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A HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM M. DAVIDSON 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TOPEKA. KANSAS 
 
 , J jJ, '';. »" ,». »»: 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 
 
 1902 
 
THE LIBRARY «IF 
 
 e@NGRESS, 
 Two Copies Receive* 
 
 MAY. 5 1902 
 
 COI^RItHT ENTRY 
 
 ICLASS^ C»^ XXa Na 
 
 3 ^ V t^i' 
 
 COPY B. 
 
 OOPYRIGHT, 1902, BY 
 SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 
 
 TYPOGRAPHY BY 
 MAKSH, AITKEN A CUHTIS UOMfANY, 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Xo other nation in the history of the workl presents a 
 more thrilling narrative than does the United States of 
 America. As we glance hack across the centuries, the name 
 America, as first written four centuries ago, is seen but 
 dimly through the mist of history. To-day it is written in 
 large letters on the map of the world. Its opportunities 
 have multiplied and grown with the centuries, likewise its 
 responsibilities. The rapid march of events in the national 
 life the past few years has brought it into a larger place in 
 the eyes of the civilized world than ever before. As, teach- 
 ers, we must realize this, and our boys and girls must be 
 made to feel, as they pursue the narrative of our country's 
 history, that they themselves are in its very current. As 
 they contemplate our country's struggles, and its glorious 
 achievements, they must be made to feel that the perpetuity 
 of national life depends upon the uprightness of individual 
 life: that no nation is truly great, nor can ever re- 
 main great, except it be founded upon pure and happy 
 homes, and upon that nobility of character which reveals 
 itself at all times and everywhere in the integrity of both 
 the private and the public life of each individual citizen of 
 the republic. 
 
 The writer of this book has tried to tell simply and plainly 
 the story of our country's history. The sources from which 
 he has drawn his material include all the standard histories 
 of the United States, to all of which he acknowledges his 
 indebtedness. Ilis thanks are especially due to Professor 
 E. E. Sparks of the University of Chicago, who inspired him 
 to undertake the task of telling the story of his country's 
 progress, and who gave full permission to use from his 
 
 i 
 
11 PREFACE 
 
 "Expansion of the American People'' sucli material as would 
 be of service in the growth chapters, — \"I, X, XII, and 
 XVI, — which are a feature of the book. Special acknowledg- 
 ment is also made to Professor Frank H. Hodder of the 
 University of Kansas, for many valuable suggestions secured 
 from his outlines of xVmerican history and his progressive 
 map study. A few personal friends have kindly aided with 
 many valuable suggestions, and several of these friends have 
 read every line of proof and in divers ways have encouraged 
 the completion of the book. To all these the author 
 expresses his sincere thanks. 
 
 Believing thoroughly that geography and history go hand 
 in hand; indeed, that "history is geography in motion," a 
 large number of relief and surface maps have been inserted 
 at appropriate places in the text. These maps, it is felt, 
 will appeal at once to every teacher of history, as it is now 
 accepted by all historians that places of settlement, growth 
 of population, and even the issues of battles have been 
 largely determined by the physical features of the country. 
 
 The full-page portraits of Columbus, Washington, Lincoln, 
 and McKinley represent the men who stand in the country's 
 history for Discovery, Independence, Union, and Expansion, 
 and that of Roosevelt, for the present President, while the 
 groups of portraits bring together faces and names that may 
 well be indelibly stamped on the child's mind as leaders in 
 important crises. 
 
 One departure will be found in the insertion in the body 
 of the book of the full text of the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence and of the Constitution of the United States, which are 
 usually placed in the Appendix of our school histories, where 
 the temptation on the part of both teacher and pupil is to 
 neglect them altogether. The writer believes thoroughly 
 that the time when the Declaration of Independence or the 
 Constitution should be read is at the moment when the 
 pupil's enthusiasm is aroused therein. The teacher should 
 understand that they are not inserted in the body of the 
 
PREFACE 111 
 
 book for purposes of detailed study. However, they should 
 be read, and all salient points emphasized sufficiently to 
 cause the pupils to realize the importance of these two great 
 national documents. 
 
 The book is numbered by sections throughout for teach- 
 ing purposes, and has been written with the teacher and the 
 needs of the pupil constantly in mind. It is believed that 
 one of its strong features rests in the fact that it will reduce 
 itself readily and easily to teaching processes. Nothing 
 which would detract the attention of the pupil from the 
 thread of the story, either in the form of notes or references 
 appear. It is felt that the book is constructed on a logical 
 and sound pedagogical plan. An effort has been made to make 
 the history one connected story, from the first section to the 
 last section in the book. A few valuable tables appear at 
 the close. 
 
 W. M. Davidson. 
 
 ToPEKA, Kansas, 
 
 Ajoril, 1002. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 FINDING A CONTINENT 
 
 C0LUMBU8, U92-1504. 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 1. Discovery of the New Woi-Id la 
 
 2. Principal Causes Leading to tlie Discovery 14 
 
 3. Other Causes Leading to the Discovery 15 
 
 4. Conditions in Europe 15 
 
 5. The Portuguese and the Route to India IG 
 
 6. Christopher Columbus 17 
 
 7. First Voyage of Columbus 18 
 
 8. Effects of the Discovery 19 
 
 9. Later Voyages of Columbus 19 
 
 10. The Norsemen in America — 1000, A. D 20 
 
 CHAPTER. II 
 
 THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 
 SPANISH, 11,92-1582. 
 PORTUGUESE, 1500-1502. 
 FRENCH, 1521,-1687. 
 DUTCH, 1609-1613. 
 ENGLISH, If, 97- 1607. 
 
 11. The Line of Demarcation 22 
 
 THE SPANISH. 
 
 12. Impelling Motives 2.3 
 
 13. Ponce de Leon Discovered Florida — 1513 24 
 
 14. Balboa and the Pacific Ocean — 1513 25 
 
 15. Cortez Conquers the Aztecs — 1519-1521 20 
 
 16. Magellan Discovers Straits of Magellan — 1520 : I'liilippine Is- 
 
 lands — 1521 : His Ship Victoria Completes Circuit of Globe — 
 1522 27 
 
 17. De Ayllon and San Miguel— 1526 27 
 
 18. Narvaez Meets with Disaster— 1528 28 
 
 19. Coronado and the "Seven Fabled Cities of Cibola" ; the Quivera — 
 
 1540-1542 29 
 
 20. De Soto and the Mississippi River — 1539-1542 30 
 
 21. Cabrillo and California— 1542-1543 31 
 
 22. Menendez Founds St. Augustine, 1505; Espejo, Santa Fe, 1582. 31 
 
 THE PORTUGUESE. 
 
 23. Americus Vespucius and Naming of America — 1497-1504 32 
 
 24. Cabral Discovers Brazil— 1500 32 
 
 25. Cortereal Visits and Names Labrador — 1500 33 
 
 V 
 
VI HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES 
 
 SEC THE FKEXCII. PAGE 
 
 26. The French Fishermen 33 
 
 27. Verrazano and New France — 1524 34 
 
 28. Cartier Discovers the St. Lawrence — 1535 34 
 
 29. The Huguenots Attempt to Found a Colony in Florida 35 
 
 30. Champlain, the Father of New France 37 
 
 31. De Monts and His Agricultural Colony in Canada 37 
 
 32. The Pioneers of France in the New World, — Soldiers. Fur Trad- 
 
 ers, and the Jesuit Fathers 38 
 
 33. La Salle and the Extension of New France 39 
 
 THE DUTCH. 
 
 34. Holland and the New Netherlands in America 40 
 
 THE ENGLISH. 
 
 35. England at the Time of the Discovery 40 
 
 36. The Cabots Establish the Claim of England — 1497-1498 41 
 
 37. England under Queen Elizabeth 41 
 
 38. Frobisher Enters Baffin's Bay in Search of a Northwest I'assage. 42 
 
 39. Drake, the Bold Rover, Circumnavigates the Globe — 1577-1580. 42 
 
 40. Sir Humphrey Gilbert Makes an Attempt to Found an English 
 
 Colony 43 
 
 41. Sir Walter Raleigh and Virginia 43 
 
 42. Gosnold — 1602 ; I'ring— 1603 ; Wej^mouth— 1605 44 
 
 43. The Virginia Company — Plymouth: London — (1606) 45 
 
 ST'MMARY. 
 
 44. Progress Made 46 
 
 45. Conflicting Claims 47 
 
 CHAPTER HI 
 
 THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAN 
 1^-1902. 
 
 46. North America — Physical I^atures of 49 
 
 47. The United States 49 
 
 The Atlantic Plain 49 
 
 The Pacific Slope 51 
 
 The Central Plain 51 
 
 48. The Indian and His Treatment by Ilis Conquerors 52 
 
 49. The Whole Continent Peopled by the Natives 54 
 
 50. Distribution in the United States in 1492 54 
 
 51. The Tribe of the Alleghans : The Mound Builders 56 
 
 52. The Red Man 57 
 
 53. Where is the Indian Now? 00 
 
 54. Present Government Policy : Allotment Act : The Indian's Future 62 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS. 
 
 1601-1132. 
 
 55. England 63 
 
 56. The Reign of the Stuarts— 1603-1714 63 
 
 57. The First English Settlement in America 64 
 
CONTENTS Vii 
 
 S*0. VIHUIXIA. , PAGE 
 
 58. Jamestown g5 
 
 59. The First Charter (j,-, 
 
 60. Character of the Colonists (j-, 
 
 Gl. Captain John Smith qq 
 
 62. The Light Almost Out — Lord Delaware Rekindles It G7 
 
 63. The Second and Third Charters (37 
 
 64. Communism a Failure g7 
 
 65. Tobacco and Its Influence ..^n the Life of the Colonists 68 
 
 66. Indentured Servants and the Development of the "I'oor Whites". 61) 
 
 67. A Cloud — Introduction of African Slavery 69 
 
 68. Beginnings of the Republic 69 
 
 69. Indian Massacres of 1622 and 1644 70 
 
 70. The Charter Revoked 71 
 
 71. Two Types — Berkeley and Bacon 72 
 
 72. Sir William Berkeley 72 
 
 73. Nathaniel Bacon 73 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS THE TLYMOUTH COLONY. 
 
 Plymouth, 1620. 
 
 74. The Plymouth Company 74 
 
 75. Religious Awakening of the Sixteenth Century 74 
 
 76. What is a Puritan? a Separatist? a Pilgrim 74 
 
 77. The Pilgrims 75 
 
 78. The Voyage and the Compact — the Mayflower 75 
 
 79. Hardships Endured 70 
 
 80. The Indians and Miles Standish 70 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLOXY. 
 
 Salem, 1628. 
 
 81. The Puritans at Salem and Boston 77 
 
 82. Church and State 78 
 
 83. The Growth of Democracy — The Town Meeting 78 
 
 84. Religious Differences : Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson and the 
 
 Quakers 79 
 
 85. Salem Witchcraft 80 
 
 86. Andros 80 
 
 NEW HAMTSHIRE AND MAINE. 
 
 87. Gorges and Mason 81 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 SayhrooJce, 16S5. 
 
 88. The New England Pilgrims and the Dutch Forts 82 
 
 89. The Written Constitution 83 
 
 90. Pequot War 83 
 
 91. The United Colonies of New England — 1643 84 
 
 92. King Philip's War and the Checking of Missionary Work among 
 
 the Indians 85 
 
 93. The Connecticut Charter 86 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 Providence, 1636. 
 
 94. Providence Founded — 1636 87 
 
 95. Anne Hutchinson's Settlements, Portsmouth and Newport 87 
 
VlU HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 9G. Roger Williams Secures a Charter — 1644 87 
 
 97. Liberal Ideas as to Religion 88 
 
 98. Separation of Church and State 88 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 99. New Amsterdam and the Dutch Traders 88 
 
 100. The Grant to the Duke of York 89 
 
 101. Indian Policy of the Dutch 90 
 
 102. Jacob Leisler 90 
 
 103. The Patroon System 91 
 
 104. Education and Religion 92 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 EUzabcthtown, 1665. 
 
 105. Berkeley and Carteret — East and West Jersey 92 
 
 IOC. Title Troubles '.>2 
 
 107. New Jersey 03 
 
 PENXSYLVAXIA. 
 
 Philadelphia, 1682. 
 
 108. The Quakers 03 
 
 109. William I'enn and His "Holy Experiment" 94 
 
 110. Philadelphia Founded 05 
 
 111. Penn's Indian I'olicy 06 
 
 112. Boundary Lines 06 
 
 113. Charter and Government 07 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 Wilmington, 1638. 
 
 114. The Three Lower Counties 07 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 St. Mary's, 163.',. 
 
 115. Lord Baltimore and His Liberal Grant 98 
 
 116. Settlement — Claiborne's Opposition 08 
 
 117. Religious Troubles— Toleration Acts 09 
 
 THE CAROLINAS. 
 
 Albemarle, 1653, and Charleston , J670. 
 
 118. Carolina Grant 09 
 
 119. Albemarle Colony — "Poor Whites" 100 
 
 120. The Carteret Colony— Charleston 100 
 
 121. Separation 101 
 
 122. Indian Troubles 102 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Savannah, 1733. 
 
 123. Oglethorpe and His Wards 102 
 
 124. Spaniards and Indians 103 
 
 125. The Wesleys .103 
 
 126. The Colony a Disappointment 103 
 
CONTENTS IX 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 THE BATTLE FOR SUI'KEMACY 
 
 THE FOUR INTERCOLONIAL WARS. 
 
 King WilUam's, 1689-1697. 
 Queen Anne's, 1702-1713. 
 King George's, 17U-17Jj8. 
 French and Indian, J75Ji-nG3. 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 127. The French and English in America 104 
 
 128. Indian Tolicies Contrasted 105 
 
 KING WILLIAIM'S WAR. 
 
 129. Cause — Parties Engaged lOG 
 
 130. Port Royal Expedition lOG 
 
 131. Frontenac and Indian Atrocities 106 
 
 132. Peace : Results 107 
 
 QUEEN ANNE'S WAR. 
 
 133. Cause — Parties Engaged 107 
 
 134. The War in the North 107 
 
 135. The War in the South 108 
 
 136. Indian Atrocities 108 
 
 137. Peace : Results 108 
 
 KING GEORGE'S WAR. 
 
 138. French Fortification 108 
 
 139. War Declared 109 
 
 140. Treaty 109 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 1 41 . Parties and Causes HO 
 
 142. Washington in Virginia's Service Ill 
 
 143. The Albany Convention 112 
 
 144; Proposed Outline of Attack 112 
 
 145. Defeat of Braddocl< 112 
 
 146. The Acadians 114 
 
 147. Louisburg 114 
 
 148. Pitt and English Success 114 
 
 149. Contest for Supremacy in the Lake Country 115 
 
 150. The Taking of Quebec— Wolfe — Montcalm 115 
 
 151. The Passing of the French from America 117 
 
 152. England and the Result , . , ii8 
 
 153. The Colonies and the Result 110 
 
 154. The Indian and the War 119 
 
 155. George III. and the War 120 
 
 156. Expansion Calls for New Government and Additional Expenses. 121 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE GROWTH OF THE COLONIES 
 
 157. Development of the Colonies 123 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 158. Population in the Colonies 123 
 
 159. Distribution of Population 124 
 
X HISTORY OF TWW Fl^FITEB ^ADTES 
 
 SEC. 
 
 160. The Cities 125 
 
 161. People Not All English 126 
 
 SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 162. Class Distinction 130 
 
 163. Dress 130 
 
 164. Home Comforts : Food 132 
 
 165. Habits : Laws and Penalties 133 
 
 166. Religion 134 
 
 167. Amusements 135 
 
 168. Mode of Travel 136 
 
 OCCUPATION AND MONEY. 
 
 169. Occupation 137 
 
 170. Money 139 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 171. In New England 139 
 
 172. In the Middle Colonies 140 
 
 173. In the Southern Colonies 141 
 
 174. The Colleges 141 
 
 BOOKS AND LITERATURE. 
 
 175. Books, Newspapers, and Pamphlets 148 
 
 1 76. Literature 145 
 
 177. Benjamin Franklin 146 
 
 178. Libraries 147 
 
 SLAVERY AND INDENTED SERVICE. 
 
 179. Slavery in the Colonies 147 
 
 180. Sentiment against Slavery 148 
 
 181. Number of Slaves 148 
 
 182. Slave Laws 149 
 
 183. Indented Servants 150 
 
 184. The Trade in Indented Servants 151 
 
 POLITICAL LIFE. 
 
 185. The Government of the Colonies 151 
 
 186. Colonial Governors and Lords of Trade 152 
 
 187. Parliament and the Colonies 153 
 
 188. The Postoffice 153 
 
 189. Political Parties in the Colonies 154 
 
 190. The Colonists and Their Leaders 155 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 
 
 1763-1783. 
 
 191. Colonial Policy of England 157 
 
 192. Conditions in England 157 
 
 193. Conditions in the Colonies : Growth of Democracy 158 
 
 194. The Principle of Taxation as Used by England 159 
 
 195. Navigation Acts : Intercolonial Wars 159 
 
 196. Writs of Assistance 160 
 
 197. Stamp Act — 1765 : Protests 161 
 
 198. The Stamp-Act Congress — 1765 161 
 
 199. Organized Resistance: Repeal of the Act: Declaratory Act.... 162 
 
CONTESTS XI 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 200. Sparks of Liberty 163 
 
 201. The Townshend Acts — 1767 163 
 
 202. "Letters of a Pennsylvania Farmer" — 1768 164 
 
 203. The Sloop Liberty — 1768 : The Boston Massacre — March 5, 
 
 1770 : The Revenue Cutter Gaspee — 1772 164 
 
 204. Cheap Tea, and the Boston Tea Party — Dec. 16, 1773 166 
 
 205. The Boston Port Bill and the "Intolerable Acts" — March and 
 
 June, 1774 168 
 
 206. Effect of the Bill and the Action of the Other Colonies 160 
 
 207. First Colonial Congress — Sept. 5 to Oct. 26, 1774 169 
 
 EVENTS OF 1775. 
 
 208. Battle of Lexington — April 19, 1775 : "The Shot Heard Round 
 
 the World • 171 
 
 209. Gathering of the Hosts 173 
 
 210. Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold at Ticonderoga — May 10: 
 
 Seth Warner at Crown Point — May 10 173 
 
 211. Second Continental Congress — May 10 174 
 
 212. Washington Appointed Commander-in-Chief — June 17 174 
 
 213. Bunker Hill — June 17 175 
 
 214. Montgomery and Arnold at Quebec 176 
 
 EVENTS OF 1776. 
 
 215. Howe Evacuates Boston— March 17 177 
 
 216. The British in the South: Battle of Fort Moultrie — June 28. . , 178 
 
 217. King George Hires Hessians 179 
 
 218. Independence Declared — July 4 179 
 
 Declaration of Independence 181 
 
 219. Washington at New York 185 
 
 220. The Howes Offer Peace 185 
 
 221. Battle of Long Island — August 27 : Loss of Now York 187 
 
 222. Nathan Hale 187 
 
 223. Retreat of Washington across the Delaware •. 187 
 
 224. General Charles Lee 188 
 
 225. The Darkest Period of the War 189 
 
 226. Trenton— Dec. 26, 1776 : Princeton — Jan. 3, 1777 190 
 
 EVENTS OF 1777. 
 
 227. Lafayette, Steuben, and other Foreign Patriots 191 
 
 228. British Plan of Attack— 1777 192 
 
 229. Burgoyne Starts 193 
 
 230. The Battle of Bennington — Aug. 16 193 
 
 231. St. Leger Meets with Disaster 194 
 
 232. The Stars and Stripes 194 
 
 233. The Two Battles of Saratoga — Sept. 19 and Oct. 7 : Burgoyne's 
 
 Surrender — Oct. 17 195 
 
 234. Battle of Brandywine — Sept. 11: Philadelphia Taken 196 
 
 235. Germantown — Oct. 4 197 
 
 236. The Winter at Valley Forge 197 
 
 EVENTS OF 1778. 
 
 237. The Conway Cabal 198 
 
 238. France Acknowledges the Independence of the United States of 
 
 America — Feb. 6 : The French Alliance 198 
 
 239. England Offers All but Independence 198 
 
 240. Clinton Evacuates Philadelphia — Battle of Monmouth — June 28 198 
 
Xll HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 241. Wyoming Massacre — July 3 200 
 
 242. Sullivan and the French Fail at Newport 201 
 
 243. Savannah Captured : Georgia Retaken by the British 201 
 
 EVENTS OF 1779. 
 
 244. Paul Jones and the Navy 202 
 
 245. Colonel Clark and His Work in the West 203 
 
 246. Slow Progress of the War : "Mad Anthony" Wayne at Stony 
 
 Point — July 15 204 
 
 247. Paulus Hook — Aug. 18 205 
 
 248. Lincoln and the French Fail at Savannah 205 
 
 EVENTS OP 1780. 
 
 240. The British in the South 200 
 
 250. Charleston — May 12 207 
 
 251. Gates in Command : Battle of Camden — Aug. 1(> 207 
 
 252. The Yeomanry at King's Mountain — Oct. 7 208 
 
 253. I'artisan Leaders — Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Lee 208 
 
 254. Benedict Arnold 209 
 
 255. Arnold at Philadelphia 209 
 
 25G. West Point and Treason 210 
 
 257. The Fate of Andre 210 
 
 258. Arnold's Subsequent Career 211 
 
 EVENTS OP 1781. 
 
 259. Morgan Defeats Tarleton at the Cowpens — Jan. 17 211 
 
 200. (ireene Recovers the Carolinas and Georgia 211 
 
 201. Lafayette, "The Boy," Outgenerals Cornwallls and Saves Vir- 
 
 ginia 212 
 
 202. Battle of Yorktown— Oct. 19 212 
 
 203. Yorktown, and Its Effect in America 213 
 
 END OP THE STRUGGLE. 
 
 204. Yorktown and Its Effect on the British 214 
 
 205. I'arliament Overrules King George 215 
 
 200. England Acknowledges the Independence of the United States — 
 
 Nov. 30, 1782 215 
 
 207. Cessation of Hostilities by Proclamation — April 10. 1783 215 
 
 208. The Treaty of I'aris— Sept. 3, 1783 215 
 
 209. The American Army Disbands: the British Army Withdraws.. 216 
 
 FINANCES OF THE REVOLT'TIOX. 
 
 270. Cost of the War 217 
 
 271. Congress and the Army 217 
 
 272. Continental Currency and Its Collapse — 1780 218 
 
 273. Robert Morris, Superintendent of Finance 219 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION 
 
 274. Steps in the Development of the Constitution 221 
 
 275. Government during the Revolution 221 
 
 276. The States Adopt New Constitutions 221 
 
 277. Articles of Confederation— 1781 222 
 
 278. Weakness of the Articles 222 
 
 279. State Pride 224 
 
CONTENTS xiii 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 280. Shay's Rebellion 224 
 
 281. Movement toward a Stronger Government 225 
 
 282. The Annapolis Trade Convention — 1786 225 
 
 283. The Northwest Territory 226 
 
 284. The Ordinance of 1787 226 
 
 285. The Constitutional Convention — 1787 227 
 
 286. The Men Who Composed the Convention 227 
 
 287. The Constitution, the Result of Compromise 228 
 
 288. The Three Great Compromises 228 
 
 289. The Constitution before the People for Adoption 229 
 
 290. "The Federalist" 229 
 
 291. The First Two Political Parties — Federalists and Anti-Federal- 
 
 ists 230 
 
 292. Amendments to the Constitution 230 
 
 Constitution of the United States 230 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 
 
 1789-1829. 
 
 293. The New Government Established — 1789 245 
 
 294. Washington Inaugurated April 30, 1789 246 
 
 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTKATION. 
 
 Federalist, 1780-1797. 
 
 295. The First President 247 
 
 296. The I*resident's Cabinet 247 
 
 297. The Condition of the Government Finances in 1789 248 
 
 298. Hamilton's Financial I'olicy 248 
 
 299. The Tariff of 1789 : The Excise Tax — 1790 : Bank of the United 
 
 States— 1791 : The United States Mint— 1792 248 
 
 300. The Judiciary Established— 1789 249 
 
 301. The First National Congress : The Term of a Congress 250 
 
 302. The National Capital 250 
 
 303. Political Parties: Federalist and Democratic-Republican 251 
 
 304. Foreign Affairs 251 
 
 305. The Indian Trouble in the Northwest : Wayne's Decisive Vic- 
 
 tory — 1794 253 
 
 306. The Whiskey Insurrection — 1794 253 
 
 307. New States : Vermont — 1791 ; Kentucky — 1792 ; Tennessee 
 
 l'^96 253 
 
 308. Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin and Its Relation to Slavery — 1792. . . . 254 
 
 309. The First Census— 1790 254 
 
 310. Washington's Farewell Address 254 
 
 Till. The Presidential Election of 1796 255 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS, 
 
 Fedemlnt: 1797-1801 
 
 ' 312. John Adams 256 
 
 313. Trouble with France 256 
 
 314. The X. Y. Z. Correspondence: "Millions for Defence; Not One 
 
 Cent for Tribute" 257 
 
 315. War with France Averted 257 
 
XIV HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 BEC. PAGE 
 
 316. The Alien and Sedition Laws — 1798 258 
 
 317. The Virginia and Kentucliy Resolutions — 1798 259 
 
 318. The Second Census^lSOO 259 
 
 319. John Marshall, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court — 1801 259 
 
 320. The Presidential Election of 1800 259 
 
 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Dcmocratic-RcpuMican : 1801-1809. 
 
 321. Thomas Jefferson ' 260 
 
 322. The Louisiana I'urchase — 1803: Territorial Expansion 261 
 
 323. The "Territory of Orleans" and the "District of Louisiana" 262 
 
 324. The Lewis and Clark Expedition— 1803-1806 263 
 
 325. The Oregon Country and Astoria 264 
 
 326. Ohio Admitted to the Union— 1803 265 
 
 327. Duel between Hamilton and Burr — 1804 265 
 
 328. Burr's Conspiracy in the Southwest and His Trial for Treason — - 
 
 1807 266 
 
 329. The Cumberland National Road — 1806 266 
 
 330. Robert Fulton and the First Steamboat — 1807 267 
 
 331. The Barbary States and the Tripolitan War — 1803-1805 267 
 
 332. Trouble with Great Britain and France 268 
 
 333. The British Orders in Council : Napoleon's Berlin and Milan De- 
 
 crees 269 
 
 334. The Affair of the Chesapeake and Leopard— June 22, 1807 270 
 
 335. Jefferson's I'olicy of Nonresistance 270 
 
 336. Nonimportation Act Goes into Effect — Dec. 14, 1807 271 
 
 337. The Embargo Act— Dec. 22, 1807 271 
 
 338. Nonintercourse Act— 1809 271 
 
 339. Presidential Election of 1808 272 
 
 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Democratic-Republican : 1809-1817. 
 
 340. James Madison 272 
 
 341. Effect of the Repeal of the Embargo 273 
 
 342. Madison's Negotiations 274 
 
 343. The Macon Bill— May 1, 1810 274 
 
 344. Napoleon's Double Dealing 274 
 
 345. The Indians and the British in the Northwest : Battle of Tip- 
 
 pecanoe 276 
 
 346. President and Little Belt 277 
 
 347. War Declared June 18, 1812 277 
 
 348. Causes of the War of 1812 277 
 
 349. The Two I'olitical I'arties and the War 278 
 
 350. Relative Strength of the Two Nations 278 
 
 351. Madison's Conduct of the War 278 
 
 352. Events of 1812 278 
 
 353. Events of 1813 279 
 
 354. Events of 1814 283 
 
 355. Treaty of Ghent — 1814 285 
 
 356. The Hartford Convention and the Federalist I'arty — Dec. 15, 
 
 1814 285 
 
 357. Results of the War 285 
 
 358. The Second Bank of the United States— 1816 286 
 
CONTENTS XV 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 359. Tariff of 1816 : The "Protective Tariff" 286 
 
 360. Decatur and the Algerine War — 1815 287 
 
 361. New States : Louisiana — 1812 ; Indiana 1816 287 
 
 362. The Third Census— 1810 " ' ' 287 
 
 363. The Presidential Election of 1816 287 
 
 MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Democratic-Repuhlican : 1817-1825. 
 
 364. James Monroe 288 
 
 365. The Seminole War, and the Purchase of Florida 288 
 
 366. New States Admitted: Mississippi — 1817; Illinois — 1818; Ala- 
 
 bama — 1819 ; Maine — 1820 ; Missouri — 1821 289 
 
 367. The Missouri Compromise — 1820 290 
 
 368. The Monroe Doctrine— 1823 291 
 
 369. The Tariff of 1824 : Internal Improvements 291 
 
 370. The Fourth Census — 1820 292 
 
 371. The Presidential Election of 1824 292 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OP JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 
 
 National-RepuhUcan : 1825-1829. 
 
 372. John Quincy Adams 293 
 
 373. Visit of Lafayette 294 
 
 374. Death of Adams and Jefferson July 4, 1820 295 
 
 375. The Erie Canal — 1825 295 
 
 376. Steamboats 296 
 
 377. Railroads 296 
 
 378. The Tariff of 1828, "The Tariff of Abominations" 297 
 
 379. The Presidential Election of 1828 297 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 1789-1829. 
 
 380. Development of Territory 299 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 381. Numbers 299 
 
 382. Growth of Cities 301 
 
 SOCIAL LIFE. 
 
 383. Manner of Living 301 
 
 384. Religion 302 
 
 385. Mode of Travel 303 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 386. Public Schools and Colleges 304 
 
 387. Literature 305 
 
 OCCUPATIONS. 
 
 388. Agriculture, Fishing, and Commerce 305 
 
 389. Growth of Manufactures 305 
 
 NATIONAL DEFENCE. 
 
 390. Army and Navy 306 
 
 POLITICAL LIFE. 
 
 391. Growth of Popular Government 307 
 
XVI HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 FROM JACKSON TO LIN'COLN 
 
 1820-1861. 
 
 JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 fcEC. Democratic: 1829-1S37. PAGE 
 
 .*]92. Andrew Jackson noo 
 
 ans. Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet" .",10 
 
 ?,n4. Ttie Spoils System : "Rotation in Office" 310 
 
 305. The Overthrow of the United States Bank 311 
 
 396. Effect of the Rank's Overthrow 312 
 
 307. Speculation 312 
 
 308. Distribution of the Surplus 313 
 
 300. The Specie Circular 313 
 
 400. The Webster and Hayne Debate — February. 1830 314 
 
 401. The Tariff of 1832 : The Nullification Act Fassed by South Caro- 
 
 lina : Compromise Tariff of 1833 314 
 
 402. National Nominating Conventions 315 
 
 403. Origin of the Whig Farty in 1834 315 
 
 404. The Black Hawk and Florida Wars 316 
 
 405. New States Admitted: Arkansas— 1830 : Michigan— 1837 317 
 
 400. The Fifth Census— 1830 317 
 
 407. The Fresidential Election of 1836 317 
 
 VAN BT'REX'S ADMIXISTKATIoN. 
 
 Dcinocraflc: /.S.?7-/.SV,/. 
 
 408. Martin Van Buren 317 
 
 400. The Financial Fanic of 1837 318 
 
 410. The Sub-Treasury— 1840 310 
 
 411. The Si.xth Census— 1840 310 
 
 412. The Fresidential Election of 184(» 320 
 
 TIAIJRISON AND TYLKR'S ADM I X I STRATloX. 
 
 Whif/: 181,1-18.',-,. 
 
 413. William Henry Harrison 321 
 
 414. John Tyler ' 322 
 
 415. The United States Bank and the Quarrel between Tyler and 
 
 Congress 322 
 
 416. The Tariff of 1842 323 
 
 417. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty : The Northeastern Boundary — 
 
 1842 324 
 
 418. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Lsland— 1843 324 
 
 419. The Fatroon War : Antirent Difficulties— 1844 325 
 
 420. The Mormons 325 
 
 421. Bunker Hill Monument— 1842 326 
 
 422. The "(Jag Rule" and the Right of Fetition 327 
 
 423. Abolition 328 
 
 424. The Republic of Texas, a Disturbing Element in National l*oli- 
 
 tics 329 
 
 425. Annexation of Texas — 1845 330 
 
 426. New States Admitted into the Union: Texas— 1845; Florida — 
 
 1845 331 
 
CONTENTS Xvii 
 
 •^EC. PAGE 
 
 4l.'7. Samuel F. B. Morso and the Teh'graph - 1 844 :\:\i 
 
 428. The I'residcutial Election in 1S44 •>32 
 
 polk's admim.stkatiu.n. 
 Democratic: i8//5-/8-J». 
 
 429. James K. Polk 333 
 
 430. Dispute over the Boundary of Texas 334 
 
 431. Taylor's Army of Occupation ;>35 
 
 432. Declaration of War — May 11. 1840 336 
 
 433. Opposition to tlie War 336 
 
 434. IMan of the War 338 
 
 43."'». Taylor's Campaign South of the Rio Grande — September, 1840, 
 
 to February, 1847 333 
 
 43G. Kearney's Campaign and the Conquest of New Mexico and Cali- 
 fornia — June, 1846, to January, 1847 340 
 
 437. General Scott's Campaign and the lOnd of the War — March to 
 
 September, 1847 34j^ 
 
 438. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo — Feb. 2, 1848 342 
 
 430. The Northwestern Boundary Established — 1846 342 
 
 440. The Tariff of 1846 : The Walker Tariff 343 
 
 441. The Wilmot Proviso — 1846 343 
 
 442. Discovery of Gold in California : The "Forty-niners" 344 
 
 443. New States Admitted : Iowa — 1846 ; Wisconsin — 1848 ; Oregon 
 
 Territory Organized — 1848 34O 
 
 444. The Tresidential Election of 1848 340 
 
 TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Whig: m.',9-I853. 
 
 44;"). Zachary Taylor 347 
 
 446. Millard Fillmore 348 
 
 447. The Newly Acquired Territory and President Taylor-'s Policy... 340 
 
 448. Clay's Plan : The Compromise of 18r»0 350 
 
 440. The Debate in Congress Over the Compromise 3.^)1 
 
 450. The Fugitive Slave Law 3,52 
 
 451. The Underground Railroad 352 
 
 452. Minor P]vents 353 
 
 453. Death of Webster, Clay, and Calhoun 354 
 
 454. The Seventh Census — 1850 355 
 
 455. The Presidential Election of 1852 356 
 
 PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Democratic: 1853-1857. 
 
 456. Franklin Pierce , 356 
 
 457. The Gadsden Purchase — 1853 357 
 
 458. The Martin Koszta Affair— 1854 358 
 
 450. Commodore Perry's Expedition to Japan — 1852-1854 358 
 
 460. The Ostend Manifesto— 1854 350 
 
 461. Other Filibustering Schemes : The Walker Expeditions— 1853-54 360 
 
 462. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill : "Squatter Sovereignty"— 1854 361 
 
 463. The Struggle for Kansas 362 
 
 464. The Assault Upon Sumner by Brooks 365 
 
 465. New Political Parties : Republican and Know-Nothing 366 
 
 466. The Presidential Election of 1856 368 
 
XVm HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION, 
 
 SEC. Democratic: 1857-1861. page 
 
 4G7. James Buchanan 368 
 
 4G8. The Dred Scott Decision and the Repeal of the Missouri Com- 
 promise 369 
 
 469. The Kansas Struggle Ends in Victory for Freedom 371 
 
 470. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 373 
 
 471. John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry — 1859 374 
 
 472. Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and Helper's "Impending 
 
 Crisis" 376 
 
 473. The Presidential Election of 1860 377 
 
 474. Secession 379 
 
 475. Buchanan's Policy 380 
 
 476. Last Efforts at Compromise — The Peace Convention 381 
 
 477. Government Property Seized : Star of the West Fired Upon 382 
 
 478. New States : The Census : Relative Strength of North and South. 382 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 1830-1860. 
 
 479. The Close of an Era 385 
 
 480. Territorial Growth 385 
 
 I'OITLATION. 
 
 481. Growth in Numbers = 385 
 
 482. Distribution 386 
 
 483. Cities 388 
 
 KDUCATION. 
 
 484. Schools and Colleges 389 
 
 485. Newspapers and Mails 389 
 
 486. Literature 389 
 
 TUANSl'dliTATKiN. 
 
 487. The Era of Canals 390 
 
 488. The Increase of Railroads 391 
 
 NATIONAL UNION AND DISUNION. 
 
 489. National Feeling 392 
 
 490. Sectional Feeling 392 
 
 INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERY. 
 
 491. Inventive (Jenius 393 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 RcpublUaii: 18Gt-186r,. 
 
 492. Abraham Lincoln 395 
 
 493. Lincoln's Policy 397 
 
 THE YEAR 1861. 
 
 494. The First Blow Struck : The Fall of Fort Sumter— April 14, 1861 398 
 
 495. The Effect on the North and South of Sumter's Fall 399 
 
 496. Davis" Reprisals and Lincoln's Blockade 400 
 
 497. The Border States 400 
 
CONTENTS XIX 
 
 SBC. PAGE 
 
 498. George B. McClellan and the Campaign in West Virginia 401 
 
 499. Missouri Saved to the Union 402 
 
 500. Lincoln Calls for More Troops — May 3 402 
 
 501. Washington Threatened , 403 
 
 502. Battle of Bull Run— July 21 404 
 
 503. The Effect of the Battle of Bull Run 405 
 
 504. McClellan Succeeds Scott 406 
 
 505. Naval Operations 406 
 
 506. Foreign Relations 407 
 
 507. The Trent Affair 407 
 
 508. Situation at the Close of the Year 408 
 
 Important Battles of 1861 408 
 
 THE YEAR 1862. 
 
 509. Plan of Operations for 1862 ^ 409 
 
 IN THE WEST. 
 
 Missouri Held and Arkansas livcluiincd. 
 
 510. Battle of Pea Ridge — March 7-8 409 
 
 Down the Mississippi Valley with Orant. 
 
 511. The Union Victories at Fort Henry — February 6, and Fort Don- 
 
 elson — February 16 409 
 
 512. Effect of These Victories 411 
 
 513. Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing — April 6-7 411 
 
 514. Capture of New Madrid — March 14, and Island Number Ten — 
 
 April 8 : Opening of the Upper Mississippi 412 
 
 515. Capture of Corinth — May 30 412 
 
 516. Effects of Shiloh and Island Number Ten 412 
 
 At the Mouth of the Mississippi River with Farrofjut. 
 
 517. The Opening of the Lower Mississippi : Capture of New Orleans 
 
 — April 18 to May 1 413 
 
 IN THE CENTER. 
 
 1)1 Kentucky and Tennessee with Buell and Roseerans. 
 318. Bragg Invades Kentucky 414 
 
 519. Battle of Murfreesboro — December 31 to January 2 414 
 
 IN THE EAST. 
 
 The Alarm at Hampton Roads — The Monitor and the Merrimac. 
 
 520. The Confederate Ironclad Merrimac Threatens to Raise the 
 
 Blockade — March 8 415 
 
 521. The Battle Between the Ironclads — March 9 415 
 
 On to Richmond. 
 
 522. McCIellan's Peninsular Campaign 416 
 
 523. Yorktown Taken — April 4 : Battle of Williamsburg — May 5-6 417 
 
 524. Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines — May 31 and June 1 417 
 
 525. Stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley : Washington 
 
 Threatened 418 
 
 t526. The "Seven Days' Fight" Before Richmond — June 26 to July 1.. 418 
 
 527. The Effect of McCIellan's P'ailure to Capture Richmond 419 
 
 Pope's Army of Virginia Meets with Disaster. 
 
 528. The Army of Virginia Created 420 
 
 529. Pope's Campaign and the "Second Bull Run" 420 
 
XX HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 SEC. Lee Crosses the Potomac — Alarm at the North. page 
 
 530. Invasion of Maryland 421 
 
 531. Battle of Antietam — September 17 421 
 
 Burn§i(le at Fredericksburg. 
 
 532. Battle of Fredericksburg — December 13 422 
 
 THE WAR NOW FOR THE UNION AND AGAINST SLAVERY. 
 
 533. Lincoln I'roclaims Freedom to the Slaves — September 22. 1802, 
 
 and January 1, 1863 423 
 
 THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR. 
 
 534. The Situation 423 
 
 Important Battles of 1862 424 
 
 THE YEAR 1803. 
 
 535. I'lan of Operations 425 
 
 IN THE WEST. 
 
 Or ant and Vicksburg. 
 
 536. Campaign Against Vicksburg 425 
 
 537. Effect of the Fall of Vicksburg 427 
 
 IN THE CENTER. 
 
 With Rosecrans, Thomas, and Grant. 
 
 538. Rosecrans Enters Chattanooga 427 
 
 530. Battle of Chickamauga — September 19-20 427 
 
 540. After the Battle of Chickamauga 42;» 
 
 541. Grant Assumes Command 429 
 
 542. Battle of Lookout Mountain — November 24 4:!0 
 
 543. Battle of Missionary Ridge — November 25 4:;() 
 
 544. Burnside at Knoxville 431 
 
 IN THE EAST. 
 
 The Ironclads Fail at Charleston. 
 
 545. Battle of Charleston Harbor — April 7 431 
 
 Hooker and Chancellors ville. 
 540. Battle of Chancellorsville — May 2-3 432 
 
 547. Effect of Chancellorsville 432 
 
 On to Washington. 
 
 548. Lee's Second Invasion of the North 433 
 
 549. Meade Succeeds Hooker in Command 433 
 
 Octtysburg. 
 
 550. The First Day's Battle of Gettysburg— July 1 434 
 
 551. The Second Day's Battle — July 2 435 
 
 552. The Third Day's Battle — July 3 435 
 
 553. Situation at the Close of the Year 1803 430 
 
 Important Battles of 1803 437 
 
 THE YEAR 1804. 
 
 554. Plan of Operations for 1804 437 
 
 IN THE CENTER. 
 
 With Sherman to the Sea. 
 
 555. Sherman's Campaign Against Atlanta — May 5 to September 2 . . . 437 
 
 550. Sherman Enters Atlanta — September 2 438 
 
 557. Hood Turns Northward — Battle of Nashville— December 15-10.. 439 
 058. From Atlanta to the Sea — November 15 to December 22 440 
 
CONTENTS Xxi 
 
 SEC. PAGE 
 
 With Farragut at Mobile Bay. 
 
 559. Farragut Enters Mobile Bay — August 5 441 
 
 The Alabama. 
 
 560. England and the Confederate Cruisers 441 
 
 561. The Kearsarge and the Alabama 442 
 
 IN THE EAST. 
 
 From the Rapidan to the James. 
 
 562. Grant's Plan 442 
 
 56.3. Battle of the Wilderness — May 5-6 443 
 
 564. The Battle of Spottsylvania Courthouse — May l)-12 44.3 
 
 565. North Anna — May 23-25 : Cold Harbor — June 3 444 
 
 566. Change of Base from the York to the James River 444 
 
 567. The Race for Petersburg 445 
 
 In the Shenandoah Valley with Sheridan. 
 
 568. Early's Raids 445 
 
 561). The Battle of Winchester— October 19 446 
 
 THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR. 
 
 570. The Situation 447 
 
 Important Battles of 1864 447 
 
 THE year 1865. 
 the end of the war. 
 
 571. Plan of Operations for 1865 448 
 
 NORTH AND SOUTH. 
 
 572. Condition of the Confederacy 448 
 
 573. Condition of the Union 449 
 
 574. Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address 449 
 
 SHERMAN'S LAST CAMPAIGN. 
 
 575. Sherman Marches North 450 
 
 576. Johnston's Army Repulsed 450 
 
 GRANT'S LAST CAMPAIGN. 
 
 577. Fort Steadman and Five Forks 451 
 
 578. Petersburg and Richmond Fall 451 
 
 579. Lee Surrenders at Appomattox — April 9 452 
 
 Important Battles of 1865 453 
 
 assassination of lincoln. 
 
 580. After Appomattox 453 
 
 581. Death of Lincoln 454 
 
 582. After Lincoln's Death 454 
 
 THE COST OF THE WAR. 
 
 583. In Men and in Treasure 455 
 
 584. The Finances of the War 455 
 
 PROGRESS DURING THE WAR. 
 
 585. Improvements in Arms 456 
 
 586. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions 450 
 
 587. Growth : New States -457 
 
 THE UNION ARMY DISBANDS. 
 
 588. The Grand Review at Washington 458 
 
 THE GRAND ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC. 
 
 589. The Grand Army 459 
 
 ASSOCIATED ORGANIZATIONS. 
 
 590. The First Organization of Women 459 
 
xxii HISTORY OF THE UI^ITED STATES 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 FROM JOHNSON TO HAYES— RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 1865-1877. 
 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 SEC. Republican: 1865-1869. page 
 
 591. Andrew Johnson 461 
 
 592. The Problems 462 
 
 593. Thirteenth Amendment 462 
 
 394. Beginning of Reconstruction 46:{ 
 
 595. Johnson's Policy 463 
 
 596. Legislation Against the Freedmen 464 
 
 597. The Congressional Theory 464 
 
 598. The Freedmen's Bureau 465 
 
 599. The Fourteenth Amendment 465 
 
 600. The Congressional Election of 1866 466 
 
 601. Congress Limits Johnson's Powers 466 
 
 602. The Completed Reconstruction Measures 467 
 
 603. Reconstruction Carried Out 467 
 
 604. Military Rule in the South 468 
 
 605. The New Governments 468 
 
 606. The Impeachment of President Johnson 469 
 
 607. The State of Nebraska 469 
 
 608. Mexico and the Monroe Doctrine 469 
 
 609. The Purchase of Alaska 470 
 
 610. Election of 1868 . . . *. 470 
 
 grant's ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Republican: 1869-1877. 
 
 611. Ulysses S. Grant 470 
 
 612. The Union Pacific Railroad 471 
 
 613. The Fifteenth Amendment 471 
 
 614. The Ku-Klux Klan 472 
 
 615. Force Bills 472 
 
 616. Reconstruction Completed 472 
 
 617. Military Authority Continued in the South 473 
 
 618. The Treaty of Washington 473 
 
 619. The Alabama Claims : The Geneva Award 473 
 
 620. Cuba : The Virginius— 1873 474 
 
 621. The Campaign of 1872 475 
 
 622. The First Civil Service Reform Bill 475 
 
 623. Demonetization of Silver— 1873 : Inflation Bill— 1874 : Resump- 
 
 tion Act— 1875 476 
 
 624. Trouble with the Sioux : Custer's Massacre — 1876 476 
 
 625. Amnesty Bill — 1872 : Withdrawal of Troops from the South— 
 
 1874 to 1877 477 
 
 626. The Credit Mobilier and Other Scandals: The Whiskey Ring... 478 
 
 627. The Ninth Census— 1870 479 
 
 628. Campaign of 1876 479 
 
 629. The Electoral Commission 479 
 
CON^TENTS xxiii 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT— EXPANSION 
 
 1877. 
 HAYES' ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 SEC. Republican: 1877-1881. page 
 
 630. Rutherford Birchard Hayes 48]^ 
 
 6.31. The New Nation ^gj 
 
 632. The President's Position ' 482 
 
 633. Conciliation of the South : Hayes' Southern I'olicy 482 
 
 634. Civil Service Reform f ' ' ' [ 433 
 
 635. Resumption of Specie I'ayment — 1S70 483 
 
 636. The Silver Question : The Bland-Allison Bill— 1S7S 484 
 
 637. Colorado Admitted — 1876 : The Tenth Census — 1880 48."; 
 
 638. The Presidential Election of 1880 485 
 
 GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Republican: 1881-1885. 
 
 639. James Abram Garfield 48G 
 
 640. The Blaine and Conkling Political Quarrel 486 
 
 641. Assassination of Garfield 487 
 
 642. Chester Alan Arthur 487 
 
 643. The Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883 487 
 
 644. The Australian Ballot 488 
 
 645. Acts Against Immigration 488 
 
 646. The Presidential Campaign of 1884 489 
 
 CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Democratic: 1885-1889. 
 
 647. Grover Cleveland 489 
 
 648. The Return of the Democrats to Power 490 
 
 649. Cleveland and the Spoils System 490 
 
 650. Private Pension Bills 490 
 
 651. Presidential Succession Bill — 1886 491 
 
 652. The Interstate Commerce Act 491 
 
 653. Fishery Questions 492 
 
 654. The Tariff 493 
 
 655. Campaign of 1888 493 
 
 HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Republican: 1889-1S93. 
 
 656. Benjamin Harrison 493 
 
 657. The McKinley Tariff 494 
 
 658. Reciprocity and South America 494 
 
 659. Samoa and the Sandwich Islands 494 
 
 660. Campaign of 1892 495 
 
 CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 Democratic: 1893-1897. 
 
 661. The Panic of 1893 : Sherman Act Repealed 495 
 
 662. The Wilson Bill — 1894 : The Income Tax 496 
 
 663. Cleveland and the Monroe Doctrine 496 
 
 664. New States ' 497 
 
 665. Oklahoma 497 
 
 666. The Presidential Campaign of 1896 498 
 
XXIV HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 SBC. MCKINLEY AND ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION. PAGE 
 
 t)G7. William McKinley 498 
 
 668. The Dingley Tariff : The Gold Law 498 
 
 669. Cuban Affairs 498 
 
 670. The Maine Disaster — February 15. 1898 499 
 
 671. The American Ultimatum 499 
 
 THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 
 
 672. War Declared 499 
 
 673. The Naval Warfare 500 
 
 674. The Land Campaigns. .• 500 
 
 675. reacp 501 
 
 676. Results of the War 501 
 
 EVENTS SINCE THE WAR. 
 
 677. The Hawaiian Islands Annexed — 1898 502 
 
 678. The New Policy 502 
 
 679. War in the Philippines 502 
 
 680. China, and the "Open Door" 503 
 
 681. Cuba 503 
 
 682. The Interoceanic Canal 504 
 
 683. Election of 1900 505 
 
 684. Assassination of President McKinley 505 
 
 685. Theodore Roosevelt 505 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 686. Growth in Nationality 507 
 
 I'OITLATION. 
 
 687. Numbers 507 
 
 688. Growth of Cities 508 
 
 689. Growth of Territory 509 
 
 690. Public Lands 510 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 691. The Public Schools 510 
 
 6!)2. The Colleges 511 
 
 693. National Expositions 512 
 
 694. The Newspapers 512 
 
 TRANSl'OUTATION. 
 
 695. Decay of Canals 513 
 
 696. Increase of Railroads 513 
 
 CROWTH OF INDUSTRIES. 
 
 697. Invention 514 
 
 698. Manufactures 515 
 
 699. Agriculture • • • 515 
 
 POLITICAL PARTIES SINCHI THE CIVIL WAK. 
 
 700. Political Parties from 1868 to 1880 516 
 
 701. Political I'arties from 1880 to 1892 517 
 
 702. Political I'arties from 1892 to 1900 517 
 
 703. Contest of 1900 518 
 
 NATIONAL FEELING. 
 
 704. The New Unionism 519 
 
 705. The New American Era 520 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Christopher Columbus Fachifj 18 
 
 Discoverers axd Explorers : Magellan. Balboa. Vespucius. Cabot. . . 
 
 FaciiKj 41 
 
 Indian Squaw 53 
 
 Earthen Jars or Bowls 57 
 
 Birch Bark Vessels 58 
 
 Flint-Tipped Arrows 58 
 
 Indian Tepees 59 
 
 Indian \yar Clubs 60 
 
 Virginia Mansion 70 
 
 Colonial Leaders : William I'enn, Jonathan Edwards, John Win- 
 
 throp, Roger Williams Faciiuj 87 
 
 Dutch Houses 90 
 
 Dutch Man 91 
 
 Dutch Maiden 91 
 
 Quakers 93 
 
 Metal Plate Sunk by the French in the Ohio River 110 
 
 Dutch Pamphlet of William Penn 128 
 
 Faneuil Hall 129 
 
 Washington Coat of Arms 130 
 
 Costume of Cavalier 131 
 
 Costume of Puritan 131 
 
 New England Kitchen 132 
 
 Washington's Bed 133 
 
 Pillory and Stocks 134 
 
 Stage Coach 136 
 
 Inn 137 
 
 Spinning Wheel 138 
 
 Pine Tree Shilling 139 
 
 An Early Schoolhouse 140 
 
 Harvard College 142 
 
 Heading of Early Newspaper 144 
 
 Post-Rider 154 
 
 Washington's Farewell to His Mother Fucing 174 ' 
 
 Old South Church. Boston 167 
 
 A British Soldier 172 
 
 An American Soldier 172 
 
 Independence Hall 180 
 
 Revolutionary Leaders : Benjamin Franklin. Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 Robert Morris, John Adams Facing 185 ' 
 
 Ships of the Period 202 
 
 Continental Currency 218 
 
 First Money Coined in the United States 220 
 
 Makers axd Interpreters of the Constitution : John Marshall, 
 
 Daniel Webster, James Madison. Alexander Hamilton Facing 221 
 
 9 
 
10 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Federal Hall 246 
 
 Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin 254 
 
 Monticello 261 
 
 The First Steamboat 267 
 
 An Early Railroad Train 297 
 
 National and State Rights Leaders : Andrew Jackson, John C. 
 
 Calhoun. Stephen A. Douglas, Henry Clay Facing 315:^ 
 
 Bunker Hill Monument 326 
 
 Abraham Lincoln and His Son "Tad" Facing 395 '' 
 
 Union Commanders : William T. Sherman. David G. Farragut, 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant, Philip Sheridan Facing 409 - 
 
 Confederate Leaders : Robert F.. Lee, Jefferson Davis. Joseph E. 
 
 Johnston, Thomas J. Jackson Facing 417 ^ 
 
 Reconstructionists : Andrew Johnson, Charles Sumner, Thaddeus 
 
 Stevens, William H. Seward Facing 464 ^ 
 
 William McKinley Facing 498 ^ 
 
 Theodore Roosevelt Facing 505 ,^ 
 
LIST OF MAPS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 United States Possessions, l'.)l)2 . . . , Fioniispicce 
 
 First Voyage of Columbus 18 
 
 The Norsemen in America 21 
 
 Line of Demarcation 22 
 
 The Spanish Claims 24 
 
 The French Claims 34 
 
 The English Claims 40 
 
 Plymouth and London Grants 45 
 
 Distribution of Indian Tribes Faring 49 
 
 Structural Map of North America 50 
 
 Jamestown and Vicinity G5 
 
 Virginia Coast G8 
 
 New England Coast 78 
 
 New York and Vicinity 89 
 
 Middle Colonies 95 
 
 Southern Atlantic Coast 101 
 
 Beginning of the Battle for Supremacy 104 
 
 Acadia lOG 
 
 Chain of French Forts 109 
 
 French and Indian War 113 
 
 Quebec 116 
 
 America at the Close of the French and Indian War 118 
 
 Boston and Vicinity 171 
 
 Charlestown Peninsula Showing Bunker Hill 175 
 
 Boston Harbor 178 
 
 Campaign of 177G 180 
 
 Burgoyne's Invasion 193 
 
 I'hiladelphia and Vicinity 19G 
 
 Wyoming Valley 200 
 
 Campaign in the West 203 
 
 Map of Southern Campaign 206 
 
 Yorktown and Vicinity 213 
 
 The Original Thirteen States Facing 245 ^ 
 
 Route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition 263 
 
 Oregon Country 264 
 
 The Cumberland National Road 266 
 
 Events of 1812 279 
 
 Events of 1813 280 
 
 Events of 1814, South 282 
 
 Events of 1814, North 282 
 
 Campaign Around Washington, 1814 284 
 
 The Erie Canal 295 
 
 Republic of Texas 330 
 
 Disputed Mexican Boundary 334 
 
 The Advance Toward Mexico 341 
 
 11 
 
12 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 The Trails to California 345 
 
 Kansas • oiio 
 
 Harper's Ferry and Vicinity 375 
 
 Slavery and Secession Fuciiuj 380 K 
 
 Charleston Bay 399 
 
 Missouri Military Movements 402 
 
 Washington and Vicinity 403 
 
 Bull Run and Manassas 405 
 
 Down the Mississippi 410 
 
 Hampton Roads 415 
 
 Peninsular Campaign 417 
 
 First Invasion of the North 421 
 
 Reference Map of the War Fachifi 398 
 
 Vicksburg Campaign 42G 
 
 Chickamauga and Lookout Mountain 428 
 
 Gettysburg and Vicinity 434 
 
 Chattanooga to Atlanta 438 
 
 Atlanta to Nashville 439 
 
 The Wilderness District 444 
 
 Sherman's March North 451 
 
 Last Battles 451 
 
 Continental Expansion 481 
 
 Principal Railroads of the T'nitPd States Fachuj 513 - 
 
CHKISTOPHER COLtTMBtJS 
 
 AFTEJR ST. GAUDBNS' STATCEJ 
 
CHAPTEE I 
 FINDING A CONTINENT 
 
 COLUMBUS, 1492-1504 
 
 1. Dis<j0very of the New World.— At sunset on the 
 evening*of October 11, 1492, three Spanish caravels were 
 ploughing the waves of an unknown sea at a rapid rate. 
 On board all was expectancy and watchfulness, made so by 
 the indomitable will and the undiminished enthusiasm of 
 the great navigator, who, ten weeks before, had set sail 
 from Palos, Spain, in search of a western passage to the 
 Golden Indies of the east. In spite of pleadings to return 
 home, in spite of mutiny and continuous discontent, in 
 spite of threats to cast him into the sea, he kept on his 
 western course,— by his forbearance subduing his men, and 
 by his courage and his hopefulness winning them to his pur- 
 pose and his plans. On that memorable night not an eye 
 was closed in sleep. It had been announced by the heroic 
 admiral that he thought it probable they would make land 
 ere the morning. The greatest animation prevailed 
 throughout the fleet — the Pinta taking the lead, the 
 Santa Maria following, and the Nina in the rear. 
 
 To the admiral the moment was indeed a critical one. 
 Should his prediction fail him now, his last hope of control- 
 ling the turbulent crews would be gone forever. Already the 
 dusk of evening had settled upon the sea when he took his 
 station on top of the castle of the Santa Maria and with eager 
 eye scanned the western horizon. At ten o'clock at night 
 there burst upon his vision a gleam of light as if it were a 
 
 13 
 
14 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 torch ill a fisherman's canoe, dancing on the waves, or from 
 a signal light in the hands of some human being rnshiiig 
 from place to place upon the shore. The first to behold that 
 light, he alone of all on board attached any importance to 
 its transient gleams until, at two o'clock on the morning of 
 October 12, 1492, a gun from the Pinta was followed by the 
 joyful shout of "Land! Land!" — and Christopher Columbus 
 became the discoverer of the western continent, and gave 
 a new world to Castile and Leon, "the like of which was 
 never done by any man in ancient or in later times." 
 
 2. Principal Cause Leading to the Discovery. — When, on 
 the morning of the discovery, Columbus landed on one of 
 the islands now known as the Bahamas, and, calling it 
 San Salvador, took possession in the name of Spain, the 
 event marked the beginning of a new era in the world's 
 history. 
 
 Since the time of the Greek philosopher, Aristotle, many 
 learned men had held to the theory that the earth is 
 round, and that by sailing west on the "sea of darkness," 
 as the Atlantic was then called, the mariner would be 
 brought to the eastern coast of Asia. Prior to the fifteenth 
 century, the discussion of these theories had been confined 
 to literary circles, and had largely occupied the attention of 
 men of thought rather than men of action. 
 
 The march of progress among European nations had 
 reached a point which demanded a larger field of operation. 
 Material wealth and prosperity, rapidly increasing, had 
 created a demand for the luxuries of the far east. A heavy 
 trade had sprung up between Europe and Asia, carried on 
 in the south by caravan over the Isthmus of Suez to the Red 
 Sea, thence by vessel through that sea, or by camel train 
 across the Arabian deserts to the Persian Gulf; and, in the 
 north by way of the Black and Caspian Seas. The skilled 
 Venetian sailors and the successful merchants of Venice 
 dominated the one; the far-famed Genoese sailors and 
 merchants, the other. By the middle of the century these 
 
FUNDING A CONTIKENT 1^ 
 
 routes, however, were made very dangerous from the attacks 
 of the Ottoman Turks, who were at war with the Christian 
 nations of Europe. With the fall of Constantinople at their 
 hands in 1453 trade was almost suppressed. From a com- 
 mercial point of view, therefore, the theory of the scholars 
 that the earth is round and that the East Indies and the 
 shores of Asia could be reached by sailing westward, appealed 
 powerfully to the business world. The dream of the scholar 
 became the demand of the merchant. 
 
 3. Other Causes Leading to the Discovery. — Greed of power 
 caused the reigning kings of Europe to reach out after 
 more territory over which they might spread their dominion. 
 A desire to carry the Gospel to heathen lands moved the 
 authorities of the church to favor the project of seeking a 
 shorter route to Asia. Men interested in science and letters 
 desired to see the fulfillment of their prophecies. 
 
 Through long use, navigators had come to put their trust in 
 the mariner's compass, and the boldest had begun to lay out 
 highroads on the trackless ocean. Confidence in that little 
 instrument, was soon to revolutionize commerce, to free even 
 the timid sailor from the coast, and give him courage to push 
 out into the sea. With this rising confidence, there was to 
 spring into existence a vehement desire for the discovery of 
 unknown lands. 
 
 The invention of printing from movable type in the early 
 part of the fifteenth century was exerting a silent but 
 powerful influence upon all the active countries of Europe 
 at this time. The human mind was freeing itself. Intel- 
 ligence was on the increase. A desire had taken possession 
 of the public mind to know more of the world and its 
 peoples. 
 
 4. Conditions in Europe. — At the time of the discovery, 
 Europe was ready for just such an event in the world's his- 
 tory. She was enjoying a short respite from the habitual 
 toil of war. Spain had conquered the Moor and all but 
 banished him from her borders after centuries of strife. The 
 
16 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 civil war in England, known as the War of the Roses, had 
 ceased, and Henry VII. was restoring peace to the English 
 nation ; even the Italian countries and France and Portugal 
 were free from strife. During this period of political calm 
 among the nations of Europe, there was a deep feeling of 
 unrest, which, accelerated by the development of commerce 
 with Asia and the islands of the eastern seas, the perfecting 
 of the mariner's compass, and the art of printing, manifested 
 itself in the desire for discovery and conquest. 
 
 Naturally, the countries of Europe where this feeling of 
 unrest was strongest, were those which commerce had quick- 
 ened first, namely, those bordering upon the Mediterranean 
 Sea and those looking outward upon the Atlantic. Hence, 
 it was that at the close of the fifteenth century, the great 
 powers of the world were beset with this universal passion 
 for discovery. 
 
 5. The Portuguese and the Route to India. — Under the 
 influence of this new impulse, Portugal, on account of her out- 
 ward position upon the Atlantic, had led all other countries 
 of Europe in the desire to extend the geographical knowledge 
 of the world. Prince Henry the Navigator, had made his 
 little country famous. Portuguese sailors were seen and 
 known in every port. They boldly pushed out into the sea, 
 and in the early part of the century discovered the Azores, 
 the Madeira, and the Cape Verd Islands. By the middle of 
 the century they had reached the coast of Africa as far 
 south as Upper Guinea and returned to Lisbon laden with 
 gold-dust, ivory, and gums. Pope Nicholas V. immediately, 
 on the strength of this later discovery, granted the Portuguese 
 the possession of the lands and many of the islands already 
 discovered, and of any further discoveries they should make 
 as far east as India. They later reached Lower Guinea and the 
 mouth of the Congo, and, in 148G, Bartholomew Dias reached 
 the southern point of Africa, which King John II. of 
 Portugal, named the Cape of Good Hope. It is not surpris- 
 ing, therefore, that this enterprising little nation persisted 
 
FINDING A CONTINENT 17 
 
 in its effort to find a new route to Asia, and that Vasco da 
 Gama twelve years later (1498) rounded the Cape, crossed the 
 Indian Ocean, and anchored safely in the harbor of Calicut. 
 
 6. Christopher Columbus. — In the affairs of men and of 
 nations, it has usually happened, that when an emergency has 
 arisen, the man has been found ready for the hour. At 
 this time there appeared upon the scene the son of a 
 Genoese woolcomber. The father had done valiant service 
 for the king of Portugal as one of his able navigators. 
 On his death he had bequeathed his charts and maps to 
 his son who had inherited his passion for the sea. Chris- 
 topher Columbus was the most conspicuous navigator of 
 his age, and is clearly entitled to the distinction, The Great 
 Navigator. He combined the learning of the scholar with a 
 practical knowledge of the sea. This tall seaman of "grave 
 and gentle manner, though noble and saddened look," was 
 indeed an enthusiast of the most pronounced type, in whom 
 the "passion for discovery rose to the dignity of an inspira- 
 tion." For eighteen long, weary years he importuned 
 monarchs and merchants, courts and bankers, for ships and 
 men, that he might set out upon the western route to 
 Asia. He sent his brother, Bartholomew, to England, but 
 King Henry VII. gave a deaf ear to his appeal. France like- 
 wise lost her opportunity. King John II. of Portugal was 
 encouraging his own seamen to make India by way of the 
 Cape of Good Hope; he, therefore, could not be interested. 
 The Italian merchants and bankers could not be induced to 
 invest in the enterprise without its first having received the 
 support of some powerful monarch. 
 
 Spain at this time was approaching the zenith of her 
 power and was ready for new fields of conquest; still, she 
 refused Columbus assistance. Discouraged, he was, 
 
 The fountain of his spirit's prophecy 
 Sinking away and wasting, drop by drop. 
 In the ungrateful sands of skeptic ears. 
 
 — LowelVs '' Columbus.'''' 
 
18 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 But he was a man who knew no such word as fail. His 
 whole life had been one of hardship. At the age of thirty 
 his hair was white, made so by the suffering and hardships 
 which he had endured. At last success crowned his efforts, 
 and the jewels of the queen of Spain became security for 
 the successful prosecution of his proposed enterprise. Thus, 
 to Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Castile, fell 
 the honor of having first given encouragement and sub- 
 stantial aid to the discoverer of the New World. 
 
 7. First Voyage of Columbus.— The three historic caravels 
 with musical names were furnished him by Spain, but his 
 
 task was still a difficult one. It was not easy to secure 
 crews for these ships when the nature of the voyage became 
 known. Only the boldest sea captains ventured out of sight 
 of land. The vast majority of sailors in those days were timid, 
 very ignorant, and superstitious. Noticing that a ship seemed 
 to be sailing "down hill" as it went out into the ocean, they 
 reasoned that should it go too far, it could never sail "up 
 hill" on its return. Notwithstanding the long use of the 
 mariner's compass, still by the ordinary ship's crew it was 
 looked upon with superstitious awe. 
 
 By dint of much persuasion, promises of great reward and 
 finally, by the use of force, crews were at last secured. 
 They set sail amidst great rejoicing from Palos, Spain, on 
 
FINDING A CONTINENT 19 
 
 the third of August, 1492. First sailing south to the 
 Canary Islands, they boldly took a westerly course, and in 
 ten weeks landed on the island which Columbus named San 
 Salvador. Just which one of the Bahamas Columbus 
 touched upon will probably never be known. 
 
 From thence he sailed south to the coast of Cuba and 
 Santo Domingo, taking possession of those islands in the 
 name of the king and queen of Spain, Ferdinandand Isabella. 
 Having lost his flagship, the Santa Maria, in a storm, he 
 sailed for home, taking with him several natives, whom he 
 called Indians, because he thought the island a part of the 
 East Indies. He also brought back with him many curios- 
 ities from these new lands. His return to Spain was hailed 
 with joy by the king and queen, who bestowed gi'eat honors 
 upon him. 
 
 8. Effects of the Discovery. — Perhaps no single event in 
 history surpasses in importance this first voyage of Colum- 
 bus. It is true he did not discover the mainland of North 
 America, but he opened up the way, thereby making its dis- 
 covery an easy matter. 
 
 The return of Columbus set the world on fire. The 
 printing press in every city of Europe spread the news 
 broadcast throughout the continent. "The revelation of the 
 amazing fact that there were lands beyond the great ocean, 
 inhabited by strange races of human beings, roused to pas- 
 sionate eagerness the thirst for fresh discoveries. ' ' 
 
 Three powerful motives urge man to action — the desire for 
 wealth, the desire for power, and the desire to spread his 
 peculiar religious tenets. These caused the voyage of 
 Columbus, the success of which threw open a vast field for 
 the exploitation of each. The business world, the governing 
 class, the church, responded with alacrity to the call, and the 
 sea of darkness was soon ablaze with the sail of the adven- 
 turer and the explorer, to be followed later by the white 
 sails of commerce. 
 
 9. Later Voyages of Columbus. — Columbus made three 
 
20 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 other voyages to the New World. In the autumn of 1494 
 with a large expedition he set sail on his second voyage for the 
 purpose of taking possession of the new-found islands. He 
 explored the southern coast of Cuba; founded a colony on 
 Santo Domingo; and discovered the islands of Jamaica and 
 Porto Eico. He returned to Spain in 1496 to solicit reen- 
 forcements, provisions, and funds. 
 
 On his third voyage, in 1498, he touched upon the con- 
 tinent of South America, having reached the mainland at the 
 mouth of the Orinoco River. Notwithstanding that he 
 believed the Orinoco to be a continental river, he still held 
 to the view that he was upon the eastern coast of Asia. 
 Proceeding thence to the colony which he had founded in 
 Santo Domingo he found he had been superseded in com- 
 mand by a new governor who preferred charges of cruelty 
 against Columbus and sent him in chains to Spain. On his 
 arrival there the charges against him were investigated and 
 he was released at once. 
 
 On his fourth and last voyage, made in 1502-1504, he 
 explored the coast of Central America, while still in quest 
 of a **waterway to the far east." No man ever held more 
 tenaciously to an idea than did Columbus to his belief in the 
 direct western passage. Though he heard rumors of an 
 ocean lying beyond Central America, he still persisted that 
 it must be the Indian Ocean. 
 
 He returned to Spain, and, it is said, died in poverty and 
 distress in 1506, neglected by his king and his fellow-coun- 
 trymen. 
 
 10. The Norsemen in America — 1000, A. D. — It is believed 
 by some historians that America was first discovered by 
 Europeans in the year 1000 — five hundred years before 
 Columbus set foot upon the island of San Salvador. This 
 first discovery is represented to have been made by the Vik- 
 ings of Norway and Iceland. It is held that these hardy and 
 bold seamen crossing from Greenland, ranged the shores of 
 Labrador, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the New Eng- 
 
FIKDIXG A CONTINENT 
 
 21 
 
 land coast as far south as Long Island Sound. They gave 
 the name Vinland to the southern portion of this new coun- 
 try on account of its yielding grapes in abundance. Even 
 the names of some of these early explorers have been handed 
 down — that of Lief Ericson being the most prominent among 
 them. It is claimed that settlements were made at several 
 points along the coasts of the region explored and that 
 remains of these early settlements have been found from 
 
 northern Labrador to Newport. The most noted ruin 
 pointed out is that of the Old Mill at Newport. Some 
 authorities insist that there never were any such voyages, 
 even holding that the Newport Tower was built centuries later 
 than the time of Lief Ericson ; while still others believe that 
 the Vikings touched upon the shores of northern Labrador 
 in the tenth or the eleventh century. It took five centuries 
 of most severe schooling to prepare the European for the task 
 of conquering and peopling a new continent. But when the 
 time did come and the cry of "Land! Land!" rose joyfully 
 from the deck of the Spanish caravel in the western seas, 
 Europe was ready, and the whole continent responded with 
 enthusiasm to the call. Not to the son of Eric the Eed, 
 whose voyages are all but lost in the mythland of history, 
 but to the son of the Genoese woolcomber belongs the glory 
 of the discovery of America. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 
 
 SPANISH, 1492-1382 
 PORTUGUESE, 1500-1502 
 FRENCH, 1524-16S7 
 DUTCH, 1609-1613 
 ENGLISH, 1497-1607 
 
 '^('^7]' 'o^jX.^ l^iw 
 
 11. The Line of Demarcation. — The opening of the six- 
 teenth century was marked by great activity in Spain. 
 Exploring expeditions were leaving her ports thick and fast 
 for the New World. 
 According to a papal 
 decree issued from 
 Rome in 1493, on ac- 
 count of the Colum- 
 bus discovery Spain was 
 to have all lands, no 
 matter by whom dis- 
 covered, lying west of 
 a line drawn from the 
 North to the South 
 Pole at a distance of 
 one hundred leagues to 
 the west of the Azores 
 and Cape Verd Islands. 
 This line as at first 
 
 drawn not being satisfactory, it was located in the follow- 
 ing year, by treaty between Spain and Portugal, three 
 hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cape Verd Islands. 
 It is known in history as the Line of Demarcation, and 
 crossed Brazil east of the mouth of the Amazon River. 
 Upon this decree of a Roman pontiff the Spanish and the 
 
 22 
 
THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 23 
 
 Portuguese divided their interests. In the course of events 
 the latter directed their attention to Brazil, the coast of 
 Africa, and the eastern route to India; the former, to the 
 West Indies, the lands bordering upon the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and that portion of South America lying west of Brazil. 
 
 England and France, feeling that they had lost their 
 great opportunity in not having extended aid to Columbus, 
 looked askance at this decree of Pope Alexander VI., and 
 later disputed the right of the papal authority thus to dis- 
 pose of the undiscovered lands of the world. 
 
 The French, during the century, entered the continent of 
 North America by way of the St. Lawrence River and the 
 Great Lakes ; later, they pushed down the Mississippi valley, 
 penetrating as far south as Texas. The English preempted 
 the Atlantic Coast, from Nova Scotia to Florida. Even the 
 Dutch, on the strength of a later discovery, laid claim to the 
 stretch of the Atlantic seaboard from Narragansett Bay 
 to the Delaware River. Thus, in the course of two cen- 
 turies, the Line of Demarcation was ignored altogether. 
 
 THE SPANISH 
 
 12. Impelling Motives. — The Spaniard was quick to follow 
 up the advantage gained by the discoveries and voyages of 
 Columbus. Having pushed the hated Moor across the 
 border to the land from whence he came, he was ready for 
 new fields of conquest. Other nations were to be conquered, 
 and heathen peoples converted. The four voyages of Colum- 
 bus had served to surround the New World problem with a 
 glamour. The "riches of the Indies" was still the cry. 
 "The splendors of the newly-found world were, indeed, 
 difficult to be resisted. The wildest romances were greedily 
 received and the Old World, with its familiar and painful 
 realities, seemed mean and hateful beside the fabled glories 
 of the New. It was rumored that gold and precious jewels 
 abounded everywhere. Wealth beyond the wildest dreams of 
 
24 
 
 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 jV^_Greenland\ C-^ 
 
 avarice could be had for the gathering. " Even the fabled 
 * 'fountain of perpetual youth" became a fixed belief and 
 began to allure men into the western seas. It took a cen- 
 tury's sacrifice of blood and treasure to convince the Spaniard 
 of his error. He eagerly 
 entered into the search 
 for gold, and to aid him 
 in his venture began the 
 planting of colonies. He 
 was a great explorer ; all 
 honor to him. But he 
 failed as a colonizer be- 
 cause colonization re- 
 quired honest toil and 
 infinite patience — the lat- 
 ter he had not ; the 
 former, he would not 
 give. Nevertheless, the 
 Spaniard has left his 
 mark upon the western 
 continent and has handed 
 down a long list of early 
 
 explorers, many of whom were kindled by a lofty zeal to 
 extend the dominion of Spain over the whole of the New 
 World. All of the islands of the West Indies were soon 
 discovered and explored, and the adjacent coasts of the 
 mainland lay stretched out as an invitation to greater 
 discoveries in an unknown land. The mystery of it all 
 appealed to the imagination and fired the Spanish mind to 
 further deeds of conquest and of glory. 
 
 13. Ponce de Leon Discovered Florida — 1513. — Ponce de 
 Leon had been a companion and friend of Columbus on his 
 second voyage, and had imbibed much of the great navi- 
 gator's enthusiasm. While governor of the eastern part of 
 the island of Hayti, he was filled with an ambition to effect 
 the conquest of the island of Porto Rico. This he did after 
 
 ^ Magell, 
 \p. 1520 
 
 THE SPANISH CLAIMS 
 
THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 25 
 
 a fearful campaign of slaughter, opening up the island to 
 Spanish colonization. While acting as the first governor of 
 Porto Rico, and meditating upon the fact that he was past 
 the prime of life, his imagination was fired by a fable which 
 was current among the Spanish colonists in the western 
 world, that there existed in one of the islands of the Bahamas 
 a fountain whose waters possessed the magic power of restor- 
 ing youth to old age. As strange as it may seem, this man 
 of intelligence gave a credulous ear to these Indian rumors, 
 and though laughed at by his associates in the colony and 
 his friends at the court of Spain, he still persisted in the 
 belief, and asked that the king might give him authority to 
 organize an expedition and grant him permission to discover 
 the island. The king, feeling kindly disposed toward de 
 Leon, lent him assistance which soon put him on the tramp 
 in search of this fountain of perpetual youth. 
 
 To this incredulous belief is due the discovery of the North 
 American continent by de Leon. Though he did not find 
 his fountain, he did discover Florida in 1513, finding it a 
 land of flowers and singing birds and tropical fruits, though 
 inhabited by many hostile savage tribes. He planted the 
 cross, sang the Spanish song of discovery, and added Florida 
 to the domain of Spain. 
 
 14. Balboa and the Pacific Ocean — 1513. — Vasco Nufiez de 
 Balboa, said also to have been a companion of Columbus, 
 planted a colony on the coast of the Isthmus of Panama. 
 Hearing the rumor, to which Columbus had turned a deaf 
 ear, of a vast sea beyond the high mountains, he determined 
 to learn the truth for himself. Accordingly, in the face of 
 great natural obstacles and the hostility of native tribes, with 
 a little band of seventy-five followers, he was led by a native 
 guide to the summit of a lofty peak, from which he beheld 
 the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Two weeks later he 
 descended to its shores, and amidst great pomp and splendor, 
 took possession of all the lands touching upon its waters in 
 the name of the king of Spain. 
 
26 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 15. Cortez Conquers the Aztecs — 1519-1521. — Hernando 
 Cortez had come to the New World in 1504 and won renown 
 as a soldier in the conquest of Cuba. On the discovery of 
 Mexico, the governor of Cuba was seized with a desire to 
 subdue the land of the Aztecs and place the Empire of 
 Montezuma under Spanish rule. Cortez was given com- 
 mand of an expedition in order that he might carry out the 
 governor's plans. He landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519 
 with his army of conquest. He founded Vera Cruz, and 
 after dramatically burning liis ships so that neither soldier 
 nor sailor could think of returning home, he marched 
 inland. He at first met with bloody resistance, but was 
 finally permitted to enter the capital unmolested. Estab- 
 lishing himself in one of the strong fortresses of the city, he 
 made a prisoner of the Aztec emperor, Montezuma, and 
 soon brought down upon his head the wrath of the Aztec 
 chieftains on account of his despotic cruelty. The natives, 
 biding their time, laid siege to the fortress, and ere the 
 army of invasion was aware, it was surrounded by a vast 
 horde of Aztec tribes, cutting off every avenue of escape. 
 The alternative was offered Cortez of certain death by starva- 
 tion, or possible death in an attempt to cut his way out. 
 His prisoner, Montezuma, having been accidentally killed by 
 his own subjects in a parley, his last hope was gone. In a 
 desperate and bloody encounter, he cut his way through the 
 Aztec lines and succeeded in reaching a friendly tribe with 
 but a remnant of his men. He soon returned to the strug- 
 gle, and, after fearful destruction of life and property, the 
 Aztec yielded to tlie Spaniard and the empire of the Monte- 
 zumas passed to the domain of Spain. The destruction of 
 this Indian empire in the heart of Mexico, comprising the 
 most enlightened and highly civilized people in the western 
 continent, constitutes one of the most pathetic chapters in 
 early New World history, and is paralleled only by the over- 
 throw of the Incas in Peru by the cruel Pizzarros in 1531-34. 
 The history of both conquests has been preserved in imperish- 
 
THE BACE FOR POSSESSION 27 
 
 able literature by the historian Prescott in his thrilling and 
 fascinating volumes on the "Conquest of Mexico," and the 
 "Conquest of Peru." 
 
 16. Magellan Discovers Straits of Magellan — 1520 : Philip- 
 pine Islands — 1521 : His Ship Victoria Completes Circuit of 
 Globe — 1522. — Fernando da Magellan, who had done valiant 
 service as a soldier for Portugal in the conquest of the 
 East Indies as well as of Morocco, became dissatisfied at his 
 treatment and, renouncing his allegiance to his native land, 
 enlisted under the banner of Charles V. , who had just been 
 crowned emperor. Believing the Moluccas to be an invit- 
 ing field for discovery and exploration, he maintained that 
 they were omitted from the treaty which established the old 
 Line of Demarcation, and, by his enthusiasm, succeeded in 
 persuading Charles to enter that portion of the world set 
 aside by the pope for conquest by Portugal. Magellan was 
 placed in charge of a large government expedition, whose 
 avowed purpose was the opening of a western passage to the 
 Moluccas. This voyage will ever hold the interested atten- 
 tion of students of history. To it is due : (1) The discovery 
 of the Straits of Magellan ; (2) the discovery and possession 
 of the far-away Philippine Islands, which for nearly five cen- 
 turies remained in undisputed possession of Spain, until 
 Admiral Dewey, of the United States Navy (May 1, 1898), 
 swept Spanish rule from the islands forever; (3) and the 
 first circumnavigation of the globe, which completely silenced 
 all who opposed the theory of the rotundity of the earth. 
 Magellan lost his life on one of the Philippine Islands in an 
 encounter with the natives, but his good ship Victoria, the 
 only surviving vessel of his fleet, reached the Moluccas, and 
 later rounding the Cape of Good Hope and passing 
 through the Straits of Gibraltar came to anchor in the 
 Spanish port from which she had sailed on her outward 
 voyage. 
 
 17. De Ayllon and San Miguel — 1526. — Vasquez de Ayllon, 
 a Spanish lawyer and a member of the Superior Court of the 
 
28 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 colony of Santo Domingo, became greatly absorbed in the 
 problem of exploration and colonization, and through his 
 influence at the Spanish court, secured permission to fit 
 out exploring expeditions which he sent to Florida and the 
 coasts farther north. Through having enticed many of 
 their numbers on board the Spanish ships and having 
 afterwards condemned them to slavery in the mines of 
 Hayti, one of these expeditions secured for the Spanish the 
 lasting enmity of the native tribes of the coast. 
 
 In 1526 De Ay lion attempted to plant the first Spanish 
 colony within what is now the borders of the United States. 
 He selected a site near the later English settlement of James- 
 town and called it San Miguel. Beset by hostile tribes on 
 every hand, the knights of Spain succumbed to the red men 
 of the forest. The leader sickened and died of a fever, and 
 this first attempt at colonization in the United States ended 
 in disaster. 
 
 18. Narvaez Meets with Disaster — 1528. — Panfilo de 
 Narvaez had won distinction in the conquest of Cuba 
 and was in high favor with Velasquez, the governor of 
 that island. The latter, having become jealous of Cortez 
 in Mexico, dispatched Narvaez to supplant him. He was, 
 however, surprised and captured by Cortez and banished 
 from Mexico; upon which he returned to Spain, where 
 in 1528, he was made governor of Florida. Having been 
 granted permission to effect the conquest of Florida, 
 he led into the interior of that country an expedition 
 of four hundred men, whose avowed purpose was the 
 discovery and plunder of the rich peoples of whom they 
 heard. After months of marching and countermarching 
 through what is now a portion of the southern states, the 
 company was reduced by disease and conflict with the 
 natives to four survivors. After enduring untold hardships 
 and traveling thousands of miles, these four men, one of 
 them the treasurer of the ill-fated expedition, Alva Nufiez 
 Cabeza de Vaca by name, arrived at a Spanish settlement 
 
THE RACE EOR POSSESSION 29 
 
 in northern Mexico, in 1536. De Yaca afterwards published 
 in Spain a narrative of the Narvaez expedition and his own 
 subsequent adventures. This narrative has been translated 
 into several languages and is even at this day considered of 
 great historical value. 
 
 19. Coronado and the " Seven Fabled Cities of Cibola " ; the 
 Quivera — 1540-1542. — The thrilling tales told by Cabeza de 
 Vaca and his three companions of the fabulously vp-ealthy 
 tribes in the north, led to the expedition of Francisco 
 Vasquez Coronado, who, in 1540, led out from Mexico 
 an army of discovery in search of these fabled Indian 
 empires of the north. Entering New Mexico, he found 
 the cities of Cibola to be but mean Indian villages 
 of the Zuni tribe, devoid of wealth or the least sug- 
 gestion of opulence. He still sought the kingdom of 
 Quivera, and, penetrating as far northward as the plains of 
 Kansas, found the capital of these tribes of Quivera likewise 
 but a poor Indian village. He retraced his steps with but a 
 remnant of his followers, but the historian of the expedition 
 has handed down a valuable and interesting narrative of the 
 journey. 
 
 Within a half century after the discovery of Columbus, the 
 Spaniard, as one representative of the Latin race, had thus 
 penetrated the very heart of the North American continent, 
 and looked upon the vast stretch of plain and prairie which 
 was later to be subdued by his Anglo-Saxon brother. 
 
 In that half -forgotten era, 
 With the avarice of old, 
 Seeking cities he was told 
 Had been paved with yellow gold 
 
 In the kingdom of Quivera — 
 
 Came the restless Coronado 
 To the open Kansas plain. 
 With his knights from sunny Spain ; 
 In an effort that, though vain, 
 
 Thrilled with boldness and bravado. 
 
30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 League by league, in aimless marching, 
 Knowing scarcely where or why, 
 Crossed they uplands drear and dry, 
 That an unprotected sky 
 
 Had for centuries been parching. 
 
 But their expectations, eager, 
 
 Found, instead of fruitful lands. 
 Shallow streams and shifting sands, 
 Where the buffalo in bands 
 
 Roamed o'er deserts dry and meager. 
 
 Back to scenes more trite, yet tragic, 
 
 Marched the knights with armor'd steeds; 
 Not for them the quiet deeds; 
 Not for them to sow the seeds 
 
 From which empires grow like magic. 
 
 Never land so hunger-stricken 
 
 Could a Latin race re-mold ; 
 
 They could conquer heat or cold — 
 
 Die for glory or for gold — 
 But not make a desert quicken. 
 
 Thus Quivera was forsaken ; 
 
 And the world forgot the place 
 Through the lapse of time and space. 
 Then the blue-eyed Saxon race 
 
 Came and bade the desert waken. 
 
 — Ware. 
 
 20. De Soto and the Mississippi River — 1539-1542. — Her- 
 nando de Soto had been engaged in many active exploring and 
 colonizing expeditions since 1514. He had ably assisted the 
 Pizzaros in the conquest of Peru (1531-34), where he amassed 
 great wealth. This gave him high standing at the Spanish 
 court and, on his return to Spain, in 1536, he was, in the 
 following year, appointed governor of Cuba and Florida, 
 with orders to settle and explore the latter country. He 
 organized an expedition at Havana in 1539, soon landed at 
 Tampa Bay, on the coast of Florida, sent part of his ships 
 back to Havana, and began the repetition of the De 
 
THE RACE FOR POSSESSIOlf 31 
 
 Ay lion and Narvaez disasters. In the hope of finding 
 richer countries, he continued; and for three years he 
 was urged forward in search of gold. It is thought that 
 he traversed what are now the States of Florida, Georgia, 
 the Carolinas, Alabama, Tennessee, and Mississippi. He 
 suffered great hardships and was forced to fight many 
 fierce battles with the Indians. He discovered the Mis- 
 sissippi River in 1541, and explored the region west of the 
 Mississippi nearly as far north as the Missouri. Turning 
 southward in 1542, he reached the junction of the Red 
 River and the Mississippi, where he sickened and died. 
 His body was buried in the great river which he had 
 discovered. The leader dead, the remnant of this gay com- 
 pany which had embarked with such high hopes at Havana 
 three years before, built rafts, floated down the great river 
 out into the Gulf, and finally reached the Spanish settlements 
 in Mexico. 
 
 21. Cabrillo and California— 1542-1543.— While De Soto 
 was exploring the region of the southern states and Coronado 
 was searching for the Quivera in the interior of the con- 
 tinent, Juan Rodriquez Cabrillo was exploring the Pacific 
 coast, and its adjacent islands. On the California coast, he 
 discovered and named many islands, capes, gulfs, and bays. 
 He died while wintering in San Diego harbor in 1543. 
 Before his vessels returned home, they sailed north as far as 
 the coast of Oregon. Cabrillo left a manuscript narrative of 
 his adventures and explorations, which is preserved in the 
 historical archives of Spain. 
 
 22. Menendez Founds St. Augustine, 1565; Espejo, Santa 
 Fe, 1582. — A half century had passed since the dawn of the 
 New World and the Spaniard had not yet planted a single 
 colony north of the region of Mexico. Every attempt had 
 
 .ended in dismal failure or disaster, until Pedro Menendez, 
 successor to De Soto as governor of Cuba and Florida, 
 founded the city of St. Augustine on the eastern coast of 
 the peninsula. A decade and a half later (1582) Antonio 
 
32 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 
 
 de Espejo founded Santa Fe in New Mexico. These are 
 the two oldest cities in the United States. 
 
 THE PORTUGUESE 
 
 23. Americus Vespucius and the Naming of America — 
 1497-1504. — Americus Vespucius, a scholarly and capable 
 Italian navigator, claims to have made four voyages to the 
 New World, two in the Spanish and two in the Portuguese 
 service. He has left narratives of these voyages. In the 
 voyage of 1497 he claims to have discovered the mainland a 
 year before Columbus first gazed upon the continent at the 
 mouth of the Orinoco Eiver. 
 
 In the voyages of 1501 and 1503, while in the Portuguese 
 service, he visited the Brazilian coast and in his narrative 
 of the first of these Portuguese voyages maintained that 
 the map of the world then known should be reconstructed 
 and made to include a "fourth continent" which he called 
 Mundus Novus, — Europe, Asia, and Africa constituting the 
 other three continents. The theory of a new continent thus 
 early became associated with the name of this learned geog- 
 rapher. Columbus combated the theory to the time of his 
 death. Indeed, the fiction that the new lands were a part of 
 the East Indies or the continent of Asia was not finally dis- 
 pelled till Cortez measured his strength with the Aztec and 
 revealed the truth about Mexico. It is not strange, there- 
 fore, that a German teacher of geography in the College of 
 St. Die should have used the following words in a little 
 treatise on geography published in 1507: "And the fourth 
 part of the world, having been discovered by Americus, it 
 maybe called Amerige; that is, the land of Americus or 
 America." At first applied to Brazil, the suggestion was 
 eventually adopted and was soon applied to the whole of the 
 New World. 
 
 24. Cabral Discovers Brazil — 1500. — However, a year before 
 Vespucius had reached the coast of Brazil, Pedro Alvarez 
 
THE RACE FOR POSSESSIOK 33 
 
 Cabral had taken possession of it in the name of the king of 
 Portugal. He had sailed from Lisbon in command of a large 
 fleet with instructions to carry on the discoveries begun in 
 India by Vasco da Gama. A tempest drove the fleet far out of 
 its course and Cabral was astonished, on an April morning in 
 1500, at the sailor's cry of "Land! Land!" Learning that 
 this land lay on Portugal's side of the Line of Demarcation, 
 he planted a colony and dispatched a ship to his king to 
 advise him of the discovery; then proceeded on his route 
 past the Cape of Good Hope to India. 
 
 25. Cortereal Visits and Names Labrador — 1500. — Gaspar 
 Cortereal, under permission of his king, fitted out an expedi- 
 tion at his own expense and set sail on a voyage of discovery 
 in search of a northwest passage to Asia. While he failed in 
 his object, he seems to have skirted the coast of North 
 America and touched upon the shores of Greenland. He 
 imposed upon many places purely Portuguese names, 
 Labrador among the number. The history of a people is 
 sometimes revealed through a study of their geographical 
 names. Labrador means the "land of laborers or slaves," 
 and suggests to the student of history that the Portuguese 
 became in their time the greatest and most heartless slave 
 traders in the world. 
 
 THE FRENCH 
 
 26. The French Fishermen. — Seven years after the dis- 
 covery of the continent, the fisheries of Newfoundland were 
 known to the hardy sailors of Breton, on the western shores 
 of France. Each succeeding year found their fishing boats, 
 in increasing numbers, laying iu supplies for the markets of 
 France from the cod-banks off Newfoundland. Their 
 marvelous stories of the new coasts in the west soon 
 became current in France. To the circumstance of the voy- 
 ages of these simple folk, engaged in private enterprise, is 
 doubtless due the later location and rise upon the western 
 
34 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 continent of that New France whose story has been so 
 eloquently told by the historian Parkman. 
 
 27. Verrazano and New France — 1524. — France had little 
 respect for the Line of Demarcation and early entered into 
 competition for a share of the western world. Her king, 
 Francis II., at bitter enmity with Charles of Spain, sent an 
 expedition under command of Giovanni Verrazano in search 
 
 of a northwest passage 
 to China. Touching upon 
 the shores of North Am- 
 erica at a 23oint near Cape 
 Hatteras, he is said to 
 have ranged the entire 
 coast of the continent 
 from the Carolinas in the 
 south to Newfoundland 
 in the north. He ex- 
 plored with more or less 
 detail many of the bays 
 and harbors of the At- 
 lantic coast as far north 
 as that island. He took 
 possession in the name 
 of his monarch of the 
 region explored, and to 
 the whole gave the name. New France. He was perhaps 
 the first European to sail into New York Bay and look 
 upon the broad expanse of the Hudson River. Upon this 
 voyage of discovery France was wont, in a later century, 
 to base her claim to the territory which she proposed to 
 carve out for herself in the New World. 
 
 28. Cartier Discovers the St. Lawrence — 1535. — The wars 
 in France prevented any further expeditions till a decade 
 later. On the restoration of peace, the celebrated French 
 navigator, Jacques Cartier, under direction of his king, 
 made three voyages to the western continent. On the first 
 
 THE FRKNCH CLAIM.S 
 
THE KACE FOR POSSESSION 35 
 
 he explored the northern coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 and on the second (1535) he discovered the St. Lawrence 
 River, ascending it as far as the Indian village of Hoc-he- 
 laga, located on the present site of Montreal. Oartier's 
 third voyage, made in 1541-42, in connection with Roberval, 
 was for the purpose of planting a colony in New France. A 
 landing was effected near the present site of the city of 
 Quebec, but the enterprise ended in failure, and the leader 
 returned to France. The French in this first attempt at 
 colonization were to keep company — in almost the identical 
 years — with the Spanish failures of De Soto in Florida and 
 Coronado in the interior of the continent, and with the 
 success of Cabrillo on the California coast. 
 
 29. The Huguenots Attempt to Found a Colony in Florida 
 — 1562-67. — After the still further lapse of a quarter of a 
 century, the story of New France reopened with a tragedy. 
 "The political and religious enmities which were soon to 
 bathe Europe in blood broke out with an intense fury in the 
 distant wilds of Florida." Admiral Ooligny, the leader 
 of the Huguenots, as the French Protestants were called, 
 was anxious to establish in America a colony of refuge 
 for his persecuted brethren. He sent the first expedition in 
 1562 under the leadership of Jean Ribaut, who touched 
 upon the coast of Florida, discovered the St. Johns River, 
 planted the ensign of France, and named the new country 
 Carolina, after the boy king, Charles IX. Sailing north- 
 ward in search of a suitable harbor, he finally planted his 
 little colony of thirty souls in the vicinity of Port Royal, 
 South Carolina. He soon set sail on his return voyage to 
 the Old World and was unable to return for three years. 
 The Port Royal colonists, thus abandoned, eked out a 
 miserable existence, and, unable to endure their hardships 
 longer, built a ship and put to sea in the hope of reaching 
 home. After enduring untold suffering, they were picked 
 up, nearly famished, in the English Channel by an Englibh 
 vessel. 
 
36 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 
 
 A second expedition was sent out in 1564 under Rene de 
 Laudonniere, who planted a colony on the St. Johns River. 
 His Huguenot company constituted a motley crew. The 
 hardships and misery which they endured, due in a large 
 measure to lack of harmony among themselves, cannot be 
 recounted. Their distress was relieved by John Hawkins, 
 an English captain who had sailed into the mouth of the St. 
 Johns River to re-fill his casks with water. On the urgent 
 demand of his followers Laudonniere traded his cannon for 
 one of Hawkins's vessels. He was being forced by his fol- 
 lowers to abandon the colony, and needed this ship to take 
 them home. No sooner had the English captain sailed than 
 Jean Ribaut appeared upon the scene with provisions and 
 supplies, thus relieving their distress and suffering. Their 
 joy, however, was soon cut short by the blow which fell upon 
 their little colony. 
 
 Spain, intensely Catholic and always hating the Huguenots, 
 had been watching with a jealous eye their attempt to plant 
 a colony in the New World. Learning tliat they had landed 
 in Florida, she proceeded to dispute their right, claiming 
 Florida by the pope's decree and by right of the de Leon 
 discovery. Accordingly Menendez hastened to Florida, 
 and as soon as he had planted the colony of St. Augustine, 
 proceeded to lay plans to dispossess the Huguenots. 
 Within two years this cruel Spaniard butchered, massacred, 
 or hanged nine hundred of the French colonists. It is 
 not strange, therefore, that in 1567 Dominic de Gourges 
 came over to America with the avowed purpose of 
 avenging the butchery of his fellow Huguenots. His ven- 
 geance swept the Spanish settlements like a whirlwind until 
 only the settlement of St. Augustine remained. Finding 
 he could not hold his own against the larger Spanish force, 
 he returned to France. When Menendez the year before 
 had executed the last of the French, he marked the place 
 with a cross bearing the inscription, ''Not as to Frenchmen, 
 but as to Lutherans." When De Gourges sailed for France 
 
THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 37 
 
 the inscription read, "Not as to Spaniards, but as to traitors, 
 robbers, and murderers." 
 
 30. Champlain, the Father of New France. — To quote Park- 
 man the historian: "Samuel de Champlain, has been fitly 
 called the Father of New France. In him were embodied 
 her religious zeal and romantic spirit of adventure. Before 
 the close of his career, purged of her heresy, she took the 
 posture which she held to the day of her death — in one hand 
 the crucifix and in the other, the sword. His life, full of 
 significance, is the true beginning of her eventful history." 
 He was "devout, high-minded, brave, tender." He had 
 made explorations in Canada and in New England, having 
 spent much time exploring the coast. He is said to have 
 been an excellent draughtsman, and has left some of the best 
 maps extant of that upper coast. He founded Quebec (1608) 
 — the first permanent French settlement in America. He 
 discovered Lake Champlain in 1609. He was instrumental 
 in laying successfully the foundations of the French Colonial 
 Empire. He was appointed governor of New France, and 
 remained in that position until 1635. He made one error, 
 however, which had serious consequences and possibly cost 
 the French their dominion in the New World. This was in 
 joining a war party of Hurons against the Iroquois, thus 
 incurring the lasting enmity of that powerful confederacy. 
 From this error of judgment fatal results followed in later 
 years. The time came when the French needed the aid of 
 the Iroquois against the English, but they petitioned in vain. 
 
 31. De Monts and His Agricultural Colony in Canada. — 
 However, before Champlain established Quebec, he had 
 assisted in a prior attempt to plant a colony in America, under 
 the leadership of the Sieur de Monts. After the tragic end of 
 the Huguenots in the south in 1565, no further attempts 
 at colonizing were made by the French until 1604. A 
 movement had been set on foot to establish an agricultural 
 colony, and in that year, under the leadership of De Monts, 
 a settlement was made on an island in the Bay of Fundy. 
 
38 HISTORY OF THE UJ^ITED STATES 
 
 This proviDg an undesirable site, they moved across the bay 
 the next year and founded Port Eoyal, Nova Scotia. The 
 colony never flourished under French rule and in 1607 was 
 abandoned. 
 
 32. The Pioneers of France in the New World — Soldiers, 
 Fur Traders, and the Jesuit Fathers. — From the time Cham- 
 plain planted the first permanent French settlement in Amer- 
 ica just three-quarters of a century elapsed before La Salle, 
 the discoverer of the great west, planted the lily-standard 
 of France at the mouth of the Mississippi Eiver, and, taking 
 possession of the vast interior of the continent in the name 
 of France, named it Louisiana in honor of his king. A vast 
 pioneer army of missionaries, traders, and soldiers had made 
 possible this crowning act of La Salle. The military power 
 of France was always in evidence, and the French soldier in 
 the conquest of the New World was an imperative necessity. 
 But with the soldier there went the trapper, the hunter, and 
 the fur trader, who pushed their canoes up every navigable 
 stream in quest of their prey or to traffic with the Indians. 
 In fur and fishing the adventurers of France had found 
 "veritable gold mines." The demand in Europe for these 
 commodities became enormous. 
 
 Hand in hand with the soldier and the trader went the 
 Jesuit missionary, zealous to convert the savage and build 
 up a Christian empire in the wilderness of the west. With 
 a devotion that has seldom been surpassed, with a self-denial 
 and self-abasement that still astonishes the world, the Jesuits 
 went everywhere, spreading the doctrine of their faith. 
 They were the advisers, both spiritual and temporal, of 
 every French trading post in America. Among them 
 all, two names stand out prominently as the leaders in the 
 far west. The early history of many of the north central 
 states of our republic cannot be written without mention of 
 the names of Marquette and Joliet. It was they who in 
 1673 rounded the Great Lakes, crossed to the headwaters of 
 the Mississippi River, and in time drifted down the stream 
 
THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 39 
 
 to within seven hundred miles of its mouth, thus demon- 
 strating that the great river emptied its waters into the 
 Gulf of Mexico and not into the "Vermillion Sea," as the 
 Pacific was then called. 
 
 33. La Salle and the Extension of New France. — Ten years 
 later, La Salle pushed down the great river, and took pos- 
 session in the name of France of that vast territory, one-half 
 of which was later to be surrendered to the English; the 
 other half, to he sold to the republic of the United States in 
 1803, for fifteen millions of dollars. "La Salle stands in 
 history like a statue cast in iron." At first a Jesuit, he 
 renounced his connection with that society, and, in behalf 
 of France, began his interminable voyages of exploration. 
 He traversed a stretch of country from the Great Lakes on 
 the north to the Ohio Eiver on the south ; and from the port- 
 age of Chicago to the mouth of the Mississippi. He is said 
 to have traveled twenty thousand miles in the interior of the 
 continent, most of the distance on foot or in an Indian bark 
 canoe. He built the first ship that ever sailed the waters of 
 the lakes above Niagara. He is truly entitled to the dis- 
 tinction. The Discoverer of the Great West. To him, more 
 than any other man, was the mother country indebted for 
 the expansion of New France. 
 
 It is sad to relate that after this crowning act of his life, he 
 repaired to France only to be enlisted in an enterprise which 
 led to his death by assassination. Spain patrolled the Gulf of 
 Mexico, by her warships forbidding any nation to enter the 
 ports of the West Indies or of Mexico unless by her permis- 
 sion. La Salle, however, on his way over from France suc- 
 ceeding in deceiving the Spanish at Santo Domingo, planted 
 a French colony on the coast of Texas. This colony did not 
 flourish on account of Indian foes without and wicked 
 plottings within. La Salle had concluded to abandon the 
 colony and lead his followers back to France through the 
 Canadian settlement of Quebec. He, however, was assas- 
 sinated on the eve of his departure. "Thus died," says 
 
40 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Parkman, **iTi ignominy and darkness the last embers of the 
 doomed colony of La Salle." 
 
 THE DUTCH 
 
 34. Holland was also a seafaring nation, and yet she, like 
 Portugal, failed to profit much by discoveries in the New 
 World. On the single voyage of Henry Hudson in 1609 she 
 based her claim. He entered the beautiful river, to which 
 he gave his name, and the Dutch were thus enabled right- 
 fully to claim one of the richest sections of the New World. 
 They made their claim good in 1613, by permanent settle- 
 ment on the present site of New York City. 
 
 THE ENGLISH 
 
 35. England. — We now come to the nation which was later 
 to have such a vast influence upon the North American 
 continent. When Henry 
 
 VII. of England turned 
 
 a deaf ear to the appeal 
 
 of Columbus, he lost an 
 
 opportunity which in all 
 
 probability he did not 
 
 cease regretting to the 
 
 day of his death. At 
 
 that time, the English 
 
 navigators and sailors 
 
 were worthy competitors 
 
 with those of Spain and 
 
 Portugal, and, after the 
 
 discovery of Columbus, 
 
 they were imbued with 
 
 a desire to penetrate the 
 
 sea of darkness and share 
 
 in the discoveries of the 
 
 mysterious land beyond the Atlantic. While Portugal strove 
 
 for a southeast passage and Spain for a western, English 
 
 THK ENGLISH CLAIMS 
 
>IAGELt,AN 
 VKSPUCIUS 
 
 BAr^BOA 
 SEBASTIAN CABOT 
 
 Discoverers a:nd Explorers 
 
THE RACE FOR POSSESSION" 41 
 
 and French sailors set their faces toward the northwest. 
 They believed, and rightly, that if there were an open pas- 
 sage, the route by the northwest would be shorter than the 
 routes chosen by either Spain or Portugal. For the first 
 voyage to the New World under the flag of England we are 
 indebted to this belief. 
 
 36. The Cabots Establish the Claim of England— 1497, 
 1498. — John Cabot and Sebastian his son were Genoese 
 sailors in the employ of England. Under the direction 
 of the king of their adopted country, they made a 
 voyage to the New World, touching at some point on the 
 Labrador coast. They sailed southward for a distance of 
 some three hundred miles and landing at a point not now 
 known, planted a cross and the flag of England, and, after 
 three months, returned to the harbor of Bristol from which 
 they had sailed. Thus to John Cabot and to England is due 
 the first discovery of the North American continent. He 
 had touched Labrador fourteen months before Columbus 
 saw the mainland at the mouth of the Orinoco River. 
 By this early and remarkable voyage of the Cabots Eng- 
 land was able to establish her claim to nearly the whole of 
 North America. However, on the death of Henry VIL, 
 his successors, out of respect for the papal decree, did noth- 
 ing to further the claims made good by these early voyagers. 
 Busy with affairs at home, the English allowed three-quarters 
 of a century to elapse before they again appeared in the 
 western world. 
 
 37. England under Queen Elizabeth. — Queen Elizabeth was 
 keenly alive to the interests of her people, and under her, Eng- 
 land rapidly rose in power. In commerce she dared to compete 
 with all the other countries of the world. She became the 
 antagonist of Spain and the great champion of Protestantism 
 in Europe. She "strengthened her navy, filled her arsenals, 
 and encouraged the building of ships in England." The 
 spirit of English nationality was developed in her reign. 
 She encouraged adventure and discovery in Africa and Russia, 
 
42 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 and commerce with the distant peoples of Asia. She encour- 
 aged science, letters, art, invention, and discovery. In her 
 day Shakespeare and Spenser sang, and Sidney and Bacon 
 wrote. Finally the overthrow of the Spanish Armada laid 
 the foundation of England's supremacy at sea. 
 
 38. Frobisher Enters Baffin's Bay in Search of a Northwest 
 Passage. — Before the destruction of the Spanish Armada, 
 Queen Elizabeth had been encouraging exploration and dis- 
 covery in the New World. Her fishermen off the New- 
 foundland coast became the "lords of the banks." In 
 
 1576 she sent Martin Frobisher to find a northwest passage 
 to the Indies. This bold seaman, with two small barks, 
 penetrated as far north as Baffin's Bay. He loaded his ship 
 with a substance the natives assured him was gold, and, 
 returning to England, "dropped down the Thames, where 
 Queen Elizabeth waved her hand in token of favor." His 
 load of yellow earth proved to be mica, but belief in his 
 "Arctic Eldorado" lured English seamen into the cold 
 regions of the north seas for many years. 
 
 39. Drake, the Bold Eover, Circumnavigates the Globe — 
 1577-1580. — These were the days when the battle was to 
 the strong. Thus no ship was safe on the high seas unless 
 manned by a valiant captain and crew. England had many 
 of these and no captain more bold than Sir Francis Drake. 
 He had already made several successful piratical voyages to 
 the West Indies, returning to England with rich booty. In 
 
 1577 he resolved to try his fortunes on the west coast of 
 America, where the Spaniard was reaping a rich harvest 
 from the coffers of the Incas. He followed in the track of 
 Magellan, and turned Cape Horn. Entering different har- 
 bors along the South American coast, he despoiled Spaniard 
 and native alike, until his most sanguine dreams had 
 been realized. But now came the question of a return 
 home. Should it be by the route he came, the Spaniard 
 might waylay him. He therefore sailed leisurely up the 
 coast as far north as Oregon, which he named New Albion, 
 
THE RACE FOR POSSESSION 43 
 
 and passed the winter of 1579 in one of her safe harbors. 
 The following year he struck boldly across the Pacific Ocean 
 and returned home by the Cape of Good Hope. He was the 
 first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. 
 
 40. Sir Humphrey Gilbert Makes an Attempt to Found an 
 English Colony. — The queen now determined to plant an Eng- 
 lish colony in her new possessions. In 1583 Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert, *'one of those persons whose life and conduct serve to 
 brighten the pages of history," was fitted out with five ships. 
 He made three attempts to found a colony in Newfoundland, 
 but failed on account of the severity of the climate and dissen- 
 sions among his followers. On his return from his last voy- 
 age the vessel in which he sailed went down at sea. His last 
 recorded words were, "We are as near to Heaven by sea as 
 by land." Sir Humphrey was a step-brother of Sir Walter 
 Raleigh and had been assisted and encouraged in his colonial 
 enterprise by his relative. 
 
 41. Sir Walter Raleigh and Virginia. — Remembering the 
 experiences of his step-brother in the rigors of the New- 
 foundand climate, Raleigh resolved to establish a colony 
 on the southern coast from which the French had been 
 banished. Being a great favorite of the queen, he readily 
 obtained a large grant. An exploring party was sent 
 out, which returned with glowing accounts of the coun- 
 try. It was reported to be "a land of perpetual flowers 
 and eternal springs." Raleigh caught the fancy and 
 named the country which he sought to colonize Virginia, 
 in honor of the Virgin Queen. In 1585 a colony of 
 one hundred was located on Roanoke Island. On account 
 of the colonists' mistreatment of the Indians, the latter 
 became very hostile. The situation grew critical. Starva- 
 tion confronted them, and they were threatened with exter- 
 mination by the savages, when they were happily rescued by 
 Sir Francis Drake, who had stopped to see how his friend 
 Raleigh's colony was prospering. He found them in such 
 distress that he yielded to their request to be taken home. 
 
44 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 These returning colonists are said to have been the first to 
 introduce the use of tobacco into England. 
 
 A final attempt was made in 1587 under the leadership of 
 Governor John White. This time both men and women 
 were sent. The outcome was tragic. After seeing them 
 located at Roanoke, Governor "White returned for supplies. 
 In England he found all was excitement over the report of 
 the coming of the Spanish Armada. Every ship and every 
 seaman was in demand. When, after an absence of three 
 years, White returned, he could find no trace of the colony. 
 It became known as "The Lost Colony." 
 
 Disappointed and broken in fortune, Raleigh now 
 relinquished his rights to others. Bancroft says: "The 
 name of Raleigh stands greatest among the statesmen 
 of England who advanced the colonization of the United 
 States." He was courtier, soldier, colonizer, historian, 
 poet. AYhen Queen Elizabeth died he fared ill with her 
 successor, who imprisoned him in the Tower of London in 
 1603 and released him in 1616, only to condemn him and 
 execute him at the block two years later. 
 
 42. Gosnold— 1602 ; Pring— 1603; Weymouth— 1605.— At 
 the beginning of the century three voyages were made to 
 the New World which excited great interest in England. 
 In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold coasted Massachusetts, named 
 Cape Cod, and sailed into Buzzards Bay. He named an 
 island after his queen, and attempted to plant a colony 
 there. He failed because none of his crew would consent to 
 remain. Martin Pring visited the same coast the following 
 year, returning laden with fish. Both Pring and Gosnold 
 made favorable reports on the desirability of the New Eng- 
 land coast as a place for settlement. George Weymouth 
 followed up their explorations in 1605, entering and explor- 
 ing many of the harbors along the coast of Maine and reach- 
 ing as far south as the region visited by Gosnold three years 
 before. 
 
 These three voyages aroused the business centers of Eng- 
 
THE RACE FOR POSSESSIOl^^ 
 
 45 
 
 land. They served to stir the English mind as never before 
 in its relation to the colonization of the New World. The 
 voyages made to other parts of the Atlantic coast, particu- 
 larly to the south, had demonstrated that fine harbors were 
 not numerous. Gosnold, Pring, and Weymouth had explored 
 in detail a sufficient number of harbors on the New Eng- 
 land coast to shelter the navies and the merchant ships of 
 the world. 
 
 43. The Virginia Company — Plymouth: London — (1606). — 
 As the sixteenth century closed and the seventeenth century 
 opened, all the business centers of Europe became act- 
 ively interested in the promo- 
 tion of commercial enterprise. 
 Trading companies, exploring 
 companies, and companies in- 
 terested ina greatvarietyof en- 
 terprises, existed in Holland, 
 France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, 
 and England. England, where 
 a broader idea of the rights 
 of the individual had gained a 
 foothold, was especially inter- 
 ested in the organization of 
 such companies. The year 
 following the return of Wey- 
 mouth, the now famous Vir- 
 ginia Company was organized 
 (1606) under a charter from the king. The original company 
 soon subdivided into two companies — the London and the Ply- 
 mouth. The members of the London Company lived in or near 
 London ; those of Plymouth, in or near Plymouth. The com- 
 panies were organized for the purpose of colonization and 
 trade. 
 
 The London Company, by the charter, was limited to 
 the territory lying between the thirty-fourth and thirty- 
 eighth degrees of north latitude; the Plymouth, to the 
 
 ] 31 P;A N V X .J" 
 
 iRooTioke I. ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 PLYMOUrH 
 
 AND 
 
 LONDON GR/^ 
 1606 
 
 NTS, 
 
46 HISTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 territory lying between the forty-first and forty-fifth degrees. 
 Both extended westward without limit. The strip lying 
 between the two grants was left open as a field of com- 
 petition between the two companies, neither to make a 
 settlement within a hundred miles of the other. The Ply- 
 mouth Company made its first attempt at colonization on the 
 coast of Maine in 1607. The colonists had settled too far 
 north and the climate proved too severe for them. The 
 following year, discouraged and heart-sick, they returned 
 home. 
 
 While the Plymouth Company failed, the London Com- 
 pany succeeded. To it belongs the distinction of having 
 planted the first permanent English colony on the shores of 
 America. The Jamestown Colony, established in 1607, 
 marks the beginning of that English colonization of the 
 continent, which, during the next century and a half, was 
 destined to spread and establish the supremacy of England 
 in North America. The history of these English colonies, 
 thirteen in all, stretching along a narrow strip of the Atlantic 
 coast, constitutes the beginning of the history of the republic 
 of the United States, and must be reserved foi a future 
 chapter. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 44. Progress Made. — We have thus far followed the story 
 of the western continent as revealed in the lives of the early 
 explorers. 
 
 From Columbus to Menendez and Espejo (1492-1582) is a 
 long and bloody period of time. But during that period the 
 Spaniard planted himself firmly in the West Indies, conquered 
 Mexico, and the western coast of South America; and by an 
 armed patrol maintained his right to Florida — the northern 
 limit of which he placed at the North Pole. 
 
 We have seen the Portuguese (1500-1502) limited to Brazil, 
 and note with shame their development into the leading 
 slave traders of the world. 
 
THE RACE FOR POSSESSIOX 47 
 
 From Verrazano and Cartier to La Salle (1524-1687) we 
 jire carried over more than a century and a half of history. 
 But we behold the Frenchman in the van of the army of 
 pioneers who conquered the vast interior wilderness of the 
 continent. He has extended New France from a small set- 
 tlement at Quebec, westward to the upper limits of the Great 
 Lakes; thence southward to the Gulf of Mexico, through 
 one of the richest and most productive valleys in the world. 
 
 We have seen the Dutch under Henry Hudson (1609) 
 sailing into the Hudson River, establishing the right of Hol- 
 land to the New Netherlands in America and plying their 
 trade along that river and the coasts of Long Island Sound. 
 
 From the Cabots to the Jamestown colony (1497-1607) we 
 note a long line of disasters for England. But we are 
 til rilled by the promise that it is reserved to her to sow on 
 this new soil the seeds of individual liberty, which, taking 
 deep root, shall blossom forth into the thirteen original 
 colonies and later reach fruition in the greatest attempt at 
 self-government the human mind has ever conceived — the 
 United States of America. 
 
 45. Conflicting Claims. — We thus see, as we narrow our- 
 selves to the territory occupied by the present boundaries of 
 the United States, that there were conflicting claims to this 
 territory. These conflicts, leading to endless trouble in later 
 years, were settled only by appeal to the sword. Let us note 
 carefully the claims of the contending nations: 
 
 Spain laid claim to the eastern coast of the United States 
 under the name of Florida, and the Pacific coast under the 
 name of New Mexico. 
 
 The French laid claim to Canada and the Mississippi 
 valley. 
 
 The Dutch claimed the cerritory lying between Narra- 
 .gansett Bay and the Delaware River. 
 
 The English, by right of discovery and occupation, pro- 
 ceeded to hold the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida, thence 
 westward to the Pacific. 
 
48 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Before taking up the story of the English colonies in the 
 New World it is well that we should take a glance at the 
 Continent of North America and learn something of it? 
 native inhabitant, who confronted the early settler at every 
 step, and, with dogged resistance, disputed the right of 
 the European to encroach upon his territory. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAN 
 
 1492-1902 
 
 46. North America. — The word "continent" is here used 
 to designate a body of land, whether large or small, having 
 on one side a primary axis — a high mountain range, — and on 
 the other a secondary axis — a low mountain range, — with a 
 broad plain or valley between them. Thus North America 
 taken by itself is a continent. Its primary axis is the Rocky 
 Mountain range, taken together with its related ranges and 
 the plateau upon which this upheaval rests, which extends 
 from Alaska to the Isthmus of Panama. Its secondary axis 
 is the Appalachian range and the tableland upon which it 
 rests, which extends from the plateau of Labrador to the 
 hills of northern Georgia. The great central plain of North 
 America lies between these two highlands and extends from 
 the Arctic Sea to the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 47. The United States. — That portion of the continent 
 lying within the boundaries of the republic partakes of the 
 physical characteristics of the whole continent. On the east 
 are the Atlantic slope and coastal plain ; on the west, the 
 Pacific slope ; and in the interior, the great central plain. 
 
 THE ATLAN"TIC PLAIlsT 
 
 Looking outward upon the ocean with its fine harbors and 
 bays, the Atlantic plain lay stretched out as a perpetual invi- 
 tation to Europe to plant colonies upon its coasts and along 
 the courses of its numerous streams. This narrow strip of 
 territory, scarcely more than one hundred and fifty miles 
 
 49 
 
50 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 STRUCTURAL MAP OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
THE CONTIXENT AND THE INDIAN" 51 
 
 wide at its greatest stretch, was destined, on account of its 
 geographical position, to become the home of the thirteen 
 English colonies and the "cradle of the republic." Bound 
 to the coast by their desire for intercommunication and com- 
 merce, and held back from the interior by the continuous 
 Appalachian range and the^savage tribes which it harbored, 
 the English settlements became compact and numerous. 
 And thus was developed, from New England to Georgia, 
 that bond of sympathy and community of interest which 
 gave birth to that confidence which in later years led 
 the English colonists up the historic valleys of the 
 Hudson and the Mohawk, the Delaware and the Sus- 
 quehanna, the Potomac and the James, — into the lake 
 region of the north and the great interior valley of the con- 
 tinent — to wrest from France her vast colonial possessions. 
 And thus, too, in that narrow strip was developed that love 
 of liberty, and that confidence in "government of the people, 
 by the people, and for the people" which led the colonists to 
 bid defiance to the despotism of King George III. and to 
 publish to the world their Declaration of Independence. 
 
 THE PACIFIC SLOPE 
 
 The Pacific slope extends westward from the crest of the 
 Rocky Mountain range through the elevated plateau known 
 as the Great Basin ; then, rising into the lofty peaks of the 
 Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges, it descends abruptly to 
 the Pacific coast. It is pierced by the Columbia and the 
 Colorado rivers, — each of historic interest in the develop- 
 ment of that section of our country. Unlike the Atlantic, 
 the Pacific coastal plain has but few streams and its coasts 
 present but few harbors. 
 
 THE CENTRAL PLAIN 
 
 The great central plain with its vast network of streams 
 reaches from the crest of the Appalachian Mountains to the 
 crest of the Rockies, and sweeps downward to the Gulf of 
 
52 HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES 
 
 Mexico from the low watershed at the head of the Great Lake 
 system. This whole interior basin is drained eastward to the 
 Atlantic through the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence 
 River ; and southward to the Gulf of Mexico by the greatest 
 river system in the world — the Mississippi. To this vast 
 interior region France fell heir through the discovery by 
 Cartier, of the mouth of the St. Lawrence; and by La Salle, 
 of the mouth of the Mississippi. A study of the natural 
 boundaries of this region will show how extensive was 
 the territory which France set about to occupy. In her 
 attempt to hold and develop it she failed. In proportion 
 to the amount of means and energy which 'she was able to 
 put into the business of colonization, the territory was, in 
 geographical extent, far beyond her capabilities. Had 
 France been limited by natural geographical boundaries to 
 a smaller area, as the English were, she might have fared 
 better. Geography aids us in the conclusion that, at best, 
 France was but a pioneer in the great wilderness, preparing 
 the way for the oncoming of the young republic which had 
 its birth amidst the closely compacted settlements east of the 
 Alleghanies. 
 
 Thus we see one must understand the geography of a coun- 
 try if he would understand its history. Climate and topog- 
 raphy have greatly influenced the history of the human 
 family. Natural geographical boundaries have usually deter- 
 mined the limits of nations. "Geography determines his- 
 tory." 
 
 48. The Indian and His Treatment by His Conquerors. — 
 When Columbus first landed he was greeted by human 
 beings. Believing he was in the East Indies, he called 
 the natives Indians — a name which they have carried with 
 them over the stretch of more than four centuries of 
 stirring history. 
 
 In that history the "Red Man" plays a conspicuous and 
 melancholy part. He greeted the Spaniard with stubborn 
 resistance in Cuba, Santo Domingo, and Porto Rico. He 
 
THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAN 
 
 53 
 
 waged unequal battle with him when Montezuma and his 
 Aztecs fell. He met him in southern Mexico and Central 
 America, in Bolivia and Chili, and gave up his life rather 
 than submit to Spanish rule. In less than a half century the 
 Spaniard had swept from San 
 Salvador to Tierra del Fuego 
 and the mouth of the La 
 Platte River, and wherever he 
 went the "blood of the slain" 
 cried out against his cruel tyr- 
 anny. Turning to the north, 
 the Spaniard met the In- 
 dian in California, in Kansas, 
 in Florida, along the course 
 of the Mississippi, on the 
 shores of the Carolinas, and 
 in Virginia, and everywhere 
 meted out to him the same 
 cruel and heartless treatment. 
 
 The French and the Dutch 
 traded with him on the Hud- 
 son River and Long Island 
 Sound. The Huguenots made 
 friends with him in Florida 
 and the Carolinas. Cartier 
 
 found him on the shores of the St. Lawrence ; Champlain, on 
 Lake Champlain, and in the interior of- New York. Along 
 the shores of the Great Lakes the French trader and the 
 Jesuit missionary became his companion and spiritual adviser. 
 They met him everywhere along the streams of the interior 
 and the courses of the Great River; and, floating past the 
 spot where De Soto had first looked upon the Mississippi, 
 they were guided to its mouth by an Indian pilot. The 
 treatment of the Indian by the French and the Dutch was 
 more humane than that of the Spanish. 
 
 The English, too, came in contact with this child of the for- 
 
54 HISTORY OF THE Uis^ITED STATES 
 
 est. The Cabots were the first to meet him on the coasts of 
 the northern continent. Frobisher encountered him in the icy 
 regions of the Arctic coast and mistook his yellow clay for 
 gold. Ealeigh's colonists met him in Virginia; Gosnold 
 and Pring and Weymouth were cordially greeted by the 
 natives along the New England coast. Like the French and 
 the Dutch, the English anxiously cultivated the friendship 
 of the Indian. The conquest of New England, though 
 marked by some fierce struggles with tribes which refused 
 to be at peace, was on the whole a peaceful conquest. And 
 this statement applies with almost equal force to all the 
 English colonies. 
 
 49. The Whole Continent Peopled by the Natives. — \Yhen in 
 the nineteenth century the region west of the Mississippi was 
 explored, the Indian was found in every section of North 
 America, even as far north as the Arctic coast. The truth 
 was then fully established that the whole of North and South 
 America had been peopled by native tribes, perhaps centuries 
 before Columbus saw the New AVorld. The population in 
 North America north of the Rio Grande River probably 
 did not, in the time of Columbus, exceed one million souls 
 — of whom three hundred thousand were within the present 
 limits of the United States. In the West Indies, Mexico, 
 Central America, and the South American countries there 
 was a denser population. Many of the southern tribes were 
 semi-civilized, while those of the United States and farther 
 north were barbarous. 
 
 50. Distribution in the United States in 1492. — Based on 
 a study of their languages, the Indians of the United States 
 have been divided into fifty-seven family groups, ranging 
 from a single village to over six hundred tribes in a group. 
 Those east of the Mississippi were divided into three great 
 tribal families. 
 
 (1) The Algonkin tribes occupied the Atlantic coastal 
 plain from the Savannah River northward ; and the Missis- 
 sippi valley, from the Great Lakes to the Tennessee River. 
 
THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAIf 55 
 
 They also spread over Newfoundland and Labrador and 
 reached westward in Canada to the Rocky Mountains. They 
 spoke a related language and lived by hunting and fishing, 
 paying but slight attention to agriculture. One strong tribe, 
 the Delaware — said to be the parent stock of the Algonkins 
 — occupied the region from the Chesapeake Bay to the head- 
 waters of the Ohio River. There were about six hundred of 
 the Algonkin tribes, most of them rude and warlike. It 
 was with the Algonkin the English and French settlers first 
 contended. The latter won their friendship; the former, 
 with but one notable exception — in Pennsylvania — their 
 enmity. 
 
 (2) In the north the Iroquoian family occupied the region 
 of central New York, both banks of the St. Lawrence, and 
 the shores of Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. In the south 
 they held a portion of the Carolinas under the tribal name 
 of the Tuscaroras. Those in New York state bound them- 
 selves for purpose of defence and conquest into the famous 
 Iroquois Confederacy known in history as the Five 
 Nations — the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and 
 Senecas constituting the Confederacy. After 1715 they 
 were joined by the Tuscaroras, and became the Six Nations 
 of our colonial history. They were not numerous, but on 
 account of their skill in the use of their rude weapons of war 
 they made the name of the Iroquois feared and respected 
 from the Lakes to the Gulf. A¥hen taught the use of fire- 
 arms by the European settler they practically dominated the 
 whole of the Indian population in the central and eastern 
 portion of the republic. Through a blunder of Champlain, 
 the French secured their lasting enmity. They were gen- 
 erally friendly to the English, and in the Revolutionary 
 War all the tribes except the Oneidas fought against the 
 American colonists. 
 
