles from the villages 
 and towns. The farmers go to their different fields of 
 labor in the morning early and return in the evening to 
 their homes. They cannot, as the farmers of this country 
 do, live on or near their farms to save time and labor on 
 account of the impotency or rather reluctance of the 
 Turkish government to protect them from the robbery, 
 thefts, plunders, and murders perpetrated by the Circas- 
 sians, the Kurds, and Turks, especially the former two, 
 who are human pasasites on the Christian inhabitants of 
 the Empire. 
 
 In Armenia many families could be found, still some 
 may be found, living in a patriarchal style like the fami- 
 lies of Jacob and Job ; the younger sons and grandsons 
 of these families with the hired servants tending the 
 flocks and following the herds like Jesse's younger son. 
 But not the few of them met, and do still meet, the same 
 fate that the servants of Job did, and have been reduced 
 to the most distressing misery. 
 
 The life of an Oriental shepherd is a most difficult one, 
 
82 
 
 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 not only because it is exposed to dangerous conflicts 
 with robbers, thieves, wild beasts, and ravenous wolves, 
 but also the irksome anxiety to find green pastures and 
 still waters to lead the flocks thereto, and especially the 
 feeling of loneliness day and night and the compulsive 
 association with the mute creatures to call them by their 
 
 ORIENTAL CART. 
 
 names. The shepherds, however, often derive great 
 comfort and pleasure in playing on their flutes, and the 
 sheep seem to delight to listen to those pensive but 
 melodious tunes, while the shepherd-dogs, with their ac- 
 credited faithfulness, always follow the flocks. 
 
 The farming implements are also, like the mode of 
 cultivation, in primitive simplicity. The plows, planters. 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 83 
 
 sowers, cultivators, reapers, self-binders, threshing ma- 
 chines, &c., which are so common in this country 
 and save so much labor and afford facility of work an(3 
 increase the produce, are unknown among our farmers. 
 The employment of oxen and tamed buffaloes instead of 
 horses in some hilly and rocky districts for hauling 
 heavy loads on farms might be justifiable, but in a good 
 many places and purposes the horses could be employed 
 with great advantage, but they are not, except for riding 
 and traveling. 
 
 It is due to the inexhaustible fertility of the land and 
 to the industry of the people, and not to the modern im- 
 provements or advantageous circumstances, that the in- 
 habitants of Armenia do not starve. If we, moreover, 
 remember the absence of railroads and good roads, the 
 difficulty of transportation of the products into the mar- 
 ket, the dangers encountered in traveling from the high- 
 way robbers, which paralyze, to a great extent, the spirit 
 of enterprise and energy of the farmer, we will be sur- 
 prised to know that not only do they make a living, but 
 also thousands of bushels of grain are annually exported 
 into the European countries. 
 
 " The rural population, especially in Turkish Armenia, 
 retain the manners and habits of their forefathers, and 
 are wholly employed in husbandry and in pasturing their 
 cattle and flocks in the rich plains of Armenia. They are 
 more advanced in agriculture than the Mussulmans; and 
 if the government would only assist their efforts by the 
 construction of roads, and establishing facilities for in- 
 tercommunication throughout the country, agriculture 
 would progress instead of retrograding as at the present 
 
84 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 day. For example, in the province of Van a peculiar 
 kind of wheat was formerly cultivated, of excellent qual- 
 ity, and resembling in productiveness the many-eared 
 wheat of Egypt, but, from neglect, it has now almost 
 disappeared." 
 
 In every village, town, and city of Armenia one, two, 
 or more churches are, according to the size of the place 
 and number of the Christian inhabitants, sure to be found. 
 Some of these towns or villages, which are wholly or 
 mostly inhabited by the Mohammedans, who seized 
 the property of the Christians and drove them out of 
 their houses, have also converted their churches into 
 mosques. 
 
 Some of these churches are of great antiquity, and 
 some of them only a few centuries old, but they invari- 
 ably are substantial buildings throughout the country. 
 One of the peculiarities of these churches also is that 
 their entrances or doors are quite small and low. This 
 is not true of the comparatively modern city churches. 
 The reason of this peculiarity was, and still is, in the in- 
 terior, to prevent the Mohammedan persecutors and con- 
 querors, who pride themselves and take great delight in 
 desecrating the sacred edifices of the Christians by put- 
 ting their horses into the churches and converting them 
 into stables, as the greatest insult to Christianity and 
 signal triumph of Mohammedanism over the former. 
 Sultan Bajazet, about the end of the fourteenth century, 
 the historian informs us that, " elated by his successes, 
 contemplated a campaign in the heart of Europe, and 
 boasted that he would one day feed his horse at Rome 
 with a bushel of oats on the altar of St. Peter's." What 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 85 
 
 Bajazet and others, of the same character and disposition, 
 contemplated and boasted they would do in Europe, so 
 often both long before and after him, they did perform 
 in Armenia and elsewhere, and even in a worse manner, 
 as the following verse, composed and recited by our 
 " prince of poets," the immortal Nerses Shnorhali, in 
 the twelfth century on such an occasion, has often been 
 repeated on similar occasions, subsequently occurring, 
 even to this present time : — 
 
 " Close by the altar in the sacred fane, 
 Where daily God's own paschal lamb was slain, 
 Hadji, the impious, made vile harlots sing, 
 And drunken broils throughout the temple ring." 
 
 The Armenians living in larger towns and cities are 
 engaged in various occupations of life. The following 
 trades are almost exclusively in the hands of the 
 Armenians in Asiatic and partly in European Turkey : 
 Locksmithing, blacksmithing, coppersmithing, gold- 
 smithing, watchmaking, shoemaking, tailoring, weaving, 
 printing, dyeing, carpentry, masonry, architecture, &c. 
 And some are grocery, hardware, and all sorts of store- 
 keepers, and some others are peddlers, traveling mer- 
 chants, merchants, money-brokers {S'arafs), bankers, 
 lawyers, and physicians. " The Armenian nation," says 
 a writer, " is the life of Turkey." Another says, " They 
 are a noble race, and have been called 'the Anglo-Saxons 
 of the East.' They are an active and enterprising 
 class. Shrewd, industrious, and persevering, they are 
 the bankers of Constantinople, the artisans of Turkey, 
 and the merchants of Western and Central Asia." 
 
86 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Hardly will it be necessary to adduce numerous state- 
 ments of many European and American observers, some 
 of whom know the Armenians far better than many an 
 Armenian himself, but let us suffice with the following 
 testimony of Rev. Dr. H. G. O. Dwight, one of the 
 first missionaries of the American Board among the 
 Armenians : — 
 
 " The principal merchants are Armenians, and nearly 
 all the great bankers of the (Turkish) government ; and 
 whatever arts there are that require peculiar ingenuity 
 and skill, they are almost sure to be in the hands of 
 Armenians. In one word, they are the Anglo-Saxons 
 of the East." 
 
 The above statements are made undoubtedly and com- 
 paratively of the modern Armenians, but in order that 
 the reader might not be misled to lightly think of the 
 Armenians of old as lacking the ingenuity, skill, and the 
 spirit of enterprise, we will cite also two statements from 
 secular and sacred history to show that the ancient Ar- 
 menians were not much behind the Anglo-Saxonism of 
 the Armenians of the present time. 
 
 Herodotus, the great historian, who lived in the fifth 
 century before the Christian era, tells us that next to the 
 marvelous city of Babylon were the boats, constructed 
 in Armenia by the Armenian merchants in the following 
 manner : — 
 
 " But the greatest wonder of all that I saw in the land, 
 after the city itself, I will now proceed to mention. The 
 boats which come down the river (Euphrates) to Babylon 
 are circular, and made of skin. The frames, which are 
 of willow, are cut in the country of the Armenians above 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 8/ 
 
 Assyria, and on these, which serve for hulls, a covering 
 of skin is stretched outside, and thus the boats are made, 
 "without either stem or stern, quite round like a shield. 
 They are then entirely filled with straw, and their cargo 
 is put on board, after which they are suffered to float 
 down the stream. Their chief freight is wine, stored in 
 casks made of the wood of the palm-tree. 
 
 " They are managed by two men, who stand upright 
 in them, each plying an oar, one pulling and the other 
 pushing. The boats are of various sizes, some larger, 
 some smaller; the biggest reach as high as five thousand 
 talents burthen. Each vessel has a live ass on board ; 
 those of larger size have more than one. When they 
 reach Babylon the cargo is landed and offered for sale, 
 after which the men break up their boats, sell the straw 
 and frames, and, loading their asses with the skins, set 
 off on their way back to Armenia. The current is too 
 strong to allow, a boat to return up-stream, for which 
 reason they make their boats of skins rather than wood. 
 On their return to Armenia they build fresh boats for 
 the next voyage." * 
 
 The prophet Ezekiel, in his enumeration of the ancient 
 merchant nations who were engaged in mercantile pur- 
 suits with the merchant nation of the Phoenicians in the 
 marts of the commercial city of Tyre, speaks of the 
 Armenians under the popular appellation of " the house 
 of Togarmah." " They of the house of Togarmah 
 traded in thy fairs with horses and horsemen and 
 mules." (Ezekiel xxvii. 14.J 
 
 The descendants of Togarmah, on account of their 
 
 * Rawlinson's Herodotus, book I., page 194. 
 
88 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 industry, ingenuity, and intelligence, have accumulated 
 great wealth, and demanded, yea, extorted, from the in- 
 dolent Turks such high trusts in the government and 
 its affairs ; but by the jealousy, cruelty, and cupidity of 
 the latter many of them have been precipitated from their 
 elevated state and prosperity into terrible misery, often 
 ending only with execution, as the following and similar 
 inscriptions on their tombstones and on the pages of 
 history will abundantly prove : — 
 
 " The most remarkable circumstance is that those Ar- 
 menians who have undergone execution have the modes 
 of their death commemorated on their sepulchres by the 
 effigies of men being hung, strangled, or beheaded. In 
 explanation it is stated that having become wealthy by 
 their industry, they suffered as victims to the cupidity of 
 former governments, not as criminals ; and hence their 
 ignominious death was really honorable to them and 
 worthy of a memorial. An inscription on one of the 
 tombs of this class is as follows : — 
 
 ' You see my place of burial here in this verdant field. 
 I give my goods to the robbers, 
 My soul to the regions of death ; 
 The world I leave to God, 
 And my blood I shed in the Holy Spirit. 
 You who meet my tomb, 
 Say for me 
 " Lord, I have sinned." 
 1197.'"* 
 
 It was Sultan Mohammed II. who first appointed 
 
 *The Turkish Empire, page 261. 
 
 The date possibly is the Armenian, which begins 551 A. D., 
 which brings up to 1748 A. D. 
 Two wealthy and influential Armenians, who were especially 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 59 
 
 Bishop Ovaghim, of Broussa, patriarch over the Arme- 
 nians in his dominions in 146 1. This custom of appoint- 
 ing of the patriarchs by the sultans of Turkey continued 
 for a long time. But it did not prove to be the proper 
 way on account of the abuses of procuring the office, 
 and unqualified persons often obtaining the appointment 
 by the influence of their friends. 
 
 The nation, therefore, obtained the right of appoint- 
 ing their own patriarch from the Porte ; this national 
 appointment, however, had to be ratified by the sultan 
 of Turkey. 
 
 At two different times two more grants were received 
 from the Porte, namely, to have two distinct councils, 
 the one ecclesiastical and the other civil. The former 
 was composed of fourteen clergymen, the latter of twen- 
 ty members from the laity, and the members of these 
 councils were also elected by universal suffrage; the 
 patriarch was the ch'airman of both of these councils. 
 
 The Ecclesiastical Council has its sphere of action in 
 religious matters and is the the highest authority in the 
 Turkisb Empire. The Civil Council is the civil au- 
 thority, and has four sub-councils under its supervision 
 through which to operate, namely. Council of Revenue, 
 Council of Expenditure, Judicatory Council, and Educa- 
 tional Council. These names indicate the sphere of 
 their activity. 
 
 This mode of operation or division of the work is 
 carried out into the provinces of the Turkish Empire 
 
 connected with the government, were beheaded in the middle of 
 the last century, and four others were executed in 1817, who also 
 were holders of high places in the governmental affairs. 
 
pO THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 wherever there are sufficient Armenians to justify the 
 existence of these councils And all the councils and 
 sub-councils in the provinces and in the districts of the 
 capital are amenable to the General Ecclesiastical and 
 Civil Councils, and these councils are responsible to 
 the patriarch and the patriarch to the Porte. 
 
 Although such grants have been made and privileges 
 accorded and many other promises of reforms uttered 
 and recorded by the Turkish government at various 
 times to ameliorate the oppressed condition of the Ar- 
 menians, yet most of these grants, privileges, and prom- 
 ises now have their existence only as dead letters. 
 
 It has been said before that the Armenians are now, 
 more or less, scattered all over the globe like the Jews. 
 The condition of those in India is far better than that 
 of those in Persia, Turkey, or Russia. Being subject 
 to a comparatively just and Christian government, they 
 enjoy all civil and religious privileges, consequently 
 they are both wealthy and influential, and some hold 
 important positions in the queen's government in India. 
 
 At Calcutta they have a bishop, churches, schools, 
 and an Armenian press. They have better educational 
 advantages both in the English and the Armenian lan- 
 guages. The Armenians are also conversant with the 
 language of the country wherever they are found. 
 
 The Armenians in Persia, or under the Persian rule, 
 have not a very desirable condition, from a religious and 
 educational point of view. And those especially living 
 in Western Persia or Pers-Armenia, are also subject to 
 all sorts of cruelties by the hands of the Kurds, with 
 whom they unfortunately live. 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 9 1 
 
 The most of them, however, are at this time free from 
 the present tribulation that their brethren are under- 
 going in the hands of " the unspeakable Turk." In the 
 summer of 1890 many Armenians found refuge in 
 Persia from the atrocities of the Kurds and Turks. 
 The shah of Persia is very anxious to get as many Ar- 
 menians as possible into his kingdom, knowing the value 
 of their industry, intelligence, and useful occupations. 
 
 Russia having wrested from Persia and Turkey a 
 large portion of Armenia in this century, there are now 
 over one million Armenians in the Russian provinces of 
 Armenia, beside a good number of those in the com- 
 mercial cities of the same empire. 
 
 The financial condition of the Armenians in Russia 
 might be pronounced pretty fair. " The Anglo-Saxons 
 of the East ", have proved their shrewdness in business 
 and industry in character there, too, and, according to a 
 recent writer, in the city of Tiflis money is controlled 
 by the Armenians. But from a religious and national 
 point of view the Armenians in Russia are in a serious 
 danger. The policy of the government is to Russianize 
 other nations, both ethnically and ecclesiastically. 
 
 The Russian government took occasion of a trifling 
 disturbance and issued an order to take possession of 
 the Armenian schools, and this order was carried out by 
 military force in 1885, while the late Catholicos had not 
 yet succeeded to his predecessor's vacant post. 
 
 The properties, consisting in real estate of the mon- 
 astery of Echmiadzin, where the seat of the Catholicos is, 
 were seized upon by the government, and the monastery 
 and its schools were supported by the governmental 
 
92 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 money for a few years, but this support was gradually 
 reduced, so much so that now the few inmates of the 
 monastery can hardly live on it, and the monastery is 
 not able to support any schools as it used to do before 
 with the plenteous income from the numerous villages 
 and farms. 
 
 The very country where the forefathers of the Arme- 
 nians lived centuries before the Russian nation had any 
 existence, or, if any, it Avas in the embryonic state among 
 the barbarous Scythians, and by the very bravery and 
 lives of many Armenians this country was extorted from 
 the Turks for Russia, and it is strange, but nevertheless 
 a fact, that the Armenian cannot own land in his own 
 country, because he is a subject of the Russian govern- 
 ment. 
 
 In the summer of 1890, while the country of Arme- 
 nia, under the Turkish rule, was' in a turbulent condition, 
 some Armenians crossed the boundary line and fled 
 into an Armenian monastery in Russian Armenia for a 
 refuge from the Kurds and Turks. Most naturally were 
 they protected and cared for by the priests and monks 
 in the monastery. This was a pretense for the Govern- 
 ment to demand, or rather order, the imprisonment, and 
 afterwards the exile, of those clergymen who sympa- 
 thized with their persecuted brethren and cared for 
 them. 
 
 It will be a violation of our intention and the limits 
 of brevity of this present work, to dilate on this subject, 
 to point out the unjust policy of the Russian govern- 
 ment, and her constant effort to absorb the Armenian 
 nation and church in her dominions by compulsive 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 93 
 
 teaching of the Russian language instead of the Arme- 
 nian in the Armenian schools. 
 
 The Armenians have unfortunately learned cordially 
 to hate the Turks on account of their cruelties for cent- 
 uries. The Russians also are making themselves as de- 
 testable as the Turks, not only to the Armenians, but 
 also to all other nations who love justice and delight in 
 mercy. 
 
 A proximate estimate of the number of Armenians 
 in different countries in the world may be given as 
 follows : Two million five hundred thousand in the Turk- 
 ish Empire, both in Armenia proper and in the dif- 
 ferent parts of the empire ; one million three hundred 
 thousand in Russian Armenia and other parts of the 
 same empire; one hundred thousand in Persia, India, 
 and other parts of Asia^; twenty-five thousand in the 
 Austrian Empire; seventy-five thousand scattered in 
 various countries of Europe, America, and the rest of 
 the world ; four millions the total. 
 
 The Armenians, besides the language of the country 
 wherever they may be found, speak their own tongue, 
 which is a distinct language of itself, and belongs to the 
 Indo-Germanic family of languages. There are, how- 
 ever, two Armenian languages, the ancient and modern ; 
 the former was the language of the pre-Christian era, 
 and after the conversion of the nation to Christianity, 
 and the translation of the Bible into it, it became the 
 standard language of the literature. " In its syntactical 
 structure the old Armenian resembles most nearly the 
 classical Greek." Its close relation to the Sanskrit, an- 
 cient Persian, Greek, and Latin might be pointed out by 
 
94 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 numerous words commonly found in these and Arme- 
 nian languages. 
 
 The modern Armenian language has been elevated to 
 the dignity of a respectable language almost in this cent- 
 ury by numerous original and translated works and 
 periodicals published in various countries, especially by 
 the translation of the Bible. The relation of this lan- 
 guage to the ancient Armenian might well be compared 
 with that of the modern Greek to the ancient Greek lan- 
 guage. 
 
 The Armenian literature of the pre-Christian era has 
 not survived, excepting a few fragmentary songs, which 
 lingered even until the time of Moses of Khorene, in 
 whose history of Armenia they are preserved, and the 
 inscriptions of the kings of Van — if we admit with 
 some — are " the oldest specimens of the Asiatic branch 
 of the Indo-Germanic family." 
 
 Christianity brought with it into Armenia a great love 
 for learning. Armenian youths flocked into the schools 
 of Athens, Alexandria, and Constantinople. Most of 
 them engaged themselves in translating many valuable 
 works from the Greek and other languages into the 
 Armenian. A recent writer speaks of these translators 
 in this manner : " Some of them attained celebrity in 
 their chosen pursuits. To this tendency we owe the 
 pre.servation, in Armenian, of many works that have per- 
 ished in their original languages." 
 
 The original works consist of theological and expos- 
 itory discourses, commentaries, histories, sacred songs, 
 devotional works, &c. " The existing literature of 
 the Armenians dates from the fourth century, and is 
 
IN THE PERIOD OF THEIR SUBJECTION. 95 
 
 essentially and exclusively Christian." This " literature 
 is rich and continuous, uninterrupted through all the mid- 
 dle ages. It has furnished the philosophers, historians, 
 theologians, and poets." 
 
 " They (the Armenians) are a people of fine physical 
 development, often of high stature and powerful frame, 
 industrious and peaceable, yet more jealous of their 
 rights and liberties than any other Oriental race. They 
 passionately cherish the memory of their fathers, and 
 preserve the use of their national language, which be- 
 longs to the Indo-European family, and possess a lit- 
 erature of considerable importance."* 
 
 " These Armenians are a superb race of men ; their 
 costume, which is plain and noble, displays to advantage 
 their athletic forms ; their physiognomy is intelligent ; 
 they have florid complexfons, blue eyes, and beards of 
 lightish color. They are the Swiss of the East. In- 
 dustrious, peaceable, and regular in their habits, they re- 
 semble them also in calculation and love of gain. The 
 women are lovely; their features are pure and delicate, 
 and their serene expression recalls the beauty of the 
 women of the British Islands or of the peasants of Swit- 
 zerland."! 
 
 In education the Armenians surpass all other nations 
 of Western Asia, and many might even fairly be com- 
 pared with the people of some Roman Catholic countries. 
 But a great majority, safely may it be said, yet sit in the 
 darkness of ignorance and superstition. This is a sad 
 fact. But it is impossible to be otherwise, as long as 
 
 * " Bible Lands," page 367. By Van Lennep. 
 fLamartine, "Voyage en Orient," volume II., page 190. 
 
96 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 the sceptre of power is in the hand of Islamism. " Is- 
 lamism it is which palsies every effort to reform through- 
 out the empire." " The conviction is inevitable, that 
 until the power of Islamism is broken, the true reforma- 
 tion of this land is an impossibility." Islamism is a 
 moral and religious photophobia ; it dreads the light of 
 civilization and Christianity. 
 
 As the religion of the Armenians, Christianity, though 
 not in its simplicity and purity now as it was in the be- 
 ginning, is infinitely superior to the religion of Mo- 
 hammed; so the character of the Armenians, it might be 
 said, is in the same proportion, superior to that of the 
 Mohammedans, notwithstanding all the evil influences 
 of the latter upon the former. The Armenians, more- 
 over, lack the volatility of the Greeks and the laxity of 
 the Jews. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. 
 
 The previous brief history of this people, especially 
 since the introduction of Christianity into Armenia, has 
 furnished the reader with sufficient facts to convince 
 him that the real trouble of this nation began from the 
 time of their conversion to Christianity, and has come 
 down to the present time. 
 
 What the Armenians are now suffering is not less than 
 what they have suffered in the fifth century from the 
 hands of the fire-worshiping Persians. Had they 
 then received Zoroastrianism, forced upon them, they 
 might have changed the entire aspect of the history of 
 Western Asia, or had they embraced Mohammedanism 
 in the seventh century, when fanatic missionary soldiers 
 of Mohammed fell upon them, sword in hand, and mas- 
 sacred thousands upon thousands in cold blood, be- 
 cause they refused to accept the sensual religion of a 
 sensual and bloody man, again the history of Western 
 Asia might have been differently written from the 
 present. 
 
 When their infant sons were torn away from their 
 bosoms by the Ottoman rulers, and reared in Islamism 
 
 (97) 
 
98 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 and inured to the profession of arms, whose skill, vigor, 
 and courage shook the foundations of the then civilized 
 world, then, we say, had the Armenians also renounced 
 their religion and professed Mohammedanism and en- 
 tered the army, they would have brought " to bear on 
 the problems of the battle-field all the subtlety of in- 
 tellect developed by ages of mental activity," unques- 
 tionably would they have saved the Turkish Empire 
 from the inevitable dissolution into which it is swiftly 
 falling on account of the indolent and obtuse char- 
 acter ,of the Mongolian Turk. This also would un- 
 doubtedly have given a different feature to the Ottoman 
 history. 
 
 Why are the Armenians now so persecuted, oppressed, 
 tortured, and thrown into dungeons of the vilest descrip- 
 tion, where they receive whippings and tortures daily, 
 and are allowed only two loaves of bread a day on 
 which to live? Why are their beautiful daughters ab- 
 ducted, their wives ravished, and they themselves massa- 
 cred by the Kurds, Circassians, and Turks ? Not be- 
 cause they belong to a different nationality, but because 
 they belong to a different religion — they are Christians. 
 For the Kurds are mostly the descendants of the ancient 
 Parthians, and are related more to the Armenians than 
 to the Turks. But suffice it that they are nominally 
 Mohammedans to be let loose upon the Christians, and 
 go unpunished by the Mohammedan government for 
 their atrocities upon the innocent. 
 
 So we beg the reader to bear in mind that the present 
 troubles of the Armenians are the continuation of the 
 old conflict, first between Christianity and Paganism, 
 
THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. 99 
 
 then between Christianity and Mohammedanism, and 
 now it is the same contest with Pagan-Mohammedan- 
 ism,* 
 
 But within the last fifteen years the Turkish govern- 
 ment gave a different aspect to this old conflict in order 
 to justify her policy of persecution. This rapidly de- 
 caying Mohammedan power, in the last quarter of this 
 century, could not persecute Christianity — in fact she 
 is vigorously doing it — and avoid the righteous indig- 
 nation of the Christian nations, if she had not given a 
 political tint to her action. 
 
 Thus it was that when Sir William White, the English 
 ambassador at Constantinople, asked the reason of the 
 arrest of certain Armenians and their being tortured, he 
 received the answer that they were conspirators, and 
 certain revolutionary documents were found with them. 
 This satisfied him ; whether the charge was true or false, 
 hardly did he care to know. 
 
 Supposing there is a revolutionary movement among 
 the Armenians : let us ask, what causes this ? The 
 writer does not claim to have an extensive erudition, 
 yet however limited may his acquaintance with history 
 be, of one thing he is positive, that no people on earth 
 will ever revolt against a government, unless they are 
 dissatisfied with the operations of the government under 
 which they are. Revolution always carries with it the 
 idea of misgovernment, oppression, and injustice on the 
 
 * It is meant by Pagan-Mohammedanism, the Pagans and Moham- 
 medans combined, for the Kurds and Circassian are rather Pagans 
 than Mohammedans ; they profess it in order to be exempt from 
 the persecutions they would otherwise incur. 
 
lOO 
 
 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 part of the government; dissatisfaction, love of self-de- 
 fense, and love of liberty on the part of the people. 
 
