,n\^ EDUCATION I21 WHat Does it Find a Basis and ^Kplanation? A THEISI^ ^ BY rwlOSIAH HALL. !n Part Requirement for the Degree Ph. M. In the University ofChicego. August, 1901. COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY MOSIAH HALL. I THE Library OF I CONGRESS, I T'A.-, Copies Received I ^PH 30 1903 (Copyrignt tnuy cuss CL-XXc. No i_ COPY b ^ EIDUCAXION IN WHAT DOES IT FIND A BASIS AND EXPLANATION? A THEISIS BY MOSIAH HAI_L- In Part Requirement for the Degree Ph. M. In the University of Chicago. August, 1901. / INTRODUCTION. Education is g-aining- alarg-er place in public conscious- ness from day to day, and its importance both to the indi- vidual and to the state is nowg-enerally conceded. Naturally there results a larg-e and rapidly increasing- literature on the subject, and it would be thoug-ht that any one might easily discover a definite idea of what education is and of the process to be followed in reaching- the educational end; but an examination of the literature on education results in confusion, if not in disappointment. The inquirer finds near- ly as many answers to his question as there are authors con- sulted. On one hand the definition of education is so g"en- eral and indefinite as to poj^sess little real value, or on the other hand, so particular and narrow that much is excluded which belongs to the subject. One author contends that education should be practical — that nothing- is valuable which does not prepare for the duties of life. Another in- sists that this practical view is utilitarian and selfish, and that the practical concerns of life are unimportant compared with the development of character. Then it is asserted that education is the imparting- of knowleg-e, and that facts are the most important thing's in the world. Other statements are found to the effect, that education is the in- fluence of a mature mind over a mind not matured; that it is the development of power; that its purpose is to produce a g-ood citizen; that the end of education is happiness; that its purpose is full and harmonious development; that it should aim at the perfection of the individual; that it should prepare for complete living-; that it should occupy itself with humanistic culture; that it should make scien- tific knowledge its centre; and, finally, that education is the result of social influences upon the individual. This preliminary statement serves to introduce and to justify the selection of our subject. I. A large number of statements will nov/ be selected and examined for the purpose of discovering their adequacy' or inadequacy as definitions of education. (a). The friinary vieaninsc of the word education \^ found in the Latin word educatio from which the word edu- cation is derived. Educatio is in turn derived from the word ediico which is made up of the two words, c^ out, and duco^ I lead. The usual dictionary definition, signifying- a leading- or drawing- forth of the faculties of the child throug-h instruction and discipline and the imparting- of knowledge, is, therefore, consistent with the primary mean- ing- of the word. If conlined to this meaning, education must be restricted to that which is done to the child from the outside, and the modern conception that self-activity is a factor in education must be abandoned. But the question arises. Must the original meaning of the word be accepted as adequate at the present time? The classical Latin writers themselves did not use the term in accordance with its strict meaning. It was used generally in early times to sig"nif J the germinating" of plants, or the training- of ani- mals. Later it was extended to the care or training- of young- children. Cicero represents the earth as the educa- tor and nourisher of all things, and uses ^<^/^r(^//fi> sometimes to sig-nify the training- of animals to labor, while at other times, he uses it in a modern sense. Tacitus uses educare to sig-nify the nursing- of infancy, and educatio^ sometimes as training-, and at other times, as the synonj-m of tutor. Quintilian uses ediicatio in the sense of our preparatory education, and institution as equivalent to our academic edu- cation. Since his time the word education has been vari- ousl}^ interpreted, and its meaning- greatly enlarged. Pos- sibly at no time has it been used in its strict, original meaning. x\ word is, ho^vever, but a symbol of thought, and vvhile the symbol remains the same, the thought may re- ceive .additions from age to age, and thus outgrow the or- iginal meaning. For example, contrast the rich content of the words hoine^ cotintry, and God with their original re- stricted meanings. That the word education has changed in content is evident. The primary meaning of the word is, theretore, inadequate to explain the present meaning of the term. (b). Practical Education, according to its advocates, may be said to consist in a training and preparation for the duties and vocations of life. The popularity of this idea may be seen in the growing demand for manual training and for technical schools. The majority of parents de- mand that the schools shall give better preparation for the business of life, and much indignation is expressed for what they consider fads, notions, formal discipline, and "culture for culture's sake." This practical view of education is well expressed by David Kay, in Education and Educators^ page 34: *'The object of education, then, is to train and cultivate for what is