 (3) The Mobilian, or Muskhogean family occupied the 
 region south of the Tennessee and Savannah rivers to the 
 Gulf, They became tillers of the soil and were less warlike 
 
56 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 than the northern tribes. Tliey, however, in later years 
 gave the government of the United States much trouble until 
 finally induced to move into the "Indian Country" west of 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 In the western couutry roamed the great hunting tribes 
 of the Sioux. Fierce and warlike, they had even dared 
 to wage war with the Algonkin and the Iroquois for the 
 occupancy of the Oarolinas, and had successfully planted 
 their villages on the Atlantic coast. Still further west was 
 the Shoshonean family occupying the Rocky Mountain region 
 and the Great Basin to its west, with the half-civilized 
 Pueblos and cliff dwellers on their south. 
 
 On the Pacific were the numerous Californian families, 
 comprising the most closely compacted Indian settlements in 
 North America. 
 
 The tribes of each family group spoke the same stock 
 language, though with such variations that the Algonkin on 
 the Tennessee could not understand the Algonkin in New- 
 foundland; nor the Sioux in the Carolinas communicate 
 with the Sioux of the Black Hills. At the time of the 
 arrival of the European, too, the boundaries to the territory 
 occupied by each family group were fairly well defined and 
 in the main respected. 
 
 51. The Tribe of the Alleghans; The Mound Builders.— 
 This tribe has given its name to the Alleghany River and the 
 Alleghany Mountains. The Alleghan tribe is the oldest 
 tribe in the United States of which there is any tradition — 
 it is believed they belonged to the early Iroquoian stock. 
 The AUeghans were perhaps the first occupants of the Ohio 
 valley, the builders of many of the curious Indian mounds 
 found in that region. The other tribes inhabiting this region 
 were also mound builders. Judging from the remains which 
 they have left, they were an agricultural people and lived in 
 fixed towns. The mound builders of the Ohio and Mis- 
 sissippi valleys were conquered and driven from their domain 
 by a combination of the Delaware and Iroquois tribes. 
 
THE CONTII^'ENT AND THE INDIAN 57 
 
 Defeated, they retired south of the Ohio and finally made 
 their permanent settlement in the region of the Gulf states. 
 The Cherokee Indians are descended from them. The 
 Cherokees are now one of the "five civilized tribes" in 
 the Indian Territory. The old theory of a prehistoric 
 race of mound builders in North America, whose peoples 
 had attained to an advanced stage of civilization, and who 
 were conquered and exterminated by cruel savage tribes, 
 is rapidly becoming a myth. 
 
 52. The Red Man. — As the Indians appear to us now they 
 doubtless appeared to the early colonists — a race of men, 
 
 EARTHEN JARS OR BOWLS 
 
 erect and powerful; with reddish or copper-colored skin; 
 coarse, black hair; deep-set black eyes; and full, smooth 
 faces — made prominent by high cheek bones, broad, fiat 
 foreheads, heavy jaws, and full lips ; in stature, the men of 
 average height; the women shorter, and inclined to stout- 
 ness — both having small hands and feet. 
 
 They were hunters and fishers and rude tillers of the soil. 
 They lived upon the fruits of the chase, and were fond of 
 fish and oysters. They raised Indian corn, potatoes, beans, 
 and pumpkins, and gave the European his first knowledge 
 
58 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 of the potato, corn, and tobacco plant. The Indian was an 
 inveterate smoker, and his "peace pipe" has become a fixed 
 figure in our literature. 
 
 He prepared his food in rude earthen jars or bowls, in 
 
 EIRCII-BAKK VESSELS 
 
 huge kettles and in birch-bark vessels, boiling the water by 
 dropping in heated stones. 
 
 He was swift in the chase and unsurpassed in his use of 
 the canoe. He had a quick ear and a keen eye, and could 
 track his prey or his foe through the forest and across the 
 prairie with unerring accuracy. He could imitate the songs 
 of birds and the cry of animals — deceiving man, and beast 
 as well. 
 
 In war, though the bravest of the brave, the Indian never 
 fought in the open, unless forced by his foe. He approached 
 
 by stealth, — in the dark- 
 ^'^^^^====='=====^=====^i^:ss^^^S>' ness of the night or 
 
 under cover of the am- 
 bush, — and with his 
 war-whoop and uplifted 
 tomahawk perpetrated indiscriminate slaughter. His imple- 
 ments of war were rude, but with his flint-tipped arrow and 
 his rude stone tomahawk he fought bravely against the 
 invading white man. 
 
 The dwellings of the Indians ranged from the rude hut 
 
 FLIXT-TIPI'ED ARROWS 
 
THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAN 
 
 59 
 
 and the typical circular cone-shaped wigwam of the prairie 
 and forest tribes, to the longhouse of the Iroquois and the 
 canopy tent — shaped like a mover's wagon — of the more 
 settled Algonkin tribes. In the far southwest, where 
 there was little rainfall, they built their adobe houses of 
 sun-dried brick, or, like the "cliff dwellers," carved their 
 homes from out the precipitous cliffs. 
 
 They were clothed scantily in the summer time, and 
 wore dressed skins of animals in the winter. On gala days 
 
 they were bedecked with gay feathers, bedaubed with paint, 
 and arrayed in the gaudiest colors. 
 
 They were wild lovers of liberty and had an intolerance of 
 control. In the village and the field the Indian squaw did 
 the household and field labor while her lord reserved him- 
 self for the chase and for war. 
 
 The Indian had his virtues and his vices. He was a hero- 
 worshiper and reverenced the sages and heroes of his tribe. 
 
60 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 He was brave — none braver — ambitious and generous and 
 eloquent in defence of his rights. Yet he was cautious to 
 the point of cowardice, and held revenge to be an honor and 
 a duty. He was suspicious and jealous. He was a wor- 
 shiper of nature. A wild animal, a bird, the sun, the voice 
 of a Niagara, and all manner of living things and inanimate 
 
 INDIAN WAR CLUBS 
 
 objects became his gods. He worshiped both a ''Great 
 Spirit" and an "Evil Spirit" — the latter because it was 
 wicked and he feared it might do him harm. 
 
 He yielded authority only to the tribal will, and his 
 tenacious — almost devout — belief in the tribal organization 
 as a form of political government has retarded his progress 
 more than all other causes. 
 
 He was indeed but a "child" of the forest. He has been 
 one of the vexed problems of the republic. Even after cen- 
 turies of effort, civilization has laid but little hold upon 
 him. He "quickly learned to use the white man's musket"; 
 but he has been slow "to use the tools of the white man's 
 industry." He often developed an uncontrollable appetite 
 for intoxicating drinks, — the habit many times proving his 
 undoing. 
 
 63. Where Is the Indian Now?— The Indian has not been 
 
THE CONTINENT AND THE INDIAN 61 
 
 exterminated. The erroneous belief that at the time of 
 discovery the United States held a population of sixteen 
 million Indians has been dispelled in recent years. It 
 is now thought that this population at the time of discovery 
 did not exceed three hundred thousand souls. The census 
 of 1900 shows an equal number of Indians still living within 
 the borders of the republic. 
 
 During the period from Washington to Roosevelt the 
 government has expended — for purchase of Indian lands, for 
 Indian education and support, a total of nearly four hundred 
 millions of dollars. For the year 1901 an appropriation of 
 nearly nine millions was made by Congress. 
 
 In 1823, all the Indians east of the Mississippi, 
 excepting those of New York and some small tribes of 
 'the Atlantic states, were by treaty removed to the Indian 
 country west of the Mississippi — and to reservations to 
 be located thereafter by the government. This Indian 
 country has narrowed down in the present day to the 
 Indian Territory, occupied by the "five civilized tribes" 
 — comprising the Seminole Indians, and the Creek, Cherokee, 
 Chicasaw, and Choctaw nations — and to a few reserva- 
 tions in the territory of Oklahoma. 
 
 East of the Mississippi there are but two notable reserva- 
 tions — in the states of New York and Wisconsin ; while each 
 state and territory west of the Mississippi, excepting Mis- 
 souri, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas, has one or more 
 Indian reservations within its borders. These reservations 
 are under the control of the Interior Department at Wash- 
 ington. Schools have been established on all, and in 1900 
 more than twenty thousand Indian children were in daily 
 attendance upon these schools. In order to bring the 
 Indian more closely under the influences of civilization, the 
 •government has established more than a hundred boarding 
 schools in the very midst of white communities. The 
 largest of these are Carlisle (Pennsylvania), Haskell Institute 
 (Lawrence, Kansas), and Phoenix (Arizona). In these 
 
62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 boarding schools are enrolled four or five thousand of the 
 best young men and women from the Indian tribes of the 
 country. 
 
 54. Present Government Policy: Allotment Act: The Indian's 
 Future. — The government has tried many experiments and 
 plans in dealing with the Indian — some good, some bad. 
 No Congress of the United States has ever convened without 
 passing some "Indian legislation" and making an appropria- 
 tion. There are those who insist that, after a century of 
 dealing with the problem, **the United States has failed 
 with the Indian." However, this failure is only an appar- 
 ent one. The government is now rapidly abandoning its 
 reservation system and substituting therefor the present 
 Indian policy of the republic — *'To fit the Indian for civili- 
 zation and to absorb him into it." The education of the 
 Indian youth on one hand, and the allotment of home- 
 steads to their elders on the other, are silently working their 
 way. The Allotment Act passed by Congress in 1887 has 
 sealed the doom of the reservation policy. It is breaking up 
 the tribe as a social and political unit and placing in its 
 stead the family — with its father, mother, and children con- 
 stituting an Indian home — upon which a civilization can be 
 built. In a few years, under this policy, the tribal 
 authority will become extinct and thousands of indus- 
 trious Indian households will be absorbed into the citizen- 
 ship of the republic. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 
 
 56. England. — England had responded readily to the ne^w 
 movement brought about by the revival of learning and her 
 people had rapidly taken rank among the most intelligent 
 in Europe. The great religious Reformation had quickened the 
 intellectual life of the island kingdom, and made her people 
 God-fearing and liberty-loving. Her rulers, however, held 
 tenaciously to the belief in the "divine right of kings," and 
 through their tyrauny and misgovernmeiit there was gradu- 
 ally developed in the English heart a belief in the "divine 
 right of the people." At first a mere belief — a feeble conten- 
 tion against the injustices of her monarchs — it later became 
 a fixed conviction of the English nation — rising both at home 
 and in the American colonies to the dignity of an emphatic 
 protest against the usurpations of kings. 
 
 56. The Reign of the Stuarts— 1603-1714.— When Elizabeth 
 died in 1603 there came into power the sovereigns of the 
 House of Stuart — who held sway during one of the most 
 exciting centuries in the history of England — a century 
 of bitter strife between people and monarchs, in which 
 the former triumphed only after much shedding of blood. 
 During its progress one king yielded up his life on the 
 block ; another was driven from his throne. In their wrath 
 at the despotism of the first Charles, parliament overthrew 
 the monarchy and set up the Commonwealth, which later 
 gave way to the Protectorate of Cromwell. Then tiring of 
 the dissension bred by religious and political differences the 
 people restored the Stuarts to power and for nearly a third 
 
 63 
 
64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 of a century tolerated their despotic rule. Finally in another 
 burst of wrath they drove the last of the Stuart despots into 
 France, and under William III, and Queen Mary established 
 firmly the constitutional monarchy — the beginning of the 
 England of to-day. 
 
 Of the Staarts, James I. ruled from 1603 to 1625, and 
 Charles I. from 1625 to 1649. When the latter was be- 
 headed, the Commonwealth was set up, continuing from 1640 
 to 1653, when it was followed by the Protectorate. In 1660 
 the Restoration placed Charles 11. on the throne, which 
 he occupied until 1685. His successor, James II., ruling 
 from 1685 to 1688, was driven from the throne, where- 
 upon the Dutch prince, William of Orange, and Mary, the 
 daughter of the banished king, ruled from 1688 to" 1694, 
 and William alone to 1702. Queen Anne ruled from 1702 to 
 1714. From Elizabeth to Anne marks a little more than a 
 century of history. AVithin that century all of the thirteen 
 original colonies but Georgia (1733) were settled. The 
 religious persecutions of the Stuart rulers hastened the 
 growth of the English colonies in the New World — many 
 thousands of liberty-loving Englishmen having fled from 
 their homes to join their brothers in America. 
 
 57. The First English Settlement in America, however, was 
 due to business enterprise and not to persecution. At the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century England was enjoying 
 a period of peace, and many soldiers had returned home. 
 Work had to be provided for them. A change had taken 
 place in the methods and products of the farm. Increased 
 facilities for the manufacture of woolen goods had made such 
 a demand for that article that laiulowners in England had 
 turned field into pasture. The raising of sheep required 
 fewer laborers on the farm and this added to the over- 
 crowding of the labor market. An outlet was necessary 
 and America with her boundless possibilities seemed pro- 
 vided for the occasion. Raleigh, Pring, Gosnold, and 
 Weymouth had opened the way and the London Com- 
 
THE COMIXG OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 05 
 
 pany, as a purely business enterprise, planted the James- 
 town colony. 
 
 VIKGINIA 
 
 58. Jamestown. — Fifty miles from tlie mouth of the 
 James Eiver stand the ruins of a church, all that is left of 
 Jamestown, the first suc- 
 
 
 
 
 
 JAMESTO^\^ AND MCIMTY 
 
 cessful English settle- 
 ment in America. It was 
 founded in May, 1607, 
 by one hundred and five 
 colonists sent out by the 
 London Company under 
 the leadership of Captain 
 Newport. A much more 
 healthful location might 
 have been found, for it 
 was then, as now, surrounded by swamps and marshes. But 
 the trip across the Atlantic had been a long and stormy one ; 
 and the voyagers, eager to end the discomforts of ship life, 
 did not deliberate long upon their landing — they hastily 
 selected a site and stepped upon the shores of the New 
 World. 
 
 59. The First Charter. — The first charter, though fixing 
 the limits of the territory to be occupied by the London 
 Company, granted no special rights to these first colonists. 
 They were to be governed from London and the results of 
 their labor were to be held in common. It was, however, 
 conceded that they should have "all the rights and privileges 
 of Englishmen," — a phrase of vague meaning then, though 
 destined in later years to form the basis of the claim made 
 good on the hard-fought battlefields of the Revolution. 
 
 60. Character of the Colonists. — The success of a colony 
 depends on the character of the colonists. They should be 
 men who wish to make homes in the new land, and are 
 willing to work. They should know what the resources of 
 the country are, and be willing to develop them. The first 
 
66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 colonists of Virginia were not at all this sort of men. A 
 majority of them were "gentlemen," utterly unsiiited for 
 the work in hand; not only that, they were a positive 
 clog on the few who were of use. The early idea of the 
 Spaniard had obtained a strong hold on them, and they 
 spent their time in a fruitless search for gold. The summer 
 thus wasted, the autumn brought no harvest, and they 
 entered upon their first winter with scant provision and in 
 miserable health. 
 
 61. Captain John Smith. — The Moses to lead them out 
 of this plight appeared in the person of Captain John Smith. 
 Much there is, no doubt, of romantic fancy in this character, 
 yet were it all taken away, there remains enough of truth to 
 stamp him an extraordinary man. John Smith had been 
 made one of the "Council" for the colony, but on the way 
 out had offended some of the leaders and had been placed in 
 chains. He was released at the end of the voyage and for 
 the first few months seems to have employed his time in a 
 thorough exploration of the country, of which he made 
 many excellent maps. Taken prisoner by Powhatan the 
 story runs that the death sentence was about to be inflicted 
 when Pocahontas, the little daughter of the chief, interceded 
 in his behalf and saved his life. Whether fact or fancy, 
 Pocahontas did many little deeds of kindness for the suffer- 
 ing colonists during that first winter, and was the means of 
 bringing about a better understanding between the colonists 
 and the Indians. When grown to womanhood she married 
 John Kolfe, one of the settlers, who took her on a visit to 
 England. She was the object there of much attention by 
 the nobility, and was feted and feasted on every hand. 
 Many of the early Virginians claimed descent from her. 
 
 Under Smith's leadership, the colonists were organized 
 into working bands, sanitary measures were enforced, and the 
 friendship of the Indians cultivated. By these means they 
 were kept alive until aid arrived from England. Smith 
 remained with the colonists for two years, returning to 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 67 
 
 England in 1G09. Several years later he explored and 
 mapped the coast of New England, naming many of its 
 capes and bays. The Pilgrims, before setting sail in the 
 Mayflower (1620) for the "rock-bound" coast of Massachu- 
 setts, availed themselves of a copy of this map, and landed at 
 a point which Smith had named Plymouth. 
 
 62. The Light Almost Out — Lord Delaware Rekindles 
 It. — On the departure of Smith, the colonists, who now 
 numbered nearly five hundred, began their old career of idle- 
 ness, bickering with the Indian, and quarreling among them- 
 selves. This could have but one result; the winter which 
 followed was one of wretchedness and despair, and the spring 
 found but a band of sixty of the strongest, surviving. These 
 had already made preparation for a return to England, when 
 the new governor, Lord Delaware, sailed into the river with 
 shiploads of supplies and more colonists. 
 
 63. The Second and Third Charters. — Two years after the 
 first charter was granted, another was secured of the king. 
 The only important change was in creating the office of gov- 
 ernor, and in giving him, instead of the Council, authority 
 over the colonists. In 1(312 a third charter was obtained. 
 Heretofore the affairs of the colony had been administered 
 by a board in London. This board was now abolished and 
 the stockholders of the company put in control. The 
 change affected the individual colonist but little. Erom 
 this time, however, the colony, as a whole, improved. 
 
 64. Communism a Failure. — "All things in common" is 
 very well in theory, but its successful practice requires ideal 
 conditions. These were not present in the Jamestown col- 
 ony. Many of the colonists were vicious idlers and jailbirds, 
 picked up on the streets of Loudon. To such persons, "All 
 things in common" meant, "Put in as little as possible; get 
 out as much as you can." Lord Delaware being in broken 
 health, soon returned to England, and Sir Thomas Dale was 
 appointed governor. Dale was brutally rigorous in his dis- 
 cipline. His gospel was law and order. A whipping-post 
 
68 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 was established for the punishment of offenders; he impris- 
 oned them ; he pat them in stocks. But he brought order out 
 of chaos, and he placed the colony once more on a working 
 basis. He did away with communism. Each person was 
 required to deposit two and a half barrels of corn in the com- 
 mon store-house once a year, but all over that was private 
 property. The "starving time" was a thing of the past. 
 
 65. Tobacco and Its Influence on the Life of the Colonists. 
 So far the Virginia colony had not been successful. Why? 
 
 AVas it impossible for people 
 to grow rich and prosperous 
 in Virginia, or had they not 
 yetdiscovered where the true 
 riches of the country lay? 
 In order to answer these 
 questions we shall have to 
 examine more carefully the 
 geography, climate and soil 
 of this part of the Atlantic 
 coast. If you look at a map 
 of A'irginia, you will see a 
 low. Hat country, crossed by 
 many broad, sluggish rivers. 
 The coast is low and marshy 
 and guarded by long sandy 
 islands, so there are few 
 good harbors. The ocean tides run many miles up the rivers, 
 forming estuaries, and the ships float up with the tides to 
 some point at the head of the tide water, instead of stopping 
 at a harbor on the coast. The climate of Virginia is mild 
 and equable. The soil is deep and fertile, and in it the 
 tobacco plant grows luxuriantly. The people of England 
 were just beginning to use tobacco, and were willing to pay 
 a high price for it. The "tobacco habit" rapidly became 
 general, and by tlie dawn of the seventeenth century tobacco 
 had become a regular article of commerce. The manner of 
 
 
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 ^■-■v- -■- -^ -'•• 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 69 
 
 its handling facilitates an easy exchange and it retains its 
 merchantable quality for long periods. These points com- 
 bined to make it a popular crop in Virginia. 
 
 66. Indentured Servants and the Development of the 
 "Poor White." — White slavery was countenanced in English 
 society at this time — not that of absolute ownership, but of a 
 financial character. Persons in debt were required to give 
 their labor to their creditor until the debt was discharged. 
 A free person could sell his labor in advance. This made 
 the buyer his owner for that period. A common method 
 among the very poor to secure passage to the New World 
 was to sell, or "indenture," themselves to persons of means 
 who expected to settle there. As their term of service 
 expired, these indentured servants found themselves in a new 
 land, with nothing but their labor to sell, and that practically 
 worthless because the landed class was supplied either with 
 the indentured slave or the absolute slave, the negro. 
 Having no means to buy land, he depended on the scant 
 charity of the planter classes and became the progenitor of 
 that despised element known as the "poor white." 
 
 67. A Cloud. — A thrifty Dutch sea captain anchored in 
 James Kiver one day in 1619 and left part of his cargo, 
 twenty negro slaves. In 1861, at the beginning of our Civil 
 War, there were nearly four millions of negro slaves within 
 the borders of the republic. Like all new departures, the 
 system of slave labor was a growth. It was distinctly unpop- 
 ular at first. But it was soon found that the negro was spe- 
 
 ' cially adapted to the culture of the tobacco plant, and as that 
 staple increased in value, the colonists' repugnance to slavery 
 decreased. 
 
 68. Beginnings of the Republic. — The successful cultiva- 
 tion of tobacco required large tracts of land and many 
 
 * laborers. So each planter lived with his family, his 
 ' indentured servants or his slaves, on a great estate or 
 ' plantation. When the tobacco crop was ready to ship, he 
 ' took it to the wharf on the bank of the river which ran 
 
70 
 
 HISTORY OF THE U2TITED STATES 
 
 through his plantation and loaded it on his ships, which 
 took it to England. When the ships returned they brought 
 the planter all the manufactured articles he needed. Since 
 each man traded directly with England, no towns, and very 
 few cities, sprang up in Virginia; for towns depend for their 
 existence on trade and manufacturing. The smallest polit- 
 
 BACK VIEW OF VIRGINIA MANSION SHOWING SLAVE QXTARTEBS 
 
 ical divisions in Virginia, therefore, were the counties, and 
 at the county court-house the planters met at stated times 
 to help govern the colony. 
 
 In 1619 Sir George Yeardley, a man of liberal ideas, was 
 appointed governor, and in that same year he instituted 
 representative government, the colonists meeting in the 
 first Representative Assembly in America. They were to 
 "have power to make and ordaine whatsoever laws and 
 orders shoulde by them be thought good and profit- 
 able for their subsistence." In 1021 this "power" was 
 embodied in a written constitution which granted among 
 other privileges the right to elect their own representatives 
 and the right of trial by jury. This marked the beginnings 
 of the republic. 
 
 69. Indian Massacres of 1622 and 1644. — His early ill- 
 treatment by the Avhites only served to intensify in the 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 71 
 
 Indian his naturally suspicious and revengeful nature. The 
 wise policy of John Smith, with the consequent friendliness 
 of Powhatan, leader of a confederation of clans numbering 
 eight thousand, had continued to have a restraining influence, 
 even after the death of that chieftain. So that, except in 
 isolated cases, peace had prevailed. But in 1622 the settler 
 was rudely awakened from his fancied security. On March 22 
 a massacre, planned with shrewd cunning, was started along 
 a line of settlements one hundred and forty miles in extent. 
 The plot had included Jamestown, but an Indian warned a 
 friend there in time to put the people on their guard, and 
 they were saved. Some three hundred men, women, and 
 children were cruelly put to death before the ravages of the 
 Indians could be checked. Vigorous measures were at once 
 adopted to punish the Indians. They were driven from point 
 to point, and their villages and crops laid waste. But it 
 cost the colonists a third of their number. Peace reigned 
 for twenty-two years, when the Indians again attempted to 
 exterminate the whites. But this time they were so thor- 
 oughly punished that there was never again a general 
 uprising in Virginia. 
 
 70, The Charter Revoked. — The growth of the Virginia 
 colony had now reached a point at which it began to be a 
 matter of public moment. In 1G19 its friends in parlia- 
 ment were strong enough to secure the appointment of 
 Yeardley and the institution of the reforms he inaugurated. 
 The House of Burgesses, the first popular constitutional 
 body in the colonies, was established in this year. But 
 the democratic tendency of these reforms was particularly 
 obnoxious to King James I. He was exceedingly jealous 
 of his rights, and feared the outcome of this liberal 
 spirit. He therefore took occasion to pick a quarrel with 
 the stockholders. He used the result of the Indian massacre 
 lis the basis of a charge that they were unable to give proper 
 protection to the colonists, and shrewdly threw the contest 
 into the courts, where, the judges being under his control, 
 
72 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the charge against the stockholders was sustained. The char- 
 ter was at once revoked and a royal governor was appointed 
 by the king, but the attention of the king being required at 
 home, no further disturbance of conditions occurred. 
 
 71. Two Types — Berkeley and Bacon. — Aside from the his- 
 torical interest connected with the acts of Sir William 
 Berkeley and Nathaniel Bacon, they may each be taken to 
 represent distinct types among the colonists. These types, 
 developing early, gradually enrolled the adherents of mon- 
 archial rule on the one side, while on the other were gathered 
 those of democratic tendencies. The contest between them 
 culminated in the Revolution. 
 
 After the charter was revoked in 1624, the king appointed 
 the governors who, in conjunction with the House of Bur- 
 gesses, ruled the colony. Naturally, these men were in 
 sympathy with the policies of the appointing power. Their 
 rule was arbitrary in the degree that English home-rule 
 was arbitrary. 
 
 72. Sir William Berkeley was appointed governor in 1644. 
 James I. had died, and Charles I., even more insistent of 
 *'kingly rights" than his predecessor, was on the thix)ne. 
 Berkeley was most zealous in the cause of his master, 
 and soon was at swords' points with the Virginia House 
 of Burgesses and the people. That he did not lose his 
 head on account of his tyrannical rule, as did his royal 
 master, was largely due to the lack of a leader and the 
 forbearance of the people. He was recalled in^ 1651, but 
 on the accession of Charles II. was again appointed 
 governor by the Virginia Assembly. He proved a fit tool 
 for that erratic monarch, for, although the colonists had been 
 loyal to the Crown during the period of the Commonwealth, 
 that did not deter Berkeley in the course of oppression 
 he immediately adopted in relation to Virginia. For the 
 purpose of increasing the revenues, he ordered a rigorous 
 enforcement of the Navigation Act (1651), whicli made it 
 obligatory to ship all products to England in English ves- 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 73 
 
 sels. All purchases for the colonies were to pass through 
 English ports, and to be brought over in English ships. 
 This lowered the price of what they' had to sell and raised 
 the price of that which they wished to buy. On his part, 
 Berkeley secured the election of a House of Burgesses com- 
 posed in great part of royalists. In conjunction with these, 
 he levied exorbitant taxes, restricted the suffrage to '*land- 
 owners and housekeepers," and passed oppressive laws con- 
 cerning church attendance. He ignored the rights of the 
 people by continuing this same House for sixteen years with- 
 out an election — simply adjourning it from year to year. As 
 years passed, this policy resulted in a feeling of discontent 
 among the people, and when in 1673 the king, in disregard of 
 the sacred rights of the colonists, actually gave to two of his 
 court favorites the whole of Virginia, this discontent 
 increased to the point of insurrection. It "needed but a 
 leader and a moving cause — the former was present in the 
 person of Nathaniel Bacon ; the latter in the person of the 
 restive Algonkin savage on the frontier. 
 
 73. Nathaniel Bacon was a young lawyer who had suffered 
 with the people. He knew their trials ; he also knew their 
 rights as Englishmen, and dared to maintain them. For sev- 
 eral years the Indians had been committing depredations on 
 the border. Berkeley had been importuned to suppress them 
 by ordering out the militia, but, fearing lest they turn on him, 
 he had refused. Finally, the people assembled and elected 
 young Bacon commander, yet Berkeley refused him a com- 
 mission and declared him a rebel. Bacon and his followers, 
 however, defeated the Indians, and later drove Berkeley and 
 his adherents on board ship, where they were kept prisoners 
 until certain reforms were agreed to. But when quiet was 
 restored, the royalists refused to carry out the reforms. 
 Bacon and his men, many of whom were owners of property 
 in Jamestown, now resolved on heroic measures. They 
 drove the royalists out of Jamestown and burned it to the 
 ground, many setting the torch to their own homes. 
 
74 HISTORY OF THE UXITElJ STATES 
 
 "Williamsburg was made the seat of government by the suc- 
 cessful colonists. The rebellion was at its height when the 
 leader fell ill of a fever and died — and with him died the 
 revolt. Berkeley, regaining control of the government, 
 visited terrible retribution on those engaged in the rebellion. 
 He hanged a large number, imprisoned others and confiscated 
 the property of all the leaders. So severe was he that the 
 king himself in a burst of impatience declared that Berkeley 
 had taken more lives in that- naked country than he himself 
 had for the murder of his father. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS — THE PLYMOUTH COLONY 
 
 PLY310UTH, 16-JO 
 
 74. The Plymouth Company. — On the failure of the first 
 attempt of the Plymouth Company in 1607 on the coast of 
 Maine, the members became involved in a controversy as 
 to management, and nothing further was done until after 
 reorganization of the Company in 1620. It then became 
 known as the "Council for New England." 
 
 75. Religious Awakening of the Sixteenth Century. — If 
 the times are propitious, any reform, as it proceeds, gathers 
 strength from causes without, as well as within, itself. 
 Luther's protest in 1517 became a great religious awakening, 
 and in time changed the established lines of religious 
 thought. Its success was enhanced by the fact that an 
 awakening was also in progress in educational, scientific, 
 and all other lines of thought. In England the movement 
 resulted in the establishment of the Church of England, 
 whose ritual retained much of the formal method of wor- 
 ship used by the Catholic Church. 
 
 76. What is a Puritan ? a Separatist ? a Pilgrim ? — These 
 are common terms in the history of Massachusetts. In the 
 Church of England was a body of men who were called Puri- 
 tans because they desired to "purify" the church. A majority 
 of the Puritans would have been satisfied if this had been done. 
 Others resolved to throw off all semblance to the Catholic 
 
 I 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 75 
 
 Church, use none of the forms, and make religion a matter 
 of conscience. These "separated" from the national church 
 and from the main body of Puritans and established a church 
 of their own. They were called "Separatists." The Pil- 
 grims were Separatists who found it necessary, on account 
 of the opposition of the king, to leave England. They settled 
 at Leyden, Holland, where they were allowed to worship 
 according to their peculiar belief. On account of their 
 wanderings, they were called "Pilgrims." 
 
 77. The Pilgrims. — Bat while they were given freedom of 
 worship, the Pilgrims found that that did not constitute all 
 that was desirable in life. They were among a people foreign 
 in language and in customs. As years passed they saw their 
 children adopting the language, the manners, the dress, of 
 the Hollander. They longed for a place where they might, 
 without danger of losing their identity as Englishmen, have 
 that religious freedom for which they had sacrificed so much. 
 The New World presented such a field, and in September 
 of 1620, after many grievous trials and disappointments, a 
 company of one hundred or more of the bravest set sail for 
 America in the good ship Mayflower. The men of this 
 little company were very different from the "gentlemen" 
 who went to Virginia to hunt for gold, or from the real 
 gentlemen who went there later to live on the great 
 plantations. The Pilgrims came to this country to make 
 homes for themselves and their families. They came that 
 they might enjoy once more the political and religious 
 freedom which they had lost in their English home through 
 the tyranny of King Charles II. They were men accustomed 
 to work, fearless of hardships, and determined to succeed. 
 
 78. The Voyage and the Compact. — During the nine weeks 
 of the voyage the weather proved exceedingly rough, and the 
 Mayflower was driven hither and thither, the sport of the 
 winds. The Pilgrims having secured a grant from the 
 London Company, intended to settle in the northern part 
 of that Company's dominions, but the captain lost his 
 
76 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 bearings, and it was found on sighting land they had been 
 driven north to the coast of Massachusetts. They entered 
 Cape Cod Bay, and landed at the place which Captain John 
 Smith in his map had called Plymouth — and thus "Ply- 
 mouth Eock" became one of the historic spots of America. 
 To-day a suitable monument marks the spot, commemorative 
 of the "Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers." 
 
 Being outside the London Company grant, their charter 
 was void. They therefore gathered in the cabin of the May- 
 flower and "solemnly covenanted and combined themselves 
 into a 'civil body politick' for their 'better ordering and pres- 
 ervation.' " They acknowledged King James as their sover- 
 eign, but they declared as well their intention to make and 
 obey their own laws. This was not an announcement of 
 independence, but it meant self-government. This compact 
 was solemnly signed, John Carver was chosen governor, and 
 the Pilgrims began their new life. 
 
 79. Hardships Endured. — The landing was made Decem- 
 ber, 1G20. The prospect was anything but inviting. 
 Winter had already set in, and it was upon them in all its 
 New England rigor ere they could provide themselves suitable 
 shelter. Sickness resulted, and before the winter was over 
 half their number were in their graves. Governor Carver 
 among them. But the living despaired not. They were 
 sustained by the strongest sentiments that spring from the 
 human heart — love of liberty, and the love of God. The 
 return of spring brought brighter days. More Pilgrims 
 joined the colony and before another winter came they were 
 in better condition to withstand its rigor. 
 
 80. The Indians and Miles Standish. — In his "History of 
 Plymouth Plantation," AVilliam Bradford, who had succeeded 
 to the leadership on the death of John Carver, remarks con- 
 cerning their choice of location that "it was devoid of all 
 civill inhabitants, wher ther are only savage and brutish men 
 which range up and downe, little otherwise than ye wild 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 77 
 
 vigilance of Miles Standish, the military man of the colony, 
 these "brutish" men gave them little trouble. This was, to 
 some extent, due to the fact that a pestilence had several 
 years before almost completely annihilated the Indians of 
 that immediate section. Massasoit, their chief, visited the 
 colony and, being treated kindly, he became the fast friend 
 of the colonists and for years no serious trouble occurred. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS — BAY COLONT 
 
 SALEM, 162S 
 
 81. The Puritans at Salem and Boston. — Although greatly 
 persecuted by the king and Archbishop Laud, the head of 
 the Church of England, the Puritans rapidly became a power 
 in English social and political life. Many of them were of 
 the nobility, men of wealth and standing. They could not 
 tamely submit to the exactions of the king. The suc- 
 cess of the Plymouth colony was by this time assured 
 and turned the thoughts of many to the New World. A 
 company was formed, a grant secured between the Charles 
 and Merrimac rivers, and from "sea to sea," and, in 1628, a 
 small company under the leadership of John Endicott settled 
 at Salem. The leaders in England continued to agitate the 
 matter and the following year succeeded in securing from 
 the king a very liberal charter which practically placed the 
 government in their own hands. It was resolved by the 
 company to move at once to this grant, and, in 1G30, a 
 wholesale immigration began. This was unlike the begin- 
 nings of Virginia or Plymouth. The larger number of the 
 newcomers were men of property, of education, accustomed to 
 the refinements of life and to have a voice in the affairs of state. 
 They took with them every appliance of civilized life then 
 known. They "transplanted, full grown, a large and healthy 
 tree of liberty and set it in the soil of a new state. " About one 
 thousand persons composed the first body to leave England. 
 Their arrival was hailed with joy by the settlers at Plymouth 
 and Salem. They settled for the most part at points about 
 
78 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Boston Bay; some afc Salem, others started Cbarlestown, 
 while still others, among them Governor Winthrop, laid out 
 the town of Boston. The map shows that the geography 
 
 of this country differs from 
 the geography of Virginia. 
 This caused a difference in 
 the occupations of the people. 
 The rocky soil is thin and 
 poor, the rivers short and 
 rapid. Obviously, their chief 
 source of wealth was in manu- 
 facturing and in commerce, 
 for which the deeply-indented 
 seacoast furnishes harbors. As 
 a result, towns and cities 
 sprang up all over New Eng- 
 land. The town, and not the 
 county, became the unit of 
 government. 
 
 82. Church and State. — In the government of the colony 
 the suffrage and office-holding privilege was extended to 
 church members only. The union of church and state thus 
 became as complete as in Old England, and even more so. 
 Only one religious belief was allowed. To depart by a hair's 
 breadth from this was heresy, punishable by fine and im- 
 prisonment, and, if persisted in, by banishment. 
 
 83. The Growth of Democracy— The Town Meeting.— The 
 *'town meeting" was an institution in which, from the begin- 
 ning, the plant of democracy found its richest soil. There every 
 matter of public moment was open for discussion. Once a 
 week, or oftener, if public business required it, they gathered 
 in the "town house," made simple rules for the government of 
 the community, settled disputes or engaged in social converse. 
 The effect was to interest each individual in the welfare of 
 the community. It developed the idea of individual responsi- 
 bility, so essential to a republican form of government. 
 
 If! 
 
 
 jH- 
 
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 5 J- |r •.:■;•"- 11.^^^ 
 
 ?? 
 
 4' 
 
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 -•' 
 
 
 
THE COMING OF THE EKGLISH HOME BUILDERS 79 
 
 There was born that spirit which dared imprison Andros ; 
 which later applauded Otis's '^taxation without representation 
 is tyranny"; which made Massachusetts the leader in the 
 Revolution. 
 
 84. Religious Differences : Roger Williams, Anne Hutchin- 
 son, and the Quakers. — The Puritans left the Church of Eng- 
 land for conscience ^ sake. Roger AVilliams and Anne 
 Hutchinson gave the same reason for leaving the Puritans. 
 The freedom of speech demanded by the Puritan necessarily 
 produced fruit of its kind. It was therefore natural that 
 diiferences should arise. In 1631 there came to Plymouth a 
 young Welshman, Roger Williams, of greatly advanced ideas 
 concerning religion and government. He believed in com- 
 plete religious toleration, such as we' practice to-day. He 
 also believed in the complete separation of church and state. 
 In Salem, where he became pastor of the church, he preached 
 these views with such earnestness as to incur the displeasure 
 of the leading men. For the Puritan came to America for 
 freedom to worship as he believed proper, not to offer an 
 asylum for all beliefs. Williams had also offended the gov- 
 ernment by declaring that land should be bought direct from 
 the Indian ; that the king had no right to make grants, for 
 the reason that the land did not belong to him. These 
 doctrines so alarmed the leaders of the colony that they 
 determined to send Williams to England for trial. Receiving 
 word of this, Williams took refuge with some friendly Indians, 
 with whom he stayed during the winter of 1636. In that 
 year he founded Providence. Anne Hutchinson also came 
 under the ban of the Puritan leaders for preaching doctrines 
 contrary to their belief. She had come to Boston in 1634 
 and being very eloquent, and of great ability in the discussion 
 of religious questions, soon had the colonists in a ferment. 
 In 1637 she was banished. 
 
 Later in the history of the colony the Quakers caused 
 serious disturbances by teaching their doctrines. They were 
 repeatedly banished, but as often returned. A peace-loving 
 
80 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ^H 
 
 people, they cheerfully bore all punishment visited upon 
 them. Before the persecution had run its course several of 
 the sect suffered martyrdom for conscience sake. 
 
 85. Salem Witchcraft. — In 1692 occurred in Salem, Massa- 
 chusetts, what has since been referred to in history as "Salem 
 Witchcraft." A belief prevailed at tliat time that a human 
 being could suspend the laws of nature by the aid of evil 
 spirits, and, while under their control, invoke injury to his 
 fellows. The "delusion" became general, and for six months 
 a reign of terror prevailed in Salem. Before it ran its course 
 nineteen persons had been hanged and fifty-five tortured as 
 witches. Some of the most eminent people had been engaged in 
 this persecution, among others, the noted clergyman. Cotton 
 Mather. One of the judges who had condemned some of the 
 witches to death was so stricken with remorse that he after- 
 wards rose in his place once a year in church, confessed his 
 error, and asked the forgiveness of the people. While at its 
 height, no one dared deny a belief in the delusion, as it was 
 in the power of any ignorant or vicious person who had a 
 grudge against another to declare him a witch. If more 
 than one person so testified in court it was likely to go hard 
 with the person accused. 
 
 86. Andros. — During the early existence of the colony, 
 Massachusetts had not suffered any serious annoyances from 
 the home government, as the colony had friends in parlia- 
 ment who looked after its interests. Like Virginia, Massa- 
 chusetts had felt the enforcement of the Navigation Act, but 
 on the whole, had continued to prosper. The governors of 
 the colony had been for the most part chosen from among 
 themselves, and the liberal character of the charter granted 
 by Charles I. had permitted almost perfect self-government. 
 By the many evasions of the Navigation Act, and by the 
 independence the colonists manifested in the dispute over 
 the New Hampshire boundaries and the separation of Maine 
 Charles II. was angered, and in 1684 secured the revoca- 
 tion of the charter by a decision of the Court of King's 
 
THE COMING OP THE ENGLI8H HOME BUILDERS 81 
 
 Bench. In 1686 James II. appointed Sir Edmund Andres 
 governor of the New England colonies, with headquarters at 
 Boston. During the three years of his incumbency, the 
 colony was in a constant turmoil. Contrary to the wishes of 
 the colonists, he set up the Church of England, even seizing 
 one of their meeting houses for that purpose. So obnoxious 
 did Andros become, that the colonists rose against him and, 
 even before the banishment of his royal master from England, 
 had determined to rid themselves of him. When news of the 
 banishment of James II. reached them they at once seized 
 Andros (1689) and sent him to England for trial. He, 
 however, escaped punishment and later served a term as 
 governor of Virginia. 
 
 Through the efforts of Increase Mather, who was in Eng- 
 land at that time as the agent of the Massachusetts Bay 
 colony, a new charter was obtained after the banishment of 
 Andros. In securing this charter, difficulties had arisen in 
 connection with Plymouth colony, England being determined 
 that Plymouth should not be separately chartered. Indeed 
 Plymouth colony had never been able to obtain a charter 
 from the king, because of its avowed opposition to the Church 
 of England. By the terms of this new charter, obtained in 
 1691, the territories of the Massachusetts Bay colony, the 
 Plymouth colony and Maine were united under the name of 
 Massachusetts and became a royal province, its governor to 
 be appointed by the king. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MAINE 
 
 87. Gorges and Mason. — The history of these colonies is 
 closely allied to that of Massachusetts. Several years before 
 a charter had been granted to the latter colony Sir Ferdi- 
 nando Gorges and John Mason had obtained a grant of land 
 reaching from the Kennebec to the Merrimac Kiver. They 
 .established several fishing stations, one at Dover, another 
 near Portsmouth. When the Massachusetts grant was made, 
 it lapped over three miles on the New Hampshire grant. An 
 
82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 attempt was afterwards made to rectify the error, but the work 
 was not well done and the Massachusetts colony never 
 admitted the claim of the Gorges and Mason heirs. It led 
 to endless dispute, as the heirs were persistent jn demanding 
 their rights. The matter was finally somewhat quieted by the 
 payment of a sum of money by the Massachusetts colony. 
 By an agreement between Gorges and Mason, the latter took 
 the land west of the Piscataqua, calling it New Hampshire ; 
 the former took the part east of that river and called it Maine. 
 Maine never had a separate existence from Massachusetts, as 
 it was always claimed by that colony. New Hampshire was 
 several times united to Massachusetts for protection from the 
 Indians. It finally became a royal colony and remained so 
 until the Revolution. The first settlement of New Hamp- 
 shire was made at Dover, in 1623. Maine was settled in the 
 same year. 
 
 CONN^ECTICUT 
 
 SAYBROOKE, 1635 ^^^H 
 
 88. The New England Pilgrims and the Dutch Forts. — 
 
 Connecticut was settled almost entirely by people from Massa- 
 chusetts. Dutch traders had early settled at Hartford on the 
 Connecticut River, and had built a fort at its mouth, but, 
 being few in number, they were not able to hold it against 
 Lords Say and Brooke, who had received a grant on the river 
 from the king. The English proprietors made John Win- 
 throp, son of the Massachusetts governor, their agent. AVith 
 a small colony from Massachusetts, he sailed, in 1035, into 
 the mouth of the Connecticut River, drove the Dutch away 
 and made a settlement he called Saybrooke, in honor of his 
 patrons. The tendency toward too close an alliance between 
 church and state had become a matter of alarm to certain 
 of the residents of Massachusetts towns, notably in Dor- 
 chester, Watertown, and Cambridge. In 1636, under the 
 leadership of the pastor at Cambridge, Thomas Hooker, a 
 party made their way through the wilderness and made settle- 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 83 
 
 ments at Hartford, AVindsor, and Wethersfield. These 
 settlements increased rapidly in the next few years. The 
 immigration from England to Massachusetts at this time 
 was very heavy; and at this time also occurred the religious 
 dissensions caused by Roger Williams and Anne Hutchin- 
 son. In 1637 a party of wealthy immigrants from England 
 settled New Haven. Their government was made to resem- 
 ble a theocracy as nearly as possible. The Bible was their 
 guide. Trial by jury, for instance, was denied, because it 
 was not known in the Mosaic law. 
 
 89. The Written Constitution.— In 1639 the different set- 
 tlements on the Connecticut River met at Hartford and drew 
 up a written constitution. New Haven was not represented 
 because she did not agree with the upper settlements in 
 matters of religion. The constitution was most liberal in its 
 provisions and showed thus early the remarkable growth of 
 democracy in New England. 
 
 Church and state were separated by requiring no religious 
 qualification of the voter ; every township had representation 
 in the Assembly ; provision was made for the establishment of 
 free schools ; no reference whatever was made to a king. 
 
 90. Pequot War. — The Indians with whom the New Eng- 
 land colonists had to deal, were, for the most part, peaceably 
 inclined, and, as they were generally treated with fairness, the 
 earlier years passed with little friction. However, it was not 
 in Indian nature to see the white man increasing in numbers 
 and strength, and the ancient hunting grounds of his fathers 
 changing to cultivated fields, without entering a protest. As 
 time passed, the Indian awoke to the fact that in the sale of 
 his land he had forfeited his right forever. The realization of 
 this fact caused him to become suspicious of all acts of the 
 white settlers. Warlike in nature and accustomed to take 
 counsel only of his wrongs and the possible power to redress 
 them, physical retaliation was his first thought. It was, 
 therefore, but a few years until the more warlike tribes were 
 in open revolt against the whites. 
 
84 HISTORY OF THE Ul^ITED STATES 
 
 The Pequots, a small tribe occupying the eastern part of 
 Connecticut, were the first to give trouble. When the 
 Massachusetts emigration in 1635-37 took place, the settlers 
 were at once subject to annoyance from these Indians and 
 soon a massacre of the whites occurred. This was charged 
 to the account of the Pequots, and a band of settlers, 
 under the leadership of the redoubtable John Endicott, 
 retaliated. The Pequots then attempted to organize a 
 confederacy, but, not being able to secm-e the help of the Nar- 
 ragansetts, the influence of Roger AVilliams having kept that 
 tribe friendly, they took the warpath alone. The colonists 
 acted with promptness. Captain John Mason, with a band of 
 Connecticut settlers, aided by John Underhill and a com- 
 pany from Boston, with some seventy friendly Indians, 
 attacked and burned their palisaded fort. Accounts differ 
 as to the number killed, but it is certain that from four 
 hundred to six hundred men, women, and children, met 
 death, either at the hands of the attacking party or in the 
 flames. The few that escaped were sold into slavery, and 
 thus the whole tribe was exterminated — a piece of Old 
 Testament justice which seems terrible to contemplate, but 
 which, judged from the provocation and the ideas of justice 
 held in that day, might possibly be excused. Certain it is 
 that the Indian mind of all that region was so deeply 
 impressed with the power of the whites that an entirely new 
 generation of warriors was necessary before the famous King 
 Philip could organize his confederacy. 
 
 91. The United Colonies of New England.— 1643.— The 
 Pequot War, the renewed attempts of the Dutch to regain 
 control of their lost territory, the encroachments of the 
 French and Indians on the north, and the war between 
 Charles I. and his subjects, made it seem desirable that 
 a general union of the colonies should be encouraged. 
 On the proposition of Connecticut, the people in every town 
 in New England except those of Rhode Island met in their 
 town meetings and elected delegates to a General Court to 
 
THE COMIKG OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 85 
 
 meet at the seat of government of each of the colonies. 
 These courts elected delegates to a convention to be held in 
 Boston. Thus the people of each town, as well as the whole 
 colony, were represented in this first Congress. On meeting 
 they formed the ''United Colonies of New England." Four 
 colonies were represented — Massachusetts, Plymouth, Con- 
 necticut, and New Haven. Each was to furnish its quota of 
 soldiers for the common defence and bear a proportionate 
 amount of the expense. Each was represented in the gen- 
 eral body by two delegates, who formed a Board of Commis- 
 sioners. 
 
 92. King Philip's War and the Checking of Missionary 
 Work Among the Indians. — Massasoit, the chief of the 
 Wampanoags, had been treated so kindly by the Pilgrims 
 during that first hard winter, that he was ever after a sin- 
 cere friend of the whites. At his death, in 1660, his son, 
 Philip, became chief of the tribe and was soon engaged in an 
 effort to organize a confederacy of all the New England 
 Indians for the extermination of the whites. The mission- 
 ary work of John Eliot had been instrumental in partially 
 civilizing some four thousand of the Indians, while some of the 
 tribes had always been more friendly than others, so that he 
 was successful in interesting but three tribes — the Wam- 
 panoags, the Nipmucks, and the Narragansetts. Hostilities 
 began in June, 1675, at the town of Swansea, where an attack 
 was made and followed up at several other towns, a number 
 of whites being killed. The "United Colonies" at once 
 organized and punished the AYampanoags severely. Philip 
 was not captured, however, and continued the war at the 
 head of the Nipmucks and the Narragansetts. The colonists 
 now took efficient measures for the organization of a large 
 force, each colony furnishing its quota. In December an 
 army of one thousand men marched against the Narragan- 
 setts. This tribe, to the number of three thousand, had 
 erected a fort in the center of a swamp; for this reason the 
 fight that followed is known as the "swamp fight," The 
 
36 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 fort was attacked and all the features of the Peqiiot extermi- 
 nation were enacted, though not quite so successfully in this 
 case. One thousand of the Indians were killed and a num- 
 ber taken prisoners— these were quartered in the different 
 towns for a long period and made to serve the whites, or 
 actually sold into slavery. Several hundred escaped, how- 
 ever and for years kept the frontier in a state of terror. 
 King Philip was killed the next year through the treachery 
 of one of his own Indians. 
 
 This was the last organized Indian war the New England 
 colonists experienced,— though the exposed settlements felt 
 the merciless hatred of the survivors through another hun- 
 dred years. The war was not without its good fruits, though 
 the loss of thirteen towns and six hundred lives, together 
 with the accumulation of a burdensome debt, was a fearful 
 price to pay. It was the first time that anything like a 
 general gathering for defence had been necessary. It 
 taught the value of union, and helped to break down the 
 religious and political prejudices existing, in marked degree, 
 among the colonies at that time. 
 
 One outcome of the war was the check given to the mis- 
 sionary work of the Reverend John Eliot. He had done a 
 grand work among the Indians, gathering into separate 
 towns those who professed conversion and were desirous of 
 trying the ways of civilization. Prior to the war, some 
 thirty of these "praying" towns had been organized, and 
 many of the Indians had made great advancement. But as 
 the war came on, the natural instinct of many of these 
 ''praying" Indians got the better of their educational train- 
 ing, and in one case a whole town went over to the enemy. 
 This had the effect of cooling the missionary zeal of the 
 colonists, and the work gradually ceased. 
 
 93 The Connecticut Charter.— When James II. sent Andros 
 
 ■ to be governor of all New England, in 1686, it was with 
 
 instructions to annul all the charters and unite the colomes 
 
 under one government. This he proceeded to do without 
 
■WILLIAM PENN 
 .TOHN W^INTHROP 
 
 JONATHAN EDWARDS 
 ROOER W^ILLIAMS 
 
 CocoNiAr^ Leaders 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 87 
 
 regard to the protests of the different colonies. When he went 
 to Hartford he met with an especially earnest protest. While 
 the conference was proceeding between Governor Robert Treat 
 and Andros, and it seemed certain that Andros would carry out 
 his purpose, the candles were suddenly blown out. When 
 they were relighted, it was found that the charter had been 
 spirited away and could not be found. It had been taken by 
 Captain Wadsworth and placed in tlie trunk of a hollow oak 
 tree near by, where it remained until Andros had returned 
 to Boston. This oak was ever after known as the *' Charter 
 Oak" and remained standing until a storm blew it down in 
 1856. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND 
 
 PROVTDEyCE, 1636 
 
 94. Providence Founded — 1636. — During his residence in 
 Salem, Roger Williams had cultivated the acquaintance of 
 the Indians and had learned to speak their language fluently. 
 Banished from Massachusetts in the midst of winter, he found 
 a welcome in the wigwams of these Indians. In the spring 
 Canonicus, chief of the Narragansefcts, gave him a tract of 
 land, and with five companions he founded Providence, so 
 named because of his "confidence in the mercies of God." 
 Here he invited the oppressed of every clime, of whatever 
 belief, giving them freely of the land he had received from 
 the Indians. 
 
 95. Anne Hutchinson's Settlements, Portsmouth and New- 
 port. — Some of the followers of Anne Hutchinson upon 
 banishment from Massachusetts founded towns to the north. 
 Others, in company with their leader, bought the island of 
 Aquedneck, or Rhode Island, from the Indians, and settled 
 Portsmouth (1638) and Newport (1639). As in Providence, 
 the utmost freedom was allowed. Religion was made a mat- 
 ter of conscience. All participated in the affairs of govern- 
 ment. 
 
 96. Roger Williams Secures a Charter — 1644.— There was 
 much in common between the settlements of Providence, Ports- 
 
88 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 mouth, and Newport. It was therefore determined to unite 
 them under a common government. With that idea in view, 
 Koger Williams was sent, in 1643, to England to secure a 
 charter. He returned the following year with the document 
 and the settlements were thenceforth known as the "Provi- 
 dence Plantations." 
 
 97. Liberal Ideas as to Religion. — The establishment of 
 Providence Plantations marked a distinct epoch [in govern- 
 ment in the New World. As noted before, the Puritan in 
 Massachusetts was as intolerant as were the people in Eng- 
 land from whom he had fled. The Connecticut settlements 
 took a decided step in advance of Massachusetts, but it 
 remained for Rhode Island to grant complete religious toler- 
 ation. Men of all beliefs or of no belief were made welcome. 
 
 98. Separation of Church and State. — Williams believed 
 that religion should have nothing to do with civil affairs. 
 The Puritan required every man to support the government 
 and the church; if he were a church member, he could hold 
 office and vote ; otherwise, he had no voice in the institutions 
 he helped support. Roger Williams insisted that no man 
 ought to be required to support that of which he was not a 
 part ; that it was wrong to tax a man unless he be given a 
 voice in how this tax was to be distributed. This was the 
 first formal recognition of that principle which the colonies 
 fought so valiantly to maintain a century later — "taxation 
 without representation is tyranny." 
 
 KEW YORK 
 
 99. New Amsterdam and the Dutch Traders. — From the 
 
 day that Henry Hudson arrived in Holland with stories 
 of the beautiful river he had discovered, and of the valu- 
 able furs that could be secured from the Indians for mere 
 trinkets, Dutch traders began to visit that section. They 
 claimed all the territory between the Delaware and Con- 
 necticut rivers. As early as 1613 they built a few huts on 
 the present site of New York and named the settlement 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 89 
 
 New Amsterdam. In 1 621 the Dutch government chartered 
 the West India Company, giving it unlimited powers over 
 all colonies established. This 
 Company two years later built 
 Fort Orange, now Albany, and 
 made permanent settlement at 
 New Amsterdam. A brisk 
 trade was carried on with the 
 Indians, but no effort was 
 made, until later in the history 
 of the colony, to cultivate the 
 land. In 1626 the first Dutch 
 governor arrived. He bought 
 Manhattan Island of the In- 
 dians for twenty-four dollars, 
 about one mill per acre. 
 
 100. The Grant to the Duke 
 of York. — In establishing col- 
 onies in the New World, the 
 Dutch had not taken into 
 account, if they knew it, the 
 claim of the English to the 
 territory, based on the Cabot 
 voyage. On their part, the 
 English allowed a half century 
 to pass before they enforced 
 recognition of the claim. But 
 in 1664 Charles II. granted new yobk and vicinity 
 
 to his brother, the Duke of York, all the territory between the 
 Connecticut and the Delaware, and an English fleet was sent 
 to dispossess the Dutch. These burghers had been so intent 
 on commercial affairs that they had neglected fortifying their 
 territory. They had erected a small fort at New Amster- 
 dam, but as it could not stand against the attack of so formi- 
 dable an enemy it was decided to surrender ; this, "much to 
 the disgust of old Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor, who 
 
 
90 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 desired to give battle to the English. New Amsterdam took 
 the name of New York, and Fort Orange that of Albany. 
 
 Dutch rule was thus ended in America, except for a short 
 period nine years later, when a Dutch fleet appeared in the 
 harbor and demanded the surrender of the town. The fol- 
 lowing year it was retaken by the English. 
 
 101. Indian Policy of the Dutch. — About the same time 
 that Champlain incurred for the French the lasting enmity 
 of the Iroquois by joining a war party of Hurons against 
 them, Henry Hudson was inaugurating for the Dutch that suc- 
 cessful policy which made the Iroquois their lasting friends. 
 The Dutch traders soon found that "honesty was the best 
 policy," even with the Indians. They always paid them for 
 their land, and gave full value for the furs they received in 
 trade. For this reason the Dutch usually lived on friendly 
 
 terms with the Indians, and 
 their friendship was secured 
 to the English when the latter 
 came into control. The "Five 
 Nations" for years were con- 
 sistent friends of the English 
 as against the French, and 
 even in the Revolution followed 
 the English flag. 
 
 102. Jacob Leisler. — Peter 
 Stuyvesant was the most ener- 
 getic of the Dutch governors and did much to extend Dutch 
 rule in America. He, however, became so arrogant and 
 severe in his dealings with the colonists, that they were not 
 sorry when the English took control. They had hoped to 
 be accorded the same measure of liberty that prevailed in 
 other English colonies. In this they were not disappointed. 
 The royal governors of course ruled after the arbitrary 
 example set by their sovereign, but the colonists succeeded 
 in getting a representative assembly in 1683. Andros, who 
 was governor from 1674 to 1680, and again in 1688, was as 
 
 DUTCH HOUSES 
 
THE C0M1XC4 OP THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 
 
 91 
 
 DL'TCUJIAN 
 
 unpopular in New York as he was in Massachusetts, and 
 when James II. was deposed his deputy was at once 
 required to hand over the reins of 
 government. Jacob Leisler, an un- 
 cultured but successful merchant, 
 and popular with the common peo- 
 ple, assumed the governorship. 
 Although somewhat arbitrary, he 
 pleased the people fairly well for three 
 years, when the governor sent over 
 by the new king put in an appear- 
 ance. For reasons not clearly under- 
 stood Leisler refused for some time 
 to give up the office. He was finally 
 arrested and executed for treason. 
 
 103. The Patroon System. — Trading with the Indians was 
 so profitable that farming was little thought of in the early 
 history of this colony. But the company 
 inaugurated a system in 1629 which they 
 hoped might induce people to settle along 
 the rivers for the purpose of cultivating 
 tlie land. They agreed to give to anyone 
 who would settle a colony of fifty persons 
 on the land, a tract of sixteen miles along 
 any river, without limit as to depth, or 
 eight miles on both sides of the river. 
 These parties were to have absolute con- 
 trol, not only of their land, but of the 
 settlers on the land. A number availed 
 themselves of this offer. But this 
 *'patroon system," as it was called, 
 proved detrimental to the progress of the 
 colony. It created a wealthy landed 
 aristocracy, which in time assumed too 
 power in the government of the colony; it also dis- 
 
 DUTCH MAIDEN 
 
 much 
 
 couraged the settling of less wealthy people in the agricul- 
 
92 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 tural districts. In 1640, the "charter was modified and 
 extended to any good citizen of the Netherlands." The 
 antirent difficulties in New York in 1844 grew out of these 
 old patroon land titles. 
 
 104. Education and Religion.— Religion was never a mat- 
 ter for controversy among the Dutch. Religious toleration 
 was complete with them. All creeds were welcome. The 
 charter of the West India Company, however, was the first 
 in the New World to enjoin the care of education and religion 
 on the people. 
 
 NEW JERSEY 
 
 ELIZABETHTOWS, 1665 
 
 105. Berkeley and Carteret — East and West Jersey. — This 
 colony was first claimed by the Dutch and settlement made 
 by them as early as 1020. When the English took New 
 York in 16G4, the Duke of York granted the land between 
 the Delaware and Hudson rivers to Lord Berkeley, and Sir 
 George Carteret, naming it New Jersey in honor of the 
 latter 's famous defence of the Island of Jersey against 
 Cromwell. Under "the Concessions," a document issued 
 by the proprietors (and which afterwards assumed the 
 importance of a charter), an English settlement was begun 
 at Elizabethtown in 1665, and in the following year New 
 Englanders founded Newark and Middletown. Freedom of 
 religious belief Avas accorded settlers and the colony became 
 a refuge for the oppressed of all denominations. In 1673 
 Berkeley sold his right to the Quakers. By an agreement 
 between the proprietors, a division was made in 1674, the 
 Quakers taking the west part of the grant and Carteret 
 the east. In 1682 Carteret's heirs also sold to the Quakers. 
 William Penn and his associates held New Jersey until 1702, 
 when they relinquished all their rights to the English gov- 
 ernment. It was then united to New York, tliongh electing 
 its own assembly. In 1738 it was made a royal jirovince. 
 
 106. Title Troubles. — New Jersey was under the jurisdic- 
 tion of so many different parties in its early history that title 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 93 
 
 to the land became confused. Those who settled under the 
 Dutch claimed large tracts, the boundaries to which were 
 vague and uncertain. This was true also of the Swedes. 
 When the English took charge there was a disposition to 
 interfere with these claims. As years passed, and the land 
 was sold to different parties, endless and bitter disputes 
 arose as to ownership. At last the proprietors in despair 
 sold out their rights to the government, which succeeded 
 finally in quieting titles. 
 
 107. New Jersey. — The colonial history of New Jersey is 
 very commonplace. No great patriotic or religious sentiment 
 was manifest in its settlement. There were no uprisings of 
 the people in behalf of liberty as against tyrannical governors ; 
 no horrible Indian atrocities; no rebellions; no witchcraft. 
 This was due to environment, and to the fact that the 
 dominant elements in the settlement of the colony, Quakers 
 and Presbyterians, were more staid and peace-loving than 
 some other classes. But the plant of liberty grew as sturdily 
 in New Jersey as in New England. 
 The Revolution found no more loyal 
 and enthusiastic supporters when 
 once the die had been cast. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 rHILADELPIIIA, ?6\s2 
 
 108. The Quakers. — Of the many 
 sects born of the religious unrest in 
 the seventeenth century, none has 
 left a deeper impress on the cause 
 of liberty and popular government 
 than the Quakers. George Fox was| 
 founder of this sect and William 
 Penn its greatest apostle. The 
 practices and belief of the Quakers Quakers 
 
 were diametrically opposed to the state religion. They 
 eschewed all forms, believed in the direct guidance of God, 
 
94 HISTORY OF THE UXITEI) STATES 
 
 or the "inner light" received from God — thus making an 
 enlightened conscience their guide in their daily life. In 
 the belief that it was disloyalty to the Supreme Ruler, they 
 refused to show respect to many of the customs of society and 
 the requirements of government. They remained covered in 
 the presence of royalty ; they refused to take oath in court ; 
 they would not go to war, nor would they pay taxes for the 
 prosecution of war. They believed in the abolition of all 
 titles, in straightforward language, in sober deportment 
 and dress. These departures necessarily brought persecu- 
 tion, but they early showed such a contemj^t for the 
 various methods of persecution employed — even gladly 
 suffering if it were for the sake of their belief — that they 
 were frequently allowed to remain in quiet. These qualities, 
 together with a most persistent missionary spirit, soon spread 
 their doctrines and they became a power for good in the land. 
 They were ideal material out of which to build a state, for 
 Quakerism "cherished the essence of democracy, because 
 one of its necessary beliefs was that each man was the equal 
 of every other." 
 
 109. William Penn and His "Holy Experiment." — William 
 Penn was the son of Admiral Penn of the English navy. With 
 all the advantages of wealth and position, he chose to for- 
 sake all for conscience sake. While a student at Oxford he 
 came under the inflnence of a Quaker minister and at once 
 became an enthusiastic convert. Thinking to wean him 
 from his belief the father sent him to Paris, and the gaieties 
 of that city seemed to have the desired effect. But later 
 he again came under the teachings of this sect, and this 
 time gave up his life to the spread of its peculiar doc- 
 trines. His social position was of little avail in warding off* 
 persecution, for he was repeatedly thrown into prison, and 
 made to suffer the contempt and disdain of his former 
 friends. He was several times cast off by his father, but as 
 often taken back and at his death inherited a considerable 
 fortune. This gave him the opportunity to carry out a plan 
 
THE COMIXG OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 
 
 05 
 
 for the establishment of a haven for his persecuted brethren. 
 The king had become indebted to his father in the sum of 
 sixteen thousand pounds. This debt was cancelled in consid- 
 eration of the gift of forty thousand square miles in America, 
 part of the Duke of York's grant, and which the king 
 named Penn's Woods, or Pennsylvania, in honor of the father. 
 Penn at once began preparations on a large scale for the 
 colonization of this tract. He advertised it thoroughly, 
 sending agents throughout the various countries of Europe. 
 In 1G81 the first colony was sent over, and the following year 
 he himself came with others. Although he did not remain 
 long in America, he visited it several times, and spent the 
 remainder of his life in promoting the welfare of the colony 
 he had established. 
 
 110. Philadelphia Founded. — Selecting a suitable site be- 
 tween the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers, Penn in 1682 laid 
 out the city of Philadelphia, the name signifying "brotherly 
 love." The success of 
 the venture was flattering 
 from the first. During the 
 first year one hundred 
 houses were built. In two 
 years the city contained 
 two thousand inhabitants 
 and at the end of the cen- 
 tury was the second city 
 in America. Penn himself 
 had a handsome home 
 built there, though he 
 occupied it but a short 
 time. Not only in its 
 increase in population did 
 this colony surpass other 
 •colonies, but also in the 
 varied occupations of its 
 people. A study of the 
 
 
96 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 geography of the colony indicates many natural products and 
 resources. The industrial life very early found expression 
 in manufacturing, mining, and farming. 
 
 111. Penn's Indian Policy. — The essence of the famous 
 Indian policy of AVilliam Penn is contained in a single sen- 
 tence of a letter to a friend concerning their treatment — 
 "Justice gains and awes them." He applied the Golden 
 Rule. They responded in kind. Although he was rightful 
 owner of the land according to the custom of the time, he 
 immediately proceeded to buy the tract of those who were 
 morally entitled to it. Under a stately elm, which stood 
 the storms of over a century after the scene was enacted, he 
 made solemn covenant with them. "We are one flesh and 
 blood," said he. And they replied, "While the river runs 
 and the sun sliines, we will live in peace with the children 
 of William Penn." Until the breaking out of the French 
 and Indian War the borders of Pennsylvania were free from 
 the atrocities visited on the other colonies. 
 
 112. Boundary Lines. — Like all other colonies, Pennsyl- 
 vania bad much trouble concerning her boundaries. On the 
 north, New York and Connecticut objected to the liberal 
 Penn grant and for years much ill feeling was engendered. 
 On the south, the claims of Lord Baltimore had to be 
 considered. These disputes were not finally disposed of 
 until 17G6, when the famous "Mason and Dixon" line was 
 run by two English surveyors from whom the line was 
 named. 
 
 As an instance of the manner in which boundaries were 
 located in that early day, it is related of Penn that his agree- 
 ment with the Indians for a certain tract of land calling for 
 so much as could be "walked over in three days," was strictly 
 adhered to. Penn and the Indians gathered on a certain day 
 and walked leisurely into the forest. The next day they 
 walked till noon, when the junket was adjourned. The dis- 
 tance covered was some thirty miles, with still a day and a half 
 to walk. Some fifty years after, the remaining portion was 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 97 
 
 walked. This time famous "sprinters" were hired, they 
 covering eighty-six miles in thirty-six hours. 
 
 113. Charter and Government. — Certain circumstances 
 combined to make the charter granted to Penn a very liberal 
 one, though Charles II. at that time was bent on enforcing a 
 very narrow policy in the colonies. The friendship which 
 had existed between the king and old Admiral Penn softened 
 him toward the son; the close friendship existing between 
 William Penn and the king's brother, the Duke of York, 
 made the king kindly disposed; the fact of the Quakers 
 being persecuted by the Puritans whom the king disliked 
 caused Charles to be especially kind to the Quakers. The 
 charter granted Penn full power to govern as he thought 
 best, — reserving to the people the right of appeal to the 
 king, and requiring that all acts passed by the legislative 
 body should be ratified by him. 
 
 "Liberty without obedience is confusion, and obedience 
 without liberty is slavery," was a principle stated by Penn, 
 and he followed it strictly. In the "Frame of Government" 
 issued by him he required strict obedience to the laws, but 
 made few of them and those very liberal. A Council and 
 Assembly were granted — members to be elected by freemen, 
 having "faith in Christ." Penn governed by deputies dur- 
 ing his lifetime, and his heirs followed the same plan. 
 
 DELAWARE 
 
 WILMINGTON, 1638 
 
 114. The Three Lower Counties. — The entire tract of 
 Penn's grant lay west of the Delaware. This shut him oif 
 from the ocean, and in order to secure an outlet he bought 
 of the Duke of York his remaining interest, known thence- 
 forth as "the three lower counties on the Delaware," or the 
 "Territories." These were settled by much the same class 
 of people as were found in Penn's own colony, and until 
 1703 were under the same government. At their request, 
 Penn granted them a separate Assembly, his deputy adminis- 
 
98 HISTORY O? THE UNITED STATES 
 
 tering the laws. Delaware was first settled by the Swedes, 
 in 1638. They were dispossessed by the Dutch, who in 
 turn yielded to the English. 
 
 MARYLAND 
 
 ST. MARY'S, 1634 
 
 115. Lord Baltimore and His Liberal Grant. — Maryland 
 was another colony whose settlement was occasioned by 
 religious persecution. In its earlier days the Church of 
 England persecuted all who did not conform to its tenets. 
 Catholics, as well as Puritans. Sir George Calvert, known 
 also as Lord Baltimore, having become a Catholic, secured 
 a charter from the king to plant a colony in America. His 
 grant was from the fortieth parallel to the Potomac, the 
 western boundary being a line directly north to that parallel 
 from the source of that river. Before a colony could be 
 sent. Lord Baltimore died. His son, Cecil Calvert, carried 
 out his plans. The charter granted the Calverts was the 
 most liberal ever issued by an English monarch. It made 
 the proprietor absolute ruler over the colony, requiring only 
 that once a year he should send two Indian arrows to the 
 king in token of his allegiance; also a third of the gold and 
 silver discovered. If it were the intention at first to exclude 
 all but Catholics, this idea was abandoned even before the 
 first colony was sent out, the two ships containing both 
 Protestants and Catholics. 
 
 116. Settlement — Claiborne's Opposition. — The name of 
 Maryland was given to the new colony in honor of the 
 Queen, Henrietta Maria, and the first settlement, called St. 
 Mary's, was begun in 1631, the location on the Potomac 
 being purchased from the Indians. Maryland's early his- 
 tory was closely connected with that of Virginia, the occu- 
 pations of the people of both colonies being much the 
 same, and both feeling the necessity for maintaining 
 a united front against the Indians. The settling at St. 
 Mary's caused immediate and serious trouble. A Vir 
 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 99 
 
 ginia planter by the name of Claiborne claimed all this 
 section and was able to offer most determined opposition. 
 He was at last expelled, though not before some blood had 
 been shed and much bad feeling engendered. A number 
 of years later the controversy was renewed, and being taken 
 on appeal to the king, was decided by him in favor of the 
 colonists. Despite these troubles and those engendered by re- 
 ligious differences, Maryland was always a prosperous colony. 
 
 117. Religious Troubles — Toleration Acts. — The student 
 of to-day cannot appreciate the tenacity with which the 
 fathers held to their religious beliefs and their readiness at 
 all times to engage in combat, mental or physical in their 
 defence. It was a time of first growth — not so much atten- 
 tion given to beauty of form as to deep rooting in a nourish- 
 ing soil. This soil was fonnd in the New World, and it seemed 
 alike rich to all faiths — though opposed to each other. Mary- 
 land presented a strange anomaly in that age of the world, 
 — the Catholic and the Protestant working side by side, and in 
 seeming harmony. This was largely due to the fact that the 
 source of their persecution was the same — the Church of 
 England. They yielded to that "fellow feeling in misery," 
 which sometimes makes the "whole world kin," and for the 
 time being were friends. However, disputes over religion 
 soon began, and much difficulty was found in satisfying both 
 Protestants and Catholics. 
 
 In 1649 a "Toleration Act" was passed by the Assembly 
 as a compromise between the two parties. This was respected 
 for some time, but after 1691, when the colony became a 
 royal province, the Catholics were given scant justice. 
 Later Maryland became a proprietary colony and thus 
 remained until the Revolution. 
 
 THE CAROLINAS 
 
 ALBEMARLE, 1653, AND CHARLESTON, 1670 
 
 118. Carolina Grant. — The stretch of coast comprised in 
 the two Carolinas and Georgia had a very unfortunate early 
 
 L.ofC. 
 
100 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 history. It was the scene of DeAllyon's San Miguel disas- 
 ter, of Eibaut's Port Royal failure, of the several Raleigh 
 attempts, ending with the complete disappearance of the 
 "lost colony." Grants were made of it to several parties, 
 but not till after the middle of the seventeenth century was 
 any permanent settlement made. In 1663 Charles II. 
 gave it to eight of his personal friends. Lord Clarendon 
 being one of them. They immediately proceeded to 
 employ a philosopher of the day, John Locke, to draft 
 an elaborate scheme of government. The chief point of 
 interest in this plan was the attempt to revivify the now 
 obsolete feudal system. There were to be barons and 
 vassals and fiefs and holdings; in fact, the world was to 
 be set back a half cycle of centuries. But it was not to be. 
 The spirit that prompted the human heart to rebel against 
 the tyranny of the time at home laughed this child of feu- 
 dalism out of countenance. The colonists would have none 
 of it; and it is creditable in the highest degree to these 
 home builders in the south that John Locke's ''Model," as 
 the scheme was called, did not have even a chance of success. 
 
 119. Albemarle Colony — * 'Poor Whites." — The first colonists 
 were sent over in 1665. They found that a settlement had al- 
 ready been made (1653) by people from Virginia, among whom 
 were many Quakers, who had been driven out of the other 
 colonies. In fact, many people in the northern part of the 
 grant were found who were known as ''poor whites." These 
 were hunters and trappers, of a roving disposition. As a class 
 they were shiftless to a degree. There were among them 
 some of better mold, however, who became the progeni- 
 tors of that free and liberty loving element which still 
 inhabits the Blue Ridge country, and of which Abraham 
 Lincoln is said to be a product. 
 
 120. The Carteret Colony — Charleston. — Five years after 
 the Albemarle colony was established, another was sent 
 out, called the Carteret colony. A settlement was made 
 by this colony on the Ashley river at first, but later a 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 101 
 
 better location was found on the present site of Charles- 
 ton. This colony flourished from the beginning. Large 
 numbers of the Dutch as well as of the persecuted 
 Huguenots from France, flocked to the settlement. This 
 latter element came in great numbers, forming whole streets 
 in the town. They were a people of gentle and refined 
 manners; of good education, — and, like the Boston colony, 
 set up in the new world all the institutions they were accus- 
 tomed to in the old. 
 
 121. Separation. — The separation of Carolina into two 
 distinct colonies was determined from the first by the char- 
 acter of the people in the different settlements. Topography 
 has much to do with occupations ; and it is also true that 
 the occupations of a people determine to a large extent their 
 general characteristics. Hunters, trappers, and small farm- 
 ers found the soil and climate of the northern part of Caro- 
 lina better suited to their 
 
 pursuits ; while the warm- 
 er climate, and the low- 
 lands of the southern 
 portion, attracted the 
 large planters. The for- 
 mer gathered in commun- 
 ities and led lives much 
 after the fashion of the 
 Massachusetts Puritans; 
 the latter became large 
 slave owners, and lived in 
 lordly elegance on great 
 plantations ; or, main- 
 tained princely homes in 
 Charleston, or in other town settlements. Thus grew 
 up side by side two civilizations, more or less distinct. 
 The independent spirit maintained by the colonists, in 
 the northern portion particukirly, caused the proprietors 
 so much trouble that in 1720 they sold their interest to the 
 
 
 
 *•• CHARLESTON 
 
 ;■/■- ' 
 
 
 _, 
 
 
 
102 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 government. The division was then made into North and 
 South Carolina and they remained royal provinces until 
 merged into the Republic. 
 
 122. Indian Troubles. — On the western slopes of the Blue 
 Ridge and in the contiguous river valleys, lived the Tusca- 
 roras, a branch of the fierce Iroquois of the north. These 
 Indians became restive under the advance of civilization; 
 and, as time passed, the outlying settlements began to suffer 
 from their incursions. The colonists finally rallied after an 
 attempted massacre in 1711, and the following year inflicted 
 a severe defeat on this tribe at the battle of Neuse. 
 Again in 1712 the Indians were defeated and eight hundred 
 taken prisoners. This defeat had such a dispiriting effect, 
 that, in 1715, the remnant of the tribe joined their clans- 
 men in the north and became the "sixth" nation of the 
 noted Iroquois Confederacy. 
 
 GEORGIA 
 
 SAl'AyNAII, 173.i 
 
 123. Oglethorpe and His Wards. — Maryland was the only 
 southern colony into whose settlement the idea of religion 
 entered. Philanthropy, coupled with a military idea, brought 
 about the settlement of Georgia. The wretched condition of 
 the debtor class of England began to touch the hearts of 
 philanthropists in the early part of the eighteenth century. 
 The prisons were overflowing with people — many of them of 
 worthy character; but who, unfortunately, could not keep 
 out of debt. James Oglethorpe, a kind-hearted oflficer in 
 the British army and a member of the English parliament, 
 conceived the idea of relieving this distress, and at the 
 same time of providing for his country a post of defence 
 against the Spaniards on the south. He was given by George 
 II. a grant from the Savannah river to the Altamaha to be held 
 in trust for the poor. The region was named Georgia in honor 
 of the king. The first settlement was made at the mouth 
 of the Savannah River in 1733. A fort was erected to carry 
 
THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH HOME BUILDERS 103 
 
 out the idea of defence. During the first years of the col- 
 ony prosperity seemed assured, but owing to adverse circum- 
 stances its subsequent history was one of much discord and 
 trouble. 
 
 124. Spaniards and Indians. — Hardly had the colony been 
 well started, before war was declared between England and 
 Spain, giving Governor Oglethorpe an opportunity to test 
 some of his military ideas. He took the initiative and 
 besieged the Spaniards at St. Augustine, but was compelled 
 to retire before anything was accomplished. The Spaniards 
 in their turn attacked the exposed outposts of the English, 
 but were repulsed. This ended the Spaniard's dream of 
 dominion on the coast of North America. But for years 
 the Spaniards were a source of great annoyance to the 
 Georgians by reason of their constant stirring up of the 
 Indians along the -border. Not until the Indian had felt the 
 iron hand of General Andrew Jackson, and Florida had 
 become a part of the United States, did Georgia cease to be 
 troubled from these sources. 
 
 125. The Wesleys. — The founders of Methodism, John and 
 Charles Wesley, became interested in the Georgian colony 
 very early in its history. Both came to the colony in 1735, 
 Charles returning, after a year's service as private secretary 
 to the governor. John Wesley remained for three years 
 and laid the foundation of Methodism in the New World. 
 
 126. The Colony a Disappointment. — After twenty years of 
 earnest effort to serve humanity, James Oglethorpe returned 
 his charter to the king. The class of people whose condition 
 he had sought to ameliorate was far from suitable material out 
 of which to build a state. Many refused his philanthropy 
 outright, and a large part of those who did come were so shift- 
 less that they were a constant burden on the colony. Had 
 it not been for the sturdy German Lutherans and Scotch 
 .Highlanders, and a few Huguenots from France and South 
 
 Carolina, this attempt at colonization would have proved an 
 utter failure. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 
 
 THE FOUR INTERCOLONIAL WARS 
 
 KING WILLIAM'S, 16S9-1697. 
 QUEEN ANNES, 17()-J-1713. 
 KING GEORGE- S, 1744-174S. 
 FRE?iCIl AND INDIAN, 1754-1763. 
 
 127. The French and English in America. — The colonial 
 policy of France had resulted in building up a line of 
 military posts for the protection of the trader and of 
 
 BKGINNING OF THK BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 
 
 the missionary. The Englishman, on the other hand, was 
 a home builder. He subdued tlie wilderness with the 
 ax and torch and wrung from it the wherewithal to satisfy 
 his needs. The French trapper followed his quarry deeper 
 and deeper into the forest; the missionary wandered from 
 
 104 
 
 
THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 105 
 
 tribe to tribe, farther and farther away from civilization. 
 The Englishman clnng to the seaboard, and for over a century 
 the rich soil of the Atlantic coast plain sufficed for his agricul- 
 tural tastes. The Frenchman, entering the continent through 
 the ice-floes of the north, had pushed his way west to the 
 sunny climes of the south. The very year that William 
 Penn crossed the ocean to begin his "holy experiment," the 
 incomparable La Salle unfurled the lilies of France at the 
 mouth of the Mississippi and completed the crescent that 
 bound the English to the coast. But as the years passed, 
 the Anglo-Saxon, lured by the richer agricultural regions of 
 the west, broke over nature's mountain barrier and pushed 
 the contest into the territory claimed by the Latin. Thence- 
 forth war was inevitable. 
 
 128. Indian Policies Contrasted. — The French had won the 
 friendship of the Indian to a greater extent than had the 
 English. Not that the Frenchman was kindlier by nature 
 than the Briton; he was not. But the latter came to the 
 New World to build a home. In the building he destroyed 
 the Indian's hunting ground, and thus left him impoverished. 
 On the other hand, the Frenchman left the Indian unmolested. 
 Commercially, it was to the Frenchman's interest to leave the 
 forest and stream as he found them, asking but a spot upon 
 which to build his cabin. Again, the Englishman bought his 
 land of the Indian in immense tracts by treaty, or in small 
 farms, by direct purchase. It meant in either case the absolute 
 transfer of the land, together with all rights and privileges. 
 This the Indian mind could not fathom. He could under- 
 stand the granting of hunting privileges for certain "moons," 
 but it ended there. He never contemplated the absolute 
 transfer of the land itself, but a simple sharing, or giving 
 up for a season of the hunting or planting privileges. This 
 view not interfering with the French commercial idea, or 
 rather there being no reason for a purchase of the land, the 
 Latin was comparatively free from the strife to which the 
 Anglo-Saxon fell heir in such abundance. 
 
106 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 KING WILLIAM'S WAR 
 
 129. Cause — Parties Engaged. — At the close of the seven- 
 teenth century a spirited contest was in progress between 
 the French and the English both in Europe and in Amer- 
 ica. The contest began in Europe. James 11. succeeded to 
 the English throne on the death of his brother, Charles II. 
 His conduct was so outrageously against English interests, 
 that the English rose in rebellion and drove him from the 
 country. The French king welcomed him to his court and 
 thus gave cause for war, which was declared in 1689 by 
 King William III., whom an act of parliament had placed 
 upon the throne. As soon as England and France began 
 fighting, the colonists in America took up the quarrel and a 
 struggle began for the possession of Acadia and New France. 
 
 130. Port Royal Expedition. — During the eight years of 
 this war most of the action took place on the frontiers of the 
 
 respective parties. The 
 French held Port Eoyal 
 on the coast of Acadia. 
 This being a constant 
 menace to the colonies, 
 and especially to Massa- 
 chusetts, an expedition 
 against it was organized 
 under the leadership of 
 Sir AVilliam Phipps. He 
 set out with eighteen 
 hundred New England 
 troops, and such was the spirit displayed by leader and men 
 that both Port Royal and Acadia fell an easy prey into their 
 hands. A later naval attack on Quebec resulted in most 
 disastrous faihire. 
 
 131. Frontenac and Indian Atrocities. — For the conduct 
 of the war in America, the king of France sent Count Fron- 
 tenac, — in many respects a remarkable man, though lacking 
 
 
 
 
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 f^'t 
 
 ;wt«P*^^^:.^. '■■■ 
 
 "W 
 
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THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 107 
 
 ill a spirit of humanity. He at once formed an alliance 
 with the Algonkin tribes and made a strong effort to con- 
 ciliate the Iroquois, whom Champlain had offended, but the 
 traditions of nearly a century were stronger than any argu- 
 ment Frontenac could bring to bear, and the Iroquois 
 remained faithful to the English. Fronteuac carried the 
 hardships of the war into the territory of the Iroquois with 
 such severity as to force from them a treaty of peace. He 
 kept the English frontiers in a constant state of terror by 
 sending out marauding bands of his Indian allies, who com- 
 mitted the most terrible atrocities. 
 
 132. Peace : Results. — The war closed with a treaty made 
 at Eyswick, Holland. Each nation retained the same terri- 
 tory which it had held in the beginning. The chief result 
 in the colonies was the spirit of confidence it planted in the 
 New Englander's breast — he had waged successful warfare 
 with the French regular at Port Royal. It also awakened 
 that feeling of dependence upon one another, which, fostered 
 by the succeeding colonial wars, culminated in complete 
 organization in the trying days of the Revolution. 
 
 QUEEN ANN-e'S war 
 
 133. Cause — Parties Engaged. — Only five years of peace 
 had been enjoyed by the colonists in America, when they 
 were once more drawn into war by the opening of the great 
 War of the Spanish Succession in Europe, a war in which 
 France and England again took opposite sides. This time 
 the French and Spanish colonies made common cause against 
 the English colonies; who were therefore beset from all sides. 
 
 134. The War in the North.— Though Port Royal had 
 been captured in the last war by the colonists, its return to 
 the French at the close, again made it a convenient rendez- 
 vous for privateering expeditions down the coast. Two 
 .unsuccessful attempts were made against it. Finally, in 
 
 1710, a combined English and colonial army forced its sur- 
 render. A similarly disastrous attempt to that made on 
 
108 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Quebec in the previous war left that stronghold to guard 
 French dominion in the north, the English suffering the 
 loss of many ships in a storm, with over one thousand men. 
 
 135. The War in the South. — The southern colonists wel- 
 comed the opportunity to chastise the Spanish on the Florida 
 coast, and in the very first year of the war attacked St. 
 Augustine. They had reckoned without their host, how- 
 ever. The Spanish offered such spirited resistance that the 
 siege was abandoned. A combined French and Spanish 
 fleet attempted the capture of Charleston, South Carolina, 
 in 1706, but were in turn repulsed, so that honors were 
 equal in the south. 
 
 136. Indian Atrocities. — As usual, the outlying settle- 
 ments felt the horrors of war the most. With the French 
 forts about the Great Lakes for rallying points, and their 
 overflowing arsenals on which to draw, the Indians ravaged 
 the frontier from Virginia to Maine, — the wholesale massacres 
 at Deerfield and Haverhill being carried out with the most 
 fiendish cruelties. 
 
 137. Peace: Results.— The treaty of Utrecht (1713) ended 
 the war, and for many years peace and prosperity reigned in 
 America. The treaty provided for the retention of Port 
 Royal by the English. In honor of Queen Anne its name 
 was changed to Annapolis. Acadia, or Nova Scotia, was now 
 retained by England. The treaty also gave to England New- 
 foundland and the Hudson Bay territories, leaving Canada 
 and the Mississippi valley still to be fought for. 
 
 The feeling of interdependence received fresh stimulus 
 among the colonists. The first war had held the interest 
 only of the New England colonies. This second war had 
 united both southern and northern colonies in a common 
 cause. 
 
 KING George's war 
 
 138. French Fortification. — For thirty years after the treaty 
 of Utrecht there was no fighting between the French and 
 English in America. The French spent this time in build- 
 
THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 
 
 109 
 
 ing a chain of forts which should enable them to hold the 
 Mississippi valley and New France against the English. 
 These forts stretched from the mouth of the Mississippi to 
 Detroit and thence along the lakes to Lake Champlain and 
 
 
 
 Montreal. The French were also anxious to reconquer the 
 territory lost by the treaty of Utrecht; so they built and 
 fortified at great expense a point on Cape Breton called 
 Louisburg. 
 
 139. War Declared. — In 1744 war again broke out between 
 France and England. This was known in the colonies as 
 "King George's War," and gave the English colonists an 
 opportunity to attempt the capture of Louisburg, which was 
 now the strongest French fort in America except Quebec, 
 and which threatened the English possessions in Nova Scotia. 
 This was accomplished by a colonial force, four thousand 
 strong, under General Pepperel of Maine, assisted by four 
 British warships. 
 
 140. Treaty.— The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) brought 
 peace after four years, though it was but a short time until 
 the two combatants were again active. The stronghold of 
 Louisburg was returned to the French, in exchange for the 
 military post of Madras in Hindustan; a piece of war politics 
 • which greatly incensed the colonists, who had been at such 
 
 expense to capture that stronghold. The king, however, 
 paid back the money they had expended. 
 
110 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 
 
 141. Parties and Causes. — Two powerful combinations 
 strove for the mastery on the continent of Europe from 
 1756 to 1763, England and Prussia being pitted against 
 France and Austria. The colonists would no doubt have 
 been drawn into it sooner or later in defence of their respec- 
 tive sovereigns, but there 
 were special reasons why 
 they became involved some 
 two years before actual hos- 
 tilities began in Europe. As 
 stated before, the French 
 claimed the St. Lawrence 
 valley, the country about the 
 Great Lakes, and the Missis- 
 sippi and Ohio valleys, by 
 right of discovery and explo- 
 ration. The English claimed 
 the country from "sea to sea" 
 by right of the Cabot dis- 
 covery. By the middle of the 
 eighteenth century these con- 
 flicting claims began to cause 
 much discord, especially in 
 the Oliio valley. The king 
 of England, desirous to se- 
 cure the region from French 
 control, offered a tract of 
 immense extent to anyone who would settle one hundred 
 families upon it. This led to the formation of the Ohio 
 Company, which at once sent out surveyors. These move- 
 ments roused the French. Prior to this they had sunk 
 their metal plates bearing the insignia of France all along 
 the valley. Already one line of forts extended from 
 Chicago down the Illinois river to the Mississippi; a 
 second reached from Detroit along the valley of the Wabash 
 
 PART OF OXE OF THK METAL PLATES 
 
* THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 111 
 
 to the Ohio. The French now began military occupa- 
 tion of the valley and in addition to strengthening the 
 forts already built, established a third line from Lake 
 Erie down the course of the Allegheny river to the 
 present site of Pittsburgh. 
 
 142. Washington in Virginia's Service.— This action called 
 for war, or a disavowal. Virginia had always claimed the 
 territory by the reading of her charter, "west and north- 
 west," and now took the initiative. George Washington 
 was at this time adjutant-general of the Virginia militia. 
 He was only twenty-one years of age, but had shown even 
 thus early the qualities which afterward made him the great 
 champion of his country's rights. He was commissioned 
 to proceed to the nearest French fort and make formal 
 demand for the withdrawal of the French troops from all 
 that region. With seven companions, AYashington accom- 
 plished this mission creditably, traveling over five hundred 
 miles through a dense wilderness and returning in the dead 
 of winter. He advised the immediate building of a fort at 
 the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, and 
 the governor sent a company of men to carry out this idea, 
 Washington following with a military force sufficient to 
 hold the fort when constructed. Bat the French had 
 determined on fortifying this same point. They accord- 
 ingly pushed rapidly south, and driving off the English 
 vanguard before Washington could arrive, threw up 
 fortifications which they called Fort Duquesne, and with 
 that as a base advanced to meet the English. The 
 death of his superior on the march from Virginia put 
 Washington in full command of the expedition. In true 
 Indian fashion he pushed rapidly to the front, ambuscaded 
 the advance party of French, and drove them back with loss. 
 He then selected a position and threw up rude fortifications 
 which he called Fort Necessity. Here he was attacked by a 
 combined force of French and Indians, who so outnumbered 
 him tnat he was forced to capitulate. 
 
112 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 143. The Albany Convention. — While Washington was thus 
 engaged in the effort to uphold English supremacy, there 
 met at Albany a body of delegates from all the colonies 
 north of Virgmia. This was the famous Albany convention, 
 called at the suggestion of the Lords of Trade in London, 
 for the purpose of treaty with the Iroquois. While it was 
 in session Benjamin Franklin proposed, and the convention 
 adopted, his ''plan for colonial union" — an action which 
 marked a great forward step in the march toward a republic. 
 This plan provided for a president-general, and a council 
 of delegates from each colony, who should have control over 
 Lidian affairs, and have power to raise and equip armies and 
 raise taxes to pay for the same. This plan was submitted 
 to the colonies and to the king, but was rejected by each 
 for the same reason — it gave too much power to the other 
 party. It was at this time that Franklin's account of the 
 battle of Fort Necessity appeared in his newspaper, pub- 
 lished in Philadelphia, headed by the illustration of a broken 
 snake, under which was the legend, "Join or die." 
 
 144. Proposed Outline of Attack. — The topography of the 
 country and the situation of the French military posts clearly 
 indicated three points of attack, — Fort Duquesne and north 
 to the lakes; Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain, thence 
 to Quebec; Acadia and Louisburg on the northern coast. 
 These points were persistently attacked until each in turn 
 yielded. 
 
 145. Defeat of Braddock. — After Washington's misfortune 
 at Fort Necessity, preparations were immediately begun for 
 another expedition to the Ohio valley. The king sent over 
 a body of regulars under General Braddock, and early in 
 1755 he marched on Fort Duquesne with an army of two 
 thousand two hundred men. Braddock was brave but con- 
 ceited, and densely ignorant of frontier warfare. He declined 
 the advice of Washington, or any of the colonial officers, and 
 marched leisurely through the forest as if on a holiday excur- 
 sion. French spies reported this, and though greatly infe- 
 
THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 
 
 113 
 
 rior in numbers, the French commander resolved to take 
 advantage of Braddock's confidence and lead him into an 
 ambuscade. Braddock turned a deaf ear to Washington's 
 
 
 FORT FRONTENAC^. 
 
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 s^^* <?,^ fort; 
 
 •^j NECESSITY 
 f 
 
 f^ 
 
 persistent warnings. He fell into the ambush laid for him 
 and his whole army was cut to pieces before it could be 
 extricated. Braddock was carried from the field mortally 
 wounded, and died a few days later. 
 
114 HISTORY OFTHE UNITED STATES 
 
 146. The Acadians. — Many an act is looked upon as just 
 in war which would be indefensible in peace. The removal 
 of the Acadians from their homes in 1756 was such an act. 
 Acadia comprised territory now covered chiefly by Nova 
 Scotia. It changed hands according to the fortunes of war 
 several times, but the French peasantry who inhabited it 
 remained loyal to their sovereign. They had been under 
 English rule since the fall of Port Royal in 1710, but had 
 been allowed as great a degree of liberty, probably, as would 
 have been accorded them by the French king. It is charged 
 they abused this liberty by aiding the French during King 
 George's War and in the present one. It was therefore 
 proposed as a war measure to remove them from the region 
 entirely. This was accomplished by an English force, who 
 not only destroyed their homes, but drove them on board 
 ship and distributed them among the English settlements — 
 in many instances whole families being cruelly separated, 
 beyond the hope or possibility of ever being reunited. The 
 poet Longfellow has made this war incident the basis of his 
 beautiful poem, "Evangeline." 
 
 147. Louisburg. — This stronghold again became the bone 
 of contention in the north. An expedition was organized 
 against it in 1757, but after reaching the fort the attempt 
 was abandoned, General Loudon refusing to attack. 1'he 
 next year, with a force of ten thousand men and forty-one 
 ships, the English succeeded in capturing the fortress. This 
 time it was dismantled and Halifax was made the English 
 point of rendezvous on the northern coast. 
 
 148. Pitt and English Success. — On the part of the English 
 the first three years of the war were marked with incompe- 
 tency, both in the War Department at home and in the 
 active operations on the field by the generals in charge. 
 But a change in government brought William Pitt to the 
 ministry. He immediately caused a change of policy, not 
 only in the character of the men sent out, but in the treat- 
 ment of the officers and men of the colonial forces. Here- 
 
THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 115 
 
 tofore but scant recognition liad been given to provincial 
 officers, no matter of how great merit. The colonial officers 
 were now taken into consultation, and the men treated as 
 regulars of the army. 
 
 149. Contest for Supremacy in the Lake Country. — At the 
 beginning of the war the French were masters of the Great 
 Lakes and of Lake Champlain. At the head of Champlain 
 were the strong forts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. In 
 1755 the English marched against Crown Point. The 
 French commander left the fort and advanced south to Lake 
 George. In the engagement the English were the victors, 
 but failed to follow up their advantage. They retired and 
 built Fort William Henry at the head of Lake George. In 
 1757 the French general, Montcalm, captured this fort, the 
 surrender being followed by an Indian massacre of unspeak- 
 able cruelty. 
 
 In 1758 the English and colonial army under Abercrombie 
 made a determined effort to wrest this region from the 
 French, but Abercrombie proved incompetent and his attack 
 on Ticonderoga was repulsed with great loss. The colonial 
 general, Bradstreet, soon after captured Fort Frontenac on 
 Lake Ontario and with it supplies intended for Fort 
 Duquesne, the loss of which had much to do with the aban- 
 donment of that post on the approach of an English force 
 under General Forbes and Washington, who, on taking 
 possession, changed its name to Fort Pitt — the Pittsburgh 
 of to-day. The following year the whole lake country was 
 secured to the English by the surrender of Niagara after an 
 extended siege, and the abandonment by the French of 
 Ticonderoga on the approach of a formidable English force. 
 
 150. The Taking of auebec—Wolfe— Montcalm.— The year 
 1759 was one made memorable in English colonial history by 
 the almost complete overthrow of the French. The north- 
 west was freed by the gallant work of Shirley at Fort Niag- 
 ara, and Lakes George and Champlain saw the last of the 
 Frenchman as he retired before the advancing hosts of 
 
116 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Amherst. Both generals and their armies were to have 
 joined "Wolfe at the crowning event of the year — the taking 
 of Quebec — but they were too slow, and did not arrive in 
 time. 
 
 Quebec was a fortress of great strength, situated on a high 
 bluff commanding the river. It was defended by sixteen 
 thousand men under General Montcalm, one of the most 
 competent of French generals, and of large fighting expe- 
 
 rience. In June, General Wolfe sailed up the St. Lawrence 
 with four thousand men. lie found the river obstructed as 
 he neared Quebec and that city thoroughly prepared for 
 attack. Wolfe was but thirty-three years of age and not in 
 robust health, but he had shown fine qualities of generalship 
 at the taking of Louisburg, and Pitt had confidence in his 
 success. One by one the obstructions were cleared, and by 
 the middle of the summer the lower part of the city and 
 everything but the fort was at the mercy of the English. 
 The fort seemed impregnable and Wolfe was in despair, for 
 Montcalm could not be induced to give battle outside. 
 
 The Plains of Abraham lay back of the fort on the heights. 
 Could Wolfe but reach there the French would have to give 
 battle. But for miles the banks of the ri^er rose in precip- 
 
THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 117 
 
 itous bluffs, the summits of which were bristling with cannon. 
 Finally a path was discovered leading to the heights, and 
 Wolfe resolved on taking the desperate chance of scaling the 
 bluffs. Sailing up the river at dark, to mislead the enemy, 
 he embarked his army in small boats and dropping quietly 
 back with the ebb tide, began the ascent. It proved 
 arduous in the extreme, but the dawn found enough of his 
 men on the heights to hold the position, and, with the 
 rapidly arriving reinforcements, Wolfe soon found himself in 
 command of three thousand five hundred picked men, eager 
 for battle. Montcalm was not slow to see his peril. His 
 army outnumbered that of W^olfe, but many were raw recruits. 
 A bayonet charge was ordered. It was made with spirit, 
 but the English met it with a murderous fire at close range, 
 and then as the enemy wavered, they in turn used the bay- 
 onet. Soon the French were in headlong retreat, and the 
 day was won. Both generals were mortally wounded in the 
 fight. Rousing from his lethargy, Wolfe was told of the 
 retreat of the French. "God be praised, I die happy," cried 
 the young general as he expired. Montcalm expressed relief 
 that he should not live to see the fall of Quebec, which the 
 English took five days later. 
 
 151. The Passing of the French from America. — Quebec was 
 the focus upon which all French hopes of success centered 
 in the New World. It is true that a vast amount of terri- 
 tory yet remained, and a determined effort was made to hold 
 Montreal the next year, when it was besieged by the English 
 under General Amherst ; but, deserted by his Indian allies, 
 and being all but abandoned by the home government, the 
 French commander capitulated. Thus the whole region 
 came under English control, and French dominion in 
 America was ended. During the latter part of the war, 
 Spain had become involved and England had seized Havana 
 and the Philippines. 
 
 In the treaty of peace signed at Paris, (1763) France lost 
 power in America. At the end of the war, the vast colonial 
 
118 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 empire of New France — the richest possession in the New 
 World — had dwindled to two small islands off the coast of 
 Newfoundland — which the parent country was permitted to 
 retain as fishing stations. 
 
 France surrendered Canada to England, and with the 
 Mississippi river as a dividing line, yielded to her hated 
 
 wm 
 
 
 jm' '" i"]9S ■"' 'PS 
 
 'fMf^. 
 
 AMERICA AT THE CLOSE OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 
 
 rival all the territory east of that line — excepting the city of 
 New Orleans and its adjacent territory. 
 
 For assisting France in this war, Spain received New 
 Orleans and all the territory west of the Mississippi. 
 
 Spain, rather than lose Havana to the English, gave Eng- 
 land Florida instead. 
 
 At the time of the signing of the treaty the news of the 
 capture of the Philippines had not been received in Europe. 
 On learning of the caj)ture, England returned those islands 
 to Spain without consideration. 
 
 152. England and the Result. — Thus east of the Mississippi 
 England was supreme. Tlio war of defence had ended in a 
 war of conquest. She had wrested a vast territory from 
 both Spain and France — indeed, had driven the latter from 
 
THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 119 
 
 the New World. England had not been altogether blameless 
 in this war, and through the folly of George III. and his 
 new ministry (Pitt had resigned) was soon to receive her 
 punishment, and from a source whence she least expected it 
 — her own American colonies. It has been said that the 
 complete triumph of England over France in the New World, 
 made the American Revolution not only possible, but inevita- 
 blCo Yergennes, the great French statesman, saw this at 
 tlie time of the signing of the treaty in 17G3, when he sagely 
 remarked, *'In winning Canada England has removed the 
 only check which has served to keep her American colonies 
 in awe." 
 
 153. The Colonies and the Result. — The change of hands 
 of a vast domain was the tangible result of the war, but 
 more important were the lessons learned, and the experience 
 gained by the colonists. The French war acted as a training 
 school for the American officers, Washington and many 
 others having gained valuable experience and measured brain 
 and brawn with soldiers of lifelong experience. It also fur- 
 nished an opportunity for the better acquaintance of the 
 colonists. Boston was farther from New York then than is 
 San Francisco now in point of time. There was little travel 
 in those days, and the traditions of a century clung to each 
 colony. This *' drinking from the same canteen" proved a 
 powerful force in drawing the members of different colonies 
 closer together. 
 
 154. The Indian and the War. — In the war the Iroquois 
 had assisted the English, while the Algonkin tribes, the 
 Huron s of Canada, and the Indians between the Great Lakes 
 and the Ohio, had assisted the French, During the war, 
 and for many years after, these allies of the French kept the 
 English frontier settlements in a state of terror. Immedi- 
 ately after the close of the war, Pontiac, a powerful Indian 
 chief, prevailed upon a large number of tribes to enter into 
 a conspiracy, the avowed purpose of which was the wholesale 
 massacre of the outlying English posts and settlements. 
 
120 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Though Detroit, in 1762, withstood a siege of five months, 
 still, out of the twelve posts attacked, eight were taken and 
 many English in the Ohio valley murdered. The savages 
 were moving eastward into Pennsylvania, when they were 
 met (1763) at Bushy Run, near Pittsburgh, by an English 
 force from Philadelphia, which routed them after one of the 
 most bloody battles ever fought with the Indians. In 1766 
 a treaty of peace was negotiated with Pontiac at Oswego, 
 New York. Three years later this powerful Ottawa chief, 
 who hated the English and loved the French, was assassin- 
 ated by an Indian bribed to commit the deed. 
 
 155. George III. and the War. — The Seven Years' War in 
 America had been brought to a successful close during the 
 reign of George II., under the powerful Pitt ministry. 
 Upon the king's death, George IIIo came into power (1760) 
 and in the following year Pitt, who was out of harmony with 
 the new order of things, resigned. It was unfortunate for the 
 colonies and for England that a ruler of his narrow and 
 obstinate type should have come into power just as the new 
 expansion policy of the island kingdom had made it one of 
 the greatest empires in the world. To formulate a fair and 
 .just colonial government for these new possessions and retain 
 the respect of the old colonies, was a problem far beyond 
 his mean abilities. He attempted to interfere with freedom 
 of speech, and curtailed the liberty of the press. By his 
 stupidity and shortsighted policy of administration in the 
 colonies he brought down upon his head the just censure of 
 many of the wisest of England's statesmen. The arbitrary 
 financial policy which he adopted toward the American col- 
 onies made him one of the most despised rulers the colonies 
 had ever known. His name was coupled in the colonial 
 mind with the beheaded Charles L, and the banished James 
 II. With Grenville, and later with Lord North as his chief 
 advisers, the king and his ministry soon fulfilled the predic- 
 tion of the French statesman and precipitated the American 
 Revolution. He was king of England for sixty years, dying 
 
THE BATTLE FOR SUPREMACY 121 
 
 in 1820. His one redeeming characteristic lies in the fact 
 that he was a devoted Christian and was pure and happy in 
 his domestic life. 
 
 156. Expansion Calls for New Government and Additional 
 Expenses. — The boundaries of the thirteen colonies were in 
 the main, except as to their western limit, fairly well defined; 
 but England now came into possession of a territory which 
 to retain she must prepare to defend against possible attacks 
 from both France and Spain. This called for immediate 
 action. Accordingly, in 1763 a proclamation was issued by 
 the king, by which a small portion of the territory of Florida 
 was annexed to Georgia, and the remainder divided into the 
 two provinces of East and West Florida. As a third prov- 
 ince, the king established the boundaries of Quebec, situated 
 on both sides of the St. Lawrence River and extending south- 
 ward as far as New York. These three provinces established, 
 the proclamation then proceeded to give an exhibition of 
 King George's shortsighted policy. This was in the fixing 
 of "the proclamation line" on the crest of the Alleghany 
 mountains. Starting in East Florida, it extended north- 
 ward to Lake Champlain, following the headwaters of all the 
 intervening streams, whose waters emptied into the Atlantic 
 Ocean. All the territory extending west of this line to the 
 Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to the Floridas, was 
 set apart as Indian country, within the boundaries of which 
 the colonists were forbidden to settle. The establishment 
 of this proclamation line justly incensed the colonists. The 
 attempt to shut them out of the very territory for which 
 they had fought, and portions of which many of the colonies 
 claimed by charter, provoked ill feeling at once. But the 
 King George ministry did not stop at this. To garrison the 
 many forts needed to defend this territory required ten 
 thousand soldiers, and it was necessary to raise funds to sup- 
 port them. This it was proposed to do both from English- 
 men at home and Englishmen in the colonies. The latter 
 were now to suffer a revival of the hated navigation laws, 
 
122 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 which had always been held in such contempt, — particularly 
 in New England, where smuggling had been carried on for 
 years. It was now proposed to punish, without grant of 
 trial by jury, anyone suspected of violation of the navigation 
 laws. This abolishing the right of trial by jury again in- 
 censed the colonists. 
 
 New England had built up a large trade with the West 
 Indies in sugar and molasses. A tax was therefore levied on 
 those commodities. This did not provide enough money, 
 so a stamp tax was proposed. Thus the King George ministry 
 began that unwise policy which precipitated the Revolution. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE COLONIES 
 
 157. Development of the Colonies. — At the close of the 
 French and Indian War, the thirteen English colonies had 
 assumed such importance, as to now rank as the richest of 
 England's possessions. They had increased rapidly in pop- 
 ulation, and had already exhibited some distinctive features 
 of their later national life; as is shown in a study of their 
 social life, their occupations, their education, their literature, 
 their attitude on the question of slavery, their political life, 
 and their disposition at all times to assert their rights as 
 free men. 
 
 POPULATION" 
 
 158. Population in the Colonies. — In the early history of 
 the colonies there was a superstition against numbering the 
 people, many thinking that diseases in the form of epidemics 
 would follow the taking of a census. However, the colonial 
 governors from time to time made estimates to the home 
 government, which are believed to be nearly correct. Three 
 of these estimates follow: First, that of 1701, at the begin- 
 ning of QueenAnne's reign; another in 1755, at the beginning 
 of the French and Indian AVar; and the third in 1775, at the 
 beginning of the Eevolutionary War, covering in all a period 
 of three-quarters of a century. 
 
 123 
 
124 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 CEITSUS ESTIMATES 
 
 THE THIRTEEN 
 COLONIES 
 
 Date of 
 Settle- 
 ment 
 
 1701 
 
 1755 
 
 1775 
 
 New England Colonies: 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 1623 
 1620 
 1635 
 1636 
 
 10,000 
 70,000 
 30,000 
 10,000 
 
 34.000 
 200,000 
 130,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 81,000 
 335,000 
 201 000 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 61,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total, including 14,000 Africai 
 
 1 slaves . . . 
 
 
 678,000 
 
 
 
 
 Middle Colonies: 
 
 New York 
 
 1613 
 1665 
 
 1682 ) 
 1638 \ 
 
 30,000 
 15,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 95,000 
 83,000 
 
 182,000 
 
 188,000 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 124,000 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaw^are 
 
 302,000 
 
 
 
 Total, including 32,000 African slaves 614,000 
 
 Southern Colonies: 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina. . 
 South Carolina . . 
 Georgia 
 
 1634 
 
 25,000 
 
 156,000 
 
 1607 
 
 40,000 
 
 280,000 
 
 1653 
 
 5,000 
 
 104,000 
 
 1670 
 
 7,000 
 
 82,000 
 
 1733 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 241,000 
 525,000 
 275,000 
 187,000 
 40,000 
 
 Total, including 455,000 African slaves 
 
 1,268,000 
 
 Total 
 
 262,000 
 50,000 
 
 1,392,000 
 260,000 
 
 2,560,000 
 
 This includes African slaves. 
 
 501,000 
 
 In this table, the population of Pennsylvania and Dela- 
 ware is counted together as Delaware did not have a separate 
 organization until after the Revolution. 
 
 159. Distribution of Population. — The above table shows 
 that one-half of the whole population of the thirteen English 
 colonies was in the southern colonies, while the New Eng- 
 land and middle colonies combined contained the other 
 half. During the period from 1700 to 1775 the population 
 had increased in 
 
 New Hampshire eightfold 
 
 Massachusetts fivefold 
 
 Connecticut sevenfold 
 
THE COLONIES 125 
 
 Rhode Island sixfold 
 
 New York sixfold 
 
 New Jersey eightfold 
 
 Pennsylvania and Delaware fif teenfold 
 
 Maryland tenfold 
 
 Virginia thirteenfold 
 
 North Carolina fifty-fivefold 
 
 South Carolina seventeenf old 
 
 while Georgia, the last of the colonies to be settled, had 
 increased her population from 1755 to 1775, sevenfold. 
 Thus it will be seen that all the colonies were growing at a 
 rapid rate. Their total population at the time of the Eevo- 
 lution equaled one-fifth that of the mother country. Vir- 
 ginia stood at the head of the census, with Massachusetts 
 §econd. 
 
 The settlements in the colonies were usually located on 
 some bay or arm of the sea, along the courses of navigable 
 streams, or in the rich valleys of the hill country. Often 
 they were scattered far apart, with but poor means of com- 
 munication. 
 
 160. The Cities.— According to the census of 1900, fully 
 one-third of the entire population of the United States is liv- 
 ing in cities, as opposed to one-thirtieth in 1790. A much 
 smaller proportion lived in cities at the time of the making 
 of the above census estimates. The population of the five 
 principal cities in 1790 was: 
 
 New York 33,131 
 
 Philadelphia 28,532 
 
 Boston 18,038 
 
 Charleston 16,359 
 
 Baltimore 13,503 
 
 At that time there were but thirteen cities in the colonies 
 with more than five thousand inhabitants. This tells the 
 story that the English colonists were largely engaged in 
 agricultural pursuits. The name "colonial farmers," given 
 to the soldiers of the patriot army of the Revolution, was not 
 
126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 misapplied. In the north the town constituted the unit of 
 political organization; in the south, the county. Towns were 
 the more numerous in the north. And yet, scattered 
 throughout the colonies were many thriving villages and 
 towns, which constituted the business and social centers in 
 numerous settlements from New Hampshire to Georgia. In 
 estimating the population of colonial cities it was the custom 
 to count the number of houses and arrive at the total popu- 
 lation by multiplying that number by seven. 
 
 New York had become the trade center — her merchants 
 supplying about one-sixth of the entire population of the 
 colonies with goods imported from foreign countries. Wil- 
 liamsburg, Va., was one of the most stylish places on the 
 continent; Charleston, S. C, the gayest, and Annapolis, 
 Md., excelled all others in elegance. Philadelphia, the 
 largest city in the colonies, was noted for its regular streets 
 and splendid sidewalks, and for its brick and stone residences. 
 This city was the first to light its streets. New York soon 
 followed. Boston did not light her streets until 1773. Each 
 of these cities found it necessary to establish a night police 
 force in order to preserve order within its limits. 
 
 161. People not All English. — While these colonies are 
 known as the English colonies, still it must not be concluded 
 that the entire population was an English population. 
 
 The Welsh had come with the English, and had formed 
 many thriving settlements in New England, and also in the 
 middle colonies. Eoger Williams, the founder of Ehode 
 Island, was a Welshman, and William Penn made a grant of 
 forty thousand acres, known as the Welsh Barony, to a 
 colony from Wales. 
 
 The Dutch had early occupied New Y^ork, and had soon 
 established a line of settlements northward along the course 
 of the Hudson, thence up the Mohawk Valley, and south- 
 ward across New Jersey to the mouth of the Delaware, where 
 as early as 1G55 they had conquered the Swedish settlements 
 in that region. The Dutch had also extended their trading- 
 
THE COLONIES 127 
 
 posts to the Connecticut Valley, and up Long Island 
 Sound as far as Narragansett Bay. When the English 
 appeared in JS'ew York harbor in 16G4, the Dutch yielded to 
 English rule without a struggle. Absorbed in trade and 
 indifferent to politics, they soon transferred their allegiance 
 to the English king, and became loyal citizens of the colonies 
 in which they continued to reside. At the time of the 
 Revolution it is estimated that at least one-half the popula- 
 tion of the state of New York was of Dutch descent. New 
 Jersey, likewise, had a large Dutch population. To-day many 
 families of New York are proud to trace their ancestry to 
 these early Dutch settlers. Since the day of the publication 
 of Washington Irving's "Knickerbocker's History of New 
 York," these Dutch descendants in New York have been 
 known as Knickerbockers. 
 
 These Hollanders were an industrious people, active in 
 the development of trade and commerce, and devoted to 
 agriculture. Many historians have been bold to trace the 
 ideas of our free school system, freedom of worship in mat- 
 ters of religion, the recording of land deeds by the state, 
 and the use of the ballot in popular elections, to the influ- 
 ence and example of these early Dutch settlers. 
 
 The Swedes, — always a liberty-loving and enterprising 
 people, — on the advice of their king, the great Gustavns 
 Adolphus, had settled New Sweden (Delaware) in 1638. 
 They rapidly increased in population until conquered by the 
 Dutch (1655), who in turn yielded to the English (1664). 
 These early Swedish settlers belonged to the farming and mer- 
 chant class, and, like the Dutch, had come to America for 
 purposes of trade. They thrived under Swedish rule, and 
 so continued under Dutch rule, and later under the fostering 
 care of AVilliam Penn. The Swedish language was spoken 
 in the settlements of the Delaware Valley, even after the 
 Revolution. 
 
 The Germans, too, flocked to America. While the 
 Dutch and Swedes came for purposes of trade, the Germans 
 
128 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 BRIE l 
 
 WILLIAMS! PENN. 
 
 VT.SSY l\ 
 T W 
 
 A N 
 
 O O II D 
 
 came on account of the religious and commercial wars which 
 were devastating the small states of Germany and ruining 
 the German people. William Penn, anxious to secure this 
 desirable class of colonists for Pennsylvania, made three 
 visits to the German states for the purpose of encouraging 
 the dissatisfied Germans to settle in his colony. As an 
 immigration agent, Penn was very successful. It was esti- 
 mated by Franklin in 1766 that the Germans constituted 
 
 one-third of the entire 
 population of Pennsylva- 
 nia. Germantown, a sub- 
 urb of Philadelphia, was 
 planted by the Germans. 
 It is said that as many 
 as twelve thousand Ger- 
 mans arrived in a single 
 year. These people set- 
 tled west and northwest 
 of Philadelphia. Their 
 descendants are still 
 known as the "Pennsyl- 
 vania Dutch." The 
 Germans also settled in 
 large numbers in the 
 vicinity of Newburg, 
 N. Y. ; in Maryland; 
 in Virginia; in the Carolinas; and in Georgia. Like the 
 Dutch, they were sober and industrious and indifferent to 
 politics. They were true home builders and firm lovers of 
 liberty. They were German Protestants, and in America 
 desired nothing so much as to be left alone. They had an 
 important influence on the development of manufactures 
 in the colonies. 
 
 The French. — The persecutions of the Huguenots 
 (French Protestants) by the Catholics in France drove many 
 of the Huguenots to seek homes in the English colonies. Many 
 
 
 _J 
 
 DUTCH PAMPHLET OF WILLIAM PENN 
 
THE COLOKIES 
 
 129 
 
 of them settled in Virginia, in the Carolinas, in Massachu- 
 setts, and in New York. The Haguenots were farmers, mer- 
 chants, and artisans. The artisan class of Huguenots greatly 
 encouraged the development of manufactures in Boston, New 
 York, Philadelphia, Charleston, and other cities. Paul 
 Eevere, of Revolutionary fame, and John Jay, first chief- 
 justice of the United States, were descendants of these early 
 Huguenot refugees, as was also Peter Faneuil, who gave 
 to Boston, Faneuil Hall, — the "cradle of liberty." 
 
 The Scotch-Irish, the name given in America to the 
 immigrants from North 
 Ireland, came in large num- 
 bers to America in the early 
 part of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, settling in New Hamp- 
 shire, and in other localities 
 in New England and in 
 New Jersey. However, the 
 chief Scotch - Irish settle- 
 ments were made in western 
 and southwestern Pennsyl- 
 vania, from which locality 
 they pushed southward into 
 the valley of the Shenan- 
 doah in Virginia, and into 
 
 the hill country of the Carolinas. The Scotch-Irish were 
 in the main Presbyterians, and were an intensely independent 
 and liberty-loving people. 
 
 The American Nation. — The English, of course, made 
 up the vast majority of the population in the thirteen original 
 colonies, and were gradually changing these foreign com- 
 munities into English-speaking peoples. When George III. 
 came into power (1760) a new nation was already forming 
 out of these various race elements which within the next 
 quarter of a century was to take its place among the nations 
 of the world — to be known henceforth as the American nation. 
 
 FANEUIL HALiIi 
 
130 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 162. Class Distinction. — There was an aristocratic feeling 
 of a certain kind in nearly all the colonies, but this feeling 
 was strongest in the southern colonies. In New York the 
 old Dutch families and the rich English traders made up the 
 aristocratic class; in Pennsylvania the Quakers held aloof 
 from the Germans and the Scotch-Irish; the Puritan cus- 
 toms of New England made all classes nearly on a level, 
 although even the so-called "upper class" was found there. 
 The most distinct difference, however, was recognized in the 
 south between the rich planters and the poorer class of small 
 landholders. 
 
 This distinction of class was recognized in the churches, 
 where the congregation was seated according to rank, and 
 also in the colleges, where students were 
 enrolled according to the rank of the 
 parents. Washington belonged to the aris- 
 tocratic class. He had his coat of arms 
 engraved on his coach and harness — a cus- 
 tom which prevailed among the "gentlemen" 
 of Virginia and in other of the southern 
 wASHiNGTox-s COAT colomcs, aud was not unknown in Boston, 
 
 OF ARMS ' ' 
 
 New York, and Philadelphia. 
 This class distinction has decreased with the years. It was 
 stronger in colonial times than it is at the present day. 
 Then the terms Mr., Mrs., and Miss were applied to min- 
 isters, their wives and daughters, and to persons of rank. 
 The "common people" were addressed as "goodman" and 
 "goodwife." Whatever of social prejudice existed had been 
 brought over from the old world. Each community from 
 the beginning boasted of its "leading families"; this was 
 particularly true in the south. 
 
 163. Dress. — Class distinction was recognized even in the 
 dress of the colonists. This custom, too, had been brought 
 over from Europe, and prevailed throughout the colonies. 
 
THE COLONIES 
 
 131 
 
 As the period of the Revolution approached, Puritan customs 
 had given way somewhat to the manners and customs of the 
 Cavalier. The colonial gentleman of the period had his 
 morning and his evening costume, and when he walked on 
 the streets with his gold-headed cane, he enveloped himself 
 in a handsome cloak, which glittered with gold lace. The 
 silver snuffbox was always a sure sign of his social position — 
 snuff being generally used by the aristocratic class in those 
 days. Homespun goods made the ordinary clothing of the 
 middle and poorer 
 classes. Maidservants 
 wore short gowns of 
 coarse material, and 
 received but a miser- 
 able pittance for their 
 yearly wages. The 
 working class, the day- 
 laborers, farmers, and 
 mechanics, were also 
 attired in clothing of 
 the coarsest material, 
 with leather breeches 
 and heavy cowhide 
 boots or shoes — all 
 home-made. Calfskin 
 shoes were used by 
 This was the period when brass buckles 
 and buttons were used to excess. On Sunday even the 
 coarsest shoes were adorned with brass buckles, and the 
 clothing of the aristocracy as well as the homespun attire 
 of the other classes, was profusely decorated with brass or 
 silver buttons. 
 
 This was also the day of wigs and outlandish headgear, as 
 is shown in so many of the pictures of the time. The 
 Puritan was no more a "roundhead*' — a term by which he 
 had been known in the days of Cromw^ell. The New Eng- 
 
 COSTUME OF CAVALIER 
 
 the higher classes. 
 
 COSTUME OF PURITAN 
 
132 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 land Puritan, like the Cavalier of Virginia, now wore the 
 most elaborate head dress. Indeed, it is said that in 1750 
 nearly everybody wore wigs — men, women, and children of 
 all classes — except slaves and convicts; even paupers wore 
 them. 
 
 164. Home Comforts: Food. — The wealthier class, both 
 in the cities and in the conntry, lived in fine old colonial 
 mansions, while the log cabins of tlie early colonial days still 
 dotted the hills and valleys of the farming districts at the 
 
 NKW ENGLAND KITCHEN 
 
 time of the Revolution. In the sonth the slaves lived 
 apart from their masters, often in the meanest of huts or 
 shanties. 
 
 The kitchen with its wide fireplace was an important room 
 in the dwellings of all classes. The term *'New England 
 kitchen" even to-day calls np pictures of plenty of room, 
 abundance of provisions, and delightful home comforts. 
 
 The furniture in the homes was ordinarily of the simplest 
 sort. However, the homes of the wealthier class in the 
 
THE COLONIES 
 
 133 
 
 south, and indeed in all sections, were filled with the best of 
 furniture — some of it imported from Europe, though much 
 of it home-made and of the style now known as "colonial." 
 
 Stoves were first introduced about 1700, and by the time 
 of the Revolution had been greatly improved. Franklin 
 invented a stove knoAvn as the Franklin stove, which was 
 extensively used, though no dwelling was felt to be complete 
 without its full number of fireplaces. 
 
 Though pewter was in common use and the rich had sil- 
 verware, much of the tableware was still made of wood. About 
 the year 1700 forks came into 
 general use. Glass windows 
 and paper-hangings were first 
 used in dwellings about 1750. 
 Potatoes came into general 
 use as food about 1720. By 
 the time of the Revolution tea 
 and coffee had become popu- 
 lar, tea being used by nearly 
 all classes. Bread made from 
 
 corn, wheat or rye, constituted the "staff of life." 
 land abounding in wild game, much flesh was eaten. 
 
 165. Habits: Laws and Penalties. — Tobacco and liquor 
 were used freely. Even some of the women used snuff, and 
 not a few smoked. Drunkenness was common. 
 
 The people as a whole frowned upon all vicious and evil 
 habits. Church attendance and private conduct were regu- 
 lated by law. The "Blue Laws" of Connecticut were, in this 
 particular, severe in the extreme. 
 
 The whipping post, the pillory, and the stocks awaited 
 their victims at all times. Drunkenness, swearing. Sabbath 
 breaking, pilfering, lying, stubborn disobedience of children, 
 scolding, law-breaking, running in debt, and even dressing 
 beyond one's station in life, were severely punished. 
 
 Penalties were frequently out of proportion to offenses 
 committed. Punishments were, at times, extremely cruel, 
 
 WASHINGTON'S BED 
 
 The 
 
134 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 even barbarous — a slave being burned for the murder of his 
 master, and a wife for the murder of her husband. Cutting 
 off an ear and branding on the forehead were penalties fre- 
 quently inflicted. 
 
 Out of this stern and rugged life came a sturdy and a 
 happy people, who were firm believers in right living and 
 right doing. And yet, while the conduct of the people was 
 regulated with reference to the teachings of the Bible, and 
 while the standard of morals was high, many customs 
 were practiced in the colonial period which Avould not now be 
 tolerated. Lotteries, which are to-day placed under the ban 
 
 of law in every state 
 in the Union, were 
 in that day recog- 
 nized in all sections 
 as a legitimate 
 means of raising 
 money for public 
 purposes — "to 
 build churclies, to 
 aid the deserving 
 poor, to erect light- 
 piLLdiiY AND sT(x'Ks h o u s c s, collegcs, 
 
 buildings, and 
 bridges." Faneuil Hall, Boston, when destroyed by fire, 
 was rebuilt by lottery. During the trying days of the Rev- 
 olution, when money was scarce, it was proposed to raise 
 money for the "next campaign" by lottery. 
 
