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 STATE OF OHIO 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 A Syllabus for the Study of 
 Elementary School Subjects 
 
 CONFINED TO THE MOST ESSENTIALS 
 SUBJECT MATTER and METHODOLOGY 
 
 (REVISED, 1922) 
 
 Prepared especially for those 
 who take the examination for 
 temporary elementary teach- 
 ers' certificates in Ohio 
 
 BY 
 
 T. HOWARD WINTERS 
 
 INSPECTOR OF TEACHER -TRAINING 
 
 VERNON M. RIEGEL 
 
 DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION 
 
STATE OF OHIO 
 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
 
 A Syllabus for the Study of 
 Elementary School Subjects 
 
 CONFINED TO THE MOST ESSENTIAL 
 SUBJECT MATTER and METHODOLOGY 
 
 (REVISED, 1922) 
 
 Prepared especially for those 
 who take the examination for 
 temporary elementary teach- 
 ers' certificates in Ohio 
 
 BY 
 
 T. HOWARD WINTERS 
 
 INSPECTOR OF TEACHER TRAINING 
 
 VERNON M. RIEGEL 
 
 DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION 
 
 Columbus, Ohio : 
 
 The F. J. Heer Printing Co. 
 
 1922 
 
 Bound at State Bindery. 
 

 LIBRARY OF CONuKtSS 
 OOOUMflhTw DIVUSIO 
 
 • I 
 
Lfi) 
 
 (U 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING 
 
 i. Aims in education, (i) Perfecting- the individual as a per- 
 son with the best physical condition and ability to use the muscles skil- 
 fully, most readiness of attention and other tendencies to mental activity, 
 best standards of honesty and other moral qualities, best attitudes to- 
 ward others. (2) Improving the individual as a worker, with the 
 physical condition and some of the skill and knowledge which will serve 
 that end. and with the proper attitude toward work and fellow workers. 
 (3) Making the individual a good member of state and society, able to 
 help and not be a drawback, by making him a better physical being, pos- 
 sessed of knowledge of the state and of society, without too much selfish- 
 ness, with sufficient regard for others, and with a determination to make 
 the joint effort called the state or society a greater success, more help- 
 ful to its members. Evidently in attaining only one of these aims the 
 others will be attained in some degree. The third aim includes the first 
 two almost entire. Any subject-matter not valuable for these aims with 
 the present class and in the present school should not be taught; that 
 subject-matter which is must valuable for these aims should have prefer- 
 ence. 
 
 2. The child to be taught. A. His pre-school equipment. 1. 
 His instincts (read up on this in some .psychology)— some of these have 
 been operating ever since birth, others become noticeable only later and 
 after he enters school. 2. His knowledge gained at home and else- 
 where. This must be considered in trying to get him to add new know- 
 ledge to his store, in choosing the words with which we address him, in 
 securing his self-activity. 3. His knowledge from previous schools. 
 We get a clue to this if we know the curriculum of the earlier grades. 
 But we can be sure only by careful tests that he knows any particular 
 things. B. His native mental ability. Some idea is gained from opinions 
 of former teachers expressed in marks or otherwise. If a new child, we 
 get an idea from his first reaction to lessons or exercises. One excellent 
 indication is his ability to follow directions which are understood by 
 most oi the class. Only scientific testing of all indications taken together 
 can make certain the degree of mental ability. Remember there are those 
 of more than usual as well as of less than usual ablity. C. His mental 
 attitudes, especially obedience, working with others, treating others with 
 consideration, orderliness (neatness), promptness, truthfulness. Some 
 of these have a moral aspect. They are important for both discipline 
 and learning. D. His health. This will not be dealt with further in 
 this syllabus, but it is very important that the teacher should know about 
 the child's health, especially eyes and ears, also any contagious condition. 
 
 3 
 
Defects of the senses are sometimes mistaken for dulness or disobedience. 
 E. His inclinations or special abilities in lines of study, work and play. 
 These can be utilized to get him to learn more in most subjects, and he 
 should be helped along these special lines also. 
 
 3. Knowing the subject. Nothing can fully make up for lack 
 of knowledge of the subject, especially in grades above the primary, it 
 being probable that any teacher knows the facts to be taught to very 
 small children. Besides the latter are to be made active and do not learn 
 many facts. Knowledge should include (a) a general knowledge, as a 
 fair general concept of the world for geography, (b) a special knowledge, 
 of the field of discussion for the week or day, (c) a good idea of the 
 matter in the text-book, (d) an expansion of important topics by the help 
 of information found in other books, magazines or in practices in the 
 county or community. Not everything known about the subject may be 
 of value for the given class. Choice should depend partly on general 
 aims and partly on the experiences of the children. 
 
 4. The considerations in the last of No. 3 are closely related to 
 choice of subject matter. The general choice is made by a course which 
 the teacher does not control. Yet within the topics prescribed there is 
 much room for choice, especially choice of what shall be emphasized. 
 
 5. Getting attention. (Look up the kinds of attention in any 
 psychology). Attention and interest depend on each other. We are in- 
 terested usually in what we attend to and we usually attend, to what we 
 are interested in. Attention depends at first on instincts (see No. 2, A), 
 later on one's ideas of the good to come from attending or trouble to be 
 avoided which might come from not attending, finally from acquired 
 interest in the subject. In one of these three ways attention is secured. 
 Through them it is kept, provided there is sufficient satisfaction with the 
 results to keep that attention in action against other things to which at- 
 tention might be given. A child can hardly keep attention on that in 
 which he is having no satisfaction of success. He attends more easily 
 if play instinct, rivalry, approbation and other sources of motives keep 
 working. 
 
 6. Two kinds of facts. We forget ninety per cent of what we 
 once know. But tbere are facts which we need to remember. Such are 
 sight words and phonetic elements ; multiplication tables ; the general 
 positions of states, of the most important rivers and countries, what are 
 nouns and adjectives; certain health facts; etc. Many of these facts 
 have a background of other facts which we need not remember fully. 
 Such are stories connected with the primary reading charts, how the 
 Japanese children live, poems expressing lofty sentiments, stories of 
 exploration, arguments of statesmen. It is valuable to be acquainted with 
 these things, some children remember one part and some another, but in 
 any case all well-ordered information which is once understood makes 
 
significant what we do remember. So there are facts to retain, and facts 
 (though partly forgotten) which make clem what we must retain. 
 
 7. Unrelated facts. Such facts are usually not worth our effort. 
 They are hard to get attention to and so hard to acquire. They lack 
 the other facts which might make them clear. There will be no natural 
 chain of association for their recall. Facts should usually be related to 
 other facts within the child's experiences. They should also be related 
 to other facts being taught in the same subject and often to those taught 
 in other subjects. 
 
 8. Association of ideas. (Read on this subject in some psy- 
 chology) . 
 
 9. Drill. Facts to be learned (which we must fully remember) 
 have to be fixed by drill. This subject should be studied in some book 
 on principles of teaching or on general methods. 
 
 10. Habit formation (involved in drill and other school expe- 
 riences). Read in some psychology rules for habit formation. 
 
 11. Concreteness. That is, teaching in terms of particular 
 things. In number, two marbles and two marbles are four marbles. 
 Later abstract number is taken. In geography, particular deserts and 
 mountains and winds rather than general laws or rainfall. Concreteness 
 means usually teaching in terms of particulars known and understood 
 (at least partly) by the child. 
 
 12. Systematic presentation. Each lesson should have a plan, 
 as a rule a plan actually sketched out. (For several very full plans see 
 Strayer's A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, pages 216-223, and 
 Earhart's Types of Teaching, pages 237-263). 
 
 13. Conclusion. Each lesson of an informational character or 
 in which some solution of a question is sought should have a conclusion 
 in which the important facts or arguments developed are written on the 
 board. 
 
 14. Systematic pursuit. Such pursuit by the pupil may be a 
 sornewhat different thing from a systematic presentation by the teacher. 
 Systematic pursuit of some subject is often attained by the "project 
 method," which consists of the proposing of some important question, 
 (for instance, why has no Southerner been President since Jackson?), 
 finding out sources of information on the question, and bringing in parts 
 of the solution by various students to be discussed and put into harmony 
 in a final solution. Sometimes the project involves constructing maps 
 or charts, sometimes making collections, sometimes putting the question 
 to nature in experiments, sometimes compiling records (as of weather, 
 sailing, price quotations). 
 
 15. Group efforts. This is suggested in 14. It is to be en- 
 couraged as it guides to proper social co-operation. The "socialized 
 
recitation" is largely a form of group effort. Students recite for the bene- 
 fit of one another rather than of the teacher. They largely ask the ques- 
 tions of one another. They plan together how to attack the next subject 
 and perhaps which of several subjects to attack next. They parcel out 
 special topics to investigate. This method is especially valuable in upper 
 grade history and in geography in any grade after they have learned to 
 use the book. 
 
 16. Assignment of lessons. Read on this in some book on teach- 
 ing or management. A good assignment should usually be an outgrowth 
 of the lesson just recited and discussed. It should be largely to answer 
 questions or to complete thoughts that have arisen. It should be definite, 
 there should be time enough taken to give it; it should in many cases 
 include some work assigned to individuals or groups only, or larger 
 amounts assigned to some pupils who can do more. (See Nos. 15, 24 
 and 25.) 
 
 17. Supervised study is a means of showing the students how to 
 work on the assignment. It gives help when the difficulties (or at least 
 some of them) are met, instead of waiting until the next day, when 
 pupils have had the discouragement of being baffled. To arrange for 
 supervised study in a geography class which has been having 30 minute 
 recitations will usually mean to lengthen the period to 35 or 40 minutes 
 — 15 or 20 for recitation and 20 for supervised study. If we do not 
 have supervised study we can do much (1) to show pupils how in general 
 to study — better read in some book on teaching the sections on "how to 
 study" or "the study lesson", and (2) to indicate what to do in studying 
 the particular lesson. The latter will be part of the assignment. 
 
 18. The "recitation" itself. (Here, not thinking of drill lessons 
 treated above.) (1) It should usually go beyond a repeating of what 
 is found in the one book. (2) What is repeated from the book or else- 
 where should be thoughts rather than words. (Words which are not 
 exact words of book are usually to be preferred, even in rules and defini- 
 tions.) (3) Statements should be made for the class rather than the 
 teacher. (4) It should be largely by topic (especially in upper grades) 
 and not responses to questions requiring a few words for their answtrs. 
 (5) On the work the students were to prepare they should do the talking 
 rather than the teacher. (6) There should be variety, as by use of maps, 
 blackboard sketches or statements written on the blackboard, gestures 
 or other acting, showing of pictures. (7) Opportunity should be given 
 to as many as possible according to their abilities. (8) There should be a 
 summing up of the lesson. (9) Errors in English should be corrected. 
 (10) There should be no fault-finding; it takes the thought from the les- 
 son. If there must be some, let it be when the recitation is over and the 
 assignment is to be made. (11) The recitation should usually begin with 
 a brief review or a drill on what must be retained of earlier lessons, 
 especially those things which underlie the present lesson. 
 
19. The topic method. This is sometimes according to topical 
 headings in the book, but better topics placed on the board the day be- 
 fore, or still better topics of the pupils' own organization. The last ap- 
 proaches both the project method and the socialized effort if the organ- 
 ization is by a group. Topical recitations should be supplemented by any 
 questions necessary to make sure of clearness or lead to correction of 
 errors. 
 
 20. Questioning. The questioning should not deprive the chil- 
 dren of the opportunity or necessity of thinking. The questions should 
 almost never be a set of questions printed in a book. They shoutd seldom 
 be a set written on the blackboard. They should be well-distributed; if 
 possible every one should be called upon. It is better to call on the children 
 promiscuously rather than in order, unless in rapid reviews. There 
 should be a real development of the subject involved in the series of 
 questions. (Better read on questioning in some book on principles.) 
 
 21. Exposition and illustration. The teacher needs to under- 
 stand the subject thoroughly so that at proper times she can make more 
 clear or ample the class's concept of it. For instance, if he is master of 
 the subject he can usually make more clear the value of the establishment 
 of national banks during the Civil War than any small history does. 
 He can show better than the books the great value of Java to the civil- 
 ized world. Again he can illustrate principles or rules to make them 
 clear. The illustrations should be sufficiently simple. The teacher some- 
 times needs to be careful not to spend too much time illustrating and 
 amplifying and not to tell all he knows. 
 
 22. Reviews. There should be more or less constant review 
 (drill) on the things which must be retained. (Be careful what you put 
 into that class.) Reviews of other matter should not be a mere repeti- 
 tion of the work as gone over before but a "fresh" view of it, with some 
 changes of plan, outside material and devices for illustration and reci- 
 tation exercises. It should on the whole be less inclusive and more rapid 
 than the original treatment. 
 
 23. Examinations. Most school districts have set examinations 
 at the ends of terms. The best preparation of the students for these will 
 be the best assignments, recitations, and reviews from day to day with- 
 out thought of the examinations. At least this is true if the examining 
 authority does not ask on details of small value which should not be 
 stressed in instruction, such as obscure capitals, cities, boundaries, bays, 
 dates, battle-lines, names of muscles, ethical dative, etc. Examinations 
 not at the end of the term are valuable to guide teachers in instruction. 
 Many prefer to give brief examinations when principal topics have been 
 completed, as soils in agriculture, the digestive system in physiology. 
 These may prove the need of further instruction. Written examinations 
 have advantages over oral. 
 
8 
 
 2\. Individual differences. Pupils differ in (i) native, heredi- 
 tary ability (2) acquired knowledge and skill gained outside the school 
 (3) the same gained within the school (but in respect to which all have 
 had about the same opportunity) (4) attitudes, including industry, 
 obedience to orders, disposition to work with others, considering immedi- 
 ate ends only, etc. (5) physical strength and strength of eyes, keenness 
 of hearing, nerve control and perfection of speech organs. Difference 
 in hereditary (and other) abilities are in both general and special abilities. 
 As a rule there will be several children in a school grade who can work 
 twice as fast and twice as correctly as several others. Some hints as to 
 treatment of individuals in the recitation and assignment have been given 
 above. There is not space for more in this syllabus. Mental tests are 
 being used a great deal to tell how able children are and also in just 
 what the unusually great or small ability is. 
 
 25. Abilities in school subjects. Standard tests have been de- 
 vised to see how children stand with reference to each other and to other 
 schools in ability to add, to make verb forms, to get thought from read- 
 ing, etc. Some of these determine further the exact causes of weak- 
 nesses. These are most valuable as the causes can be met and the weak- 
 nesses remedied in many cases. The remedial measures are most valu- 
 able. (For the greatest help in this line to be found in a book read the 
 remedial measures for defects in certain subjects, especially reading, 
 found in Monroe's Measuring the Results of Teaching.) 
 
 26. Moral education. The teacher is not doing the most for her 
 students who does not create an admiration for beautiful character, 
 self-sacrifice, honesty, fairness, etc. History and literature (including 
 reading) give the best opportunities for this, but the happenings of the 
 school often give them also. Read paragraphs on moral education in 
 some book on general methods or principles. (A splendid more exten- 
 sive discussion is Engleman's Moral Education in School and Home.) 
 
 27. Appreciation. The teacher should have a taste for good 
 music, art and literature, for nature and neatness, and strive to develop 
 such a taste in pupils. Moral education is partly character appreciation. 
 The teaching in a school is partly a failure if it does not result in an 
 appreciation of the subjects of study, of good reading and many other 
 worthy things, including the worthiness of work and service. 
 
 28. School housekeeping. This is related to appreciation. It 
 is important^to include items that pertain to (1) health (2) neatness (3) 
 protection or preservation of property (4) beauty. The effect of a dis- 
 orderly or unattractive school is bad on the mental reactions of children 
 which depend a good deal on their states of feeling. The housekeeping 
 as well as some other routine work can be passed over to pupils in 
 part, especially to committees of pupils which are changed from time to 
 time. Such duties are (1) marking the roll (2) caring for the black- 
 
board (3) tending the heater (4) caring for ventilation (5) inspecting 
 desks (6) placing library books and supplies (7) sharpening pencils (8) 
 putting certain material on the board (9) passing papers (10) caring 
 for flowers (11) posting work or decorations. Efforts should be made 
 to improve the exterior of the school also, including bettering the play- 
 ground and planting, especially planting hardy shrubs and trees. 
 
 29. Unruly pupils. The most important aspects of this problem 
 which belong to principles of teaching are those which have to do with 
 enlisting all the energy of the child in good things, appealing to his 
 instincts and interests, substituting good goals of such instincts as curi- 
 osity, acquisitiveness and pugnacity for unworthy ones, giving satisfac- 
 tions of some kind as the result of work (especially a wise distribution 
 of praise), creating a morale which carries the school over interruptions 
 and distractions. But a teacher should read some good book on discipline 
 or management both for suggestions on how to do these things and ad- 
 vice on what to do in cases that are not successfully handled in the 
 ordinary way. Such books give suggestions on organization and smooth 
 systematic routine management also. 
 
 30. The people. The attitude of the people conditions in a 
 degree the success with their children. We can best secure their co-oper- 
 ation through the community meeting in which the needs and welfare of 
 the school are discussed. This question really belongs outside the realm 
 of principles of teaching. All books on rural education and life give 
 help in planning community meetings. 
 
 31. Equipment. The best work is conditioned on having suffi- 
 cient books, maps, drill cards, charts, pictures and other aids. Without 
 these we cannot apply our principles of teaching to the best advantage. 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 The student should use both a book on methods of teaching arith- 
 metic and any good grammar grade arithmetic. The first 49 numbered 
 topics should be taken up with a methods book. 
 
 1. The general aims of arithmetic. 
 
 2. Topics best omitted. 
 
 3. General directions for efficient work. 
 
 4. Learning to count and the names of figures. 
 
 5. Order of development of primary addition facts (that is adding 
 two numbers, neither larger than 10). 
 
 6. Adding columns. Checking. 
 
 7. Primary subtraction ideas. Taking away and borrowing. 
 
 8. Relation of multiplication to addition. 
 
 9. Explanation of multiplication with multiplier of two figures. 
 
 10. Relation of division to multiplication. 
 
 1 1 . Idea of one third, etc. 
 
 12. Three stages in learning short division (i)one figure in quotient 
 and no remainder (2) one figure in quotient and remainder (3) two or 
 more figures in quotient — without or with remainder. 
 
 13. Long division process. Estimating quotient. 
 
 14. Number games: (a) as to place for playing; (b) as to nature. 
 15. Essentials of a scoring game. 
 
 16. Learn three motor games, three out of school games, and four 
 more games. Learn so you could start children on them. 
 
 17. Explanation of notation of fractions. Emphasize idea of de- 
 nominator as that which shows — what? 
 
 18. Three ideas in a fraction : one or more of the equal parts of a 
 whole, the division of numerator by denominator, the ratio of numerator 
 to denominator. 
 
 19. Addition and subtraction of fractions with easy numbers for 
 common denominators. 
 
 20. Explanation of rules for multiplying fractions by fraction. 
 
 21. Division of fraction by whole number. 
 
 22. Division of fraction by fraction: (a) meaning; (b) explanation 
 of inverting divisor. 
 
 23. Explanation of decimal notation. 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 
 Multiplying decimal by whole number. 
 Dividing decimal by 10, 100, 1000. 
 Multiplying decimal by decimal. 
 Dividing decimal by whole number. 
 Dividing decimal by decimal. 
 
 10 
 
II 
 
 29. Changing fraction to decimal. 
 
 30. Meaning and need of per cent. 
 
 31. The three problems of percentage : finding percent of given num- 
 ber : finding what percent one number is of another (get good method 
 from some methods book) : third as follows — Give a number which is 
 a certain percent of an unknown number ; to find the unknown number : 
 divide the given number by the number representing the percent; the 
 result is one percent of the unknown number ; then multiply by 100 and 
 you have the unknown number. Caution — if the per cent is given, say 
 18 per cent, be careful to divide by 18 and not by .18 if you are going 
 to multiply by 100 to get the unknown number. (But note that if you 
 divide by .18 you have the result without multiplying by 100). 
 
 32. Kinds of profit and loss problems : profit what percent of cost, 
 profit what percent of selling price, price at which to sell to make given 
 percent of profit on cost, same on selling price. 
 
 33. Simple interest. Work several problems of your own. Be con- 
 fident you are right because you have checked your work and because 
 your answers are reasonable. For instance if I tried to find interest on 
 $425 for 10 months at 5 per cent and got $177.08 or $1.77 or $35.42 I 
 would know something was wrong as the interest for a year would be 
 around $20 and 10 months is less but not much less. 
 
 34. Bank discount ; meaning of proceeds. 
 
 35. Finding proceeds of interest-bearing note. 
 
 36. Occasions for teaching denominate numbers. 
 
 2)7- Operation of reduction of such upward and downward. 
 
 38. Why do we need to add, etc., denominate numbers? 
 
 39. Develop finding area of rectangle. The "erroneous statements" 
 (inches by inches make square inches, etc.) which we are told to avoid, 
 while erroneous, strictly speaking, are forms of statement understood 
 and used by everybody in practical life and are economical forms for 
 written work. I have the pupils use these. 
 
 40. Area of parallelogram and triangle. 
 
 41. Explanation of finding volume of rectangular solid. 
 
 42. Types of problems to motivate drill. 
 
 43. Wording primary problems. 
 
 44. Why problems are difficult. 
 
 45. What is a concrete problem to William? 
 
 46. Importance of checking. 
 
 47. Three types of arithmetic lessons : developing new facts, drill, 
 application of principles. 
 
 48. Repetition of drills. 
 
 49. Means of securing attention. 
 
 The topics to this point pertain mostly to general ai-mJ and to 
 methods of presenting the arithmetic facts and processes. The remainder 
 
12 
 
 have to do more with the solving of problems by the reader of this 
 syllabus. 
 
 50. Practice in addition of whole numbers. Directions : Always 
 add a column down, set the sum (not just the last figure of it) out to the 
 right, immediately add the same column upward and so check the result ; 
 by referring to numbers set out at right you can see what the carry 
 figures are at any later time; in adding, if the sum of two consecutive 
 numbers is 9 or 10 always add 9 or 10 and not the separate consecutive 
 numbers; you should be able likewise to handle 11 and three numbers 
 making 10. For example the addition of 927, 379, 756, 837, 924, no, 
 854, 965 and 344 should run — 16, 22, 33, 42, 46; set out 46; add up- 
 ward — 9, 13, 24, 30, 39, 46; check 46 at right; put down 6; next column 
 — 13, 23, 24, 35, 39 ; set out 41 ; up (getting 4 as carry figure from check 
 list at right) — 14, 19, 22, 25, 30, 39; check 39; put down 9, etc. 
 
 51. Addition of decimals. Chief point is that decimal points must 
 be one under the other. 
 
 52. Practice in subtraction of whole and decimal numbers. Always 
 prove by adding subtrahend and remainder. 
 
 53. Multiplication and division of whole numbers. Practice by 
 multiplying two numbers and then dividing product by one of them to 
 get the other. Watch out for case of zeros in multiplier and quotient ; 
 as 3143 X 407, and 168504 -r- 84 (quotient is 2006), and 1109563-=- 137 
 (quotient is 8099). 
 
 54. Multiplication of decimals. Master rule for "places" in prod- 
 uct. Also see the reason of it; if .1 is multiplied by .1, that means a 
 tenth of a tenth, which of course is a hundredth (.01) ; if .4 is multiplied 
 by .4, the result is 4 times as much as .4 X -i — the latter is .04, the 
 former .16. Here should be included also multiplication of whole num- 
 bers with decimals annexed as 48.3 X 2.5 ; 362.5 X 4.68. 
 
 55. Division of decimals (and whole numbers with decimals an- 
 nexed). Never start such a problem until yoti have annexed o's enough 
 to make at least as many decimal places in the dividend as in the divisor. 
 
 56. Division of whole number with decimal results; as 4 by 5, 
 3 by 2 ; 1 by 3, 5 by 8, 13 by 42. Three of these given will come out even, 
 if carried far enough, the other 2 will not. In the latter cases to get the 
 result correct to a given number of figures it is necessary to carry the 
 work on beyond the desired number, and then raise the last figure of the 
 given number by one if the next is 5 or over. 13-^-42 correct to two 
 figures is .31 and not .30. The same principle applies to all problems not 
 coming out even if we mean to get decimals in the results. 
 
 57. Reduction of fractions. The prime thing to remember is that 
 one always contains five fifths, seven sevenths, etc. Then 2 contains 
 twice as many fifths or sevenths. Then any seven sevenths or five fifths 
 reduce to one, fourteen sevenths or ten fifths to two, etc. The next 
 thing to remember is that one fourth is half as large as a half, and so one 
 
13 
 
 half is two fourths; that one fourth is three times as large as one twelfth, 
 so three fourths equals nine twelfths. Think of such actual value rela- 
 tionships and not solely the symbols. So do such problems as these; 
 Reduce 3 5/9 to 9ths ; reduce 18/3 to a whole number; reduce 2.7/7 to a 
 mixed number; reduce 3/4, 2/3, 5/6, and 1/2 so that all will have like 
 denominators. (This last involves the perception that all may be reduced 
 to twelfths. The lowest common denominator if under 100 should always 
 be seen after a little examination of the figures. It is hardly worth while 
 to teach a method of finding it). 
 
 58. Addition and subtraction of fractions. It is necessary to have 
 them all in eighths, sixths, twelfths, twentieths, or whatever common de- 
 nominator they can all be reduced to ; the process is then between the 
 numerators; the sum or remainder with the old common denominator can 
 often be reduced to a mixed number or simpler fraction. The numerator 
 and denominator of a fraction can be divided both at the same time by 
 the same number, for dividing the numerator decreases the number of 
 parts taken and dividing the denominator correspondingly increases the 
 size of each part. Apply to reducing 36/81, 12/16, 20/35, 2 /4&- Why 
 can it not apply to reducing 4/9, or 25/36 or 12/35 ? 
 
 59. Multiplication of fractions: (a) fraction by whole number; 
 (b) fraction by fraction; (c) several fractions together; (d) mixed 
 number by whole number; (e) mixed number by fraction. There are 
 two ways of doing (a) — 1, multiply numerator only and then reduce; 
 2. take out common factors of multiplier and denominator (that is, 
 cancel) and then multiply numerator by what is left of whole number 
 and write that product over what is left of denominator and then reduce 
 to mixed number (if over unity). Cancellation is nearly always em- 
 ployed in (b) and (c) ; if we have 1/2 X 2/3 X 3/4 it is just the same in 
 effect to multiply the 1/2 by 2, divide that by 3, multiply that by 3, and 
 divide that by 4 as to perform the cancellation, or to multiply all numer- 
 ators together and all denominators together and reduce the new fraction 
 (product) thus formed, (d) is best performed by multiplying whole 
 number and fraction separately and adding results, (e) is best done 
 by reducing mixed number first to fraction. 
 
 60. Division of fractions: (a J fraction by whole number; (b) 
 fraction by fraction; (c) whole number by fraction; (d) mixed number 
 by whole number. A mixed number seldom needs to be divided by a 
 fraction. In a, b and c we may "invert the divisor" and multiply (can- 
 celling if we can). In d, divide the whole number part, reduce the re- 
 mainder to same terms as fractional part, add in numerator of fractional 
 part, divide as fraction by whole number, annex result to< whole number 
 in quotient. For example 6262/3-^6; partial quotient 104; remainder 2, 
 making 6/3 ; add to 2/3 making 8/3. 8/3 -~ 6 = 8/3 X 1/6 = (after 
 cancelling) 4/9; result 1044/9. 
 
14 
 
 6i. Division of whole numbers when there are remainders. Unless 
 a decimal result is desired write the remainder over the divisor, reduce 
 the fraction to lowest terms and write the resulting fraction with the 
 whole number part of the quotient to make the complete quotient which 
 is a mixed number. 
 
 62. Adding mixed numbers. Fraction parts are to be added sep- 
 arately and their sum (after reduction) then added in. 
 
 63. Subtracting a mixed number from another, or from a whole 
 number, or a fraction from a mixed or whole number. In these it is often 
 necessary to borrow: as, take 14 1/3 from 16 1/4. The fractional parts 
 must be dealt with first. Here 4/12 are to be taken from 15/12 (3/12 
 plus borrowed 12/12, the 16 having been reduced in the borrowing. 
 
 64. Per cent — meaning. Always think a certain per cent as so 
 many hundredths except in the cases in 65. Further think of determin- 
 ing the per cent of a number by multiplying it by the number of per 
 cent expressed as a decimal ( except as in 65). That is 6 per cent of 280 
 is .06 X 280; 22% of $436.48 is .22 X $436.48, the result being preserved 
 to the nearest cent only ($96.03, not $96.0256 or $96.02). 
 
 65. Learn the "aliquot parts" --50% = x / 2 , 25% = Y\, 75% = }i, 
 20% = 1/5, etc.; 10% = 1/10, etc.; 5% = 1/20; 162/3% = 1/6, etc.; 
 12^% = ^, etc.; 6j4j% =1/16; 1/3 = 331/3%, etc. You should 
 complete the list so as to have equivalents for 2/5, 3/5, 4/5, 3/10, 7/10, 
 9/ IO » 5/6, 3/ 8 > 5/8, 7/8, 2/3. You should know or be able to construct 
 all these instantly, going from per cents to fractions or fractions to per 
 cents. Then always think 30% as 3/10, 162/3% as 1/6, 12^% as 1/8. 
 When the base and any of these per cents are given, turn per cent to 
 fraction and multiply. 
 
 66. Making out bills. 
 
 67. Trade discount — one discount. It is simply taking away a cer- 
 tain per cent from a bill. If there are two discounts, as "20% and 
 I2y 2 %", it is simply taking one per cent from the bill and then another 
 from the bill left. Example : Bought 400 gross tacks at $6.25, 30% and 
 i2y 2 % off. Gross amount of bill, $2500. 3/10 off is $750 off, $1750 
 left; y 8 off is $218.75 off (you should be able to do that by short division), 
 $1531.25 left as net amount of bill. There are often 2% off for cash, a 
 somewhat different kind of trade discount from that which is for reduc- 
 tions from quoted prices. Always calculate 2% by multiplying by 2 and 
 pointing off 2 places. 2% off $37.42 is counted 75c off. 
 
 68. Avoirdupois weight — ability to reduce quickly from pounds 
 to ounces, ounces to pounds, tons to pounds, pounds to tons. Meaning 
 of long ton. Weight of bushel of wheat, oats, ear corn, shelled corn, coal. 
 
 69. Finding period between two dates. It is necessary to know the 
 months by their numbers, and to resort to borrowing; as to find the 
 period from Dec. 11, 1917 to Mar. 2, 1921. We think 
 
192 1 
 
 3 
 
 minus 1907 
 
 12 
 
 then 1920 
 
 14 
 
 minus 1907 
 
 12 
 
 IS 
 
 2 then 192 1 2 32 
 11 minus 1907 12 11 
 
 32 
 
 11 and so 13 yr. 2 mo. 21 da. 
 
 70. Long measure. Do not neglect to learn number of feet in a 
 mile and number of rods in a mile. Reduction of inches, feet, yards, any 
 one to another. If you are to reduce 17 feet to yards the result is not 
 5 yd. 2 ft. but 5 2/3 yd. 
 
 71. Square measure. Do not neglect the acre. The side of a 
 square acre is not any even number of feet or yards or rods. It is about 
 209 feet. But a piece of ground 4 rd. wide and 40 rd. long, or 8 rd. wide 
 end 20 rd. long, or 10 rd. wide and 16 rd. long contains an acre. Learn 
 number of acres in 1 sq. mi. 
 