the end or business of life — for the right performance of the various duties and obligations v/hich the individual may be called' upon to discharge, and an educated man is one who is fully fitted and qualified for the due perform- ance of such duties and oblig-ations." The poet Milton expressed nearly the same thought in this: •'I call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and mag-nanimously, all the offices, both public and private, of peace and war." — Putnam's Manual of Pedagogics, page 16. *'To say we should teach what ought to be practical in after life conveys a complete idea of education." — C. Durgin. These statements express the popular idea of practical education. If this idea were carried to its logical conclu- sion, education would mean an exclusive training for the vocations of life; and technical and manual training schools would largely supplant the common school as now consti- tuted. Probably none of the authors quoted would favor going that far,* Now this practical idea of education seems to rest on the assumption that education is purelj^ for physical wel- fare, and that the school is the only educator. But a large body of educators, if asked for the leading idea in educa- tion, would answer: "The aim of all education is ethical, it has in view^ Wisdom and Virtue; and mere knowledge, nay, even discipline of mind, are to be regarded as taking their true value from their power of contributing to the main purpose — the wise and capable conduct of life." — Laurie, Addresses on Educational Subjects, page 62. The value of practical education and its necessity in the schools of to-day must be admitted; but this admission does not imply that it is the most important part of educa- tion, or that it is adequate to convey all that is meant by the term. Education means more than a preparation for practical duties. Its concern, as Laurie says, is rather with the man than with the workman. Yet the workman * In usitigr qaotations in this paper, we do not commit any author to the impli- cations we make and the conclusions we draw, but our criticism is of the particu- lar conception of education which the quotations help to define. must not be forg-otten, nor must the practical affairs of life be neg-lected. The schools will be far more effective in all respects when proper attention is g-iven to the training- of the hand and eye, and to all forms of expression. But one part or phase of education must not be taken for the whole. The practical view of education must, therefore, be con- sidered incomplete. (c). That education consists in the imparting of knowl- edge is a belief that once widely prevailed, and one which, at the present time, has many supporters among- those who have not studied psycholog-y. Authors, too, of considerable note are found who have favored this view. "If knowledg-e is power, power is knowledg-e * * in this sense, then, all education may be said to be the com- munication of knowledg-e." — Kay, Ed. andEdu., pag-e 148. One g-reat end of education is to communicate to the pupil that sort of knowledge which is most likel^^ to be use- ful to him in the sphere of life to which Providence has as- sig-ned him." — Tate, Man. of Ped., pag-e 16. "Education is a hig-h word; it is the preparation for knowledg-e, and it is the imparting- of knowledg-e in propor- tion to that preparation." — J. H. Newman. Probably the strong-est statement that can be found favoring- knowledg-e as the great purpose of education is in Ward's article on Education: •'Success in life ultimately depends upon knowledge. * * * Discipline is secured by the org-anized reception of the most important knowledge. * * The education of knowledge implies discipline, produces character, and involves morality. These ends may there- fore be safely neglected. They cannot fail to follow from the adoption of the means. * * Education may therefore be defined as a system for extending to all the members of society such of the extant knowledge of the world as may be deemed most important. The object is to store the mind with a carefully organized assortment of the most useful and important known truths." — Ch. 14, Dynamical Sociology, Vol. 1. The idea of education conveyed by the above appears to be that knowledg-e is something- that exists outside of the mind in the form of facts which are to be selected and "carefully organized," and by some unexplained process transferred into the mind of the learner. In this view, the activity of the individual is not con- sidered. The principal thing is to possess, like an empty keg, capacity to be filled. If knowledge is received, nothing else need be sought. This viev/ of education is responsi- ble for more serious errors in the aim and method of the schools than all other wrong conceptions combined. It makes the child a passive recipient to whom anything or everything may be communicated, and thus fosters the error and formalism that still characterize so many schools. Knowlege, truly, is of great importance, but it is not lying around waiting- to be transferred into anyone's mind. Knowledge is the experience acquired b}^ the mind in dealing with its environment, and it consists essentially in the discovery of relations. First, there is the relation be- tween the mind and its object; and second, certain relations are found in the object itself and between it and other ob- jects. A thing at first is merely the use it has for activity. Therefore