 166. Religion. — The colonists were a profoundly religious 
 people. The clergy in nearly all sections were of a superior 
 class. Those of New England and of the Carolinas excelled 
 all others in breadth of learning and scholarship. The Puri- 
 tans of New England as w^ell as the Germans, the Dutch, the 
 Quakers, and the Scotch-Irish of the other colonies hated the 
 Established Church of England. In New York, in Virginia, in 
 Maryland, and in the colonies farther south, this church had 
 
THE COLOXIES 135 
 
 been established. It was not popular with the masses in New 
 York because the clergy were bitter in their opposition to all 
 other forms of church service. Their attitude provoked 
 dissensions in Virginia and Maryland as well. The attempt 
 of the Established clergy to fasten the Established Church 
 upon the colonies and to uphold the authority of the bishops 
 was indignantly resented. ''No Bishops" and "No Estab- 
 lished Church" became cries which were heard down to the 
 time of the Eevolution and had not a little to do with unit- 
 ing the colonies against England at that time. 
 
 In some sections the clergy of the Established Church were 
 not even godly men, "concerning themselves more for tithes 
 than for souls." Their reckless and careless habits caused 
 "as bad as a Maryland parson" to become a proverb in the 
 colonies. 
 
 The majority of the colonists were Protestants. At the 
 time of the Eevolution it is said that every Protestant sect 
 then known was represented in America. There were Con- 
 gregationalists, Presbyterians, Dutch Eeformed, Baptists, 
 Episcopalians, Quakers, Lutherans, and Methodists. The 
 Catholics were strongest in Maryland. The religious dis- 
 putes of that day were very heated ; at times bitter. 
 
 167. Amusements. — There were few forms of amusement 
 in the colonies. Husking bees and quilting bees were 
 common in all sections and dancing in some, though the lat- 
 ter was generally prohibited in New England and among the 
 Quakers. The theater was not tolerated, yet traveling 
 museums interested all the people. The church, or "meet- 
 ing house," was the common meeting place of all classes and 
 afforded an opportunity for exchanging gossip and bits of 
 conversation. Thus the church service in many localities 
 was apt to be an all-day service, with a good portion of the 
 time taken up in visiting. The "town meetings" in the 
 New England colonies also furnished an opportunity for 
 relaxation and entertainment. Even funerals, it is said, 
 furnished a kind of "melancholy entertainment." Perhaps 
 
136 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 at no period in the history of America were funerals so 
 unnecessarily expensive as in that early colonial day — all 
 because they afforded the people a chance for pomp and 
 show, and at the same time furnished an occasion for assem- 
 bling together. Public executions and hangings were also 
 thus taken advantage of by the people. In Xew York and 
 in the south, bands of concert singers or strolling actors 
 made frequent appearance. 
 
 The rich planters in the south delighted in tlie pursuit of 
 the chase — each keeping a pack of well-trained hounds. 
 Horse-racing was common in the south. In the rural dis- 
 tricts of all sections, games and amusements calling for "trial 
 of strength" were indulged in. Thus wrestling, running, 
 jumping, and ''throwing the stone" furnished amusement 
 
 for large gatherings 
 of people. The games 
 of "fox and geese," 
 and "nine men's mor- 
 ris" were also very 
 popular. The male 
 residents in many 
 a neighborhood 
 amused themselves by "shooting at the mark," a practice 
 which developed superior marksmanship among the early 
 pioneers. From this rural class came the sharpshooters of 
 the Kevolution. 
 
 168. Mode of Travel. — The usual mode of travel was on 
 foot or horseback, and by water; though in the southern 
 colonies the rich planters rode in a coach and six, accom- 
 panied by mounted servants. Chaises came in with the 
 Revolution. Travel by land was always a hardship, since 
 the roads were poor and ferries and fords not well located. 
 A stage route was early established between Providence and 
 Boston, which took two days for the trip. Later a similar 
 route was established between New York and Philadelphia, 
 requiring three days for the trip. In 1766 this time was 
 
 STAGE COACH 
 
THE COLONIES 
 
 137 
 
 ^i'- - 
 
 f^^^- 
 
 reduced to two days, whereupon the coach making the trip 
 was called a ''flying machine." 
 
 Travel by water was even more tedious than travel by land. 
 It took six days to go from New York to Albany on the 
 Hudson Eiver. 
 Boats sailed only 
 at intervals be- 
 tween Boston 
 and New York; 
 between New 
 York and Phil- 
 adelphia; and 
 between P h i 1 - 
 adelphiaand "-;:'.''' 
 
 ■*• INN 
 
 Charleston. 
 
 Such a thing as comfort in travel was not known in those 
 days. This kept the vast majority of people shut up in 
 their own settlements. When a traveler arrived, he was the 
 center of interest — he had brought news from the outside 
 world. The inns or taverns by the roadside proved, in 
 those days, poor stopping places for the tired traveler. 
 
 OCCUPATIONS AND MONEY 
 
 169. Occupations. — Agriculture formed the chief industry 
 of the people, but in all sections farmers and planters were 
 slow to introduce improved methods. Through long use the 
 farm land had become "worn out" in many sections. Frank- 
 lin recommended fertilizers, but the whole question of thus 
 enriching the soil was little understood. Rotation in crops 
 was not even thought of. Farm implements were crude and 
 far from perfect. The hoe for the cultivation of his grain, 
 and the flail for the thrashing of his wheat and rye, consti- 
 tuted the farmer's implements. 
 
 Sheep and cattle and swine were raised in abundance, 
 though there was a tendency on the part of England to 
 discourage the raising of sheep in the colonies, lest the 
 
138 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 colonists engage in the manufacture of woolen goods. Corn 
 and wheat were the staple products of the northern colonies. 
 Tobacco, rice, indigo, and corn were the chief products in 
 the south, though much wheat was raised in Maryland and 
 Virginia. The Germans in Pennsylvania were the best 
 farmers. Maryland made the best flour. 
 
 Manufacturing was discouraged by Great Britain. Ship- 
 building not being discouraged, New England became one of 
 the greatest ship-building countries in the world, supplying 
 nearly one-third of all the ships used by England. Not 
 
 able to pay the price asked for 
 imported English goods and 
 wares, the mass of the colonists 
 were forced to manufacture 
 tlieir own clothing, hats, paper, 
 farm implements, cutlery, and 
 household furniture. In almost 
 every home was a spinning 
 wheel, each household spinning 
 its yarn and weaving its fabrics 
 by hand. 
 
 Lumbering, and the manufac- 
 ture of barrel staves, and other 
 articles of commerce were car- 
 ried on in New England. The iron mines of Pennsylvania 
 and Maryland were opened and furnaces set up as early 
 as 1740. However, manufactures from iron were early 
 prohibited by parliament, though these two colonies were 
 permitted to ship pigiron to England. The whole policy of 
 the mother country was to keep the colonies dependent 
 upon Great Britain by prohibiting manufacturing. The 
 people on the coasts of New England were extensively engaged 
 in fishing. 
 
 The colonies traded among themselves, but England dis- 
 couraged even this; and in case of some commodities, 
 prohibited trade altogether. A flourishing commerce had 
 
 SPINNING WHEEL 
 
THE COLONIES 139 
 
 Sprung up between New England and the West Indies, New 
 England exchanging her timber, ships, and rum for the 
 sugar and molasses of the West Indies. 
 
 170. Money. — In the early history of tbe colonies, dried 
 codfish, wampum, firs, bullets, corn, lumber, and even 
 cattle, constituted money. A few of the colonies passed 
 laws making some of these articles a legal tender in 
 payment of debts and taxes. As early as 1650 the exports of 
 Massachusetts had brought much gold and silver Spanish coin 
 into the New England colonies. As a check on the circula- 
 tion of this Spanish coin, a mint was set up at Boston in 
 1652 to make a set of coins for home circulation. Laws 
 were passed which forced holders of Spanish coin to have 
 their money recoined into New 
 England coin at this mint. Tlie 
 Boston mint was discontinued in 
 1688. The money issued by it 
 became known as the "pine tree 
 
 currency" — due to the represen- T^^e tree smLLixa 
 
 tation of a pine tree on one side 
 
 of the coin. Of course English and Dutch money early 
 came into use in the colonies. 
 
 Massachusetts issued paper money in 1690, and all the 
 other colonies by 1750 had followed her example. Money 
 values were measured in English pounds, shillings, and 
 pence up to the time of the Revolution, when dollars and 
 cents came into general use. Banks were established in 
 some of the larger cities. However, the banks of colonial 
 days were merely banks of issue, or loan banks. They did 
 not receive deposits. 
 
 EDUCATION" 
 
 171. In New England. — As early as 1647 the general 
 .court of Massachusetts declared that every town or dis- 
 trict of fifty families should support a common school and 
 that every town of one hundred families or over, should 
 
140 HISTOKY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 support a grammar school of sufficient grade to prepare 
 young men for Harvard College, which had been founded in 
 1636. Thus was founded the American public school sys- 
 tem. The Massachusetts plan spread to every district in 
 New England, so that by the time of the Eevolution there 
 was hardly a native born person twenty-one years of age in 
 all New England who conld not read and write. It is esti- 
 mated at this time that the six hundred thousand people of 
 New England constituted the best educated body of people in 
 the world. They had their academies and colleges, and 
 many of their leaders were college bred men. 
 
 The "town meetings" had their part in the education of 
 the people of New England. They afforded a means of inter- 
 change of ideas on all 
 matters pertaining to 
 local and colonial affairs. 
 In these meetings every- 
 one had a right to speak 
 and to vote. The major- 
 ity ruled. Here the peo- 
 ple learned to debate 
 well and to become fear- 
 AN EARLY scHo^HousE Icss advocatcs of what 
 
 they believed to be right 
 in politics and religion. They were familiar with the colonial 
 charters, with the powers of the British government, and 
 were always ready with a written argument, protest, or peti- 
 tion, when colonial rights were being interfered with. 
 
 172. In the Middle Colonies, education was not neglected. 
 Some historians insist that the Dutch had founded a free 
 school system in New York even before the Puritans had 
 founded one in Massachusetts. A few New Englanders had 
 migrated to New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, 
 and even into some sections of the southern colonies, and 
 wherever they went they set up the free public school. The 
 first girls' school in the colonies was established at Lewiston, 
 
THE COLONIES 141 
 
 Delaware. When the Quakers settled Pennsylvania in 1682, 
 they established a public school system which gradually spread 
 throughout the Quaker settlements of that colony. The 
 Scotch-Irish, too, were believers in education and early 
 looked after the education of their children. The middle 
 colonies, like the New England colonies, had their colleges 
 and academies, which took high rank. 
 
 173. In the Southern Colonies, however, education was 
 most sadly neglected, though Virginia boasted of the second 
 oldest college in the United States — the William and Mary 
 College. Some of the royal governors of the south were 
 opposed to the education of the common people. Governor 
 Berkeley of Virginia protested against public schools and 
 printing presses in these oft-quoted words: "Thank God! 
 there are no free schools nor printing presses, and I hope 
 there will be none for a hundred years." This wish 
 was nearly fulfilled — the first newspaper in Virginia was 
 not set up until 1736, and even then was controlled by 
 the government. However, some localities in the south 
 believed in education. Maryland established free schools in 
 1696 and a free school was opened in Charleston in 1712. 
 Private schools, which are still so numerous in the south, 
 were established in many places. It must be remembered 
 that negro slaves made up one-third of the population of the 
 southern colonies and that the eight hundred thousand white 
 population of that section were scattered over a vast terri- 
 tory. The rich planters of the south, and all others who 
 could afford to do so, sent their sons to England to be 
 educated. Many students from the south attended college 
 in the northern and middle colonies, or were educated by 
 private tutors at home. 
 
 174. The Colleges. — At the time of the Revolution the 
 colonies boasted of nine colleges. Three were controlled 
 by Episcopalians, three by Congregationalists, and one 
 each by the Presbyterians, by the Dutch Reformed Church, 
 and by the Baptists. The influence of these early colleges 
 
142 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 on the intellectual development of the colonial period cannot 
 be estimated. They were veritable centers of education. 
 They scattered throughout the colonies a vast number of 
 young men who became leaders of many a community in the 
 trying days of the Revolution. 
 
 Harvard College, founded at Cambridge, Mass., in 1G36, is 
 the oldest college in the United States. It was named after 
 a learned Englishman, John Harvard, who in his will left 
 the college his library and five thousand dollars in money. 
 To-day it is known as Harvard University, the largest insti- 
 
 tution of learning in America. The orator, Edward Everett, 
 John Adams, John Quincy Adams, the historian Sparks, 
 and the four great authors, Emerson, Longfellow, Lowell, 
 and Holmes, have issued from its halls. 
 
 William and Mary College was established in 1G93 at 
 Williamsburg, the capital of Virginia. It was named after 
 the king and queen of England. George Washington was at 
 one time its president. It counted among its students 
 three presidents of the United States, — Jefferson, Monroe, 
 Tyler, — one chief justice, John Marshall, and one great 
 American general, Winfield Scott. 
 
THE COLONIES 143 
 
 Yale College was founded in 1700, at New Haven, Conn., 
 by the action of ten Congregational ministers, who in that 
 year gave books from their own libraries for the founding of 
 a college in Connecticut. It received its name from Elihu 
 Yale, who became an early friend of the college, giving it 
 many valuable gifts of books and money. Nathan Hale 
 was one of its graduates. 
 
 The College of New Jersey, now known as Princeton Uni- 
 versity, was founded in 1746, by the Presbyterians. One of 
 its early presidents was John AVitherspoon, a signer of the 
 Declaration of Independence. James Madison and Aaron 
 Burr were among its graduates. 
 
 King's College, later Columbia College, and still later the 
 Columbia University, was founded in 1755, in New York 
 City. Among its students was Alexander Hamilton. 
 
 The University of Pennsylvania was first established as a 
 charitable school in 1745. Four years later it became an 
 academy and received a charter as a college in 1755 — the date 
 from which it counts its beginning. It was created a uni- 
 versity in 1779. Benjamin Franklin was its founder. 
 
 Brown University, first known as Rhode Island College, 
 was founded at Warren, and removed to Providence, R. I., 
 in 1770. It was established by the Baptists. 
 
 Rutgers' College, the old Queen's College of colonial days, 
 was founded by the Dutch Reformed Church in 1770, at 
 Brunswick, N. J. 
 
 Dartmouth College was chartered in 1769 at Hanover, 
 N. H. It numbers among its graduates America's greatest 
 orator, Daniel Webster. 
 
 Nearly all the colleges were closed during the Revolution- 
 ary war, but were reopened immediately after the signing of 
 the treaty at the close of the war in 1783. 
 
 BOOKS AND LITERATURE 
 
 175. Books, Newspapers, and Pamphlets. — The first print- 
 ing press in the colonies was set up at Cambridge, Mass., 
 
144 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 
 
 in 1639. The first book printed was a poetical translation 
 of the Psalms, which became known as the New England 
 Hymn Book. One of the editors of this book was the great 
 Indian missionary, John Eliot. The colonial books of that 
 day were mostly collections of sermons, or reprints of old 
 authors. 
 
 At the breaking out of the Ee volution there were but 
 thirty-seven newspapers in the colonies. Of these, Massa- 
 chusetts had seven. New York three, and Pennsylvania 
 eight. The newspapers of that day were not much larger 
 than a magazine page of the present day, and contained 
 but four pages. Paper was very scarce, and it was necessary 
 
 THE 
 
 CONTINENTAL JOURNAL, 
 
 AND 
 
 WEEKLY ADVERTISER. 
 
 THURSDAY, 
 
 Afril 3, 1783 [NvMB CCCLXXU-l 
 
 BOSTON: Printed 
 
 BY JOHN GILL, IN Court Street. 
 
 Tl.. »MTIMr»09«.ITr Of EVEBY JTATE , 
 
 t = T, UPCK THE »„C,P1.,^C OF ,T-J AKMY. THt «.HS or. ►»«...*. 
 
 for the editor to condense his news into the smallest possible 
 space. The editor issued his papers weekly, monthly, or 
 at "odd times." The "Boston News Letter," published at 
 Boston in 1704, was the first newspaper published in the 
 colonies. The first daily newspaper in America, the 
 "American Daily Advertiser," was not issued until after the 
 Kevolution, in 1784. The freedom of the press was denied 
 by* the colonial governors. The editor of the "Weekly 
 Journal" of New York was arrested in 1732 for having 
 criticised the governor and the New York legislature for 
 laying illegal taxes on the colony. The editor, at his own 
 request, was given the right of trial by jury. He secured 
 able counsel, and although not permitted to prove the truth 
 
THE COLONIES 145 
 
 of his charges, his lawyer made such an eloquent plea to the 
 jury that that body, setting all law aside, acquitted the 
 editor amid the cheers of the populace, — thus was the free- 
 dom of the press secured to the colonies long before news- 
 papers in England enjoyed the privilege. 
 
 However, while this was not the age of newspapers, it was 
 the age of the "pamphleteer" — a name given to one who 
 writes pamphlets. Hundreds of pamphlets were published 
 and circulated throughout the colonies on a variety of topics. 
 They proved a great source of education to the reading 
 public, as they were usually written by the ablest men in the 
 colonies. These jDamphlet writers did a great work in pre- 
 paring the public mind for the coming struggle with Great 
 Britain. 
 
 176. Literature. — But little attention was paid to litera- 
 ture at this period of colonial history. Increase Mather and 
 his son, Cotton Mather, are said to have been the founders 
 of American literature. Increase Mather was one of the 
 early presidents of Harvard College. His list of published 
 Avorks numbers one hundred and thirty-six volumes, the 
 one on "Remarkable Providences," published in 1634, being 
 his chief work. Cotton Mather wrote (1702) a religious 
 history of New England, which he called "Magnalia." Even 
 at this day it is read with interest by many. It contains a 
 vast amount of information concerning the early history of 
 New England, largely set forth in biographies of leading 
 divines and civil officers. 
 
 The two greatest names in American literature prior to 
 the Revolution were those of Jonathan Edwards and Benja- 
 min Franklin. These two men were the only two men in 
 America recognized in Europe on account of their superior 
 scholarship. Edwards's greatest work was his essay on the 
 "Freedom of the Will." He was a profound thinker and left 
 his mark upon the religious literature of America for a 
 hundred years. The poet Oliver Wendell Holmes was a 
 student of the life and times of Jonathan Edwards. It was 
 
146 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Jonathan Edwards whom Holmes had in mind when he 
 wrote his wonderful satire, The "Deacon's Masterpiece," 
 now more popularly known as the '* Wonderful One Hoss 
 Shay." 
 
 177. Benjamin Franklin. — However, Benjamin Franklin's 
 name is the greatest name of American literature ii. the 
 eighteenth century. In 1732 he began the publication of 
 "Poor Richard's Almanac" at Philadelphia, which he con- 
 tinued to issue annually for the next twenty-five years. 
 Poor Richard's sayings laid hold upon the people and became 
 part of their daily conversation. It was he who gave us the 
 maxims, "Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, 
 wealthy and wise" ; "Honesty is the best policy" ; "A stitch 
 in time saves nine"; "God helps them that help them- 
 selves"; and hundreds of other short, pithy sayings which 
 go to make up the common-sense views of our every-day life. 
 Franklin also wrote essays on religious, moral, political, 
 and economical subjects. His "Autobiography" takes rank 
 to-day as one of the classics in our literature. His style is 
 smooth and beautiful, clear and logical. Edwards was a 
 college graduate — at the time of his death he was president 
 of Princeton University. Franklin was a self-educated man. 
 He came from the lower class of New England, but by his 
 energy, perseverance, and native ability became the leading 
 man of the American colonies, and prior to the Revolution 
 was recognized in the Old AVorld as the first man in Amer- 
 ica. Even after the Revolution his name was always coupled 
 with that of Washington in the mind of the European. He 
 amassed a fortune. He was interested in science and inven- 
 tion. With the aid of a kite in 1752 he discovered the 
 identity of electricity and lightning. He invented the 
 lightning rod and the Franklin stove. He published the 
 best newspaper in the colonies, the Pennsylvania Gazette, 
 at Philadelphia, where he took delight in republishing old 
 classics with his own imprint on the title page. He was 
 proud to be known as "Benjamin Franklin, printer." He 
 
THE COLONIES 147 
 
 established a library and a hospital in Philadelphia, and 
 founded the University of Pennsylvania in 1755. He was 
 the first to propose a union of the American colonies at the 
 Albany Convention, in 1754. As agent for Massachusetts 
 and Pennsylvania, he ably defended the colonies before par- 
 liament during the exciting times preceding the outbreak of 
 the Revolution. He perfected the postoffice system in 
 America. During the Revolution he represented the col- 
 onies at the court of France. In the field of diplomacy he 
 has never been surpassed. In many respects Benjamin Frank- 
 lin was one of the most remarkable men America has yet 
 produced. 
 
 178. Libraries. — Franklin founded a free library at Phila- 
 delphia in 1731. Near the same time a public library was 
 founded at Newport, Rhode Island, and in 1754 the city of 
 New York established a public library for the accommoda- 
 tion of the reading public. Charleston had a public library 
 in 1700 — perhaps the oldest in America. At the middle of 
 the eighteenth century the colonies were very prosperous and 
 the founding of libraries and hospitals and charitable insti- 
 tutions was a natural outgrowth of this prosperity. 
 
 SLAVERY AND INDENTED SERVICE 
 
 179. Slavery in the Colonies. — By the treaty of Utrecht at 
 the close of Queen Anne's War (1713) Great Britain was 
 given a complete monojioly of the slave trade between Africa 
 and the Spanish West Indies. This trade proved a source of 
 great wealth to Great Britain, and immensely increased the 
 traffic in African slaves in Europe and America. Many of 
 the colonies desired to prohibit the importation of slaves, but 
 this Great Britain would not permit, forcing slavery upon 
 them. Slavery, as we have seen, was first introduced into 
 Virginia, in 1619, by a Dutch man-of-war. The Dutch soon 
 after introduced the system into their own colony of New 
 York. They also carried their slaves with them into New 
 
148 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Jersey, and later into Delaware, when they conquered the 
 Swedes in that colony. 
 
 The Swedish colony of Delaware and the Governor Ogle- 
 thorpe colony in Georgia, were the only American colonies 
 where slavery was absolutely prohibited at the beginning. 
 As we have seen, the Dutch introduced slavery into Dela- 
 ware; Georgia remained a free colony for sixteen years after 
 its founding, when (1749) on a petition of her settlers for 
 the "one thing needful" parliament repealed the prohibition 
 against slavery. Thus it appears that each of the American 
 colonies held slaves within its borders. 
 
 180. Sentiment Against Slavery. — Slavery existed in the 
 Old World as a recognized institution, under the control of 
 law. It is, therefore, not surprising that it was soon trans- 
 planted to America. Nearly all the colonies accepted slavery 
 as a custom and sought early to control and regulate it, or 
 to restrict it by law — some sought to prohibit it altogether. 
 As tlie period of the Revolution approached, public senti- 
 ment in the colonies was setting in strongly against slavery. 
 There were leaders who opposed it in all the colonies from 
 New Hampshire to Georgia. In the south George Washing- 
 ton, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Patrick Henry, 
 George Mason, and Henry Laurens opposed it, and deplored 
 its existence in their section — each hoping that in some way 
 not yet imagined its gradual and peaceful abolition might be 
 accomplished. Slavery was felt to be opposed to tlie spirit 
 of the times and met with opposition in many sections on 
 high moral grounds. In 1760, the Quaker church in Penn- 
 sylvania made slave holding and slave trading a matter of 
 church discipline. There was a general feeling that the system 
 was evil in itself and that it was desirable to rid the country 
 of it by gradual abolition. 
 
 181. Number of Slaves. — From the beginning, the white 
 race in the cold north colonies had found it easier to do work 
 for itself than to compel work from the slaves; while in the 
 warmer south it was found easier for the white man to com- 
 
THE COLONIES 149 
 
 pel work from the slave than to do it himself. As a result, 
 the slave population was greatest in the south, where slave 
 labor proved very profitable in the cultivation of tobacco, 
 rice, cotton, and the indigo plant. Indeed, New York and 
 New Jersey were the only northern colonies where slaves were 
 held in large numbers. 
 
 Of the total population in 1701, fifty thousand were negro 
 slaves. Ten thousand of these were north of Mason and 
 Dixon's line (the boundary line between Pennsylvania and 
 Maryland) and forty thousand in the colonies south of that 
 line. This was before Great Britain had secured a monopoly 
 of the slave trade in the West Indies. In the census of 1755 
 the number of slaves had increased to two hundred and sixty 
 thousand — about thirty thousand were in the New England 
 and middle colonies, and the remainder (two hundred and 
 thirty thousand) in the southern colonies. In 1775 the 
 number had still further increased to forty-six thousand 
 north of Mason and Dixon's line, as opposed to four hundred 
 and fifty-five thousand south of it. 
 
 These figures show how slowly slavery was increasing in 
 the north and also how alarming was its increase in the 
 south — the negro slaves constituting one-third of the entire 
 population of that section. It is not surprising, therefore, 
 that Washington and Jefferson, as well as other able leaders 
 in the south, looked upon the growing slave population of 
 their section with the greatest alarm. The condition of the 
 slaves was far better in the northern colonies than in the 
 southern. In the north the slaves were used as domestic 
 servants, while in the south they constituted the vast major- 
 ity of the field laborers. 
 
 182. Slave Laws. — Numerous slave laws were passed by the 
 colonial legislatures. In the southern colonies, the laws were 
 largely in the interest of the master as against the slave. 
 In the northern colonies, where public sentiment was 
 strongly against the system of slavery, the laws were in 
 the main against the master and aimed to lessen the 
 
150 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 hardships of the "bound" class. Still, in all the colonies 
 severe laws for the punishment of runaway slaves were 
 passed. Persons aiding slaves to escape, or secreting them 
 after escape, were held liable to punishment. A slave 
 committing a crime was punished by death, and that, too, 
 whether his crime was theft or murder. Even the masters 
 who failed to punish their runaway slaves were themselves 
 punishable by law. 
 
 The forms of punishment usually visited upon the slave by 
 the master were flogging, branding with a red-hot iron, or 
 the cutting off of an ear. In some colonies, should a slave 
 die while receiving punishment, his master would not be 
 molested unless it were shown that he intended to commit 
 murder. In such an event, a fine would be imposed and 
 the master released. 
 
 183. Indented Servants. — As we have already seen in the 
 history of Virginia, white slavery was permitted in that col- 
 ony uuder the name of "indentured servants." These 
 "indented" white persons were sometimes called "redemp- 
 tioners," because they could redeem themselves by their 
 labor. Indented service existed in all the American colonies, 
 — it was especially common iti A^irginia and Maryland. There 
 were two classes of these servants — those who voluntarily sold 
 themselves, and those who without their consent were sold 
 into slavery. Of this latter class were many prisoners of 
 war from England, as well as political prisoners and prison- 
 ers for debt. Even criminals brought from the jails of 
 England and Scotland were sold in the colonies, where they 
 were known as "jail-birds." 
 
 The length of indented service was limited by law and 
 varied with age, ranging from five to seven years, and rarely 
 extending beyond fourteen years. When these redemption- 
 ers had gained their freedom they were given at once all the 
 privileges of any other class of citizens. In some colonies 
 their masters had to provide them with clothing and certain 
 necessary supplies on the completion of their term of service. 
 
THE colo:n^ies 151 
 
 Many of the indented class were refined and educated people. 
 One of the future signers of the Declaration of Independence 
 had served time as a redemptioner. However, the vast 
 majority of these servants were illiterate. On gaining their 
 freedom, their poverty and their lack of education forced 
 them to continue, as a matter of fact, in a state of servitude 
 Thus, as we have learned in the history of Virginia and 
 North Carolina, these poor white slaves were the parent 
 stock of the "poor whites" in the south. 
 
 184. The Trade in Indented Servants. — Certain sea-cap- 
 taiiis made a regular business of trade in indented servants. 
 When such a captain would arrive in a colonial port, he 
 would at once post a notice in the town stating that he had 
 tailors, carpenters, shoemakers, farmers, or domestic serv- 
 ants for sale; whereupon all those desiring such labor would 
 go on board ship, make their purchase, and retire. The 
 traffic in this kind of slavery encouraged kidnapping, and 
 the greatest abuses against the laws of society were com- 
 mitted by wicked sea-captains. 
 
 As the colonies grew in population, the traffic in 
 indented servants largely decreased on account of a grow- 
 ing disposition on the part of the servants to run away 
 from their purchasers. However, on the breaking out 
 of the Revolution, there were several thousand of these 
 indented servants in the colonies. Many of them enlisted in 
 the patriot army. On the strong recommendation of Wash- 
 ington, all such were given their freedom, payment for their 
 unredeemed time to be made to their masters by the general 
 government. After the Revolution, the system rapidly 
 declined, only one state, Connecticut, retaining it for any 
 length of time. 
 
 POLITICAL LIFE 
 
 185. The Government of the Colonies. — As to government, 
 the colonies at the time of the Revolution were divided into 
 three classes. 
 
152 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 (1) Charter colonies, or those holding charters which per- 
 mitted them to elect their own governors. Connecticut and 
 Khode Island were charter colonies in this sense. 
 
 (2) Proprietary colonies. Such were to be ruled by a 
 proprietor, or proprietors, to whom the king had granted 
 the land, or by governors, appointed by them. Pennsyl- 
 vania, Delaware, and Maryland were proprietary colonies. 
 
 (3) Royal colonies, or those ruled by governors appointed 
 by the king, and held subject to him. New Hampshire, 
 Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North and 
 South Carolina, and Georgia were royal colonies. 
 
 In all these forms of government, subjection to the king 
 was the chief feature. 
 
 Each colony had a legislature of its own similar to the 
 legislatures of the states at the present time, — consisting, 
 as a rule, of an upper and a lower house. Members 
 of the lower house were elected by the votes of the peo- 
 ple, the right to vote being limited to landowners, tax- 
 payers, or those receiving a yearly income. In nearly all 
 of the colonies each voter must be a member of some Chris- 
 tian church. Representatives in the upper house were 
 appointed by the governor. These legislatures made l;iws 
 very much as laws are made by the state legislatures of 
 to-day. All laws passed must be in harmony with the laws of 
 England and no law could be passed over the governor's 
 veto. In some of the colonies the king claimed the right to 
 veto a law at any time within three years after its passage, 
 and this claim he frequently made good. 
 
 186. Colonial Governors and Lords of Trade. — Each colony 
 had a colonial governor, who, in the royal colonies, was 
 appointed by the king; in the proprietary, by the proprie- 
 tors. In the charter colonies, the governors were elected by 
 the people. The crown of England, however, growing 
 weary of personally controlling affairs in the colonies, 
 appointed a commission in 1696, to be known as the Lords 
 of Trade and Plantations. This body from that date to the 
 
THE COLONIES 153 
 
 time of the Revolution had direct supervision of colonial 
 affairs. It dealt directly with the crown on the one hand 
 and with the colonial governors and legislatures on the other, 
 the king usually accepting as final its recommendations. 
 
 187. Parliament and the Colonies. — At first the English 
 parliament was practically barred from legislating in the 
 affairs of the colonies. It had usually been the policy of 
 the reigning monarchs of England that in colonial affairs 
 the will of the king was supreme. All land belonged to 
 the king and not to the English government. He could 
 grant land and cancel such grants when he pleased. He 
 could make and revoke charters at his will. All this was 
 somewhat changed during the period of the Commonwealth, 
 when the parliament known as the Long Parliament passed 
 the first Navigation Act (1651). Thereafter parliament con- 
 tinued to legislate on colonial matters. As the years went 
 by, the right of parliament so to legislate was recognized by 
 the English rulers. Particularly did parliament continue to, 
 legislate in the regulation of colonial trade. 
 
 By an act of parliament, the English postal service was 
 extended to iVmerica and the rate of postage established. 
 An act regulating the currency was also passed. However, 
 neither king nor parliament made any attempt to tax 
 the colonies. Such a proposal was made in 1696, but it 
 at once met with opposition both in England and America. 
 A pamphlet was issued in America, protesting against the 
 right of parliament to tax the colonies when the colonies had 
 no representation in parliament. This question was not 
 raised again for nearly seventy years. 
 
 188. The Postoffice. — The postoffice, established in the 
 reign of William and Mary, hardly became a system in 
 America prior to the year 1738. Benjamin Franklin was 
 made deputy postmaster-general for the northern district of 
 the colonies in 1753. He at once reformed the whole sys- 
 tem, and the postofliice became a paying institution under 
 his management. He formed a regular system of officers 
 
154 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 and carriers, requiring mails to arrive and depart on 
 schedule time. He originated the plan of advertising 
 *' uncalled for letters." Between the important cities he 
 increased the number of mails to three times per week in 
 the summer and once in the winter. Letters were carried 
 by post-riders on horseback. These post-riders were very 
 
 important personages in 
 those days. They carried 
 the news from post-town to 
 post-town, and were re- 
 quired to watch for runaway 
 slaves or servants. 
 
 Beginning with New York 
 as a center, Franklin estab- 
 lished three important mail 
 routes: one from New York 
 to Boston, another from 
 New York to Quebec by 
 way of Montreal, and a third 
 from New York to Phila- 
 delphia. Eegular mail boats 
 were run between New York 
 and Falmouth, England. 
 When Franklin was removed from office at the breaking 
 out of the Revolution a system of mail routes had been 
 established from New Hampshire to Charleston, South Caro- 
 lina. None of these, however, penetrated far into the 
 interior of the continent. 
 
 189. Political Parties in the Colonies. — Since the seven- 
 teenth century two great political parties had existed in 
 England, known as the Whig party and the Tory party. 
 The Tories were in favor of increasing the power of the 
 king; the Whigs were opposed to such a policy — insisting 
 that parliament should have more to do in the affairs of 
 government. These two political parties naturally appeared 
 in the colonies, advocating the principles for which the 
 
 POST-RIDEB 
 
THE COLONIES 155 
 
 leaders stood in England. After the year 1688 "Tory" in 
 the colonies gave way to "Loyalist" — the name Tory having 
 become a term of reproach on account of the conspiracies set 
 on foot in the old world to replace the house of the Stuarts 
 on the throne of England. 
 
 At the time of the Revolution the Whig party in the col- 
 onies furthered the movement toward revolution by opposing 
 the king, by advocating popular freedom, and by resisting 
 the laws of parliament. They now revived the hated name 
 of "Tory" and applied it as a term of reproach to the Loyal- 
 ist party, which advocated loyalty to King George and the 
 laws of jiarliament. 
 
 Many Tories enlisted in the English army during the 
 Revolution and fought with great bitterness against their 
 country. They became a hated class in America. Long 
 before the Revolution had ended, acts of banishment were 
 passed against them by nearly all the colonial legislatures. 
 So unpopular had the Tories become at the close of the war 
 that the vast majority of them left the country when the 
 English troops withdrew. 
 
 Before the Revolution began the term "Colonist" had 
 given way to "American"; and "English," to "British." 
 The latter name was first used by the colonists as a term of 
 reproach, and was aimed directly at King George III. and his 
 favorite, Lord Bute, who pompously paraded the fact before 
 the world that they were "true Britons." 
 
 190. The Colonists and Their Leaders. — At no time in the 
 history of America has leadership counted for so much as 
 during the colonial and revolutionary period. 
 
 The name of Washington, representative of the planter 
 class — lovingly referred to as the "Father of his Country" — 
 certainly leads all others; while the name of Franklin, — 
 philosopher, diplomat, and statesman — stands next. 
 
 The college bred men were respected in every community 
 where they chanced to reside. Alexander Hamilton of 
 Columbia College — future aid to Washington throughout th^ 
 
156 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Revolution, and future financier of the republic — and John 
 Jay, also of Columbia, are but representative of this class. 
 
 The clergy of New England, indeed, the majority of the 
 clergy in all other sections, were patriotic men, — devoted 
 to spreading the "gospel of liberty" throughout the colonies. 
 The influence of the pulpit then was greater than at the 
 present time. The clergy did more than preach, — "they 
 led and inspired the people; they kept patriotism aflame; 
 they moulded national character." John Witherspoon, — 
 eloquent divine, president of Princeton College, signer of 
 the Declaration, — was but a type of the clergy. 
 
 The merchant class was ably represented by John Hancock 
 of Boston, who, with that Puritan patriot, Samuel Adams, 
 did more than all others to hasten the lievolution. 
 
 Dr. Joseph Warren, who yielded up his life at Bunker Hill, 
 was a noted physician; Koger Sherman of Connecticut was of 
 the tradespeople, having been a shoemaker in early life. The 
 farmers were represented by the brave Israel Putnam, who, 
 when he heard the news of the battle of Lexington, left his 
 ox team standing at the plow and put off in hot haste on the 
 road to Boston to join the patriot army. 
 
 John Adams and James Otis in Massachusetts, supreme 
 in oratory; John Dickinson in Pennsylvania, future author 
 of the "Farmer Letters"; Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, the 
 future author of the Declaration, — eloquent over all others 
 in the use of bis pen, — were eminent in the legal profession. 
 Patrick Henry of Mrginia, the greatest orator of the Pevo- 
 lution, was also a lawyer. We can almost see him now as 
 he stands in the old St. John's Church on the hill in Rich- 
 mond saying, with whitened face and uplifted hand, "I know 
 not what course others may take, but as for me, give me 
 liberty or give me death." 
 
 This, then, was the leadership which protested against the 
 tyranny of King George, and later confronted him with the 
 Declaration of Independence and made for all time the Amer- 
 ican Revolution the synonym of American liberty. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 
 
 191. Colonial Policy of England.— The attitude of England 
 toward her colonies has always been a consistent one, though 
 at times not the most humane. England has always insisted 
 that her colonies must in some manner contribute to the 
 glory and advancement of the parent country. She has 
 seldom resorted to direct taxation, however. A more effect- 
 ive method of raising revenue has prevailed — that of restrict- 
 ive trade measures, by means of which commerce has been 
 directed toward England. These measures have not always 
 been mandatory; but if not, trade regulations have been 
 usually so drawn as to favor the English home merchant as 
 against the colonial merchant. 
 
 192. Conditions in England. — The years immediately suc- 
 ceeding the "Seven Years' War" were trying ones in England. 
 It is true that an empire had just been gained, bat it was at 
 the sacrifice of much blood and treasure. It was urged in 
 England that the English soldier and the English treasury had 
 relieved the colonies from the necessity of constant watchful- 
 ness over their ancient enemy, the Indian; that the issue of 
 the war had been to the advantage of the colonies as well as of 
 England; and that, therefore, the colonists, as Englishmen, 
 should be required to meet their share of the expenses of the 
 war. The colonists, on their side, argued that if taxes were 
 to be laid, the colonial legislature must vote them. The 
 colonists could not act in the English parliament, and so 
 the laying of taxes by that body would be "taxation without 
 
 157 
 
158 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 representation," to which they declared they would not 
 submit. 
 
 The attitude of the colonies was misunderstood in Eng- 
 land. Unfortunately, this misunderstanding was aggravated 
 by misleading reports made by the royal governors as to the 
 character of the colonists. The governors were in constant 
 clash with the legislative bodies in the colonies over matters 
 of public policy. The colonists always sided with their own 
 legislators, so that the reports of the governors to the king 
 and his ministers represented the colonists as turbulent and 
 disloyal. 
 
 193. Conditions in the Colonies : Growth of Democracy. — The 
 colonists did not desire a separation from the mother country. 
 They were proud of England; proud to be called English- 
 men. And especially was this true after England's great vic- 
 tory over the French. But this feeling was gradually changed 
 to one of distrust and aversion by the shortsighted policy of 
 George III. and the statesmen who controlled English 
 politics at that time. The expense of the four intercolonial 
 wars had been borne to a large extent by the colonies, 
 and they had furnished their full quota of men to uphold 
 the supremacy of England in the New World. They 
 were burdened with debt incurred in the prosecution of 
 the French and Indian "War; they had suffered the destruc- 
 tion of much property, and many precious lives had been 
 sacrificed. And even under these conditions they were 
 willing to contribute to the support of the home government, 
 if they, through their legislatures, could say how the money 
 was to be raised. As one after another of their efforts to 
 secure this privilege was spurned, the sentiment for inde- 
 pendence was developed ; not as a thing in itself to be desired, 
 but as an escape from what they considered the tyranny of a 
 despotic king. 
 
 The growth of the spirit of liberty and equality In America 
 was more rapid than its growth in England because the col- 
 onists were farther removed from the influences of royalty 
 
THE STRUGOLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 159 
 
 and aristocracy. In the colonies, frequent milestones marked 
 its progress. The demand for a representative assembly in 
 Virginia in 1619; the freedom of action accorded the settler 
 in the very beginning of all the New England colonies; the 
 written constitution of the four Connecticut Eiver settle- 
 ments ; Bacon's protest against the tyranny of Berkeley in 
 Virginia ; the arrest and expulsion of Andros in Massachu- 
 setts ; — all these were evidences of the growth of democracy 
 in the New World. Had this been respected and under- 
 stood by the home government, instead of its being 
 antagonized, the history of the Kevolution need not have 
 been written. 
 
 194. The Principle of Taxation as Used by England. — Eng- 
 lish statesmen in control during the period just prior to the 
 Revolution contended that nothing was being asked of the 
 colonists which was not already borne by Englishmen at home. 
 This was true. Many of the larger cities in England were 
 not represented in parliament, though they paid taxes 
 regularly. The districts from which members of parliament 
 were elected had been formed years before. In some of 
 these nearly all the people had moved away, but members 
 still continued to be elected. At Old Sarum there were no 
 residents; in several other districts there were but three or 
 four voters, while in certain sections of the country new 
 communities had grown up, such as Birmingham and Leeds, 
 with numerous populations, and large property interests, and 
 yet, without representation in parliament. This was ** taxa- 
 tion without representation," just what the colonists were 
 protesting against. It was not honestly contended that 
 this was right. It was a condition that had obtained grad- 
 ually and was left undisturbed because it suited the ends of 
 the corrupt politicians of that day, and of an equally corrupt 
 king. 
 
 195. Navigation Acts: Intercolonial Wars. — These are two 
 of the remote causes of the Revolution. It has been shown 
 how the colonists always loyally supported their sovereign 
 
IGO HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 and boro their share of the burden in the intercolonial 
 wars. The remembrance of his sacrifices rankled in the 
 heart of the colonist when the government for which he 
 had sacrificed so mucli gave so little heed to his petitions for 
 Justice. 
 
 The first Navigation Act was passed in 1651. This was 
 reenacted in 1660, and strengthened still further by the 
 acts of 1663 and 1672. In addition to these four principal 
 acts, twenty-five additional acts were passed by parliament 
 during the period from 1672 to 1774. . Many of tliese laws 
 had direct bearing on the commerce of the colonies. It was 
 required that both exports and imports should be carried in 
 English vessels, or in ships built in the colonies, the same 
 to be manned by crews and officers, a majority of whom, in 
 each instance, were to be English. These acts were origin- 
 ally aimed at the Dutch, who had a monopoly of the Ameri- 
 can carrying trade and, indeed, of the trade of the world. 
 While the acts encouraged activity in ship-building in the 
 colonies to the extent that ship-building in New England had 
 become an important industry, still, the main provisions of 
 the acts tended to make the colonies dependent upon Eng- 
 land. As the years passed the acts in this respect became 
 more and more objectionable to the colonies. However, the 
 navigation acts had not of late been enforced with much 
 rigor. The English government, as we have seen, now 
 resolved to enforce these laws rigidly as one method of 
 increasing the revenues. Taken in connection with other 
 burdens, this enforcement became a source of great irrita- 
 tion to those engaged in shipping or mercantile pursuits in 
 the colonies. 
 
 196. Writs of Assistance. — Smuggling wtis the natural result 
 of the navigation acts and was winked at by the colonial 
 authorities, who were opposed to the enforcement of the 
 acts. In order to find smuggled goods the king's officers 
 were given writs of assistance. With one of these in hand 
 an officer could search the house or premises of any citizen at 
 
TJIE STKUGGLE FOR INDEPENDEKCE 161 
 
 any time during the day. This aroused the most violent 
 opposition in the colonies. The search could be made on the 
 unsupported charge of the officer, with no penalty attached 
 if goods were not found. 
 
 197. Stamp Act— 1765: Protests.— The first bold attempt 
 to tax all the colonies was by the ^Dassage of a Stamp 
 Act in 17G5. Though the Sugar and Molasses Act had 
 been renewed two years prior to this act, still it affected 
 only New England, while the Stamp Act aroused opposi- 
 tion in all the colonies. It required all legal and public 
 documents, marriage certificates, wills, etc., to be written on 
 stamped paper, for which an increased price was asked, the 
 surplus going to the government. The passage of the act 
 was preceded by a year's notice from the prime minister, 
 Lord Grenville, that such action was contemplated. At a 
 town meeting in Boston, held in May, 17G4, to protest 
 against the proposed tax, resolutions eloquently presented by 
 Samuel Adams were passed which, for the first time, formally 
 denied the right of the English government to tax the col- 
 onies without their consent. The Massachusetts legislature 
 later indorsed these resolutions and issued a circular letter 
 to the other colonies asking that they petition against the 
 passage of the act. But, disregarding all these petitions 
 parliament passed it. 
 
 198. The Stamp Act Congress — 1765. — The interval between 
 its passage and the day the Stamp Act was to go into effect was 
 full of excitement in the colonies. Clubs taking the name 
 of "Sons of Liberty" were immediately organized all over the 
 colonies. Massachusetts proposed a congress of delegates 
 from all the colonies to discuss measures to defeat its enforce- 
 ment. Nine colonies responded and a declaration of rights 
 was drawn up by this "Stamp Act Congress" and sent to 
 the king. It was asserted therein that Americans were Brit- 
 ish citizens, and it was the right of all such to be represented 
 in any body that levied taxes upon them. This congress also 
 advised the formation of nonimportation clubs among the 
 
162 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 colonial merchants, and clubs among the i^eople to encourage 
 the use of home products in the colonies. 
 
 199. Organized Resistance: Repeal of the Act: Declara- 
 tory Act. — As the stamped paper began to arrive for dis- 
 tribution, the excitement became intense. Those who 
 had accepted appointment as distributers were forced to 
 resign, some of them being roughly handled on refusal. 
 The paper was seized and in many cases burned. lu 
 Boston the Sons of Liberty tore down the frame building 
 that was being erected for the distributer, and, piling 
 it before his house, placed the stamj^ed paper thereon 
 and made a bonfire of the whole. In New York they 
 broke into the coach house of the governor, placed 
 images of the Devil and the governor on the coach, then 
 paraded the streets, finally burning coach and images, while 
 the governor, and General Gage and his militia, looked on, 
 not daring to resist. On the 1st of Xovember, the day the 
 act was to go into effect, funeral processions were formed, 
 bells were muffied and tolled, and flags were placed at half 
 mast. At Portsmouth, N. H. , a coffin was borne in pro 
 cession, inscribed, "Liberty, aged CXLV years"; when the 
 grave was reached signs of life appeared, the changed inscrip- 
 tion reading: "Liberty revived," when it was borne back 
 amid great rejoicings. Thus the common people condemned 
 the Stamp Act. And yet, few of the colonial leaders thought 
 of resisting its enforcement after it was once passed, Frank- 
 lin himself advising submission and Richard Henry Lee 
 accepting appointment as one of the distributers. But the 
 colonists bought none of the stamped paper ; and, further, 
 the policy of nonimportation among the colonial merchants 
 was so effective that parliament, yielding to the remonstrances 
 presented by London merchants whose business had greatly 
 suffered thereby, repealed the obnoxious act in 17GG. A 
 Declaratory Act was appended, however, to the repeal, 
 announcing that the government still held to its right to tax 
 the colonies whenever and in whatever way it thought best. 
 
THE STRUGGLE POU INDEPENDENCE 163 
 
 200. Sparks of Liberty. — Perhaps no single event in the his- 
 tory of the world has occasioned more flights of sublime elo- 
 quence than the American Revolution. At the session of the 
 Virginia House of Burgesses following the announcement of 
 the Stamp Act, Patrick Henry, then a young, inexperienced 
 lawyer, rising in his place, launched forth on a speech 
 which horrified the Tories by its fierce invective against the 
 king, and electrified the friends of America at its bold 
 declaration of the rights of freemen. With eyes flashing and 
 hand upli:^ted he thundered forth the philippic that has since 
 been the tocsin of every American orator, proclaiming 
 liberty as against despotic rule — "Caesar had his Brutus, 
 Charles the First his Cromwell, and George the Third — 
 may profit by their example." 
 
 James Otis was a young lawyer holding appointment under 
 the king in Boston as state prosecutor. At the time of the 
 excitement over the writs of assistance (1761) he resigned his 
 office to argue against their constitutionality. In an impas- 
 sioned speech before the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, he 
 gave utterance to that terse statement, "Taxation without 
 representation is tyranny," and declared that such iniquities 
 as the writs in question had "cost one king of England his 
 head and another his throne." John Adams, in referring to 
 the stirring events of the day on which Otis had made this 
 great speech in defence of the liberties of the people, said : 
 "On that day was American independence born." 
 
 201. The Townshend Acts — 1767.— While protesting against 
 the Stamp x\ct, the colonial leaders had emphasized the dis- 
 tinction between external and internal taxes, and asserted that 
 they were not opposed to the laying of the former. The 
 excitement over the Stamp Act had hardly subsided when 
 Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer, therefore 
 proposed the collection of duties on various articles, such as 
 glass, paper, painter's colors, and tea. To this the colonists 
 could not consistently object, though they found matter 
 enough for objection in the fact that the act provided that the 
 
104 HISTORY OP THE UXITED STATES 
 
 moneys thus collected should be applied in paying the salaries 
 of the officers of the king. But in connection with this 
 measure were several others, all together known as the 
 "Townshend Acts," and to these the colonists entered vigor- 
 ous protest. Prior to the passage of these acts, the New 
 York legislative body had refused to provide quarters for 
 the troops sent over by the king. By one of these acts the 
 New York legislature was forbidden to consider the passage 
 of any other law until quarters were provided for the king's 
 troops. Another act provided for the appointment of a 
 board of commissioners to control the collection of all cus- 
 toms and duties, and provision was made for the trial of all 
 revenue cases by admiralty courts without juries. These 
 acts were promulgated the year following the repeal of the 
 Stamp Act, and immediately fanned into fierce flame the 
 smoldering embers left by that excitement. In Boston, 
 Samuel Adams wrote a series of addresses on the acts, which 
 were published by the Massachusetts legislature and scattered 
 broadcast throughout the colonies, together with a circular 
 letter urging concert of action as before. The merchants 
 revived their nonimportation societies and tlie people again 
 denied themselves the use of English goods and encouraged 
 the exclusive use of articles of home manufacture. 
 
 202. "Letters of a Pennsylvania Farmer" — 1768. — These 
 letters were prompted by the passage of the Townshend Acts 
 and were written by John Dickinson, a young Philadelphia 
 lawyer, who assumed the guise and language of a farmer. lie 
 was a man of fine education, a thorough patriot, and with a 
 wonderful insight into the needs of the colonies. His letters 
 were moderate in tone, yet with convincing logic they drove 
 straight to the point. Breathing a deep spirit of patriotism, 
 they became a great factor in the preparation of the people 
 for the coming conflict. 
 
 203. The Sloop Liberty— 1768 : The Boston Massacre- 
 March 5, 1770: The Revenue Cutter Gaspee— 1772.— Three 
 of the events of these years are of importance as showing 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 165 
 
 the spirit of the times. The seizure of the sloop Liberty 
 occurred in the harbor of Boston in 1768. Although the 
 colonists did not deny the right of the English government 
 to collect port duties, they felt the hardships thus imposed 
 and evaded the payment of the duties whenever possible. 
 Soon after the new board of commissioners had arrived from 
 England the sloop Liberty was seized, without an official 
 warrant, by a boat's crew from the British frigate Romney, 
 for alleged violation of the revenue laws. The board of Eng- 
 lish commissioners sustained the action of the crew in seizing 
 the Liberty, whereupon a large crowd gathered in the 
 streets^ of Boston, tlie demonstrations growing so violent that 
 the frightened commissioners took refuge on board the 
 Romney. The Liberty was owned by John Hancock, the 
 wealthy patriot merchant— the first signer of the Declaration 
 of Lidependence. 
 
 This incident led indirectly to the Boston massacre, two 
 years later. The accounts which the commissioners wrote 
 of the matter to the home government were so lurid— charac- 
 terizing the people of Boston as law-breakers and urging the 
 immediate necessity of a military force in the city— that the 
 king dispatched General Thomas Gage, as commander-in-chief 
 of the British forces in America, to Boston with two regi- 
 ments of troops. The city authorities refused to permit 
 these troops to be quartered in Boston, quoting law to the 
 effect that the barracks in the harbor must first be filled. 
 However, General Gage found shelter for his troops by the 
 payment of a high rent and the soldiers were kept in the 
 city. Collisions between the soldiers and the rougher elements 
 of the town were not infrequent, though there was no serious 
 outbreak until the night of March 5, 1770. On that night 
 a false alarm of fire caused a large crowd to gather on the 
 streets. This crowd, having nothing better to do, began to 
 annoy the British sentinels. As is usual at such times, a 
 quarrel ensued. One word brought on another. Several 
 soldiers were ordered out to aid the sentinels, and in the 
 
166 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 growing excitement a gun was fired by someone in the crowd. 
 This was answered by a volley from the soldiers, resulting in 
 the killing of five of the citizens and the wounding of six 
 others. Intense excitement prevailed and it was feared the 
 soldiers would be seized and summarily dealt with. But wiser 
 counsel controlled. The soldiers concerned in the firing were 
 given up to the civil authorities, and were tried for murder 
 — two of the most distinguished and able patriot lawyers, 
 John Adams and Josiah Quincy, Jr., defending them. All 
 were acquitted but two, who were given a sentence of man- 
 slaughter and branded in the hand. The immediate effect 
 of the massacre was the withdrawal of Gage's regiments from 
 the city at the peremptory demand of the Bostonians. They 
 were henceforth quartered in barracks on an island in the 
 harbor. The Boston massacre served to arouse the people 
 of all the colonies against the iniquity of quartering troops 
 on any people without their consent. 
 
 The burning of the Gaspee was another link in the chain 
 that led up to the Revolution. The Gaspee was a revenue 
 cutter used to patrol the New England coast in search of 
 smugglers. The Gaspee's crew became so high-handed in 
 their conduct that it was resolved to punish them. One 
 night in Narragansett Bay the cutter ran aground. Eight 
 boat-loads of colonists visited her and, setting the crew 
 on land, burned the stranded ship to the water's edge. 
 This act was made the subject of an investigation by par- 
 liament, but nothing could be found out about the perpe- 
 trators. 
 
 204. Cheap Tea, and the Boston Tea Party— Dec. 16, 1773.— 
 The policy of nonimportation had again had its effect and the 
 British ministry, after three years' trial, gave up in despair, 
 so far as revenue was concerned. All duties were removed 
 except on tea, and on this article the duty was made so low 
 that tea could be bought cheaper in America than it could be 
 bought in England. The king meant to "try the question 
 with America, " as he put it. He selected tea for the trial 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 
 
 167 
 
 ill order to help the East India Tea Company, in whose 
 warehouses in London the tea had been accumulating because 
 the Americans had refused to use it. The Americans, how- 
 ever, were fighting for a principle and could not be silenced 
 by cheaper tea. By 1773 the tea company had 17,000,000 
 pounds of tea in their warehouses and cargoes were sent to 
 Charleston, Annapolis, Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. 
 The colonists were, however, united in sentiment. At Char- 
 leston the tea was removed from the ship and stored pur- 
 posely in damp cellars, where it soon spoiled. At Annapolis 
 it was seized and burned. The Philadelphia and New York 
 authorities sent the ships back to England with 
 their cargoes. But it remained for Boston, under 
 the leadership of that sturdy patriot, Samuel 
 Adams, to furnish the most unique method of 
 settling the question. 
 
 The first ship arrived in Boston harbor on 
 Sunday. A mass meeting was held the next day 
 at which it was decided that the ships must not 
 
 be allowed to unload, 
 and the day following 
 tlie captain promised 
 to sail back to Eng- 
 land as soon as he 
 could receive his 
 clearance papers from 
 the governor. In the 
 meantime other ships 
 having arrived, they 
 
 i 
 
 OLD SOUTH CHURCH 
 
 were treated in a 
 similar manner. But the governor delayed granting the 
 clearance papers, hoping to pass the time limit of twenty 
 days, when the shipping law required a cargo to be landed 
 .and stored. Thursday, December 16, marked the twentieth 
 day, and the governor still delayed, and finally positively 
 refused to issue the papers. When this fact had been 
 
168 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 reported to the citizens in session at the Old South Church, 
 Samuel Adams rose and said: "The meeting declares it 
 can do nothing more to save the country." A few minutes 
 after, a company of forty or fifty reputable citizens, lightly 
 disguised as Indians, and followed by an immense crowd, 
 proceeded quietly to the wharf and, boarding the vessels, 
 cut open the tea cases and threw their contents into the 
 harbor, after which the people quietly dispersed. This event 
 is known in history as the Boston Tea Party. 
 
 205. The Boston Port Bill and the "Intolerable Acts" — 
 March and June, 1774. — When the story of how the different 
 cargoes were treated reached the English authorities, they 
 determined that the people of Boston should be visited with 
 especial punishment and that the other colonies should be 
 made to feel England's power. A series of acts was accord- 
 ingly prepared which, because of their severity, were known 
 in America as the "Intolerable Acts." The first of these 
 was the Boston Port Bill. The second was the Regulating 
 Act, which annulled the charter of Massachusetts and made 
 it a royal province. The third was the Transportation Act, 
 providing that any person indicted for murder while in the 
 service of the king should not be tried where the act was 
 committed, but in England. The Quartering Act removed 
 all legal obstacles to the quartering of troops in the colonies. 
 The fifth and last was known as the Quebec Act. This act 
 granted the French provinces religious toleration, and 
 extended the province of Quebec westward to the Mississippi 
 Iiiver and southward to the Ohio River. It was designed to 
 prevent the province of Quebec from joining the other 
 colonies in their demand for freedom. It still left intact the 
 king's old "proclamation line" which had so greatly incensed 
 the colonies in 1763. Several of the colonies claimed much 
 of this new Quebec province as their own and felt outraged 
 at the act. These acts were indeed "intolerable" acts. 
 They were passed in 1774, and under their influence the 
 Revolution ripened. 
 
THE STRUGGLE POR INDEPENDEXCE 169 
 
 The Boston Port Bill was passed for the especial 
 punishment of the city of Boston on account of its partici- 
 pation in the Tea Party. The bill went into effect June 1, 
 1774. It closed the port of Boston to everything but 
 food and fuel until the tea should be paid for, and satis- 
 factory evidence given that the people were thoroughly 
 repentant. 
 
 206. Effect of the Bill and the Action of the Other Colonies.— 
 The immediate effect of the Port Bill at Boston was of course 
 distressing. The trade of that city was almost exclusively 
 carried on by sea. A large portion of its inhabitants were 
 engaged in occupations made necessary by sea traffic, and 
 these were at once thrown out of employment. But they 
 were not dismayed, for they had the moral and material sup- 
 port of all the other colonies, to whom a circular letter had 
 been sent asking for aid. The first of June was made a day 
 of fasting and mourning in many of the colonies, and money 
 and provisions were collected and forwarded to the stricken 
 city. For all felt that this was a blow, which, though meant 
 for Boston, was borne by that city in the interest of all the 
 colonies. 
 
 207. First Continental Congress— Sept. 5 to Oct. 26, 1774.— 
 Nothing so unites the hearts of individuals or of nations as a 
 common danger. If the king could ruin Boston, the richest 
 city in the colonies, he could ruin any other municipality 
 unless abject submission was yielded to his demands. The 
 colonial leaders began to realize that only in union could there 
 be strength. This idea was voiced by the New York Sons 
 of Liberty in a suggestion for a convention of delegates from 
 the different colonies. Benjamin Franklin had also made 
 this suggestion to the Massachusetts legislature, and similar 
 proposals were made by the members of the Virginia assem- 
 bly after its dissolution by the royalist governor. Accord- 
 ingly, on September 5, there met in Philadelphia a congress 
 of fifty-five delegates, every colony being represented but 
 Georgia, where the royal governor was able to defeat an 
 
170 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 attempt to choose delegates. In many respects this was a 
 remarkable gathering. Washington, Patrick Henry, and 
 Kichard Henry Lee were there from Virginia, the Adamses 
 from Massachusetts and Jay from New York. All shades of 
 religious opinion were represented, so much so that John Jay 
 opposed the motion to open with prayer on the ground that 
 there were so many sects that agreement could not be had on 
 a suitable person. But Samuel Adams, stiff Puritan as he 
 was, remarked that "he could hear prayers from any gentle- 
 man of piety who was at the same time a patriot," and moved 
 to invite an Episcopal clergyman, who was present, to serve 
 the convention. The Congress was in session until October 
 2G. It issued an address to the people of the colonies, 
 another to the Canadians, still another to the people of Great 
 Britain, and a fourth to the king. In a declaration of rights, 
 of which the great Pitt said that the "histories of Greece 
 and Rome give us nothing equal to it," they demanded the 
 repeal of eleven of the objectionable acts of parliament, asserted 
 the right to tax themselves, the right to assemi^le peaceably 
 for purposes of petition, and demanded that they be accorded 
 the "rights of Englishmen," as laid down in all their char- 
 ters. One of the most practical results of this Congress was 
 the formation of the American Association. This was a 
 nationalization of the nonimportation idea, giving it more 
 strength and force by more effective organization. On the 
 Port Bill question a decisive resolution of approval of the 
 opposition of Massachusetts thereto was passed. The Con- 
 gress also declared that if force should be used by the king to 
 further carry out the acts of parliament, then, "in such case 
 all America ought to support Massachusetts in her opposi- 
 tion." In many respects this was the most important utter- 
 ance of the Congress, for it threw down the gauntlet to the 
 king and parliament — "persist at your peril." When Con- 
 gress adjourned it provided for another congress, to meet on 
 the 10th of May, following, to consider the answer which 
 the king was expected to make. 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR IXDEPENDEXCE 
 
 171 
 
 208. Battle of Lexington— April 19, 1775: "The Shot Heard 
 Round the World."— During the fall and winter of 1775-76 
 stirring events were occurring in Massachusetts. General 
 Gage, now also governor of Massachusetts, had been 
 reinforced by four regiments of troops who were to awe the 
 people of Massachusetts into submission. The people were 
 still peaceably inclined, but they could not be coerced. They 
 still met in their town meetings and refused to recognize 
 the judges appointed by the king when he had revoked their 
 charter. Under the pressure of public sentiment many of 
 these judges resigned and those who did not resign were 
 forbidden to qualify. Governor- General Gage called the 
 legislature to meet at Salem, but before the time set had 
 arrived he postponed the meeting. However, the legislature 
 proceeded to meet without Gage's consent and at once 
 appointed a committee of safety, one of whose duties was to 
 collect military stores. In February, this committee made 
 provision for the or- 
 ganization of the 
 militia of the state, 
 to resist Gage should 
 he employ force. 
 Thus the winter was 
 passed in prepara- 
 tion for possible war 
 and all of the Amer- 
 ican colonies anx- 
 iously awaited the 
 issue. Finally a per- 
 emptory order came from the king for the arrest of Samuel 
 Adams and John Hancock, two of the most noted of the 
 patriot leaders. They were reported to be at Lexington 
 near Concord, where the colonists had gathered many military 
 stores. Gage concluded to capture the men and destroy the 
 stores at one stroke. But the colonists had not been idle. 
 On the night the expedition was to set out for Lexington 
 
 lEDFOBO;*" ^^ 
 
 w 
 
 BOSTON AND VICINITY 
 
172 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 1 
 
 swift riders carried the warning of the coming expedition. 
 The warning was given in sufficient time, Adams and Han- 
 cock were safe with friends, while the region in the vicinity 
 of Boston was one blaze of signal lights, calling out the 
 minute-men for long-expected action. 
 
 As the Redcoats marched into Lexington, they found a 
 small body of minute-men assembled on the green. Major 
 John Pitcairn was sent to disperse them and in the skirmish 
 I that ensued sev- 
 
 I en of the Ameri- 
 
 cans were killed 
 
 and a number 
 
 wounded. The 
 
 British then 
 
 pressed on to 
 
 Concord, but 
 
 found little to 
 
 destroy, as the 
 
 patriots had 
 
 secreted the 
 
 greater portion 
 
 of the supplies. 
 
 Here another 
 
 skirmish oc- 
 curred, in which 
 
 a small party of 
 
 British were 
 A BRITISH SOLDIER drlveu back to 
 
 their main body. Noticing the rapidity with which the 
 colonists were gathering, Colonel Smith concluded it the 
 better part of valor to get back to Boston. By the time 
 he had left Concord a host of colonial farmers lined the route 
 by which the British must reach Boston. There was little 
 or no organization among these farmers — they were not 
 strong enough to give open battle — but every tree and 
 rock became a breastwork from behind which there blazed 
 
 AX AMERICAN SO LDIKR 
 
THE STRUGGLE POR INDEPENDENCE 173 
 
 forth a withering fire. The day was intensely hot. The 
 British had been under arms and on the march since nine 
 o'clock of the evening before, and by the time Lexington was 
 reached on their retreat they were well-nigh exhausted. The 
 Americans continued their harassing tactics until halted 
 by the guns of the British fleet at Boston. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1775 
 
 209. Gathering of the Hosts. — Thus General Gage had pre- 
 cipitated the Revolution. The Massachusetts assembly met 
 immediately and resolved that Gage "ought to be considered 
 and guarded against as an unnatural and inveterate foe to 
 the country." All New England was instantly alive with 
 militia, all moving toward a common rendezvous outside 
 Boston, and in a few days Gage was confronted with sixteen 
 thousand American soldiers, burning for revenge. General 
 Artemas Ward, of Boston, was placed in temporary com- 
 mand. 
 
 210. Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold at Ticonderoga — May 
 10 ; Seth Warner at Crown Point — May 10. — Benedict Arnold 
 was early on the scene, and calling the attention of the 
 leaders to the importance of securing the forts at Ticonderoga 
 and Crown Point, was given a commission to raise a com- 
 pany for that purpose. But he had been anticipated by the 
 "Green Mountain Boys" under Ethan Allen, who had organ- 
 ized for the same purpose. He thereupon joined the 
 expedition as a volunteer. They arrived on the lake shore 
 opposite the fort on the evening of May 9. Fearing lest 
 their presence should be made known, Allen immediately 
 crossed and in the early morning seized the sleepy sentinels 
 and entered the fort. The surprise was complete. Bursting 
 into the commandant's bedchamber, he astonished that half- 
 
 • awakened officer with a demand for the surrender of the fort. 
 "By whose authority?" "By the authority of the Great 
 Jehovah and the Continental Congress," replied Allen. 
 
174 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 On the very day this scene was happening at Ticonderoga, 
 Seth Warner, with another body of troops, captured Crown 
 Point. Over two hundred cannon, an immense supply of 
 ammunition, and a large quantity of military stores of every 
 description, thus fell into the hands of the Americans. 
 
 211. Second Continental Congress — May 10. — On the very 
 day these stirring events were being enacted in the north, the 
 day set for the convening of the Congress to hear the reply 
 of the king, had arrived. Congress was confronted at once 
 by the most serious questions. The king's only reply had 
 been the sending of a fleet and of an army to punish Massa- 
 chusetts for her rebellious conduct. Some of the members 
 felt that nothing but independence would settle affairs, 
 though all agreed that the time was premature for such a 
 declaration. However, Congress stood by the resolution to 
 meet force with force. It at once accepted the patriot army 
 gathered at Boston and proceeded to provide for its proper 
 officering and support. The session of the Second Con- 
 tinental Congress was practically continuous during the 
 Eevolution, meeting first at Philadelphia, then at such points 
 as were considered safe from the incursions of the British. 
 Without expressly delegated authority, it was forced by the 
 pressure of rapidly transpiring events to act as if it were a 
 legally constituted body, the different colonies in almost 
 every case honoring its acts as such. 
 
 212. Washington Appointed Commander-in-Chief —June 17. 
 — One of the gravest questions before Congress was the selec- 
 tion of a suitable commander-in-chief for the army. The 
 qualities necessary were (1) a strong ^personality, (2) a suc- 
 cessful military experience, (3) a keen insight into character, 
 and (4) a burning patriotism capable of inspiring the army 
 with a spirit that would endure any sacrifice. Though there 
 were other candidates, it very early developed that George 
 Washington, commander of the Virginia state militia, and a 
 delegate to the Congress, would be the choice, and his 
 appointment was unanimously agreed upon. 
 
WASHINGTON'S FAREWELH. TO HIS SIOTHER 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR IXDEPENDENCE 
 
 175 
 
 213. Bunker Hill — June 17. — While the Congress was delib- 
 erating over the grave questions consequent to a state of war, 
 events were progressing toward open conflict at Boston. 
 General William Howe had arrived from England with heavy 
 reinforcements and it was at once resolved to take aggressive 
 measures to put down the rebellion. Gage first issued an 
 amnesty proclamation to all who would renew their allegiance 
 to the king, making an exception of John Hancock and 
 Samuel Adams, "the arch conspirators." This producing 
 no effect, the British were about to begin active measures to 
 dislodge the patriots, when the latter themselves precipitated 
 the issue. Upon the information that Gage had directed 
 General Howe to seize and fortify Dorchester Heights, the 
 Committee of Safety determined on the seizure of Bunker 
 Hill in order to divert Howe. Accordingly, on Sunday 
 night, June IG, Col- 
 onel William Pres- 
 cott was directed to 
 seize that point. 
 With twelve hundred 
 picked men Prescott 
 at first took posses- 
 sion of Bunker Hill, 
 but believing that 
 Breed's Hill, an ad- 
 joining elevation, 
 would be better for 
 the purpose, he threw 
 up fortifications there instead. Great was the astonish- 
 ment of the British at what they were pleased to call 
 the "temerity" of the rebels. A few shells were thrown 
 from the fleet, but it was soon discovered that the Amer- 
 icans could only be dislodged by a land attack or a 
 siege. General Howe accordingly landed three thou- 
 sand troops and stormed the intrench ments. Twice did 
 the brave Redcoats meet the murderous fire; twice 
 
 
 ;'>l|-^JvJ55g«}ws 
 
 CHARLESTOWN I'ENINSrLA, SHOWING BUNKER HILL 
 
176 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 they retired in utter confusion. Then fresh troops were 
 landed and the third time they were led to what seemed 
 inevitable slaughter. But, unfortunately, the Americans 
 had not been supplied with sufficient ammunition. One 
 volley, and then they clubbed their muskets to meet the 
 bayonet charge of the British. Numbers, however, soon 
 told against the Americans, who were forced to retire, though 
 in splendid order and fine spirits. The Americans lost 
 about one-fourth of their number, or four hundred and 
 forty-nine, among them the brave General Joseph Warren, 
 one of the leading patriots of Boston. The British 
 lost one thousand and fifty-four men. Although a vic- 
 tory for the British, it had all the effects of a crushing 
 defeat. It made Sir William Howe an extremely cautious 
 general thereafter, and gave to the British soldier a whole- 
 some fear of and respect for the American yeomanry. 
 Among the colonies the battle inspired in the patriot heart 
 confidence to meet the British foe. King George, after 
 receiving the report of the battle of Bunker Hill, recalled 
 Gage and appointed Howe commander-in-chief of the British 
 forces in America. 
 
 214. Montgomery and Arnold at Quebec. — No further action 
 occurred about Boston during that season. An expedition to 
 Canada was undertaken by the Americans, however, for they 
 believed that a successful blow dealt against Montreal and 
 Quebec would encourage the Canadians to join the colonies in 
 their revolt. The expedition was to consist of two sections. 
 One section, under General Richard Montgomery, was to 
 start from Fort Ticonderoga, take Montreal, and then join 
 Arnold in an attack on Quebec. 
 
 Arnold, after undergoing the most terrible privations and 
 hardships, arrived before Quebec in November, but with his 
 force so reduced by the hardships of the trip that he could 
 muster but seven hundred men for the attack. He was 
 consequently compelled to wait for Montgomery. Upon the 
 latter's arrival an attack was planned from opposite sides of 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 177 
 
 the city to take place the night of December 31. On that 
 night, amid blinding snow and bitter " cold the attack was 
 made with such spirit that the troops fought their way well 
 into the city. At this moment of possible victory, Mont- 
 gomery was killed and his men became so disheartened that 
 they were forced back by the now desperate British. Arnold's 
 attack fared little better, he himself being wounded. His men 
 fought on, however, until overpowered by numbers. This 
 disaster cooled the ardor of the colonists in some degree 
 and taught them to expect but little assistance from the 
 Canadians. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1776 
 
 215. Howe Evacuates Boston— March 17. — July 3, 1775, 
 on the village green at Cambridge, Washington took com- 
 mand of the American army. He was a strict disciplinarian 
 and immediately instituted army regulations and daily 
 drills. His desire was to drive Howe out of Boston as 
 soon as possible. But he dared not make the attempt 
 until the patriot army was properly equipped for the attack, 
 and this proved no easy task. Everything pertaining to the 
 equipping of an army had to be provided. The summer 
 and early winter had passed before Washington felt that his 
 army was in any way a match for the opposing force. 
 Finally, the arrival from Ticonderoga and Crown Point of 
 heavy siege guns and other supplies brought through the 
 almost impenetrable wilderness on sledges drawn over the snow 
 by oxen, made it possible to accomplish the fortification of 
 Dorchester Heights, the key to Boston. 
 
 On the morning of the 5th of March, 1776, the British in 
 Boston were treated to the unwelcome sight of the American 
 flag on Dorchester Heights, commanding the city on the 
 south. Howe thereupon ordered Lord Percy with three 
 thousand troops to take the American position. A storm 
 prevented the attack during the day, and the next morn- 
 ing it was decided that the position was too strong to 
 
178 
 
 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 be carried. Thus had Bunker Hill taught the British to 
 respect American valor. Learning of Howe's intention to 
 evacuate Boston and desiring to avoid a bombardment by 
 the British fleet, which would have inflicted unnecessary 
 damage to private property in Boston, Washington did not 
 attack Howe, allowing him to take his time in evacuating 
 
 BOSTON HARBOK 
 
 the city. It was the 17th of March before the British fleet 
 set sail for Halifax. 
 
 216. The British in the South : Battle of Fort Moultrie— 
 June 28. — In the early spring Howe sent Sir Henry Clinton 
 south with a fleet for the purpose of subduing the southern 
 colonies. Clinton found conditions in North Carolina so 
 favorable to the American cause that he decided to attack 
 Charleston on the South Carolina coast. At Charleston 
 Colonel Moultrie had built on Sullivan's Island a fort 
 which commanded Charleston harbor. The fort was a 
 primitive affair, built out of palmetto logs and sand. In 
 the battle which ensued on the 28th of June, Moultrie's 
 
THE STRUGGLE EOR IXDEPEXDENCE 17D 
 
 fort withstood, with but little damage, a terrific bombard- 
 ment from the ten ships of the British. On the other 
 hand, the aim of the Americans was so well directed that 
 nine of the enemy's ships were disabled. 
 
 217. King George Hires Hessians. — When the abundance of 
 England's resources at that time is considered, it is little 
 wonder that the nations of the world marveled at the temerity 
 of the American colonies in offering resistance to the parent 
 country. England had a large, well-trained army of her 
 own; she had early conciliated the Indians and in the hands 
 of experienced frontiersmen they proved a source of great 
 strength to the English ; but King George still further added 
 to the strength of his armies by the hiring of foreign troops 
 — a practice then quite prevalent among the nations on the 
 continent. Certain small states of Europe made war a busi- 
 ness, training troops for service, and hiring them to such 
 nations as had more money than men. During the Revolu- 
 tion, England sent over about thirty thousand of these 
 mercenaries, for which she paid the enormous sum of nine 
 million dollars. They were called Hessians because the 
 larger number of them were hired from the ruler of Hesse- 
 Cassel. They did the king good service in the field, but this 
 service was greatly counterbalanced by the increased bitter- 
 ness engendered in the minds of the colonists. This hiring 
 of troops by King George also won for the colonists the 
 sympathy of many nations, and strengthened the idea of 
 independence in those colonies which were the most conserv- 
 ative. It roused the just indignation of Frederick the Great 
 in Germany and incensed thousands of liberty-loving Eng- 
 lishmen at home. 
 
 218. Independence Declared — July 4. — It is well to remem- 
 ber that, while many of the leaders had advocated separation 
 and independence before the Declaration was given to the 
 world, still the great mass of the colonists at first neither 
 asked for it nor thought it a necessary outcome to the strug- 
 gle in which they were now engaged. An actual state of 
 
180 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 war had existed over a year before the idea of independence 
 was strong enough to carry in a majority of the colonies. 
 North Carolina was the first to give public utterance to the 
 idea, her assembly passing a resolution, April 22, instruct- 
 ing her delegates in Congress to "concur with those in other 
 colonies in declaring independence." Virginia followed with 
 a similar request, and on June 7 one of her able delegates, 
 Richard Henry Lee, offered the following resolution for the 
 consideration of Congress: 
 
 "Resolved, That these United Colonies are, and of right 
 ought to be, free and independent states; that they are 
 
 INDEPENDENCE HALL 
 
 absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that 
 all political connection between them and the state of Great 
 Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." 
 
 The resolution was postponed until after the delegates 
 could get instructions from their constituencies. It was 
 brought up for consideration again on July 1, and on the 
 following day, after full debate, was passed by Congress. 
 A committee was immediately appointed to draft the Beclar- 
 
thp: struggle fok ixdepexdence 181 
 
 ation. This committee consisted of Thomas Jefferson, John 
 Adams, Roger Sherman, Benjamin Franklin, and Robert R. 
 Livingston. Jefferson, as chairman of the committee, wrote 
 the Declaration, and it was adopted with little change on the 
 evening of July 4, 1776, when it was announced to the 
 populace by the ringing of the old Liberty Bell which hung 
 in the tower of Independence Hall. The Declaration was 
 immediately published to the world and was received in all 
 the colonies with public demonstrations of approval. There 
 were many, however, who felt the truth of Franklin's half 
 jocular remark, made while the members were signing the 
 engrossed copy. The president, John Hancock, feeling the 
 gravity of the occasion, had urged all to stand by their 
 action, adding, *'We must all hang together." "Yes," 
 replied Franklin, "or we shall assuredly all hang sep- 
 arately." 
 
 While Jefferson wrote the Declaration, and John Adams 
 and John Witherspoon, by their eloquence, aided in its 
 adoption still it was not the work of any one man nor com- 
 pany of men — in a broader sense it was the voice of the whole 
 American people speaking through their representatives in 
 Congress. It represented the public conscience of America 
 at the time. While astonishing, it won the respect and 
 admiration of nearly every country in Europe. Its passage 
 on the evening of July 4, 1776, marks the birth of the 
 republic. As America's first great state paper it cannot be 
 omitted from these pages. Its full text follows : 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED STATES 
 OF AMERICA 
 
 When, in the course of human events it becomes necessary for 
 one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected 
 them with another and to assume among the powers of the earth, 
 
182 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of 
 nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of man- 
 kind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them 
 to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created 
 equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalien- 
 able rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
 happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted 
 among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the 
 governed ; that whenever any form of government becomes destruc- 
 tive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish 
 it, and to institute new government laying its foundation on such 
 principles and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall 
 seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, 
 indeed, will dictate that governments long established, should not 
 be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all 
 experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, 
 while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
 the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of 
 abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
 evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
 right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide 
 new guards for their future security. — Such has been the patient 
 sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which 
 constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The 
 history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated 
 injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establish- 
 ment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let 
 facts be submitted to a candid world. 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and neces- 
 sary for the public good. 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
 pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
 assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly 
 neglected to attend to them. 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
 districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
 representation in the legislature, a right inestimable to them and 
 formidable to tyrants only. 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
 uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public 
 records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with 
 his measures. 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR IXDEPENDENCE 183 
 
 He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
 with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
 others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
 annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; 
 the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers 
 of invasion from without, and convulsions within. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for 
 that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; 
 refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and 
 raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his 
 assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure of 
 their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms 
 of oflScers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 
 
 He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies with- 
 out the consent of our legislatures. 
 
 He has affected to render the military independent of and 
 superior to the civil power. 
 
 He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction for- 
 eign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving 
 his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 
 
 For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
 murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these 
 States : 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world : 
 
 For imposing taxes on us without our consent : 
 
 For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury : 
 
 For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses : 
 
 For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
 province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and 
 enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example 
 and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these 
 colonies : 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable 
 laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments: 
 
 For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves 
 invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro- 
 tection and waging war against us. 
 
184 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
 and destroyed the lives of our people. 
 
 He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mer- 
 cenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, 
 already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely 
 paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the 
 head of a civilized nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
 seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners 
 of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has 
 endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merci- 
 less Indian savages, w^hose known rule of warfare, is an undistin- 
 guished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. 
 
 In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress 
 in the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been ans- 
 wered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus 
 marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the 
 ruler of a free people. 
 
 Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. 
 We have warned them 'from time to time of attempts by their 
 legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We 
 have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and 
 settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and mag- 
 nanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common 
 kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably 
 interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have 
 been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, 
 therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our separa- 
 tion, and hold them, as we hold the rest of ^mankind, enemies in 
 war, in peace friends. 
 
 We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of Amer- 
 ica, in general Congress, assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge 
 of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name, 
 and by authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly 
 publish and declare. That these United Colonies are, and of right 
 ought to be free and independent States ; that they are absolved 
 from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political con- 
 nection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought 
 to be totally dissolved ; and that as free and independent States, 
 they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alli- 
 ances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which 
 independent States may of right do. And for the support of this 
 
BENJAMIN FRANliHN 
 ROBERT MORRIS 
 
 THOMAS JEFl^ERSON 
 JOHN ADAMS 
 
 T^TTAT-r^TTT'^rTOTC AT?^V^ T^THATIERS 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 
 
 185 
 
 declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Prov- 
 idence, w^e mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, 
 and our sacred honor. John Hancock. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 Josiah Bartlett, 
 Wm. Whipple, 
 Matthew Thornton. 
 
 Massachusetts Bay. 
 Saml. Adams, 
 John Adams, 
 Robt. Treat Paine, 
 Elbridge Gerry. 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 Step. Hopkins, 
 William Ellery. 
 
 Connecticut. 
 Roger Sherman, 
 Sam'el Huntington, 
 Wm. Williams, 
 Oliver Wolcott. 
 
 New York. 
 Wm. Floyd, 
 Phil. Livingston, 
 Frans. Lewis, 
 Lewis Morris. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 Richd. Stockton, 
 Jno. Witherspoon, 
 Fras. Hopkinson, 
 John Hart, 
 Abra. Clark. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 Robt. Morris, 
 Benjamin Rush, 
 Benja. Franklin, 
 John Morton, 
 Geo. Clymer, 
 Jas. Smith, 
 Geo. Taylor, 
 James Wilson, 
 Geo. Ross. 
 
 Delaware. 
 Csesar Rodney, 
 Geo. Read, 
 Tho. M'Kean. 
 
 Maryland. 
 Samuel Chase, 
 Wm. Paca, 
 Thos. Stone, 
 
 Charles Carroll of 
 Carrollton. 
 
 Virginia. 
 George Wythe, 
 Richard Henry Lee, 
 Th. Jefferson, 
 Benja. Harrison, 
 Thos. Nelson, Jr., 
 Francis Lightfoot Lee 
 Carter Braxton. 
 
 North] Carolina. 
 Wm. Hooper, 
 Joseph Hewes, 
 John Penn. 
 
 Soiith Carolina. 
 Edward Rutledge, 
 Thos. Heyward, 
 
 Junr. , 
 Thomas Lynch, Junr. 
 Arthur Middleton. 
 
 Georgia. 
 Button Gwinnett, 
 Lyman Hall, 
 Geo. Walton. 
 
 219. "Washington at New York. — Having forced the British 
 to evacuate Boston, Washington soon repaired to New York. 
 Washington had selected New York because he felt sure 
 that Howe would make his next attack at that point. In 
 this his judgment proved correct, for hardly had the Ameri- 
 can army seized and fortified the commanding position of 
 Brooklyn Heights ere the British arrived from Halifax 
 under Sir William Howe, reinforced by a fleet from England 
 under command of Admiral Howe, brother of Sir William. 
 
 220. The Howes Offer Peace. — The British government still 
 clung to the idea that the colonists would * 'repent of their 
 
186 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 folly," and the Howes were jointly commissioned to publish 
 an amnesty proclamation offering pardon to all those who 
 had been engaged in rebellion. As they were not commis- 
 sioned to recognize the existence in any way of a separate 
 
 «j« WILMINGTON 
 
 ^ ::wwi 
 
 f. 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 government, and had nothing to offer but pardon to those 
 who would admit no guilt, nothing came of their overtures 
 and they were under tlie necessity of continuing the war. 
 They at once planned to capture New York, seize the Hud- 
 son river, and cut New England off from the other colonies. 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 187 
 
 They began operations by landing a heavy force for the 
 capture of Brooklyn Heights. 
 
 221. Battle of Long Island — August 27: Loss of New 
 York. — The intrenchments on Brooklyn Heights were 
 occupied by General Israel Putnam with nine thousand 
 men. The British advanced to the attack in three divi- 
 sions. Two of these divisions succeeded in surrounding a 
 force under Generals Stirling and Sullivan and these two 
 generals with a thousand troops were captured. Night com- 
 ing on, the British took position as if for a siege. Washington 
 arrived with reinforcements the next day. Knowing that the 
 British would cut off the retreat of the army if it was not 
 moved at once, Washington that night set the army in motion. 
 Under cover of a dense fog he safely carried the entire 
 army to the New York side bringing with him every piece 
 of ordnance and all his army supplies. New York was now 
 untenable and AVashington withdrew to the highlands north 
 of the city. 
 
 222. Nathan Hale. — An incident occurred during the Long 
 Island campaign which brought home to the colonists the 
 cruelties of war. Nathan Hale was a captain in the Ameri- 
 can army. Washington, desiring information concerning 
 the movements of the British on Long Island, Captain Hale 
 volunteered for the service. He had secured the informa- 
 tion and was returning, when he was recognized and arrested. 
 He was tried and convicted as a spy and after a brief period 
 was hanged. The patriot was treated with undue severity — 
 the farewell letters of his motherland sister being destroyed, 
 the service of a minister denied, and even a Bible withheld. 
 He was a true patriot to the last, going to his death with 
 these noble words: "I regret only that I have but one life 
 to give to my country." 
 
 223. Retreat of Washington Across the Delaware. — Gen- 
 eral Howe now advanced to the highlands outside the city of 
 New York whereupon Washington withdrew from Harlem 
 Heights to White Plains, later intrenching himself at 
 
188 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 North Castle. The British commander, however, remem- 
 bering his experience at Bunker Hill, could not be induced 
 to give battle there. The Hudson was guarded by Forts 
 Washington and Lee. It was hoped that these forts would 
 be strong enough to prevent the British fleet, under Admiral 
 Howe, from passing up the river, but the fleet, passing them, 
 landed a large body of the British above the forts, thus 
 practically cutting off their garrisons from the rest of the 
 American army. Washington thereupon ordered General 
 Nathaniel Greene to abandon the forts unless some military 
 condition arose that would make their retention possible. 
 Greene thought Fort Washington on the east bank of the 
 river might be held and reinforced it. But Greene erred 
 in judgment. Howe sent an overwhelming force against the 
 fort, and though the Americans desperately defended their 
 position, their whole force, consisting of three thousand 
 men, was captured (November 16), and an immense quantity 
 of supplies fell into the hands of the British, 
 
 Fort Lee was abandoned and its garrison of two thousand 
 men joined General Israel Putnam's force in New Jersey. 
 AVashington himself took command of this force of six thou- 
 sand men, and, sending peremptory orders for General 
 Charles Lee to follow and join him, with his troops, moved 
 slowly south, seeking a strong position for the battle which 
 he felt sure Howe would now hazard. 
 
 224. General Charles Lee. — Lee, upon whom Washington 
 depended, proved unworthy. He had seen service in the Eng- 
 lish army, and, coming to America with Braddock, had served 
 through the French war. He was now second in command. 
 Could he by delay or in any other manner compass the down- 
 fall of Washington, he was in line for immediate advance- 
 ment to the head of the army. Sending flimsy excuses to 
 Washington to account for his delay, he occupied himself in 
 strengthening his position and in poisoning the public mind 
 against the commander-in-chief, who by this time had begun 
 to suffer from criticism incident to the loss of New York 
 
THE STKUGGLE FOR IXDEPENDEKOE 189 
 
 and the two forts on the Hudson. Finally, under a positive 
 order from Washington to join him immediately with all his 
 troops, Lee set out leisurely with but half his force and was 
 captured by the enemy when he had proceeded but a short 
 distance. It is not known whether this was a part of a pre- 
 arranged plan or not, but Lee's subsequent career seems to 
 indicate that it was. He was taken as a prisoner to New 
 York and while there held the confidence of General Howe, 
 giving that general all the information he was possessed of 
 concerning the American cause. Just before the evacuation 
 of Philadelphia, of which we shall learn later, Lee was 
 exchanged, and Washington, in ignorance of his true char- 
 acter, gave him his old command. Lee's action at the battle 
 of Monmouth shortly after his exchange gives added color 
 to the charge that his exchange was part of his plan to ruin 
 the American cause if he could not rule it. Before the war 
 closed he was cashiered from the army and passed the 
 remainder of his days in obscurity and disgrace. 
 
 225. The Barkest Period of the War. — After the capture 
 of Lee, Sullivan took command of his division. In the 
 meantime Washington had retreated slowly toward the 
 Delaware, being followed by a force double his number under 
 the command of Lord Cornwallis, one of the fighting gen- 
 erals of the English army. The retreat was conducted with 
 great skill, but so close were the two armies that bridges 
 fired by the Americans would still be burning when the British 
 arrived. With his usual forethought, Washington sent men 
 ahead to collect all the boats on the Delaware river. With 
 these boats he carried his army across the Delaware with 
 such dispatch that when Cornwallis arrived the swollen 
 Delaware lay between him and his prey. But as Washington 
 lighted his fires on the opposite bank, it was in the midst of 
 a gloom that would have crushed the spirit of an ordinary 
 general. His little army had dwindled to less than three 
 thousand men and many of these were not fit for duty. 
 The patriot army was poorly fed and clothed because of the 
 
190 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 mismanagement of the quartermaster's department. The 
 army was unpaid because Congress had been unable to pro- 
 vide a stable currency in the face of so many disasters. 
 Only the indomitable will and superb courage of Washing- 
 ton saved the cause from utter ruin. 
 
 226. Trenton— December 26, 1776: Princeton — Jan. 3, 
 1777. — It was in the midst of this despondency and gloom 
 that a revelation of Washington's genius caused a flood of 
 light and ecstasy of joy to sweep over the country. Corn- 
 wallis had disposed his troops comfortably in the several 
 small towns along the Delaware, across from Washington's 
 position. Here the British rested in fancied security, waiting 
 for the river to freeze over, when they expected to cross 
 and crush the American army. At Trenton, across from 
 the patriot camp, was a body of one thousand Hessians. 
 Burlington, further down, sheltered another force. One of 
 the American divisions was to attack this latter force. 
 Another was to cross directly to Trenton, landing below the 
 village, while Washington, with two thousand five hundred 
 troops, was to cross nine miles above and march down the 
 east side of the Delaware. Boats were gathered for the pur- 
 pose, and on Christmas Day all was ready. Ice was running 
 in heavy floes in the river and after several attempts, two of 
 the divisions gave up the task of crossing the stream. Not 
 so the dauntless commander. Receiving word as he was 
 about to embark that the other divisions had returned, 
 Washington seemed to take courage at their failure. Mid 
 drifting snow and the ceaseless rush of ice, the boatmen 
 worked manfully until Washington's entire division had 
 reached the opposite bank. A swift march to Trenton, a 
 sudden charge, the Hessian call to arms, the surrender — 
 tell briefly the story of this brilliant exploit. W^ashington 
 returned to camp with a thousand prisoners and with the 
 loss of but four of his men. 
 
 Again crossing on the 29th of December, Washington 
 occupied Trenton. Cornwallis soon confronted him there. 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDEXCE 191 
 
 Washington's position was one of peril — a raging river was 
 behind him, in front of him was a veteran army in the hands 
 of a famous general. But Washington was equal to the 
 occasion. Learning that Cornwallis had left part of his 
 force at Princeton, he boldly lighted his campfires, and the 
 two armies bivouacked for tlie night. Leaving a small force 
 to keep up the fires, Washington marched silently around the 
 British and in the morning fell with sudden fnry on the 
 detachment at Princeton, which he routed with great loss. 
 Before Cornwallis could recover from his surprise, Washing- 
 ton withdrew into the hill country near Morristown, a strong 
 position which guarded the Highlands on the Hudson and 
 the roads to Philadelphia as well. Cornwallis recognized his 
 danger at once and retreated in all haste to New Brunswick 
 in order to preserve his communication with New York. 
 
 The effect of these brilliant achievements was to put new 
 life into the languishing patriot cause. Washington was 
 the hero of the hour. So great a military expert as Fred- 
 erick the Great pronounced Washington's successes as 
 among the most brilliant achievements of history. Supplies 
 came in, the army was clothed and paid, and when the 
 spring opened, hope had revived. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1777 
 
 227. Lafayette, Steuben, and other Foreign Patriots. — The 
 
 Revolution had now passed the stage of a "mere rebellion by 
 a band of insurgents," as it had been characterized at first 
 in England and on the continent. The brilliant work of 
 Washington as a general was attracting wide attention and 
 many able officers came from Europe to America, either to 
 witness the conduct of the war or to engage actively in the 
 service of the colonies. Of the latter class were Lafayette, 
 Steuben, De Kalb, Kosciuszko, and Count Pulaski. 
 
 The Marquis de Lafayette was a young French nobleman 
 whose love of liberty made him a firm friend of the colonies 
 at the very beginning of the revolutionary struggle. He pos- 
 
192 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 sessed a large fortune and gave liberally to the patriot cause. 
 Finally, fitting out a ship with supplies for the American 
 army, he himself came to the colonies to fight for American 
 liberty. He was but nineteen years of age, but the condi- 
 tions of his coming and his manly bearing convinced Wash- 
 ington that Lafayette could be intrusted with responsibility. 
 The zeal with which he entered into the cause of the colonies 
 led Congress to make him a major-general and give him a 
 place in Washington's command, where he served with dis- 
 tinction throughout the remainder of the war. 
 
 Baron Steuben had seen service under the great Frederick. 
 He joined the army during the terrible winter at Valley 
 Forge and, by his vigorous methods and his talent as a drill- 
 master, put new life and strength into the patriot cause. 
 
 Baron De Kalb, a French officer who had come to Amer- 
 ica with Lafayette, entered the army and did valiant service, 
 especially in the southern campaign, where in one of the 
 engagements he was mortally wounded. 
 
 Kosciuszko was a young Polish officer who early joined the 
 patriot cause. His principal service was rendered as an 
 engineer, he having planned the fortifications at West Point. 
 
 Count Pulaski was another Polish officer who did valiant 
 service at Brandywine and Charleston, receiving his death 
 wound at the battte of Savannah. 
 
 228. British Plan of Attack— 1777.— The British now 
 resolved to possess the upper Hudson and Champlain regions 
 and establish a line of communication from New York to 
 Canada, thereby completely severing New England from the 
 other colonies. A campaign of a threefold nature was therefore 
 undertaken to carry out this plan. General Sir John Burgoyne 
 was to lead an army from Canada by way of Lake Champlain ; 
 Major Barry St. Leger was to enter the Mohawk valley by 
 way of Lake Ontario; and Howe was to move up the Hudson 
 River. As soon as practicable, the three forces were to 
 cooperate for the capture and overthrow of the American 
 army of the north. 
 
 I 
 
THE iSTKUGGLE FOR IXDEPEXDEXCE 
 
 i'j3 
 
 229. Burgoyne Starts. — Burgoyne's first great blunder was 
 the enlistment of a liorde of savages, who, as his army 
 advanced, murdered friend and foe alike. Their atrocities 
 drove the colonists to a frenzy and the whole countryside 
 
 rose against them and their 
 
 English sponsors. This made 
 it impossible for Burgoyne to 
 secure supplies for his army as 
 he advanced. He therefore had 
 to keep up his line of com- 
 munication from Canada, which 
 greatly reduced his fighting 
 force at the front. General 
 Philip Schuyler commanded 
 the patriot army in the Hud- 
 son valley. Not having suffi- 
 cient force to meet the enemy 
 in open battle, he adopted a 
 policy that was ultimately suc- 
 cessful. He slowly retreated 
 before Burgoyne and when the 
 portage between Lake George 
 and the Hudson was reached, 
 obstructed the roads by fell- 
 ing trees and burning bridges 
 with such success that Bur- 
 goyne's army could advance 
 but a mile a day. This gave 
 time for Schuyler's army to 
 recruit from the surrounding 
 country. 
 
 230. The Battle of Bennington— August 16.— Supplies for 
 the invading army were becoming scarce. Burgoyne learned 
 that at Bennington in the Green Mountain country, was a 
 patriot storehouse, and he detached Colonel Baum with a 
 thousand Hessian troops, with instructions to capture the 
 
194 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 place. Colonel John Stark assumed the command of the 
 Americans of that region, but all he could muster was a little 
 band of four hundred patriots. Colonel Stark's battle call 
 has become famous: "There the Kedcoats are, my boys. 
 "VVe must capture them ere night, or Mollie Stark will be a 
 widow." In the battle that ensued over two hundred of 
 the Hessians were killed and seven hundred captured. 
 
 231. St. Leger Meets with Disaster. — The British cause 
 was further endangered by the total rout of the expedition 
 under St. Leger who had proceeded down the Mohawk valley 
 to attack the Americans at Fort Stanwix. While General 
 Nicholas Herkimer was hastening to the relief of the besieged 
 fort, he was ambuscaded at Oriskany by St. Leger's Tories 
 and Indians. A bloody battle ensued, in which one third of 
 those engaged were left dead upon the field. Herkimer with 
 but a remnant of his followers was received into the inclosure 
 of the fort. During the battle with Herkimer the brave 
 company in the fort sallied forth and, driving off the British, 
 captured their entire camp and supplies. Returning from 
 Oriskany the British continued the siege. Benedict Arnold 
 soon appeared upon the scene, whereupon St. Leger, deserted 
 by his Indian allies, was forced to retreat. 
 
 232. The Stars and Stripes. — When the American force 
 made the sally from Fort Stanwix mentioned above it 
 captured five British flags, which were at once hoisted upside 
 down above the ramparts of the fort. High above them all 
 there was flung to the breeze for the first time the Stars and 
 Stripes — the new flag of the American Republic. Congress 
 had voted on June 14, 1777, that the national flag should 
 consist of thirteen horizontal red and white stripes — seven 
 red and six white — with thirteen white stars in a circle on a 
 blue field in the upper staff corner of the flag. None of the 
 new flags having been issued to the army at the time, the 
 Americans at Fort Stanwix hastily made one from a soldier's 
 blue jacket, scraps of red flannel, and strips of an officer's 
 white shirt. Prior to the adoption of the Stars and Stripes, 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR IKDEPENDEKCE 195 
 
 flags of various designs had been used by the different patriot 
 armies. Washington used the new flag for the first time at 
 the battle of Brandywine. The flag was changed in 1792 to 
 flf teen stripes and fifteen stars on account of the admission of 
 Vermont and Kentucky to the union. In 1818, when it was 
 restored to thirteen stripes, it was voted that the number of 
 stars in the blue field should equal the number of states in 
 the Republic. 
 
 233. The Two Battles of Saratoga— Sept. 19 and Oct. 7 : 
 Burgoyne's Surrender — Oct. 17. — Burgoyne now had but one 
 hope. Howe must come, and that quickly, or disaster would 
 follow. Howe did not come, nor could Burgoyne even hear 
 from him. Affairs grew worse daily in the British camp, as 
 the Americans were now in sufficient force to give battle. 
 Just at this moment occurred one of those events in army 
 politics which sometimes disgrace the page of history. 
 The patient, vigilant, resourceful General Schuyler, just 
 ready to pluck the fruits of his consummate strategy, 
 was superseded by General Horatio Gates. Schuyler's 
 patriotism shines out on the pages of American history — 
 he communicated to Gates every detail of his plan to capture 
 the British army and remained with Gates to assist him in 
 carrying out these plans. Burgoyne, now thoroughly beset, 
 decided to try to fight his way southward, where he hoped 
 to meet Howe. Crossing the Hudson, Burgoyne attacked the 
 Americans in their strongly intrenched position at Bemis 
 Heights, and the first battle of Saratoga ensued (Sept. 19). 
 After a fierce engagement Burgoyne was compelled to with- 
 draw. Three weeks passed, and as aid promised by Howe 
 still failed to come, Burgoyne decided to try to break through 
 the American lines. The British attacked desperately, but 
 they were so outnumbered by the American army that they 
 were forced to retire (Oct. 7). Burgoyne now attempted 
 to retreat, but on reaching the river he found all the 
 fords strongly guarded. The Americans were pressing him 
 eagerly on every side, his supplies were gone, and nothing 
 
100 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 was left to him but to surrender his entire army, comprising 
 nearly six thousand men. This surrender occurred on the 
 ITth of October. The defeat of one of her ablest generals 
 and of an army of her best troops humiliated England beyond 
 measure and correspondingly raised the hopes of the colonies. 
 France, pleased with the result, soon openly espoused the 
 cause of the colonies and the French alliance followed. 
 
 234. Battle of Brandy wine — Sept. 11: Philadelphia 
 Taken. — It was the last of June and Burgoyne's expedition, 
 
 -^i^r^^^^--<^'^^^^:^:AJ^^'^ 
 
 
 
 PHILADELPHIA AND VTCI>rTTY 
 
 just started, was moving southward from Canada with but 
 little opposition, when Howe made a fatal error by acting on 
 che advice of his prisoner, Charles Lee. He moved south 
 against Washington instead of assisting Burgoyne's expedi- 
 tion as originally planned. The following of Lee's advice by 
 Howe resulted, as we have just seen, in the loss to the British 
 government of an army of ten thousand men, the disaffec- 
 tion of a large number of Indian allies, the surrender of the 
 control of a vast extent of territory, and further in the secur- 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPEXDEXCE 19? 
 
 ing to the American republic its recognition as an independ- 
 ent nation by the French government. Fearing that 
 Washington might strike him at an unfavorable point if he 
 marched overland, Howe embarked his army on the fleet and 
 sailed for Philadelphia by way of Chesapeake Bay. He con- 
 sumed nearly two months in the voyage, and when he landed 
 his troops at the head of Chesapeake Bay found Washington 
 in his front. The American commander retreated slowly 
 before Howe's advance. Finally taking position on Brandy- 
 wine Creek on the 11th of September, he met the British 
 in the battle of Brandywine, which was a British victory, 
 dearly bought. Two weeks later Howe entered Philadelphia. 
 
 235. Germantown — Oct. 4. — The greater part of the Brit- 
 ish army was encamped about Germantown, a village six 
 miles from Philadelphia, and Washington planned an attack 
 on it. On the night of October 4, separating his army into 
 four divisions, he closed in on the enemy by four different 
 roads. The British were yielding on all sides, when one of 
 their divisions took a position at a stone house which 
 offered excellent opportunity for defence. During the 
 delay occasioned by the stubborn resistance at this point, 
 two divisions of the American army met, and, a dense fog 
 preventing recognition, engaged in a pitched battle. Before 
 the mistake was discovered the Americans were seized with 
 a panic, whereupon the British, recovering themselves, com- 
 pelled Washington to withdraw. 
 
 236. The Winter at Valley Forge. — Washington then went 
 into winter quarters at Valley Forge, a point on the west side 
 of the Schuylkill Eiver, twenty miles from Philadelphia, as 
 the most available place from which to watch Howe. That 
 winter was a most severe one, and Howe, always an indolent 
 general, was well content to remain in his comfortable quar- 
 ters in Philadelphia. It was fortunate for the Americans that 
 no active field operations were required, for they were 
 scantily clothed and had but few supplies save those secured 
 from the country roundabout. Intense suffering was the 
 
198 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 portion of all, even the officers having the scantiest of fare. 
 As in prosperity, so in adversity, the commander-in-chief of 
 the army shared in its fortunes. He remained in the camp 
 the entire winter, giving encouragement and counsel to all 
 and keeping the men as busy as possible, that they might 
 forget their sufferings. The bitterness of this period was 
 made the greater to Washington from the fact that he knew 
 it was due to the culpable neglect and mismanagement on 
 the part of the commissary department. There was an 
 abundance in the country to clothe and to feed the army. 
 Washington did no greater service during the entire war than 
 in holding the suffering patriot army together daring this 
 terrible winter. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1778 
 
 237. The Conway Cabal. — This period of the war was one 
 
 of discontent in both the army and in Congress, and was 
 seized upon by ambitious and designing men as an opportune 
 time to molest and annoy the commander-in-chief. Wash- 
 ington had lost the Philadelphia campaign. Gates was the 
 hero of the hour on account of Burgoyne's surrender, though 
 the truth was that he deserved little credit. Congress, 
 unfortunately, was full of politicians that winter, who failed 
 to grasp the situation, or measure up to its requirements; 
 and, shame be it said, laid all the blame on Washington. 
 In this atmosphere a cabal was formed against Washington 
 by a number of his subordinate officers with the purpose of 
 deposing him from command and putting Gates in his place. 
 Conway, the jealous inspector-general; Gates, the selfish 
 schemer; Mifflin, the incompetent quartermaster-general, 
 and a few others, were the leading conspirators. Owing to 
 the popularity of Washington with the people, and to the 
 foolish blunders made by these unworthy officers, tlie cabal 
 failed utterly. It was met by the people with such a storm 
 of indignation that all who could, hastened to deny connec- 
 tion with it. 
 
THE STRUGGLE EOR INDEPENDENCE 199 
 
 238. France Acknowledges the Independence of the United 
 States of America — Feb. 6: The French Alliance. — From the 
 very beginning of the war the colonies had had the sympathy 
 of the French, who were pleased to be afforded an oppor- 
 tunity to harass their old enemy, the English. But the 
 French, while they had in secret greatly aided the American 
 cause, could not be persuaded to acknowledge the inde- 
 pendence of the colonies nor to aid them openly until it 
 should become apparent to the French government that the 
 colonies when thus supported by France could win in the 
 struggle against the English. After tlie capture of Bur- 
 goyne's army the French king felt that the time had come to 
 deal England a blow. He therefore, early in February, acknowl- 
 edged the independence of the United States of America. In 
 the treaty which followed between France and the young 
 republic it was agreed that neither party should make peace 
 with England without the consent of the other. The French 
 government had already made a large loan to the colonies. 
 It now increased this loan and promised a fleet and four thou- 
 sand troops at once. The alliance not only increased the 
 fighting strength of the army, but strengthened the financial 
 credit of the United States, as well; The French alliance 
 was largely due to the influence of Benjamin Franklin at the 
 French court. Franklin was the great diplomat of the 
 Revolution. 
 
 239. England Offers All but Independence. — England, still 
 suffering from the humiliation caused by the Burgoyne sur- 
 render, sought to stay the alliance, but her efforts were in 
 vain. She offered peace, everything but independence, if the 
 colonies would but renounce the alliance; but neither Con- 
 gress nor Washington would listen to England's appeal. 
 
 240. Clinton Evacuates Philadelphia : Battle of Monmouth 
 — June 28. — As soon as Sir Henry Clinton, who had suc- 
 .ceeded Howe, heard of the departure of the French fleet 
 for America, he decided to abandon Philadelphia, lest New 
 York should be captured by the combined armies. In the 
 
200 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 latter part of June, 1778, he took up his march for New 
 York through New Jersey. AVashington was loth to allow 
 Clinton to reach New York without striking his army a blow. 
 He therefore set the American army in motion and, keeping 
 abreast of the British on parallel roads, watched for an 
 opportunity. It presented itself at Monmouth, where Clin- 
 ton turned east, leaving the van of his army exposed. "Wash- 
 ington detached six thousand men and sent them against 
 this body. Unfortunately for the success of the venture, 
 
 Washington put General Charles 
 Lee in command. Lee had been 
 exchanged in April, and was 
 allowed to claim his old position. 
 The attack was beo^un and was 
 proceeding most favorably to the 
 Americans when Lee ordered a 
 retreat, and confusion 
 soon reigned. But 
 Washington, receiv- 
 ing word of the re- 
 treat, rode in hot 
 haste to the field, and 
 a f t e r reprimanding 
 Lee severely, rallied 
 the troops and saved 
 the day. It was a 
 draw n battle, the 
 British continuing on their way to New York. Lee's dis- 
 graceful conduct proved his undoing. He was court-mar- 
 tialed, suspended from the service for a year, and later 
 dismissed from the army. 
 
 241. Wyoming Massacre— July 3. — Wyoming Valley was 
 a fertile frontier valley in Pennsylvania which had been settled 
 largely by people from Connecticut. Most of their fight- 
 ing force had enlisted in the patriot cause, and when the 
 Tory leader. Major Ikitler, and his Indians appeared in the 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 201 
 
 valley in July there were but a few boys and aged men 
 to ojDpose him. The inhabitants had been warned of But- 
 ler's approach and a force of two hundred and thirty brave 
 souls had finally gathered. The odds were too great and 
 the settlers were soon overwhelmed. The scalps of all but 
 three of the brave little band dangled from Indian girdles 
 before the night closed on the horrible butchery. Cherry 
 Valley, in New York, also suffered heavily at the hands 
 of the Tories and Indians under the leadership of the noted 
 Joseph Brant, chief of the Mohawk Indians. 
 
 The next year a force under General Sullivan completely 
 routed the Indians, and the frontier was thus relieved for a 
 time of a terrible scourge. 
 
 242. Sullivan and the French Fail at Newport. — The prom- 
 ised French force, consisting of a fleet with some four thou- 
 sand soldiers, arrived early in the summer of 1778. The 
 British had collected a considerable force at Newport. 
 Accordingly, great preparations were made for a combined 
 attack there. Sullivan was put in command of the land 
 forces, and everything pointed to success. During the 
 last days of July the French fleet, under Count d'Estaing, 
 appeared and the attack was about to begin when operations 
 were interrupted by the appearance of the English fleet 
 under Admiral Howe. A halt was called and the French 
 commander put to sea for the purpose of engaging the Eng- 
 lish fleet. 
 
 Just as the engagement was about to begin, a severe storm 
 arose, partially wrecking both fleets. The French fleet went 
 to Boston for repairs and Howe returned to New York. It 
 being harvest time, the militia refused to remain, and thus 
 Sullivan found himself unable to push the siege. 
 
 243. Savannah Captured : Georgia Retaken by the British. 
 — The last event of the year 1778 was the capture in Decem- 
 ber of Savannah by three thousand British under Sir Archi- 
 bald Campbell. The city of Savannah and the whole 
 province of Georgia thus fell into the hands of the British, 
 
202 HISTORY- OF THE UNITED STATES _ 
 
 and the royal governor, who had been deposed by the colo- 
 nists, was now reinstated. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1779 
 
 244. Paul Jones and the Navy. — During the Revolution the 
 navy was a source of great strength to the American cause. 
 Not, however, the navy as it is known to-day. The navy of 
 the Revolution consisted of a few ships of as large dimen- 
 sions as were built in those days, and a vast number of 
 smaller craft owned by private individuals. It is estimated 
 that seventy thousand Americans served on board ship during 
 
 the Revolution, as against 
 forty - seven thousand on 
 land. In the first year of 
 the war Congress began the 
 construction of a navy, and 
 thirteen frigates were built. 
 Some of these greatly 
 harassed the enemy for a 
 SHIPS OF THE PERIOD wliilc, but thc strougth and 
 
 vigilance of the British navy 
 at last proved too great for them, so that by 1781 all these 
 frigates had been captured or destroyed. The service of the 
 smaller craft was felt in the privateering expeditions which 
 were carried on with untiring zeal by the American sailors 
 — the commerce of England suffering the loss of millions 
 by their activity. 
 
 The most noted of tlie regularly commissioned officers of 
 the navy was Paul Jones. In September of 1779, he was 
 put in command of a small fleet and soon fell in with a fleet 
 of merchantmen under the protection of the Serapis and 
 another vessel. With his own ship, the Bon Homme Richard, 
 he engaged the Serapis. The sailing qualities of the Serapis 
 being superior to the Richard, Jones closed with his antagonist 
 and lashed the two vessels together. In the desperate hand-to- 
 hand fight which then ensued, nearly half the force engaged 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 
 
 203 
 
 was killed or wounded. Both ships were on fire and the 
 Richard was sinking, when the British colors were struck. 
 Both combatants exhibited the very sublimity of courage. 
 It is said that Captain Pearson of the Serapis stood abso- 
 
 
 lutely alone on the deck when the 
 
 surrender was made, those of his 
 crew left alive being too exhausted 
 to stand. 
 
 245. Colonel Clark and His 
 
 Work in the West. — Young men 
 played an important part in the 
 
 Revolution. At twenty - six 
 George Eogers Clark did won- 
 ders in the west, and a service 
 to his country, the results of 
 which can hardly be estimated. 
 After the French war, the old 
 French line of military posts, 
 extending from the Great Lakes 
 to the lower Mississippi, had been 
 
204 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 occupied by the English and strongly garrisoned at all 
 important points. Through the influence of Governor 
 Patrick .Henry of Virginia, Clark was granted permission 
 to organize an expedition having for its object nothing 
 less than the wresting of the entire region beyond the 
 Alleghanies from the control of the British. Proceeding 
 in the early summer of 1779 to the mouth of the Ohio, 
 he left his boats and marched overland to the British posts 
 of Kaskaskia and Cahokia, both of which places surrendered 
 without resistance. Colonel Hamilton, in command of the 
 British post at Detroit, now heard of Clark's operations, and 
 with the idea of putting a stop to them, he early in the winter 
 occupied a former British outpost at Vincennes. Here Clark 
 attacked him in February, after a most difficult overland 
 march, and forced his surrender. An American expedition 
 from Pittsburg in the meantime having taken the post of 
 Natchez, on the lower Mississippi, the whole region was now 
 in the hands of the Americans. Colonel Clark then met the 
 Indians in council and convinced them that their best inter- 
 ests demanded the cultivation of the friendship of the new 
 republic. When the treaty was made in 1783, Clark's suc- 
 cessful occupation of that region secured the Mississippi as 
 the western boundary of the United States. 
 
 246. Slow Progress of the War: '' Mad Anthony " Wayne 
 at Stony Point — July 15. — There were few military move- 
 ments of consequence undertaken during 1779. England 
 was engaged in a "battle royal" with several nations openly, 
 and she had incurred the enmity of nearly every nation of 
 Europe. Ireland, also, was restless, and gave her much 
 concern. She could therefore spare no troops for large 
 movements. On his part, Washington, had to be content with 
 keeping Clinton shut up in New York, and strengthening the 
 fortifications on the Hudson Eiver. In the early spring he 
 determined to fortify Stony Point, a rocky promontory 
 admirably situated to command the river. But Clinton also 
 had designs on the same position, and, sending a strong force 
 
Tin-: STKUGC^LE FOR INDEPENDENCE 205 
 
 up the river in May, the Americans were compelled to 
 retire. Washington at once planned its capture. One of 
 his most trusted generals, "Mad Anthony" W^yne, so 
 called by the soldiers because of his daring bravery, was 
 given command of twelve hundred picked troops and 
 asked to capture Stony Point. The plan involved the secret 
 passage of the marsh at low tide under cover of darkness, then 
 a swift bayonet charge up the hill. On the night of July 15 
 a friendly negro huckster, who had access to the fort, 
 was used by Wayne to secure the capture of the British 
 pickets. His whole force then crossed the intervening marsh 
 and was swarming up the hill before the British were aware 
 of Wayne's presence. The rush of Wayne's men was irre- 
 sistible, and after a few minutes of bloody work in the 
 trenches the fort was surrendered. 
 
 247. Paulus Hook — August 18. — Among the smaller suc- 
 cesses of the patriots this year, none was more daring than 
 that of "Light Horse Harry" Lee, at Paulus Hook, New 
 Jersey. 
 
 This point was well within the British lines on the New 
 Jersey coast, and was rather carelessly guarded by a small 
 force. Lee having worked his way within the British lines, 
 ordered a charge at the moment of discovery and the fort was 
 captured, with all its garrison. Though its immediate 
 evacuation was necessary, Lee brought off his men and 
 prisoners with the loss of but two men killed and three 
 wounded. 
 
 248. Lincoln and the French Fail at Savannah. — General 
 Benjamin Lincoln had been sent south to direct operations 
 against the British. In conjunction with the French fleet, 
 he, in September, attempted to recapture Savannah. His 
 attack, though spirited, met with a bloody repulse. D'Estaing 
 and Lincoln withdrew, leaving Georgia in the possession of 
 the British. The close of t%e year 1779 thus found the 
 British in possession of but three important points on the 
 coast — New York, Newport, and Savannah. 
 
206 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 EVENTS OF 1780 
 
 249. The British in the South. — Failing to crush the 
 rebellion in the northern colonies, and having met with but 
 
 little success in the mid- 
 dle colonies, the British 
 war department now de- 
 termined to shift the 
 principal theater of the 
 war to the southern col- 
 onies. The British al- 
 ready held Georgia and 
 were encouraged in the belief that the large Tory element 
 in the Carolinas would make the subjugation of those colo- 
 
 [& SAVANNAH 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 20^ 
 
 Dies an easy matter. But as usual, they "reckoned without 
 their host," — none of the colonists were more loyal than the 
 Carolinians. 
 
 250. Charleston Captured — May 12. — Clinton himself 
 came to take charge of operations in the south, bringing a 
 fleet and large reinforcements. Washington had sent Gen- 
 eral Benjamin Lincoln to help the southern patriots. Lin- 
 coln garrisoned Charleston with a force of seven thousand 
 men and attempted to hold that point against Clinton's 
 superior force, aided by the British fleet. After sustaining 
 a forty days' siege, Lincoln was compelled to surrender his 
 whole army. 
 
 Clinton then returned north, leaving Cornwallis in com- 
 mand. Cornwallis now issued a proclamation which 
 required the inhabitants to declare themselves friends or 
 foes. This proclamation precipitated a fierce partisan war- 
 fare in the Carolinas. Sir Bannastre Tarleton, a British 
 cavalry commander, began a campaign of devastation. He 
 was so vindictive and so cruel toward all Americans who 
 were so unfortunate as to fall into his hands that the whole 
 south became aroused, and before the British were aware, 
 another American army was in the field. 
 
 261. Gates in Command : Battle of Camden — August 16. — 
 General Horatio Gates was now sent south to take charge of 
 the American armies there. He found in North Carolina 
 the nucleus of an army, which gained in numbers as he 
 marched south ; however, many of his troops were raw militia. 
 
 Camden, South Carolina, had been selected by the British 
 as a point from which to operate. Gates determined to cap- 
 ture that point, but he delayed the attack so long that 
 Cornwallis was able to bring up reinforcements from Charles- 
 ton. Even then the British force was much smaller than 
 the American, though all were veterans. When ten miles from 
 Camden, Gates went into camp for two days, while recon- 
 noitering the position of the enemy. He finally moved to the 
 attack, making a night march. Cornwallis had determined 
 
^^ HISTORY OF THE UKITEDSTATES^^^^^^^H 
 
 on the same tactics. When the two armies met they lay on 
 their arms until morning, when the battle ensued. Gates 
 foolishly placed his raw militia at the front. They became 
 panic stricken at the outset, and soon the whole army, save 
 the Maryland regulars under the brave Baron De Kalb, who 
 fell mortally wounded, was in headlong flight. Gates him- 
 self -fled at the head of his troops, and it is said did not 
 pause in his wild flight for seventy miles. This ended the 
 military career of that scheming officer. He was at once 
 succeeded in command by Nathaniel Greene, one of the best 
 generals in the army, whose brilliant work soon brought 
 success to the American cause in the south. 
 
 252. The Yeomanry at King's Mountain — October 7. — 
 The British again had full sway in South Carolina and they 
 continued to annoy the Americans. As long as they carried 
 on their operations in the low country, they were compara- 
 tively free from resistance, but as tliey went into the hill 
 country and toward the mountains, they frequently met 
 with determined opposition. Major Patrick Ferguson had 
 been sent into the highlands on the border of the two states 
 with a small British force, Cornwallis believing that 'the 
 Tories would join Ferguson on the march. Instead of being 
 joined by Tories, Ferguson was met by an army of southern 
 patriots — a large number of whom had come from the west 
 slope of the Blue Ridge. They were hunters and trappers 
 in picturesque costume — each man was a sharpshooter. By 
 the time the British had reached King's Mountain, three 
 thousand Americans were on their trail and Ferguson was 
 brought to bay. The fight was as picturesque as the partici- 
 pants. Ferguson took position on the side of the mountain, 
 where he found strong natural intrenchments of rock and 
 tree. He was at once surrounded by the yeoman army, 
 who were masters at this kind of fighting. Ferguson at last 
 fell, mortally wounded, and the British surrendered. 
 
 253. Partisan Leaders — Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Lee. 
 — Partisan warfare is always merciless because so much of 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR IXDEPEXDEXCE 209 
 
 personal enmity is woven into it. There was little of it in 
 New England, but in New York, New Jersey, and South 
 Carolina, it was carried on with a bitterness which threatened 
 at times to exterminate whole communities. From the 
 beginning of the war there had been much of it in South 
 Carolina, for there had always been a feeling of animosity 
 existing between the aristocratic planter of the low country 
 and the small farmer of the hill country. There were 
 hotbeds of Toryism in the low country, but patriotism was 
 correspondingly strong among the hills — whence came leaders 
 like Francis Marion, Thomas Sumter, Andrew Pickens, and 
 Henry Lee, of infinite energy and with a zeal in the cause 
 born of personal wrongs endured. Around each of them 
 was gathered a band of kindred spirits, who knew no fear, 
 and who courted danger. When the American army was in 
 their vicinity, they attached themselves to it as scouts and 
 spies, for they knew every secret road and by-path. When 
 the army was driven out, they stayed, and from their fast- 
 nesses in the swamps or in the mountains fell upon small 
 parties of the British, or visited dire punishment on Tories 
 who had been active in giving assistance to the British. 
 These partisan bands greatly aided General Greene in his 
 reclaiming of the south from the British. 
 
 254. Benedict Arnold. — Hardly had the rattle of musketry 
 ceased on the now classic field of Lexington, before Benedict 
 Arnold was in the saddle and at the head of a company of 
 students was off for Boston. He did valiant service at 
 Ticonderoga, and at the storming of Quebec. At the first 
 battle of Saratoga, where he was severely wounded, his 
 bravery excelled that of all others. He had suffered untold 
 hardships in the defence of his country. No single general 
 in all the service excelled his brilliant record. Had he 
 died of his wounds, the name of Arnold would have been 
 bright on the page of history. 
 
 255. Arnold at Philadelphia. — Arnold was appointed by 
 Washington to the command of the military district of 
 
210 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Philadelphia, where he was thrown much into the society of 
 the Tory element, and yielded to unpatriotic influences. 
 He became extravagant, and in order to discharge his private 
 debts, committed indiscretions in the use of the public 
 property under his control. He was tried before a military 
 court on the charge of dishonesty, but there being little 
 proof to sustain the charge, it was required only that he 
 receive a reprimand from the commander-in-chief. This 
 Washington gave in a most considerate manner. 
 
 Arnold, feeling that his services to his country had not 
 been appreciated, and deeply offended by the sentence of the 
 court, resolved on revenge. 
 
 256. West Point and Treason. — At his own request Arnold 
 was transferred to West Point and immediately opened nego- 
 tiations with General Clinton at New York, for the purpose 
 of betraying into the hands of the British this, the strongest 
 military fortification under American control. As a personal 
 interview was necessary, Clinton sent Major Andre, a young 
 man of most excellent character and high standing in the 
 British army, to represent him. At this meeting Arnold 
 delivered to Andre the plans of the fortifications. Secreting 
 these plans in his boot Andre set out on his return. He had 
 passed through the most hostile part of the country, and 
 would soon have been within the British lines, when, un- 
 luckily for him, he was noticed by several patriots, who 
 insisted on a search of his person, and finding the papers, 
 pronounced him a spy. Andre offered them a large reward 
 if they would allow him to pass, but they laughed at his 
 offer and immediately gave him up to an American officer. 
 Arnold, learning of the arrest, escaped down the river to tlie 
 British sloop Vulture. 
 
 257. The Fate of Andre. — Major Andre was tried by a 
 military tribunal of twelve of the most experienced generals 
 in the American army. General Greene was made chairman 
 and Lafayette also served on this board. Andre was 
 sentenced to meet the death of a spy. On account of 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 211 
 
 Andre's prominence in army and social life, the British put 
 forth every effort possible to have the sentence commuted, 
 but to no avail. Unlike the treatment accorded Captain 
 Nathan Hale, he was allowed every privilege consistent with 
 army discipline, but the sentence was carried out in due 
 time. 
 
 268. Arnold's Subsequent Career. — "Let me die in this old 
 uniform — the uniform in which I fought my battles. May 
 God forgive me for ever putting on any other." This was a 
 sentiment uttered by Benedict Arnold on his death-bed in 
 London twenty-one years later. The British had paid the 
 price of his treason, — nearly thirty thousand dollars and the 
 rank of brigadier-general in the British army. He received, 
 as he merited, the execrations of all men of honor, and 
 though he is said to have met it with a certain degree of 
 bravado for a time, he gradually withdrew from the society 
 of men, became morose and cynical, and died a friendless and 
 despised outcast. 
 
 EVENTS OF 1781 
 
 259. Morgan Defeats Tarleton at the Cowpens — January 17. 
 
 — Upon arriving in the south General Greene was confronted 
 by the complete demoralization of an army due to the Cam- 
 den disaster and the flight of Gates. Greene sent General 
 Daniel Morgan into the hill country for recruits, who while 
 thus engaged was attacked by Tarleton with a superior force 
 at the Cowpens. Morgan by superior tactics completely 
 routed Tarleton, who took to flight after suffering the almost 
 complete destruction of his army. 
 
 260. Greene Recovers the Carolinas and Georgia. — There 
 now began one of the most famous campaigns of the war, 
 each army being led by generals of consummate tact and 
 skill. Cornwallis pushed rapidly forward to strike Morgan 
 before he could rejoin Greene, but Morgan was too quick for 
 Cornwallis and escaped to the north of the Yadkin. Here 
 he was joined by Greene, who now assumed command, and 
 
212 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 a retreat was begun. Reaching the fords of the Dan before 
 his pursuer, Greene crossed into Virginia. Cornwallis now 
 gave up the chase and turned back with the idea of draw- 
 ing Greene after him. Having attained his object of drawing 
 the British army away from its base of supplies into a 
 hostile country, General Greene recrossed the Dan and at 
 Guilford Courthouse the two armies met in battle on March 
 15. It resulted in a drawn battle, the six hundred which 
 Cornwallis lost the first day weakening him to the extent 
 that he could not renew the fight. Cornwallis then 
 marched directly to Wilmington. After ascertaining that 
 the British general really intended to give up the contest, 
 Greene turned south. During the summer, with the aid of 
 the partisan bands, he drove the British into Charleston and 
 Savannah, winning many small engagements and the more 
 considerable one at Eutaw Springs. Thus Greene had 
 reclaimed the south, practically clearing the Carolinas and 
 Georgia of the British army in less than a year. 
 