 J2. Area of a triangle. Be sure you know how to draw the altitude 
 of a parallelogram or triangle. 
 
 y2>- Cubic measure. Remember the 1728 and the 2j. The dimen- 
 sions of an excavation are commonly given in feet and inches, but the 
 dirt removed is estimated in "yards" (cubic yards). Find volume of 
 excavation by reducing feet and inches to feet and decimals (approximate 
 if not even), multiply the three numbers (representing the three dimen- 
 sions in feet) ; divide by 27. Example : Find yards in excavation 85 ft. 
 2 in. by 30 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 9 in. 85.17 X 30.5 X 8.75 = 22729.7, ap- 
 proximately, cu. ft., making 841.8 cu. yd. 
 
 74. Board foot — meaning. Finding number of board feet. 
 
 75. Learn either cu. in. or approximate cu. ft. in a bushel. Be able 
 to find number of bushels in a bin. Better find cu. ft. as in JT>- But if 
 you are going to use the number of cu. in. in a bushel reduce all to inches 
 and work out the cubic inches in the bin and divide. 
 
 76. Liquid and dry measure. 
 
 jj. Meaning of square of a number, cube of a number, third power, 
 fourth power, fifth power — how indicated. 
 
 78. Square root of 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, 121, 144. (Ob- 
 tain by recognizing two equal factors). 
 
 How square root is indicated. 
 
 79. Cube root of 8, 27, 64, 125, 216. (Recognize the three equal 
 factors). How cube root is indicated. 
 
 80. Circumference of a circle. Learn formula. How to find 
 diameter when circumference is given. 
 
 81. Area of a circle. Learn some formula for this. How to find 
 diameter when circumference is given. 
 
 82. Finding contents of a can (cylinder) in cu. in. It should be 
 clear that it is area of base times length (or height). 
 
 83. Work problems ; as if A can do it in 4 days, B in 5 days and C 
 in 3 days, in how many can they do it together? (All do 1/4 plus 1/5 
 plus 1/3 in 1 day). 
 
i6 
 
 84. Number of things that can be bought for a certain amount, as 
 number of meals at 40c for $12.80. 
 
 85. Rate of speed, as miles per hour of a train that goes 608 miles 
 m 10 hr. 55 min. Here divide by 10 11/12, that is by 131/12. Answer 
 should be with decimal (correct to tenths) — 55.7 mi. per hr. 
 
 86. Number of objects in a given area, as tiles 3 by 5 inches in a 
 hearth 6 J /> ft. by 3 ft. This is mere division after denominations are 
 alike. 
 
 87. Averages. There must always be a figure for every one of the 
 things considered in the average. For example : five students solved all of 
 20 problems. 2 solved 19 of them, t solved 17 of them, 5 solved 16, 4 
 si lived 15, 5 solved 14, 6 solved 13, 1 solved 10, and 1 five. What is the 
 average number solved? We must add 100, 38, 17, 80, 60, 78, 10 and 5 
 and not just 20, ig, 17, 16. 15, 14. 13, 10 and 5; and we must divide the 
 sum by 30 and not by 9. 
 
 88. The division of the circle into 360 degrees, each degree into 60 
 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. 
 
 89. The earth rotates once in 24 hours, therefore 360 degrees 
 divided by 24, or 15 degrees in one hour. So a difference of 15 degrees in 
 longitude makes a difference of 1 hour in time. Philadelphia is at 75 
 degrees latitude ( west of Greenwich) and its time is one hour faster than 
 that of St. Louis at 90 degrees, 2 hours faster than that of Denver at 105 
 degrees, 3 hr. faster than that of Los Angeles at 120 degrees. For con- 
 venience most places in the l". S. use Philadelphia, St. Louis or Los 
 Angeles time. Philadelphia (Eastern) time is used in about one third of 
 Ohio and St. Louis (Central) time in the rest. But some people still use 
 sun time which at Columbus is about half an hour faster than Central 
 time. Why? Use a globe to figure out difference of time between Cairo, 
 Egypt and Philadelphia. 
 
 90. Problems of these types : (a) A, B and C are to share 875 
 bu. corn. If B's share is twice A's and C's twice B's find share of each. 
 (b) A, B and C are to divide a profit of $990. If B's share is one half 
 A's and C's is two thirds B's find share of each. (c) A, B, and C 
 divided a herd of cattle. A's share was one half C's and B's was three 
 times A's. B's share was 54 head. How many in herd? (There are 
 many variations of these general types of problems, not often met in 
 practical life, but often in arithmetics, and important as requiring exact 
 interpretation of language, at least). 
 
 91. Problems of the types: (a) If 4 oranges cost 30 cents how 
 much do three dozen cost? (b) If 4 pencils can be bought for 25c 
 find the cost of enough for a class of 35 pupils, (c) If 3000 cu. ft. 
 of gas cost $1.35 how much was used for the bill to be $7.65? (In such 
 cases as a and c it is best not to find cost of one. In a see how many 
 times as many three dozen are. In c find cost of 1000 cu. ft). 
 
17 
 
 92. Problems of the types: (a) A's farm contains 5^2 acres more 
 than B's. The area of both farms is 162 acres. Find area of each, (b) 
 A raised io^4 tons more hay than B, and C 19 tons less than A. All 
 three raised 176500 lb. How many tons did each raise? This last is best 
 done by algebra; by arithmetic we must think of the total (88^4 tons) 
 as composed of (1) what B raised; (2) what B raised increased by 10^2 
 tons; (3) what B raised increased by 10^2 tons and then diminished 
 by 19 tons, which is the same as what B raised diminished by 8^ tons; 
 (4) then the sum of these, making 3 times what B raised increased by 2 
 tons. Then 8654 tons is 3 times what B raised, etc. (c) A, B and C 
 furnish a car load of lumber. A furnished .4 of it, B furnished 1000 
 board feet more than C. B and C together furnished 7200 board feet. 
 Find number of board feet loaded by each. (Last statement gives first 
 step like (a) ; also 7200 must be .6 of all, hence 3/2 of A's). 
 
 93. If a boat can go 17 miles an hour down-stream and 8 miles an 
 hour up-stream what is the rate of the current? (Average of 2 is rate 
 in still water). 
 
 94. Side of rectangle problems as: (a) A rectangle contains 84 
 sq. in. One side is 7 in. Find the other dimension and the perimeter, 
 (b) A rectangular field contains 4 A. One side is 32 rods. Find length 
 of fence around it. (Reduce A to sq. rd. There will be 2 sides of 32 rds. 
 and 2 of 20 rds. each). 
 
 95. The various cases of profit and loss, as mentioned in No. 32. 
 If goods are sold at a profit (in per cent on cost) the amount for which 
 they are sold is 100%, plus the per cent of profit. If the profit is 35% 
 (of cost) the cost is 100/135 of selling price. If goods are sold at a loss 
 (in per cent on cost) the amount for which they are sold is 100% minus 
 the per cent of loss. If the loss is 35% (of cost) the cost is 100/65 °f 
 the selling price. 
 
 96. Two houses were sold for $5860. On one the gain was 30% of 
 the cost, on the other the loss was 20% of the cost. The gain on the two 
 was $630. Find cost of each. (Not much sense in having such a problem, 
 but it is well to know how to solve it). Solution: The cost of the two 
 was $5860 — $630, or $5230. If 30% of one minus 20% of the other 
 makes $630, then 10/3 of that gives 100% of one minus 662/3% °f the 
 other makes $2100. But 100% of one plus 100 of the other gives $5230. 
 Then the difference between taking 662/3% of the cheaper house away, 
 and adding 100% of it on is $5230 — $2100 = $3130. That is 1662/3% 
 of cheaper house is $3130. 5/3 of value of that house is $3130, and 3/3 
 of its value $1878, etc. 
 
 97. Per cent of increase (or decrease) : (a) Last year George 
 raised 47 bu. corn to the acre. This year 82.5 bu. Find per cent of in- 
 crease. (Problem is really 35.5 is what per cent of 47). (b) Last year 
 Emma raised 75 bu. tomatoes on her acre. This year, 41 bu. Find the 
 
 2 
 
per cent of decrease. Problem is really 34 is what per cent of 75; work 
 out to nearest tenth of one per cent always when per cent is to be cal- 
 culated ; here answer is 45.3% < take care not to get it .453. Put 45-3% 
 equals .453). 
 
 98. Tax rate : How many mills necessary to yield $5850 on dupli- 
 cate of $487,595? (Remember a mill is a tenth of a cent; hence a tenth 
 of one per cent on a duplicate in dollars. It is customary to reckon rates 
 to the hundre'th of the mill. — In such question you should see instantly 
 that 1 mill will raise about $487, or exactly $487-595- Divide the $5850 
 by that; result 11.9981 drop 8, revise figure before by raising it one, gives 
 12 mills). 
 
 99. Problems of the types: (a) A farmer raised 20 bu. wheat on 
 .82 A. At this rate how much would he raise per A? (Divide the 20 
 by the .82 ; that is 20.0000 by .82 ; drop last figure and revise one before it; 
 gives 24.39 or 2 4-4! tn ' s is the same as dividing by 82 and multiplying 
 result by 100. (b) 442 posts (about equally distanced) are counted in a 
 stretch of 1.34 mi. How many are there to the mile? 
 
 100. Draw a diagram of pavement around the outside of a rec- 
 tangular area. Note that it contains two rectangles as long as the area 
 enclosed and as wide as the pavement; two are as long as the area en- 
 closed is wide and as wide as the pavement and. in addition 4 square 
 corners of the width of the pavement. For instance, if a square 400 ft. 
 long and 200 ft. wide is surrounded by an 8 foot walk the area of the 
 walk is 400 X 8 X 2, plus 200 X 8 X 2, plus 8x8X4. But this is often 
 reduced to square yards in making estimates. By what do you divide the 
 area in square feet? 
 
 101. Proportion: Get the idea that 5 has the same relation to 10 
 as 2 to 4, and that it may be expressed 5:10 = 2:4. Observe that we 
 might be asked 5:10 as 3: what? We see the answer is 6. A rule for 
 getting it (if not obvious) is to multiply the 3 and 10 and divide the re- 
 sult by 5. So, 16:3 = 24: ?, gives 72 -s- 16 = 4^. But the difficult thing 
 is not to solve proportions but to get them correctly stated. You must 
 look in your arithmetic for more examples than these three: (a) If a 
 club wins 51 games out of 96, how many victories in 32 games at same 
 rate? 96:32 = 51:? The first and second terms should represent like 
 things, here games played. The first should correspond to the third — 
 the 51 is 51 out of the 96. (b) A's majority in 342 districts is 273. 
 What will it be in 1140 districts if it continues to be at same rate? 
 342:1140 = 273:? (c) If there are rations enough in a storehouse for 
 608 men for 26 days how many days will they last 1000 men ? Here the 
 more the men the fewer the days • — an inverse proportion, so not 
 608:1000=26:? but 1000:608=26:? Likewise if 24 laborers can finish 
 a field in 70 days in how many days can 40 laborers finish it? Or, if 184 
 
19 
 
 fleets of 10 barges each can move a certain mass of coal, how many 
 fleets of 1 6 barges each can do it? (16:10= 184:?) 
 
 102. Dividing a sum or total according to a certain ratio: as $100 
 into parts as 2 is to 6. Get the total number of equal parts (here 8) and 
 then give each its due number. Example : $3685 freight is to be divided 
 according to mileages, 128 miles, 62 miles and 77 miles. Find share of 
 each line. Add and get 267 miles. One gets 128/267, another 62/267 
 and the other 77/267. The three should make the $3685. 
 
LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 
 
 1. The aims are (a) to stimulate expression, and thought which 
 goes with it, (b) to secure grammatical correctness of expression, (c) 
 to establish correct written forms, (d) to introduce the child to the 
 mechanical construction of language. Only the last is strictly grammar. 
 It is the least important aim. 
 
 2. The first aim is attained (a) by getting children to tell of their 
 individual affairs or observations, (b) by discussing common experiences, 
 as what all observe as in a walk with a teacher, (c) by telling stories, 
 asking questions in connection with them, and if simple enough getting 
 the children to retell the stories, (d) same as (c) but on reading lessons. 
 These steps may be necessary even in higher grades. 
 
 3. The second aim is attained by (a) correcting errors in all 
 classes ; care should be taken not to be too critical at first, so as to stop 
 the flow of thought, (b) language games, (c) memorizing selections 
 (sometimes overdone; its value for the purpose here mentioned is 
 limited), (d) having pupils criticize each other's language, (e) express- 
 ing stories or reading lessons by means of dramatization, (f) requiring 
 full sentence answers ; this should not be an unvarying rule in all lessons, 
 but all answers should be clear-cut. 
 
 4. Be able to tell at least 5 good stories ; be ready to name that 
 many more. Be able to describe well at least three language games. 
 
 5. Correct written form should be developed largely on the black- 
 board. The children should first learn to copy correctly, then to write 
 from dictation. Finally little stories of their own should be written. 
 These might at first be one-sentence stories (in the lowest grades). These 
 may stimulate expression at the same time. Then statements arising from 
 nature-study or other lessons should be written ; these should not be all 
 in identical words; the work is probably not a success either as nature- 
 study or as language if they are. 
 
 6. Letter-writing may begin as early as the second grade. The 
 teacher must find something that they want to write about. Dates and 
 addresses may be omitted before the third grade, and addresses before 
 the fourth. Be sure you can write dates and addresses correctly. Some 
 teachers cannot. Be sure of both full and abbreviated forms. 
 
 7. In second or third grade, compositions of several sentences tell- 
 ing what they have seen (description), or what they have done or what 
 has happened (narration) are to be written. The papers should be in 
 correct form. Be sure that you can show the proper way to place a com- 
 position on a page, and the correct form for letters and for envelope 
 addresses. 
 
 20 
 
21 
 
 8. Children must be drilled extensively ( by games, formally, orally, 
 on blackboard, etc.) on certain common errors. Write several sentences 
 for each of the following to show that you are correct on the usage in 
 question: (i) its and it's (2) there and their (3) to and too (4) the 
 abbreviations for has not, have not, is not (5) cannot and its abbreviation 
 (6) won't (7) don't and doesn't (8) abbreviation for he will and they 
 will (9) distinction between "have got" and simply "have" (10) learn 
 used for teach. 
 
 9. Errors in verb forms are so common as to require early and 
 often-repeated drill on many of them. The following list may be too 
 complete for some communities and not enough for others. Be sure you 
 know and use correctly the past tense (which is the second principal 
 part) and the participle (the third principal part). The latter is used 
 after have, has, had, and in the passive forms. If you are uncertain of 
 these parts of any of these verbs or of their meaning look these up: 
 get, go, take, sit, set, lie, lay, wear, see, do, come, give, throw. 
 
 10. The apostrophe: rules for (1) singular possessive of words not 
 ending in s (2) singular possessive of words ending in s (3) plural 
 possessive of words not ending in s (4) plural possessive of words end- 
 ing in s. Convert some possessives into of phrases. 
 
 11. Be able to put a stanza of poetry down in correct form. For 
 instance, the first stanza of "A Psalm of Life." 
 
 12. Know how a quotation is marked ; also, a quotation within 
 a quotation ; also a quotation continuing from paragraph to paragraph or 
 from stanza to stanza. 
 
 13. Get distinction between direct and indirect question. (He 
 asked him what he was doing there. He said to him, "What are you 
 doing here?") 
 
 14. Learn rules for forming plurals of most words ending in y and 
 in o ; also for certain ones ending in f . 
 
 15. Learn to conjugate the word "see" in the "simple form" in the 
 indicative modes in both voices, all tenses, both numbers and the three 
 persons, naming each tense before giving it. Give in an orderly manner, 
 starting thus: The conjugation of the verb see in the Indicative Mode: 
 Active Voice, Present Tense, Singular Number, First Person, I see — 
 Second Person, thou seest or you see — Third Person, he sees (or she 
 sees or it sees) — Plural Number, First Person, we see — Second Person, 
 you see (or ye see) — Third Person, they see: Past Tense, Singular Num- 
 ber, First Person, I saw — and so on. Ordinarily one would not repeat 
 First Person, Second Person, Third Person, as they always come in this 
 order. In writing the conjugation there may be still more abbreviation. 
 But be sure you can conjugate clear through the indicative mode, giving 
 passive voice also. Learn to do this so you can give the tenses in order 
 without thinking much. 
 
22 
 
 i6. Am is an intransitive verb. The test of an intransitive verb is, 
 if it is in the active, "Does this verb in this sentence have an object that 
 it is represented as affecting or that it requires to complete its meaning?" 
 Any verb in the passive is transitive when used in the active. Learn to 
 conjugate am. No passive, of course. 
 
 17. Some pronouns with the same meaning have two forms, as "I" 
 and "me", which mean the same, but the one (I) is used as subject of a 
 sentence, that is as the actor in the active voice, or as the one about whom 
 some assertion is made, while the other (me) is the object affected or 
 that completes the meaning of the verb in the active voice. We distin- 
 guish / and words similarly used as nominative case and me and words 
 similarly used as objective case. I, thou, he, she, we, they, who are 
 nominative forms : me, thee, him, her, us, them, whom are objective forms 
 or are in the objective case. James hit John. The boys teased the girl. 
 James and boys are in the nominative case ; John and girl are in the ob- 
 jective case although there is no distinction in their forms for the dif- 
 ferent cases. (Substitute He hit him; They teased her.) So nouns are 
 said to have three cases : Singular number, Nominative, boy ; Possessive, 
 boy's ; Objective, boy ; Plural number, Nominative, boys ; Possessive, 
 boys' ; Objective, boys. Certain adjective forms take the places of pos- 
 sessive cases of pronouns (my, thine, your, our, their, her, whose, its). 
 
 18. The verb am not only has no passive, it really has no voice at 
 all. It is intransitive, and a pronoun which it couples up in an assertion is 
 in the nominative. It is he, I am he, It is she. A few other verbs or 
 verb phrases similarly used are said to have nominative nouns although 
 pronouns are not used after most of them. Such are become, is chosen 
 (also are chosen, am chosen, were chosen, and all the rest), is appointed, 
 is' called, is nominated, proves to be (as, it proved to be she). Some 
 of these are passive in form. The voters nominated the man as mayor : 
 Man and mayor are both in the objective case. The man will be nomi- 
 nated as mayor. Man and mayor are both in the nominative case. 
 
 19. Practically all verbs have not only simple forms (No. 15) but 
 also "progressive" forms, made by inserting am and its forms before the 
 active participle, the form ending in "ing", and in the passive voice by 
 inserting am being and its forms before the passive participle. Conjugate 
 "see" progressive form, leaving out the future perfect active, and the 
 future, perfect, past perfect and future perfect passive. These forms 
 are seldom used. 
 
 20. Verbs have also an "emphatic" form in the active present and 
 past, conjugate, "I do see, you do see, he does see, we do see, you do 
 see, they do see, I did see, etc. The emphatic form is the regular form 
 for questions. 
 
 21. Verbs have an "imperative" form; found in such expressions 
 as : Look. Do it. Help him. Give me the book. Be good. 
 
23 
 
 22. Learn the four "infinitives" of some verbs. (Sometimes the 
 present active infinitive has "progressive" form.) The construction of 
 our infinitives in sentences presents much difficulty. Consider the follow- 
 ing: (i) Try to do it. (2) Help me to lift this. (3) He ought to learn 
 it. (4) To economize is praiseworthy. (5) Make him say it. (6) Bid 
 them enter. (7) Let it drop. In (1) to do is evidently direct object. 
 In (2) me is direct object; but to lift is also closely related to help. In 
 (3) ought does not exactly take a direct object, but to learn is closely 
 related to it. In (4) the infinitive is subject. In (5) and in the rest "to" 
 is omitted; they are otherwise similar to (2). 
 
 23. The form of the verb ending in "ing" is the present participle. 
 It "partakes" of the properties of a verb and of an adjective; that is, it 
 both denotes action or being, like a verb, and limits or attaches to a noun 
 like an adjective. There is a present passive participle, as : being fixed, 
 being forced. The form of the verb used after have, etc., is a passive 
 participle. It has a longer form, with "having been", so we have either, 
 "The enemy, beaten in this attack, retired," or "The enemy, having been 
 beaten in this attack, retired." 
 
 24. The "ing" form sometimes has the properties of a noun, instead 
 of those of an adjective: Seeing is believing; The painting of a building; 
 The blowing of bubbles. Such a word is sometimes called a gerund 
 (softg). 
 
 25. Pronouns related to other words through prepositions take the 
 objective case forms, to me, of them, for whom, etc. So nouns "follow- 
 ing" prepositions are in the objective case. 
 
 26. There is such a thing as an "indirect" object of a verb, in the 
 objective case, with the idea of to or for included in its meaning; He 
 gave me a key. She baked him some cakes. He showed John his 
 answer. Fill me this tank. He bought them the seeds. 
 
 27. This is different from the second direct object: She taught 
 them correct speech. (Action is performed upon them and not merely to 
 them or for them). He named the kitten Fluffy. They chose her leader. 
 (In this and many other such cases "to be" seems implied, and the one 
 direct object appears to be subject of that infinitive "to be" also). He 
 regards them as criminals. (As is not a preposition; it is really a "con- 
 junction", the idea being "as he regards criminals." But the "as" is 
 sometimes inserted where we need supply nothing. "They elected Davis 
 as Governor." As is a superfluous conjunction.) See No. 18 above. 
 
 28. The verb forms with may, can, must, might, would, could, 
 should, are usually called "potential" mode — the mode which denotes the 
 power to do something and hence possibility of doing it. I may go. You can 
 stay. He must try. These three verbs (or auxiliaries, as verb forms which 
 go to make up the tenses and modes and passives of other verbs are usually 
 called) are present in form but the "ideas" are either present or future. 
 
24 
 
 We might try. He could send it. I would not do it. Elmer should hurry. 
 These verbs are old past forms but the ideas are present or future un- 
 less followed by "have" forms, as "I could have done it," or unless the 
 past idea is carried by another verb in the sentence, as "He said he might 
 cross his yard". The verbal word after may, can, must, might, etc., was 
 originally an infinitive but the "to" is never expressed. The relationship 
 is much like that after do (see No. 20) or after ought (see No. 22). It 
 is easiest to call "may see" present potential; "might see", past potential; 
 "may have seen", present perfect potential ; "might have seen", past perfect 
 potential ; but we should understand that these are merely convenient 
 names. 
 
 29. The verb forms after 'if" are called subjunctive mode. There 
 is only one exclusively subjunctive form, "wert" : "If thou wert brave." 
 The distinctively subjunctive forms are going out of use: "If I be no 
 slave I must be free," is usually "If I am no slave, etc." "If this be true," 
 usually "If this is true." "If" clauses are what are called conditional 
 sentences. A condition expressed by such a clause may be true or false ; 
 besides the writer may want to put it before us with the assumption of its 
 truth or of its falsity. The subjunctive is reserved mostly for the contrary 
 to fact conditions; If this were a safe course we would pursue it. But 
 even this use is confined mostly to past tense forms (though the sense 
 may not be past, as it is not in the example just given). So we say "If 
 he is a pitcher I do not know one when I see him", and not "If he be a 
 pitcher, etc.", although our idea is that he is no pitcher, that is, no success- 
 ful one. Learn the present and past subjunctive of "am"; also present and 
 past subjunctive passive of "see". These forms are the only ones in com- 
 mon use that need be called subjunctive, although some call all forms 
 with "if" subjunctive mode, and some try to analyze out every clause to 
 see whether it is assumed to be "contrary to fact". (Occasionally there 
 is a subjunctive form in third person, singular, present, with the "s" left 
 off: as, "If he see me", "Though he slay me", "If she by chance lose it". 
 These are not now used in ordinary composition. They are common in 
 the Bible.) 
 
 30. Adjectives either modify or limit nouns directly or stand predi- 
 cated of them. The latter are : The ship is graceful. Mary is stronger. 
 The child grew more wise. Notice "This caused him to be cautious" and 
 "This feed made her chickens best." Cautious is predicate of the infinitive 
 to be, is predicated of him. (See No. 27 on "him".) Best is predicated 
 of chickens. We may supply "to be". (This is a good deal like some 
 noun constructions in No. 27.) 
 
 31. Learn the comparison of adjectives and adverbs which are ir- 
 regularly compared. 
 
 32. Get clear the distinction between use of adjective and adverb — 
 the latter modify adjectives, verbs and other adverbs. We should say, "He 
 
ran swiftly." "It worked badly." "Ella sang most sweetly." (Not 
 sweetest.) But rather, "He appeared sick." "The patient looks bad." 
 "The moon shone bright." (These words are predicated of the nouns 
 and pronouns, rather than modify the verbs.) 
 
 33. The "relative" pronoun is difficult. It is found only in complex 
 sentences — sentences which have a main clause with subject and verb, 
 and a subordinate clause with subject and verb. Point out subject and 
 verb of main and subordinate in these: (1) Several men were injured 
 when an automobile was overturned. (2) I do not see how he can get 
 it. (3) They could win if they would try. (4) I have sold what I can. 
 (5) Mr. C. used the means that he had. (6) The man who advertises 
 his wares sells the most goods. (7) They helped the waif whom they 
 found in the old car. "That" in (5) is a relative pronoun. It is the ob- 
 ject of had. Its antecedent is "means." "Who" in (6) is subject of ad- 
 vertisers and its antecedent is man. "Whom" in (7) is in the objective 
 case, object of found; its antecedent is "waif". A relative pronoun is not 
 of the same case as its antecedent and is not in the same clause as its 
 antecedent. Its case comes from its use in its own clause. "What" in 
 (4) is sometimes called a compound relative pronoun, for we can sub- 
 stitute for it "that which" (sometimes "those which"). So (4) means 
 the same as "I have sold those which I can sell" ; those being object of 
 sold, and which being object of can sell. 
 
 34. Learn to distinguish nouns as proper, common, collective and 
 abstract. 
 
 35. Be able to give the gender and number of any noun or pronoun 
 according to the sense, and the case according to its use in the sentence. 
 Always give a reason for thinking a noun or pronoun is in a given case. 
 
 36. Learn to distinguish personal, demonstrative, relative and in- 
 terrogative pronouns. Also note that pronouns are sometimes of adjective 
 character, as: that man, these boxes, what boy, whichever way, which 
 collar. 
 
 2)7- Possessive forms, his, my, whose, their, etc., may be called 
 possessive cases of the corresponding pronouns, but are usually called 
 possessive adjectives instead. Notice that whose (like who) may be 
 relative or interrogative. Relative, The man whose boat I rented cannot 
 be found. Interrogative, Whose lantern do you have? (If the antece- 
 dent is a thing there is no corresponding one word; "of which" is used.) 
 
 38. When that occurs in a sentence take care to notice whether it 
 is a pronoun or just a conjunction, and if a pronoun whether it is a de- 
 monstrative or a relative. As a demonstrative it is used (like "this") 
 either with a noun construction or as an adjective. 
 
 39. Where, how and when are interrogative adverbs or relative (or 
 conjunctive) adverbs. "When can you come?" and "How did it happen?" 
 show the former use. "I cannot tell where he is" and "I will come when 
 
26 
 
 1 can" show the latter. These may be regarded as interrogative adverbs 
 in indirect questions however, analogous to "I knew who was coming" 
 and "I asked which route the train would take" (who and which being 
 interrogative), rather than to "I cannot determine the place in which he 
 is" and " I will come at the time at which I can." 
 
 40. It is used in many cases in which it does not represent anything 
 in particular and in other cases in which it represents a noun following, 
 sort of pointing it out in advance. First use : It is raining. It causes 
 much trouble when type is mixed up. (There is used similarly : as "There 
 is plenty of work in Australia.") Second use : It is a beautiful morning. 
 It is the man I expected. (Whom, understood.) It is certain that he is 
 false ("That he is false" is a noun clause, is the real subject, and is antici- 
 pated by "it".) It means that the weather will be cooler when the bar- 
 ometer rises. ("When the barometer rises" is a noun clause, etc. When 
 is a relative adverb in this sentence.) It is needless to analyze the sen- 
 tence further, but the fact is that it is an abbreviated expression. Per- 
 haps you can supply the rest of it. 
 
 41. The, a, some, same and such words have adjective constructions 
 and are called definitive adjective? — adjectives which point out. Ordin- 
 ary adjectives which describe or point out by giving particulars are called 
 descriptive. (See also No. 30.) 
 
 42. Learn to change participle phrases to clauses and vice versa : 
 "The road leading through the meadows" to "The road which leads (or 
 led) through the meadows" ; The canyon streiun with bones to which was 
 strewn with bones; The children who were laughing to The laughing chil- 
 dren; The water after it had been boiled to The water having been boiled ; 
 and so with many other turns of expression. 
 
 43. Learn to build up sentences by adding complications and study- 
 ing carefully the relationship of the parts added. The new parts will not 
 always be added at the end but will be inserted at various points. Also 
 practice cutting sentences back to their barest elements and gradually 
 restoring the additional words as their relationships grammatically are 
 considered. Every phrase or clause must have some attachment in the 
 sentence. Consider this sentence : In the seventh grade emphasis should 
 be placed on the written narration of actual experiences and on the 
 original story. The "on" phrases are adverbial and modify "should be 
 placed". The "of" phrase is adjective and modifies narration. The "in" 
 phrase modifies "should be placed", or, with a slightly different sense, the 
 phrase may be taken to modify emphasis. 
 
 44. It is well to learn some good method of making diagrams of the 
 relations of the words and clauses in a sentence — at least of the com- 
 moner relationships. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 i. The unit of animal and plant structure is the cell. Be able to 
 draw several kinds. Read about how they feed, excrete, reproduce. 
 
 2. Explain what tissues are and name the chief kinds. 
 
 3. The skin ; epithelial tissue ; epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous tis- 
 sue : sweat glands and ducts, hair bulb, hair and oil glands. Be able to 
 make a sketch showing these. 
 
 4. The mouth : mucous membrane lining (of epithelial tissue) : the 
 teeth, names in order, structure, care : salivary glands and saliva, its pur- 
 pose, proper mastication. 
 
 5. The alimentary canal : the pharynx, its connections with nose, 
 ears, lungs, esophagus : esophagus, its action in swallowing : stomach, its 
 position and movements : gastric juice, effect on food of its acid (merely 
 neutralizes saliva), its rennin and its pepsin, resulting condition of food: 
 general shape of intestines, secretions of liver, pancreas and of the in- 
 testinal walls, what they digest (you are not expected to learn the details 
 about their ferments) : the villi and absorption from the intestine (there 
 is some absorption of food into the system from mouth and stomach.) 
 
 6. The liver (the structure is too complicated for elementary treat- 
 ment) : its work in changing sugars to glucose, its storage, its secretion 
 of bile, the gall. (It also destroys or modifies waste products.) 
 
 7. The pancreas — its position and function. 
 
 8. Kinds of food. (Read in any physiology.) Balanced meals. 
 Reasons for cooking food. Effects of eating too much. Causes of con- 
 stipation and of some digestive disorders. 
 
 9. Hygiene of eating and of digestion. Exercise and regularity of 
 eating moderate amounts are important. Water at meals. 
 
 10. Circulatory system : be able to make a sketch of the circuit, 
 heart to lungs to heart to arteries to capillaries to veins to heart again. 
 Length of time to make circuit. Progress of blood from arteries to veins. 
 Differences between veins and arteries. Blood pressure. Pulse. Danger 
 of overstraining heart. 
 