 It will hardly be possible here to give such instances 
 of injustice, cruelties, and outrages to which the Chris- 
 tians are subjected, and the indifference and impotency 
 of the government to protect them, and even encourag- 
 ing the wicked to increase his wickedness, for such in- 
 stances are too numerous and too painful to be depicted 
 here. 
 
 CARAVANSARY, OR KHAN. 
 
 It was the unpleasant experience of the writer, with 
 his five young companions in travel, to fall into the 
 hands of the merciless Circassians about fifteen years 
 ago. The owner of the horses, we were riding while on 
 our journey, was with us, and we were almost within 
 sight of the caravansary, when six well-armed Circas- 
 sians attacked us. They showered upon us abusive lan- 
 guage and blows with their weapons, took every bit of 
 
THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. lOI 
 
 money they found, and stripped some of the company 
 of their coats, some of their shoes and " fezes." After 
 giving us a good treatment of flagellation they loaded 
 two of our horses with their plunder, each having his 
 own horse to ride, and drove away. They crossed 
 the mountain and were out of sight within a short 
 time. 
 
 Leaving all the romance connected with this experi- 
 ence, when we went to the same city the following year 
 we found these very Circassians there living in the house 
 of a Turk, and an officer, whom even the pasha of the 
 city would like to have on his side for his influence. 
 Our convictions concurred with the advice of the mis- 
 sionaries to let the matter alone and not attempt to get 
 them arrested, or demand redress, unless we wished to 
 imperil our ov/n lives and the lives of our friends also. 
 
 The following is the language of an American mission- 
 ary, who is still in Asia Minor, and he knows whereof 
 he speaks by a personal knowledge : — 
 
 " It may be laid down as a universal fact, that in the 
 Turkish courts justice is never rendered simply for 
 justice's sake. It is impossible to convey to the mind 
 of any one who has not actually seen it any idea of the 
 utter prostitution of the very name of government in the 
 provincial towns, or the bold effrontery with which the 
 highest officers will shift their ground from one untenable 
 falsehood to another in dodging the necessity of per- 
 forming the plainest duties. The pretense that the gov- 
 ernment has removed the disabilities and disadvantages 
 of the non-Moslem inhabitants is a woeful falsehood, and 
 the local government, in spite of the contrary position 
 
I02 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 known to have been assumed by their superiors, to this 
 day do not blush calmly to repeat and enforce the obso- 
 lete law, that the testimony of non-Moslem cannot be 
 taken for anything against that of the faithful ! Since 
 the writing of this article began three Christian butchers 
 in a neighboring town have been cast into a dungeon of 
 the vilest description for the sole offense of refusing to 
 furnish meat on the Sabbath. When the Protestant 
 preacher ventured to remonstrate with the local gov- 
 ernor he was insulted, and upon answering rather too 
 plainly, was seized with brutal violence and cast into the 
 same prison. This is but one instance of cases that are 
 constantly occurring, and the discouraging part of it is, 
 that when appeals are made to higher authorities the 
 plaintiff finds himself at war with a league of shameless 
 and intriguing officials, bound in self-defense to support 
 and defend one another in all conceivable wickedness by 
 any amount of falsehoods, and giving and receiving of 
 bribes." 
 
 "The tears of Armenia" is the title of a little book 
 which contains the report of Vartabed Paul Nathanian,* 
 who was appointed in 1878 by the patriarch. Bishop 
 Nerses, and by the ecclesiastical and civic councils of 
 Constantinople, to' take charge of the diocese of Palu in 
 Armenia, While there this noble prelate, following the 
 example of the Good Shepherd, traveled through the 
 country, visiting his flock, and reported the condition of 
 the people. His report was published. With great pro- 
 priety, he begins his preface in the following manner : 
 
 *Rev. Dr. Nathanian is an exile for his life by the Turkish gov- 
 ernment, mostly for this report. 
 
THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES, IO3 
 
 " Tears and misery, behold, these two painful words are 
 chosen for the theme of this present work, of which with 
 an aching heart will I speak, and still more painful it is, 
 that the esteemed reader will hear undeniable truths." 
 
 The facts recorded in this pamphlet are too painful to 
 be translated into the English language. The crimes of 
 the Kurds and the injustice of the governmental officers 
 perpetrated upon the Christian Armenians run from the 
 commonest forms of robbery and cruelty to the vilest 
 forms of abduction, assault, torture, and murder. 
 
 The report of this venerable Vartabed Nathanian was 
 only vertification and confirmation of the oppressed con> 
 dition of the Christians in the interior more or less 
 known before. For, when in the autumn of 1876, the 
 European powers sent their representatives to meet at 
 Constantinople to consider the cruelties of the Turkish 
 government, the massacre of the Christian Bulgarians 
 and other disturbances in the empire Bishop Nerses at- 
 tempted also to draw the attention of the conference to 
 the condition of the Armenians. But this attempt^ or 
 the Armenian cry was drowned in the tumultuous roar of 
 the mighty powers. The conference itself was futile; a 
 peaceful adjustment of the differences was not agreed 
 upon. Consequently the Russo-Turkish war broke out. 
 Again Armenia had to furnish the battle-field for these 
 two formidable combatant nations in Asia. 
 
 Russia was apparently fighting for the oppressed 
 Christians. The Turks were called upon to combat with 
 a Christian nation. The ignorant Turkish soldiers and 
 the bashi-bazouks^ Circassians, and Kurds, who are 
 
 * Literally " loose-headed " in the sense of volunteers. 
 
104 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 incapable of knowing the difference between an Arme- 
 nian and Russian, between a Greek or Bulgarian, it is 
 enough that all of them go under the common name, 
 Christian. It was their frequent utterance, " Ghiaurhlari 
 Kesmeli," " the infidels must be killed." 
 
 Even when the government had no war whatever there 
 was no safety for the Christian, how much less could any 
 tranquillity now be expected. Especially the mountains 
 were infested by those who deserted the army, and the 
 highway robbers were at the fullest exercise of their 
 predatory powers. 
 
 Who suffered the worst, served the most, and received 
 nothing in Asiatic Turkey ? The Armenians. The 
 Turkish troops, by all means, would avoid on their way 
 to the battle-field to lodge at a Turkish village, but 
 always aim to lodge at an Armenian, where even the 
 most insignificant soldier was a despot. He must have 
 everything he wishes for nothing, and he will not depart 
 without giving some trouble to his Christian host. 
 
 The writer, who was -not very far from the battle-field, 
 especially being on the main road leading to it, has seen 
 these things with his own eyes. He may, therefore, with 
 perfect truthfulness say that these soldiers did not leave 
 out from the category of their deeds anything evil, but 
 the good only. However, there were some among them 
 possessed of a terrible fear of a judgment to come, and 
 knowing that their end was at hand they seemed to 
 be getting ready to die and did not take a great delight 
 in mischief-doing. 
 
 The fearful consequence of this war was the ignomin- 
 ious defeat of Turkey. Thus when the representatives 
 
BISHOP NERSES, THE LATE PATRIARCH OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
I06 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 of the European powers assembled in Berlin to draw a - 
 new map of European and Asiatic Turkey, and for- 
 mulate the treaty of Berlin, the late venerable patriarch 
 of Constantinople, Bishop Nerses, was sent by a special 
 delegation to Berlin. He petitioned the conference to 
 make a provision in the treaty in regard to the reforms, 
 or an autonomous Armenia. 
 
 As the result of this we have the sixty-first article of 
 the treaty of Berlin in the following : — 
 ' "Article 6i. The sublime Porte engages to realize 
 without delay those ameliorations and reforms which 
 local needs require in the provinces inhabited by the 
 Armenians, and guarantee their security against the Cir- 
 cassians and the Kurds. It undertakes to make known, 
 from time to time, the measures taken with this object 
 to the powers, who will watch over their application." 
 
 While the conference still was in session England's 
 negotiation with Turkey also was published and reads : — 
 "Article i. If Batoum, Ardahan, Kars, or any of 
 them, shall be retained by Russia, and if any attempt 
 shall be made at any future time by Russia to take pos- 
 session of any further territories of his Imperial Majesty, 
 the Sultan, in Asia, as fixed by the definitive treaty of 
 peace, England engages to join his Imperial Majesty, 
 the Sultan, in defending them by force of arms. 
 
 " In return, his Imperial Majesty, the Sultan, promises 
 to England to introduce necessary reforms, to be agreed 
 upon later between the two powers, into the govern- 
 ment, and for the protection of the Christian and other 
 subjects of the Porte in these territories ; and in order 
 to enable England to make necessary provision for exe- 
 
THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. lO/ 
 
 cuting her engagement his Imperial Majesty, the Sul- 
 tan, further consents to assign the island of Cyprus to 
 be occupied and administered by England." 
 
 An annex to the above agreement also was signed on 
 the same day, and one of the articles relative to the 
 above is the following: — 
 
 " Article VI. That if Russia restores to Turkey Kars 
 and other conquests by her in Armenia during the last 
 war the island of Cyprus will be evacuated by England 
 and the Convention of the 4th of June, 1878, will be at 
 an end." * 
 
 England was sure that Russia would never " restore 
 Kars and other conquests by her in Armenia during the 
 last war," and therefore, she makes it a condition of 
 her evacuating the island of Cyprus that she may never 
 do it. But another part of the same contract that, " the 
 Sultan promises to England to introduce necessary re- 
 forms, to be agreed upon later between the two poivers, 
 into the government, and for \\\q. protection of the Chris- 
 tian, * * * subjects of the Porte in these (Armenian 
 provinces) territories, and in order to enable England to 
 make necessary provision for executing her engage- 
 ment, * * * the Sultan further consents to assign 
 the island of Cyprus to be occupied," &c. 
 
 Since the signing of the treaty of Berlin and the 
 Anglo-Turkish contract, not only the Turkish govern- 
 ment has failed to introduce necessary reforms to ameli- 
 orate the condition of the Christians, or protect them 
 from the atrocities of the Kurds, Circassians, and the 
 Turks, but on the contrary even it has encouraged these 
 
 * Appleton's Annual Cyclopaedia, 1878. 
 
I08 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 wild sons of the mountains and highways to climb up 
 the height of inhumanity. 
 
 And England knows these things, for her. consuls and 
 vice-consuls in every important city of Armenia in- 
 formed her, and one especially " added in his report that 
 European supervision was an indispensable condition 
 for carrying out the desired reforms." 
 
 It was only two years after her contract with Turkey 
 and the treaty of Berlin that " the disturbances among 
 the Kurds assumed a more general character in Septem- 
 ber (1880), when new troubles were reported in the dis- 
 trict south of New Bajazid in the Sanjak of Mush, and 
 in other parts of the same region. Incendiary proclam- 
 ations were addressed to the Armenians by the insurgent 
 chiefs, and the governor-general of Van applied to Con- 
 stantinople for reinforcements, but was answered that 
 none could be spared. On the 20th of September the 
 Kurds had destroyed thirteen Armenian villages." 
 
 Are these " the necessary reforms and the protection 
 of the Christian subjects of the Porte ? " 
 
 The Circassians, Kurds, and Turks are at liberty to 
 go about well furnished with all kinds of weapons, but 
 the Christian cannot do so ; if he does he is seized 
 upon as a revolutionist and thrust into a dungeon of in- 
 describable misery.* If the Armenians will try to pro- 
 tect themselves against their enemies they are seized 
 upon by military force as insurgents. Yea, a groundless 
 suspicion was enough for the officers, who entered, by 
 
 * It was the misfortune of the writer to be in a Turkish jail for 
 a few hours, not for any crime, however, but unjustly, and it ex- 
 cels his descriptive powers for its misery. 
 
THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. IO9 
 
 force of arms, into the Armenian church in Erzroum, 
 desecrated the sacred edifice, disturbing the religious 
 services of the Christians, under the pretext of searching 
 for arms. The indignation of the Christians at the vio- 
 lation of their rights cost the lives of several persons on 
 either side. 
 
 The reader will agree with us that this is not any 
 sign of reform, or the protection of the Christians. The 
 government actually means to say : Armenians, hold up 
 your arms, stand still ; and to their enemies : rob them, 
 violate their honors, and shoot them as you will, and if 
 they resent and oppose you Iwill see to it. And our dear 
 friend, England, after taking the booty from Turkey, the 
 island of Cyprus, in order to be able to make necessary 
 provision for executing her engagement — her engagement 
 does not only consist of protecting Turkey from the 
 Russian encroachments, but also seeing that the Sultan 
 fulfills his promise of reforms and the protection of the 
 Christians in those territories inhabited by them — looks 
 upon these scenes somewhat indifferently. And she is 
 not moved to that lofty sense of honor to keep her word 
 and fulfill her duty; leaving out the love of humanity, 
 and a true sympathy for an unjustly and cruelly op- 
 pressed nation of Christians. 
 
 Moussa Bey, a Kurdish chief, after committing numer- 
 ous robberies and cruelties, murdered an Armenian and 
 abducted his daughter; at Bitlis, he tortured an Armen- 
 ian to death with red-hot iron. At the head of his band 
 of brigands he fell upon another Christian family and 
 destroyed the entire family and ravished women in the 
 village of Dabovank. Many complaints and a multitude 
 
no THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 of witnesses of his outrages could hardly effect his 
 being brought to Constantinople to answer those 
 charges. After all these crimes, the Turkish Court of 
 Justice — rather of " mockery," as the distinguished 
 statesman, Mr, Gladstone, called it — acquitted him. 
 
 But because he committed certain robbery and insult 
 to the American missionaries, a sentence of exile to 
 Syria — only a few hundred miles from the den of his 
 iniquity — was effected by the influence of the American 
 consul at Constantinople. It is, however, very difficult to 
 say whether he is now an exile. 
 
 It was in the summer of 1890, only about two years 
 ago, that the persecution reached its climax and con- 
 tinues still unabated. Here we may adduce some of the 
 reports of the special correspondents of The Lojidon 
 Daily News, which were also published in the leading 
 papers in America: " The Armenian Persecution. — The 
 London Daily News has sent special correspondents to 
 Armenia, and their reports leave no doubt that for some 
 reason or other the Turkish government have resolved to 
 make the lives of the Armenians unbearable. There is 
 a well-founded suspicion that the sultan is deluding 
 himself with the idea that, by supplanting the Christian 
 Armenians by Mohammedan Kurds, he can raise up a 
 formidable barrier to the Russian conquest of the prov- 
 ince. The immediate result of his asinine policy is to 
 make the Armenians look to the czar as their only 
 powerful friend, and the feeling of indignation in this 
 country is so strong on the subject that it is probable 
 Lord Salisbury would not dare to interfere should Rus- 
 sian troops enter Armenia." 
 
THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. Ill 
 
 " Mampre Benglian, the Armenian bishop of Alash- 
 gwerd, has arrived at Constantinople by way of Trebi- 
 zond, under guard as a criminal. The charge against 
 him is that he advised his flock to leave Armenia and 
 seek refuge in Persia. The bishop was arrested and 
 subjected to the most outrageous indignities — insulted, 
 spat at, and flogged, thrown into a dungeon and there 
 confined for some time before being sent to Constanti- 
 nople. Owing to the remonstrances by the British and 
 Russian am^bassadors, he has been given his freedom on 
 parole. A letter from Alashguerd says : ' We can 
 neither depart nor stay, and no other course is left us 
 but to perish where we are. The Kurds and Turks 
 openly declare that they mean to kill as many Armenians 
 as they can, and that they have full permission.' " 
 
 " London, July 23d. — :A dispatch from Tiflis to T]ie 
 Daily News says that the Armenian bishop of Erzroum 
 was among those killed in the riot on June 20th, and 
 that his death has roused the Armenians to the highest 
 pitch of excitement. The whole country is in a state of 
 anarchy. Business is at a standstill and traveling is im- 
 practicable. Half-starved Turkish soldiers and Kurds, 
 under pretense of maintaining order, patrol the country, 
 plundering wherever they go. The Persian consul at 
 Erzroum offers the persecuted Armenians an asylum in 
 Persia." " The Kurds have set fire to the crops of the 
 Armenians in many places in the vicinity of Bitlis." 
 
 " A wholesale massacre of Christians. London, August 
 20th. — The News says that the situation in Armenia is 
 daily becoming more deplorable. There has been a 
 wholesale massacre of Christians at Moosh." 
 
112 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 " Outrages in Armenia. — London, September 17th. — 
 The Daily News publishes further particulars of outrages 
 in Armenia. It says that most terrible scenes are con- 
 stantly witnessed in Alashgerd. Murders are being con- 
 tinually committed, and women are being subjected to the 
 grossest indignities. More Turkish troops are arriving." 
 
 These facts have been brought to the notice of the 
 civilized and Christian world by one of the leading papers 
 of England. Can England be ignorant of this situation 
 in Armenia? Had not England assumed any responsi- 
 bility by her contract with Turkey, even then would her 
 course not be justifiable, while she could use her influ- 
 ence on behalf of the suffering victims of cruelty in 
 Turkey. How much less such a conduct can be justified 
 after assuming such a solemn responsibility. 
 
 The powers who fixed their signatures through their 
 representatives to the treaty of Berlin, "through Mr. 
 Goschen, presented a collective note, on September 7th, 
 1880. It refuted the statement of Abeddin Pasha, that 
 the government had already begun the work of reform, 
 and, after criticising the projected reforms, declared that 
 they had been inadequate to the object in view, and that 
 a much greater development of the principles of decen- 
 tralization and religious equality, the organization of a 
 better police force, more energetic protection against the 
 Kurds, a more definite provision concerning the func- 
 tions of Governor-General, could alone satisfy the rights 
 and expectations created by the sixty-first article of the 
 treaty of Berlin." * 
 
 * Appletons' Annual Cyclopaedia, 1880, page 689. 
 
THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. II3 
 
 Twelve years have elapsed since the Powers have re- 
 futed the false report of Abeddin Pasha and declared 
 that these projected reforms were inadequate altogether 
 to the object in view. The Turkish government instead 
 of reforming her conduct, or taking vigorous measures 
 for reform, or adopting more energetic means of protec- 
 tion for the Christians against the Kurds, as we have 
 seen above, " has resolved to make the lives of the Ar- 
 menians unbearable." And these powers are quiet in 
 the face of these facts, 
 
 ' If the sixty-first article of the treaty of Berlin would 
 read somewhat like this: 'The sublime Porte engages 
 to realize without delay such maltreatments, persecu- 
 tions, and oppressions in the provinces, inhabited by the 
 Armenians, and guarantees the security of their enemies, 
 the Circassians and the Kurds, and will acquit them in 
 case of their being brought to justice, and assist them by 
 the force of arms. It, moreover, undertakes to make 
 known to the civilized and Christian powers, from time 
 to time, that Mohammedanism and barbarism still go 
 hand in hand.' Then these powers, who signed this 
 treaty, would have been more justifiable than they are 
 now, for this is what the Porte is doing, and nothing 
 more could be expected than that agreed upon by all. 
 But the sixty-first article of the treaty of Berlin is the 
 reverse of the present condition of affairs in Armenia. 
 Therefore the conduct of these powers also is unjusti- 
 fiable as that of England. And not a little responsi- 
 bility of the present troubles and of their continuation 
 rest upon these powers. 
 
 It has been stated that the prisons are crowded by the 
 
114 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 unfortunate victims of the cruelty of the government, on 
 the ground of (often of groundless) suspicion. The 
 condition of these unfortunates and the atrocities of the 
 Turkish officers are found briefly described in the fol- 
 lowing extract from a letter written to L Observa- 
 teur, of Paris, from Constantinople, dated June 26th, 
 1891.* 
 
 " I have already written you, that in consequence of 
 the late disturbances at Constantinople most of the Ar- 
 menian prisoners have been banished, in small groups, 
 to various distant places, in order not to attract the at- 
 tention of the public. Is it possible to ever pen the tor- 
 tures that these unfortunates are suffering in Turkish 
 prisons ? The penal system in Turkey is still in its 
 primitive state, and has undergone no improvement since 
 the time of Sultan Mehmed II. Many prisoners have 
 not been able to stand the tortures inflicted upon them, 
 and the death of one of them, Vartan Calousdian (a 
 young man twenty-six years of age), is a new proof of 
 their atrocities. 
 
 " The parents of this young man, hearing of his death 
 in the prison, during the last week, succeeded in secur- 
 ing, through the almighty ' backshish,' the remains of 
 their beloved in order to inter him in their family grave. 
 While the attendants of the church at Galata were 
 washing the body according to the custom of the Ar- 
 menian Church, they could not withold their tears, and 
 they were awe-stricken at the sight of numerous wounds 
 which marked the body. The poor young man had 
 
 * Reprinted in The Ararat, New York, July 30th, 1891. 
 
THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. II5 
 
 many of his ribs broken, the palms of his hands and the 
 bottom of his feet were burned, and his breast and back 
 striped with long burns, * * * 
 
 " In spite of the threats of the authorities, the family- 
 gave a pompous burial to this young man, and the Ar- 
 menian community of Constantinople joined in great 
 multitude to do the last honors to this martyr. 
 
 " Similar cases occur quite often in Asia Minor, but 
 the local authorities conceal them with the utmost care, 
 and make every effort to keep them from the people. 
 The Armenians have not even the right to emigrate 
 from this barbarous country. I telegraphed to you yes- 
 terday that the governor of Trebizond prohibited about 
 one hundred Armenian emigrants from leaving the port 
 on the Messagerie steamer ' Niger.' 
 
 " Although the indifference of Europe towards the 
 Armenians is perfect, and although Sultan Hamid re- 
 fuses even to respect the laws of humanity and the 
 progress of civilization, yet he may not be altogether 
 indifferent when he contrasts these authentic facts with 
 the exaggerated reports of ovations with which some of 
 the Parisian papers have lately filled their columns in 
 speaking of ' his ' magnaminity and ' the sweetness of 
 his fatherly government ! ' " 
 
 Let us beg the reader to stretch the compass of his 
 imagination, without the slightest fear of exaggera- 
 tion, to picture the pitiable condition of these prison- 
 ers and their families in Asia Minor and Armenia 
 proper, where there is neither press nor the influence 
 of the foreign powers ; neither facilities of rapid com- 
 munication, the telegraph system is controlled by the 
 
I l6 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 government, nor any safety exists in the post-office sys- 
 tem ; letters are often torn open with the pretense of 
 suspicion, where " similar cases occur quite often, but the 
 local authorities conceal them with the utmost care." 
 These unfortunate prisoners are starved and tortured to 
 death in those filthy and infectious jails ; their wives are 
 exposed to the assaults of the enemies of their religion, 
 their daughters are abducted and proselyted by threats, 
 their little ones are crying for bread, but there is none 
 to provide for them. They and their homes and fam- 
 ilies are completely ruined. Thus " the sweetness of 
 his (Sultan Hamid's) fatherly government," in the last 
 decade of the nineteenth century, is actually trying to 
 extirpate the name of Armenia and the Armenians,* 
 who have preserved their national existence for nearly 
 five thousand years. 
 
 Well has an expatriated, but a noble son of Armenia, 
 over sixty years ago, writing from a distant country, 
 like the present writer, lamented for the desolation of 
 his people and his fatherland. Hardly can we do any 
 better than here to reproduce it. 
 
 " Armenia ! Armenia ! once the happy residence of 
 my majestic sires ! once the sure asylum of the dearest 
 rights of thy children ! I weep over thy fallen great- 
 ness ! I weep over thy departed power ! I weep over 
 thy lost independence ! No more do I see the powerful 
 arm of thy mighty kings stretched out to protect thy 
 
 * Sultan Hamid's demand from the Armenian patriarch that 
 the history of Armenia should not be taught in the Armenian 
 schools, but that the history of the Ottoman Empire should be 
 taught, is another sign of his magnanimity ! 
 
THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. II/ 
 
 breast from violation by a hostile foe, for the angel of 
 the Lord has removed power from the sons of Haig, and, 
 like the children of Israel, delivered them into the hands 
 of their oppressors. No more do I see the strength and 
 security of thy fortifications, for disunion and treason 
 have betrayed them to merciless invaders. No more do 
 I hear the glad tidings of the gospel boldly proclaimed, 
 for the hand of tyranny has gagged the mouths of its 
 zealous preachers. The corners of thy churches have 
 ceased to echo the praises of the heavenly Lord, for the 
 cruel Moslems have converted them into mosques and 
 minarets. No more do I see the rising steeples mock- 
 ing with their height the ambient air and winds, for the 
 redeeming Cross is pulled down by our barbaric op- 
 pressors and replaced by the vile Crescent of the im- 
 postor, who has shed the blood of myriads of Chris- 
 tians. No more do I see the splendor and liberty of thy 
 noble sons, for they have been captured by usurpers, 
 and like herds of cattle led into the worst captivity. Un- 
 like the slaves of Africa, whom the cupidity of their en- 
 slavers only exposed in a slave-market, they were 
 dragged by their mercenary captors to scenes of the 
 vilest pollution and degradation, at the very thought of 
 which human nature recoils ! No more do I see thy 
 beautiful virgins in their former state of protection and 
 security, for they are placed in hourly danger of being 
 torn away from thy maternal breast by barbarous Mo- 
 hammedans for the gratification of their lust. Oh, my 
 country ! Oh, our common mother, Armenia ! a name 
 dearest to my heart and sweeter to my ears than the 
 names of all other countries ; deprived of all excellent 
 
Il8 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 characteristics, which are essentially necessary to con- 
 stitute the political honor, influence, and happiness of 
 a State — a desolate widow among the sister powers, 
 who, though once jealous of thy elevated dignity, are 
 now far from stretching towards thee the arm of sisterly 
 protection or affording the balm of comfort in thy af- 
 flicting widowhood — well has the inspired prophet Jere- 
 miah represented thy destitute condition : ' How doth 
 the city sit solitary that was full of people? how has she 
 become as a widow ? She that was great among the 
 nations and princess among the provinces, how is she 
 become tributary ? 
 