 261. Lafayette, "The Boy," Outgenerals Cornwallis and 
 Saves Virginia. — Cornwallis entered Virginia in May and 
 began the same tactics with Lafayette which had failed so 
 signally with Greene. But "the boy," as the British com- 
 mander was pleased to call Lafayette, handled his little army 
 with such skill that he completely baffled his pursuer. 
 General Clinton, now thoroughly alarmed at the turn affairs 
 had taken in the south, sent orders to Cornwallis to fortify 
 some point on the Virginia coast from which he could 
 cooperate with the British fleet. Cornwallis accordingly 
 selected Yorktown and began erecting defences at that point. 
 Lafayette notified Washington of Cornwallis's position, and 
 threw his own troops across the neck of the peninsula in 
 front of Yorktown. 
 
 With Virginia saved by Lafayette and the Carolinas and 
 Georgia reclaimed by Greene, the British had signally failed 
 in their subjugation of the southern colonies. 
 
 262. Battle of Yorktown — October 19. — Washington in 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 
 
 213 
 
 the meantime had been keeping Clinton shut up in New 
 York, and was ready for whatever opportunity might 
 offer to strike the British a blow. On learning that 
 Cornwallis was at Yorktown, Washington conceived the 
 daring idea of capturing the entire British army at that 
 point. Of this he felt sanguine, for he had just received 
 word that a large French fleet had set sail from the AVest 
 Indies and that its destination was the mouth of Chesapeake 
 Bay, where it was sure to encounter the British fleet before 
 Yorktown. Selecting two thousand of his choicest colonial 
 troops, and accompanied by Rochambeau with his four thou- 
 sand French troops, Washington began the march overland 
 to Yorktown. By making feints 
 toward the enemy while march- 
 ing through New Jersey, he so 
 concealed his intentions from 
 Clinton that Philadelphia was 
 reached before his destination 
 was suspected by the British 
 commander - in - chief. Shortly 
 after leaving Philadelphia Wash- 
 ington had received news that the 
 French fleet under De Grasse had already met the English fleet 
 before Yorktown where it had cooperated with Lafayette so 
 that the British were entrapped on both the land and water 
 side. 
 
 The fate of Cornwallis was sealed. Washington now 
 hastened to Yorktown and began the siege. Cornwallis 
 made several attempts to break through the lines, but failing, 
 he at last surrendered his entire force. On the 19th of 
 October, to the music of ^' The World Upside Down," the 
 British marched out between the French and American lines. 
 
 263, Yorktown, and its Effect in America.— The news of 
 the capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown passed through the 
 colonies like an electric shock. There was great rejoicing, 
 for all felt that it was the end of the struggle. In Philadel- 
 
 YORKTOWN AND VICINITY 
 
214 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 phia, the people went wild with delight as they heard the 
 cry of the watchman, "Two o'clock, and Cornwallis is 
 taken." Congress marched in a body to the Lutheran 
 church and listened to prayers of thanksgiving for the vic- 
 tory ; while England's prime minister, Lord North, threw up 
 his hands with the wail, "It's all over; it's all over." 
 
 END OF THE STRUGGLE 
 
 264. Yorktown and its Effect on the British. — The effect of 
 the Yorktown victory on the British was advantageous to 
 the American cause. The American war had steadily 
 grown in unpopularity among the English people. Charles 
 Fox had referred to Howe's victory in the battle of Long 
 Island as the "terrible news from Long Island," and on the 
 floor of parliament had spoken of Washington's army as 
 "our army." Burke had expressed the hope that the Amer- 
 icans would succeed, and the great Pitt had declared that if 
 he were an American he would never submit. 
 
 A strong party in parliament now opposed the further 
 prosecution of the war. Peace resolutions were introduced 
 in the House of Commons, and though opposed by the 
 power of the king and his ministry, were successfully 
 passed. This movement forced Lord North to resign, and a 
 new ministry was formed, in which the great Burke, Charles 
 Fox, and Eichard Sheridan appeared as friends of the col- 
 onies. 
 
 Hereupon Sir Guy Carleton, who had succeeded Sir Henry 
 Clinton, was instructed by parliament to open peace negotia- 
 tions. This offer of peace, like previous offers, still referred 
 to the American states as "revolted colonies," and sought 
 to place the matter in such shape that the king could nego- 
 tiate with each colony separately. Congress promjDtly refused 
 to consider the offer and "the several states passed resolu- 
 tions expressing their objection to separate negotiations, and 
 declaring those to be enemies to America who should attempt 
 to treat without the authority of Congress." 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 215 
 
 265. Parliament Overrules King George. — King George 
 now insisted on carrying on the war, but the peace party 
 in parliament set itself squarely in opposition to the king 
 by declaring that "the House of Commons would consider 
 as enemies to his Majesty and the country, all who would 
 advise or attempt a further prosecution of offensive war on 
 the continent of North America." 
 
 266. England Acknowledges the Independence of the United 
 States — November 30, 1782. — From this defiance of the 
 king it was but a step to the acknowledgment of the United 
 States as a separate government among the nations of the 
 world. This the new British ministry did, sending a 
 representative to Paris to join with the American peace 
 commissioners — John Jay, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, 
 and Henry Laurens — in a preliminary treaty of peace. 
 
 267. Cessation of Hostilities by Proclamation — April 19, 
 1783. — Hostilities in America had practically ceased after 
 the Yorktown victory. It is true, however, that in the 
 south, as well as in some sections of New York, and on the 
 western border, a state of desultory war had been kept up 
 between partisan bands of Americans and the Tory element, 
 aided by small detachments of British soldiers. All this, 
 however, ceased as news of the peace preliminaries reached 
 America, when both Washington and Sir Guy Carleton were 
 directed to proclaim a cessation of hostilities on land and sea. 
 This Carleton soon did, and Washington followed on the 
 19th of April, 1783 — the eighth anniversary of the battle of 
 Lexington. 
 
 268. The Treaty of Paris— September 3, 1783.— Two years 
 had now passed since Yorktown, and yet peace had not been 
 formally declared. France and Spain, hoping to gain the 
 advantage over Great Britain, had been purposely prolonging 
 the peace parley. France was also striving to fix the 
 boundaries of the new republic to correspond to the bound- 
 aries established by the Quebec Act. 
 
 However, England having gained a decided victory over 
 
216 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the French fleet in the West Indies, and having defeated a 
 combined French and Spanish assault upon Gibraltar, these 
 two nations became alarmed, and early in January agreed to 
 preliminaries at Versailles. This opened the way for the 
 settlement of the whole matter, and on September 3, 1783, 
 the formal treaty of peace between Great Britain and the 
 United States was signed at Paris. 
 
 The treaty contained the following provisions : 
 
 (1.) Great Britain recognized the independence of the 
 United States. 
 
 (2.) The boundaries of the new republic were to extend 
 to the Mississippi on the west, and from Nova Scotia, the St. 
 Lawrence River, and the Great Lakes on the north, to the 
 Spanish province of Florida on the south — Great Britain 
 having by separate treaty with Spain ceded Florida to that 
 power. 
 
 (3.) The United States was accorded the right of fishing 
 on the Canadian and Newfoundland coasts. 
 
 (4.) Congress was to recommend to the state legislatures 
 that they restore civil rights to all Tories and make pay- 
 ment for all Tory property confiscated during the war. 
 
 (5.) American merchants were to pay all debts contracted 
 with British merchants prior to the war. 
 
 (6.) So far as the two powers could control, the Mississippi 
 River was to be forever open for free navigation to the citizens 
 of both countries. 
 
 (7.) And, lastly, it was agreed that the king would, with 
 all convenient speed, and without causing any destruction, or 
 carrying away any negroes or other property of the American 
 inhabitants, withdraw all his armies, garrisons, and fleets 
 from the United States. 
 
 269. The American Army Disbands: the British Army 
 Withdraws.— Thus the American Revolution was accom- 
 plished. Early in November the American army was dis- 
 banded — only a remnant under General Knox remaining. The 
 French army had embarked for France the previous year. In 
 
THE STRUGGLE FUR IXDEPENDEXCE 217 
 
 iaccordance with the provisions of the treaty, Sir Guy Carle- 
 ton, on the 25th of November, 1783, withdrew the last rem- 
 nant of the British army from the shores of America — 
 excepting a few troops stationed on the western border. On 
 the same day General Knox and his veteran army entered 
 New York amidst the firing of cannon and the ringing of 
 bells and the rejoicing of the populace. The day was long 
 observed in New York as "Evacuation Day." 
 
 Nine days later, Washington, in an affecting scene, bade 
 farewell to his officers and immediately repaired to Annap- 
 olis, Maryland, where Congress was in session, and returned 
 to that body his commission as commander-in-chief of the 
 American armies. Three weeks later he retired to private 
 life on his estate at Mount Vernon. 
 
 FINANCES OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 270. Cost of the War. — The independence of the United 
 States had been gained at a heavy cost of both blood and 
 treasure. Forty thousand American lives had been sacri- 
 ficed, and an equal number of British. Over and above the 
 amount spent by France ($90,000,000) the war had cost the 
 United States $150,000,000, as opposed to $500,000,000 
 spent by England. At the close of the war the entire 
 country was burdened with debt, and commerce and business 
 everywhere were demoralized. Even private morals had 
 suffered a serious decline. 
 
 271. Congress and the Army. — So heavy had its burdens 
 become that Congress found itself at times unable to pay its 
 soldiers, who often threatened mutiny, and on more than 
 one occasion broke out in open revolt. At the time of the 
 disbanding of the army, the most serious difficulties arose. 
 Both men and officers were clamorous for their pay; 
 mutiny was again threatened and a secret proposal to march 
 to Philadelphia and demand satisfaction of Congress, was 
 circulated. The whole affair threw the country into intense 
 excitement — even threatening civil war. Congress was 
 
218 
 
 HISTOHY or THE UXITED STATES 
 
 unpopular with the army, which was now on the point of 
 refusing to disband unless its pay were advanced. A crisis 
 was averted only through the prompt action of Washington, 
 whose great influence alone brought about a satisfactory 
 understanding between congress and the army. The whole 
 affair, however, greatly humiliated all patriotic Americans, 
 and served to call attention early to the inability of congress 
 
 CONTINENTAL CURRENCY 
 
 under the form of government then existing in the states, to 
 conduct the financial affairs of the republic. 
 
 272. Continental Currency and Its Collapse — 1780. — 
 Congress during the war issued $200,000,000 or more in 
 paper money, with the result that the country soon became 
 flooded with this "continental currency," which rapidly 
 depreciated in value. In 1779 twenty dollars in paper 
 equaled but one in specie — six months later it dropped to 
 forty. Congress tried to stop this decline, but to no avail. 
 
THE STRUGGLE FOR IXDEPENDEXCE 219 
 
 At the close of the year 1780 this paper was worth but two 
 cents on the dollar ; later, ten dollars in currency equaled 
 but one cent in specie. 
 
 "Not worth a continental," became a byword in the col- 
 onies — paper money having fallen into such contempt. 
 Washington naively remarked that it took a wagon-load of 
 money to buy a wagon-load of provisions. "In Boston, corn 
 sold for $150 a bushel, butter for $12 a pound, tea $90, sugar 
 $10, beef $8, coffee $12, and a barrel of flour for $1,575. 
 Samuel Adams paid $2,000 for a hat and suit of clothes." 
 
 "Continental currency" became a joke in the colonies, 
 A barber in Philadelphia papered his shop with it, and a wag 
 in that city caught a stray dog, and, bedaubing him with 
 tar, stuck bills of various denominations all over him, and 
 paraded him in the streets. Before the close of 1780 the 
 currency had ceased to circulate, public credit was gone, and 
 trade was at a standstill — and yet the American army had 
 been paid in just such money. The country was in need of 
 a financier to save it from bankruptcy. 
 
 273. Robert Morris, Superintendent of Finance. — "That 
 the government had in any way been able to finish the Avar, 
 after the downfall of its paper currency, in 1780, was due to 
 the gigantic efforts of one great man — Robert Morris of 
 Pennsylvania." Made superintendent of finance in 1781, 
 Morris at once set about to organize the finances on a sound 
 basis. Recognizing the peril the country was in, he grandly 
 arose to the occasion, using his own private means to keep 
 the army supplied and the country from bankruptcy. 
 
 He had long served on the congressional committee, which 
 had to provide for the raising of money. It was he who had 
 raised money for "Washington's Trenton campaign and who 
 had contributed largely from his own private funds to relieve 
 the sufferings of the army at Valley Forge. Taking advan- 
 tage of his own unlimited credit, he now procured the 
 establishment of the Bank of North America (1781), 
 through which loans might be negotiated; and successfully 
 
22U 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 carried the war forward from the campaign beginning at the 
 Cowpeus to the final straggle at Yorktown. 
 
 France had made numerous loans to the colonies, and 
 in 1781 she made another loan. Morris, a few months 
 later, secured, through the efforts of John Adams, minister 
 to Holland, a loan from that country. Both these loans 
 came into the country in the form of specie, which enabled 
 the superintendent of finance to conduct the financial affairs 
 of the government in terms of specie, and to keep paper — 
 money out of circulation. Wf' 
 
 By his sound business methods he was able to reduce the 
 exj^enses of the army, and when the war closed he reduced 
 the expenditures of the government to the very lowest scale. 
 In spite of opposition in congress, he introduced a system of 
 taxation Avhich bore fruit. Under him, American credit 
 rapidly rose both at home and abroad. As the financier of 
 the Revolution, he rendered a service to his country which 
 cannot be estimated — without which neither Greene's cam- 
 paign in the south, nor Washington's campaign against 
 Yorktown, nor the successful disbanding of the army could 
 have been accomplished. He recognized the weakness of 
 the government under the Articles of Confederation, and, 
 seeing that congress could not carry out the reforms which 
 he contemplated, he resigned his position at the close of the 
 year 1784. 
 
 KIRST MONEY COINED BY THE UNITED STATES 
 

 JOHN MARSHALL 
 JAMES MAniSON 
 
 DAIVIKL W'KIJSTEK 
 ALEXANDER HAMILTON 
 
 Makers a:nd Interpreters of the Constitution 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION 
 
 274. Steps in the Development of the Constitution. — 
 
 Numerous steps have marked the develoj^ment of the consti- 
 tution and the movement toward union. 
 
 The United Colonies of New England in 1643; Franklin's 
 Plan of Union proposed at Albany in 1754; the Stamp Act 
 Congress in 1765; the First Continental Congress in 1774; 
 the Second Continental Congress in 1775; the Declaration 
 of Independence in 1776; the adoption of new state consti- 
 tutions by the several states from 1776 to 1780; the Articles 
 of Confederation in 1781 ; the Annapolis Trade Convention 
 in 1786- xnd finally the Constitutional Convention in 1787 — 
 are all important steps in the growth of the constitution. 
 
 275. Government During the Revolution. — The First Con- 
 tinental Congress was not a governing body. It was called 
 together to demand of the king and parliament a redress of 
 grievances. The Second met primarily, to consider the 
 answer of the king to this address. By force of circum- 
 stances, however, the Second Continental Congress immedi- 
 ately assumed the power of a governing body, and continued 
 as such from May 10, 1775, until March 2, 1789. Two days 
 later the First National Congress convened in Federal Hall, 
 New York City, which since 1785 had been the seat of govern- 
 ment. 
 
 276. The States Adopt Nev7 Constitutions. — During the 
 progress of the Revolution all the states declared their 
 independence of King George, and, on the advice of Con- 
 gress, all, excepting Rhode Island and Connecticut (their 
 liberal charters sufficing), adopted new constitutions. 
 
 221 
 
222 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 The machinery of government corresponded to that of the 
 colonial days — providing for a governor, a legislature of two 
 houses, judges, and other officers. Both a religious and a 
 property test were required of voters in nearly all the colo- 
 nies, and Sunday laws were maintained. While Massachu- 
 setts provided for laws against theaters and extravagance in 
 dress, still to her belongs the glory of being the first of the 
 thirteen original states to abolish slavery. Vermont three 
 years before (1777) had adopted a constitution prohibiting 
 slavery, but when she applied to Congress for admission as a 
 state, Congress refused her. She was the first state to be 
 admitted after the adoption of the constitution. 
 
 These new state constitutions carried the states safely 
 through the prolonged struggle of the Eevolution, and 
 proved a source of strength to the central governing body — 
 the Second Continental Congress. 
 
 277. Articles of Confederation — 1781. — In the first burst 
 of enthusiasm but few questioned the authority of Congress, 
 and but little contention among the colonies resulted. But 
 as time passed, great dissensions arose. The necessity was 
 thus felt for a national constitution, fixing the powers of the 
 general government. Accordingly, in Xovember of 1777, 
 Congress submitted to the states for their ratification the 
 *'Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union" — the same 
 to become binding only when approved by the unanimous 
 vote of the thirteen states. 
 
 The government instituted under the Articles of Con- 
 federation, while not satisfactory, was probably the best that 
 could have obtained ratification at that time. As it was, 
 great difficulty was experienced in securing the adoption 
 of the Articles — the consent of Maryland not having been 
 obtained until March 1, 1781. The vote of Maryland made 
 the adoption unanimous, and the Articles went into opera- 
 tion as the first constitution of the new republic. 
 
 278. Weakness of the Articles. — The Articles provided for 
 a congress of the United States composed of delegates from 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE COXSTITUTIOi^" 223 
 
 each state, appointed by the state, paid by the state, and 
 entirely under the state's control. These delegates were 
 chosen annually. No state could have less than two nor 
 more than seven delegates. Whatever the number of dele- 
 gates, each state could have but one vote, and the vote of 
 nine of the states was necessary for the passage of important 
 laws. Congress had power, though limited, over postal regu- 
 lations, Indian affairs, coin, weights and measures, war and 
 peace. 
 
 The chief defects in the Articles lay in the facts that 
 
 (1) Congress could not collect a revenue. It could not 
 levy taxes. It could deal with the states, but not with the 
 people. It could request, but could not compel a state to 
 furnish money for the support of the general government. 
 It was thus at the mercy of the states, which, in more than 
 one instance, refused its request. Thus, while Congress had 
 power to raise armies, it did not have power to raise money 
 with which to pay the armies. While it could incur debts, 
 it had no power to raise money to cancel them. 
 
 (2) Congress had no power to enforce its own laws. It 
 could make treaties, but could not prevent the violation of 
 treaty obligations by the states. Thus the general govern- 
 ment could neither preserve order at home nor command 
 respect abroad. Five of the states refused to comply with 
 the provision of the treaty of 1783 providing for the pay- 
 ment of private debts. 
 
 (3) Congress had no power to regulate commerce between 
 the states. 
 
 Foreign commerce was practically destroyed at the close of 
 the war, when Great Britain laid heavy tariffs on all Ameri- 
 can exports and later forbade American ships to trade with 
 the British West Indies — a trade which had always been a 
 source of wealth to the American colonies. Congress could 
 not retaliate because the states would not unite in a uniform 
 law. Thus each state was soon engaged in an attempt to 
 build itself up at the expense of other states by placing high 
 
2:24 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 tariffs on productions both from foreign countries and from 
 sister states. Instead of retaliating against Great Britain, 
 the states retaliated against each other. One port would 
 often bid against anotlier for foreign goods, — admitting the 
 goods duty free, — even after agreeing not to do so. Thus 
 bad faith was practiced, and strife and bitterness followed. 
 The condition of trade and the disturbed state of business 
 in every state of the union perhaps did more than all else 
 toward leading the whole country to see the immediate 
 necessity for a stronger government than the Articles 
 afforded. 
 
 (4) The Articles could not be amended, save by a vote of 
 all the states. All efforts to amend the Articles failed, — a 
 unanimous vote of the thirteen states could not be secured. 
 
 (5) The fact that each state could have but one vote was 
 felt to be unjust in the extreme. Thus Massachusetts, with 
 its 370,000, and Virginia, with its more than a half million 
 population, had no more voice than Georgia and Rhode 
 Island and Delaware, each with a population of less than 
 70,000. 
 
 279. State Pride. — At best, the "union," under the 
 Articles of Confederation, was but a confederation of sepa- 
 rate states. The idea of the government of the United 
 States being a government "of the people, by the people, and 
 for the people" of "one common country," had not yet laid 
 hold upon the public mind. There was much local pride; 
 and much jealousy between the states. To be a citizen of 
 any state was a prouder distinction than to be a citizen of 
 the republic. It was the day in which "my state" was much 
 spoken of, and "our country" but little. 
 
 280. Shays' s Eebellion. — Even states which attempted to 
 carry out their own measures, or the requests of the national 
 government, were interfered with by their own citizens. A 
 serious uprising took place in Massachusetts at the close of 
 the year 1786, in which one thousand armed men under 
 Daniel Shays attempted to interfere with the authority of 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION 225 
 
 the state government. This rebellion had the sympathy of 
 many citizens of Massachusetts as well as of adjoining states. 
 It was promptly suppressed by the firm action of the gov- 
 ernor. 
 
 This disturbance in staid old Massachusetts excited com- 
 ment in all the colonies. Shays and his followers had been 
 opposing the collection of taxes, and the forced payment of 
 private debts; and insisting on the issuing of paper money 
 by the state. 
 
 281. Movement toward a Stronger Government. — While 
 the Articles were defective, still they served to keep before 
 the public mind the idea of a union of the states and of the 
 necessity of a national authority. Though the Articles had 
 not gone into operation until March 1, 1781, nevertheless the 
 principles embodied in them had been followed from the 
 first by the Second Continental Congress. While the struggle 
 against the common foe was in progress, patriotism made 
 up for the defects of the Articles; but when that support was 
 removed, each succeeding year but made more evident their 
 total inadequacy to meet the object for which they had been 
 brought into existence. Wise men in every section saw the 
 necessity of a radical change in the method of government. 
 Just how this change should be accomplished, was the ques- 
 tion which confronted all. Suggestions were made by Alex- 
 ander Hamilton of New York ; by leaders in Massachusetts, 
 and in Pennsylvania. Finally in the legislatures of Connec- 
 ticut, Maryland, and Virginia resolutions were adopted invit- 
 ing all the states to send delegates to meet at Annapolis, 
 Maryland, for the purpose of considering the state of Amer- 
 ican trade and all questions relating thereto. 
 
 282. The Annapolis Trade Convention— 1786.— But five 
 states, however,— New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
 Delaware, and Virginia, — sent delegates. These met on 
 September 11, 1786. A majority of the states not being 
 represented, these delegates deferred action, and at the same 
 time proposed another convention. Congress, in the follow- 
 
220 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ing February, indorsed this proposal by asking that a con- 
 vention meet in Philadelphia in May of 1787 for the "sole 
 purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." 
 
 283. The Northwest Territory. — In the meantime Congress 
 was enacting an important piece of legislation — the organiza- 
 tion of the Northwest Territory under the ordinance of 1787. 
 The reason Maryland had refused to ratify the Articles of 
 Confederation until 1781 (four years after Congress had 
 passed them) was due to the fact that Virginia, New York, 
 Massachusetts, and Connecticut had at first refused to relin- 
 quish their claim to the territory lying north of the Ohio 
 River, and extending from the western limits of New York 
 and Pennsylvania to the Mississippi River — the whole known 
 as the Northwest Territory, These states based their claim 
 on the wording of their charters — that of Virginia reading 
 "from the west by the northwest"; that of the others, 
 "from sea to sea." 
 
 Maryland and the smaller states, whose charters gave them 
 no claim to the western territory, feared that under the 
 Articles the larger states, with their vast wealth of public 
 land, would take to themselves greater powers; and thus the 
 smaller would receive less of the benefits of the union. In 
 the contention Maryland won — the four states concerned 
 agreeing to cede all their public land to the general govern- 
 ment. By 17SG this agreement had been complied with. 
 
 284. The Ordinance of 1787. — This land grant became 
 known as the "public domain," and was organized as a 
 territory by Congress under the "Ordinance of 1787." This 
 ordinance separated the territory into three divisions. When 
 the inhabitants in any one of these divisions should reach 60,- 
 000, it was to be admitted as a new state. No land was to be 
 taken until the government had purchased it from the 
 Indians and had announced it to be open to settlement. 
 
 A governor was to be appointed until such time as the 
 inhabitants could set up a government of their own — the 
 same to be republican in form. No property or religious 
 
THE GROWTH OF TH K CONSTITUTION 227 
 
 qualification was required of voters. A delegate could be 
 sent to Congress, who could debate on all questions, but not 
 vote. 
 
 Education was liberally provided for by granting the 
 proceeds from the sales of certain sections of the public 
 lands, to the public school fund. 
 
 Slavery was forever prohibited from the territory or from 
 any state which should be organized out of any portion 
 thereof. 
 
 This ordinance became the model upon which all the ter- 
 ritories of the United States have been organized. As a 
 piece of wise legislation, it was far-reaching in its effect on 
 the future history of the country. 
 
 285. The Constitutional Convention — 1787. — With the 
 exception of Ehode Island and New Hampshire, all the states 
 promptly responded to the suggestion of Congress and the 
 Annapolis Trade Convention. The latter part of May saw 
 the delegates of eleven states in session at Philadelphia, with 
 George Washington as president and William Jackson as sec- 
 retary, of the convention. 
 
 Edmund Randolph, governor of Virginia, made the open- 
 ing address, in which he suggested that a national govern- 
 ment ought to be established consisting of a legislative, an 
 executive, and a judicial department. 
 
 This was a wide departure from the government under 
 the Articles, which provided only for a legislative depart- 
 ment — the Congress. The convention had not proceeded 
 far, when it saw that an attempt to revise the Articles of 
 Confederation was useless. The Articles were therefore 
 thrown aside, and the convention proceeded to the formation 
 of an entirely new constitution. The sessions of the con- 
 vention, which consumed a period of nearly four months, 
 were behind closed doors. 
 
 286. The Men Who Composed the Convention. — Among its 
 delegates were some of the ablest men in the country. Some 
 had been members of both the First and the Second Conti- 
 
228 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 nental Congress, and had signed the Declaration of Independ- 
 ence. From Connecticut came Roger Sherman; from Mass- 
 achusetts, Rufus King; from New York, Alexander Ham- 
 ilton; from Pennsylvania, the venerable Franklin and Robert 
 Morris; from South Carolina, John Rutledge and the two 
 Pinckneys; from Delaware, John Dickinson; while from 
 Virginia came Washington and Edmund Randolph and 
 James Madison. 
 
 287. The Constitution, the Result of Compromise. — The 
 constitution as it stands to-day does not set forth the ideas 
 of government as held by any one member of the convention ; 
 each article, each section, and each clause was passed only 
 after the most severe scrutiny. On certain questions it 
 seemed almost impossible for the convention to agree. 
 "Compromise" is written in every line. 
 
 288. The Three Great Compromises. — It was agreed that 
 there should be two houses of Congress. The larger states 
 wished the number of members in each house to be based on 
 the population of the several states. The smaller states 
 insisted upon some plan of equal representation. It was 
 conceded to the smaller states that the Senate should be com- 
 posed of two senators from eacli state; and to the larger, 
 that the number of members in the House of Represent- 
 atives should be based on population. 
 
 The second compromise arose over the question as to 
 whether slaves should be counted in apportioning represent- 
 atives to each state. The northern and middle states, with 
 less than 60,000 slaves, opposed counting the slaves unless 
 they were also counted when direct taxes were levied; some 
 of the states in the south, where there was a population of 
 more than 000,000 slaves, insisted upon counting all in 
 determining representation, but not for taxation. The com- 
 promise provided that three-fifths of the slaves should be 
 counted, both in apportioning representatives and in levying 
 direct taxes. 
 
 The third compromise was on the question of the regula- 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION" 229 
 
 tion of commerce, but indirectly involved the question of 
 slavery. The north wished Congress to have power over 
 commerce. The south objected ; at the same time some of 
 the southerners wished that the slave trade should be per- 
 mitted, to which the north objected. The compromise pro- 
 vided that Congress should have control of commerce, and 
 that the importation of slaves should not be prohibited prior 
 to the year 1808. 
 
 289. The Constitution before the People for Adoption. — 
 When the convention adjourned September 17, 1787, it sub- 
 mitted the new constitution to Congress, which in turn sub- 
 mitted it to the state legislatures, and these submitted 
 it to the people of the several states for their ratifica- 
 tion. It was a season of peril to the young republic. 
 Should the constitution not receive the votes of nine of the 
 thirteen states, all the labor of the convention would be 
 for naught. So bitter had been the contest in the conven- 
 tion that a number of the delegates had gone home dissatis- 
 fied with the result. These as a rule threw their influence 
 against its ratification. For various reasons, some of the 
 strongest men in the colonies were opposed to its adoption, 
 of whom Samuel Adams of Massachusetts and Patrick Henry 
 of Virginia were notable examples. But happily, the 
 counsel of such men as Washington and Madison and Frank- 
 lin and Hamilton prevailed. Delaware was the first to 
 ratify, and on June 9, 1788, New Hampshire gave it its 
 votes as the nintli state. Virginia soon followed, and on the 
 26th of July New York g^\e its assent, though after a pro- 
 longed struggle. Rhode Island and North Carolina failed to 
 ratify until after the inauguration of Washington. 
 
 290. "The Federalist." — Wliile the constitution was before 
 the people of New York, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay 
 greatly aided in its adoption by issuing a series of essays 
 explaining the provisions of the constitution. These were 
 published in a newspaper over the common signature of 
 "Publius." They were afterwards collected and published 
 
230 HISTORY OP THE U^'ITED STATES 
 
 in a volume styled ''The Federalist." So fclearly were the 
 principles of federal government discussed that "The Fed- 
 eralist" immediately took rank as a classic in the ]3olitical lit- 
 erature of the republic. 
 
 291. The First Two Political Parties — Federalists and 
 Anti-Federalists. — When the constitution was before the 
 people for ratification, those in favor of its adoption were 
 known as Federalists and those who opposed were known as 
 Anti-Federalists. 
 
 While the Federalist party, with Washington as President, 
 organized the government under the new constitution, still 
 during the first administration of Washington, party lines 
 were not closely drawn. However, a division soon occurred, 
 with Hamilton as leader of the Federalist party and Jefi'er- 
 son as the leader of the Democratic-Eepublican party — that 
 name taking the place of Anti-Federalist. 
 
 292. Amendments to the Constitution. — At the time of the 
 ratification many Anti-Federalists had voted for the consti- 
 tution on the strength of a promise from the leading Federal- 
 ists that they would vote for certain amendments to the 
 constitution after the government should be instituted. A 
 few of the states had cast their votes for ratification with 
 this express understanding. 
 
 Within two years after the inauguration of Washington the 
 first ten amendments to the constitution were adopted 
 (1791). These are sometimes called "The Bill of Eights." 
 
 The Eleventh Amendment was added in 1798; the 
 Twelfth, in 1804; the Thirteenth, in 1865; the Fourteenth, 
 in 1868; and the Fifteenth, in 1870. 
 
 The text of the constitution, as amended, follows: 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Preamble 
 We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more 
 perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranqviillity, 
 provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE C0^'STITUT10N 231 
 
 and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do 
 ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of 
 America. 
 
 ARTICLE I.— Legislative Department 
 
 SECTION I. — All legislative powers herein granted shall be 
 vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a 
 Senate and House of Representatives. 
 
 SECTION II.— Clause 1. The House of Representatives shall 
 be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of 
 the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the 
 qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch 
 of the State Legislature. 
 
 Clause 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not 
 have attained to the age of twenty -five years, and been seven years 
 a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
 an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be appor- 
 tioned among the several States which may be included within this 
 Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be 
 determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, includ- 
 ing those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians 
 not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.^ The actual enumera- 
 tion shall be made within three j^ears after the first meeting of the 
 Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term 
 of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 
 number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
 thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative; and 
 until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire 
 shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode 
 Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New 
 York, six ; New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Delaware, one ; 
 Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Caro- 
 lina, five; and Georgia, three. ^ 
 
 Clause 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from 
 any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of elec- 
 tion to fill such vacancies. 
 
 Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their 
 
 1 Meaning slaves. (Through the influence of Edmund Randolph, the word 
 slave does not appear in the original articles of the Constitution.) 
 
 2 Under the census of 1900 one representative is apportioned to every 193,291 
 persons. 
 
232 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Speaker and other officers ; and shall have the sole power of im 
 peachment. 
 
 SECTION III.— Clause 1. The Senate of the United States 
 shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the 
 Legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one 
 vote. 
 
 Clause 3. Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse- 
 quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may 
 be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class 
 shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second 
 class at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the third class at 
 the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen 
 every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or other- 
 wise, during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the execu- 
 tive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next 
 meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 
 
 Clause 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have 
 attained to the age of thirty j'ears, and been nine years a citizen of 
 the United States, and vvlio shall not, when elected, be an inhabi- 
 tant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 Clause 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be 
 president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be 
 equally divided. 
 
 Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also 
 a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or 
 when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 
 
 Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all 
 impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on 
 oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is 
 tried, the Chief-Justice shall preside: and no person shall be con- 
 victed without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members 
 present. 
 
 Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend 
 further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and 
 enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States: 
 but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to 
 indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 
 
 SECTION IV.— Clause 1. The times, places and manner of 
 holding elections for senators and representatives shall be pre- 
 scribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress 
 may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as 
 to the places of choosing senators. 
 
 Clause 3. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every 
 
THE GROWTH OE THE CONSTITUTION^ 233 
 
 year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, 
 unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 
 
 SECTION v.— Clause 1. Each House shall be the judge of the 
 elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a 
 majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a 
 smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be author- 
 ized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, 
 and under such penalties as each House may provide. 
 
 Clause 2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceed- 
 ings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the con- 
 currence of two-thirds, expel a member. 
 
 Clause 3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, 
 and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as 
 may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of 
 the members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of 
 one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 Clause 4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, 
 without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, 
 nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be 
 sitting. 
 
 SECTION VI.— Clause 1. The senators and representatives 
 shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by 
 law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall 
 in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be 
 privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of 
 their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the 
 same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not 
 be questioned in any other place. 
 
 Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time 
 for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the 
 authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or 
 the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such 
 time ; and no person holding any office under the United States, 
 shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. 
 SECTION VII.— Clause 1. All bills for raising revenue shall 
 originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may pro- 
 pose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 
 
 Clause 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Rep- 
 resentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be pre- 
 sented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall 
 sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that 
 House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objec- 
 tions at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If 
 
234 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to 
 pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the 
 other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if 
 approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But 
 in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by 
 3'eas and nay, sand the names of the persons voting for and against 
 the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. 
 If any bill shall not 'be returned by the President within ten days 
 (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the 
 same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless 
 the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which 
 case it shall not be a law. 
 
 Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concur- 
 rence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary 
 (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the 
 President of the United States; and before the same shall take 
 effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall 
 be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Represent- 
 atives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case 
 of a bill. 
 
 SECTION VIII.— Clause 1. The Congress shall have power to 
 lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts 
 and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the 
 United States ; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform 
 throughout the United States ; 
 
 Clause 2. To borrow mone}^ on the credit of the United States; 
 
 Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and 
 among the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 
 
 Clause 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and 
 uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United 
 States ; 
 
 Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of 
 foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 
 
 Clause 6. To provide for the punisliment of counterfeiting the 
 securities and current coin of the United States; 
 
 Clause 7. To establish postoffices and post-roads ; 
 
 Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by 
 securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive 
 right to their respective writings and discoveries; 
 
 Clause 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme 
 Court ; 
 
 Clause 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies com- 
 mitted on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations; 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE CO^STITUTIOJs^ 235 
 
 Clause 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, 
 and make rules concerning caj^tures on land and water ; 
 
 Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of 
 money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 
 
 Clause 13. To provide and maintain a navy ; 
 
 Clause 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of 
 the land and naval forces; 
 
 Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute 
 the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; 
 
 Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining 
 the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be em- 
 ployed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States 
 respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of 
 training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Con- 
 gi-ess ; 
 
 Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatso- 
 ever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by 
 cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become 
 the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like 
 authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legis- 
 lature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of 
 forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; — 
 And 
 
 Clause 18. To make all laws which sliall be necessary and 
 proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all 
 other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the 
 United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
 
 SECTION IX.— Clause 1. The migration or importation of such 
 persons^ as any of the States now existing shall think proper to 
 admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one 
 thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be im- 
 posed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
 
 Clause 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not 
 be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the pub- 
 lic safety may require it. 
 
 Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be 
 
 Clause 4. No capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid, unless 
 in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to 
 be taken. 
 
 Clause 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported 
 from any State. 
 
 'Meaning slaves. 
 
236 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Clause 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of 
 commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of an- 
 other ; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to 
 enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 
 
 Clause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in 
 consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular state- 
 ment and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public 
 money shall be published from time to time. 
 
 Clause 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United 
 States : and no person holding any office of profit or trust under 
 them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any 
 present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any 
 king, prince, or foreign State. 
 
 SECTION X.— Clause 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, 
 alliance, or confederation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; 
 coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and sil- 
 ver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, 
 ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or 
 grant any title of nobility. 
 
 Clause 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, 
 lay any impost, or duties on imports or exports, except what may be 
 absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net 
 produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or 
 exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; 
 and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the 
 Congress. 
 
 Clause 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay 
 any duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, 
 enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a 
 foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such 
 imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II.— Executive Department 
 
 SECTION I.— Clause 1. The executive power shall be vested in 
 a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his 
 office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice- 
 President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows: 
 
 Clause 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the 
 Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to tlie 
 whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may 
 be entitled in the Congress: but no senator or representative, or 
 person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, 
 shall be appointed an elector. 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION 237 
 
 Clause 3.J 
 
 Clause 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing 
 the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; 
 which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 
 
 Clause 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen 
 of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitu- 
 tion, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any 
 person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the 
 age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within 
 the United States. 
 
 Clause 6, In case of the removal of the President from office, 
 or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers 
 and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice- 
 President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of 
 removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and 
 Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, 
 and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be re- 
 moved, or a President shall be elected. 
 
 Clause 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his 
 services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor 
 diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, 
 and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument 
 from the United States, or any of them. 
 
 Clause 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall 
 take the following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or 
 affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the 
 United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect 
 and defend the Constitution of the United States." 
 
 SECTION II.— Clause 1. The President shall be commander- 
 in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the 
 militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of 
 the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the prin- 
 cipal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject 
 relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have 
 power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the 
 United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 Clause 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and 
 consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the 
 senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with 
 the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, 
 other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, 
 and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are 
 
 'See Amendment XII, which has superseded this clause. 
 
HISTORY OF THE U.VITED STATES 
 
 not herein otherwise "provided for, and which shall be established 
 by law : but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such 
 inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the 
 courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 
 
 Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies 
 that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com- 
 missions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 
 
 SECTION III. — He shall from time to time give to the Congress 
 information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their con- 
 sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expe- 
 dient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or 
 either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with 
 respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such 
 time as he shall^think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and 
 other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faith- 
 fully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United 
 States. 
 
 SECTION IV.— The President, Vice-President and all civil offi- 
 cers of the United States, shall be removed from office on 'impeach- 
 ment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes 
 and misdemeanors. 
 
 ARTICLE III.— Judicial Department 
 
 SECTION I. —The judicial power of the United States shall be 
 vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Con- 
 gress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, 
 both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices dur- 
 ing good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their serv- 
 ices, a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their 
 continuance in office. 
 
 SECTION II.— Clause 1.^ The judicial power shall extend to all 
 cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws 
 of the United j^States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, 
 under their authority; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other 
 public ministers and consuls;— to all cases of admiralty and 
 maritime jurisdiction; — to controversies to which the United States 
 shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States; — 
 between a State and citizens of another State; — between citizens of 
 different States; — between citizens of the same State claiming lands 
 under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens 
 thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 
 iSee Amendment XI for modification of this clause. 
 
• THE (IKOVVTH OF THE CONSTITUTION 239 
 
 Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public minis- 
 ters and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the 
 Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other 
 cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate 
 jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and 
 under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 
 
 Clause 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeach- 
 ment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State 
 where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not 
 committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or 
 places as the Congress may by law have directed. 
 
 SECTION III.— Clause 1. Treason against the United States 
 shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to 
 their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be 
 convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses to 
 the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 
 
 Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the pun- 
 ishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corrup- 
 tion of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person 
 attainted. 
 
 ARTICLE IV.— General Provisions 
 
 SECTION I.— Full faith and credit shall be given in each State 
 to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other 
 State; and the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner 
 in which such acts, records, and ijroceedings shall be proved, and 
 the effect thereof. 
 
 SECTION II.— Clause 1. The citizens of each State shall be 
 entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several 
 States. 
 
 Clause 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, 
 or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another 
 State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from 
 which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having 
 jurisdiction of the crime. 
 
 Clause 3.^ No j^erson held to service or labor in one State, under 
 the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in consequence of any 
 law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, 
 but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such serv- 
 ice or labor may be due. 
 
 SECTION III.— Clause 1. New States may be admitted by the 
 Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or 
 'This clause refers to slaves as well as to apprentices. 
 
240 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be 
 formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, 
 without the consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as 
 well as of the Congress. 
 
 Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and 
 make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or 
 other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this 
 Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
 United States, or of any particular State. 
 
 SECTION IV. The United States shall guarantee to every State 
 in this Union a republican form of Government, and shall protect 
 each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legis- 
 lature, or of the executive (when the Legislature can not be con- 
 vened), against domestic violence. 
 
 ARTICLE v.— Power of Amendment 
 The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it 
 necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
 application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, 
 shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either 
 case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Con- 
 stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the 
 several States, or by conventions in three- fourths thereof, as the one 
 or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; 
 provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year 
 one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner aifect 
 the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; 
 and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal 
 suffrage in the Senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI.— Miscellaneous Provisions 
 Clause 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, 
 before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against 
 the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confedera- 
 tion. 
 
 Clause 3. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States 
 which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, 
 or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, 
 shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State 
 shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any 
 State to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 Clause 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, 
 and the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive 
 and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTION" 241 
 
 States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Consti- 
 tution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification 
 to any office or public trust under the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. — Ratification of th^ Constitution 
 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be suffi- 
 cient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States 
 so ratifying the same. 
 
 Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the 
 States present the seventeenth day of September in the 
 year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty- 
 seven, and of the independence of the United States of 
 America the twelfth. 
 In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our 
 names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
 
 President, and Deputy from Virginia. 
 Attest: WILLIAM JACKSON, 
 
 Secretary. 
 [In the original draft of the Constitution there here follow the 
 signatures of the delegates by States. There were fifty-five dele- 
 gates in the Convention, of which only thirty-nine signed the docu- 
 ment. Rhode Island was not represented.] 
 
 AMENDMENTS 
 
 TO THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, RATIFIED ACCORD- 
 ING TO THE PROVISIONS OF THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE FORE- 
 GOING CONSTITUTION. 
 
 ARTICLE I. ^ — Congress shall make no law respecting an estab- 
 lishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or 
 abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of 
 the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government 
 for a redress of grievances. 
 
 ARTICLE 11. — A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the 
 security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear 
 arms, shall not be infringed. 
 
 ARTICLE III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered 
 in anj^ house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, 
 but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their per- 
 sons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and 
 seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but 
 upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and par- 
 
 lAinendmeuts I to X took effect December 15, 1791. 
 
24:'Z HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ticularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or 
 things to be seized. 
 
 ARTICLE V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or 
 otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment 
 of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, 
 or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public 
 danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be 
 twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any 
 criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of 
 life, liberty, or propertj^ without due process of law; nor shall 
 private property be taken for public use without just compensation. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall 
 enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury 
 of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been com- 
 mitted, which district shall have been previously ascertained by 
 law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; 
 to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compul- 
 sory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the 
 assistance of counsel for his defence. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. — In suits at common law, where the value in 
 controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury 
 shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise 
 re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to 
 the rules of the common law. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII. — Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excess- 
 ive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 ARTICLE IX. — The enumeration in the Constitution of certain 
 rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained 
 by the people. 
 
 ARTICLE X. — The powers not delegated to the United States 
 by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved 
 to the States respectively, or to the people. 
 
 ARTICLE XI.'— The judicial power of the United States shall 
 not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, com- 
 menced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens 
 of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 
 
 ARTICLE XII.- — The electors shall meet in their respective 
 States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of 
 whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with 
 themselves ; they sliall name in their ballots the person voted for as 
 President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as V ice-Presi- 
 
 JTook effect January 8, 1798. 
 2 Took effect September 25, 1804. 
 
THE GROWTH OF THE CONSTITUTIOX 243 
 
 dent ; and tliey shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as 
 President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the 
 number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, 
 and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
 States, directed to the president of the Senate ; — the president of 
 the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
 sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
 counted; — the person having tlie greatest number of votes for Presi- 
 dent, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
 whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such 
 majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not 
 exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the 
 House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the 
 President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken 
 by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a 
 quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from 
 tsvo-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be 
 necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall 
 not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve 
 upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the 
 Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death 
 or other constitutional disability of the President. The person hav- 
 ing the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the 
 Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number 
 of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from 
 the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the 
 Vice-President : a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
 thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole 
 number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitu- 
 tionally ineligible to the ofifice of President shall be eligible to that 
 of Vice-President of the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE XIII. 1— Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary 
 servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the person 
 shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, 
 or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
 ARTICLE XIV. 2— Section 1. All persons born or naturalized 
 in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are 
 citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. 
 No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the 
 privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall 
 1 Took effect December 18, 1865. a Took effect July 28, 1868. " 
 
244 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without 
 due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction 
 the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the sev- 
 eral States according to their respective numbers, counting the 
 whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. 
 But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors 
 for President and Vice-President of the United States, representa- 
 tives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the 
 members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male 
 inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and 
 citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for 
 participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation 
 therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of 
 such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
 twenty-one years of age in such State. 
 
 Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in 
 Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any 
 office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any 
 State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Con- 
 gress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State 
 Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to 
 support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged 
 in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or com- 
 fort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two- 
 thirds of each House, remove such disability. 
 
 Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
 authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
 and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, 
 shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any 
 State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of 
 insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim 
 for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obli- 
 gations and claims shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- 
 priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 
 
 ARTICLE XV. 1— Section 1. The rights of citizens of the 
 United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United 
 States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous con- 
 dition of servitude. 
 
 Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
 by appropriate legislation. 
 
 1 Took effect March 30, 1870. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 
 
 1789—1829 
 
 293. The New Government Established— 1789.— On the 
 
 recommendation of the Continental Congress, all the ratify- 
 ing states except New York, acting in accordance with the 
 provisions of the constitution, proceeded to elect presidential 
 electors, — and all elected senators and representatives to 
 congress. 
 
 The presidential electors, assembling at their respective 
 state capitals in February, 1789, performed the work required 
 of them, and sent their reports to the seat of government at 
 New York — that city having been designated by the Second 
 Continental Congress as the place at which the government 
 should be instituted on the 4th of the coming March. 
 
 In New York, the 4th of March was ushered in by the 
 firing of cannon and the ringing of bells. These demonstra- 
 tions were repeated at noon and sunset, but on account of 
 the bad habits of delay that had crept into all affairs relating 
 to public business — and due, also, to the lack of public con- 
 veyances and the inconvenience of travel at that time — but 
 eight senators and thirteen representatives had arrived at the 
 hour appointed. The 30th of March saw but a bare quorum 
 of the members of the lower house present, when that body pro- 
 ceeded to organize by electing a speaker and other officers. 
 One week later (April 6), a sufficient number of senators hav- 
 ing arrived, the senate organized by electing a chairman "for 
 the sole purpose of opening and counting the votes for presi- 
 dent of the United States." The house thereupon adjourned 
 to the senate chamber in Federal Hall, where, in the pres- 
 
 245 
 
246 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ence of both bodies, the votes were opened and read aloud 
 by the chairman of the senate and counted by tellers 
 appointed from each house. This work finished, the repre- 
 sentatives withdrew to their own chamber, when the presid- 
 ing officer of each body officially announced the result, 
 which had been known throughout the country since the 
 month of February. 
 
 George Washington had received sixty-nine electoral votes, 
 and was declared unanimously elected president of the 
 United States. John Adams — just returned from England 
 
 as minister to that coun- 
 ^ -~"~^~ %:^^^^^^~ Z try — was declared elected 
 
 vice-president. Messen- 
 gers were at once sent to 
 Mount Vernon and to 
 Massachusetts, to notify 
 the newly-elected officers, 
 and to present them with 
 their certificates of elec- 
 tion. John Adams soon 
 arrived in New York and 
 assumed his duties as the 
 presiding officer of the 
 senate. 
 
 294. Washington In- 
 augurated April 30, 1789. 
 — George Washington ar- 
 FKDERALHALL rlvcd a fcw days later, 
 
 and on April 30 was accompanied by the entire senate and 
 house of representatives to the balcony of old Federal Hall, 
 where the chancellor for New York, Robert R. Livingston, 
 stood awaiting him, to administer the oath of office. A 
 vast company of people filled the streets in every direction. 
 The scene was imposing and solemn. As Chancellor Liv- 
 ingston concluded, he exclaimed: "Long live George Wash- 
 ington, president of the United States," to which the 
 
FROM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSON 247 
 
 people responded in long-continued shouting. Thus was 
 the new government established. 
 
 Washington's admixistration 
 
 FEDERALIST: i:s9-1797. 
 
 295. The First President. — No wiser choice could have been 
 made for president. Washington held the confidence and 
 esteem of his fellow-citizens. His trip from Mount Vernon 
 to New York was one continual series of ovations, in which 
 men, women, and children vied with each other to do the 
 new president honor. At Philadelphia, his reception 
 was imposing; at Trenton, in view of old memories, it was 
 solemnly patriotic. When he crossed the bridge at Prince- 
 ton, over which he had retreated when pursued by Corn- 
 wallis, he passed under a triumphal arch, and his roadway 
 was strewn with flowers. His reception at New York was a 
 grand and imposing spectacle, in which the whole city joined. 
 The love and the devotion of the people for AVashington was 
 deep and sincere. As president of the United States, his 
 very name gave to the new republic a little larger importance 
 in the eyes of the civilized world than it could otherwise 
 have obtained. 
 
 296. The President's Cabinet. — Congress having already 
 authorized the president to select a body of advisers, this 
 Washington did at once. These advisers constituted the 
 "president's cabinet," which consisted of but four depart- 
 ments — the departments of state, of the treasury, of war, 
 and of the attorney-generalship. 
 
 Since that day four other departments have been added — 
 the department of the navy, created in 1798; the depart- 
 ment of the interior, in 1849; and that of agriculture, in 
 1889. The postmaster-general became a member of the 
 cabinet after 1829. 
 
 • In the first cabinet, Jefferson was secretary of state; 
 Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury; General 
 Henry Knox, secretary of war; and Edmund Randolph, 
 
248 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 attorney-general. All were men of distinguished ability. 
 Jefferson, as Franklin's successor to the court of France, had 
 devoted most of his time to the settlement of disputes with 
 foreign governments. Hamilton, though but thirty-two 
 years of age, had already established a reputation for great 
 ability, especially in the field of finance. Knox had been an 
 officer of distinction in the Eevolution, and had been at the 
 head of military affairs since the close of the war. Edmund 
 Kandolph was a lawyer of fine ability ; had been governor of 
 Virginia ; attorney-general of that state ; and a delegate in 
 the Continental Congress, and the Constitutional Conven- 
 tion. 
 
 297. The Condition of the Government Finances in 1789. — 
 The first serious question which confronted the new govern- 
 ment was that of its finances. At the time of the inaugura- 
 tion, there was hardly a dollar in the treasury with which to 
 meet even the running expenses of the new republic; and 
 yet, the government owed to foreign nations, in round num- 
 bers, the sum of $13,000,000; to its own private citizens, 
 $42,000,000. In addition to this, the several states had con- 
 tracted Revolutionary debts of their own, amounting in all 
 to $25,000,000. 
 
 298. Hamilton's Financial Policy. — It now devolved upon 
 Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, to reform 
 the finances of the country. On his advice, congress 
 agreed : 
 
 (1) To pay the foreign debt and all interest due thereon. 
 
 (2) To pay all debts due from the government to its 
 private citizens. 
 
 (3) To assume all debts contracted by the separate states 
 during th« Revolution. 
 
 This assumption of all debts involved but the first part of 
 Hamilton's plan. There still remained the necessity of 
 devising a scheme of revenue sufficient to pay these debts, 
 and to meet the running expenses of the government. 
 
 299. The Tariff of 1789: The Excise Tax— 1790: Bank of 
 
FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 249 
 
 the United States— 1791: The United States Mint— 1792.— 
 
 Congress now passed a tariff bill, laying a tax on all imports. 
 All custom houses, which had heretofore been under control 
 of the states, now passed to the national government, which 
 located collectors at every port of entry in the United 
 States. The purpose of this tariff legislation was twofold — 
 to raise a revenue, and to protect home manufactures. 
 
 An excise law was passed, which levied a tax on every gal- 
 lon of Iquor distilled in the United States, and also on all 
 liquor imported into the United States. 
 
 The Bank of the United States, with a capital of $10,000,- 
 000, was chartered for twenty years. The government held 
 one-fifth of the stock, and agreed to receive the bills of the 
 bank in payment of all claims due the United States. The 
 bank was of great service in establishing the national 
 credit. 
 
 Congress, having power to coin money, established at 
 Pliiladelphia the United States Mint, which was soon turn- 
 ing out copper coin, silver dollars, and gold eagles. Foreign 
 coins, which, on account of their varying values, had always 
 been annoying in business transactions, were now driven out 
 of circulation. 
 
 All these measures were adopted by congress on the advice 
 of Hamilton. To him belongs the credit of establishing the 
 finances of the country on a firm basis. Of him, in later 
 years, Daniel Webster said: "He smote the rock of onr 
 national resources, and abundant streams of revenue poured 
 forth ; he touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it 
 sprang upon its feet." 
 
 300. The Judiciary Established— 1789.— The executive and 
 legislative departments being now established, it devolved 
 upon congress to organize the judicial department. 
 Accordingly, in 1789, congress established a supreme 
 court, to consist of one chief justice and five associate 
 justices. As inferior courts, it created both the circuit and 
 the district courts. So wisely was this act drawn up that 
 
250 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the judiciary remained practically unchanged (except as to 
 the number of judges and their division of labor) until the 
 year 1891, when the circuit court of appeals was created 
 as an additional court. 
 
 Washington appointed John Jay first chief justice of the 
 United States. 
 
 The honor of having assisted Hamilton in reforming the 
 finances belongs to the house; that of having organized the 
 judiciary belongs to the senate. 
 
 301. The First National Congress: The Term of a Con- 
 gress. — Thus, through the wise legislation of the First 
 National Congress, had all the machinery of the new gov- 
 ernment been set in motion. No greater task has devolved 
 upon any congress of the United States, nor has any legisla- 
 tion been more wisely or more satisfactorily accomplished. 
 
 A congress is known by its number, and is in existence 
 two years (from March 4 to March 4) — measured by the 
 length of the term of a member of the lower house. While 
 the first congress held three sessions, the majority of con- 
 gresses have usually held but two sessions — the first being 
 designated the long, and the second the short, session. 
 Each new congress begins its first session in an odd year. 
 Thus, the First National Congress began its life in the odd 
 year, 1789; the Fifty-seventh Congress held its first session 
 in the odd year, 1901. 
 
 302. The National Capital. — After the organization of the 
 government, a movement was set on foot for the building of 
 a national capital. Great rivalry at once sprang up between 
 the states. The southerners wanted the capital in their 
 section. The northerners in general wished to place it in 
 one of the middle states. Its final location was determined 
 by a compromise, which provided that Philadelphia should 
 be the capital of the republic from 1790 to 1800, and after 
 that, the seat of government should be located at some point 
 on the Potomac River, the same to be selected by the presi- 
 dent. In 1793 Washington selected the present site of the 
 
FROM AVASHIXGTOX TO JACKSON 251 
 
 city of Washington, which was named in his honor and 
 became the capital of the United States in the year 1800. 
 
 303. Political Parties: Federalist and Democratic-Repub- 
 lican. — Some of the ablest members in congress bitterly 
 ojDposed certain of Hamilton's reform measures. Hamilton 
 was a pronounced Federalist, and this name, which at first 
 had been applied to those who favored the ratification of the 
 constitution, was now applied to Hamilton's supporters. 
 As a political jjarty, the Federalists favored a strong central 
 government and believed in establishing the Union as firmly 
 as possible. They became champions of the "loose construc- 
 tion" theory of the constitution, holding that congress had 
 certain powers, which, though not expressed, were implied 
 in the constitution. 
 
 Their opponents were "strict constructionists," holding to 
 the letter of the constitution. They accused the Federalists 
 of "monarchical tendencies." They opposed a strong 
 national government, and held to the theory of "state's 
 rights." At this time a party had appeared in France 
 known as Republican. Jefferson, having but recently returned 
 from France, suggested that the name "Anti-Federalist" be 
 now dropped and that the term "Democratic-Republican" be 
 substituted therefor. This party in the days of President 
 Jackson became the Democratic party — the name which it 
 bears at the present day. 
 
 Hamilton was the leader of the Federalists, and Jefferson 
 the leader of the Democratic- Republicans. 
 
 304. Foreign Affairs. — During Washington's administra- 
 tion, trouble arose with four foreign nations — Algiers, Spain, 
 France, and England. 
 
 The pirates of Algiers had captured many American ves- 
 sels and imprisoned or enslaved their crews. For the release 
 of these seamen the United States i3aid a ransom of $1,000,- 
 000; and later, in 1795, was obliged to enter into a humiliat- 
 ing treaty with Algiers, in which she agreed to pay an annual 
 tribute in order to secure the freedom of the Mediterranean 
 
252 HISTORY or the united states 
 
 to American commerce. In this she but followed the 
 example of European nations in their relation to the pirate 
 states. 
 
 Spain at tnat time had come into possession of Florida 
 and the country west of the Mississippi Eiver. She held 
 New Orleans, which controlled the navigation of the Missis- 
 sippi, and soon began interfering with the free navigation of 
 that stream. She also insisted on placing the boundary of 
 West Florida farther north than the United States would 
 concede. By treaty with Spain in 1795 the free navigation 
 of the Mississippi was secured, and the northern limit of 
 Florida was fixed. 
 
 England had not surrendered the western posts, as she had 
 agreed. With these posts in her possession, she provoked 
 uprisings among the Indians. On the sea she interfered 
 with American commerce, even capturing American vessels 
 and forcing American seamen into the British service. Eng- 
 land and France being at war, each sought the sympathy 
 of America. Washington, by proclamation, declared the 
 United States a neutral nation, friendly to both belligerents. 
 England retaliated by issuing a decree called Orders in 
 Council, which forbade the United States having commer- 
 cial relations with France. Congress responded with an 
 embargo act, forbidding American commerce with Great 
 Britain. The two countries were rapidly drifting toward 
 war, when Washington dispatched John Jay to negotiate a 
 treaty with England. Jay's treaty, made in 1795, quieted 
 the trouble, though its terms provoked bitter opposition in 
 America. 
 
 France had assisted America during the Eevolution, and 
 that country held that the treaty of 1778 bound us to return 
 the favor now. Many Americans were anxious to do so, for 
 in the war which France and England were waging, France 
 held the popular sympathy. Washington, however, insisted 
 on the country's remaining neutral, much to the disgust and 
 anger of the French. The French minister to the United 
 
FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 253 
 
 States, M. Genet, fitted out a number of privateer ships, 
 which he manned with American crews. These began prey- 
 ing upon the commerce of Great Britain. Our government 
 objected, but Genet continued in defiance of its wishes and 
 demands. So high-handed had Genet's interference become 
 that Washington demanded his recall. 
 
 305. The Indian Trouble in the Northwest: Wayne's 
 Decisive Victory— 1794.— The Indians in the Northwest Ter- 
 ritory, secretly encouraged by the British, were giving the 
 United States much trouble. Two government expeditions 
 against them had already met with disaster— one under Gen- 
 eral Harmer, and the second under General St. Clair, gov- 
 ernor of the Northwest Territory. St. Clair's army of two 
 thousand men had been almost completely cut to pieces. 
 Washington now dispatched "Mad Anthony" Wayne to the 
 seat of the trouble. Wayne in 1794 met the savages at a point 
 near the present city of Toledo and routed them. In the 
 treaty which followed, the Indians agreed to abide by the sale 
 of land they had formerly made. This opened up the way 
 for the rapid settlement of the Ohio valley. 
 
 306. The Whiskey Insurrection — 1794. — The excise tax 
 provoked opposition among the distillers in North Carolina, 
 Virginia, and Pennsylvania. In western Pennsylvania an 
 open revolt occurred, known as the Whiskey Insurrection. 
 The insurgents refused to pay the tax, even going so far as 
 to tar and feather the revenue collectors. A state of lawless- 
 ness prevailed, when Washington called out fifteen thousand 
 militia. This army, under General Henry Lee, marched to 
 the scene of the difficulty and promptly suppressed the revolt. 
 Thus was the new government enabled to show its ability 
 to enforce its own laws and to "insure domestic tranquillity." 
 
 307. New States : Vermont— 1791 ; Kentucky— 1792 ; Ten- 
 nessee— 1796. — Three new states were admitted during Wash- 
 ington's administration. Vermont was admitted as a free state, 
 her constitution prohibiting slavery. Kentucky and Tennes- 
 see were admitted with constitutions permitting slavery. 
 
254 HISTORY OF THE UNITKI) STATES 
 
 308. Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin and Its Relation to Slav- 
 ery — 1792. — The question of slavery in the Constitutional 
 Convention had been settled only by compromise — South 
 Carolina and Georgia having stubbornly opposed all inter- 
 ference with slavery. The sentiment in the northern states 
 was in favor of its abolition. The sentiment in the soutli 
 in favor of emanci[)ation had grown very feeble, when it 
 was completely extinguished in 1702 by the invention of the 
 cotton gin by Eli Whitney. Seldom has an invention had 
 so great an effect upon a single industry as had Whitney's 
 invention on the cotton industry in the soutii, where it was 
 asserted that in the cultivation of cotton, slave labor could 
 not be dispensed with — 
 
 and thus slavery was to be 
 continued because a great 
 industry demanded it. 
 
 309. The First Census 
 — 1790. — Two years be- 
 fore the invention of the 
 cotton gin the first cen- 
 sus had been taken. This 
 revealed the fact that the 
 United States had a total 
 population of 3,929,827. Of this population, 697,897 were 
 negro slaves — 40,370 of them being north of Mason and 
 Dixon's line, and 057,527 south. 
 
 310. Washington's Farewell Address. — The term of office 
 of president of the United States is four years, and extends 
 from March 4 to March 4. Washington, having served out 
 Ins first term, was unanimously reelected in 1793. As the 
 period of his second term drew to a close, he signified his 
 intention of retiring from public life. This intention he 
 made public in a farewell address to the people of the United 
 States, which was first published in the Philadelphia "Daily 
 Advertiser" September 17, 1790. The address is full of the 
 most profound wisdom, and ranks as one of the classics in 
 
 ELI WHITNEY'S COTTON GIN 
 
FROM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSON^ 255 
 
 our literature. In it Washington bade the people beware of 
 entangling foreign alliances. He deprecated the extreme 
 bitterness of party strife; he urged upon the people the 
 cultivation of a national spirit, insisting that above all else 
 they should be Americans, and true to the underlying 
 principles upon which the American nation had been 
 founded. 
 
 311. The Presidential Election of 1796.— No sooner had 
 Washington signified his intention of retiring than a contest 
 ensued between the Federalists and the Democratic-Kepubli 
 cans for the control of the government. 
 
 Adams, as the candidate of the Federalists, advocated a 
 strong government, defended the establishment of the 
 United States Bank, the assumption of the state debts, Jay's 
 treaty with England, and insisted on keeping free from 
 European politics. 
 
 Jefferson, as the candidate of the Democratic-Republicans, 
 took the opposite side of these questions, excepting that he 
 was eqnally anxious to avoid foreign entanglement. He 
 insisted on the greatest simplicity in the administration of 
 of the government. His party was in sympathy with 
 France. 
 
 The parties being very evenly divided, the contest was 
 waged with great bitterness. The Democratic -Eepublicans 
 charged Adams and his followers with a leaning toward 
 monarchy and sympathy for England, — taunting them with 
 ingratitude toward France, their late benefactor. On their 
 part, the Federalists charged Jefferson with an attempt to 
 build up the state at the expense of the central govern- 
 ment, — taunting him with being in league with the Jacobins 
 of France. 
 
 Adams was elected by a majority of three; Jefferson, by 
 the rule then in vogue, having received the next highest 
 number of votes, became vice-president. 
 
256 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ADMIN^ISTRATIOIN^ OF JOHJT ADAMS 
 
 FEDERALIST: IIQI-IHOI 
 
 312. John Adams, the second ^^resident of the United 
 States, was the son of a Massachusetts farmer. At the age 
 of twenty, he graduated from Harvard College; he after- 
 wards taught school, and was later admitted to the bar. As 
 a lawyer, he ably defended the British soldiers at the time of 
 the Boston Massacre. He was a member of both Continental 
 Congresses, and of the committee which framed the Declara- 
 tion of Independence. Through his influence the Dutch 
 republic acknowledged the independence of the United 
 States. He was minister to that country in 1782. He was 
 a member of the American Peace Commission Avhich nego- 
 tiated the treaty at the close of the Revolution. In 1785 he 
 was appointed minister to the English court. On his return 
 in 1788, he was elected vice-president of the United States. 
 In politics he was a Federalist. He supported the policy 
 of Washington in the trouble with England, and became the 
 strong opponent of Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 He was born in 1735, and died on July 4, 1826, the fiftieth 
 anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. The coin- 
 cidence has been remarked in history that Thomas Jefferson 
 expired on the same day. Though for many years political 
 and personal enemies, Adams and Jefferson in later life 
 became reconciled. 
 
 Adams was a ready speaker and writer, although often 
 indiscreet both in speech and in the use of his pen. Though 
 popular with the mass of his party, he failed of reelection 
 owing to the fact that many of the Federalist leaders refused 
 to indorse him on account of his energetic support of the 
 Alien and Sedition laws. 
 
 313. Trouble with France. — In the very beginning of his 
 administration, Adams was confronted by trouble with 
 France, which had been brewing since Jay's treaty with Eng- 
 
FROM AVASHINGTOX TO JACKSOK 257 
 
 land. The French government held that that treaty was a 
 violation of the treaty made between France and the United 
 States in 1778, and charged the United States with ingrati- 
 tude. The Democratic-Republicans had openly expressed 
 their sympathy for France; while Adams and the Federal- 
 ists, following the example of Washington, insisted on 
 neutrality. Diplomatic relations between the two countries 
 were on the point of being severed, when Adams dispatched 
 three special envoys to France to reestablish, if possible, 
 friendly relations between the two republics. 
 
 314. The X, Y, Z Correspondence: ''Millions for Defence; 
 Not One Cent for Tribute." — The commissioners arrived in 
 France, but found it impossible to obtain an interview with 
 Talleyrand, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs. 
 Instead of granting an interview, that wily diplomat desig- 
 nated three agents to treat with the American envoys. The 
 negotiations were carried on by correspondence. In the 
 dispatches to the American government, the American 
 commissioners designated Talleyrand's agents by the letters 
 *'X," "Y," and "Z," instead of by name. On the side of 
 France this correspondence was not only disrespectful to the 
 United States, but discreditable to the French government 
 as well. The French agents even went so far as to hint that 
 in the settlement of the dispute, a bribe from the United 
 States would be acceptable to the French minister, to which 
 Charles C. Pinckney, one of the American commissioners, 
 indignantly replied that the United States had ''millions 
 for defence, not one cent for tribute." Negotiations were at 
 once broken off, and the commissioners returned home. 
 
 315. War with France Averted. —When the "X, Y, Z" 
 correspondence was published in America, it produced bitter 
 feeling against France. Even the Democratic-Republicans 
 resented the insult, and now consented to follow the lead of 
 the J'ederal party and, if need be, to meet the issue by a 
 declaration of war. All treaties with France were declared 
 to be no longer binding. While war was not proclaimed, 
 
258 illSTORY OF THE UKITED STATES 
 
 congress voted to create an army. Washington was to be at 
 its head, and Hamilton, second in command. It was also 
 voted to build a navy. Merchant ships were authorized to 
 arm themselves for the purpose of seizing French ships on 
 the high seas. War had actually begun on the sea when 
 Talleyrand, now alarmed at the turn affairs had taken, dis- 
 avowed the insults offered by his agents, and proposed to 
 receive any minister whom the American government might 
 send. Adams, acting promptly, dispatched ambassadors to 
 France. These being courteously received by the French 
 minister, all danger of war was averted. 
 
 316. The Alien and Sedition Laws — 1798. — By his prompt 
 action in averting war, Adams lost the support of at least 
 one-half the Federal party — the Federalists being in favor 
 of war; but he gained, on the other hand, the respect of the 
 Democratic-Republicans. This he could no doubt have 
 held, had it not been that congress, during the heat of the 
 excitement, unwisely passed the Alien and Sedition laws. 
 
 Many foreigners in America (particularly those from 
 France) were suspected of plotting against the government. 
 The Alien Act authorized the president to order out of the 
 country all foreigners whose presence was suspected of being 
 dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States. 
 
 At this time, too, the government encountered much 
 opposition from the ^^artisan press of the country. It was 
 charged by the Federalists that the editorials of this press 
 were scandalous and malicious, and were intended to bring 
 disrepute upon the national government by stirring up sedi- 
 tion. The Sedition Act provided for the fining and 
 imprisonment of any person who should 2^rint or publish any 
 false, scandalous, or malicious writiiig against the govern- 
 ment, congress, or the president. 
 
 These laws provoked bitter opposition in every part of the 
 country. The president declined to exercise his authority 
 under the Alien Act; but aided in prosecutions under the 
 Sedition Law. In so doino^ Adams not oulv destroyed his 
 
FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON" 259 
 
 chance of reelection, bnt assisted in the complete downfall of 
 the Federal party. 
 
 317. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions — 1798. — 
 During the controversy over the Alien and Sedition laws, the 
 first serious collision between the friends and opponents of 
 the "state's rights" theory occurred. Both the Virginia and 
 the Kentucky legislatures passed resolutions denouncing the 
 laws — the Kentucky resolutions being especially outspoken 
 in declaring that any state could nullify a law of the 
 national government when such law was "unconstitutional." 
 The expiration of the Alien and Sedition laws removed the 
 cause of the trouble, but the doctrine thus voiced became a 
 disturbing element in legislation — leading, in 1861, to the 
 Civil War. 
 
 318. The Second Census — 1800. — The second census of the 
 United States was taken in 1800, showing a total population 
 of 5,305,937 (including 993,041 slaves) — an increase of 
 thirty-five per cent over the census of 1790. 
 
 319. John Marshall, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court — 
 1801. — As one of the last acts of his administration, Adams 
 appointed John Marshall chief justice of the supreme court 
 of tlie United States. No wiser appointment has ever been 
 made by a president of the republic. The opinions which 
 Chief Justice Marshall rendered during the thirty-five years 
 of his service are to-day considered as authority upon all 
 questions of constitutional law. By his broad, clear, and 
 statesmanlike interpretation of the constitution, he greatly 
 aided in establishing a firm national union, and imparted life 
 and vigor to the constitution. 
 
 320. The Presidential Election of 1800.— The presidential 
 election of 1800 was even more bitter than that of 179G. 
 Adams and Jefferson were again the candidates of their 
 respective parties. The vice-presidential candidates were 
 Charles C. Pinckney, Federalist, and Aaron Burr, Demo- 
 cratic-Republican. The constitution at that time provided 
 that the person receiving the highest number of votes in the 
 
 L 
 
2G0 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATE8 
 
 electoral college should be president; the person receiving 
 the next highest, vice-president. AVhen the electoral votes 
 had been counted, it was found that Jefferson and Bnrr had 
 each received seventy-three votes — thereby tying the two 
 candidates on the Democratic-Republican ticket. Under the 
 constitution, it now devolved upon the house of represent- 
 atives to make the choice between these two candidates. As 
 the time for the election by the house drew near, the excite- 
 ment became intense. The Federalists, hoping to defeat 
 Jefferson, decided to throw their votes to Burr. A bitter 
 contest resulted, ending in the election of Jefferson for presi- 
 dent and Burr for vice-president. 
 
 This unfortunate contest led to the adoption of the 
 Twelfth Amendment to the constitution, which provides 
 that the votes of the electoral college shall be cast separately 
 for president and for vice-president. 
 
 JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAX: IStll-lSOU 
 
 321. Thomas Jefferson, third president of the United 
 States, was the first president to be inaugurated at the new 
 national capital — the city of Washington having become the 
 seat of government in 1800. Jefferson was the author of the 
 Declaration of Independence ; he had served several terms in 
 the Continental Congress; and had been governor of Vir- 
 ginia. In 1785 he succeeded Benjamin Franklin at the 
 court of France. On his return to America, he became 
 secretary of state under Washington, and later served as 
 vice-president during the administration of John Adams. He 
 founded the Democratic party, and was its undisputed leader 
 even after he had retired to private life. As a protest 
 against the Alien and Sedition laws, he drafted the Ken- 
 tucky resolutions of 1708. 
 
 He was a graduate of William and Mary College, and was 
 a believer in the education of the masses. He founded the 
 University of Virginia a few years before his death. On his 
 
FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 
 
 261 
 
 ^■""-vv. 
 
 retirement to private life, on his estate at Monticello, he 
 carried on an extensive correspondence with prominent 
 personages in Europe and America. On account of his 
 learning he was called "The Sage of Monticello." 
 
 On assuming the presidency, he held that it was unbecom- 
 ing the republic 
 to imitate the 
 customs of the 
 monarchies of 
 Europe, and in 
 his administra- 
 tion he intro- 
 duced extreme 
 reforms. He 
 abolished the 
 presidential re- 
 ceptions, sent his 
 annual messages 
 to congress by- 
 messenger, reduced the number of foreign ministers, reduced 
 the navy, and advocated the greatest economy in the public 
 expenditures. 
 
 Provoked by the fact that Adams, just before retiring from 
 office, had appointed many Federalists to government posi- 
 tions, Jefferson began the system of the removal of political op- 
 ponents from office, which afterwards became known as the 
 "spoils system" — sometimes referred to as "rotation in office." 
 
 On becoming president, he appointed as his secretary of 
 state, James Madison, whom he had selected to succeed him 
 in office. 
 
 Jefferson served two terms as president, being reelected in 
 1804: by a vote, in the electoral college, of one hundred 
 sixty-two to fourteen. He was born in Virginia in 1743, 
 and died at Monticello, that state, in 1826. 
 
 322. The Louisiana Purchase— 1803: Territorial Expan- 
 sion. — The greatest event of Jefferson's administration was 
 
 MONTICELLO 
 
262 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the purchase of Louisiana (1803) from the French govern- 
 ment under Napoleon Bonaparte. Spain had owned this 
 territory from the close of the French and Indian War to the 
 year 1800, when she secretly transferred it to France. This 
 vast territory consisted of New Orleans and its adjacent ter- 
 ritory, and extended westward from the Mississippi River to 
 the Rocky Mountains, and from the Gulf of Mexico and 
 Texas on the south to the British possessions on the north, — 
 though its northern and southern boundaries were not defi- 
 nitely established. Jefferson, in order to accomplish this 
 purchase, had to depart from his "strict construction" 
 theory, but he recognized that the possession of this territory 
 was of vital importance to the future of the United States. 
 The government had always had more or less trouble with 
 Spain on account of Spanish interference in the navigation 
 of the Mississippi River, and it was well known that France 
 would be no less troublesome. 
 
 James Monroe, whom Jefferson appointed as special envoy, 
 closed the negotiations for the purchase already completed 
 by Livingston, the regular minister at the court of France. 
 Though Napoleon had agreed with Spain never to cede the 
 territory to any other power, he was so pressed for money on 
 account of the wars in which he was engaged, that Livingston 
 succeeded in making the purchase for $15,000,000. In addi- 
 tion to this sum, the United States agreed to pay all debts 
 due from the French government to the American citizens. 
 
 Although little was known of this vast territory at that 
 time, later years demonstrated the wisdom of Jefferson's 
 purchase. By this purchase, the L^nited States secured the 
 absolute control of the Mississippi River, and came into pos- 
 session of that rich and valuable territory from which has 
 been carved a large number of the best states of the Ameri- 
 can Union. 
 
 323. The "Territory of Orleans" and the "District of 
 Louisiana." — Soon after the purchase of this territory, con- 
 gress divided it into the Territory of Orleans and the District 
 
FROM WASIIIXGTOX TO JACKSOX 
 
 263 
 
 of Louisiana. The boundary line between the two was the 
 30th parallel of north latitude. 
 
 The Territory of Orleans had at that time a population of 
 fifty thousand people, one-half of whom were slaves. The 
 city of New Orleans itself numbered eight thousand. The 
 settlers were engaged in the cultivation of the cotton and 
 the sugar plant — the latter had but recently been intro- 
 duced from the West Indies. From the production of these 
 two plants vast fortunes were being made by the planters of 
 that section. New Orleans was rapidly becoming a center of 
 wealth, and a tide of immigration accordingly set in 
 toward the new territory. 
 
 In the District of Louisiana the white population did not 
 exceed five thousand people. This was now set apart as an 
 "Indian country," and a movement was set on foot to induce 
 the Indians to receive it in exchange for land east of the 
 Mississippi River — a policy which succeeded only in later 
 years. For purposes of government, the District of Louisi- 
 ana was attached to the Territory of Indiana. 
 
 ROUTE OF THE LEWIS AND CLARK IXPEDITION 
 
 324. The Lewis and Clark Expedition— 1803-1806.— After 
 
 the Louisiana purchase, congress passed an act providing for 
 
264 
 
 HISTORY OP THE UIS^ITED STATES 
 
 the exploration of the territory thus acquired. Under this 
 act, the Lewis and Clark expedition was organized in 1803. 
 Starting at the city of St. Louis, in 1804, Merri wether 
 Lewis and William Clark, with a small company of men, 
 ascended the Missouri River to its source in the Rocky Moun- 
 tains; crossed to the head-waters of the Columbia River, and 
 floated down that stream to the Pacific Ocean. After an 
 absence of two years, they safely made the return trip, reach- 
 ing St. Louis in 1806. All the members of this courageous 
 little band of explorers Avere granted large tracts of public 
 land by the government, and the officers were given additional 
 remuneration. Lewis became governor of the Territory of 
 Louisiana, which was organized shortly after his return. 
 
 OREGON COUNTRY 
 
 325. The Oregon Country and Astoria. — On the strength of 
 Lewis and Clark's report, the United States at once laid 
 claim to that stretcli of country since known as the "Oregon 
 
FROM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSOX 265 
 
 country"— comprising the present states of Oregon, Wash- 
 ington, and Idaho, and a portion of British Columbia. 
 
 The Oregon country had been visited in 1792 by Captain 
 Gray of Boston, in his ship Columbia. While engaged in 
 trafficking with the Indians on the Pacific coast, he had dis- 
 covered and named the Columbia River in honor of his ship. 
 In that day, as in the days of the early explorers, the pos- 
 session of the mouth of a river carried with it the right to 
 all the country which it drained; thus, since the Columbia 
 River drained practically the whole of the* 'Oregon country," 
 the United States, encouraged by the reports of Lewis and 
 Clark, laid claim to the country on the strength of Captain 
 Gray's discovery. The Pacific Fur Company, an organiza- 
 tion founded in New York by John Jacob Astor, strength- 
 ened our government's claim by founding a settlement at 
 Astoria (1811), on the Columbia River. 
 
 326. Ohio Admitted to the Union— 1803.— Ohio, the first 
 state to be formed out of the Northwest Territory, was 
 admitted to the union in 1803, as the seventeenth state. 
 Her constitution provided liberally for the support of her 
 public schools, and prohibited slavery. 
 
 327. Duel between Hamilton and Burr — 1804. — Alexander 
 Hamilton and Aaron Burr had been political enemies from 
 the time of the organization of the government. Burr, 
 while still vice-president of the United States, became a 
 candidate for governor of New York. Hamilton, now a 
 private citizen, threw his influence against Burr, thereby 
 defeating him. Burr, embittered by his defeat, challenged 
 Hamilton to a duel. Hamilton thought that he could not 
 decline the challenge. They met on the dueling field oppo- 
 site New York city, and at the first fire, Hamilton 
 received his death wound at the hand of Burr. 
 
 The result of this duel produced intense excitement 
 throughout the country, and served to call attention forcibly 
 to the crime of dueling. That method of settling disputes 
 DOW came under the ban of public censure in the north, 
 
266 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 though in the south it was still approved. A grand jury in 
 New Jersey at once indicted Burr for murder. 
 
 328. Burr's Conspiracy in the Southwest and His Trial for 
 Treason — 1807. — Burr, now a fugitive from justice, went 
 into the southwest country, where he became involved in 
 the organization of some mysterious scheme, the full nature 
 of which has never been known. It is believed that he 
 planned to establish an empire in the southwest, the same to 
 include Texas and a portion of the territory of the United 
 States, with New Orleans as its capital. Burr, of course, 
 Avas to be its emperor. He was so strongly suspected of 
 conspiracy against the government that Jefferson issued a 
 proclamation in 1806 which led to his arrest a year later on 
 the charge of treason. In the resulting trial at Richmond, 
 Virginia, this charge, however, was not sustained, and Burr 
 went free. 
 
 329. The Cumberland National Road— 1806.— In the year 
 1806 congress passed an act providing for the building of a 
 
 ■UK C'l'MBEKI.ANO NATIONAI 
 
 national road — the same to extend from Cumberland, Mary- 
 land, to Wheeling, West Virginia, — a distance of one hun- 
 dred forty miles. The development of the western country 
 made such a road almost an imperative necessity. The road 
 was completed to Wheeling in 1820, and later surveyed 
 westward as far as Jefferson City, Missouri. By 1838 it had 
 
FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 
 
 26' 
 
 been completed to within a few miles of St. Louis, — a dis- 
 tance of nearly eight hundred miles, — when work was dis- 
 continued owing to the fact that the railroad had superseded 
 it. Portions of it were then transferred to the several states 
 through which it passed, on the condition that the states 
 would keep it in repair. 
 
 As a means in the development and growth of the great 
 west, the Cumberland road was an important factor. For 
 years along this national thoroughfare, there was poured 
 into the western country a vast population — the inhabitants 
 of future states which were destined to give additional 
 strength and stability to the national government. 
 
 330. Robert Fulton and the First Steamboat— 1807.— 
 Robert Fulton was the second American inventor to attract 
 
 world-wide at- 
 tention. He 
 invented and per- 
 fected the steam- 
 boat Clermont, 
 with which, 
 in 1807, he made 
 a successful trip 
 from New York 
 to Albany and 
 return, traveling 
 at the rate of 
 five miles per 
 hour This invention was soon to revolutionize the com- 
 merce of the world. 
 
 331. The Barbary States and the Tripolitan War— 1803- 
 1805. — The Barbary states were a group of pirate states 
 located along or near the northern coast of Africa, of which 
 the chief were Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Morocco. These 
 states made their living by preying upon the commerce of 
 other nations or demanding tribute money. By the treaty 
 with Algiers in 1795, the United States agreed to pay tribute 
 
 THK FIRST STEAMBOAT 
 
268 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 to the pirates of that country. She later entered into a 
 similar treaty with Tunis, but in sp'^e of this annual tribute, 
 American commerce continued to be molested, and her 
 officers insulted. In 1800, a few of these states made a 
 demand upon President Adams for more tribute money. 
 The following year, a similar demand was made upon his suc- 
 cessor. Jefferson replied by sending a fleet of American war 
 vessels under Commodore Dale to make a demonstration 
 (1801) on the coast of the pirate states. A pirate cruiser 
 was captured, and for a time American commerce had the 
 freedom of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Two years later, however, congress declared war against 
 Tripoli, which was concluded by a treaty of peace in 1805. 
 In this war, Lieutenant, afterwards Commodore, Decatur 
 first distinguished himself as a naval officer. The American 
 fleet captured many vessels, though it suffered the loss of 
 the frigate Philadelphia, under Captain Bainbridge, who, 
 with all his crew, fell into the hands of the Tripolitans. By 
 the provisions of the treaty, these prisoners were ransomed 
 by the payment of S00,000. 
 
 332. Trouble with Great Britain and France. — Jefferson did 
 not escape his share of trouble with Great Britain and France. 
 Under Napoleon, war between these two countries had been 
 renewed with vigor, and nearly all the nations of Europe had 
 become involved. The United States, remaining neutral, 
 was soon engaged in carrying nearly the whole of the com- 
 merce of Europe — a circumstance which made England ex- 
 ceedingly jealous of the growing commercial importance of 
 the young republic. Many American sea-captains, however, 
 became so bold as to abuse their rights as neutrals. Supplies 
 for France were sent to American ports; here transferred to 
 American ships, and sent to France under a neutral flag. Eng- 
 land, glad of an excuse, retaliated by capturing American 
 vessels suspected of carrying French cargoes, and renewed 
 her old policy of stopping and searching American vessels for 
 British deserters, and of impressing American seamen. 
 
FKUM WASHINGTON TO .lACKSUN 261) 
 
 As the war continued, American trade suffered more and 
 more at the hands of both England and France. After 
 England's great naval victory at Trafalgar (October, 1805), 
 her sea-captains became insolent in the extreme, practically 
 establishing a blockade of the American ports, and capturing 
 American vessels indiscriminately, — almost as soon as they 
 had put to sea. American commerce thus became a bone of 
 contention between these two powers, now engaged in a 
 death grapple for the mastery of Europe. 
 
 333. The British Orders in Council : Napoleon's Berlin and 
 Milan Decrees. — In 1806 England notified the United States 
 that she had issued an Order in Council establishing a block- 
 ade of certain French and other European ports, and inti- 
 mated that American commerce with these ports was at an 
 end until the blockade should be raised. The United 
 States, however, insisted that this was a "paper blockade" 
 (meaning thereby that England did not keep men-of-war 
 at the blockaded ports in order to enforce it), and in her turn 
 intimated that it would not be respected. 
 
 Napoleon's reply to England's Order in Council was the 
 Berlin Decree, which declared the British Islands to be in a 
 state of blockade, and forbade all commerce with them, by 
 any country whatsoever. 
 
 Great Britain's rejoinder to the Berlin Decree was another 
 Order in Council (this time a sweeping one), which now 
 declared all ports of France and her allies (Italy, Spain, Hol- 
 land, and Germany) to be in a state of blockade, and, in 
 effect, forbade the United States, though a neutral power, 
 trading with any of these countries. 
 
 To this Order in Council, Napoleon retorted in a similar 
 manner with the Milan Decree, which virtually forbade the 
 United States trading with Great Britain, or any of her 
 colonies, and at the same time ordered the capture of 
 American ships which should permit themselves to be 
 searched by English vessels. 
 
 Thus was the commerce of the United States being crushed 
 
270 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 
 
 as between an upper and a nether millstone. If American 
 ships ventured to trade with England, they were held sub- 
 ject to capture by the French; should they trade with the 
 French, they were liable to capture by the English. One- 
 half of the mercantile ports of the world were closed by Eng- 
 land, the other half by France. And, furthermore, America 
 could not even carry on trade between ports on her own coast 
 without running the risk of being waylaid by some British 
 cruiser insisting on the right of search and impressment. 
 
 334. The Affair of the Chesapeake and Leopard— June 
 22, 1807. — As a consequence of this state of affairs an event 
 occurred in 1807 which aroused Americans in all parts of 
 the country. The British frigate Leopard fired into the 
 American frigate Chesapeake off the coast of Virginia, caus- 
 ing the latter to strike her colors. Four sailors, three of 
 them American citizens, were seized. The Americans were 
 thrown into prison, and the fourth man was tried by court 
 martial and promptly hanged from the yard-arm of a British 
 man-of-war. Hereupon the president promptly ordered all 
 British war vessels out of American ports, called a special 
 session of congress to consider the state of public affairs, 
 and dispatched a vessel to England to demand reparation. 
 
 335. Jefferson's Policy of Nonresistance. — To meet these 
 outrages committed against American commerce by England, 
 three ways suggested themselves to Jefferson — war, diplo- 
 macy, or retaliatory legislation. 
 
 War was dismissed as impossible, the United States not 
 being prepared for such an event. Indeed, Jefferson, as a 
 man of peace, Avas at all times opposed to war, and in pursu- 
 ance of this policy had discouraged the building of a navy. 
 At the very beginning of the Napoleonic wars, congress, 
 at Jefferson's suggestion, had authorized the building of a 
 large number of small gunboats, mounted with one or two 
 guns each, and intended for coast defence only. In case of 
 emergency, these were to be manned by volunteer crews 
 selected from the militia. When not in use, thev were to 
 
FRO.M WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSON 271 
 
 be hauled up under sheds, like a farmer's implements during 
 the winter season. This gunboat flotilla became the laughing 
 stock of both Europe and America, 
 
 Hoping to settle the matter by diplomacy, Jefferson dis- 
 patched James Monroe and William Pinckney to England to 
 arbitrate the difficulties. They negotiated a treaty, but this, 
 when submitted to Jefferson, was so unsatisfactory that he 
 rejected it — refusing even to submit it to the senate. 
 
 The only course now left was to resort to retaliatory legis- 
 lation. Accordingly, a Nonimportation Act, an Embargo Act, 
 and later, a Nonintercourse Act, were passed by congress. 
 
 336. Nonimportation Act Goes into Effect — Dec. 14, 
 1807. — Congress, prior to the Chesapeake affair, had passed 
 a Nonimportation Act (April 18, 1806) prohibiting the 
 importation of all English goods which came into competi- 
 tion with American manufactures. This act, however, was 
 to go into effect at the discretion of the president. After 
 the Chesapeake affair he purposely delayed action on the 
 matter until he could hear England's reply to his demand 
 for reparation. 1'hat reply being evasive, he ordered that the 
 Nonimportation Act become operati\^e December 14, 1807. 
 
 337. The Embargo Act— Dec. 22, 1807.— A few days after 
 the Nonimportation Act had gone into effect, congress, on 
 Jefferson's advice, passed an Embargo Act, prohibiting 
 American vessels leaving America for any foreign port. 
 The act was unpopular, and was evaded by American sea- 
 men. It failed to bring either England or France to terms, 
 and did great injury both to the shipping interests and the 
 export trade of the country — while it almost ruined the 
 farming class. Manufactures alone reaped a benefit from 
 this unwise legislation. 
 
 338. Nonintercourse Act — 1809. — Just before the close oi 
 Jefferson's administration both the Embargo and Nonimpor- 
 tation Acts were repealed (February 28, 1809) and replaced 
 by a Nonintercourse Act (March 1, 1809) which forbade 
 British and French vessels to enter the ports of the United 
 
272 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 States, suspended all trade with those countries, -and prohib- 
 ited the importation of any of their products or manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 Jefferson's whole policy had been to avert war, and to 
 bring England and France to terms by restricting their com- 
 merce. But the experiment had failed — neither country had 
 been brought to terms, and war was still threatening when he 
 retired from office ^larch 4, 1809. 
 
 339. Presidential Election of 1808. — Meanwhile the presi- 
 dential election had taken place, resulting in the choice of 
 James Madison of Virginia for president, and George Clin- 
 ton of New York for vice-president. Out of the one hun- 
 dred seventy-six electoral votes, the Democratic-Eepublicans 
 received one hundred twenty-two, and the Federalists but 
 forty-four. Charles C. Pinckney of South Carolina and 
 Rufus King of New York were the candidates of the 
 Federalist party. 
 
 In the contest, the Democratic-Republicans adhered to the 
 principles of Jefferson, approved the purchase of Louisiana, 
 and professed belief in the wisdom of Jefferson's Embargo 
 Act. The Federalists railed at the purchase of Louisiana, 
 and condemned Jefferson's Embargo Act as not included in 
 the powers of congress to regulate commerce. 
 
 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN: 1809-1817 
 
 340. James Madison, fourth president of the United 
 States, graduated from Princeton College at the age of 
 twenty-one. He became an active member of the Conti- 
 nental Congress during the closing days of the Revolution. 
 Recognizing the weakness of the government under the 
 Articles of Confederation, he put forth every effort to have 
 the Articles amended. In the Constitutional'Convention he 
 wa? one of the most conspicuous members. The perfecting 
 of the constitution was due more to the skill of Madison than 
 that of any other man. Being a Virginian, it was largely 
 
FROM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSOX 2T3 
 
 througn his influence with the southern delegates that the 
 three great compromises were brought about; and it was 
 also due to his influence that Virginia ratified the consti- 
 tution. The services rendered by Madison in connection 
 with the making and the ratification of the constitution won 
 for him the appellation "The Father of the Constitution." 
 
 After the formation of the Democratic-Republican party 
 he immediately took a place beside Jefferson as one of its 
 prominent leaders. He was the author of the Virginia reso- 
 lutions in 1798. He served several terms in the national 
 congress, and for eight years was Jefferson's secretary of 
 state. 
 
 Always opposed to war, he yielded to the declaration of 
 war in 1812, only under the threat that his party would 
 defeat his reelection if he opposed it. Historians have held 
 that his management of that war was feeble, due to the fact 
 that his abilities were unsuited to the management of 
 vigorous military campaigns. 
 
 As a man, he was modest at all times; quiet, and reserved 
 in his manner; and noted for his refinement, his learning, and 
 his courteous treatment of friend and foe. He served two 
 terms as president, being reelected in 1804, with Elbridge 
 Gerry as vice-president. Madison was born in Virginia in 
 1T51, and died at Montpelier, that state, in 1836. 
 
 341. Effect of the Repeal of the Embargo. — The repeal of 
 the Embargo Act came at a time when Napoleon had lost 
 Spain as an ally, — an event which threw the ports of Spain 
 and Portugal open to American commerce. Using these 
 ports as intermediary stations, American seamen were 
 thereby enabled to carry on trade with both England and 
 France. And then, too, France and England also permitted 
 (under special license) direct trade with America in some 
 articles. 
 
 Under these favorable conditions American commerce 
 revived, and American seamen were once more engaged in 
 carrying nearly the whole of the commerce of Europe. 
 
274 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 342. Madison's Negotiations. — The Nonintercourse Act, 
 however, remained, and Madison at once sought to use it as 
 a means of securing a repeal of the British Orders in Council 
 and Napoleon's Decrees. 
 
 He accordingly negotiated with the British envoy at Wash- 
 ington a treaty withdrawing the Orders in Council. As soon 
 as the treaty was signed, Madison issued a proclamation sus- 
 pending the British clause of the Nonintercourse Act. 
 This sent all the merchant ships then shut up in America 
 flying to foreign ports. But Madison had been too hasty — 
 when the treaty reached England it was rejected by the Brit- 
 ish government. The envoy had exceeded his instructions, 
 and Madison was now forced to issue a proclamation renew- 
 ing the act. An attempt to negotiate with France met with 
 little better success, though the attitude of France was more 
 conciliatory than that of England. In this, however. Napo- 
 leon was playing a desperate game of war politics in which 
 he planned both to despoil American commerce and to pro- 
 voke the United States and England to war. 
 
 343. The Macon Bill— May 1, 1810.— Thus all retaliatory 
 legislation had failed. Congress, now tired of resistance, 
 passed the Macon Bill Number Two, which in effect repealed 
 the Nonintercourse Act. The bill, however, contained the 
 foolish proviso that the president could declare the act in 
 force against either England or France, should the com- 
 mercial Orders or Decrees of either nation be continued in 
 force while those of the other were repealed. 
 
 344. Napoleon's Double Dealing. — This proviso in the 
 Macon Bill led to new complications. It practically said 
 that if England repealed her Orders in Council and France 
 kept her Berlin and Milan Decrees in force, then the United 
 States would become the friend of England and the enemy of 
 France. On the other hand, should France repeal her 
 Decrees while England left the Orders standing, the situation 
 would be reversed. 
 
 Napoleon, quick to see his opportunity, sent a letter to the 
 
FROM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSOX 275 
 
 American minister at Paris, in which he pretended that the 
 Berlin and Milan Decrees were already suspended so far as 
 the United States was concerned, and intimated that their 
 revocation would be announced as soon as England should 
 withdraw her Orders in Council. Madison, misled by Napo- 
 leon's pretense, issued a proclamation prohibiting trade with 
 England because France had withdrawn her Decrees. Amer- 
 ican ships, misled by Napoleon's trickery, now hastened to 
 France, but they had no sooner arrived than they were seized 
 by order of Napoleon, who was in need of supplies for his 
 army. And Napoleon's bad faith did not stop at this — the 
 French continued to plunder American commerce to the 
 extent that by the year 1812 France had confiscated ten mil- 
 lion dollars' worth of American property. 
 
 Napoleon's purpose in thus preying upon the commerce of 
 the United States was not alone to get needed supplies, but 
 also to prevent England from repealing her Orders in Council. 
 In this he was successful — England now insisted that since 
 France continued to despoil American commerce, Napo- 
 leon had not withdrawn his Decrees in good faith; and 
 she refused absolutely to withdraw her Orders in Council. 
 
 While the United States had as just a grievance against 
 France as against England, still her chief enmity was now 
 directed against England — due to the successful double deal- 
 ing of Napoleon Bonaparte. France, when accused by the 
 United States of violating the withdrawal of her Decrees, at 
 once became conciliatory and expressed a willingness to treat 
 with the United States in a manner satisfactory to the two 
 countries. Later Napoleon, as a reply to the charge of bad 
 faith, publicly announced the revocation of his Decrees. 
 Thus had Madison played into the hands of France ; Napo- 
 leon's trick had been successful. All war talk in the United 
 States was now directed against England. 
 
 In the meantime, two events had occurred which produced 
 strained relations between the two countries and aroused the 
 anger of the Americans against the British. 
 
276 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 346. The Indians and the British in the Northwest : The 
 Battle of Tippecanoe — Nov. 7, 1811. — The British troops 
 had not been withdrawn from the western frontier and the 
 frequent Indian troubles along the border were often trace- 
 able to British influence. Thus the people of Ohio and the 
 northwest, remembering the British Indian policy during 
 the Revolution, were thoroughly aroused against England and 
 desired war. The most serious of these Indian troubles 
 was a revolt led by the noted Indian chief, Tecumseh. 
 This chief, with his brother, "the prophet," had been since 
 1806 secretly inciting the Indians against the settlers and 
 urging the savages to resist the advance of the white man 
 upon their hunting grounds. Many murders were com- 
 mitted and Indian raids indulged in. Attempts were made 
 by William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana Territory, 
 to negotiate a treaty with 'J'ecumseh, but that wily chief, 
 while professing friendship for the Americans, successfully 
 evaded the question and declined to call a peace conference. 
 His actions became so suspicious that it was resolved to strike 
 a blow against the savages with a hope of bringing them to 
 terms and freeing the frontier from their depredations. 
 Accordingly Governor Harrison with a few regulars and 
 many volunteers from the western settlements, met Tecum- 
 seh 's savage warriors in a pitched battle near their principal 
 town on the Tippecanoe Eiver (November 7, 1811), and 
 completely routed them. Tecumseh returned to the north, 
 where he soon joined the British in Canada — a fact which 
 now convinced the western settlers that the British were in 
 league with the Indians, and the people of the northwest 
 became clamorous for an attack upon the British in Canada. 
 
 This battle brought Harrison prominently before the 
 country as a military leader. President Madison, in a letter 
 to congress, complimented his skill, and Indiana and Ken- 
 tucky proffered him thanks. As the result of the promi- 
 nence gained in this battle, Harrison became one of the chief 
 leaders of the western army, gaining one of the early battles 
 
FKOM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 277 
 
 of the war of 1812, in which the noted chief Tecumseh lost 
 his life. It was largely due to Harrison's victory at Tippe- 
 canoe that he afterwards won the presidency. 
 
 346. President and Little Belt. — Off the coast of New 
 Jersey, in May, 1811, the British cruiser Little Belt fired 
 into the American frigate President, whereupon a battle 
 ensued resulting in the disabling of the British sloop. An 
 investigation was begun by the two governments, but on the 
 recommendation of the British minister at Washington, the 
 affair was dropped. It, however, created bitter feeling 
 between the two countries. 
 
 347. War Declared June 18, 1812. — Following these events 
 the war spirit in America ran high, resulting in the election 
 of a number of young men to congress (among them John 
 C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, and William H. Crawford) — all of 
 them eager for a contest at arms with Great Britain. This 
 congress, known as the "War Congress," voted to raise and 
 equip an army of 25,000 regular troops, 50,000 volunteers, 
 and 100,000 militia. A few months later it passed another 
 Embargo Act, and on June 18, 1812, declared war against 
 Great Britain. 
 
 348. Causes of the War of 1812.— The War of 1812 was due : 
 
 (1) To England's blockade of American ports, and her 
 refusal to withdraw her obnoxious Orders in Council. 
 
 (2) To England's continued possession of the western forts 
 and her inciting the Indians to commit depredations on the 
 western borders. 
 
 (3) To England's insisting on the right of search and 
 impressment, and to a desire on the part of the United States 
 to annex Canada. 
 
 Two days before war had been declared. Great Britain 
 withdrew her Orders in Council. When news of this event 
 reached America, an attempt was made to have the declara- 
 tion of war recalled, but the war spirit was too high in con- 
 gress, and England, refusing to yield on the question of 
 search and impressment, hostilities were begun. 
 
278 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 349. The Two Political Parties and the War.— Thus had the 
 United States been involved in war on accouut of her con- 
 nection with the war politics of Europe. The Democratic- 
 Republican party, through Jefferson's influence, had always 
 had a feeling of sympathy for France — while the Federalists 
 were kindly disposed toward England. The former party 
 was strongest in the south and west, — among the agricultural 
 classes; the latter, in New England and the middle states, — 
 among the commercial class. To the New Englanders par- 
 ticularly, war meant destruction of their commerce. The 
 agricultural class felt they had nothing to lose in the direc- 
 tion of trade, and under the leadership of Clay and Calhoun, 
 hoped for the conquest of Canada. 
 
 350. Relative Strength of the Two Nations. — England had 
 a population at that time of nearly twenty millions of people, 
 as opposed to seven millions in the United States. 
 
 England, after Nelson's great victory at Trafalgar, was the 
 undisputed mistress of the seas — she had the most formidable 
 navy in the world; while the navy of the United States con- 
 sisted of less than a dozen frigates, and eight or ten brigs 
 and sloops. England on account of the Napoleonic wars had 
 large armies of well disciplined troops ready to put into the 
 field; while the policy of the party in power in the United 
 States had been opposed to the building of a navy, and the 
 creation of a standing army. 
 
 351. Madison's Conduct of the War. — Madison's conduct 
 of the war did not add to his reputation as president. He 
 was supreme as the maker of the constitution and as an able 
 legislator in the halls of congress, but as a war president he 
 failed. Some of the generals whom he at first selected, and 
 some of the campaigns which he planned, reflected but little 
 credit upon either Madison or the American army. He 
 never awoke to a realization of the importance of the navy, 
 always referring to American successes on the sea as *'our 
 little naval victories." 
 
 352. Events of 1812. — The American i)lan of operations in 
 
PROM WASIIIXGTOX TO JACKSON 
 
 279 
 
 1812 provided for the garrisoning of the coast defences along 
 the Atlantic seaboard and the organization of three expedi- 
 tions for the invasion of Canada — one by the army of the 
 north, by way of Lake Champlain; another by the army of 
 the center, by way of the Niagara River; and the third by 
 the army of the west, by way of Detroit. 
 
 General William Hull, commander of the western army, in- 
 vaded Canada by way of Detroit. On crossing the river at that 
 point, Hull unexpectedly encountered a force of British and In- 
 
 dians under General Sir Isaac Brock. Hull thereupon hastily 
 recrossed the river to Detroit where he soon disgracefully sur- 
 rendered his entire force, consisting of two thousand men. 
 Near the same time Fort Dearborn, on the present site of Chi- 
 cago, and Fort Mackinaw, fell into the hands of the British. 
 
 General Brock, after the capture of Detroit, hastened to 
 the Niagara frontier, where he met the army of the center 
 under General Solomon Y^n Rensselaer, just on the point of 
 invading Canada, and defeated it at the battle of Queens- 
 town Heights. 
 
 The army of the north, awaiting the issue at Detroit and 
 Niagara, accomplished nothing. 
 
 Thus the land operations of this year ended in total fail- 
 ure. The Americans, besides losing three thousand men as 
 prisoners of war, lost the whole of the Michigan territory. 
 
280 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 On the sea, however, the neglected American navy, 
 assisted by privateers, did valiant service, capturing three 
 hundred or more British merchant ships and a number of 
 men-of-war. 
 
 The Constitution, under Captain Isaac Hull, encountered 
 the British frigate Guerriere off Cape Race (August 19), 
 and in a thirty-minute engagement so disabled the British 
 frigate that she had to be blown up. Before the close of the 
 war the Constitution, now under Captain William Bain- 
 bridge, met the British frigate Java (December 20) off the 
 coast of Brazil, and after a hotly-contested battle of over two 
 hours, forced the Java to surrender. It was in this engage- 
 ment that the Constitution won the name "Old Ironsides." 
 The American sloop-of-war Wasp, under Captain Jacob 
 Jones, captured the British brig Frolic after a terrific battle 
 off the coast of North Carolina, and a few days later Com- 
 modore Decatur, in command of the frigate United States, 
 defeated the Macedonian in an engagement near the Canary 
 Islands. 
 
 353. Events of 1813.— At the beginning of 1813 the Amer- 
 ican troops were under better discipline and were better 
 
 officered. Three 
 
 campaigns were 
 planned — the 
 army of the 
 north, under 
 General Wade 
 Hampton, was 
 expected to in- 
 vade Canada by 
 way of Lake 
 Champlain ; the 
 army of the 
 center, under General Dearborn, was to operate on the Niag- 
 ara frontier and Lake Ontario ; while the army of the west 
 was expected to regain the territory lost by Hull. 
 
FKOM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSOX 281 
 
 At Frenchtown, on the river Eaisin, General Winchester, 
 with a large American force, was captured by Colonel Proctor 
 with a superior force of British and Indians — the savages com- 
 mitting such atrocities as to horrify the entire country and 
 place a stain forever upon the name of Proctor. Thereafter 
 "Remember the Raisin" became the battle cry of the western 
 army. Proctor now invaded Ohio with his horde of savages, 
 besieged Fort Meigs, and attempted the capture of Fort 
 Stephenson where he was gallautly repulsed. Unable to dis- 
 lodge the Americans, and finding his savages deserting him 
 in large numbers, he hastily returned to his headquarters at 
 Fort Maiden in Canada. 
 
 But one thing now prevented a successful invasion of 
 Canada by the Americans — a British squadron under Com- 
 modore Barclay had full control of Lake Erie. At this junc- 
 ture Commodore Oliver H. Perry, a young man but 
 twenty-eight years of age, came to the rescue. Perry hastily 
 constructed a fleet of nine vessels, attacked the British 
 squadron, and in a short and thrilling engagement captured 
 (September 10) the entire fleet, "We have met the enemy 
 and they are ours; two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and 
 one sloop," was the brief dispatch sent by Perry to Gen- 
 eral Harrison in notifying him of the victory. 
 
 General Harrison at once embarked for Canada, drove the 
 British from Fort Maiden, and brought Proctor and Tecum- 
 seh to bay on the river Thames. Proctor was defeated and 
 put to flight, Tecumseh killed, and the Indian confederacy 
 went to pieces. Thus had the army of the west repelled 
 the invasion of Ohio, gained the control of Lake Erie, dis- 
 persed the Indian tribes, and regained Michigan. 
 
 At about the same time the Creek Indians in Alabama, 
 incited by the British, took up arms against the United 
 States. They massacred the garrison and settlers at Fort 
 Mimms, and were carrying everything before them when the 
 settlers rose against them and defeated them in several bat- 
 tles. The Creeks, however, continued to give trouble until 
 
282 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the spring of 1814, when Andrew Jackson at the battle of 
 Horseshoe Bend (March 29, 1814) defeated them with fearful 
 
 slaughter, almost exterminating 
 their entire nation. 
 
 There was much fighting by 
 the army of the center under 
 General Dearborn. Toronto, 
 the capital of Canada, was cap- 
 tured by the Americans, but 
 afterwards abaadoned. The 
 British attacked Sackett's Har- 
 bor, New York, and though at 
 first successful, were afterwards 
 driven from the place by Gen- 
 eral Brown. Fort George, on 
 the Canadian side, was taken by the Americans. About this 
 time both Harrison and Dearborn resigned, and the army of 
 the center, now under General AVilkiiison, was directed to 
 cooperate with General Hampton's army of the north for the 
 capture of Mon- 
 treal. The two 
 armies, however, 
 failed to cooper- 
 ate, and the 
 attempt was 
 abandoned. 
 
 The successes 
 on the sea in 
 1813 were about 
 equal between 
 the two navies. 
 The American 
 Hornet, u n d e r 
 Captain James 
 Lawrence, sunk the British brig Peacock. Captain Law- 
 rence, in command of the Chesapeake, lost both liis ship 
 
FKUM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSON 283 
 
 and his life in an encounter with the British frigate Shan- 
 non off the coast of Cape Ann. "Don't give up the 
 ship" — the last words of Captain Lawrence — became the 
 motto of the American sailors. American privateers made 
 many captures of British merchant ships during the year. 
 The British, however, still kept up their blockade of 
 American ports, and along the shores of the Delaware 
 and Chesapeake bays marauding bands of sailors sacked 
 and burned many unprotected American villages and 
 towns. 
 
 354. Events of 1814. — The British at the beginning of the 
 war had planned the blockade of the Atlantic coast; the con- 
 quest of the old Northwest Territory; the invasion of New 
 York ; and the pushing of an army through the Lake Cham- 
 plain region down the Hudson valley for the purpose of cut- 
 ting off from the rest of the country the people of the New 
 England states, who were known to be opposed to the war. 
 The British thought that the New Englanders might be 
 induced to secede from the United States and possibly form 
 a union with the British provinces in Canada. 
 
 But these excellent plans all miscarried. At the begin- 
 ning of 1814 their blockade was not effective; they had 
 lost every chance of capturing Michigan and Ohio; their 
 invasion of New York had been a failure; and they had 
 not even been able to get an army into the Hudson valley. 
 Moreover, the sailors from the very states which the British 
 had hoped to see annexed to Canada had humbled the pride 
 of the English navy. The world had been astonished at the 
 fighting qualities of the Yankee sailors. 
 
 During the year 1814, however, England, on account of 
 the decline of Napoleon's power, was enabled to transfer 
 many of Wellington's veteran troops to the seat of war in 
 America. The British government now resolved on a vigor- 
 ous prosecution of the war, and determined (1) to pnsh the 
 contest along the entire Canadian border; (2) to effect the 
 destruction of Washington ; and (3) to captui-e the city of 
 
284 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 New Orleans, which would thereby give them control of the 
 Mississippi Kiver. 
 
 The Americans organized three campaigns to defeat their 
 purpose. In the northern campaign the army of Niagara, 
 under General Winfield Scott, won the battle of Chippewa 
 and the more considerable one of Lundy's Lane. The army 
 in the region of Lake Cham plain defeated a British army of 
 invasion, fourteen thousand strong, under General Sir George 
 Prevost, at Plattsburg. At the same time, Commodore 
 MacDonough, in command of the American flotilla on the 
 lake, repeated the brilliant exploit of Perry on Lake Erie in 
 
 the previous year, driving 
 the British fleet from 
 
 Lake Champlain. This 
 overwhelming defeat of 
 P r e V s t reminded the 
 British of Burgoyne's dis- 
 astrous invasion and led 
 tlie British government 
 to consider the proposal 
 of a treaty of peace. 
 
 In August of this year 
 a British fleet entered 
 Chesapeake Bay, defeated 
 the Americans at Bladens- 
 burg, entered Washington, and burned the government build- 
 ings. Returning to Baltimore, a land and naval force attacked 
 that city, but the British were repulsed, — Baltimore being gal- 
 lantly defended by the garrison at Fort McIIenry. During this 
 bombardment of I'ort McHenry, Francis Scott Key composed 
 "The Star-Spangled Banner" — the American national air. 
 
 The British attack on New Orleans, though organized in 
 1814, did not take place untilJanuary 8, 1815. On that day 
 General Packenham, with an army of twelve thousand men, 
 attacked the city, which was defended by General iVndrew 
 Jackson with a militia force comprising but half that number. 
 
FIIOM WASHIXGTOX TO JACKSOX )IS5 
 
 So well planned was Jackson's defence that the British were 
 repulsed with fearful slaughter, resulting in the death of 
 General Packenham and the destruction of one-fourth of his 
 army. The American loss in killed and wounded numbered 
 but seventy-one. 
 
 355. Treatyof Ghent— 1814.— Had there been an Atlantic 
 cable at that time, the battle of New Orleans would not have 
 been fought, — a treaty of peace had been signed two weeks 
 previous at Ghent, Belgium (December 24, 1814). By the 
 terms of the treaty, peace was established, all conquered 
 territory restored, and the old questions of dispute between 
 the two countries left just as they had been prior to the 
 declaration of war. The British right of search and impress- 
 ment, which was considered to have been the chief cause of 
 the war, was not even referred to in the treaty, nor was its 
 mention insisted upon by the American peace commissioners. 
 However, that question had been satisfactorily settled on the 
 sea by the American sailors themselves, and the right has 
 since never been insisted upon by the British government. 
 
 356. The Hartford Convention and the Federalist Party — 
 Dec. 15, 1814. — The Federalists in New England had from 
 the beginning opposed the issue of war. At the close of the 
 year 1814, these states, suffering from a complete destruc- 
 tion of their commerce, were outspoken in their demand for 
 peace. Delegates from Massachusetts, lihode Island, and 
 Connecticut met in Hartford in secret convention on Decem- 
 ber 15, 1814, for the purpose of protesting against the war 
 policy of the administration. Before their adjournment a 
 false rumor was circulated that New England was threaten- 
 ing secession. While it is now known that no such unpatri- 
 otic course was contemplated, still such credence was given 
 to the rumor at the time as to bring upon the New England 
 Federalists the greatest odium. The unwise course of this 
 convention resulted in the complete downfall of the Fed- 
 eralist party. 
 
 357. Results of the War. — Notwithstanding the spirit 
 
286 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 revealed in the Hartford Convention, American confidence 
 and national pride had steadily increased. The little Ameri- 
 can navy had commanded the respect of the nations of the 
 world. And — greatest gain of all — the United States had 
 permanently separated her political affairs from all connec- 
 tion with the politics of Europe. 
 
 However, the war also left its evil effects. The govern- 
 ment was confronted with a public debt of $127,000,000, 
 of which amount $80,000,000 was due to the war, American 
 commerce had been destroyed, and great depression was felt 
 in all lines of business — the finances of the country were 
 in need of immediate attention. 
 
 358. The Second Bank of the United States— 1816.— Con- 
 sequently the first task of congress was to reconstruct the 
 financial system. The charter of the First United States 
 Bank having expired in 1811, congress had refused to 
 recharter it. However, the state banks, which had taken its 
 place, proved so unsatisfactory that the people at the close 
 of the war demanded its renewal. Accordingly, in 1816, 
 congress created the Second Bank of the United States, with 
 a capital of $35,000,000^one-fifth of the amount of stock 
 being held by the government. It was chartered for twenty 
 years, and greatly aided in restoring the finances of the 
 country to a normal condition. 
 
 369. Tariff of 1816: The "Protective Tariff."— The manu- 
 facturing interests of the United States also demanded 
 immediate attention. During the war, manufacturing indus- 
 tries had been extensively established, especially in the 
 northern states. When trade was reopened with Great Brit- 
 ain at the close of the war, that nation flooded the country 
 with English manufactures of all descriptions. Wherever 
 these came in competition with home manufactures, the cor- 
 responding English goods were sold at a price below the cost 
 of making the same in America. The manufacturing indus- 
 tries being thus threatened with destruction, the tariff bill of 
 181G was passed to meet the emergency. Its purpose being 
 
FKOM WASHIXGTON TO JACKSON" 287 
 
 not only to raise a revenue, but especially to protect home 
 manufactures, it was called the "protective tariff." 
 
 360. Decatur and the Algerine War — 1815. — During the 
 war with England the pirates of the Barbary states again 
 began preying upon American commerce. As soon as the 
 war was closed the United States dispatched Commodore 
 Decatur with a fleet of ten ships with instructions to bring 
 the pirate states to terms. Decatur compelled the Dey of 
 Algiers to sign a treaty on the deck of the American flag- 
 ship, by which the Dey agreed to demand no more tribute 
 money of the United States, and to pay for all seizures made 
 in violation of the previous treaty. Similar submission 
 being exacted of Tunis and Tripoli, no further trouble was 
 experienced from the pirate states. 
 
 361. New States: Louisiana— 1812; Indiana — 1816. — In 
 this administration, Louisiana was admitted to the union as 
 the eighteenth state, with a constitution permitting slavery; 
 and Indiana, as the nineteenth state, with a constitution 
 prohibiting slavery. 
 
 362. The Third Census— 1810.— The third census, taken 
 in 1810, showed that the United States had a total popula- 
 tion of 7,215,791 — an increase of thirty-six and one-half per 
 cent over the population of 1800. Of this population, 
 1,191,364 were slaves — 27,510 in the north, the remainder 
 in the south. 
 
 363. Presidential Election of 1816.— The last two years of 
 Madison's administration had seen the country happy and 
 prosperous, and the Democratic-Republicans restored to the 
 confldence of the peo^ile. The Federalist party, under the 
 odium of the Hartford Convention, was making its last 
 feeble struggle, and counted but little in the election of 1816. 
 James Monroe, candidate of the Democratic-Republican 
 party, was elected president, receiving one hundred eighty- 
 three votes in the electoral college to thirty-four cast for 
 Rufus King, candidate of the Federalists. Daniel D. Tomp- 
 kins of New York was elected vice-president. 
 
288 history of the united states 
 
 Monroe's administration 
 
 DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN: lS17-m5 
 
 364. James Monroe, fifth president of the United States, 
 had been intimately connected with the public life of Amer- 
 ica since the days of the struggle for independence. At the 
 age of eighteen, he left William and Mary College to join 
 Washington's army. He studied law under Thomas Jeffer- 
 son, whose influence had much to do with his early advance- 
 ment. He was a member of the Virginia assembly, a 
 delegate to the Continental Congress, and a member of the 
 Virginia Convention to decide upon the adoption of the consti- 
 tution. He was one of the first United States senators from 
 Virginia. He was appointed minister to France by AVash- 
 ington. Upon his return he was elected governor of Vir- 
 ginia. During Jefferson's administration he was again 
 appointed minister to France, and later minister to Spain, 
 and still later to Great Britain. As special envoy to 
 France, he assisted in negotiating the purchase of Louisiana 
 in 1803. On his return, he again became governor of Vir- 
 ginia, from which office he was called to Madison's cabinet 
 as secretary of state. 
 
 The second term of Monroe's administration is known as 
 the "Era of Good Feeling," party lines disappearing alto- 
 gether. When Monroe was reelected in 1820 there was but 
 one vote cast against him in the electoral college, and tradi- 
 tion has it that this single adverse vote was given to John 
 Quincy Adams in order that the honor of a unanimous 
 election to the presidency might belong to Washington alone. 
 The years after his retirement to private life were spent 
 partly at his old home in Virginia, and partly in New York 
 city, where he died July 4, 1831. He was born in Virginia 
 in 1758. 
 
 365. The Seminole War, and the Purchase of Florida — 
 1819. — During the War of 1812 the Seminole Indians in 
 Florida had aided the British. These Indians, during the 
 
FKOM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 289 
 
 years 1817 and 1818, had continued to make raids into 
 Georgia and Alabama. After a raid it was their custom to 
 retire across the border into the Spanish province of Florida. 
 Here they felt secure from attack, — due to the fact that they 
 had been told that the United States troops would not dare 
 to follow them into Spanish territory. It was believed in 
 the United States that the Seminoles were incited to insur- 
 rection by a few English adventurers and by the Spanish 
 authorities in Florida. 
 
 After several failures to quell the Indians, the government 
 dispatched General Andrew Jackson to the seat of the war, 
 with instructions to bring the savages to submission, even if he 
 had to pursue them across the Florida border. Jackson, 
 always a stern and self-willed man, though cautioned not to 
 interfere with the Spanish authorities, felt, after his arrival 
 on the Florida frontier, that he knew better how to settle the 
 difficulty than did the government at Washington. Accord- 
 ingly, he advanced into Florida and forced the Spaniards to 
 abandon one post and later captured their stronghold at 
 Pensacola. He also captured two British adventurers, 
 whom he court-martialed and hanged. Jackson's action pro- 
 duced great excitement throughout the United States, but 
 both the president and congress approved his course. 
 
 The Spanish government protested, but the United States, 
 holding Spain partly accountable for the Seminole insurrec- 
 tion, insisted upon its right to protect its own citizens. The 
 king of Spain, feeling that it would cost more to defend 
 Florida than the province was worth, offered to sell it to the 
 United States. Negotiations were at once entered upon by 
 which the United States came into undisputed possession of 
 East and West Florida, by the payment to Spain of 
 $5,000,000. 
 
 366. New States Admitted: Mississippi — 1817; Illinois— 
 1818; Alabama— 1819; Maine— 1820; Missouri— 1821.— Five 
 states were admitted to the union in this administration — 
 Mississippi as the twentieth in 1817 ; Illinois as the twenty- 
 
290 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 first in 1818; Alabama as the twenty-second in 1819; Maine 
 as the twenty-third in 1820; and Missouri as the twenty- 
 fourth In 1821. The constitutions of Mississippi, Alabama, 
 and Missouri permitted slavery, while Illinois and Maine 
 came into the union as free states. 
 
 367. The Missouri Compromise— 1820. — Up to the time of 
 this administration the question of slavery had not come 
 prominently before congress. Since the time of the admis- 
 sion of Vermont, a slave and a free state had been admitted 
 alternately into the union — thereby preserving the balance 
 of power between the free and the slave states. In 1819 Mis- 
 souri and Arkansas were organized as separate territories 
 without any restriction on the question of slavery. This 
 arrangement was opposed in the north, where it was deter- 
 mined that all states formed out of the Louisiana Territory 
 should be admitted as free states. When Missouri applied 
 for admission to the union in 1820 with a constitution per- 
 mitting slavery, her admission was therefore bitterly opposed 
 in the north. At this time the free state of Maine was also 
 asking for admission. The shiveholding states now opposed 
 the admission of Maine, unless Missouri should be admitted 
 as a slave state. 
 
 The debates in congress were heated in the extreme, and 
 the whole country became involved in the controversy. The 
 result was a compromise between the opposing parties, 
 known as the "Missouri Compromise." This was an act 
 passed by congress March 3, 1820, admitting the two states — 
 one free and the other slave; and farther providing that 
 slavery should be forever ■excluded from the territory lying 
 north of the parallel — 36° 30' (the state of Missouri 
 excepted) — the line corresponded to the southern boundary 
 of Missouri. The question of slavery in the territory south 
 of that line was to be left to the people as they might deter- 
 mine. 
 
 Through the Missouri Compromise, the contest on the ques- 
 tion of slavery was postponed for another quarter of a century- 
 
PKOM WASlllXGTOX TO JACKSOX 291 
 
 368. The Monroe Doctrine— 1823.— At about the time of 
 the purchase of Florida, nearly all the Spanish provinces in 
 South America were in open revolt against Spain, and later 
 even Mexico declared her independence. The United States 
 acknowledged these revolted provinces as sovereign states. 
 
 At this time all the monarchs of Europe, except those of 
 Rome and England, had formed a league known as the 
 *'Holy Alliance," the avowed object of which was to protect 
 each sovereign in his own territorial and political rights, and 
 to prevent interference with his system of government. 
 Spain was a member of the Holy Alliance, and it was now 
 rumored that she would receive its support in suppressing 
 the revolt in her American provinces. 
 
 Monroe, in anticipation of such an event, served notice 
 (through his annual message to congress in 1823) on the 
 members of the Holy Alliance that they must not interfere 
 in American affairs. In his message he set forth the doc- 
 trine that "the American continents, by the free and inde- 
 pendent condition which they have assumed and maintain, 
 are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future 
 colonization by any European powers"; and that the United 
 States should consider any attempt on the part of any 
 foreign power to extend its system of government to any por- 
 tion of this hemisphere, as dangerous to the peace and safety 
 of the United States. He also intimated that while the 
 United States would raise no objection against any colony or 
 dependency then existing in America, yet any further 
 intrusion or interference on the part of any foreign power 
 would be regarded as "the manifestation of an unfriendly 
 spirit towards the United States." 
 
 This declaration has ever since been known, both in the 
 j)olitics and diplomacy of the United States, as the "Monroe 
 Doctrine." Its effect was to check the Holy Alliance in 
 their proposed intervention, and Great Britain at once 
 acknowledged the independence of the Spanish republics. 
 
 369. The Tariff of 1824: Internal Improvements.— In 1824 
 
292 HISTORY or the united states 
 
 a new tariff law was passed which increased the duties on 
 metals and agricultural products. Henry Clay was its great 
 champion. This tariff bill, more than any previous bill, 
 combined the two ideas of the raising of a revenue and the 
 protecting of home industries. To quote Clay's words, 
 "The object of this bill is to create a home market and to 
 lay the foundation of a genuine American policy." 
 
 Up to this time, the leaders of the "loose construction" 
 party had been persistent in their efforts to induce the gov- 
 ernment to make appropriations for internal improvements, — 
 such as national roads and canals. Jefferson, Madison, and 
 Monroe, while in favor of such improvements, had opposed 
 all appropriations on constitutional grounds. Clay, in advo- 
 cating the tariff of 1824, insisted that it would raise suffi- 
 cient revenue to enable the government to undertake a 
 system of internal improvements. The passing of this tariff 
 act practically settled this question. Soon thereafter con- 
 gress, by a decided vote, declared itself in favor of a national 
 canal system, whereupon the "strict constructionists" 
 gradually ceased their opposition on constitutional grounds 
 to aj^propriations for sucli purposes. 
 
 370. The Fourth Census— 1820.— The fourth census dis- 
 closed the fact that the United States had a population of 
 9,638,191, of which 1,538,125 were slaves— 10,108 in the 
 north, the remainder in the south. This reveals the fact 
 that emancipation north of Mason and Dixon's line was 
 being rapidly accomplished. 
 
 371. The Presidential Election of 1824.— At the close of 
 Monroe's administration the "Era of Good Feeling" came to 
 an end. The Federalist party being dead, the Democratic- 
 Republican party now broke up into factions. Four men, 
 representing the separate factions of the Democratic-Eepub- 
 lican party, became candidates for the presidency. John 
 Quincy Adams, Monroe's secretary of state, represented the 
 New England faction, and was nominated by the legislature 
 of Massachusetts; William H. Crawford of Georgia received 
 
FROM WASHINGTON TO JACKSON 293 
 
 the nomination of the party caucus in congress; Henry Clay 
 was nominated by the legislatures of Kentucky and four 
 other states; and Andrew Jackson was nominated by the 
 legislatures of Tennessee and Pennsylvania. 
 