 11. Material of the blood, plasma, red corpuscles, white corpuscles. 
 
 12. Plasma contains many substances (besides floating the cor- 
 puscles) — food for the tissues, waste from them, and many other sub- 
 stances (sometimes disease germs) that are transported about. 
 
 13. Work of white corpuscles, 
 
 14. Stopping bleeding of large artery. How blood clots. Stopping 
 nose-bleed. Treatment of cuts — danger of blood-poison ; insect stings, 
 hydrophobia and tetanus. 
 
 15. Work of red corpuscles. How the oxygen "burns" the food to 
 make heat and energy. Resulting product largely carbon dioxide, same 
 as in burning fuel in the air. 
 
 27 
 
28 
 
 16. Purification of blood : general structure of lungs, the exchange 
 in the blood capillaries about the lung sacs. 
 
 17. Need of deep breathing, of breathing through nose, of using the 
 diaphragm, of abundant fresh air. Checking of tubercular tendency by 
 always breathing outdoor air, even if very cold. It is not the carbon 
 dioxide of the breathed air but its moisture, contaminated with poisons, 
 which injures us. In the open these go right away from us. In an un- 
 ventilated room they hover about us and we carry them in again. 
 
 18. Means of school-room ventilation: need of humidified air. 
 
 19. The nervous system : its chief organs, brain, spinal cord, effer- 
 ent nerves, afferent nerves, ganglia. It is not worth while for children 
 to learn the particularized structure of the brain. They may know it has 
 surface with many convolutions, with a thin layer of gray matter outside 
 and a mass of white matter within, and all this composed of many inter- 
 woven nerve threads, that it communicates directly with nerves of the 
 head but that other nerve threads pass into the spinal cord and out from 
 the joints of the spinal column to the organs and limbs. They should 
 also understand that it is protected by the skull and by delicate mem- 
 branes, that the messages brought to it are acted on in various ways, 
 that they stir up old brain actions which mean memories, and that the 
 result is usually a message sent to some muscle by afferent nerves which 
 causes the muscle to move (contract or relax). Some messages, for quick 
 action go only to the spinal cord and efferent nerves are excited from 
 there. Some messages by which habitual action as walking are regulated 
 seem to go to the lower brain centers (the cerebellum) and keep up the 
 regulation from there. 
 
 20. Ganglia govern heart action, stomach action, gland action and 
 other unconscious processes. They are sorts of knots or masses in the 
 nerve tracts. 
 
 21. The eye: learn to sketch and label the parts, cornea, pupil, iris, 
 lens, retina, choroid coat, outer coat, aqueous humor, vitreous humor, 
 optic nerve. The iris regulates the amount of light admitted, muscles 
 change the shape of the lens to adjust it to distances. 
 
 22. Eye defects and their correction. Learn of myopia, hyper- 
 metropia and astigmatism. Glasses should be prescribed only by trained 
 men who have proper apparatus. Quacks usually correct myopia and 
 hypermetropia only, these not accurately, and astigmatism roughly if 
 at all. 
 
 2 3- Hygiene of the eye : direction and intensity of light ; cross lights ; 
 fine print; holding eye too close; straining to see blackboard; removing 
 particles from the eye; sore eyes (teachers should read what they can 
 find on trachoma as there is still some in Ohio, then report any suspected 
 case at once to the State Department of Health, Columbus). 
 
 24. Color-blindness. This is fully explained only by a knowledge of 
 
29 
 
 the color-coat of the retina ; this is sufficiently given in but few books; you 
 will find it interesting if you can get the information. 
 
 25. The ear : be able to describe the outer ear, tympanum, middle 
 ear and cochlea and semi-circular canals of the inner ear; understand 
 how the sound waves of the air communicate to the inner ear where 
 apparently different "cilia" connected with the auditory nerve vibrate to 
 different tones and set up nerve movements which the brain or mind 
 translates into sounds. 
 
 26. The semi-circular canals are supposed to give us our sense of 
 balance and not to have a part in hearing. They are like carpenters' 
 levels set in three different planes. 
 
 27. The larynx. You will find it interesting to learn just how this 
 works in speech and singing. 
 
 28. Structure of bones. Mending of bones. An idea of the verte- 
 brae, ribs, pelvis and bones of the limbs, hands and feet. The three kinds 
 of joints. How bones mend. (When a bone is broken the muscles 
 usually draw it out of place even if it is not displaced by the accident. 
 Bones should be set by skilled men or they will heal crooked and lapped 
 shortened). 
 
 29. Muscles. Structure of muscles. Their attachments (ligaments) 
 and how they move the bones. The efferent nerves have endings in the 
 muscles which give them the impulse to move. Exercise of muscles and 
 its benefits. Little children should not be taxed much with the exercise 
 of muscles which make fine adjustments. 
 
 30. The end organs of smell in the nose. Hygiene of the nose. 
 Colds affecting the Eustachian (pronounced Ustakian) tube. 
 
 31. The taste buds of the tongue. 
 
 32. Sense of touch. This is a compound of temperature, pain and 
 pressure. There are separate nerve endings for heat, cold and pressure 
 sensations. Pain is an excess of the nerve irritation. The end nerves of 
 touch are all over the body but are much more concentrated in certain 
 places, as finger ends and the end of the tongue (for pressure at least). 
 A sense of muscular effort is somewhat different and seems located in the 
 muscles, giving a sense of the amount of their strain. 
 
 33. The reproductive system. Because of the delicacy of the sub- 
 ject this is not taught in elementary schools but every teacher should 
 understand it. The best information in brief form is in The Origin of 
 Life, R. E. Blount, 124 S. Oak Park Ave., Oak Park, III, 15 cents per 
 copy. Certain valuable information is found in the following little publi- 
 cations of our State Department of Health : How Any Boy Can Develop 
 His Health and Strength, Some Things a Girl Should Know About Her 
 Health, Instructing Your Child in the Facts of Sex. Any one of these will 
 be sent by that Department for two cent stamp. The teacher can at least 
 give an idea of the origin of life in the ameba, the frog, fish, bird and 
 possibly sofne familiar pets or domestic animals. A fuller explanation 
 
30 
 
 can possibly be given of how flowers are fertilized and the seed produced. 
 All of this may be inadequate but it is better to be silent than to make a 
 serious mistake. 
 
 '34. The nails. How they are developed. How they are injured. 
 
 35. Bacteria. Their forms, prevalence, their benefits and injuries. 
 How they are destroyed. How to avoid taking them into the body by 
 (1) nose (2) mouth. Review work of white corpuscles. How to rid 
 milk of them (Pasteurization). Antiseptics. 
 
 36. The course of an illness caused by a germ disease. The fever, 
 the struggle with the white corpuscles, the development of anti-toxins 
 (killers of the particular germs) in the plasma of the blood. The theory 
 of vaccination. 
 
 37. Particular diseases and their control; tuberculosis, malaria, yel- 
 low fever. 
 
 38. The throat (particularly tonsils) as a source of disease. Any 
 throat soreness should be a signal for immediate gargling with an anti- 
 septic liquid. Very mild warm salt water is effective (half a spoonful or 
 less to a glass of water) ; if too strong it breaks down tissues; if the spot 
 is not reached by gargling, the salt water (be sure it is mild) may be 
 drawn up the nostrils past the sore spot. There are other preparations 
 which are more effective for particular conditions. If the soreness is con- 
 siderable or if there is not immediate betterment or if there is perceptible 
 fever a physician should be called. 
 
 39. The theory of counter-irritants — mustard plasters, coal oil, fat 
 salt meat, capsicum, cold compresses. 
 
 40. The effect of perspiration. Why we feel more hot in air laden 
 with moisture (as before a rain). Why certain kinds of clothing make 
 us cooler or keep us warmer. 
 
 41. Teachers should study the markings and other symptoms of the 
 following diseases: measles, German measles, chicken-pox, scarlet fever. 
 Also symptoms of (diphtheria. 
 
 42. Treatment of a drowned person. Teachers should have this 
 clearly in mind at all times and review it with the school several times a 
 year. Also give warnings about swimming after meals and other matters 
 of safety first. 
 
 43. Alcohol. What becomes of it after it enters the body. Some 
 of its harmful effects, lie sure to teach no exaggerations. The facts are 
 enough. 
 
 44. Tobacco. Some of the harm it does especially if used to excess. 
 Be sure to teach no exaggerations. Careful experiments show that even 
 a little tobacco impairs efficiency. I could refer you to books and pam- 
 phlets which give accounts of these experiments but probably you would 
 not find time to read them. Dwell on the economic aspects of the ques- 
 tion. It is certain that tobacco does no good ; the money could give the 
 individual other worthy advantages. 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 A good modern text should be used. 
 
 World as Home of Man 
 
 i. What factors render a given region habitable? Uninhabitable? 
 Both polar regions and dense tropical forests, deserts and swamps are 
 largely uninhabitable. 
 
 2. Living conditions (for people, plants, animals) in polar regions. 
 How would we fare there ? How do eskimos like temperate climate and 
 civilization ? 
 
 3. Living conditions (for people, plants, animals) on deserts. The 
 oasis. Travel on deserts. Desert regions in U. S. 
 
 4. Life in Brazilian forests. From the above it may be evident 
 that we are going to study the world as a home for men. We began 
 with places where life is simple. It is very complex in most regions. 
 
 A Little Physical Geography 
 
 5. Rivers, (a) How their general direction is determined, (b) 
 Cutting of land by river — (1) vertical (2) at their sides (bends) (c) 
 Causes and results of floods (d) Contrast of banks such as of Ohio and 
 such as of lower Mississippi (e) Cause of the two contrasting situations 
 where rivers meet oceans — estuaries and deltas (f) Navigability factors 
 (g) The lock and dam (h) Jetties of Mississippi delta. 
 
 6. Falls and rapids : Causes, progress. 
 
 7. Frozen water flows — glaciers. Effects of glaciers of ages ago 
 in northern and western Ohio and northward — scooping out lakes, 
 smoothing land, producing some hills, rounding others. How this was 
 done. The glacier (now) as source of iceberg. 
 
 Some General Features of U. S. 
 
 8. Get an outline map of U. S. and a blue pencil and trace or 
 retrace or mark the important features and places as I indicate them by 
 the word "mark" in this outline. Mark the great lakes S, M, H, E, O. 
 Mark the following rivers : Hudson, Delaware, James, Mississippi, Rio 
 Grande, Ohio, Missouri, Niagara, St. Lawrence, Columbia, Colorado. 
 Mark the following bays, etc : Delaware. Chesapeake, Long Island 
 Sound, New York Harbor, San Francisco Bay. 
 
 New England 
 
 9. New England states as a place for industry ; surface, climate, 
 presence and fall of streams. Natural resources : hills and some moun- 
 
 3 1 
 
32 
 
 tains but — no mineral, no coal ; farm land but mostly thin soil ; prox- 
 imity to coast, also to markets; harbors but absence of coastal plains; 
 rivers, some of them with rapids. So — lumbering, farming, manufac- 
 turing, shipping and fishing. 
 
 10. Chief manufactures of New England. In each note presence 
 of these factors or some of them: (i) available raw material, (2) near- 
 ness to market, (3) power. (4) labor, (5) advantage of early start. 
 
 ir. Study of forests, forest products, their effect in making the 
 region prominent in certain industries. 
 
 12. The Gloucester fishing industry. The fishing is largely done at 
 the Grand Banks near Newfoundland. 
 
 13. Quarrying in New England. What and where? Markets? 
 
 14. Study situation of New England (physically and, as far as you 
 can, commercially) with reference to England, New York, Canada. 
 
 New York 
 
 15. Get setting in respect to bodies of water — Hudson, Cham- 
 plain, St. Lawrence (mark), Ontario, Niagara (mark), Erie. 
 
 16. The Erie canal (mark). Note that it follows the line most 
 nearly level from river to lake. (Use a map which shows general ele- 
 vations.) This canal is still largely used — for what? Would it pay 
 to improve the route from sea to lake so that ships could traverse it? 
 
 17. New York's great foreign shipping. Tell of the scenes there. 
 The piers are largely at Jersey City and Brooklyn. 
 
 18. New York as a manufacturing city. It has the most manu- 
 factories of any city in U. S. Name some manufactures. Show reason 
 for same on plan given in 10. 
 
 19. New York as an office city. Most great concerns have a New 
 York office, — many have the main office there — why? 
 
 20. Why should you like to live in New York? What would you 
 not like about living there? 
 
 2i. Interior U. S. transportation connections of New York City: 
 (1) Erie Canal, (2) 5 rails to Buffalo — 2 of these altogether through 
 N. Y., others partly Penna. (3) 3 rail lines to Philadelphia (mark) and 
 thence west. (4) Southern and western rail connections via Washington 
 (mark). (5) Coastwise steamers to Boston and Fall River, Norfolk 
 (mark), Florida, New Orleans and (via Panama Canal) to San Fran- 
 cisco, Los Angeles (mark), Portland, Ore. (6) Rail lines to Connecti- 
 cut and Massachusetts, to St. Lawrence river region (via Albany — 
 mark), and to northern New England (via Connecticut and via Albany). 
 
 22. Transportation within greater N. Y. ■ — ■ look up subways, ele- 
 vated roads, tunnels under rivers, harbor craft and ferries ; bridges to 
 Long Island. N 
 
33 
 
 23. Buffalo (mark) : reason for greatness (work out in detail at 
 least these) — products from west, distribution to west, transshipment, 
 manufacture — -apply here points in 10 — do not overlook Niagara 
 power — be able to tell how it is utilized, interior agriculture, fisheries. 
 
 24. Canadian connections via Buffalo (Niagara Falls). 
 
 25. Lake ship lines — look up types of craft, passenger and freight, 
 sail and steam; western cities reached — (mark them all) Cleveland, 
 Toledo, Detroit, Chicago, Duluth. 
 
 26. New York State as an agricultural state : dairy products — 
 milk trains into N. Y. city ( how many pounds of butter and how manv 
 gallons of milk do N. Y. city's 6,000,000 people probably use a day?), 
 potatoes, hay, grapes, apples. 
 
 2.7. Look at a map which has lowlands in colors ; beginning with 
 Long Island and then southward from New York the lowland is found, 
 broadening most of the time, joining the gulf coastal plain and including 
 all of Florida. 
 
 28. Note character of shore line of southern Long Island and all 
 the Coast of New Jersey ; find out whether it is different in N. C. or 
 eastern Florida. 
 
 29. . Find meaning of fall line and locate it roughly. (Run a dotted 
 line to mark it on your map, starting at Washington and ending at 
 F'orida line). How did it cause location of towns? 
 
 30. The products of New Jersey coast plain ; sweet potatoes, ber- 
 ries, melons, peaches, early vegetables. ("What conditions of soil favor 
 these products?) 
 
 31. Cranberry production — place and conditions requisite. 
 
 ^2. Agricultural products of the coastal plain of Maryland, Vir- 
 ginia and the Carolinas down to Charleston (mark) : berries, vegetables, 
 peanuts (how grown?), tobacco, cotton (in N. C), peaches. 
 
 33. Marketing advantages of these regions : for N. J. every access 
 
 to the great cities — and . Shipment by steamer or rail from 
 
 Charleston, Wilmington, N. C. (mark), Norfolk, Baltimore (mark), 
 Philadelphia, Jersey City (mark) or New York, to another one of this 
 list of cities or to New England or to any points in the central west or 
 south. 
 
 34. The coastal plain of S. C. and Ga. In addition to conditions 
 for rice and cotton growing (what are those conditions?) we find con- 
 siderable yellow pine growing and, about Charleston, masses of phos- 
 phate rock. What is derived from the pine forests besides lumber? 
 What is derived from the phosphate rock? What are the chief ship- 
 ments from Savannah harbor? 
 
34 
 
 The Piedmont Belt 
 
 35. The country back of the coastal plain as far as the mountains 
 proper is called the Piedmont Belt. Mark the first range of mountains 
 with a dotted line, running from southern N. Y. to central Ala. 
 
 36. Piedmont Belt products: In N. J., garden truck; Va.. apples 
 and tobacco; N. C, tobacco, corn; S. C. and Ga., cotton; Ga., peaches. 
 
 37. Piedmont Belt cities and industries: (a) N. J., — (1) Pater- 
 son, silk; (2) Jersey City, shipping, chemicals, oil refineries; in some 
 respects practically part of N. Y. City; (3) Newark, thread, copper, 
 jewelry; (4) Trenton (mark), pottery: (b) Pa. — Philadelphia, ship- 
 ping, carpets, locomotives, woolens, leather (further in No. 38) : (c) 
 Md. — Baltimore, fish and oysters, shipping, tobacco manufacture, 
 clothing, canneries (further in No. 39): (d) Va. — Richmond (mark), 
 tobacco manufacture: (e) Ga. -- Atlanta (mark), the office city of the 
 south, wholesale distributing center, cotton mills, iron manufacture. 
 
 38. Philadelphia: ( 1 ) It is the great coal shipping point for the 
 vast mines of Pennsylvania. (2) other export trade — imports. (3) 
 Baldwin locomotive works. (4) U. S. Mint. (5) what historic build- 
 ing? (6) Hog Island one of the great ship building yards developed 
 during the recent war. (7) other reasons for Philadelphia's large size. 
 
 39. Baltimore: (1) note the peculiar location. (2) how oysters 
 are raised. (3) iron manufactures and ship-building. (4) U. S. naval 
 academy at Annapolis (which is also state capital) a few miles away. 
 (5) other manufactures (see 37). (6) export point, especially for grain. 
 
 Appalachian Mountains 
 
 40. The Adirondack mountains (mark) did not originate with the 
 Appalachians. 
 
 41. The mountains of New England, although cut by Lake Cham- 
 plain and the Hudson, belong to the mountains which begin in New 
 York (Catskills) (mark) and extend to Alabama; these are "old, worn- 
 down" mountains, but they are high enough to make a difficult passage 
 for railroads through them. Only 6 railroads do so. Only one of these 
 is south of Virginia, — the one from Chattanooga (mark) to Atlanta. 
 
 42. These mountains are traversed between ridges in many places 
 by rivers, and in some cases considerable valleys, with the usual farm 
 crops, are found. Also these rivers finally cut through the ridges to 
 pass to the Atlantic or Mississippi. (Mark Susquehanna, Potomac, 
 James, Tennessee.) 
 
 43. Coal deposits in Appalachians — Pa., Md., Va., W. Va., Ky., 
 Tenn. 
 
 44. Kinds of coal — methods of mining. 
 
35 
 
 45- Coal distribution, (i) from Pa. mines, (2) from Va. mines. 
 Note that coal must reach industries of New York City and other coast 
 cities and New England. A little is exported also. 
 
 46. Iron in southern mountains, accounts for industries of Bir- 
 mingham (mark) and Bessemer. Otherwise few cities. 
 
 47. Timber — Kinds. Our chief hardwood forests, much good 
 hardwood timber which is not easy of access still standing. 
 
 Appalachian Plateau and Foothills 
 
 48. This includes a good deal of southern New York, all of Pa. 
 and W. Va. west of the mountains, eastern Ohio and Ky. and small 
 strips of Tenn. and Ala. 
 
 49. Coal. Pa. hard coal ; Pa. soft coal ; W. Va. coal ; Pocahontas 
 coal (on Va. border) ; Hocking coal (located in Hocking County, Ohio) ; 
 Pomeroy coal (located Pomeroy, Ohio) ; Eastern Ohio coal (located 
 Belmont Co., Ohio.) Usually these names are general designations for 
 coals not found solely in the particular counties, etc. 
 
 50. Forests. Hard-wood forests continue from the mountains to 
 the plateaus and foothills. Where the timber is easily transported by 
 river or rail it has been mostly cut off. Ohio has little left. 
 
 51. Clay — Eastern Ohio next to N. J. in pottery and other clay 
 products. 
 
 52. Glass — suitable sand in Pittsburgh region promoted industry. 
 Most American glass is made in Pa. and W. Va. 
 
 53. Glass and other manufacturing industries largely aided by 
 natural gas supply of these regions. W. Va. gas is piped to Cleveland 
 and Cincinnati. 
 
 54. Oil accompanies gas deposits. From large petroleum produc- 
 ing regions it goes to refineries by underground pipes. The large re- 
 fineries are at Jersey City (see No. 37) and about Chicago, although 
 many small ones have recently been built in oil regions. The under- 
 ground pipes carry Ohio oil to Jersey City. What are the products of a 
 petroleum refinery? 
 
 55. Pittsburgh (mark) — a great iron and steel city. Originally 
 ore from N. Y. and Pa. were used. They are not profitable now. Ore 
 is brought by lake steamers to ports near Pittsburgh and then by rail. 
 It comes from the borders of Lake Superior (mark) in Mich, and Wis. 
 Coal is made into coke before use in iron furnaces. Great coke ovens 
 are in Va., W. Va., Pa. They are being replaced by Solvay coke plants 
 which save the liquids and gases driven from coal to form coke. The 
 three essentials of iron are good iron ore, coke, limestone. Why is Pitts- 
 burgh a great iron city? (1) Raw material, (2) early start, (3) labor 
 skilled in this line, (4) accessible markets — including all west to Missis- 
 sippi river and even beyond — also the east, (5) transportation — the 
 Ohio river was important in early development. 
 
36 
 
 56. Many other iron and steel cities. Some leading ones — ( 1 ) 
 Ohio — Youngstown, Steubenville, and Ironton (mark all three) (there 
 are a number of others, about half of them west of the hilly region, 
 however). (2) W. Va. — Wheeling (mark). 
 
 Great Central Plain 
 
 (a) EAST OF MISSISSIPPI 
 
 57. This includes most of our own state, and Wis., Mich., 111., Ky., 
 and central Tenn., except northern Wis. and the northwest corner of 
 Mich. There are large areas of flat land, but southern Ind. and 111. are 
 hilly and have extensive coal mines. Much of these states allow easy 
 railroad building. 
 
 58. Natural resources: (1) timber (north), (2) coal (see 57), 
 (3) fish (the Lakes), (4) iron (about Lake Superior), (5) copper 
 (peninsula into Lake Superior), (6) oil (many points in Ohio and 
 eastern Ind.). 
 
 59. Farm products: all temperate zone products, especially (1) 
 corn — 111. has great corn areas, (2) wheat, (3) potatoes (especially Wis. 
 and Mich.), (4) sugar beets (Mich.), (5) grapes (southern lake 
 regions), (6) peaches and apples (Mich, and Ohio), (7) tobacco (south- 
 ern Wis. and southern Ohio), (S) oats, (9) hay. 
 
 60. Animals : ( 1 ) fur-bearing animals, especially in northern for- 
 ests, (2) hogs (why is this the chief hog region?), (3) sheep, (4) cattle, 
 especially for fattening, (5) dairy cows, (6) horses and mules (Ky. and 
 Tenn.). 
 
 61. Manufactures as outcome of natural resources: show relation 
 in each case and seek reason for locality of industry. 
 
 A. Milling of wheat — Chicago. Milwaukee, Ohio towns and cities. 
 
 B. Manufacture of cereals — Chicago-, Michigan, Ohio. 
 
 C. Furniture — Michigan (Grand Rapids — mark — as center), 
 Southeastern Indiana. 
 
 D. Lumber — northern Michigan, Milwaukee; doors, sash, etc. 
 
 E. Pork-packing — Chicago, Cincinnati. 
 
 F. Canning of vegetables — Wis., Mich., Ohio. 
 
 G. Iron and steel and their products — Milwaukee, Gary (near 
 Chicago). 
 
 H. Cement. 
 
 I. Beet sugar — Michigan. 
 
 J. Lake steamers. 
 
 K. Petroleum products (see No. 54). 
 
 L. Tobacco — southern Ohio, Louisville (mark). 
 
 62. Manufactures as outcome of location, markets, early start and 
 other causes not directly natural resources ; seek reason : 
 
37 
 
 A. Agricultural machinery. 
 
 B. Tools ; automatic machines. 
 
 C. Watches. 
 
 D. Electric apparatus ; light bulbs. 
 
 E. Automobiles ; tractors. 
 
 F. Rubber products (especially Akron, Ohio — mark). 
 
 G. Matches. 
 
 H. Cars (especially Pullman, 111., near Chicago). 
 
 I. Paints. 
 
 J. Paper. 
 
 K. Shoes. 
 
 L. Stoves. 
 
 M. Clothing. 
 
 N. Books. 
 
 63. Cleveland — factors in its development. 
 
 64. Detroit — factors in its development. 
 
 65. Chicago — factors in its development; do not overlook advan- 
 tages to these cities of being distributing centers; compare No. 25; think 
 of Chicago especially in its relationships to west and northwest. 
 
 66. Cincinnati and Louisville are gateways to the south. What are 
 some of the kinds of traffic that flow through them? 
 
 67. Ohio river traffic : The traffic above Cincinnati has come to 
 be mostly coal and logs going down stream. Other freight is handled 
 more easily by rail. Below Cincinnati there is only a limited traffic. The 
 river has almost gone the way of the canals, which are all disused in this 
 region. Millions are being spent on river improvement but are probably 
 wasted. 
 
 68. Railroads of the region. Easy building and heavy traffic have 
 caused the closest network of rail and electric lines in the world. At 
 that, the building is easy only in places, there being many heavy grades 
 and streams to contend with and so many road crossings and intersec- 
 tions. But there are less difficulties than in mountains — and the fre- 
 quency of traffic furnishes a motive. Better roads and many automobiles 
 and trucks have ruined a number of electric and steam lines recently. 
 Note that nearly all traffic from the east to west must cross Ohio and 
 Indiana. 
 
 69. The packing industry. Chicago stockyards and packers. By- 
 products. Transportation of meats to seaboard and to Europe. 
 
 70. Methods of iron and copper mining about Lake Superior. 
 
 Great Central Plain 
 
 (b) WEST OF MISSISSIPPI 
 
 71. This includes all of Iowa, Minnesota except the iron region, 
 Mo. except the southern plateau, eastern Kans., much of Oklahoma, and 
 
3« 
 
 the most of eastern parts of S. D. and Nebr. These regions are rolling — 
 less flat than much of the plain region east of the Miss, but more free 
 from hilly regions. Their general characteristics are the same. 
 
 72. Iowa resembles Ohio outside its large cities. There are some 
 coal mines, the raising of corn and hogs, of wheat and cattle, especially 
 dairy cattle, of oats and hay. 
 
 73. Iowa manufactures — What would you expect? See how far 
 the fact checks with your expectations. Look up the water power de- 
 velopment at Keokuk (mark). 
 
 74. Iowa has the most autos per capita of any state. What reason 
 was there to expect it? (Iowa has no unproductive areas or poor mining 
 regions like Ohio.) 
 
 75. Omaha and Kansas City (mark both) resemble Chicago in some 
 respects. Indicate in what respects and why. 
 
 76. Kansas and Oklahoma oil. This is in eastern Kansas and east 
 central Oklahoma, discovered in last few years, very large supplies, 
 carried from most dense fields to Chicago and New Orleans by pipe lines. 
 Smaller supplies here as elsewhere are hauled to the refineries in tank 
 cars. Natural gas also in some of these fields. There are coal mines 
 in the eastern border of the oil fields, next the plateau. 
 
 77. Missouri plateau region. This extends into Arkansas and 
 Oklahoma. It is generally spoken of as "The Ozarks" or "The Ozark 
 Mountains," although several distinct groups of mountains form part of 
 the region. What two valuable minerals here ? The Missouri plateau is 
 also a fruit region. 
 
 78. Northern Minn. — eastern, highland (including part of the iron 
 region — ■ see No. 70) ; central, plain with many glacial lakes ; west, valley 
 of Red river of North, very flat and fertile, producing wheat on large 
 scale. Part of Minn, and Wis. are forested — largely pine, spruce, fir and 
 other evergreens. 
 
 79. Minneapolis (mark) is the greatest milling city (reason?). 
 Four of the five lines to the northwest and Washington-Oregon coast 
 go from Minneapolis or St. Paul (the Twin Cities). Originally water- 
 power used here ; also outlet for timber region. 
 
 80. St. Louis. Find reasons for its greatness. The Missouri river 
 is now little used. There is still considerable Miss, river traffic. What 
 cities we have named are linked by Miss, river? What ones formerly 
 by Missouri river? (Do not neglect to consider St. Louis' connections 
 with south as well as with west). St. Louis is a manufacturing as well as 
 distributing and collecting center. 
 
 81. All of the remainder of this region has the same staple crops as 
 Ohio. 
 
39 
 
 The Gulf Plain 
 
 82. Beginning with Ga., including all of Fla.. this extends to central 
 Texas, and may be considered as including the Mississippi flood plain 
 up to and including the mouth of the Missouri. Ages ago the Gulf 
 extended that far north. 
 
 83. Character of the lower Mississippi (from mouth of Missouri, 
 but especially from south of Memphis, to New Orleans) — the river is 
 often higher than the country back from it, and is held by levees, partly 
 natural, partly artificial, which are grass-covered earth retaining walls. 
 It is often very crooked, and in many cases after getting bow-shaped cut 
 across the shortest way, and left a bow-shaped lagoon behind. 
 
 84. Delta of the Mississippi. What causes deltas? The condition 
 mentioned in 83 is also natural in a delta where the mouths often shift. 
 How is the channel from New Orleans to the sea made permanent? 
 
 85. Southern Florida. Largely swamp land, called Everglades. 
 Some are being reclaimed by drainage. Out on the end of a chain of 
 coral islands is the city Key West (mark), now reached by a railroad 
 bridging from island to island. Southern Florida is popular as a winter 
 resort. What does Florida peninsula produce? 
 
 86. Much of the coastal plain is heavily wooded with "southern 
 yellow pine" and with cypress. See No. 34. 
 
 87. Louisiana and Texas have recently become large producers of 
 oil. Some gas and salt are found in the same regions. 
 
 88. Cane sugar. This is produced almost entirely in the lower 
 Mississippi valley. Much heat and moisture are required for its growth. 
 A great deal of the sugar is refined in northern states — Illinois and 
 Philadelphia and Brooklyn, N. Y. But New Orleans refines much, and 
 Brooklyn and Philadelphia use largely raw sugar from the West Indies. 
 
 89. Other southern staples: (a) Cotton, (b) Rice, (c) Tobacco, 
 (d) Peanuts, (e) Early vegetables. 
 
 90. Study cotton: (r) climate required, (2) cultivation, (3) har- 
 vesting, (4) cleaning and baling. (5) distribution for manufacture, (6) 
 products of cotton, (7) by-products, (8) enemies of the cotton plant. 
 More cotton is now manufactured in the south, although much still goes 
 to New England mills and much abroad. 
 
 91. Find where rice is grown, and soil and climate required for it. 
 
 The Great Plains 
 
 92. This means the rising ground extending from a line running ir- 
 regularly from central Texas to the Red River of the North to the western 
 mountains and plateaus. It is distinguished from the central and Gulf 
 plains to its east both by elevation and rainfall. But it is not sharply dis- 
 tinguished from these. None of it was ever wooded as the rainfall was 
 too small. However, much of the prairie-plains (Great Central Plain) 
 
40 
 
 was found without trees by the white men although it had plenty of rain- 
 fall to grow them. This region includes much of Montana, Wyoming 
 and Colorado, the Dakotas and the remainder of Texas, Oklahoma, 
 Kansas and Nebraska. 
 