 " ' She weepeth sore in the night, and her tears are on 
 her cheeks ; among all her lovers she hath none to 
 comfort her; all her friends have dealt treacherous 
 with her, they are become her enemies.' " (Lamenta- 
 tions i. I, 2.) 
 
 Where and when will this state of oppression and per- 
 secution of this lamented land and people end ? One of 
 two things will inevitably, sooner or later, take place, to 
 wit : either the Russian despotism will supplant the 
 Turkish tyranny, or a general and great massacre of the 
 Christians will ensue as they struggle single-handed for 
 their self-defense and self-existence. And this again 
 will be a sufficient cause for Russia, as in the case of the 
 last Bulgarian massacre, to rush upon " the unspeakable 
 Turk," and the consequence will be the loss of thousands 
 upon thousands of human lives. Then Armenia, like 
 Bulgaria, might have a home rule or become a province 
 of Russia. 
 
 But a better solution of the question, and immediate 
 
THE PRESENT ARMENIAN TROUBLES. I I9 
 
 prevention of all the atrocities now in progress, and an 
 avoidance of a devastating and destructive war, has been 
 suggested in " The Peace-Maker," by Mr. Robert Stein. 
 Here we take the liberty of giving it, in part : — 
 
 " Armenia must be regenerated. A land lying at the 
 door of Europe, with boundless mineral wealth unde- 
 veloped — with a white. Christian population, Europeans 
 in everything but in name ; handsome, gifted, thirsting 
 for knowledge — such a land cannot much longer remain 
 a robber's den. The question is : Shall the regeneration 
 come through blood ?■ If it does it will be due to wanton 
 negligence, for a little pressure at Constantinople, exerted 
 by England (the support of Germany's earnest Emperor 
 can be counted on), will accomplish all without a drop 
 of blood. Of all nations England should see to it, for 
 it is owing to England that Armenia is still Turkish. 
 English interest is most deeply involved, and the English 
 Church, among all the Western churches, is the one that 
 most resembles the Armenian Church. English consuls 
 and English officers have again and again declared that 
 all efforts of reform are futile so long as they are intrusted 
 to the Turkish government machinery. Instead of a 
 lazy, fat pasha, caring for nothing but to grow fatter, send 
 a tried English officer from Egypt or from India, where 
 they may be found in abundance. Let him be invested 
 with full civil power, especially with power to appoint 
 European subordinates, and to organize a police com- 
 posed of Europeans and of natives, trusting in peaceful 
 influences. Let justice and freedom prevail for ten years, 
 and the Armenians will have forgotten three-fourths of 
 their treasured hatred of eight centuries. Turks, Koords, 
 
120 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 and Armenians , will learn to live in peace, side by 
 side, and should at any time the European officials be 
 withdrawn and full native self-government substituted, 
 Schiller's words will be verified : — 
 
 ' ' ' Tremble before the slave when he breaks his chain ; 
 Tremble not before a free man.' " 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PRE-CHRISTIAN MONOTHEISM AND 
 POLYTHEISM. 
 
 "And Noah Builded an Altar unto the Lord." (Genesis 
 ix. 20.) 
 
 "Our earth owes the seeds of all higher culture to religious tra- 
 dition, whether literary or oral." — Herdee. 
 
 The Bible, modern scholarship, and the Armenian tra- 
 dition concur on the question that the ark of Noah 
 rested " upon the mountains of Ararat," or Armenia. 
 Again we learn from the Bible that " God spake unto 
 Noah, saying, ' Go forth of the ark/ " and Noah came 
 out of the ark and all those that were with him, and he 
 builded an altar unto the Lord "and offered burnt offer- 
 ings on the altar." This fact will entitle Armenia to 
 claim to be the country where a true and pure divine 
 worship was first practised after the Deluge. The tra- 
 dition- of the Armenians coincides with the fact in stat- 
 ing that the primitive religion of the people was simple 
 and pure monotheism, in form patriarchal, or Noachian. 
 This tradition has for its support both the Bible and the 
 science of religion. Prof Max Muller tells us that "re- 
 ligion is not a new invention. It is, if not as old as the 
 world, at least as old as the world we know. As soon 
 almost as we know anything of the thoughts and feel- 
 ings of man, we find him in possession of religion, or 
 
 (121) 
 
122 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 rather possessed by religion." Thus find we Noah and 
 his descendants in possession of, or rather possessed by, 
 religion. 
 
 The Bible furnishes sufficient facts to assert that this 
 pure monotheistic worship in its patriarchal form was 
 perpetuated among the descendants of Noah, especially 
 in the family of Shem. More than four centuries after 
 the building of the first altar unto the Lord we find 
 Abraham called out of his country and the people by 
 Jehovah to become the head of a nation through whom 
 the knowledge of the only one true God should be per- 
 petuated. God's calling Abraham out of his country 
 and people was not to make. him a true worshiper of 
 Himself, but He said to him, "•Izvill make of thee a great 
 nation." . Another example of the true worshiper of God 
 in the time of Abraham was Melchizedek (King of 
 Righteousness), king of Salem (peace), who was the 
 high priest of the most high God." (Genesis xiv. i8.) 
 Melchizedek was not only a monotheist, but also the 
 priest of a monotheistic faith. He reigned over his peo- 
 ple and on whose behalf he officiated as the high priest 
 of the most high God. Now, therefore, it ought to be 
 admitted that not only solitary individuals like Abra- 
 ham and Melchizedek, but the people of the latter also 
 were the true worshipers of God. 
 
 The Bible is not a universal history. Were it so, well 
 might we have expected it to mention other nations and 
 their religious beliefs ; though what little it incidentally 
 gives, or states in regard to them is marvelously accu- 
 rate. The Armenian tradition that their primitive relig- 
 ion was pure monotheism, therefore, is neither incredible 
 
PRE-CHRISTIAN MONOTHEISM AND POLYTHEISM. 1 23 
 
 nor untenable, but on the contrary it is most probable 
 and almost certain, supported by the analogy of the 
 Bible. 
 
 The investigations of modern scholarship maintain 
 the idea and render it almost a moral demonstration that 
 the primitive religions of the ancient nations were of a 
 monotheistic type, if not a pure monotheism, at least 
 they were not very far from it. Prof Max Muller, of 
 Oxford, England, in his lectures on the " Origin and 
 Growth of Religion," says that, " The Ancient Aryans 
 felt from the beginning, aye, it may be, more in the be- 
 ginning than afterwards, the presence of a Beyond, of 
 an Infinite, of a Divine, or whatever else we may call it 
 now ; and they tried to grasp and comprehend it, as we 
 all do, by giving to it name after name." It is conceded 
 by the scholars that the ancient Armenians were closely 
 connected with the ancient Aryans (see chapter II., pages 
 32-34 and 39), that they were Aryans and their legit- 
 imate descendants now speak a language which modern 
 ethnologists decidedly pronounce to belong to the Aryan 
 or Indo-Germanic. Although we do not know when the 
 separation of the Aryans took place, we can safely say 
 that the above statement of Prof. Max Muller is also 
 perfectly applicable to the ancient Armenians, yet we 
 are not able to say how long such a purity of faith 
 lasted in Armenia. 
 
 The human mind is capable of progress, but when it 
 is left to itself is sure to retrograde and degenerate. 
 This is verified in the case of almost all nations and in 
 the history of all religions of the world. " That relig- 
 ion is liable to corruption is surely seen again and 
 
124 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 again. In one sense the history of most rehgions might 
 be called a slow corruption of their primitive purity." 
 Divine aid, especially in religion, is therefore absolutely 
 necessary for a true progress. Armenia left to herself 
 fell into a gross form of idolatry. Her fall must have 
 been hastened, if not caused, by her idolatrous neigh- 
 bors, the Babylonians and Assyrians. For the idolatry 
 which we find in the early history of the Armenians is 
 decidedly like that of Assyro-Babylonian. It is not the 
 same religion adopted and practised by the Armenians, 
 but it is modeled after the Assyrian. 
 
 Anterior to the cuneiform inscriptions of Armenia 
 the people must have had an idolatry similar to the 
 Sabeism of Babylonia, which was afterwards shaped to 
 the Assyrian style, with its distinctive character. One 
 of the inscriptions furnishes us with a long list of the 
 gods and the regulations for sacrifices daily to be offered 
 to them. There are, however, three other gods, which 
 stood apart by themselves at the head of the Pantheon. 
 These are Khaldis, Teisbas (the air god), and Adinis 
 (the sun god). But Khaldis is the supreme god and the 
 father of other gods ; and in addition to these every 
 tribe, city, and fortress seem to have its respective god. 
 Some other gods are Auis or Avis (the water god), 
 Agas (the earth god), Dhuspuas (the god of Tosp, the 
 ancient name of the city of Van), Selardis (the moon 
 god), Sardis (the year god). The Armenians, in this 
 period, do not seem to have any goddess. Saris is 
 found only once mentioned in the inscriptions and is 
 translated " queen," yet it is supposed to have been bor- 
 rowed from the Assyrian Istar. Whether all the other 
 
PRE-CHRISTIAN MONOTHEISM AND POLYTHEISM. 1 25 
 
 gods are the children of the supreme god Khaldis, or 
 they are subordinate to him and separate from his num- 
 erous offsprings, it is not quite clear ; the latter, however, 
 is most likely the case, because the Khaldians (the chil- 
 dren of Khaldis) and other gods have their separate of- 
 ferings assigned to them according to their importance. 
 (See Appendix.) 
 
 It has been said that the Armenian culture, civiliza- 
 tion, and religion were very much influenced by the 
 Assyrians while the latter were in the height of their 
 power. From the following citation it will be seen a 
 resemblance of the religions of these two nations, and 
 they might have also the same origin and the growth : — 
 
 " The rise of Semitic supremacy was marked by the 
 reigns of Sargon I. and his son, Noram-Sin. The over- 
 throw of Sargon's dynasty, however, was soon brought 
 about through the conquest of Babylonia by Khammur- 
 agas, a Kossaean from the mountains of Elam. Before 
 the Kossaean conquest the Babylonian system of relig- 
 ion was already complete. It emanated from the primi- 
 tive Accadian population, though it was afterwards 
 adopted and transformed by their Semitic successors. 
 The sorcerer took the place of the priest, magical incan- 
 tations the place of the ritual, and the innumerable 
 spirits the place of gods. By degrees, however, these 
 earlier conceptions became modified, a priesthood began 
 to establish itself; and as a necessary consequence some 
 of the elemental spirits were raised to the rank of deities. 
 The old magical incantations, too, gave way to hymns 
 in honor of the new gods, among whom the sun god 
 was especially prominent, and these hymns came in time 
 
126 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 to form a collection similar to that of the Hindu Rig- 
 Veda, and were accounted equally sacred. This proc- 
 ess of religious development was assisted by the Semit- 
 ic occupation of Babylonia. The Semites brought with 
 them new theological conceptions. With them the sun 
 god, in his two-fold aspect of benefactor and destroyer, 
 was the supreme object of worship, all other deities be- 
 ing resolvable into phases or attributes of the supreme 
 Baal. At his side stood his female double and reflec- 
 tion, the goddess of fertility, who was found again un- 
 der various names and titles at the side of every other 
 deity. The union of these Semitic religious conceptions 
 with the developing creed of Accad produced a state- 
 religion, watched over and directed by a powerful priest- 
 hood, which continued more or less unaltered down to 
 the days of Nebuchadnezzar and his successors. It was 
 this state-religion that was carried by Semitic Assyrians 
 into their home on the banks of the Tigris, where it un- 
 derwent one, or two modifications, in all essential re- 
 spects, however, remained unchanged." 
 
 With the rise of Medo-Persian Empire a new religion 
 rises from obscurity to prominence in Western Asia. 
 This is the religion of Zoroaster. This was the religion 
 with which Christianity had so nobly contended since 
 the introduction of the latter into Armenia, until the for- 
 mer in complete despair and as a vanquished foe almost 
 disappeared from existence. It is generally believed 
 that Zoroaster was a real person and the founder of this 
 religion, which is called after his name, Zoroastrianism. 
 There is, however, a great uncertainty about the period 
 of his earthly existence ; some would make him a con- 
 
PRE-CHRISTIAN MONOTHEISM AND POLYTHEISM. 12/ 
 
 temporary with Moses, and others with David and Solo- 
 mon. It is very probable, however, that he lived even 
 in a good deal later period than these Israelitish kings. 
 
 Zoroastrianism is a dualistic religion. It teaches that 
 there are two uncreated beings, Ormazd, the supreme 
 good, and Ahriman, the evil ; that Ormazd created the 
 earth, the heavens, and the man, and that man is created 
 free. Ahriman is the evil and evil-doer, and in constant 
 war with Ormazd ; this world is their battle-field. There 
 are inferior (good) spirits which are called genii, who 
 are the instruments of Ormazd, but the fire alone was the 
 personification of the son of Ormazd, and therefore an 
 object of veneration and worship.* 
 
 The abominabfe religion of the ancient Babylonians 
 must have had a great influence even over the religion 
 of Zoroaster, for we find that the Persians and Armenians 
 had also similar gods, like Mithra, sun god, and Anahita, 
 the goddess of waters. The magi were the priests of 
 Zoroastrianism, with a high priest of this order who was 
 called in Armenian language Mogbed (the head or the 
 leader of magi). No doubt this was the religion of the 
 Armenians for nearly nine centuries (from the end of the 
 seventh century B. C. to the end of the third century 
 of our era), possibly with some modifications and addi- 
 tions from the Grecian polytheism after the conquest of 
 Alexander the Great. 
 
 * See the inscription of Xerxes, Appendix. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Hardly will it be necessary to turn the attention of 
 the reader to the condition of the world in the time of 
 Christ's advent, especially to that of Western Asia. 
 Sabeism of ancient Babylonia had not yet quite expired, 
 though her votaries in despair were getting ready to give 
 her a magnificent burial. In vain had the Assyrians 
 tried to resuscitate her, fancying that the number of gods 
 was not sufficient to keep Sabeism alive, by raising some 
 imaginary powers into the dignity of deities. The Per- 
 sians thought Zoroastrianism a pretty good hypothesis 
 to account for the constant conflict of good and evil in 
 the world by assuming Ormazd the supreme good god 
 and Ahriman the evil being, but they were conscious of 
 its insufficiency, and following the example of the Assy- 
 rians and Babylonians they adopted other gods and a 
 goddess, too. Yet these additions, instead of improving 
 Zoroastrianism, thickened their religious atmosphere 
 with the impurities of immorality. The Grecian inva- 
 sion of Western Asia was the means of introducing there 
 a polytheism which clouded the Oriental sky and caused 
 it to grow darker still. The noble religion of the patri- 
 archs and prophets had fallen into a ritualistic literalism 
 in the hands of the Pharisees ; and in the hands of the 
 
 (128) 
 
CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. 1 29 
 
 skeptical Sadducees it had become an object of incredu- 
 lity. In one word, the world was lying in wickedness, 
 enveloped in the darkest clouds of idolatry and super- 
 stitions. 
 
 Then it was that the Sun of Righteousness arose with 
 healing in His wings and chased away the darkness which 
 had spiritually and morally blinded the entire world, 
 Christ's fame had already spread far and nigh, and 
 reached the ear of our king, Abgarus, the prince of 
 Edessa, and it had revived in his heart hopes of recovery 
 from his incurable disease. Therefore sent he for Christ, 
 according to the tradition of the whole Christian Church. 
 Soon after the ascension of Christ three of His apostles, 
 Thaddeus, Bartholomew, and Judas, successively and 
 successfully preached the gospel in Armenia, Some 
 even affirm that not only the seed of the gospel was 
 planted by these apostles, and they watered it with their 
 blood — having been martyred there — but, moreover, the 
 churches which they established survived all manner of 
 persecution till the final conquest of Christianity over 
 Armenia by the apostolic preaching of Gregory, the 
 Illuminator, 
 
 The following is from the pen of H. B. Tristram, D. D,, 
 LL, D,, F. R. S., canon of Durham, England, writing on 
 the subject: " There were certain Greeks." " It is a very 
 early tradition, and the pretended letter of Abgarus, and 
 the reply of Jesus, are recorded by Eusebius, and were ac- 
 cepted in his time. He professes to have obtained them 
 from the archives of Edessa, The Armenians identify 
 the messengers with their own nationality, and claim 
 that Abgarus was king of Armenia, But, although all 
 
130 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 historical critics agree in pronlPuncing the letters apocry- 
 phal, there is less reason for rejecting the tradition that 
 Thaddeus, soon after the dispersion of the disciples from 
 Jerusalem, carried the gospel into Armenia. We know 
 that when Gregory the Illuminator, who was born A. D. 
 257, proclaimed the message throughout Armenia, he 
 found Christians every where, and a church which, though 
 sorely persecuted and oppressed, had existed .from 
 apostolic times. He was, in fact, rather the restorer 
 than the founder of the Armenian Church, which became 
 the church of the whole nation half a century before the 
 cross was emblazoned on the standard of Rome. The 
 Armenians may justly claim to be the oldest Christian 
 nation in the world." 
 
 Though Christianity was first introduced into Armenia 
 by the Apostles, who laid the foundation of that en- 
 nobling, regenerating, and purifying religion of Christ so 
 early as in the middle of the first century of the Chris- 
 tian era, yet the completion of that work and demolition 
 of heathenism were reserved for St. Gregory. 
 
 The father of Gregory, Prince Anak, was of the royal 
 family of Arsacidae of Parthia, whose reign was over- 
 thrown by Artaxerxes, the founder of the Sassanian 
 dynasty of Persia. But the Armenian branch of Arsa- 
 cidae was still in full vigor in the person of Chosroes L, 
 the king of Armenia, who had tried to restore the seized 
 sceptre of power to the deprived royal family of Arsa- 
 cidae of Parthia from the revolter, Artaxerxes, the Per- 
 sian. In order that Artaxerxes might secure his reign 
 he tried to subdue Armenia, too. But, failing to do this 
 manfully, he resorted to treachery. Anak, the relative 
 
CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. I3I 
 
 of Chosroes I., was induced by Artaxerxes, with promises 
 of large reward, to play the part of an assassin. It was 
 so arranged that Anak would be chased out of Persia, 
 being a member of the Arsacide dynasty, a dangerous 
 person to the newly-established sovereignty of Persia. 
 " Anak, with his wife, his children, his brother, and a 
 train of attendants, pretended to take refuge in Arme- 
 nia from the threatened vengeance of his sovereign, who 
 caused his troops to pursue him, as a rebel and deserter, 
 to the very borders of Armenia."* Anak was received 
 by Chosroes I., who credulously listened to his story and 
 sympathized with him. Anak committed the crime of 
 assassination of the king, but the king lived long enough 
 to request the complete destruction of the family of 
 Anak, and Anak also had no time to effect his escape, 
 and, being seized upon, he received the due recompense of 
 an assassin. However, his son Gregory, who was only 
 an infant, was saved by the faithfulness of his nurse, who 
 took him and escaped into the city of Caesarea, Cappa- 
 docia, where he was brought up in a Christian family, 
 with a thorough Christian education. 
 
 On the other hand, Artaxerxes obtained his object 
 without paying for it, and, hearing of the condition of 
 affairs in Armenia, he immediately hastened thither with 
 his army and took the people by surprise. He doomed 
 the family of Arsacidae to death, so as not to leave any 
 to rival him for the throne. However, Tiridates, the son 
 of Chosroes, escaped into the Roman province of Ar- 
 menia, and then to Rome, where he received a military 
 training, and his sister was hid in the stronghold of Ani. 
 
 * The Seventh Oriental Monarchy, page 51. 
 
132 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Tiridates found favor with the Roman Emperor Dio- 
 cletianus, who, with a great force, sent him to Armenia 
 to wrest his father's throne from the Persians. Tiridates 
 was welcomed by his people, who joined his army and 
 drove out of the country their common enemy (A. D. 
 286). St. Gregory returned to Armenia and entered 
 King Tiradates' service, whose " purpose being to win 
 over to eternal life, through the gospel of Christ, the 
 son of him who had been slain by his father, and thus to 
 make amends for his father's crime." Though he 
 suffered many a torture and torment, and thirteen years' 
 imprisonment in a pit, yet this noble Christian hero and 
 apostle was determined " to win (the king) over to 
 eternal life, through the gospel of Christ." Finally, 
 the king was converted and baptized by St. Gregory, 
 and became himself a worthy champion of the truth, 
 and the first honored king who proclaimed throughout 
 his dominions that henceforth the religion of Christ is 
 the religion of Armenia. The Armenians have been 
 nationally converted to Christianity, from the king to 
 the servant ; however, there were some, especially among 
 the nobility, who with a heathenish tenacity held on to 
 Zoroastrianism ; but this was for a mercenary purpose, 
 not from a real appreciation of Zoroastrianism. For St. 
 Gregory, by his evangelistic spirit and labors, had laid a 
 firm foundation for the religion of Christ in the land of 
 Ararat (A. D. 289). He was, by the request of the king, 
 sent to Csesarea, Cappadocia, to be ordained bishop over 
 Armenia (A. D. 302). 
 
 The temples of the idols in every important city or 
 town were pulled down and Christian churches in their 
 
CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. 1 33 
 
 stead were reared. The most splendid of all these 
 churches was Etchmiadzin, "the descent of the only be- 
 gotten," which was afterwards clustered about with other 
 buildings and became a monastery and the seat of St. 
 Gregory's successors to his prelatic chair to this day. 
 
 In those days, and during the period of a century after- 
 wards, the Christian training was carried on by the cate- 
 chisers, for very few had access to the Syriac or Greek 
 literature, and the Armenian literature was also written 
 in either character ; the characters of the Armenian 
 alphabet were neither complete nor j^et discovered. So 
 the reader will bear in mind that the advantages of im- 
 parting or disseminating a thorough Christian knowl- 
 edge, if not lacking, were very few. 
 
 During the long reign of Tiridates the Church greatly 
 flourished. Indeed, did St. Gregory lay the foundation 
 of the religion of Christ upon the immovable rock of the 
 Word of God. 
 
 Both the noble founder and the valiant defender of 
 that divine faith, committed to their care by King Jesus, 
 entered their rest, after having seen the prosperous con- 
 dition of the Church, and were succeeded by their sons. 
 However, the power of Armenia was unequal to the con- 
 flicting forces on either side, though the descendants of 
 Tiridates held the sceptre of Armenia nearly a century 
 longer, but in a very enervated state. Nevertheless the 
 Church of Armenia made a decided advance within this 
 period. The Armenian characters were recovered and 
 completed by the distinguished scholar and prelate, Mes- 
 rob, who also, with St. Isaac, the patriarch, translated 
 the Scriptures into the Armenian language, the Old 
 
134 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Testament from the Septuagint version and the New Test- 
 ament from the original Greek. After the conversion of 
 the Armenians to Christianity not a few of the youths of 
 Armenia had flocked into the schools of Athens, Alex- 
 andria, and Constantinople, to sate their avidity for learn- 
 ing, who rendered a great service to the nation, both by 
 their writings and translations from the Greek, especially 
 some of the most valuable works of the early church 
 fathers. 
 
 The rise of the Sassanian dynasty in Persia was a 
 source, more or less, of perpetual misery and blood-shed 
 in Armenia. As it has been said before, the Persians 
 had two reasons for their cruel attitude towards Armenia. 
 These causes were the existence of the Arsacide reign and 
 Christianity in Armenia, while Zoroastrianism was re- 
 vived in Persia under the Sassanian kings. Christianity 
 was a permanent cause or occasion for which Armenia 
 has suffered and is still suffering indescribable miseries 
 and innumerable cruelties. The Persians would imagine 
 that as long as the Armenians are Christians they are in 
 alliance with the Greeks, while, unfortunately and often, 
 the Greeks were no more in sympathy with them than 
 the Persians. 
 
 Armenia about the middle of thefifth century had en- 
 tirely lost her independence and was divided between the 
 Greeks and the Persians, the eastern and the larger part 
 of the country being under the latter power. 
 