an object or a fact has no meaning, and practi- cally no existence apart from the mind that conceives it. All that can be done from the outside is to furnish the appropriate conditions for mental action. The environ- ment supplies the means, and to a large extent determines the direction of activity, but the fundamental factor in the whole process of education is the activity of the mind, and knowledge comes as a result of the interaction of activity and environment. Knowledge has no existence outside of the mind. Education, therefore, conceived of as the im- parting of knowledge, is inadequate and highly misleading. (d). The injltience which a mature mind exercises over an imniaUi7'e mind is, by many, considered the function of education. This influence may be extended to include the whole physical envi7-onment ^^3. means; or the physical environ- meiit may be neg^lected, and the social environment consid- ered the most important instrument. The following- state- ments express these views: "Education is that intentional and systematic course of operations by adult persons upon the young- which is de- signed to raise the latter to whatever degree of individual excellence thev are capable of by nature."— C. Schmidt, Ed. & Edu., p." 13. "Education includes all those influences and disciplines by which the faculties of man are unfolded and perfected." •—A. B. Alcot "Education is the process by which one mind forms another mind, and one heart another heart." — Jules Simon. Education in the last analysis is the influence of one person upon another." — H, Scudder. "Ph3^sical influences, however, always abiding and al- ways the same, act slowly thoug-h surely, and hence their effects are not so great or marked in individuals, or in a brief space, as on races or for a length of time. Social in- fluences, again, are more powerful and manifest in the in- dividual than in the race. The individual character is to a much greater extent formed by social than by physical cir- cumstances, by the influences of parents, friends, compan- ions, laws, governments, literature, etc." — D. Kay, Ed. & Edu., p. 3%. "The idea of education may be more or less compre- hensive. We use it in the widest sense when we speak of the education of the race towards self-conscious freedom. In this the world spirit is teacher. In a more restricted sense, we mean by education the shaping of the individual's life by the laws of nature, the rhythm of national customs, and the might of destiny; since in these each one finds lim- its set to his arbitrary will. These mould him into a man often without his knowledge. * * * In the narrowest sense, which, however, is the usual one, we mean by educa- tion the influence which one individual exerts on another in order to develop the latter in some conscious and method- ical way * * * ".— Rosenkranz's Phil, of Edu., p. 21-2. 10 These statements are impressive, and contain a large ele- ment of truth. At first sight they might be considered ade- quate, but investigation discovers that at least one import- ant factor is wanting. They assume the capability of the object acted upon to receive and appropriate the influences mentioned, but they do not recognize the fundamental im- portance of the self-active principle itself. Mind is not ly- ing around passively to receive v^hat influences may be pre- sented to it, but it is already active, its essential nature is prospective. Rosenkranz emphasizes this fact: "The nature of education is determined by the nature of mind in that it can develop what it is in itself only by its own activity. Mind is in itself free; but if it does actualize this possibility, it is in no true sense free, either for itself or for another. Education is the influencing of man by man, and it has for its end to lead him to actualize himself through his own efforts." — Phil. ofKdu., p. 19. The inadequacy, therefore, of the injitience school of education is evident. (e). The ethical ideal asserts that the development of character is the chief concern of education. This theory condemns that education which is merely practical or scien- tific. Conduct is more important than skill, and ideals, more valuable than facts. Neither knowledge, nor wealth, nor external act is good in itself, but only when related to a good character. Ideals shine by their own splendor and point the road that effort must travel, but ideas, like the moon, are dulj and lifeless, and brighten only in a borrowed light. "To implant vigorous aims and incentives in children is the great privilege of the teacher." — McMurry's General Method, p. 67. ''The formation o/ character, as shown in a strong moral will, is the highest aim of education." — McMurry, p. 205. "The right way is the way of the humanities, and the way of the humanities is paved with literature, history, eth- ics, religion, art — all that is humanizing, all that makes a 11 citizen a man and not merely a workman. In short, the edu- cation of the schools must be liberal and humanizing-, and prepare for the g-eneral conduct and rational enjoyment of life, not for any specific department of labor." — Laurie's Addresses on Ed. Sub., p. 131. "Life is simple; it is choosing- the ideal worth of the soul ag-ainst every other interest that may clamor for recog-- nition. The choice is to be made between two things only; the present, real self, and the future, ideal self. * * * The real and true life of the soul can be found only by los- ing- the realized self. * 'i^ * Spiritual requirements are supreme, and, when met, the lower physical good is secured in the process, and more effectively than by direct effort. * * * The teacher who levels his work to the merely practical will miss that and all else; but the teacher who seeks the kingdom of heaven will have all things else ad- ded."