 93. The rainfall is enough to. support grass — hence large grazing 
 lands. 
 
 94. Dry farming and farming by irrigation are practiced. Alfalfa 
 has proved a great boon because of its deep rooting. Where there is 
 irrigation or a river valley with more than average moisture almost any 
 temperate zone farm crop can be raised. Much wheat is grown. 
 
 95. Ranches prevail in much of the region — sheep more in the 
 north and cattle in the south. Density of population is very slight. 
 
 96. Eastern Colorado irrigated lands produce large orchards, melon 
 patches and beet fields. So fertile is most western land when watered. 
 
 97. The Black Hills (mark) are surrounded by the Great Plains. 
 They belong with the Rockies. Erosion has cut into their deposits of 
 gold, iron and other ores. 
 
 98. East and west of them are "bad lands", lands with soft shale 
 that does not break up into soil, yet washes easily into irregular rough 
 shapes so they are agriculturally worthless and are "bad" to travel over. 
 
 99. Coal — Large lignite (What is it?) deposit in western N. D. ; 
 plenty of fair bituminous west of Black Hills, some near Denver. So 
 coal enough to supply the region needs. 
 
 100. Denver "(mark). This city is perhaps better explained with 
 reference to the mountains to its west. But it is the focus of most rail- 
 roads from the east. Here ores from the mountains are smelted -to pro- 
 duce gold, silver, copper and other metals. Two rail lines penetrate the 
 mountains from Denver to the west, another passes south and joins a line 
 to Los Angeles through New Mexico. Cattle and fruit from the mountain 
 valleys pass through Denver to the east. Its altitude is high and air clear, 
 making it a health resort 
 
 101. Cheyenne (mark), capital of Wyoming, was in the path of 
 the main old stage line to California. The Union Pacific Railroad, built 
 with' government aid, followed the same path from Omaha to Cheyenne, 
 and then on to Ogden (mark), thus missing Denver. It is still a great 
 line. 
 
 The Remainder of the United States Proper 
 
 102. This perhaps should be divided into three parts — the Rockies, 
 the Great Basin and Plateau region, and the coastal mountains and plain. 
 The large size may be appreciated from the fact that it is as far by airline 
 from Denver to Salt Lake City (mark) as from Pittsburgh to Indian- 
 apolis, and much farther by rail, and about the same distance from Los 
 Angeles to San Francisco. 
 
4i 
 
 103. Note that the high mountains which cross Colorado do not 
 continue far into N. M. Peaks of these mountains are 10,000 to 15,000 
 feet high. Some plateau stretches between ranges are 10,000 feet, others 
 much lower. Several of these intervening plateaus are called parks and 
 produce fruit and cattle. The mountains have gold, silver, lead, zinc and 
 iron mines, and some coal. 
 
 104. The mountainous region (Rockies) broadens still more to the 
 northwest, including most of Wyoming. There continue to be wide 
 plateaus between ranges. 
 
 105. Yellowstone Park. Location and chief attractions. 
 
 106. The second division is the Great Basin and plateau region — 
 the very extensive region between high Rocky Mts. and high coastal 
 mountains. This is a region of considerable elevation — mostly above 
 4000 feet and except in a few places is very rugged, traversed by low 
 mountains. 
 
 107. The Great Basin region proper of Nevada has many lakes 
 scattered between ranges. The population is very sparse — most of it 
 about the mines. There is too little rainfall for grazing except in a few 
 spots. 
 
 108. West of Great Salt Lake (mark) is a definite desert. In 
 ancient times it was covered by the Lake which is still receding. 
 
 109. Another desert is found in Southern California, west of the 
 Colorado river (mark). Deserts are usually accounted for by being on 
 the side of mountains away from winds. The winds lose their moisture 
 in rising to cross the mountains. 
 
 no. There are borax deposits in desert California. Have you heard 
 of Death Valley? These deposits would wash away if it were not a dry 
 region. 
 
 in. Arizona has a mountain region crossing it from southeast to 
 northwest. This connects with the mountains of Mexico. It contains 
 great copper deposits, making Arizona rank first in copper. 
 
 112. Another copper region is in the mountains of Montana. It is 
 second largest. 
 
 113. The plateaus of Oregon are better watered and sustain some 
 pasturage. Those of Washington are supplied with enough rainfall to 
 raise wheat and this has become a great wheat and apple region. 
 
 114. To the west of the basin and plateau region along most of the 
 coast there are two parallel masses of high mountains with a valley near 
 sea level between. In the northern part this connects with Puget Sound 
 (mark), and in the southern part with San Francisco Bay (mark). The 
 Columbia river (mark) intersects the northern valley. Its lower section 
 is drained by the Willamette (mark). The Sacramento (mark) and San 
 Joaquin (mark) rivers traverse the southern valley. 
 
42 
 
 115- These valleys produce in the north all temperate zone crdpS 
 and in the south temperate zone crops plus oranges, lemons, raisin grapes, 
 prune plums and the famous California peaches and other fruits. Many 
 of these fruits are dried in the sun. Not much rain falls but plenty of 
 water can be led down from the mountains. 
 
 1 1 6. On the west mountain slopes and narrow lowland bordering 
 the sea like crops are raised in abundance. 
 
 117. How do we account for the Pacific coast climate which is 
 never cold, even in Washington? It is due to winds tempered by the 
 Pacific waters which are cold only farther north. The currents in that 
 ocean also pass toward our shores from sources to the south. 
 
 118. California has a rainy and dry season except in the few miles 
 farthest north and farthest south. It always rains in January and never 
 in June. Why? (See Nos. 128 to 131.) 
 
 119. Washington has a rainfall equalled only by the other extreme 
 corner of our country — southern Florida. Consequently it has great 
 forests — of fir — of which the products are distributed even to Ohio. 
 
 120. The Pacific ports : (a) San Francisco. This is the great port for 
 China, Japan and the Philippines. Vessels commonly stop at Hawaii. What 
 exchanges in this trade across the ocean? Remember that railroads from 
 the east reach San Francisco. San Francisco has also trade with the east 
 coast via Panama Canal. The city has manufactures including shipbuild- 
 ing and sugar refining, (b) Los Angeles (the harbor is really San 
 Pedro). The carriage from here is largely fruit, (c) Puget Sound 
 ports, Tacoma and Seattle, and Portland (mark all three). There are 
 termini of railroads from St. Paul, and of a branch of the Union Pacific 
 from Cheyenne. Vessels carry our manufactures to China, Japan, 
 Australia and South America. 
 
 121. Salmon. Learn the habits of salmon and learn of the salmon 
 fisheries on the Columbia river. 
 
 122. Find pictures of the following natural scenery — canon of 
 Columbia, canon of Colorado, Yosemite National Park, Big Trees, Mt. 
 Shasta. Find where each is. 
 
 123. Oil of California. To put a climax on the west coast's won- 
 derful natural advantages, oil was discovered in 1898 in quantity on the 
 southwest coast. Immense areas are dotted with productive wells. It 
 is the chief fuel (Not much is needed to warm buildings, however). 
 
 124. Salt Lake City. Besides being a successful commercial city 
 this city is the center of the Mormon or Latter Day Saint faith. It con- 
 tains their Temple and Tabernacle. It was founded by people of that 
 faith emigrating from Illinois. They have done great things for a region 
 which did not seem to possess even possibilities when they took it in 
 hand. 
 
43 
 
 The Great Winds of the World 
 
 125. In connection with the west coast we have felt need of under- 
 standing the winds. Perhaps it has occurred to us that these may have 
 to do with the rainfall all over the United States, and with the tempera- 
 ture also, not to speak of storms. It is a subject involving at least the 
 sciences of physics and physical geography and perhaps some other 
 sciences that no one understands as well as we should like, for weather 
 differs most places in different years and cannot be forecast with cer- 
 tainty. 
 
 126. The first fact we need to know is that air carries moisture as 
 invisible vapor. Air is seldom entirely dry. The second fact is that the 
 warmer it is the more vapor it can carry. Hot air can carry very much 
 more than cold air. If hot air is chilled it usually becomes visible — that 
 is some of its vapor condenses to tiny particles of water as mist or fog, or 
 to larger drops as on a pitcher of ice water which sweats. There is a 
 certain fixed amount that air at each given temperature can carry. If it 
 has its full amount (for the temperature it has), it is said to be saturated 
 — it cannot take up any more — and if the saturated air is chilled it has 
 to drop some moisture. The third fact is that unsaturated air always 
 tends to take up more moisture and become saturated, and hence to take 
 up some moisture from anything it touches — to dry that thing or evap- 
 orate the moisture from it. When air is changed from cooler to warmer 
 it is less nearly saturated and becomes drying in its effect. When changed 
 from warmer to cooler it is more nearly if not quite saturated and be- 
 comes less drying in its effect or begins to drop its moisture, changing it 
 from the invisible form in which it is carried to a mist or if it is dropped 
 fast enough to drops of water. The fourth fact is that the upper atmos- 
 phere is colder, as it is warmed mostly from the earth rather than the 
 sun rays passing through it. So usually when air rises it is chilled, when 
 it descends it is warmed. Finally, warm air is lighter than cold air (in 
 spite of the warm air holding more moisture). Then colder air tends to 
 fall and warmer air to rise. When air is highly heated it tends to rise 
 rapidly and cold air to rush in from all about to take its place. This rising 
 and rushing in process originates most air movements — that is, winds. 
 
 127. The second set of facts concerns the earth's rotation. The 
 earth is spinning from west to east. It is about 25,000 miles around at 
 the equator and not much less here. The rotation takes 24 hours. So 
 we are flying around at nearly 1000 miles per hour toward the east. The 
 atmosphere goes with us (usually). If it did not we would feel it all 
 the time as a wind, a thousand-mile an hour wind. Second fact: the dis- 
 tance around the earth gets less as the earth tapers off" toward the poles. 
 At the Arctic circle it is about 12,000 miles around. At the pole itself 
 it is nothing. There is no east and west there — the only direction at the 
 north pole is south. Third fact : the atmosphere goes around about as 
 
M 
 
 fast as the earth under it. The farther couth we go from any point 
 north of the equator the faster the rotation; the farther north we go 
 the slower the rotation. If a piece of atmosphere, going around at the 
 rate of the earth at 70 degrees north latitude in transferred a degree 
 south, to 69, it is over land going faster than this piece of atmosphere 
 was just before going, and it does not at once get the new speed. The 
 land is then flying faster to the east than this newly transferred atmos- 
 phere. So this atmosphere lags behind the earth and appears to us as 
 a wind blowing toward the west (because of its origin farther north, 
 usually toward the south-west). In the same way atmosphere coming 
 from the south (if north of equator) is going faster than the earth to 
 which it is transferred and rushes on ahead of it — blows toward the east. 
 
 128. The earth is likely to be hottest just under the sun. The sun's 
 rays are vertical at the equator about March 21 and September 20. They 
 are vertical at the northern tropic, Cancer, June 20, and at the southern, 
 Capricorn, December 20. So the hottest belt shifts north and south. Hot 
 air is lighter. It rises. So heated air keeps rising from the ground. 
 Cooler air rushes in along the surface to replace it. A wind blows toward 
 the heat belt. One blows from north and one from south. These are 
 the trade winds. But they do not blow straight north and south. From 
 No. 127 determine the direction. These winds tend to be drying. Why? 
 But where they strike highlands, or after passing over oceans, they may 
 bring rain. Why? They are blowing in their farther north position in 
 summer. It is then that California has its dry season. But in winter they 
 have shifted to the south with the sun and are not blowing along 
 California. 
 
 129. The winds of the temperate zones beyond the trade winds are 
 not so definitely explained. They blow toward the east as a rule. That 
 indicates their origin nearer the equator, and their passage into latitude 
 of less rapid earth rotation. These winds blowing toward California 
 in winter from warmer areas over the Pacific ocean bear rain. 
 
 130. At the heat equator, where the hot air rises, and the currents 
 to replace it from north and south meet, we have a belt of calms. At 
 about 30 degrees from the heat equator, from which point winds blow 
 north and south and upper air descends to replace them, are other narrow 
 belts of calms. 
 
 131. Such westerly winds most frequently are the winds blowing 
 here. They bear rain more often when they are from the Gulf of Mexico 
 than when from the Rockies. Our winds usually can not be definitely 
 traced west of the Rockies. They are usually whirling storms also, the 
 whole whirl passing toward the east, and the winds of the whirl blowing 
 in all directions of the compass but passing in the whirl in the opposite 
 direction from the hands of a clock. (See a weather map and v/ote the 
 arrows on it.) 
 
 132. Account for the heavy rains of Washington and Florida. 
 
45 
 
 Europe 
 
 (a) ENGLAND AND FRANCE 
 
 133. Observe the four sub-divisions of the British Isles. Note that 
 half or more of the Isles are upland or hills. There is one lowland belt 
 across Scotland and one across Ireland. But most of England proper is 
 lowland. 
 
 134. Compare latitude of England and New Jersey. It is remark- 
 able that England is nevertheless of about the same temperature. Find 
 a reason. 
 
 135. Note the irregular coast-line. Value? Note distance across to 
 France. 
 
 136. Note the river on which London is situated. This river has an 
 estuary. Ocean steamships reach London. 
 
 137. In attempting to account for London's size — it is exceeded 
 only by New York — consider its relation to the countries of the mainland 
 and to the lowlands of England. "All roads lead to London" was said 
 before there were railroads, and the railroads do so now. The early start 
 of England in extensive and varied manufacturing and the enterprise of 
 England in exploring and settling colonies were factors in making 
 London, its capital and trading center, grow. 
 
 138. With mostly the climate of New York and good summer rain- 
 fall, what farm crops are to be expected? Much upland is used for 
 grazing sheep and some for cattle. In northern Ireland flax is raised for 
 the linen industry. 
 
 139. Why would one expect the British Isles to have great fisheries? 
 The herring, cod and haddock do not seem to diminish after centuries 
 of extensive fishing. 
 
 140. The chief basis of the large population and wealth of the 
 British Isles is manufacturing, and that is due to the minerals of the 
 country more than its trade. Iron and coal in Wales, Scotland and Eng- 
 land make possible the manufactures of London, Glasgow, Birmingham, 
 Liverpool, Manchester. Sheffield, Leeds. Glasgow. Birmingham and 
 Sheffield chiefly manufacture iron and iron products. But England's iron 
 ores are becoming exhausted and ores are imported. 
 
 141. Of the cities named in No. 140, note which are portt. Glas- 
 gow does not appear to be, but the river Clyde has been deepened for 
 ships. It is one of the greatest ship building ports. 
 
 142. Before steam was used England was leading the world in 
 cloth manufacturing with water-power and hand looms. Dampness helps 
 cotton manufacture, and the air of Manchester meets that requirement. 
 
 'Early introduction of automatic machinery and steam kept the advantage. 
 The country supplied the wool for woolen manufacture but now much 
 comes from Australia. Leeds manufactures most woolens. Cotton came 
 from the United States — much of it now from Egypt and India. 
 
4 6 
 
 143- Liverpool and London, like New York, lead in commerce and 
 at the same time have many and varied factories. Leading steamship 
 liners from America reach Liverpool and passengers go on to London 
 by rail. 
 
 144. Note the capital of Scotland. It is a banking and office city. 
 
 145. Irish linens are well known. Belfast is a city of linen manu- 
 facture. The moisture is favorable for this. The flax is grown in Ire- 
 land. Belfast also is a city of ship building like Glasgow. Steel and coal 
 are brought from England. Northern Ireland is largely under Scotch 
 influence — the people are Scotch-Irish and largely Protestant. 
 
 146. Dublin is the Irish capital and quarrels over Ireland's con- 
 nection with England have centered about it. Central and southern Ire- 
 land are mostly Catholic. Cork is a coast city in the south. 
 
 147. From Cardiff, Wales, much coal goes to countries which do 
 not have a supply. The extreme southwest corner of England contains 
 tin and used to supply the world but now does not furnish enough for 
 England's tin-plate mills. 
 
 148. France is another country resembling Ohio in farm crops, 
 although it is generally warmer. Where it is semi-tropical and why? 
 Yet note that southern France is a good deal farther north than Ohio. 
 There is not the hot weather and moisture over a considerable area nec- 
 essary for cotton, rice or sugar cane. 
 
 149. France probably would not grow these crops anyway, as her 
 farming is intensive rather than on plantation scale. The same is true 
 of England and of Europe generally. 
 
 150. Vineyards flourish in France — in the river valleys and aboui 
 the Mediterranean. Wine made from these grapes is the national drink. 
 It is exported also (but no longer to the United States). 
 
 151. The silk worm is raised in southern France. Read about its 
 cultivation and the silk industry. But much silk is imported from China 
 and Japan and Italy for the extensive silk manufacture. What American 
 city manufactures silk ? 
 
 152. France's coal and iron are mostly near the Belgian and Ger- 
 man borders. The iron is considerable and the coal would be ample but 
 the Germans ruined the mines during the war and they are not yet re- 
 paired. Part of the iron and coal are in Lorraine which was regained 
 from Germany. 
 
 153. Note location of Paris, and river Seine. Note Havre, the port. 
 What is the chief port on the west ? On the Mediterranean ? 
 
 154. Note how southeastern France includes part of the Alps. 
 Some water power is being developed from the mountain streams. Three 
 rail lines reach Italy from France — one by the coast, one directly over 
 and through the mountains (Mt. Cenis tunnel) to Turin, one via Switzer- 
 land (has also long tunnel). 
 
47 
 
 155- An extensive and actively used canal system connects French 
 rivers and cities. 
 
 (b) CENTRAL EUROPE 
 
 156. We are including here Belgium and Holland, which might be 
 considered of Northern Europe or of the North Sea instead. The other 
 countries under this head are Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, 
 Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Jugoslavia. The four last named, except a 
 little territory, are Austria-Hungary on any but recent maps. As a result 
 of the war that country was divided up. 
 
 157. Poland, which had existed many years before, was restored 
 from German, Russian and Austro-Hungarian territory. The capital, 
 Warsaw, (on what river?) is their great market city, and also has manu- 
 factures of flour and meal, sugar and textiles. There is some coal in the 
 southwest (this tract has voted to join Germany, however), and in the 
 south, next to the Carpathian mountains, the crest of which separates 
 Czechoslovakia from Poland. There is iron in these places also. 
 
 158. Poland has temperate zone agriculture. The northern part has 
 lakes like those in northern Minnesota and in New York. These lakes 
 were scooped out by glaciers as were those in U. S. 
 
 159. The port used by Poland, Danzig, is "internationalized", that 
 is, by treaty all countries may use it, and a joint commission, under no 
 one country, governs it. 
 
 160. Look up the surface of Holland (The Netherlands), the man- 
 ner in which it is made available for farming, the crops raised. They 
 are planning to increase their land by protecting and draining the Zuider 
 Zee. 
 
 161. Dairy products find market in England's big cities. Dutch 
 sailors bring products from all over the world to Rotterdam, from which 
 they are distributed to other parts of the world. They colonized some 
 of the East Indies ( Sumatra, Java, part of Borneo and many smaller 
 islands), and Holland still owns them. Ships reach them via Isthmus of 
 Suez. Look up the islands and the route. Find out what those islands 
 chiefly produce. 
 
 162. Amsterdam is made a port by canal to the North Sea. It is 
 a very large city. The enterprise of the Dutch has developed extensive 
 manufactures of textiles, sugar, meat and dairy products, lumber, leather 
 and even iron products, in spite of there being no coal or iron in the 
 country. 
 
 163. Belgium is only about a fourth as large as Ohio but has a large 
 population. The people are somewhat crowded. The northwest is plain, 
 the southeast is upland and hills. French is the official language but some 
 speak Dutch and some German. 
 
 164. The hills contain coal. Sheep are raised there also. The 
 country lies between Germany and France and was invaded and suffered 
 much from the Germans. 
 
48 
 
 165. There is intensive farming' in the lowlands. The moisture is 
 high because winds from the sea strike the upland while saturated. Bel- 
 gian horses are raised and exported. 
 
 166. Excellent sand led to glass manufacture. The raising of flax 
 and the moisture explains linen mills and lace manufacture. Other tex- 
 tiles and iron products are made. 
 
 167. The advantages of being the capital, of being the distributing 
 center because all rail lines and roads center in it, of manufactures and 
 of rich surrounding territory make Brussels the largest city, although it is 
 not a sea port like Antwerp. 
 
 168. Germany is a large (4^ times as large as Ohio) and varied 
 country. It lost in the war Alsace and Lorraine to France, and the south- 
 eastern part, separated somewhat by highlands, became a part of Czecho- 
 slovakia. All northern Germany is lowland ; a belt of moderate width 
 across the central part connects the Belgian highland with that adjacent 
 to Czechoslovakia; while the southern part where streams form and join 
 the Rhine and Danube is a plain of little elevation ; the southernmost 
 border reaches the Alps. 
 
 169. Germany possesses most natural advantages — ■ agricultural 
 productiveness, mineral wealth, good internal transportation, good outside 
 communication. 
 
 170. What important crops can France grow which Germany can- 
 not? Make the same comparison of the crops of Germany and U. S. 
 
 171. What metals are found in Germany's highlands? In addition 
 to metals there are coal, clay and potash. During the Avar Germany 
 needed desperately three things — copper, rubber, cotton. The U. S. 
 seemed to need but one German product — potash (for fertilizers). 
 Germany also needed more food. Why ? 
 
 172. Note Germany's rivers. They are used much more than ours. 
 They are connected with canals which are in use, as in France. Railroads 
 are easily built. 
 
 173. Germany's manufactures: why do they include (1) iron prod- 
 ucts, (2) textiles, (3) dishes, (4) paper, (5) sugar, (6) ships? 
 
 174. Locate the Oder, Elbe, Weser and Rhine rivers. Note which 
 flows into the Baltic. It freezes in winter. The others remain open. 
 Note the ports — Stettin, Hamburg, Bremen. The last two are the great 
 ports for trade with the world at large. Note how the Kiel canal joins 
 North and Baltic seas. Note how Berlin is situated — on a canal between 
 Oder and Elbe. 
 
 175. By peace treaty boats of any country may go (1) through Kiel 
 canal, (2) on the Rhine, (3) on the Elbe up into Czechoslovakia, (4) on 
 the Oder, (5) on the Danube. (Note how the Danube extends from 
 southern Germany to the Black Sea. What 6 countries does it touch ?) 
 
 176. The Rhine country was held from 19.19 on by the troops of the 
 "Allies", England, France, Belgium and the U. S., because war agree- 
 
49 
 
 merits had not been carried out by Germany. The coal and iron fields 
 about Essen were included. The U. S. troops were withdrawn in 192 1. 
 
 177. Czechoslovakia is all upland or mountains. The western part 
 is Bohemia. The upland is productive. The Carpathian mountains and 
 the rim of the plateau have mineral and forest wealth. Prague is the 
 capital and manufacturing and trade center. 
 
 178. Hungary is a great plain, called the "bread basket" of Europe. 
 Corn as well as wheat is largely produced. Budapest is a combination 
 of two cities, Buda on the west side and Pest on the east bank of the 
 Danube. 
 
 179. Vienna is Austria's great city. Austria's resources were largely 
 taken from her at the end of the war. The Danube valley is productive. 
 The mountains contain minerals and are forested. But communication 
 is poor. Vienna's 2,000,000 population, nearly equal that of Paris or 
 Chicago, is diminishing. Why? 
 
 180. Jugoslavia's boundaries on the coast give difficulty. The ter- 
 ritory was taken from Austria-Hungary and joined with Serbia to make 
 the new nation. But Italians had settled the coast and desired to join 
 Italy. The separateness of Albania has been a question also. 
 
 181. The northern part of the country is of the Hungarian plain. 
 The remainder is mountainous but with numerous mountain valleys. Be- 
 ing farther south, olives, lemons, oranges and mulberries grow as in Italy. 
 Herding is the chief mountain occupation, as in Switzerland. There is 
 lumbering also. The port, Fiume, was awarded to Italy, but Jugoslavia 
 may ship through it. 
 
 182. By what characteristic is Switzerland well known? Why is it 
 a summer resort ? Switzerland managed to keep entirely out of the war. 
 
 (c) NORTH EUROPE 
 
 183. Most of Russia is a plain. It is so flat that the rivers easily 
 shift their courses. The northern half is cold and seldom thaws deep, 
 making cold marshes. Farther south is a forest belt and still farther 
 south good land for general agriculture. Farther south and southeast 
 lack of rainfall forbids agriculture but there is enough rain for herding 
 except in the far southeast. 
 
 184. Denmark and eastern Sweden are in the plain. In Denmark 
 agriculture is highly developed, especially dairying. 
 
 185. What is peculiar about Norway's coast? There is shipbuilding 
 on Norway's coast. Fishing is pursued by many along the coasts of Nor- 
 way and Sweden. There" is some timber in the mountains. Iron ore is 
 mined and exported. Note how little of Norway is plain. Yet there is 
 sorrfe agriculture, especially hay raising, in the mountains. The country 
 is-ft$t cold like Russia. Why? Hammerfest is an interesting port be- 
 ca«'»e "Within the Arctic circle. 
 
So 
 
 1 86. How does the length of a summer day compare in Ohio and 
 North Dakota ? In Ohio and Hammerf est ? How long would the longest 
 day be at Hammerfest ? Travellers visit Hammerf est to see the northern 
 lights. What are they ? 
 
 187. Besides her plains Russia has the upland region called the 
 Ural mountains and on the southern border has real mountains — the 
 Caucasus. The Ural mountains contain the world's greatest supply of the 
 valuable mineral, platinum. A great oil region borders the Caucasus. 
 
 188. Russia has a tremendous territory and population. It controls 
 all northern Asia also, known as Siberia. Russia has for several years been 
 in a confused condition from internal strife. Many of the population are 
 believed to have perished of famine and disease. The former capital, St. 
 Petersburg, later called Petrograd, is believed largely drained of its 2,- 
 000,000 inhabitants. The capital is moved to the ancient capital, Moscow. 
 Finland and several other large areas on the border have become in- 
 dependent. 
 
 (d) SOUTH EUROPE 
 
 189. Italy adjoins the Swiss and Austrian highlands. South of there 
 is the Po valley. The rest is hills and mountains, except some coast areas. 
 
 190. What is peculiar about Venice? What other cities in the Po 
 valley? It is cold in winter in northern Italy. Where is Rome? It has 
 been a famous city for over 2000 years. It has fine old buildings; among 
 them in the Vatican, the Pope's residence. 
 
 191. What crops in this southern peninsula? The mountains are 
 not high enough to make it very cold. Their effect is rather to cause 
 sufficient rainfall. How? The Mediterranean is a very warm ocean. 
 Why ? What arm of the sea is east of Italy ? 
 
 192. We read often of earthquakes and volcanic action in Italy. 
 Etna in Sicily and Vesuvius near Naples are volcanoes. 
 
 193. Italy lacks coal. Some waterpower is used. Sicily produces 
 sulphur. There is marble in the Apennines (the mountains of the 
 Italian peninsula). Much silk is produced. Florence and Milan have 
 this industry. Florence contains many fine paintings; some of the world's 
 most famous artists lived there. 
 
 194. Macaroni is an important manufacture and is imported to U. 
 S. though we now largely produce our own. Much wine is made in Italy. 
 
 195. Southern Spain and Portugal have products similar to southern 
 Haly. The mountains of Spain are found next to France and in the 
 south. They make plenty of rainfall in these parts. Portugal also has 
 ample rain. But central Spain has not, is arid and does not have the ad- 
 vantage of the sea breezes, so has rather cold winters. It is plateau land 
 with deep canyons for river channels. It is consequently not productive. 
 
 196. Spain has iron in both mountain regions. Some is manufac- 
 tured but more is exported to England. Spain is an unprogressive 
 
5i 
 
 country. Textiles and tobacco are manufactured. We import olives. 
 olive oil, sardines, raw silk and cork. 
 
 197. Portugal produces most cork, which is the bark of the cork 
 oak. This is exported from Lisbon, capital and trade city. Ships are 
 built here and Portuguese sailors are numerous all over the world. 
 
 198. Rumania largely resembles Hungary though it has a large 
 highland region as well as plains. As reorganized it is 2^ times as large 
 as Hungary, and the latter is a little larger than Ohio. There is much 
 wheat for export. In the highland there are grazing and timber. There 
 is also oil. 
 
 199. Bulgaria is similar to Rumania with a large proportion of 
 highland. There is some coal. Turkey has been nearly pushed out of 
 Europe by the advancing boundaries of Eulgaria and Greece, but still 
 retains its famous capital city, Constantinople, and small surrounding 
 areas. The straits from Black to Mediterranean sea are open to all 
 nations since 1919. 
 
 200. Greece has the climate of southern Italy, but scant summer 
 rainfall, so irrigation is largely employed. Athens, the capital, has famous 
 ancient monuments. 
 
 Asia 
 
 201. Note that Asia extends from polar regions to tropical seas. 
 A large part of it is mountainous or desert and has few inhabitants. In 
 fertile lowlands the people are closely crowded. There are today more 
 people in Asia than in all the rest of the world. 
 
 202. The northern part of Siberia or Russia in Asia resembles 
 Russia in Europe. South of that tundra region is the world's greatest 
 forest area, yet it is almost untouched after these thousands of years. 
 Why? It is the source of the Siberian furs which supply much of the 
 world. 
 
 203. A railroad runs from European Russia clear across Siberia 
 to the Pacific port, Vladivostok. A branch runs to Port Arthur. Vladi- 
 vostok is ice bound several months of the year. 
 
 204. Much of the region near the Caspian is too dry for anything 
 but herding, the herds being driven from place to place as the grasses 
 are exhausted. Similar life is found in several dry parts of Asia. There 
 is good temperate zone agriculture in much of southern Siberia. But the 
 southernmost border much of the way is rugged mountains. 
 
 205. Much of interior Asia, including Siberia, has very cold 
 winters, even colder than interior Canada, and hot summers. There are 
 no sea breezes. The air is dry; moisture would tend to blanket the earth, 
 and the sun's heat to be expended in evaporating the moisture, if any. 
 The dryness of Asia's interior plateaus is caused by there being high 
 ranges between them and the sea. How? 
 
52 
 
 206. Most of Asia's mountains are not worn-down ones like the 
 Appalachians but very high and rugged mountains, like the Rockies. The 
 highest are the Himalayas, north of India, and the highest of the ranges 
 form the southern boundary of Thibet, "the roof of the world". Only a 
 few American or European travellers have penetrated these mountain 
 regions. The high valleys are cultivated. The yak takes the place of 
 horse and cow. 
 
 207. Asia's great plains, besides those of Siberia are: (1) most of 
 eastern China (especially northeastern), (2) a broad belt across the 
 northern part of the peninsula of India, (3) the southeast India coast, 
 (4) the country about the southeast corner of Asia (Gulf of Siam), (5) 
 the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. 
 
 208. All of these except the last are very productive. Babylon was 
 in the last named valley. But the land has been neglected; the trees were 
 all felled; irrigation is necessary to restore it, as rainfall is very light. 
 
 209. The "monsoon" winds bring heavy summer rainfall to most 
 of Asia which faces the Indian ocean. These blow to the land in sum- 
 mer when the land is very hot (remember former explanation of winds), 
 and in the opposite direction in winter when the sea is much the warmer. 
 Similar winds bring rain to eastern China, Korea (now usually called 
 Chosen — -pronounced cho-seen') and Japan. 
 