 Yasgerd II., the king of Persia (A. D. 450), decreed 
 thus : " All people and tongues throughout my domin- 
 ions must abandon their heresies, worship the Sun, bring 
 to him their offerings, and call him God ; they shall feed 
 
CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. 1 35 
 
 the holy fire, and fulfill all the ordinances of Magi." 
 Accordingly, Mihrnerseh, the grand vizier of the Per- 
 sian court, wrote a long letter to the Armenians, polemic 
 in character, persuasive in style, and menacing in tone. 
 The synod of the Armenian bishops was convened, who 
 unanimously agreed to defend their religion at any cost, 
 and at the same time it was decided upon answering the 
 letter of the grand vizier in which they both refuted 
 the charges made against Christianity, undauntedly de- 
 fended their faith, showing the absurdity of Zoroastrian- 
 ism, and concluded the epistle with these words : " From 
 this belief no one can move us, neither angels nor men, 
 neither fire nor sword, nor water, nor any other horrid 
 tortures, however they be called. All our goods and 
 our possessions are before thee, dispose of them as 
 thou wilt, and if thou only leavest us to our belief, we 
 will here below choose no other lord in thy place, and 
 in heaven have no other God but Jesus Christ, for there 
 is no other God save only Him. But shouldst thou re- 
 quire something beyond this great testimony, behold our 
 resolution ; our bodies are in thy hands — do with them 
 according to thy pleasure ; tortures are thine, and patience 
 ours ; thou hast the sword, we the neck ; we are nothing 
 better than our forefathers, who, for the sake of their 
 faith, resigned their goods, possessions, and life. Do 
 thou, therefore, inquire of us nothing further concerning 
 these things, for our belief originates not with men, we 
 are not taught like children, but we are indissolubly 
 bound to God, from whom nothing can detach us, 
 neither now, nor hereafter, nor forever, nor for ever and 
 ever," 
 
136 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 As soon as this letter arrived at the royal court of 
 Persia, King Yasgerd was enraged and summoned the 
 Armenian princes to repair immediately to his maj- 
 esty's presence. There in the presence of the king 
 they manifested a great resolution in their faith, for 
 which they were ignominiously treated and confined in 
 prison. Having been threatened while in their confine- 
 ment they devised a scheme ; they thought it is better 
 apparently to comply with the demands of the king but 
 inwardly to remain true to their convictions and relig- 
 ion. God, who is able to bring good out of evil, indeed 
 did so in this case. When it was made known to the 
 king that the Armenian princes were willing to accept 
 his terms, at once they were liberated and returned with 
 distinctions to their homes. And a large army with 
 over seven hundred magi were exultantly marching on 
 to Armenia to raze to the ground every Christian 
 church and school and disciple the people into the 
 mysterious absurdities of Zoroastrianism. 
 
 No sooner had the news of the apostacy of the prin- 
 ces reached Armenia than the bishops, priests, and the 
 laity condemned the weakness and the folly of the prin- 
 ces. When the princes returned to Armenia they found 
 no one ready to listen to any explanation, but every- 
 where the people were ready to defend their religion at 
 the cost of their lives. A large multitude made up of 
 clergy and laity, among whom were many women, gath- 
 ered for immediate action, for the enemy was marching on. 
 Some of the princes could not endure the contempt of 
 the people nor the unrelenting remorse of their conscien- 
 ces, so they Avere ready to expiate their folly at any cost. 
 
VARTAN MAMIGONIAN. 
 
138 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Prince Vartan, the Mamigonian, was unanimously ap- 
 pointed the commander-in-chief of the Armenians, and 
 the multitude was formed into three divisions, intrusted 
 to three princes, Vartan, Nershebuh, and Vasag. The 
 latter, however, proved treacherous and perfidious, and 
 with his almost entire division sided with the Persians 
 and began to devastate the provinces where he was sta- 
 tioned to encounter the foe. His treachery decided the 
 fate of the Armenians. But brave Vartan and the rest 
 were not dismayed though they knew that they alone 
 could not conquer an immense army of the enemy with 
 a small force of their own, yet they were not fighting 
 for victory, but for their convictions and the religion of 
 Christ. 
 
 The address of Vartan, the commander-in-chief, is 
 most beautiful and touching. " I have been," said he, 
 *' in many battles, and you also with me ; we have some- 
 times bravely vanquished the foe ; sometimes they van- 
 quished us, but on all these occasions we thought only 
 of worldly distinction, and we fought merely at the 
 command of a mortal king. Behold, we have all many 
 wounds and scars upon our persons, and great must 
 have been our bravery to have won these great marks of 
 honor. But useless and empty I deem these exploits 
 whereby we have received these honorable marks, for 
 they pass away. If, however, you have done such valiant 
 deeds in obedience to a mortal ruler, how much more 
 will you do them for our immortal King, who is lord of 
 life and death, and who judges every one according to 
 his works. 
 
 " Now, therefore, I entreat you, my brave companions, 
 
CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. 1 39 
 
 and more so as you — albeit in bravery, worth, and in- 
 herited honors greater than I — have of your own free will 
 and out of your love elected me your leader and chief; 
 I entreat that my words may be favorably received by 
 the high and the low. Fear not the numbers of the 
 heathens ; withdraw not your necks from the terrific 
 sword of a mortal man in order that the Lord may give 
 the victory into our hands," that we may annihilate their 
 power and hft on high the standard of truth." On the 
 morning of- the day of the battle the little army of the 
 Holy League received the Holy Eucharist, and march- 
 ed on with these words : " May our death be like to 
 the death of the just, and may the shedding of our 
 blood resemble the blood-shedding of the prophets ! 
 May God look in mercy on our voluntary self-offering, 
 and may he not deliver the Church into the hands of the 
 heathens ! " With amazing bravery and valor must 
 they have fought. Had Vasag not deserted the holy 
 cause, or had he not sided with the enemy, the Arme- 
 nians would have achieved a signal victory in the annals 
 of the church history, and might have also regained 
 their independence. The fall of the noble commander 
 Vartan and some others disheartened the rest. The 
 enemy then seized upon many and indiscriminately 
 slaughtered not a few. Many of the bishops and priests 
 were captured, some were martyred on the spot, others 
 were carried to Persia and there executed. The patriarch 
 Joseph, in whose character and life shine forth piety, 
 courage, and devotion, was one of those carried to Persia. 
 This was one of the many contests that the Armenians 
 had with the fire-worshiping Persians, Indeed did 
 
140 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 the sons of Armenia prefer a Christian grave to the 
 heathen's home. 
 
 " Her head was crowned with flowers, 
 Her feet were bathed with spray. 
 Hers were the land of Eden, 
 The cradle of our race. 
 
 " But then upon her borders. 
 
 Shouted the Persian horde : 
 ' Fall down and worship fire 
 Or perish by the sword.' 
 
 "Then up sprang Armenia 
 
 And raised her voice on high, 
 And back to haughty Persia 
 Rang loud the warlike cry : 
 
 " ' I will not be a heathen, 
 I will not be a slave ; 
 If I cannot have a Christian's home, 
 I'll find a Christian's grave.' " 
 
 Christianity and Zoroastrianism had many a battle in 
 the land of Ararat, until the latter, in total despair, was 
 willing to submit to the former, on some amicable terms 
 to be suggested by a brave son of Armenia, a worthy 
 member of the house of Mamigonians. This valiant 
 champion of truth was Vahan Mamigonian, whose father 
 and uncle. Prince Vartan, led the Holy League in battle, 
 and with the heroism and courage of the martyrs de- 
 fended their religion and rights and had sealed their 
 testimony to the truth of Christianity by their blood in 
 the previous battle. 
 
 The Persians, after their conquest of Armenia, de- 
 stroyed many of the churches and schools, persecuted 
 the Christians with indescribable tortures and cruelties. 
 
CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. I4I 
 
 and inculcated Zoroastrianism among the Armenians, 
 who in return most cordially hated both the religion of 
 Zoroaster and its defenders, and were alert for an oppor- 
 tunity to drive out these usurpers and unwelcomed 
 teachers of a philosophized religion, spun out of Zoroas- 
 ter's imagination. The northern provinces rebelled 
 against the Persians ; the latter, therefore, attempted to 
 subdue them. The Armenians availed themselves of 
 this ample occasion, armed themselves, and urged Va- 
 han to take the lead of the army to clear out of the 
 country the troops of the enemy left there. The Per- 
 sian forces had received such terrible disastrous defeats 
 in various contests from the Armenians under the com- 
 mand of Vahan, that when a new governor, Nikhor, was 
 appointed by Balas, the king of Persia (A. D. 485), he, 
 instead of attacking Vahan, who held almost the whole 
 of the country, wished to come to an arrangement agree- 
 able to the Armenians. Prince Vahan, therefore, pro- 
 posed the following terms : — 
 
 " I. The existing fire-altars should be destroyed, and 
 no others should be erected in Armenia. 
 
 " 2. The Armenians should be allowed the free and 
 full exercise of Christian religion, and no Armenians 
 should be in future tempted or bribed to declare them- 
 selves disciples of Zoroaster. 
 
 "3. If converts were nevertheless made from Christi- 
 anity to Zoroastrianism, places (of honor) should not be 
 given to them. 
 
 " 4. The Persian king should in person and not by 
 deputy administer the affairs of Armenia."* 
 
 * Seventh Oriental Monarchy, pages 333, 4. 
 
142 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 These terms proposed by Prince Vahan were favorably- 
 accepted by Nikhor, and an edict of toleration was is- 
 sued and proclaimed that every one should be at liberty 
 to adhere to his own religion, and that no one should be 
 driven to apostatize. Afterwards Vahan himself was ap- 
 pointed governor of Armenia by the king, and thus the 
 Church enjoyed a period of tranquillity from the perse- 
 cutions. 
 
 In the very year while the Armenians were alone 
 fighting with the Persians in defense of Christianity, and 
 the verdant fields of Ararat were dyed with the blood of 
 the martyrs, the Greek and Latin theologians were hold- 
 ing their council at Chalcedon, engaging the influence of 
 the Emperor to condemn the heresy of Eutychus. He 
 had gone to the other extremity of the question with re- 
 gard to the person of Christ, for which Nestorius had 
 been condemned in the previous council (at Ephesus, 
 A. D. 431). The latter was supposed to teach two per- 
 sonalities in Christ, on account of his emphasizing the 
 distinctive characteristics of Christ's divine and human 
 nature. Eutychus was condemned because he made the 
 divine nature of Christ to absorb his human nature, he 
 therefore was called a monophysite. 
 
 The Armenians did not receive the decision of the 
 Chalcedonian Council, not because they were in sym- 
 pathy with Eutychus or his doctrine, but because the 
 question did not concern them at all. They were also 
 contented with the orthodoxy delivered to them by the 
 teachings of the apostles and the three former Ecumen- 
 ical Councils, held at Nice, A. D. 325, at Constantinople, 
 A. D. 381, and at Ephesus, A. D. 431. On account of 
 
CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. 1 43 
 
 their refusal to receive the decision of the Council of 
 Chalcedon, the Greek and Latin writers represented and 
 condemned the Armenians as monophysites, and their 
 church was cut off from the Western (Latin) and the 
 Eastern (Greek) churches. It is very surprising to see 
 a host of writers on this subject who, still drawing their 
 information from the Greek or Latin writers, speak of 
 the Armenian Church as attached to the heresy of 
 Eutychus. 
 
 The following is from the letter above quoted, written 
 in answer to that of Mihrnerseh, the grand vizier of 
 Persia, A. D. 450, a year before the Council of Chal- 
 cedon : " He (Christ) was in reality God and in reality 
 man. The Godhead was not withdrawn through the 
 human nature, nor was the human nature destroyed by 
 his remaining God ; but he is both one and the same." 
 A modern writer also says : " It is now evident that the 
 Armenian Church of St. Gregory wholly rejects the 
 heresy of Eutychus, condemned by the Council of Chal- 
 cedon ; and she does so as much as the Eastern (Greek) 
 Church."* Though this charge of heresy brought 
 against the Armenians by the Greeks and Latins was 
 absolutely unfounded, yet it was a fertile souice of much 
 oppression, persecution, and bloodshed, and almost the 
 sole occasion of the overthrow of the last two Armenian 
 dynasties. 
 
 The influence of the Greeks in the Grecian provinces 
 of Armenia often outweighed in appointing a bishop 
 over the Armenians, who would be favorably inclined to 
 
 * "The Life and Times of St. Gregory," page 31. By Malon : 
 London. 
 
144 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 the acceptance of the decision of the Chalcedonian 
 Council and some other rites of the Greek Church. 
 Such appointments did take place, and consequently 
 they became occasions of troublesome dissensions and 
 contentions among the clergy and the laity of the Ar- 
 menians. The Greeks, taking advantage of such internal 
 troubles, did in vain try to absorb the Armenian Church. 
 Some of the prelates and others who could plainly see 
 into the matter and the evil intention of the Greeks, 
 would warn the people and try to pacify the storm of 
 controversy to save the church and the nation from an 
 ecclesiastical vassalage ; these incurred the unrighteous 
 indignation of the Greeks, and suffered both persecution 
 and exile. 
 
 The reader will remember the successive events, cur- 
 sorily given in the previous pages, relative to the Arme- 
 nians. Though Mohammed, the self-called and self- 
 made prophet of Arabia, professed to be a founder of a 
 new religion, yet Western Asia was not in need of a new 
 rehgion, especially that of Mohammed, therefore it was 
 evident that as a mere religion Mohammedanism would 
 undoubtedly fail. The prophet of Arabia was aware of 
 this fact, and as soon as he had some followers he took 
 up the sword, the great missionary of Mohammedanism. 
 Well might some tribes of Arabia have preferred Mo- 
 hammedanism to their former idolatry, yet these even did 
 not accept this religion for its excellency, but for the 
 pillage and plunder, a wide field for them to exercise 
 their inhuman propensities, and for a sensual hereafter, 
 depicted by a wild imagination to the pagan sons of 
 Arabia, who were excessively addicted to sensualism. 
 
CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. I45 
 
 These wild sons of Arabia, inspired by their enthusiasm 
 and the cry ringing in their ears, " Before you is the 
 paradise and behind you are the hell and destruction," 
 pushed on and overthrew the Sassanian dynasty of 
 Persia not very long after the death of Mohammed. 
 Zoroastrianism was supplanted by Mohammedanism, 
 and the Saracens succeeded the Persians. They ex- 
 celled them both in cruelty and in intolerance of re- 
 ligion. These new enemies of Christianity were — 
 humanly speaking — endowed not only by a depraved 
 nature common to all men, but also by an infernal behest 
 from their great leader " to do aught good never to be 
 their task, but to do evil ever their sole delight; " they, 
 therefore, with an unsatiating thirst for the blood of the 
 Christians, fell upon them. The beautiful land of Ara- 
 rat was already saturated over and over with the blood 
 of the martyrs from the early days of Christianity to the 
 invasion of the Saracens. Christian Armenia, though 
 fatigued and exhausted on account of her constant con- 
 flicts for centuries with various forces, religious and 
 political, which militated against her welfare and de- 
 prived her of her former glory and brave sons, who pro- 
 tected her breast from the violating hands of the assail- 
 ants, was now driven again into a fiercer contest for re- 
 ligious liberty and that of conscience, with the bigoted 
 Greeks on the one hand and the rapacious soldier-mis- 
 sionaries of Mohammedanism on the other hand. 
 
 The latter invaded Armenia about A. D. 638-9, and 
 slaughtered a great number of the Armenians who re- 
 fused to accept Mohammedanism in the province of 
 • Daron; they then marched on to Dovin, where the seat 
 
146 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 of the archbishop was, and put to the sword twelve 
 thousand of the people in cold blood and carried away 
 thirty-five thousand of them as captives. Again they 
 returned and attacked the Armenians, who promised 
 allegiance to the Saracens on the condition that they 
 would be tolerated to enjoy their Christian religion. 
 When the Greeks heard of this they were exasperated 
 and marched with a great force against the Armenians 
 to entirely erase them out of existence. The leaders of 
 the people, fearful of the fury of the Greeks, whose sol- 
 diery was little inferior in cruelty to the Arabs, appeased 
 their unsanctified wrath and turned them from such a 
 fearful attempt and folly with the assurance of their 
 fidelity to them. This resulted also in the destruction 
 of seventeen hundred and seventy-five hostages taken 
 by the Arabs when they heard of this Armeno-Greek 
 alliance. 
 
 Towards the end of the seventh century the Greeks 
 invaded Armenia and devastated twenty-five provinces 
 and carried away eight thousand families into captivity; 
 not very long after this event the Saracens invaded the 
 country again and secured the entire submission of the 
 people. The news of this event enraged the Greek 
 Emperor Justinius II. again, who with an immense 
 army attacked the Armenians and captured the prelate 
 Isaac and five other bishops. After receiving a sufficient 
 number of hostages from the Armenians he left the 
 prelates alone and returned to Constantinople. 
 
 It was only a few years after this that the Saracens, 
 under the leadership of Abdullah, fell upon the Arme- 
 nians and plundered the churches and monasteries and 
 
CONVERSION OF THE ARMENIANS. 1 4/ 
 
 desecrated the sacred edifices, and the prelate Isaac was 
 carried to Damascus in chains, who ended his eventful 
 life of martrydom while a prisoner. 
 
 Isaac was succeeded by Elias, the archbishop of Ar- 
 menia, and Gashim, or Gashum, was appointed by the ca- 
 liph governor of the country. Gashim by no means was 
 inferior in cruelty to the previous Arab generals. He 
 gathered all the leading men into the Church of Nachit- 
 chvan, pretending to make a treaty of peace with them ; 
 he then set the church on fire and burnt them alive. 
 
 Why should we weary the reader with the narration of 
 such doleful events ? There is no pleasure in narrating 
 these facts, but grief and often tears, and surely none 
 will read them with any delight. Were it anything de- 
 lightful to write or read what the Oriental Christians 
 have suffered by the hands of the Mohammedans, and 
 to what degree they have been oppressed and degraded, 
 how many millions of the Christian children have been 
 torn away from the bosoms of their mothers and have 
 been nurtured in Mohammedan faith to defend it ; how 
 many thousands of beautiful virgins and women have 
 been taken violently from the arms of their parents and 
 husbands to fill the harems of the Mohammedan officers, 
 generals, caliphs, and sultans for their sensual gratifica- 
 tions; and no one can tell the number of the martyred 
 but He who has crowned them ; these all indeed would 
 have furnished materials for hundreds of volumes yet to 
 be written beside the numerous volumes already written 
 on these topics. 
 
 If the Greeks, instead of merely having the name, 
 had the spirit of Christianity and had united with the 
 
148 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Armenians in a noble defense of Christianity both against 
 Zoroastrianism and Mohammedanism and had not 
 weakened by idle controversies and had not spread 
 misery and oppression in a kindred Christian country, 
 they themselves would not have experienced such an 
 ignominious defeat at the hands of the Mohammedans, 
 the common enemy of Christianity, so soon after the 
 overthrow of the Armenian dynasty in Cilicia. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE ARMENIAN CHURCH. 
 
 The Armenian Church was and still is a national 
 church, therefore, the prosperity of the nation was also 
 the prosperity of the church. The nation had but little 
 rest after her embrace of Christianity. Christian Arme- 
 nia during the first three centuries of her existence made 
 such a defense of her faith against Zoroastrianism that 
 the latter was completely paralyzed and no longer able 
 to lift up the sword against the followers of Christ. But 
 with the rise of Mohammedanism, a more formidable, 
 cruel, unjust, and inhuman enemy arose. The Saracens 
 or the Arabs, who were both the soldiers and mission- 
 aries of Mohammedanism, literally panted after the 
 blood of the Christians as the hart panteth after the 
 water brooks. Even these, after sucking all the blood 
 that they could imbibe, fell off like swollen leeches and 
 themselves were swallowed up by the Seljukian, Tartar, 
 and Mongolian Turks, who surpassed even the Arabs in 
 cruelty and deserved to be called "the unspeakable 
 Turk." The Greeks, with all their subtility, volatility, 
 perfidy, intrigues, and intolerable bigotry, could do no 
 more than to cause some of the corruptions of their 
 church to creep into the Armenian Church. But this is 
 not all; for while the Armenians were driven into the 
 
 (149) 
 
150 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 mountainous district of Cilicia, the land of the brave 
 Apostle Paul, by the Mongolian and Tartar invaders, 
 who spread desolation, destruction, and death wherever 
 their feet touched the soil, there came with the appear- 
 ance of the crusaders in the East a number of zealous 
 missionaries of the Romish Church, who instead of 
 preaching and converting millions of Mohammedans to 
 Christianity, tried to bring the Armenian Church into a 
 subordination and jurisdiction of the Pope of Rome. 
 Though the missionaries of the Romish Church un- 
 doubtedly knew that their church excelled the Church 
 of Armenia in corruption, in superstition, and in non- 
 scriptural claims and dogmas, yet they took advantage 
 of the oppressed condition of the people and persistent- 
 ly disturbed their church. The overthrow of the politi- 
 cal existence of the Armenians, according to some, is 
 due to their intercourse with the Western nations, as we 
 have seen. After this overthrow the Church of Arme- 
 nia became both the custodian of the nation's existence 
 and the defender of her independence. 
 
 The Armenians, owing to the frequent incursions, 
 devastations, barbarous massacres, and being led captives 
 in great numbers by the Saracens, afterwards by the 
 Mongolian and Tartar hordes, were compelled to 
 immigrate into safer districts and countries, especially 
 after the overthrow of the independent dynasty in 
 Cilicia. 
 
 When Constantinople was taken by the Turks, Sultan 
 Mohammed II. appointed Bishop Ovaghim, of Broussa, 
 the patriarch over the Armenians then in Constantinople 
 and in the vicinity. This naturally also drew a good 
 
THE ARMENIAN CHURCH. I5I 
 
 number of the Armenians from other parts, while nearly 
 two centuries before this time Jerusalem was also made 
 the seat of a patriarch. 
 
 The seats of the archbishops at Sis, in Cilicia, Akhta- 
 mar, in the island of Lake Van and Etchmiadzin, were 
 occupied by bishops wearing the title of Catholicos. 
 Some of the occupants of these seats were very much 
 like some of the popes of Rome ; at the expense of 
 honor, distinction, and the well-being of their people, 
 they sought honor and distinction, but some others 
 nobly suffered privation, persecution, exile, and martyr- 
 dom with their flock. 
 
 The papal missionaries, under the order of the 
 Unitors, who had insidiously sown the seeds of dissen- 
 sion in the Armenian Church, took advantage of every 
 calamity that befel the people, and afterwards being also 
 augmented by the Jesuits and their sagacity, until they 
 converted this dissension into a volcanic eruption about 
 the beginning of the last century. Consequently thou- 
 sands of the Armenians avowed their allegiance in 
 spiritual matters to the Pope of Rome. 
 
 The Mohammedan conquerors always dealt with their 
 Christian subjects with the utmost contempt, unmodified 
 injustice, unabated cruelty, and relentless persecution. 
 Undoubtedly did many of the people delude themselves 
 with the idea that by uniting with the Romish Church 
 they would enjoy protection through the influence of 
 Romish France, then more influential in the East, for it 
 is quite improbable that they could believe that the 
 Romish Church was any better in simplicity and purity 
 than the old Armenian Church, 
 
152 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 The superiority of the educational institutions of the 
 Jesuits to that of the Armenians was also an inducement 
 then for some of the youths to flock into their schools. 
 The monastery, founded by Mekhitar, of Sebastia (now 
 Sivas), about the beginning of the last century in St. 
 Lazarus' Island, in Italy, and the literary pursuits of the 
 Mekhitarits, who edited many old Armenian writings 
 and translated from the Latin writers, always tinted with 
 the papal views, rendered great service to the Romish 
 Church. Many a sad event is connected with this papal 
 movement which our space will not allow- us to narrate ; 
 but suffice it to say that this movement resulted in the 
 separation of about one hundred thousand Armenians 
 from the Armenian Church (this separation took place 
 in 1830), and it has now a standstill condition. 
 
 The following is from a French writer, M. A. Ubicini, 
 who speaks of these sad events in detail : " Fortunately 
 for the Catholics, they found a powerful protector in De 
 Feriol, the French ambassador, who obtained an order 
 from the Porte, in 1703 for the deposition and banish- 
 ment of the (Armenian) patriarch Avedik. Exiled to 
 Chios, he was clandestinely carried off during the pas- 
 sage, and conducted, some say to Messina, others to Mar- 
 seilles, and thence to the Island of St. Marguerite, where 
 he died of martyrdom. There were strong grounds for 
 suspecting the Jesuits established in Chios and at Galata 
 of having contrived this plot in concert with the French 
 ambassador."* 
 
 The Armenian Church claims to be apostolic in its 
 origin, Christianity being introduced into Armenia by the 
 
 * " Letters on Turkey," volume II., pages 256-7. 
 
THE ARMENIAN CHURCH. 153 
 
 Apostles, and having survived the persecutions of heath- 
 enism during the first three centuries, had finally sub- 
 dued the entire nation about the end of the third century. 
 As it has been said before, St. Gregory the Illuminator 
 was sent to Caesarea, Cappadocia, to be ordained Bishop 
 of Armenia A. D. 302. This custom of the ordination 
 of the bishops of Armenia at Caesarea lasted until 
 the patriarchate of Nerses the Great (A. D. 363), 
 one of the noblest and holiest bishops of the Armenian 
 Church. 
 
 During the period of his patriarchate the clergy and 
 the laity of the nation unanimously agreed to have their 
 bishops ordained in Armenia by the Armenian bishops. 
 It is evident, therefore, from the fact that there is no 
 higher rank or order than that of a bishop or presbyter, 
 which names are interchangeably used in the New Test- 
 ament, as Vartabed (doctor) M. Muradian, of Jerusalem, 
 correctly states in his recent " History of the Apostolic 
 Church of Armenia."* Here it may be also interesting 
 to add as a fact of history that St. Gregory and his im- 
 mediate successors, his sons and grandsons, and for a 
 length of several centuries, the bishops were married and 
 the heads of families. Celibacy was not required of 
 them, neither separation, but it was optional with them 
 to choose either, or none. 
 
 " The election of the bishops, like that of all the 
 Armenian clergy, takes place by universal suffrage," 
 the ordination, at Etchmiadzin, Akhtamar, or at Sis, 
 by the presiding bishop or Catholicos and his asso- 
 ciates. 
 
 * See page 35 in the original. 
 