 Prior to this campaign, candidates for president had always 
 been nominated by a party caucus composed of the members 
 of congress. This plan had of late been bitterly assailed by 
 the people in all sections of the country — with the result 
 indicated above. Crawford was the last of the congressional 
 caucus nominees for the presidency. Candidates were for a 
 few years nominated by the state legislatures and later by 
 national nominating conventions. 
 
 In the election of 1825, no candidate having a majority of 
 all the votes, the election under the constitution was decided 
 by the house of representatives, which chose John Quincy 
 Adams president. John C. Calhoun was the choice of the 
 electoral college for vice-president. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 
 
 NA TIONA L-REPUBLICAN: 1825-1829 
 
 372. John Cluincy Adams, sixth president of the United 
 
 States, was the eldest son of John Adams, the second president. 
 He was a graduate of Harvard College, in which institution he 
 afterwards held the chair of professor of rhetoric. He was 
 an able lawyer, and a diplomat of distinguished ability. He 
 served as minister to each of the four countries, Holland, 
 Prussia, Eussia, and England, and assisted in negotiating the 
 treaty of Ghent. He was a United States senator from Mas- 
 sachusetts, and for- eight years was Monroe's secretary of 
 state. 
 
 Though a Federalist in politics, Adams, at the time of the 
 Embargo Act, became estranged from his party and gave his 
 support to the Democratic-Republican party until his elec- 
 tion to the presidency. He then united with Henry Clay in 
 forming the National Republican party. And yet iVdams 
 was not a strict party man; he was, rather, a representative 
 
294 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 of the *' independent" in politics. He favored a protective 
 tariff, and internal improvements at government expense. 
 Though the country prospered, his administration was a 
 stormy one, owing to the bitter attacks of his enemies in 
 congress, and due, also, to his unbending and pugnacious 
 character. Yet few administrations have been marked by 
 greater intelligence or loftier patriotism. 
 
 Adams failed of reelection to the presidency in 1828, but 
 three years later was elected to congress as an independent 
 member from the state of Massachusetts, in which body he 
 served until the day of his death. Shortly after his return 
 to congress, the house of representatives, through the 
 influence of the southern members, passed a rule known as 
 the "gag rule" (1836), forbidding any member presenting 
 petitions to congress in any way referring to the slavery 
 question. Adams insisted that this was an infringement of 
 the "right of petition" as granted in the constitution, and 
 with all his powers of eloquence fought the rule for nine 
 years in every conceivable manner, and finally triumphed, the 
 "gag rule" being repealed in 1845. 
 
 Three years later (February 21, 1848) Adams was stricken 
 with apoplexy while occupying his seat on the floor of the 
 house. He died two days later with the words on his lips, 
 "This is the last of earth; I am content." He was born in 
 Braintree, Massachusetts, in 17G7. He died in his eighty- 
 first year. On account of his eloquent defence of the "right 
 of petition," he was known as the "Old Man Eloquent." 
 
 373. Visit of Lafayette. — On the invitation of congress, 
 Lafayette, now aged and grey, visited America in the years 
 1824 and 1825, and made a tour of the American states. 
 Old memories were revived, and the days of the Revolution 
 were recalled, as Lafayette passed through the states on a 
 journey of triumph. He was greeted by the remnant of 
 the soldiers of the Revolution and by the heroes of a later 
 day, with a warmth and devotion that has seldom been 
 excelled. Remembering his services in the struggle for inde- 
 
FROM WASHI^^GT0:N^ to JACKSON 
 
 295 
 
 pendence, congress voted him a township of land in Florida, 
 a large sum of money, and built the frigate Brandywine, as 
 a special ship to carry him on his homeward voyage to 
 France. 
 
 374. Death of Adams and Jefferson July 4, 1826.— On the 
 very day on which the republic was celebrating its fiftieth 
 anniversary, July 4, 1826, John Adams and Thomas Jeffer- 
 son died. These two great men had stood side by side dur- 
 ing the perilous days of the Kevolution. Jefferson had 
 written the Declaration, and Adams by his eloquence had 
 done more than all others to secure its adoption. In their 
 political life they had become estranged during the adminis- 
 tration of Washington, but in later years the earlier friend- 
 shi]3 had been renewed. Adams died at the age of ninety ; 
 Jefferson, at the age of eighty. Both were mourned by an 
 entire nation. A eulogy, pronounced by Daniel Webster on 
 the lives and services of these two men, ranks among the 
 classic utterances of that great orator. 
 
 376. The Erie Canal— 1825.— The Erie Canal, begun in 
 1817 , was completed in 1825. It connected the Hudson 
 
 THE ERIE CANAIi 
 
 River, through the Mohawk valley, with Lake Erie at 
 Buffalo. Its length was three hundred and sixty-three 
 miles. It was built by New York state at the suggestion of 
 Governor De Witt Clinton, who at first had hoped to see it 
 built at government expense. Like the Cumberland road, 
 
296 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 it contributed enormously to the development of the west, 
 and to the growth and prosperity of New York city. That 
 city now rapidly passed Philadelphia as a commercial center, 
 and soon became the undisputed metropolis of America. 
 
 Adams's administration marked a revival of interest in the 
 building of canals — due, no doubt, to the completion of the 
 Erie Canal. These artificial waterways were usually built at 
 the expense of the several states concerned, though congress 
 made appropriations of money and granted several million 
 acres of land to aid in such enterprises. Interest in canal 
 construction ceased about the year 1840, when the era of the 
 railroad began. 
 
 376. Steamboats. — No sooner had Fulton demonstrated his 
 success with his Clermont than steamboat construction 
 became a thriving business, the ferry boats at New York 
 soon being propelled by steam. In 1819, the Savannah, the 
 first ocean steamer, crossed the Atlantic. During Adams's 
 administration steamboats came into general use, plying the 
 waters of the Mississippi, the Ohio, the Great Lakes, and of 
 nearly every navigable stream on the continent. In the year 
 1840 the business of transportation as carried on by steam navi- 
 gation had become enormous. At that time as many as forty- 
 five hundred vessels passed Cairo, Illinois, in a single year. 
 Many of these steamboats, however, were crude affairs. The 
 government not yet having looked after the improvement of 
 river channels, numerous accidents and disasters occurred, 
 which led to a demand for better facilities for transportation, 
 leading eventually to the perfected railroad. 
 
 377. Railroads. — The first railroad hi the United States 
 was but four miles long, and was built by Gridley Bryant, in 
 1825, from Quincy, Massachusetts, to the nearest tidewater. 
 This was followed two years later by a road built from the 
 mines of Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania, to the Lehigh Eiver. 
 The question of transportation having laid deep hold upon 
 the people, many railroads were projected during Adams's 
 administration, which were afterwards successfully built. 
 
PROM WASHIIs^GTOK TO JACKSON" 
 
 297 
 
 Among these are the New York Central, Baltimore and Ohio, 
 and the Boston and Albany. Before the close of Adams's 
 
 AN EAKLY RAILROAD TRAIN 
 
 administration the locomotive, invented by George Stephen- 
 son, had come into use in America and thirty miles of railroad 
 had been completed within the United States. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that Adams's administration was the 
 beginning of a new era in the industrial development of the 
 republic. 
 
 378. The Tariff of 1828, "The Tariff of Abominations. "—In 
 1828 the question of the tariff was again before congress. 
 The president and his friends favoring a higher tariff, a bill 
 was passed by congress increasing the duties on fabrics made 
 of wool, cotton, linen, and silk, as well as on articles manu- 
 factured from lead and iron. The chief object of this bill 
 was to raise the price of foreign goods and encourage more 
 than ever the manufacturing industries of the United States. 
 This bill became a "sectional issue" in congress, — the south- 
 ern states, under the leadership of John C. Calhoun, bitterly 
 opposing it, the middle and New England states favoring it. 
 It was called by its opponents "The Tariff of Abominations." 
 
 379. The Presidential Election of 1828.— The presidential 
 election of 1828 was an exciting one. Adams, supported by 
 Clay, was the candidate of the National-Republican party, 
 which advocated government aid to internal improvements 
 and protection to home industries, welcomed the new era of 
 industrial development, and clung to the old Federalist 
 
298 HISTORY OF THE U:N'ITED STATES 
 
 theory of *'loose construction." The Democratic-Republi- 
 can party now dropped its hyphenated name, and became the 
 Democratic party. It adhered to the principles of Jefferson, 
 and nominated Andrew Jackson to succeed Adams. 
 
 The contest was a personal rather than a political one. 
 Adams was unpopular, while the name of Jackson, on 
 account of his brilliant military exploits at New Orleans, 
 Horseshoe Bend, and Pensacola, was greeted with enthusi- 
 asm wherever mentioned. In the resulting election, Jack- 
 son received one hundred seventy-eight of the electoral votes, 
 and Adams, eighty-three. John 0. Calhoun was again 
 elected vice-president. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 i:89-lS'J9 
 
 380. Development of Territory. — When Washington 
 became the first president of the republic, the territorial 
 extent of the United States was less than one-third of its 
 present size. Forty years later, when John Quiiicy Adams 
 became president, its territory had been pushed southward to 
 the Gulf of Mexico by the purchase of the Floridas, and 
 westward to the crest of the Rocky Mountains by the purchase 
 of Louisiana. Flatboatmen could now float the products of 
 the western farms down any of the streams between the 
 Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains to New Orleans 
 without paying foreign toll. New Orleans was now a city 
 of the United States, and produce could be loaded on ocean 
 vessels there without hindrance. A captain could sail along 
 the coast from New Orleans to Maine, stopping at any point 
 he chose, and always be under the protection of the United 
 States flag. In the four decades since Washington the nation 
 had also grown in numbers, in ideas, and in comforts. 
 
 POPULATION^ 
 
 381. Numbers. — Since the inauguration of Washington a 
 census had been taken every ten years beginning with 1790, 
 for the purpose of having one representative in congress for 
 a certain designated number of people. In this way each 
 citizen had a share in the government of the nation through 
 the congressman elected from his congressional district. By 
 comparing the total number of people at each census we may 
 measure the growth of population. Thus, for every person 
 in the United States, when the first census was taken, in 
 1790, there were three persons in 1830. In forty years the 
 
300 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 population had trebled. Much of this growth was due to 
 immigration from European countries. To the small farm- 
 ers of Europe the United States offered many inducements 
 of rich soil, and to the laboring class, abundant opportunity 
 to labor. The number of foreign immigrants increased 
 rapidly from year to year, although varying somewhat with 
 the years of scarcity of food in Europe and the years of 
 plenty in America. The annual number of immigrants 
 arriving in the United States had increased from 8,000 in 
 1820, to 23,000 in 1830. 
 
 POPULATION BY STATES 
 
 
 1790 
 
 1800 
 
 1810 
 
 1820 
 
 1830 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 141,885 
 378,787 
 
 68,825 
 237,946 
 340,120 
 184,139 
 434,373 
 
 59,096 
 319,728 
 747,610 
 393.751 
 249,073 
 
 82,548 
 
 183,858 
 422,845 
 
 69,122 
 251,002 
 589,051 
 211,149 
 602,365 
 
 64,273 
 341,548 
 880,200 
 478,103 
 345,591 
 162,686 
 154,465 
 220,955 
 105,603 
 
 214,460 
 472,040 
 
 76,931 
 261,942 
 959,049 
 245.563 
 810,091 
 
 72.674 
 380,546 
 947,600 
 555,500 
 415,115 
 253,433 
 217.895 
 406.511 
 261,727 
 230,760 
 
 244.022 
 
 523,159 
 
 83,015 
 
 275,148 
 
 1,372,114 
 
 277,426 
 
 1,047,507 
 
 72,749 
 
 407,3.50 
 
 1,065,116 
 
 638.829 
 
 502,741 
 
 340.985 
 
 235,966 
 
 564.135 
 
 422.7?1 
 
 581,295 
 
 152,923 
 
 147,178 
 
 75.448 
 
 .55,162 
 
 14,255 
 
 298,269 
 
 269,328 
 
 610,408 
 
 97,199 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 297,675 
 1 918 608 
 
 
 320,823 
 1 348 233 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 76,748 
 
 447,040 
 
 1,211,405 
 
 737.987 
 581,185 
 516.823 
 280,653 
 687 917 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 
 
 681 904 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 937 903 
 
 T,mii<siana. 
 
 
 
 215 739 
 
 Indiana 
 
 
 
 
 343 031 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 
 
 
 136 6-'l 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 
 157 445 
 
 Alabama . . 
 
 
 
 
 30 388 
 
 Maine 
 
 
 
 
 399,455 
 
 Missouri 
 
 
 
 
 140,4.55 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AVhen the first census was taken, nearly all the people 
 lived between the Alleghany Mountains and the Atlantic 
 Ocean. Only five out of every hundred of the total 
 population had crossed the mountains, and most of these 
 lived in what are now the states of Kentucky and Ten- 
 nessee. As better roads were built through the mountain 
 gaps and along the mountain streams, more and more 
 settlers crossed to the fertile lands of the Mississippi 
 valley. A glance at tlio map will show that tlie water- 
 
GROWTH OP THE REPUBLIC 301 
 
 ways flowing east and west are far more numerous than 
 those running north and south. These streams were 
 in that early day the ready-made roads for the pioneers. 
 And, too, the first settlers in a new country usually settle 
 along the courses of these streams. These waterways were 
 numerous in the north and thus it was that the northern 
 section increased more rapidly in population and created 
 states faster than did the southern section. 
 
 382. Growth of Cities. — One thing every census of this 
 middle period showed — that the people of the United States 
 were not always to be "American farmers," as the colonists 
 had been called. With the growth of manufactures, the 
 people were beginning to live in cities where the factories 
 and workshops were located. In Europe the people lived 
 for the most part in cities and villages and hence many 
 immigrants were wont to make their homes in cities when 
 they came to America. In Washington's time only three 
 people out of every hundred lived in cities; and in John 
 Quincy Adams's administration, only five out of every hun- 
 dred dwelt in a city. It took a long time for people to 
 learn how to pave and light their streets properly, to lay 
 out parks, to erect statues, and to make the beautiful cities 
 which are so numerous throughout the republic of the 
 present day. 
 
 RELATIVE RANK OF TEN LEADING CITIES 
 
 1790 1810 1830 
 
 1. New York 33,131 1. New York 96,373 1. New York.... 197, 112 
 
 2. PhiladelpMa .... 28,522 2. Philadelphia .... 53,722 2. Baltimore .... 80,620 
 
 3. Boston 18,038 3. Baltimore 46,555 3. Philadelphia. 80,462 
 
 4. Charleston 16,359 4. Boston 33,250 4. Boston 61,392 
 
 5. Baltimore 13,503 5. Charleston 24,71 1 5. Charleston . . . 30,289 
 
 6. Providence 6,380 6. New Orleans .... 17.242 6. New Orleans. 29,737 
 
 7. Richmond 3,761 7. Albany 10,762 7. Cincinnati. . . . 24,831 
 
 8. Albany 3,498 8. Providence 10,071 8. Albany 24,2i)9 
 
 9. New Bedford ... . 3,313 9. Richmond 9,736 9. Wa.shington.. 18,826 
 
 10. Lynn 2,291 10. Washington 8,208 10. Providence. . . 16,833 
 
 SOCIAL LIPE 
 
 383. Manner of Living. — As the people began to have bet- 
 ter means of travel and to go more frequently from one sec- 
 
302 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 tion to another, they began to lose the differences of dress 
 and customs of colonial days and to assume national charac- 
 teristics. There always remained, however, a difference in 
 daily life between the New Englander, with his modest 
 house, his cool manner toward strangers, and his devotion to 
 business, and the hospitable southern planter, with the door 
 of his great plantation house always open to strangers, and 
 his determination to get some enjoyment out of life. The 
 southerner thouglit the northerner cared only for money, 
 and the northerner called the southerner a spendthrift. 
 One in traveling saw also a vast difference between the people 
 of the east and of the west. In the eastern states the people 
 had easier lives, more wealth, and more leisure for study 
 and enjoyment. In the newer western states, the "pioneers," 
 as the first settlers were called, had to cut down the forests, 
 to clear fields, and build cabins. They were poor and had 
 often to borrow from the people of the east. This life was 
 severe, but it taught people to endure, to be brave, and not 
 to be ashamed to labor. Thus the new west gave to the 
 older east vigor and crude manhood, and received from it 
 civilization, art, and knowledge. The frontier produced such 
 men as Daniel Boone, David Crockett, Andrew Jackson and 
 Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 384. Religion. — Many had feared that some attempt would 
 be made to fasten a particular kind of church upon the 
 United States. They thought that the government^ should 
 not try to make people attend any church or believe any 
 creed ; but should allow each an opportunity of doing what 
 his conscience prompted. Washington, when he became 
 president, wrote a number of letters to various religious 
 denominations, to assure them that the government would 
 not interfere with anyone in his religious belief. Under this 
 freedom, the various churches prospered, and extended them- 
 selves with the spread of the people. Since the Established 
 church was strongest in the south, its descendant, the 
 Episcopal church, remained the leading church in that sec- 
 
GROWTH Oi<' THE KEFUBLIC 303 
 
 tion, although the Baptist church, which originated in 
 Khode Island, spread rapidly in the southern states. Like- 
 wise, the Congregational church, the offspring of the early 
 Puritans, went with the New England people wherever they 
 have settled in the northern states. The Presbyterian 
 church, which had been strongest in the middle colonies, 
 spread both north and south, as did the Methodist church, 
 which reached America just before the Re\^olution. Under 
 the constitution, the Roman Catholic church enjoyed a free- 
 dom which it never experienced in the colonies under Protes- 
 tant England. With all this toleration from the government, 
 the various sects began to tolerate each other and to prepare 
 for the good feeling which now exists between denominations 
 in the United States. 
 
 385. Mode of Travel. — As the people spread over the con- 
 tinent, better means of travel became necessary. Private 
 companies were organized to build turnpikes on which tolls 
 were charged. Some states undertook to build roads. The 
 national government began the Cumberland National road. 
 Over these turnpikes ran regular stage-coach lines, passing 
 heavy freight wagons drawn by four or six horses. Companies, 
 given charters by the different states to dig canals from one 
 waterway to another, started to connect the Hudson with 
 the Delaware, the Delaware with Chesapeake Bay, the Hud- 
 son with Lake Erie, and Lake Erie with the Ohio River. 
 The national government gave millions of dollars for clear- 
 ing the channels of rivers from snags and sandbars. In 
 Jefferson's administration the first line of steamboats was 
 started between New York and Albany. Jnst before the 
 war of 1812, steamboats were built on the Great Lakes. 
 Soon every navigable river and all the lakes had many lines 
 of steamers carrying passengers and freight. When a river 
 could not be made navigable, a canal was constructed beside 
 it. Thus the Susquehanna and the Potomac canals were 
 built. Just before John Quincy Adams went out of office, a 
 railroad was begun at Baltimore. When people could go by 
 
304 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 a railroad, they would no longer choose a stage coach or canal 
 boat. It meant a new era of travel and trade. 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 386. Public Schools and Colleges. — The public schools in 
 colonial days had to compete with many private schools. Also, 
 since they were supported at public expense, many looked 
 upon them as a kind of charity. But in the newer states, 
 the people were poor and could not support private schools. 
 Thus the public school system grew in numbers and in dignity. 
 People began to see that all children, both rich and poor, 
 ought to have the advantage of an education. The public 
 land granted by the United States in the Ordinance of 1787 
 helped to this end. The early idea of education which 
 limited knowledge to a few subjects was broadened by put- 
 ting into the schools such subjects as chemistry and "natural 
 philosophy," which we now call physics. The course of 
 study in the schools of the lower grades was made much 
 more interesting than formerly, and school books had begun 
 to improve, although Noah Webster's old "blue back 
 speller," first printed in 1783, held its own. Thousands of 
 this little book are still sold to-day. Since 1783 its sales 
 have reached into the millions. This book was the fore- 
 runner of Webster's dictionary, first published in 1806 — a 
 book which has had a powerful influence in welding the 
 American nation into a people of one language. 
 
 The Ordinance of 1787 also gave land for colleges, and 
 two of these were opened in Ohio before 1825. Thus 
 was begun our present system of state colleges and state 
 universities. The graduates of the church colleges also 
 established other colleges in the newer states as the 
 people moved westward. These sectarian colleges were 
 founded to train young men for the ministry of the various 
 denominations, but they gradually opened their doors to 
 anyone desirous of gaining an education. These newer 
 colleges began to allow women as well as men to attend. 
 
 1 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 305 
 
 387. Literature. — When political parties developed during 
 Washington's second administration, they caused a rapid 
 increase in the number of newspapers. These papers were 
 small and had no way of getting general news. The editors 
 were very abusive in their political writings. The people 
 generally read magazines containing abstract essays and sen- 
 timental poetry. The few books read were imported from 
 the old world. About 1820, the people seemed to have 
 accomplished their first work of clearing the forests and had 
 leisure for intellectual affairs. Washington Irving began to 
 write his delightful sketches and James Fenimore Cooper 
 to write his novels. These two authors with some minor 
 writers made the beginning of an American literature. 
 
 OCCUPATIONS 
 
 388. Agriculture, Fishing, and Commerce. — In colonial 
 days, agriculture was followed in the fertile lands of the 
 southern states. The people of New England on a rocky soil 
 were obliged to turn fishermen and sailors. In making the 
 treaty with England at the close of the Revolutionary war, 
 John Adams, a New Englander, had insisted on the Ameri- 
 cans sharing the cod fisheries of Newfoundland with the 
 Canadians. His son, John Quincy Adams, had insisted upon 
 the same right in making the treaty at the close of the second 
 war with England. On the steeple of the statehouse in 
 Boston was a weathervane in the shape of a gilded codfish to 
 show the value of the fisheries. The trading and ship-build- 
 ing interests of New England and the middle states con- 
 tinued to grow. 
 
 389. Growth of Manufactures. — The rocky soil of New 
 England and the northern states, although preventing farm- 
 ing on a large scale, proved a blessing in the end. The 
 falls in the rivers such as those at Fall Eiver, Massachusetts, 
 and at Passaic, New Jersey, — the result of the broken and 
 uneven surface of the region through which those streams 
 ran, — early turned attention to manufacturing. Water- 
 
30G HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 wheels were harnessed to these falls, and made to run 
 machinery. Corn and wheat were ground into flour, and 
 gradually cloth was woven, nails made, iron rolled, and 
 various manufactures begun. Washington set a good exam- 
 ple by wearing when he was inaugurated, clothing made 
 entirely in the United States. Yet the people had been 
 so long dependent on Europe that American goods became 
 the fashion very slowly. It needed the war of 1812, which 
 shut out European goods, to develop home factories. Soon 
 every available river fall was pressed into service to aid in 
 the upbuilding of home industries, such as the "protective 
 tariff" laws were passed to protect. In 1821, some men 
 went to a rapid place in the Merrimac River, built a 
 dam, and established the manufacturing town of Lowell, 
 which soon grew into a great city. With the discovery of 
 the great coal fields which underlie most of the northern 
 states, steam power began to aid and even to supersede 
 water power. 
 
 NATION^AL DEFENCE 
 
 390. Army and Navy. — After the Revolutionary war had 
 closed, the army was disbanded, only a few troops being 
 retained to guard the frontier settlements against the 
 Indians. There was no need of a standing army such as 
 European nations are obliged to maintain because of 
 powerful neighbors. A standing army is also a heavy 
 burden to the taxpayers, and is contrary to the idea of 
 self-government. By an act of congress under the con- 
 stitution, the army was put on a permanent basis of 
 only a little more than a thousand men and officers. Each 
 state was expected to keep a militia, consisting of men 
 who were drilled occasionally and could go to war when it 
 was necessary, but who did not have to be clothed, fed, and 
 paid all the time, as did the regular soldiers. Most of the 
 fighting in the Indian campaigns, as well as the war of 1812, 
 was done by the militiamen from the different states. 
 After the close of the war of 1812, the regular army was not 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 307 
 
 reduced to the former standing because troops were needed in 
 the western and southern forts to guard settlers against the 
 Indians. Andrew Jackson had been a general in the regular 
 army, and was known as an "Indian fighter." 
 
 A nayy, like an army, is a heavy expense. After 
 the close of the Revolutionary war, the navy had been 
 abandoned. The last vessel, the Alliance, was sold because 
 there was no money to make repairs. But the experience 
 with the Mediterranean pirates a few years later showed 
 that any nation which expects to have an ocean trade 
 must have a navy to defend it. Six vessels were begun in 
 1794, named the Constitution, the United States, the Chesa- 
 peake, the President, the Constellation,, and the Congress. 
 Four were finished and made the beginning of our present 
 great navy. The war of 1812 found the United States 
 unprepared. During the war, our navy at one time was 
 reduced to three frigates; but others were added as rapidly 
 as they could be built. Also private vessels were enlisted as 
 war vessels, from which they were called "privateers." 
 They did the best service, and really won the war. Only 
 sufficient vessels were maintained after the war to help keep 
 the African slave-trade down and to aid scientific investiga- 
 tion. 
 
 POLITICAL LIFE 
 
 391. Growth of Popular Government. — What we now 
 know as politics, — that is, the right and duty of each 
 citizen to bear his share of public affairs, — were developed 
 slowly as time went on. In the old world, government 
 had been generally in the hands of a few men like kings 
 or princes, who managed the state for the people. There 
 was no pattern for a republic, such as our fathers planned 
 in the constitution, embracing such a large territory and 
 so many people. It was natural that statesmen should 
 differ in opinion upon the manner of conducting the 
 republic. Jefferson, for instance, believed that the people 
 as a whole should be allowed to manage affairs as they 
 
308 HISTORY OF THE UXITEl) STATES 
 
 thought best; others, like Hamilton, feared that the people, 
 if left to themselves, would go too far and breed revolution. 
 John Adams thought this could be prevented by the people 
 choosing the "well-born" to fill the offices and to conduct 
 the government for them. 
 
 Since ideas of government had been derived from the 
 old world, the people at first were kept out of a com- 
 plete control in several ways. They were not allowed 
 to vote directly for a president, but chose a set of electors 
 who would select the best man in the United States for 
 president. Very early the people learned to choose electors 
 who were pledged to vote for a certain candidate. The 
 name of the candidate was printed over the list of electors. 
 In this way the people really vote directly for the president, 
 although that was not what the framers of the con- 
 stitution had planned. About President Jackson's time, 
 national nominating conventions were invented, which are held 
 to this day to select candidates for the presidency. About 
 the same time, the number of people entitled to vote was 
 greatly increased. The feeling that the government was 
 instituted for the protection of property was so strong that, 
 when the first constitutions were adopted which changed the 
 colonies into states, no one was allowed to vote who did not 
 own a certain amount of land or pay a certain amount of 
 taxes. The constitutions adopted by the new states when 
 they were admitted to the union allowed all white men over 
 twenty-one to vote, and the constitutions of the older states 
 were gradually changed to this qualification. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 
 
 lfi29-1801 
 
 Jackson's administration 
 
 DEMOCRATIC: JK20-1H37 
 
 392. Andrew Jackson, the seventh president of the United 
 States, was the son of a farmer. He had been a member of 
 congress, a United States senator from Tennessee, and a 
 justice on the supreme bench of that state. He won his 
 great popularity in the wars against the Creek and Seminole 
 Indians, and in the crushing defeat of the British at the 
 battle of New Orleans. It being due to his course in the 
 Seminole war that the United States had won Florida, he 
 was appointed the first governor of that territory. 
 
 As president, he revived Jefferson's plan of removal of 
 political opponents from office, and during the first year of 
 his administration dismissed nearly seven hundred officehold- 
 ers — ten times as many as had been removed in all the 
 previous history of the government, lie thus surrounded 
 himself with his personal friends and impressed his strong 
 character upon his administration. 
 
 Though Jackson was an unpolished man, and little skilled 
 in the science of government, he possessed such native 
 ability and inflexible honesty as to make him personally 
 popular with the masses and the idol of his party. He came 
 to the presidency as a military hero, and many had fears for 
 the government under his administration. Yet he aston- 
 ished his party and the country by the vigorous manner in 
 which he upheld the government. His stern and rugged 
 
310 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 character endeared him to the people and won for him the 
 popular nickname of "Old Hickory." He served two 
 terms as president, being reelected in 1832, with Martin Van 
 Buren as vice-president, by a vote of two hundred nineteen 
 to forty-nine cast for Henry Clay, the candidate of the 
 National-Republican party. When he retired from office, 
 imitating the example of Washington he issued a farewell 
 address to his countrymen, in which he vigorously set forth 
 the dangers of sectionalism, the horrors of disunion, and 
 pleaded with the American people to stand by the Amer- 
 ican union as the last fortress of human liberty. 
 
 When he retired to private life at The Hermitage — his 
 home near Nashville — he still continued to be the leader of 
 his party. He was born in North Carolina in 1767, and died 
 at The Hermitage in 1845. 
 
 393. Jackson's "Kitchen Cabinet." — Though Jackson 
 selected the usual presidential cabinet, there was but one 
 strong man in it — Martin Van Biiren, secretary of state. 
 Jackson, feeling the need of political advisers, surrounded 
 himself by a few personal friends, selected from outside of 
 his cabinet, who had access at all times to the executive 
 mansion. It was soon discovered that these men, some of 
 whom held subordinate positions under the administration, 
 had great influence in the securing of appointments as well 
 as in assisting the president in outlining his policy of admin- 
 istration. Jackson's enemies, perceiving this state of affairs, 
 ridiculed his repudiation of his cabinet, by designating his 
 "personal coterie" as the "kitchen cabinet." 
 
 394. The Spoils System: "Rotation in Office." — Jackson 
 began his administration by the wholesale removal of office- 
 holders. In order to have more vacancies at his command 
 he now, for the first time, took into the presidential cabinet 
 the postmaster-general— a movement which enabled him to 
 secure control of the postoffice appointments. In politics 
 he was a firm believer in the rule that "to the victor belong 
 the spoils." As an excuse for his course, he referred to 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 311 
 
 Jefferson, and is quoted as saying, "I am too old a soldier to 
 leave the garrison in the hands of my enemies." 
 
 He did not hesitate to reduce the whole system of presi- 
 dential appointments to partisan purposes. He believed in 
 rewarding those who had worked for his election and pun- 
 ishing those who had not. 
 
 His policy was in marked contrast to that of his prede- 
 cessor, John Quincy Adams, who, during his entire adminis- 
 tration, removed but two officeholders for political reasons. 
 The spoils system has, since Jackson's time, been a regular 
 feature of American politics. Those in favor of efficiency in 
 the "Civil Service" have, in later years, opposed its evils by 
 insisting on "Civil Service Reform." 
 
 395. The Overthrow of the United States Bank.— In the 
 very first year of his administration Jackson began a warfare 
 on the United States Bank, although its charter would not 
 expire until the year 1836. He held that the institution was 
 unconstitutional and dangerous to the government, in that 
 its management had become implicated in politics. So 
 active was he in opposing the bank, that its friends came 
 forward in 1832 and passed a bill through congress providing 
 for its recharter. This Jackson promptly vetoed, — thus 
 sealing the fate of the bank. 
 
 The next year he directed the secretary of the treasury to 
 order that the $10,000,000 then on deposit in the bank be drawn 
 upon to discharge the government's expenses and that no 
 further deposits be made therein. This order further directed 
 that all future government deposits be made in certain state 
 banks. These later became known as Jackson's "pet banks. " 
 
 The senate, under the leadership of Henry Clay, protested 
 against Jackson's high-handed policy — even to the point of 
 passing a vote of censure upon him — but to no purpose. 
 Whether right or wrong, he pursued his course, and his per- 
 sonal friend, Senator Thomas H. Benton of Missouri, saw to 
 it, that before Jackson retired from office, the vote of 
 censure was expunged from the records of the senate. 
 
312 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 396. Effect of the Bank's Overthrow. — Jackson's financial 
 policy had been inaugurated at a time when the whole 
 country was enjoying the greatest prosperity. The country 
 was rapidly growing in population and increasing in material 
 wealth. There was enough money in the treasury to pay the 
 national debt. Commerce had just been restored with the 
 West Indies. Canals and railroads had begun to solve the 
 problem of cheaper and quicker trans]3ortation. Through 
 Clay's influence the national Cumberland road had been 
 completed into the state of Illinois. The new west was 
 being rapidly settled. Internal improvements were being 
 encouraged by state aid. The manufacturing industries had 
 thrived. The volume of business had steadily increased. 
 The whole country, active, and restless, was on the eve of an 
 era of a speculation of the wildest and most disastrous sort. 
 
 Jackson believed that the old bank had become a political 
 machine, and therefore ought to be replaced by something 
 better. But his methods were too heroic. The bank had 
 been the stay of the public credit; it had been conservative, 
 and had made safe loans. Now Jackson's "pet banks," 
 located chiefly in the south and west, w^ere to be substituted 
 for it. These deposit banks were creatures of favoritism, 
 and were increasing at an alarming rate — due to political 
 influence with the administration. Jackson had overthrown 
 one "political machine"; he was now building up another. 
 These "pet banks" flourished, and were for a time held in 
 high favor. They issued paper money, large quantities of 
 which they threw into circulation — even the government 
 receiving this money in payment of its revenues. Private 
 and state banks everywhere began to spring up — many 
 of them absolutely without capital. Before the close of Jack- 
 son's administration, as many as seven hundred of these 
 banks had appeared, flooding the country with "rag money," 
 as the paper currency was then called. 
 
 397. Speculation. — As a result (1) of the distribution ol 
 the public funds to the numerous "deposit banks," and (2) 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 313 
 
 of the power of these banks to issue paper money of their 
 own, money abounded everywhere and could be easily 
 obtained — the banks desiring to make loans, and speculators 
 wishing to borrow. 
 
 This abundance of money gave the opportunity, and the 
 whole country plunged into the wildest speculation — more 
 banks were established; railroads and canals were projected 
 and built — some projected and never built ; manufacturing 
 plants were begun and never completed; *'boom towns" 
 were platted "on paper," and lots sold at fabulous prices; 
 enterprises of every conceivable sort were undertaken, and 
 still the people went wild with speculation. 
 
 398. Distribution of the Surplus. — To add to it all. Presi- 
 dent Jackson came forward in 1836 with a proposal to dis- 
 tribute the government surplus. By that year the national 
 debt had been entirely paid, and there was a surplus of gov- 
 ernment funds on deposit with the "pet banks," amounting 
 to several millions of dollars. The Surplus Act, providing 
 for the distribution of a large portion of this surplus among 
 the several states, helped the states but crippled the deposit 
 banks — $28,000,000 being withdrawn and distributed to the 
 states within nine months. Many of the states joined in the 
 mad whirl of speculation by investing their share of the sur- 
 plus in speculative enterprises, or in unnecessary public 
 improvements. 
 
 Specie soon began to disappear. Jackson, hoping to check 
 its withdrawal, threw the entire output of the mint into cir- 
 culation, and required all deposit banks to maintain one-third 
 of their circulation in specie. 
 
 399. The Specie Circular. — At about this time Jackson was 
 confronted by a new problem, due to the rapid and unex- 
 pected increase in the sale of the public lands in the west, 
 which were being purchased in large tracts for speculative 
 purposes. These sales were now bringing into the govern- 
 ment treasury in a single year as much as $25,000,000 in 
 depreciated bank notes. In order to check this speculation 
 
314 HISTORY OF THE I'XITED STATES 
 
 in government land, and at the same time protect the gov- 
 ernment against the evils of this depreciated currency, Jack- 
 son issued his celebrated "specie circular," which required 
 that all land should be paid for thereafter in specie. 
 
 The specie circular precipitated a financial crash — but it 
 came in Van Buren's time. Before the blow fell upon the 
 country Jackson had retired to private life. 
 
 400. The Webster and Hayne Debate— Feb. 1830.— After 
 the passage of the Tariff of 1828, South Carolina carried her 
 protest to the point of "nullification,"— a political doctrine 
 which had of late been set forth by John C. Calhoun in defence 
 of the theory of "state rights." 
 
 The action of the South Carolina legislature aroused great 
 excitement throughout the country, and it was felt in the 
 north that the interests of the nation demanded that some 
 one competent to do so should make a reply to the argu- 
 ments advanced in support of Calhoun's theories. 
 
 The occasion arose sooner than expected. Senator Robert 
 Y. Hayne of South Carolina in a speech delivered before the 
 senate in February, 1830, attacked the New England states. 
 This drew forth a spirited reply from Daniel Webster, the 
 senator from Massachusetts. Hayne, in his reply to Webster, 
 boldly advocated the doctrine of "nullification," which 
 brought forth Webster's celebrated speech in defence of the 
 constitution — perhaps the greatest effort of America's great- 
 est orator. This debate, known as the Webster - Ha3^ne 
 debate, marked an epoch in the constitutional development 
 of the country. In it Webster won the well-earned title, 
 "The Expounder of the Constitution." 
 
 401. The Tariff of 1832: The Nullification Act Passed by 
 South Carolina: Compromise Tariff of 1833. — Following the 
 Webster-Hayne debate. South Carolina was bolder than ever 
 in the advocacy of Calhoun's doctrines. She wanted but an 
 opportunity to declare herself. Such an opportunity was 
 offered in the Tariff of 1832. This bill still maintained the 
 American protective system, though the level of duties was 
 
ANDKEW JACKSON" 
 STEPHKN A. DOUGLAS 
 
 JOHN C. CACHOtTN 
 HENKY CLAY 
 
 National an^d State Rights Leaders 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 315 
 
 lowered. South Carolina's reply was the "Nullification Act" 
 of November 19, 1832, declaring the tariff acts of 1828 and 
 1832 "null and void." This act further declared that the 
 state of South Carolina would permit no tariff duties to be 
 collected at any ports of entry in South Carolina; and finally 
 made the bold declaration, "that, if the general government 
 should attempt to use force to maintain the authority of the 
 Federal law, the state of South Carolina would secede from 
 the union." 
 
 Just three weeks later, President Jackson issued his 
 famous nullification proclamation, in which he announced 
 that the union "must and shall be maintained." Declaring 
 his determination to enforce the laws of the United States, 
 he ordered troops under GeneralWinfield Scott to Charleston. 
 
 In the meantime, congress had passed Clay's compromise 
 tariff bill, providing for a gradual reduction of tariff duties. 
 This bill being satisfactory to both sides, the crisis passed. 
 
 402. National Nominating Conventions. — The presidential 
 election of 1832 marks the beginning of national nominating 
 conventions. The first national nominating convention was 
 held by the "Anti-Masonic" party, a short-lived organization 
 opposed to secret societies, which met at Baltimore in Sep- 
 tember, 1831, and nominated William Wirt as a candidate for 
 the presidency. 
 
 In the December following, the National-Republican party 
 met in the same city and nominated Henry Clay to succeed 
 Jackson. In May, 1832, the Democratic national conven- 
 tion met at Baltimore and nominated Jackson to succeed 
 himself as president, and named Martin Van Buren as the 
 candidate for vice-president. 
 
 403. Origin of the Whig Party in 1834.— The leaders of the 
 National-Republican party, finding themselves unable to 
 muster strength enough to overcome the Democratic party, 
 formed a union (1834) of all the factions opposed to Jackson. 
 This coalition opposed the power of the president, whom 
 they charged with usurpation, and took the name of 
 
316 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ** Whigs" — in imitation of the revolutionary party which 
 opposed King George during the struggle for independence. 
 The Whigs, having so recently organized, made no nomina- 
 tions in the election of 1835. Henry Clay was their first 
 great leader. 
 
 Strictly speaking, the Whig party was not a party at all, 
 but a combination of parties representing many opposing 
 views within its own ranks. This made it impossible for it 
 to formulate any agreed statement of principles upon which 
 all its membership could unite. It supported a protective 
 tariff, stood for internal improvements, and a majority 
 favored "loose construction." 
 
 The Whigs won in two national elections, but disappeared 
 after their defeat in 1852, on account of the fact that the 
 party became divided upon the slavery question. 
 
 404. The Black Hawk and Florida Wars. — During the 
 years 1831-32, the Sac and Fox Indians, led by their noted 
 chief. Black Hawk, refused to surrender certain lands in 
 Illinois and Wisconsin, which they had ceded to the whites 
 in 1830. In the war which ensued. Black Hawk was defeated 
 and these Indians forced to move to the Indian land west of 
 the Mississippi Eiver. 
 
 In this war two young men appear for the first time in 
 American history — Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, a captain of 
 the Illinois militia; and Jefferson Davis, a lieutenant in the 
 regular army. 
 
 In 1835 an attempt was made to remove the Seminole 
 Indians to lands set aside for them west of the Mississippi. 
 This precipitated a war known as the Florida war, charac- 
 terized by the usual Indian barbarities. Osceola, chief of the 
 Seminoles, was finally captured and confined as a prisoner of 
 war at Fort Moultrie, South Carolina, where he died some 
 time later. The Indians were later defeated in the battle of 
 Okechobee (1837) by Colonel Zachary Taylor. They, how- 
 ever, persisted in their opposition to removal until the year 
 1842. 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLN 317 
 
 405. New States Admitted: Arkansas — 1836; Michigan — 
 1837. — Arkansas, the twenty-fifth state, was admitted to 
 the union in 1836 as a slave state; and Michigan, the 
 twenty-sixth, in 1837, as a free state. 
 
 406. The Fifth Census— 1830.— The fifth census showed a 
 population of 12,866,020, including 2,009,043 slaves, of 
 which 3,568 were north of Mason and Dixon's line, the 
 remainder south. 
 
 407. The Presidential Election of 1836. — In the election of 
 1836 Martin Van Buren of New York, the Democratic nomi- 
 nee, won over AVilliam Henry Harrison of Ohio, the Whig 
 candidate — receiving one hundred seventy electoral votes as 
 against seventy-three cast for Harrison. Richard M. John- 
 son of Kentucky was elected vice-president by the senate — 
 no candidate for that office having received a constitutional 
 majority in the electoral college. 
 
 The Democrats adhered to the principles of Jackson, 
 opposed the United States Bank and a protective tariff. The 
 Whigs stood by the principles on which the party had been 
 organized two years previous. 
 
 In this election both the Democrats and Whigs were 
 divided into factions. In the electoral college. South Caro- 
 lina cast her votes for W. P. Mangum; and Tennessee and 
 Georgia cast theirs for Hugh L. White, both of whom were 
 Anti-Van Buren Democrats. Massachusetts cast her elec- 
 toral votes for Daniel Webster, who with Clay had helped to 
 organize the Whig party. 
 
 YAN" BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION" 
 
 DEMOCRATIC: 1837-1841 
 
 408. Martin Van Buren, eighth president of the United 
 States, was, like two of his predecessors, the son of a small 
 farmer. He was admitted to the bar in 1803, and soon won 
 distinction as an able lawyer. Like Jackson, Van Buren 
 was a self-educated man, but he far excelled the former in 
 polish and culture. He was a man of simple tastes and 
 
318 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 gracious manners, and, tliougli a partisan in politics of the 
 most pronounced type, he never allowed political differences 
 to alienate him from friends who belonged to the opposite 
 ])arty, as is shown in the warm personal friendship existing 
 between himself and Henry Clay. 
 
 Before his election to the presidency, he had served as 
 attorney-general and later as governor of New York. He 
 had been United States senator from that state, and had 
 served as Jackson's secretary of state from 1829 to 1831, 
 when he resigned to accept the appointment of minister to 
 England. He, however, never assumed the duties of that 
 office, due to the fact that Calhoun, Webster, and Clay com- 
 bined to secure his rejection by the senate. The Democratic 
 party immediately nominated him as its candidate for vice- 
 president, and the following year he was elected to that office, 
 tliereby becoming presiding officer of the very body which 
 had rejected his appointment to the court of England. 
 Over the senate he presided with dignity and fairness, and 
 by the close of Jackson's administration, his popularity won 
 him the Democratic nomination, and the presidency. 
 
 After his retirement from the presidency, he still continued 
 to take an interest in public affairs. Though defeated in 
 1840, for reelection, he again sought the nomination of his 
 party in 1844, but on account of his antislavery sentiments 
 failed. In 1853 he was nominated for the presidency by the 
 Free-soil party, but failed of election. 
 
 He was born at Kinderhook, New York, in 1782, and died in 
 1862, on his beautiful estate of Lindenwald, near his native city. 
 
 409. The Financial Panic of 1837.— The issuing of the 
 specie circular was one of the last acts of Jackson's adminis- 
 tration. Van Buren now assumed all responsibility therefor, 
 and committed himself to the policy of his predecessor. 
 Banking institutions stood the strain on their gold and silver 
 reserve as long as they could, then bank after bank suspended 
 specie payment until not a specie-paying bank was left in the 
 coui\try. 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LIXCOLN 319 
 
 The bubble of speculation, now blown to its full limit, 
 burst, and the whole country was overwhelmed with com- 
 mercial disaster. Business house after business house closed 
 its doors. Enterprise after enterprise shut down ; every line 
 of business in the country was overtaken by the storm; and, 
 on account of Jackson's policy, the government, too, was 
 involved in the ruin. Failures were every day occurrences, 
 the losses mounting up into the millions. "Hard times" 
 prevailed among all classes of people. Bread riots occurred 
 in New York, and hostility toward the banks and speculat- 
 ing companies was shown everywhere. The states could not 
 pay their debts. The government was unable to meet its 
 expenses. All confidence had been destroyed and trade was 
 at a standstill, when A^an Buren called a special session of 
 congress to consider the state of public affairs. 
 
 410. The Sub-Treasury— 1840.— The policy which Van 
 Buren adopted was to let the country recover from its busi- 
 ness disturbances in its own way, and to aid in its recovery 
 only by restoring the national credit. He outlined a plan 
 known as the Independent Treasury, and for four years 
 pressed this measure before congress, until the Independent 
 Treasury Act, or Sub-Treasury Bill, as it is sometimes called, 
 was passed by that body in the last year of his administra- 
 tion. 
 
 The Sub-Treasury Bill provided that all public money 
 should be kept in the vaults of the United States Treasury 
 at AVashington, and in sub-treasuries established by congress; 
 and that all payments of moneys made to or by the United 
 States should be in gold or silver. This act for the first 
 time in the history of the United States completely separated 
 the financial affairs of the government from the banking 
 interests of the country. 
 
 411. The Sixth Census — 1840. — The sixth census showed 
 the population of the United States to be 17,069,453 — an 
 increase in ten years of nearly six millions of people. Of 
 this population 2,486,326 were slaves — an increase of nearly 
 
320 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 five hundred thousand in ten years. There remained in the 
 north but 1,129 slaves. 
 
 412. The Presidential Election of 1840. — Although business 
 had revived somewhat as the time for the presidential elec- 
 tion of 1840 approached, the country was still suffering from 
 the effects of the panic of 1837. Discontent reigned every- 
 where, and the *'hard times" w^ere charged to Van Buren 
 and his administration of the public affairs. And yet the 
 Democratic party unanimously renominated him, thereby 
 showing their confidence in the "Little Magician," as he was 
 familiarly called. The Whigs again chose William Henry 
 Harrison of Ohio as their candidate. 
 
 James G. Birney was placed in nomination at Albany, New 
 York, by the Liberty, or Abolition party, which declared 
 itself in favor of using all constitutional methods for the 
 abolition of slavery. 
 
 The Democrats opposed the rechartering of the United 
 States Bank, and all interference with slavery ; they for the 
 first time declared for internal improvements; came out 
 boldly for a tariff for revenue only, and favored the sub- 
 treasury. 
 
 The Whigs favored the revival of the bank and a 
 protective tariff; and opposed the sub-treasury. They asked 
 that a just limitation be put upon the president's power of 
 veto. 
 
 The campaign of 1840 was unique. The republican sim- 
 plicity of Harrison's home was made much of by his admirers, 
 and the "log cabin and hard cider" campaign became one of 
 the most enthusiastic presidential campaigns in the history of 
 the country. The "coon-skin cap" became a party emblem. 
 This was the first j^i'esidential campaign to introduce the 
 great mass meetings and processions, that have since become 
 such a prominent feature of national elections. 
 
 "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" were successfully sung into 
 the White House, and Harrison was inaugurated president 
 the 4th of March, 1841. 
 
i 
 
 FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 321 
 
 HARRISON AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 WHIG : lii41-lS45 
 
 413. William Henry Harrison, ninth president of the 
 United States, was a son of Benjamin Harrison, a signer of 
 the Declaration of Independence. On graduating from 
 Hampden Sydney College, Virginia, Harrison began the 
 study of medicine, but soon gave up that profession for a 
 military life. He liad served as a delegate to congress from 
 the Northwest Territory, and had been superintendent of 
 Indian affairs. While governor of the territory of Indiana, 
 an Indian outbreak occurred, and his victory at Tippecanoe 
 won him a national reputation. In the second war with 
 England he had commanded the army of the west and had 
 won a brilliant victory at the battle of the Thames. He 
 had served as a member of congress from Ohio; later, as 
 United States senator from that state, and still later as 
 minister to the republic of Colombia, South America. In 
 1836 he was nominated for president, but was defeated by 
 Van Buren. 
 
 Four years later, the Whig national convention made him 
 their nominee, and Van Buren was again his opponent. Har- 
 rison was elected and at once surrounded himself with an 
 able cabinet, in which Daniel Webster was his secretary of 
 state. Just one month after his inauguration the country 
 was shocked by the news of his sudden death. It was the 
 first death of a chief magistrate while in office, and came as 
 a great blow to the Wliig party, which had hoped for much 
 from this administration. 
 
 Harrison, while not a brilliant man, had shown great 
 ability as an administrator and was a man of great prudence 
 and common sense — a straightforward man of the people 
 He was born at Berkeley, Virginia, in 1773. He died at his 
 post of duty in Washington April 4, 1841. Two days later 
 the vice-president, John Tyler, took the oath of office and 
 succeeded to the presidency. 
 
322 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 414. John Tyler, tenth president of the United States, 
 was, like many of his predecessors, a Virginian. He was 
 graduated from William and Mary College, and was soon 
 thereafter admitted to the bar. He entered public life in 
 1811 as a member of the legislature of Virginia, and later 
 served as governor of that state. He represented Virginia 
 in both houses of congress, where he won distinction as a 
 United States senator. 
 
 Tyler came to the presidency under peculiar circumstances. 
 It was the first time in the history of the government when a 
 vice-president had succeeded to the office. Of course, all 
 knew that such a succession was not impossible, but the lead- 
 ers had given little serious thought to such an event. 
 
 Tyler was a man of strong Democratic tendencies, although 
 somewhat independent of party ties. He had been elected 
 as vice-president by the Whigs, with whom he had lately 
 affiliated on account of his opposition to Jackson and Van 
 Buren, as well as on account of his refusal to submit to all 
 the dictations of the Democratic leaders in congress. It 
 was known that he differed from the Whigs on the question 
 of renewing the United States Bank, and that he was an 
 advocate of "state rights." The Whigs, hoping to gain the 
 doubtful southern vote, winked at Tyler's opposition to the 
 bank, and placed his name on the ticket with that of Harri- 
 son, having no thought that the reins of government would 
 so soon fall into his hands. 
 
 He retired from office in 18-45, to his estate of Sherwood 
 Forest, a few miles from his native town, and was in retire- 
 ment until 18G1, when he became a member of the Peace 
 Convention called by President Buchanan to avert the issue 
 of civil war. He later advised the secession of Virginia, 
 renounced his allegiance to the United States, and was soon 
 after elected to represent the seceded state of Virginia in the 
 Confederate congress. He died in Eichmond, Virginia, in 
 1862. 
 
 415. The United States Bank and the Quarrel between 
 
4 
 
 FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 323 
 
 Tyler and Congress. — Before Harrison's death he had issued 
 a call for a special session of congress, which convened in 
 the following May and continued in session until September. 
 During that time there was constant clashing between Tyler 
 and the Whig majority in congress. A bill repealing the 
 Sub-Treasury Act was promptly passed. There having been 
 many business failures during the recent commercial disaster, 
 congress sought to relieve business men in all sections of the 
 country from their debts by passing a general bankruptcy 
 law. The Independent Treasury out of the way, congress 
 now sought to restore the United States Bank by passing an 
 act rechartering it. To the chagrin of the Whigs, Tyler 
 vetoed the bill. The party leaders now sought a conference 
 with the president, and secured his approval of a bill looking 
 to the recharter of the bank. This bill was promptly passed 
 through congress, but Tyler, disregarding his pledge, again 
 used his power of veto. 
 
 The Whigs, angered by this unexpected opposition from 
 the man whom they had been instrumental in placing in the 
 presidential chair, bitterly denounced Tyler as a traitor. Led 
 by Clay, they read him out of the party and forced him, 
 during the remainder of his administration, to act with the 
 Democratic party. The entire cabinet resigned excepting 
 only Webster, who remained until he had settled the north- 
 eastern boundary dispute with England. 
 
 416. The Tariff of 1842.— When the Whig congress of 
 1841 convened, it found itself facing a deficit of eleven mil- 
 lion dollars inherited from Van Buren's administration. 
 The time, too, had arrived when duties were to be reduced 
 to the lowest point, as provided in Clay's Compromise Tariff 
 of 1833. The Whigs, true to their party pledges, passed a 
 tariff act which was promptly vetoed by Tyler. Another act 
 was now prepared, and met with a similar fate. Millard 
 Fillmore then came forward with a measure which, through 
 his personal influence, he induced Tyler to support. This 
 bill became a law in 1842, and remained in force four years. 
 
324 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 It was chiefly a revenue bill, though slightly protective. It 
 soon discharged the deficit, and by the end of Tyler's 
 administration another surplus had accumulated in the 
 treasury. 
 
 417. The Webster-Ashburton Treaty: The Northeastern 
 Boundary — 1842. — Since the treaty of 1783 there had been a 
 constant dispute between the United States and Great 
 Britain over the northeastern boundary — particularly that 
 portion located on the line between Maine and New Bruns- 
 wick. This dispute had at times threatened the peacefiU 
 relations of the- two countries. All efforts to settle it satis- 
 factorily had failed until the year 1842, when the two gov- 
 ernments agreed to refer the question at issue to Daniel 
 Webster as secretary of state, and Lord Ashburton as the 
 representative of Great Britain. 
 
 By the treaty which they made, the northeastern boundary 
 was established at its present limits — from the mouth of the 
 St. Croix River on the Atlantic coast to the St. Lawrence 
 River. The treaty also provided for fixing the northern 
 boundary of the United States westward from the upper 
 extremity of Lake Huron along the present boundary line, 
 to the crest of the Rocky Mountains, leaving the northwest- 
 ern boundary — northern boundary of Oregon — still unset- 
 tled. 
 
 418. Dorr's Rebellion in Rhode Island — 1843.— Rhode 
 Island had for two hundred years acted under the charter 
 which had been granted to Roger AVilliams by Charles II. 
 This, her only constitution, contained some provisions which 
 were not in keeping with the growth of republican ideas in 
 America. One clause was particularly objectionable — that 
 restricting the right to vote to property holders. At the 
 time of the adoption of a new constitution in 1843, two rival 
 parties contested for the control of the state. The "Law 
 and Order party," acting under the old charter, elected a 
 governor and proceeded, in a regular way, to organize the 
 state government under the new constitution. The 
 
 n 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLX 325 
 
 "Suffrage party," throwing the charter aside, elected 
 Thomas W. Dorr as governor, and organized a rival govern- 
 ment. A clash resulted, bnt Dorr's rebellion was soon sup- 
 pressed by the aid of the United States troops. Dorr was 
 tried for treason in Rhode Island and imprisoned, but after- 
 wards released. 
 
 419. The Patroon War: Antirent Difficulties— 1844.— A 
 domestic disturbance also occurred in New York, called the 
 "Patroon War," growing out of the old "patroon system"* 
 established in 1629. 
 
 Owing to the generosity of the wealthy proprietor of one 
 of these rich estates — the Van Rensselaer — in the vicinity of 
 Albany, rents had not been collected from the tenants for sev- 
 eral years. This proprietor dying in 1839, his heirs undertook 
 to force the collection of all back rents. This collection the 
 tenants resisted, even going so far as to heap indignities 
 upon officers of the law, who were sent to enforce the collec- 
 tion of the rents. Tenants on other estates imitated their 
 example. Finally, open revolt resulted, and riot and blood- 
 shed followed. The aid of the military was called in and the 
 revolt suppressed. The tenants continuing to resist, now 
 sought relief in the New York Court of Appeals, which in 
 1852 gave a decision, in the main sustaining the contention 
 of the antirenters, although the matter has not to this day 
 been quite satisfactorily settled. 
 
 420. The Mormons. — Another domestic disturbance 
 occurred, this time of a religious nature. The Mormons, 
 under the leadership of their prophet, Joseph Smith, settled 
 in Jackson County, Missouri, where they rapidly multiplied 
 until they numbered some fifteen hundred people. Their 
 practices and their teachings were so objectionable to their 
 neighbors that the state of Missouri, through the aid of its 
 militia, in 1839, ejected them from tlie state. Crossing the 
 Mississippi into the state of Illinois, they laid out, on a high 
 bluff overlooking the river, the city of Nauvoo, and there 
 
 ^ See Sec. 103, page 91. 
 
326 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 erected a Mormon temple. Here they continued to increase 
 more rapidly than before, their settlement numbering by the 
 year 1844 ten thousand persons. 
 
 The greatest hostility was manifested toward this sect. 
 Tliey were held responsible, perhaps unjustly, for many mur- 
 ders and thefts which had been committed in the vicinity. 
 Their doctrines were abhorred. An uprising against them 
 was threatened, when Smith and his brother were arrested, 
 
 taken across the river into Mis- 
 souri, and imprisoned at Car- 
 thage. Here the people stormed 
 the jail in which the '^prophet" 
 was confined, and killed Smith and 
 his brother. Determined to drive 
 the Mormons from the state, the 
 Illinois legislature annulled the 
 charter of the city of Nauvoo. 
 Acts of violence continuing against 
 them, the Mormons now deter- 
 mined to retire beyond the bounds 
 of civilization. They sojourned for 
 a while in the vicinity of Council 
 Hluffs, Iowa; and a few years later 
 transplanted their entire settle- 
 ment beyond the Eocky Mountains, 
 and began the building of a "Mor- 
 mon Empire" at Salt Lake City. Brigham Young succeeded 
 Smith as the Mormon prophet. 
 
 421. Bunker Hill Monument— 1842.— The year 1842 marks 
 the completion of the Bunker Hill monument, located on the 
 crest of Bunker Hill, Boston, Massachusetts. At the time of 
 Lafayette's visit in 1825, that hero had laid the corner-stone, 
 and Daniel Webster, then in the prime of life, had delivered 
 the oration. At the completion of the monument in 1842, 
 Webster again, attlie age of sixty, delivered an oration to an 
 audience of twenty-five thousand of his fellow countrymen. 
 
 BUNKKR HILL MONUMENT 
 
PROM JACKSON TO LIJS^COLN 327 
 
 The occasion was one of great patriotic interest in which 
 the whole nation joined. All hearts were stirred as the 
 great orator referred to Lafayette as the "electric spark 
 through which liberty had been transmitted from the new 
 to the old world"; and in a burst of the grandest eloquence 
 paid tribute to the soldiers of the Revolution. The reference 
 was all the more pathetic, since there sat upon the platform 
 with the orator a few old veterans, — gray, grizzled, and bent 
 with the weight of years — the remnant of the army of the 
 Revolution, 
 
 422. The "Gag-Rule" and the Right of Petition.— In 
 1836 the republic of Texas applied for admission to the 
 United States. Tho abolition societies at once sent petition 
 after petition to congress opposing its annexation on grounds 
 of slavery. This angered the slaveholding members of the 
 house of representatives, which on the suggestion of the 
 southern members revived an old rule prohibiting the house 
 from receiving petitions in any way referring to the question 
 of slavery. Ex-President John Quincy Adams, then a member 
 of the house, with all the powers of his eloquence protested 
 against this "gag-rule" as an infringement of the constitu- 
 tional rights of the individual citizen of the republic. 
 
 From that time until the year 1842, the "Old Man Elo- 
 quent" persistently attacked the rule, and fought for the 
 "right of petition. " He was abused on all sides by the mem- 
 bers from the slaveholding states, but he kept up the fight. 
 On one occasion he introduced a petition signed by a num- 
 ber of slaves, whereupon the wrath of the southern members 
 knew no bounds. The greatest disorder prevailed in the 
 house, when the high falsetto voice of Adams rang out 
 clear above the din, as he read the concluding clause in the 
 petition— begging the congress of the United States not to 
 abolish the instittitioii of slavery. The slaveholding mem- 
 bers, disconcerted and baffled, saw nothing laughable in this 
 incident, and never forgave Adams for presenting the peti- 
 tion. 
 
328 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 The whole matter came to a climax January 1, 1842, 
 when Adams presented a petition signed by forty-five citi- 
 zens of Haverhill, Massachusetts, protesting against the 
 institution of slavery and praying that the union be dis- 
 solved. Adams at once moved that the petition be referred 
 to a special committee, with instructions to report why it 
 should not be granted. 
 
 The reading of the petition raised a storm. Adams was 
 greeted with cries of *' Villain!" — ^*' Curse him!" — "Expel 
 him!" — and the house adjourned in the greatest confusion. 
 The next day a resolution of censure was introduced, and its 
 adoption urged in the most vindictive manner. Adams 
 replied in language suited to the occasion and would not be 
 silenc'ed. When asked how long he expected to hold the 
 floor, his reply was, "Burke took three months for his 
 speech in the impeachment of Warren Hastings, and I think 
 I may get through in ninety days or less." 
 
 The southern members, now seeing that opposition to so 
 fearless a champion was useless, voted that the resolution of 
 censure be laid upon the table. Adams had won in the final 
 struggle of bis life. Three years later (1845) the ''gag- 
 rule" was rescinded. 
 
 423. Abolition. — The opposition to the "right of petition" 
 had tended greatly to increase the abolition sentiment in the 
 north. Since the year 1832 abolition societies and antislav- 
 ery societies had been everywhere organized, and now counted 
 their membership by the thousands. 
 
 William Lloyd Garrison, with his weekly newspaper, "The 
 Liberator," had kept the whole country aroused. Through 
 his influence abolition literature had been circulated even in 
 the south. In Jackson's time, the postmaster-general had 
 directed that all such literature be excluded from the mails. 
 This action only hastened the growth of the abolition move- 
 ment. 
 
 From 1833 to 1837, Elijah P. Lovejoy edited "The St. 
 Louis Observer," an abolition paper, in which he ardently 
 
 I 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLN 329 
 
 attacked slavery. On account of violent opposition from the^ 
 proslavery element iti that city, he had moved (1836) across 
 the river to Alton, Illinois, Avhere he was attacked by a mob 
 and killed (1837) and his press destroyed and thrown into 
 the river. This tragedy on the Mississippi bluff caused 
 intense excitement throughout the country, which grew in 
 intensity as it rolled eastward into the New England states, 
 where it gave to the antislavery cause its most brilliant 
 advocate — Wendell Phillips. In a thrilling address at a mass 
 meeting in Faneuil Hall — the Cradle of Liberty— made in 
 reply to a speech by the state's attorney of Massachusetts, 
 in which that officer sought to excuse the mob at Alton, Phil- 
 lips so roused his audience and the entire country that he at 
 once sprang into national prominence as the champion of 
 human liberty. From that day on, the name of Wendell 
 Phillips was coupled with that of William Lloyd Garrison — 
 the great leader of the antislavery forces. 
 
 424. The Republic of Texas, a Disturbing Element in 
 National Politics. — The greatest event in the administration 
 of Tyler was the annexation of Texas. Moses Austin, of 
 Connecticut, having secured permission of the Spanish gov- 
 ernment, founded a colony in the province of Texas in 1821, 
 where he took with him the spirit of Yankee thrift and 
 enterprise. The soil being rich and the climate attractive, 
 the colony made rapid growth. Its success at once attracted 
 attention in the United States. Jackson, while president, 
 made an effort to purchase the province of Texas from the 
 Mexican government, but all offers were rejected. This fail- 
 ure, however, did not check the tide of immigration which 
 continued to] pour into the province of Texas from the 
 United States. 
 
 Austin and his followers had carried with them the insti- 
 tution of slavery. This institution was now attacked in 1835 
 by the Mexican government, which issued a proclamation 
 granting freedom to every slave in Mexican territory and 
 making Mexico a consolidated state. This proclamation 
 
330 
 
 HISTORY OE THE UNITED STATES 
 
 aroused the opposition of the Texans, who immediately 
 declared their independence and set up a government at Aus- 
 tin. A war resulted, which under the leadership of General 
 Samuel Houston was fought to a successful issue at the bat- 
 tle of San Jacinto, whereupon the Texas republic was estab- 
 lished (1836) with a constitution favoring slavery. General 
 Houston became its president. The limits of the new 
 republic were not clearly defined. Mexico insisted that 
 
 Texas did not extend 
 beyond the Nueces 
 on the southwest and 
 stopped on the west 
 at a boundary far 
 within the Texas 
 claims. In fact Texas 
 asserted the right to 
 over twice the terri- 
 tory which Mexico 
 admitted to belong to 
 her. Here were the 
 seeds of future war. 
 The independence of 
 the Texas republic 
 was soon acknowl- 
 edged by the United 
 States, England, 
 France, and Belgium. 
 Texas at once applied for admission into the American 
 union. From that date (1836) until its annexation had been 
 accomplished, Texas became a disturbing political question 
 in national politics. 
 
 425. Annexation of Texas — 1845. — When Texas first 
 applied for admission in 1836, congress was flooded by peti- 
 tions from the north opposing its admission on the grounds 
 of slavery. On the other hand, annexation was strongly 
 urged in the south. And yet neither political party seemed 
 
 ^ 
 
 V L_ 
 
 ~A i ^^ 
 
 % 
 
 
 s 
 
 •^ ^4y 
 
 
 H / 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 
 K 
 
 i; i: I' I 1! L 
 
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 ^^. \ 
 
 
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 ^^ t-u>i,iu;.\ ; 
 
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 J> Claim.- n N ' \ 
 
 Acknowledged ^^ 
 by Mexico ^^ 
 
 / 
 
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 "'1 MI XICO 
 
FROM JACKSOIs^ TO LIXCOLI!^ 331 
 
 to be able to unite all its forces on either side of the question 
 — the southern Democrats and "states' rights" Whigs fa- 
 vored it, while the northern Democrats and the "free-state" 
 Whigs arrayed themselves against it. The question therefore 
 became a sectional issue. Van Buren, though urged by the 
 southern Democrats, opposed annexation during his entire 
 term. In Tyler's administration, however, the Democrats, 
 under the leadership of John 0. Calhoun, made annexation a 
 party issue and declared for the admission of Texas. The 
 Whigs, under the leadership of Henry Clay, now united in 
 opposition. This precipitated a bitter contest, in which 
 those favoring annexation won. Congress, on December 29, 
 1845, passed a joint resolution annexing Texas to the United 
 States, and admitting it into the union as one of the states 
 of the republic. 
 
 426. New States Admitted into the Union: Texas — 1845; 
 Florida — 1845. — Before the admission of Texas, Florida, 
 with a constitution favoring slavery, had been admitted into 
 the union as the twenty-seventh state. Texas was admitted 
 as the twenty-eighth state. 
 
 427. Samuel F. B. Morse and the Telegraph— 1844.— In the 
 year 1844 Samuel F. B. Morse, while sitting in a small office 
 in Baltimore, placed his fingers upon the key of a small mag- 
 netic instrument which, with its mysterious clickety-click- 
 click, instantly flashed to a friend in Washington this 
 message: "What hath God wrought!" — the first telegram 
 ever sent in America. 
 
 At that time the Democratic national convention was in 
 session in Baltimore. Morse accordingly sent a telegram to 
 Silas Wright in Washington notifying him of his nomination 
 for vice-president. Morse's assistant at Washington trans- 
 mitted Wright's reply, declining the nomination. This 
 was the first news ever sent by telegraph wire. On the 
 same day the news of the nomination of James K. Polk 
 to the presidency was flashed to Washington, and on the 
 following morning it appeared in the daily papers of 
 
332 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 that city. The people read in astonishment, almost un- 
 able to believe, but later applauded the name of Professor 
 Morse as one of America's greatest inventors. 
 
 Like all great inventions, the electro-magnetic telegraph 
 had cost infinite patience and unmeasured toil. Morse had 
 begun his experiments twelve years before, and by 1834 had 
 demonstrated to his own satisfaction that messages could be 
 transmitted to distant points by wire, through the agency 
 of electricity. In 1835 he submitted his invention to con- 
 gress, and asked for an appropriation to construct a telegraph 
 line between the cities of Baltimore and Washington, — a dis- 
 tance of forty miles, — but his request was refused. Morse 
 then visited the countries of Europe, where he met with no 
 better success. Returning to America, he persistently 
 besieged congress until that body in 1843 voted an appro- 
 priation of $30,000 to construct the line for which he had 
 asked in 1835. In 1844 this line was completed with the 
 startling, though successful, results here narrated. 
 
 The success of the telegraph was instantaneous. To-day 
 it has become one of the indispensable agencies in the trans- 
 mission of news and the transaction of business. In the 
 United States alone there are nearly 200,000 miles of tele- 
 graph line, using nearly a million miles of Avire. As the 
 years have gone by, Morse's instruments have been gradually 
 improved, and the efficiency of the telegraph service increased. 
 The world yet awaits in eager expectation the results of inven- 
 tive geniuses who are constantly at work upon the improve- 
 ment of telegraphic appliances. Since the year 1900, "wire- 
 less telegraphy" has been assured. The astonishment of the 
 world was no greater in 1844 than it was in 1902, when 
 Marconi, through the agency of "wireless telegraphy," 
 flashed a message from the shores of America across the At- 
 lantic ocean. 
 
 428. The Presidential Election in 1844. — The presidential 
 election of 1844 was held prior to the admission of Texas, 
 which question became an issue in tlie campaign. 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLN o'6'd 
 
 Henry Clay of Kentucky was placed in nomination by the 
 Whigs, who now opposed the annexation of Texas, and asked 
 that a restriction be placed on the veto power of the presi- 
 dent. James K. Polk of Tennessee was nominated by the 
 Democrats, who declared for the annexation of Texas and 
 upheld the veto power. 
 
 James G. Birney of New York was again nominated by the 
 Liberty party, which opposed slavery. This party in 1840 
 had received but seven thousand votes; in this election it 
 received sixty thousand votes. It was strong in New York, 
 Birney's own state, where it is said to have so recruited 
 votes from the Whig party that the electoral vote of New 
 York went to the Democrats, — to which cause more than any 
 other, Clay's defeat was attributed. 
 
 Polk was elected with George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania as 
 vice-president. 
 
 folk's administration 
 
 DEMOCRATIC: 1H45-It^49 
 
 429. James K. Polk, the eleventh president of the United 
 States, was the son of a farmer, and a graduate of the Uni- 
 versity of North Carolina. He removed with his father to 
 Tennessee, where he was admitted to the bar in 1820. He 
 was elected as a congressman from Tennessee five years later, 
 and served as chairman of the ways and means committee in 
 the house of representatives. For five sessions, from 1835 
 to 1839, he was speaker of the house, which position brought 
 him prominently before the public. In 1839 he was elected 
 governor of Tennessee, but failed of reelection two years 
 later. In 1844 he was nominated by the Democratic 
 National Convention at Baltimore as a "safe" man, and 
 because he favored the annexation of Texas. 
 
 On assuming the presidency, he surrounded himself with 
 an especially able cabinet, among whom were James Buchanan, 
 afterwards president of the United States, Robert J. AYalker, 
 an able financier, and George Bancroft, the historian. 
 
 It was during his administration that political parties 
 
334 
 
 HISTOKY OF THE UlS^ITED STATES 
 
 began to divide more and more upon the question of the 
 extension of slavery. The very question of territorial expan- 
 sion had become so identified with the slavery question as now 
 to become a national issue of the greatest importance and 
 to involve the permanency of the union of the states. Polk, 
 however, reared in the political school of Andrew Jackson, 
 apparently had no fears of disunion. Like Jackson, he at 
 all times advocated national unity. 
 
 He declined a renomination to the presidency, and at the 
 end of his term of office retired to private life at Nashville, 
 Tennessee, where he died a few months later, in 1849. He 
 was born in 1705. 
 
 Shaded portion shows disputed territory. % 
 
 Scale of Milea ' 
 2 5 5 7 5 IC 
 
 430. Dispute over the Boundary of Texas. — When Tesas in 
 1836 had declared her independence of Mexico she had 
 claimed as her southwestern boundary the Rio Grande River, 
 
 /J 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLX 335 
 
 although the land between the Nneces Eiver and the Eio 
 Grande had been settled early in the seventeenth century by 
 Spaniards and had been in undisputed possession of the 
 Spaniards and Mexicans ever since. Mexico claimed that the 
 Nueces Eiver was the southwestern boundary of Texas. When 
 the news reached Mexico that Texas had been annexed, the 
 Mexicans clamored for war and Texas sent an urgent request 
 to President Polk to dispatch an army of United States 
 troops to the frontier to protect the citizens of Texas against 
 the threatened attack of Mexico. President Polk at once dis- 
 patched General Zachary Taylor with an army to the Mexican 
 frontier to await developments. 
 
 431. Taylor's Army of Occupation. — General Taylor took 
 a position at Corpus Christi on the west flank of the Nueces 
 Eiver, the actual Mexican frontier, and for several months 
 there was nothing to indicate intended hostilities beyond the 
 protection of Texas as one of the states of the republic. In 
 November, 1845, President Polk sent John Slidell as envoy 
 extraordinary to Mexico to negotiate with that government a 
 settlement of the boundary question. Upon Mexico's refusal 
 to recognize Slidell, Polk ordered Taylor to advance, and on 
 the 8th of March, 1846, Taylor with a large army marched 
 into the disputed territory. Selecting Point Isabel on the 
 Gulf as a base of operations, he rapidly moved forward to the 
 Eio Grande Eiver and built Fort Brown, across from Mata- 
 moras, where a strong force of Mexicans had gathered under 
 General Arista. On April 26, 1846, a small detachment of 
 American dragoons under Major Seth B. Thornton was 
 attacked by a force of Mexican lancers near Fort Brown, 
 where the first blood of the war was shed. After a desperate 
 fight Thornton was captured, whereupon more Mexicans soon 
 crossed and began threatening Fort Brown. Taylor, fearing 
 that the American army might be cut off from its base of 
 supplies at Point Isabel, left the fort in charge of a garrison 
 of three hundred men and immediately returned to the 
 Point. 
 
o30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 General Arista, believing that the American army had 
 left for the coast in a precipitate retreat, at once moved an 
 army of six thousand men across the river and took a strong 
 position at Palo Alto, with the view of attacking Fort 
 Brown. Taylor, having secured his sapplies, began his 
 return march to Fort Brown, and on the morning of the 
 8th of May unexpectedly came upon the Mexican troops 
 at Palo Alto and at once gave battle. The Mexicans were 
 driven from the field closely pursued by Taylor. On the 
 following day he overtook them at Eesaca de la Palma, 
 where he so completely routed them that they did not cease 
 in their headlong flight until they had placed the Rio Grande 
 between themselves and their pursuers. 
 
 432. Declaration of War — May 11, 1846. — When news of 
 Major Thornton's capture reached \Yashington, President 
 Polk at once sent a message to congress notifying that body 
 that "Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, 
 invaded her territory, and shed American blood upon Amer- 
 ican soil." His message recommended an immediate declar- 
 ation of war since, he said, "war exists, and notwithstanding 
 all our efforts to avoid it, exists by the act of Mexico herself." 
 Congress promptly responded to the president's request, 
 and on the 11th of May, 1846, declared war against Mexico, 
 passed a bill making an appropriation of ten million 
 dollars, and voted to raise an army of fifty thousand volun- 
 teers. 
 
 The war spirit ran high in the United States, particularly 
 in the south. To the call for troops fully three hundred 
 thousand volunteers responded, from which body of men 
 such splendid armies were selected that the Americans did 
 not lose a single battle during the entire period of the 
 war. 
 
 433. Opposition to the War.— However, there were many 
 citizens of the United States who opposed the issue of war 
 with Mexico on high moral grounds. They urged that 
 the republic would place herself in an unfavorable light 
 
 1 
 
 /A 
 
FUOM JACKSOX TO LIN'COLX ;i37 
 
 before the eyes of the civilized world should she wage 
 a war against a sister republic for the purpose of despoiling 
 her of her territorial possessions; and further, that the 
 war was in the interest of the extension of slavery, and 
 as such it would tend to provoke discord among the 
 states of the American union. James Russell Lowell wrote 
 part of the first series of the "Biglow Papers" against it, 
 and James Fenimore Cooper, his novel entitled "Jack Tier, 
 or. The Florida Reef." 
 
 The abolition element in the north was particularly 
 strong in its opposition to the war. The moral sentiment 
 of the country condemned every movement which tended to 
 the further extension of slavery, and in other particulars 
 condemned the war as unjustifiable. It was outspoken in 
 opposition to a war, the disguised purpose of which was the 
 "spoils of territory." 
 
 The war was also opposed on political grounds, by the 
 Whig party, which placed itself in opposition to a declaration 
 of war, when the president sent his message to congress 
 recommending war on the ground that American blood had 
 been shed on American soil. Abraham Lincoln, then a 
 Whig member from Illinois, introduced a resolution in the 
 house known as the "spot resolution." In this he asked that 
 the president be requested to give information to congress 
 designating geographically the particular "spot" where hos- 
 tilities had begun and to prove that "the spot" was part of 
 the territory of the United States — intimating thereby that 
 the president had needlessly and uselessly precipitated the 
 struggle at the suggestion of the slaveholding ^states, in 
 order that an excuse might be furnished to despoil Mexico 
 of the provinces of New Mexico and California, which they 
 hoped later to erect into slave states. This bit of history 
 gives us a glimpse of the humor of Abraham Lincoln, and 
 reveals his keen insight into political methods. He divined 
 that the war would be waged in the interest of the institu- 
 tion of slavery, and that therefore it would terminate in a 
 
3:38 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 war of invasion and conquest. Tlie result of the war 
 justified Lincoln's conclusions. 
 
 Although nearly two-thirds of the citizen volunteers came 
 from south of Mason and Dixon's line, 3^et even the Xew 
 England states responded to the call and man}^ came from 
 the northwestern frontier. The Whigs had been the prin- 
 cipal opponents of the war, yet the chief military renown of 
 the war was won by this party — the two great commanders 
 and leaders, Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott, being AVhigs 
 in politics. 
 
 434. The Plan of the War.— General Winfield Scott, com- 
 mander-in-chief of the American forces, immediately planned 
 the invasion and conquest of Mexica. He first directed that 
 Commodore Eobert F. Stockton be sent around Cape Horn 
 to assume command of the American squadron on the Pacific 
 coast, then under command of Commodore John D. Sloat. 
 This squadron was to attack the Spanish defences on the 
 coasts of Mexico and California and establish a blockade on 
 the Pacific. General Scott then divided the fifty thousand 
 troops placed at his disposal into three divisions. 
 
 (1) General Stephen W. Kearney was placed in com- 
 mand of the army of the west, with instructions to start 
 from Fort Leavenworth, cross the Rocky Mountains, and 
 conquer the Mexican provinces of New Mexico and Cali- 
 fornia. 
 
 (2) General Taylor with his army of occupation was 
 directed to cross the Rio Grande and subdue and hold the 
 Mexican provinces in the north. 
 
 (3) General Scott himself, in command of the army of 
 the center, was to land at some point near Vera Cruz on 
 the Mexican coast, and with his army of invasion penetrate 
 the heart of the enemy's country and capture the City of 
 Mexico. 
 
 435. Taylor's Campaign South of the Rio Grande — Sep- 
 tember, 1846 to February, 1847. — General Taylor in the mean- 
 time had attacked and taken Matamoras. In September, 
 
FROM JACKSOK TO LINCOLN" 339 
 
 1846, he proceeded up the river to attack the Mexicans, at 
 the strongly fortified city of Monterey. He found that place 
 defended by ten thousand troops under General Pedro de 
 Ampudia. But Taylor, always ready for battle, — so much 
 so that among his own soldiers he was called "Old Kough 
 and Ready," — charged the defences with such dash and 
 daring that the American army, though greatly inferior in 
 numbers, carried everything before it. Within six days, 
 after the most desperate fighting, it had penetrated the 
 very heart of the city, forced the surrender of General 
 Ampudia, and unfurled the stars and stripes above the 
 Grand Plaza of Monterey, September 24, 1846. 
 
 At this juncture an armistice was declared for two months, 
 owing to the reopening of negotiations between the Mexican 
 government and President Polk. When the truce ended. 
 General Taylor received the startling intelligence that an 
 army of twenty thousand men under Santa Anna was 
 marching northward from the City of Mexico to crush 
 the American army of occupation. Nothing daunted, Taylor 
 proceeded to place his troops in readiness and prepared to 
 give battle. Marching out of Monterey he selected a field 
 for battle at Buena Vista. The position of the Americans 
 was indeed critical. On February 22 the whole Mexican 
 army came pouring through the gorges and over the hills 
 which surrounded the plateau upon which the army had 
 intrenched itself ready for the attack. Santa Anna, con- 
 fident of victory, under a flag of truce, asked for a parley 
 and demanded the immediate surrender of General Taylor's 
 army. "General Taylor never surrenders," was the defiant 
 reply, whereupon the opposing forces joined in the issue of 
 battle. During the first day the Americans were steadily 
 pushed back by the overwhelming numbers of the enemy. 
 On the morning of the 23d, the Mexicans made an effort to 
 outflank the American position, but were completely foiled, 
 with the result that they broke and fled in the greatest 
 disorder. During the night Santa Anna withdrew, leaving 
 
340 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 General Taylor and his army in undisputed possession of 
 the battlefield. 
 
 Buena Vista was the most brilliant engagement of the war. 
 It made Taylor the popular hero and won for liim the 
 presidency. 
 
 436. Kearney's Campaign and the Conquest of New Mexico 
 and California— June 1846 to January 1847. — In the mean- 
 time the army of the west, under General Kearney, had 
 started from Leavenworth in June, 184G, to carry out the 
 purpose for Avhich it was organized. Reaching Santa Fe, 
 Kearney raised the American flag, and the Mexicans yielded 
 without resistance. 
 
 Kearney then marched across the burning sands of the 
 desert into California, where events had been happening 
 which anticipated the object of his coming. John C. Fre- 
 mont had for several years been engaged on a government 
 expedition of survey and exploration in the Rocky Moun- 
 tains and Sierra Nevada region. Happening in California at 
 a time when the Americans were protesting against Mexican 
 interference, and being an American officer, he was naturally 
 appealed to by the settlers. Considering their provocation 
 sufficient, he championed the cause of his countrymen. A 
 number of engagements ensued, in which the Americans 
 were, without exception, victorious. This was all done in 
 actual ignorance of the declaration of war. 
 
 About this time, too, the American squadron which had 
 been ordered to patrol the California coast in anticipation of 
 just such an event, put in an appearance. Commodore 
 Sloat bombarded and captured Monterey, and Commodore 
 Stockton, San Diego. On hearing of these events Fremont 
 at once joined Sloat in a combined attack upon Los Angeles, 
 where the American flag was raised and a military govern- 
 ment established over the conquered territory. 
 
 In the meantime Kearney, with Kit Carson, the famous 
 scout, as his guide, arrived on the scene, and completed the 
 work begun by Fremont and the two officers of the navy. 
 
 /J 
 
FEOM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLX 
 
 341 
 
 A rebellion on the part of the Mexicans was suppressed 
 by Kearney in the final battle of San Gabriel (June 
 8, 9, 1847), and the subjugation of California was complete. 
 437. General Scott's Campaign and the End of the War 
 — March to September, 1847. — Just one month after Taylor's 
 great victory at Buena Yista, General Scott landed an Amer- 
 ican force of twelve thousand men at Vera Cruz, and at 
 once began an attack upon the Mexican stronghold of San 
 Juan de Ulloa, March 29, 1847. Six days later both the city 
 and the castle surrendered. This victory inspired the Amer- 
 icans with tlie greatest confidence, and after a week spent in 
 
 THK ADVANCE TOWARD MEXICO 
 
 preparation, the army began its triumphal march to the City 
 of Mexico, over the same route made famous by Cortez, three 
 hundred years before. 
 
 Santa Anna, now fully alive to the dangers that beset his 
 country, took charge of the Mexican army in person and dis- 
 puted the advance of the invading army at every strategic 
 point. He first took position at the pass of Cerro Gordo, 
 where he was beaten on the 18th of April. On the 13th of 
 May the victorious army marched to the ancient and sacred 
 city of Puebla, which offered no resistance to the American 
 advance. On the 7th of August the American army reached 
 the summit of the mountains which overlooked the beau- 
 tiful valley of Mexico, dotted with green fields, villages, 
 
342 IIISTOKY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 and lakes. From those lofty heights the American soldiers 
 beheld a populous city surrounded by snow-capped peaks 
 and gazed in astonishment upon the same landscape which 
 had excited the admiration of the conquering Spaniard at 
 the very beginning of American history. A few minor engage- 
 ments took place, in which the Americans were successful, 
 and on the 20th of August the American army began a series 
 of victories which ended in complete triumph. Contreras 
 fell on the morning of August 20, after a sharp engagement 
 of seventeen minutes, and during that day separate divisions 
 of the army successfully captured the several fortresses on 
 the heights of Churubusco and laid open the way to the very 
 gates of the city. 
 
 The Mexicans made tlieir final stand at the citadel of 
 Chapultepec, which fell on the 13th of September. At sun- 
 set the American soldiers swept through the gates and 
 pitched their tents in the suburbs of the city, and at sunrise 
 on the 14th of September, 1847, the army entered the ancient 
 city and took possession. 
 
 438. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo —February 2, 1848. 
 — After tlie downfall of the City of Mexico, the American 
 government sent peace commissioners to confer with the 
 Mexican congress in session at Guadalupe Hidalgo. Negoti- 
 ations were satisfactorily completed and the treaty signed on 
 February 2, 1848. 
 
 By the terms of the treaty, Mexico acknowledged the Kio 
 Grande as the southern boundary of Texas, and ceded to 
 the United States the whole of upper California and New 
 Mexico, thereby adding 500,000 acres of land to the public 
 domain of the United States. For this vast expanse of 
 territory the United States, on her part, paid Mexico 
 $15,000,000 in gold, and assumed all debts due from the 
 Mexican government to American citizens to the amount of 
 $3,500,000. 
 
 439. The Northwestern Boundary Established— 1846.— 
 While the Texas boundary was settled by the issue of war the 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 343 
 
 Oregon boundary was settled by the peaceful method of 
 arbitration. The dispute over the northwestern boundary 
 had beau of long standing between England and the United 
 States. Both countries claimed the whole territory between 
 the parallels of 54° 40' and 49°. 
 
 Since the year 1818 the two countries, by mutual agree- 
 ment, had jointly occupied the disputed territory. Either 
 government wishing to terminate this agreement pledged 
 itself to give the other twelve mouths' notice. The United 
 States having served such notice on England, the question 
 was finally disposed of in 1846 by a treaty, which arranged 
 a fair compromise of the conflicting claims by establishing 
 the northern boundary at its present limit of the forty-ninth 
 parallel of north latitude. 
 
 440. The Tariff of 1846: The Walker Tariff.— In this 
 administration the majority party in congress passed a bill 
 known as the Walker tariff — named after Robert J. Walker, 
 secretary of the treasury. It reduced the duties on imports 
 so that they corresponded nearly to the schedule provided 
 by Clay's compromise tariff of 1833. Its chief purpose was 
 to raise a revenue, although on some articles it was slightly 
 protective. 
 
 441. The Wilmot Proviso— 1846. — During the Mexican 
 war President Polk sent a message to congress, asking for 
 an appropriation of money which might be offered to the 
 Mexican government in the settlement of the dispute. A 
 bill appropriating two million dollars for that purpose was 
 at once introduced into the house of representatives, and 
 then the slavery question was brought prominently before the 
 country by David Wilmot, a Democratic congressman from 
 Pennsylvania. Wilmot offered an amendment to the bill 
 providing for the exclusion of slavery from any territory thus 
 acquired. The northern Democrats and Whigs supported 
 his amendment, which passed the house, but not the senate. 
 The amendment provided that "neither slavery nor involun- 
 tary servitude shall ever exist in any part of such territory, 
 
344 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 except for crime, whereof the party shall first be duly con- 
 victed." 
 
 This amendment became known as the "Wilmot Proviso" 
 and since it involved the whole question of slavery in relation 
 to new territory, it became a natioual question. As the war 
 with Mexico progressed, this proviso was time after time 
 pressed upon congress, by the antislavery advocates, but as 
 often defeated. The discussions in congress and throughout 
 the country were heated and bitter in the extreme and led to 
 the formation of the Free-soil party, which now absorbed 
 the Liberty party and placed itself squarely against the 
 further extension of slavery. 
 
 442. Discovery of Gold in California : The "Forty-niners." 
 — In the year 1849 the world was thrown into a fever of 
 excitement by the announcement of the discovery of gold on 
 the Sutter settlement in California in the year 1848. The 
 man to whom belonged the honor of this discovery was John 
 W. Marshall, a laborer on the large estate of John A. 
 Sutter, near the present city of Sacramento. While over- 
 seeing the digging of a mill race, Marshall was astonished 
 to see the precious metal in the sand which was being 
 shoveled from the ditch. An attempt was made to keep tlie 
 discovery a secret, but the news rapidly spread, and swept 
 throughout the California settlements like wildfire. Gold 
 seekers by the hundreds came flocking to Sutter's Mill, and 
 the whole region was soon a tented camp of fortune hunters. 
 The news was passed on to the outside world, and in a few 
 weeks was exciting the people in every state of the American 
 union. It leaped the Atlantic ocean and spread throughout 
 the countries of Europe. It seemed that the news was 
 borne upon the wings of the wind to the very ends of the 
 earth. By the year 1849 news of the discovery was known 
 in every civilized country on the globe. 
 
 The greatest excitement prevailed everywhere, when the 
 rush of the "Forty-niners" to the gold fields of California 
 began. Ships loaded with men Avent flying aroimd Cape 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 
 
 345 
 
 Horn. Other adventurers took the "short cut" by the 
 way of the Isthmus of Panama. Ox trains by the hundreds, 
 often with from forty to fifty "prairie schooners" in a single 
 train, started from the states east of the Mississippi by the 
 overland route to California. They wearily wended their 
 way across the plains along the line of the Oregon trail, 
 westward to Fort Hall; thence down through the Hum- 
 boldt valley and across the Sierra Nevadas to Sutter's Mill; 
 or along either the upper or lower Santa Fe trails to Santa 
 
 THE TRAILS TO CALIFORNIA 
 
 Fe, thence along Kearney's route to Monterey, or by the 
 California "cut-off" across the Wasatch Mountains or the 
 Great Basin, through the Humboldt valley, to their destina- 
 tion in California. It is said that a traveler on the Oregon 
 trail in the valley of the Platte River counted as many as 
 four hundred and fifty-nine of these "prairie schooners" in 
 a distance of ten miles. These ox trains mapped out the 
 routes along which at least two great continental railways 
 have since been built. 
 
 People arrived in California by the thousands. In six 
 
346 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 months the port of San Francisco had grown from a village 
 of a few huts to a city of fifteen thousand people, and the 
 population of California from less than ten thousand to 
 more than one hundred tliousand — two years later it had 
 reached a quarter of a million. All articles of food were sold 
 at fabulous prices, the sanitary condition of the mining camps 
 was poor, and as a result the greatest suffering followed. 
 Lawlessness and disorder prevailed everywhere. In order 
 to assist the officers of the law the best citizens organized 
 themselves into "vigilance committees," which with firm, 
 though often high-handed justice, brought order out of 
 chaos and established the reign of law. 
 
 The discovery of gold in California led to the rapid devel- 
 opment of that state and later of all the western states. As 
 a factor in the western expansion of the United States, gold 
 has performed an important part. To it is due the con- 
 struction of several continental railroads, which have bound 
 the American union all the more firmly and compactly 
 together, to-day making San Francisco, in point of time, 
 but five days distant from Xew York city. 
 
 The wealth from the mines of the west has, since the discov- 
 ery of gold in 1849, mounted into the millions. The mines 
 of California alone have added a billion dollars to the wealth 
 of the world. 
 
 443. New States Admitted : Iowa— 1846; Wisconsin— 1848 : 
 Oregon Territory Organized— 1848.^ — In this administra- 
 tion two states were admitted — Iowa in 1846, as the twenty- 
 ninth state, and Wisconsin in 1848, as the thirtieth. 
 Both adopted constitutions forbidding slavery. 
 
 In the last named year tlie contest over slavery in the 
 Oregon country was fought out, terminating in the organiza- 
 tion of Oregon territory, with a provision forever excluding 
 slavery from within its limits. 
 
 444. The Presidential Election of 1848.— The excitement 
 over the war had hardly subsided when the presidential 
 campaign began. Polk having signified his intention of 
 
 I 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 347 
 
 retiring to private life, the Democrats nominated Lewis Cass 
 of Michigan. The AVhigs nominated the popular hero of the 
 Mexican war, General Zachary Taylor of Louisiana. The 
 Free-soil party nominated ex-president Martin Van Buren. 
 This party cast a large vote but failed to secure a single 
 vote in the electoral college. 
 
 As in the election of 1844, so in this election. New York 
 decided the contest. The Liberty party in New York in 
 that year defeated Clay; in a similar manner the Free-soil 
 party in 1848 defeated Cass, the vote in the electoral college 
 standing one hundred sixty-three for Taylor to one hundred 
 twenty-seven for Cass. Millard Fillmore was elected vice- 
 president. 
 
 In this election the Free-soil party declared itself squarely 
 in opposition to all further extension of slavery, or its intro- 
 duction into any of the newly acquired territory. It practi- 
 cally laid down the lines along which the final struggle on 
 the sectional issue of slavery was to be fought out. 
 
 However, the contest was a personal rather than a political 
 contest, in which the questions discussed in party platforms 
 cut but little figure. The popularity of ''Old Rough and 
 Ready" and the motto "General Taylor never surrenders" 
 had most to do with the result. 
 
 TAYLOR AND FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 WHIG: 184d'lHo3 
 
 445. Zachary Taylor, the twelfth president of the United 
 States, was a Virginian by birth, a Kentuckian by breeding; 
 his father having removed to that frontier country shortly 
 after the close of the Revolution. As the son of a farmer 
 in a frontier settlement, he had few scholastic advantages, 
 but thrift, industry, and self-reliance soon won him a place 
 among men and gave him that training which so well fitted 
 him for a military life. 
 
 Taylor served in the war of 1812, and took a conspicuous 
 part in the Seminole war. His brilliant victories in the 
 
348 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Mexican war made him the national hero. Previous to his 
 nomination for president he had had no political aspirations. 
 He did not seek the nomination — it was urged upon him. 
 The large acquisition of territory which the successful closing 
 of the Mexican war had brought to the United States caused 
 violent agitation on the question of slavery in the territories. 
 Taylor, in the beginning of his administration, took his 
 stand on the question of the organization of the new territory 
 with a soldierly directness and definiteness of purpose which 
 commands respect to the present day. 
 
 Sixteen months after his inauguration, President Taylor 
 died, and for the second time in the history of the govern- 
 ment, the vice-president succeeded to the presidency. 
 
 Taylor was born in Virginia in 1784 and died at his post 
 of duty in "Washington, D. C, July 9, 1850. On the fol- 
 lowing day Millard Fillmore took the oath of office in the 
 presence of both houses of congress, and became the chief 
 executive of the nation. 
 
 446. Millard Fillmore, the thirteenth president of the 
 United States, was, like his predecessor, the son of a fron- 
 tier farmer. At an early age he learned the trade of a fuller. 
 In 1823 he was admitted to the bar. He was a member of 
 the New York house of representatives and later a Whig 
 member of congress from New York. While in congress, 
 Fillmore was chairman of the ways and means committee 
 and was the author of the tariff of 1842. He was comp- 
 troller of the state of New York at the time of his election 
 to the vice-presidency. 
 
 On assuming the presidency, July 10, 1850, he surrounded 
 himself with an especially able cabinet, with Daniel Webster 
 as secretary of state. 
 
 His approval of the Omnibus Bill cost Fillmore his renom- 
 ination to the presidency in 1852. Although the Whig mem- 
 bers of his cabinet had advised his signing of the bill, the 
 northern Whigs were so bitterly opposed to the Fugitive Slave 
 
FKOM JACKSON" TO LINCOLN 349 
 
 Law that in the nominating convention not twenty northern 
 votes could be obtained for his renomination. 
 
 Four years later, while traveling on the continent of 
 Europe, he received the news of his nomination for the 
 presidency by the American or Know-Nothing party. In 
 the ensuing election he received the electoral vote of one 
 state only — Maryland. 
 
 His later life was spent in dignified retirement at his 
 beautiful home in Buffalo, and his name was connected with 
 much of the charitable work of the city in which he had 
 lived for nearly half a century. He was not a genius, but 
 a "safe and sagacious statesman." He was born in New 
 York in 1800 and died in Batfalo, New York, in 1874. 
 
 447. The Newly Acquired Territory and President Taylor's 
 Policy. — The advocates of slavery extension who had been 
 counting on carving slave states out of the newly acquired 
 territory were doomed to disappointment. Slavery had been 
 abolished in the Mexican republic ten years before the war 
 occurred; therefore all the territory which the United 
 States acquired at the close of the war became a part of the 
 public domain as free territory. Within two years after the 
 closing of the war, California, the richest of the new posses- 
 sions, applied for admission to the union, and, to the 
 chagrin of the south, with a constitution prohibiting slav- 
 ery. The southern leaders at once opposed its admission as 
 a free state, thereby reopening the whole slavery question. 
 
 President Taylor, a slaveholder himself, was a union man 
 after the stamp of Andrew Jackson. He did not favor the 
 further extension of slavery, though he believed in leaving 
 the whole question of slavery to the choice of the inhabi- 
 tants of new states themselves. Anticipating the question 
 which would probably come before congress he had sent confi- 
 dential agents to California and New Mexico suggesting to 
 the citizens of those territories the advisability of organizing 
 state governments so as to be ready to apply for admission as 
 soon as congress should convene. This California had done, 
 
350 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 and New Mexico had made some progress toward organiza- 
 tion when congress convened in December, 1850. This policy 
 of the president, had it been carried out by congress, would 
 have disposed of the whole question in a simple and natural 
 way, and was in keeping with the straightforward method 
 of dealing with questions, so characteristic of Taylor's whole 
 career. But to this policy the southern leaders objected, 
 contending that the dividing line (36° 30') between slave and 
 free territory should be extended to the Pacific coast, or that 
 all the new territory should be open to slavery. So bitter 
 was the discussion that followed the application of Cali- 
 fornia for admission, that it threatened to disrupt the union. 
 Should California come in as a free state, it was more than 
 likely that slavery would be rejected in the remainder of the 
 new territory. The south, therefore, recognized that the 
 whole question of the balance of power between the slave and 
 free states was involved in the struggle, since if the south 
 lost this territory, there would be no territory left from 
 which to erect additional slave states. 
 
 448. Clay's Plan: The Compromise of 1850.— The struggle 
 had not progressed far, when Senator Clay placed himself 
 in opposition to the president's policy and sought to bring 
 the warring factions together by compromise. In January, 
 1850, he introduced in the senate a series of resolutions cov- 
 ering many and varied subjects. The resolutions were 
 immediately referred to a committee of thirteen, of which 
 Clay was chairman, with instructions to report a bill cover- 
 ing the suggestions. The committee reported a series of 
 compromise measures, which after long discussion were 
 passed as separate bills. These separate compromise meas- 
 ures, popularly known as the Omnibus Bill, provided: 
 
 (1) That California be admitted as a free state. 
 
 (2) That the territories of Utah (including Nevada) and 
 New Mexico (including Arizona) be organized without men- 
 tion of slavery. 
 
 (3) That the boundary dispute between Texas and New 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 351 
 
 Mexico be settled in favor of New Mexico, and that the 
 United States pay Texas $10,000,000 as indemnity. 
 
 (4) That the slave trade be forever prohibited in the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia (though slavery was not to be abolished 
 there) . 
 
 (5) That a stringent fugitive slave law should be 
 enacted. 
 
 449. The Debate in Congress over the Compromise was long 
 and bitter. The struggle was indeed a battle of the giants, 
 in which Clay, Webster, Calhoun, and William H. Seward 
 IDarticipated. 
 
 Clay pleaded as he never did before for the preservation of 
 the union and sought to restore harmony by his series of 
 compromises. In this he was joined by Webster, who deliv- 
 ered on the 7th of March, 1850, a calm, though eloquent, 
 speech which by its advocacy of compromise alienated 
 friends and admirers in every section of the country. Web- 
 ster's speech was received with astonishment in the free 
 states. The north felt that it had lost its chiefest support, 
 and the south that it had gained a convert in New England's 
 favorite son. The great orator never regained the popularity 
 which he lost on account of this "Seventh of March" speech, 
 and two years later died a broken-hearted man. 
 
 John C. Calhoun, unyielding to the last, spurned both the 
 policy of Clay and that of the president and declared that 
 unless the north ceased its interference with slavery, the 
 union must be dissolved. In such an event he pleaded for 
 ^'peaceable secession." 
 
 It fell to the lot of William H. Seward, the newly elected 
 senator from New York, to champion the policy of President 
 Taylor. In an impassioned speech, the eloquence of which 
 stirred the whole senate, he condemned all compromises with 
 slavery as being in opposition to the conscience and moral 
 sentiment of the nation. He set himself squarely against 
 the further extension of slavery in the territories, and 
 asserted that all territory belonging to the government was 
 
oO't HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES ^M 
 
 free, and as such was devoted to liberty and justice, not only 
 by the constitution, but by a "higher law" than the consti- 
 tution — the moral law. In reply to Calhoun's plea for 
 ^'peaceable secession," Webster had declared such an 
 event impossible, and Seward expressed unquestioned con- 
 fidence in "the power of the American people to maintain 
 their national integrity under whatever menace of danger." 
 Before the compromise measure had passed congress, 
 President Taylor died. It therefore fell to the lot of Millard 
 Fillmore, his successor, to attach his signature to the meas- 
 ures included in the Omnibus Bill, whereupon all its pro- 
 visions became law. 
 
 450. The Fugitive Slave Law provoked violent opposition 
 in the north, where private citizens were compelled by law 
 to assist in the arrest of fugitive- slaves. In many instances, 
 officers from the slave states would appear in a free-state 
 community and in defiance of local authority make arrests, 
 even going so far as to kidnap freeborn colored persons 
 whom they unjustly reduced to slavery. The north looked 
 upon this whole procedure as an outrage and soon sought to 
 defeat the force of the Fugitive Slave Law by enacting Per- 
 sonal Liberty laws. These laws prohibited the use of state 
 jails for the confinement of fugitives, and forbade any judge 
 or officer to assist a slave owner in the recovery of his slave, 
 or issue a writ looking to the arrest of a fugitive. These 
 laws also provided that trial by jury should be granted 
 alleged fugitives. Every free state, with the exception of 
 New Jersey and California, opposed the returning of fugitive 
 slaves. 
 
 451. The Underground Railroad. — In 1838, the Quakers 
 in Pennsylvania established a series of secret stations reach- 
 ing from the border state of Maryland on the south, through 
 the states of Pennsylvania and New York to Canada on the 
 north, to assist escaping slaves to reach Canada. As soon 
 as a slave stepped foot upon Canadian soil he became a free 
 man under Canadian law. Slaves would be clothed and fed 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 353 
 
 at one station, then secretly passed on to the next, until 
 they reached their destination in Canada. These stations 
 were located a day's journey apart, and the chain of stations 
 became known as the Underground Railroad. After the 
 passage of the Fugitive Slave Law, these underground rail- 
 roads mnltiplied in number, and through their agency thou- 
 sands of slaves escaped to Canada, where they became 
 freemen. "The Abolitionists believed that they were justi- 
 fied in opposing and thwarting the Fugitive Slave Law for 
 the sake of an oppressed humanity." 
 
 452. Minor Events.— In this administration Fillmore 
 began the agitation which in later years led to cheaper 
 postage. The department of the interior was created to 
 look after public lands, take care of the Indians, and to 
 have charge of the patent office. John M. Clayton, while 
 secretary of state, negotiated the Clayton-Bulwer treaty 
 with Sir Henry Bulwer of England. The treaty related 
 to the establishment of a ship canal across Nicaragua, 
 of which neither country was to have exclusive control. 
 Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, made a tour of 
 the United States and by his eloquence stirred the whole 
 people, who generously responded with supplies and money 
 to aid his countrymen in their struggle against the oppres- 
 sion of Austria and Eussia. The government, how- 
 ever, in pursuance of its policy to keep free from foreign 
 entanglements extended no aid. General Narcisso Lopez, an 
 irresponsible adventurer, undertook a filibustering expedi- 
 tion against Cuba with a view to inducing the inhabitants of 
 that island to revolt against Spain and to seek annexation to 
 the United States. The expedition ended in disaster. The 
 ringleader and his followers were captured by the Spaniards 
 and taken to Havana, where Lopez and several of his men 
 were executed. Other filibustering expeditions met a sim- 
 ilar fate. Though President Fillmore by proclamation with- 
 drew the protection of the United States from all citizens 
 engaging in such expeditions, and in every way sought to 
 
OO-i HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 prevent them, still Europe became excited lest the UniteL 
 States would seek to annex Cuba. With a view to prevent- 
 ing such an event, Great Britain and France proposed a 
 treaty with the United States, in which each nation was to 
 declare its intention never to possess Cuba. The proposal 
 was declined by Edward Everett, secretary of state, in an 
 able state paper, in which he called the attention of the 
 European powers to the fact that America proposed to stand 
 by the policy outlined in the Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 453. Death of Webster, Clay, and Calhoun.^Amidst the 
 stirring political excitements of this administration three 
 American statesmen, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay, and 
 Daniel Webster, had passed from the scene of political action 
 in which they had been the central figures for a period of 
 nearly forty years. Calhoun died in the city of Washington, 
 March 31, 1850, before the compromise measures had passed 
 congress. Clay and Webster lived two years longer and each 
 pronounced eulogies upon the departed southerner. 
 
 Calhoun, though professing to stand for the constitution 
 and the maintenance of the union, still, in 1832, preached the 
 doctrine of "nullification," and from that time until the day 
 of his death sowed the seeds of secession and disunion. 
 When he died, it is said that he requested that his only 
 epitaph be the one word "nullification." 
 
 Clay was a southerner by birth, and, like Calhoun, a slave- 
 holder. And yet he would have been glad to see the 
 emancipation of slavery accomplished. He regretted its 
 further extension, and believed that it should be confined to 
 the states where it already existed. He at all times ardently 
 supported the union, and whenever he felt that the ship of 
 state was in peril, came forth with a compromise measure to 
 calm the storm. Clay died at his post of duty in the 
 nation's capital, June 29, 1852. 
 
 AVebster, like Clay, pleaded for national unity, and begged 
 that there might be emblazoned on the national ensign, the 
 "sentiment, dear to every American heart — Liberty and 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLiN 355 
 
 Union, now and forever, ORe and inseparable!" as stated so 
 eloquently in his reply to Robert Y. Hayne in 1830. Web- 
 ster died at Marshfield, Massachusetts, October 24, 1852. 
 Both Clay and Webster were ambitious for advancement — 
 both had been candidates for the presidency and were bitterly 
 disappointed when they failed to reach the goal. 
 
 No greater oratory has ever been heard in the halls of con- 
 gress than that wj;iich fell from the lips of these three men. 
 So inseparably were their names linked together from about 
 the period of 1812 until the compromise of 1850, that they 
 have been referred to in history as the American trium- 
 virate. Calhoun was unyielding and uncompromising in 
 his defence of the doctrine of "nullification," and in 
 his support of slavery. Clay and Webster, more concilia- 
 tory, often yielded to compromise, almost to the point of 
 sacrificing the very principles for which they most con- 
 tended, as is evidenced in Clay's advocacy of a fugitive 
 slave law in which he did not believe, and in Webster's 
 Seventh of March oration. Calhoun excelled in logic, Clay 
 in flowery eloquence, while Webster was the greatest orator. 
 
 When they died, a new generation of men was already 
 occupying the stage of action. William H. Seward of New 
 York had sounded the keynote of the future contest in his 
 "higher law" doctrine. Stephen A. Douglas and Abraham 
 Lincoln had impressed themselves upon the great west. 
 Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. Stephens were prominent 
 in the south, while Charles Sumner and Edward Everett 
 were recognized as New England's favorite sons. 
 
 454. The Seventh Census — 1850. — The seventh census 
 showed a population of 23,191,876, a gain of thirty-six per 
 cent over the census of 1840. Of this population 3,204,313 
 were slaves, of which two hundred thirty-six were in the 
 state of New Jersey, twenty-six in the territory of Utah, 
 and the remainder south of Mason and Dixon's line. It will 
 thus be seen that the decade from 1840 to 1850 was one of 
 great growth in population. During this period one and 
 
356 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 three-quarter millions of people came to the shores of 
 America from foreign countries. Fully a million of these 
 were from the British Isles, mostly from Ireland — driven 
 thence on account of the famine. The remainder repre- 
 sented every country of Europe. 
 
 456. The Presidential Election of 1852.— As the time for 
 the presidential election arrived, the excitement over the 
 compromise of 1<S50 and the enforcement of the Fugitive 
 Slave Law had somewhat abated. Both the Whigs and the 
 Democrats, true to the congressional compromise, endorsed 
 the Omnibus Bill. The Democratic party declared against 
 further agitation of the slavery question; and the Whigs, for 
 national unity and obedience to the constitution. The Free- 
 soil party declared that, "Slavery is a sin against God, and 
 a crime against man, which no human enactment nor usage 
 can make right. Slavery is sectional and freedom is 
 national." It further declared the Fugitive Slave Law to 
 be repugnant to the constitution, denied that it was binding 
 upon the American people, and demanded its "immediate 
 and total repeal." 
 
 The Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott of New 
 Jersey ; the Democrats, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire ; 
 and the Free-soil party, John P. Hale, from the same state. 
 Pierce was elected with William R. King of Alabama, receiv- 
 ing two hundred fifty-four of the electoral votes to forty-two 
 cast for Scott, and none for Hale. In the defeat of Scott 
 the Whig party received its death blow. 
 
 PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 DEMOCRATIC : lf<53-lti57 
 
 456. Franklin Pierce, the fourteenth president of the 
 United States, was the son of a New Hampshire farmer who 
 had distinguished himself as an officer of the Revolution. 
 He graduated from Bowdoin College at Brunswick, Maine, 
 where he had as collegemates the poet Longfellow and the 
 novelist Hawthorne. He was soon thereafter admitted to 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLX 357 
 
 the bar and later served in the legislature of his native state. 
 In 1833 he was elected to represent New Hampshire in the 
 national congress, in which body he continued to serve until 
 1842 — during the last three years as United States senator. 
 He enlisted as a volunteer in the Mexican war, and was soon 
 advanced to a brigadier-generalship. When nominated to 
 the presidency he was looked upon as an obscure man, though 
 devoted to the principles of his party. 
 
 His administration was disturbed throughout its entire 
 term by the renewal of the slavery struggle. Though a 
 northern man, he joined with the southern leaders in carry- 
 ing out their wishes on the slavery question. He lost favor 
 at the north, and was discarded by his own party in its 
 national convention of 1856, lest he might lead it to defeat. 
 
 On his retirement from office in 1857 he spent several years 
 abroad, and on his return erected the Pierce Mansion in 
 Concord, New Hampshire, where he continued to reside 
 until the day of his death. Pierce opposed the issue of civil 
 war in 1860, but when the die was once cast he sided with 
 the union. He was born at Hillsborough, New Hampshire, 
 in 1804, and died at Concord, that state, in 1869. 
 
 457. The Gadsden Purchase — 1853. — Owing to the imper- 
 fect maps used at the time of the making of the treaty at the 
 close of the Mexican War, a second boundary dispute had 
 arisen between the United States and Mexico, which Presi- 
 dent Pierce~was called upon to settle early in his administra- 
 tion. Both countries claimed the Mesilla valley, which 
 includes that portion of the present territory of Arizona lying 
 south of the Gila River, and a section of New Mexico. This 
 valley was reported to be very rich, and the United States 
 desired it as affording the most available route for a railroad 
 to the Pacific, which was proposed at that time. Captain 
 James Gadsden, the minister to Mexico, after whom the 
 purchase was named, negotiated the treaty, by which the 
 United States paid Mexico $10,000,000 for her claim to the 
 valley. The United States also secured the free navigation 
 
358 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 of the Gulf of California and the Colorado River. The ter- 
 ritory acquired by this purchase contained 45,000 square 
 miles — an area about equal to the state of New York. 
 
 458. The Martin Koszta Affair — 1854. — In this administra- 
 tion the United States won a signal triumph in the field of 
 diplomacy. Martin Koszta had been a prominent leader, 
 along with Louis Kossuth, in the Hungarian rebellion. 
 When the rebellion failed, he came to the United States, 
 and immediately took out naturalization papers, thereby 
 taking the first steps toward becoming a citizen of the Uni- 
 ted States, and therefore entitled to its protection in any 
 country of the world. In the year 1854 he went to Turkey 
 and was given permission by the Turkish authorities to go 
 ashore at Smyrna, under the passport of an American citizen. 
 AYhile ashore, at the instigation of the Austrian consul at 
 Smyrna, he was seized by bandits, thrown into the bay, picked 
 up by an Austrian boat in waiting for the purpose, and taken 
 on board an Austrian man-of-war. The American consul at 
 once demanded his release. This being refused, the Ameri- 
 can sloop-of-war, St. Louis, then in the bay of Smyrna, 
 loaded her guns, ran up her flag, prepared for action, and 
 demanded Koszta's surrender at the cannon's mouth. 
 Hereupon the Austrian authorities agreed to turn Koszta 
 over to the French government for safe-keeping, and to 
 refer the final question of his release to arbitration between 
 the two governments. This proposal was at once agreed to 
 by the American consul. In the controversy which ensued 
 between the government at Washington and Austria, the 
 United States was completely triumphant, and Koszta was 
 released. This diplomatic victory greatly strengthened 
 national pride. It was now felt that "to be an American 
 citizen was a greater honor than to be a king." 
 
 459. Commodore Perry's Expedition to Japan — 1852- 
 1854. — In the year 1852, in Fillmore's administration, Com- 
 modore Matthew C. Perry, a brother of Oliver H. Perry of 
 Lake Erie fame, organized a government expedition to Japan. 
 
FROM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 359 
 
 His mission was to make a treaty of friendship between the 
 two powers, and to open the ports of Japan to the commerce 
 of the United States. When Perry sailed unannounced into 
 the harbor of Yedo in 1853, he threw the populace of that 
 port into a panic, from fear of a foreign invasion. He was 
 immediately warned to leave Japanese waters, but this he 
 refused to do until he could deliver the letter of President 
 Fillmore to the Japanese governor. Permission was finally 
 granted him, and Perry and his suite were received on shore 
 with great pomp. The letter delivered, Perry set sail for 
 China, stating that he would return to Yedo for an answer 
 in the following spring. Accordingly, in the spring of 
 1854, he returned and was so cordially received that he at 
 once negotiated a favorable treaty, which opened, almost for 
 the first time in history, the ports of Japan to the commerce 
 of any nation. In 1854 Perry returned to the United States, 
 where he was greeted with the greatest enthusiasm by Pres- 
 ident Pierce and the entire country. A brisk commerce 
 between California and Japan was at once begun which has 
 continued without interruption to the present day. Monu- 
 ments have been erected to the memory of Commodore 
 Perry in both America and Japan. 
 
 460. The Ostend Manifesto— 1854. —In 1854 the country 
 was still involved in trouble over Cuba — due to the determi- 
 nation on the part of the "filibusters" to annex that island 
 to the United States. The political leaders in the south 
 were especially anxious to annex Cuba in order that it might 
 be divided into states which, when admitted to the union, 
 would preserve the balance of power between the free and 
 the slave states. Hence it was that filibustering schemes 
 and expeditions were secretly encouraged in the south. 
 Cuba's annexation, even in Polk's administration, had been 
 attempted — ^Polk having made an offer to Spain of $100,- 
 000,000 for the "gem of the Antilles." During Taylor and 
 Fillmore's administrations all filibustering movements had 
 been promptly condemned. Pierce, knowing that the Span- 
 
360 HISTORY OF THE UJnTITED STATES 
 
 ish government was in need of funds, thought the time now 
 favorable to revive Polk's plan, and accordingly instructed 
 the American minister at the court of ^Madrid, Pierre Soule, 
 to open negotiations for the purchase of Cuba. Soule was 
 soon joined by James Buchanan, minister to the court of 
 London, and John Y. Mason, minister to the court of Paris. 
 These three ministers at Pierce's suggestion met in confer- 
 ence at Ostend, Belgium, where they prepared a dispatch 
 to the government at Washington, in which they declared 
 that the sale of Cuba would be of advantage to both Cuba 
 and the United States, and recommended, if Spain refused 
 to sell Cuba, that the United States "wrest it from her," 
 rather than see it become an African republic like San 
 Domingo. This dispatch is known as the- "Ostend Mani- 
 festo." It created great astonishment among European 
 powers, which at once entered such vigorous protests against 
 it that negotiations for the purchase of Cuba were cut short. 
 Pierce, though urged to do so, refused to take steps looking 
 toward the conquest of Cuba by force of arms. 
 
 461. Other Filibustering Schemes: The Walker Expedi- 
 tions — 1853-54. — Pierce's administration was also disturbed by 
 filibustering schemes against Mexico and the Central Amer- 
 ican countries. The most noted of these was the expedition 
 led by the bold and unscrupulous adventurer. General "Wil- 
 liam Walker, in the years 1853-54. Walker eluded the gov- 
 ernment's officers at San Francisco and made an invasion of 
 Lower California and the Mexican province of Sonora, where 
 he was defeated and made a prisoner. He was turned over 
 by the Mexican government to the authorities at San Fran- 
 cisco, where he was tried and acquitted. He at once 
 organized a second expedition and set out for Central Amer- 
 ica. He landed in Nicaragua, where the natives rallied to 
 his standard, thereby enabling him to win several important 
 battles, which so added to his renown that he was elected 
 president of the Nicaraguan republic, and was immediately 
 recognized as such by President Pierce. 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLN 361 
 
 However, in 1857, the Central American countries com- 
 bined against Walker, overthrew his authority, and made 
 him a prisoner, though he soon regained his liberty. This 
 bold spirit was no sooner released than he repaired to New 
 Orleans, organized a third expedition, and, returning to Cen- 
 tral America, made a descent upon the republic of Honduras. 
 Through the prompt action of the president of Honduras, 
 Walker was foiled, and by the aid of a British man-of-war, 
 overpowered and taken prisoner for a third time. This time 
 he was court-martialed and shot September 12, 1860. 
 Walker's expeditions created much excitement at the time. 
 It was generally believed in the north that the leaders of 
 the slaveholding sections were secretly aiding him. No 
 proof, however, was ever produced to sustain this charge. 
 
 462. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill: "Squatter Sovereignty"— 
 1854. — The sober second thought of the country had 
 acquiesced in the Compromise of 1850, and a general feeling 
 had obtained, that the interests of both the north and the 
 south demanded that the discussion of the slavery question 
 be dropped by congress. Therefore, great was the astonish- 
 ment of the whole country when Stephen A, Douglas, sen- 
 ator from Illinois, introduced a resolution in the senate 
 providing for the organization of the territories of Kansas 
 and Nebraska — the bill expressly stating that the question 
 of slavery should be left entirely to the settlers themselves, 
 without any interference whatsoever on the part of congress. 
 The method of thus disposing of the slavery question became 
 known as "squatter sovereignty." This unannounced step 
 on the part of Douglas came upon the people like a clap of 
 thunder from a clear sky; and produced the greatest excite- 
 ment. The whole slavery question was at once reopened, 
 not to be closed again until the Wilmot Proviso was written 
 into the constitution of the United States. 
 
 The antislavery advocates claimed that this was a repeal of 
 the Missouri Compromise, which had expressly stated that 
 both these territories should be forever free. Douglas 
 
362 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 claimed that the Missouri Compromise was already repealed 
 in the Compromise of 1850, and that therefore this bill was 
 necessary in order to settle the status of these territories 
 before they should apply for admission as states. After the 
 most violent debates in both houses of congress, which at 
 times threatened bloodshed, the bill was passed May 22, 1854. 
 
 Congress had surrendered to "squatters" and frontier 
 settlers its constitutional authority over the public domain, 
 and in its reference of the whole question of slavery to these 
 settlers, had invited the issue of civil war in the prairie 
 states of the west. The debate in the senate, which pre- 
 ceded the adoption of the bill, while not so able as that which 
 preceded the passage of the Compromise of 1850, was far 
 more bitter and produced animosities between the north and 
 the south which it was impossible to overcome in later years. 
 The bill was looked upon in the north as an outrage com- 
 mitted in the name of the constitution. Charles Sumner, 
 Webster's successor in congress, referred to it as the ''crime 
 against Kansas." All classes of people arrayed themselves 
 against it and bitterly opposed it. The clergy in nearly 
 every free state spoke against it from the pulpit. Congress 
 was flooded by petitions protesting against it. One petition 
 alone from New England, was signed by more than three 
 thousand clergymen from that section — including every 
 clergyman in New England. 
 
 463. The Struggle for Kansas. — The Kansas-Nebraska bill 
 had no sooner passed congress than the struggle for Kansas 
 began. The south, on its part, was determined that 
 Kansas should come into the union as a slave state. The 
 north was equally determined that Kansas should be free. 
 At the time of the passage of the bill, Kansas was an Indian 
 country, and had but a few hundred white inhabitants within 
 its borders. Lying to its east was the slave state of Mis- 
 souri. The south accordingly looked to Missouri to people 
 the prairies of Kansas and capture the state government in 
 the interests of slavery. In this she had the antislavery 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLX 
 
 363 
 
 element of all the northern states to contend against. An 
 emigrant aid society was organized in New England, and an 
 expedition of free-state men started on the road to Kansas. 
 Similar companies set out from every free state east of the 
 Mississippi River, and even Iowa contributed her quota of 
 free-state men. Massachusetts sent Charles Robinson; 
 Indiana, General James H. Lane; and New York, John 
 Brown. 
 
 Leavenworth, Atchison, Lecompton, and Topeka were 
 soon founded. President Pierce appointed Andrew H. 
 
 K 
 
 I O W A 
 A IV 
 
 ^ 
 
 Leavea 
 
 ^■«o> 
 
 •tec 
 
 ^V 
 
 "-^e: 
 
 "*^o 
 
 l_.-... 
 
 Reeder of Pennsylvania as first territorial governor. An 
 election was held, and a proslavery delegate declared elected 
 to congress. Reeder called an election in the spring of 1855 
 for the purpose of electing members to a territorial legis- 
 lature. At this election, 5,427 proslavery votes were cast, 
 and 791 free-state votes. The census of the territory taken 
 but a few weeks before the election showed but 2,905 
 voters. The Missourians had invaded the territory and stolen 
 
364 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the election. When the legislature convened at Pawnee a few 
 months later, it adopted the state laws of Missouri and 
 passed laws denying free speech and the liberty of the press 
 on all questions referring to slavery. This bogus legislature 
 with its bogus laws outraged not only the free-state settlers 
 in Kansas but also the sense of justice in the whole north. 
 The whole affair ended in a clash between the free-state men 
 and the invaders from Missouri. Murders, mobs, lynchings, 
 and destruction of property followed — even the life of Gov- 
 ernor Eeeder was threatened, and he left the state in dis- 
 guise, to be succeeded by Governor "Wilson Shannon. Mean- 
 while the Free-soilers called a constitutional convention to 
 meet at Topeka in October, 1855, by which a constitution 
 was adopted, slavery prohibited in the territory, and an 
 attempt made to set up a state government. Under this 
 constitution a state election was held and the governorship 
 fell to the lot of Charles Robinson. 
 
 At this jancture, President Pierce showed his hand. In a 
 message to congress he denounced the Topeka constitution, 
 and through his approval the United States troops were 
 called in to disperse the state legislature in session at Topeka. 
 Strictly speaking, Pierce was within his powers, since no 
 territory could become a state without the consent of 
 congress. This consent the Free-soilers had not obtained. 
 In the meantime a congressional election had been held 
 throughout the states, and the old congress which had 
 passed the Kansas-Nebraska bill had been repudiated in the 
 north. A new house of representatives appeared in "Wash- 
 ington, though the old senate remained. "When the Topeka 
 constitution was submitted to congress, the house approved 
 it; the senate, still under the leadership of Douglas, rejected 
 it. This rejection but prolonged the struggle. The free- 
 state north now renewed her efforts to save Kansas. It 
 being unsafe to attempt to reach Kansas through the state 
 of Missouri, a route was now established through Iowa and 
 Nebraska, over which immigrants poured into the territory 
 
FROM JACKSON" TO LINCOLN 365 
 
 by the thousands, piloted by Lane and John Brown. To 
 offset this movement, Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina 
 sent whole companies west to join Missouri in her invasion 
 of Kansas. This precipitated a border warfare, which was 
 marked by all the horrors incident to frontier life. Congress 
 and the whole country stood aghast. The iniquity of the 
 Kansas-Nebraska bill was now fully realized. But the die 
 was cast — "squatter sovereignty" had invited the issue, and 
 neither side shrank from the contest. Sharpe's rifles were 
 sent from the north to arm the free-state settlers against 
 the invaders. President Pierce came to the rescue of the 
 proslavery party by encouraging the arrest and imprisonment 
 of free-state men for treason. Governor Robinson was 
 imprisoned without a trial, and was refused bail for four 
 months. President Pierce declared Kansas to be in a state 
 of insurrection. The Missourians sacked Lawrence and 
 burned part of the town. The Georgians, aided by 
 other proslavery men, burned Osawatomie. The free- 
 state men, under such leaders as John Brown and James 
 Montgomery, retaliated. Finally a new governor, John W. 
 Geary, arrived on the scene, and order was restored for a 
 time. But a presidential contest had placed a new man at the 
 helm in Washington, and Geary, out of favor with the incom- 
 ing administration, resigned. Pierce soon retired from office, 
 leaving the Kansas troubles to be settled by his successor. 
 