 210. This moist, hot lowland produces rice, cotton, sugar cane. In 
 the Siam region also rubber, in Japan also indigo, in Formosa also the 
 camphor tree. Higher regions, also warm, produce tea, coffee, mulberry 
 (for silk), hemp. Coffee is produced only on Arabian coasts and in the 
 extreme southeast, however. 
 
 211. Silk and tea culture are suited to the surplus hand-labor of the 
 crowded countries which (excepting part of Japan) are almost without 
 power-driven manufactures. Farms of small size are cultivated very 
 intensely, especially in China and Japan. Hogs are raised by the Chinese 
 farmers. 
 
 212. In India and in the interior of Burma (it belongs to England, 
 along with India) and in some of the Malay peninsula many wild animals 
 are still found in the "jungles". 
 
 213. The western and southwestern parts of Asia and some of the 
 interior (including western and part of northern China) are the dry, 
 sparsely settled plateaus where herding is the occupation. In these regions 
 there are horses, cattle, sheep, goats, camels. 
 
 214. The date palm requires dry air, but moisture for the roots. 
 This condition is met on Arabian and Persian coasts. 
 
 215. Two great rivers (Yangtze and Hwang) cross China and are 
 the east and west Chinese highways. A railroad and the sea and the 
 grand canal between the two rivers give north and south communication. 
 
 216. The destructive Chinese floods are in the lower Hwang. Its 
 course is ill-defined and when flooded it breaks across new paths/ The 
 
53 
 
 removal of the timber has made part of the Yangtze valley barren that 
 was once productive. 
 
 217. China is believed to have enormous coal and iron deposits which 
 have not been touched except a little to the south where French have 
 begun development. The world's chief tin mines are in the end of the 
 Malay peninsula and in a nearby island. 
 
 218. Japan is well supplied with copper, coal and iron and is now 
 manufacturing on a modern factory basis iron goods, ships, cloth, flour, 
 pottery, paper and lumber. 
 
 219. The great Pacific ports of Asia are (1) in Japan, Yokohama; 
 (2) in China, Tientsin, Shanghai. Hong-Kong (belongs to England) and 
 Canton. The ports of India are Calcutta and Bombay. Ceylon, the 
 island south of India, furnishes us tea, rice, cacao (from which cocoa and 
 chocolate are made), cocoanuts and most of the graphite for lead pencils. 
 
 220. Asia's great capitals : Peking of China, its port is Tientsin, 
 population about 1,000,000; Tokio of Japan, its port is Yokohama, popu- 
 lation about 2,000,000; Delhi of India, on the upper Ganges, population 
 about 200,000, English capital moved there in 191 1 from Calcutta (popu- 
 lation about 1,000,000) where it had been for 60 years. (Delhi was al- 
 ways regarded as native capital.) 
 
 Australia and New Zealand 
 
 221. ■ Australia's misfortune is its dryness. The eastern border is 
 mountainous, and there is also a highland at the south and east corner. 
 These intercept the southern trade winds. In what direction do they 
 blow ? As they come from a cooler region they tend to be drying winds, 
 anyway. 
 
 222. The great plain of Australia, just west of the mountains, can 
 much of it be irrigated from the rivers that rise in the mountains. There 
 are also several well watered valleys about the coast. They raise fruits, 
 wheat, and dairy cattle. Northern Australia is hottest but the climate 
 mostly mild. When is Australia's wheat harvested? Apples? 
 
 223. Australia leads the world in excellent sheep. It raises many 
 cattle also. It is a great wool and dairy products exporter. 
 
 224. Gold first boomed Australia. Some is in eastern highland. 
 Most in the desert toward the west coast. A railroad was recently 
 finished from east to west passing through the gold country. The eastern 
 highland has iron and coal. 
 
 225. Australia has about 5,000,000, mostly whites and largely Eng- 
 lish. Sydney and Melbourne have each about 750,000 inhabitants. They 
 have enormous shipping. What exports? (Do not overlook meat 
 products.) 
 
 226. New Zealand is largely mountainous. Herding is the leading 
 occupation. The west coast has fiords like Norway. There are great 
 falls, geysers and scenic mountains. 
 
54 
 
 Africa 
 
 227. This country, except in north and south, is equatorial. The 
 moisture of the hot air rising from the heat equator to the colder upper 
 regions condenses into clouds and falls as rain practically every after- 
 noon. But the heat equator shifts north and south with the sun. Regions 
 crossed by the sun's vertical rays on the path northward and again on the 
 path southward have two rainy seasons. Those near the tropics have 
 but one. (The heat equator does not get as far toward the poles as the 
 tropics except in a few lowlands, but only to about 15 to 20 degrees, de- 
 pending chiefly on altitudes.) 
 
 228. There are mountains in northwest Africa. Winds mostly blow 
 toward the equator from about 40 degrees (trade winds) and have a 
 direction westward also. (Why?) Therefore we have the Sahara desert 
 and a continent generally dry, except a little along the Mediterranean, 
 down to near the equator. The southwest is also dry even near the 
 Pacific. 
 
 229. The region of equatorial rains has great jungles. There are 
 many large animals in them. North and south of them are good grass 
 lands. 
 
 230. Ivory and copal, from which varnish is made, come from the 
 hot forests. Rubber is cultivated in this climate. Palm oil, cacao and 
 some spices are other products. Great numbers of native negroes live in 
 these regions. 
 
 231. Northern and extreme southern Africa are largely inhabited 
 by whites. The southern region is plateau and of temperate climate. 
 It was discovered to have gold and diamonds as well as good land for 
 agriculture and stock raising. 
 
 232. The fertility of the Nile valley makes it a great source of 
 cotton and rice. It is controlled by England. Cairo is the chief city. 
 The British cut the Suez canal connecting the Mediterranean and Red 
 seas. That is one of the world's greatest trade routes. Much of a rail- 
 road from Cairo to the southern cape of Africa has been built. 
 
 233. The Congo river is navigable for [00 miles from the sea from 
 where rapids interfere with navigation for the next 230 miles. A rail- 
 road has been built to handle the traffic for that distance from where the 
 river can be used for the next 1600 miles. In these rapids, in the great 
 fall of the Zambesi, in the falls of the Nile and elsewhere is tremendous 
 unused water-power. 
 
 234. Ostriches are native, along with giraffes, antelopes, buffaloes 
 (not the American kind), zebras and rhinoceroses in the deep grasses 
 outside the belt of tropical forests. Ostriches are raised in the south. 
 Practically all the giraffes are in Abyssinia. 
 
 235. Much of xA.byssinia is rugged highland. Part is, like most of 
 Africa, plateau of moderate height. Very little of Africa is lowland. 
 
55 
 
 The eastern Sahara has an elevation of about 3000 feet. Equatorial 
 Africa is nearly all elevated as proved by the falls and rapids in rivers 
 passing to the sea from it. 
 
 236. What is an oasis? Describe desert travel. 
 
 237. Government of Africa: Only Abyssinia and two small states 
 are entirely independent. One of these is Liberia. Most of the con- 
 tinent is ruled or influenced by Great Britain. The Congo country is 
 directed by Belgium. Morocco, Algeria and Tunis on the northwest, the 
 Sahara region and the island Madagascar are French. Italy controls 
 Libya which is west of Egypt, (formerly known as Tripoli), and a small 
 land which extends to the point of the continent farthest east. Portugal 
 lias a southwest section and a southeast section. The remainder of south 
 Africa is all British. 
 
 South America 
 
 238. South America has a high mountain region on the west 
 (Andes) with a narrow coastal plain, and with a valley or plateau be- 
 tween the ridges of these mountains ; it has a broad central plain from 
 north to south, and in tbe northeast there are mountains like those in 
 New England. 
 
 239. Great rivers are in the large plains (except in the south). 
 These are fed by streams from the uplands and mountains. The flat 
 country was once an inland sea which was gradually filled by silt. 
 
 240. Note the country's relation to equator and tropics. Also the 
 trade winds. These blow from east to west and toward the equator. 
 They start at 35 to 40 degrees. What part of South America is out of 
 their path ? Beyond the trade wind belt winds blow from the west. The 
 winds, mountains and heat determine the rain. Taking 35 degrees as 
 calm belt (it shifts with the seasons), what parts of S. A. should be found 
 desert? What parts rainy? 
 
 241. The Amazon valley is like equatorial Africa. It has lower 
 altitude than most of African tropical forest. It has the commercial 
 advantage of a river navigable far inland — and even to ocean ships for 
 1000 miles inland. 
 
 242. Trading posts are established along the Amazon. To these 
 the rubber, cinchona bark, and Brazil nuts are brought. The Amazon 
 
 and its tributaries afford outlets even for eastern Peru and Bolivia. 
 
 243. Learn to locate all South American countries. 
 
 244. The Orinoco is a river with a delta and the valley is often 
 flooded. It is cooler up there and there are extensive grasses for herd- 
 ing. The other great river is the Parana (the estuary called the La 
 Plata). Its valley is largely grass land. The southern part of the con- 
 tinental valley has no river. It is flattest of all. It is a great grazing 
 land, good for agriculture when cultivated. 
 
56 
 
 245- The eastern part of Brazil is upland and hence cooler. South- 
 ern Brazil is also cooler, and has temperate zone agriculture. The up- 
 land has the world's greatest coffee plantations. The eastern coastal low- 
 lands raise sugar and cotton. 
 
 246. Rio de Janeiro is one of the world's great cities. The coffee 
 industry is large. The cattle from the interior are brought here. Some 
 timber also. Santos is the greatest coffee port. 
 
 247. Amazon river cities ship the rubber. 
 
 248. Several great falls of Brazil may some day supply electric 
 power. Rio de Janeiro already derives power from Sao Paulo falls. 
 There is no good coal and little oil known in South America. So water- 
 power gives the best chance of manufactures. 
 
 249. Argentina is the other really great South American country. 
 Much of the grass "pampa" in the south-central part has been removed 
 for wheat. About the Parana grazing has precedence. Millions of tons 
 of frozen meat are shipped from Buenos Ayres and Montevideo. The 
 world's greatest hide market is in this country. 
 
 250. Argentina lias ample railroads in the central region. Besides 
 one rail line goes clear into Bolivia and another crosses the Andes to 
 Chili. Brazil rail lines do not penetrate far. Argentina affords easy 
 railroad building and Brazil very difficult. 
 
 251. Southern South America is cold (not extreme cold). The 
 southeast is also dry. Sheep are raised. Chili owns most of the southern- 
 most end. 
 
 252. Chili's greatest resource is the tremendous nitrate deposit in 
 the north. The country is desert. Nitrate could be found only in a desert 
 for its dissolves easily. 
 
 253. Chili, Argentina and most of South America are Spanish. 
 Brazil is Portuguese. Northern South America has many Indians and 
 people with Indian blood. Man}- negroes have been brought into Brazil 
 also, especially in the Amazon region. 
 
 254. Uruguay and Paraguay are excellent agriculture and grazing 
 countries. The latter is too dry but irrigation is employed to grow farm 
 crops. Oranges grow wild wherever there is moisture in this country. 
 
 255. Bolivia has no coast. But there is a railroad to the sea through 
 Chili and one through Peru. The Madeira leads to the Amazon. There 
 is a railroad round the falls (as in the Congo). Southwest Bolivia is a 
 very high plateau surrounded by mountains. The southeast is tropical 
 lowland. On the plateau is Lake Titicaca on which boats ply. The 
 plateau is treeless. It contains much tin and some silver. 
 
 256. Peru resembles Bolivia in topography but has a long coast 
 and a narrow coastal plain. Railroads have a hard climb from coast to 
 plateau. It has copper instead of tin. The llama and alpaca are found 
 in the Andes. The former is the beast of burden in the Andean high 
 altitudes. The latter has fine wool. 
 
57 
 
 257- Ecuador and Columbia are similar but with more coastal 
 plain. Columbia produces most of the world's platinum (since Russia's 
 collapse). Ecuador is not known to have much mineral. "Panama" 
 hats are woven here from torquilla straw which grows in the lowlands. 
 
 258. Ecuador illustrates the effect of altitude on climate. By as- 
 cending to one mile above sea level there is the same change in tempera- 
 ture and plants as by going 1500 miles north or south of the equator. 
 By ascending 2 miles the same as in going 2500 north or south. 
 
 259. The lowlands of Venezuela and Guiana have products similar 
 to those of the coast plain of Brazil. There is herding on the uplands 
 and coffee is grown on the Venezuelan mountain slopes. 
 
 260. Trinidad island is our great source of asphalt. It forms there 
 a great lake. 
 
 261. Note that eastern South America is practically as near Europe 
 by sea as it to the the United States ; that western South America is al- 
 most due south from our eastern coast via Panama Canal. 
 
 Canada and Alaska 
 
 262. Canada does not have a Mississippi valley. On the contrary a 
 large highland independent of those of the United States lies north of 
 the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes and Lake Winnipeg, extending 
 in the west to near the mouth of the Mackenzie. This is supposed to be 
 the oldest highland in America and from it the glaciers flowed which 
 smoothed and modified the central northern states of the United States. 
 The upland is full of small glacial lakes. It is now free from ice sheets, 
 though the north is extremely cold. About the southern end of Hudson 
 Bay there is a large lowland area, forested. Trees do not grow on the 
 upland except near the St. Lawrence. 
 
 263. Four eastern provinces are in the Appalachian highland. They 
 are so near the sea that they do not get extremely cold. These are New- 
 foundland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. 
 The people about the coast are engaged largely in fishing. Many fish on 
 the Grand Banks, shallows out in the Atlantic. 
 
 264. Nova Scotia has a good coal supply. There is also good farm- 
 ing about the Bay of Fundy. Halifax is a station for vessels about to 
 cross the Atlantic by the northern route. 
 
 265. Spruce for paper making, fruit and dairy products are the 
 other important productions of these provinces. The Canadian govern- 
 ment railways have helped to develop them, as well as to develop much of 
 the rest of Canada. 
 
 266. The provinces of Quebec and Ontario have good agricultural 
 tracts, the former south of the St. Lawrence, and the latter in the V east 
 of Lake Huron. They are devoted to market gardening and dairying. 
 
58 
 
 267. Ocean vessels reach Quebec and Montreal, the latter about 
 1000 miles from the sea. Montreal is a great shipping point. The St. 
 Lawrence freezes in winter, and goods are forwarded in sealed cars to 
 Boston. (Sealed as not imported into U. S.) Montreal has lumber in- 
 dustries and grain mills. 
 
 268. Toronto shares with Buffalo the power derived from Niagara 
 Falls. In the upland north of Lake Huron are the world's largest nickel 
 mines. 
 
 269. Ottawa is the Canadian capital. Though Canada "belongs to" 
 England, it is nearly as self-governing as United States. 
 
 270. Manitoba has about Lake Winnipeg a flat area like that of the 
 Red River of the North in which there are great wheat fields. Great 
 
 mantities of wheat and oats are raised in the Great Plains area west 
 ot that region. Rain is scant but comes in spring and is supplemented 
 with the spring thaw so it is only a much narrower belt than in United 
 States which is good for grazing only. But the grain area is limited to- 
 ward the north by the cold, though farmers are learning to utilize country 
 with less and less summer. 
 
 271. Why are summer days here vastly longer than ours? 
 
 2"/2. In the north the Mackenzie valley and the more eastern of 
 the two Pacific mountain ranges are not known to be of much value. 
 In the plateau between the mountains and in the coast range are gold and 
 forests — great forests in the seaward slope where there is heavy rain. 
 There are salmon in the rivers. 
 
 273. British Columbia is the western province and Victoria is the 
 terminus of the railroads. Coal on Vancouver island supplies western 
 Canada. Exports are salmon, lumber, grain and coal. 
 
 274. Central and northern Canada is great trapping country. Win- 
 nipeg was formerly the great fur station and now it is Edmonton in 
 Alberta. Winnipeg has a railroad into United States and all transcon- 
 tinental lines in Canada center there. 
 
 275. Alaska has a coast line in front of a good deal of Canada. 
 The gold region of the upper Yukon in Canada is reached by railroad 
 from the Alaskan coast. When this gold land was opened up it was sup- 
 posed to belong to United States. There is coal in the region also. This 
 coast region is an extension of the west coast range of United States. 
 It runs along the south of Alaska and terminates in the Aleutian islands. 
 There is a great glacier north of Juneau, the Alaskan capital. South of 
 that there are great fiords. 
 
 276. Our government is constructing railroads from the southern 
 coast of the main tract, through the mountains, to the plateau, through 
 which the Yukon flows. Some great coal fields are to be reached in the 
 mountains. 
 
 277. Supplies for interior Alaska are carried in summer by boats 
 which ply the Yukon, in winter dog sleds are used. In the Behring Strait 
 
59 
 
 district and north reindeer are used. Gold and tin are found near 
 Behring Strait. 
 
 278. The parts of Alaska near the coast which are inhabited most 
 do not have very severe winters because of sea breezes. In summer they 
 are quite warm and gardens flourish. 
 
 Central America, Mexico and the West Indies 
 
 279. Mexico has a large section of gulf coastal plain in the north- 
 east. As the country is hot and rainfall heavy we find here dense tropical 
 vegetation, and where cultivated rice, bananas, rubber. Ebony and 
 mahogany are found in the forests. 
 
 280. As the land rises from the coastal plain to the eastern moun- 
 tains it becomes cooler. Great coffee plantations occur and there are 
 temperate zone products. 
 
 281. Westward of the eastern range of mountains is a great cen- 
 tral plateau, mostly very dry. Part has sinks like Nevada. Against the 
 western range the winds give up moisture again. This permits agricul- 
 ture by irrigation in the western part of the plateau. 
 
 282. In the south of the wider part of Mexico the plateau is ended 
 by a range containing volcanoes. Down against this range is situated 
 Mexico City. 
 
 283. West of the western mountains is another still dryer region — 
 The Sonora desert. The peninsula of California is a southward exten- 
 sion of the coast range. It is too dry for good agriculture. 
 
 284. Most of the Mexican plateau can support herds and many 
 horses, cattle, sheep and goats are raised. The minerals are in the ranges. 
 Copper, silver and gold are largely developed. Near the eastern coast 
 oil is found. 
 
 285. Mexico is fairly well supplied with railroads. Yet it is largely 
 undeveloped. There is little manufacturing. Oil and water power could 
 probably supply the lack of coal. There are few progressive people in 
 the country. Many are uneducated laborers of Indian or mixed blood 
 who are called peons. 
 
 286. Cuba and the other West Indies resemble Mexico in a general 
 way but have no large inland plateau region. They have enjoyed peace 
 the last few years while Mexico has had civil war, so they are making 
 more progress. They have an advantage over Mexico in ocean trans- 
 portation as Mexico has few harbors and those not good. 
 
 287. Sugar and tobacco are the big crops of the West Indies but 
 there are exported; also many bananas, pineapples and live-stock, and 
 much coffee, sisal hemp, tropical fruits and early vegetables. 
 
 288. Note the governments of the various islands. United States 
 acquired in 191 7 St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix, together called the 
 Virgin Islands. They are small but productive. 
 
6o 
 
 289. Central America is a great producer of tropical fruits. A 
 steamer line from New York does most of the trading and owns some of 
 the railroads. The hills grow coffee and tobacco. The people are mostly 
 content with the barest living. The heat limits the hard work. 
 
 290. Read something of the difficulties overcome in building the 
 Panama Canal. Only a strip of ten miles on each side of the Canal is 
 owned by the United States. Note that the Atlantic end is farther west. 
 
 291. As the land rises from the coastal plain to the eastern moun- 
 tains it becomes cooler. Great coffee plantations occur and there are 
 temperate zone products. 
 
 Philippine and Hawaiian Islands and the East Indies 
 
 292. Most of these islands instead of being low and flat as we might 
 imagine are mountainous. Only Borneo and Sumatra have any consider- 
 able lowland areas. 
 
 293. Java is the most densely inhabited. It belongs to the Dutch. 
 It is very productive with products of all climates at different altitudes. 
 It is known to us for its coffee and spices. 
 
 294. Borneo still has wild tribes but is being developed by the Eng- 
 lish who own a portion. The southern part, with the rest of the East 
 Indies except the eastern half of New Guinea, belongs to Holland. 
 Australia administers eastern New Guinea. New Guinea also has wild 
 tribes. 
 
 295. These islands produce such tropical products as rice, sugar 
 cane, vanilla bean, rubber, cinchona and spices. 
 
 296. The Philippines produce similar products, valuable woods and 
 hemp. Manila is the chief port. The islands are progressing with the 
 aid of the United States in government, education and productivity. The 
 natives live mostly on rice, fish and fruits. 
 
 297. Hawaii is on the trade routes betweeen Asia and Europe. The 
 islands are tropical or semi-tropical. Pineapples, lemons and oranges 
 are largely produced. The extensive forests of the northeast sides of 
 the islands will sometime be utilized. Honolulu is the chief port. 
 
 298. Adding the small islands Guam (near the Philippines) and 
 Tutuila of the Samoan islands to the list, enumerate all possessions of the 
 United States. 
 
HISTORY 
 
 1. Why European people were seeking new sea routes. 
 
 2. Their wrong ideas about the seas to the west ; ( I ) those held by 
 most people, (2) those held by persons like Columbus who had unusual 
 insight into geography. 
 
 3. Columbus' first voyage: (1) how financed, (2) extent of fleet, 
 (3) route, (4) difficulties of journeying, (5) land discovered, (6) his own 
 impressions. 
 
 4. Lands reached in his later voyages. 
 
 5. General objects of explorers. What objects of later settlers did 
 they lack? 
 
 6. Spanish occupation of Mexico. 
 
 7. Spanish conquest of Peru. 
 
 8. Greater success in the original object of Columbus and other 
 early explorers of our coasts by what other route? 
 
 9. Give two cases of failures of interior explorers to attain their 
 objects. 
 
 iio. Lands reached by earliest English explorers. 
 
 11. Lands explored by French (a) in 1534, etc., (b) in 1608 to 
 1634, (c) in 1672 to 1682. 
 
 12. Virginia settlement; Plymouth settlement. 
 
 13. England's methods of assigning and providing for the govern- 
 ment of colonies. 
 
 14. Difficulties of early colonists. 
 
 15. Difference between prevailing modes of life in southern and in 
 New England colonies. 
 
 16. Settlement of Dutch in New York; mode of transfer to Eng- 
 land. 
 
 17. General causes of early discontent in English colonies. 
 
 18. How the French and English came into conflict in America. 
 
 19. Account of decisive conflict at Quebec. 
 
 20. Compare French claims in America before and after peace 
 
 in 1763. 
 
 21. Navigation acts ; purpose of Great Britain; effect on colonies. 
 
 22. Taxation acts: on what articles (the three acts); the reasons 
 for American resistance ; action by parliament in consequence of resist- 
 ance. 
 
 23. Actions against Massachusetts for especial resistance; reason 
 for troops in Boston. (Parliament had not passed acts for the purpose 
 of punishing the colonies until these in 1774O 
 
 24. Purpose and acts of First Continental Congress. 
 
 61 
 
62 
 
 25. Response of Great Britain. Military events immediately fol- 
 lowing — Lexington, Tieonderoga. 
 
 26. Second Continental Congress. (Note that this body continued 
 by common consent to the end of the war.) Its policies at first — Bunker 
 Hill — Washington in command. Expedition of Arnold and Montgomery 
 into Canada. What further preparations for war were made by Great 
 Britain ? 
 
 27. Declaration of Independence. By whom drawn up? By whom 
 adopted ? Nature of its contents. How did it change the avowed atti- 
 tude of the colonists? Of the Tories? 
 
 28. British evacuation of Boston (1776) and occupation of New 
 York City (1776) and Philadelphia (1777). Three-fold British plan of 
 1777; spoiled by Burgoyne's defeat (give account), St. Leger's defeat, 
 and Howe's failure to receive orders. 
 
 29. Result of Burgoyne's surrender on French negotiations. What 
 did the French do for America? 
 
 30. What able generals from other nations rendered aid, and how ? 
 
 31. Tell the story of Arnold, from the beginning to the end of the 
 Revolutionary war. 
 
 2,2. What was accomplished by George Rogers Clark? This greatly 
 affected the peace negotiations as it caused America to insist that the 
 land between the Alieghanies and the Mississippi should be not English, 
 French or Indian. 
 
 22- How did the final British military surrender come about? 
 
 34. Who negotiated the peace for America ? What were the terms ? 
 
 35. Difficulties after the war: to make an efficient government; to 
 dispose of the war debt. 
 
 36. Articles of Confederation — framed 1777, but not ratified by 
 all colonies until 1781, after which date delegates chosen under these 
 Articles composed the Congress. Delay of Maryland, the last state, was 
 until the larger states would agree to give up their lands west of the 
 mountains to the country as a whole. 
 
 37. Chief weaknesses of Articles of Confederation. 
 
 38. Necessity of changing them arose finally from conflicts in trade 
 of the various colonies. Convention at Philadelphia in 1787 developed 
 present constitution. 
 
 39. That same year the old congress organized as the Northwest 
 Territory the present territory of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and 
 Wisconsin. The plan of government and agreements of congress with 
 this new Territory show statesmanship. See what some of these pro- 
 visions were. 
 
 40. Constitution had to be ratified by nine states to go into effect 
 (between states ratifying). By Dec, 1788, nine had ratified. Elections 
 for members of congress, senators and presidential electors were held. 
 
63 
 
 41. Our constitution provides for a government in three branches 
 — executive, legislative, judicial. There was dispute in the convention 
 whether legislative should have one branch or two; and whether states 
 should have equal representation in it or according to population. What 
 plan was determined in the compromise made? 
 
 42. In whom is the executive power vested? The judicial? 
 
 43. Exactly how is president elected? (That is, now, there being 
 a little change from the original plan.) 
 
 44. What cabinet officers are there ? How chosen ? What powers 
 have these officials? (What does the Constitution say about these mat- 
 ters?) 
 
 45. What powers over commerce, and over duties on imports and 
 exports has Congress? 
 
 46. There was much opposition to the ratification of the Constitu- 
 tion. The great patriots Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry thought the 
 central government would destroy the states. The central government 
 was not made strong enough to suit Alexander Hamilton, yet he worked 
 hard for the adoption. He with Madison and Jay wrote a wonderful 
 explanation and defense of the Constitution in a periodical called "The 
 Federalist". 
 
 47. What check has the Supreme Court on Congress? If there is a 
 suit under a law passed by Congress which reaches the supreme court, 
 that body has the power in passing upon that suit to declare an act of 
 congress void if the supreme court finds that congress has violated the 
 Constitution in passing that act. The supreme court thus becomes the 
 interpreter of the Constitution as well as of the laws, and of rights not 
 definitely covered by law. 
 
 48. How do national government and state government keep out of 
 each other's way? They do not always, and the United States courts 
 must decide which has jurisdiction. But the Constitution specifies certain 
 things which congress may do, and certain things the states may not do. 
 
 49. Why does a United States judge hold office for life? 
 
 50. How does a bill become a law? Ordinarily it must be intro- 
 duced by a member in one branch of the congress (say it is house of 
 representatives), referred to a committee, recommended by that com- 
 mittee, passed by the house, transmitted to the senate, referred there to a 
 committee, recommended and passed and then signed by the President. 
 Many bills are amended, either in committee or when up for vote. After 
 a bill passed by the house is amended by the senate, it must be reported 
 back to the house to see whether the house will concur in the amend- 
 ments. If it does not concur, the bill is referred to a conference com- 
 mittee which tries to decide how to compromise the question. The recom- 
 mendations of that committee are usually concurred in by both branches. 
 
 51. It appears from the above that much of the important work of 
 8 legislature is committee work. 
 
6 4 
 
 52. Explain the veto and how a bill may become a law in spite of it, 
 
 53. Strong defenders of a strong government who wanted to give 
 congress and the President all the authority that the constitution implies, 
 such as Hamilton, came to be known as Federalists. Those who wanted 
 less central government were called Republicans. Washington avoided 
 belonging to a party at first but during his last term worked with 
 Federalists. 
 
 54. The first congress did not get together until some time after 
 March 4, the appointed day. It was hard to reach New York (or any 
 place) over the few and poor roads. Finally the votes of the presidential 
 electors were counted and on April 30 (1789) Washington was in- 
 augurated. 
 
 55. Enumerate some of the duties this first President had to per- 
 form. 
 
 56. What were some big problems the new government had to face? 
 
 57. Note especially that under the leadership of Hamilton (Sec'y 
 of the Treasury) the new government agreed not only to pay all foreign 
 loans of the war government, but also all domestic debts, including the 
 redemption of the continental paper money, and even the respective 
 states' war debts. 
 
 58. Note how revenue was raised. 
 
 59. France, our ally in the Revolution, was again in war with Great 
 Britain, but after itself having had a revolution. (You should know at 
 least a little about The French Revolution.) Washington insisted that 
 United States remain neutral. 
 
 60. But Great Britain had never withdrawn her troops from our 
 Great Lakes outposts. How else did that country disregard our rights 
 at this time? John Jay was sent to England to negotiate a new treaty 
 to correct these matters, but England conceded little and Jay and the 
 United States government were blamed by many people of our country. - 
 
 61. Settlers in the valleys of the Ohio, Cumberland and Tennessee 
 had become numerous. Their products were shipped via the Missis- 
 sippi. Spaniards owned the lower part of it. Uncertainty about the 
 right to ship worried the settlers, but Washington had a treaty negotiated 
 which guaranteed right to reload to ocean steamers. This was abrogated 
 later (1802) and this led to the desire to purchase Louisiana — the name 
 then given to the entire area between Mississippi and Rockies. 
 
 62. Rebellion in Pennsylvania; causes, action of government. 
 
 63. Second president, John Adams. He had only 3 electoral votes 
 more than Jefferson. France was unfriendly because we had not an- 
 tagonized England. Adams handled the diplomacy so that the people of 
 United States who were urging French alliance saw how untrustworthy 
 was the French government at that time. (Read of the "X Y Z affair".) 
 With the country united and France still insulting, preparations were 
 made for war. But Napoleon Eonaparte then seized the government of 
 
65 
 
 France and showed himself friendly to United States (at least for a 
 time). 
 
 64. When the government of Adams and the Federalists was vin- 
 dicated congress went too far and passed the new Naturalization Act, 
 an Alien Act and a Sedition Act. ( Sec what these were. ) These seemed 
 un-American and caused the defeat of Adams and the election of Jefferson 
 who opposed them. 
 
 65. How did Jefferson's general attitudes differ from Washing- 
 ton's? Yet Jefferson made no great changes in the conduct of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 66. For our protection in the free use of the Mississippi rather than 
 to gain territory Jefferson tried to buy an opening including New Orleans 
 from Napoleon to whom Spain had ceded her land. The result was that 
 Napoleon offered it all for $15,000,000 and thus we acquired the vast 
 territory of Louisiana. (See No. 61.) 
 
 67. What difficulties did Aaron Burr cause himself and his country? 
 
 68. The English-French war was still causing us trouble at the end 
 of Jefferson's term and Madison had it to deal with. Jefferson's admin- 
 istration had reduced appropriations for army and navy, hence our mili-, 
 tary power was especially small, and those other countries knew it. 
 
 69. Read about the "Orders in Council" and about Napoleon's 
 "Decrees" (affecting our commerce). 
 
 70. The impressment of seamen (seizing them from our vessels on 
 the grounds that they were British subjects) was bringing us toward war. 
 