— Tompkins' Phil, of Teaching, pp. 48-71. In this country, the Herbartians have done much to popularize the ethical ideal, and to them great credit is due for elevating the ideals of the school; but that Herbart is a safe authority upon which to found an educational system may be doubted. According to Compayre's Hist, of Ped., p. 537, Herbart considers that "psychology is only a mechanism of the mind, and, by means of mathematical formulae, calculations may be applied to measure the force of ideas," Herbart does not believe the mind possesses any innate power, but that the ideas that come into the mind are themselves the actors, hence self-activity is not mentioned nor needed in his system. The mind is added to by enlarging the circle or knowledge by a kind of accretive process instead of de- veloping through its own activity. This psychology has been abandoned, and it is evident that any system of edu- cation founded upon an unsound psychology is subject to suspicion. Herbart says, "The one, the whole work of education may be summed up in the conception — Morality." The aim is to awaken "a many-sided interest." He expands morality into "the idea of inner freedom, the idea of per- fection, of good will, of rights and of equity." Prof, Rein 12 of Jena, a disting-uished Herbartiati, and a leading- advo- cate of the culture or humanistic school of education, g-ives this definition: '-The ethical culture of the will must be reg-arded as the highest purpose of education." — Rein's Ped., p. 31. But, conceding- everything- to morality con- sistent with its meaning, and granting- the urgent need at present for emphasizing moral training and the develop- ment of character, the fact remains that they are but im- portant phases of the great subject of education and that there are other related phases claiming equal attention. (f). ''IVie formation of a moral-rcli^iotis character is the chief aim^^ of education. — Rein's Ped., p. 41. Religion, then, may, urge its claim for a place in edu- cation. It expects man to subordinate all other objects and purposes of life to his relationship with the Divine. There must be "a constant new birth out of the grave of the past into the life of a more beautiful future." Everything per- taining to this world is finite and transitory, and man must free himself from the control of these external objects be- fore he can enjoy true existence. Religion g-ives to man his most worthy ideals and highest conceptions of life. It springs largely from the feeling phase of consciousness which gives that warmth and sympathy essential to right conduct and to the development of taith. While religious faith must be guided by judgment, yet its convictions far outrun the deductions of reason. ''For we walk by faith, not by sight."— II Cor., 5:7. Faith assures us of a reality of that which we do not know. It is allied to hope, and, "Hope springs eternal in the human breast." No array of facts, and no results of experience can prevent the soul from hoping. Clip the wings of hope, and human endeavor ceases to struggle and falls helpless to the ground. Knowledge is fettered to the earth, but faith breaks the net of logic and flies into heaven. Though the conviction of faith is less strong than that of knowledge, faith has more courage, and it more often incites to action. Knowledge has had its thou- sand martyrs; religion, its ten thousand. 13 Without the ideals which relig-ion has furnished, the world could not have been humanized, and the present civ- ilization would have been impossible. Religion has also been closely related to the origin and development of the school; it is a factor, therefore, which cannot be excluded from an adequate conception of education. (g-)- That the scientific theory^ or the ^''doctrine of na- tin'Cy'^ should furnish the basis of education is held by many educators. According to this, the first duty of man is to understand nature and her laws and make them ready ser- vants in conquering his environment. This theory asserts that the progress of the race has been due largely to the practical activities resulting from science and invention, and that the advancement made in education has been pos- sible because of this theory. A safeguard is here offered against the danger of over- developing the feeling and imaginative phases of conscious- ness. The cool, sober judgment arising from scientific study is the only rock of security when the winds of feeling blow and the sea of passion runs high. Comenius, the father of modern education, says that the laws of scientific induction must become the laws of education; that there is to be no more setting out with abstract principles imposed by authority, but facts are to be gathered by observation and verified by experi- ment and the order of nature faithfully followed. ''In the place of dead books, why should we not open the living book of nature?" * * * We must not offer to the young the shadow of things, but the things themselves." — Com- payre's History of Ped., p. 133. Kraepelin contributes the following: "Instruction should open up to a pupil an understanding of the present, and thereby furnish a basis for a frank and many-sided philosophy of life, resting upon reality. But to the pres- ent belongs the world outside of us. * * The necessity of assuming a relation to our environment is unavoidable, and this can only be done by acquainting ourselves with the surrounding- world in every direction." — McMurry's Gen. Method., p. 43. 