 464. The Assault upon Sumner by Brooks. — When Presi- 
 dent Pierce sent his message to congress condemning the 
 Topeka constitution, it drew from Charles Sumner, on the 
 20th of May, 1856, his celebrated speech, "The Crime 
 against Kansas." Sumner was a scholar of distinguished 
 ability, an eloquent orator, and a master of invective. When 
 he pointed his shaft of scorn, it went straight to the mark 
 and stung his victim. During the course of his speech he 
 took occasion to comment severely upon the conduct of Sen- 
 ator Andrew P. Butler of South Carolina, who, at the time, 
 happened to be absent from the senate chamber. Two days 
 
366 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 later the senate had adjourned earlier than usual, and Sum- 
 ner remained writing at his desk, when Representative 
 Preston Brooks, a relative of Butler's, entered the 
 rear of the senate chamber, accompanied by Representa- 
 tive Lawrence M. Keitt, — each armed with a cane. 
 **You have libelled the state of South Carolina and my 
 aged relative," shouted Brooks, as he rushed upon Sum- 
 ner, violently striking him over the head with his cane. 
 He struck blow after blow with his gutta percha weapon, 
 while Keitt stood by to see that no one interfered. Sumner, 
 although a powerful man, was so stunned by the first blow 
 that he was unable to rise and turn upon his assailant. He 
 soon fell bleeding and unconscious to the floor, and was car- 
 ried from the chamber by friends who hastened to his assist- 
 ance. His injuries were so serious that he was unable to 
 resume his seat for three years, but during all that time the 
 state of Massachusetts kept his seat vacant, as a silent 
 protest against this cowardly attack upon the freedom of 
 debate. 
 
 The house of representatives made an attempt to expel 
 Brooks, but failing in this, strong resolutions were passed 
 condemning him for his cowardly assault, and a vote of 
 censure was passed upon Keitt and Brooks. Whereupon 
 they both resigned, and returned to South Carolina, where 
 they received an enthusiastic welcome and were at once 
 re-elected to the positions which they had just made vacant — 
 such was the false idea of chivalry held in those days. This 
 personal assault upon Sumner aroused both houses of con- 
 gress, and created a wild storm of excitement throughout 
 the country. 
 
 465. New Political Parties: Republican and Know- 
 No thing. — In this administration two new political parties 
 appeared for the first time,— one, the Republican party, 
 destined in a short time to gain and hold control of the 
 government through one of the most dangerous and trying 
 periods in the history of the republic ; the other, the Know- 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLN 367 
 
 Nothing party, to live but a single campaign, and then to 
 disappear from the stage of action. 
 
 The Whig party went to pieces upon the rock of the Com- 
 promise of 1850, and particularly the Fugitive Slave Law. 
 The Kansas-Nebraska bill called into existence its successor, 
 the Republican party. This party had its rise in the states 
 of the northwest. Its principles were first given definite 
 form at a convention held in Pittsburg in February, 1854. 
 The party was composed of Free-soilers, antislavery Whigs, 
 some Democrats, and eventually the Abolitionists and a major- 
 ity of the Know-Nothing party. On account of its opposi- 
 tion to the Kansas-Nebraska bill, the party was first called the 
 Anti-Nebraska party. The name ''Eepublican" was sug- 
 gested in a set of resolutions passed by the Michigan legis- 
 lature in 1854 protesting against the passage of Douglas's 
 Kansas-Nebraska act, and Republican was soon thereafter 
 substituted for Anti-Nebraska. The Pittsburg conven- 
 tion declared for free Kansas and free territory, and 
 denounced the Kansas-Nebraska act as an outrage upon a 
 free people and a crime committed in the name of the con- 
 stitution. When it adjourned, it was resolved to place a 
 candidate in nomination for the presidency when Pierce's 
 term of office should expire. In the congressional elections 
 of 1854, it won a majority of the members in the lower 
 house of congress, and elected Nathaniel P. Banks of 
 Massachusetts as speaker of the house after one of the most 
 exciting speakership contests in the history of the country. 
 It was this Republican majority that approved the Topeka 
 constitution in 1855. 
 
 The Know-Nothing party was first organized as a secret 
 political party, and advocated the control of the government 
 by native citizens only. During the period from 1846 to 
 1856, thousands of foreigners had emigrated to America, 
 and these the Know-Nothing party declared were a menace 
 to the government. Owing to the fact that the members in 
 the lower degrees of the society "knew nothing" of the 
 
368 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 plans and purposes of the leaders in the upper degrees, the 
 party became known by the nickname "Know-Nothing" 
 instead of the name under which it wished to appear — 
 *'American. " In 1855 it discarded its secret machinery, 
 and made its fight under the motto, * 'America for Ameri- 
 cans." 
 
 466. The Presidential Election of 1856. — In the presidential 
 election of 1856, the free-state Democrats in the north 
 united with the Republicans, while the proslavery Whigs in 
 the south united with the Democrats. This made the con- 
 test a sectional issue on the question of slavery. The Repub- 
 licans nominated John C. Fremont of California, demanded 
 the admission of Kansas with its Topeka constitution, 
 opposed any further extension of slavery into new territory, 
 and declared themselves content to leave the institution of 
 slavery unmolested in the states where it already existed. 
 The Democrats nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, 
 favored the principle of *' squatter sovereignty," and 
 asserted that the policy pursued by slavery agitators in the 
 north would, if persisted in, "lead to civil war and dis- 
 union." The Know-Nothing party nominated ex-President 
 Fillmore of New York, declared for a strong federal union, 
 passed a lukewarm resolution referring to Kansas, and 
 adhered to its principle of "America for Americans." 
 
 In the ensuing election the Democrats won, Buchanan 
 receiving one hundred seventy-four of the electoral votes, 
 Fremont one hundred fourteen, and Fillmore eight. John 
 C. Breckinridge was elected vice-president. 
 
 Buchanan's administration 
 
 DEMOCRATIC: 1857-IS61 
 
 467. James Buchanan, the fifteenth president of the United 
 States, was the son of a Pennsylvania farmer. At the age 
 of nineteen, he graduated from Dickinson College in his 
 native state, and three years later entered the profession 
 of law. He served in the legislature of his native state. 
 
FEOM JACKSON TO LINCOLN 369 
 
 and was elected to the lower house of congress in 1820. 
 He retired from congress in 1831, to accept the post 
 of minister to Russia. On his return in 1834, he entered 
 the United States senate, where he continued as an 
 active member until 1845, when he resigned to become 
 Polk's secretary of state. He retired to private life in 
 1849, but four years later was appointed minister to Eng- 
 land, which position he held until 1856. He was still in 
 London when he received the news of his nomination to the 
 presidency by the Democratic party. As a successful diplo- 
 mat, Buchanan ranks high, as is shown in his splendid 
 record while secretary of state and while minister to Eng- 
 land, as well as in his foreign policy while president. In 
 home affairs, however, his administration fell upon troublous 
 times. All the misfortunes of Pierce's administration were 
 visited upon Buchanan. The slavery question would not 
 down; the Kansas struggle still kept up; the north and the 
 south were drifting farther and farther apart. The ship of 
 state had come upon tempestuous seas, and Buchanan, with 
 all his years of experience, was not the helmsman to guide 
 her safely through the storm. He was handicapped by a 
 disposition which lacked the essential element of vigor. He 
 owed his election to the solid south. His associates were 
 largely from that section, and he found it difficult to break 
 the political ties which had bound him for more than a third 
 of a century. It was charged that he was vacillating and 
 weak, and such blame and censure has been heaped upon him 
 as to obscure almost completely his achievements in the field 
 of diplomacy. No president ever more willingly laid down 
 the burden of official position than did Buchanan in 1861. 
 He was not a candidate for renomination, nor did he wish to 
 be. He retired to private life March 4, 1861, on his estate 
 of Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he died 
 in 1868. He was born near Mercerburg, Pennsylvania, in 
 1791. 
 468. The Dred Scott Decision and the Repeal of the Mis- 
 
370 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 souri Compromise. — On March 6, 1857, two days after Buchan- 
 an's inauguration, the supreme court of the United States 
 handed down its celebrated Dred Scott decision. Dred 
 Scott had been a slave in the slave state of Missouri, but in 
 1834 he had been carried by his master to the free state of 
 Illinois, and two years later to the free territory of Minne- 
 sota, where, by the provisions of the Missouri Compromise, 
 slavery had been forever prohibited. While in the territory 
 of Minnesota, Scott was married, with his master's consent, 
 but, on being brought back to Missouri, he and his wife and 
 two children were sold to another master. Scott at once 
 sued for his freedom, and won his suit in the local court at 
 St. Louis, on the grounds that his removal to Minnesota 
 made him a free man by the provisions of the Missouri 
 Compromise. The case was appealed to the supreme 
 court of Missouri, which reversed the decision. While 
 the case was still before the Missouri courts, Scott brought 
 a second suit for his freedom on the grounds that he 
 was a citizen of the United States, and was therefore a citi- 
 zen of Missouri, and as such entitled to his freedom. This 
 suit was brought before the United States circuit court at 
 St. Louis. This court granted his contention as to citizen- 
 ship, but referred the question of his freedom to a jury, 
 which decided that he was still a slave. The case was then 
 appealed to the supreme court of the United States. A 
 majority of this court held (1) that colored persons, 
 whether freed or slave, were not citizens of the L^nited 
 States; (2) that the act of temporary removal of a master 
 from a slave to a free state did not entitle his slaves to free- 
 dom; (3) that the removal of a master into any of the terri- 
 tory made free by the Missouri Compromise did not entitle 
 his slaves to freedom, because the Missouri Compromise was 
 unconstitutional and void. This decision emphatically said 
 that there were no free territories within the meaning of the 
 constitution, and implied that a slaveholder could carry his 
 slaves into any state of the union without surrendering his 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLIT 371 
 
 right to hold them as slaves. Of all the points in the deci- 
 sion, this last one produced the greatest alarm in the north, 
 where it was now felt that the boast of a prominent southern 
 slaveholder, that he would some day be able to call the roll 
 of his slaves at the base of the Bunker Hill monument could 
 soon be fulfilled. 
 
 No decision from the supreme court of the United 
 States has ever created such a storm. In the south it 
 was applauded to the echo, while in the north it was con- 
 demned as an outrage against human freedom and opposed 
 to the advancing civilization of the day. Many northern 
 states resented the decision by passing more stringent per- 
 sonal liberty laws. Taney's unfortunate historic reference, 
 "The negro had no rights which the white man was bound 
 to respect," was seized upon in the north as expressing the 
 true meaning not only of the court but of the entire south 
 as well. Two justices, John McLean and Benjamin R. 
 Curtis, dissented from the majority opinion of the court. 
 Justice Curtis set forth his objections in an able opinion, 
 which became the generally accepted view in the north. 
 His opinion was printed and circulated by the Republican 
 party as campaign literature in 1860. Within a week after 
 the decision had been rendered, Taney's desire of thus put- 
 ting to sleep the slavery question was recognized as hopeless, 
 even by the chief justice himself. The whole north was 
 aroused as never before, and looked upon Taney's judicial 
 opinion as a political decision meant to bolster up the totter- 
 ing institution of slavery. It was even charged openly that 
 the decision had been made on the demand of the leaders of 
 the slaveholding section. 
 
 469. The Kansas Struggle Ends in Victory for Freedom. 
 — Notwithstanding the annulling of the Missouri Compro- 
 mise by this decision of the supreme court, the struggle for 
 Kansas continued unabated. President Buchanan appointed 
 Robert J. Walker governor of the territory. The old pro- 
 slavery legislature still held the reins of government under the 
 
372 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 fostering care of the administration at Washington. This 
 legislature met at Lecompton and called a convention to 
 frame a new state constitution. Governor Geary, before 
 leaving the territory, had vetoed this call, but after his 
 retirement the convention had met and proceeded to adopt 
 the Lecompton constitution, which permitted slavery. 
 The whole contest was transferred to the halls of con- 
 gress, when Kansas asked for admission to the union 
 under this fraudulently adopted constitution. In congress 
 the struggle was long and stubborn, but a bill was finally 
 passed, known as the "English Bill," which submitted 
 the constitution, for the third time, to the people of the 
 territory for their approval or rejection. In the vote 
 which followed in September, 1857, the Lecompton con- 
 stitution was repudiated at the polls by a decided 
 majority. During this controversy. Governor AValker was 
 removed from his position, because he declared for a free 
 count. He was charged by the south as being a 'Hurn 
 coat." The action of the Lecompton convention in attempt- 
 ing to force this constitution upon the territory was &o high- 
 handed that even Stephen A. Douglas, champion of 
 ''squatter sovereignty" as he was, condemned it in the most 
 scathing language. 
 
 In the meantime, a new election in the territory had 
 resulted in the choice of a free-state legislature, which in 
 December, 1857, met at Leavenworth and adopted the 
 Leavenworth constitution, which declared that all men were 
 equal before the law. The attorney-general of the United 
 States, however, having declared that the bill calling this 
 constitutional convention was illegal, this third attempt to 
 adopt a state constitution fell by the wayside. While the 
 Lecompton constitution was before congress for its considera- 
 tion, both the free-state and proslavery men were compar- 
 atively quiet in the territory, awaiting tlie issue. But in 
 1858 the border warfare broke out again, and the old acts of 
 plunder, pillage, massacre, murder, assassination, and 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LINCOLN 373 
 
 destruction of property were repeated. The whole matter 
 was finally disposed of in the year 1859, when a constitu- 
 tional convention met at Wyandotte and adopted what is 
 known as the Wyandotte constitution. On the 16th of 
 October, 1859, this constitution was ratified by the people of 
 the territory, and under it Kansas two years later became a 
 free state. "Squatter sovereignty" in Kansas had been a 
 costly experiment. Two million dollars' worth of property 
 had been destroyed, many human lives had been lost, and the 
 bitterest auimosities engendered. For five years the Kansas 
 struggle had been a national issue, which stirred the nation 
 to its very depths. No doubt much wrong had been com- 
 mitted by irresponsible parties on both sides in the frontier 
 struggle; but it all ended in the interest of human liberty; 
 freedom had been victorious, the moral sentiment of the 
 north had prevailed. 
 
 470. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates. — The year 1858 was 
 made memorable by a contest in Illinois between Abraham 
 Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas for the United States 
 senatorship from that state. Lincoln had become prominent 
 in the west because of his opposition to Douglas's Kansas- 
 Nebraska act. On account of his leadership of the Eepubli- 
 can party in Illinois, he became the logical candidate of that 
 party against Douglas, the Democratic nominee. Douglas 
 was a man of national reputation, and for years had been the 
 recognized leader of his party in the senate. He was a mag- 
 netic speaker, and was recognized as a debater of unusual 
 ability. Lincoln, though he had served one term in congress 
 as a Whig member, was not prominent in national politics ; 
 indeed, his reputation may be said to date from the year of 
 this senatorial contest. During the progress of the contest a 
 series of seven joint debates was arranged between Lincoln 
 and Douglas, which took place at various places throughout 
 the state. In these debates the political questions which were 
 then agitating the country were argued by both debaters with 
 such skill and eloquence as to attract at once the attention 
 
374 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 of the entire country and bring the name of Lincoln into 
 such national prominence as to signal him out as one of the 
 ablest leaders of the new Republican party. In this cam- 
 paign Lincoln lost, but with a political foresight which has 
 seldom been surpassed, he so embarrassed Douglas by the 
 questions which he forced him to answer that he made it 
 impossible for the Democratic party of the south to consider 
 his name in connection with the coming presidential contest. 
 
 In accepting the nomination for the senatorship, at the 
 hands of the state Republican convention at Springfield, 
 Illinois, Lincoln responded in his now famous speech opening 
 with these words: 
 
 ** 'A house divided against itself can not stand.' I believe 
 that this government can not endure permanently half slave 
 and half free; I do not expect the ?nii07i to be dissolved; I 
 do not expect the house to fall ; but I do expect it will cease 
 to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other. 
 Either the opponents of slavery will arrest the further spread 
 of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the 
 belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction, or its 
 advocates will push it forward till it shall become alike law- 
 ful in all the states, old as well as new, north as well as 
 south." 
 
 Many of his friends urged him to omit these words from 
 his speech, insisting that he would lose the election if he 
 did not, whereupon his law partner, William H. Herndon, 
 exclaimed: "Lincoln, deliver that speech as written, and it 
 will make you president!" 
 
 471. John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry — 1859. — On the 
 morning of October 17, 1850, the whole country was startled 
 by the intelligence that a band of insurgents had seized the 
 United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, captured 
 the town, and taken a number of prominent citizens prison- 
 ers. It soon became known that the leader of the band was 
 Captain John Brown, who had become known throughout 
 the country in connection with the free-state struggle in 
 
FKOM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLX 
 
 375 
 
 Kansas. Virginia sent state troops flying to Harper's Ferry, 
 but their ill-planned and feeble efforts could not dislodge the 
 insurgents. On the evening of the day of the alarm a com- 
 pany of United States marines, under command of Colonel 
 Robert E. Lee, arrived upon the scene and immediately 
 
 hakper's ferry and vicinity 
 
 relieved the excited militia. The marines, with sledge ham- 
 mers and battering ram, soon forced an entrance into the 
 arsenal, where they found Brown on his knees, dazed and 
 bleeding, with two of his sons dead by his side. Of the 
 nineteen raiders, two had escaped, seven were taken prison- 
 ers, and ten were found dead within the fort. Brown and 
 his fellow prisoners were placed in chains and taken to 
 Charleston, Virginia, where they were tried for treason and 
 for inciting insurrection. Brown's trial was a notable one, 
 and excited the greatest interest throughout the country. 
 He candidly and boldly declared to the court that he had 
 planned to march into the slave districts, set up an anti- 
 slavery government, and spread such terror among the slave- 
 
376 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 holders of the south, that they would either emancipate 
 their slaves or surrender them for a money consideration. 
 In this way he had hoped to bring about a revolution which 
 would ultimately lead to the abolition of slavery. 
 
 Although Brown was found guilty and executed on the 
 gallows, still there were thousands in the north who excused 
 his raid as the logical outcome of the squatter sovereignty 
 war and the Dred Scott decision. But the event threw the 
 south into a frenzy of excitement. The cry went up that 
 the insurrection had been planned at the instigation of the 
 an ti slavery leaders in the north, and the breach between 
 the opposing sections was widened. 
 
 472. Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and Helper's "Im- 
 pending Crisis." — In 1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe, sister to the 
 great Brooklyn preacher, Henry Ward Beecher, published a 
 novel entitled "Uncle Tom's Cabin, or,Life among the Lowly. " 
 It was called forth as a protest against the Fugitive Slave Law, 
 and was full of burning indignation against the wrongs of the 
 slaves in the south. Its sales soon ran into the thousands. 
 By the second year of Buchanan's administration 500,000 
 copies had been scattered throughout the free states. The 
 sale of the book was prohibited in many localities in the 
 south, where it was claimed that the novel was overdrawn, 
 imaginative, and misleading, and that the condition of the 
 slave was much better than Mrs. StoAve's portrayal indicated. 
 The circulation of the book was encouraged by the abolition 
 and antislavery societies of the north, where it stirred the 
 minds of the people to the profoundest depths, and aroused 
 a stronger opposition than ever before — not only against the 
 further extension of slavery, but also against its continued 
 existence in the United States. 
 
 In 1857 a second book appeared, which, if anything, pro- 
 duced more indignation in the south than "Uncle Tom's 
 Cabin." This book was Hinton li. Helper's "Impending 
 Crisis in the South: How to Meet It." Helper was a rep- 
 resentative of the nonslaveholding element in the south, — 
 
FROM JACKSOJn" TO LINCOLIS' 377 
 
 an element which at that time represented about seven-tenths 
 of the white population of that section. The "poor whites'* 
 in the south had never been able to make much progress 
 owing to the fact that their farms were small and that they 
 were forced at all times to put their free labor against slave 
 labor. Their communities were poorly provided with 
 schools, and in every way their growth and prospects had 
 been retarded on account of slavery. The "poor white" 
 usually had no love for the African, — if anything, his feel- 
 ing against him was far more bitter than that of the slave- 
 holder. He felt that he was unjustly thrown into competition 
 with the slave, and therefore deprived of his just rights as a 
 free laborer. Helper in his book pleaded strongly for the 
 nonslaveholding whites in the south, who, he declared, 
 longed to see the day arrive when all slaves should be 
 removed from the United States and their places filled by 
 white men. His method of thus settling the slavery ques- 
 tion by deportation, and his sound argument in defence of 
 free labor in the south, were endorsed by matiy of the ablest 
 men of the day. The indignation of the southerners, how- 
 ever, found some justification in the violence of Helper's 
 language and the undisguised threat of using force to put 
 down the slaveholders. The book had an immense sale. 
 Whole sections of it were printed and circulated free by the 
 New England Abolition Society, and the Republican party 
 used it as a campaign document in 1860. 
 
 473. The Presidential Election of I860.— The Democratic 
 convention met at Charleston, South Carolina, on the 23d of 
 April, 1860, where it proceeded to the adoption of a platform 
 before placing in nomination its candidate for the presidency. 
 After a week's struggle over the question of slavery, in which 
 the delegates from the northern states refused to endorse the 
 extreme views advocated by the southern leaders, the con- 
 vention was rent in twain. A number of the southern states 
 dramatically withdrew their entire delegations from the con- 
 vention. The remaining delegates, unable to agree upon a 
 
378 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 candidate, adjourned to the city of Baltimore, where, on the 
 18th day of June, they selected Stephen A. Douglas of Illi- 
 nois as their standard-bearer. The southern wing of the 
 Democracy met in the same city a few days later and nomi- 
 nated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. The Know- 
 Nothing party having dissolved had no candidate, but 
 conservative men of all parties joined to organize the 
 Constitutional Union party, which also met in Baltimore, 
 and nominated John Bell of Tennessee. Following the dis- 
 ruption of the Democratic party at Charleston, the Repub- 
 lican party called its national convention to meet in the 
 city of Chicago, and after an exciting contest nominated 
 Abraham Lincoln of Illinois. The campaign was, perhaps, 
 the most memorable in the history of the republic. 
 Though it began with the usual hurrah and enthusiasm, the 
 canvass had not proceeded far when there suddenly fell upon 
 the people a profound seriousness. Arguments were made 
 in sober vein by party speakers, and listened to in sober 
 mood by thousands of voters who had heretofore been wont 
 to applaud the eloquence and rhetoric of campaign orators. 
 A deep conviction laid hold upon the people that the republic 
 had come upon dangerous times, and was fast approaching 
 the greatest crisis in its history. The southern leaders, 
 sullen and angry, denounced both Douglas and Lincoln, and 
 openly threatened that if Lincoln were elected the south 
 would apply the doctrine of Calhoun and signify its disap- 
 proval by seceding from the union. Douglas, in a personal 
 campaign, took the field, and ere the canvass had proceeded 
 far, came out boldly and patriotically for the maintenance 
 and preservation of the union. Lincoln, standing firmly on 
 the constitution, and advocating that slavery be confined to 
 the states which it then occupied, patiently and anxiously 
 awaited the result at Springfield, — his audience now multi- 
 plied into the tens of thousands, reading by their firesides 
 his speeches and debates. No matter how many questions 
 were talked up, there was but one question uppermost in 
 
FKOM JACKSOX TO LINCOLN 379 
 
 the public mind, — the extension of slavery in the terri- 
 tories. 
 
 Election day came and passed quietly by, in keeping with 
 the orderly manner in which the campaign had been con- 
 ducted. The returns showed that Lincoln and Hamlin had 
 received one hundred eighty electoral votes ; Douglas twelve, 
 Breckinridge seventy-two, and Bell thirty -nine. "On the 
 day of the election," writes the historian Rhodes, "the poet 
 Longfellow wrote in his journal, 'Voted early,' and the day 
 after, 'Lincoln is elected. Overwhelming majorities in New 
 York and Pennsylvania. This is a great victory ; one can 
 hardly overrate its importance. It is the redemption of the 
 country. Freedom is triumphant.' 
 
 "The meaning of the election was that the great and power- 
 ful north declared slavery an evil and insisted that it should 
 not be extended ; that while the institution would be sacredly 
 respected where it existed, the conduct of the national gov- 
 ernment must revert to the policy of the fathers, and confine 
 slavery within bounds ; hoping that if it were restricted the 
 time might come when the southern people would them- 
 selves acknowledge that they were out of tune with an 
 enlightened world and take steps gradually to abolish the 
 system. 
 
 "The north had spoken. In every man's mind rose 
 unbidden the question, What would be the answer of the' 
 south?" 
 
 474. Secession. — The north had not long to wait; the 
 answer of the south was secession. The presidential election 
 was held on the 8th of November, 1860; on the 17th of the 
 following December, the legislature of South Carolina met at 
 Charleston, and at the end of a three days' session passed an 
 act of secession dissolving the union hitherto existing 
 between South Carolina and the United States of America. 
 The seed sown by Calhoun had at last borne fruit in an open 
 act of disunion. This sentiment now rapidly spread 
 throughout the southern states. Within six weeks Georgia 
 
380 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 and every state bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, — Florida, 
 Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana, and Tezas, — had followed 
 South Carolina's example. Nearly all the senators and rep- 
 resentatives from those states at once resigned their seats in 
 congress, hastened to the south, and lent their influence to 
 spreading the doctrine of disunion. 
 
 On the 4th of February delegates from all the seceded 
 states, excepting Texas, met at Montgomery, Alabama, set 
 up a government in opposition to the authority of the United 
 States, and four days later elected Jefferson Davis of Missis- 
 sippi president and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia vice- 
 president of the Confederate States of America. 
 
 476. Buchanan's Policy. — AVhile these events were taking 
 place in the south, thoughtful men in every section of the 
 country viewed with alarm the rapid spread of the disunion 
 sentiment. The policy of the president and his chief advis- 
 ers was to conciliate the south and *'beg them to return to 
 the union." In a message to congress, Buchanan informed 
 that body that "the long-continued interference of the 
 northern people with the question of slavery in the southern 
 states has at last produced its natural effect." He begged 
 the northern states to repeal their personal liberty laws. 
 He insisted that the southern states had a "right to demand 
 this simple act of justice from the states of the north." 
 Buchanan, however, was not a disunionist, — he denied the 
 right of any state to secede from the union, but he never- 
 theless arrived at the conclusion that "no power has been 
 delegated to congress, or to any other department of the 
 federal government to coerce a state into submission which 
 is attempting to withdraw, or has actually withdrawn from 
 the union." This policy paralyzed the national government 
 and spread consternation throughout the loyal states. The 
 cry went up from union people all over the land as they 
 recalled how nullification had been suppressed by Andrew 
 Jackson in 1832, "0 for an hour of Old Hickory!" Buchan- 
 an's cabinet soon went to pieces, the disunionist members 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LIXCOLX 381 
 
 resigning their positions and flying to the south. A union 
 cabinet at once took its place. 
 
 In this cabinet was Edwin M. Stanton, a pronounced 
 union man, and John A. Dix, who on assuming his duties as 
 secretary of the treasury roused the patriotism of the whole 
 north by his thrilling dispatch to his revenue officer in New 
 Orleans, "If any one attempts to haul down the American 
 flag, shoot him on the spot." These vigorous northern 
 Democrats saved Buchanan's administration in its final days 
 from complete collapse, and restored confidence in the 
 stability of the national government. 
 
 476. Last Efforts at Compromise — The Peace Conven- 
 tion.— In the meantime. Senator John J. Crittenden of Ken- 
 tucky proposed the "Crittenden Compromise," which asked 
 that an amendment be added to the constitution separating 
 the territory of the United States into a slave-state and a 
 free-state portion, the boundary between them to be the old 
 line of 36° 30'. The compromise provided, among other 
 things, that the United States should pay the owner for all 
 fugitive slaves rescued. The compromise was not looked 
 upon with favor in congress. On the suggestion of the Vir- 
 ginia legislature, a peace conference was called to consider 
 the state of public affairs. Accordingly, delegates from 
 twenty-one states met at Washington on February 4, 1861, 
 and proposed an amendment to the constitution prohibiting 
 slavery north of the parallel of 36° 30', and permitting it 
 south of that line. By its provisions no state could pass a 
 law giving freedom to a fugitive slave or to slaves accom- 
 panying a master temporarily into a free state. Congress 
 could in no way interfere with slavery south of the dividing 
 line. The slave trade was to be prohibited forever in the 
 United States. Like tlie Crittenden Compromise, the 
 recommendation of the peace conference fell by the way- 
 side, — a general feeling had obtained in congress and 
 throughout the north that there should be no further com- 
 promise with slavery. 
 
382 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 477. Government Property Seized: Star of the West Fired 
 Upon. — Meanwhile, officers were resigning from the army and 
 the civil service, and joining their fortunes with the seceded 
 states. Arsenals, custom houses, and postoffices were taken 
 possession of, and government property was seized on all 
 sides. Of the southern fortresses. Fortress Monroe, at the 
 entrance of Chesapeake Bay, Fort Sumter in Charleston 
 Harbor, Fort Pickens at Pensacola, and the defences near 
 Key West, alone remained in possession of the government. 
 Fort Sumter had, after the hostile act of South Carolina, 
 been taken possession of by Major Kobert Anderson, who 
 was in command of a small force of United States troops at 
 that point. His action was approved by congress, although 
 he received but little encouragement from the president. 
 The steamer Star of the West was sent with supplies to Fort 
 Sumter, but on nearing the fort was fired upon by a con- 
 federate battery, whereupon it returned to the north and 
 left Major Anderson to provision his garrison as best he 
 could. Nothing was being done by either president or con- 
 gress; the ship of state seemed becalmed in the face of a 
 threatening storm. 
 
 478. New States : The Census : Relative Strength of North 
 and South. — The federal union, at this time, comprised 
 thirty-four states — Minnesota having been admitted in 1858 
 as the thirty-second state; Oregon in 1859 as the thirty- 
 third; and Kansas in 18G1 as the thirty-fourth. While all 
 three came into the union as free states, the constitution of 
 Oregon was peculiar in that it forbade colored persons 
 settling within the borders of that state. 
 
 The total population in 1860, according to the eighth 
 census, amounted to 31,443,332, — an increase of more than 
 eight million people in ten years. Of the white population, 
 18,791,159 persons were in the free states, as opposed to 
 8,182,684 in the slave states. There were 225,967 free col- 
 ored persons in the north, and 262,003 in the south. In 
 the north there remained but sixty-four slaves, while the 
 
FROM JACKSOX TO LIJ^COLX 383 
 
 south had a slave population of 3,953,696. Many people in 
 the north urged that the south would never take up arms 
 against the government for fear of provoking a slave insur- 
 rection in its very midst. The north, it will be seen, had 
 a population of more tlian double that of the south, and in 
 wealth and resources it far surpassed the southern section. 
 The spirit of nationality was strong. Free schools and col- 
 leges had been planted everywhere. The great west and 
 northwest states had increased more rapidly in population 
 than any other section. The third largest state of the union, 
 Ohio (white population 2,302,838), was in this section, as 
 were also Indiana (white population 1,339,000) and Illinois 
 (white population 1,704,323), each with a larger population 
 than either Virginia or Missouri, — the only two southern 
 states whose white population reached over a million. 
 
 Slavery had retarded the growth of the south in every 
 conceivable way excepting in the raising of cotton and the 
 cultivation of sugar-cane, and no doubt these industries would 
 have thrived as well, if not better, in the hands of free labor. 
 Indeed, as Helper had argued in his *' Impending Crisis," 
 free labor in the south had been robbed of its just rewards. 
 Free schools were lacking, railroads and means of intercom- 
 munication had not multiplied rapidly; hence travel between 
 the north and south was not fostered. On the other hand, 
 railroads were numerous in the north, and had bound the 
 east firmly to the west by commercial ties which could not 
 be severed. Side by side, two civilizations had grown up in 
 America, — the one, dedicated to progress, had kept step with 
 the spirit of the age, — for the best portion of the civilized 
 world had long since turned its back on slavery ; the other 
 had held tenaciously to a system in which it did not at first 
 believe and which even in colonial days had been abhorred. 
 Its whole social and political life had come under the iron 
 rule of a landed aristocracy with slavery as the chief excuse 
 for its existence. The people of the two sections had little 
 in common. Neither understood the other. Since the Com- 
 
384 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 promise of 1850 they had been drifting rapidly apart, and 
 refused to be reconciled on the question of slavery. To pro- 
 tect that institution, the threat of secession had been carried 
 out, and when, on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln entered 
 Washington, it was as the president of a severed republic. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 479. The Close of an Era. — The year 1860 marked the close 
 of an era in national development which had begun about 
 Jackson's time. The union had grown until it could com- 
 pete for its rights with the states. The various sections had 
 been held together by compromises which never did more 
 than settle the dispute for the time being. An appeal was 
 now to be made to the sword. The westward movement of 
 the people had brought about a practical application of the 
 question of slavery or freedom to soil hitherto unoccupied, — 
 a question not then decided. The increase of means of 
 communication made migration to the new lands so easy 
 that the troublesome question could no longer be com- 
 promised. 
 
 480. Territorial Growth. — In 1860 the expanding United 
 States had rounded out the home territory it was to occupy 
 permanently. Like a great band it stretched across the 
 middle of the continent from ocean to ocean. Its commerce 
 could find protection along five -sixths of the habitable coast 
 on the Atlantic; around three-fourths of the Gulf shore 
 proper on the south ; and over a thousand miles on the Pacific 
 coast. Not a serious boundary dispute remained to cause 
 anxiety about' rights to the soil in the future. With the 
 exception of a few places like the valley of the Red River of 
 the North, the United States occupied the land as far north 
 as was desirable owing to the cold, and as far south as the 
 heat would allow the development of a vigorous people. 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 481. Growth in Numbers. — So many things depend upon 
 the growth of population, that it must be considered con- 
 
 385 
 
386 HISTORY OP THE UXITED STATES 
 
 stantly. Not only military and naval strength, but the 
 clearing of the forests, the amount of produce raised, and 
 the extent of manufactures produced, are in direct ratio to 
 the number of workers and the number who are to be 
 fed and clothed. The unusual growth of population in 
 the^United States made possible her great development in 
 this middle period. Where three people dwelt in the United 
 States when the union really began, twelve were to be found 
 in 1830, and thirty-one in 1860. In other words, the popu- 
 lation had multiplied ten times in seventy years. During 
 the same time, the population of England had not doubled, 
 and that of France had increased only one-half. 
 
 The growth in numbers during this period was due even 
 more largely to immigration than that of the preceding 
 years. Between 1820 and 1830, nearly one hundred and 
 fifty thousand people came from the old world to live in the 
 new. During the next ten years, nearly six hundred thou- 
 sand came. Between 1840 and 1850, the number increased 
 to gigantic proportions. Nearly eight hundred thousand 
 came from Ireland alone, largely because of the failure of the 
 potato crop two years in succession. Almost five hundred 
 thousand came from Germany, owing to political troubles 
 in that country. The total for the ten years was almost 
 two million, or nearly one-tenth of the entire population 
 of the United States. During the next ten years ending 
 in 1860, the number reached two and a half million. Ire- 
 land again had contributed the largest number, followed 
 by Germany, then England, then Canada, and then France. 
 In the year 1860, out of every one hundred people living in 
 the United States, thirteen had been born in a foreign 
 country. 
 
 482. Distribution. — Although the number of people had 
 increased tenfold, different parts of the union had grown at 
 different rates. People had rushed into the new states. 
 At one time, Indiana increased five hundred per cent in ten 
 years. New Hampshire, on the other hand, which had been 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 387 
 
 growing at the rate of ten people to every hundred in 1830, 
 had fallen to two to one hundred in 1860. Georgia had 
 fallen in the same way from fifty-one to sixteen. 
 
 POPULATION BY STATES 
 
 
 1830 
 
 1840 
 
 1850 
 
 1860 
 
 
 309,527 
 30,388 
 
 590,756 
 97,574 
 
 771,623 
 
 209,897 
 
 92.597 
 
 370,792 
 
 91,532 
 
 51,687 
 
 87,445 
 
 906,185 
 
 851,470 
 
 988,416 
 
 192,214 
 
 982,405 
 
 517,762 
 
 583,169 
 
 583,034 
 
 994,514 
 
 397,654 
 
 6,077 
 
 606,526 
 
 682,044 
 
 317,976 
 
 489,555 
 
 3,097,394 
 869,039 
 
 1,980,329 
 13,294 
 
 2,311,786 
 147,545 
 668,507 
 
 1,002,717 
 212,592 
 314,120 
 
 1,421,661 
 305,391 
 
 964,201 
 
 435,450 
 
 379,994 
 
 460,147 
 
 112,216 
 
 75,080 
 
 140,424 
 
 1,057,286 
 
 1,711,951 
 
 1,350,428 
 
 674,913 
 
 1,155,684 
 
 708,002 
 
 628 279 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware . . 
 
 297,675 
 76,748 
 39,834 
 34,730 
 516,823 
 157,445 
 343,031 
 
 309,978 
 
 78,085 
 
 43,712 
 
 54,477 
 
 691,392 
 
 476.183 
 
 685,866 
 
 43,112 
 
 779,828 
 
 352,411 
 
 501,793 
 
 470,019 
 
 737,699 
 
 212,267 
 
 Dist. of Columbia.. 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 
 687.917 
 215,739 
 399,455 
 447,040 
 610,408 
 31,639 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 
 687,049 
 
 1,231,066 
 
 749,113 
 
 172 023 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 136,621 
 140,455 
 269,328 
 320,823 
 1,918,608 
 737,987 
 937,903 
 
 375,651 
 383,702 
 284,574 
 373,306 
 
 2,428,921 
 753,419 
 
 1,519,467 
 
 791,305 
 1,182,012 
 
 326.073 
 
 672,035 
 3,880,735 
 
 992,622 
 
 2,339,511 
 
 52 465 
 
 New Hampshire.... 
 New Jersey 
 
 North Carolina .... 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina .... 
 Tennessee . 
 
 1,348,233 
 
 97,199 
 581,185 
 681,904 
 
 1,724,033 
 108,830 
 594,398 
 829,210 
 
 3,906,215 
 174,620 
 703.708 
 
 1,109,801 
 604,215 
 315,098 
 
 1,596,318 
 775,881 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 280,652 
 1,211,405 
 
 391,948 
 
 1,239,797 
 
 30,945 
 
 Virginia . 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 
 
 The uneven growth of different parts of the country' in 
 population is shown by the rank of the states. Virginia, 
 which had the largest number in 1790, "now ranked fifth, 
 being surpassed by New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and 
 Illinois. These four were the most populous states, yet two 
 of them had not been founded in 1790. Indiana, the sixth 
 in size, was also a new state. Massachusetts, which ranked 
 as the fourth of the original states, had now fallen to the 
 seventh place. Most of the old states had been surpassed by 
 
388 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the newer ones created by the people in moving westward. 
 Of the thirty-three states making up the union in 1860, 
 Oregon, the newest, had the least population ; but Delaware, 
 an original state, ranked next to the least. 
 
 The northern states had gained, as a whole, more than had 
 the southern states. In 1830 there were seven million 
 people north of the slavery and freedom line to five million 
 south of it. In 1860 there were nineteen million north to 
 twelve million south of the line. 
 
 483. Cities. — The great modern problem, the enormous 
 growth of the cities, was easily predicted in 1860. In 1830 
 there had been only 26 cities having over eight thousand 
 inhabitants, and no one had more than a quarter of a mil- 
 lion. In 1860 there were 141 cities with more than eight 
 thousand people, and two had more than half a million. 
 Out of every hundred people in 1830, only six lived in cities, 
 but thirty years later sixteen out of every hundred preferred 
 the city to the country. Soon one-fifth of the entire popu- 
 lation would be in the cities, having abandoned the farms 
 and making the proper management of so many people liv- 
 ing together a difficult task. Gas was piped through the 
 streets of the principal cities about 1830, and was much 
 feared at first because of the danger of explosion. Street 
 cars, shaped like stage coaches and hitched several together, 
 were put on the streets of Ncav York about the same time. 
 They were drawn on rails by horses. By 1860 there were 
 over four hundred miles of street-car tracks in the leading 
 cities. 
 
 RELATIVE SIZE OF TEN LEADING CITIES 
 
 1840 1850 1860 
 
 1. New York 312,710 1. New York 515,547 1. New York . . .805,658 
 
 2. Baltimore 103,313 2. Baltimore 169.0.54 2. Philadelpliia.565,529 
 
 3. New Orleans.... 102, 193 3. Bo.ston 136,881 S.Brooklyn 266.661 
 
 4. Philadelphia . . . 93.6&5 4. Philadelphia . .121,376 4. Baltimore . . .212.418 
 
 5. Boston 93,383 5. New Orleans . . . 1 16.375 5. Boston 177,840 
 
 6. Cincinnati 46.338 6. Cincinnati 115.435 6. New Orleans. 168,675 
 
 7. Brooklyn 36.233 7. Brooklyn 96.838 7. Cincinnati . . 161,044 
 
 B.Albany 33,721 8. St. Louis 77.860 8. St. Louis 160.773 
 
 9. Charleston 29.261 9. Albany 50.763 9. Chicago 109.260 
 
 10. Washington. ... 23,3t>4 10. Pittsburg 46.601 10. Buffalo 81.ir>9 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 389 
 
 EDUCATION^ 
 
 484. Schools and Colleges. — The middle period is marked 
 by the adoption of the public school system, supported by 
 public taxation, in each of the new states as they formed 
 their governments. As the system improved, a "high 
 school" was planned to supplement the course of study 
 offered in the grades. The study of chemistry applied to 
 soils opened the possibility of scientific farming, and "farm- 
 ers' high schools" were planned in many states. They were 
 the forerunners of the present agricultural colleges. Many 
 sectarian colleges were opened in the newer states. 
 
 485. Newspapers and Mails. — The newspapers of 1860 did 
 not look unlike those of the present day. Those established 
 in large cities had begun to assume their present aspect of 
 great business enterprises. Where the newspapers of Wash- 
 ington or Jackson's time printed only the news occurring in 
 their immediate vicinity, it was now possible to describe 
 events occurrhig in all parts of the United States within 
 twenty-four hours after they happened. The invention and 
 spread of the electric telegraph made the difference. In 
 1799 it took the news of Washington's death two weeks to 
 reach the Boston newspapers; the inaugural address of 
 Jefferson required only nine days; the annual address of 
 Jackson in 1832 needed only three days; the last address of 
 Buchanan was printed in Boston the morning following its 
 delivery at noon in Washington. What the telegraph was 
 to the newspapers the railroads were to the mails. Mail 
 routes were established over railways as rapidly as they were 
 extended into different parts of the country. Mails and 
 newspapers meant the spread of intelligence and the 
 growth of national pride and feeling. 
 
 486. Literature. — As the wealth and leisure of the people 
 increased, a higher condition of life was developed. Print- 
 ing presses were multiplied and libraries largely increased. 
 Best of all, a home literature had been encouraged and 
 
390 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 several writers of merit had been found. As the sketches 
 of Irving gradually grew fewer in number, a new writer of 
 almost equal charm, Oliver Wendell Holmes, appeared to 
 take his place. The novelist, Cooper, was succeeded by 
 another American novelist, Nathaniel Hawthorne. A group 
 of poets had arisen in New England, — Henry Wadsworth 
 Longfellow, James Eussell Lowell, and John Greenleaf 
 Whittier. Another not less noted was William CuUen 
 Bryant of New York. Two great historians, Prescott and 
 Motley, were writing of foreign countries, and George Ban- 
 croft had issued the first volumes of his history of the 
 United States. 
 
 These writers were developed largely by the excellent 
 magazines which had replaced the trashy publications of the 
 earlier time. The North American Review, Harper's 
 Monthly, the Atlantic, and the American Journal of Sci- 
 ence were the leaders in this new era of periodical literature. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION 
 
 487. The Era of Canals. — Although the cost of con- 
 struction was far greater for a canal than a wagon-road, the 
 weight of goods which a horse could draw on the one was so 
 much larger than the other that canals were laid out to con- 
 nect all the important waterways. Between 1820 and 1850, 
 nearly three thousand miles of canals were built, chiefly 
 in the states of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Maryland, 
 Illinois, Lidiana, and Georgia. On these, vast quantities of 
 coal, grain, timber, flour, and iron were carried to market. 
 Passenger boats drawn by fast horses carried travelers from 
 city to city. "A cent and a half a mile, a mile and a half 
 an hour," was a famous saying which shows the rate of fare 
 and speed. 
 
 Before 1860, the canals had reached the height of their 
 usefulness and began to decline. Railroads were built in 
 all directions. Canals could be built only where they could 
 obtain water to fill them. Railroads could be built over 
 
I 
 
 GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 391 
 
 mountains, but canals could not. Eailroads could be used 
 the entire year. Canals were closed by ice during a fourth 
 of the year. No horses could draw a boat as rapidly as a 
 locomotive could take a railway train. Yet the canals had 
 filled a great purpose. They had first shown that the fertile 
 western prairies could feed the eastern states by carrying 
 produce to them. 
 
 488. The Increase of Railroads. — Slowly the railroads 
 were extended, the locomotives and cars improved, and 
 gradually they took the place of canals. They were built at 
 first to connect navigable streams and lakes, but soon lines 
 were constructed independent of the steamboats. The traveler 
 in 1860 could ride on thirty thousand miles of railroad in 
 the United States where he could have found only about 
 thirty miles in Jackson's administration. The number of 
 miles had increased a thousand times in thirty years. Sev- 
 eral short lines connecting New York with Albany and that 
 city with Buffalo were united forming the New York Central 
 and Hudson River railway. It linked together the vessels 
 of the ocean and those of the Great Lakes. The Erie rail- 
 way was built to connect the ocean with Lake Erie at Cleve- 
 land and to reach the Ohio canals. The Pennsylvania 
 railroad was constructed at great expense from Philadelphia 
 across the Alleghany Mountains at Pittsburg. Farther south 
 the Baltimore and Ohio railway connected the ocean with 
 the Ohio River. By 1860, extensions of these "trunk lines" 
 had been pushed farther west. 
 
 One could reach the Mississippi on several lines of rail- 
 road, and at St. Joseph, Missouri, could reach the Missouri 
 River. From this place, the mails were sent by '^overland 
 express" across the continent to California. The post-riders 
 constituting this overland express, on their little ponies flew 
 swiftly across the plains and over the mountains, having 
 once made the entire distance in ten days for a wager. Each 
 rider had his own portion of road to travel, receiving the mail 
 at one end and passing it to the next rider at the other. 
 
392 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 XATIOXAL UXIOX AND DISUXIOX 
 
 489. National Feeling. — Slowly the union grow in dignity 
 and importance. Statesmen began to prefer to serve in 
 national rather than state offices. Matters relating to home 
 affairs were left to the states, but those relating to all the 
 people or to foreign countries were quietly given over to the 
 union. Every new state created by the union out of terri- 
 tory governed by the union helped turn the affections of the 
 people away from the ohl states to the national government. 
 The union prospered and grew rich after Hamilton had 
 given it a good financial system. But the states did not '^jll 
 thrive, and some of tliem even had to refuse to pay their 
 debts. The peopU> had begun to divide into two classes. 
 Those who believed that the states ought to retain all the 
 powers not given to the national government were said to 
 believe in "state rights.'' Those who believed in allowing 
 a strong national government were called "unionists." If 
 these differences of opinion had been scattered among the 
 people of all parts of the union, nothing serious might have 
 resulted. Unfortunately they fell in exactly with disputes 
 between the north and south over the influence each had in 
 the national government. 
 
 490. Sectional Feeling. — Since the time when a territory 
 could become a state depended largely on the number of 
 people it contained, and since each state had two senators, 
 the influence which any section of the United States could 
 exert in the national government was dependent directly upon 
 its population. In the same way, the more people a state 
 has, the more members it can have in the house of represent- 
 atives. The increase of population was so much more rapid 
 in the northern than in the southern section, as has already 
 been described in this chapter, that it was impossible to 
 maintain permanently a "balance of power" in the political 
 strength of the two. The north could outvote the south at 
 every point. 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 39b 
 
 The south complained of the large sums of money spent 
 by the national government in improving the rivers and 
 harbors in the northern states, and in building highways and 
 canals through them. They thought this caused more 
 people to reach that part and to settle there. They also 
 complained because much of this money came from pro- 
 tective tariffs levied by congress and therefore paid by both 
 sections. The "internal improvement" system, they said, 
 brought laborers easily to the northern factories where the 
 tariffs sustained them. 
 
 On the other hand, the people of the north claimed that 
 immigrants from Europe preferred to settle in the north 
 because they did not wish to be obliged to compete with 
 slave labor. The north also said that the slavery system 
 created social classes which were objectionable to the immi- 
 grant laboring classes. Neither side looked sufficiently at 
 the geography of the country which was responsible m the 
 beginning for the rivers, the harbors, the connecting roads, 
 and the manufactories of the north. Neither did they con- 
 sider the differences of climate, soil, and productions which 
 made slavery profitable in one section and unprofitable m 
 another. 
 
 INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERY 
 
 491. During This Period, the inventive genius of America 
 was constantly at work. Farm machinery had greatly 
 improved. The steel plow of Jethro Wood, invented in 
 1814, had come into general use. The threshing machine 
 now 'took the place of the flail; the mowing machine, the 
 place of the scythe and the sickle; and the reaper, patented 
 by Cyrus H. McCormick in 1834, the place of the old-fash- 
 ioned cradle. Charles Goodyear's process of vulcanizing 
 rubber, discovered in 1839, had built up a large business in 
 the manufacture of rubber goods. Elias Howe's sewing 
 machine, on which he secured a patent in 1846, had lessened 
 the toil of thousands of sewing-women. Letter cDvelopes 
 
394 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 had come into general use. The steel and the gold pen had 
 supplanted the "goose quill." The discovery and use of 
 kerosene, or petroleum oil, had revolutionized the lighting of 
 dwellings. Friction, or lucifer, matches had displaced all old- 
 fashioned methods of "starting fires" or "striking a light." 
 Manufacturing machinery of all kinds had been made more 
 effective. Locomotives had been greatly improved and the 
 speed on railroads increased. Indeed greater comforts had 
 come into the homes, and abounded everywhere on account 
 of the activity of the inventive genius of America. Morse's 
 telegraph had already been followed by Cyrus W. Field's 
 Atlantic cable and messages had been transmitted from the 
 new to the old world in 1858. Although the absolute suc- 
 cess of the cable was not assured until eight years later; still 
 the successful transmission of the message, "Europe and 
 America are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the 
 highest; on earth peace and goodwill towards men," elo- 
 quently told the triumph of the patient inventor, Cyrus W. 
 Field. 
 
LINCOLN AND HIS SON "taD. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 REPUBLICAN: 1H61-1H65 
 
 492. Abraham Lineoln, the sixteenth president of the 
 United States, is the greatest American statesman of the 
 nineteenth century. He had come up from the humblest 
 walks of life, his father having been a poor farmer in the 
 pioneer settlements of Kentucky. When Lincoln was but 
 seven years old, the Lincoln family removed to the state 
 of Indiana, erected a log cabin, and began a failing struggle 
 with poverty, hardship, and toil, which was the constant 
 lot of Abraham Lincoln in his early life. At the age of 
 twenty-one, he removed with his father's family to a farm 
 in the prairie state of Illinois, where another log cabin 
 was erected and the struggle familiar to his Indiana life 
 was repeated. Up to the age of twenty- one, his entire 
 education amounted to but twelve months of schooling, and 
 yet duriug his youth and younger manhood he so applied 
 himself to the acquiring of an education that he became 
 one of the wisest statesmen of his time. His biographers 
 dwell in detail on the untold hours he spent in studying geom- 
 etry by the flickering light of a fireplace, and how through 
 his study of the Bible and Shakespeare he acquired such 
 skill in the use of the language as to cause many of his 
 speeches to take rank with the finest specimens of English 
 in our literature. Before coming to the presidency he had 
 been but little in public life. He had served as captain 
 in the Black Hawk war, had been a member of the Illinois 
 state legislature for several terms, and had served a single 
 term in congress during the Mexican war. As a lawyer, 
 he had risen to the head of his profession in his state. At 
 the time of the organization of the Republican party, he 
 
 395 
 
396 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 became one of its most prominent leaders. His debates 
 with Douglas while contesting for the senatorship of Illinois 
 revealed his keen insight into the science of government, 
 and brought him prominently before the country as one of 
 the rising men of the nation. As a leader, he was king 
 among men. On assuming the presidency, he called around 
 him an able cabinet, four members of which represented 
 the Democratic party and three the Republican, each man 
 devoted to the preservation of the union, but all repre- 
 senting different views as to how such preservation should 
 be accomplished. Each man had a national reputation, and 
 many predicted that Lincoln with his inexperience would be 
 unable to conduct harmoniously the affairs of government 
 with a cabinet representing such diverse views. But such 
 was his strength of character, his self-reliance and his self- 
 confidence, and such were his powers of persuasion that the 
 cabinet members yielded to his will on every question where 
 the great president found it necessary to dissent from 
 their views. His heart was as tender as a child's, and he 
 loved child nature with such tenderness and affection that 
 wherever he went he won the love of children. No more 
 beautiful picture can be found than that of the great presi- 
 dent reading from his mother's Bible to his son Thomas, 
 familiarly known as little 1'ad. His private grief at the 
 death of his little son AVilliam in the White House still 
 makes the reader pause in heartfelt sympathy, and forget for 
 the moment the clash of arms on the battlefields of the civil 
 war. No man more fully realized the peril of the republic 
 than did Lincoln. On bidding his friends and neighbors 
 farewell at Springfield upon setting out for Washington to 
 assume the reins of government, he said, "I now leave, not 
 knowing when or whether ever I may return, with a task 
 before me greater than that which rested upon Washington. 
 Without the assistance of that Divine Being who ever 
 attended him, I cannot succeed. With that assistance, I 
 cannot fail. Trusting in Him who can go with me. and 
 
f 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 397 
 
 remain with yon, and be everywhere for good, let us confi- 
 dently hope that all will yet be well." 
 
 493. Lincoln's Policy. — On the trip from Springfield to 
 Washington, the president made numerous speeches, many 
 of which revealed the great anxiety he felt for the preserva- 
 tion of the union. Time after time he took occasion to 
 say that the incoming administration had no intention of 
 interfering with the institution of slavery in the states where 
 it already existed, and he sought in every way to give notice 
 to the southern states that they would be protected in their 
 constitutional rights the same as any other section of the 
 union. He entered AYashington on the evening of March 3, 
 1861, and the next day, at half past one o'clock, delivered 
 an able inaugural address which clearly outlined his policy. 
 He held that the union of the states was perpetual; that 
 the United States was one nation and not a federation of 
 states; that no state could, upon its own motion, lawfully 
 withdraw from the union; that the acts of secession passed 
 by South Carolina and the other seceding states were legally 
 void ; and that any state opposing the authority of the United 
 States by acts of violence was in a state of insurrection. 
 He served notice that it was his purpose to execute the laws 
 of the United States in every state of the union, and that he 
 would defend the union at whatever cost. "In doing this," 
 he said, "there needs to be no bloodshed or violence; and 
 there shall be none, unless it be forced upon the national 
 authority." He declared it the intention of the govern- 
 ment "to hold, occupy, and possess the property and places 
 belonging to the government, and to collect the duties and 
 imposts through the custom houses." "On the question of 
 slavery," he said, "one section of our country believes slav- 
 ery is right and ought to be extended, while the other believes 
 it is wrong and ought not to be extended. This is the only 
 substantial dispute." "I have no purpose, directly or in- 
 directly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the 
 states where it exists J believe I have no lawful right to 
 
398 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 do SO. I have no inclination to do so." His closing words, 
 memorable and touching, were to the south: 
 
 "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-countrymen, and 
 not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The gov- 
 ernment will not assail you. You can have no conflict with- 
 out being yourselves the aggressors. You have no oath 
 registered in heaven to destroy the government, while I shall 
 have the most solemn one to 'preserve, protect, and defend 
 it.' 
 
 **I am loath to close. We are not enemies, but friends. 
 We must not be enemies. Though passion may have 
 strained, it must not break our bonds of affection. The 
 mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield 
 and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all 
 over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the union 
 when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better 
 angels of our nature." 
 
 THE YEAR 1861 
 
 494. The First Blow Struck: The Fall of Fort Sumter— 
 April 14, 1861. — The confederate authorities at Charleston 
 having summoned Fort Sumter to surrender, the governor 
 of South Carolina Avas officially notified that the federal au- 
 thorities would send reinforcements and provisions to relieve 
 the now besieged fortress, — "peaceably if it could, forcibly 
 if it must." Hereupon, on April 11, General P. G. T. Beau- 
 regard, in command of the confederate force at Charleston, 
 summoned Major Robert Anderson to surrender. 
 
 Anderson refused, and in the early dawn of the morning 
 of April 12, 18G1, the quiet of Charleston Bay was broken 
 by the shrieking of a mortar shell fired from a confederate 
 battery. In an instant fifty confederate guns, from every 
 available point of land around the bay, Avere playing upon 
 the fort with shot and shell, — the south had defied the 
 national authority, the great rebellion was begun! Though 
 the little garrison could offer but feeble resistance, still for 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 399 
 
 FT.WACNER 
 
 CHARLESTON BAY 
 
 thirty-six hours the flag of the union was kept floating above 
 the ramparts until the last cartridge had been loaded into 
 the guns and the last biscuit eaten. Reduced to these 
 straits, Major Anderson, on Sunday, April 14, 1861, sur- 
 rendered the now wrecked 
 and ruined fortress and 
 withdrew his garrison with 
 all the honors of war. 
 
 495. The Effect on the 
 North and South of Sumter's 
 Fall. — The news of this 
 event swept through the 
 loyal states like wildfire. 
 The whole north was in- 
 stantly aroused. All politi- 
 cal differences were swept 
 aside — men were Republicans and Democrats no more — all 
 were now unionists. Now that the nation's flag had been 
 fired upon and the national authority defied and insulted, 
 there was but one thought uppermost in the northern mind, 
 — '*the union must and shall be preserved," and rebellion 
 suppressed. 
 
 On the day following the surrender, Lincoln issued a call 
 for 75,000 volunteers, and the loyal states responded with 
 such enthusiasm and promptness that troops began arriving 
 in Washington on the very next day following the call. 
 Within a very short space of time, 50,000 soldiers were 
 encamped in and about the national capital. The whole 
 north sprang to arms. All talk of compromise now ceased. 
 Those who advocated peace at the sacrifice of the union 
 were reviled as " copperheads." 
 
 The south, on its part, looked upon the fall of Sumter 
 as a glorious victory, and Charleston and the confederacy went 
 wild with joy. The southerners believed that the north would 
 not fight — that the northern people were too much engrossed 
 with the spirit of commercialism to risk a contest gt arms with 
 
400 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 the south. Jefferson Davis issued a call for 38,000 southern 
 troops, which was responded to with alacrity. Virginia, 
 North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee, whose people had 
 at first refused to join the seceded states, now defied the 
 authority of President Lincoln, passed acts of secession, and 
 joined the confederacy. Thus was the number of revolted 
 states increased to eleven, holding within their borders a 
 population of nine millions of people, more than one-third of 
 whom were slaves. 
 
 496. Davis's Reprisals and Lincoln's Blockade. — On the 
 17th of April, Jefferson Davis issued a proclamation grant- 
 ing letters of marque and reprisal to all owners of private 
 armed vessels, who would prey upon the commerce of the 
 United States. Two days later. President Lincoln pro- 
 claimed a blockade of all the southern ports. All the 
 resources of the north were brought to bear to make this block- 
 ade effectual. AA^ithin a few months, it was impossible for 
 the southern states to carry on their commerce, or hold com- 
 munication with the outside world, except through the 
 agency of blockade runners. The southern people could grow 
 food in abundance, but they were not a manufacturing people, 
 hence the south must look to Europe for supplies of arms 
 and ammunition. And then, too, England and France had 
 been the chief markets for the raw cotton product of the 
 south. The blockade meant that the south would now be 
 deprived of this source of revenue. In 1860, the amount of 
 cotton exported by the southern states amounted, in round 
 numbers, to $200,000,000; in 1861, to $42,000,000; in 1862, 
 to $4,000,000, — these decreasing figures eloquently show 
 how complete and effectual was the blockade of the southern 
 ports. 
 
 497. The Border States. — On the secession of Virginia, 
 North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas, President Lincoln 
 instantly recognized that the very life of the nation 
 demanded that the remaining border slave states of Dela- 
 ware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri be saved to the 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 401 
 
 union cause. Delaware gave but little anxiety, but the 
 struggle in each of the other three states was bitter in the 
 extreme. When one of the Massachusetts regiments was 
 hastening to Washington it was attacked by a mob in the 
 streets of Baltimore, whereupon the soldiers were forced to 
 defend themselves at the point of the bayonet. This riot 
 was a most unfortunate circumstance, for it came at a time 
 when the people of Maryland were ready to yield their sup- 
 port to the national government, though the opposing parties 
 were quite evenly divided. As a consequence, it required 
 the greatest tact on the part of Lincoln in all his relations 
 with the Maryland authorities to prevent Maryland from 
 assuming a hostile attitude toward the government at Wash- 
 ington. Lincoln, however, by his patience and forbearance 
 and his conciliatory tone, finally allayed the excitement, the 
 union sentiment revived, and this important border state was 
 saved to the union. Lincoln, by his wisdom, was also en- 
 abled to strengthen the hands of the supporters of the union 
 in the border states of Kentucky and Missouri. When Vir- 
 ginia seceded, the inhabitants in the western portion of the 
 state remaining loyal, imitated in a good cause her bad ex- 
 ample and seceded from the Old Dominion. West Virginia 
 at once organized a state government, and two years later 
 (1863), was admitted to the union as a separate state. 
 
 498. George B. McClellan and the Campaign in West Vir- 
 ginia. — The national government, recognizing the necessity 
 of extending prompt aid to the loyal West Virginians, ap- 
 pointed George B. McClellan of Cincinnati to the command 
 of the troops in that vicinity. He crossed into the territory 
 of the Old Dominion in the latter part of May, surprised 
 and routed a confederate force at Philippi on the 3d of June, 
 which encouraged the West Virginians to call a convention 
 at Wheeling, and, one week later, to set up a government 
 of their own. The seceded government of Virginia now put 
 forth extraordinary efforts to crush this opposition to her 
 own authority. McClellan, however, at once began an ag- 
 
402 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 gressive campaign which ended in complete success in the 
 decisive engagements of Rich Mountain and Carricks Ford. 
 So firmly were these forty counties bound to the union as a 
 result of this timely campaign, that rebellion never again 
 entered within their borders. 
 
 499. Missouri Saved to the Union. — Although Missouri in 
 convention had declared against secession by a large majority, 
 yet there were many within her borders who thought Missouri 
 ought to espouse the cause of the south. Francis P. Blair, a 
 prominent citizen of St. Louis, led the union party. He, 
 with Captain Nathaniel Lyon, of the United States arsenal 
 at St. Louis, had raised 
 four regiments as a home 
 guard. Lyon was put in 
 command of these troops, 
 and determined to save 
 Missouri to the union. 
 He sailed up the Missouri 
 River with a union force, 
 captured Jefferson City, 
 the capital, and put tlie 
 governor and state offi- 
 cers to flight. In July 
 
 a loyal government was set up with a strong union 
 governor at its head. Lyon's force, however, had become 
 greatly reduced in numbers. On August 10, against great 
 odds, he gave battle to a formidable confederate force in the 
 now celebrated battle of Wilson's Creek. After a gallant 
 struggle, in which Lyon lost his life, the union force was 
 obliged to withdraw northward. The state, however, had 
 been saved for the union by Lyon's earlier victories. 
 
 500. Lincoln Calls for More Troops — May 3. — It had become 
 apparent to both sides that the struggle at arms would be 
 for a longer time than at first anticipated. Many of the 
 young men of the south had been educated in military acad- 
 emies. The military spirit in that section ran higher than in 
 
 MISSOURI MILITARY MOV'KMKNTI 
 
ABRAHAM LIKCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 403 
 
 the north. They were accustomed to the use of firearms and 
 to exploits in the open field. Some of the ablest generals in 
 the regular army were southerners, among whom were Eobert 
 E. Lee, Joseph E. Johnston, and Albert Sidney Johnston. 
 When their states seceded, they resigned their commissions 
 and cast their fortunes with the south. On the other hand, the 
 military spirit in the north was feeble, and if an army was 
 to be of service at all, it was felt by both General Scott, the 
 lieutenant-general of the army, and President Lincoln, that 
 much time and patience would be required to drill, disci- 
 pline, and properly equip the troops, before aggressive move- 
 ments could be begun. Lincoln, therefore, on the 3d of May 
 issued his second call for troops for three years, or during the 
 war. He asked for 42,000 volunteers, 23,000 men for the 
 regular army, and for 18,000 men for service on the sea. 
 
 501. Washington Threatened. — While these preparations 
 were being pushed forward, the confederate armies were 
 
 WASHINGTON AND VICINITY 
 
 approaching dangerously near to the national capital. 
 From the rear porch of the White House, President Lincoln 
 could see the confederate flag displayed above the public 
 buildings in Alexandria, a few miles down the river. It was 
 
404 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 well known that the intention of the confederate government 
 was to seize Arlington Heights, the estate of Robert E. Lee, 
 across the river from Washington. This was an important 
 point, and, if once secured, would enable the secessionists to 
 throw shell across the river into the city. Baltimore, too, 
 was still giving some trouble, and it was important that a 
 federal force of sufficient size to overawe the mob element 
 be thrown into that city. Lincoln, acting with dispatch, 
 directed General Benjamin F. Butler to seize and fortify 
 Federal Hill. This Butler did so suddenly and with such 
 daring that Baltimore was safe in the hands of the union 
 army ere the rebellious element in that city was aware. He 
 next directed Colonel E. E. Ellsworth, in command of the 
 famous New York Zouaves, to seize Alexandria. This was 
 successfully accomplished. 
 
 While Ellsworth was taking Alexandria, the union force 
 moved across the Potomac and took possession of the entire 
 range of hills reaching from Arlington Heights to Alexan- 
 dria. Thus, with Baltimore in the hands of Butler, and the 
 Heights across the Potomac in the possession of the union 
 forces, a feeling of relief came over the national government. 
 
 602. Battle of Bull Run— July 21.— Immediately following 
 the secession of Virginia, the confederate seat of government 
 was removed from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, 
 Virginia. The north began to grow impatient for some 
 movement worthy of the federal forces and "On to Rich- 
 mond!" had become the constant cry of both the army and 
 the people. Following the union victories in West A^irginia, 
 the confederate forces under General Beauregard had been 
 concentrated at Manassas Junction, a point on one of the 
 Virginia railroads twenty-seven miles west of Alexandria. 
 General Joseph E. Johnston, with another large confederate 
 force, was within supporting distance of Beauregard. 
 
 In response to the demand for a forward movement, Gen- 
 eral Irwin McDowell broke camp at Alexandria, Virginia, on 
 the 16th of July, 1861, with the intention of crushing 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLiq^ AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 405 
 
 Beauregard's army at Manassas. On the morning of the 
 21st of July the army, came upon the confederate force 
 strongly entrenched between Bull Run and Manassas. The 
 two armies were about equal in strength. McDowell began 
 the attack with such spirit that the confederate forces were 
 being driven steadily from the field. After four hours of 
 fighting, when the federal troops considered the battle as 
 practically won, the unexpected arrival of General Johnston, 
 
 with an army of fresh 
 troops, suddenly changed 
 their promised victory in- 
 to disastrous defeat. 
 
 503. The Effect of the 
 Battle of Bull Run.— As 
 the panic-stricken troops, 
 on the day following the 
 battle, came straggling 
 into Washington in the 
 face of a drizzling rain, 
 they were received amidst 
 a gloom which was felt, not only in Washington, but 
 throughout the length and breadth of the loyal states as 
 well. The south was elated, and felt that foreign recog- 
 nition would now surely come. The disappointment of 
 the national government, though great, was not sufficient 
 to make it lose sight of the fact that the defeat at Bull 
 Run carried with it a lesson which the north must 
 immediately learn, — namely, that the rebellion could not be 
 suppressed in a day, nor could it ever be suppressed until the 
 raw troops of the north had been drilled into well-disciplined 
 and well-trained soldiers. Congress, the very day after the 
 battle, voted to raise an army of 500,000 men, and made an 
 appropriation of $500,000,000 for prosecuting the war to a 
 successful issue. This meant war on a larger scale than the 
 continent had ever before known, and gave notice to the 
 south that the north was desperately in earnest. W^ithin 
 
 
 
 Washin^^^ 
 
 
 
 Alexandria » 
 
 ^Centervllle 
 
 \ 
 
 
 \ V I < R G 
 
 ■N 
 
 N I A J|l 
 
 \bu11Ruii 
 
 
 
 Mauassas \— ^,^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 BUI^L, RUN AND MANASSAS 
 
406 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 a surprisingly short space of time, 150,000 troops were occu- 
 pying the tented camps on Arlington Heights and other 
 prominent points about the city of Washington. 
 
 504. McClellan Succeeds Scott. — In October, General Win- 
 field Scott, now grown feeble with age, resigned, and Pres- 
 ident Lincoln appointed General George B. McClellan to 
 the command of all the armies of the United States. Mc- 
 Clellan stood in high favor with the soldiers and with the 
 people. He was a graduate of West Point, and had been 
 recognized by the war department for many years as an or- 
 ganizer of unusual ability. On the earnest solicitation of 
 President Lincoln, he had accepted the command of the 
 forces which quelled the rebellion in the counties of western 
 Virginia. Fresh from these victories, he novv came to the 
 head of an army of 200,000 men. He threw himself with 
 eaergy into the business of organizing and building up an 
 army, and in a short time made the splendidly drilled and 
 disciplined troops, comprising the army of the Potomac, 
 the pride of the union. 
 
 505. Naval Operations. — In carrying out the plan of mak- 
 ing the blockade of the southern ports as effectual as possible, 
 several important naval expeditions were undertaken. In 
 October an expedition under command of Commodore 
 Dupont and General Thomas W. Sherman entered the har- 
 bor of Port Royal, South Carolina, and reduced the two con- 
 federate forts at that point. 
 
 Other important points along the coast were taken, among 
 them Hatteras Inlet, on the coast of North Carolina. Before 
 the close of the year, the blockade of the southern ports 
 from Virginia to Texas had been undertaken by the northern 
 navy, and made as effective as possible considering the small 
 navy which the government had at its command at the break- 
 ing out of the war. When the first shot was fired on Sumter, 
 there were but forty-two vessels in commission constituting 
 the United States navy. By the close of the year 1861, 
 264 armed vessels had been put into service, and by the close 
 
ABRAHAM LIl^COLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 407 
 
 of the war tlie total was little short of 700, carrying nearly 
 5,000 guns and more than 50,000 sailors. The vigilant 
 northern sailors captured during the war 1,500 prizes with an 
 aggregate value of $30,000,000. It is estimated that at the 
 close of the war the south had $300,000,000 worth of cotton 
 stored in warehouses waiting for shipment. 
 
 506. Foreign Relations. — England and France depended 
 upon the south for the raw cotton to supply their numerous 
 factories. The southerners reasoned that these countries 
 would come to their assistance as a matter of self -protection, 
 and that foreign intervention would prove a strong factor in 
 forcing the north to concede the independence of the 
 southern confederacy. England had, however, long since 
 placed herself squarely against the further spread of slavery, 
 and her people, of all nations, would have been the last in 
 the world to encourage the upbuilding of a government 
 whose *' cornerstone" was slavery. 
 
 Nevertheless, much sympathy for the south was manifested 
 among certain classes in England. The English government 
 itself was not • altogether friendly to the United States, 
 though the moral sentiment of the vast majority of the Eng- 
 lish people was against interference. While the English, the 
 French, the Austrian, and other European governments 
 recognized the south as a belligerent power, they could not 
 be induced to recognize the independence of the confederacy. 
 
 The English authorities, however, permitted confederate 
 privateers, — among them the famous cruiser, Alabama — to 
 be built and fitted out in English dock-yards to prey upon 
 the commerce of the United States. 
 
 507. The Trent Affair. — James M. Mason of Virginia had 
 been appointed commissioner from the southern confederacy 
 to the court of England, and John Slidell of Louisiana to 
 the court of France. On November 8, Captain Charles 
 Wilkes of the San Jacinto intercepted the Trent, the British 
 mail steamer on which they were going to England, and 
 forcibly took from her as prisoners Mason and Slidell and 
 
408 
 
 HISTOKT OF THE UKITED STATES 
 
 their secretaries. England at once demanded the release of 
 the envoys, and an apology for such a breach of interna- 
 tional law. The international rights for which England 
 contended were such as the United States herself had previ- 
 ously insisted upon, therefore the president promptly 
 disavowed the act, and the prisoners were given over to 
 the British minister. 
 
 608. Situation at the Close of the Year. — At the close of 
 the year 1861, both the confederate and union armies were 
 well organized. The north had 640,000 men in the field, while 
 the confederates had 210,000, and had issued a call for 
 400,000 volunteers. Through Lincoln's policy, the slave 
 states of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri had 
 been held in the union, and West Virginia had been severed 
 from the Old Dominion. The United States government 
 had established a blockade of the southern ports. 
 
 Although defeated in West Virginia, the arms of the 
 south had been successful in the first great battle of the 
 war— Bull Run. The confederate government securely held 
 eastern Virginia, with its capital at Richmond, and had 
 erected formidable defences on the Mississippi River from 
 Columbus, Kentucky, to Forts Jackson and Warren, below 
 New Orleans. It had also established a line of defence 
 from Columbus, Kentucky, eastward to the Cumberland 
 Mountains. Along this line had been erected strong fortifi- 
 cations at Columbus, Fort Henry, Donelson, Bowling Green, 
 Mill Springs, and Cumberland Gap. 
 
 IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1861 
 
 Name of 
 Battle 
 
 Bull Run 
 
 Wilson'sCreek 
 
 Ball's Bluff . 
 Belmont . . . 
 
 Place Where 
 Fought 
 
 BuU Run, Va. 
 
 Wilson's Creek, 
 
 Mo. 
 Ball's Bluff, Va. 
 Belmont, Mo. 
 
 Date 
 
 July 21 
 
 Aiig. 10, 
 
 Oct. 21 , 
 Nov. 7 . 
 
 Commanding 
 
 General of 
 Union Army- 
 
 Brig. -Gen. I. Mc- 
 Dowell 
 
 Brig. -Gen. N. 
 Lyon 
 
 Gen. C. P. Stone 
 
 Brig. -Gen. U. S. 
 Grant 
 
 Commanding 
 General of Con- 
 federate Army 
 
 Gen. J. E. John- 
 ston 
 
 Brig. -Gen. B.Mc- 
 Culloch 
 
 Gen. N. G.Evans 
 
 Maj.-Gen. L. L. 
 Polk 
 
WILLIAM T. SHERMAN 
 ULYSSES S. GRANT 
 
 DAVID G. KAKRAtiCrX 
 PHILIF H. SHICKinAN 
 
 U>rioN Commanders 
 
I 
 
 ABRAHAM LINCOLK AND THE CIVIL WAR 409 
 
 THE YEAR 1862 
 
 509. Plan of Operations for 1862. — At the beginning of 
 the year 1862, the government at Washington planned for 
 a vigorous prosecution of the war. It was resolved (1) to 
 make the blockade of the southern ports more effective; (2) 
 to capture the confederate fortresses along the Mississippi 
 River, open that river to navigation, and cut the confederacy 
 in twain; (3) to break the confederate line of defences from 
 Cumberland Gap to the Mississippi, and to push a union 
 army southward through Kentucky and Tennessee to some 
 point on the coast ; (4) to capture Richmond and overthrow 
 the confederate government. 
 
 IJs^ THE WEST 
 MISSOURI HELD AXD ARKANSAS RECLAIMED 
 
 510. Battle of Pea Ridge— March 7-8.— Early in 18G2, 
 General Earl Van Dorn was sent to take command of a 
 confederate force, operating in the corners of the three 
 states, Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas. General Samuel 
 Curtis, with a union force, crossed into Arkansas, and forti- 
 fied a strong position on Pea Ridge in the Ozark Moun- 
 tains, where he was attacked by General Van Dorn, 
 whose forces were beaten and put to rout. The south never 
 again attempted organized warfare in Missouri, and later 
 in the year the insurgents were again defeated near Pea 
 Ridge, and Missouri was from that time on fairly established 
 in loyalty to the union. The following year, Arkansas was 
 reclaimed, and President Lincoln asked that its represent- 
 atives and senators be readmitted to congress. 
 
 DOWN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY WITH GRANT 
 
 511. The Union Victories at Fort Henry — Feb. 6, and 
 Fort Donelson — Feb. 16. — The task of beginning opera- 
 tions in the west fell upon General Ulysses S. Grant, in 
 command of a division of the western army in the district 
 of Cairo. He was to cooperate with a gun-boat fleet under 
 Commodore Andrew H. Foote, which was to ascend the 
 
410 
 
 HISTORY OF THE Ui^ITED STATES 
 
 Tennessee Eiver and bombard Fort Henry. This the fleet 
 promptly did, forcing the fort's surrender within two 
 hours. Commodore Foote was directed to return to the 
 Ohio Eiver, make for Fort Donelson at once, and prepare 
 for a combined attack. On the 12th of February, Grant's 
 forces completely surrounded Donelson, which was held by 
 
 ,-, ,.-^ 20,000 men under 
 
 command of Generals 
 Gideon J. Pillow, 
 John B. Floyd, and 
 Simon B. Buckner. 
 The confederate gen- 
 erals, in a council of 
 war, decided to cut 
 their way through 
 Grant's lines. Just 
 before dawn on the 
 morning of the 15th, 
 10,000 of the besieged 
 force came pouring 
 through the woods 
 and fell upon the 
 union right, but they 
 met a severe repulse. 
 Hereupon General 
 Buckner, at daybreak 
 of the 16th, sent to 
 Grant asking terms 
 of capitulation. 
 Grant's reply, "No terms except unconditional and imme- 
 diate surrender can be accepted. — I propose to move imme- 
 diately upon your works," was cheered to the echo in the 
 north, and *' Unconditional Surrender" Grant became the 
 hero of the western army. Fort Donelson surrendered, and 
 General Buckner and 15,000 troops became prisoners of 
 war. 
 
 oi^^ 
 
 DOWN THE MISSISSIPPI 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 411 
 
 512. Effect of These Victories.— The capture of Forts Henry 
 and Donelson had broken the confederate line of defences, 
 and they were compelled to fall back from Columbus on the 
 Mississippi, and Bowling Green in central Kentucky. Thus 
 the state of Kentucky was freed from confederate forces, 
 and the Mississippi was open as far south as Island Number 
 Ten. General Buell now hastened, with a union force, to oc- 
 cupy Nashville, Tennessee, which was abandoned by the now 
 alarmed confederate general without even an attempt to hold 
 it. The confederates then fell back and concentrated their 
 forces at Corinth in the northeast corner of Mississippi. 
 
 513. Battle of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing— April 6-7.— 
 Corinth was situated at the crossing of two very important 
 southern railroads, — one connecting'Memphis with the east, 
 the other leading south to the cotton states. After the 
 capture of Fort Donelson, General Henry W. Halleck, at 
 the head of the army of the west, ordered the army of the 
 Tennessee, to ascend the Tennessee River, to encamp at 
 Pittsburg Landing, about twenty miles north of Corinth, and 
 to prepare for an attack upon that strategic point. General 
 Grant assumed command of these forces, and awaited the 
 arrival of General Baell with the army of the Ohio, before 
 attacking the confederate intrenchments. General Johnston 
 decided to attack the federal forces before Buell 's reinforce- 
 ments could arrive. Early on the morning of April 6, the 
 confederates rushed through the woods and drove the union 
 pickets within the lines. An old log meeting-house called 
 Shiloh, some two or three miles from Pittsburg Landing, was 
 the key to the union position. General William T. Sher- 
 man commanded here, and so inspired confidence in his raw 
 recruits that they rendered services worthy of veterans. 
 But the union army fell steadily back before the dash and 
 the impetuous charge of the southern troops, who by noon 
 were in possession of the union camps. The loss of General 
 Johnston, who had fallen on the field of battle early in the 
 afternoon, somewhat checked the confederate advance, and 
 
412 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 before the day closed the attack had spent its force. Night 
 came, and with it Bu ell's reinforcements. 
 
 On the 7th, Grant's forces became the attacking party, and 
 all day long the confederates were driven steadily from the 
 field, until they beat a hasty retreat, — falling back unpur- 
 sued to their former position at Corinth. 
 
 614. Capture of New Madrid — March 14, and Island Num- 
 ber Ten— April 8: Opening of the Upper Mississippi. — In 
 the meantime, General John Pope had attacked New 
 Madrid on the Mississippi River. The confederate gun- 
 boats were soon disabled, and the garrison fled to Island 
 Number Ten, a few miles south, leaving ammunition, guns, 
 and tents behind. Island Number Ten was forced to sur- 
 render on April 8. The Mississippi was thus opened as far 
 south as Fort Pillow, near Memphis. 
 
 515. Capture of Corinth — May 30. — After the battle at 
 Pittsburg Landing, General Henry W. Halleck, arrived 
 from St. Louis and took command in the field. Grant advised 
 an immediate attack upon Corinth before the shattered 
 southern forces would have time to recover, but it was the 
 30th of April before General Halleck commenced his slow 
 advance. On the 30th of May he entered the besieged city — 
 Beauregard having evacuated on the night of May 29. 
 
 General Halleck was soon called to Washington to assume 
 the duties of general-in-chief of all the armies of the 
 republic, and Grant became department commander, with 
 headquarters at Corinth. 
 
 516. Effects of Shiloh and Island Number Ten.— After 
 the capture of Corinth, Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi, 
 was abandoned by the confederates, and the union 
 gunboats proceeded to Memphis. After a fierce contest, 
 the national forces took possession of that city (June 6), 
 thus opening the Mississippi as far south as this point and 
 gaining control of the railroad connecting Memphis with 
 Charleston, South Carolina. The only railroad connection 
 which the confederate states at the west now had with Eich- 
 
AJUiAHAM LINCOLN AND TRY. CIVIL WAR 413 
 
 moiid was by the single line of railroad running east from 
 Vicksbnrg. 
 
 Thus by the middle of the year 18G2 the state of Ken- 
 tucky and all of western Tennessee had been practically 
 cleared of the confederate army. 
 
 A T THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER WITH FARRAQ UT 
 
 517. The Opening of the Lower Mississippi: Capture of 
 New Orleans — April 18 to May 1. — On the west bank of the 
 Mississippi River, comparatively free from attacks by the 
 federal forces, were three great states, — Louisiana, Texas, and 
 Arkansas, — with their important tributaries to the Missis- 
 sippi. These states could not only give their quota of sol- 
 diers to the confederacy, but could furnish provisions of all 
 kinds, and an abundance of cotton sufficient to meet the 
 entire war expenses of the south. New Orleans, the largest 
 southern city, had important workshops and facilities for 
 manufacturing weapons of war and for building ironclad 
 ships. Realizing the importance of securing New Orleans, 
 the national government, early in 1862, commissioned Com- 
 modore David G. Farragut to reduce the forts at the mouth 
 of the Mississippi and take New Orleans. For five days and 
 nights an unremitting fire was kept up, which inflicted great 
 damage. This method of war, however, was too slow for 
 Farragut, who now decided to run the batteries, and before 
 dawn on the morning of the 24th accomplished such a 
 brilliant feat in naval warfare as to rank him among the 
 great leaders of the civil war, and give him his ''passport to 
 fame immortal." The forts were soon silenced, and the 
 entire confederate fleet of fifteen vessels, — two of them 
 ironclad, one the iron ram Manasses, — was either captured 
 or destroyed, with the loss of but one ship from Farragut's 
 squadron of wooden vessels. Farragut arrived before New 
 Orleans on the 25th of April and demanded the surrender of 
 the city. On the 29th of April, the flag of the union was 
 raised above the city hall, and on May 1 General Butler, 
 
414 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 who had accompanied Farragut with a military force, took 
 formal possession of the city. 
 
 This capture of New Orleans was a severe blow to the 
 south. It crushed the rebellion in Louisiana, separated 
 Texas and Arkansas from the confederacy, took from it one 
 of the greatest grain and cattle countries within its limits, 
 and gave to the union government the lower Mississippi 
 River as a base of operations. 
 
 IN THE CENTER 
 IN KENTUCKY AND TENNESSEE WITH BUELL AND ROSECRANS 
 
 518. Bragg Invades Kentucky. — Beauregard having 
 resigned on account of ill-health. General Braxton Bragg suc- 
 ceeded to his command, and at once planned an invasion of 
 Kentucky. General Buell at the time was advancing in the 
 direction of Chattanooga, but marched so slowly that Bragg 
 reached there first and hastened northward into Tennessee. 
 Now began the race for Louisville, — Buell entering just a 
 few days in advance of Bragg. The union commander soon 
 turned south, and the hostile armies met at Perryville 
 (October 8). After a stubborn conflict, Bragg retired under 
 cover of the night and retreated from Kentucky. 
 
 519. Battle of Murfreesboro — Dec. 31 to Jan. 2. — General 
 Bragg, after his retreat from Perryville, again moved 
 northward and concentrated his forces at Murfreesboro. 
 General William S. Rosecrans, who had succeeded Buell 
 in command of the union forces, advanced to attack 
 Bragg. In the early dawn of December 31, the armies met. 
 The confederates, at first successful, were held in check by 
 Sheridan's division until Rosecrans re-formed his lines on 
 a favorable rise of ground and stationed his artillery. On 
 January 2, Bragg renewed the attack, but Rosecrans had 
 been given time to make his position impregnable. Despair- 
 ing of victory, Bragg retreated, leaving middle Tennessee 
 free from confederate forces. 
 
ABKAHAM LIXCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 415 
 
 IN THE EAST 
 
 THE ALARM AT HAMPTON ROADS— THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC 
 
 520. The Confederate Ironclad Merrimac Threatens to 
 Raise the Blockade — March 8. — Shortly after the fall of 
 Sumter, the United States government had ordered the 
 destruction of the most important of all its navy yards, — 
 that at Norfolk, Virginia, — rather than see it fall into the 
 hands of the confederacy. At that time a large number of 
 vessels were scuttled, — among them the fine old frigate 
 Merrimac. When Norfolk fell into the hands of the seces- 
 sionists, the Merrimac was raised, converted into an ironclad 
 ram, and directed to raise the blockade in Hampton Roads 
 
 at the mouth of the James 
 
 HAMPTON ROADS 
 
 River. On the 8th of March, 
 the Merrimac encountered 
 the Cumberland, which 
 poured broadside after broad- 
 side into her strange looking 
 antagonist, but all to no pur- 
 pose, — her shot glanced from 
 the Merrimac 's sloping roof 
 without inflicting the slight- 
 est damage. She then ram- 
 med the Cumberland with 
 her iron beak, driving such a hole in her side that she soon 
 sank, carrying down nearly all on board, — her flag still flying 
 at the mast, and her guns bidding defiance at the water's 
 edge. The Merrimac next destroyed the Congress, and sought 
 to engage the Minnesota, but that vessel having run aground 
 in shallow water, the Merrimac steamed back to Norfolk, 
 intending to return to complete her work on the morrow. 
 521. The Battle between the Ironclads — March 9. — On the 
 9th of March, the joyful news came over the wires that the 
 Merrimac had been vanquished by the little Monitor and 
 driven under cover at Norfolk. Immediately there went up 
 
416 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the question, whence came tlie Monitor? — a name heretofore 
 unknown to the American navy. This vessel, too, was an 
 ironclad, the invention of John Ericsson, and had arrived 
 from New York at Hampton Koads at midnight on the 8th 
 of March, and ancliored beside the Minnesota. The Merri- 
 mac, returning, was about to open fire on the Minnesota, 
 when there suddenly shot out from under her prow Ericsson's 
 Monitor, — and the battle between the two ironclads began. 
 For three hours the struggle continued, when the Merrimac 
 gave up the contest and withdrew to Norfolk, leaving the 
 *' Yankee cheesebox," as the Monitor was called on account 
 of her appearance, in undisputed possession of Hampton 
 Roads. The Monitor had saved the union cause. Upon no 
 single event of the war did greater issues hang. 
 
 ON TO RWHMOND 
 
 522. McClellan's Peninsular Campaign. — McClellan had 
 taken command of the army of the Potomac immediately 
 after the Bull Run disaster. His task was to crush the con- 
 federate army of Virginia and overthrow the confederate gov- 
 ernment at Richmond. This he was urged to accomplish at the 
 earliest possible date. But, for some unaccountable reason, he 
 remained inactive, occupying himself with brilliant reviews 
 and giving no promise of a forward movement. Autumn 
 passed and winter came, and still ''all was quiet on the 
 Potomac." The whole north now became impatient. "On to 
 Richmond!" became the incessant cry of the public press, 
 of the people, of congress, and, indeed, of the splendid army 
 itself. Patience at last reached its limit, and President 
 Lincoln, early in January, 1862, issued a peremptory order 
 for a forward movement. McClellan still delayed two months 
 longer, and the last of March had arrived ere he began 
 embarking his army on transports at Washington. He 
 then passed down the Potomac River, landed at Fortress Mon- 
 roe on April 2, 1862, and began the disastrous peninsular 
 campaign. 
 
 » 
 
f 
 
 ROUEKT E. TJEE JEFKKKSON OAVIS 
 
 .JOSEPH E. .JOHNSrON THOMAS J. JACKSON 
 
ABKAHAM LINCOLIS^ AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 417 
 
 The York and the James rivers run nearly parallel from a 
 point above Eichmond to the points where the two streams 
 empty their waters into the Chesapeake Bay, at a distance of 
 about twenty miles apart. The strip of land lying between 
 these two streams is called the peninsula. McClellan's 
 plan was to move up this peninsula, carry his supplies on 
 boats up the York River, and take Richmond. 
 
 523. Yorktown Taken— April 4 : Battle of Williamsburg— 
 May 6-6. — McClellan at once appeared before Yorktown 
 (April 4), and wasted a month in a useless siege. When he 
 finally decided to reduce its fortifications by a bombardment, 
 Y^'orktown was quietly evacuated. General Joseph E. Hooker 
 overtook the retreating confederates at Williamsburg on 
 May 5, and on the following day captured that point. 
 
 624. Battle of Fair Oaks or Seven Pines — May 31 and 
 June 1. — General Joseph E. Johnston, chief in command of 
 the confederate forces, perceiving McClellan's timidity, fell 
 upon the union advance encamped along the Williamsburg and 
 
 Richmond rail- 
 road, between 
 Fair Oaks Station 
 and Seven Pines, 
 only six miles 
 from Richmond. 
 In the two days' 
 bloody battle 
 which ensued, 
 the fighting was 
 most desperate. 
 In the engagement. General Johnston was wounded and car- 
 ried from the field, and the confederates finally gave up the 
 contest, retiring to Richmond. 
 
 While the union army won the battle, the confederate 
 army was not crushed, and it now came under the leadership 
 of General Robert E. Lee. 
 
 Penlnsnlar Campaigrn 
 
418 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 526. stonewall Jackson in the Shenandoah Valley: 
 Washington Threatened. — At this juncture, the unwelcome 
 news was received at the national capital that General 
 Thomas J. Jackson was moving down the Shenandoah val- 
 ley, sweeping everything before him and threatening Wash- 
 ington. At the battle of Bull Run, Jackson, on account of 
 his firm stand, had won the nickname "Stonewall." Lin- 
 coln, recognizing in him a general of great ability, had good 
 cause to be alarmed at the turn affairs had taken, and at 
 once ordered McDowell north to the defence of the national 
 capital. He then directed General Nathaniel P. Banks at 
 Harper's Ferry, and General John C. Fremont at Franklin, to 
 move to the Shenandoah valley and capture the raiding 
 general. But that dashing leader, having accomplished the 
 purpose for which he was sent north, — to threaten Washing- 
 ton and thereby force the return of McDowell's army to the 
 north, — saw it was high time that he rejoin his chief at 
 Richmond. He accordingly turned southward, and, by a 
 series of brilliantly and rapidly executed movements, out- 
 generalled Fremont, Banks, and several other union com- 
 manders, and carried his entire force down by rail to join Lee 
 in his contest with McClellan. 
 
 526. The ''Seven Days' Fight" before Richmond— June 
 26 to July 1. — McClellan, disappointed at not receiving rein- 
 forcements under McDowell, and fearful lest he could not 
 protect his supplies on the York River, resolved on changing 
 his base to the James River, — an undertaking which required 
 the greatest skill in its accomplishment. It was necessary 
 for his army to shield and defend a train of 5,000 wagons 
 loaded with provisions; 25,000 head of cattle; and large 
 quantities of reserve artillery and munitions of war. 
 
 Lee, unaware of McClellan's intention, fell upon the 
 union right at Mechanicsville (June 20), thereby precipitating 
 the series of battles known as the "Seven Days' Fight" 
 before Richmond. Jackson failed to arrive on the 26th, thus 
 causing Lee's failure at Mechanicsville. However, on the 
 
 n 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 419 
 
 following day, Jackson's troops, elated with their northern 
 victories, came rolling into the station at Richmond, and 
 Jackson hastened to join his chief on the battlefield of 
 Gaines's Mill (June 27), where Lee had attacked General 
 Fitzhugh Porter. Porter maintained an unequal contest w^ith 
 this combined confederate army through all that day, but 
 he was finally forced from the field. On the morning of 
 the 28th, he burned his bridges behind him, and hastened 
 forward to cover the retreat of McClellan's army. On the 
 29th, a battle was fought at Savage's Station, in which the 
 confederates were repulsed, and on the 30th another at 
 White Oak Swamp, where the union army repeatedly drove 
 back the confederate advance and remained in possession of 
 the field until nightfall, when it retired. On the same day 
 was fought the fierce battle of Fraizer's Farm. The follow- 
 ing day (July 1), McClellan made his final stand at Malvern 
 Hill. His position was here impregnable. Lee, however, 
 unwilling to give up the contest, gave battle at Malvern, but 
 his ill-advised attack resulted only in the useless destruction 
 of life. Lee, foiled and disappointed, finally gave up the 
 battle; and on the night of July 1, 1862, under cover 
 of a storm, McClellan retired to Harrison's Landing, on the 
 James River. 
 
 627. The Effect of McClellan's Failure to Capture Rich- 
 mond. — The retreat from the York to the James was said by 
 McClellan's friends to have been conducted most skillfully, 
 but this did not appease the north. The country had little 
 use for a general who was great only in flight. The campaign 
 which had begun with such high hopes to the country was 
 condemned as an inexcusable failure and the army of the 
 Potomac and its now much abused leader were soon recalled 
 to the north. The gloom which fell upon the north at this 
 time was as great as that which had followed the disaster 
 at Bull Run. The loyal governors recommenced recruiting, 
 and President Lincoln, on the very day McClellan had 
 accomplished his change of base (July 1), issued a call for 
 
420 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 300,000 volunteers. "We are coming, Father Abraham, 
 300,000 strong," was the refrain which went up from every 
 recruiting station throughout the length and breadth of the 
 loyal states. 
 
 POPE'S ARMY OF VIRGINIA MEETS WITH DISASTER 
 
 528. The Army of Virginia Created. — In the state of Vir- 
 ginia, were three separate and distinct military departments 
 over which McClellan, who commanded the army of the 
 Potomac, had no control — that of the Rappahannock under 
 General McDowell, that of the Shenandoah under General 
 Banks, and that of the western part of the state under Gen- 
 eral Fremont. Following the raid of Stonewall Jackson 
 in the Shenandoah valley, these three departments were 
 united and became the army of Virginia, with General John 
 Pope as its commanding officer. Following the unsuccessful 
 peninsular campaign, the country now looked to Pope to re- 
 trieve McClellan's failure. 
 
 629. Pope's Campaign and the "Second Bull Run." — Pope 
 posted his army at the eastern base of the Blue Ridge Moun- 
 tains in the upper valley of the Rappahannock, so that he 
 could protect the Shenandoah valley, hold the Rappahannock 
 River from its source to its mouth, and be within safe dis- 
 tance of Washington, should his presence be needed there. 
 Shortly after the "Seven Days' Fight," Lee had sent Stone- 
 wall Jackson north on another of his daring raids, and a 
 little later General James Longstreet was sent to join with 
 Jackson in defeating Pope before McClellan could come to 
 his assistance. On August 29 the second battle of Bui] Run 
 followed. On that day the issue was about equal on both 
 sides, but on the 30th, Longstreet having arrived, the battle 
 ended disastrously to the union arms. On September 2, 
 the army of Virginia was merged into the army of the 
 Potomac, with McClellan again the chief general in the 
 field under Halleck. Pope was transferred to a western 
 command. 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 421 
 
 LEE CROSSES THE POTOMAC— ALARM AT THE NORTH 
 
 630. Invasion of Maryland. — Bull Run was hardly won ere 
 Lee, with an army of 60,000 men, crossed the Potomac at 
 Leesburg and began the invasion of Maryland. McClellan at 
 once gave chase with the army of the Potomac, numbering 
 more than 80,000 men. Lee now passed westward through 
 the gaps of South Mountain, hoping to reach Pennsylvania 
 by the little mountain valley west of that range of the Blue 
 Ridge. McClellan by this time was close upon Lee's heels, 
 and on the loth, brought Lee to bay on Antietam Creek — a 
 little stream entering into the Potomac a short distance 
 above Harper's Ferry. 
 
 531. Battle of Antietam — September 17. — On the early dawn 
 of the morning of the 17th of September, General Hooker — 
 "fighting Joe Hooker," as his troops called him — opened the 
 engagement on the 
 union side. The bat- 
 tle which followed was 
 one of the most san- 
 guinary of the entire 
 war, McClellan losing 
 one-sixth of his army 
 and Lee one-fourth of 
 the men who had 
 crossed the Potomac 
 with him two weeks 
 before. Only night 
 put an end to the fear- 
 ful carnage, and both 
 armies ceased their 
 fighting, content to let 
 the other rest. While 
 the union army had 
 been badly shaken, 
 Lee's army had been 
 so shattered and crip- 
 
 * FIRST INVASION OF THE NORTH 
 
422 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 pled that it needed but a vigorous attack on the morrow — 
 such as Grant waged at Shiloh — to end the struggle. But 
 McClellan waited for reinforcements all through that day. 
 On the morning of the 19th of September, he prepared to 
 renew the battle, but he was too late — Lee under cover of 
 the night had escaped with his now sullen and discouraged 
 army across the Potomac into Virginia. McClellan made no 
 effort to pursue Lee. President Lincoln finally lost all 
 patience with McClellan, and removed him from the com- 
 mand of the army of the Potomac, placing in his stead the 
 amiable Ambrose E. Burnside. 
 
 BUENSIDE A I FREDEEICKSBURG 
 
 532. Battle of Fredericksburg — December 13. — Having gath- 
 ered an army of more than 100,000 men, Burnside moved 
 down the Rappahannock and took a position on the north 
 side of that stream across from Fredericksburg. That city 
 refused to surrender and on the following day Lee's army 
 arrived and intrenched itself on the heights surrounding 
 the city. Burnside, impatient to attack, crossed the stream on 
 pontoon bridges on the 11th and 12th of December and on the 
 13th gave battle. At the foot of the height, immediately back 
 of Fredericksburg, was a sunken road, and, on its lower side, 
 an old stone wall, behind which was massed, four ranks deep, 
 a confederate force. Up the slope leading to this breastwork 
 the union troops swept time after time to within but a few 
 yards of the wall, but they were met each time by a sheet 
 of flame, piling the dead and wounded in heaps upon the 
 field. The same daring and bravery which had character- 
 ized the union troops at Antietam were repeated over and over, 
 but all to no purpose — Fredericksburg was another field of 
 carnage, and this time the victory rested with the army of 
 the south. Burnside soon retired as chief of the army of 
 the Potomac, General Hooker succeeding to the com- 
 mand. 
 
 I 
 
ABKAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 423 
 
 THE WAR NOW FOR THE UNION AND AGAINST SLAVERY 
 
 533. Lincoln Proclaims Freedom to the Slaves — September 
 22, 1862 and January 1, 1863. — The war up to Antietam had 
 been a war for the preservation of the union and not for the 
 abolition of slavery. Although the antislavery advocates of 
 the north had kejot the slavery question constantly before 
 the public, President Lincoln refused to be hurried in such 
 an important matter, until, in his judgment, the time 
 should be ripe to take the step as "a measure of war." 
 After the victory at Antietam, he felt that the time had 
 come to strike the south a blow, and to allow the moral 
 sentiment of the nation to assert itself. Accordingly, 
 five days after the victory at Antietam, he issued his first 
 Emancipation Proclamation (September 22), which served 
 notice on the seceded states that unless they had laid down 
 their arms and acknowledged their allegiance to the union by 
 New Year's Day of January, 1863, he should formally 
 declare all slaves within their borders free. The south, con- 
 fident of victory, laughed his proclamation to scorn, but the 
 blow, nevertheless, fell full upon that section — the confeder- 
 acy was now placed before the civilized world in its true 
 light, as the champion of the detested institution of slavery. 
 True to his warning, Lincoln issued his final proclamation 
 on the first day of January, 1863, and thereby destroyed the 
 last hope of the south for foreign intervention. It now 
 became a war, not only for the union, but against slavery, 
 and along that line the issue was to be fought to a close. 
 
 THE CLOSE or THE YEAR 
 
 534. The Situation at the close of the second year of the 
 war was to the advantage of the union cause in the west, 
 while in the east the opposing armies still held each other at 
 bay — neither having gained the advantage. The Eman- 
 cipation Proclamation met with favor at the north and 
 commanded the respect of the civilized nations of the 
 world. Lincoln followed his September Emancipation 
 
424 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Proclamation by another call (October 17), for 300,000 
 volunteers, which met with a generous response at the 
 north. Halleck was still the general-in-chief of the union 
 armies. Hooker was now to succeed Burnside as the com- 
 mander of the army of the Potomac, and try his skill at war 
 with Lee. The union armies of the west were united in two 
 departments, with Eosecrans in the center, at the head of 
 the army of the Cumberland, and Grant on the Mississippi, 
 at the head of the army of the Mississippi and the Tennessee. 
 
 IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1862 
 
 NAME OF 
 
 Place Where 
 
 Date 
 
 Commanding 
 General of 
 
 Commanding 
 General of Con- 
 
 BATTLE 
 
 Fought 
 
 
 Union Army 
 
 federate Army 
 
 MiU Springs . . 
 
 Mill Springs, Ky. 
 
 Jan. 19 .... 
 
 Brig. -Gen. G. H. 
 Thomas 
 
 Maj.-Gen. G. B. 
 Crittenden 
 
 Fort Donelson 
 
 Ft. Donelson, 
 
 Feb. 16 .... 
 
 Brig. -Gen. U. S. 
 
 Brig. -Gens. G.J. 
 
 
 Tenn. 
 
 
 Grant 
 
 Pillow, J. B. 
 Floyd and S. 
 B. Buckner 
 
 Pea Ridge 
 
 Pea Ridge, Ark. 
 
 March 7-8 . . 
 
 Brig. -Gen. S. R. 
 Curtis 
 
 Maj.-Gen. E. 
 VanDorn 
 
 Merrimac and 
 
 Hampton Roads. 
 
 March 9 .... 
 
 Lieut. J. L. 
 
 Flag-Offlcer F. 
 
 Monitor 
 
 Va. 
 
 
 Worden 
 
 Buchanan 
 
 Shiloh 
 
 Pittsburg Land- 
 
 April 6-7. . . 
 
 Brig. -Gen. U. S. 
 
 Gen. A. S. John- 
 
 
 ing, Tenn. 
 
 
 Grant 
 
 ston 
 
 Island No. 10.. 
 
 Island No. 10, 
 
 April 7 .... 
 
 Maj.-Gen. J. 
 
 Ma j. -Gens. J. P. 
 
 
 Tenn. 
 
 
 Pope 
 
 McCown and 
 W. W. Mackall 
 
 New Orleans . 
 
 New Orleans, La. 
 
 April 25 ... . 
 
 Flag-Offlcer D. 
 
 G. Farragut 
 Maj.-Gen. B. F. 
 
 Butler 
 
 Com.J.K. Mitch- 
 ell 
 
 Maj.-Gen. M. 
 Lovell 
 
 Fair Oaks .... 
 
 Fair Oaks, Va. 
 
 May 31 -June 
 
 Maj.-Gen. Mc- 
 
 Gen. J. E. John- 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Clellan 
 
 ston 
 
 Seven Days' 
 
 Mechanics ville 
 
 June 26- July 
 
 Maj.-Gen. Mc- 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Battles 
 
 Savage's Station 
 
 1 
 
 Clellan 
 
 
 (Va.) 
 
 WhiteOak Swamp 
 Fraizer's Farm 
 Malvern Hill 
 
 
 
 
 Baton Rouge . 
 
 Baton Rouge, La. 
 
 Aug. 5 .... 
 
 Brig. -Gen. T. 
 Williams 
 
 Maj.-Gen. J. C. 
 Breckinridge 
 
 Bull Run (Sec- 
 ond) 
 Antietam 
 
 Bull Run, Va. 
 
 Aug. 29-30 
 
 Maj.-Gen. J. 
 
 Pope 
 Maj.-Gen. Mc- 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Antietam Creek, 
 
 Sept. 17 .... 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 
 Md. 
 
 
 Clellan 
 
 
 luka 
 
 luka. Miss. 
 
 Sept. 19 .... 
 
 Ma j. Gen. W. S. 
 Rosecraus 
 
 Maj.-Gen. S. 
 
 
 Price 
 
 Corinth 
 
 Corinth, Miss. 
 
 Oct. 4 .... 
 
 Ma j -Gen. W. S. 
 Ko.secrans 
 
 Maj.-Gen. E. 
 VanDorn 
 
 Perry ville .... 
 
 Perryville, Ky. 
 
 Oct. 8 .... 
 
 Maj.-Gen. D. C. 
 
 Buell 
 Maj.-Gen. A. E. 
 
 Gen. B. Bragg 
 
 Fredericks- 
 
 Fredericksburg, 
 
 Dec. 13 .... 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 burg 
 
 Va. 
 
 
 Buruside 
 
 
 First Vicks- 
 
 ChickasawBayou. 
 
 Dee. 28 .... 
 
 Maj.-Gen. W. T. 
 
 Lieut.-Gen. J. C. 
 
 burg 
 
 Miss. 
 
 
 Sherman 
 
 Pemberton 
 
 Murfreesboro . 
 
 Stone's River, 
 
 Dee. 31 -Jan. 
 
 Maj.-Gen. W. S. 
 
 Gen. B. Bragg 
 
 
 Tenn. 
 
 2. 1863 
 
 Rosecrans 
 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 4:'Z6 
 
 THE YEAR 1863 
 535. Plan of Operations. — The plan of operations in 1863 
 was to prosecute the war along the same lines which the 
 army and navy had been fighting in the previous year: 
 (1) The blockade, already effective, was to be made more so 
 by constructing and putting into service many iron- 
 clads; (2) the army of the west under Grant was to com- 
 plete the opening of the Mississippi River, thereby 
 completely severing the confederacy; (3) the army of the 
 center under Rosecrans was to take Chattanooga, and from 
 there push through to some point on the Gulf or Atlantic 
 coast; (4) the army of the Potomac, now under Hooker, 
 was to destroy Lee's army and capture Richmond. 
 
 IX THE WEST 
 GRANT AND VICKSBURG 
 
 636. Campaign against Vicksburg. — The confederates still 
 held the Mississippi River from Vicksburg to Port Hudson, 
 and this must now be wrested from them, for Vicksburg was 
 the key to the Mississippi River. In tlie autumn of 1862, 
 Grant directed Sherman to descend t'he river from Memphis 
 with a fleet under Porter, and capture the city, while he 
 himself moved south into Mississippi, intending to keep 
 Pemberton, commander of the confederate forces in that 
 state, engaged as far from Vicksburg as possible. A con- 
 federate force under General Van Dorn, however, captured 
 Holly Springs, Grant's depot of supplies, thereby cutting off 
 the union line of communication with the north, and defeat- 
 ing Grant's plan. Sherman, not informed of this misfor- 
 tune, moved down the Mississippi, landed on the Yazoo 
 River, and made an unsuccessful attack upon the fortifica- 
 tions some miles above Vicksburg. This first effort failing. 
 Grant resolved on a second plan, and in January, 1863, 
 massed the union troops on the west bank of the Mississippi, 
 opposite Vicksburg. Deciding that the only successful plan 
 would be to attack the city from the south. Grant deter- 
 
426 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 mined to run the batteries at Vicksburg, and on the night 
 of April 16 a fleet under Porter performed this dangerous 
 and daring feat, with the loss of but one of Porter's boats. 
 The army marched south on the west bank of the river, 
 crossed it, and on the 29th of April, landed at a point about 
 twenty miles south of Vicksburg. Port Gibson was cap- 
 tured (May 1), and an engagement won at Raymond (May 12). 
 
 Grant then advanced on Jackson, 
 the state capital of Mississippi, 
 where all railroads communicating 
 with A'icksburg connected. Gen- 
 eral Joseph E. Johnston gave battle 
 at that point, but after a severe en- 
 gagement, the confederates fled, and 
 the union troops entered the city. 
 Grant now turned westward toward 
 Vicksburg, thus separating the 
 forces of Johnston and Pemberton. 
 Grant defeated Pemberton in a 
 hard fought battle at Champion 
 Hill (May 16), and on the following 
 day completely routed him at Big 
 Black River. Pemberton now re- 
 tired to the intrenchments at Vicks- 
 burg, caught like a mouse in a trap. 
 Grant stationed his batteries ready 
 for action, and sent word to Porter 
 to open fire on the river front. As 
 the first shot rang out from the fleet, Grant ordered an 
 assault, but the gallant charge was repulsed with great 
 loss. Hereupon Grant gave up all thought of storming 
 the strong fortifications, and settled down to a siege which 
 lasted for forty-three days. By the 3d of July Pemberton 
 was starved out, and raised the white flag above his works. 
 On the following day Vicksburg fell, Pemberton surrender- 
 ing 31,600 men as prisoners of war. 
 
 VICKSBUKQ CAMPAIGN 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 427 
 
 637. Effect of the Fall of Vicksburg.— x\ feAV days later, 
 Port Hudson surrendered and the work of Grant in the 
 Mississippi valley was accomplished — the great river was now 
 open from its source to its mouth, and the confederacy cut 
 in twain. One of the chief plans of the war had thus been 
 accomplished. The success of the union armies in the west 
 Avas due to the skill and persistent efforts of one great man, 
 General Ulysses S. Grant, who was now given the rank of 
 major-general in the union army. The fall of Vicksburg 
 ended his service in the Mississippi valley. 
 
 IN thp: center 
 
 WITH ROSECRAXS, THOMAS, AND GEANT 
 
 538. Rosecrans Enters Chattanooga. — All during the win- 
 ter and spring following Murfreesboro, Rosecrans 's army lay 
 encamped on the field so bravely won, while Bragg's south- 
 ern army still camped in Tennessee. Finally, June 24, 
 Rosecrans began the forward movement, Avhich later led to 
 that brilliant campaign in the center in which were engaged 
 the four great generals — Grant, the hero of the victories in 
 Mississippi; Sherman, who had so ably assisted in these 
 victories ; Sheridan, the brilliant cavalry officer ; and Thomas, 
 whose unflinching courage and endurance soon made him 
 one of the chief commanders in the army of the center. 
 
 By September, Rosecrans "had skillfully manoeuvered 
 Bragg south of the Tennessee River, and through and 
 beyond Chattanooga, ' ' and had himself taken possession of 
 that city. 
 
 539. Battle of Chickamauga — September 19-20. — When 
 Bragg passed through the gaps of Missionary Ridge in his 
 flight from Chattanooga, Rosecrans pushed on to overtake 
 him ; but, learning that the confederate army was concen- 
 trating in northwestern Georgia, Rosecrans gave up the 
 chase. Bragg was reinforced and now took the initiative. 
 On September 18, the two armies faced each other in 
 order of battle along the banks of Chickamauga Creek, a 
 
428 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 few miles southeast of Chattanooga. Here on September iw' 
 and 20 one of the bloodiest battles of the war was fought. 
 All day long the union army resisted the fierce attacks of 
 the southern columns — charges and counter- charges were 
 
 CHICKAMAUGA AND T.OOKO UT MOUNTAIN 
 
 made — and at nightfall of the 19th, the confederates had 
 failed to gain the road to Chattanooga, but they held many 
 of their positions and were ready to renew the battle the 
 next day. The battle opened on the 20th with an attack 
 upon the union left. Five union brigades were swept from 
 the field and others were caught in the mad' rush toward 
 Chattanooga, On swept the confederate troops, until they 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 429 
 
 faced the new union line on the wooded crest of Snodgrass 
 Hill. Here from three o'clock in the afternoon until night 
 put an end to the struggle, the indomitable Thomas held 
 his ground, attacked on flank and front. Up the slope of the 
 hill charged the confederates, giving the southern yell — only 
 to be mowed down with frightful slaughter. Again and again 
 they charged, but Thomas, christened on that day as "The 
 Rock of Chickamauga," stood his ground and at night with- 
 drew toward Chattanooga. Seldom has history recorded a 
 more gallant defence than that made by Thomas and his 
 brave troops at Chickamauga. 
 
 640. After the Battle of Chickamauga. — Bragg, at once 
 proceeded to shut up the union army in Chattanooga. This 
 city lies on the south bank of the Tennessee River at the 
 northern end of a narrow valley, through which runs Chatta- 
 nooga Creek. The valley is bounded on the east by Mission- 
 ary Ridge and on the west by Lookout Mountain, rising 
 abruptly from the river, which flows south from the city and 
 at the foot of this mountain makes a sharp turn to the 
 north again. Bragg's troops were stationed along the crest 
 and slope of Missionary Ridge for some miles to the south, 
 thence west across Chattanooga valley to Lookout Mountain, 
 which they held and fortified. Confederate pickets along 
 the river guarded the road over which supplies could most 
 easily be brought to the city. All railroad communication 
 had been cut off and the union men were on half rations. 
 
 541. Grant Assumes Command. — But all was soon to 
 change. General Rosecrans was removed and General 
 Thomas put in his place. General Grant was summoned 
 to Chattanooga to take command of the department of the 
 Mississippi. Sherman and many of the troops from Vicksburg 
 were hastening to the relief, and General Hooker had been 
 sent with troops from the army of the Potomac. Grant's 
 first care upon his arrival was to bridge the Tennessee River 
 and bring in an abundant supply of food and ammunition. 
 Burnside was hastening southward through eastern Tennes- 
 
430 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 see and Bragg made his fatal mistake of sending 20,000 
 troops under his able corps commander, Longstreet, to 
 Knoxville to capture Biirnside. Reinforcements having 
 arrived, Grant decided to attack. With the booming of can^ 
 non on the afternoon of October 23, Thomas's troops made 
 a dashing charge on the confederate fortifications in the val- 
 ley, and the union line was advanced about a mile. 
 
 542. Battle of Lookout Mountain — November 24. — In the 
 early morning of the 24th, General Hooker advanced to 
 drive the confederates from their position on Lookout Moun- 
 tain. The pickets were taken and the gallant Hooker, — 
 while a heavy mist enveloped the mountain, — led his troops 
 up the steep and wooded western slopes. Only the inces- 
 sant rattle of musketry told Grant, at his position on Orchard 
 Knob, that the battle — this famous *' Battle above the 
 Clouds" — was raging. The confederates evacuated during 
 the night, and the morning's sun greeted the flag of the 
 union on the crest of Lookout Mountain. Sherman, under 
 cover of the mist, had gained the north base of Missionary 
 Ridge, and the confederate attack was not able to dislodge 
 him. 
 
 543. Battle of Missionary Ridge — November 25. — On the 
 morning of the 25tli, Bragg's forces were massed on Mission- 
 ary Ridge, with a strongly intrenched line on the crest, 
 another midway up the slope, and a third at the base. Gen- 
 eral Grant had planned for Hooker to attack the confederate 
 left while Sherman pressed on from his position on the right. 
 But the southern army, retreating across the valley from 
 Lookout Mountain, had burned the bridges across the creek 
 and it was late in the afternoon before Hooker could reach 
 the Ridge. Sherman attacked early in the morning and by 
 three o'clock was so hard pressed that Grant gave the signal 
 for an attack by Thomas's brave troops. Advancing at 
 double quick, Thomas's men carried the rifle pits and union 
 and confederate troops went over the first line of defences 
 almost at the same time. There was no halting, no waiting 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN^ AXD THE CIVIL WAR 431 
 
 for further orders, no re-forming of lines, but up the steep 
 slope, covered with fallen timber and boulders, Thomas's 
 troops advanced, — the second line of works was carried, — 
 and on they swept to the crest. The crest was gained 
 and the cannon turned upon the retreating, panic-stricken 
 confederate troops, thousands of whom threw away their 
 arms in their mad flight, and many were taken prisoners. By 
 night Bragg's demoralized army was in full retreat and Grant 
 had opened another gateway to the south. 
 
 544. Burnside at Knoxville. — Meanwhile Burnside had 
 taken possession of Knoxville, and Longstreet had made an 
 unsuccessful attack upon the town. When the news reached 
 him of Bragg's disaster, Longstreet immediately abandoned 
 the siege and on the night of December 4 hastened north- 
 ward to rejoin Lee. Eastern Tennessee was saved, and the 
 president's anxiety for the loyal people of this state was 
 removed. 
 
 IN THE EAST 
 THE lEONCLADS FAIL A T CHAKLESTON 
 
 545. Battle of Charleston Harbor — April 7. — After the vic- 
 tory of the Monitor at Hampton Roads, it was believed in 
 the north that a fleet of monitors would be able to accomplish 
 the reduction of all the confederate fortifications along the 
 entire Atlantic and Gulf coast. Such a fleet was accordingly 
 constructed, and, on April 7, 1863, Admiral Dupont steamed 
 into Charleston harbor, South Carolina, for the purpose of 
 capturing Charleston— one of the most important coast points 
 in possession of the confederacy. The action opened at three 
 o'clock in the afternoon, and the fleet was soon under the 
 fire of seventy-six of the best guns in possession of the con- 
 federacy — all of them well mounted and skillfully handled. 
 When the fleet withdrew, every vessel had been fearfully' 
 battered, and some of the boats completely disabled. The 
 news of the defeat of these ironclads could hardly be believed 
 at the north, and the greatest disappointment followed, 
 
432 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 while a new impetus was given to blockade running in the 
 south. 
 
 HOOKER AND CHANCELLORSVILLE 
 
 546. Battle of Chancellorsville— May 2 and 3.— After Fred- 
 ericksburg, the army of the Potomac remained inactive 
 across the Rappahannock from the point where Buruside had 
 met such a bloody repulse. General Hooker had succeeded 
 Burnside in January and by the last of April was ready to 
 take the field. With more than 100,000 men at his com- 
 mand he felt sure of his ability to crush the confederate 
 army. He accordingly moved up the Rappahannock, 
 crossed that stream, with about 60,000 troops, and by 
 the first of May had his army in position at Chancellors- 
 ville, ten miles from Fredericksburg. Jackson at once, 
 following his favorite movement, marched around Hooker's 
 army and attacked it in the rear so unexpectedly that 
 an entire division was rolled back upon the main body of 
 the army, which the impetuous charges of Jackson now 
 threatened with disaster. Hooker had been completely 
 surprised; only night saved the union army from utter 
 rout. Lee, on the following day, fought the union army in 
 detail, defeating it, a division at a time, though he met with 
 stubborn resistance. At night Hooker gave up the useless 
 and bloody struggle, and on the following day withdrew 
 under cover of a storm, to his old position across the Rap- 
 pahannock, to suffer censure and blame for his mismanage- 
 ment. 
 
 647. Effect of Chancellorsville. — Again the north was filled 
 with gloom. Two years and more of war had passed, marked 
 by a long list of disasters in the east. The soldiers in 
 the army of the Potomac were just as brave and fought 
 as valiantly as did Lee's and Jackson's men; indeed, 
 no braver soldiers ever lived. *'Why was it," the public 
 press now asked, the people asked, and Lincoln asked, 
 "that a leader could not be found to lead this splendid 
 northern army successfully against the southern foe?" 
 
ABRAHAM LIKCOLN AI^D THE CIVIL WAR 433 
 
 Bitter were the complaints in congress and in the coun- 
 try. Yet, amidst all this disappointment and this night 
 of gloom, a lofty patriotism sustained the north, which still 
 hoped on, — confident that right would win, that the union 
 would survive, and, now that the great Lincoln had spoken 
 out on New Year's Day for human freedom, that slavery and 
 disunion would perish together. The tide of war was soon 
 to turn, though anxious days were still in store, indeed, had 
 come, — for Lee, emboldened by Fredericksburg and Ohancel- 
 lorsville, once more flew northward, spurred on by the cry, 
 now ringing forth from southern camps, of 'Onto Wash- 
 ington." 
 
 ON TO WASHINGTON 
 
 548. Lee's Second Invasion of the North. — Lee broke camp 
 in the early part of June and started on his second invasion 
 of the north. His plan was to pass northward, east of the 
 range of the Blue Ridge, cross into Maryland, and carry 
 his troops forward to the fertile valleys in Pennsylvania, 
 where he expected to find rich plunder and much-needed 
 supplies — it being the harvest time. He hoped to draw after 
 him Hooker's entire army, defeat it on the free soil of the 
 north, then march on Baltimore — perhaps the national cap- 
 ital itself. No sooner had Lee crossed the mountains, than 
 Hooker gave chase. Lee, crossing the Potomac at Williams- 
 port and Shepherdstown, passed through Maryland, and was 
 soon encamped at Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. He sent 
 detachments out to capture Carlisle, and extort $100,000 
 tribute from the city of York. His cavalry in the mean- 
 time — 10,000 strong — charged across the country, laying 
 it waste in every direction. 
 
 649. Meade Succeeds Hooker in Command. — Hooker had all 
 the while been conducting a most admirable advance. But 
 after his defeat at Chancellorsville, he had become so embit- 
 tered against General-in-Chief Halleck that he complained 
 to Lincoln of that general's unkind treatment. Irritated by 
 
434 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Halleck, he resigned his command in the face of the enemy, 
 and retired from the army of the Potomac forever. Gen- 
 eral George G. Meade was promptly appointed in his stead. 
 He at once assumed command and pushed rapidly forward in 
 quest of Lee. 
 
 GETTYSBURG 
 
 550. The First Day's Battle of Gettysburg— July 1.— The 
 
 advance forces of the two armies met unexpectedly on the 
 morning of July 1, in the vicinity of the little village of 
 Gettysburg, and a hard fought battle ensued. In this bat- 
 
 QKTTYSBURU AND VICTNITV 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLJ^ AND THE CIVIL WAR 435 
 
 tie General Keynolds lost his life, and the union troops were 
 forced to withdraw south of the city to Cemetery Ridge, — a 
 hook-shaped hill about three miles in length. At its south- 
 ern extremity is Round Top, a mound about four hundred 
 feet high commanding the valley to the west. A little to the 
 north of this, on the crest of the hill, is Little Round Top, — 
 also commanding the valley to the west. From this point 
 the ridge runs northward toward the town, then turns to 
 the east, completing the hook and terminating abruptly in 
 Gulp's Hill, which commands the valley to the north and 
 east. It was to this ridge that Reynold's troops had retired 
 after the death of that officer. General Hancock soon 
 arrived upon the field, and recognized the importance of 
 holding Cemetery Ridge as a vantage position to the union 
 army. During all that night, Meade's hosts were pushed 
 rapidly forward to this position, and when day broke on July 
 2, the morning sun shone upon the union army intrenched 
 on Cemetery Ridge, 80,000 strong, eager and ready for bat- 
 tle. Across the valley to the west, was Seminary Ridge, 
 upon which Lee had gathered his forces during the night — 
 also about 80,000 strong and as eager for the contest as was 
 the army of the Potomac. 
 
 661. The Second Day's Battle— July 2.— Little Round Top 
 was the key to the union position, and this Lee resolved to 
 take by assault. At four o'clock in the afternoon of July 
 2, a confederate force advanced up the hill under the 
 enthusiasm of the southern yell, ana furiously fell upon Gen- 
 eral Sickles's men, and a two hours' bloody battle ensued. 
 While this battle was on, a confederate force swept up the 
 hill to Little Round Top. A hand-to-hand encounter fol- 
 lowed, in which prodigies of valor were displayed on both 
 sides, the confederate force finally yielding and retreating 
 down the slope, leaving their dead and wounded scattered 
 upon the field. At ten o'clock at night, the second day's 
 battle ceased, and the soldiers slept upon their arms. 
 
 662. The Third Day s Battle— July 3.— The struggle was 
 
436 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 reopened at noon on July 3 by an artillery battle. At 
 the end of two hours, the confederate batteries suddenly 
 ceased firing. A moment of ominous stillness fell upon 
 both armies. When the smoke lifted, a large confed- 
 erate force under Pickett, one of Lee's ablest generals, 
 was seen advancing across the valley in battle array. Lee 
 had planned to carry the union position at the point of the 
 bayonet! On came Pickett's men, charging up the slope of 
 Cemetery Eidge, exciting the admiration of the union army 
 all along the battle line. The union artillery hailed shot 
 and shell upon this advancing host. Men were literally 
 mowed down in windrows, but their places quickly filled. 
 Up, up came Pickett's men to the very muzzles of the union 
 guns ! There they were hurled back and rushed madly, wildly, 
 down the slope, their lines broken and shattered, and now in 
 utter rout. The invincible army of the south had been 
 broken like a reed. Meade had won the day at Gettys- 
 burg! 
 
 563. Situation at the Close of the Year 1863. — Gettysburg 
 was the turning point of the war. At the very moment 
 Pickett's men were meeting their bloody repulse on the slope 
 of Cemetery Eidge, Pemberton was flying the white flag 
 above his fortifications at Vicksburg. On July 5 Lee 
 gathered together his now shattered and crippled army, 
 and retreated dov/n the passes of the Blue Eidge through 
 the Shenandoah valley, to his old camping ground in 
 Virginia, across the Eappahannock. Meade gave chase, 
 but slowly. In a few weeks he, too, arrived on the 
 soil of Virginia, and encamped across the river from Lee's 
 position. Here the two armies remained, watching one 
 another, cautiously seeking an opportunity to strike. Efforts 
 failing, both armies went into winter quarters, and practic- 
 ally remained inactive until the following spring. Thus, at 
 the close of the year, Lee's invasion had been repelled, the 
 Mississippi was opened and patrolled by union gunboats, the 
 blockade of the southern ports was more effective than ever, 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLI!^ AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 437 
 
 and the strong position of Chattanooga was securely held by 
 the nnion army. 
 
 IMPORTANT BATTLES OP 1863 
 
 Name op 
 Battle 
 
 Chancellors- 
 
 ville 
 Gettysburg .. . . 
 
 Vicksburg 
 
 Port Hudson . 
 
 Chickamauga . 
 
 Chattanooga . 
 
 Knoxville 
 
 Place Where 
 Fought 
 
 Chancellorsville, 
 
 Va. 
 Gettysburg, Pa. 
 
 Vicksburg, Miss. 
 
 Port Hudson, La. 
 
 Chickamauga, Ga. 
 
 Chattanooga, 
 
 Tenn. 
 Knoxville, Tenn. 
 
 Date 
 
 May 2-3 ... . 
 July 1-3. .. 
 
 July 4' 
 
 Julys 
 
 Sept. 19-20. 
 Nov. 23-25 . 
 Dec. 4 
 
 Commanding 
 
 General of 
 Union Army 
 
 Ma j. -Gen. J. 
 
 Hooker 
 Maj.-Gen. G. G. 
 
 Meade 
 Maj.-Gen. U. S. 
 
 Grant 
 Maj.-Gen. N. P. 
 
 Banks 
 Maj.-Gen. W. S. 
 