 71. The measures taken by Jefferson's and Madison's governments 
 in 1807-1811 were poor and unpopular: ( 1 ) all our vessels were first for- 
 bidden to leave port, (2) after its repeal, vessels were forbidden to trade 
 with England or France, (3) trade with France was declared open by 
 Madison on the statement of the French minister that unfriendly orders 
 would be withdrawn, but that statement proved untrue. (4) congress 
 passed an act that non-intercourse with cither country would be enforced 
 if the other would officially withdraw restrictive decrees. ( 5 ) Napoleon 
 withdrew his restrictive decrees so trade with Great Britain was 
 prohibited. 
 
 72. In contests about "impressment" our vessels were tired on. It 
 was found that the English were arming the Indians of the northwest. 
 Henry Clay pressed through congress a declaration of war. 
 
 73. Our unpreparedness was retrieved by the valor and skill of our 
 sailors. Oliver Perry won Lake Erie with his fleet ; our ships damaged 
 English commerce all over the world. 
 
 74. On land we did little. William Henry Harrison, who had de- 
 feated a large Indian insurrection under Tecumseh in Western Ohio in 
 181 1, took Detroit. But the British went up the Potomac and destroyed 
 much of Washington. Thev failed at Ft. McHenrv before Baltimore. 
 
66 
 
 Their failure was the occasion of the writing of the Star Spangled Ban- 
 ner by Francis Scott Key. 
 
 ~^. England was again weary of war, and willing to meet our rep- 
 resentatives to make peace. We gained no particular advantage in the 
 peace. After it was signed but before it was reported the British planned 
 an attack on New Orleans. This was repulsed through splendid general- 
 ship of Andrew Jackson. 
 
 /6. The Hartford Convention. When the committee from it reached 
 Washington with the resolutions denouncing the war, they encountered 
 rejoicing over the news of both Jackson's victory at New Orleans and 
 the signing of the peace treaty. This New England group was a remnant 
 of the Federalists, who had about died out. They were not loyal during 
 the war for (i) they refused to send their militia into Canada when 
 directed by the President, (2) they sold provisions to the enemy, (3) 
 they did not subscribe their share of the war loan. 
 
 yy. Monroe entered office with the Republican party as the only 
 party with any strength. He travelled the country and preached national 
 feeling. Before the end of the war of 1812, there had been the clash of 
 parties — -the Federalists being one desiring harmonv with England, the 
 Republican desiring harmony or alliance with France. European condi- 
 tions removed the occasions for this difference after Napoleon's defeat 
 at Waterloo in 1815. 
 
 78. The South expected to develop manufactures as well as the 
 North, so did not oppose high tariff in 1812 and 1816. Abundant Western 
 lands at $1.25 per acre relieved any lack of employment and promoted 
 immigration. 
 
 79. The charter of the First National Bank ran from 1791 to 181 1. 
 It was not then renewed, the reliance being placed on state banks. These 
 state banks failed during the war of 1812. so after the close of the war 
 the Republican party were ready to vote to charter another United States 
 bank, which they had opposed before. 
 
 80. Monroe re-elected with vote of all states. 
 
 81. Learn essential prints of the Monroe Doctrine. This was really 
 written by J. Q. Adams. It was written rather suddenly after an ar- 
 rangement had almost been completed with England to protest against the 
 threat of an alliance formed by Russia, Prussia, Austria and France to 
 lestore Spain's possessions to her. Thus we kept out of entanglement 
 with England. 
 
 82. In 1819 Spain had given up her claim to western Florida and 
 had sold us eastern Florida, not because she was willing, but because we 
 insisted while Spain was distressed with revolts against her in South 
 America. 
 
 83. The large South American countries nevertheless gained free- 
 dom from Spain.. (See No, 81.) 
 
6 7 
 
 84. Before we had a title to Florida (unless, perhaps, the western 
 end) Andrew Jackson pursued the Indans, who were injuring the settlers 
 in Georgia, into Florida and destroyed the Spanish stronghold which aided 
 them. This act, in 1818, was an act of war, hut our government c'aimed 
 self-defense, blaming Spain for not controlling her own Indians. 
 
 85. Removal of Indian dangers and steamboat service increased 
 use of lands from Alleg 1 enies to Mississippi, north and south, even during 
 War of 1812, and greatly at its close. What five states were admitted in 
 1812 to 1820? 
 
 86. The western settlers desired aid of roads and canals, which 
 Madison at first favored. But he and Monroe decided the Consti- 
 tution did not allow national appropriations for that purpose. So nothing 
 was done nationally. 
 
 87. When Monroe's second term was expiring the Republican party 
 found itself in factions for and against federal aid for internal improve- 
 ments and also representing different sections. Adams, of New England, 
 and Henry Clay, of Kentucky, favored stretching the constitution to 
 permit road-building; Crawford, of Georgia, the regular nominee (nomi- 
 nated by his party friends in Congress, as all candidates had been up to 
 this time), agreed with Monroe; Andrew Jackson, hero of New Orleans 
 and of Indian fights had no definite policy, but announced that he was 
 for the people against a congressional clique and Virginia Aristocracy. 
 Electoral vote: Jackson, 99; Adams, 84; Crawford, 41 ; Clay, 37. 
 
 88. Constitution provides President must have majority of electoral 
 votes or House of Representatives shall decide among highest three, but 
 that in that ballot each state shall have but one vote. Clay got his friends 
 to vote for Adams. Adams appointed Clay Sec'y of State. Jackson's 
 friends kept up an attack against the administration all four years, until 
 at the next election Jackson was elected. 
 
 89. There were 3 divergent interests for some time; ( 1 ) New Eng- 
 land, with the standpoint of manufacturers and bankers, (2) the South, 
 with the standpoint of aristocratic and slave-holding planters, ( 3 ) the 
 West, (that is, people north of southern states and west of Allegheny 
 mountains), with emphasis on democracy, that is, political equa'ity. (In 
 the east and south only a small part of the people could vote as they had 
 to hold a certain amount of property to do so. ) 
 
 90. The policy of Adams and Clay to aid interstate improve- 
 ments was not carried out by congress owing to sectional strife. The 
 Erie canal was finished in 1825 with state but not national aid. The 
 government did not aid canals; railroads now began to be built, and in 
 the same policy they received no aid. If it had not been for this sec- 
 tional feeling probably the government would have built many railroads 
 and our railroads would today have been largely government-owned. 
 
68 
 
 91. The most immediate friction in the administrations of Adams 
 and Clay was on the tariff question. Tariff for revenue means the charg- 
 ing of import duties purely as a convenient way of getting money for 
 national expense. Tariff for protection means the charging of import 
 duties on certain articles so that these articles produced in other countries 
 must be sold here at prices as high as those at which like articles pro- 
 duced in America can be sold here at a profit. The South was against a 
 tariff of the latter kind, as the South produced nothing much that could 
 be helped in that way, while the "protection" of the products of the 
 North kept them from buying more cheaply. Read the general facts about 
 the tariffs of 1824 and 1828, about the "nullification" by South Carolina 
 in 1832, Jackson's action in respect to it, and the compromise tariff put 
 through by Clay in 1833. 
 
 92. The occasion of Webster's "Reply to Hayne" (1830) was a 
 debate on the question whether the sale of public lands in the West 
 should be stopped for a time. The speeches of Webster and Hayne had 
 little to do with that question. But this speech by Webster is the best 
 explanation of why a state cannot overrule a law of congress. Find out 
 some of the points he made in the speech. 
 
 93. Jackson was opposed to again chartering the National Bank 
 (already chartered for 1816 to 1836), partly because of the political 
 activity of the employees of the bank and its 25 branches. Many un- 
 substantial state banks were growing up to finance land deals and farms, 
 and a good deal was being invested in uncertain railroad enterprises. 
 Payments were being made largely in the notes of these banks. What 
 action about the public money and the payment for public lands did 
 Jackson take which brought a crisis( mostly in Van Buren's adminis- 
 tration) ? 
 
 94. During the 12 years of Jackson and Van Buren the northern 
 states which had had property qualifications for voting changed their 
 constitutions and laws. The opposition to the Democratic-Republican 
 party (the party of Jackson and Van Buren, and a branch of the single 
 party which distinctly existed in terms of J. Q. Adams and Monroe) 
 took form as the Whig party. Clay expected the nomination but it went 
 to William Henry Harrison, like Jackson, an Indian war hero and man 
 of the people. 
 
 95. Jackson as President emphasized partisan politics and put his 
 personal opinions and likes above wise counsel. He put into office his 
 adherents, which had not been customary on a large scale until his day. 
 He disregarded his excellent cabinet for the advice of a group of poli- 
 ticians who are spoken of as the "kitchen cabinet." He is much praised 
 (a) for promoting democracy, (b) for not permitting a state to defy 
 a national law. 
 
 96. Read or review the following points: (1) Introduction of 
 slaver\' into the colonies (Virginia) ; (2) interference of navigation laws 
 
69 
 
 with trade in West Indies; (3) peace between Great Britain, France 
 and Spain at Utrecht in 1713; (4) prohibition of slavery in northwest 
 territory by Ordinance of 1787; (5) the two provisions of the Constitu- 
 tion which have to do with slavery; (6) prohibition of slave trade by 
 laws in 1807, the earliest date permitted by the Constitution; (7) inven- 
 tion of cotton gin (date?) which increased use of slaves in the South. 
 Note the following facts : English traders started and pushed the slave 
 trade. New Englanders made rum from West Indian sugar, sent it to 
 Africa to be bartered for kidnapped natives, these were taken to the 
 West Indies or South and exchanged for more sugar to make more rum. 
 The treatment of the blacks on the sea was terrible — as bad as cannibal- 
 ism. Sick ones were thrown overboard. Some suffocated in the holds of 
 the ships. By the treaty of 1713 Great Britain secured a monopoly of 
 this trade. Washington and other early statesmen, northern and south- 
 ern, abhorred this business, but expected each state to see that slaves 
 would not be mistreated and to a find a way to bring slavery to an end. 
 Southern as well as northern people took an interest in the earliest 
 abolition societies, and in the colonization of free negroes in Liberia, 
 (1820). 
 
 97. Slavery became a distinctly sectional question over the problem 
 of its extension into the territory west of the Mississippi. Study occasion 
 and terms of the Missouri Compromise. This compromise was in favor 
 of the North. It is surprising that the South accepted it. It is the first bill 
 passed by congress prohibiting slavery anywhere. (But see Ordinance of 
 1787.) By 1820 all states north of Maryland had freed all slaves. 
 
 98. Up almost to the Civil War the great part of the northern peo- 
 ple were opposed to the extension of slavery, but had no intention of 
 trying to end it in the states which had it. There were a few abolitionists 
 who insisted that slavery end at once. After 1820 a southerner was 
 deemed disloyal to his section if he favored "abolition". The abolitionists 
 more and more troubled congress with resolutions, which after 1836 were 
 treated with contempt by congress. General northern sentiment was 
 against abolition and the leaders were several times attacked by mobs. 
 
 99. There were only about 380,000 slave holders in the South in 
 i860. There were about 5,000,000 non-slave-holding "poor" whites and 
 about 3,500,000 slaves. The slave-holders were the spokesmen for all 
 in the disagreements which followed and the southern white men readily 
 entered the army. 
 
 100. Texas and the Mexican War: In 1821 Mexico declared her 
 independence of Spain. Americans in Texas, which was a province of 
 Mexico, aided in that revolution. More Americans entered Texas. The 
 Mexicans became jealous and oppressive. Texas revolted from Mexico 
 in 1836 and made good her defense. After setting up her own govern- 
 ment Texas asked United States to annex her. Mexico claimed Texas 
 still belonged to her. Great Britain tried in every way to keep Texas 
 
7o 
 
 from joining United States. Besides these reasons many people in the 
 North did not want Texas because it would be one more slave state. 
 
 101. The question of annexation of Texas arose first in Jackson's 
 term (1836). Van Buren (1837-1841) was against annexation and so 
 was Harrison (1841). But Harrison died after a few weeks in office, 
 and the Vice-President, Tyler, became President. He promoted annexa- 
 tion but congress rejected the treaty. But annexation was so popular 
 that its friends elected Polk (1844) as President instead of Clay, largely 
 on this question. 
 
 102. The northern boundary between United States and Great 
 Britain was also in dispute and Polk was for our claim of the line at 54 
 degrees, 40 minutes. Great Britain claimed to 42 degrees, and refused to 
 compromise at 49 degrees. In 1842 Webster had negotiated a treaty 
 with Great Britain which settled the north-eastern boundary (with 
 Canada) at about what we claimed. The north-west boundary was finally 
 settled in 1846 at 49 degrees. 
 
 103. Texas had a boundary dispute with Mexico which we took up. 
 Mexico was threatening in her attitude and refused for a year to receive 
 our envoy. Finally our troops were ordered into the disputed territory. 
 Mexico attacked them. By the nearly unanimous vote of congress war 
 was declared. 
 
 104. In 1846 and 1847 Taylor starting from the border and Scott 
 from Vera Cruz invaded Mexico. The latter captured the capital and 
 then Mexico desired peace. Mexico ceded to United States California 
 and most of the rest of our south-west. 
 
 105. The Wilmot Proviso was introduced (but not passed) in 
 connection with this treaty. What was it? 
 
 106. Even in 1848 the slavery question did not enter into the na- 
 tional election largely, although a Free-soil party, opposed to extension of 
 slavery, made a first appearance. The Whigs nominated General Taylor 
 who was a large slave-holder. The Democrats nominated Lewis Cass 
 who believed each territory when entering the Union should decide about 
 slavery for itself . 
 
 107. Discovery of gold in California in 1848 increased interest in 
 our western lands. California grew so fast that it was ready for ad- 
 mission in 1850. This made the question of the organization of the 
 territory more pressing. Feeling over the extension of slavery was in- 
 tense. Congress was about evenly divided. Henry Clay proposed what 
 has become known as the Compromise of 1850. Learn its five pro- 
 visions. Clay, Calhoun and Webster were still in the Senate. Calhoun 
 was carried in and had to have another read his speech. (He died the 
 same month.) Webster disappointed many friends by speaking for the 
 Compromise. Seward and Chase made the great speeches against it. 
 Action was postponed, as it was known that Taylor would veto the bill 
 
7i 
 
 if passed. But Taylor died and the bill was pushed through and signed 
 by Fillmore. It was much in favor of the South. 
 
 108. Read of Fugitive Slave Law and Underground Railroad. 
 (At first and probably up to 1854 the new fugitive slave law was gen- 
 erally obeyed and the Underground Railroad stopped.) 
 
 109. In 1852 the slavery question was so quiet that another presi- 
 dent. Pierce, was elected without a slavery contest. North and South 
 were prospering. 
 
 no. Before the next crisis over slavery there was much ado about 
 Cuba. A number of Americans joined an expedition to help free it 
 from Spain. Some of them were shot by Spaniards. The government 
 of the United States expressed disapproval of the expedition. The South 
 wanted Cuba joined to the United States. President Pierce instructed 
 our envoys to England, France and Spain to try to bring this about. 
 They met at Ostend, Belgium, and issued a statement that Spain should 
 sell Cuba to the United States, and that if Spain refused, it would be 
 proper for United States to take Cuba. Our government disavowed this 
 "Ostend Manifesto." 
 
 in. Stephen A. Douglas precipitated the next trouble, which led 
 directly to the Civil War. He did it without cause and on his own 
 responsibility. As member of a committee in the Senate he introduced 
 in 1854 a bill providing that Nebraska territory should be organized on 
 the principle of "squatter sovereignty", letting the people decide whether 
 they should be slave or free. President Pierce and Jefferson Davis, 
 Secretary of War, who favored the slave states, got him to improve his 
 bill, dividing the territory into Kansas and Nebraska, and repealing the 
 Missouri Compromise expressly. (Of course the bill as at first drawn 
 would have repealed it so far as these territories went. It had been 
 violated in principle by the Compromise of 1850.) After a hard fight the 
 bill was passed. 
 
 112. The result of this bill was to crystallize anti-slavery sentiment 
 in the North. The Free-soil party was merged into the new Republican 
 party. Uncle Tom's Cabin was published. The bill led directly to a 
 rush for Kansas to help the pro-slavery party. They illegally organized 
 the territory. There was bloodshed. President Pierce decided for the 
 pro-slavery organization. Senator Charles Sumner made a speech 
 against this and the Southern attitude. He especially censured Senator 
 Butler of South Carolina. The next day, Preston Brooks, his nephew 
 and a member of congress, slipped up behind Sumner when alone at his 
 desk and nearly beat him to death with his cane. The South regarded 
 this cowardly assassin as a hero. So violent had sectional feeling become. 
 
 113. The Republicans nominated Fremont for President. The Dem- 
 ocrats nominated a northern man, Buchanan. Pierce now restored order 
 and justice in Kansas. The country was relieved and preferred Bu- 
 
72 
 
 chanan who had no particular theory on slavery to Fremont who was 
 against it. Thus they hoped to preserve the Union. 
 
 114. Tranquility was again disturbed by the Dred Scott decision in 
 1857. This was a case pushed to the Supreme Court by Abolitionists. 
 The decision was that if a slave owner takes a slave into a free state that 
 does not make the slave free. The Supreme Court went aside from the 
 case in hand to say that a slave has no rights of a human being, being 
 property, as a horse is. This roused the North. 
 
 115. Anti-slavery and pro-slavery men both organized Kansas as 
 a state. Buchanan sent the pro-slavery constitution to the Senate and 
 recommended the admission of Kansas with that constitution. Douglas 
 was aroused to the misapplication of the principle he had stood for. 
 Kansas was not admitted. Douglas ran for re-election as senator just 
 after that with Lincoln as his opponent. He won by a few votes but 
 Lincoln made him register against the Southern doctrines to do so. This 
 caused the split of the Democratic party. 
 
 116. In 1859 John Brown's raid occurred. Read of it. 
 
 117. In i860 Douglas controlled the Democratic party convention to 
 nominate presidential candidate. He would not allow a declaration that 
 it is the duty of the government to protect slavery wherever it may exist. 
 A few Southern radicals stirred up sentiment on this to withdraw and 
 hold another convention that would pass the resolution. They nominated 
 Breckenridge. A group of men from the border states put an additional 
 ticket in the field, hoping to reconcile all parties on a platform of old- 
 time harmony and union. Meanwhile the Republican party nominated 
 Lincoln. 
 
 118. The South was so wrought up that before the election many 
 affirmed that they would withdraw from the LInion if Lincoln were 
 elected. They had no good reason for such attitude, as Lincoln declared 
 only against extension of slavery. It was anybody's victory until the 
 votes were counted. 
 
 119. The South prepared to carry out the threat to secede. The 
 friends of the South in Buchanan's cabinet proceeded to put into their 
 hands a large part of the property of United States to use against the 
 country, while the President seemed helpless to do anything. Maryland, 
 Delaware and Missouri, as well as the solid South, were unfriendly to 
 the Union. Before Lincoln's inauguration the Southern Confederacy 
 was well under way. But there was no violence. 
 
 120. Lincoln in his inaugural address said everything possible that 
 was kindly and conciliatory toward the South. But the trouble at Ft. 
 Sumter was on. Read about this and the results. 
 
 121. Lincoln's great plan, while organizing an army, was to hold 
 the border states to loyalty. He was largely successful. 
 
 122. In what respects were the North's resources superior? 
 
73 
 
 123. The South had the following advantages: (1) being on the 1 
 defensive; (2) securing much of the Union's war material (see No. 
 ri 9) >' (3) many officers trained in Mexican war; (4) holding the Mis- 
 sissippi; (5) sympathy of England (latter did not prove as helpful as 
 South expected) ; (6) internal political unity. 
 
 124. Formation of West Virginia. How? Why? 
 
 125. Main facts about the following battles : First Bull Run, Mal- 
 vern Hill, Second Bull Run, Antietam, Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville, 
 and Gettysburg. 
 
 126. Note in above that Lincoln believed McC'.ellan prolonged the 
 war by not moving rapidly up the Peninsula, previous to Malvern Hill, 
 and by not pressing the enemy after Antietam. 
 
 127. Main facts about following battles: Capture of Forts Henry 
 and Donaldson, Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), capture of New Orleans, 
 siege of Vicksburg, Murfreesboro, Chickamauga, Chattanooga (Lookout 
 Mt., Missionary Ridge). 
 
 128. Grant's campaign against Richmond. 
 
 129. Movements of Sherman and Thomas at same time and results. 
 
 130. How did Lincoln show wisdom in the Trent affair? 
 
 131. Why was the invention of the Monitor important for the 
 preservation of the government? 
 
 132. What were the statements in the proclamation made by Lin- 
 coln after the Battle of Antietam? 
 
 133. What does the 13th Amendment provide? 
 
 134. Give a brief account of Lincoln's assassination. 
 
 135. Andrew Johnson, without authority of congress began to 
 "reconstruct" the Southern states on a plan proposed by Lincoln but 
 which Lincoln had not expected to use after the war without action of 
 congress. During the war Lincoln reorganized any loyal government 
 started by ten per cent of the people of a state. Johnson had been head 
 of such a government in Tennessee. 
 
 136. Under Johnson's plan eight southern states started govern- 
 ments, ratified the 13th Amendment and sent senators and representatives 
 to congress. Many of these were prominent secessionists. Congress 
 would not admit them to their seats and reprimanded the President. 
 
 137. Congress then submitted the 14th Amendment. Read it. The 
 southern states were expected to ratify it. They refused because of its 
 third section. What was it? Congress then declared that the Southern 
 states had not secured re-entrance into the Union. 
 
 138. Johnson then abused congress in a number of speeches Senti- 
 ment was against him and the congress elected in 1866 was composed of 
 radical Republicans. 
 
 139. This new congress divided the South into military districts 
 with governors over them. Under this military occupation the Southern 
 
74 
 
 states were reconstructed, largely by negro votes, as the Republican con- 
 gress desired, ratified both 14th and 15th Amendments. (See the 15th.) 
 The last of them was readmitted in 1870. 
 
 140. Under these military governments and the new state govern- 
 ments, which were under military domination, the ignorant negroes ran 
 many of the Southern states in a disgraceful and ruinous manner. This 
 led to the frightening of the negroes from voting by a band of Southern 
 night-riders called the Ku-Klux Klan. They ran out of the country 
 many Northern men who had taken political jobs in the South or sought 
 gain or office through the help of negroes, and who encouraged the 
 negroes to keep the governments and prompted the mismanagement. 
 These men were known as "Carpetbaggers." (Sense of term?) 
 
 141. Congress forbid President Johnson from removing his cabinet 
 members without its consent. He removed Stanton, Secretary of War, 
 for oppressing the South. This, he believed, his constitutional right. 
 The House of Representatives impeached him. The Senate lacked one 
 vote of the two-thirds necessary to convict him. 
 
 142. Grant was President from 1869 to 1877. He let the radical 
 Republicans continue the soldiers in the South. He proved unable to 
 check politics for personal advantage of politicians and of wealthy men 
 who were controlling politics in return for privileges. Some of these 
 privileges were (a) high tariffs, (b) land grants to railroads, (c) sale 
 of public lands so that individuals could get great tracts, (d) neglect to 
 replace war issues of bank currency with some guaranteed national 
 money, (e) favoritism in freight rates to certain shippers and localities. 
 
 143. The Union Pacific railroad begun under Lincoln's administra- 
 tion was finished in 1869. The output of iron increased 100 fold be- 
 tween 1865 and 1875. Speculation caused a panic in 1873. This was 
 blamed partly on (d) above and at Grant's second election a party called 
 the Greenback party was in the field. Two years later (1878) in the 
 congressional election that party polled over a million votes. This was 
 a protest against all the abuses mentioned in 142, as congress had passsed 
 a law to take effect in 1879 taking care of (d). Read "the resumption of 
 specie payments." 
 
 144. Hayes was the candidate of a reform wing of the Republican 
 party and was opposed for nomination by the bosses of that party. Read 
 of the peculiar circumstances of his election. 
 
 145. The Republican bosses did all they could to elect him against 
 Tilden and then expected him to do their bidding. He would not and 
 they hindered him in many ways. They would not let him get a second 
 term. He did much to reform and improve the government. By wise 
 action he ended a serious railroad strike. 
 
 146. "Free silver" first became an issue in Grant's administration. 
 During Grant's administration the silver in a dollar got to be worth over 
 
75 
 
 a dollar. Free coinage of silver into dollars had been provided before 
 that, but nobody wanted silver coined into dollars. So in- 1873 a new law 
 was passed that no more silver dollars should be coined. Just after that 
 great quantities of silver ore were discovered in U. S. Then the Western 
 people wanted free coinage of silver again. 
 
 147. Learn what the Bland-Allison Act (a compromise of the free 
 silver question ) was. Hayes vetoed it. It was passed over his veto. 
 
 148. The Republican bosses opposed to Hayes prevented him from 
 running for a second term but could not nominate a man of their own 
 and Garfield was nominated and elected. But Arthur, one of the bosses, 
 became Vice-President. Garfield started a more vigorous reform admin- 
 istration than that of Hayes. He was assassinated by a man he would 
 not appoint to office so that Arthur might be President. 
 
 149. But Arthur gave a good administration, not favoring his 
 former political friends. In his term civil service laws were first passed. 
 What are they? The politicians turned against Arthur and nominated 
 Blaine (1884). He was defeated by Cleveland, who became the first 
 Democratic President since Buchanan. 
 
 150. Cleveland divided offices between Northern and Southern men. 
 This displeased the Northern men who helped elect him. He had prom- 
 ised not to make appointments on party lines but did not keep the promise. 
 This House of Representatives was Democratic but the Senate was Re- 
 publican. This made it difficult for the President to do much. He recom- 
 mended a lower tariff but none was passed. The high tariff was the 
 cause of a large balance in the national treasury. 
 
 151. Many United States bonds were outstanding but not due, and 
 it would disturb banking to pay them before they were due. Cleveland's 
 administration ended with $100,000,000 in the treasury. 
 
 152. The years of Cleveland's first presidency ( 1885-1889) were 
 those in which (a) a nation wide labor organization — Knights of Labor, 
 succeeded by American Federation of Labor — grew to great power, (b) 
 great combinations of capital, generally spoken of as trusts, began to 
 control industries, (c) discrimination by railroads was dealt with by 
 laws (first, state laws, which were set aside by decisions of the supreme 
 court; next, by the establishing of the Interstate Commerce Commission, 
 the requirement that rates be published, and the railroads should not join 
 together to divide business between them (pool the business). 
 
 153. Many strikes occurred in this term. Look up the Haymarket 
 Square horror. 
 
 154. The high tariff advocates won in the election of Harrison over 
 Cleveland. Blaine refused to run. Harrison appointed him secretary of 
 state. He was more active and forceful than the President. He made 
 the Germans back down when they tried to seize the Samoan Islands 
 (look up in geography). He got the question of the right to Behring sea 
 
76 
 
 fisheries submitted to arbitration — although the board of arbitration later 
 decided against the United States, that is, decided that it is an open sea 
 and not exclusively ours. Our navy was built up. 
 
 155. The tariff of 1890 (McKinley tariff) increased rates and raised 
 prices. Congress proceeded to spend the surplus (see Nos. 150 and 151). 
 Much went for increased pensions. The Sherman silver act (1890) sup- 
 planted the Bland- Allison act (see No. 147). The Sherman act was 
 passed to satisfy the Western Republicans. 
 
 156. The small states of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, 
 Washington, Idaho and Wyoming were admitted to increase Republican 
 votes. But the West was restless. Many entered a new "People's Party" 
 which tried to unite Western, farming and laboring interests. Business 
 depression and high prices were added as causes of dissatisfaction and the 
 Democrats were called back to power, President, Senate and House of 
 Representatives. 
 
 157. Cleveland again could not get Congress to reduce the tariff. 
 (A new bill, the Wilson-Gorman bill, made changes but few real reduc- 
 tions.) The Harrison administration reduced the gold reserve, for re- 
 deeming United States notes and bonds. Cleveland made desperate ef- 
 forts to maintain the government's credit. He had to call the large 
 bankers of the East to his aid. This made him unpopular. 
 
 158. Other causes of Cleveland's unpopularity were (a) his use of 
 federal troops to protect United States mails when there was a great 
 railroad strike, centering in Chicago, (b) his disapproval of the action of 
 the United States minister in taking charge of the Hawaiian Islands, (c ) 
 continual business depression and prices high relative to wages, (d) re- 
 peal of the Sherman silver act (1893). 
 
 159. What was Coxey's Army ? 
 
 160. One popular act of Cleveland, in which he was unanimously 
 sustained by House and Senate, was his forcing England to withdraw 
 from a portion of Venezuela and to submit her claim to it to arbitration. 
 (Principle of Monroe Doctrine.) 
 
 161. Resumption of free silver coinage (see No. 146) was the 
 measure most emphasized by the Democratic party in the campaign for 
 President in 1896. Their candidate was William Jennings Bryan. He 
 was supported by Western people interested in the prosperity of the 
 silver industry, by others who thought free silver would make money 
 more abundant, and by the South which had been since Civil War and 
 is still solidly Democratic. Depression in business under Cleveland and 
 fear that it would continue to grow worse if there were free coinage of 
 silver, elected the Republican nominee who promised plenty of work and 
 a "full dinner pail." . - 
 
 162. The promises of the President-elect were fulfilled after he had 
 been in office a year or two. The new "Dingley" tariff (1897) was not 
 
17 
 
 much of a change but confidence in the safety of business had been re- 
 stored. 
 
 163. Gold was discovered in Alaska in 1896 and there was a greal 
 rush to the Klondyke region. The increase in production there and in 
 South Africa largely put free silver to rest, as there was plenty of gold 
 to coin. 
 
 164. Look up causes of Spanish-American* War. Also look up 
 battles of Manila Bay, San Juan Hill (or E! Caney), and Santiago 
 Harbor. 
 
 165. The city of Manila was not taken by our land forces, who had 
 to be transported across the Pacific, until August, the Bay having been 
 taken May I, 1898. 
 
 166. Look up terms of peace with Spain in [898. 
 
 167. We had on our hands problems of Porto Rico, Cuba and the 
 Philippines. The first gave no trouble but was organized with a govern- 
 ment unlike that of a state or territory and not provided for by our Con- 
 stitution (native lower house elected by inhabitants ; as upper house a 
 council with veto power over acts of lower house and with executive 
 powers; the President appoints the council). 
 
 r68. A military governor had charge of Cuba until a constitution 
 was formed, President and congress elected and government as an in- 
 dependent country started (1902). It was provided in the Cuban con- 
 stitution that if at any time order is not maintained United States may 
 take temporary charge. This happened and we had charge again in 
 1906-1909 (in Roosevelt's presidency), as it seemed impossible to have 
 orderly elections held. 
 
 169. Aguinaldo was the native Philippine leader. He became ac- 
 tive against Spain when our troops took the islands, but when his au- 
 thority was denied by the United States he led an insurrection against 
 the United States government in the Philippines which required us to 
 keep an army there for three years. There was opposition to our ac- 
 quiring the Philippines in the first place. Congress made President 
 McKinley their absolute ruler. The Democrats opposed this and the 
 presidential campaign in 1900 was largely on the question of keeping 
 the Philippines. The re-election of McKinley decided that they be kept. 
 He then appointed William H. Taft to organize them. He started plans 
 by which the natives should participate more and more in their govern- 
 ment, and whereby education should be encouraged. 
 
 170. We dropped the Southern reconstruction with No. 140 (and 
 No. 144 at end). When an effort was made in Harrison's term to get 
 the Southern negroes to the polls again the Southern states began to 
 pass laws that no one should vote without certain qualifications, such as 
 ability to read, payment of taxes, and the right of his grandfather to 
 vote. These qualifications excluded most negroes. 
 