154 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 The priests or elders (yeretzk) are chosen by the peo- 
 ple from among themselves, who are expected to have a 
 tolerable knowledge of the Bible and the liturgy of the 
 church — some in former days knew very little of either 
 — and are ordained by the bishops. The priests live 
 with their families among the people and are occupied 
 with their daily duties in the church services morning 
 and evening ; they perform also baptism for the infants, 
 and marrying and burying the young and old. 
 
 " The Armenian clergy receive no stipends, and exact 
 no contributions like those of the Greek Church ; their 
 revenues depend entirely on the voluntary contributions 
 of the faithful ; it is therefore rare to meet with a wealthy 
 priest, though some few are in easy circumstances." 
 
 " With respect to morals also, though it is difficult to 
 pronounce absolutely on the subject, the Armenian 
 clergy appear to be very superior to the Greek."* The 
 deacons are elected and ordained like the priests, and 
 have no income whatever ; they serve the church and 
 assist the priests in the daily services of the church. 
 
 There is another class of the clergy of the Armenian 
 Church. Those forming this class are called Vartabeds, 
 or doctors in theology. It is very probable that the 
 very necessity of the case created this order. In the 
 former days, after the conversion of the Armenian na- 
 tion to Christianity, most of the literary men were of 
 the clergy and the monasteries became the seats of learn- 
 ing, and those who loved a literary life would retire to 
 those places and pursue such a course. Asceticism of 
 the East also must have played a good part in it. 
 
 * " Letters on Turkey," volume II., pages 285-6. 
 
THE ARMENIAN CHURCH. I55 
 
 They at first, most likely, voluntarily preferred celibacy, 
 in order to devote their whole time to learning and 
 teaching, who were ordained evangelists to visit the 
 churches and to preach the gospel to the people, who 
 were so often persecuted and oppressed by their ene- 
 mies. But what was with them optional has become now 
 a condition for that order, though " the Vartabeds form 
 the most enlightened and learned pprtion of the Ar- 
 menian clergy," and from them are the bishops elected 
 and ordained, but unfortunately " they are restricted to 
 celibacy." 
 
 The Armenian Church differs from that of Rome on 
 the following points: (i.) It denies the supremacy of 
 the bishop of Rome. (2.) It rejects the authority of the 
 Council of Chalcedon as ecumenic. (3.) It rejects the 
 introduction of filioqiie into the creed, but admits that 
 the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father, (4.) It re- 
 jects the Romish doctrine of purgatory. (5.) It rejects 
 also indulgences. (6.) It does not withhold the Bible 
 from tlie people, but encourages them to read it. ' ■ 
 
 The orthodoxy of the Armenian Church would not 
 have been questioned by some of the Western writers 
 had they drawn their information from the native au- 
 thors, instead of drawing them from some later Greek 
 and Latin writers. The following is a translation from 
 a recent Armenian work, entitled " The History of the 
 Holy Apostolic Church of Armenia." The author is 
 Vartabed M. Muradian, of St. James' Monastery at 
 Jerusalem : — 
 
 " It is sweet and comforting to discourse of the re- 
 vealed truths of the Bible, which is the only foundation 
 
156 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 of undefiled doctrine, to which always have the holy 
 church fathers trusted for the defense of faith. 
 
 " The Bible teaches concerning God two things : first, 
 that God is one and there is no other God beside Him ; 
 second, that divine nature is common to the Father, to 
 the Son, and to the Holy Spirit, and these three persons 
 have one Godhead. This is the faith of the Christians 
 in harmony with the manifest words of the Bible. This 
 trinity is the foundation of the Christian faith, and the 
 three persons have one influence for our salvation, but 
 in different ways of manifesting it; that is, the Father 
 calls and causes us to approach His Son, whom He be- 
 gat from eternity and prepared His coming. The Son 
 came from heaven and was united with human nature 
 that He might save us from sin and give eternal life to 
 our souls. The Holy Spirit is our regenerator, who re- 
 established in us the likeness of God, making us recep- 
 tive of the salvation offered of God. 
 
 "The Bible teaches that Christ, on account of His 
 eternal generation from the Father, is called the Son of 
 God, but for His incarnation in time, the Son of man, 
 brother of men, through whom we obtained the right to 
 call God our Father, and for this reason the Church 
 confesses in the personality of Christ two natures, 
 divine and human, distinct and inseparable in their 
 union. This mystery of incarnation is the great mys- 
 tery of God's love for the world ; and as much as this is 
 incomprehensible and inconceivable by human intelli- 
 gence, so much is it natural with divine love and omnip- 
 otent nature. In this great mystery was the salvation 
 of mankind, for this the entire humanity waited, and, 
 
THE ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 57 
 
 therefore, the law and the prophets in this mystery of 
 incarnation were fulfilled. Because Christ, as the true 
 Messiah, performed prophetic, priestly, and kingly of- 
 fices, and became for us true Prophet, true Priest, and 
 true King \ teaching the doctrine of redemption, eluci- 
 dating the past, the present, and the future of mankind, 
 forgiving and redeeming us through the sacrifice of 
 Himself, and reigning over us with a heavenly and 
 spiritual kingdom. 
 
 " The Bible teaches that the Holy Spirit proceeds and 
 flows from the Father, not as a common influence of 
 God, but as a person of the Holy Trinity, infinite, eter- 
 nal, a true God. But with respect to us the Holy Spirit 
 is the source of union of God to man, the seal by which 
 we are known as Christians ; because without the Holy 
 Spirit's dwelling in us. His help and guidance, we are 
 only alive, for the Holy Spirit is co-worker with the 
 Father and the Son for our salvation ; and as the mani- 
 festation of God through Christ to the world is called 
 redemption, so also the revelation of God through the 
 Holy Spirit is denominated regeneration and sanctification. 
 
 " At this present day there is not a book like the Bible 
 from which the intellectual world has been able to de- 
 rive so much good for the real well-being and progress 
 of human society. There is not a book, and cannot be, 
 that is translated into so many languages and is distrib- 
 uted so extensively as the Bible. Our immortal trans- 
 lators felt this great want, and they began the first step 
 of the nation's enlightenment and progress by the trans- 
 lation and study of the Holy Scriptures, and this trans- 
 lation is so choice, that, with various praises bestowed 
 
158 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 upon it by the European scholars of the present century, 
 who know the Armenian language, it is called the 
 ' Queen of Versions! But we will be giving a still 
 greater praise to our forefathers if we generalize the 
 study of the Holy Scriptures among our people and 
 rear the edifice of education upon that solid foundation 
 of the Word of God."* 
 
 By no means should the reader think that the writer 
 is partial in not telling something of the superstitions, 
 formalism, and ignorance still in existence and practice 
 among the Armenians and in their church. It has often 
 been written and spoken, even with a great lack both of 
 knowledge and charity. Had those writers on these as- 
 pects of the Armenian Church and people remembered 
 that for almost fifteen centuries this church has been in con- 
 stant conflict with paganism, Zoroastrianism, Mohammed- 
 anism, and the evil influences of the corrupt Greek and 
 Roman Churches, they would not have been so severe 
 in their denunciations of that old relic of the ancient 
 Christian Church. Often were the bishops and priests 
 in the battle-field with their flocks against the enemy of 
 the church. Often were they in chains, in imprison- 
 ments, in hostage, at the pagan, Mohammedan, and so- 
 called Christian courts ; often were they carried away 
 into captivity and massacred by their captors. How 
 could they give more attention than they did give to the 
 education and enlightenment of their people and to the 
 purity of the Church. Even to-day the best intellects 
 of the Armenian clergy, the lovers of the reform and 
 
 * "History of the Holy Apostolic Church of Armenia," pages 
 117-121, 127-8. 
 
THE ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 59 
 
 purity of the Church and people, are in either exile or 
 bondage by the Russian and Ottoman Empires. These 
 circumstances certainly will not justify the condition 
 of the Armenian Church, but they ought to modify the 
 severity of our judgment and fill us with a deeper 
 sympathy, with a truer Christian love and activity for its 
 reform, purity, and spiritual prosperity. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 
 
 It did not seem necessary in the previous chapter to 
 point out certain unimportant ceremonies, formaHsms, 
 and superstitious practices still in existence in the Ar- 
 menian Church. But it has been admitted that the Ar- 
 menians were not able to preserve the noble apostolic 
 Armenian Church in its simplicity and purity, as it was 
 received by our forefathers, owing to the persecutions, 
 oppressions, and the corrupt influences of both the so- 
 called Christian and non-Christian nations who so often 
 annoyed the church and the nation. 
 
 To whatever causes we may attribute the present con- 
 dition of the church, they will not alter the fact of its 
 being in need of reformation. It, moreover, was nothing 
 but natural to expect that the reformation in Europe, 
 which shook the foundations of the great empires, could 
 not help but spread its silent and salutary influence all 
 over the world. 
 
 So we find an Armenian priest, who wrote a book in 
 1760, praising the great reformer, Martin Luther, and 
 his work, and calling the attention of the people to the 
 need of the church for reformation. Though his book 
 was never printed, it was, more or less, circulated and 
 did its good work. 
 
 The publication and circulation of the Bible by the 
 (f6o) 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. l6l 
 
 British and Russian Bible Societies succeeded the above 
 incident in the beginning of this century. These events 
 paved the way for a greater movement 
 
 It was only a few years after the organization of the 
 American Board that " the missionary Parsons (when) on 
 his first visit to Jerusulem, in 1821, encountered some 
 Armenian pilgrims,* whose interesting conversation 
 drew from him the suggestion of a mission to Armenia 
 itself ' We shall rejoice,' said they, ' and all will rejoice 
 when they arrive.' " 
 
 Several Armenian clergymen espoused the cause of 
 reformation in 1826 at Beirut, Syria. Two of them, 
 Bishop Dionysius and Krikor Vartabed, like Paul and 
 Barnabas, traveled through Asia Minor, preaching the 
 gospel to the people with great acceptance. " These 
 brethren assured the missionaries that the minds of the 
 Armenian people were wonderfully inclined towards the 
 pure gospel, and that should preachers go among them 
 doubtless thousands would be ready to receive the truth. 
 They themselves wrote letters to their countrymen, 
 which excited no little attention."t 
 
 The publication and circulation of several thousand 
 copies of the Scriptures, and their being eagerly read by 
 the leading men, the labors of these and other Armenian 
 ecclesiastics, and especially the training school for priests 
 at Constantinople, which was committed to the charge 
 of Peshtimaljian, "a profound scholar, a theologian, 
 
 * It is" still the custom of the Oriental Christians to go to Jerusa- 
 lem in the time of Easter in great numbers as pilgrims. 
 
 t" Historical sketch of the missions of the American Board in 
 Turkey," page 3. 
 
l62 THE AKMENIANS. 
 
 and an humble student of the Bible — a sort of an 
 Oriental Melancthon, even in his timidity" — were in- 
 dubitable signs of a wonderful reformation. 
 
 " The Syrian Mission had been established by Rev. 
 Pliny Fisk and Rev. Levi Parsons, who left this coun- 
 try in 1 8 19." Revs. W. Goodell and Bird were ap- 
 pointed by the American Board in 1823 to join this 
 mission. Messrs. Goodell and Bird, however, were de- 
 sirous to begin their work at Jerusalem, but owing to 
 the disturbed condition of affairs at that city they com- 
 menced their work at Beirut, Syria. 
 
 On account of the Greek revolution being in progress 
 and for this reason the Christians everywhere, and espe- 
 cially in the seaport cities, were treated with the great- 
 est barbarity by the Turks, as they are now. Dr. Good- 
 ell wrote from Beirut, May iSth, 1826: " Human beings 
 whose guilt is no greater than that of their proud op- 
 pressors are condemned without a trial, their flesh trem- 
 bling for fear, their religion blasphemed, their Saviour 
 insulted, their comforts despoiled, their lives threatened, 
 and their bodies filled with pain, and deeply marked with 
 the blows inflicted by Turkish barbarity." 
 
 The condition of affairs compelled the American and 
 English missionaries and their Armenian assistants to 
 repair to the Island of Malta for protection under the 
 British rule. At Malta Mr. Goodell and his Armenian 
 assistants* completed the translation of the New Testa- 
 ment into the Armeno-Turkishf in 1830. 
 
 * Bishop Dionysius was one of Mr. Goodell's assistants, 
 f The Armeno- Turkish language is not a distinct language, 
 but it is Turkish written in Armenian characters. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 63 
 
 The following year Dr. Goodell was instructed by the 
 American Board to go to Constantinople and commence 
 a distinct mission among the Armenians. He was fol- 
 lowed in due time by the Revs. Drs. Dwight, Schauffler, 
 Riggs, Bliss, Hamlin, Van Lennep, Wood, and others 
 as missionaries sent by the Board. 
 
 The missionaries were strangers in the land, and had 
 no other means than their opening schools and printing 
 press to attract the attention of the people. The portions 
 of the Bible and other religious tracts were published 
 and circulated among the people, and in the scarcity of 
 reading matter these books and pamphlets were eagerly 
 read by them, and not without good results. 
 
 Indeed, a profound love for the reformation of the 
 Armenian Church had taken possession of the minds of 
 many leading men among the nation who were trying to 
 do all they could. But both their knowledge and ex- 
 perience were limited ; they needed a wise leader or 
 leaders who could direct the movement in a way so as 
 to accomplish the desired end. Some of them, when 
 they came into contact with the missionaries, thought 
 Divine Providence had sent these men to take the lead 
 of this noble movement. They implicitly confided in 
 the wisdom and ability of the missionaries to do 
 this.* 
 
 The sagacity, magnanimity, and the piety of those 
 missionaries were unquestionable. They showed their 
 wisdom in the fact that they " steadily pursued the policy 
 
 * The Orientals have an admirable kind of coolness and cour- 
 age. Give them a leader in whom they have confidence, and they 
 will follow him to the death.— Cyrus Hamlin, 
 
164 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 of disseminating the truth without making attacks upon 
 the Armenian Church," 
 
 The silent influences of this reformation spread far and 
 wide in the city of Constantinople and its suburbs. The 
 Romish Church, through its Jesuit missionaries, had 
 carried on the work of proselyting the Armenians for 
 several centuries, and she had thousands of adherents. 
 She, moreover, had experienced the mighty power of 
 such a movement in Europe, and she, therefore, was first 
 to attempt to stop the progress of this movement in the 
 East. It was in 1836 that the Romish patriarch pub- 
 licly denounced the missionaries and their books. His 
 evil example was followed by the Armenian and Greek 
 patriarchs of the same city, Constantinople, four years 
 later. 
 
 Thus the spirit of hatred and persecution was instilled 
 into the minds of different communities by their respect- 
 ive representatives. But this movement being mostly 
 among the Armenians, their patriarch took a more 
 active part in issuing anathemas and sending them to 
 the provinces, and he caused them to be read in all the 
 churches. 
 
 The Armenian Church was sorely wounded by the 
 Romish Church and its missionaries. A national unity 
 meant and still means to the Armenians a national 
 church, and a separation from the church was considered 
 a division in the nation, not only by the Armenians but 
 by the government under which they were. The Ar- 
 menian patriarch and the leaders of the nation, there- 
 fore, thought the suppression of this evangelical work 
 might be a prevention of such a division which had 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 65 
 
 taken place in the case of the followers of the Romish 
 missionaries in 1830. The patriarch and his subordi- 
 nates, who took violent measures of persecution against 
 those who favored and labored for the reformation of the 
 church, were not aware of the fact that the intention of 
 the missionaries was not to create a like separation from 
 the church. The following is the language of Rev. Dr. 
 Goodell : " We ourselves, at this place, have nothing to 
 do with the church, its dogmas, ceremonies, and super- 
 stitions. * * * ]yfQj. (Jq ^g make any attempt to 
 establish a new church to raise a new party. We dis- 
 claim everything of the kind. We tell them frankly, 
 you have sects enough among you already, and we have 
 no design of setting up a new one, or of pulling down 
 your churches, or drawing members from them in order 
 to build our own." * 
 
 And we find this policy adhered to in the case of the 
 brethren in Nicomedia. The bishop, priests, and the 
 leaciing men of that city formed a council, and this coun- 
 cil drew up a new confession of faith. " Thus all who 
 were suspected of Protestantism were asked to acknowl- 
 edge by affixing thereunto their signatures. Those who 
 would refuse to do so were to be anathematized and ex- 
 pelled from the church. As soon as Rev. Dwight and 
 Dr. Goodell were informed of the council's proceedings 
 they advised the brethren not to separate themselves 
 from the Armenian communion, saying that, if they did 
 so, the work would not advance so rapidly." f 
 
 * "Forty Years in the Turkish Empire," pages 173, 4. 
 t ' ' History of the Beginnings of Missionary Work in Nicomedia, ' ' 
 pages 20, 21. By Rev. G. Nergararian. 
 
1 66 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 In 1843 a young Armenian embraced Mohammedan- 
 ism. But he became a prey to remorse of conscience 
 for his apostasy. He therefore renounced Mohammed- 
 anism and reconfessed Christianity. He was seized 
 upon and beheaded in the streets of Constantinople by 
 the Turkish authorities, and his corpse was exposed to 
 the public gaze for several days, as an insult to Chris- 
 tianity. This event aroused the indignation of the Eu- 
 ropean ambassadors, who, through the English ambas- 
 sador, Sir Stratford Canning, demanded and extorted 
 from the sultan the following written pledge : " The 
 Sublime Porte engages to take effectual measures to pre- 
 vent henceforward the execution and putting to death of 
 the Christian who is an apostate." 
 
 The imprudent conduct of the patriarch. Bishop Mat- 
 teos, by his anathemas and excommunicating those who 
 were disposed and endeavoring to reform the Church, 
 exposed them to all manner of maltreatment. They 
 "were stoned in the streets, unjustly imprisoned, ejected 
 from their shops, invaded and plundered in their houses, 
 bastinadoed and abandoned by their friends." These 
 persecutions were severe and extended into those places 
 wherever there were some who loved the cause of ref- 
 ormation. The unwise course of the patriarch to pre- 
 vent separation by persecution, indeed, did hasten the 
 dreaded division in the church. Vartabed M. Muradi- 
 an's own statement in regard to Bishop Matteos' con- 
 duct is as follows : — 
 
 " Patriarch Matteos had already begun religious con- 
 troversies with the Protestant missionaries, and these 
 same controversies were travails of a new eruption. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH, 1 6/ 
 
 Those inclined to Protestantism were about to appear 
 and the anathematizing course taken by Matteos very 
 materially aided the purpose of the Protestant mission- 
 aries, because to persecute is to spread. And, behold, 
 thus on the one hand the intervention of the mission- 
 aries, on the other hand the inconsiderateness of those 
 inclined to Protestantism and the imprudent conduct of 
 Patriarch Matteos cause a number from our brethren to 
 depart from the maternal bosom of the church and ad- 
 hering to Protestantism it forms a distinct body, choos- 
 ing for itself a separate civil head." * 
 
 The patriarch's persecuting and excommunicating 
 those who adhered to the evangelical work were con- 
 sidered sufficient reasons to organize a separate church. 
 
 There was not, however, a unanimity among the 
 brethren on this subject, and " the most honored and in- 
 fluential of the older brethren placed themselves in the 
 bosom of the nation." The missionaries, thus chang- 
 ing their policy and yielding to the desire of those 
 who wished to form a separate organization, gathered 
 them together, forty in number, and constituted, on the 
 1st of July, 1846, as the first Evangelical Armenian 
 Church of Constantinople, f Mr. Apisoghom Kacha- 
 
 * "History of the Holy Apostolic Church of Armenia," pages 
 607, 8. (This book is written in the Armenian.) 
 
 This same author, speaking of the literary merits of Matteos, 
 has the following criticism : "In the writings of Matteos there are 
 very may contradictions, which are the signs of lack of profundity, 
 and especially willing also to defend the Armenian Church against 
 Protestantism, in certain places he has completely precipitate(3 
 into Roman Catholicism." Pages 616, 7. 
 
 t Rev. Dr. Goodell wrote in regard to this event : " When I re- 
 moved to Constantinople fifteen years ago I felt assured either 
 
1 68 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 durian was ordained, and installed the pastor of this new 
 church by the missionaries on the following Sabbath. 
 
 On the 20th of July, 1846, another church was formed 
 at Nicomedia, and during that summer two more 
 churches were organized, one at Ada-Pazar and the 
 other at Trebizond. And these organizations were fol- 
 lowed by others at different parts of the country. 
 
 The Protestant Armenian community thus organized 
 into separate churches was yet under the jurisdiction of 
 the patriarch, and not quite free from molestation and 
 privation up to 1847. " ^^ ^^^ temporary absence of Sir 
 Stratford Canning, Lord Cowley negotiated the matter 
 with the government, and on the 15th of Noveniber, 
 1847, the grand vizier issued a firman, declaring that the 
 ' Christian subjects of the Ottoman Government profes- 
 sing Protestantism would constitute a separate commu- 
 nity, with all the rights and privileges belonging to 
 others, and that ' no interference whatever be permitted 
 in their temporal or spiritual concerns on the part of the 
 patriarch, monks, or priests of other sects.' " Three 
 years later the Sultan, Abdul Medjid, granted to the 
 Protestants a charter, " completing and confirming their 
 distinct organization as a civil community, and securing 
 to them equal religious rights with the older Christian 
 organizations." 
 
 Up to this time (1850) the work of reformation spread 
 and progressed with wonderful rapidity, though through 
 
 that this day (of new organization) would come, or that the Ar- 
 menian Church as a body would be reformed." It is the convic- 
 tion of many Protestant Armenians that the Armenian Church 
 would have been reformed by this time or sooner than it ever will 
 be had this separate organization not taken place at all. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 69 
 
 persecutions and privations. The readiness of those 
 who knew the truth to spread it ; the eagerness of the 
 people to receive the truth ; the unconsciously em- 
 ployed means of those who tried to stop this move- 
 ment, and by so doing their spreading it, are well 
 condensed in the following language of Rev. S. C. Bart- 
 lett, D. D. :— 
 
 "When the patriarch had hurried Bedros, the Varta- 
 bed, out of the city for his Protestant tendencies, and 
 Vartabed had gone distributing books and preaching 
 throughout the whole region of Aleppo and Aintab. 
 When he had sent priest Vartanes a prisoner to the 
 monastery of Marash, and then banished him to Caesarea, 
 Vartaves had first awakened the monks, and then 
 preached the gospel all the way to Csesarea. 
 
 " The missionaries wisely availed themselves of this 
 rising interest in tours for preaching, conversing, and 
 distributing religious treatises. Messrs. Powers, John- 
 son, Van Lennep, Smith, Peabody, Schneider, Goodell, 
 Everett, Benjamin, pushed forth to Aintab, Aleppo, 
 Broussa, Harpoot, Sivas, Diarbekir, Caesarea, and various 
 other places through the empire. 
 
 " They soon found that they were in the midst of one 
 of the most extraordinary religious movements of modern 
 times, silent, and sometimes untraceable, but potent and 
 pervasive. In every important town of the empire 
 where there were Armenians, there were found to be, as 
 early as 1849, ^'^^ ^^ more 'lovers of evangelical truth.' 
 But it was no causeless movement. The quiet working 
 of the ' little leaven ' was traceable almost from its source 
 by indubitable signs. It was a notable sight to see 
 
170 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 when, in 1838, the Vartabed and the leading men of 
 Orta Keuy, on the Bosphorus, where the missionaries 
 first gained access to the Armenians, went and removed 
 the pictures from the village church. It was a notable 
 thing to hear when, in 1841, the Armenian preachers 
 of Constantinople were discoursing on repentance and 
 the mediatorial office of Christ. It was another land- 
 mark when, in 1842, the fervor of the converts not 
 only filled the city with rumors of the new doctrines, 
 but, after a season of special prayer, held in a neighbor- 
 ing valley, sent forth priest Vartanes on a missionary 
 tour into the heart of Asia Minor. A still more signifi- 
 cant fact was when, in that year and the next, the Ar- 
 menian women were effectually reached and roused, till 
 family worship began in many a household, and a female 
 seminary at Pera became (in 1845) ^ necessity. The 
 brethren had observed the constant increase of the in- 
 quirers, often from a distance, and they had found, even 
 in 1843, such a demand for their books as the press at 
 Smyrna was unable fully to supply. In many places, 
 and at Nicomedia, Adabazar, and Aintab, books and 
 tracts began the work. 
 
 " The preaching services at Constantinople would be 
 occasionally attended by individuals from four or five 
 other towns. At Erzroom one Sabbath {Februar}^, 
 1846) there were attendants from six different places. 
 The seminary for young men at Bebek (a suburb of 
 Constantinople) drew visitors from great distances and 
 from all quarters, as far as Alexandria, St. Petersburg, 
 and the Euphrates. The native brethren also had been 
 engaged in disseminating the truth, and the first awaken- 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. I/I 
 
 ings at KilHs, Kessab, and Rodosto, for example, were 
 due to their labors. 
 
 " From this time forth the enterprise became too 
 broad even to trace in this rapid way. If the whole 
 movement shall ever be suitably recorded the history of 
 this reformation will be second in interest to no other 
 that has ever been written. There are scores and scores 
 of villages each of which would furnish material for a 
 volume, and multitudes of cases that recall the fervor, 
 faith, and fortitude of apostolic times." * 
 
 The history of this wonderful reformation will not be 
 expected here to be given fully, nor the history of any 
 particular place or person, unlss it will serve to explacin 
 a general fact. But all, that we will be able to do, is to 
 give a brief and cursory sketch of it. 
 