 Rosecrans 
 Maj.-Gen. U. S. 
 
 Grant 
 Maj.-Gen. A. E. 
 
 Burnside 
 
 Commanding 
 General of Con- 
 federate Army 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Lieut. -Gen. J. C. 
 
 Pemberton 
 Maj.-Gen. F. 
 
 Gardner 
 Gen. B. Bragg 
 
 Gen. B. Bragg 
 
 Lieut.-Gen. J. 
 Longstreet 
 
 THE YEAR 1864 
 
 554. Plan of Operations for 1864.— One day in the spring 
 of 1864, two men met in conference in the parlor of a prom- 
 inent hotel in Cincinnati. Spread out on a table before 
 them lay some especially prepared military maps, which both 
 were eagerly scanning. Before the meeting ended, the two 
 parties to this conference had decided upon the plan of 
 operations for the union armies in 1864. These two men 
 were union generals,— one of them, General Ulysses S. Grant, 
 the other. General William T. Sherman. Grant, with the 
 army of the Potomac, was to capture Lee's army; while Sher- 
 man was to carry the ravages of war into the heart of the 
 confederacy, capture Johnston's army, touch at some point 
 upon the Atlantic coast, and then march northward to inter- 
 cept Lee, should he attempt to escape from Grant at Eich- 
 mond. 
 
 IN THE CENTER 
 WITH SHERMAN TO THE SEA 
 
 555. Sherman's Campaign against Atlanta— May 5 to Sep- 
 tember 2. — When Sherman parted with his superior in 
 Cincinnati, he hastened south, determined to move as soon as 
 
438 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 possible to the accomplishment of his part of this gigantic 
 campaign. General Joseph E. Johnston was in command of 
 the southern army in Georgia. On the 5th of May, the 
 same day that Grant moved to begin his part of the cam- 
 paign, Sherman started south with his force of 100,000 men, 
 to attack Johnston, who was fortified at Dalton, in northern 
 
 Georgia. Now be- 
 gan a series of bril- 
 liant engagements, 
 in which Sherman by 
 h i s favorite flank 
 movement caused 
 Johnston to fall back 
 from one position to 
 another, until, by the 
 latter part of July, 
 the confederates had 
 been driven within 
 the intrenchments at 
 Atlanta. At Dalton, 
 Resaca, Altoona, Dal- 
 las, Kenesaw and 
 Lost mountains, and 
 many other places, 
 the union forces had 
 been successful, but 
 they had met with 
 stubborn resistance, and now at Atlanta a siege was to be 
 kept up for more than a month. Tired of Johnston's policy 
 of retreating, Jefferson Davis removed him from command, 
 and put General John B. Hood in charge of the confederate 
 forces at that point. 
 
 556. Sherman Enters Atlanta — September 2. — This change 
 in command in the confederate army meant a change of 
 policy. General Hood soon made a furious charge (July 20) 
 upon the union army, but after an hour's engagement was 
 
 CHATTANOOGA TO ATLANTA 
 
ABRAHAM LIJ^COLISr AN^D THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 439 
 
 severely repulsed, and forced to fall back within his lines. 
 Two days later, he attacked a second time, but was again 
 driven back into the city, after suffering the loss of about 
 10,000 of his men. Sherman now prepared to cut off' Hood's 
 communications, by marching around Atlanta, capturing its 
 railroads on the east and south, and then taking the city 
 from the rear. But, on September 2, Hood evacuated the 
 city and fled, and the federal army at once took possession. 
 557. Hood Turns Northward — Battle of Nashville - 
 December 15 and 16. — On evacuating Atlanta, Hood first 
 marched to the southwest, then boldly turned northward, 
 threatening Sherman's line of communication. After de- 
 stroying about twenty miles of the 
 Chattanooga and Atlanta railroad, 
 — the only route over which sup- 
 plies could reach Sherman, — Hood 
 passed into northern Alabama, with 
 the evident intention of invading 
 Tennessee and thus drawing Sher- 
 man after him. Sherman at once 
 dispatched General Thomas to Nash- 
 ville with a large body of troops to 
 intercept Hood. Thomas arrived 
 none too soon, for about the middle 
 
 of November Hood crossed the Tennessee River and eagerly 
 began his northward march. At Columbia, a skirmish took 
 place between Hood's army and a detachment of Thomas's 
 force. On the last day of November, a desperate and san- 
 guinary battle ensued at Franklin, where Hood's army was 
 badly shattered. Urged on as if by some relentless fate, 
 Hood reached Nashville and formed his line of battle in front 
 of the intrenchments of the ever cautious but invincible 
 Thomas. As time went by and Thomas did not attack Hood, 
 the whole country became alarmed. But Thomas had the 
 courage to wait until he felt prepared to attack; and the 
 result of the battle fought on December 15 and 16 was 
 
440 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 his justification for his delay. When Thomas burst upon 
 Hood's soldiers, they fled in utter rout, leaving on the field 
 their dead and wounded, their artillery and their arms. So 
 complete was the destruction of Hood's army that never again 
 was it successfully reorganized. 
 
 558. From Atlanta to the Sea — November 15 to December 
 22. — When Hood turned northward, Sherman planned to 
 march forth into the very heart of the confederacy, live 
 upon the country, reach and take some seacoast city, then 
 turn northward and join Grant in the vicinity of Richmond. 
 After resting his troops, Sherman was ready to advance. He 
 destroyed the railroad connecting Atlanta with Chattanooga, 
 applied the torch to all public buildings in Atlanta, cut the 
 telegraph wires, and with his magnificent army of 60,000 
 as well trained and as intelligent men "as ever trod 
 the earth," swung off (November 15) on his famous march 
 from Atlanta to the sea. The army marched in four 
 parallel columns, but a few miles apart, advancing about 
 fifteen miles a day. Each brigade detailed a certain 
 number of men to gather supplies of forage and pro- 
 visions. Starting off on foot in the morning these 
 foragers would return in the evening mounted on ponies 
 or mules, or driving a family carriage loaded out- 
 side and in, with everything the country afforded. 
 Railroads were torn up, and the rails heated and twisted ; 
 bridges were burned ; and the fertile country for thirty miles 
 on either side of the line of march was laid waste. Georgia's 
 soldiers were in the north, so this army met with little 
 resistance. When next the north heard from Sherman, he 
 was in front of Savannah. Savannah was evacuated and 
 Sherman entered on December 22. The confederacy had 
 again been cut in twain. Georgia, with her arsenals, and 
 factories, had been the workshop of the south. Sherman 
 had followed the confederates to their "inmost recesses," 
 and had shown to the world how feeble was their power, 
 how rapidly their doom was approaching. 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 441 
 
 WITH FABRAGUT AT MOBILE BAY 
 
 659. Farragut Enters Mobile Bay —August 5. — Mobile was 
 the stronghold of the confederacy on the gulf. Two strong 
 forts on low-lying sandpoints guarded the entrance to the 
 bay, thirty miles below the city. Within the harbor lay a 
 confederate fleet, and among its vessels the monster ironclad 
 ram, Tennessee. Farragut, the hero of New Orleans, de- 
 termined to force an entrance to this bay. About six o'clock 
 on the morning of August 5, he advanced to the attack. 
 Soon one of his leading vessels was sunk by the explosion of 
 a torpedo, but Farragut, lashed to the rigging of his flagship 
 Hartford, boldly took the lead and passed through the 
 torpedo line followed by his fleet. The forts were soon safely 
 passed. In the engagement with the confederate fleet, two 
 of their vessels were captured, and the powerful ironclad 
 Tennessee was so badly disabled that, after an engagement of 
 an hour and a quarter, she ran up the white flag. A few 
 days after, the forts at the entrance to the harbor sur- 
 rendered, but the city itself remained in the possession of 
 the confederates until the following year. 
 
 THE ALABAMA 
 
 560. England and the Confederate Cruisers. — During the 
 war the English authorities connived at the building of con- 
 federate cruisers in English dockyards. Notwithstanding 
 the protest of the American government, these privateers 
 were permitted to leave English ports to prey upon the com- 
 merce of the United States. There were six or eight of 
 these cruisers, which constantly harrassed American com- 
 merce. The Shenandoah is said to have destroyed or cap- 
 tured more than $6,000,000 worth of American property on 
 the high seas. It was the custom of these cruisers to avoid 
 encounter with American men-of-war, bnt to assail, wher- 
 ever and whenever they could, American merchantmen. 
 Millions of dollars worth of property was thus taken or 
 destroyed by these English built cruisers, and Anierican 
 
442 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 commerce practically driven from the seas. The attitude of 
 the English authorities in thus extending sympathy and aid 
 to the southern rebellion created the most hostile feeling 
 in the United States against England. 
 
 661. The Kearsarge and the Alabama. — The most famous 
 of all these cruisers was the Alabama, under Captain Raphael 
 Semmes, who before the rebellion was an officer in the United 
 States navy. Semmes was the most daring of all the con- 
 federate sea-rovers. He at first commanded the Sumter, 
 and later became commander of the Alabama. When 
 that cruiser was building at Liverpool, Charles Francis 
 Adams, minister to England, had protested against its leav- 
 ing British waters, but in spite of this protest, the Alabama 
 was permitted to slip away to the Azore Islands, where 
 Semmes and a confederate crew were in waiting to receive 
 her. She destroyed American commerce right and left, 
 taking millions of dollars worth of American prizes. On 
 the 19th of June, 1864, the Alabama was encountered by 
 the United States steamer Kearsarge, under command of 
 Captain John A. Winslow, off the coast of Cherbourg, 
 France. After an hour's engagement the Alabama was so 
 disabled that she ran up the white flag and soon afterward 
 sank. 
 
 IN THE EAST 
 FROM THE RAPIDANITO THE JAMES 
 
 562. Grant's Plan. — Grant was now in command of all the 
 union forces under arms on the continent. He took up 
 his headquarters with the army of the Potomac, and a little 
 after midnight of the 4th of May, 1864, set that army of 
 120,000 men in motion across the Eapidan. He then sent 
 a telegram to Sherman to start from Chattanooga, and 
 carry out his part of the plan agreed upon at the Cincinnati 
 conference and another telegram to Butler at Fortress Mon- 
 roe to move up the James Eiver to City Point below Rich- 
 mond, and hold that as a base of supplies in anticipation of 
 (Grant's reaching the James with the army of the Potomac. 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLX AND THE CIVIL WAR 443 
 
 Grant's plan was to begin a forward movement of all these 
 armies, with a view to pounding the confederate armies until 
 they surrendered or the confederacy went to pieces. After 
 the first battle across the Rapidan, Lee remarked, "The 
 army of the Potomac at last has a general who will not 
 retreat. ' ' 
 
 563. Battle of the Wilderness — May 5 and 6. — Grant had no 
 sooner crossed the Rapidan and moved down toward the region 
 where Hooker had met with such a sev^ere repulse at Chancel- 
 lorsville, than Lee fell furiously upon the army of the 
 Potomac, determined to drive it back across the river. Li 
 the two days' bloody battle which followed (May 5 and 6), 
 Grant himself says no greater fighting was ever witnessed on 
 the continent. The battle took place in what is known as 
 "The Wilderness" — a wild lonely region, where the country 
 for miles around is covered with a dense growth of cedar and 
 scrub oak so closely compacted as to prevent the free and 
 easy movement of troops. At the end of the two days' 
 struggle, Lee retired to his intrenchments, and Grant, 
 content to leave him there, began his famous series of 
 movements "by the left flank" with a view to forcing his 
 army in between Lee and his communication at Richmond. 
 Lee, detecting his movement, hastily forsook his intrench- 
 ments, and being perfectly familiar with the geography of 
 The AVilderness, soon planted himself squarely in front of 
 Grant's line at Spottsylvania Courthouse. 
 
 564. The Battle of Spottsylvania Courthouse — May 9-12. — 
 Here for three days a furious battle raged in a country as 
 wild as that in which the army had fought so desperately on 
 the 5th and 6th of May. The battle ended at nightfall on 
 the 12th of May, Lee falling back to a new position on the 
 following morning. For eight days — from May 5 to 12 — 
 the two armies had been constantly under fire, and all the 
 while Grant steadily pressing nearer Richmond. "The men 
 
 ' toiled all day at the work of slaughter, lay down to sleep at 
 night, and rose to resume the bloody labor in the morning, 
 
444 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 as men do in the ordinary peaceful business of life." The 
 dead and wounded on both sides numbered into the 
 thousands, and the ambulance train carrying the dying and 
 wounded loyal soldiers of the north, made one long contin- 
 uous line from Spottsylvania to Washington. 
 
 565. North Anna— May 23-25: Cold Harbor— June 3.— At 
 Spottsylvania, Grant rested a week on account of the rains. 
 On the 19th of May, he moved toward the North Anna 
 
 River, and in crossing 
 it divided his army into 
 two divisions. Lee at 
 once saw his advantage 
 and forced the confed- 
 erate army between the 
 now divided union forces. 
 Several encounters (May 
 23-25) between the con- 
 tending forces convinced 
 Grant that it would be 
 the part of wisdom to 
 withdraw north of the 
 stream. This he at once 
 did, but he was no sooner 
 across than he marched 
 southeasterly along the 
 course of the North Anna to its junction with the Pamun- 
 key River. He successfully crossed the latter stream in the 
 vicinity of Hanover, and at once pushed forward in a south- 
 easterly direction to Cold Harbor, ten miles from Rich- 
 mond. Here he again found Lee strongly intrenched. 
 On the morning of June 3, Grant gave battle, but he met 
 with a bloody repulse, his loss in killed and wounded 
 amounting to more than 5,000 men. 
 
 566. Change of Base from the York to the James River. — 
 Grant now gave up all hope of immediately taking Rich- 
 mond, and resolved to chano^e his base from White House on 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 Tlie Tirilderness District 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THK CIVIL WAR 445 
 
 the Pamunkey Eiver to City Point on the James — a similar 
 movement to the one accomplished by McOlellan in 1862. 
 While this movement was in progress under the direction of 
 a part of his army and the navy, Grant lay in front of the 
 intrenchments at Cold Harbor, and for ten days put 
 forth every effort to induce Lee to come out and fight him 
 in the open. Failing in this, he resumed his southward 
 march, reaching the James River on the 14th of June. 
 
 567. The Race for Petersburg. — Now began a race between 
 the two armies for the possession of Petersburg, — a point 
 twenty miles south of Eichmond, and an important railroad 
 center connecting with the confederate capital. Before 
 the union soldiers attacked, Petersburg was strongly rein- 
 forced by Lee, who now took personal command of the 
 defence of that city. An attempt was made by Meade on 
 the 18th of June to carry the confederate works by assault, 
 but Meade was repulsed with great loss of life. Grant, 
 anxious to save the lives of his men, finally resolved on 
 taking Petersburg by siege, thereby repeating the scenes 
 so familiar to him at the siege of Vicksburg. 
 
 IN THE SHENANDOAH VALLEY WIIH SHERIDAN 
 
 668. Early's Raids. — In the latter part of June, Lee, 
 hoping to draw off some of Grant's troops from the vicinity 
 of Richmond, sent General Jubal A. Early northward to 
 threaten Washington. On the 11th of July, Early arrived 
 before that city, but delayed his attack until the following 
 day. That night reinforcements came from Grant and the 
 city was saved. Early retired, but in the latter part of 
 July he again flew north — this time into the Shenandoah 
 valley. He drove the union forces from that valley and 
 swept across the Potomac into Maryland, — a portion of his 
 force advancing as far north as Chambersburg, Pennsyl- 
 vania. The Shenandoah valley was a rich field for foraging, 
 and since 1862 had been the scene of constant raids on the 
 part of the confederates. Grant, weary of annovajice from 
 
440 HISTORY OF THE UN^ITED STATES 
 
 that quarter, sent Sheridan with an army in quest of Early. 
 Sheridan soon appeared upon the scene and during the 
 month of September, destroyed or captured one half of 
 Early's army. Sheridan, acting under orders from Grant, now 
 proceeded to lay waste this splendid agricultural valley from 
 its source northward to the Potomac River, in order that it 
 could be no more used by confederate raiders as a base of 
 operations against Washington. So effectually was Sheri- 
 dan's work done that it was said at the time that even a 
 crow could not subsist in the Shenandoah valley without 
 carrying his rations with him. Unaware of this complete 
 devastation, Early once more made a raid northward into 
 the valley for the purpose of securing needed forage for Lee's 
 army at Richmond. 
 
 669. The Battle of Winchester — October 19. — On his arrival 
 in the valley, Early learned that the union army was en- 
 camped at Cedar Creek in the northern end of the valley. 
 On the night of the 18th of October, he succeeded in creep- 
 ing around this army, and, at early dawn of the morning of 
 the 19th, fell upon Sheridan's troops, taking them com- 
 pletely by surprise. General Wright, the commanding oflfir 
 cer on the ground, unable to stop the panic which ensued, 
 ordered a retreat to Winchester — twenty miles away. Sher- 
 idan, at the time the battle began, was at Winchester. 
 Having learned of Early's return to the valley, he fully sus- 
 pected what was the cause of the cannonading in the direc- 
 tion of Cedar Creek. Hastily calling for his horse, he 
 mounted and was off at full speed on that famous ride told 
 so thrillingly in verse by Thomas Buchanan Read in his 
 poem, "Sheridan's Ride." A little before the hour of noon 
 Sheridan arrived upon the scene, his steed white with foam. 
 As he faced his straggling troops he rose in his stirrups 
 mth the greeting — "Turn, boys, turn; we're going back!" 
 His presence acted like magic upon his troops — the lines 
 were instantly re-formed, and awaited Early's attack. Un- 
 der the personal leadership of Sheridan, his troops were 
 
AiaiAlIAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAil 
 
 447 
 
 invincible. Early was repulsed with such spirit that nearly 
 the whole of his army was destroyed. Never again did the 
 confederates attempt to renew the war in the Shenandoah 
 valley. 
 
 THE CLOSE OF THE YEAR 
 
 570. The Situation at the close of the year 1864 showed 
 that the confederacy was fast going to pieces. Grant still 
 kept up his siege at Petersburg, drawing the line tighter and 
 tighter. Sheridan had destroyed Early's army and laid 
 waste the valley of the Shenandoah. Thomas had broken 
 Hood's army at Nashville. Sherman was encamped at 
 Savannah after having cut the confederacy in twain a second 
 time. The Alabama, the last of the formidable confederate 
 cruisers, had ended her career of destruction and American 
 commerce could once more feel free on the high seas. The 
 great and powerful north was still as vigorous as ever, and 
 its armies were now being led by some of the greatest gen- 
 erals the world had ever known. The confederacy, now 
 twice severed, with all communication Avith the outside world 
 cut off, was practically starving to death. The end of the 
 great rebellion was near at hand. 
 
 IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1864 
 
 Name of 
 Battle 
 
 Wilderness . . 
 
 Resaca 
 
 Cold Harbor . 
 
 Atlanta 
 
 Petersburg. . . 
 Mobile Bay . . 
 Winchester . . . 
 Cedar Creek . . 
 Nashville 
 
 Place Where 
 Fought 
 
 Wilderness, Va. 
 Resaca, Ga. 
 Cold Harbor, Va. 
 Atlanta, Ga. 
 Petersburg, Va. 
 Mobile, Ala. 
 Winchester, Va. 
 Cedar Creek, Va. 
 Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 Date 
 
 May .5-6. . 
 May 14 15 
 June 3 . . . 
 July 22... 
 July 30... 
 Aug. .5 .. 
 Oct. 19 . . . 
 Oct. 19... 
 Dec. 15 . 
 
 Commanding 
 
 General of 
 Union Army 
 
 Lieut.-Gen. U. S. 
 
 Grant 
 Ma j. -Gen. W. T. 
 
 Sherman 
 Lieut.-Gen. U.S. 
 
 Grant 
 Maj.-Gen. W. T. 
 
 Sherman 
 Lieut.-Gen. U. S. 
 
 Grant 
 Rear-Admiral D. 
 
 G. Farragut 
 Maj.-Gen. P. H. 
 
 Sheridan 
 Maj.-Gen. P. H. 
 
 Sheridan 
 Maj.-Gen. G. H. 
 
 Thomas 
 
 Commanding 
 General of Con- 
 federate Army 
 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Gen. J E. John- 
 ston 
 Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Gen. J. E. John- 
 ston 
 Gen. R, E. Lee 
 
 Admiral F. Bu- 
 chanan 
 
 Lieut.-Gen. J. A. 
 Early 
 
 Lieut.-Gen. J. A. 
 Early 
 
 Gen. J. B. Hood 
 
448 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 THE YEAR 1865 
 THE EN'D OF THE WAR 
 
 571. Plan of Operations for 1865. — After having thrown 
 his army almost completely around Petersburg, Grant was 
 content to let the siege drag along, awaiting the result of 
 Sherman's march through Georgia, and Sheridan's campaign 
 in the Shenandoah valley. As the winter wore away, the 
 confederate prospects became more and more desperate, Lee 
 himself acknowledging that the rebellion was at the end of 
 its tether. As the year 1865 opened. Grant recalled Sheri- 
 dan from the Shenandoah valley, to move with his cavalry 
 in and around Eichmond, cutting the railroads and destroy- 
 ing supplies. He now planned two campaigns: (1) He 
 directed Sherman to move northward through the Carolinas 
 to the vicinity of Goldsboro, with a view of preventing rein- 
 forcements being sent to Lee, and also of preventing that 
 general's escape, should he fly south; (2) Grant himself, 
 with the army of the Potomac, now numbering 125,000 men, 
 resolved on capturing both Petersburg and Richmond, and 
 forcing the surrender of Lee's entire army. 
 
 I^ORTH AND SOUTH 
 
 572. Condition of the Confederacy. — The condition of the 
 confederacy at this time was pitiable in the extreme. Its 
 finances were in utter ruin; a billion dollars of debt had 
 been incurred without prospect of paying a cent thereof; 
 food products were scarce ; the condition of the people in 
 every locality as regards food supply was desperate. The 
 army was on short rations— some days Lee's army being 
 almost without food. The prices paid for food and clothing 
 and all articles of merchandise were fabulous. The con- 
 federate army was being deserted at that time by the 
 thousands. The age limits of service in the southern army 
 were now placed from fourteen to sixty, — a fact which 
 caused General Butler to remark that "the confederacy 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 449 
 
 was robbing both the cradle and the grave." The 
 spirit which had kept the rebellion alive was rapidly dis- 
 appearing. With starvation staring them in the face, 
 many in both the army and the country were ready to 
 give up the struggle. 
 
 573. Condition "of the Union. — At no time since^the begin- 
 ning of^the war did hopes run so high in the north ; all felt 
 that the end was in sight. While the draft had been 
 resorted to in the north to force men into the union 
 service, still the draft bill was of little value other than 
 that it served to quicken the more honorable and loyal 
 method of volunteer enlistment. Although Grant's losses 
 in the campaign against Richmond had been enormous, 
 yet his ranks were soon filled up, and the army of the 
 Potomac at the beginning of 1865 was in reality one of the 
 most formidable veteran armies ever gathered together in 
 the world. There had been years of gloom and despond- 
 ency, of fault-finding, of discontent ; there had been times 
 when the fate of the union hung in the balance; but all 
 this was passed, and the whole people, now that they had 
 time to reflect, began to realize that the nation owed its very 
 life to the genius and lofty patriotism of the patient, kindly- 
 natured, great-souled Lincoln. An effort had been put 
 forth by the malcontents in November, 1864, to defeat 
 his reelection, George B. McClellan being the candidate 
 against him. But the loyal north flocked to the support of 
 the administration, and Lincoln was reelected by the largest 
 vote which a presidential candidate had up to that time 
 received in the history of the republic. 
 
 574. Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address. — Once again, 
 on the ^4th of March, 1865, Lincoln stood on the east 
 steps of the national capitol and delivered his inaug- 
 ural address, closing with the memorable words, * 'Fondly 
 .do we hope — fervently do we pray — that this mighty 
 scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God 
 wills that it continue until all the wealth piled up by 
 
450 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 the bondman's two hundred fifty years of unrequited toil 
 shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with 
 the lash shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as 
 was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said, 
 'The judgments of God are true and righteous altogether.' 
 With malice towards none ; with charity for all ; with firm- 
 ness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us 
 strive to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's 
 wounds ; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, 
 and for his widow, and his orphan — to do all which may 
 achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among our- 
 selves, and with all nations." 
 
 sherma:n^'s last campaign 
 
 575. Sherman Marches North. — After resting his troops 
 at Savannah, Sherman, on the 1st day of February, resumed 
 his march. He now turned northward, through the 
 Carolinas, with Goldsboro, North Carolina, as his objective 
 point. His purpose was to devastate those states, carry the 
 hardships of war to the very door of their inhabitants, and 
 destroy the southern railroads leading into Eichmond, — 
 thereby cutting off Lee's army from all chance of securing 
 supplies from the south. He arrived at Columbia, the 
 capitol of South Carolina, on the 17th of February, and 
 found the city in flames. He at once directed his troops to 
 assist in extinguishing the fire, but before the conflagration 
 could be checked, all public buildings and workshops, and 
 many large business blocks had been swept away. On Feb- 
 ruary 18, Sherman received word that Charleston had been 
 evacuated. 
 
 576. Johnston's Army Repulsed. — While encamped at 
 Columbia, Sherman learned that Lee had sent a detachment 
 of his troops south to check the union advance, and further, 
 that General Joseph E. Johnston had been recalled to take 
 command of these troops. He accordingly moved rapidly 
 forward toward Goldsboro. On March IG, he came upon a 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOL]^ AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 451 
 
 part of Johnston's army near 
 Averysboro, and defeated it. On 
 the 19th of March, he met John- 
 ston's whole force at Bentonville, 
 and the confederate army again 
 went down to defeat. On the 
 23d of March, Sherman reached 
 his objective point at Goldsboro, 
 four hundred twenty-five miles 
 from Savannah, where he was 
 joined by reinforcements under 
 General Schofield, sent in from 
 the Atlantic coast by Grant. 
 
 N^O R T i-l C A R O^ 1 N A °< 
 I \A vfirv abort) • ^ 
 
 itOllV 
 
 j^Iiei'tiian^H Marcli Xortli. 
 
 grant's last campaign 
 
 577. Fort Steadman and Five Forks. — In the meantime 
 Grant had been impatient to force the evacuation of the 
 two besieged cities. By the last of March, he was ready for 
 his final movement against the intrenchments at Petersburg, 
 Meanwhile, Lee had been planning to escape, but before 
 doing so he resolved to strike one blow, which he hoped 
 would aid in his escape. Accordingly, on the 25th of 
 March he assailed the union line at Fort Steadman, but in 
 the attempt he signally failed, being repulsed with fearful 
 loss. Sheridan a week later (April 1) advanced to Five 
 Forks, in Lee's rear, south and west from Petersburg. Here 
 Sheridan was furiously attacked, but after a hard-fought 
 battle, he forced nearly five thousand hungry and starving 
 confederate soldiers to lay down their arms and become 
 
 prisoners of war. 
 
 578. Petersburg and Richmond 
 Fall. — On the night of April 1, 
 Grant issued the order and all 
 the union batteries began a gen- 
 eral bombardment of the conf ed- 
 erate works. The heavy 
 
 Appomattox C. 
 • -^~'^- — ) / 
 
 V^l R G I N 
 
 Petersburg 
 "Fhre ForksV- 
 X.^_Fort Ste"!! 
 L.ast Battles. 
 
452 HISTOKY OF THR UXITED STATES 
 
 cannonading was kept up until five o'clock on the 
 morning of April 2, when Grant ordered a general assault 
 upon the confederate left. The resistance was stubborn, 
 but nothing could withstand the heroic charges of the 
 union troops. Both Petersburg and Richmond were doomed 
 to fall. Lee telegraphed from Petersburg to Jefferson Davis 
 at Richmond that the two cities must be immediately evacu- 
 ated. Davis received the dispatch while in his pew at 
 church, and hastily flew south. He was afterward captured 
 in Georgia and sent as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe, to be 
 released on bail two years later, and, through northern 
 leniency, never brought to trial. Lee, gathering together 
 his now depleted army, sought safety in flight, hoping still 
 to unite with Johnston's army and defeat Sherman's victori- 
 ous western troops ere Grant could come to his assistance. 
 The following day both Petersburg and Richmond were 
 entered by the national troops. 
 
 579. Lee Surrenders at Appomattox — April 9. — Grant 
 immediately ordered Sheridan to cut oft' Lee's retreat, and 
 he himself followed close upon the heels of the confederate 
 army. Much fighting was indulged in between the fleeing 
 and the pursuing armies. Lee was finally brought to bay 
 near Appomattox Courthouse, where, on the 9th of April, 
 1865, he surrendered his entire army as prisoners of war. 
 
 By the terms of the surrender, Lee's men were to lay down 
 their arms and give their pledge that they would not serve 
 against the national government until regularly exchanged. 
 OflRcers were permitted to retain their side-arms, private 
 horses, and baggage. Grant also agreed that all privates 
 in the cavalry and artillery should be permitted to take 
 home their own horses since they would *'need them for the 
 spring plowing." Lee feelingly spoke of the pitiable con- 
 dition of his men, stating that they had been two days with- 
 out food. Whereupon, the magnanimous Grant at once 
 sent a large drove of oxen and a wagon-train of provisions, 
 as a free will gift to the confederate soldiers. 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 453 
 
 Within a few days Johnston yielded to Sherman in North 
 Carolina, and soon all organized resistance to the authority 
 of the national government ceased. Secession had run its 
 course; the war of the rebellion had reached its end! 
 
 IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1865 
 
 Name of 
 Battle 
 
 Fort Fisher. 
 Mobile 
 
 Benton ville . 
 Five Forks. . 
 
 Appomattox 
 Campaign 
 
 Place Where 
 Fought 
 
 Fort Fisher, N.C. 
 Mobile, Ala. 
 
 Bentonville, N.C 
 Five Forks, Va. 
 Richmond, Va. 
 
 Date 
 
 Jan. 15 
 
 March 17- 
 April 12... 
 
 March 19-21 
 
 April 1 
 
 April 9 
 
 Commanding 
 General of 
 Union Army 
 
 Commanding 
 General of Con- 
 federate Army 
 
 Maj.-Gen. A. H, 
 
 Terry 
 Maj.-Gen. E. R, 
 
 Canby 
 
 Maj.-Gen. W. T. 
 
 Sherman 
 Maj.-Gen. P. H. 
 
 Sheridan 
 Lieut. -Gen. U.S., Gen. R. E. Lee 
 
 Grant 
 
 Gen. B. Bragg 
 
 Maj.-Gen. D. 
 Maury 
 
 H. 
 
 Gen. J. E. John- 
 ston 
 
 Maj.-Gen. G. E. 
 Pickett 
 
 ASSASSINATION OF LINCOLN 
 
 580. After Appomattox. — Although the event had been 
 anticipated, the news of Lee's surrender passed through 
 the loyal states like an electric shock. The president issued 
 a proclamation of thanksgiving, and the whole nation 
 responded as with one voice. During all the trying period of 
 the civil war, a statesman, — such as the nation had not known 
 since the days of Washington, — had safely conducted the 
 affairs of state through the most perilous crisis in the history 
 of the republic. No greater American has yet lived than 
 the tender-hearted, broad-gauged, generous Lincoln. His 
 famous words, uttered in 1858, now seemed like prophecy — 
 *'a house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe that 
 this government cannot endure permanently half slave and 
 half free; I do not expect the union to be dissolved; I do 
 not expect the house to fall ; but I do expect it w^ill cease to 
 be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other." 
 
 Now that the union had been restored, and the country had 
 become "all free," thoughtful and anxious men in every 
 section of the republic looked to the great Lincoln to point 
 the way to the restoration of the southern states to their old 
 
454 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 position in the union. He had been born in the south, and 
 as an old-time Whig had associated much with southern 
 leaders. He knew the temper of the southern people as no 
 northern man could know it. On the afternoon of the 14th 
 of April he dismissed his cabinet meeting with the words, 
 *'We must now begin to act in the interest of peace." 
 
 581. Death of Lincoln. — On that very night of the now 
 historic 14th of April, 1865, the country was startled by a 
 message flashed over the wires from Washington that Presi- 
 dent Lincoln, while in attendance upon a performance at 
 Ford's theater, had been shot by John Wilkes Booth, — a 
 brilliant, though dissolute actor of the national capital. 
 The president was immediately removed from his box at the 
 theater to a house across the street, where the whole nation 
 anxiously awaited the verdict of the surgeons who had been 
 summoned to his bedside. That verdict fell like a blow 
 upon the country, — the wound was pronounced fatal ! On 
 the following day the president passed away, surrounded by 
 members of his family, his cabinet, and many other anxious 
 watchers. As the great Emancipator breathed his last the 
 big-hearted secretary of war, Edwin M. Stanton, sobbed aloud, 
 *'Now he belongs to the ages". . . . "There lies the most per- 
 fect ruler of men the world has ever seen." This eloquent 
 tribute of the great war secretary, spoken in tears at the bed- 
 side of his dead chief, is to-day the final verdict of mankind. 
 
 682. After Lincoln's Death. — This startling event came 
 close upon the welcome news from Appomattox. National 
 joy was thus suddenly changed to national sorrow. The 
 whole nation mourned the loss of 
 
 The kindly — earnest, brave, foreseeing man, 
 Sagacious, patient, dreading praise, not blame, 
 New birth of our new soil, the first American.* 
 
 But the wretch who had committed the cowardly deed was 
 not to escape punishment, for the nation 
 
 Wept with the passion of angry grief.* 
 * Lowell. 
 
ABEAHAM LINCOLK AND THE CIVIL WAR 465 
 
 Booth fled, but was soon brought to bay in a barn, near 
 an old farmhouse in Maryland, where, on refusing to sur- 
 render, he was not taken alive. A conspiracy was soon 
 unearthed in Washington. On the night of the president's 
 assassination an attempt was made upon the life of Secretary 
 of State Seward, which was foiled by the vigorous action of 
 Seward's son, who, in a hand-to-hand encounter, ejected 
 from his father's sick chamber, one Payne, a self-confessed 
 member of this band of conspirators. Payne and three 
 others of the conspirators were afterwards hanged, while a 
 few more who were found guilty on the charge of aiding 
 the plot were imprisoned for life. 
 
 THE COST OF THE WAR 
 
 583. In Men and in Treasure. — During the war more than 
 2,200,000 men enlisted on the union side and half that num- 
 ber on the confederate side. Nearly 110,000 union soldiers 
 and sailors were killed, or died from wounds received in bat- 
 tle. The total number of deaths from all causes amounted 
 to more than 360,000 on the union side; to about 300,000 on 
 the confederate. It will thus be seen that on both sides a 
 total of 3,700,000 men were under arms on the continent 
 within a period of four years, — from April, 1861, to April, 
 1865. Within that same four years 660,000 men laid down 
 their lives in the camp or on the field of battle. 
 
 The total cost of the war to the national government was 
 $3,250,000,000. The cost of the war to the seceded states 
 was at least $1,750,000,000, making a total war expenditure 
 in the four years of five billion dollars. In the last year of 
 the war, the total amount appropriated by congress for the 
 maintenance and support of the union army was $516,214,- 
 131, — an average of nearly one and one-half million dollars 
 per day. 
 
 684. The Finances of the War. — To raise the vast amount of 
 money necessary to carry on the war, the national government 
 resorted to two methods — taxation and loans. The war tar- 
 
456 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 iffs, sometimes called the Morrill Tariffs, were first laid in 
 1861. Each succeeding session of congress, from 1862 to 
 1865, passed some amendment to the original bill. Congress 
 also levied internal taxes, — upon incomes and salaries; upon 
 trades and callings; upon nearly all home manufactures; 
 and upon the gross receipts of railroad, steamboat, and 
 express companies. A stamp-tax was also laid upon all legal 
 and public documents. This system of direct and indirect 
 taxes produced an annual revenue of about $300,000,000. 
 
 This amount not being sufficient to meet the enormous 
 expenses of the government, the secretary of the treasury 
 now began to borrow money on the credit of the United 
 States. For these loans government bonds were issued bear- 
 ing interest at various rates and payable at the option of the 
 government after a certain number of years. Treasury 
 notes, too, were issued to the amount of nearly a half billion 
 dollars. This paper money became known as the ''green- 
 back currency." To aid the government in carrying on its 
 financial operations, congress established and perfected the 
 national banking system. 
 
 PROGEESS DURING THE WAR 
 
 585. Improvements in Arms. — The war called forth the 
 inventive genius of the north. The improvements in fire 
 arms, heavy cannon, explosives, torpedoes, and all that goes to 
 make war terrible and frightful, marked an epoch in the 
 manufacture of the implements and munitions of war. The 
 success of the Monitor revolutionized the construction of the 
 navies of the world. The practical application of the tele- 
 graph on the field of battle was demonstrated. The methods 
 of feeding, clothing, and transporting large armies excited the 
 admiration of the military experts sent from Europe to wit- 
 ness the progress of the war. 
 
 586. The Sanitary and Christian Commissions. — Through 
 the loyal women of the north, the suffering and hardships of 
 army life were lessened. Nurses were sent into every hos- 
 
ABRAHAM LIXCOLN AXD THE CIVIL WAR 457 
 
 pital and army camp to look after the sick, and care for the 
 wounded. The Sanitary Commission and the Christian 
 Commission did a work unequaled by any similar body in the 
 history of war. Nearly twenty million dollars were raised 
 and expended, without waste, by these splendid organiza- 
 tions, which sent vast quantities of needed supplies to the 
 army. Through their help thousands of soldiers were better 
 fed and more warmly clothed. Delicate food was provided 
 for the sick and ailing, and greater comforts placed in the 
 army hospitals. Through the Christian Commission thou- 
 sands of Bibles and large quantities of high-class literature 
 were distributed among the soldiers. This commission in 
 every way aided in securing and maintaining a high moral 
 standard among the men who composed the armies of the 
 republic. Nor was the work of these two commissions 
 devoted solely to the armies in the field. The widow and 
 the orphan were tenderly cared for and comforted. 
 
 587. Growth: New States. — While the south was devas- 
 tated by the ravages of war, the progress of the northern 
 states was steadily maintained. Two new states were 
 admitted to the union, — West Virginia coming in in 1863 as 
 the thirty-sixth state, and Nevada in 1864 as the thirty- 
 seventh. It will thus be seen that the country grew in spite 
 of the war. Lincoln recognized this on the very night of his 
 second election, when the returns showed that the voting 
 strength of the country in 1864 was greater than it was in 
 1860. During the decade in which the war occurred, the 
 population of the country increased over seven million, and 
 the total wealth of the country leaped from sixteen billions 
 to more than thirty billions of dollars. Manufactures had 
 thrived ; internal commerce had prospered ; the great west 
 had steadily grown. War and national growth were carried 
 on side by side. While granting appropriations to meet the 
 expenses of the war, congress at the same time passed a lib- 
 eral homestead act, and made large grants of land to the 
 Union Pacific railroad, — which line was soon to join the 
 
458 HISTORY OF THE U2!^ITED STATES 
 
 Atlantic to the Pacific and make it possible for one to 
 ride from ocean to ocean across the continent. 
 
 THE UNION" ARMY DISBANDS 
 
 588. The Grand Review at Washington. — When Lee sur- 
 rendered, April 9, 1865, there were more than a million union 
 soldiers under arms on the continent. Many Europeans pre- 
 dicted that the government could not peaceably disband such 
 a large force of men. They urged that when the soldiers 
 were once released from''the restraint of army discipline, riot 
 and bloodshed would follow in every section of the union. 
 The people of the European countries, with their large 
 standing armies, could not appreciate the difference between 
 a standing army maintained by force of government, and a 
 volunteer citizen soldiery maintained by patriotism. Europe's 
 fears were altogether groundless. By November 1, 1865, 
 fully 800,000 men had been mustered out of service, *' with- 
 out a fancy in any mind that there was anything else to do." 
 However, "before the great army melted away into the 
 greater body of citizens, the soldiers enjoyed one final 
 triumph, — a march through the capital undisturbed by death 
 or danger, under the eyes of the highest commanders, mili- 
 tary and civilian, and the representatives of the people whose 
 nationality they had saved." 
 
 For two whole days (May 23 and 24) the army of the 
 Potomac, "which for four years had been the living bulwark 
 of the national capital," and the army of the west, which 
 had twice cut the confederacy in twain, marched in grand 
 review along the full length of Pennsylvania Avenue, — the 
 principal street of the national capital. On a platform in 
 front of the White House stood Andrew Johnson, — made 
 president by the sudden taking off of Lincoln, — and a large 
 number of men prominent in army and public life, as well 
 as many foreign representatives from the diplomatic corps. 
 No mightier martial host was ever gathered together on the 
 continent. These men within a few short months were to 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE CIVIL WAR 459 
 
 be engaged in the peaceful walks of life — to take up life's 
 struggle where they had left it off four years before. The 
 memories of the war, however, were not to be forgotten but 
 to be kept alive in the "camps of peace" of the Grand Army 
 of the Republic, organized the very first year following the 
 close of the war. 
 
 THE GRAND ARMY OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 689. The Grand Army. — The motto of the Grand Army 
 of the Republic is "Friendship, Charity, and Loyalty," and 
 all that these words imply, toward the comrades in arms and 
 their country which they saved. The first post of the Grand 
 Army of the Republic was organized at Decatur, Illinois, by 
 Major B. F. Stephenson, of the 14th Illinois infantry, xlpril 
 6, 1866. All the posts in a state constitute a department. 
 The first national convention met in Indianapolis, November 
 20, 1866, and perfected the national organization, afterward 
 known as the National Encampment Grand Army of the 
 Republic. All honorably discharged union sailors and sol- 
 diers of good moral character of the war are eligible to mem- 
 bership. The second meeting of the National Encampment 
 was at Philadelphia in January, 1868, where GeneralJohn A. 
 Logan was elected commander-in-chief. He ordered May 
 30 to be observed as Memorial Day for the purpose of strew- 
 ing with flowers the graves of comrades who][died in defence 
 of their country. Memorial Day, sometimes erroneously 
 called "Decoration Day," is a legal holiday in many states. 
 The rules and regulations of the Grand Army of the Repub- 
 lic expressly forbid the use of the organization for partisan 
 purposes. 
 
 ASSOCIATED ORGANIZATIONS 
 
 590. The First Organization of Women for active coopera- 
 tion with the Grand Army of the Republic was at Portland, 
 Maine, in 1869. Various societies of women with patriotic 
 objects perfected a state organization at Fitchburg, Massachu- 
 
460 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 setts, in 1879, under the title Women's Belief Corps. All loyal 
 women of good moral character are eligible to membership. 
 The Ladies of the Grand Army of the Eepublic, organized 
 in 1881, is composed only of women who are the wives, 
 sisters, mothers or daughters of honorably discharged union 
 soldiers, sailors, or marines who served in the war. Each 
 has a local, a state, and a national organization. Their 
 object is to assist the Grand Army of the Republic in its high 
 and holy mission and encourage and sympathize with them 
 in their noble work of charity; to extend needful aid to 
 members in sickness and distress ; to aid sick soldiers, sailors, 
 and marines ; to do all in their power to alleviate suffering. 
 Other associated organizations of the Grand Army of the 
 Republic, but not subordinate to it, are the Sons of Veterans, 
 the Union Veteran Legion, Union Veterans' Union, Union 
 Ex-prisoners of War Association, the Loyal Legion, and the 
 Veterans' Rights Union. The veterans of the civil war are 
 rapidly answering the last roll call. Soon taps will be 
 sounded in every post hall in this land. History will record 
 that no other organizations on earth can lay claim to such 
 glorious and precious memories. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 FROM JOHNSON TO HAYES 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 1865-1877 
 
 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 REPUBLICAN: 1665-1869 
 
 591. Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth president of the 
 United States, was the son of poor white people living in 
 North Carolina. At four years of age he was an orphan ; at 
 ten he was apprenticed to a tailor. Being an ambitious boy, 
 he learned to read with the help of one of the workmen. Writ- 
 ing, however, he did not yet aspire to, and it was not until 
 after his marriage that he learned the art, his wife being his 
 teacher. At sixteen he set up as a tailor on his own account. 
 Settling in east Tennessee, he became the leader of the 
 Tennessee Democrats, who opposed the rule of the slave- 
 holding aristocracy of the state. In 1835 he was elected to 
 the state legislature ; in 1841 he became state senator; and in 
 1843, congressman, holding that office for ten years. He 
 then became governor of Tennessee, serving two terms. In 
 1857 he was elected United States senator, and proved him- 
 self a bold and active enemy of slavery. In 1862 President 
 Lincoln made him military governor of Tennessee; in 1864 
 the Republicans nominated him for vice-president, though he 
 was still a Democrat, and in 1865 he became president. 
 
 Johnson was a man of lofty principles and pure morals, and 
 had a strong and keen intellect. He was, however, obstinate, 
 quick-tempered, and lacking in the essential element of tact. 
 His character accounts for the difficulties he met while pres- 
 ident. 
 
 461 
 
4G2 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 After having been president he continued active in politics, 
 and though several times defeated for office, became United 
 States senator once more in 1875. 
 
 Johnson was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, December 
 29, 1808, and died near Carter's Station, Tennessee, July 
 29, 1875. 
 
 592. The Problems. — A prolonged war always leaves a 
 country in a disorganized condition, especially in regard to 
 its finances and its business life, and tends to breed corrup- 
 tion in public affairs. The war between the states had 
 not only these effects, but one other result far different 
 from these. It left the southern states ruined and con- 
 quered, without governments and without the materials from 
 which to erect governments. It was impossible to turn the 
 states over to those who had just been fighting against the 
 union. If the fruits of the war were not to be lost, it 
 was felt that the national government must take charge 
 of these states for a time. But that, said many, was 
 contrary to the fundamental idea of the union, that 
 the states must manage their own affairs. In this diffi- 
 culty, many people declared that the southern states no 
 longer existed as states, but simply as territories of the 
 United States ; others asserted that they were still states, 
 but without the rights and functions of states, and that the 
 central government could impose conditions at their restora- 
 tion. This last was the theory generally adopted. The 
 process of restoring the seceded states to their old position 
 was called reconstruction. 
 
 Then came other questions: On what terms should they 
 come back? Should these terms be easy or harsh? Who had 
 the right to dictate what they should be, the president or 
 congress? Finally and most difficult and most important of 
 all, what situation was the colored man to occupy? 
 
 693. Thirteenth Amendment. — In regard to the colored 
 man, one point had been quickly settled. An amendment 
 to the constitution had been proposed by congress in Feb- 
 
FROM JOHXSON TO HAYES 463 
 
 ruary, 1865, abolishing slavery forever. So the colored man 
 was not to be a slave. But was he to have privileges and 
 powers such as the white man possessed? Was he to vote? 
 Was he to hold office? Or was he to be kept in a condi- 
 tion of inferiority, though free? 
 
 594. Beginning of Reconstruction. — President Lincoln had 
 early taken up the problem of reconstruction. He believed 
 that the president could restore the states to the union without 
 the interference of congress, and acted on that supposition. In 
 December, 1863, he issued a proclamation granting pardon 
 and restoring their property to those who gave up secession 
 and swore to defend the constitution and all the laws and 
 proclamations emancipating the slaves. Only the most 
 prominent leaders were refused these conditions. Lincoln 
 then said that when one-tenth of the qualified citizens who 
 had voted in 1860 should take the oath, and set up state gov- 
 ernments, the president would recognize these as the lawful 
 governments of the states. Thus reconstruction would be 
 achieved, and by the president alone. Under this plan 
 Arkansas was reconstructed in 1863; and Louisiana and 
 Tennessee in 1864. Congress, however, did not agree with 
 the president that he had the power to reconstruct states. 
 On the contrary, it claimed that power for itself. It there- 
 fore opposed his plans, and refused to admit senators and 
 representatives from the newly-constituted states. 
 
 595. Johnson's Policy. — Naturally, Johnson adopted Lin- 
 coln's plans, and since congress was not in session when he 
 became president, and would not be for eight months, he 
 could do as he pleased for that period of time. He therefore 
 issued a proclamation of pardon in May, 1865, very much like 
 that issued by President Lincoln. The reconstructed states, 
 however, must ratify the thirteenth amendment abolishing 
 slavery. The conditions being accepted by the southern 
 states, excepting only Texas, he proceeded in accordance with 
 Lincoln's ideas, to reconstruct seven more states, Texas 
 being the only one now left out. The acceptance of the 
 
464 HISTORY or THE UNITED STATES 
 
 thirteenth amendment by these states made it part of the 
 constitution, and it was declared in force December 18, 1865. 
 
 696. Legislation against the Freedmen. — Several of the 
 southern states passed laws virtually restoring slavery. 
 Thus, in Virginia, all persons who would not work for 
 the wages commonly paid were declared vagrants, and 
 could be forced to work; in Mississippi colored orphans 
 and minors without means of support were to be hired out to 
 masters until they became of age. This was slavery for that 
 length of time. That there might be no mistaking the 
 intention of the legislature, the master was given the right 
 to whip the servant. Colored persons without employment 
 were declared vagrants, and were to be arrested and fined. If 
 unable to pay the fine, as they undoubtedly would be, they 
 were to be hired out for a term of service. They were 
 forbidden to carry arms or to preach the gospel with- 
 out a license, and if they did so were fined. In South 
 Carolina a similar code of laws was enacted, but additions 
 were made to it — no freedman could have a trade or 
 occupation other than agriculture or contract service without 
 paying a special license of from SlO to $100. 
 
 597. The Congressional Theory. — Congress met in Decem- 
 ber, 1866. Most of the Republican members were strongly 
 opposed to the president's reconstruction ideas. They 
 were displeased, too, at the acts of the new southern legisla- 
 tures. Were the southern states to be permitted to accept 
 the thirteenth amendment, and then in mockery trample it 
 under foot by making laws utterly nullifying its provisions? 
 Assuredly not, replied the Eepublicans, who refused to rec- 
 ognize Johnson's work, and would not allow the senators 
 and representatives from the southern states to take their 
 seats. 
 
 Led by Representative Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, 
 and Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, the radical 
 Republicans began to prepare a reconstruction plan of their 
 own. They made good their right to do so by declaring that 
 
ANDREW JOHNSON 
 THADDKXJS STEVENS 
 
 CHARLES STJMNER 
 WILLIAM H. SEWARD 
 
 Reco:n^structio]s Leaders 
 
FROM JOHNSON TO HAYES 465 
 
 the states out of the union were in the condition of terri- 
 tories, and so could be readmitted only by congressional 
 action. Hence the president on his own authority had no 
 power whatever to restore those states. Acting on this 
 theory, the radical Eepublicans declared that the southern 
 states should not be considered as in the union until congress 
 assented. 
 
 598. The Freedmen's Bureau. — The Republicans then 
 proceeded to thwart the nullifying laws passed by the 
 southerners. The federal troops, which were still in the 
 south, were ordered to stay there and protect the colored 
 man in his new-found liberty. This was effective. Congress 
 then, in February, 1866, passed a bill continuing the Freed- 
 men's Bureau, which had been created in 1865 to take care 
 of sick and helpless freedmen, and to render assistance of all 
 kinds to the colored people. The president vetoed the 
 bill. In July congress passed it again, and when the presi- 
 dent again vetoed it, they passed it over his veto. This was 
 a fatal blow to the president's reconstruction plans, for it 
 proved that his opponents had possession of two-thirds of 
 both houses and could always pass bills over the veto. 
 
 599. The Fourteenth Amendment. — Congress then cleared 
 the way for its plan of reconstruction by passing a Civil 
 Rights Bill, which gave the freedmen the same rights to *'life, 
 liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" which the whites pos- 
 sessed, but did not include political rights, such as the 
 privilege of voting or holding office. The president vetoed 
 the bill, declaring that it was unconstitutional. Congress 
 immediately passed it over the veto. To avoid the objection 
 of unconstitutionality, however, and to make certain that it 
 should never be repealed, the Republicans resolved to force 
 the Civil Rights Bill into the constitution. Consequently a 
 fourteenth amendment was proposed. This enacted that 
 "all persons born or naturalized in the United States" were 
 citizens of the United States and of the state in which they 
 lived. No state was to diminish in any way the civil rights 
 
466 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 of any citizen. The federal courts were to be open to all cit- 
 izens. Thus the colored man would be a citizen of the United 
 States, and could appeal to the national courts against such 
 laws as those passed by the reconstructed states. The 
 amendment did not compel the states to grant the privilege 
 of voting. That the state could grant or refuse, but if 
 refused, the representation of the state in congress was to be 
 reduced in proportion to the number of those who could not 
 vote. The third section of the amendment made it impos- 
 sible for those confederate officers who had been in the serv- 
 ice of the United States or of a state before the war to vote 
 or to hold office. This restricted the president's pardoning 
 power, and would also throw government in the scJuthern 
 states into the hands of union men and the freedmen. The 
 fourth section guaranteed the debt of the United States, and 
 at the same time made all debts of the confederacy null and 
 void. These provisions were the same as those which had 
 been put in the Civil Rights Bill. The fourteenth amend- 
 ment was declared in force July 28, 1868. 
 
 600. The Congressional Election of 1866. — The election of 
 representatives to congress in 1860 was looked forward to as 
 decisive as to the will of the northern people in regard to the 
 fourteenth amendment and of the struggle between president 
 and congress. If the people sided with the president they 
 would elect representatives favorable to his plan ; if not, they 
 would elect representatives favorable to the congressional plan. 
 The campaign was very warm, and the president made most 
 undignified and violent speeches against his opponents, abus- 
 ing congress, asserting that certain congressmen were trying 
 to destroy the constitution, and more than hinting that the 
 same individuals wished to have him assassinated. Such 
 foolish and venomous talk made him contemptible, and 
 helped materially to ruin the cause which he championed. 
 As a consequence, the new congress was to be more bitterly 
 opposed to the president than the old one. 
 
 601. Congress Limits Johnson's Powers.— While the elec- 
 
FKOM JOHNSOK TO HAYES 467 
 
 tions were taking place, all the southern states, excepting 
 only Tennessee, had contemptuously rejected the fourteenth 
 amendment, which could not become part of the constitu- 
 tion without their assent. Congress at once admitted Ten- 
 nessee to the union, and decreed that the other ten seceded 
 states could not come back until they had ratified the amend- 
 ment. The Republicans then carried out a program which 
 put them in complete control. In the first place, the con- 
 gress just elected was authorized to meet on the 4th of 
 March, 1867, instead of in December. This would give the 
 president no chance whatever to carry out measures which 
 congress opposed. The Republicans next passed the Tenure 
 of Office Act, by which the president was forbidden to dismiss 
 any government official without the consent of the senate; 
 they then enacted a third measure which made General 
 Grant supreme as head of the army, so that the president's 
 control over the troops was taken away. 
 
 602. The Completed Reconstruction Measures. — The con- 
 gress elected in 1866 met on the 4th of March, 1867, and at 
 once completed the reconstruction measures. The ten 
 southern states still outside the union were divided into five 
 military districts, over each of which a general was placed to 
 carry out by military force the policy of congress. The 
 measures of reconstruction were then detailed. The state 
 governments recognized by the president were set aside; all 
 citizens of the southern states, white or colored, not excluded 
 by the fourteenth amendment, were to elect delegates to state 
 conventions. The conventions would draw up new constitu- 
 tions. These constitutions, however, must allow the freedmen 
 to vote. The constitution was next to be ratified by the same 
 voters who had elected the delegates to the convention. 
 The state was then ready to enter the union, but before it 
 came in, it must adopt the fourteenth amendment. Until 
 that was done the military officers would remain in control. 
 
 603. Reconstruction Carried Out. — This plan put the power 
 in the southern states into the hands of southern union men 
 
468 HISTORY or the uxited states 
 
 and the freedmen. The result was that the conventions in Ar- 
 kansas, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Louisiana, 
 and Florida accepted the conditions of congress, approved 
 the fourteenth amendment, and were recognized as being 
 states with full state powers. The work was completed in 
 June, 1868. Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas refused to accept 
 the fourteenth amendment; Georgia, after accepting it, 
 passed laws against the colored man, and was refused admis- 
 sion. These four states, therefore, remained subject to mili- 
 tary rule. 
 
 604. Military Rule in the South. — The military govern- 
 ments set up by congress had absolute power in the south- 
 ern states until reconstruction was complete. The generals 
 in command made regulations; dismissed and appointed civil 
 officers at pleasure; set aside the laws and institutions of the 
 various states, and put military courts in the place of the 
 civil courts. The colored people were protected in their 
 rights and encouraged to vote and hold office. 
 
 605. The New Governments. — Where reconstruction was 
 completed, the new governments usually fell into the hands 
 of the most incapable and least competent classes of the 
 population. Not infrequently white men, contemptuously 
 called "scalawags," men without property or character, and 
 without experience of political life, controlled the colored vote 
 to enable them to secure the offices and plunder the country. 
 They were joined by a number of northern men of much more 
 ability and political experience, but most of whom came to 
 the south to make fortunes. These people were called 
 *' carpet-baggers," because in many cases they brought all 
 their worldly possessions with them in a carpet-bag. Some 
 of them were honest and desired to help the south, but many 
 were neither honest nor helpful. Legislatures made up of 
 these classes voted vast sums of money to themselves and 
 their friends. In South Carolina a mixed legislature fur- 
 nished the statehouse in magnificent style : clocks cost $480 
 each; mirrors, $750, and each member was voted a china 
 
FEOM JOHNSON^ TO HAYES 469 
 
 cuspidor worth $8. At the end of each session all this 
 magnificent furniture mysteriously disappeared, and the 
 legislative halls had to be refurnished at equal expense. 
 Many of the legislators, and even many of the judges, could 
 neither read nor write. Some of these legislatures often 
 voted money lavishly — even recklessly. In four years and a 
 half the debt of Louisiana was increased by $106,000,000. 
 Taxes became so oppressive that many impoverished southern 
 planters could not pay them and had to part with the old 
 plantations. 
 
 606. The Impeachment of President Johnson. — Poor Presi- 
 dent Johnson, left in an office without power, and, on 
 account of the Tenure of Office Act, denied the pleasure 
 of getting rid of officials who were obnoxious to him, 
 struggled angrily and vainly against the will of the majority 
 in congress. Finally, he resolved to dismiss Secretary Stan- 
 ton, in spite of the Tenure Act, which forbade his dismiss- 
 ing any official without the consent of the senate. Hereupon 
 Stanton appealed to the house of representatives, which, on 
 February 24, 1868, determined to impeach the president. 
 The impeachment was brought before the senate, with the 
 chief justice, for this purpose, its presiding officer. On May 
 16 a vote was reached on the article charging Johnson with 
 having broken the Tenure of Office Act. It was then found 
 that two-thirds of the senate would not declare the president 
 guilty, the vote being 35 for conviction to 19 against. Here- 
 upon the impeachment failed. This trial produced the 
 greatest excitement both in congress and throughout the 
 country, and provoked much bitterness of party spirit. 
 
 607. The State of Nebraska.— On March 1, 1867, Nebraska 
 was admitted as the thirty-seventh state. The constitution 
 of the new state not only granted freedom to all men, but 
 the franchise to the negro. 
 
 608. Mexico and the Monroe Doctrine. — During the civil 
 war France had picked a quarrel with the republic of 
 Mexico, and Napoleon III. had sent an expedition to that 
 
470 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 country in 1862. Once there, he refused to withdraw his 
 army, and finally set up the luckless Archduke Maximilian 
 of Austria as emperor of Mexico. The United States pro- 
 tested at once, but could do nothing. When the war was 
 over, however. Secretary Seward hinted to the French min- 
 ister that the Monroe Doctrine was being violated by the 
 constant presence of French troops in Mexico. Matters now 
 wore a different face, and Napoleon recognized the situation 
 and withdrew. The Emperor Maximilian, however, decided 
 to remain. Thereupon the Mexicans took him captive, and 
 on the 19th of June, 1867, executed him as a traitor. 
 
 609. The Purchase of Alaska.— In 1867 the United States 
 added Alaska to its territory by purchase from Russia. The 
 credit of the annexation is Secretary Seward's. At the time 
 there was much ridicule of the proceeding, and people were 
 inclined to be indignant at the expenditure of over $7,000,- 
 000 for a barren expanse of territory. Time, however, seems 
 to have proved Seward's wisdom, since the mineral resources 
 of the territory are of immense value. 
 
 610. Election of 1868. — The Republicans were now tlirough 
 with Johnson for good or ill. In 1868 they nominated Gen- 
 eral Grant for president. Horatio Seymour of New York 
 was the Democratic candidate. Grant was easily elected, 
 receiving 214 electoral votes to Seymour's 80, 
 
 grant's ADMINISTRATION 
 
 REPUBLICAX: 1S69-1S77 
 
 611. Ulysses S. Grant, eighteenth president of the United 
 States, was the son of an Ohio farmer. In 1839 he was 
 appointed a West Point cadet. On his graduation he was 
 made a second lieutenant, and was soon engaged in the 
 Mexican war with credit to himself. In 1854, after attain- 
 ing the rank of captain, he retired and went into business in 
 St. Louis until August, 1860, when he removed to Galena, 
 Illinois, where he acted as clerk in his father's store. At 
 the beginning of the war he was appointed colonel of volun- 
 
PEOM JOHXSON TO HAYES 471 
 
 teers, and rose rapidly until he was made lieutenant-general 
 with the command of all the armies in the field, March 2, 
 1864. In 1868 he was elected president, and again in 1872. 
 
 After his retirement Grant made a voyage around the 
 world, which added to his fame both abroad and at home. 
 In 1880 he was a candidate for a third term, but failed to 
 receive the Republican nomination. The latter years of his 
 life were employed in the writing of his "Personal Memoirs," 
 a work creditable to his reputation as a soldier and as an 
 author. 
 
 Grant was born at Point Pleasant, Ohio, April 27, 1822, 
 and died July 23, 1885, at Mount McGregor, Xew York. 
 
 612. The Union Pacific Railroad. — It had long been the 
 opinion of the people of the United States that a railroad 
 should be built to the Pacific coast so that the country 
 might be bound firmly together. As it was impossible to 
 get anyone to build this road without assistance, the gov- 
 ernment loaned large sums of money and gave liberal grants 
 of western land to the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific 
 companies for the building of the road. With the help of 
 these grants which the companies sold at a large profit, and 
 by using Chinamen as laborers, the road was finished in 
 1869. Great was the rejoicing over the completion of this 
 gigantic task. 
 
 613. The Fifteenth Amendment. — Just before Grant's 
 inauguration, on the 26th of I'ebruary, 1869, congress pro- 
 posed another amendment to the constitution which 
 declared that the right to vote should "not be denied or 
 abridged by the United States or any state on account of 
 race, color, or previous condition of servitude." By the 
 addition of this amendment it was expected that the right of 
 the freedman to vpte could never be taken away. The ratifi- 
 cation of the amendment was then made a condition of the 
 reconstruction of the four southern states, Virginia, Georgia, 
 Mississippi, and Texas, which were still out of the union. 
 The amendment was declared in force March 30, 1870. 
 
472 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 614. The Ku-Klux Klan. — Many white people of the south, 
 
 dissatisfied with the disturbed condition of southern politics 
 under reconstruction, sought to defeat the party in power 
 by the organization (1866) of a secret society known as the 
 Ku-Klux Klan. Its members were bound by oath to obey 
 the orders of their superiors, and an organized attempt 
 was made to prevent the freedman from voting. Supersti- 
 tious colored people were terrified by the appearance at 
 night of ghostly figures masked and robed in white, who 
 went groaning and howling about their cabins. Those who 
 could not be scared by this mummery were dragged out of 
 their huts, flogged severely, and sometimes killed. Later 
 the Klan treated white men who assisted freedmen in the 
 same way. Notices to leave the country were sent to such 
 men, with a threat of death if the notice was not obeyed. 
 Many murders resulted; by 1870 the society had established 
 a reign of terror over a great part of the south, with the 
 result that colored voters refrained from going to the polls. 
 
 615. Force Bills. — The Ku-Klux became extremely vio- 
 lent in 1870 and 1871. In May, 1870, without knowing who 
 committed the outrages, congress passed a force bill to 
 carry out the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments. By 
 this law the United States courts were to try all cases of 
 intimidation and bribery of voters, frauds at the ballot box, 
 and all interference with elections or election officers. This 
 was not sufficient, and in April, 1871, a second force bill 
 was passed. Congress had now learned about the Ku-Klux, 
 and this act was aimed against the dreaded society. Severe 
 punishments were to be inflicted upon those who committed 
 the outrages, and the president was allowed to use the army 
 and navy to carry out the law. The authorities acted with 
 decisive energy. Many men were arrested, tried, and sen- 
 tenced to prison. Under this treatment the Ku-Klux 
 quickly disappeared. 
 
 616. Reconstruction Completed. — The year 1871 saw the 
 end of unreconstructed states. Virginia was admitted in 
 
FROM JOHNSON TO HAYES 473 
 
 January, Mississippi in February, Texas in March, 1870; 
 and Georgia in January, 1871. This completed the work 
 of reconstruction by congress. 
 
 617. Military Authority Continued in the South. — The 
 southern states, however, were not yet left to work out their 
 own problems. Under the force bills the president had the 
 power to keep troops in the south and to interfere in public 
 affairs. As it was believed with only too much reason that the 
 f reedmen would not be fairly treated, the rule of the bayonet 
 was still continued. The result was constant turbulence, 
 riots, and at times something like civil war in those states. 
 
 618. The Treaty of Washington. — President Grant's first 
 term was largely devoted to the settlement of foreign ques- 
 tions. The most important problems were those involved in 
 our relations with England. There were three : the fishery 
 question ; the water boundary on the northwest ; and the Ala- 
 bama question or the claim for damages by the United States 
 for the injuries inflicted by confederate war vessels built in 
 England, the most important of which was the Alabama. 
 Eeverdy Johnson, minister to England, had tried to settle 
 these points in 1869, but the treaty he made was so unsatis- 
 factory that it was rejected with indignation, and not a few 
 Americans began to talk excitedly of war Avith England. In 
 1870, however, the question was taken up peaceably, and in 
 1871 England and the United States signed the Treaty of 
 Washington, by which the Americans received satisfaction 
 in regard to the fisheries, and the other questions were to be 
 settled by arbitration. The emperor of Germany was selected 
 to decide upon the boundary dispute. The question at issue 
 was as to the line down the straits between Vancouver Island 
 and the mainland. If this boundary line passed through ' ' the 
 channel" to the west of San Juan Island, it would leave that 
 island to America ; if it passed through the channel to the 
 east, the island would go to Great Britain. In 1872 the Ger- 
 man emperor gave his decision in favor of the United States. 
 
 619. The Alabama Claims : The Geneva Award. — The Ala- 
 
474 HISTORY OP THE UXITED STATES 
 
 bama dispute was harder to settle. Our government claimed 
 that as Great Britain had allowed the Alabama and other 
 confederate privateers to be fitted out in her ports, she was 
 responsible for the damage done by these privateers. Great 
 Britain replied that no such rule of international law existed. 
 The matter was left to five arbitrators, one each from Great 
 Britain, the United States, Italy, Brazil, and Switzerland. 
 In 1872 the court of arbitration, sitting at Geneva, Switzer- 
 land, decided by a vote of four to one that Great Britain was 
 responsible and should pay $15,500,000 in gold to the United 
 States. The English were much displeased at the result. 
 The verdict of the court was that a neutral nation must 
 observe ''due diligence" to prevent its territory from being 
 made the base of armed expeditions against another power 
 and that the nation failing to use such "due diligence" 
 must pay damages. 
 
 620. Cuba: The Virginius— 1873.— In 1868 a rebellion 
 broke out in the island of Cuba, and much sympathy was 
 expressed in the United States for the Cubans. President 
 Grant insisted that Americans should take no part in 
 the contest, but many young men stole away to assist the 
 natives, while arms and ammunition were sent from the 
 United States. Naturally the Spaniards were enraged. In 
 October, 1873, the captain of a Spanish man-of-war captured 
 the Virginius, an American vessel, hauled down the Amer- 
 ican flag, and proceeded to shoot the captain and fifty-six of 
 the crew, nine of whom were American citizens. The 
 excuse for all this was that the Virginius was a filibuster. 
 This was probably true, but the seizing of an American ves- 
 sel, the summary and brutal slaughter of American citizens, 
 drove the country into a frenzy of rage. It required all the 
 president's tact and firmness to keep off war. He straight- 
 way demanded from Spain a humble apology and money 
 damages. These the Spaniards gave, declaring that they 
 had no intention of insulting the United States in seizing 
 the Virginius. 
 
FROM JOHXSON TO HATES 475 
 
 621. The Campaign of 1872. — During Grant's administra- 
 tion, much corruption in the management of public affairs 
 had come to light. Although the president was thoroughly 
 honest and was known to be opposed to dishonest men and 
 methods, still dissatisfaction with this condition of affairs 
 led many Eepublicans to break away from their party. Many 
 were displeased, too, with the continued military control of 
 the south. In 1872 these Republicans, taking the name 
 Liberal Republicans, made a bitter fight against the renom- 
 ination of General Grant, unjustly insisting that he" was the 
 source of all the corruption and misgovernment. When 
 they found that they could not hinder his renomination, 
 they put forward a candidate of their own, selecting Hor- 
 ace Greeley, editor of the New York "Tribune," a very able 
 but eccentric man. He was a staunch Republican, a bitter 
 enemy of slavery and secession, and the most prominent sup- 
 porter of a protective tariff. He was supposed to be a 
 strong candidate, since for years the farmers of the country 
 had taken their views of politics from what Greeley had to 
 say in the weekly ' ' Tribune. ' ' His nomination by the Lib- 
 eral Republicans, therefore, led the Democrats to hope that 
 Grant could be beaten, and they, too, named Greeley as their 
 candidate. But Greeley had been too violent a Republican 
 to be pleasing to most Democrats. Grant easily won, 
 although the Democrats elected a majority of the repre- 
 sentatives to congress. 
 
 622. The First Civil Service Reform Bill.— To check cor- 
 ruption in office, and secure good men for the offices, con- 
 gress passed in March, 1871, a civil service bill. In 
 accordance with this, the smaller places in the government 
 service, such as clerkships, were to be given to candidates on 
 their merit, and not because of political favoritism. Unfortu- 
 nately, congress was not in earnest in wanting reform. Pres- 
 ident Grant wished to carry out the measure, but in 1874 
 congress refused to vote money for the payment of the civil 
 service board, and the reform perished for the time being. 
 
476 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 
 
 623. Demonetization of Silver— 1873 : Inflation Bill— 1874: 
 Resumption Act — 1875. — Grant's second term was filled 
 with financial questions. In 1873 congress passed a bill 
 making gold the standard of J value in the United States, in 
 other words, *' demonetizing silver," an act which later gave 
 rise to much discussion and ill-feeling. In April, 1874, 
 impelled by the belief of many citizens that "plenty of money 
 was a good thing," congress passed a bill, known as the 
 Inflation Bill, which would increase the paper money of the 
 country enormously. President Grant, who believed that 
 this would be a great evil, vetoed the bill. At this time 
 the country had no gold or silver money in circulation, and, 
 if the bill had been passed, it was unlikely that specie 
 would have come into general circulation for many years. 
 The business people of the country urged, that only by hav- 
 ing gold or silver could business be put on a sound basis 
 and prices kept from going constantly up and down. A 
 one-dollar bill, measured in gold or silver, would not buy 
 more than 80 or 90 cents' worth of goods, — thus paper money 
 was not equal to its face value. The financial panic of 1873, 
 in which thousands were ruined, was largely owing to the 
 unsettled state of the finances, and the depreciated value of 
 the paper currency. If more paper had been issued, a 
 paper dollar would have been worth still less. Grant's veto, 
 therefore, was a good one, and made him popular with many 
 who had before disliked him. In order to hinder such bills 
 in future, a demand was now made that the country should 
 return to gold and silver money, or "resume payments in 
 specie," as it was called. As a consequence, the Resump- 
 tion Act was passed in January, 1875, which declared that 
 after the first of January, 1879, the United States would 
 pay all its debts in gold and silver, on demand. 
 
 624. Trouble with the Sioux: Custer's Massacre — 1876. — 
 In 1874 gold was found in the Black Hills, on the Sioux 
 reservation. The whites poured in and began digging the 
 gold, in spite of the protests of the Indians, The govern- 
 
FROM JOHNSON TO HAYES 477 
 
 ment tried to settle the difficulty by moving the Sioux to a 
 new reservation. They objected, and early in 1876, under 
 the lead of "Sitting Bull," began war. The climax came in 
 June, when General George A. Custer with 262 men came 
 upon the Sioux in overwhelming numbers. A battle fol- 
 lowed, which became a massacre, every one of Custer's band 
 being killed, fighting desperately to the end. The mas- 
 sacre struck horror into the people of the country. The 
 government poured troops into the disputed territory, the 
 Indians were forced to yield, and then affairs were left pre- 
 cisely as before. 
 
 625. Amnesty Bill— 1872: Withdrawal of Troops from 
 the South — 1874 to 1877. — In 1872 congress passed a bill of 
 amnesty pardoning all who took part in the war against the 
 union, with the exception of about 350 of the most prom- 
 inent leaders. Federal troops were still used in the south, 
 however, to protect the colored man and many who wished 
 to see him fairly dealt with in the right to vote and hold 
 office as guaranteed in the constitution. The presence of 
 these troops provoked constant trouble, riots, and outbreaks. 
 The people of the north were now heartily tired of these 
 difficulties. As President Grant said in 1874, "The whole 
 public are tired out with these annual autumnal outbreaks 
 in the south, and a great majority now are ready to con- 
 demn any interference on the part of the government." 
 Most of the troops were withdrawn in Grant's administra- 
 tion. The reconstruction governments vanished wherever 
 this took place. The election of 1874 was the turning 
 point although there was still interference by the national 
 government due to claims of fraud at the elections. It was 
 not until 1876 that the national government ceased its 
 watchfulness over southern elections. In 1877 President 
 Hayes withdrew the troops entirely. The long struggle had 
 divided the political parties of the south along race lines, — 
 a condition most unfortunate for that part of the union. 
 "The solid south" is the result. The colored man's right 
 
478 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 to vote is not denied, but is rendered of no account by 
 intimidation, and other methods, some of which to-day are 
 being looked upon with apprehension by many serious- 
 minded citizens in all parts of the union. 
 
 626. The Credit Mobilier and Other Scandals : The Whiskey 
 Ring. — In 1872 charges against the Union Pacific railroad 
 were made. It was said that the builders of the road had 
 spent $9,000,000 to bribe congressmen. This was proved 
 false in 1873, but many congressmen were found to have 
 taken stock in the road, and then to have voted it liberal 
 assistance. This was known as the "Credit Mobilier Scan- 
 dal," taking its name from the name of a Pennsylvania cor- 
 poration. 
 
 The administration itself was mixed up in two great scan- 
 dals. The first of these involved the war department. 
 Secretary Belknap and -some of the under officials were 
 accused of selling offices, and of forcing officers to pay in 
 order to hold their positions. In 1876 the house voted 
 unanimously to impeach Belknap. He then resigned the 
 secretaryship and escaped all punishment. The treasury 
 department was also charged with several frauds. Some of 
 its officials sold the right to collect taxes, the proceeds to be 
 shared between the buyer and the treasury officials. In 
 1874 the acting secretary resigned, as a consequence of the 
 exposure of these frauds. B. H. Bristow of Kentucky 
 became secretary, and immediately found himself face to 
 face with the biggest fraud of all — the *' Whiskey Eing." 
 Internal revenue officers and distillers of whiskey formed this 
 ring with the purpose of cheating the government out of 
 the revenue tax. By 1875 over $2,800,000 had thus been 
 stolen. Bristow, with the president's hearty assistance, 
 fought the ring and broke it down in many places. But 
 president and secretary together were not able to overthrow 
 it completely. In fact, the ring was so strongly supported, 
 that in 1876 it forced the secretary out of office. The same 
 corruption was active in many of the city governments of 
 
FROM JOHXSOX TO HAYES 479 
 
 the country, especially in that of New York. Here the 
 infamous "Tweed King" plundered right and left. Over 
 $160,000,000 were stolen. In 1871 the city broke from 
 the clutches of this ring and Tweed, the leader, was arrested, 
 tried, convicted, and some years later died in jail. 
 
 627. The Ninth Census— 1870.— The ninth census of the 
 United States showed a total population of 38,558,378, — a 
 gain of more than 7,000,000 people, and this, too, in spite of 
 the civil war. Of this number, 4,880,009 were free c'olored 
 persons. Since 1800 nearly 2,500,000 people had arrived 
 from Europe — about half of them from the British Islands. 
 
 628. Campaign of 1876. — Such was the situation the 
 Republicans had to face in 1876. The Democrats were 
 consequently very confident. They nominated Samuel J. 
 Tilden, reform governor of New York, as their choice for 
 president. The Republicans named Rutherford B. Hayes 
 of Ohio. A third party now appeared in the field, called 
 the Greenback party. It believed that the Resumption Act 
 was unjust to the laboring man, who, it supposed, would be 
 helped by a paper money not redeemable in specie. The 
 party declared for unlimited greenbacks and nominated 
 Peter Cooper of New Y'ork as their candidate for president. 
 After a bitter contest, the campaign ended with no one cer- 
 tainly elected. This result was due to the fact that the 
 boards which counted the votes in Louisiana, Florida, and 
 South Carolina threw out Democratic votes and declared 
 the states Republican. They did this on the ground that 
 the Democrats in these states cheated in the election. In 
 Oregon also there was a dispute as to whether the state had 
 voted for the Democratic or the Republican candidate. If 
 Tilden received only one of all these disputed votes, he would 
 be elected, while Hayes had to get them all. Both parties 
 claimed the election. For a time it looked as if a civil war 
 •was about to break out. 
 
 629. The Electoral Commission. — At last, however, con- 
 gress created a commission to decide the disputed votes. 
 
480 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 This commission was made up of five senators, five repre- 
 sentatives, and five members of the supreme court. Out 
 of the fifteen, eight were Republicans, seven Democrats. 
 On every disputed question eight members voted for the 
 Republican claims, seven for the Democratic. Hayes was 
 declared elected by a vote of 185 in the electoral college to 
 184 awarded to Tilden. William A. Wheeler of New York 
 was declared elected vice-president. 
 
OWTIWEKTAL. £XPAKSIOX 
 
 Vest from Greenwich 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 
 
 EXPANSIO]Sr 
 
 1877- 
 
 HA yes's ADMINISTKATION 
 
 REPUBLICAN: 1877-lS^l 
 
 630. Rutherford Birchard Hayes, the nineteenth president 
 of the United States, was the son of an Ohio farmer. He 
 was educated in the common schools and at Kenyon college, 
 Ohio. After leaving college, he studied law, was admitted 
 to the bar, and soon proved himself an able lawyer. When 
 the civil war began he enlisted in the union army as a 
 captain, and rose to the rank of brevet major-general. In 
 1864 he was elected to congress; in 1868 he became governor 
 of Ohio, entered upon a second term in 1870 and a third 
 in 1876. The same year he was elected president. 
 
 Mr. Hayes was an extremely able president, and as brave 
 and honest as he was able. After his presidency he retired 
 to Fremont, Ohio. 
 
 Hayes was born in Delaware, Ohio, October 4, 1822, and 
 died in Fremont, that state, January 17, 1893. 
 
 631. The New Nation.— The year 1877 closed the era of 
 reconstruction and opened up another epoch in the nation's 
 history. From that year we may say that a new nation has 
 been created and new policies adopted. With the north and the 
 south once more welded together, and the old questions about 
 slavery and state rights shelved, the people have turned with 
 astonishing energy to settle other problems. The keynote 
 of this movement is found in the word expansion. Expan- 
 sion in commerce and expansion in territory — consciously 
 or unconsciously — these have been the guiding motives. 
 
 481 
 
482 HISTORY OF THE UXITED STATES 
 
 Hence it is that legislation has dealt with great com- 
 mercial affairs, with tariffs, with financial questions, with 
 railroads, with the creation of new states, with the settle- 
 ment of Alaska; with foreign questions; with the subject of 
 a canal between the Atlantic and the Pacific ; with the secur- 
 ing of new territory. The acquisition of this new territory 
 is the inevitable climax of the movement. Events beyond 
 the control of man made it certain, and similar events have 
 determined that the expansion shall be to the south and in 
 the extreme east. Hawaii, Porto Rico, and ^the Philippines 
 have been added. Will the movement stop here? Most 
 Americans would be inclined to answer yes; but only the 
 future can determine. 
 
 632. The President's Position. — The new president took 
 high ground on all questions which came before him, and 
 particularly in regard to civil service and finance, — questions 
 which must be settled properly before the future of the 
 nation can be assured. On both these, Hayes was opposed by 
 a considerable faction in his own party. His "southern 
 policy" still further exasperated this faction. The Demo- 
 crats meanwhile were his bitter foes, regarding him as a 
 usurper in the presidency on account of the manner of his 
 election. Consequently his administration was one of great 
 difficulty. 
 
 633. Conciliation of the South : Hayes's Southern Policy. — 
 Hayes believed that the only hope of healing the wounds 
 created by the civil war lay in conciliating the south. States- 
 men perceived that this conciliation was necessary; that a 
 divided nation could not possibly attain a great destiny. In 
 making up his cabinet Hayes held out the "olive branch of 
 peace" by appointing as postmaster-general David M. Key, 
 who was not only a Democrat but a southerner and an ex-con- 
 federate officer. He then consulted a number of southerners, 
 and upon receiving from them a promise to uphold the 
 national laws in the south, he withdrew the troops from 
 South Carolina and Louisiana. As a consequence, for the 
 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 483 
 
 first time since the war the south was solidly democratic. 
 Many Republicans bitterly opposed Hayes for bringing this 
 about. 
 
 634. Civil Service Reform. — His efforts on behalf of civil 
 service reform were no less unpopular with this class of 
 Republicans. In spite of the refusal of congress to vote 
 money for the execution of the law, the president bravely 
 attempted to bring about a reform in the civil service.. 
 He refused to allow senators and representatives to 
 select the federal officers in their states, and instructed 
 the secretaries and other officials to make appointments 
 to office solely for merit. Hayes's opponents were deeply 
 offended, and the Republicans in the senate retaliated 
 by refusing to consent to some of his nominations, espe- 
 cially that to the post of collector in New York. Defeated 
 once, the president returned to the charge in 1879. He 
 insisted on the removal of the collector and the naval officer 
 at the port of New York, alleging that they had used their 
 offices 'Ho manage and control political affairs." The 
 officials denied the charge, and a heated struggle between 
 the president and the senate followed. The president 
 finally won. He also removed the postmasters of New York 
 and St. Louis, and introduced civil service reform in both 
 places. For these and like services to good government 
 President Hayes deserves the thanks of all honest citizens. 
 
 635. Resumption of Specie Payment — 1879. — The act 
 for resuming payments in coin, passed in 1875, was 
 to go into effect January 1, 1879. The law had given 
 rise to -much feeling. Popular politicians all through the 
 campaign of 1876 denounced the policy, declaring that 
 resumption was wrong, since it meant the end of inflation. 
 Ceaseless floods of paper money, endless rising and falling 
 of prices were the demands of this class. Many Republi- 
 cans adopted these notions, and wished to give up the plan 
 of resumption. With these Hayes did not agree. Resump- 
 tion, he said, was honest ; it was best for our trade, especially 
 
484 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 our trade with other countries. Inflation, on the other 
 hand, would destroy our reputation for honesty abroad and 
 would be ruinous to thousands. 
 
 In his policy he was strongly supported by his able secre- 
 tary of the treasury, John Sherman of Ohio. In prepara- 
 tion for the day of resumption the secretary began to collect 
 coin, and by the sale of bonds procured $140,000,000, which 
 were to be used in redeeming the greenbacks. Many 
 prophesied that the attempt would be a failure ; that when the 
 day of resumption came, everyone would be eager to change 
 his paper into specie, a panic would follow, and thousands 
 would be ruined. Not a word of this came true. On Jan- 
 uary 1, 1879, the policy of resumption was successfully carried 
 out. The treasury of the United States was open to pay coin 
 for the greenbacks of all who came, and scarcely anyone came. 
 When people found that they could have coin for paper they 
 did not want it. All that anyone wishes to know, in refer- 
 ence to specie, is that he can have it when he asks for it. 
 From that day the paper money was as good as gold and 
 silver. It had not been so before. 
 
 636. The Silver duestion: The Bland- Allison Bill — 
 1878. — Even before the paper money problem was set- 
 tled, a new financial question came up — the silver 
 question. For years silver had been getting less and less 
 valuable, until in 1878 a silver dollar contained only about 
 ninety cents' worth of silver. Now a new doctrine arose, 
 which held that silver money should be made by law equal to 
 gold, whether it was actually so or not, and that the United 
 States should coin into dollars all silver that was offered to 
 it. The law of 1873 making gold the only standard of value 
 had made this impossible. If now a law was passed com- 
 pelling people to take silver on an equality with gold, all 
 debtors would pay their debts in silver, and creditors would 
 lose ten cents in every dollar owed to them. As paper had 
 driven coin out of circulation, so silver would drive out gold, 
 and as it continued to get less valuable, prices would fre- 
 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 485 
 
 quently go up and down once more, and there would be 
 much loss. Hayes said this was a scheme to cheat. If 
 people wanted a silver dollar to pass as a dollar, a dollar's 
 worth of silver ought to be put into it. 
 
 Congress did not agree with the president. It tried a 
 compromise. It would not pass a bill to have all silver 
 coined and to be equal to gold in paying debts. But it did 
 pass a bill ordering the secretary of the treasury to buy at 
 least 2,000,000 ounces of silver every month and make silver 
 dollars out of it. This was called the Bland- Allison Bill. 
 The president vetoed it, and congress passed it over the 
 veto in February, 1878. The coinage of silver being lim- 
 ited, and the silver not being payable in all debts, the silver 
 dollars became worth as much as gold dollars, and the 
 gold remained in the country. 
 
 637. Colorado Admitted— 1876: The Tenth Census— 1880. — 
 Colorado was admitted into the union as the thirty-eighth 
 state in 1876. Four years later the tenth census of the 
 United States was taken, disclosing the fact that the United 
 States had a total population of 50,155,783. Included in 
 this population were 6,580,793 colored persons, 104,565 
 Chinese, 148 Japanese, and 66,407 civilized Indians. Dur- 
 ing the ten years closing with 1880, nearly 3,000,000 immi- 
 grants arrived in the United States, — about a million of 
 whom were from the British Islands. 
 
 638. The Presidential Election of 1880.— Hayes had no 
 chance of a renomination, his policy having made him very 
 unpopular. Many Kepublicans wished to nominate General 
 Grant for a third term. This gave rise to a cry of king- 
 ship, and alarmed many people with the idea of a life 
 presidency. The third term idea was unpopular, and Grant 
 failed to get the nomination. Instead, James A. Garfield 
 was named. The Democrats nominated General Winfield 
 S. Hancock. Garfield was elected by a vote in the electoral 
 college of 214 votes to 155 cast for Hancock. Chester Alan 
 Arthur was elected vice-president. 
 
486 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 GARFIELD AND ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 REPUBLICAN: 1881-1885 
 
 639. James Abram Garfield, twentieth president of the 
 United States, was the son of poor parents. His father died 
 when he was still an infant. As a boy Garfield worked hard 
 for a living, being employed as a mule-driver on a canal. 
 He had already shown exceptional brilliancy, learning to read 
 at the age of three. Naturally he desired an education, and 
 struggled to attain it. He attended Hiram College in Ohio 
 and afterwards was graduated at Williams College in Massa- 
 chusetts. He then became a professor in Hiram College, and 
 later its president. Meanwhile he was admitted to the bar. 
 In 1859 he was a senator in the Ohio legislature. AYhen the 
 war began he was made lieutenant-colonel, and rose to the 
 rank of major-general. He was elected to the United States 
 house of representatives in 1863 and remained there until 
 1880. In that year he was elected United States senator, 
 but before he took his seat he was made president by the 
 Republican party. Almost immediately after he entered 
 upon his office he was assassinated. 
 
 President Garfield was born at Orange, Ohio, November 
 19, 1831, and died at Elberon, New Jersey, September 19, 
 1881. 
 
 640. The Blaine and Conkling Political Quarrel. — When 
 Garfield became president, he appointed James G. Blaine 
 secretary of state, an act which enraged Senator Roscoe 
 Conkling of New York, who personally disliked Blaine. 
 A struggle followed between the Blaine and Conkling factions 
 of the Republican party. The president joined himself 
 wholly to the Blaine wing and struck at the New York 
 senator by appointing Conkling's enemies in New York to the 
 federal offices in that state. In an overwhelming rage 
 both the New York senators, Conkling and Thomas C. 
 Piatt, resigned their seats in the United States senate. 
 They then carried the fight to the New York legislature, 
 asking for a reelection to the senate as a blow to the 
 
FEOM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 487 
 
 president. They expected an easy success, and as a result 
 a brilliant victory over the president and Secretary Blaine. 
 To their amazement, the New York legislature refused 
 to elect them, and the president was left victor of the field. 
 
 641. Assassination of Garfield. — The excitement caused by 
 this political quarrel affected the brain of a half-mad and 
 disappointed office-seeker, named Charles Jules Guiteau. 
 This wretch, on the morning of July 2, shot the president 
 as he was in the ticket office of the Baltimore and Ohio 
 railroad at Washington. The president was not killed, 
 however, and the utmost efforts were made to save his life. 
 It was all in vain, and after almost three months of agony, 
 the brave and brilliant statesman passed away. The assassin 
 was tried and executed. 
 
 642. Chester Alan Arthur, who on the death of Garfield 
 became the twenty-first president of the United States, was 
 the son of a^Vermont clergyman. He was graduated at 
 Union college in the state of New York, and in 1853 began 
 the practice of law. In 1871 Grant appointed him col- 
 lector of the port of New York, which position he held 
 until 1878. In 1880 he was nominated for vice-president by 
 the Eepublicans. He became president the 20th of Septem- 
 ber, 1881. After his presidency he retired to NewYork City. 
 
 President Arthur was born in Fairfield, Vermont, October 
 5, 1830, and died in New York City, November 18, 1886. 
 
 643. The Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883. — In 
 spite of the efforts of President Hayes, much corrup- 
 tion still existed in political life. The star route frauds 
 in 1881 attracted universal attention to the disgraceful 
 fact, and the acrimonious fight over the New York 
 offices during Garfield's administration convinced every- 
 one that an earnest effort should be made to end this 
 wretched state of affairs. In January, 1883, urged forward 
 by the voice of the people, congress passed the Pendleton 
 Civil Service Act. Under this act, appointments to the civil 
 
488 HISTORY OF THE UlvTITED STATES 
 
 service are made only after an examination is passed by the 
 applicants for the offices. The president also appoints a 
 civil service commission to see that the law is properly car- 
 ried out. President Arthur supported the law faithfully, 
 and his example has been followed by succeeding presidents. 
 The result has been excellent, and the principle of civil serv- 
 ice reform has been introduced into many states and cities 
 as a consequence. Spoils politicians oppose the policy, but 
 this is one of the best reasons why every honest citizen 
 should support it. 
 
 644. The Australian Ballot. — Another plan making for 
 purity in politics is the use of the Australian ballot, by which 
 citizens vote secretly for the man of their choice. This secret 
 system of voting puts an end to most of the opportunities 
 for bribery and intimidation. It is now in use in almost 
 every state in the union. 
 
 645. Acts against Immigration. — The United States has 
 received vast benefits from the coming to this country of 
 intelligent foreigners of good habits. After the civil war, 
 however, the character of immigration became objectionable. 
 Paupers, criminals, and lunatics came to the United States 
 in hordes, and thus many European governments got rid of 
 their burdens at our expense, while crime increased in Amer- 
 ica. To put an end to this objectionable state of affairs, a 
 law was passed in 1882 forbidding paupers, convicts, lunatics, 
 and idiots to come to the United States from other coun- 
 tries. 
 
 In the same year another law shut out Chinese immigrants 
 for ten years. The Chinese came to America first at the 
 time of the gold excitement in California. Later large num- 
 bers came to assist in building the Pacific railroads. A con- 
 stantly increasing stream of Chinese poured into the United 
 States. As the Chinese live on almost nothing and work 
 for the lowest wages, other laboring men soon found diffi- 
 culty in getting work. The result was a movement to drive 
 out the Chinese. Chinamen were mobbed, beaten, and 
 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 489 
 
 killed, and a demand came from California and the west for 
 their exclusion from the United States. Hereupon the law 
 of 1882, known as the Chinese Exclusion Act, was passed. 
 Since then it has been added to several times, and was re- 
 enacted in 1892, and again in 1902. 
 
 In 1885 another act forbade capitalists to import laborers 
 from foreign countries on a contract or promise to give them 
 work after they came. This act is known as the Contract 
 Labor Law. Of course, artists, teachers, singers, and such 
 classes do not fall under its provisions. 
 
 646. The Presidential Campaign of 1884.— In 1884 James 
 G. Blaine of Maine, who had played a prominent part in 
 politics as speaker of the house, and as Garfield's secretary 
 of state, was nominated for president by the Republicans. 
 The Democrats selected Grover Cleveland of New York, 
 and took up the cry of reform in government. A strong 
 body of independent Republicans declared against Blaine, 
 and, through their influence in the election, he lost the 
 electoral vote of New York, in which state the independents 
 were especially numerous. The majority against Blaine was 
 about one thousand votes. Fraud was charged in that state 
 and the vote contested in the supreme court of New York. 
 Before the case came to trial, Cleveland was inaugurated 
 and the excitement subsided. The New York supreme 
 court afterwards rendered a verdict which in effect declared 
 that the New York electoral vote should have been given to 
 Blaine. But wisely the matter was dropped there. The 
 country did not wish to be disturbed by such another con- 
 test as the threatening Hayes and Tilden contest of 187G. 
 
 CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION" 
 
 DEMOCRATIC: 1W5-1$S9 
 
 647. Grover Cleveland, the twenty-second president of 
 the United States, is the son of a Presbyterian clergy- 
 man. He received a public school education, and later 
 taught in the New York Institution for the Blind. In 1859 
 
490 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 he became a lawyer; in 1871 he was elected sheriff of Erie 
 county, New York, and in 1881 mayor of Buffalo. He 
 made so excellent^a record as^reform mayor of that city, that 
 the Democrats in 1882 made him governor of New York. 
 In 1884 he was elected president; in 1888 the Democrats 
 renominated him, but he was defeated by Benjamin Harri- 
 son. He then took up the practice of law^in New York City. 
 In 1892 he was again elected president. 
 
 Since his retirement Mr. Cleveland has lived in Princeton, 
 New Jersey. Here he has delivered lectures at intervals 
 before the students of Princeton College on national and 
 international affairs. 
 
 Mr. Cleveland was born in Caldwell, New Jersey, March 
 18, 1837. 
 
 648. The Return of the Democrats to Power. — Cleveland 
 was the first Democratic president since 1861, and both 
 parties regarded his election as a revolution. The Demo- 
 crats for the most part expected that a clean sweep would 
 be made in the offices ; many Republicans vaguely looked for 
 the breaking up of the government ; some declared gloomily 
 that slavery would be reestablished. All these absurd 
 expectations were happily disappointed. 
 
 649. Cleveland and the Spoils System. — The keenest disap- 
 pointment, however, was felt by those who had rallied around 
 Cleveland to "turn the rascals out," in other words to secure 
 government positions for themselves. Cleveland was a 
 reformer, supported by reformers, and he set himself like 
 granite against the spoilsmen. " Gentlemen," said a 
 southern politician sadly, *'I fear there will be some diffi- 
 culty about the offices." So there was. The new president 
 would not turn out " the rascals" in anything like the 
 desired numbers. 
 
 650. Private Pension Bills. — Cleveland also believed that it 
 was the part of reform to put an end to what he considered 
 excessive pensions. He said men were every year drawing 
 millions of money from the government without any just 
 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 491 
 
 claim whatever; that it was in the interests of the honest 
 veterans that the undeserving should not receive pensions. 
 The abuses, he thought, were largely due to the passage of 
 private pension bills by congress, whereas congress ought to 
 leave the decision in such matters to the pension bureau. 
 He therefore declared war against private pension bills, and 
 vetoed many of them. In 1887 he also vetoed the Dependent 
 Pension Bill, which would have given pensions to all poor 
 veterans who had served three months in the union armies. 
 Cleveland's pension policy met with much opposition at 
 the north, where it was felt that nothing is too good for 
 all honest and worthy union veterans who had offered 
 their services and their lives in the defence of their 
 country. 
 
 651. Presidential Succession Bill — 1886. — In 1886 congress 
 passed a bill providing for the succession to the presidency, 
 in case both the president and the vice-president should die 
 or be unable to exercise the office. Under this law, the secre- 
 tary of state succeeds the vice-president, then comes the 
 secretary of the treasury, the secretary of war, and the other 
 cabinet officers in the order of the creation of the depart- 
 ments. This arrangement makes it impossible that the 
 office of president should ever be vacant. 
 
 652. The Interstate Commerce Act. — The great railroads 
 of the United States possess enormous power over the trade 
 and commerce of the country. If they combine, they can 
 charge what prices they please for carrying freight. Again, 
 they may carry one man's goods at a cheaper rate than they 
 will carry those of another man, to the ruin of the person 
 against whom they discriminate. In many instances the 
 railroads had done these things. In 1887 an attempt was 
 made to stop such practices by the passage of the Interstate 
 Commerce Act. This forbids railroads to make a difference 
 
 •in the terms on which they will carry freight for different 
 persons, or to combine to fix rates. The law also creates a 
 body called the Interstate Commerce Commission to see 
 
492 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 that the raih'oads obey its provisions. Though some 
 benefit has resulted, the act has been evaded to a consider- 
 able extent, and the problem of compelling obedience to 
 it still awaits solution. 
 
 663. Fishery duestions. — Most of our foreign difficulties 
 have been Avith England, since she has always possessed large 
 colonies on this continent. During Cleveland's first ad- 
 ministration, serious disputes arose over the question of 
 fishery rights. Disagreement came first over the claim of 
 Americans to catch fish along the shores of Canada. The 
 right to fish there had been given us by the Treaty of 
 Washington in 1871. This treaty expired in 1885, and 
 trouble immediately arose. Of course American fishermen 
 could continue their fishing on the high seas, and the dis- 
 pute related to this question: What are the "high seas"? 
 America said that any part of the sea three miles from the 
 shore was part of the high seas. Great Britain said that 
 this principle was not correct when applied to bays, that 
 the Americans could not fish in the bays on the Canadian 
 coast, no matter how far they were from land. The New 
 England fishermen continued to fish inside the bays, and 
 as a result, England began to seize American vessels found 
 within these waters. For a time it looked as if war was 
 certain, but in 1888 the quarrel was compromised. Ameri- 
 cans were to secure English licenses if they wished to con- 
 tinue fishing within the disputed waters. 
 
 Another fishery dispute was in respect to the taking of 
 seals in Bering Sea. The United States claimed that the 
 whole of Bering Sea belonged to her, and that therefore 
 Englishmen had no right to catch seals anywhere in this sea. 
 This claim, so opposed to the demands in regard to the 
 bays of Newfoundland, was indignantly rejected by England. 
 In 1886, however, the Americans began to seize English 
 sealing vessels in Bering Sea. After much debate and a 
 great deal of irritation the question was submitted to an 
 international court of arbitration, which decided in 1893 
 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 493 
 
 that America was mistaken in claiming this entire sea as 
 her private property. 
 
 654. The Tariff. — During the civil war high tariff rates 
 were imposed upon nearly every article imported to the 
 United States. When the other war taxes were repealed, 
 the tariff was allowed to stand as it was. Thus the nation 
 found itself almost unconsciously committed to a high pro- 
 tective tariff. The Republicans supported, the Democrats 
 opposed this policy. Nevertheless, the issue was not clearly 
 drawn. In 1880 the question entered into the campaign, 
 but only in a minor degree. In 1883 some reductions were 
 made in rates, but they were of no consequence. In 1887, 
 however. President Cleveland made the tariff a party issue. 
 His message of that year insisted on the lowering of the 
 rates, and declared for a tariff for revenue. Though such 
 a tariff might give some protection, revenue and not pro- 
 tection was to be aimed at. 
 
 665. Campaign of 1888. — The presidential election of 
 1888 was fought out on the tariff issue, and Benjamin Har- 
 rison of Indiana, was elected over Cleveland, who had been 
 renominated by the Democrats. Harrison received 233 
 electoral votes, Cleveland 168. Levi P. Morton was elected 
 vice-president. 
 
 HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 REPUBLICAN: 1^9-1893 
 
 656. Benjamin Harrison, the twenty-third president of the 
 United States, was a member of a distinguished American 
 family. His great-grandfather was one of the signers of 
 the Declaration of Independence, and a governor of the 
 Northwest Territory ; his grandfather had been president of 
 the United States and his father had played a considerable 
 part in Ohio politics. Harrison was a graduate of Miami 
 university in Ohio. In 1854 he removed to Indianapolis, 
 Indiana, and began the practice of the law. In 1862 he 
 entered the army as second lieutenant and rose to the rank 
 
494 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 of brigadier-general. In 1880 he was elected United States 
 senator, and in 1888 president. In 1892 he was renomi- 
 nated, but defeated. 
 
 After his presidency Harrison resumed the practice of 
 the law, securing a national reputation as a great lawyer. 
 He still interested himself in politics and represented Ven- 
 ezuela before the international court of arbitration to settle 
 the Venezuela boundary dispute. 
 
 Harrison was born in North Bend, Ohio, August 20, 1833, 
 and died in Indianapolis, March 13, 1901. 
 
 657. The McKinley Tariff.— Since the campaign of 1888 
 had been fought out over the tariff issue, the Eepublicans 
 in 1890 passed the high protective tariff, known as the 
 McKinley Act. This was the highest tariff the country had 
 yet known. 
 
 658. Reciprocity and South America. — James G. Blaine, 
 President Harrison's secretary of state, believed that if our 
 commercial expansion was to go on, some means of inducing 
 other nations to trade with us must be found. His prin- 
 cipal plan was to lower our tariff rates when other nations 
 agreed to lower theirs. This was reciprocity. He, there- 
 fore, secured the insertion of a clause in the McKinley Bill, 
 which gave the president power to lower our tariff for the 
 benefit of any nation which would lower its tariff for our 
 benefit. The reciprocity policy has not had the success it 
 deserves, though the late President McKinley revived the 
 policy and in his last public speech at Buffalo made an im- 
 passioned appeal for its adoption by the nation. 
 
 A second part of Blaine's trade plans consisted in hold- 
 ing congresses of all the American nations to agree 
 upon plans for mutual commerce. Several of these so-called 
 Pan-American congresses have been held, but the results as 
 yet have not been of much importance. 
 
 659. Samoa and the Sandwich Islands.— The United States, 
 seeking all possible outlets for the expansion of its commerce 
 in the far east, became interested in the Samoan Islands as 
 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 495 
 
 early as 1878. In that year the government secured an excel- 
 lent naval harbor at Pango Pango. The English and Germans, 
 just as keen for trade as the Americans, also sought to obtain 
 a footing in Samoa. The consequences were, first, troubles 
 with the natives, and then quarrels among the three powers 
 for the control of the natives. These disputes became par- 
 ticularly acute during Harrison's administration. In 1889 
 the three nations appointed members to a joint conference to 
 settle the status of the islands and the rights of each nation 
 in them. It was agreed that there should be a joint pro- 
 tectorate. This was absurd, for it virtually left the trouble- 
 some situation unchanged. There was more trouble, and in 
 1899 the affair was finally settled by dividing the islands 
 between Germany and the United States. 
 
 Of more importance was the position of the Sandwich 
 islands. The value of these in helping to secure the trade 
 of the far east had been perceived as early as 1850. But 
 nothing was done. In 1893, a revolution led by Americans, 
 broke out in Hawaii. The native queen, Liliuokalani, was 
 unceremoniously deposed and a white republic set up. With 
 unusual haste the new governors sought to place their coun- 
 try under the care of the United States. A treaty of annex- 
 ation was quickly drawn up, and sent by President Harrison 
 to the senate. Before that body could act Harrison had re- 
 tired from office, and his successor withdrew the treaty. 
 For the time being the islands were left to their own devices. 
 
 660. Campaign of 1892. — In this year, owing to the 
 McKinley act, the tariff was again the predominating issue 
 between the parties. Again the candidates were Harrison 
 and Cleveland, but this time Cleveland was elected over Har- 
 rison by a vote in the electoral college of 277 to 145. Adlai 
 E. Stevenson was elected vice-president. 
 
 Cleveland's second administration 
 
 DEMOCRATIC: 1S93-1897 
 
 661. The Panic of 1893 : Sherman Act Repealed. — Before any 
 attention could be given to the tariff, a much more pressing 
 
496 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 problem forced itself upon public notice. The demand that 
 silver should be placed on the same footing with gold had 
 grown stronger with the passage of time. Yet silver did not 
 cease to sink in value, and by 1890 the silver in a dollar was 
 worth only a little over half that sum in gold. Neverthe- 
 less, in that year, a new law, called the Sherman Act, con- 
 tinued the forced coinage of silver and increased the amount 
 coined in each month to 4,500,000 ounces. But silver coin 
 was not yet receivable in payment of all debts, and the gov- 
 ernment would not coin more than 4,500,000 ounces a 
 month. As it was, however, silver threatened to drive gold 
 out of the country, and thus make it impossible to pay debts 
 excepting in silver. In 1893 a terrible financial panic over- 
 ran the country, and the opponents of silver coinage 
 declared that it was due to the silver law. However, this 
 may be, business men were panic-stricken; no one would 
 lend money, and creditors tried to force those who owed 
 them to pay their debts at once. Now business can not go 
 on unless money is daily loaned. Consequently trade ceased, 
 firms began to break; laboring men were thrown out of 
 work, and extreme suffering resulted. In August, 1893, 
 therefore. President Cleveland called a special session of 
 congress to repeal the Sherman Act. Driven on by the 
 president and the pressure of public opinion congress did so. 
 But the panic was not ended. The silver advocates said that 
 this proved that silver had nothing to do with it; the 
 opponents of silver said that silver had started the panic, 
 and that once started a panic could not be stopped immedi- 
 ately. 
 
 662. The Wilson Bill— 1894: The Income Tax.— Congress 
 now turned its attention to the tariff. The result was 
 the Wilson Bill of 1894, which, in spite of the efforts of 
 President Cleveland, left many high duties. An income 
 tax was also passed in connection with the tariff, but the 
 supreme court soon declared the law unconstitutional. 
 
 663. Cleveland and the Monroe Doctrine.— For many 
 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 497 
 
 years trouble had been brewing between England and the 
 little South American state of Venezuela. The cause lay 
 in the rival claims of the two countries to gold-producing 
 lands in South America. The boundary between British 
 Guiana and Venezuela had never been clearly defined, and 
 of course both parties claimed all the territory in dispute. 
 As Great Britain was the stronger power and would not 
 listen to the proposal of arbitration, A^enezuela was sure to 
 lose in the end. So she appealed piteously to the United 
 States. Cleveland and his secretary of state, Richard 
 Olney, agreed that the Monroe doctrine was applicable to 
 the case. Consequently in his message of 1895 the president 
 insisted that Great Britain should submit the dispute to 
 arbitration. The English were astounded and enraged at 
 what they considered American impudence. For a few 
 short weeks nothing less than war was spoken of on both 
 sides of the Atlantic. England, however, was unwilling to 
 go so far, and finally consented to arbitration. 
 
 664. New States. — In 1876, Colorado was admitted to the 
 union. In November, 1889, the territory of Dakota was cut in 
 two and the states of North and South Dakota created, 
 while Montana and Washington followed a few days later. 
 The next year, 1890, Idaho and Wyoming were admitted, 
 and in 1896 Utah became the forty-fifth state. This in- 
 crease in the number of states is a remarkable witness to 
 the rapid expansion of the United States. 
 
 665. Oklahoma. — Another evidence of the same breathless 
 speed of expansion was seen in the settlement of Okla- 
 homa. Oklahoma Territory was created in 1890 out of the 
 western part of Indian Territory. Settlers immediately 
 rushed in ; cities and towns grew up in a few months, and 
 to-day the territory has a population of nearly a half mil- 
 lion, a much larger number than some of the states can 
 boast. The inhabitants have petitioned for admission to 
 the union as a state, a petition which must shortly be 
 granted. 
 
498 HISTORY OF THE U]S"ITED STATES 
 
 666. The Presidential Campaign of 1896. — In the presi- 
 dential campaign of 1896 the Democrats declared for the 
 free coinage of silver at the ratio of "sixteen to one," while 
 the Eepublicans declared for a single gold standard. Three 
 distinct political parties, the Democrats, the PeojDle's party, 
 and the Free Silver Repnblican party, nominated William 
 Jennings Bryan of Nebraska as their candidate. The 
 Repnblicans nominated William McKinley of Ohio. McKin- 
 ley was elected by a vote in the electoral college of 271 to 
 176 cast for Mr. Bryan. G. A. Hobart of New Jersey was 
 elected vice-i^resident. 
 
 MCKINLEY AND EOOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION" 
 
 REPUBLICAN: ItiDT- 
 
 667. William McKinley, the twenty-fourth president of 
 the United States, was educated at Poland Academy, Ohio. 
 In 1861 he enlisted as a private in the union army, and rose 
 to the rank of brevet-major. In 1867 he began the practice 
 of law. In 1877 he was elected as a representative to con- 
 gress, and remained there until 1890. He was then elected 
 governor of Ohio, which position he held for two terms. In 
 1896 he became president of the United States, and was 
 reelected in 1900. In September, 1901, he was assassi- 
 nated at Buffalo, New York. 
 
 McKinley was born in Niles, Ohio, January 29, 1843, and 
 died at Buffalo, New York, September 14, 1901. 
 
 668. The Bingley Tariff: The Gold Law.—Though the 
 tariff issue had not played a conspicuous part in the cam- 
 paign of 1896, many Eepublicans wished to repeal the Wil- 
 son Bill and restore high duties. Consequently, as soon as 
 McKinley was made president, he summoned a special ses- 
 sion of congress to pass a tariff act. The result was the 
 Dingley tariff of 1897. The Republicans also fulfilled their 
 pledge to make gold the only metal in Avhich the public debt 
 could be paid. A gold law was passed in March, 1900. 
 
 669. Cuban Affairs. — The misgovernment of Spain in 
 Cuba gave rise to endless annoyance to the United States, 
 
wjLLiAM Mckinley 
 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 499 
 
 and most Americans believed that we ought to force Spain 
 out of that island. Jefferson, Monroe, and John Quincy 
 Adams all believed that this would be the inevitable out- 
 come, and that Cuba would become part of the United 
 States. Later statesmen were of the same opinion. In 
 1845 the government offered to give Spain $100,000,000 for 
 Cuba, but Spain indignantly refused the offer. In 1854, in 
 the Ostend Manifesto, our ministers to England, France, and 
 Spain declared that we would be justified in the forcible 
 seizure of Cuba. In 1873 the Virginius affair wrought the 
 nation to a high degree of frenzy and war was with difficulty 
 averted. Finally Americans were convinced that the United 
 States must interfere by the events arising out of the last 
 Cuban revolution, which began in 1894. 
 
 670. The Maine Disaster— Feb. 15, 1898.— In the midst of 
 much popular indignation over the sufferings of Cuba, Presi- 
 dent McKinley, in January, 1898, sent the battleship Maine 
 to Havana to take care of American interests. The Span- 
 iards, who were no less irritated by American threats than 
 were the Americans by Spanish misrule and cruelty, resented 
 this act as insulting to them. At this moment of supreme 
 irritation on both sides, the Maine was blown up in Havana 
 harbor on February 15. Precisely who was responsible for 
 this shocking crime has never been learned, but the Ameri- 
 can people were convinced that Spain was guilty, and clam- 
 ored for war. SjDanish treachery must now be punished. 
 
 671. The American Ultimatum. — The government was 
 now bound to intervene. President McKinley therefore 
 sent to Spain a list of terms which must be granted if war 
 was to be averted. Spain must abolish the barbarous recon- 
 centration camps; grant an armistice to the Cubans, and 
 accept peace proposals. 
 
 THE SPAiiflSH-AMERICAN' WAR 
 
 672. War Declared. — Spain was dilatory in assenting to 
 these propositions, and the people of the United States 
 
500 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 were too impatient to snfiPer even the usual diplomatic 
 delays. On the 19th of April, therefore, congress declared 
 Cuba free and independent, and authorized the president 
 to compel Spain to leave the island. This meant war, and 
 war immediately began. 
 
 673. The Naval Warfare. — The American Atlantic squad- 
 ron was ordered to blockade the Spanish West Indian ports 
 at once. The Pacific squadron, under Commodore Dewey, 
 at Hong Kong, was instructed to go to the Philippine Islands 
 and destroy the Spanish war vessels there. On the 1st of 
 May, 1898, in the darkness of the early morning, Dewey 
 boldly ran into Manila Bay, scorning Spanish mines and 
 Spanish torpedoes. His boldness had its fitting reward. In 
 a few hours, without losing a single man, he either captured 
 or destroyed every one of the Spanish vessels. He then 
 blockaded Manila and waited until troops should be sent to 
 capture the city. 
 
 Meanwhile a Spanish squadron, consisting of four cruisers 
 and three torpedo boats, had sailed from Spain under the 
 command of Admiral Cervera. Strong American fleets, 
 under Commodores Sampson and- Schley, were kept on 
 the lookout for the Spaniards. Finally Cervera's squadron 
 slipped into the harbor of Santiago de Cuba and was 
 promptly blockaded there. The American commander had 
 an overwhelming force, and it was evident that the Spanish 
 squadron was doomed, unless it could manage to steal away. 
 The blockade, however, was too effective to permit this, 
 and on the 3d of July, in broad daylight, the desperate 
 Spanish admiral made a mad dash for freedom. At once 
 the American fleet came into action, and with destructive 
 energy overwhelmed the flying vessels with a storm of shot 
 and shell. In a few hours every one of the fine Spanish 
 vessels was a hopeless wreck, over 600 Spanish sailors were 
 killed and the rest were made captive. The Americans had 
 lost but one man. 
 
 674. The Land Campaigns. — Cervera's entrance into the 
 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 501 
 
 harbor of Santiago had drawn not only the American fleet 
 thither, but the American army as well. On the 2:3d and 
 24th of June, under the command of General W. R. Shafter, 
 15,000 American soldiers landed near Santiago and advanced 
 upon the city. After some skirmishing, a battle was fought 
 on the 1st of July at San Juan Hill and El Caney. The 
 Americans lost heavily, but were victors in the fight and con- 
 tinued their advance upon the despairing city. After the 
 destruction of Cervera's squadron the Spanish general lost 
 heart and asked for terms. On the 15th of July he capit- 
 ulated, and on the 17th the American army entered the 
 city. 
 
 Immediately after this event (July 25), General Nelson A. 
 Miles entered Porto Rico, and in a campaign of little more 
 than two weeks, got almost complete possession of that 
 island. 
 
 Meanwhile a third army, under General Wesley Merritt, 
 had been sent to Manila, and on the 17th of August, with 
 the assistance of Dewey's fleet, took the city. 
 
 675. Peace.— The destruction of Cervera's fleet was a con- 
 vincing argument to Spain that she had nothing to hope 
 from the war but constant disaster. She sued for peace, and 
 prehminary terms were agreed upon on August 12. On the 
 10th of December the definitive treaty was signed. Spain 
 relinquished all claims to Cuba, and surrendered Porto 
 Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands to the United 
 States. For these cessions, the United States paid to Spain 
 $20,000,000. 
 
 676. Results of the War.— The war ended forever the 
 wornout Spanish tyranny in America; it left the United 
 States in possession of distant colonies and with a number 
 of new and difficult problems to solve. But best of all, and 
 worth all that the war had cost in lives and money, was the 
 fact that it wiped out the last lingering traces of ill feel- 
 ing between north and south, and cemented the "New 
 Union" forever. 
 
502 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 EYEKTS SINCE THE WAR 
 
 677. The Hawaiian Islands Annexed — 1898. — The Hawai- 
 ian islands, once almost in the union during Harrison's 
 presidency, and then rejected by Cleveland, were still gov- 
 erning themselves as a republic. In the midst of the war 
 with Spain, the recognition of their value as a naval port 
 in the Pacific forced itself upon the country. In July the 
 question of their annexation was vigorously taken up, and 
 in August congress by joint resolution added them to the 
 United States. 
 
 678. The New Policy. — The annexation of Hawaii, Porto 
 Eico, and the Philippines opened up new problems. Hith- 
 erto the United States had never annexed territory so 
 distant, or which might not some day be self-governing and 
 enjoy statehood in the union. But it was apparent to 
 all, that whatever the fate of Porto Eico and Hawaii, the 
 Philippines never could become states of the union. Their 
 distance and the nature of their population forbid this. 
 Consequently, there was immediate and determined oppo- 
 sition to~ taking the islands. To annex them was to begin a 
 new policy — a policy of holding colonies which must be 
 governed from AYashington. Even now that the islands are 
 annexed the question still constantly recurs: What shall 
 we do with them? 
 
 679. War in the Philippines. — To add confusion to an 
 already confused situation, the Filipinos insisted upon 
 independence, declaring that the United States by its basic 
 principles was in honor bound to govern only with *'the con- 
 sent of the governed." Since the United States would not 
 accept this argument, war broke out. In February, 1899, 
 under the leadership of Aguinaldo, a daring and crafty 
 Filipino, the contest began. The Filipinos were everywhere 
 beaten when they took the field. Soon the struggle settled 
 down into a guerrilla war ; Aguinaldo was captured ; most 
 of the islands were pacified, but the strife still continues. 
 
FROM HAYES TO ROOSEVELT 503 
 
 680. Ciiina, and the "Open Door." — How intimately the 
 United States had become bound to the rest of the world as 
 a consequence of expansion was shown in the part we took 
 in the Chinese difficulties of 1900. In that year what is 
 known as the Boxer revolt attained frightful proportions. 
 This movement was directed against foreigners, and espe- 
 cially missionaries. The infuriated Boxers murdered hun- 
 dreds of the hated foreigners and among them the German 
 ambassador. In June the movement culminated in the 
 siege of the foreign legations at Pekin. For two months the 
 siege continued, while the outside world remained in pro- 
 found ignorance of the fate of the besieged. England, Eus- 
 sia, Germany, France, the United States, and Japan all sent 
 forces to China, and in August, after stubborn fighting and 
 much bloodshed, the armies reached Pekin. The legations 
 were saved, the Boxers were suppressed and punished, and 
 China agreed to pay an enormous sum of money as an 
 indemnity. 
 
 Russia meanwhile had seized Manchuria, a large and 
 wealthy province of China and was treating it as her own. 
 Hereupon the United States, Great Britain, and Japan 
 adopted what is known as the policy of the "open door," 
 that is the keeping open of China to commerce on equal 
 terms to all the world. Russia declared her willingness to 
 accede to this policy. 
 
 681. Cuba. — Immediately after the peace with Spain, the 
 United States began the work of establishing Cuban inde- 
 pendence. The first step was to restore peace and order. 
 This task was entrusted to General Leonard Wood, and was 
 brilliantly performed. Meanwhile, the Cubans met in con- 
 vention and made a constitution much like that of the 
 United States. They then held elections, and in the autumn 
 of 1901 Tomaso Estrada Palma was chosen as the first 
 president of the Cuban republic. On the 20th of May, 
 1902, the island was handed over to the new government. 
 Its future progress will be watched with intense eagerness. 
 
504 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 The United States is especially interested, both because 
 Cuba is so closely bound to this country and because under 
 what is known as the Piatt amendment, the United States 
 is responsible for the good behavior of Cuba. If revolu- 
 tions arise there, we are required to interfere. 
 
 682. The Interoceanic Canal. — Closely allied to the policy 
 of commercial and territorial expansion is the project of a 
 canal between the Atlantic and Pacific. Such a canal may 
 be built across the isthmus of Panama or across Nicaragua, 
 and the United States has been intensely interested in the 
 subject ever since the addition of the Mexican territory to 
 the union in 1848. In 1850 the government made a treaty 
 with England known as the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, which 
 declared that in case a canal was built, neither England nor 
 the United States should "ever obtain, or maintain for 
 itself any exclusive control over the said ship-canal." The 
 two powers were to join in securing the neutrality of the 
 canal, so that vessels of all nations could pass through it 
 both in time of peace and in time of war. This treaty, 
 satisfactory enough at the time, became less and less so to 
 the United States, as the nation grew larger and larger and 
 saAV clearly that the canal was more important to her than 
 to all the world beside. We could not permit any other 
 nation to interfere. Frequent attempts, therefore, were 
 made to have the treaty abrogated, or to secure another 
 more agreeable to the United States. Finally, in 1901, a 
 satisfactory arrangement was reached in the Hay-Pauncefote 
 treaty, which virtually leaves the United States free to build 
 and hold the canal on what terms she pleases. 
 
 This difficulty settled, there remains the further one of 
 the location of the canal. A French company in 1881 had 
 started to construct a Panama canal, but had failed to carry 
 the project through. It now offers to sell its property to 
 the United States. Though there are many advocates for 
 a Nicaraguan canal, it is pretty generally admitted that 
 the Panama route is the most available, and at present 
 
THEODORE KOOSEVELT 
 
 President of thk United States 
 
FROM HAYES TO KOOSEVELT 505 
 
 (1902) negotiations are under way with the French company 
 and the governments of the isthmus, which when completed, 
 will allow the United States to build and control the canal 
 along this route. 
 
 683. Election of 1900. — Naturally the "paramount issue" 
 in the presidential campaign of 1000 was that of "Imperial- 
 ism." The Republicans advocated the keeping of the 
 Philippines, the Democrats declared that they ought to be 
 given up. As in 1896 the candidates were William McKin- 
 ley and William J. Bryan. Again McKinley was elected, a 
 result claimed as a victory for the policy of retaining the 
 islands. 
 
 684. Assassination of President McKinley. — In September, 
 1901, President McKinley was the guest of the Pan-American 
 Exposition at Buffalo. Here on the 6th of September he 
 was murderously assaulted by a miserable fanatic, who had 
 imbibed anarchistic principles and believed that by- assassin- 
 ating the president of the United States he was assisting in 
 the spread of such doctrines. Sympathy from high and 
 low, rich and poor, in every nation went out to the noble- 
 hearted and^kindly man thus struck down. All that^medi- 
 cal science could do, was done in the attempt to save the 
 precious life, but on the 14th of September the president 
 died. 
 
 The wretched murderer was at once tried, found guilty, 
 and executed. 
 
 685. Theodore Roosevelt, who on the death of McKinley, 
 became the twenty-fifth president of the United States, 
 is a member of an old Ncav York family of Dutch 
 descent. He was graduated from Harvard university 
 in 1880, and the next year became a member of the 
 New York legislature, a position which he held for two 
 terms. In 1889 he was appointed United States civil service 
 commissioner, which position he held until 1805, when he 
 became president of the New York board of police commis- 
 
506 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 sioners. In 1897 lie became first-assistant secretary of the 
 navy. When war broke out with Spain he immediately 
 volunteered, acting first as lieutenant-colonel, and later as 
 colonel of the Rough Riders. After the war he was elected 
 governor of New York state. In 1901 he became vice- 
 president and, at the death of McKinley, president. 
 
 Roosevelt has Avritten a number of useful historical books, 
 the best being his volumes on "The Winning of the West," 
 and the "History of the Naval War of 1812." 
 
 Roosevelt was born in New York City, October 27, 1858. 
 
CHAPTEK XVI 
 GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 1860-1902 
 
 686. Growth in Nationality. — The civil war marked the 
 beginning of a new era in national feeling. Never again 
 would a state dare to resist the general government. 
 Extreme care for the rights of the individual states was lost 
 in considering the welfare of the whole union. The whole 
 had become more important than its parts. Never again 
 could a state secure what it wanted by threatening to leave 
 the union. Sectional jealousy was now destined to dis- 
 appear. 
 
 Now that the cause of all the discord between the sections 
 had disappeared in the abolition of slavery, the United 
 States soon took place among the foremost nations of the 
 world. When the sections ceased trying to get the advantage 
 of each other, the people advanced rapidly in invention, in 
 education, in manufactures, and in all that goes to promote 
 general happiness and comfort. 
 
 POPULATION" 
 
 687. Numbers.— The census of 1900 proved that the first 
 rush to the new world had passed; that the remaining pub- 
 lic lands were not so attractive as those first offered had 
 been ; and that nothing had occurred recently in Europe to 
 drive people to seek new homes. The United States had 
 passed laws to keep out undesirable immigrants, and this also 
 helped to reduce the number. During the ten years since the 
 last census, the population had increased less than ever 
 before. Yet the total of over seventy-six million inhabitants 
 formed quite a contrast with the three and a half million who 
 adopted the constitution. The people had multiplied almost 
 
 507 
 
508 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ^ 
 
 nineteen times in one liundred and ten years. Since 1830, 
 they had multiplied six times. In population the United 
 States is surpassed only by Russia in Europe, by China and 
 India in Asia, thus taking fourth rank among the civilized 
 nations of the world. 
 
 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1860-1900 
 
 State 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Calit'oniia 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentuclcy 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts... 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York . . 
 