78 
 
 xji. During the Spanish-American war the Hawaiian question was 
 settled by its annexation to United States. 
 
 172. While the "Pan-American" Exposition, participated in by 
 the United States, Mexico and Central and South America, was being 
 held at Buffalo in 1901, President McKinley while visiting it was shot 
 by an anarchist. Theodore Roosevelt, the Vice-President, filled out the 
 rest of the term (1901-1905). He proved to be as popular as McKinley. 
 
 173. Roosevelt successfully advocated (1) preservation of forests 
 by national ownership and care of certain tracts, (2) reclamation of 
 Western desert lands by irrigation built by the government, (3) steps 
 to start a canal from Atlantic to Pacific, (4) expansion of civil service, 
 ( 5 ) improvement of our consular service through a merit system (Do 
 you understand what duties a consul performs?), (6) regulation of large 
 corporations, (7) strengthening of the navy, (8) federal pure food and 
 drug law, (9 arbitration of labor disputes, (10) power of Interstate 
 Commerce Commission over railroad rates. 
 
 174. In 1850, about the time that gold was discovered in California, 
 we agreed with Great Britain to jointly control any canal from Atlantic 
 to Pacific. Completion of railroads to the Pacific made canal less neces- 
 sary and matter was dropped. In 1881 France secured the rights across 
 the Isthmus of Panama and started to build it but failed. When we 
 desired to take the matter up in 1901 we got the treaty with England 
 changed and bought the French Panama Company's interests for $40,- 
 000,000, but the- government of Columbia, the South American country 
 which included the Isthmus, would make no agreement with us. Con- 
 gress decided to build the canal by the Isthmus if the strip of land could 
 be secured and if not to build it by Nicaraugua. The people of Panama 
 were frantic over the prospect of losing the canal and with a little 
 encouragement from Roosevelt revolted from Columbia and offered to 
 arrange for the right of way. (Congress recently decided to pay Colum- 
 bia $25,000,000 for the territory we caused her to lose.) 
 
 175. The successful construction of the Canal, opened in 1913, 
 was a great engineering triumph. It was accomplished under the United 
 States War Department with General George Goethals in charge. The 
 sanitary measures taken were as important as the great cuts and concrete 
 locks. 
 
 176. By a law passed in 1904 the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
 sion's power to prevent rebates and discrimination in rates was increased 
 in several directions, particularly to the power to determine what is a 
 reasonable rate in any case. 
 
 177. The question of trusts, great combinations of capital which 
 control or nearly control certain commodities, became important about 
 1896. These combinations have also great political influence. The Sher- 
 man anti-trust law of 1890 prohibited certain types of trusts but other 
 
79 
 
 types flourished in greatly increasing numbers during the prosperity after 
 1897. The big capitalists feared Roosevelt, and he succeeded in getting 
 laws requiring certain publicity of the acts of large corporations and 
 preventing abuses in the issue of their stock and in combinations with 
 other corporations. But many problems arising from the great power of 
 these trusts are still on our hands; 
 
 178. Roosevelt undertook personally to get employees and employ- 
 ers together when a large coal strike was threatened. He was very suc- 
 cessful. He was re-elected for a full term by large majority in 1904. 
 
 179. In McKinley's term we figured in world affairs not only in 
 the Spanish American war but also in the Boxer uprising in China. 
 Look this up and see the part United States played. It was the modera- 
 tion and skill of John Hay, our Secretary of State, that prevented the 
 "partition" of China among Great Britain, France, Japan, and others, 
 and that won for us China's friendship until now. 
 
 180. Roosevelt further strengthened our influence by managing to 
 bring to a settlement (1905) the war which had been waged for two 
 years between Russia and Japan. 
 
 181. Rooosevelt left office still popular. William H. Taft, his suc- 
 cesssor and personal choice, could not get Congress to carrry out progres- 
 sive measures." By the end of his term the Republican party had split 
 and a new Progressive party nominated Roosevelt. This gave the elec- 
 tion to Woodrow Wilson, Democrat, in 1912. 
 
 182. One progressive measure of the Taft administration was me 
 establishment of the parcel post. (Rural free delivery had been estab- 
 lished under Cleveland's second administration.) Under Taft s adminis- 
 tration was inaugurated the automobile as the chief agency of local 
 transportation, supplanting the horse, and largely supplanting the electric 
 car and local steam trains as the electric street car had supplanted horse- 
 drawn vehicles in 1887 to 1891. 
 
 183. In Roosevelt's administration occurred the great Baltimore 
 fire and great San Francisco earthquake. Look them up — also the great 
 disasters (Chicago fire, Boston fire, Charleston earthquake, Galveston 
 flood, Johnstown flood, Ohio valley flood of 1913.) 
 
 184. The Wilson Democratic congress passed a new tariff (the 
 Underwood law) which reduced duties. In Taft's term a constitutional 
 amendment permitting tax on incomes was ratified. So a tax was placed 
 on incomes over $3000. 
 
 185. A new feature of the national banking system, the Federal 
 Reserve Bank plan, was provided by Congress in 1913. The various 
 national banks hold stock in the Federal Reserve Banks and the latter 
 furnish them money when they need it. This saves banks from failure. 
 It was of great benefit in making credit safe during the World War. 
 
8o 
 
 [86. In 1914 the World War began between Germany and Austria 
 on the one side and England, France, Belgium and Russia on the other. 
 (Smaller nations or those bearing minor part not mentioned.) Belgium 
 had nothing to do with it at first but Germany invaded Belgium. United 
 States sold arms and provisions to England and France, but Germany 
 could find no way to get any to her shores if she bought them. Germany 
 accused us of helping her enemies. The Wilson administration tried 
 hard to keep peace. 
 
 187. Meanwhile Mexicans in the unsettled condition of their coun- 
 try attacked people on our borders and in many instances mistreated our 
 citizens in Mexico. The Mexican president was not friendly to us and 
 the people generally were hostile, as they had been ever since the Mexican 
 War. Twice (1914 and 1916) we sent soldiers into Mexico to try to 
 bring to justice Mexicans for whom the Mexican government denied 
 responsibility. Germany encouraged Mexico to come to war with United 
 States. In spite of all peace was preserved and now ( 1922 ) seems to be 
 on a sure footing of law and order. 
 
 188. Wilson was re-elected because of his popularity for avoiding 
 war. But the Germans were beginning to attack with submarines our 
 vessels which carried goods to England. They sunk these ships. Finally 
 they sunk a great passenger ship (the Lusitania) with many American 
 passengers. Germany apologized but declared the seas closed to us 
 except certain restricted paths. We had been learning meanwhile of the 
 abuse of the Belgians and French when their villages came into German 
 power. We also learned of a German spy system in America. The peo- 
 ple were ready for war which was declared in 1917. 
 
 189. Our administration raised a great army by drafting all men 
 from 21 to 30 years of age; it raised large sums by liberty bond sales; it 
 created a great transportation service by buying, commandeering (100 of 
 these were German ships tied up in our ports since 19 14) and building 
 vessels. It manufactured vast quantities of war material in a few weeks. 
 It built and stuffed great storehouses with supplies, it built great camps 
 and drilled 4,000,000 men, it transported half of them to France in spite 
 of the submarines. It caught and imprisoned most of the German spies 
 and the worst of the German sympathizers, it kept the friendship of the 
 rest of the Germans and Austrians in America, it increased the produc- 
 tion of crops. 
 
 190. Our armies in France built great terminals and rail lines; 
 soon learned the art of war, showed great courage and skill in every 
 engagement. Italy was already joined to our allies, but a short time after 
 we entered the war Russia quit because of internal dissensions. This 
 enabled Germany to throw great force against the Western front (East- 
 ern France) where we were helping. They made a great drive for Paris 
 which was stopped at its critical moment by the wonderful bravery of 
 
8i 
 
 our marines at Chateau-Thierry. After that the Germans were grad- 
 ually pushed back. The Americans drove them in in some of the most 
 difficult regions. After the Americans took Sedan on a straight line to 
 important German cities, Germany gave up. 
 
 191. Germany laid down her arms, surrendered all cannon, gave 
 Alsace-Lorraine to France, withdrew from Belgium, agreed to pay for 
 damages to Belgium and some other damages, gave up her war ships and 
 submarines, admitted the Allies to her principal war ports, gave the 
 Allies part of her railroad equipment, gave up her provinces in Africa, 
 allowed the allies to divide up Austria-Hungary, gave up her Chinese 
 port to Japan. 
 
 192. The German Emperor fled into exile in Holland and Germany 
 became a Republic. The other governments signed peace treaties with 
 Germany. The new governments formed in the breaking up of Austria- 
 Hungary and Bulgaria got started. 
 
 193. Meanwhile the United States did not sign with Germany, as 
 the treaty negotiated by President Wilson (who went to France for the 
 purpose) involved our joining a world League of Nations. The senate 
 would not ratify a treaty with this feature. 
 
 194. The question of the League of Nations was largely responsi- 
 ble for the election of Harding over Cox. The people, like the Senate, 
 were afraid of being mixed up in it. Besides they were dissatisfied when 
 they learned of some mistakes made in managing the war, particularly 
 in the extravagant purchase of supplies and then the failure to have them 
 at the right place at the right time. There was an idea too that the 
 Wilson administration conceded too much to the demands of the great 
 number of workers in government service or in service controlled by 
 the government (especially the railroads), that the government had run 
 the railroads badly while it controled them during the war, and that the 
 government had many unnecessary employees. 
 
 195. The Harding administration began at the time of a reaction 
 which almost stopped production in many lines which had increased 
 facilities under war conditions, and of a fall in prices of farm products 
 which suddenly fell to half value or less while there was little reduction 
 of other prices. This was naturally followed by a serious shortage of 
 employment. Exports were largely stopped because the currency of 
 most European countries has come to be of small and uncertain value. 
 We have probably the most complicated economic situation in our 
 history. 
 
 196. At the close of the War (1919) the 18th Amendment to the 
 Constitution prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors 
 was ratified. In 1920 the 19th Amendment was added, giving women 
 equal rights of voting with men. What does the 17th Amendment pro- 
 vide? 
 
82 
 
 ig 1 /. President Harding, ignoring the League of Nations, which 
 had started without the U. S., called a Conference of the countries of 
 the world at Washington to attempt an agreement on the reduction of 
 naval armament. Charles E. Hughes, Secretary of State of U. S., at the 
 opening of the Conference, proposed a great reduction of navies. This, 
 and many other important agreements, have been embodied in treaties 
 which it is hoped all the powers will ratify. Peace with Germany was 
 finallv declared. 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 i. How the soil is made. Kinds of soil — composition of each. 
 
 2. Retentiveness of water by soil — experiment to show it. 
 
 3. The elements needed by plants. How they get their food. 
 
 4. The materials needed by plants likely to be missing from soils 
 —phosphate, potash, nitrate. Sources of phosphate, potash and nitrates. 
 
 5. How plants get nitrogen of the air — the leguminous plants with 
 root nodules with bacteria which work up the nitrogen into nitrates. 
 
 6. Soil water. The water table. How roots reach after water. 
 Sprinkling tends to cause shallow rooting. The deep rooting of drought- 
 resisting plants. 
 
 7. Injury to most plants and soils of lack of drainage. How to 
 drain fields. 
 
 8. Conservation of soil water by cultivation. The dust mulch 
 breaks capillary contact of soil with air. Experiment to show this. 
 
 9. Sour soil. Test. Remedy. 
 
 10. Exhaustion of soil by planting same crop year after year. 
 Peculiarly exhausting effects of certain crops, notably tobacco. Small 
 removal of fertility if dairy cattle are raised. Help of farm animals to 
 preserve fertility. Importance of conservation of fertility. 
 
 it. Adapting crop to soil. Help from experts. Value of ex- 
 perience of farmers in the neighborhood. (But one should not be too 
 much influenced if only a few experiments have been tried.) 
 
 12. Importance of preparation of seed bed. Time of plowing. 
 Depth of plowing. Harrowing. When discing may be a substitute for 
 plowing. 
 
 13. Planting of wheat and corn. Exact practical methods. 
 
 14. .Necessity for cultivation of crops — its several advantages 
 Mode of cultivation of corn, potatoes, beets. 
 
 15. The hot bed, its principle and construction. Difference of cold 
 frame — its use. 
 
 16. Why certain plants are transplanted. What ones can and can- 
 not be transplanted. 
 
 17. How and why plants are thinned. 
 
 t8. Rotation of crops: purpose. Practical rotations in Ohio and 
 reasons they are good. 
 
 19. "Green manure" as a fertilizer — when profitable. 
 
 20. Proper treatment of animal manure for the conservation of its 
 benefits. 
 
 21. Selection of seed (a) in the field, (b) determination of its 
 vitality, (c) determining the purity of small seeds (such as clover) which 
 
 83 
 
84 
 
 are purchased. Why northern grown seeds and varieties are often 
 preferred. 
 
 22. Treatment of seeds to prevent certain diseases, as oats to pre- 
 vent smut and potatoes to prevent scab. 
 
 23. Characteristics of a good wheat crop (good stand of wheat). 
 of a good corn crop, of a good potato crop, of a good oats crop. 
 
 24. Description of the harvest of each of the above. 
 
 25. The heating of grains and grasses, of what it consists and how 
 prevented. 
 
 26. Characteristics of a fine ear of yellow dent corn. 
 
 27. How the barberry injures the wheat. The life history of the 
 Hessian fly. 
 
 28. The general action of the reaper, reaper and binder, thresher. 
 
 29. Spraying potatoes (and other vegetables) for insect pests. 
 Material used and mode of applying. 
 
 30. Kinds of insects not reached by spraying. Modes of treating 
 them. 
 
 31. Grafting. Several kinds and how to make them. 
 
 32. The manner of raising young new orchard trees. Why not 
 raise them direct from seeds of the best specimens ? 
 
 33. Pruning. Time. How to remove limbs of some size. Other 
 directions. Preferred shape of orchard trees. 
 
 34. Cultivation of the orchard. 
 
 35. Chief orchard twig pests: San Jose scale; wooly aphis; pear 
 blight; peach yellows: treatment of these. 
 
 36. Times of spraying apples, reasons. Benefits of the fruit. 
 
 37. Orchard insect pests which attack the trunk or bark, or roots. 
 Treatment. 
 
 3S. Work of birds, of beneficial insects, of toads. 
 
 39. Strawberries. How they are propagated, planted, cared for. 
 The peculiarity of most varieties as to pollination. Why the beds must 
 usually be moved after several years. 
 
 40. Raspberries. How propagated and pruned. 
 
 41. Gooseberries and currants. Treatment. Enemies and their 
 treatment. 
 
 43. Cucumbers. How planted. How protected from chief enemy. 
 
 44. Sweet potatoes. Difference between potato and sweet potato 
 botanically. How they are planted and transplanted. 
 
 45. Root crops. How seeded and tended. The place taken by 
 these in some crop rotations and why. 
 
 46. Onions. The several ways of planting and producing both 
 "green" and "old" onions. 
 
 47. Tobacco. How the young plants are protected from weeds and 
 from hot sun. 
 
85 
 
 48. Crop improvement. How such improvements as doubling the 
 sugar in beet sugar are attained. How new varieties are produced. 
 Origin of bearded wheat and of naval oranges. 
 
 49. Work of Ohio Experiment Station at Wooster. Read at least 
 one of its publications. 
 
 50. Distinction between characteristics of bacon type and lard type 
 of hogs. Description of Berkshires, Poland Chinas, Duroc Jerseys. 
 Feeding of hogs. Advantages of keeping them. 
 
 51. Advantages of pure-bred stock. Grading up stock. How fine 
 breeds were originally produced. Registering of stock. 
 
 52. The Merino sheep; its description and points of superiority. 
 Description of Lincoln and Shropshire sheep. 
 
 53. How sheep should be housed. Their feeding, washing, shear- 
 ing. How the wool clip is handled and marketed. 
 
 54. Difference between beef and dairy cattle (quite full statement). 
 Description of leading beef types. How they are fattened and when 
 marketed. 
 
 55. Description of Guernsey, Jersey and Holstein cows and bulls. 
 Feeding of dairy cows, their housing and other care. The dry period 
 of the cow, the calf and its weaning. 
 
 56. Care of milk, traced from washing the cow's udders to the 
 marketing of the milk and its consumption. 
 
 57. Composition of milk. Standard test for percent of butter fat. 
 
 58. How butter is made — full account. Reasons for growth of 
 butter production by creameries. 
 
 59. Utilization of skim milk and butter milk. Source of cheese. 
 
 60. What is meant by a standard cow-test. (Need not learn de- 
 tails.) 
 
 61. Silage. Kinds. The silo. Its construction, how filled and 
 emptied. Character of silage. Its advantages. 
 
 62. Balanced rations. Food substance to be included. Approxi- 
 mate proportions desirable for horses and cows. Deficiencies of certain 
 foods. How to supplement them to supply the other food elements. 
 Futher considerations in diet. (You are not expected to learn exact fig- 
 ures to express the amounts or ratios, but you should know enough to 
 appreciate their meaning when you look them up.) 
 
 63. Chickens. Egg and meat breed characteristics. Names and 
 chief marks of some excellent breeds — egg, meat and general purpose. 
 How to feed chickens. How to prevent pests and rid them of pests. 
 Housing. How to get maximum egg production. How to operate at a 
 profit. General description of incubator and of brooder. 
 
86 
 
 64- Bees. Sketch of a hive, that is to show the interior. Kinds 
 of bees. How bees are propagated. How the young are fed. Food of 
 bees, in summer, in winter. The swarming of bees. 
 
 65. Characteristics of a good draft horse. How mules are bred. 
 Why they are preferred for some purposes. 
 
 66. Weeds and weed control. 
 
 67. Power machinery on the farm. Development of gasoline and 
 oil engines. Some of the work done by them. 
 
 68. Some improved appliances for the farm home. Water supply ; 
 sanitary arrangements. 
 
READING 
 
 i. The subject divides into beginning and primary grade reading, 
 middle grade reading and upper grade reading or literature. For the 
 first of these we are especially dependent on the adopted books or system. 
 
 2. The manual of some excellent method ought to be studied. The 
 alphabet method has been entirely discarded in Ohio. It faults are ( 1 ) 
 it begins with letters and symbols which are meaningless to the child, 
 (2) the names of the letters differ from their sounds, (3) there is for a 
 long time no chance for the use of what is learned. 
 
 3. All worthy methods begin with words or sentences or stories. 
 The tendency is toward the latter — to gain interest in a story and then 
 express some lively part of it in script or print, and then teach the words 
 (or some of the words) composing the sentence or rhyme which the 
 child knows expresses the "story" (that is, the memorized bit of it 
 selected out). 
 
 4. Phonic drill must soon follow for it is not enough for the chil- 
 dren to know these words — they must be learning how to make out 
 other words through the sounds expressed by certain combinations of 
 letters. Good systems are planned to give abundant practice in this. The 
 expressions sight words, those of which the children are told the sound, 
 and blend words, which they make out from their phonic elements are 
 used. 
 
 5. The play instinct is utilized in primary reading ( 1 ) in having 
 the children match like words, be first to find words ,etc. (2) in drama- 
 tization. Be able to describe at least two good devices for word 
 acquisition. 
 
 6. The tendency at present is to dramatize almost all the reading 
 lessons in primary grades. Perhaps dramatization should be confined 
 to those made thereby clearer to the child. Select at least two good 
 primary stories and plan their dramatization. 
 
 7. Use should be made of words as learned by giving directions for 
 action and the like. Also the children's experiences should be used for 
 some oral discussion followed by blackboard stories (sentences) based on 
 them. 
 
 8. Silent reading — thought getting — is of more value than oral 
 reading. So teachers by questions lead the children to seek the thought 
 and to be interested in getting the thought. And they are required to 
 read orally the thought, not the separate words. 
 
 9. The value of rapid silent reading was not widely recognized 
 until recently. The rapid reader gets the thought better. This is of 
 importance in all grades. 
 
 87 
 
88 
 
 io. Reading after the first year should build on the vocabularies 
 and powers (as of making out words phonetically) already acquired. 
 There should be no relapse into mere oral reading or mere word-calling. 
 
 ii. The teacher should do some selecting in the middle grade read- 
 ing and not take the lessons as they come. First have real aims in the 
 year's reading, next have an aim in each day's lesson. Use some drama- 
 tization. Sometimes read to the class as an example of expression. 
 
 12. Some work must be done beforehand in preparing them on new 
 and difficult words of the reading lesson. It is not necessary for them 
 always to master every word but you will have to tell them how to pro- 
 nounce them at least. Be sure you know how. 
 
 13. Each child called upon should read enough to have some real 
 thought or thoughts in the selection. Some teachers make the mistake 
 of having each child read a single sentence around the class. Better call 
 on only part of the class than break up the selection in that way. 
 
 14. After each reads opportunity should usually be given for him 
 to criticize his own reading and. then for the class to criticize it. The 
 child should not then read it over again, however. 
 
 15. The natural situation in oral reading is for some one to read 
 to us what we do not know and what we do not have in print before us. 
 Some teachers use an easy supplementary book — just one copy for the 
 class — and have the pupils or some of them read from it in turn. 
 
 16. Many teachers have the children come forward and face the 
 class to read. In this way they get the idea that they are not reading to 
 the teacher only. This helps also the serious fault of reading so low that 
 they cannot be heard. 
 
 17. Questions about what is read should be asked of various pupils 
 other than those who read aloud, to see that the thought is being com- 
 prehended. 
 
 18. Common defects of speech, such as lisping, can be corrected 
 if the teacher knows how to go about it. The principle of correction is 
 to learn how the speech organs, tongue especially, should be placed to 
 make the desired sound and have the child place them in that position 
 when the effort is made. 
 
 19. The teacher should read to the children, a portion daily, several 
 of the best books each year, and have a list of books just as good to 
 recommend to them to draw from the library and read themselves. 
 
 20. In the upper grades the increasing tendency is to read a few 
 longer selections — real classics — instead of a large number of short 
 pieces or extracts from classics. Only the longer selections can possibly 
 have sustained interest. Some of our late readers for the higher grades 
 consist of a few such complete productions. Other classics are published 
 in cheap form. 
 
8 9 
 
 21. Every teacher of reading should be familiar with all that is 
 said on the subject of reading in Monroe's Measuring the Results of 
 Teaching (a Reading Circle bock for 1919-20). The most important part 
 of this is the remedial measures to be taken when certain faults exist in 
 the class. The faults can roughly be discovered without the scientific 
 tests. Some reading classes have been improved nearly 100 per cent in 
 a year by the use of these measures. 
 
LITERATURE 
 
 1. Literature has to do with exceptionally beautiful or forceful 
 expression in a language. The teaching of it should be largely a teach- 
 ing of appreciation of selections which exhibit beauty and force. There 
 is no proper teaching of literature by teaching the history of its develop- 
 ment, who the authors were, something of their lives, the names of their 
 writings, and what critics say of them. But the teaching of literature 
 must include the reading of some of the beautiful and forceful selections 
 themselves, with some attention to their beauty and force. This ex- 
 planation is necessary as this syllabus is largely on the formal aspects 
 of the subject, which are less important than the reading with ap- 
 preciation. The development will be partly historical. 
 
 2. The English language grew up in England out of several 
 languages spoken by different groups of the people. These languages 
 were Anglo-Saxon, Norman French, and Latin. The language at first 
 was so different from present-day English that we cannot read it without 
 learning how. It of course had no very fixed form at first but some 
 literature was written in this Old English. (This is often called Middle 
 English, the other term being for the first literature, which was Anglo- 
 Saxon). 
 
 3. By the time of Chaucer the language was more fixed and more 
 like our present language. We have to have help on many words and 
 expressions to read Chaucer. Learn two or three lines of Chaucer to 
 illustrate this. The popularity of Chaucer's works, written 1360 to 1400. 
 did much to settle the form of the language. But there was no print- 
 ing in England until about 1476 (although engraved books earlier, a 
 few ) . 
 
 4. The Canterbury Tales is his greatest work. It pictures life of 
 the period, for the pilgrims to Canterbury are leading types of the people 
 of the day. They are described, and each tells a story true to some of 
 his characteristics both in its selection and in the manner of tellling. 
 Several of the pilgrims are women. We see also how people travelled. 
 We have here an example of one element which makes literature good 
 and permanent — it reflects correctly the thought and customs of the 
 age. You should read of Chaucer's wide experince. 
 
 5. The stories told by Chaucer were appropriated from various 
 languages and times. A number of other writers, including Shakespeare, 
 owed their greatness partly to wide acquaintance with the world's litera- 
 ture. 
 
 6. The religious element of literature reached the people more than 
 writings for enjoyment. The first translation of the Bible into English 
 
 90 
 
9i 
 
 was completed by John Wyclif (with assistance) in 1384. Wyclif was a 
 preacher (independent priest) and used in the translation the simple 
 language of the common people. 
 
 7. 150 years later, when England separated from the Catholic 
 church, the Bible was translated into the changed language of that day. 
 In 161 1 the "King James Version" was prepared from those mentioned 
 above and from the Greek and Hebrew in which the Bible was originally 
 written and from the Latin edition used by Catholic church. This King 
 James Version was used by Protestant churches until very recently (still 
 largely used). 
 
 8. In Chaucer's time William Langland wrote the poem, "Piers, 
 the Plowman." Piers is the perfectly good man, who scorns the Sins 
 (who seem to be persons) and who tries to lead a frivolous world to 
 useful work and to Truth. This was read sufficiently (there was no 
 printing) for the common people to know of its contents. 
 
 9. Miracle plays, using incidents in Old or New Testament, were 
 written and were played by bands of players before there was any 
 English drama proper. So also were morality plays in which truth, vice, 
 temperance and other good and bad qualities are personified, somewhat 
 as. in Piers, the Plowman. None of these was in good enough literary 
 style for the authors (most of them unknown, and not many of the plays 
 preserved) to be worthy of mention. 
 
 10. Many old English ballads originated in the century after 
 Chaucer's death in 1400. With these and the plays mentioned in No. 9 
 the people were entertained and the language was refined although no 
 great works were produced. 
 
 11. By the time of Sir Thomas More (about 1500) the English 
 language was approaching the modern form. At that time there reached 
 England what is known as the Renaissance (pronounced re-nas'-ance or 
 as in French). This was a spreading of scholarship, an awakening to 
 what might be learned from other sources than those habitually used. 
 Greek was read, experiments were tried, explorations were attempted, 
 scholars conferrred with one another, old libraries were searched. The 
 printing press had come into use and books could be produced in quantity 
 and cheaply. 
 
 12. Sir Thomas More wrote a famous prose book called Utopia. 
 This is supposed to be an account of how people live in some far-away 
 country, where they are all good, all help one another, all enjoy art and 
 make everything as nearly perfect as possible. 
 
 13. The Reformation, which in England meant at first separation 
 from the central authority of the Church at Rome, dates from about 
 1534. It later meant in England a change of doctrine and after, the 
 denial of the right of church service except in the approved doctrine. It 
 influenced literature by getting the people to read the Bible, tracts, ser- 
 mons and arguments. (See No. 7.) 
 
92 
 
 14- There was no very great literature produced between Chaucer 
 and the age of Spenser, Shakespeare and Bacon (the time of Queen 
 Elizabeth) and we shall mention no more of it. 
 
 15. Spenser was a great genius. He wrote many styles of verse 
 but his great work, the Faerie Queene, was in a type of verse he in- 
 vented. He knew the literature of other lands, from which he got ideas 
 for both thought and versification. The latter is quite perfect. His idea 
 in the poem, that of depicting knights representing great virtues, as 
 temperance, courtesy, was a noble one. His fault is the words he uses, 
 many of which, were not then and never have been in current use. 
 Elizabeth is the Faerie Queene who sends the knights forth. 
 
 16. Elizabeth reigned 1558 to 1603. Spenser lived 1552-1599; 
 Shakespeare 1564-1616; Bacon 1561-1625. The drama was being 
 brought into form before Shakespeare wrote. His first employment in 
 London was in its first theater. He first was an actor, and improved 
 plays written by others. Some of his plays were modifications of those 
 written by others and his plots were drawn from other literature, includ- 
 ing Greek and Roman, from tradition, and from real history. 
 
 17. Understand the meaning of drama, comedy, tragedy, sonnet. 
 (Shakespeare wrote a number of the latter.) Learn a few facts about 
 Shakespeare's life. (Not many are known.) Read carefully, at least, 
 Merchant of Venice of the comedies, Julius Caesar of the historical plays, 
 and Macbeth of the tragedies. Be able to tell something about the plots 
 and vivid scenes. (These plays lack the delightful humor of some plays 
 with which I wish you might be acquainted, but they are the best known.) 
 
 18. Francis Bacon of Shakespeare's time was an essayist of great 
 ability — the first prose writer of high rank. He wrote also on science, 
 about which he did not know much, but which he helped a great deal 
 by getting public attention for science. 
 
 19. After Shakespeare's death there was a great struggle between 
 the King, James I, (and his son Charles I) and his party and the Puri- 
 tans. The latter gained the government in 1640 and soon closed all 
 theaters. It is natural that religious men were the great writers of the 
 period. These were John Milton and John Bunyan. (The Kings were 
 restored in 1660. That date marks a change from Puritanism. Bunyan's 
 works and Milton's greatest works were, however, finished after that 
 date.) 
 
 20. Milton, while a Puritan, had, like Spenser, wide acquaintance 
 with the world and its literature. He had a fine education. Some of his 
 writings were in prose and some in Latin but he is known today for his 
 great poems "Paradise Lost" and "Paradise Regained" and minor poems. 
 
 21. The prime of life he spent as an official of the Puritan (Crom- 
 well) government and lost his sight writing for it. He dictated these 
 great poems when blind. The imagination, the wording, versification 
 
93 
 
 and plot (amounting to an enlargement and interpretation of the Bible 
 story of the creation and fall of Adam) are all wonderful. You should 
 read at least a little of one of them. (Paradise Regained deals with 
 man's Redemption.) 
 
 22. The other great writer, Bunyan, had little education, and de- 
 rived his ability to write from the language of the Bible and his use of it 
 in preaching. (His occupation was that of tinker.) For preaching with- 
 out authority, after the restoration (of the kingship) and the reaction 
 from Puritanism, he was imprisoned for 12 years and during that time 
 wrote Pilgrim's Progress. This depicts in story form the journey 
 through life to heaven. Every teacher should read it. 
 
 23. No writer of first rank is probably so little of the acquaintance 
 of most of us as John Dryden. At the time of Milton's death (1674) 
 Dryden was 43 years of age and was just gaining prominence. From 
 then to his death in 1700 he held first place, although he lost the position 
 of "poet laureate" when James II was driven from the throne and 
 William and Mary became sovereigns. He wrote mostly on political and 
 religious themes in poetry, and on literary themes in prose. His poetry 
 was very exact in form and his exactness continued to be the fashion 
 for a century. His poem, "Alexander's Feast," found in many readers 
 is not in his usual formal style. He wrote also dramas in both poetry 
 and prose, the theaters having been reopened. 
 
 24. Of eighteenth century writers we shall mention by name Swift, 
 Addison, Pope, Johnson, Goldsmith, Burke and Defoe. All of these 
 except Addison (who died at the age of 41 when Johnson was a boy) 
 and Defoe (who died before Johnson was well known) were acquainted 
 with one another, and Addison and Burke with other writers were in a 
 literary club with Samuel Johnson at the head. Burke and Addison were 
 prominent in political life. Swift was a clergyman also. Pope was 
 financially fortunate. Johnson and Goldsmith were at times, the latter 
 nearly always, in poverty. 
 