 Although a decree issued in November, 1850, pro- 
 claimed the Protestants equal in the eye of the law, and 
 accorded to them protection from persecutions, yet the 
 condition of the brethren was very miserable. Many of 
 the younger brethren were disinherited by their parents 
 for their espousal of the cause of the reformation, and 
 thrown out of employment by their employers. The 
 anathemas of the patriarch upon " the heretics " and 
 those who would have any dealing with them, shut out 
 the Protestants from the society of, and the business 
 intercourse with, the people. Many, therefore, had to 
 sell and sacrifice their properties for the necessities of 
 life, and fell into an abject poverty, and had reached the 
 verge of starvation. The ambitious policy of Russia 
 
 * " Historical Sketch of the Missions of the A. B. C. F. M. in 
 Turkey," pages 10-12, and 14. 
 
1/2 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 forced Turkey to declare war against her in 1853. Thus 
 the Crimean war also greatly added to the misery of the 
 brethren and threatened the existence of the little flock. 
 But the ingenuity of the Rev. Dr. Cyrus Hamlin, the 
 noble missionary, devised certain means to ameliorate 
 the condition of the Protestants, established industries, 
 especially the mill and bakery, where he found sufficient 
 work for them to do ; he also was able to build a few 
 churches in which these brethren might worship. These 
 churches were greatly needed, and he had left some 
 balance in hand after building them.* 
 
 "The Crimean war was overruled for the furtherance 
 of the gospel by becoming the occasion, if not the 
 actual means, for securing another important concession 
 from the Turkish government on the subject of religious 
 liberty, a new Magna Charta for the Christian subjects 
 of the Porte. This is known as the Hatti Sherif (Sacred 
 Edict), or Hatti Humayoun (Imperial Edict), of 1856, 
 and was issued on the authority of the Sultan himselff 
 Some regarded this edict as a complete grant of freedom 
 to all. Christians or Mohammedans, to follow the dictates 
 of their consciences without any molestation whatever. 
 A few high-sounding sentences from it will show what 
 great contentment it would have given to the subjects of 
 the Porte if it had been fulfilled : — 
 
 " Every distinction or designation tending to make 
 
 * " It had been no object of mine to have any balance in hand. 
 It amounted, with what had aheady been expended for churches 
 mentioned, to 125,000." — Hamlin. "Among the Turks," page 
 258. 
 
 t See Appendix. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1/3 
 
 any clas3 whatever of the subjects of my empire inferior 
 to another class on account of their religion, language, 
 or race, shall be forever effaced from the administrative 
 protocol. 
 
 " As all forms of religion are and shall be freely pro- 
 fessed in my dominions, no subject of my empire shall 
 be hindered in the exercise of the religion that he pro- 
 fesses, nor shall be in any way annoyed on this account." 
 
 It is, however, nothing uncommon with the sultans 
 and other officials of the Turkish Government to 
 promise a good deal, but not to fulfill the least. " By 
 the terms of the treaty of 1856 (signed at Paris), Turkey 
 was bound in the face of the world to redress the 
 inveterate evils and abuses of her government, and to 
 extend to all her subjects the blessings of civil and 
 religious freedom. There was accordingly promulgated 
 the Hatt-y-Humayoun of 1856, in which the principles 
 of reform embodied in the Tanzimat were renewed and 
 extended ; but that edict, like those which preceded it, 
 remained in effect null and void. The grievances and 
 wrongs endured since that time, especially by the 
 Christian population, the perversion of justice, the gross 
 administrative corruption, furnish a sufficient comment- 
 ary of the futility of the attempted or promised reforms 
 of the Porte."* 
 
 In spite of all the hinderances, the grievances, and 
 wrongs endured by the Christian population, and the 
 perversion of justice and gross administrative corruption 
 of the Turkish Government, the number of the reformed 
 churches within ten years (1846-1856) increased to 
 
 *" The Turkish Empire," pages 223, 224. 
 
174 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 thirty, organized at different places in the empire. 
 And it was only twenty-one years after the birth of the 
 first Reformed Armenian Church, in the travail of per- 
 secution, that the late Rev. Dr. H. J. Van Lennep re- 
 ported, before the Evangelical Alliance at Amsterdam, 
 Holland, that " there are now (1867) fifty-six churches, 
 with two thousand communicants and a community of 
 twenty thousand adherents." And he adds : — 
 
 " The use of such means (for reformation) soon pro- 
 duced a marked effect, not so much upon the volatile 
 Greek as upon the sober-minded Armenian ; and evan- 
 gelical doctrines were soon spreading among the latter 
 with amazing power and rapidity. Providence raised 
 from among the people men of eloquence, power, and 
 influence, whose labors were wonderfully blessed ; and 
 great numbers soon rejoiced in the precious doctrine, 
 ' Christ crucified.' The young converts, full of faith 
 and the Holy Ghost, went about lighting the torch of 
 truth and salvation throughout the land." 
 
 And now we have one hundred and ten churches and 
 eleven thousand and ninety-five members, seventy-four 
 native ordained ministers and one hundred and twenty- 
 nine preachers, and eighty-five other helpers, two hun- 
 dred and three places for stated preaching, thirty-one 
 thousand six hundred and eighteen average attendants 
 to the services, twenty-one thousand six hundred and 
 fifty-five Sabbath-school scholars, and a community of 
 forty-five thousand and eight Protestants, who have con- 
 tributed ;$48,94i for all purposes during the last year 
 ( 1 890-1 891).* 
 
 * See Annual Report of the A. B. C. F. M. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 75 
 
 The great progress of this reformation may well be 
 ascribed to a few causes or agencies. The first is the 
 Bible. The reader will remember we said in the pre- 
 vious chapter that the Armenian Church not only en- 
 courages, but almost enforces, the people to read the 
 Scriptures, that the Armenians revere the Word of God. 
 When the missionaries came into our country they 
 found a common ground on the " Thus saith the Lord " 
 to deal with the people and the clergy. The absolute 
 necessity of the Bible as the only standard was felt by 
 the missionaries, and the ablest intellects have been en- 
 gaged in its translation into the vernacular dialects or 
 the languages of the country. The Rev. Dr. Goodell 
 wrote on this subject nearly fifty years ago as follows : — 
 
 " Turn now to our labor among the Armenians, Our 
 whole work with them is emphatically a Bible work. 
 The Bible is our only standard, and the Bible is our 
 final appeal. And it is even more necessary for us than 
 it was for the reformers in England, because we are 
 foreigners. Without it we could say one thing and the 
 priests and bishops could say another ; but where would 
 be the umpire? It would be nowhere, and all our 
 efforts would be like ' beating the air.' " * 
 
 The British and American Bible Societies greatly 
 aided the publication and circulation of the Scriptures 
 through their agents in co-operation with the mission- 
 aries among the people, and in many a family, town, 
 and city the Bible itself was the mightiest means of the 
 conversion of many. " The entrance of Thy words 
 
 * Memoirs of Rev. William Goodell, D. D., page 282. 
 
176 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 giveth light." " The law of the Lord is perfect, con- 
 verting the soul." 
 
 The writer's father was engaged in some business in 
 Constantinople nearly thirty years ago, and when he 
 returned home he brought with him a copy of the New 
 Testament, which he bought from the missionaries. 
 This copy of the New Testament he and his sons began 
 to read, and the simple reading of the Word of God 
 resulted in the conversion of the writer and the several 
 members of the family. In every village, town, and city 
 hundreds and thousands thus ha:ve been converted and 
 " become Protestants in principle, and they far exceed in 
 number the registered Protestants." 
 
 It was the privilege of the writer, after his conversion 
 and studying a few years in the mission school at Mar- 
 sovan, to spend some time in teaching in a small town. 
 The Protestant people, whose children he had to teach, 
 had no preacher and urged him to preach for them. 
 Not ability or aptness, but necessity, compelled him to 
 engage in this double duty. One day he was asked by 
 a man who belonged to the Armenian Church and 
 whose brother (deceased then) was one of the first con- 
 verts to Protestantism, whether he knew how Protest- 
 antism began there. His reply was " No ; " and what 
 the man told him is somewhat as follows : — 
 
 The first Protestant brother that entered the town 
 went to a coffee-house,* and he took out his Bible and 
 
 * The coffee-houses in the East are very much Hke the saloons 
 in this country. But they do not sell intoxicating drinks in these 
 coffee-houses. People go there to smoke and sip coffee in small 
 cups and while the time away. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. XJJ 
 
 attempted to read it to the men there, but they refused 
 to listen to him. He was so grieved that he burst into 
 tears. This attracted the attention of an elderly man, 
 well known in the town as " Uncle Toros," who came to 
 him at once and asked him what ailed him. He replied 
 that he would like to read the Bible and speak to them 
 about the wonderful love of God, but they objected to 
 his so doing. Uncle Toros was a very hospitable man ; on 
 learning that this man was entirely a stranger in the town 
 he invited him to his house. The custom of the Orientals 
 is that everybody that is able has a guest-chamber, like 
 the Shunamite woman for the prophet of the Lord. 
 
 Uncle Toros was also a very influential man in the 
 town, and he had many friends and relatives, who, with 
 the neighbors, used to come to his sitting-room and 
 spend the early part of every night. 
 
 Thus our brother had a very good audience every 
 evening to whom he could read and expound the Bible. 
 If some did not like to listen to him, they could leave 
 the room and go, for they could not oppose or insult 
 him — he was Uncle Toros' guest. This was the begin- 
 ning of the work there, and when the writer was there, 
 nearly fifteen years later, he found about twenty families 
 composing the Protestant community. 
 
 Thus the " two-edged sword " of the Spirit, " the Word 
 of God " on the one hand, " the young converts, full of 
 faith and the Holy Ghost," are still going about '' lighting 
 the torch of truth and salvation throughout the land," 
 on the other hand, have wrought this marvelous reforma- 
 tion which is still progressing rapidly, although meeting 
 numerous difficulties. 
 
1/8 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Some of the hinderances have been occasionally men- 
 tioned in the previous pages, but the greatest source of 
 all evils is due to the despotic oppressions and persecu- 
 tions of the Turkish Government, under the garb of 
 suppressing the revolutionary tendency of the Christians. 
 The reports of the missionaries from various stations 
 inform us of this unbearable tyranny : — 
 
 "BiTLis. — The political situation in this station has 
 gone from bad to worse, and the Christian part of the 
 population has suffered from the want of protection and 
 from open violence beyond all precedent. The unusual 
 number of deaths in one of the healthy out-stations was 
 caused by the want of proper food and clothing, resulting 
 from the excessive taxes. It is not a little praiseworthy 
 that under such conditions the native brethren prove 
 steadfast in faith and cheerful in Christian service. 
 Speaking of governmental interference, Mr. Knapp 
 says : ' We have been annoyed by officials, who have 
 detained our books, school and religious, at the custom- 
 houses at Trebizond and Erzroom. These boxes have 
 been detained several months at the latter place, and are 
 there still, although they have the government seal that 
 was attached to the books at Constantinople.' " 
 
 " Erzroom. — This station has suffered more than any 
 other in the mission for want of an adequate force of 
 missionaries and from political disturbances."* 
 
 In vain has the writer attempted to avoid narrating 
 the following instance, which furnishes three phases in 
 one, to wit : The mighty power of the Word of God, the 
 heroism of those who believe in God, and the violation 
 
 * See Annual Report of A. B. C. F. M., 1891. 
 
l8o THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 of all promises of religious freedom, the marked cruelty 
 and perversion of justice of the Turkish officials. 
 
 Avedis (good news) Zotian was a boy of ten or twelve 
 years of age when the writer was acquainted with him, 
 over sixteen years ago. He was a quiet, unassuming, 
 skillful, and industrious boy, and engaged in his father's 
 trade, copper-smithing. Through his cousin, who was 
 a constant reader of the Bible and a warm friend of the 
 reformation, Avedis was brought under the same influ- 
 ence of the Word of God. He finally, about seven years 
 ago, avowed himself a Protestant and joined that com- 
 munity. He became very active, and, like the prophet 
 Jeremiah, felt that " His word was in" his "heart as a 
 burning fire." He was often found to be engaged in 
 some discussion on religious topics. Avedis thought 
 one day, about three years ago, while he had a long 
 distance to go to the service and would not be able to 
 stop on the way and speak to others on the topic of 
 religion, to have a verse on a piece of board, to carry it 
 along and the people will see and read it, The following 
 words from the Scriptures, " Repent ye, for the kingdom 
 of heaven is at hand," were written in the Armenian, 
 and Avedis had his friend Sahag, another Armenian Prot- 
 estant, to write the same verse in the Turkish language. 
 Avedis started to church with the above text. He was 
 arrested on his way by the Turkish officers and thrown 
 into a dungeon. His friend Sahag was also arrested for 
 his writing the verse in the Turkish, and shared a corner 
 of the prison with Avedis. The charge that was brought 
 against these young men was that they were political 
 agitators. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 151 
 
 After several months' imprisonment the verdict of the 
 unjust jury was "Guilty," and the unrighteous judge 
 uttered the sentence of exile for life. They with tearful 
 eyes bade adieu to their newly-married wives, who in 
 vain had tried to wipe away the overflowing tears, to 
 their aged parents, brothers, sisters, relatives, and friends. 
 They were driven like cattle by the mounted officers to 
 Smyrna, then to Africa. They were so exhausted and 
 ill-treated on their way that only a few months later it 
 was heard that Avedis was taken away by his Heavenly 
 Father to rest from his labors. And what became of 
 Sahag nobody knows. 
 
 In the name of humanity, in the name of Christianity, 
 in the name of the Founder of Christianity, the reader is 
 requested to p7'ay and do whatever is in his power to 
 hasten the freedom of this down-trodden nation from 
 the tyranny of "the unspeakable Turk." 
 
 One of the difficulties will be very easily understood 
 when it is remembered the fact that the Protestant 
 Armenians were driven out from their national church 
 and community, that they were encouraged and organ- 
 ized into a distinct church and body from their nation ; 
 consequently they had to have separate church build- 
 ings, cemeteries, and school-houses, &c Forty years 
 ago, when only ten or fifteen such places were needed, it 
 was not very difficult for the American Board to meet 
 these needs of the brethren, while they were absolutely 
 unable to do anything for themselves on account of the 
 persecutions, compulsive idleness, and the consequent 
 poverty resulting from these. 
 
 Although the Protestant community vastly increased 
 
1 82 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 within this period, but not in wealth, owing to the gov- 
 ernmental oppressions, excessive taxes, all manner of 
 injustice, and to the want of protection and even open 
 violence. So the four-fifths of the Protestant Armenian 
 churches are still more or less dependent on the mission 
 fund. The one-third of the income of the Board goes 
 to this mission, but even that is far from being sufficient 
 to cover the necessary expenses of this stupendous 
 work. 
 
 Indeed, there are only a very few church buildings 
 owned by the Protestant Armenians worthy to be called 
 churches, but the most of the meeting-houses (so they 
 are called) are devoid of any comfort ; some of them 
 without organs or seats ; some without furniture or 
 chairs ; and some even without any floors. No one who 
 has seen some of the country school-houses in this coun- 
 try and our so-called meeting-houses in Asia Minor and 
 Armenia would dare to compare the latter with the for- 
 mer with any fairness. 
 
 This is not a little disadvantage to the advance of the 
 cause. But it is not the worst. Suppose a congrega- 
 tion is huddled in such an uncomfortable place for wor- 
 ship, and anxiously waiting for their preacher on a Sab- 
 bath morning. But the preacher had received word 
 from the missionary, by whom he is employed, in the 
 middle of the past week, that the Board was unable to 
 appropriate sufficient means to employ the same number 
 of preachers, and that he was also the one of those who 
 are dismissed, and therefore he is gone to another place 
 to find something else to make a living. Undoubtedly 
 this disappointment is worse than the discomfort of the 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 83 
 
 place of worship, but, unfortunately for many congrega- 
 tions and preachers, this is their condition. The follow- 
 ing from the report of the '^ Committee on Missions in 
 Turkey " is to the point to show both the importance 
 and the distressed condition of this mission : — 
 
 " The mission in Turkey is the most important mis- 
 sion of the Board. Divided into four parts, European,* 
 Western, Central, Eastern, each part is sufficiently small 
 to secure careful supervision and control ; it enrolls one- 
 third of the working force ; it numbers one-third of all 
 adherents, scholars and communicants. No mission is 
 more complete in organization, more comprehensive in 
 agency, more wise in method. It includes the church 
 and evangelistic effort; it includes educational institu- 
 tions from the kindergarten to the professional school ; 
 it includes a vast work of translation and of publication. 
 It gathers up and projects all worthiest forces for the 
 fostering of a Christian civilization. 
 
 " These forces have been reduced through the reduc- 
 tion of income. From certain parts of the mission is 
 made the call for men ; from all parts is made the call 
 for money. The people are in distressing poverty, yet 
 the distressing poverty is excelled by the self-sacrificing 
 generosity ; but offerings of ten dollars from each mem- 
 ber are far from sufficient. Lack of money forbids the 
 employment of the various agencies which each station 
 should use. Lack of money prevents the employment 
 of native preachers ; the failure to employ native preachers 
 
 * European Turkey Mission, which is among the Bulgarians, con- 
 sists of twelve churches and eight hundred and twenty-seven 
 members. 
 
1 84 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 causes the men to seek other services than preach- 
 ing, and also promotes the disintegration of churches. 
 Lack of money has become so urgent that missionaries 
 have tendered their resignations because of the inabiHty 
 to retain these native preachers and helpers."* 
 
 Next in importance to the Bible and the activity of the 
 natives in spreading it, the superiority of the educational 
 institutions of the mission and the love of truth in the 
 native youth will claim our attention as potent factors in 
 the progress of this reformation. 
 
 Since the entrance of the Turks into Western Asia the 
 ancient centres of learning have been lying in ruins ; the 
 numerous lights upon their altars for centuries burning 
 were extinguished on account of the photophobic malady 
 of Mohammedanism and its fanatic devotees. These 
 " wild beasts of mankind " had " broken in upon these 
 countries, once so glorious and famous for their happy 
 estate " of civilization and culture, which had given re- 
 ligion and laws to the world, but now, through ignor- 
 ance, superstition, and vice had become " the most de- 
 plorable spectacles of extreme misery." The barbarous 
 tyrants — the sultans of the Ottoman Empire — who glor- 
 ified in cruelty and aimed " only at the height of great- 
 ness and sensuality," had " reduced so great and goodly 
 a part of the world to that lamentable distress and servi- 
 tude under which it now faints and groans." " The true 
 religion " is still " discountenanced and oppressed ; no 
 light of learning permitted, nor virtue cherished ; violence 
 and rapine exulting over all and leaving no security, 
 
 * "Annual Report of the A. B. C. F. M.," page 14. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 85 
 
 save to an abject mind and unlooked-on poverty." This 
 language of an eye-witness, uttered two centuries and a 
 half ago, was found literally true when the missionaries 
 came into the East. And they found also in this un- 
 happy empire " a noble race " — the Armenians — who 
 have been called " the Anglo-Saxons of the East," whose 
 " standard of moral purity is also said to be immeasura- 
 bly above that of the Turks around them, and they have 
 a conscience which can be touched and roused." 
 
 As it has been said before, the Armenians had wel- 
 comed the missionaries, and had they been left alone they 
 would not have attempted to prevent the reformation at 
 all. " When the missionaries came to Turkey they were 
 kindly received by the patriarch and clergymen, who 
 showed great hospitality and favor to them, and encour- 
 aged them to build up schools, which they promised to 
 support by sending to these their young men and priests 
 to be educated. But afterwards the Jesuits, who are 
 ever the uncompromising enemies of Protestantism, se- 
 cretly stirred up the Armenian and Greek leaders against 
 the missionaries and their work, whom they now began 
 to regard with suspicion and envy. Even among the 
 Armenian priests and college-men were those who, 
 though they at first persecuted the Protestants, became 
 not only their staunchest friends, but also earnest work- 
 ers for the cause of Christ." 
 
 The following statement of an American writer con- 
 firms the above quotation from a native writer: "In 1834 
 these schools had two thousand scholars, and though 
 supported by the people, yet, having been established by 
 the advice and assistance of the mission, their influence 
 
1 86 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 was great in its favor, till the monks and priests began 
 to preach violently against the mission and schools, 
 ' and even against the Patriarch for favoring them.' 
 But it was too late to destroy their influence. The Ar- 
 menians had become roused by the spreading light."* 
 And "in 1835 the revival of learning and piety among 
 the Armenians continued to advance hand in hand." 
 
 The seminary at Bebek in 1840 commenced with three 
 scholars, and in the following year the number of the 
 students had increased to twenty-four, and many had 
 been refused for want of funds. A few years later a fe- 
 male seminary started at Pera, Constantinople, with its 
 wonderful effect upon the community. Education ofthe 
 female, neglected for centuries, began to revive in the 
 East; even the adult women and matrons attempted to 
 learn to read their Bibles, and they generally succeeded 
 well. " Fifty adult females have begun to learn to read 
 during the year; more than fifty have already learned to 
 read well, and many others are in process of learning." 
 Thus wherever the missionaries went there they started 
 schools, and these schools were not only the centres from 
 which light radiated around, but they also became nuclei 
 for new churches in many places. 
 
 We therefore find the number of the schools and 
 scholars constantly increasing year after year. In 1854 
 the Bebek Seminary reported its number of pupils fifty. 
 " Its former pupils are employed as preachers, teachers, 
 translators, and helpers in many places." In the follow- 
 
 *" Mission Schools" ofthe A. B. C. F. M., page 375. By Rev. R. 
 G. Wilder. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 8/ 
 
 ing year " it was found impossible to supply the increas- 
 ing demand for teachers and preachers from the semin- 
 ary, hence the missionaries were importunate for others, 
 and commenced one at Tokat with twelve, and another 
 at Aintab with nine students, looking to the lower 
 schools for future classes. The free schools increased 
 this year to thirty-eight, and the whole number of pupils 
 nine hundred and sixty." 
 
 It was in the same year, 1855, that " the American 
 Board sent the Rev. Drs. Anderson and Thompson to 
 India and Turkey." In the previous year the Baptist 
 Missionary Society also had sent its deputation to India. 
 " The result of these delegations was that the character 
 of the education of nearly all the missionary institutions 
 of the highest grade was wholly changed. The English 
 language was proscribed and the curriculum of studies 
 reduced to a vernacular basis. Many schools were 
 closed and some missionaries came home, and consider- 
 able friction was occasioned, but the new system was 
 rigidly enforced." * 
 
 Dr. Cyrus Hamlin — whose words are the above — Dr. 
 H. J. Van Lennep, and some other missionaries advo- 
 cated the importance of a thorough education and the 
 knowledge of the English language for the native min- 
 istry, believing that " no country was ever reformed but 
 by its sons," and that for such a great work a better 
 education is necessary. They, however, met not a little 
 opposition from the Board and some of their asso- 
 ciates. 
 
 * " Among the Turks," page 275. By Dr. C. Hamlin. 
 
155 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 " The American Board's change of base on the matter 
 of education " furnished an occasion — for some trouble 
 in the field — for some Armenian young men who sought 
 a better education abroad. But their aspiring and ven- 
 turing into England and America for a thorough Eng- 
 lish education subjected them to some of the mission- 
 aries' opposition, and afterwards to discouragement in 
 getting employment in the missionary work. Even as 
 late as in 1880 Dr. Hamlin, advocating his position, 
 wrote : — 
 
 " Every young man who started with a good founda- 
 tion of English and of character has done well. I re- 
 call at this moment five such cases : (i.) Alexan Bezjian, 
 now professor in Aintab College. (2.) Alexander 
 Djijisian, pastor at Ada Barzar, who spent one or two 
 years in Edinburgh. He is a noble and strong man in 
 judgment, power of argument, in true insight, in theo- 
 logical training, and as a preacher, the superior of 
 many a missionary. (3.) The late Broosa pastor, now 
 head of the high school, who studied at Basle. No 
 one will dare to impugn his character and ability. (4.) 
 Pastor Kerope, like the others, a Bebek Seminary stu- 
 dent. He went to England, and Mr. Farnsworth, in- 
 stead of opposing him, had the grace to aid him. He 
 made a good impression in England and obtained aid to 
 build a church, and Mr. Farnsworth pronounced it the 
 best church that has been erected in Turkey among the 
 Protestants. (5.) Pastor Thomas, of Diarbekir. I do 
 not know of a man who speaks the Armenian language 
 who is his equal for a platform speech. He carries his 
 audience with him. He is clear and logical. He lifts 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 89 
 
 up his audience to higher planes of principle, thought, 
 and feeling." Dr. Hamlin stated in the same letter 
 above quoted that " the firm, consistent, persevering 
 opposition of the native element compelled Marsovan, 
 and even Harpoot, after years of useless and injurious 
 resistance, to abandon ' vernacular education ' as the 
 highest to which man may aspire." 
 
 We are glad that now a general harmony exists be- 
 tween the Reformed Armenian churches and the mission 
 on the matter of education and co-operation of the 
 foreign and native forces in furthering the evangeliza- 
 tion of Western Asia. And it is not uncommon to read 
 in the reports of the missionaries that " the relations 
 between the missionaries and native brethren are cordial, 
 and the general conduct of the work is wholly under the 
 control of a co-operative committee, consisting of the 
 five male members of the station and five natives ap- 
 pointed by the Evangelical Union."* 
 
 Our apparent diverging from the continuation of the 
 narrative of the progress of our schools, and as means 
 in furthering the cause of Christ, will not be considered 
 as such when we remember that even in our seeming 
 divergence we have been able to see that a liberal edu- 
 cation, with a good knowledge of the English language, 
 
 *Evangelical unions, four in number, are like presbyteries 
 formed by the native pastors and licensed preachers, and meet 
 once a year. 
 