 North Carolina . 
 North Dakota . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania . . . 
 Bhode Island.... 
 South Carolina . 
 South Dakota . . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington. ... 
 West Virginia . 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 1,828.697 
 1,311,564 
 1,485,053 
 
 539,700 
 
 908,420 
 
 184.735 
 
 528,542 
 2.216,331 
 
 161,772 
 4.821,550 
 2,516,462 
 2,231,853 
 1,470,495 
 2.147,174 
 1,381,625 
 
 694.466 
 1.188,044 
 2.805,346 
 2.420,982 
 1.751 ..394 
 1,551,270 
 3,106.665 
 
 243,.329 
 
 1,066.300 
 
 42.335 
 
 411,588 
 1,883,6()9 
 7,268,894 
 1,893,810 
 
 319.146 
 4.157,.545 
 
 413,536 
 6,302,115 
 
 428,-556 
 1.340,316 
 
 401.570 
 2.020,616 
 3.048,710 
 
 276.749 
 
 343,641 
 1,854,184 
 
 518.103 
 
 958,800 
 
 2,069,042 
 
 92,531 
 
 1890 
 
 1,513,017 
 
 1,128,179 
 
 1,208,130 
 
 412,198 
 
 746.258 
 
 168,493 
 
 391,422 
 
 1,837.353 
 
 84.385 
 
 3,826,351 
 
 2.192.404 
 
 1,911,896 
 
 1.427,096 
 
 1,858,635 
 
 1,118.587 
 
 661,086 
 
 1.042.390 
 
 2.238,943 
 
 2,093,889 
 
 1,301,826 
 
 1,289.600 
 
 2,679,184 
 
 132,159 
 
 1,058.910 
 
 45,761 
 
 376,530 
 
 1,444,933 
 
 5,997,853 
 
 1.617,947 
 
 182,719 
 
 3,672,316 
 
 313,767 
 
 5,2.58.014 
 
 345,506 
 
 1,151,149 
 
 328,808 
 
 1,767.518 
 
 2 235.523 
 
 207.905 
 
 332,422 
 
 1,655,980 
 
 349.390 
 
 762,794 
 
 1,686,880 
 
 60,705 
 
 1,262,505 
 802,525 
 864.694 
 194.327 
 622,700 
 146,608 
 269.493 
 
 1,542,180 
 
 3,077,871 
 
 1,978,301 
 
 1,624,615 
 
 996.096 
 
 1,648,690 
 
 939,946 
 
 648.936 
 
 934,943 
 
 1,783,085 
 
 1.636.937 
 
 780,773 
 
 1,131.597 
 
 2,168,380 
 
 452.402 
 62.266 
 
 346,991 
 1,131,116 
 5.082.871 
 1,399.750 
 
 3.198,062 
 174,768 
 
 4,282,891 
 276,.531 
 995,577 
 
 1 ,542,,3.59 
 1,. 591, 749 
 
 332.286 
 1,512,565 
 
 618,457 
 ,315,497 
 
 996.992 
 484.471 
 560.247 
 39.864 
 537,454 
 125.015 
 187,748 
 1.184,109 
 
 2,539,891 
 
 1,680,637 
 
 1,194.020 
 
 364,399 
 
 1,321,011 
 
 726.915 
 
 626.915 
 
 780,894 
 
 1,457,351 
 
 1,184,059 
 
 439,706 
 
 827,922 
 
 1,721,295 
 
 122,993 
 
 42.491 
 
 318..300 
 
 906.096 
 
 4.382,759 
 
 1,071,361 
 
 2.665.260 
 90.923 
 
 3,521.951 
 217,353 
 705,606 
 
 1.258,520 
 818,579 
 
 330,551 
 1,225,163 
 
 442.014 
 
 1,054.670 
 
 964,201 
 435,450 
 379,y94 
 34,277 
 460,147 
 112,216 
 140,424 
 1,057,286 
 
 1,711,951 
 
 1,-350,428 
 674,913 
 107,206 
 
 1.155,684 
 708,002 
 628,279 
 687,049 
 
 1,231,066 
 749,113 
 172,023 
 791,305 
 
 1,182,012 
 
 28,841 
 6,8-57 
 326,073 
 672,035 
 J,880,73o 
 992,622 
 
 2,339,511 
 52,465 
 
 2,906,215 
 174.620 
 703.708 
 
 1,109,801 
 604^15 
 
 315,098 
 1,596,318 
 
 775,881 
 
 688. Growth of Cities. — The enormous increase in manu- 
 factures and commerce has built up cities in a way which in 
 Washington's time would not have been .thought possible. 
 In his time only three people out of every hundred in the 
 United States dwelt in cities. Now thirty-three out of a 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 
 
 509 
 
 hundred, or one-third of all the people, prefer to live in a 
 city. Then there was only one city, New York, that had 
 over 25,000 inhahitants. Now there are 161 cities with 
 more than that number. 
 
 TWENTY- FIVE LARGEST CITIES IN 1900 WITH POPULA- 
 TIONS FROM 1860-1900 
 
 City 
 
 1900 
 
 1890 
 
 1880 
 
 1870 
 
 1800 
 
 NewYork.N.Y.* 
 
 Chicago, 111 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 3,437,202 
 1,698,575 
 1,293,697 
 575,238 
 560.892 
 508.957 
 381.768 
 352,387 
 342.782 
 325.902 
 321.616 
 287,104 
 285,704 
 285.315 
 278,718 
 246,070 
 206.433 
 204.731 
 202.718 
 175.597 
 169,164 
 163,752 
 163,065 
 162.608 
 133,859 
 
 2,507,414 
 1.099,850 
 1,046,964 
 451.770 
 448,477 
 434,439 
 261,353 
 255,664 
 298.997 
 296.908 
 238,617 
 242,039 
 205,876 
 204.468 
 230,392 
 181,830 
 163,003 
 161,129 
 164.738 
 132,146 
 105.436 
 132,716 
 133,156 
 133.896 
 106,713 
 
 1,911,698 
 
 503,185 
 
 847,170 
 
 350,518 
 
 362.839 
 
 332,313 
 
 160,146 
 
 155,134 
 
 233.959 
 
 255.139 
 
 156,389 
 
 216.090 
 
 116.340 
 
 115,587 
 
 177,624 
 
 136,508 
 
 120.722 
 
 123,758 
 
 46,887 
 
 104,857 
 
 75,056 
 
 55,785 
 
 41,473 
 
 98,366 
 
 35,629 
 
 1,478,103 
 
 298,977 
 
 674,022 
 
 310,864 
 
 250,526 
 
 267,354 
 
 92,829 
 
 117,714 
 
 149,473 
 
 216.239 
 
 86.076 
 
 191.418 
 
 79,577 
 
 71,440 
 
 109.199 
 
 105,059 
 
 82.546 
 
 100,753 
 
 13,066 
 
 68,904 
 
 48,244 
 
 32.260 
 
 20,030 
 
 62,386 
 
 4,759 
 
 1,174,779 
 109.260 
 565,529 
 
 St. Louis. Mo 
 
 160 773 
 
 
 177,840 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 Cleveland. O 
 
 212,418 
 43,417 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y 
 
 81 129 
 
 
 56,802 
 
 Cincinnati, O. .. 
 
 161 ,044 
 49 217 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 New Orleans, La 
 
 168 675 
 
 Detroit, Mich 
 
 45,619 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis 
 
 45,246 
 
 Washington, D. C 
 
 Newark. N.J 
 
 61,122 
 71,941 
 
 Jersey City. N. J 
 
 Louisville. Ky 
 
 29,226 
 68,033 
 2,564 
 
 
 50,666 
 
 
 18,611 
 
 Kansas City, Mo 
 
 4,418 
 
 St. Paul, Minn 
 
 10,401 
 
 
 48.204 
 
 
 4,749 
 
 
 
 * Estimated for Greater New York district by Director of Census since 1860. 
 
 Some cities have increased more rapidly than others. Chi- 
 cago, for instance, situated at the end of a lake that pushes 
 trade around it and thus becomes a transfer point for the 
 northwest, was not worth counting separately in 1830. Ten 
 years later it had five thousand inhabitants and in 1900 
 numbered over a million and a half. Another western city, 
 Kansas City, increased nearly twenty times in the twenty 
 years before 1900, and a southern city, Birmingham, Ala- 
 bama, multiplied over twelve times during the same period. 
 The enormous increase of factories and the centralization of 
 railroads are largely responsible for the growth of cities. 
 
 689. Growth of Territory. — The home possessions of the 
 United States changed little between 1860 and 1900. The 
 additions came in the shape of colonial territory — Alaska, 
 
510 HISTORY OF THE UI^ITED STATES 
 
 Hawaii, Porto Rico, Tutiiila, and the Philippines. The 
 main body of the national domain stretches from ocean to 
 ocean and from the Lakes to the Gulf. It contains over 
 three million square miles. This is three and one-half times 
 as much land as the republic had when it began in 1783. Or 
 if the new colonial territory be counted in, we own more than 
 four times as much as we began with. Over all this expanse of 
 the continental United States the people are distributed, ex- 
 cept in some portions of the Rocky Mountains, where mining 
 is not carried on and in the dry regions about them, where 
 there is not sufficient rainfall to allow farming. 
 
 690. Public Lands. — Although the United States govern- 
 ment has sold millions of acres of its public lands to make 
 homes for its inhabitants, it still owns over half a billion 
 acres in the western states. This is selling very slowly because 
 most of it is mountainous, and also because the mountains 
 prevent sufficient rainfall on adjacent parts of it. Por years 
 farmers and companies have been digging ditches to convey 
 water from the streams to this arid land, but the work is 
 costly and only a small part of it has thus far been irrigated. 
 The United States government is being asked to undertake 
 this work, as a kind of "internal improvement," just as it 
 formerly built wagon roads and helped to build canals and 
 railroads. So important has irrigation become that the 
 president has frequently called the attention of congress to it. 
 
 Montana has the most of this vacant United States land, 
 and much of it is irrigable. New Mexico is next, and is 
 even more capable of irrigation than Montana. So the num- 
 ber of acres ranges down to Nebraska with nine million and 
 Kansas with one million acres. The land in these states lies 
 largely in the "sub-arid" district, which does not need irri- 
 gation so badly as states further west. 
 
 EDUCATIOJ^ 
 
 691. The Public Schools. — Few nations have tried to secure 
 the education of all the people as systematically as has the 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 511 
 
 United States. Of all children between the ages of five and 
 eighteen it is believed that fully fifteen out of every twenty- 
 two attend school a portion of the year. Of these fifteen, 
 one represents those who attend private schools, and the 
 other fourteen those who attend public schools. Over two 
 hundred million dollars are spent every year on the schools. 
 The high schools have improved until they now give a better 
 education than the colleges afforded a century ago. 
 
 The national government, although it has donated public 
 lands to aid the public schools, has allowed each state to 
 manage its own school system. As the newer states in the 
 west came into existence, they at once established public 
 schools, in some respects superior to those of the older states. 
 The southern states, also, in recent years have extended their 
 school system, voting to its support large amounts of money 
 raised by public taxation. 
 
 692. The Colleges. — In 1862 the national government gave 
 to each state an amount of public land proportionate to its 
 population for the purpose of establishing a college of agri- 
 culture and mechanic arts. Some states added this work to 
 the state university proper ; others founded a separate agri- 
 cultural college. Several independent universities have been 
 established by wealthy men and many of the old colleges and 
 universities have been given large sums of money by persons 
 interested in them. To crown all, a true "university" has 
 been endowed by Mr. Andrew Carnegie, to be located at 
 Washington City and to be devoted to the most intensive 
 scholarship. Mr. Carnegie has also aided hundreds of cities 
 and towns in establishing libraries for the people. The gifts 
 to education in the United States in recent years have been 
 the wonder and admiration of the world. 
 
 Neither the men who founded Harvard and Yale, nor the 
 tutors and students who struggled along on a few hundred 
 pounds a year could have dreamed of the present time 
 when colleges and universities in the United States have 
 in some years more than twenty million dollars to spend j 
 
512 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 when they number over four hundred institutions of learn- 
 ing, scattered all through the states aiid territories; and 
 when they have more students attending them than there 
 were people in the colonies at the time Harvard was founded. 
 
 693. National Expositions. — As a means of education, the 
 national government encourages exhibits of American and 
 foreign workmanship and everything which illustrates the 
 growth of the republic. In two cases, it has patronized 
 extensively these exhibitions. The first was held in Piiila- 
 delphia, in 1876, to celebrate the one-hundredth anniversary 
 of independence. Buildings were erected at a cost of over 
 $7,000,000, in which all the civilized nations of the world 
 placed exhibits. During the six months it was open, 
 9,910,966 people visited the Centennial Exposition. The 
 second was held in Chicago, in 1893, in remembrance of 
 the four-hundredth year since Columbus discovered America. 
 On the banks of Lake Michigan, the "White City" was 
 erected at a cost of $30,000,000. Here were placed the 
 displays of 05,422 exhibitors. In six months the "World's 
 Fair" was visited by 27,529,400 people. Prizes were given 
 to encourage art, invention, discovery, and the manufacture 
 of everything to improve the condition of the people. 
 
 694. The Newspapers. — It would be a difficult matter for 
 Franklin and the editors of his day, who issued their small 
 papers once a week with great labor, to imagine the twenty 
 thousand newspapers of the present time, with their tele- 
 graph wires extending like nerves to all parts of the civilized 
 world. How surprised the colonial printer would be, — 
 remembering how he placed each sheet of paper separately 
 on his type before applying the pressure by hand, — to see a 
 great roll of paper placed by a derrick into a press wdiich 
 would fill a small room, and then to see the press print, 
 fold, and count the papers, — discharging them at the other 
 end of the press at the rate of 1,600 a minute. Eeaders of 
 colonial days who had to await the arrival of a sailing vessel 
 from England with the books they had ordered weeks before 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 513 
 
 could now be amply supplied by the four thousand new books 
 written each year by American authors, of which hundreds 
 of thousands of copies are printed. 
 
 TRANSPORTATION 
 
 695. Decay of Canals. — The old canals, carrying small 
 boats drawn by horses, have been abandoned in many states. 
 Some are supported simply to keep down the freight rates of 
 the railroads. The only canals constructed in recent times 
 have been those large enough to carry steamships from one 
 body of water to another. The railroads have also driven 
 the river packets almost out of the passenger traffic, and 
 have seriously reduced their freight traffic. About the only 
 commercial use to which rivers are put at present is for 
 floating timber and coal to market. 
 
 696. Increase of Railroads. — On the other hand, the rail- 
 roads have increased enormously, four tracks being necessary 
 between some cities to accommodate the fref\uent trains. 
 In 1860 there were 30,626 miles of railroad in operation in 
 the United States. Now there are almost 200,000 miles. 
 If they were put end to end they would reach eight times 
 around the world. Travel at present on fast trains with the 
 sleeping and dining cars is one of the comforts of the modern 
 world. What a change from the time when Mrs. John 
 Adams lost her way in the woods between Baltimore and the 
 new capital, when taking her first trip in a quaint, old-fash- 
 ioned carriage from Boston to Washington to become the 
 first mistress of the AVhite House! Then it took two weeks 
 for the trip; noAV but a few short hours. 
 
 The railroads carry the grain and stock of the farmer to 
 market and bring implements, clothing, and such food as he 
 cannot raise. These markets are commonly at a point where 
 the farm products can be reshipped by water. That is why 
 such railroad cities as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Bal- 
 'timore, Charleston, St. Louis, New Orleans, and San Fran- 
 cisco have arisen. Or, railroads may find a center in a 
 
614 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 mining region such as Denver or Chattanooga. Even agri- 
 culture may make a common point for raih'oacl exchange, 
 such as Indianapolis or Omaha. 
 
 Railroads have a tendency to unite and form "trunk 
 lines," running a long distance, which makes shipping easier. 
 Chicago and St. Louis are half-way points for trunk lines in 
 the northern states. On the eastern side, the New York- 
 Central and the Lake Shore systems, the Pennsylvania system, 
 the Erie, the Baltimore and Ohio, the Grand Trunk, and the 
 Lehigh Valley form great through lines to the seahoard. In 
 the west, the Santa Fe extends to the Pacific coast, while the 
 Burlington, the Milwaukee, the liock Island, and the Chi- 
 cago and Northwestern systems stretch away to the Rockies 
 and make direct connections with the coast. The Northern 
 Pacific railroad is a great trunk line between St. Paul and 
 the Pacific coast. In the southern states, the Plant system 
 and the Southern railroad system extend long lines between 
 prominent points. From Chicago to New Orleans through 
 the Mississippi valley runs the Illinois Central line. 
 
 GROWTH OF INDUSTRIES 
 
 697. Invention. — The United States with its great extent 
 of territory, its fertile soil, its mineral wealth, and its water 
 courses, has offered special attractions to inventors. The 
 United States has produced its share of these master minds. 
 The name of Whitney stands almost alone with the cotton 
 gin, Howe with the sewing machine, McCormick with the 
 grain reaper, Pullman with the sleeping car, and Edison 
 with the phonograph. Fulton made the steamboat a suc- 
 cess, as Morse did the telegraph, and Field the cable. Hoe 
 is associated with the printing press, Colt with fire-arms, 
 Ericsson with war vessels, Bell with the telephone, Francis 
 with the life-boat, and Mergenthaler with the type-setter. 
 
 The patent office at Washington contains models of all the 
 important patents. It shows the development and use of 
 electricity from Franklin to Edison. There were less than 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 515 
 
 400 patents issued in 1830; there were more than 25,000 in 
 1900. The United States has issued nearly as many patents 
 as Great Britain, Germany, and France combined. The 
 largest number has been for agricultural implements. 
 
 698. Manufactures. — The coal, wood and minerals of the 
 United States are widely scattered. This makes possible not 
 only manufactories in many places but also the rapid com- 
 pletion of work. Some of the states are very fortunate in 
 the great variety of their natural products. It is said that 
 if a high wall were built entirely around the state of Penn- 
 sylvania that she could still clothe, feed, and house her 
 people without assistance from the outside world. The 
 United States has become known for the rapidity with which 
 she completes locomotives, bridges, ships, and other large 
 undertakings. Her goods reach every part of the world. 
 American trolley cars run in Palestine, and American canned 
 vegetables are eaten along the Nile. American shoes outsell 
 those of foreign make in both Paris and London. 
 
 699. Agriculture. — The agricultural products of the 
 United States now play an important part in feeding the 
 people of the old world. Great grain vessels steamed back 
 over the routes along which the timid explorers sailed cen- 
 turies ago. The explorers did not know that they were 
 finding the future granaries of the world. Although only 
 one out of every twenty inhabitants of the earth dwells in 
 the United States, yet this country produces one out of every 
 five bushels of wheat to feed the world. 
 
 In order to bring the very necessary occupation of farming 
 to a higher degree of skill, the national government has 
 given large sums of money to the different states with which 
 agricultural experiment "stations" have been established to 
 study the soil, determine what products it is fitted for, how 
 to plant and cultivate the crops, and how to defend them 
 against injurious insects. Descriptions of these tests and 
 experiments made in the stations are printed and distributed 
 free to the farmer who asks for them. The government also 
 
516 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 supports a weather bureau to forecast the kind of weather, 
 by means of which the farmer may be warned of frost and 
 storms or may prepare for rain. 
 
 POLITICAL PARTIES SIJTCE THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 700. Political Parties from 1868 to 1880. — Since the presi- 
 dential election of 1868, there have been eight presidential 
 campaigns. In six of these contests the Eepublicans have 
 been successful; in two, the Democrats. These two great 
 rival parties have in the main adhered to the two distinct 
 theories of government advocated by the two leading parties 
 which appeared at the time of the organization of the gov- 
 ernment — the Democratic-Republican and the Federalist 
 parties. Each, however, has somewhat modified its views 
 during the course of the political development of the repub- 
 lic. Since the war, a large number of political parties have 
 appeared, many of which have taken a part in the presi- 
 dential campaigns. 
 
 As has been related, in the election of 1872 the Liberal 
 Republicans bolted from the regular Republican nominee 
 and selected Horace Greeley as their standard bearer. The 
 national convention of the Democratic party of that year 
 endorsed Greeley's candidacy. The "straight out" Demo- 
 crats, however, nominated a candidate of their own. In 
 this campaign, the Labor Reform party placed a candidate 
 in the field, who stood for the abolition of contract labor in 
 prisons, opposed Chinese labor, and asked that a work day 
 be limited to eight hours. The Prohibition party asked for 
 woman's suffrage, and favored an amendment to the consti- 
 tution prohibiting the sale of liquor as a beverage. 
 
 In the contest of 1876, the Greenback, or the Independent 
 party, appeared for the first time, with Peter Cooper as its 
 standard bearer. It opposed the resumption of specie pay- 
 ment, and favored the issue of greenback currency. The 
 Prohibition party stood for the principles advocated in the 
 previous campaign, while the American Xational, or Anti- 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 517 
 
 Secret Society party, favored the prohibition of the liquor 
 traffic and opposed secret societies. 
 
 701. Political Parties from 1880 to 1892. —In the contest 
 of 1880, the Kational Greenback party nominated General 
 James B. AYeaver of Iowa, and favored the principles advo- 
 cated by the Peter Cooper party in 1876. The Prohibition 
 party named Xeal Dow of Maine as its standard bearer. 
 
 In the contest of 1884, the Xational Greenback party, or 
 People's party, nominated General Benjamin F. Butler of 
 Massachusetts as its standard bearer. This party at the 
 time was also called the Anti-Monopolist party. They 
 favored the greenback currency and opposed monopolies. 
 The Prohibition party nominated John P. St. John of 
 Kansas. 
 
 In 1888 the Prohibitionists stood for their distinctive prin- 
 ciples and nominated Clinton B. Fisk of ^ew Jersey. The 
 Union Labor party nominated Alson J. Streetor of Illinois. It 
 opposed monopolies, favored the government ownership of 
 transportation lines, and declared for the free coinage of sil- 
 ver and an income tax. The United Labor party nominated 
 Robert H. Cowdry of Illinois. It opposed the placing of a 
 tax on any industry or its products, and favored the taxing 
 of land only. It also favored government control of railroads 
 and telegraphs, and the reduction of hours of labor. The 
 x^merican party nominated James L. Curtis of 'New York, 
 and stood for the repeal of all naturalization laws, and it 
 further asked that no alien nonresident be allowed to hold 
 land in America. It also asked for an educational qualifica- 
 tion for voters. 
 
 702. Political Parties from 1892 to 1900.— In 1892 the 
 Prohibitionists named John Biddle of California; the 
 Socialist Labor party, Simon AYing of Massachusetts, and the 
 People's party, James B. AV^eaver of Iowa. In this contest, 
 the People's party appeared for the first time as a national 
 party, receiving twenty-two of the electoral votes for its 
 candidate. It stood for the free coinage of silver at the 
 
518 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ratio of 16 to 1. It asked for an income tax and for the 
 ownership of railroads, telegraph, and telephone systems. - 
 
 In the camjoaign of 1896, the Eepnblicans named William 
 McKinley, favored a gold standard, and a protective tariff, 
 and opposed the free coinage of silver. The Free Silver 
 Democrats nominated AVilliam Jennings Bryan of Xebraska, 
 favored the free coinage of silver, and opposed tariff for pro- 
 tective purposes. The People's, or Populist, party nomi- 
 nated William Jennings Bryan as its candidate, and held for 
 the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1, and asked 
 for a system of direct legislation, known as the "initiative 
 and referendum" (which would refer all important legisla- 
 tion to the people for rejection or ap^^roval by their votes), 
 and for the abolition of the electoral college in the election 
 of president. It again stood for government ownership of 
 the transportation and the telegraph business of the coun- 
 try. The Prohibition party jolaced Joshua Levering of 
 Maryland in the field, and stood for its old-time principles. 
 The Free Silver Eepiiblican party bolted the regular Repub- 
 lican nominee and endorsed the candidacy of William Jen- 
 nings Bryan. The National Democratic party, known as the 
 Sound Money Democracy, bolted the regular Democratic 
 nominee and named John M. Palmer of Illinois. The Free 
 Silver Prohibition party botled the regular Prohibition nomi- 
 nee, favored the free coinage of silver, and named Charles 
 E. Bentley of Nebraska as its standard bearer. The Social- 
 ist Labor party placed Charles Matchett of Xew York in 
 nomination for the presidency. 
 
 703. Contest of 1900.— In the election of 1900, the Republi- 
 cans named McKinley, and stood for the issues they had advo- 
 cated four years previously, and favored holding all the 
 islands acquired from Spain. The Democrats named 
 Bryan, standing for the principles of 1896, and opposed hold- 
 ing the acquired islands. The Prohibition party named John 
 G. Woolley of Illinois. The People's, or Populist party 
 again named Bryan. The Middle of the Road People's 
 
GROWTH OF THE REPUBLIC 519 
 
 party named Wharton Barker of Pennsylvania. The Socialist 
 Democratic party named Eugene V. Debs of Indiana; the 
 Socialist Labor party, Joseph F. Maloney of Massachusetts. 
 The Union Reform, or Direct Legislation party named Seth 
 H. Ellis of Ohio. 
 
 It will be seen from this statement of the number of 
 parties appearing since the war that the tendency of the 
 American people has been more and more in the direction of 
 independence in voting. However, the Democratic and 
 Republican parties have held the contest pretty closely in 
 hand, and are to-day the two large parties before the Ameri- 
 can people. The only other party for political honors which 
 has secured a vote in the electoral college since the civil 
 war is the People's party, which secured, as already stated, 
 twenty-two votes in the contest of 1892. 
 
 NATIONAL FEELING 
 
 704. The New Unionism. — The way for a future union was 
 cleared by the Declaration of Independence; a>fon7i of union 
 was created by the constitution ; a real imio7i exists only in 
 the hearts of the people. For over a century we have been 
 slowly filling out the form of union. The task has caused 
 much strife, several compromises, and one war. Only by 
 bitter experience have we learned that union is necessary 
 for our peace and happiness. Much of this trouble might 
 have been avoided if the people had not been so widely scat- 
 tered that misunderstandings could easily arise. Moun- 
 tains, dense forests, and broad plains frequently separated 
 one portion from another. At the present time, distance is 
 annihilated by four great agencies which have been highly 
 developed in America — the Jocomotive, the newspaper, the 
 telegraph, and the telephone. The whole people have become 
 so united by business, by friendships, by family relations, by 
 sympathy and by national pride in their mutual achieve- 
 ments, that a union of hearts has replaced the earlier union 
 
520 HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES 
 
 of form. We no longer say as did our fathers "The United 
 States are," but we say "The United States is." 
 
 705. The New American Era. — It is a common saying that 
 since the recent war with Spain the United States has entered 
 upon a new era; that it has adopted a policy of holding 
 colonies; and that it has taken its place among the nations 
 of the world. Although this country was never entirely 
 separated from the other nations during the century of its 
 home development, nevertheless the holding of such scat- 
 tered possessions as colonies must give it a share in the world 
 councils. It will also be obliged to adjust its home affairs 
 to the welfare of its colonies. All this will be the work of 
 years. 
 
 How can the United States succeed in the future as it 
 has succeeded in the past? Only by holding true to the high 
 ideals which prompted the fathers in their work ; only by 
 cultivating national honesty and national pride; only by 
 realizing that we are the heirs of the ages and that we have 
 inherited the evils of the past, which we must cast out, as 
 well as the good of the past which we must preserve. Above 
 all, we shall prosper and be safe only by each member of the 
 republic assuming his full share of the public duties; by 
 voting at each election, if that right shall have been granted 
 him, for the best candidate; by refusing to sell this precious 
 birthright; by paying his just share of the public taxes; by 
 accepting office, if he can fill it, whether it pays a salary or 
 not; and by always speaking well instead of ill of the great 
 republic which God and our fathers have given to us. 
 
HISTORICAL TABLES 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES, SETTLEMENT, ADMISSION, 
 POPULATION, AREAS 
 
 Delaware.. 
 
 Penn 
 
 New-Jersey 
 Georgia ... 
 
 Conn 
 
 Mass .. . 
 Maryland.. 
 
 S. C 
 
 N. H. 
 
 Virginia . . 
 New York. 
 
 N. C 
 
 Rhode Is . . 
 Vermont.. 
 Kentucky. 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Louisiana. 
 Indiana . . . 
 
 Miss 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Alabama . . 
 
 Maine 
 
 Missouri . . 
 Arkansas . 
 Michigan . 
 Florida . . . 
 
 Texas 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Wisconsin 
 California. 
 Minnesota 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Kansas — 
 West Va.. 
 Nevada . . . 
 Nebraska . 
 Colorado.. 
 N. Dakota. 
 S. Dakota. 
 Montana.. 
 
 Wash 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Wyoming. 
 Utah 
 
 FIKST SETTLEMENT 
 
 When 
 
 1638 
 1682 
 166,5 
 1733 
 1635 
 16-30 
 16.34 
 1670 
 1623 
 1607 
 1613 
 1653 
 1636 
 1724 
 1775 
 1757 
 1788 
 1718 
 1719 
 1699 
 1682 
 1702 
 1623 
 1755 
 1685 
 1701 
 1565 
 1685 
 1833 
 1745 
 1769 
 1819 
 1811 
 1854 
 1764 
 1850 
 1847 
 1859 
 1812 
 18.59 
 1809 
 1811 
 1842 
 1867 
 1847 
 
 Where 
 
 Wilmington — 
 Philadelphia — 
 Elizabethtown. . 
 
 Savannah 
 
 Saybrooke 
 
 Plymouth 
 
 St. Mary's 
 
 Charleston 
 
 Dover 
 
 Jamestown 
 
 New York 
 
 Albemarle 
 
 Providence 
 
 Fort Dummer... 
 
 Boonesboro 
 
 Fort Loudon 
 
 Marietta 
 
 New Orleans — 
 
 Vincennes 
 
 Biloxi 
 
 Kaskaskia 
 
 Mobile Bay 
 
 Bristol... 
 
 St. Genevieve... 
 Arkansas Post. . 
 
 Detroit 
 
 St. Augustine. . . 
 Matagorda Bay. 
 
 Burlington 
 
 Green Bay 
 
 San Diego 
 
 Fort Snelling... 
 
 Astoria 
 
 Leavenworth . . . 
 Upshur County. 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Belle vue 
 
 Denver 
 
 Perabino 
 
 Yankton 
 
 Yellowstone R. . 
 Columbia River. 
 Coeur d'Alene.... 
 
 Cheyenne 
 
 Salt Lake City. . 
 
 Date 
 of Ad- 
 mis- 
 
 Pop- 
 ulation 
 when 
 
 Pop- 
 ulation, 
 
 Area in 
 Square 
 
 sion 
 
 Admitted 
 
 
 
 ri787 
 
 59,096 
 
 184,735 
 
 2,360 
 
 1787 
 
 434,373 
 
 6,302,115 
 
 4,5,215 
 
 1787 
 
 184,139 
 
 1,883,669 
 
 8.175 
 
 1788 
 
 82,548 
 
 2,216,331 
 
 59.475 
 
 1788 
 
 237,946 
 
 908,355 
 
 4,990 
 
 1788 
 
 378,787 
 
 2,805,346 
 
 8,315 
 
 M788 
 
 319,728 
 
 1,190,050 
 
 12,210 
 
 1788 
 
 249,073 
 
 1,340,316 
 
 30,570 
 
 1788 
 
 141,885 
 
 411.588 
 
 9,305 
 
 1788 
 
 747,610 
 
 1,854,184 
 
 42,450 
 
 1788 
 
 340,120 
 
 7,268,012 
 
 49,220 
 
 1789 
 
 393,751 
 
 1,893,810 
 
 52,250 
 
 1790 
 
 68,825 
 
 428,556 
 
 1,250 
 
 1791 
 
 85,425 
 
 343,641 
 
 9,565 
 
 1792 
 
 73,677 
 
 2,147,174 
 
 40,400 
 
 1796 
 
 35,691 
 
 2,020,616 
 
 42,050 
 
 1803 
 
 45,365 
 
 4,157,545 
 
 41,060 
 
 1812 
 
 76,556 
 
 1,381,625 
 
 48,720 
 
 1816 
 
 24,520 
 
 2,516.462 
 
 36,350 
 
 1817 
 
 75,448 
 
 1,551,270 
 
 46,810 
 
 1818 
 
 55,162 
 
 4.821.550 
 
 56,650 
 
 1819 
 
 127,901 
 
 1,828,697 
 
 52,250 
 
 1820 
 
 298,269 
 
 694.466 
 
 33,040 
 
 1821 
 
 66,557 
 
 3,106,665 
 
 69,415 
 
 1836 
 
 30,388 
 
 1,311.-564 
 
 53,850 
 
 1837 
 
 2 12,267 
 
 2,420,982 
 
 58,915 
 
 1845 
 
 54,477 
 
 528.542 
 
 58,680 
 
 1845 
 
 212,592 
 
 3,048,710 
 
 265,780 
 
 1846 
 
 43,112 
 
 2.231.853 
 
 56,025 
 
 1848 
 
 305,391 
 
 2,069,042 
 
 56,040 
 
 1850 
 
 92,597 
 
 1,485.0.53 
 
 158,360 
 
 18.58 
 
 182,023 
 
 1,751,394 
 
 83,365 
 
 1859 
 
 52.465 
 
 41 3,. 536 
 
 96,030 
 
 1861 
 
 107,206 
 
 1,470,495 
 
 82,080 
 
 1863 
 
 442,014 
 
 958,800 
 
 24,780 
 
 1864 
 
 6.857 
 
 42,335 
 
 110,700 
 
 1867 
 
 122,993 
 
 1,068,539 
 
 77.. 510 
 
 1876 
 
 39,864 
 
 539,700 
 
 103,925 
 
 1889 
 
 182.719 
 
 319,146 
 
 70,795 
 
 1889 
 
 328.808 
 
 401,570 
 
 77,650 
 
 1889 
 
 132,159 
 
 243,329 
 
 146.080 
 
 1889 
 
 349,390 
 
 518,103 
 
 69,180 
 
 1890 
 
 81,385 
 
 161,772 
 
 84,800 
 
 1890 
 
 60.705 
 
 92,.n31 
 
 97,890 
 
 1896 
 
 207,905 
 
 276,749 
 
 84,970 
 
 TERRITORIES 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Indian Ter. (limits defined) 
 
 •Arizona 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 278,718 
 
 70 
 
 195,310 
 
 122,580 
 
 391,960 
 
 31,400 
 
 122,931 
 
 113,020 
 
 63,441 
 
 
 398,2-15 
 
 39,o:?o 
 
 1.54,001 
 
 6,449 
 
 Pupils 
 
 Enrolled 
 
 in Public 
 
 Schools, 
 
 1900 
 
 33.174 
 
 1,1,51.880 
 
 315,055 
 
 482,673 
 
 908,355 
 
 474,891 
 
 229,332 
 
 281,891 
 
 65,193 
 
 358,825 
 
 1,209,574 
 
 400,452 
 
 64,537 
 
 65,964 
 
 501,893 
 
 485,354 
 
 829, 160 
 
 196,169 
 
 564,807 
 
 360,177 
 
 958,911 
 
 376,423 
 
 130,918 
 
 719,817 
 
 374,662 
 
 498,665 
 
 108,874 
 
 578,418 
 
 554,992 
 
 445,142 
 
 269,736 
 
 399,2(,7 
 
 89,405 
 
 389,583 
 
 232,343 
 
 6,676 
 
 288,227 
 
 117,555 
 
 77,686 
 
 96,822 
 
 39,430 
 
 97,916 
 
 36.669 
 
 14.512 
 
 73,042 
 
 46,519 
 36,735 
 23,&58 
 16,, 504 
 1,681 
 99.602 
 11,501 
 
 521 
 
522 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UJ^ITED STATES 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 523 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES, CAPITALS, GOVERNOR, 
 LEGISLATURE 
 
 States and Terri- 
 tories 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Alaska Territory . . 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Dist. of Columbia.. 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Guam Colony 
 
 Hawaii Colony 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Indian Territory . . 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire . . , 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina — 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oklahoma Ter . . . . 
 
 Oregon , 
 
 Pennsylvania , 
 
 Philippines Pro . . 
 Porto Rico Colony. 
 Rhode Island , 
 
 South Carolina 
 South Dakota . . 
 
 Texas 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington . . 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Capitals 
 
 Montgomery . . 
 
 Sitka 
 
 Phoenix 
 
 Little Rock.. 
 Sacramento. . . 
 
 Denver 
 
 Hartford 
 
 Dover 
 
 Washington . . 
 Tallahassee. . . 
 
 Atlanta 
 
 Agana 
 
 Honolulu 
 
 Boise City 
 
 Springfield . . . 
 Indianapolis . . 
 Des Moines . . . 
 Tahlequah — 
 
 Topeka 
 
 Frankfort. ... 
 Baton Rouge 
 
 Augusta 
 
 Annapolis 
 
 Boston 
 
 Lansing 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 Jackson 
 
 Jefferson City 
 
 Helena 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Carson City . . 
 Concord .... 
 
 Trenton 
 
 Santa Fe 
 
 Albany 
 
 Raleigh 
 
 Bismarck 
 
 ColiTmbus 
 
 Guthrie 
 
 Salem 
 
 Harrisburg . . 
 
 Manila 
 
 San Juan 
 
 Newport and 
 Providence 
 
 Columbia 
 
 Pierre. 
 
 Nashville 
 
 Austin 
 
 Salt Lake City 
 
 Montpelier 
 
 Richmond 
 
 Olympia 
 
 Charleston . . . 
 
 Madison 
 
 Cheyenne 
 
 Governor 
 
 Term 
 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 
 1 year 
 
 2 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 
 2 years 
 
 3 years 
 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 
 4 years 
 
 1 year 
 
 2 years 
 2 years 
 2 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 4 years 
 2 years 
 4 years 
 
 Salary 
 
 $3,000 
 3,000 
 2,600 
 3,.500 
 6.000 
 5,000 
 4,000 
 2,000 
 
 3,500 
 3,000 
 
 5,000 
 3.000 
 6,000 
 5,000 
 4,100 
 1,500 
 3,000 
 6,500 
 5,000 
 2.000 
 4,500 
 8,000 
 4,000 
 5.000 
 3,. 500 
 5,0i0 
 5,000 
 2,500 
 4,000 
 2.000 
 10,000 
 2,600 
 10,000 
 3,000 
 3.000 
 8,000 
 2 600 
 1,.500 
 10,(10 
 
 8,000 
 
 3,000 
 3.000 
 2,5U0 
 4,000 
 4.000 
 2,000 
 1,500 
 5,000 
 4.000 
 2,700 
 5,000 
 2,500 
 
 Legislature 
 Limit of 
 Session 
 
 50 days 
 
 60 days 
 60 days 
 60 days 
 90 days 
 None 
 None 
 
 60 days 
 50 days 
 
 60 days 
 None 
 60 days 
 None 
 
 50 days 
 60 days 
 60 days 
 None 
 90 days 
 None 
 None 
 90 days 
 None 
 70 days 
 60 days 
 60 days 
 60 days 
 None 
 None 
 6') days 
 None 
 60 days 
 60 days 
 None 
 60 days 
 40 days 
 None 
 
 None 
 40 days 
 60 days 
 75 days 
 60 days 
 60 days 
 None 
 90 days 
 90 days 
 45 days 
 None 
 40 daj'S 
 
524 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES 
 
 16 
 
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INDEX 
 
 Abolition, societies and leaders, 
 328, 829 ; element opposed to 
 Mexican war, 337 : 377 ; 423. 
 
 Acadia (a-ka'de-a), map of, lOG ; 
 conquered by tlie Englisli. 100, 
 10i8 ; removal of the Acadians, 
 114. 
 
 Adams. Charles Francis, minister 
 to England, 442. 
 
 Adams, John, 150, 103, 100 : peace 
 commissioner, 215 ; minister to 
 Holland, 220 ; elected vice- 
 president, 240 ; elected president, 
 255 ; administration of, 250-200 : 
 sketch of life, 250 ; death of, 
 295. 
 
 Adams, Jolm Quincy, elected pres- 
 ident, 292, 293 : administration 
 of 293-298; sketch of life, 293- 
 294 ; in the house of representa- 
 tives, 294 ; nominated for re- 
 election, 297 : protest against 
 '•Gag' rule," for the right of pe- 
 tition, 327, 328. 
 
 Adams, Samuel, 150 : resolutions 
 on the Stamp Act, 101, 104 ; in 
 connection with Boston Tea 
 I'arty, 107. 108 ; king orders ar- 
 rest of, 171 ; 175 ; 229. 
 
 Alabama, admitted to the Union, 
 290 ; secedes, 380 ; is readmitted, 
 408. 
 
 Alabama, confederate cruiser, 407 ; 
 sunk by the Kearsarge, 442. 
 
 Alabama claims, 473, 474. 
 
 Alaska, purchased, 470. 
 
 Albany Convention, The, plan of 
 union, 112, 221. 
 
 Algonkin (al-gon'kin), tribes, 54; 
 friends of the Frencli, enemies 
 of English, 55 ; in King Wil- 
 liam's war, 107 : assisted Frencli 
 in the French and Indian war, 
 119. 
 
 Alien and Sedition laws, 258. 
 
 Allen, Ethan, at Ticonderoga, 173. 
 
 Amendments to the constitution, 
 230 ; twelfth, 200 : thirteenth, 
 402, 403 ; fourteenth, 405, 400 ; 
 fifteenth, 471. 
 
 America, discovery and explora- 
 tion of, 13-48 : naming of, 32 ; 
 first English settlement in, 04 ; 
 new era in. 510. 517. 
 
 American Nation, The, forming of, 
 from the various race elements, 
 129. 
 
 A.mericu9 Vespucius (a-mer'i-cus 
 ves-pu'shus), voyages and nar- 
 ratives, 32 ; portrait, 41. 
 
 Amherst (am'erst), Baron, Eng- 
 lish general, 117. 
 
 Amnesty bill, 477. 
 
 Anderson. Major Robert, com- 
 mander of I'oi't Sumter, 382 ; 
 surrender of, 399. 
 
 Andre (an'dra). ' John, arrest and 
 fate of, 210, 211. 
 
 Andros (an'dros), Edmund, Sir, 
 governor of the New England 
 colonies, 81 ; 80 ; in New York, 
 90, 91. 
 
 Annapolis Trade Convention, The, 
 221, 225-220. 
 
 Antietam. battle of, 421, 422. 
 
 Anti-l''ederalists, 230. 
 
 Anti-Masonic party, held first na- 
 tional nominating convention, 
 315. 
 
 Anti-Nebraska party. 307. 
 
 Antislavery movement, 328, 329, 
 301-305, 423. 
 
 Arkansas, admitted to tlie union, 
 317; secedes, 400; readmitted, 
 408. 
 
 Army of Virginia, created, 420. 
 
 Arnold, Benedict, 173 ; at Quebec, 
 170, 177 ; at I^^ort Stanwix, 
 194 ; 209 ; at Bhiladelphia, 209, 
 210 ; at West I'oint, 210 ; trea- 
 son of, 210 ; subsequent career 
 of, 211. 
 
 Arthur, Chester Alan, vice-presi- 
 dent, 485 ; became president on 
 the death of Garfield, 487 ; 
 sketch of life, 487. 
 
 Articles of Confederation, 220- 
 222 ; weakness of, 222-224. 
 
 Astoria, 205. 
 
 Atlanta, taken by Sherman, 437- 
 439. 
 
 Australian ballot, 488. 
 
 Averysboro, battle of, 451. 
 
 Ayllon, de (da il-yon') Vasquez, 
 27-28 ; 100. 
 
 Azores (a-zorz'), discovery of, 10; 
 line of demarcation, 22. 
 
 Aztecs, The, conquered by Cortez, 
 20. 
 
 Bacon, Nathaniel, character of, 
 
 73 : Bacon's rebellion, 73, 74. 
 Bahamas (ba-ha'maz), 14, 19, 25. 
 Bainbridge, Captain, 208, 280. 
 Balboa (bal-bo'a), Vasco Nunez 
 
 (noon'-yeth), discovers Pacific 
 
 Ocean, 25. 
 Baltimore, Lord, see Calvert. 
 Baltimore, Md., population of, 125, 
 
 301, 388, 509 ; Massachusetts 
 
 525 
 
520 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 regiment at. 401 ; General B. F. 
 Btitler at, 404 ; Lee's second in- 
 vasion of north and, 433. 
 
 Bank of North America, estab- 
 lished 1781, 210 ; of the United 
 States, 240, 280 : overthrow of, 
 in Jackson's administration, 311, 
 312 ; State banks, "pet banks," 
 311-313 ; Tyler vetoes bill to re- 
 charter the U. S. bank, 323. 
 
 "Battle above the clouds," 430. 
 
 Battles of 1861, table of, 408; of 
 1862, table of, 424 : of 1863. 
 table of, 437 ; of 1864, table of, 
 447 : of 1865, table of, 453. 
 
 Beauregard (bo're-gard), P. G. T., 
 confederate general, 308 ; at 
 Bull Run, 404. 
 
 Bemis (be'mis) Heights, 105. 
 
 Bennington, battle of, 103, 194. 
 
 Benton, Thomas II., senator, 311. 
 
 P>entonville, battle of. 451. 
 
 Bering Sea dispute with England, 
 492 
 
 Berkeley, Lord, 02. 
 
 Berkeley. Sir William, governor of 
 Virginia, 72, 73 : attitude of to- 
 ward public schools and print- 
 ing presses, 141. 
 
 Berlin decree, 269. 
 
 "Bill of Rights," The, 230. 
 
 Birney, James G., presidential can- 
 didate, 320, 333. 
 
 Blainp, James G., candidate for the 
 presidency, 489 ; reciprocity pol- 
 icy of, 404. 
 
 Blaine and Conkling political quar- 
 rel, 486. 
 
 Blair, Francis P., in Missouri, 402. 
 
 Bland-Allison bill, 484. 485. 
 
 "P>lue Laws," of Connecticut, 133. 
 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon, Louisiana 
 purchased from, 262 ; "decree" 
 of, 260, 274 ; double dealing of, 
 274, 275. 
 
 Bon Homme Richard (bo-nom' re- 
 shar'), 202, 203. 
 
 Border States in civil war, 400, 
 401. 
 
 Boston, Mass., settled by Puritans, 
 78 ; population in 1700, 125 ; 
 massacre at, 165, 166 : Tea Party, 
 166-168: Port Bill against, KJS, 
 160; effect of Port Bill, in, 169; 
 map of, 171 ; evacuated by the 
 British, 177, 178; map of har- 
 bor of, 178. 
 
 Boston Massacre, 165, 166. 
 
 "Boston News Letter," 144. 
 
 Boston Port Bill, The, 168, 160 : 
 effects of, 160. 
 
 Boston Tea Party, 166-168. 
 
 Braddock, Edward, General, de- 
 feat of, 112. 
 
 Bradford, William, governor of 
 IMymouth colony, INIass., 76. 
 
 Bragg, (xeneral Braxton, invades 
 Kentucky, 414 ; at Chickamauga, 
 427-420. 
 
 Brandy wine, battle of, 100, 107. 
 
 Brazil, discovered by Cabral, 33. 
 
 Breckinridge, John C, vice-presi- 
 dent, 368. 
 
 British, The, plan of attack in 
 1777, 102 ; in the south, 206, 
 207 ; effect of Yorktown victory 
 on, 214 ; army withdraws, 216, 
 217. 
 
 Brock, General Sir Isaac, English 
 commander, 270. 
 
 Brooks, Preston, attacked Sum- 
 ner, 365, 366. 
 
 Brown, John, in Kansas, 363, 365 ; 
 raid of, at Harper's Ferry, 374- 
 376; death of, 376. 
 
 Brown University, formerly Rhode 
 Island College, 143. 
 
 Bryan, William Jennings, presiden- 
 tial candidate, 408, 505. 
 
 Buchanan, James, elected presi- 
 dent, 368 ; administration of, 
 308-384 ; sketch of life of, 308. 
 300 ; policy toward the seceded 
 states, 380, 381. 
 
 Buell. General, 411, at Perryville, 
 414. 
 
 lUiena Vista (bwa'na ves'ta), battle 
 of, 330. 
 
 Bull Run. first battle at, 404, 405 ; 
 second battle at, 420. 
 
 Bunker Hill, battle of, 175, 170: 
 map of peninsula, showing, 175 ; 
 monument on, 320, 327. 
 
 Burgesses, House of, 70, 71. 
 
 Burgoyne (bur-goin'). General Sir 
 John, 102 ; campaign of, 102- 
 100: map of campaign, 103; sur- 
 render of, 100. 
 
 Burnside, Ambrose E., in command 
 of army of the Potoma<', 422 ; 
 at Fredericksburg, 422 ; at Knox- 
 ville, 430. 431. 
 
 Burr, Aaron, vice-president, 259, 
 200 ; duel with Hamilton, 205 : 
 conspiracy and trial, 200. 
 
 Biishv Run, battle with Indians at. 
 120. 
 
 Butler, Andrew P., 365. 
 
 Butler, Benjamin F., at Baltimore, 
 404. 
 
 Cabeza de Vaca (ka-ba'sa da va'- 
 ka), Alvar Nunez, 28-20. 
 
 Cabinet, Washington's, 247, 248 : 
 departments of. 247 ; Jackson's 
 "kitchen cabinet." 310. 
 
 Cabot (kab'-ot). John, discovers 
 North America, 41. 
 
 Cabot, Sebastian, portrait, 41 ; dis- 
 coveries of, 41. 
 
 Cabral (ka-bral'), Pedro Alvarez, 
 33. 
 
 Cabrillo (cah-breel'-Io), Juan Rod- 
 riguez, 31. 
 
 Calhoun, John C, in war congress, 
 277 ; favors war with England, 
 278 ; vice-president, 203, 208 ; 
 doctrine of State rights, 314 ; 
 theory of "nullification," 314. 
 315 ; and the Compromise of 
 
INDEX 
 
 527 
 
 1850, 351, 352 ; death of, 354 ; 
 compared with Clay and Web- 
 ster, 354, 355 ; secession, the 
 fruit of Calhoun's doctrine, 371). 
 
 California, 31 ; gold discovered in, 
 344-346 ; map of trails to, 345. 
 
 Calvert, Cecil, founded Maryland, 
 98, 99. 
 
 Calvert, George, Lord Baltimore, 
 98. 
 
 Camden, S. C, battle of, 207, 208. 
 
 Canals, The Erie, 295, 296 ; Sus- 
 quehanna and I'otomac, 303 ; 
 era of, 390, 391 ; interoceanic, 
 proposed, 504 ; decay of, 512. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, 16, 17 ; 27. 
 
 f ape Verd Islands, discovery of, 16 ; 
 line of demarcation, 22. 
 
 Capital, The National, selection of 
 site, 250, 251. 
 
 Carleton Sir Guy, 214 ; proclaims 
 cessation of hostilities, 215 ; 
 withdraws British army, 216, 
 217. 
 
 Carolinas, The, settlement and early 
 history of, 99-102 ; Albemarle 
 Colony, 100 ; Carteret Colony, 
 Charleston, 100, 101 ; separation 
 of, 101 ; map of. 101 ; different 
 character of settlers in North 
 and South Carolina, 101 ; Indian 
 troubles in, 102 ; Huguenots in, 
 129 ; religion in, 134 ; South 
 Carolina secedes, 379 ; North 
 Carolina secedes, 400 ; readmis- 
 sion of, 468. 
 
 "Carpet-baggers," 468. 
 
 Carteret (Car'te-ret), Sir George, 
 92. 
 
 Cartier (Kar-tya'), Jacques, 34-35. 
 
 Carver, John, first governor of l*ly- 
 mouth Colony, Mass., 76. 
 
 Cass, Lewis, Democratic candidate 
 for presidency, 347. 
 
 Cavalier, The, costume of, 131. 
 
 Census, estimates in colonies. 124 : 
 of 1790, 254 ; of 1800, 259 : of 
 1810, 287 ; of 1820, 292 ; of 1830, 
 317 ; of 1840, 319 ; of 1850, 355 : 
 of 1860, 382; of 1870, 479; of 
 1880, 485. 
 
 Cerro Gordo (ser'ro gor'do), battle 
 of, 341. 
 
 Cervera, Spanish Admiral. 500, 501. 
 
 Champlain (sham-plan'), Lalie, 37, 
 115. 
 
 Champlain, de, Samuel, 37, 90. 
 
 cniancellorsville. battle of, 432, 433. 
 
 Chapultepec (cha-pool'ta-pek), for- 
 tress at City of Mexico, 342. 
 
 Charleston, S. C, founded, 100, 
 101 ; French and Spanish attack 
 upon, 108 ; population of, in 
 1790, 125 ; free school opened in, 
 141 ; British attack Ft. Moultrie, 
 178 ; captured by British, 207 ; 
 battle in harbor of, 431 ; evac- 
 uated in 1864, 450. 
 
 Charter colonies, 152, 
 
 Charters, Virginia, 65, 67 ; Massa- 
 chusetts-Bay Colony, 80, 81 ; 
 Connecticut, 86, 87 ; Rhode Isl- 
 and, 87. 88 ; Pennsylvania, 97 ; 
 Maryland, 98 ; Georgia, 103. 
 
 Cherry Valley, massacre at, 201. 
 
 Chesapeake, fired into by frigate 
 Leopard, 270 ; captured by the 
 Shannon, 283. 
 
 Chickamauga, battle of, 427-429. 
 
 China and the Boxer revolt in 1900, 
 503 ; the "open door," 503. 
 
 Chinese Exclusion Act, 488, 489. 
 
 Chippewa, battle of. 284. 
 
 Churubusco (choo-roo-boos'ko), en- 
 gagement at, 342. 
 
 Cibola (se'bo-la), Seven Cities of, 
 29. 
 
 Civil Rights Bill and the Four- 
 teenth Amendment, 465, 466. 
 
 Civil Service Reform bill, the first, 
 475 : in Hayes" administration, 
 483 ; Pendleton Act, 487, 488. 
 
 Civil War, 398-453 ; cost of, 455, 
 456 ; progress during the, 456, 
 457. 
 
 Claiborne (cla'born), rebellion of, 
 98, 99. 
 
 Clark, George Rogers, service of 
 during the Revolution, 203, 204. 
 
 Clay, Henry, in war congress, 277, 
 278 ; advocate of tariff of 1824, 
 292 ; presidential candidate, 293, 
 310; protested against Jar" sou's 
 bank policy, 311 ; candidate for 
 presidency, 315 ; leader of Whig 
 party, 316 ; 323 ; Whig candidate 
 for presidency, 333 : and Compro- 
 mise of 1850. 350, 351 ; death of, 
 354 ; compared with W^ebster and 
 Calhoun, 354, 355. 
 
 Cleveland, Grover, elected presi- 
 dent, 489 ; first administration 
 of, 489-493 ; sketch of life, 489, 
 490 ; and the "Spoils System," 
 490 ; vetoes private pension 
 bills. 490, 491 ; defeated by Har- 
 rison in election of 1888, 493 : 
 elected president, 495 ; second 
 administration of, 495-498 ; and 
 the Monroe Doctrine in Venezu- 
 ela, 497. 
 
 Clinton. De Witt, promoter of the 
 Erie Canal, 295. 
 
 Clinton, George, vice-president, 272. 
 
 Clinton, Sir Henry, British general, 
 178; evacuates Philadelphia, 
 199; 200, 204, 207, 210, 212, 
 213 
 
 Cold Harbor, battle of, 444. 
 
 Coligny (Ko-leen'-ye), Gaspard, 35. 
 
 Colleges in the colonies, 141-143. 
 
 Colonial leaders, 155, 156. 
 
 Colonies, The, and result of the 
 French and Indian war, 119 ; 
 development of, 123 ; population 
 in, 123-125 ; cities in, 125, 126 ; 
 different nationalities in, 126- 
 129 ; class distinction in, 130 : 
 
628 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 dress in, 130, im ; home com- 
 forts, food in, 132, 133 : habits, 
 laws and penalties, 133, 134 ; re- 
 ligion in. 134, 135 : amusements, 
 135, 136; mode of travel, 136, 
 137 ; occupations, 137, 138 ; 
 money used in, 139 ; education 
 in. 139-141 : colleges in, 141-143 ; 
 books, newspapers and pam- 
 phlets in, 143-145 ; literature in, 
 145, 146 ; libraries, 147 : slavery 
 and indented service in. 147-151 ; 
 government of, 151, 152 : gov- 
 ernors of, and Lords of Trade, 
 152, 153 : I'arliament and, 153 ; 
 the postoffice in, 153, 154 ; politi- 
 cal parties in, 154, 155 ; the col- 
 onists and their leaders. 155, 
 156 ; conditions in at close of 
 French and Indian war, 158, 159. 
 Colorado, admitted to the union, 
 
 485. 
 Columbia, S. C, captured by Sher- 
 man, 450. 
 Columbus, Christopher, caravels, 
 13 ; discovery of continent, 14 : 
 parentage, 17 ; appeal to courts 
 of Europe, 17 ; aided by Queen 
 Isabella, 18; Bartholomew, 
 
 brother of. 17 ; first voyage. 18 ; 
 effects of discovery, 19 ; second 
 voyage, 20 ; third voyage, 20 ; 
 sent in chains to Spain, 20 ; 
 fourth voyage, 20 ; death, 20. 
 Compromises, of the Constitution. 
 228. 229 ; of 1820, 290 ; of 1850, 
 350-352. 
 Concord, skirmish at, 171, 172. 
 Confederate States, government of, 
 set up, 380 ; condition of in 
 1864, 448. 
 Confederation, Articles of. 220, 
 
 221. 222. 
 Congress, the stamp act. 161, 221 ; 
 first Continental, 169, 170, 221 ; 
 second Continental, 174, 221. 
 245 ; and the army, 217, 218 ; 
 the first national, 221, 250 ; 
 term of a, 250 ; the war con- 
 gress, 277. 
 Conkling. Senator Roscoe, quarrel 
 
 with Blaine, 486. 487. 
 Connecticut, settlement and early 
 history, 82-87 ; written consti- 
 tution of. 83 ; charter of, 86 ; 
 blue laws of. 133. 
 Constitution and Guerriere (gher- 
 ri-arr), 280; "Old Ironsides." 
 280. 
 Constitution of the United States, 
 growth of. 221-244 ; compromises 
 of. 228. 229 ; before the people 
 for adoption, 229, 230 ; amend- 
 ments. 230; text of. 230-244. 
 Constitutional Convention. The. 
 221, 227: men who composed. 
 227, 228 ; submitted to congress 
 new constitution. 229. 
 Continental Congress, see Congress. 
 
 Continental currency, Jts collapse, 
 218, 219 ; picture of. 218. 
 
 Contract Labor Law, 489. 
 
 Contreras (kon-tra'-ras), engage- 
 ment at, 342. 
 
 Conway Cabal, The, 198. 
 
 Corinth, capture of, 412. 
 
 Cornwallis, Lord, general in the 
 British army, 189 ; at the 
 Delaware, 190, 191 ; at Charles- 
 ton, 207 ; 208, 211, 212 ; fortifies 
 Yorktown, 212; surrenders at 
 Yorktown, 213. 
 
 Coronado (ko-ro-na-do'), Francisco, 
 Vas(iuez, 29. 
 
 Cortereal (kor-ta-ra-al'), Caspar, 
 33. 
 
 Coitez. Hernando, conquers the 
 Aztecs, 26. 
 
 Cotton gin. and its relation to 
 slavery, 254 ; picture of, 254. 
 
 Council for New England. 74. 
 
 Cowpeus, The. battle at, 211. 
 
 "Cradle of Liberty.'" or Faneuil 
 Hall, 129. 
 
 Crawford. William II.. 277 ; presi- 
 dential candidate, 292. 
 
 Credit Mobilier and other scandals, 
 478, 479. 
 
 Crittenden, compromise, 381. 
 
 Crown I'oint, taken by the Eng- 
 lish, 115 ; captured by Seth 
 Warner, 174. 
 
 Cuba. 28 ; filibustering expedi- 
 tion against, 353, 354 ; and the 
 Ostend Manifesto. 359, 360 ; and 
 the Virginius, 474 ; situation in 
 1898; free in 1902. 503. 
 Cumberland National road, 206, 
 
 267 ; map of, 266. 
 Custer, General George A., massa- 
 cre of, 476, 477. 
 
 D.\KOTA. North and South admit- 
 ted. 497. 
 
 Dale. Sir Thomas, governor of Vir- 
 ginia, 67. 
 
 Dartmouth College, 143. 
 
 Davis. Jefferson, in Black Hawk 
 war. 316 ; 355 ; president of 
 Confederate States. 380 ; issues 
 call for volunteers. 400 ; re- 
 moves General Johnston from 
 command. 438. 
 
 Decatur. Commodore, in Tripoli- 
 tan war, 268 ; in war of 1812, 
 280 ; in Algerine war. 287. 
 
 Declaration of Independence, 179- 
 185; 221. 
 
 Declaratory Act, 162. 
 
 Deerfield. Mass., Indian massacre 
 at. 108. 
 
 De Kalb (de Kalb') Baron, 192, 
 208. 
 
 Delaware, settlement of, 97, 98; 
 slavery prohibited in the begin- 
 ning, 148. 
 
 Delaware, Lord, governor of Vir- 
 ginia, 07. 
 
INDEX 
 
 529 
 
 Democratic party, 298, 317, 320, 
 356 ; in election of 1860, 377, 
 378; in election of 1S72, 475; 
 in election of 1876, 470 ; in elec- 
 tion of 1884, 489 ; in election of 
 1888, 493 ; in election of 1896, 
 498. 
 
 Democratic-Republican party, 230, 
 251 ; and war of 1812, 278 ; in 
 election of 1816, 287 ; in election 
 of 1824, 292. • 
 
 De Soto (da so'-to), Hernando, 30- 
 31. 
 
 D'Kstaing (des-tang). Count, with 
 French forces at Savannah. 205. 
 
 Dewey. Admirall, at INIanila, 500. 
 
 Dias (de-as), Baitholomeu, dis- 
 covers Cape of Good Hope, 16. 
 
 Dickinson, John, 156, "letters of a 
 I'ennsylvania farmer," 164 ; in 
 constitutional convention, 228. 
 
 Dingley tariff bill, 498. 
 
 D'ix, John A., in Buchanan's cab- 
 inet, 381. 
 
 Dorchester Heights, 175. 
 
 Dorr's rebellion, 324, 325. 
 
 Douglas, Stephen A., in the west, 
 355 ; and the Kansas-Nebraska 
 bill, 361. 362 ; 364 ; condemned 
 action of Lecompton convention, 
 372 ; debates with Lincoln, 373, 
 374 ; presidential candidate, 
 378 ; for the maintenance of the 
 union, 378. 
 
 Drake, Sir Francis, circumnavi- 
 gates the globe, 42. 
 
 Dred Scott decision, 370. 371. 
 
 Dutch, The, claim to stretch of 
 Atlantic seaboard. 22. 47 ; dis- 
 covery of Hudson, 40 ; summary 
 of explorations, 47 ; settlement 
 of New Amsterdam. 88, 89 
 bought Manhattan Island, 89 
 conquered by English, 89, 90 
 Indian policy of, 90 : picture of 
 Dutch house. 90 ; picture of 
 Dutchman and Dutch maiden, 
 »1 : in the colonies. 126, 127 ; 
 hated the established church of 
 England, 134 ; introduced slav- 
 ery, 147, 148. 
 
 Early, Jttbal A., raids in the 
 Shenandoah valley, defeated by 
 Sheridan, 445, 446. 
 
 Education, in New England, 139, 
 
 140 : in the middle colonies, 140, 
 
 141 ; in the southern colonies, 
 141 ; in United States from 1789 
 to 1829, 304. 305 ; in United 
 States from 1830 to 1860, 389, 
 390. 
 
 Edwards, Jonathan, 145, president 
 
 of Urinceton, 146. 
 El Caney (el ka'na), battle of, 501. 
 Electoral Commission, 479, 480. 
 Eliot, John, missionary among the 
 
 Indians, 85, 86 ; one of the ed- 
 
 itors of the New England Hymn 
 Book, 144. 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen of England, 41- 
 42. 
 
 Ellsworth, Colonel E. E., at Alex- 
 andria, 404. 
 
 Emancipation of slaves in the 
 north, 292. 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation, 423. 
 
 Embargo act, in 1794, 252 ; in 
 1807, 271 ; repeal of, 271 : effect 
 of repeal of, 273 : of 1812, 277. 
 
 Emigrant aid society, 363. 
 
 p]ndicott, John, 77, 84. 
 
 England, Bartholomew Columbus 
 sent to, 17 : ignored line of de- 
 marcation, 23 : under the Stu- 
 arts, 63 ; religious awakening of 
 the 16th century in, 74 ; and re- 
 sult of the French and Indian 
 war, 118, 119 ; manufactures in 
 the colonies prohibited by, 138 ; 
 and the slave trade, 147 : colonial 
 policy of, 157 : conditions in. at 
 close of the "Seven Years' War',' 
 157, 158 : principle of taxation 
 as used by, 159 : offers all but 
 independence, 199 ; acknowl- 
 edges independence of the U. S., 
 215 : terms of treaty with, 
 signed at I'aris, 216 ; Jay's treaty 
 with. 252 ; trouble with, in Jef- 
 ferson's administration. 268- 
 271 ; war of 1812 with, 277-285 ; 
 and the Confederate cruisers, 
 441, 442 ; treaty of Washington 
 with, 473 ; fishery dispute with, 
 492. 
 
 English, discoverers and explorers, 
 40-46 ; summary of explorations. 
 47 ; claim to territory of U. S., 
 47 ; treatment of the Indians, 
 54 ; map of English possessions 
 at beginning of intercolonial 
 wars. 104 ; English and French 
 colonial policies contrasted, 104, 
 105 ; English and French Indian 
 policies contrasted, 105 ; in 
 Queen Anne's war, 107, 108 : 
 claims of. conflicting with claims 
 of French, 110 ; in the French 
 and Indian war, 110-122; map 
 of English possessions at close 
 of French and Indian war, 118. 
 Indian war, US . 
 
 Era of Good Feeling, 288, 292. 
 
 Ericson, Leif. exploration of, 21. 
 
 Erie Canal, 295, 296 ; map showing, 
 295. 
 
 Espejo de (da es-pa'-ho) Antonio, 
 32. 
 
 Established Church of England, 
 134. 135. 
 
 Eutaw Springs, 212. 
 
 Evacuation Day. 217. 
 
 Everett, Edward, 355. 
 
 Excise Tax. The, 249. 
 
 Expansion. Era of — from Hayes to 
 Roosevelt, 481-500. 
 
5;jo 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Fanetjil (fan'el) IIali., picture of, 
 129, 134. 
 
 Faneuil, Peter, gave to Boston 
 Faneuil Hall. 120. 
 
 Farragut, David G.. captures New 
 Orleans, 413, 414 : enters Mobile 
 P,av. 441. 
 
 Federal Hall (N. Y.), 221, 245, 
 246. 
 
 Federalist, The, 229. 230. 
 
 Federalist party, 230, 251, 259, 
 260 ; and war of 1812, 278 ; 
 downfall of, 285. 287. 
 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, aid Colum- 
 bus, 18. 
 
 Ferguson, Fatrick, at King's 
 Mountain. 208. 
 
 Field. Cyrus W., and the Atlan- 
 tic cable, 394. 
 
 Filibustering expeditions, against 
 Cuba. 353. 354, 359, 360; 
 against Mexico and Central Am- 
 erica, 360, 361. 
 
 Fillmore. Millard, and tariff act of 
 1842, 323; elected vice-president, 
 347 ; succeeds to the presidency, 
 348 ; sketch of life. 348. 34i) ; 
 nominated for presidency of the 
 Know-Nothing party. 349, 368. 
 
 Finances of the Revolution, 217- 
 220 : of the government in 1789, 
 248 : of the civil war, 455, 456. 
 
 Fishery Question with England, 
 settled in 1888, 492. 
 
 Five Nations, The, of the Iroquois, 
 55. 
 
 Florida, discovery of. 24, Narvaez's 
 expedition to, 28 ; Huguenots 
 attempt to found a colony in, 35. 
 36 ; Spain gave Florida to P^ng- 
 land, 118: divided into east and 
 west Florida. 121 ; purchase of, 
 289 ; admitted into the union. 
 331 ; secedes, 380 ; is readmitted. 
 468. 
 
 Foote. Commodore Andrew H., at 
 Forts Henry and Donelson, 409, 
 410. 
 
 Force bills, 472. 
 
 Fort Donelson, 409, 410. 
 
 Fort Duquesne (du-kan'), built, 
 111; map, 113: captured —name 
 changed to Fort I'itt, 115. 
 
 Fort Henry, 409. 410. 
 
 Fort Lee. abandoned. 188. 
 
 Fort McHenry, bombardment of, 
 284. 
 
 Fort Mimms. massacre at, 281. 
 
 Fort Moult^rie (moo'tre), battle of, 
 178. 179. 
 
 Fort Necessity. Ill ; account in 
 Franklin's newspaper of battle 
 at. 112 ; map. 113. 
 
 Fort Niagara (ne-ag'a-ra), 115. 
 
 Fort Stanwix. besieged, 194 ; flag 
 raised for first time over. 194. 
 
 Fort Sumter, 382 ; fall of and the 
 effect on north and south, 398- 
 400. 
 
 Fort Ticonderoga, 115. 
 
 Fort Washington, captured, 188. 
 
 Fort William Henrv. 115. 
 
 Fortress Monroe, 382. 
 
 "B'orty-niners," The, 344, 345. 
 
 France, refused Columbus' appeal, 
 17 ; ignored line of demarcation, 
 23 ; made loans to the colonies 
 and America. 220 : trouble with 
 in Adams' adminstration. 256- 
 258 ; trouble with, in Jefferson's 
 administration. 268-271. 
 
 Franklin (Tenn.). battle at, 439. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, plan for colo- 
 nial union, 112 ; the greatest 
 name in American literature of 
 the 18th century. 145-146 ; in- 
 ventions of, 146 ; colonial agent, 
 147 ; founded a free library, 
 147 ; as deputy postmaster gen- 
 eral, 153, 154 ; diplomacy of, 
 199 ; peace commissioner, 215 ; 
 228, 229. 
 
 Fredericksburg, battle of, 422. 
 
 Freedmen. legislation against, in 
 south, 464. 
 
 Freedmen's Bureau, 465. 
 
 Free Silver Republican party, 498. 
 
 Free-soil party. 347, 356. 
 
 Fremont, John C, in California, 
 340 : Republican nominee for 
 presidency, 368. 
 
 French. The. discoverers and ex- 
 plorers. 33-40 ; summary of ex- 
 plorations, 47 ; claim to terri- 
 tory of V. S.. 47 : map of 
 French claims. 104 : French and 
 English colonial policies con- 
 trasted. 104. 105 ; French and 
 English Indian policies contrast- 
 ed. 105 : in Queen Anne's war. 
 107, ]08; chain of forts (map 
 of). 109, 110. Ill; and Indian 
 war, 110-122 ; in the colonies. 
 128, 129 ; alliance, 199 : fleet 
 fails at Newport, 201 ; fleet at 
 Savannah, 205. 
 
 French. The. at Yorktown. 213. 
 
 French and Indian War, The. 110- 
 122. 
 
 Frenchtown. battle of, 281. 
 
 Frobisher (frob'-ish-er). Sir Martin, 
 search of a "northwest passage," 
 42. 
 
 Frontenac (fron-te-nac). Count, 
 106, 107. 
 
 Fugitive Slave law of 1850, 351, 
 352. 
 
 Fulton, Robert, and the first steam- 
 boat, 267. 
 
 Cr.\DSDEX, purchase, 357. 358. 
 
 Gag rule, 294 ; J. (}. Adams pro- 
 tests against, 327, 328 ; rescind- 
 ed. 32S. 
 
 Gage. Thomas. British general, 
 162, 165, 171, 173, 175. 
 
 Gama (ga'-ma) Vasco da, new 
 route to Asia, 17. 
 
INDEX 
 
 531 
 
 Garfield. James Abram, elected 
 president, 485 ; Garfield and Ar- 
 thur's administration, 486-489 ; 
 assassination of, 487. 
 Garrison, William Lloyd, leader of 
 
 antislavery forces, 328. 
 Gaspee, The. the burning of, 166. 
 Gates. General Horat'o, 195, 198, 
 
 207, 208. 
 Geary, John W., territorial govern- 
 or of Kansas, 365, 372. 
 Genet (zhe-na') M., French minis- 
 ter to the U. S., 252, 253. 
 George III., King of England. 119, 
 120, 129, 158; hires Hessians, 
 179 ; overruled by parliament. 
 215. 
 Georgia, settlement and early his- 
 tory of, 102, 103 ; In.dian troubles 
 in, 103 : slavery prohibited in 
 the beginning. 148 : not repre- 
 sented in First Continental Con- 
 gress, 169 : secedes, 379 ; is re- 
 admitted, 473. 
 Germans, The. in the colonies, 127, 
 128: hated the Established 
 Church of England, 134 ; the 
 best farmers. 138. 
 Germantown, Pa., settled by Ger- 
 mans, 128. 
 Gerry, Elbridge, vice-president, 
 
 273 
 Gettysburg, battle of, 434-436 ; map 
 
 of, 434. 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, attempts 
 to found colony, 43 : death, 43. 
 Gold, discovered in California, 344- 
 346 ; discovery led to develop- 
 ment of western states, 346. 
 Gold law of 1900, 498. 
 Goodyear, Charles, discovers proc- 
 ess of vulcanizing rubber, 393. 
 Gorges (gor'jez). Sir Ferdinando, 
 
 81, 82. 
 Gosnold, Bartholomew, 44. 
 Gourges, de (deh goorg), Domi- 
 nic, 36. 
 Government, of the colonies, 151- 
 156 ; the National government 
 established, 245-246. 
 Grand Army of the Republic and 
 associated organizations, 459, 
 460. 
 Grand Review at Washington. 458. 
 Grant, Ulysses S.. victory of, at 
 Forts Henry and Donelson, 409. 
 410 ; at Shiloh, 411, 412 ; at 
 Corinth, 412 ; 424 : at Vicksburg, 
 425-427 : at Chattanooga, 429- 
 431 ; plans campaign of 1864, 
 437, 442 ; general-in-chief of 
 union forces, 442 ; with army 
 of the Potomac, 442 ; at the 
 Wilderness, 443. 444; at Cold 
 Harbor, 444 ; race for Peters- 
 burg. 445 ; last campaign, 
 451-453 ; Petersburg and Rich- 
 mond. 451, 452 ; Appomattox 
 Courthouse, 452 ; made supreme 
 head of army by congress, 467 ; 
 
 elected president, 470 ; adminis- 
 trations of, 470-480 ; sketch of 
 life, 470, 471. 
 
 Grant and Greeley campaign of 
 1872, 475. 
 
 Grasse, de (deh gras). Count, com- 
 mander of French fleet, 213. 
 
 Great Britain, see England. 
 
 Greeley and Grant campaign of 
 1872, 475. 
 
 Greea Mountain Boys. 173. 
 
 (Jreene, Nathaniel, 188, 208, 210, 
 211 ; recovers the Carolinas and 
 Georgia, 211, 212. 
 
 Guadalupe Hidalgo (ga'-da-loop' 
 e-dal'go), treaty of, 342. 
 
 Guam (gwam), acquired by treaty 
 in 1898. 501. 
 
 Guilford Courthouse, battle at, 212. 
 
 Hale, John P., 356. 
 
 Hale, Xathan. 187, 211. 
 
 Halifax (hal'e-faks). Nova Scotia, 
 114; Howe sails to, 178; Howe 
 leaves to attack New York, 185. 
 
 Halleck, Henry W., 412 ; general- 
 in-chief of union armies, 412. 
 
 Hamilton. Alexander. 155, 228, 
 229 ; secretary of the treasury, 
 
 247, 248 ; financial policy of, 
 
 248, 249 ; leader of the Federal- 
 ists, 251. 
 
 Hampton, General Wade, 280. 
 
 Hancock, John, 156 ; owner of the 
 sloop Liberty. 165 ; first signer 
 of the Declaration, 165 ; king 
 orders arrest of, 171 ; 175 ; 181. 
 
 Hancock, Winfield S., presidential 
 candidate. 485. 
 
 Harper's Ferry, John Brown's raid 
 at, 374-376 ; map of Ferry and 
 vicinity, 375. 
 
 Harrison, Benjamin, elected presi- 
 dent, 493 ; administration of, 
 493-495 ; sketch of life, 493, 
 494 ; defeated by Cleveland, 495. 
 
 Harrison, William Henry, governor 
 of Indiana Territory, 276 ; bat- 
 tle of Tippecanoe, 276 ; battle of 
 the Thames, 281 ; candidate for 
 presidency, 317 ; elected presi- 
 dent, 320 ; sketch of life, 321 : 
 death, 321. 
 
 Hartford Convention, 285. 
 
 Harvard College, 142, 256. 
 
 Harvard, John. 142. 
 
 Haverhill (ha'ver-il), Mass., In- 
 dian massacre at, 108. 
 
 Hawaiian (ha-wi'yan) Islands, pro- 
 posed annexation of, 495 ; an- 
 nexation of, 1898, 502. 
 
 Hayes, Rutherford B., elected pres- 
 ident, 479, 480 ; administration 
 of, 481, 485 ; sketch of life, 481 ; 
 "southern policy" of, 482. 
 
 Ilayne, Robert Y., debate with 
 Webster. 314. 
 
 Helper, Hinton R., "Impending 
 Crisis in the South ; How to 
 Meet It," 376, 377. 
 
532 
 
 HISTORY OF THE TXITED STATES 
 
 Henry. Patrick, IHG: protests 
 against the Starup Act. 103 : 
 aids Colonel Clark. 204 ; 22V). 
 
 Henry, Trince. the Navigator, 10. 
 
 Hessians (hess'yans). King George 
 III. hires, 179 ; captured at Tren- 
 ton, 190 ; at Bennington, 193, 
 
 Holland, made loan to U. S., 220. 
 
 Holv Alliance, 291. 
 
 Hood, General John B.. command- 
 er of Confederate forces at At- 
 lanta. 438, 430 ; defeated by 
 Thomas, in Tennessee. 439, 440. 
 
 Hooker, Joseph E., in peninsular 
 campaign, 417 : at Antietam. 
 421, 422 ; in command of army 
 of the Potomac, 422 : at Chatta- 
 nooga. 429 ; at Chancellorsville. 
 432 : resigned command of the 
 Army of the Potomac^ 434. 
 
 Hooker, Thomas. 82. 
 
 Howe, Admiral Richard, joins Sir 
 William Howe in attack on New- 
 York, 185 ; at Newport. 201. 
 
 Howe, Elias, inventor of the sew- 
 ing machine. 393. 
 
 Howe, Sir William, British gener- 
 al, 17.'>. 176 ; commander-in-chief 
 of British, 176 ; evacuates Bos 
 ton. 177, 178 ; sends Clinton ^to 
 subdue southern colonies, 178, 
 179 • the Howes offer peace, 186 : 
 plan to cut off New England. 
 186. 192 : at Brandy wine. 19(;. 
 197 ; at Philadelphia, in winter 
 of 1777. 197. ^ ^^ 
 
 Hudson. Henry, discovery of, 40. 
 
 Huguenots (hu'ge-not). The, at 
 tempt at colonization. 35. 36 ; 
 in South Carolina. 101 ; in Geor- 
 gia, 103 ; in the colonies, charac- 
 ter of. 128. 129. 
 
 Hull, General William, surrender 
 of. at Detroit. 279. 
 
 Hutchinson. Anne, banished from 
 Mass., 79 ; buys and settles Ports- 
 mouth and Newport, 87. 
 
 Idaho, admitted to the union, 497. 
 
 Illinois, admitted to the union, 289. 
 
 Immigration Acts. 488, 489. 
 
 Incas, overthrow of, in Peru, 26. 
 
 Income Tax, 496. 
 
 Indentured servants, 69, 150, 151 : 
 trade in. 151. 
 
 Independence, declared, 179-181 : 
 text of Declaration of. 181-184 ; 
 signers of the Declaration of, 
 185. 
 
 Independence Hall, 181 ; picture of, 
 180. 
 
 Independent Treasury Act or Sub- 
 Treasury Bill, 319 ; repealed, 323. 
 
 Indiana, admitted to the union. 
 287. 
 
 Indians, The, why so called, 52 ; 
 treatment by Spanish, 53 : by 
 French and Dutch. 53 : by Eng- 
 lish, 03, 54 ; whole continent 
 
 peopled by, 54 : tribal groups of, 
 54. 55, 56 ; oldest tribe — mound 
 builders, 56 : appearance of, and 
 characteristics, 57-60 : govern- 
 ment expenditure for, 61 ; reserv- 
 ations for, 61 ; schools, 61 ; gov- 
 ernment policy toward, 62 : Al- 
 lotment Act. 62 ; policy of Dutch 
 toward. 90 ; trouble witli. in the 
 Carol inas, 102 ; trouble with, in 
 Georgia, 103 : atrocities of, in 
 King William's war, 107 ; in 
 Queen Anne's war, 108 ; in 
 French and Indian war, 119, 
 120 : trouble with, in Northwest 
 Territory. 253 : on western bor- 
 der in 1811. 276; trouble with 
 the Seminoles in Florida, 288, 
 289 : trouble with the Sioux, 
 476, 477. 
 
 Inflation bill, 476. 
 
 Intercolonial Wars, The, 104-122. 
 
 Interoceanic Canal, Nicaraguan 
 route, Panama route. 504. 
 
 Interstate Commerce Act. 491. 492. 
 
 Intolerable Acts. The. 168. 169. 
 
 Iowa, admitted to the union. 346. 
 
 Iroquois (ir-o-kwoi'), enmity to- 
 ward French, 37 ; confederacy, 
 known as the Five Nations, 55 ; 
 character, 55 ; friends of the 
 English. 55 ; joined by Tuscaro- 
 ras. 102 : in King William's war. 
 107; assisted the English in the 
 French and Indian war. 119. 
 
 Irving. Washington. "Knickerbock- 
 er's History of New York," 127. 
 
 J.\cKSON. Andrew, defeats Indians, 
 282 : at New Orleans. 284. 285 ; 
 in Seminole war. 289 ; presiden- 
 tial candidate, 293 : elected pres- 
 ident. 298 ; administration of, 
 309-317 : sketch of life of, 305), 
 
 310 : and the Civil Service. 310. 
 
 311 ; warfare upon the itJ. S. 
 bank, 311, 312 ; "specie circu- 
 lar" of. 313. 314; and nullifica- 
 tion, 315. 
 
 Jackson. Thomas J. ("Stonewall"), 
 in Shenandoah Valley, 418 ; at 
 Chancellorsville. 432. 
 
 Jamaica (ja-ma-ka), discovered, 
 20. 
 
 Jamestown, Va., settlement of, 65 ; 
 map of. 65. 
 
 Java, frigate, engagement with the 
 Constitution. 280. 
 
 Jay, John, descendant of Hugue- 
 nots. 129: 156: peace commis- 
 sioner, 215: one of the authors 
 of "The Federalist," 229, 230 ; 
 chief justice, 250 : negotiates 
 treaty "with England, 252. 
 
 JefFerson, Thomas. 156: wrote the 
 Declaration of Independence, 
 181 ; secretary of state. 247. 
 248 : leader of Democratic-Re- 
 publicans, 251 : elected vice-pres- 
 ident. 255 ; administration of, 
 
INDEX 
 
 633 
 
 260-272; sketch of life of. 2G(). 
 261 : death of. 295. 
 
 Jesuit, missionaries. 38. 
 
 Johnson, Andrew, sketch of life. 
 461, 462 : administration of. 461- 
 470 : policy of reconstruction, 
 463 ; impeachment of, 460. 
 
 Jolinson, Richard M., vice presi- 
 dent. 317. 
 
 Jolinston. Albert S., general in reg- 
 ular army, 403. 
 
 Jolinston, Joseph E., general in reg- 
 ular army. 403 ; at Bull Run. 
 404 ; at Fair Oaks. 417 : at Jack- 
 son, Miss., 426 : in command of 
 Confederate forces in Georgia, 
 438 ; in Carolina. 450, 4.'jl : sur- 
 renders to Sherman, 453. 
 
 Joliet, 38. 
 
 Jcnes, Paul, and the Bon Homme 
 Richard, 202, 203. 
 
 Judiciary, The, established, 240. 
 250. 
 
 Kansas, struggle for. 362-365. 371- 
 373 : map of. 363 ; admitted to 
 the union. 382. 
 
 Kansas-Nebraska bill, 361. 362. 
 
 Kearny. Stephen W.. 338 : cam- 
 paign of, in Mexican war. 340. 
 
 Kentucky, admitted. 253 ; resolu- 
 tions. 259 : invasion of. in 1862, 
 414. 
 
 Key, Francis Scott. 284. 
 
 King George's War, 108. 109. 
 
 King Philip's War. 85. 86 ; checked 
 missionary work among the In- 
 dians. 86. 
 
 King. Rufus, 228, 272; presiden- 
 tial candidate. 287. 
 
 King, William R.. elected vice-pres- 
 ident. 356. 
 
 King William's War, 106, 107. 
 
 King's College, now Columbia Uni- 
 versity. 143. 
 
 King's Mountain, the yeomanry at. 
 208. 
 
 Knickerbockers, 127. 
 
 Know-Nothing or American I'arty. 
 366. 367. 
 
 Knox. General Henry. 216. 217 ; 
 secretary of war. 247, 248. 
 
 Kosciusko (kos-si-us'ko). Thaddeus. 
 a Polish patriot, 192. 
 
 Ku-Klux Klan, 472. 
 
 Labrador, 33. 
 
 Lafayette ( la-fa-yet'). Marquis de, 
 191, 192. 210 : outgenerals Corn- 
 wallis, saves Virginia, 212 ; vis- 
 its America. 294. 295 : laid cor- 
 ner-stone of Bunker Hill monu- 
 ment. 326. 
 
 Lake Erie, battle of, 281. 
 
 Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers, 
 monument marks the spot of. 76. 
 
 Lane. James XL, in Kansas. 363, 
 365. 
 
 La Salle (la sal'). Robert de. ex- 
 plorations of, 39. 
 
 Laudonniere de (deh lo-do-ne-er'), 
 Rene, governor of Huguenot col- 
 ony. 36. 
 
 Laurens. .Henry, peace commission- 
 er, 215. 
 
 Lawrence, Captain James, in com- 
 mand of the Chesapeake, 282, 
 283. 
 
 Lecompton convention and consti- 
 tution, 372. 
 
 Lee. General Charles, second to 
 Washington in command. 188 ; 
 treasonable conduct of. 188, 189 : 
 advice to British, 196 : at battle 
 of Monmouth, 200 ; court-mar- 
 tialed. 200. 
 
 Lee, Henry, at Paulus Hook, 205 ; 
 209. 
 
 Lee, Richard Henry, 162 ; resolu- 
 tion of, 180. 
 
 Lee. Robert E.. general in regular 
 army, 403 : in peninsular cam- 
 paign, 417, 419 : at Antietam. 
 421 : at Chancellorsville, 432 : 
 second invasion of the North, 
 433-436: in battle of the Wil- 
 derness and at Petersburg. 443- 
 445 ; retreats from Petersburg. 
 451, 452 ; surrenders at Appo- 
 mattox Courthouse. 452. 
 
 Leisler. Jacob, governor of New 
 York. 91. 
 
 Leon, see Ponce. 
 
 Lewis and Clark Expedition, The, 
 263 : map of route, 263. 
 
 Lexington, battle of. 171-173. 
 
 Liberty, The sJoop, seizure of, 165, 
 166. 
 
 Lincoln. Abraham, 100 ; in Black 
 Hawk war, 316 : "spot resolu- 
 tion" of. 337 : 355 : debates with 
 Douglas. 373. 374 : Springfield 
 speech. 374 : nominated for presi- 
 dency. 378 : election of. 379 ; and 
 the Civil war. 395 ; sketch of life, 
 395-396 ; speech on leaving 
 Springfield. 396 : policy toward 
 slavery. 397 : first inaugural, 
 397. 398 : issues call for volun- 
 teers. 399. 402. 403 : proclaims 
 blockade of southern ports. 400 ; 
 proclaims freedom to the slaves. 
 423 ; re-elected president. 449 ; 
 second inaugural address of, 
 449. 450 : assassination of. 453, 
 454 ; policy of reconstruction, 
 463. 
 
 Lincoln, Benjamin, at Savannah, 
 205 : at Charleston, 207. 
 
 Line of demarcation. 22. 
 
 Livingston. Robert R.. 246 : minis- 
 ter to France. 262. 
 
 Locke, John, 100. 
 
 London Company, The, limits. 45 ; 
 map of grant to. 45 ; Jamestown 
 colon.v. 46. 
 
 Longfellow. Henry W., 114. 
 
 Long Island, battle of. 187. 
 
 Lopez (lo'pes). General Narcisso, 
 expedition against Cuba, 353. 
 
534 
 
 HISTORY OF THE U:N^ITED STATES 
 
 Lords of Trade. 152, 153. 
 
 Louisburg. capture of, 109 ; map, 
 lO'J : returned to French, 109 ; 
 second capture of, 114. 
 
 Louisiana, purchase of. 2G1. 262 ; 
 district of, 203 : admitted to the 
 union. 287 : secedes, 380 ; is re- 
 admitted, 408. 
 
 Lovejoy, Elijah P., l^illed by a 
 mob, 328. 
 
 Lundy's Lane, battle of. 284. 
 
 Lyon, Nathaniel, in Missouri, 402. 
 
 MacDonough, Commodore, on 
 Lake Erie. 284. 
 
 Macon Bill. 274. 
 
 Madeira (ma-de' ra) Islands, dis- 
 covery of, 16. 
 
 Madison, James, in constitutional 
 convention, 228 ; joint author of 
 The Federalist, 229 : secretary of 
 state, 261 ; elected president, 
 272 : administration of. 272-287 ; 
 sketch of life, 272, 273. 
 
 Magellan (ma-jel' an) Fernando da, 
 discoveries of, 27 : first to cir- 
 cumnavigate the globe. 27. 
 
 ^Magellan, Straits of. discovery of, 
 27. 
 
 Maine, settlement of. 81, 82: part 
 of Massachusetts. 82 : admitted 
 to the union, 290. 
 
 Maine Disaster, The. 499. 
 
 Manila, battle of, 501. 
 
 Marion, Francis, 208, 209. 
 
 Marquette. 38. 
 
 Marshall, John, chief justice. 259. 
 
 Maishall. John W., discovered gold 
 in California, 344. 
 
 Martin Koszta (Kozh' ta) Affair, 
 358. 
 
 Maryland, settlement and early his- 
 tory of, 98, 99 ; religion in, 134 : 
 l)roducts of, 138 ; established 
 free schools, 141 : invasion of, 
 in 1862. 421. 422. 
 
 Mason, James M. and the Trent af- 
 fair, 407, 408. 
 
 Mason, Captain John, leader of 
 Connecticut settlers in Pequot 
 War, 84. 
 
 Mason, John, founded New Hamp- 
 shire, 81, 82. 
 
 Mason and Dixon's Line, 96, 149. 
 
 Massachusetts, the Plymouth Col- 
 ony, settlement and early history, 
 74-77 ; Bay Colony, settlement 
 and early history. 77-81 ; became 
 royal province. 81 : 85 : Hugue- 
 nots in. 129 : public school sys- 
 tem founded in. 139. 140. 
 
 Mather (math'-er). Cotton. 80; 
 one of the founders of Ameri- 
 can literature. 145. 
 
 Mather, Increase, 81 ; one of the 
 founders of American literature : 
 president of Harvard, 145. 
 
 Mayflower, The. 75. 76. 
 
 McClellan, George B., and cam- 
 
 paign in West Virginia. 401, 
 402 : succeeds Scott as general- 
 in-chief, 406 : peninsular cam- 
 paign of, 416 ; in "seven days' 
 tight" before Richmond, and ef- 
 fect of failure, 418-420 : in 
 Maryland with Army of the I'o- 
 tomac. 421, 422 ; removed from 
 command. 422 ; candidate for 
 presidency, 449. 
 
 McCormick, Cyrus H., inventor of 
 grain reaper, 393. 
 
 McDowell, General Irwin. and 
 Army of the I'otomac at Bull 
 Run, 404. 
 
 McKinley, William, author of Mc- 
 Kinlev bill, 494 ; elected presi- 
 dent. ' 498 : sketch of life, 498: 
 administration of, 498-506 : ulti- 
 matum of. to Spain, 499 : re-elec- 
 tion of, 505 ; assassination of, 
 505. 
 
 Meade, General George G., at Get- 
 tysburg. 434-436. 
 
 "Memorial Day," 459. 
 
 Menendez (ma-nen'-deth), Pedro, 
 31, 36. 
 
 Merrimac, in Hampton Roads. 415, 
 416. 
 
 Merritt. General Wesley, at battle 
 of Manila, 501. 
 
 Mexican War. 336-342. 
 
 Mexico, conquest of, 25 : war with. 
 336-342 : U. S. paid $10,000,000 
 to for the Mesilla valley, 357, 
 358 ; and the Monroe Doctrine, 
 469, 470. 
 
 Michigan, admitted to the union, 
 317. 
 
 Middle Colonies, education m, 140, 
 141. 
 
 Milan decree. 269, 275. 
 
 Miles, General Nelson A., conquers 
 Porto Rico, 501. 
 
 Military rule in the south in John- 
 son's administration, 468 : con- 
 tinued under Grant, 473 : ended 
 by withdrawal of troops, 477. 
 
 Minnesota, admitted to the union, 
 382. 
 
 Mint, the United States, estab- 
 lished. 249. 
 
 Missionarv Ridge, 429; battle of. 
 430. 4.31. 
 
 Mississippi, admitted to the union, 
 2S9. 290 : secedes. 380 ; is read- 
 mitted. 473. 
 
 ^Mississippi River, discovery of. 30- 
 31 : La Salle's exploration of. 
 39 ; opening of upper Mississippi, 
 in 1862. 412. 
 
 ISIissouri, admitted to the union, 
 290 : border state in civil war, 
 400, 401 ; saved to the union, 
 402. 
 
 Missouri Compromise. 290, 370, 
 371. 
 
 Mobile P.av, entered by Farragut, 
 441. 
 
INDEX 
 
 535 
 
 Mobilian family of Indians, 55. 
 
 Moluccas (mo-luk-kas), 27. 
 
 Monitor and Merrimac, 415. 416. 
 
 Monmouth, battle of. 199. 200. 
 
 Monroe Doctrine, 291, 354 ; and 
 Mexico, 409, 470. 
 
 Monroe, James, envoy to France, 
 262 ; elected president, 287 ; ad- 
 ministrations of, 288-293 ; sketch 
 of life of, 288. 
 
 Montana, admitted to the union, 
 497. 
 
 Montcalm (mont-kam). General, 
 the French general at Quebec, 
 115-117. 
 
 Monterey, battle of, 339. 
 
 Montezuma, emperor of ancient 
 Mexico, 26. 
 
 Montgomery, General Richard, at 
 Quebec. 176, 177. 
 
 Monticello, Jefferson's estate. 261 ; 
 picture of, 261 ; "The Sage of 
 Monticello," 261. 
 
 Monts, de (deh mon'), Sieur, 37. 
 
 Morgan, Daniel, defeats Tarleton, 
 211 ; Cornwallis pursues, 211. 
 
 Mormons, 325. 326. 
 
 Morris. Robert, superintendent of 
 finance, 219. 220, 228. 
 
 Morristown, Washington withdraws 
 to, 191. 
 
 Morse, Samuel F. B., and the tele- 
 graph, 331, 332. 
 
 Moultrie (moo'tre), Colonel Will- 
 iam, 178. 179. 
 
 Mound builders in North America, 
 56. 57. 
 
 Mount Vernon, home of Washing- 
 ton, 217, 246. 
 
 Murfreesboro, battle of, 414. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, see Bona- 
 parte. 
 
 Narvaez. de (da nav-va'eth), Pam- 
 filo, 28. 
 
 Nashville, battle of. 439, 440. 
 
 National Republican' partv. 297, 
 310. 315; formed Whig party, 
 315. 
 
 Navigation Acts, 72, 73, 121, 122, 
 159, 160. 
 
 Nebraska, admitted to the union, 
 469. 
 
 Nevada, admitted to the union, 
 457. 
 
 New England, Council for, 74. 
 
 New England, The United Colonies 
 of. 84, 85 ; clergy of. 134 : ship- 
 building in, 138 ; education in. 
 139, 140. 
 
 New England Kitchen, picture of. 
 132. 
 
 Newfoundland, attempts to found 
 colonv in. 43. 
 
 New Hampshire, settled. 81, 82. 
 
 New Jersey, settlement and early 
 history, 92, 93. 
 
 New Orleans, British attack upon, 
 
 284, 285 ; captured by Farragut, 
 
 1862, 413, 414. 
 New Orleans, 118. 
 Newport, R. I., 87 ; French fleet 
 
 fails at, 201. 
 Newspapers in the Colonies, 143- 
 
 145. 
 New Sweden, or Delaware, 97, 98, 
 
 127. 
 New York, settlement and early 
 
 history, 88-92 ; map of, 89 ; pop- 
 ulation in 1790. 125 ; Huguenots 
 
 in. 129 : established Church of 
 
 England in, 134. 135. 
 Nina (nen'ya), one of Columbus' 
 
 vessels. 1.3. 
 Nominating conventions, 293, 308 ; 
 
 national, .315. 
 Nonimportation act. 271 ; repealed, 
 
 271. 
 Nonintercourse act, 271. 272. 
 Norsemen. The, discovery of. 20, 21. 
 North and South, relative strength 
 
 of. 382, 383. 
 North America, physical features 
 
 of. 49 : structural map of, 50. 
 Northwest Territory. 226 ; Indian 
 
 troubles in, 253. 
 Nullification doctrine. 314 ; act, 
 315 ; Jackson's proclamation, .315. 
 
 Oglethorpe (o'gl-thorpe), James, 
 
 founder of Georgia, 102. 103. 
 Ohio, Company, 110; admitted to 
 
 the union, 265. 
 Oklahoma territory, growth of, 497. 
 "Old Ironsides." 280. 
 Old South Church, picture of, 167 ; 
 
 168. 
 Orders in council. 269. 274. 275. 
 Ordinance of 1787. 226. 227. 304. 
 Oregon, admitted to the union. 382. 
 Oregon country, map of, 104. 264. 
 
 265 ; territory organized, 346. 
 Orleans, territory of. 263. 
 Ostend manifesto. 359, 360. 
 Otis, James. 156, 163. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, discovery of. 25. 
 
 Pakenham (pak-en-am). Sir Ed- 
 ward, British general, 284. 285. 
 
 Palma. Tomaso Estrada (to-ma-so 
 es-tra-da pal-ma), first president 
 of the Cuban republic, 503. 
 
 Palo Alto (pa-lo al-to), battle of, 
 336. 
 
 Palos (pa-los), Columbus set sail 
 from. 13. 
 
 Pan-American congresses, 494. 
 
 Panic, financial, of 1837. 318, 319 ; 
 of 1873. 476 : of 1893, 495, 496. 
 
 Paper money, during the Revolu- 
 tion, 218. 219 ; in Jackson's time, 
 "rag money." 312-314. 
 
 Parliament and the colonies. 153. 
 
 Patroon system. 91 ; led to anti- 
 rent difficulties, 92 : "patroon 
 war," antirent diflaculties, 325. 
 
536 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Paulus Hook, 205. 
 
 Pea Ridge, battle of, 409. 
 
 Peace convention, 381. 
 
 Pemberton, John C, confederate 
 general, 425, 426. 
 
 Penn, William, character of. 94 ; 
 and his "holy experiment," 94 : 
 founded Philadelphia, 95 : Indian 
 policy of, 96 : manner of locating 
 boundaries, 96 ; liberal charter 
 granted to, 97 : gives a grant to 
 a colony from Wales, 126 ; Dutch 
 pamphlet of, 128. 
 
 Pennsylvania, settlement and early 
 historv, 93-97 ; Germans in, 128 ; 
 Scotch-Irish in. 129. 
 
 Pennsylvania, University of, Benja- 
 min Franklin founder .of, 143. 
 
 People's party in election of 1896, 
 498. 
 
 Pequot war, 83. 84. 
 
 Perry, Commodore Oliver H., in 
 battle of Lake Erie. 281. 
 
 Perry. Mattliew C. expedition of, 
 to'japan. 358, 359. 
 
 I'etersburg, intrenched by Lee, 445. 
 
 Philadelphia, founded, 95 ; popula- 
 tion in 1790, 125 : First Conti- 
 nental Congress met in, 169 ; 
 map of, and vicinity. 196 ; Howe 
 entered. 197 ; evacuated by Clin- 
 ton, 199. 
 
 Philip, King, son of Massasoit, 85 ; 
 war with, 85, 86 : death. 86. 
 
 Philippine (fil'ip-in) Islands, dis- 
 covery of, 26 : seized by England, 
 117: returned to Spain, 118: se- 
 cured by treaty from Spain, 500 ; 
 acquired by treaty in 1898. 501 ; 
 war in, 502. 
 
 Phillips. Wendell, advocate ofanti- 
 slaverv cause, 329 : address at 
 Faneuil Hall, 329. 
 
 Phipps. William, Sir, 106. 
 
 Pickens, Andrew, 209. 
 
 Pierce, Franklin, elected president, 
 356 : administration of. 356-368 : 
 sketch of life of, 356, 357 ; policy 
 toward Kansas. 364, 365. 
 
 Pilgrims. The. why so called, 75 ; 
 object of coming to America. 75 ; 
 voyage in the INIayflower and the 
 compact, 75, 76 : landed at Plym- 
 outh, 76 ; relations with the In- 
 dians, 77. 
 
 Pinckney. Charles C. in constitu- 
 tional convention. 228 ; commis- 
 sioner to France. 257 : candidate 
 for vice-president. 259 ; presiden- 
 tial candidate. 272. 
 
 Pinckney. Thomas, in constitutional 
 convention. 228. 
 
 Pinta (pen'ta), one of Columbus' 
 vessels, 13. 
 
 Pitcairn, .John. Major. 172. 
 
 Pitt. William, policy of, in French 
 and Indian war, 114. 115, 120. 
 
 Pizzarro. conquest of Peru. 26. 
 
 Plains of Abraham, 116. 
 
 Plymouth Company, The, map of 
 grant to, 45 : limits, 46 : attempt 
 at colonization, 46 ; reorganized 
 as "Council for New England," 
 74. 
 
 I'lymouth, Mass., settled 1620, 76 ; 
 map of, 78 : 85. 
 
 I'lymouth Rock. 76. 
 
 Pocahontas (po-ka-hon'-tas), res- 
 cues John Smith, 66 ; marries 
 John Rolfe, 66. 
 
 Polk. James K., elected president, 
 333 : administration of, 333-347 ; 
 sketch of life of, 333, 334. 
 
 Ponce de Leon (pon'tha da la-on), 
 discovers Florida, 24-25 ; govern- 
 or of Porto Rico, 25. 
 
 Pontiac (pon'ti-ac), conspiracy of, 
 119. 120. 
 
 Pope Alexander VI, 23. 
 
 Pope. General John, captures New 
 Madrid and Island Number Ten. 
 412 : in command of Army of 
 Virginia. 420 : in second battle 
 of Bull Run, 420. 
 
 Pope Nicholas V, grant to Portu- 
 guese. 16. 
 
 Port Hudson, surrendered. 427. 
 
 I'ort Royal. Nova Scotia, 38 : taken 
 by the English, 106, 107, 108. 
 
 Port Royal, South Carolina, 35, 
 100. 
 
 Porter, Admiral David D.. with 
 fleet at Vicksburg. 425, 426. 
 
 Porto Rico (por'to re'ko), discov- 
 ered. 20 ; conquest of. by Span- 
 ish. 24 : conquest of. by General 
 IMiles. 501 : acquired by treaty, 
 1898, 501. 
 
 Portsmouth. R. I.. 87. 
 
 Portugal. 16. 17, 22. 
 
 Portuguese, early discoveries of. 
 16: grant to, by Pope Nicholas 
 V. 16 : discoverers and explorers, 
 32, 33 ; summary of explorations, 
 46. 
 
 Postofflce. The. under the manage- 
 ment of Benj. Franklin, 153. 154. 
 
 Post-rider, 154 : picture of, 154. 
 
 Prescott, William, at Bunker Hill, 
 175. 
 
 Prescott, William H.. historian, 26. 
 
 President and Little Belt. 277. 
 
 Presidential succession bill, 491. 
 
 I'rinceton. battle of. 190. 191. 
 
 I'rinceton T^niversity. formerly the 
 College of New Jersey, 143. 
 
 Pring. Martin, 44. 
 
 I'roclamation Line. The. 121. 168. 
 
 Pro))rietary colonies. 152. 
 
 Protestants, every sect of. repre- 
 sented in America, named, 135. 
 
 Pulaski (pu-las'kee). Count. 192. 
 
 Puritans, The, why so called, 74 ; 
 settlement at Salem. 77-81 : in- 
 tolerance of. 79. 88 : costume of. 
 131: hated the Established 
 Church of lOngland. 134. 
 
 Putnam, Israel, 187. 188. 
 
INDEX 
 
 537 
 
 Quakers, persecuted in Massachu- 
 setts. 79, 80 ; in New Jersey, 92, 
 93 ; in Pennsylvania, 93-97 ; be- 
 lief of. 93. 94 : established public 
 school system. 141. 
 
 Quartering Act. The. 1G8. 
 
 Quebec, founded, 37 ; first English 
 attack on. 1(H> ; second attack on, 
 108 ; taken by the English, 115- 
 117; map of. 116: province of, 
 121 ; hated the Established 
 Church of England. 134 ; Act, 
 168 ; American attack upon, 176, 
 177. 
 
 Quebec Act, 168. 215. 
 
 Queen Anne's War, 107, 108. 
 
 Quincy. Josiah. Jr.. 106. 
 
 Quivera (ke-ve'-ra), 29-30. 
 
 Railboads, early. 296, 297 ; in- 
 crease of, 391, 512, 513. 
 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, attempts at 
 colonization, 43, 44 : death, 44. 
 
 Randolph, Edmund, in constitution- 
 al convention, 228 ; attorney- 
 generaJ, 248. 
 
 Reciprocity, in the McKinley tar- 
 iff bill, 494. 
 
 Reconstruction, period of, 461- 
 480 : problems of. 462 : Lincoln's 
 policy of, 463 ; Johnson's policy 
 of, 463 ; policy of congress, 464, 
 465 ; influenced by election of 
 1866, 466 ; I'resident Johnson's 
 powers limited by congress, 466, 
 467 ; measures of, completed by 
 congress, 467 : plan of, carried 
 out, 467, 468 : states readmitted 
 under, 460 ; new state govern- 
 ments, 468, 469 ; end of congres- 
 sional, 472, 473. 
 
 Reeder, Andrew H., first territorial 
 governor of Kansas. 363, 364. 
 
 Regulating Act. The. 168. 
 
 Religion, in the colonies, 134, 135. 
 
 Republic, The, growth of, 1789- 
 1829, 299-308 : development of 
 territory in. 299 ; population, 
 table of. by states, 299. 300 ; 
 growth of cities, table showing 
 relative rank. 301 ; manner of 
 living in, 301. 302 ; religion in, 
 30'2 : mode of travel in, 303 ; 
 public schools and colleges in, 
 304 ; literature in, 305 : occupa- 
 tions in, 305, 306 ; the army and 
 the navy of, 306, 307 ; growth 
 of popular government in, 307, 
 308. Growth of, 1830-60, 385-395 : 
 close of an era, 385 ; territorial 
 growth, 385 : population, table 
 of, by states, 386-388 ; growth of 
 cities, table showing relative 
 size, 388 ; schools and colleges in, 
 389 ; newspapers, 389 ; literature, 
 389, 390 ; canal transportation 
 in, 390, 391 ; increase of rail- 
 roads in. 391 : national feeling 
 in, 392 ; sectional feeling in, 392. 
 393 ; inventions and discoveries 
 
 in, 393, 394. Growth of, 1860- 
 1902, 507-517 ; population, table 
 of, by states, 507-508 ; growth of 
 cities, table of, 508, 509 ; growth 
 of territory. 509. 510 ; public 
 lands of, 510 ; public schools and 
 colleges, 510-512 ; national expo- 
 sitions in, 512 ; transportation, 
 512, 513 ; newspapers, 514 ; 
 growth of industries, 514-516 ; 
 the new unionism, 516 ; the new 
 American era in, 516, 517. 
 
 Republican party, rise of, 366-368 ; 
 in campaign of 1860, 377-379 ; 
 in campaign of 1868, 470 ; in 
 campaign of 1872, 475 ; in cam- 
 paign of 1876. 479 ; in cam- 
 paign of 1880, 485 ; in campaign 
 of 1884, 489 ; in campaign of 
 1888, 493 ; in election of 1896, 
 498. 
 
 Resaca de La. Palma (ra-sa'ka da 
 la pal'ma), battle of, 336. 
 
 Resumption Act. passed, 476 ; goes 
 into effect. 483, 484. 
 
 Revere (re-veer'), I'aul, descendant 
 of Huguenots, 129. 
 
 Revolution, American, The, condi- 
 tions, acts and events leading to. 
 157-170 : battles of and events 
 in, 171-215 : treaty closing, 215, 
 216 ; finances of, 217-220. 
 
 Rhode Island, settlement and early 
 history of, 87, 88 ; government 
 of. 88. 
 
 Ribaut (re-bo'), Jean. 35. 100. 
 
 Richmond. Va., confederate capital, 
 404 ; "seven days' fight" before, 
 418. 419. 
 
 Robinson. Charles. 363 ; territorial 
 governor of Kansas. 364, 365. 
 
 Rochambeau (ro-sham-bo'), Jean, 
 Count de. commander of French 
 forces in America. 213. 
 
 Rolfe. John, one of the early set- 
 tlers of Virginia, marries Poca- 
 hontas, 66. 
 
 Roosevelt (ro'ze-velt) , Theodore, 
 vice-president, succeeds tO' the 
 presidency, 505. 506. 
 
 Rosecrans. William S.. at Murfrees- 
 boro. 414 ; at Chattanooga, 427 : 
 at Chickamauga, 427. 429. 
 
 Rotation in office. 261 : in Jack- 
 son's administration. 310, 311. 
 
 Royal colonies. 152. 
 
 Rutger's or Queen's College, 143. 
 
 Rutledge. John, 228. 
 
 Ryswick (riz'-wik), HollaDd, treaty 
 at, 107. 
 
 Saint Augustine (sant a'-gus- 
 ten). 31, 103, lOS. 
 
 Saint Johns River, 35, 36. 
 
 Saint Lawrence, River and Gulf 
 of, 34-35. 
 
 St. Leger (sant-lej'er), P>arry, 
 British ofl5cer, 192 ; in the Mo- 
 hawk valley, 194. 
 
 Salem, Mass., settlement and early 
 
538 
 
 HISTORY OP THE UXITED STATES 
 
 history of, 77-81 ; character of 
 settlers, 77 : map of, 78 ; differ- 
 ence between settlers of, and the 
 settlers of Virginia, 78 ; govern- 
 ment of. 78, 80, 81 ; religious 
 differences, 79 ; witchcraft, 80 : 
 charter revoked and new ctiarter 
 granted. 80-81. 
 
 Samoa, 494, 495. 
 
 Sampson, Commodore, at Santiago, 
 500. 
 
 Sandwich Islands, proposed annex- 
 ation of Hawaii, 49.5. 
 
 Sanitary and Christian Commis- 
 sions, 456, 457. 
 
 San Juan (san hoo-an'), battle of, 
 501. 
 
 San Juan de Ulloa (san ho-an' da 
 o-Io'a), fort at harbor of Vera 
 Cruz. 341. 
 
 San Miguel (san me-gel'), 28, 100. 
 
 San Salvador (san sal-va-dor'), 
 Columbus landed on, 19. 
 
 Santa Anna, Mexican general, 339, 
 341. 
 
 Santa Fe, founded, 32. 
 
 Santa Maria (san'-ta ma-re'-a), Co- 
 lumbus' flagship, 13. 
 
 Santiago de Cuba ( san-te-a'go da 
 ku'ba), battle of, 500, 501. 
 
 Santo Domingo (san'-to do-min'- 
 go), discovered, 19; colony 
 founded, 20. 
 
 Saratoga, battles of, 195, 196. 
 
 Savannah, capture by British in 
 1778. 201. 202: attempt to re- 
 take in 1779, 205. 
 
 Schley, Commodore, at Santiago, 
 500. 
 
 School, The public, in Massachu- 
 setts, 139, 140. 
 
 Schuyler (ski'ler). General Philip, 
 193, 195. 
 
 Scotch-Irish, The, in the colonies, 
 129 : hated the Established 
 Church of England. 134 ; believ- 
 ers in education. 141. 
 
 Scott. General Winfield. in war of 
 1812, 284, 315; in Mexican war, 
 338. 341. 342 ; presidential can- 
 didate, 356 ; lieutenant-general of 
 army, 403 ; succeeded by McClel- 
 lan, 406. 
 
 Secession of southern states, 379, 
 380. 400. 
 
 Seminole War. 288, 289. 
 
 Separatist, defined, 75. 
 
 Serapis. 202, 203. 
 
 Seven Years' War. The, 120. 
 
 Seward. William II., on compromise 
 of 1850, 351. 352; and his "high- 
 er law" doctrine, 352, 355 ; at- 
 tempt on life of, 455. 
 
 Shafter. General W. It., commander 
 of land forces in Spanish-Ameri- 
 can war, 501. 
 
 Shannon, British frigate, captures 
 Chesapeake. 283. 
 
 Shannon, Wilson, territorial gover- 
 nor of Kansas, 364. 
 
 Shay's Rebellion. 224, 225. 
 
 Shenandoah ( shen-an-do'a). Valley, 
 Scotch-Irish settlers in, 129. 
 
 Sheridan, General I'hilip, in the 
 Shenandoah valley, 445, 446. 
 
 Sherman Act, and repeal of, 4J5, 
 496. 
 
 Sherman. John, secretary of rhe 
 treasury, 484 ; author of stiver 
 coinage act of 1890. 496. 
 
 Sherman, Roger, 156, 228. 
 
 Sherman, William T., at batfi'i of 
 Shiloh, 411 : at Vicksburg, 425 ; 
 at Chattanooga, 429, 430 ; cam- 
 paign of, against Atlanta, 437- 
 439 ; march from Atlanta to the 
 sea, 440 : march north. 450, 451 ; 
 Johnson surrenders to. 453. 
 
 Shiloh. haitle of. 411. 112. 
 
 Silver, demonetization of, 476. 
 
 Sioux (soo). tribe of Indians, 56. 
 
 Slavery, introduction of, 69, 147 ; 
 in the colonies, 147. 148 ; senti- 
 ment against in the colonies, 148 ; 
 number of slaves in the colonies, 
 149 ; slave laws in the colonies, 
 149, 150 : prohibited in north- 
 west territory, 227 : gradual 
 abolition of, in the north. 292 : 
 petitions in congress referring to 
 294, 327, 328 ; societies for aboli- 
 tion of, 328 : 334 : "Wilmot Pro- 
 viso." prohibiting, 343, 344 ; for- 
 bidden in Oregon territory, 346 : 
 extension of, in acquired terri- 
 tory, 349, 350 : compromise of 
 1850, 350, 352: Kansas-Nebraska 
 bill. 361, 362 : 369 : supreme 
 court decision in favor of, 370, 
 371, 374-379: effect on the south. 
 383 : "cornerstone" of the con- 
 federacy, 407 : abolished by 
 emancipation, 423. 
 
 Slidell, John, envoy to Mexico 
 (1845), 335: and the Trent af- 
 fair, 407, 408. 
 
 Smith, Captain John, rescued by 
 Pocahontas, 66 : explores and 
 maps coast of New England. 67. 
 
 Sons of Libert.v. 161, 162, 169. 
 
 Southern colonies, education in, 
 141. 
 
 Spain, 13. 15, 17, 20, 22, 25, 26, 
 27, 36, 291. 
 
 Spanish-American War, naval op- 
 erations in, 500 : land cam- 
 paigns of, 500, 501 : treaty of 
 peace, 501 : results of. 501. 
 
 Spanish Armada (ar-ma'-da), 42, 
 44. 
 
 Spanish, motives for discoveries, 
 23, 24 : discoverers and ex- 
 plorers. 23-32 : summary of ex- 
 plorations. 46 : claim to terri- 
 tory of r. S.. 47 : map of 
 claims. 104; annoyance to Geor- 
 gians, 103; in Queen Anne's 
 War, 108 ; possessions at close 
 of French and Indian war, 118. 
 
INDEX 
 
 539 
 
 Specie circular, 313, 314. 
 
 Spinning wheel, picture of a, 138. 
 
 Spoils system. The, 261 : in Jack- 
 son's administration, 310, 311 : 
 in Cleveland's first administra- 
 tion, 490. 
 
 Spottsylvania Courthouse, battle 
 of, 443, 444. 
 
 Squatter sovereignty, 3G1, 3G2. 
 
 Stamp Act. IGl, repeal of, 102. 
 
 Standish, Miles, 77. 
 
 Stanton, Edwin M., secretary of 
 the treasury, in Buchanan's cab- 
 inet, 381 ; secretary of war in 
 Lincoln's cabinet, 454 ; dismissed 
 by President Johnson and ap- 
 peals to House, 469. 
 
 Star of the West, fired upon, 382. 
 
 Star-Spangled Banner, by Francis 
 Scott Key, 284. 
 
 Stark, John, at Bennington, 193, 
 194. 
 
 Stars and Stripes first raised, 194 ; 
 history of, 194. 195. 
 
 State rights, 224, 314. 
 
 States, The. adopt new constitu- 
 tions, 221, 222. 
 
 Steamboats, invention of, 267, in 
 general use. 296. 
 
 Stephens, Alexander II., 355 : vice- 
 president of Confederate states, 
 380. 
 
 Stephenson, George, inventor of 
 locomotive, 297. 
 
 Stephenson. Major B. F.. organized 
 first post of the G. A. R., 459. 
 
 Steuben (stuben). Baron. 192. 
 
 Stevens. Thaddeus and reconstruc- 
 tion, 464. 
 
 Stony Point, captured by Wayne, 
 204, 205. 
 
 Stowe, jMi's. Harriet Beecher ; "Un- 
 cle Tom's Cabin," 376. 
 
 Stuarts, House of, England under, 
 64. 
 
 Stuyvesant, Peter, governor of New 
 Netherlands, 90. 
 
 Sullivan, General, in battle of Long 
 Island, 187 : at Newport, 201. 
 
 Sumner. Charles, 355 ; and the 
 "crime against Kansas." 362 ; 
 assaulted by Brooks in U. S. sen- 
 ate, 365, 366 ; and reconstruc- 
 tion. 464. 
 
 Sumter, Thomas, 209. 
 
 Swedes, The, settled Delaware, 98, 
 127. 
 
 Taney (taw'ni). Roger B., opinion 
 in Dred Scott case, 370, 371. 
 
 Tariff of 1789, 249 ; of 1816, 286 ; 
 of 1824, 292 ; of 1828, 297 : of 
 1832, 314 ; of 1833, 314 : of 1842, 
 323 : of 1846, 343 ; of 1861, 456 ; 
 of 1890, 494 ; of 1897, 498. 
 
 Tarleton, Sir Bannastre (ban'as-ter 
 tarl'ton), 207. 211. 
 
 Taylor. Zachary, in war with the 
 Seminoles, 316 ; in Mexican war, 
 
 335, 338-340; elected president, 
 347 ; sketch of life, 347, 348 ; 
 death, 348 ; policy as to exten- 
 sion of slavery, 349, 350. 
 
 Telegraph, invention of, 331, 332. 
 
 Tennessee, admitted, 253 ; secedes, 
 400 ; is readmitted, 467. 
 
 Tenure of Office Act, 467. 
 
 Texas, a disturbing element in na- 
 tional politics, 329, 330; annexa- 
 tion and admission to the union 
 of. 330, 331 ; dispute over bound- 
 ary of. 334, 335 ; map of Texas, 
 330 ; of disputed territory, 334 ; 
 secession of, 380 ; is readmitted, 
 473. 
 
 Thames, battle of the river, 281. 
 
 Thomas. General George H., at 
 Chickamauga, 429 ; at Missionary 
 Ridge. 430, 431. 
 
 Ticonderoga (ti-kon der-o'ga), 115, 
 captured by Ethan Allen, 173. 
 
 Tilden, Samuel J., presidential can- 
 didate. 479. 
 
 Tippecanoe, battle of, 276. 
 
 Toleration Act, 99. 
 
 Tompkins. Daniel D., vice presi- 
 dent, 287. 
 
 Tory or Loyalist party in the col- 
 onies, 154, 155. 
 
 Townshend Acts, The, 163, 164. 
 
 Transportation Act. The, 168. 
 
 Treaty, I'enn's. with the Indians, 
 96 ; at Ryswick, 107 ; of 
 Utrecht, 108 ; Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 109; of Paris (1763), 117; with 
 Great Britain (at Paris, 1783), 
 215. 216 ; with Algiers. 251 ; with 
 Spain. 252 ; Jay's, 252 ; with Tri- 
 poli, 268 ; of Ghent, 285 ; with 
 Algiers, 287 ; Webster-Ashbur- 
 ton. 324 ; Guadalupe Hidalgo, 
 with Mexico, 342 ; Oregon, 343 ; 
 Clayton-Bulwer. 353 ; with Jap- 
 an. 359 ; of Washington, 473 ; 
 with Spain, 1898. 501 ; Clayton- 
 Bulwer. with England. 504 ; Hay- 
 I'auncefote, with England, 504. 
 
 Trent affair, 407, 408. 
 
 Trenton, battle of. 190. 191. 
 
 Tripolitan war, 267, 268. 
 
 "Tweed Ring," The. 479. 
 
 Tyler, John, elected vice-president, 
 
 320 ; succeeds to the presidency, 
 
 321 ; sketch of life. 322 ; admin- 
 istration of, 322-333 : member of 
 I'eace Convention. 322 ; member 
 of Confederate congress , 322. 
 
 "Uncle Tom's Cabin/' 376. 
 
 "Underground railroad," 352, 353. 
 
 Union Pacific Railroad, 457, 471, 
 478. 
 
 United Colonies of New England, 
 The, 84. 85. 221. 
 
 T'nited States. The, physical fea- 
 tures of, 49-52. 
 
 Utah, admitted to the union, 497. 
 
 Utrecht, treaty of, 108, 147. 
 
540 
 
 HISTORY OF THE Ui^ITED STATES 
 
 Valley Forge, the winter at, 197, 
 198. 
 
 Van Bureu, Martin, secretary of 
 state, ;^10 ; elected vice-president, 
 HIO ; elected president. 317 : ad- 
 ministration of, 317-320 : sketch 
 of life, 317-318 : nominated for 
 president by Free-soil party, 347. 
 
 Vera t'ruz (va'ra krooz), founded, 
 2() : battle of, 341. 
 
 Vermont, admitted. 253. 
 
 Verrazano (ver-ra-tsa'no), Giovan- 
 ni, 34. 
 
 Vespucius, Americus, voyages and 
 narratives. 32 ; portrait, 41. 
 
 Vicksburg, campaign against, 425- 
 427. 
 
 Vikings, reported discoveries of, 20, 
 21. 
 
 Virginia, named, 43 ; Raleigh's col- 
 onies in, 43. 44 : settlement at 
 Jamestown. (55 : first charter, 65 ; 
 character of first colonists, 65. 
 (56 : second charter. 67 ; third 
 charter. 67 : communism and 
 Dale's laws. 67 ; map of, 68 ; in- 
 dentured service in. 69 : negro 
 slavery in. 69 ; traffic in tobacco, 
 68. 69 : first representative as- 
 sembly or House of Burgesses, 
 70. 71 ; written constitution, 70 ; 
 Indian massacres. 70. 71 ; char- 
 ter revoked. 71 : Berkeley and 
 Bacon, 72. 73 : Bacon's rebellion. 
 73 ; Huguenots in. 129 : religion 
 in, 134 : products of, 138 : La- 
 fayette saves. 212 ; resolutions, 
 259 ; University of. 260 : seces- 
 sion of. 400 ; is readmitted. 472. 
 
 Virginia Company. The. 45. 
 
 Virginius, The, 474. 
 
 Walker. Robert .7.. secretary of 
 the treasury. 343 ; territorial 
 governor of Kansas. 371. 372. 
 
 Walker. William, and filibustering 
 expeditions. 360. 361. 
 
 War. with Indians. 83-86 ; inter- 
 colonial. 104-109 : French and 
 Indian. 110-122: Revolutionary. 
 171-220: Tripolitan. 267. 268; 
 of 1812. 277-286 : Seminole. 288. 
 289 : Black Hawk and Florida. 
 316: civil. 398-453; Spanish- 
 American. 499-501. 
 
 Ward. Artemas, 173. 
 
 Warner. Seth. at Crown Point, 174. 
 
 Warren, .loseph. 156 : fell at battle 
 of Bunker Hill. 176. 
 
 Washington, city of. became capital 
 of United States in 1800. 250. 
 251 : burned bv British. 284 : map 
 of, 403 ; threatened in 1861. 403, 
 404. 
 
 Washington admitted to the union. 
 497. 
 
 Washington. George, in Virginia's 
 service. Ill ; at Fort Necessity. 
 Ill ; at Fort Duquesne, 115 ; coat 
 
 of arms of, 130 ; colonial leader, 
 155 ; appointed commander-in- 
 chief of American army, 174 ; 
 forced British to evacuate Bos- 
 ton, 177, 178 : at New York, 185 ; 
 retreats from Brooklyn. 187, 188 : 
 victories of, at Trenton and 
 I'rinceton, 190. 101 ; at Morris- 
 town, 191 : used stars and stripes 
 at Brandywine. 195 ; Conway 
 cabal against. 198 : 200, 204, 207, 
 209, 210 : at Yorktown. 212. 213 ; 
 proclaims cessation of hostilities, 
 215 : bids farev.-ell to officers, 
 217, 218; retires to Mount Ver- 
 non. 217 : in constitutional con- 
 vention. 228. 229 : elected presi- 
 dent. 246 : inaugurated, 246 ; ad- 
 ministration of. 247-255 ; fare- 
 well address of. 254. 255. 
 
 Wayne. General Anthony, captures 
 Stony I'oint. 204. 205 ; in the 
 Northwest Territory. 253. 
 
 Webster. Daniel. 249. 295 : debate 
 with Hayne. 314 ; the expounder 
 of the constitution. 314 : secre- 
 tary of state. 321 ; negotiates 
 treaty with (ireat Britain. 324 ; 
 Bunker Hill monument oration. 
 326 ; seventh of March speech of. 
 351 ; death of. 354 ; compared 
 with Clay and Calhoun. 354. 355. 
 
 Welsh. The. in the colonies, 126. 
 
 Wesley. Charles. 103. 
 
 Wesley. John. 103. 
 
 West Virginia, campaign of Civil 
 War in. 401, 402 ; admitted to 
 the union. 457. 
 
 Weymouth. George. 44. 
 
 Whig party, in the colonies. 154. 
 155 ; origin of. in United States. 
 315. 316; 317. 320 ; opposed Mex- 
 ican war, 337 ; 356 ; death of, 
 356. 
 
 Whiskey Insurrection. 253 ; the 
 Whiskey Ring. 478. 
 
 White. John, leader of one of the 
 Raleigh colonies. 44. 
 
 Wliitney. Kli. invents the cotton 
 gin. 254. 
 
 Wilderness, battle of the. 443. 
 
 William and Mary College, 142. 
 260. 
 
 Williams. Roger, character of. 79; 
 founds Trovidence. 87-88 ; a 
 Welshman. 126. 
 
 Wilmot Proviso. 343. 344. 
 
 Wilson Bill. 496. 
 
 Winchester, battle of. 446. 
 
 Winthrop. John, governor of Mass. 
 Bav Colony. 78. 
 
 Winthrop. John. Jr.. 82. 
 
 Wirt. William. anti-Masonic candi- 
 date for president. 315. 
 
 W)s<'onsin. admitted to the union, 
 •'^46. 
 
 Witherspoon, John, signer of Dec- 
 laration, president of Princeton 
 College. 156. 
 
IN^DEX 541 
 
 Wolfe, James, General, commander X. Y. Z. correspondence '^jT 
 
 of English at Quebec, 115-117. ' *" ' 
 Wood. General Leonard, governor 
 
 of Cuba, r>0;5. Yale Goi.legb. 148. 
 
 Wood, .Tetbro, inventor of steel Yale, Elihu, 143 
 
 plow, 393. Yeardley (yeerd'li). Sir George, 
 
 Writs of Assistance, 160. 161. governor of Virginia. 70. 
 
 Wyandotte constitution. 373. Yorktown, battle of. 213 ■ map of 
 
 Wyoming admitted to the union, 213 ; effect of battle, in America! 
 
 407. 213. 214; effect, on the British, 
 
 Wyoming massacre, 200, 201. 214 ; taken in 1862 417. 
 
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