 25. Defoe is known to us as writer of Robinson Crusoe, the great 
 book of adventure. He was a journalist and knew about many adven- 
 tures. Robinson Crusoe is read as much now as 200 years ago. It 
 shows ideal patience, courage, ingenuity and prudence in very real situa- 
 tions. He took up real stories (in this case that of Alexander Selkirk) 
 and expanded them into more complete stories, still preserving the same 
 reality. 
 
 26. Goldsmith is best known to us for his splendid novel The 
 Vicar of Wakefield. This was his only novel. He wrote much. His 
 beautiful poem, The Deserted Village, and his pay, She Stoops to Con- 
 quer, are best known. 
 
 27. Swift is known to us mostly by Gulliver's Travels, imaginary 
 travels to lands where tiny people lived, and others where giants, horses 
 
94 
 
 with human intelligence and other curious things were found. He wrote 
 many other things, some of them political, and mostly satirical (as indeed 
 are Gulliver's Travels, though we read them without thinking of it). 
 
 28. Pope was a second Dryden in correctness of form of poetry. 
 He was not in the current of events, because of being a Catholic and of 
 being feeble from childhood. His poetry lacks interest in nature, human- 
 ity or religion. It is much given to satire. It is little read now except 
 his splendid translation, in verse, of the great Greek epic poem of Homer, 
 The Iliad, and parts of the translation of the great Greek epic poem of 
 Homer, The Odyssey. (The translation of all of the Odyssey was pub- 
 lished by Pope, but the translating of much of it was by other persons.) 
 
 29. Addison's Sir Roger de Coverley papers are read most. His 
 writings, particularly early writings were largely political. He was a 
 champion of the Whigs. Addison is regarded as one of the best models 
 for clearness of style and other good qualities of prose writing. He 
 tried to. do everything in writing and in life the best it could possibly 
 be done. 
 
 30. Though Johnson was the center of the group (see No. 24) he 
 is least read now. He wrote powerful but not graceful sentences (as a 
 rule). He prepared our first dictionary. He was a wonderful conver- 
 sationalist. The last 21 years of his life James Boswell followed him 
 about and got him to express himself on all questions. Johnson was un- 
 aware that he was writing down the incidents and sayings, to publish 
 them after Johnson's death in the greatest biography ever written. 
 
 31. Edmund Burke you all know as the champion of the rights of 
 America in his "Speech on Conciliation" in 1775. He is far less eloquent 
 in this, however, than in his speeches about the treatment of India. It 
 is unfortunate that his legal and political duties did not give him time 
 to write more. His literary gifts were great and his sympathies world- 
 wide. He warned, however, against the idea of the French Revolution 
 and checked English sympathy with it. 
 
 32. To the eighteenth century but outside the general current (see 
 No. 24), belong Thomas Gray and Robert Burns. The former, a Cam- 
 bridge professor, wrote "An Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" 
 which is one of the most loved poems in the language. 
 
 33. Robert Burns composed verses as he ploughed in the fields. 
 They were of nature as he saw it about him and of the country folk 
 and their sentiments, belief and traditions. He used the (lowland) 
 Scotch dialect. In spite of, or partly because of, the quaint dialect they 
 won immediate fame in Scotland as well as England as soon as published. 
 Burns is one of those great poets of the people whose appeal is to the 
 heart exclusively. You should be acquainted with at least The Cotter's 
 Saturday Night and A Man's a Man for a' That. 
 
95 
 
 34- The poets of the earlier nineteenth century include Coleridge, 
 Wordsworth, Scott, Keats, Shelley and Byron as the ones of probably 
 the most lasting importance. Coleridge is known to most of us by The 
 Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Wordsworth furnished part of the story 
 and they started to write the poem together. 
 
 35. William Wordsworth accomplished much more. He is usually 
 considered England's greatest nature poet as Bryant is America's. He 
 was born near the "Lake region" with which Scott was also familiar. 
 Here he lived, after some foreign travel, to the age of eighty. His poems 
 show great feeling for human nature as well as nature. To a Skylark, 
 We are Seven, and The Two April Mornings, are representatives of his 
 shorter poems. 
 
 36. Sir Walter Scott (mentioned later in No. 46 — among the 
 novelists) first made his reputation with his poems on themes of Scot- 
 land's earlier days (which are employed in his novels also). The Lady 
 of the Lake is the most popular of them (written about 1810). 
 
 37. Byron was by inheritance a member of the British House of 
 Lords. Yet most of his writing was done while he was a traveller or 
 resident abroad. And his writings are noted for his attacks on the short- 
 comings of the existing social order. These were mostly indirectly, in 
 the words of characters in his poems, or by satire through them. He 
 also pressed his own feelings in his works to the point of great egotism. 
 We know best his beautiful poem Childe Harold with its descriptions 
 of the historic spots of southern Europe and Asia. His death at 36 
 was of fever when leading a Greek army against the Turks. 
 
 38. Though Shelley died at the age of 30 (drowned when a little 
 sailboat capsized near the Italian coast) and Keats at 25 (of consump- 
 tion while spending the winter in Italy), they are celebrated for the won- 
 derful beauty of their poems. Ode to a Skylark is a fair sample of 
 Shelley, and To a Nightingale, of Keats. 
 
 39. The greatest English literary geniuses, in other fields than the 
 novel, of the nineteenth century were Macaulay, Carlyle, Tennyson, 
 Browning and Ruskin. We will also mention but not discuss further. 
 Mrs. Browning and Matthew Arnold. Herbert Spenser should be men- 
 tioned also as a great scientist and writer on science and related subjects. 
 
 40. Macaulay had one of the most marvelous minds of all time. 
 He could repeat Paradise Lost and many other shorter literary works. 
 He was a great statesman and did much good aside from literature. He 
 wrote splendid poetry (of which Horatius at the Bridge is a sample) and 
 most marvelous prose. His History of England, though it covers only 
 15 years of English history, (1685 to 1700), exhibits the greatest re- 
 search and in 5 volumes gives details with dramatic vividness. As a 
 prose writer he is unequalled in any age or language. In your high 
 school classics you have perhaps read his essays on Milton and Johnson. 
 
9 6 
 
 These do not show him at his best. Read his Warren Hastings. His 
 oratory was as great as his writings. 
 
 41. Macaulay took things as they were and in high public life tried 
 to better them. Carlyle wanted to reform them altogether. He believed 
 great men should not only lead but even control. His great work, The 
 French Revolution, was more warning than history. You should read 
 at least one part of Heroes and Hero Worship or a chapter of The 
 French Revolution to appreciate his wonderful but very unusual style. 
 He lived apart from public life, but well known, to the age of 86. 
 (Died 1881.) Macaulay died at 59 in 1859. 
 
 42. The other great prose writer was Ruskin. He wrote much on 
 art and architecture. You have perhaps read selections from his Sesame 
 and Lilies. (Not on art or architecture of course. Sesame is of three 
 syllables with first e short.) 
 
 43. The great nineteenth century English poets are Tennyson and 
 Browning. The latter's writings are so difficult that many of them 
 should not be undertaken by an ordinary person except with the help of 
 a teacher (and not many teachers have the preparation for that). Not 
 a dozen of you will ever read his longest work The Ring and the Book ; 
 but I ask you to read Pippa Passes. Browning's life was a fine example 
 of English manhood, wholesome, helpful, religious. He lived to the age 
 of 77. (Died 1889.) 
 
 44. Tennyson is a writer of whom most of us know a great deal. 
 His Locksley Hall, The Princess (with the songs between the parts), 
 The Charge of the Light Brigade, The Idylls of the King, In Memoriam 
 and Crossing the Bar are well known to all students. You should be 
 able to tell something about each of these. He became "poet laureate" on 
 Wordsworth's death in 1850. He was not married until that year. Quite 
 a number of his poems celebrate England's triumphs. All have patriot- 
 ism and a hopeful outlook into the future. He died in 1892 at age 83, 
 famous throughout the world. 
 
 45. We shall now mention the great novelists of the 18th century 
 and (except Goldsmith) the first great novelists — Scott, Dickens, 
 Thackeray and "George Eliot." Sir Walter Scott has already been in- 
 cluded among the great poets. About 181 4 he turned from poetry to 
 the novel. He is a historical novelist, building his novels about or in- 
 cluding in them historical events. His earlier novels used Scottish his- 
 tory. Scott built him a splendid mansion at Abbotsford in Scotland, but 
 the publishing firm in which he was interested failed and he worked him- 
 self to death (at 61) to pay the debts (but did it — $250,000). 
 
 46. Scott's Ivanhoe treats of the period of the return of Richard I 
 (the Lion-Hearted) after imprisonment on the Continent. Kcnilworth 
 deals with the efforts of Leicester, Queen Elizabeth's prime minister, to 
 become her husband. The Abbot deals with Mary, Queen of Scots. 
 
97 
 
 Rob Roy, Waverley and other novels deal with the Scotch clans. He 
 wrote about 25 novels, all valuable. 
 
 47. Charles Dickens was himself an oppressed child, and had to 
 work in a factory while his parents were in jail for debt. Most of his 
 novels deal with social wrongs of some kinds at least in places. Most 
 of them have striking- children. The novels are noted for persons with 
 amusing peculiarities. 
 
 48. His Tale of Two Cities treats of the French Revolution, the 
 cities being London and Paris but the scene mostly in Paris. David 
 Copperfield, Nicholas Nickleby, Oliver Twist and Old Curiosity Shop 
 are read most. 
 
 49. No author was ever so popular in his life time as Dickens, 
 He worked himself to death trying to satisfy the demands of the public 
 for his lectures and readings. (Died 1870 at age 58.) Yet he had no 
 more schooling than John Bunyan. 
 
 50. Vanity Fair is probably the most read of Thackeray's novels. 
 He was contemporaneous with Dickens and some critics consider him the 
 greater novelist. Henry Esmond is considered his masterpiece. It is 
 partly a historical novel, dealing with the period of Queen Anne and in- 
 cluding the victories of the Duke of Marlborough in France. 
 
 51. George Eliot was the nom de plume of Mary Ann Evans 
 (afterward Mrs. Lewes and later Mrs. Cross.) Her talents were as 
 wonderful as those of Dickens and Thackeray. Silas Marner has been 
 read by almost every one. Adam Bede and Romola are also widely read. 
 The latter is a very intricate story, but great in imagination, character 
 development, and expression, and very popular. It deals with Roman life 
 in the latter part of the fifteenth century. 
 
 52. Rudyard Kipling is far the most famous of the later English 
 writers. He succeeded in both poetry and prose. His works treated 
 especially adventures and military life. (The Jungle Book, Barrack 
 Room Ballads.) He was well acquainted with India and other distant 
 British possessions and incorporated this knowedge into his works. 
 "Captains Courageous," curiously, is not written of English army cap- 
 tains but of the captains of the fishing boats which go along the banks 
 from Gloucester, Massachusetts. This is a mark of Mr. Kipling's five 
 years of residence in New England. 
 
 53. Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton, famous for his "The Last Days 
 of Pompeii", wrote about fifty novels. He is a representative of the 
 numerous modern novelists who possess a style which is not especially 
 remarkable but are able to construct such plots (often partly historical) 
 as gain them a large reading public and in many cases long or permanent 
 fame. 
 
 54. J. M. Barrie has revived in novel the Scotch dialect and char- 
 acter. His most noted book is "The Little Minister." 
 
 *7 
 
98 
 
 55- Robert Louis Stevenson is noted as a great children's poet as 
 well as a great novelist. His best known novels are "Treasure Island", 
 a story of pirates and adventures, and "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde", the 
 story of a man known as a good man under the name of Dr. Jekyll and 
 as a wicked man under the name of Mr. Hyde. Some of the child's 
 poems are in our readers, among them "My Shadow," "The Land of 
 Counterpane." "The Swing," "My Kingdom." In quest of health, 
 Stevenson lived for some time in California and in the Adirondacks, and 
 finally died in the Samoan Isands at age 44 after working for fourteen 
 years in miserable health. 
 
 56. A. Conan Doyle is the best representative of writers of 
 "detective" stories — stories of the solutions of mysteries and crimes. 
 Hundreds of writers have invented thousands of such stories in the last 
 50 years, but only a few have generally accepted merit — literary quality, 
 a gripping plot, and freedom from objectionable moral attitude. 
 
 57. H. G. Wells best represents another class of modern writers 
 — those who keep in touch with great scientific achievements and possi- 
 bilities so as to build plots on strange supposed achievements through 
 science. Wells has produced also a compendium of history of great 
 merit. 
 
 58. American literature did not arise independently through a 
 forming language but is an offshoot of English literature, one of the two 
 branches into which it was split by the intervention of the ocean and 
 eventually of a different government. We are inclined to give it more 
 attention because it is written more fully from the standpoint we most 
 appreciate. America has produced no dramatist like Shakespeare or 
 epic poet like Milton and perhaps no prose writers equal to Macaulay or 
 Carlyle, but it takes centuries to produce a few such men. But the list 
 of American authors includes some poets, essayists and novelists of first 
 rank. Less comment will be made on them in this syllabus because short 
 treatises of the ground covered are easily available. 
 
 59. The literature of America up to near the Revolution was cir- 
 cumscribed by the possibilities of a pioneer country dependent largely 
 upon the fatherland. Franklin's Autobiography was the most lasting 
 production. It covers only his earlier life, not touching his great public 
 career. 
 
 60. Irving, Cooper and Bryant were the first American authors of 
 strictly literary work to gain wide eminence. They are spoken of as 
 of the Knickerbocker, that is, the New York group. Irving is perhaps 
 known best to us by his Sketch Book, although The Alhambra (tales of 
 old Spanish days) and The Life of Washington are of the highest merit. 
 Of the stories in the Sketch Book the best known are Rip Van Winkle 
 and Sleepy Hollow. The majority of these stories are not of American 
 
99 
 
 traditions or places and persons, however, and were written during long 
 residence abroad. 
 
 . .61. James Fenimore Cooper was a historical novelist on American 
 themes. The Pilot utilizes his own several years at sea. The Spy and 
 The Last of the Mohicans are great tales of adventure, scouting and 
 Indians. He wrote a number of other successful historical novels. They 
 have been censured by critics both as to plot and style. They, neverthe- 
 less, have some very attractive characters and very interesting exploits 
 and give good pictures of pioneer history. 
 
 62. Cooper died in 1851, Irving in 1859, Bryant the poet of the 
 period lived until 1878. Bryant was most industrious and for 52 years 
 was editor of the New York Post (daily paper) while he wrote nature 
 poetry as a side line. He was also famous as a lecturer and took much 
 interest in the issues of the civil war. His Thanatopsis (written in 
 his youth) is known to all. Autumn Woods, A Forest Hymn and Robert 
 of Lincoln are more exclusively nature poems. 
 
 63. R. W. Emerson, born 1803, died 1882, is regarded by many as 
 the greatest writer America has produced. He was a prose writer; his 
 writings are mostly essays ; they have both a finished and delightful 
 style; they are original in thought. They enforce his view that people 
 should have individuality in their opinions and ways of doing but that 
 men should discharge the purposes for which God has placed them here. 
 A number of his essays have doubtless come to the student's notice. 
 
 64. Nathaniel Hawthorne (lived 1804 to 1864) produced his first 
 great novel, The Scarlet Letter, in 1850. The House of Seven Gables, 
 which many of you have read, was written 1851. The Marble Faun, 
 published 1859, ^ s considered his masterpiece, but its characters are not 
 American and it is less popular and perhaps less wholesome than The 
 House of Seven Gables. His novels are not historical. They are char- 
 acter novels. He has in each a well-intentioned but unfortunate char- 
 acter, and a highly respected but narrow character who plays the part of 
 an oppressor. His "Twice-told Tales" are as well known as his novels. 
 
 65. Edgar Allen Poe lived 1809 to 1849 and so was more nearly 
 contemporaneous with Irving, Cooper, Bryant and Hawthorne than with 
 Emerson, Longfellow, Lowell, Whittier and Holmes. Poe is given first 
 place among American writers by many foreign critics. His work was 
 highly finished. He believed literature should be beautiful. His "The 
 Bells" and "Annabel Lee" are good examples of what he could do in 
 poetry. He wrote many wonderful short stories with more weird sit- 
 uations than those in Hawthorne's novels. Such are The Fall of the 
 House of Usher and The Gold Bug. 
 
 66. We perhaps appreciate more highly Longfellow, Whittier and 
 Lowell and to some extent Holmes because they had some mission in 
 writing, seeking to make men or the world better. Whittier and Lowell 
 
IOO 
 
 (as also Bryant) were strongly against slavery. Some of their best 
 work in poetry deals with this subject, particularly Lowell's The Present 
 Crisis and Bigelow Papers, the latter in New England rural dialect 
 (mostly in poetic form.) 
 
 67. Lowell's Vision of Sir Launfal shows him as a teacher of 
 morality not confined to the events of any one period. He spent many 
 years as U. S. minister to Spain and England and was an effective 
 diplomat. He was also a professor of modern languages at Harvard 
 and wrote much fine literary criticism. He died in 189 1. 
 
 68. As suggested above some of Whittier's poems grew out of the 
 agitation against slavery. Others tell stories of early New England life. 
 Snowbound, the greatest, was of New England life in his own day. We 
 know best his short poems, The Barefoot Boy and Barbara Frietchie. 
 He lived until 1892. 
 
 69. Longfellow seems most beloved of all poets by American 
 school children. Hiawatha and The Village Blacksmith would be suf- 
 ficient reasons if we did not have A Psalm of Life, Evangeline, The 
 Courtship of Miles Standish, The Children's Hour, The Rainy Day and 
 Excelsior also. You should know something of his life if you do not al- 
 ready. He became a professor of modern languages in Bowdoin Col- 
 lege at the age of 22 after graduation and three years of study in Europe 
 and later was professor in Harvard College. At the age of fifty he gave 
 up his teaching to which until then he had devoted much of his time. 
 He died ten years before Whittier. The picture of his home in Cam- 
 bridge is in many of our books Here he received thousands of callers 
 in his later years. 
 
 70. Oliver Wendell Holmes was a physician and professor in a 
 medical college and only incidentally a poet. He would have written 
 less poetry if he had not been urged to write for special occasions, and 
 less prose if Lowell had not urged him to write for the Atlantic Monthly 
 of which Lowell was editor. For this he wrote The Autocrat of the 
 Breakfast-Table, The Professor at the Breakfast-Table, The Poet at 
 the Breakfast-Table and Over the Teacups, which are full of witty 
 philosophy. Among his popular poems are Old Ironsides and the One- 
 Hoss Shay. He died in 1894 at the age of 85. 
 
 71. Walt Whitman was a singular writer who claimed to be the 
 poet of the common people. Most of his writings are without any regular 
 rhythm and are not poetry in the ordinary sense. He set up and printed 
 his first verses himself at the age of 36. He was poisoned later while 
 nursing in a Civil war army hospital and became worse and worse from 
 it although he lived 25 years after the war. O Captain! My Captain!, 
 written on the death of Lincoln, is in regular verse and is best known. 
 His fame became wide. His peculiar poetry ( ?) is being imitated by 
 present writers who are given space by some of our strong magazines. 
 
IOI 
 
 72. Samuel L. Clemens (Mark Twain) has a firm place in our 
 literature with his humorous stories. Tom Sawyer and Huckelberry 
 Finn are best known. He wrote accounts of his travels in the west and 
 elsewhere as a basis for humorous expression and anecdote. 
 
 y$. W. D. Howells, born in Ohio, wrote mostly in New York. He 
 wrote successful verse and stories of travel and a number of novels. 
 
 74. Winston Churchill (born 1871 ) has gained the favor of al- 
 most the entire English reading public with his novels which are mostly 
 historical, such as Richard Carvel, dealing with English characters of 
 the Revolutionary period, The Crossing, with the filling up of our middle 
 west. 
 
 75. In the multitude of other recent, and many of them living, 
 American writers it is difficult to determine who are most worthy of 
 mention and whose fame will be most permanent. In a single recent year 
 more new books appeared in America than in the 250 years up to 1850 
 
 — and we have omitted many worthy authors of note of the most recent 
 period. 
 
 76. James Whitcomb Riley, (recently deceased) of Indiana, was a 
 poet of the heart and of common life. The Old Swimmin' Hole, An Old 
 Sweetheart of Mine and When the Frost is on the Pumpkin, are among 
 our favorites. 
 
 yy. It is hoped that you have some acquaintance with at least the 
 following authors; one work of each of whom is here mentioned: John 
 Burroughs (died 192 1) — -Signs and Seasons; Henry James — An In- 
 ternational Episode ; Henry Van Dyke — The Spirit of America ; Ed- 
 ward Everett Hale — The Man Without a Country; F. Marion Craw- 
 ford — Saracinesca (He wrote largely on Italian and other foreign char- 
 acters) ; Kate Douglas Wiggin (Mrs. Riggs) — Rebecca of Sunnybrook 
 Farm; Joel Chandler Harrris — Tales of Uncle Remus; Mary Johnston 
 
 — To Have and to Hold; O. Henry (Sydney Porter) — -Cabbages and 
 Kings ; Harold Bell Wright — The Shepherd of the Hills ; Alice Hegan 
 Rice — Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch. 
 
SPELLING 
 
 i. The first consideration is spelling is word selection. Words used 
 by ordinary children and adults are the ones to be learned — not words 
 we seldom read or hear. 
 
 2. Some of the recent spelling books have been built up with this 
 in mind — some have been made from definite studies of children's com- 
 positions, the letters of adults and newspapers 
 
 3. A teacher needs to have definite ideas of the minimum the 
 children should attain in spelling. Such should not be attained by guess- 
 ing. Every teacher should secure a copy of Buckingham's Extension of 
 the Ayres Spelling Scale. For this send 15 cents (stamps will do) to 
 the Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. This shows, for 
 example, that on list N an eighth grade should make 100 per cent, a 
 seventh grade 98, a sixth grade 94, a third grade 58. The following 
 contains every tenth word of the list in column N: else, death, always, 
 evening, November, person, among, October, laugh, village. Besides 
 knowing these in N an eighth grade should make 100 on all the columns 
 before it. It should average 50 on column Z of which the following in- 
 cludes every third word : allege, eliminate, extraordinary, parallel, receipt. 
 
 4. The spelling lists for the teachers' examination will be taken 
 from the various columns of the above publication. Failure of the 
 teacher examined to attain the eighth grade standard "mill be a failure in 
 the examination. 
 
 5. The spelling words selected by the teacher should be to some 
 extent an outgrowth of the lessons in other subjects. But the teacher 
 should not insist too much on the spelling of every proper noun (such 
 as Chimborazo, Kosciusko, Caribbean). To know these is convenient 
 but not absolutely essential. It is much more important to know how 
 to spell and to spell with invariable correctness such words as biscuit, 
 Tuesday, monkey, people. The same caution should be given against 
 overworking the spelling of technical words used in agriculture, physi- 
 ology, grammar and physical geography. 
 
 6. Some carefully prepared spelling books propose but two new 
 words a day. It is doubtful whether this keeps up the interest. The 
 teacher can perhaps supply a few more and the greater number be 
 learned better than the smaller. 
 
 7. With little children new words should be written, spelled orally 
 by letter, erased, and then a child called upon to spell orally. The im- 
 mediate recall does more to fix the words than repeated writings, or 
 
 102 
 
103 
 
 any number of oral repetitions with the word before the child. This 
 is a good method in higher grades if there is time. If the children can 
 then further write each word down from recall after the oral recall 
 he will have gone far toward learning it. 
 
 8. In the first grade before names of letters are used in calling 
 words there should be no spelling as such. Writing of words — not to be 
 done at all the first few weeks — should be mere imitation — drawing 
 the word forms. 
 
 9. The spelling recitation in the lowest grades should be more oral 
 than written. Oral spelling should be only occasional in the higher 
 
 grades. "Head-mark" spelling as usually conducted is worth little. There 
 is little rivalry or drill in it. There is not enough selection of words. 
 There is no adaptation to individual needs. A method (headmark, match 
 or otherwise) should be devised, when there is an oral spelling lesson 
 that will encourage the best efforts of as many children as possible. 
 
 10. No words should be spelled of which the children do not com- 
 prehend the meaning. Spelling words which have no meaning to a child 
 on the ground that some time he will use the word and know its mean- 
 ing is pedagogically unsound. This does not mean that the child must 
 always be able to give a full definition or even an accurately worded 
 definition. It merely means that he must have a concept of the meaning 
 commonest, or at present in your or his mind. There are many words 
 of which you or I do not know all the definitions but of which we have 
 in mind the more common senses. 
 
 11. The real test of a child's spelling ability is his spelling of words 
 in compositions, letters, etc., when the thing said is the primary thing in 
 mind. No children spell quite so well then as when writing lists. Yet 
 that is the natural connection in which spelling is used in life. Some 
 spelling lessons should, therefore, he dictation exercises in which the 
 words they are learning or have learned occur. 
 
 12. Also the spelling of children in their language lessons, geog- 
 raphy and history should be watched to determine on what words to 
 give further drill. On some of these only a small per cent of the class 
 will need drill. It is, therefore, recommended that each child keep a little 
 book, preferably with a page for words beginning with a, one for those 
 beginning with b, etc., in which he is to enter the words he misses in his 
 written work. 
 
 13. The prime need in spelling is that the children realize that it is 
 to meet their need in life, not to pass an examination, and that they have 
 a real desire to get their spelling correct. This is worth more than, any 
 amount of drill and review. 
 
 14. There should, however, be plenty of review, first at close in- 
 tervals (one or two days), then at longer intervals. The words reviewed 
 most should be those missed most, or of most inherent difficulty. 
 
104 
 
 15- One hundred words most frequently misspelled are listed in 
 many of our books as the "one hundred demons." Most of these are 
 so common, so frequently used in all written compositions, that it is a 
 severe reflection on our teaching if we have to keep drilling on them 
 eight or even five years. Several of them need review throughout the 
 grades. 
 
 16. It is generally recommended that there be some daily review 
 through writing words in lists or spelling them orally, some review every 
 few days by dictation exercises, each of these in connection with the 
 regular lesson which has a few new words; and then that about every 
 ten days there be a more general review. The lists written following this 
 review should be carefully marked. The words used which are in the 
 Buckingham scale should be given out first and the results on them 
 checked with the scale standards. Less importance should be attached 
 to the results with the other words. 
 
 t~. In rural schools from fourth grade up two or more grades 
 may be put together in spelling if you keep from proper and technical 
 words not used by them in common. 
 
 18. Where review of spelling words is here mentioned I do not 
 mean merely retesting but the assignment of the words to be rclcarncd, 
 in case of course recall is imperfect. Assignment of lessons is one of 
 the greatest imperfections in the plan of instruction pursued by most 
 teachers. Children must have a definite and possible assignment and a 
 motive for mastering it. 
 
 19. The children need to learn to use the dictionary. But this can 
 probably be attained best when the word sought is a word in a sentence, 
 so that a meaning fit for that sentence is sought. The meaning of words 
 in the spelling lessons should be in mind without recourse to the diction- 
 ary unless the words are presented in sentences. This latter is a good 
 occasional plan. But the dictionary for meaning is to be used mostly 
 in connection with reading. 
 
 20. The children must also learn the key to pronunciation in the 
 dictionaries. This should probably be taken up in connection with spell- 
 ing and reading both. They should be required to mark the easier 
 diacritical marks and after their mastery the harder ones. There is much 
 disagreement among teachers as to how far or how thoroughly this 
 work should be taken up in either reading or spelling. Better do thor- 
 oughly what is done and not undertake too much diacritical work. 
 
 21. Yon will be expected to be able to mark correctly words of 
 moderate -ability according to either the Webster or Laird and Lee code 
 (one, not both of them) found in the school editions of the respective 
 dictionaries. 
 
 22. The rules for spelling, except that for ie and ei after c, 1, r 
 (which is seldom taught,) and that for changing y to i for plurals, for 
 
third person and for past tense (which is never taught in its complete 
 form) are of little value. One cannot stop in writing to recall and apply 
 a rule. Besides the rules have exceptions, and it is still more difficult to 
 recall whether the case before us is not one of the exceptions. Thirty 
 minutes of time in the eight years is probably all that spelling rules can 
 be given with real returns. 
 
HANDWRITING 
 
 1. Small children should write large so as not to strain small 
 muscles and eyes. 
 
 2. Their first writing should be at the blackboard, making small 
 letters about three inches high. Better first make ovals and then letters 
 between ruled lines. 
 
 3. First writing on paper should be large — small letters about an 
 inch high — with large soft lead on ruled paper — better specially ruled 
 with an inch between lines. The size should be gradually reduced up 
 to the fourth grade. 
 
 4. Position for writing at the seat should be according to some 
 standard manual but children should not be corrected much except for 
 positively bad position. Some teachers say they spend most of the writ- 
 ing period the first year on position. That is ridiculous. 
 
 5. In holding the pencil the right thumb should be bent at the 
 joint and kept bent. This helps prevent finger-movement. If it does 
 not nothing else will. 
 
 6. Some individuality should be allowed in holding the pencil. 
 Study what variations promote finger movement and try to have them 
 corrected. An easy sliding of the right hand, perhaps on third or fourth 
 fingers bent under, and the manipulation of the paper by the left hand 
 will help. Below the fifth grade children should probably not be directed 
 to use arm movement but everything should be done to make that their 
 natural mode. 
 
 7. In the fifth they should start more consciously movement exer- 
 cises with the purpose of developing their own best writing. Progress 
 should then be rapid. They should not have to be confined long to one 
 or two exercises. 
 
 8. Speed and rhythm should be developed from the first — even in 
 the initial blackboard exercises. A good speed should be constantly re- 
 quired. The teacher should practice counting or naming at proper rate 
 letters or movements (as up, down, slant, cross). 
 
 9. The real test of a pupil's writing is his writing outside of the 
 writing class. Many use good movement and attain pretty good form in 
 the writing class but do neither in a written geography lesson. The pupil 
 must be rated in writing more by what he does in a short dictation exer- 
 cise than by his copybook. 
 
 10. Imitation of the copybook copy is helpful if it is done with 
 proper movement and speed. Much of the trouble in writing comes from 
 holding the pupils to slow speed on the copybooks, a speed which they 
 
 106 
 
107 
 
 have to increase in the other studies or fail to get their thoughts on paper. 
 Most of the copybooks of Ohio are only half filled at the close of the 
 year. Beter increase the speed and the amount of practice. 
 
 ii. There is danger of imitating the copy less as the bottom of 
 the page is approached. One writing system has a copy which slides 
 down. This is a great help. 
 
 12. The teacher must herself master the art of writing — move- 
 ment, speed, form — and must learn the points about the different 
 strokes, ovals and joinings so she can analyze defects and help the 
 children. 
 
 13. The teacher should learn about standard handwriting scales. 
 These are explained in recent method books and books on tests and 
 measurements. The Ayres Handwriting Scale should be obtained from 
 The Russell Sage Foundation, New York City. (Send 5 cents for it.) 
 Applicants for certificates who do not make 50 by that scale will fail 
 in the test. 
 
 14. The work mentioned in No. 7 will be largely motivated if the 
 scale is posted and children measure their standing and improvement 
 from that time by comparison with the scale. It would be still better 
 for each county to construct its own scale. 
 
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