 " Our fellow- workers, whether Armenian or Greek, have, 
 with rare exceptions, been true helpers in the Lord's work, 
 and for the last eight years they have co-operated with the mis- 
 sionaries on terms of perfect equality in all matters pertaining to 
 the evangelistic work and common-school education." — Rev. Dr. 
 Farnsworth, The Missionary Herald, February, 1892. 
 
I go THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 has raised from the natives such able teachers and 
 preachers, whose number is now greatly increased since 
 the mission was " compelled to abandon ' vernacular 
 education ' as the highest to which man may aspire." 
 And the consequent harmony, on this and other points, 
 now crowns the work with the greatest success attain- 
 able under such disadvantages and oppositions of the 
 Turkish government, which greatly hinder the work. 
 
 The annual report of the Board gives the following 
 statistics on the subject of education: — 
 
 Three hundred and eighty-one common schools for 
 boys and girls. 
 
 Four hundred and ninety-one teachers for these 
 schools. 
 
 Fourteen thousand eight hundred afid thirty-six pupils 
 in these schools. 
 
 Twenty-seven colleges, high, and boarding-schools for 
 boys. 
 
 Seventeen high and boarding-schools for girls. 
 
 Nineteen hundred and sixty-five pupils, boys and girls, 
 in these schools. 
 
 Four theological seminaries. 
 
 Twenty-five students. 
 
 Eighteen thousand one hundred and thirty-eight the 
 total under instruction.* 
 
 If these figures are not positive proofs of the wonder- 
 ful progress of the work of education, of the superiority 
 of the missionary, or rather Protestant institutions, and 
 of the love of truth of the native youth who flock into 
 
 * A very small percentage of this number and of the communi- 
 cants is made up of the Greek converts. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. I9I 
 
 these schools, surely we have not and cannot have any- 
 better evidence to support our statement. 
 
 The religious influence of these schools is great upon 
 the Armenian community. Great masses of the people 
 have been enlightened to such a degree as to seldom 
 • discuss on the minor topics of differences of forms or 
 rites in different churches, but the weightier matters of 
 spiritual realities have taken possession of them. In 
 various places the students of these schools have organ- 
 ized Young Men's Christian Associations, Young Peo- 
 ple's Societies of Christian Endeavor, and they are act- 
 ively engaged in spreading the true light of Christianity 
 throughout the country. No more will you hear the 
 clergymen of the ancient Armenian Church preach to 
 their congregations, as they used to twenty-five or thirty 
 years ago, anything but the gospel. 
 
 The influence of these schools is immeasurably great, 
 from the educational point of view, upon the Protestant, 
 non-Protestant Armenians, and other communities. Over 
 twenty years ago Hagop Effendi, the civil head of the 
 Protestant community, having " made a tour of observa- 
 tion through the empire," reported that " the fact that 
 eighty-five per cent, of the adults in (Protestant) com- 
 munity can read, speaks greatly in favor of its members." 
 
 In many a town and village where there was either no 
 school or a very poor one, but as soon as the Protestants 
 started one the other communities were also roused to 
 open schools or improve theirs as to prevent children 
 attending the Protestant school. Not only the intelligent 
 Armenians have seen the necessity of schools to meet 
 the need of the rising generation, but even the indolent 
 
192 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 Turks were roused to open schools, as it were, in oppo- 
 sition to the Protestant schools, as in the case of the 
 Turkish college, so-called, at Harpoot, opposite the 
 Armenia college of the Protestants. The missionary- 
 writes from Harpoot : " The Armenian schools are also 
 making progress. Their common schools are superior 
 to the Turkish common schools. In the leading towns 
 they have opened schools for girls. Even the Turks are 
 preparing to open a girls' school here." 
 
 It will be impossible to follow the salutary influences 
 of the Evangelical churches, Sabbath-schools, and vari- 
 ous Christian organizations and institutions which are 
 flowing into different channels, and effecting great 
 changes in domestic, social, and business relations of 
 the people, and above all " silently molding the destinies 
 of the empire." 
 
 But let not our reader be misled into thinking that the 
 Turkish empire is willing to be molded, or unconscious 
 of these " silently molding " influences. The distin- 
 guished Oriental traveler, Vambery, more than twenty 
 years ago remarked that " Islamism is now engaged in a 
 final struggle with Western civilization which must result 
 in the success of the latter. For fifty years Christian 
 missionaries have been laboring for the evangelization 
 of the empire, and it is a cheering fact that great results 
 have been achieved, but all has been among the nominal 
 Christians. This movement carried to completion may 
 instill a vitality into these communities which shall en- 
 able them to survive the crash of the Turkish power 
 when it comes. But to this day Islamism presents a 
 solid front against the spirit and success of evangelical 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 93 
 
 and enlightened progress." And this " solid front " is 
 now more consolidated and even aggressive than ever 
 before, as the following unanimous testimony of many, 
 in regard to this fact, will show : — 
 
 "A number of letters have come to us from different 
 sources which indicate that the condition of affairs in 
 Turkey is such as may well occasion not a little anxiety. 
 In order to fully understand them a few words in regard 
 to the attitude of the Turkish government toward Chris- 
 tianity will be useful. 
 
 " This attitude is never openly aggressive in prosely- 
 tism, nor is it openly hostile. Christians, however, do 
 not stand on equal footing with Moslems before the law, 
 and what rights they have are grudgingly bestowed. A 
 mosque can be built without any hinderance, but to 
 build a church requires a firman, and that is beset by so 
 many difficulties that the attempt to secure one is often 
 given up in despair. So with schools, which are readily 
 promised, but which meet with constant hinderances that 
 do not appear on the surface. Everywhere there is a 
 marked increase of jealousy of Christian progress, and 
 a constant effort to restrict and even withdraw the rights 
 granted to the Christian communities at the time of con- 
 quest, and enjoyed by them ever since. 
 
 " That this effort has not succeeded to any great ex- 
 tent is due partly to foreign influence, partly to fear of a 
 great commotion among both Armenians and Greeks, 
 and partly to dread of the press, which is a considerable 
 power, notwithstanding the rigid censorship maintained 
 by the government. How rigid this is can hardly be 
 appreciated by any one who has not had personal 
 
194 THE ARMENIANS, 
 
 experience in either Turkey or Russia. Free reference 
 to current topics is absolutely forbidden, often merest 
 mention of them is not allowed. Special authorization 
 is required for the publication of any book, pamphlet, 
 or even leaflet ; «nd if there is the slighest flavor of 
 criticism of the government or Islam, or even a thought 
 that could be construed as offensive to them, the permit 
 is refused. Readers, geographies, histories, for use in 
 schools, are often amended, mutilated, or proscribed al- 
 together, and even foreign books, intended for private 
 libraries, some of them standard works, are confiscated. 
 The missionaries at one of the interior stations have been 
 for years trying to secure the permit to use a small hand- 
 press on which they desire to print school programmes, 
 leaflets, &c. The pledge to print nothing that does not 
 receive the approval of the censor avails nothing. The 
 government seems to be as afraid of the bit of machin- 
 ery as if it were a charge of dynamite." * 
 
 The Rev. Dr. H. N. Barnum, of Harpoot, furnishes 
 us with the following striking instance of restriction of 
 the government, which will show under what disadvan- 
 
 * The Independent of August 27th, 1891. 
 
 The Turk iiever did believe much in tolerance, and never al- 
 lows it where he can help it. * * * The edict has gone forth 
 for subjection of all Christians, native and foreign, "to the strictest 
 press censorship and scrutiny for Bible and Christian books," 
 while houses are not to be " used as schools and churches except 
 by the authority of an imperial firman." This really means, in 
 the present temper of the Porte, cessation of missionary and edu- 
 cational operations. Already Bibles have been burnt and books 
 destroyed, and there is great anxiety in missionary and Bible cir- 
 cles, both in England and America. — The Presbyterian, April 
 13th, 1892. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. I95 
 
 tages and hinderances the missionary work is advanc- 
 ing :— 
 
 " The Turkish government has pubhshed a new regu- 
 lation which requires that all essays and written ad- 
 dresses for public occasions shall be submitted to the 
 censorship in advance, and receive its approval. This 
 requirement was complied with here ; but one of the 
 young ladies, in order to round out a paragraph and 
 give additional force to her line of thought, unwisely 
 added a sentence to the copy, which she read in public, 
 in glorification of the cross. This was at once reported 
 to the local government, probably by the censor himself, 
 who was present, as having a political significance, and 
 as meaning that the cross was to triumph over the cres- 
 cent, and all that. So there was a breeze ! The author- 
 ities said : ' We have always had confidence in these 
 American schools that they were free from political in- 
 trigue, but now it is manifest that they must be watched.' 
 But a presentation of the offending document to the 
 governor-general, with the assurance that the change 
 was made by the writer without the knowledge of any 
 one else, quieted the official alarm ; yet it was a little 
 embarrassing to those who had scented incipient revolu- 
 tion ! The delicacy of the political situation can be 
 judged by the fact that an innocent sentence uttered by 
 a young girl can produce such a disturbance."* 
 
 A few instances given in the previous pages, and like 
 the above, out of many, will justify us to agree with 
 Vambery and repeat his words here : " The conviction 
 is inevitable that until the power of Islamism is broken 
 
 * The Missionary Herald, October, 1891. 
 
196 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 the true reformation of this land is an impossibility. At 
 whose door shall we lay the blame of cherishing such a 
 viper? That the solution of the vexed question of the 
 political status of Turkey involves grave difficulties can- 
 not be denied. But those (the European powers) that 
 are pleased to preserve the existing state of things as a 
 barrier for themselves against the encroachments of an 
 already overgrown European power ought to take into 
 consideration the results of encouraging the continuance 
 of a power at once so poisonous and so suicidal as that 
 of the waning crescent." 
 
 The number of the missionaries of the American 
 Board, married and unmarried, and male and female, is 
 one hundred and fifty-seven. They occupy fifteen sta- 
 tions, or such central cities where greater activity is 
 required. These stations are also the centres of educa- 
 tion, where the seminaries, colleges, high and board- 
 ing-schools are located. The printing press and the 
 publications of religious papers, tracts, and books have 
 their establishment at the capital, Constantinople. 
 
 The missionaries are engaged in teaching in these 
 various schools, in occasional preaching, in general su- 
 perintending the work, as the medium between the 
 Board and the mission churches, in opening new sta- 
 tions of preaching, and they have also the oversight and 
 management of the publication work. 
 
 "This department serves the needs of^^the three mis- 
 sions (Western, Central, Eastern) in Asiatic Turkey, 
 employs the constant labors of three missionaries and 
 several able native brethren, and contributes in a notable 
 degree to the power and stability of the growing Chris- 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. I97 
 
 tian life and institutions of the empire. The summary 
 of pubhcations for the year is as follows : — 
 
 PAGES. 
 
 Armenian books and tracts 4,822,928 
 
 Armeno-Turkish (Armenian characters in Turkish lan- 
 guage) books and tracts 1,663,584 
 
 Greco-Turkish books and tracts 668,848 
 
 Greek books and tracts 78,000 
 
 Arabo-Turkish books and tracts 487,500 
 
 Total number of pages * 7,721,860 
 
 The foregoing brief sketch of the work of reforma- 
 tion will hardly leave any room to restate the fact that 
 through. the consecrated services of the missionaries of 
 this Board a great revival of learning and piety, begun 
 long ago, is still continuing with wonderful rapidity in 
 spite of all the oppositions and unjust requirements of 
 the Turkish government. That a pure evangelical 
 Christianity is now well established in this Mohamme- 
 dan Empire ; that setting up the gospel standard in the 
 land, blowing the trumpet among the nations, preparing 
 the nation against her, modern Babylon (the Turkish 
 Empire), and calling together against her the kingdoms 
 of Ararat, Minni, and Ashchenaz have aroused the Baby- 
 lonish power, which is straining every nerve to crush 
 the existence of the religion of Christ in her dominions- 
 Her overthrow, however, is sure to come when "the 
 kings of the Medes " — the Aryan powers of Europe — 
 hear the Divine call to fulfill their mission. And also 
 those who pray, " Thy kingdom come" will always have 
 a sacred interest in Armenia or Ararat, which has lost 
 
 * Annual Report of the A. B. C. F. M. for 1891. 
 
198 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 her kingdom for receiving Christ's kingdom, and she 
 now sits solitary and mourns for her desolation, and 
 weeps, like Rachel, for her oppressed, tortured, impris- 
 oned, massacred, exiled children, and also for those who 
 have preferred voluntary exile to the tyranny of an op- 
 pressive and hostile government; and as the captive 
 Jews, who sat by the rivers of Babylon and wept when 
 they remembered Zion, so, too, these expatriated sons of 
 Armenia in their solitary wanderings remember their 
 fatherland, and weepingly cry out : — 
 
 " O God, why hast Thou cast us off forever ? why 
 doth Thine anger smoke against the sheep of Thy 
 pasture ? 
 
 •" Remember Thy congregation, which Thou has pur- 
 chased of old. 
 
 " Have respect unto the covenant : for the dark places 
 of the earth are full of the habitations of cruelty. 
 
 "Arise, O God, plead Thine own cause." (Psalm 
 Ixxiv. I, 2, 20, 22.) 
 
 The missionary work in Persia was also begun by the 
 American Board, in 1835, at Oroomiah. The Board 
 transferred this field to the Presbyterian Church in 1871. 
 From this time the Presbyterian Church, through its 
 missionaries, has been carrying on the work of evangel- 
 ization of this historic land. The work under the Amer- 
 ican Board was almost exclusively confined to the Nes- 
 torian or Chaldean Christians, but since the occupation 
 of the field by the Presbyterian Church a direct mission- 
 ary work began among the Armenians in Persia. 
 
 Teheran, the capital of Persia, where the work began 
 in 1872, now has an evangelical church composed mostly 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 1 99 
 
 of the Armenians. " The entire number of the mem- 
 bers enrolled is fifty. Preaching has been sustained in 
 the chapel on the mission premises, and regular services 
 in the Armenian language have been held in the West 
 Side Chapel by our Armenian preacher, who reports a 
 marked increase in the congregation. The native church 
 is contemplating the erection of a new church building, 
 which they hope to secure largely through funds raised 
 by themselves and given by friends in Persia.* 
 
 Hamadan, the ancient capital of the Persian Empire, 
 was occupied by the mission in 1880. The evangelical 
 church at this city seems to be made up largely of Ar- 
 menians. " Our work is conducted in two sections of 
 the city, known as the Armenian and Jewish quarters 
 respectively. There is but one church organization, 
 however, into which the followers of Christ without dis- 
 tinction of name are gathered. During the past year 
 twenty-four, including five Jews and one Moslem, pub- 
 licly confessed Christ." The report made to the General 
 Assembly, May, 1 891, further states that " preaching has 
 been continued at Sheverine, a suburb of Hamadan, 
 where after morning service in the Armenian church in 
 this city the native pastor goes, accompanied by Miss 
 Annie Montgomery. Immediately after the preaching 
 service a sabbath-school is held ; also a prayer-meeting 
 on Thursdays which is largely attended by Moslem and 
 Armenian women." 
 
 From another place, Kasvin, the Armenians are call- 
 ing for a school and church organization. Mr. Esselstyn 
 
 * See the Report of the Board of Foreign Missions presented to 
 the General Assembly, May, 1891. 
 
200 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 writes : " Armenians are constantly begging us to open 
 a primary school, and a small number have even asked 
 for a church organization. Many Moslems are secretly 
 well disposed towards us." 
 
 Tabriz, a city of over one hundred and fifty thousand 
 inhabitants, was made a centre of missionary activity in 
 1873, but a direct work was begun-among the Armenians 
 still later. 
 
 Tabriz Boys' School and Theological Class, which is 
 placed under the care and instruction of Rev. S. G. 
 Wilson, seems to be destined to become a great centre 
 of Christian influence and civilization, radiating the light 
 of the truth, not only into the different parts of the be- 
 nighted Persian Empire, but even into the beclouded — 
 by superstitions, formalisms, and despotism — Empire of 
 Russia Mr. Wilson writes about the recent graduates 
 of this school as follows : " They are earnest Christians, 
 and most of them of superior ability. Their foundation 
 in science and languages is well laid. Besides Armenian 
 (their mother tongue), three of them are quite proficient 
 in English, Turkish, and Persian ; two are familiar with 
 Syriac, two with Arabic, two with Russian, and one with 
 the Kurdish language. This diversity of tongues makes 
 them well fitted to find opportunities among the heter- 
 ogeneous people." 
 
 So, too, the girls' school at Tabriz is exerting a great 
 influence upon the Armenian community far and wide. 
 " Two Armenian young women from Russia, about 
 eighteen years of age, coming from an evangelical com- 
 munity near Kars, have entered the school, having it for 
 their object to fit themselves for Christian work. Mrs, 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 20I 
 
 Van Hook writes that their native piety has great in- 
 fluence in the school, and she is much Encouraged in 
 finding that the school has acquired a name which draws 
 pupils from such a distance." 
 
 It is impossible to state with any accuracy how many 
 of the thirty-two hundred and ninety pupils, who are 
 receiving instruction from the American missionaries 
 and native teachers, at various places in Persia, are 
 Armenians, but the innate desire of the Armenian for a 
 better and higher education, wherever he may be, will 
 guarantee us to say that the number cannot be much 
 less than the one-third of the above, and soon their 
 number will outnumber that of the other nationalities 
 even in Persia. 
 
 It is delightful to see that the Presbyterian Church 
 has in Persia eight medical missionaries, two of whom 
 are females. The grand opportunities and facilities that 
 a medical missionary finds in making " known God's 
 saving health to all the people " are well summed up in 
 the following words of Rev. F. G. Coan, of Oroomiah, 
 after a long tour through the mountain regions of Kur- 
 distan : — 
 
 " I was greatly impressed with the wonderful facilities 
 a physician enjoys for gospel work. His profession 
 opens to him a door everywhere. From Kurdish and 
 Arab sheikh and Turkish official to the poorest peasant, 
 all hold him as a friend and benefactor. He has oppor- 
 tunities rarely given others of making known God's sav- 
 ing health to all the people. An illustration of the way 
 in which a physician opens the door for the gospel was 
 afforded us in Darwoodia in Supna. Two years prior to 
 
202 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 this visit Rev. McDowell and I, after fifteen hours' ride 
 in the saddle, arrived at this place late at night and were 
 refused lodgings. With much difficulty and through 
 the payment of large sums for all we needed, we were 
 finally allowed to remain over night. At this visit all 
 was changed. The whole village, including the Turkish 
 officials and the Catholic priest, were most cordial dur- 
 ing our ten days' stay, and urged us to build and settle 
 there. The priest every night took one of us up to his 
 own house, where he gathered an audience for us and 
 asked us to preach. This change had all come about 
 through the medical work which Dr. Wishard had done 
 there the previous year." 
 
 Herodotus found a custom among the ancient Baby- 
 lonians of which he spoke with praise. " The following 
 custom seems to me the wisest of their institutions next 
 to the one lately praised. They have no physicians, but 
 when a man is ill they lay him in the public square and 
 the passers-by come up to him, and if they have ever 
 had his disease themselves or have known any one who 
 has suffered from it they give him advice, recommend- 
 ing him to do whatever they found good in their case 
 or in the case known to them. And no man is allowed 
 to pass the sick man in silence without asking him what 
 his ailment is."* 
 
 This custom is still in existence in the East, with 
 only one modification, namely, instead of laying the 
 sick person in the public square they keep him in the 
 house, but the doors of the house are open for anybody 
 to come in and ask the ailment of the sick and suggest 
 
 * Book I., 197. 
 
THE REFORMED ARMENIAN CHURCH. 2O3 
 
 a drug or a method of cure. The reader can easily im- 
 agine the condition of the sick and the disappointment 
 of his friends. It is, therefore, no wonder that these 
 poor sufferers and their friends will exclaim, like Job, 
 " Ye are all physicians of no value," and welcome the 
 medical missionary, who is in a deep sympathy with the 
 spiritual and bodily welfare of the sick, and who readily 
 detects what the disease is and what medicines will 
 counteract the action of the poison in the system. And 
 often do the medical missionaries, as soon as they ar- 
 rive at a town or village surrounded by a host of suffer- 
 ers and their sympatlizing friends, remember the scenes 
 depicted by the evangelists in the time of Christ and the 
 Apostles. And no church or missionary organization 
 can do any better in sending out missionaries than to fol- 
 low the example of the Head of the Church, who " sent 
 them to preach the kingdom of God and heal the 
 sick." (Luke ix. 2.) 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 INSCRIPTIONS OF ARMENIA. 
 
 (From "Journal of Royal Asiatic Society," volume XIV.) 
 Translated by Prof. A. H. Saycb, of Oxford, England. 
 
 Inscription of Sarduris I. 
 I. 
 
 1. The tablet (?) of Sarduris, Son of Lutipri the great 
 King, the strong King, the King of multitudes. King 
 of Nairi, the King (of whom) his rival existed not, the 
 shepherd of habitations; he who feared not opposition, 
 the King who subdues those who are not obedient to 
 him. 
 
 2. Sarduris, the Son of Lutipri, the King of Kings, 
 of whom all them, the Kings, the tribute I received. 
 Sarduris, the Son of Lutipri, ground this for Ciibulani 
 these from the midst of the City of Aluiun I removed, 
 I this Citadel have built. 
 
 Inscription of Ispuinis. 
 
 III. 
 
 I. Ispuinis, Son of Sarduris the altar (?) has restored; 
 
 For the gods, children of Khaldis the favorable (?) 
 
 Ispuinis Son of Sarduris the temple has restored; as a 
 
 (205) 
 
206 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 chamber which was decayed the place of images 
 
 the country 
 
 2. Ispuinis the Son of Sarduris this house has built. 
 
 Inscriptions of Ispuinis and Menuas. 
 
 Regulation of Sacrifices to the gods. 
 
 V. 
 
 1. To Khaldis. the lord, Ispuinis, the Son of Sarduris 
 (and) Menuas the Son of Ispuinis (these gates) having 
 been built. 
 
 2. Have set up the regulations of sacrifice, day by day 
 (for) month each. 
 
 To Khaldis, Teisbas (the Air-god) (and) the Sun-god, 
 the gods of the people 6 lambs. 
 
 3. To Khaldis for sacrifice, 17 oxen, 34 sheep. 
 To Khaldis (and) the inundator the Air-god 6 oxen, 12 
 sheep. To the Sun-god 4 oxen, 8 sheep. 
 
 4. To Khudhuinis 2 oxen, 4 sheep. To Dhuranis an 
 ox, 2 sheep. To Huas 2 oxen, 4 sheep. To Nalainis 2 
 oxen, 4 sheep. To Sebitus 2 oxen, 4 sheep. To Arsi- 
 melas 2 oxen, 4 sheep. 
 
 5. To Hanapsas an ox, 2 sheep. To Deduainis an 
 ox, 2 sheep. To the Moon-god an ox, 2 sheep. To the 
 dead belonging to Khaldis an ox, 2 sheep. 
 
 6. To Atbinis an ox, 2 sheep. To Kueras an ox, 2 
 sheep. To Elipris an ox, 2 sheep. To Khalrainis an 
 ox, 2 sheep. To Adaratus an ox, 2 sheep. To Irmusi- 
 nis an ox, 2 sheep. To the God who (is) when the 
 offerings are carried away an ox, 2 sheep. 
 
 7. To Aldutusinis an ox, 2 sheep. To Erinas an ox, 
 
INSCRIPTIONS OF ARMENIA. 20/ 
 
 2 sheep. To Siniris an ox, 2 sheep. To Huninas an ox, 
 2 sheep. To Airainis an ox, 2 sheep. To the god of 
 the city Zumar an ox, 2 sheep. To Kharas an ox, 2 
 sheep. To Arazas an ox, 2 sheep. 
 
 8. To Zinkunis an ox, 2 sheep. To Huras an ox, 2 
 sheep. To Artsibaddinis an ox, 2 sheep. To Amis an 
 ox, 2 sheep. To the four Khaldises of the house an ox, 
 2 sheep. To the multitudincyas Khaldises an ox, 2 
 sheep. 
 
 9. To the Khaldises of an ox, 2 sheep. To the 
 horsemen belonging to the land of Khaldis 2 oxen, 4 
 sheep. To the horsemen of the Air-god 2 oxen, 4 
 sheep. 
 
 10. To Ardhuharairus 2 oxen, 4 sheep. To the god 
 of the City Ardinis an ox, 2 sheep. To the god of the 
 City Kumenus an ox, 2 sheep. To the god of the City 
 Dhuspas an ox, 2 sheep. 
 
 11. To the gods, the children of Khaldis of the city 
 an ox, 2 sheep. To the gods of the City of Artsuinis 
 an ox, 2 sheep. To the gods of the place of Khaldis 
 an ox, 2 sheep. To Subas an ox, 2 sheep. To the gate 
 of the city of Khaldis an ox, 2 sheep. 
 
 12. To the gate of the City of Eridias an ox, 2 sheep. 
 To the gate of the Sun-god in the City of Huisis an ox, 
 2 sheep. To Eliahas an ox, 2 sheep. 
 
 13. To the Khaldises of the Citadel an ox, 2 sheep. 
 To the Khaldises the gracious an ox, 2 sheep. To the 
 gods the children of Khaldis of (buildings) walls an ox, 
 2 sheep. 
 
 14. To Talapuras an ox, 2 sheep. To Kilibanis an ox, 
 2 sheep. To the god of the country of Algonis an ox, 
 
208 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 2 sheep. To the god of the City of Tsuinis (?) an ox, 
 2 sheep. To the god of the City of Atkanas 2 oxen, 4 
 (14) sheep. To the god of diras 2 oxen, 14 sheep. 
 
 To the god of the nations 4 oxen, 18 sheep. 
 
 15. To the Khaldises of the dead an ox, 2 sheep. 
 To the gate of the City of the god Huais the City of 
 Nisiadurus (?) 2 sheep. To (the god) of the land of 
 Babas 10 sheep. To Harubainis a wild ox, 2 sheep. 
 To Babas a wild ox, 2 sheep. 
 
 16. To Dhuspuas (the god of the people of Dhuspuas) 
 a wild ox, 2 sheep. To Auis (the water-god) a wild ox. 
 To Ayas (the Earth-god) a wild ox. To Sardis a wild 
 ox. To Tsinuyardis 2 sheep. 
 
 17. To Ipkkaris a sheep. To Bartsias a sheep. 
 
 18. To Siaias a sheep. To Arhas a sheep. To Adias 
 a sheep. To Uias a sheep. To the god of Aais 4 
 sheep. To Ardis 2 sheep. To the god of lunas 17 
 sheep. 
 
 19. To the all the Khaldises, the gods, food for all 
 (and) each (and) shields by Ispuinis, Son of Sarduris 
 (and) Menuas Son of Ispuinis. 
 
 20. Ispuinis Son of Sarduris and Menuas Son of 
 Ispuinis To the Khaldises of every kind place of 
 approach this to the gods of the nations. 3 oxen, 30 
 sheep and the they have given (?) in any case 
 publicly for sacrifice (?) after dawn after dusk (?) after 
 dark. (?) 
 
 21. Ispuinis Son of Sarduris (and) Menuas Son of 
 Ispuinis monuments these have set up to Khaldis ; the 
 (gifts, works) of the men these have established and the 
 images of the mighty gods. 
 
INSQ^IPTIONS OF ARMENIA. 20g 
 
 22. Ispuinis the Son of Sarduris and Menuas the Son 
 Ispuinis altar this have set up ; they have set up the reg- 
 ulations (and) the god of wood and stone (?) after 
 
 to Khaldis 3 sheep to be sacrificed (and) 3 sheep to 
 the gods of the people, the gods of the monuments after 
 the spring; to Khaldis 3 sheep to be sacrificed (and) 3 
 sheep to the gods of the people, the gods of the monu- 
 ments after the summer ; to Khaldis 3 sheep to be sacri- 
 ficed, and three sheep to the gods of the people after the 
 winter. Then they have 
 
 XX. 
 
 The following is on a rock about fifty feet high near the 
 " Gate of Treasure," a place of pilgrimage, at Van : — 
 
 1. To the Khaldis, the gracious, Menuas, son of Ispu- 
 inis here the tablets destroyed restores. 
 
 To the children of Khaldis the multitudinous be- 
 
 longing to Menuas Son of Ispuinis the mighty King. 
 
 2. King of multitudes. King of the country of Van, 
 inhabiting the City of Dhuspas. Menuas Son of 
 Ispuinis say : whoever this tablet carries away 
 
 whoever carries away the name whoever with 
 
 the earfh here destroys whoever that undoes 
 
 3. which I have done ; for all that belongs to the 
 rock (?) may Khaldis, the Air-god (and) 
 Sun-god, the gods him publicly name his, family 
 his, town his, to fire (and) water consign. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 This inscription is on the castle of Van, on the east 
 side of "Khorkhor" (very deep). 
 
2IO ■ THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 1. Menuas Son of Ispuinis this injunction has 
 made belonging to the cave-tomb. Menuas says ; the 
 whole of the chambers excavated for these be- 
 longing to the tomb he has executed (both) the 
 suite of chambers (and) the inscriptions. 
 
 2. Menuas say ; whoever the bulls (?) belong- 
 ing to them removes, and whoever destroys with 
 water whoever the dead belonging to them 
 
 robs (injures), whoever of this tablet carries away 
 
 the memory, 
 
 3. whoever these (things) here destroys, for 
 what belongs to the rock (?) may Khaldis the Air-god 
 (and) the Sun-god him in public the name 
 of him, the family of him, the town of him, 
 to fire (and) water consign. 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 This is found on stones of " Seven Churches," at Van. 
 
 To Teisbas Menuas, Son of Ispuinis this inscribed 
 stone has written, belonging to Menuas Son of Ispuinis 
 the powerful King, the King Biainian * inhabiting the 
 City of Dhuspas. 
 
 XXX. 
 
 The following inscription is engraved on a rock called 
 in Turkish "Yazlutash." (Written stone near Malash- 
 gherd.) 
 
 I. To the Khaldis I have approached to the powers 
 mighty in the powerful country belonging to the Son of 
 Diaus. 
 
 * Biainia stands here for Armenia ; these kings call themselves 
 Biamians. Dhuspas is the old name of the city of Van, 
 
INSCRIPTIONS OF ARMENIA. 211 
 
 2. To Khaldis, giver to the Khaldis the mighty the 
 givers to the children of Khaldis the gracious I have 
 approached. To those who belong to Menuas the Son 
 of Ispuinis I have approached with offering, the Khaldis. 
 
 3. Menuas say ; I have conquered belonging to the 
 Son of Diaus the lands (and) the City of Sasilus the 
 royal city I have conquered for a spoil the country I 
 have plundered, the palaces. I have departed out of the 
 land of the Sesatians, the City of Zuaians (and) of the 
 City of Udhukhias the neighborhood. 
 
 4. Menuas say ; Udhupursis, the king the son of 
 Diaus, I attacked with arms (?) Hostages and Tribute, I 
 imposed. On receipt (?) of gifts (?) I changed his name ; 
 He brought gold (and) silver, brought he, and the 
 princes, all and each, the priest (and) the people. 
 
 5. Menuas say; the many possessions of the Son of 
 Diaus, horses, horsemen, chariots, charioteers, of the 
 magazines the sons of, 
 
 6. I carried off the army officers, the sons of the 
 
 the people of the two kingdoms I despoiled : 
 of the Son of Baltul the countries, of the City of 
 Khaldi-ri-alkhis the countries, 
 
 the palaces, the spoil, (and) the seat of the government 
 I despoiled. 
 
 7. Menuas say ; Whover this tablet removes ; 
 whoever removes the name ; whoever with earth here 
 destroyed ; Whoever that undoes that which I have 
 done ; for all that belongs to the rock (?) may Khaldis, 
 the Air-god (and) Sun-god, the gods, him publicly, the 
 name of him, the family of him, the city of him, to 
 fire and water consign. 
 
212 ■ THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 XXXII. 
 
 This inscription is found in Saint Paul's Church, at 
 Van. 
 
 1. To Khaldis the gracious, Menuas Son of Ispuinis 
 (?) to the land of the Minni * on approaching, the peo- 
 ple of the country carried away ; I plundered the goods 
 
 the camps the monuments, belonging to the 
 
 Son of Sadahadas, belonging to the country, the 
 
 City of Surisidas, the City of Torkhigamos, the City 
 of dhuras, the seat of the Son of Sadahadas which 
 
 was called. 
 
 2. The City of das, the stones, the seat of 
 the Hittites which was called belonging to the country 
 of Algis 21 13 soldiers partly I killed, 
 
 partly alive I took some and each I brought those 
 
 belonging to the army. 
 
 XXXIII. 
 
 The following inscription is engraved on the face of a 
 cliff overlooking the Euphrates at Palu, whose old name 
 was Puteria. 
 
 1. To the Khaldises I prayed, to the powers mighty, 
 who have given the City of Puterias. Who have given 
 to the City of Khuzanas the countries (and) the land of 
 Gupas : 
 
 2. To Khaldis the giver, to the Khaldises the mighty, 
 the givers, to the children of Khaldis, the gracious 
 I prayed, belonging to Menuas the Son of Ispuinis who 
 has conquered belonging to the City of Puterias the 
 
 * Jeremiah li. 27. 
 
INSCRIPTIONS OF ARMENIA. 21 3 
 
 districts and belonging to the city of Khuzanas the dis- 
 tricts, who has conquered the land of Gupas. 
 
 3. Who has departed out of the land of the Hittites, 
 this inscribed stone who has written and to Khaldis who' 
 has consecrated ; who has conquered (?) of the City of 
 Puterias the neighborhood Sudani-zavadas, the 
 King of Malatiyah of the inhabitants, who have 
 changed (the name) (?) 
 
 4. To the children of Khaldis the multitudinous be- 
 longing to Menuas the Son of Ispuinis the powerful 
 king, the king of multitudes, the King Biamian, 
 inhabiting the City of Dhuspas, 
 
 5. Menuas say; Whoever of this tablet removes the 
 memory, whoever removes, whoever these (things here) 
 destroys, for what belongs to the rock (?) may Khaldis, 
 the Air-god (and) Sun-god, the gods him publicly the 
 name of him, the family of him, the city of him to fire 
 and water consign. 
 
 XXXV. 
 
 "The following inscription isfound near Erzerum, at 
 Hassan Kala : " — 
 
 1. To the Khaldises, the gracious, Menuas, the Son of 
 Ispuinis this palace has restored which was decayed. 
 
 2. To the sons of Khaldis, the multitudinous, belong- 
 ing to Menuas the Son of Ispuinis, the powerful, the 
 king of multitudes, the Biainian, inhabiting the City 
 Dhuspas. 
 
 XXXVI. 
 
 Inscriptions of Argistis. 
 " The following inscription was copied by Vartabed 
 Mesrob Sampadian, in a valley near Elorh, near Erevan, 
 
214 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 and published in the Armenian Journal of Moscow, 
 1863." 
 
 1. To the Khaldis I prayed, to the powers mighty, 
 who have given the Etiunians, to Khaldis the giver, to 
 the Khaldises, the mighty, the givers, to the children of 
 Khaldis, the gracious, I prayed, belong to Argistis the 
 Son of Menuas, who had conquered of Uluanis the land 
 (and) the City of Doras the Lands. 
 
 2. To the children of Khaldis the multitudinous be- 
 longing to Argistis the Son of Menuas, the strong King, 
 the king of multitudes the King of the country of 
 Biainas, inhabiting the City of Dhuspas. 
 
 XLVII. 
 
 Inscription of Sarduris II. 
 
 The following is written on a stone in the Church of 
 Saint Peter (Sourp Petros), at Van : — 
 
 1. To Khaldis the lord this stone written 
 Sarduris Son of Argistis has engraved, 
 
 To the children of Khaldis the multitudinous, 
 belonging to Sarduris, the Son of Argistis, 
 
 The King of multitudes, the king of the land of 
 Suras, King of Van, king of kings. 
 
 Inhabiting the City of Dhuspas. 
 
 2. Sarduris says : I have established the offerings 
 daily, (and) monthly (several lines incomplete here.) 
 
 Sarduris say: Whoever all (?) destroys (or) re- 
 moves the name. Whoever this tablet removes, 
 
 Whoever with earth here destroys, undoes on this 
 
INSCRIPTIONS OF ARMENIA. 21 5 
 
 stone (?) Whoever undoes which I have made, for what 
 belongs to the stone (?) 
 
 3. May Khaldis, the Air-god (and) Sun-god, the gods ; 
 him with a curse four times four publicly. 
 
 The name of him, the family of him, the city of him, to 
 fire (and) water consign. 
 
 4. Sarduris the Son of Argistis say: Khaldis 120 
 prisoners has brought, on enslaving (them) of the 
 
 20 prisoners (and) their gods, the spoil (and) portions of 
 the captives, viz. : — 
 
 These oxen, these sheep, belonging to 
 
 Their property, I took their horsemen. 
 
 XLI. 
 
 Inscriptions of Rusas. 
 
 Found near ancient Managerd, inscribed on bronze 
 shields : — 
 
 1. To the children of Khaldis the multitudinous, 
 belonging to Rusas, the Son of Erimenas, the power- 
 ful king. 
 
 The King inhabiting the City of Dhuspas 
 
 2. To the children of Khaldis the multitudinous, be- 
 longing to Rusas the Grand Son of Argistis the power- 
 ful king inhabiting the City of Dhuspas. 
 
 LII. 
 
 For Khaldis the mighty, the lord, this shield 
 Rusas the Son of Erimenas has dedicated (and) 
 
 The shield bearers, for the children of Khaldis 
 the multitudinous, belonging to Rusas Son of Erime- 
 
2l6 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 nas the strong king, the King inhabiting the City of 
 Dhuspas. 
 
 The Inscription of Xerxes, the Persian King, at 
 
 Van. 
 
 "A great god is Ormazd, who (is) the greatest of gods, 
 Who has created this earth, who has created that 
 heaven, who has 
 
 Created mankind, who has given happiness to men. 
 Who has made Xerxes king, sole king of many kings, 
 
 Sole lord of many. I am Xerxes, the great king. 
 The king of kings, the king of the provinces with many 
 languages, the king of this great earth, far and 
 
 near. Son of King Darius, the Akhalmenian. 
 
 Says Xerxes the king : Darius the king, my father, 
 t)id many works, through the protection of Ormazd, and 
 on this Monument he commanded to make his 
 tablet and an image ; yet an inscription he did not 
 
 make : Afterwards I ordered this inscription to be 
 
 written. May Ormazd, along with all the gods, protect 
 me and my kingdom And my work." 
 
 Some other important and long historical inscriptions, and 
 fragments of inscriptions, which belong to the kings of Ararat, 
 are omitted here. A few are given here only to give an idea 
 to those who are interested in the antiquity and ancient glory 
 of Armenia. 
 
THE SULTAN, ABDUL MEDJID'S PROMISES OF 
 REFORM. HATTI HUMAYOUN OF 1856. 
 
 Let it be done as herein set forth. 
 
 To you, my grand vizier, Mehemed Emin Aali Pasha, decorated with my 
 Imperial Order of the MedjidyS of the first class, and with the Order of Per- 
 sonal Merit ; may God grant to you greatness and increase your power ! 
 
 It has always been my most earnest desire to insure the happiness of all 
 classes of the subjects whom Divine Providence has placed under my Imperial 
 sceptre ; and since my accession to the throne I have not ceased to direct all 
 my efforts to the attainment of that end. 
 
 Thanks to the Almighty, these unceasing efforts have already been pro- 
 ductive of numerous useful results. From day to day the happiness of the 
 nation and the wealth of my dominions go on augmenting. 
 
 It being now my desire to renew and enlarge still more the new institu- 
 tions, ordained with a view of establishing a state of things conformable with 
 the dignity of my empire and the position which it occupies among civilized 
 nations ; and the rights of my empire having, by the fidelity and praiseworthy 
 efforts of all my subjects, and by the kind and friendly assistance of the Great 
 Powers, my noble allies, received from abroad a confirmation which will be 
 the commencement of a new era, it is my desire to augment its well-being and 
 prosperity, to effect the happiness of all my subjects, who in my sight are all 
 equal and equally dear to me, and who are united to each other by the cordial 
 ties of patriotism, and to insure the means of daily increasing the prosperity 
 of my empire. I have, therefore, resolved upon, and I order the execution of, 
 the following measures : — 
 
 The guarantees promised on our part by the Hatti Humayoun of Gfil Hane, 
 and in conformity with the Tanzimat, to all the subjects of my empire, without 
 distinction of classes or of religion, for the security of their persons and prop- 
 erty and the preservation of their honor, are to-day confirmed and consolidated ; 
 and efficacious measures shall be taken in order that they may have their full 
 and entire effect. 
 
 All the privileges and spiritual immunities granted by my ancestors, ab 
 antiquo, and at subsequent dates, to all Christian communities or other non- 
 Mussulman persuasions, established in my empire under my protection, shall 
 be confirmed and maintained. 
 
 Every Christian or other non-Mussulman community shall be bound, within 
 a fixed period, and with the concurrence of a commission composed, ad hoc, 
 of members of its own body, to proceed, with my high approbation and under 
 the inspection of my Sublime Porte, to examine into its actual immunities and 
 privileges, and to discuss and submit to my Sublime Porte the reforms re- 
 quired by the progress of civilization and of the age. The powers conceded 
 to the Christian patriarchs and bishops by the Sultan Mahomet II. and his 
 successors shall be njade to harmonize with the new position which my gener- 
 ous and beneficent intentions insure to these communities. 
 
 The principle of nominating the patriarchs for life, after the revision of the 
 rules of election now in force, shall be exactly carried out, conformable to the 
 tenor of their firmans of investiture. 
 
 (217) 
 
2l8 THE ARMENIANS. 
 
 The patriarchs, metropolitans, archbishops, bishops, and rabbins shall take 
 an oath on their entrance into office, according to a form agreed upon in com- 
 mon by my Sublime Porte and the spiritual heads of the different religious 
 communities. The ecclesiastical dues, of whatever sort or nature they be, 
 shall be abolished, and replaced by fixed revenues for the patriarchs and heads 
 of communities, and by the allocation of allowances and salaries equitably 
 proportioned to the importance of the rank and the dignity of the different 
 members of the clergy. 
 
 The property, real or personal, of the different Christian ecclesiastics shall 
 remain intact ; the temporal administration of the Christian or other non- 
 Mussulman communities shall, however, be placed under the safeguard of an 
 assembly to be chosen from among the numbers, both ecclesiastics and laymen, 
 of the said communities. 
 
 In the towns, small boroughs, and villages, where the whole population is 
 of the same religion, no obstacle shall be offered to the repair, according to 
 their original plan of buildings set apart for religious worship, for schools, for 
 hospitals, and for cemeteries. 
 
 The plans of these diffei'ent buildings, in cases of their erection, must, 
 after having been approved by the patriarchs or heads of communities, be 
 submitted to my Sublime Porte, which will approve of them by my imperial 
 order, or make known its observation upon them within a certain time. 
 
 Each sect, in localities where there are no other i-eligious denominations, 
 shall be free from every species of restraint as regards the public exercise of 
 its religion. 
 
 In the towns, small boroughs, and villages, where different sects are min- 
 gled together, each community inhabiting a distinct quarter shall, by conform- 
 ing to the above-mentioned ordinances, have equal power to repair and im- 
 prove its churches, its hospitals, its schools, and its cemeteries. When there 
 is question of the erection of new buildings the necessary authority must be 
 asked for, through the medium of the patriarchs and heads of communities 
 from my Sublime Porte, which will pronounce a sovereign decision according 
 to that authority, except in the case of administrative obstacles. The inter- 
 vention of the administrative authority in all measures of this nature will be 
 entirely gratuitous. My Sublime Porte will take energetic measures to insure 
 to each sect, whatever be the number of its adherents, entire freedom in the 
 exercise of its religion. 
 
 Every distinction or designation tending to make any class whatever of the 
 subjects of my empire inferior to another class, on account of their rehgion, 
 language, or race, shall be for ever effaced from the administrative protocol. 
 The laws shall be put in force against the use of any injurious or offensive 
 term, either among private individuals or on the part of the authorities. 
 
 As all forms of religion are and shall be freely professed in my dominions, 
 no subject of my empire shall be hindered in the exercise of the religion that 
 he professes, nor shall in any way be annoyed on this account. No one shall 
 be compelled to change his religion. 
 
 The nominations and choice of all functionaries and other employes of my 
 empire, being wholly dependent upon my sovereign will, all the subjects of my 
 empire, without distinction of nationality, shall be admissible to public employ- 
 ments, and qualified to fill them according to their capacity and merit, and 
 conformably with rules to be generally applied. 
 
 All the subjects of my empire, without distinction, shall be received into 
 the civil and military schools of the government if they otherwise satisfy the 
 conditions as to the age and examination which are specified in the organic 
 regulations of the said schools. Moreover, every community is authorized to 
 establish public schools of science, art, and industry. Only the method of in- 
 
HATTI HUMAYOUN OF 1 856. 2I9 
 
 struction and the choice of professors in schools of this class shall be under 
 the control of a mixed council of public instruction, the members of which 
 shall be named by my sovereign command. 
 
 All commercial, correctional, and criminal suits between Mussulman and 
 Christian, or other non-Mussulman subjects, or between Christians or other 
 non-Mussulmans of different sects, shall be referred to mixed tribunals. 
 
 The proceedings of these tribunals shall be public ; and the parties shall be 
 confronted, and shall produce their witnesses, whose testimony shall be re- 
 ceived without distinction, upon an oath taken according to the religious law 
 of each sect. 
 
 Suits relating to civil affairs shall continue to be publicly tried according 
 to the laws and regulations before the mixed provincial councils, in the pres- 
 ence of the governor and judge of the place. Special civil proceedings, such 
 as those relating to successions, or others of that kind, between subjects of 
 the same Christian or other non-Mussulman faith may, at the request of the 
 parties, be sent before the councils of the patriarchs or of the communities. 
 
 Penal, correctional, and commercial laws, and rules of procedure for the 
 mixed tribunals, shall be drawn up as soon as possible, and formed into a 
 code. Translations of them shall be published in all the languages current in 
 the empire. 
 
 Proceedings shall be taken, with as little delay as possible, for the reform 
 of the penitentiary system, as applied to houses of detention, punishment, or 
 correction, and other establishments of like nature, so as to reconcile the rights 
 of humanity with those of justice. Corporal punishment shall not be adminis- 
 tered, even in the prisons, except in conformity with the disciplinary regula- 
 tions established in my Sublime Porte ; and everything that resembles torture 
 shall be abolished entirely. 
 
 Infractions of the law in this particular shall be severely repressed, and 
 shall besides entail, as of right, the punishment, in conformity with the civil 
 code, of the authorities who may order and of the agents who may commit 
 them. 
 
 The organization of the police in the capital, in the provincial towns, and 
 in the rural districts shall be revised in such a manner as to give to all the 
 peaceable subjects of my empire the strongest guarantees for the safety both 
 of their persons and property. 
 
 The equality of taxes entailing equality of burdens, as equality of duties 
 entails that of rights. Christian subjects, and those of other non-Mussulman 
 sects, as it has already been decided, shall, as well as Mussulmans, be subject 
 to the obligations of the law of recruitment. The principle of obtaining sub- 
 stitutes, or of purchasing exemption, shall be admitted. A complete law shall 
 be published, with as little delay as possible, respecting the admission into 
 service in the army of Christian or other non-Mussulman subjects. 
 
 Proceedings shall be taken for a reform in the constitution of the provin- 
 cial and communal councils, in order to insure fairness in the choice of the 
 deputies of the Mussulman, Christian, and other communities, and freedom of 
 voting in the councils. My Sublime Porte will take into consideration the 
 adoption of the most effectual means for ascertaining exactly and for control- 
 ling the result of the deliberations and the decisions arrived at. 
 
 As the laws regulating the purchase, sale, and disposal of real property are 
 common to all the subjects of my empire, it shall be lawful for foreigners to 
 possess landed property in my dominions, conforming themselves to the laws 
 and police regulations, and bearing the same charges as the native inhabitants, 
 and after arrangements have been come to with foreign powers. 
 
 The taxes are to be levied under the same denomination from all the sub- 
 jects of my empire, without distinction of class or of religion. The most prompt 
 
220 THE ARMENIANS, 
 
 and energetic means for remedying the abuses in collecting the taxes, and es- 
 pecially the tithes, shall be considered. The system of direct collection shall 
 gradually, and as soon as possible, be substituted for the plan of farming, in all 
 the branches of the revenues of the State. As long as the present system re- 
 mains in force all agents of the government and all members of the Medjlis 
 shall be forbidden, under the severest penalties, to become lessees of any farm- 
 ing contracts which are announced for public competition, or to have any ben- 
 eficial interest for carrying them out. The local taxes shall, as far as possible, 
 be so imposed as not to affect the sources of production, or to hinder the 
 progress of internal commerce. 
 
 Works of public utility shall receive a suitable endowment, part of which 
 shall be raised from private and special taxes levied in the provinces which 
 shall have the benefit of the advantages arising from the establishment of ways 
 of communication by land and sea. 
 
 A special law having' been already passed which declares that the budget of 
 the revenue and the expenditure of the State shall be drawn up and made known 
 every year, and said law shall be most scrupulously observed. Proceedings 
 shall be taken for revising the emoluments attached to this office. 
 
 The heads of each community and a delegate designated by my Sublime 
 Porte shall be summoned to take part in the deliberations of the Supreme 
 Council of Justice on all occasions which might interest the generality of the 
 subjects of my empire. They shall be summoned especially for this purpose by 
 my grand vizier. The delegates shall hold office for one year ; they shall be 
 sworn on entering upon their duties. All the members of the council, at the 
 ordinary and extraordinary meetings, shall freely give their opinions and their 
 votes, and no one shall ever annoy them on that account. 
 
 The laws against corruption, extortion, or malversation shall apply accord- 
 ing to the legal forms, to all the subjects of my empire, whatever may be their 
 class and the nature of their duties. 
 
 Steps shall be taken for the formation of banks and other similar institu- 
 tions, so as to effect a reform in the monetary and financial system, as well as 
 to create funds to be employed in augmenting the sources of the material 
 wealth of my empire. 
 
 Steps shall also be taken for the formation of roads and canals to increase 
 the facilities of communication and increase the sources of wealth of the coun- 
 try. Everything that can impede commerce or agriculture shall be abolished. 
 To accomplish these objects means shall be sought to profit by the science, the 
 art, and the funds of Europe, and thus gradually to execute them. 
 
 Such being my wishes and my commands, you who are my grand vizier 
 will, according to custom, cause this imperial firman to be published in my 
 capital and in all parts of my empire ; and you will watch attentively and take 
 all the necessary measures that all the orders which it contains be carried out 
 with the most rigorous punctuality. 
 
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