14 Compayre adds this strong statement: "Eng-lish phi- losophy with its experimental and practical character, and with its positive and utilitarian tendencies, was naturally called to exercise a great influence on pedagogy.^ There are more truths to gather from the thinkers who, in differ- ent degrees, have preserved a taste for prudent observation and careful experiments, than from the German idealists, enamored of hypotheses and systematic constructions/' — History of Ped., p. 538. Jackman says: "The life, health, and happiness of the individual are dependent upon his knowledge of the things about him, and upon the understanding that he has of their relation to each other and to himself." Spencer remarks: "So far from science being irrelig- ious, as many think, it is the neglect of science that is ir- religious — it is the refusal to study the surrounding crea- tion that is irreligious. * * True science is religious, too, inasmuch as it generates a profound respect for, and an im- plicit faith in, those uniform laws which underlie all things. * * He sees that the laws to which we must submit are not only inexorable, but beneficient. He sees that in virtue of these laws the process of things is ever towards a greater perfection and a higher happiness. * * Science alone can give us true conceptions of ourselves and our relation to the mysteries of existence. * "^ Necessary and eternal as are its truths, all science concerns all mankind for all time." — Education, pp. 64-68. The scientific theory offers an argument both reason- able and convincing. That it must have a place in a com- plete system of education is self-evident; but it is equally evident from our discussion that this theory does not give an adequate conception of education, since there are other phases claiming equal validity. (h). T/ie ifidiyidualistic ideal of education^ under one form or another, has always been a favorite. It has to-day, undoubtedly, more believers than any other theory. The central thought involved in the various statements of this conception, is some good or end to be reached within the individual himself. He is considered the unit of intrin- sic value. From him spring all the activities of life, and 15 all the great moving- forces that occasion progress. He in- itiates, invents, uses, and governs. He decides largely what influences from the outside shall be received and as- similated, and he reads meaning- and system into the v^hole v^orld of objects. Governments are made by him, and they derive their just powers from him. The state, or society, is composed of an ag-g-regate of free individuals like him- self. The world and the fulness thereof are made for him, and he is "monarch of all he surveys." Three forms of the individualistic theory will be exam- ined. (1) Coming- down from the Greeks, revived by Rousseau, and definitely formulated by Kant and Pestaloz- zi, is the harmony theory, which is so popular with educa- tors. (2) Naturally related to this is the happiness theo- ry^ so warmly defended by Mill and the utilitarians, and declared by them to be the object of education and of life. (3) Closely related to these is perfection^ considered as the ultimate end and object of life. The following- are typical statements of this ideal: "The object of education is the full and harmonious development of all the powers." — Pestalozzi. "We would define education, then, as the drawing- out or forth of the various faculties of man, each to the hig-hest state of perfection of which it is capable, and at the same time in perfect harmony with all the rest." — Kay, Ed. and Edu., p. 15. "It is manifest that nothing- can be of consequence to mankind or any creature but happiness."— Bishop Butler. "The end of education is to render the individual as much as possible an instrument of happiness, first to him- self and next to others." — Mill. "To develop in the individual all the perfection of which he is capable is the great object of education "-Kant. "The purpose of education is to give to the body and to the soul all of the beauty and all of the perfection of which they are capable." — Plato. * 'Absolute perfection is a point unattainable, but it is 16 a point to which our measures must always he tending-, and we must estimate their wisdom by our approach to it." — Arch. Whateley. *'Human perfection and human happiness coincide and constitute one end. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of all the faculties, corporal, and mental, intellectual and moral "^^ * by happiness the complement of all the pleasures of which we are suscept- ible."— «ir Wm. Hamilton. The Athenian Greeks were the first to formulate the individualistic ideal of education. The}^ developed a free, joyful personality, and g-ave to the world ideals of life which are still worthy of emulation. Aristotle, speaking- for the Greeks, said, "The aim of life is living- happily and beautifully." Above all other people, the Greeks truly lived. The idea of proportion, ''nothing- in excess" dominated their life from the first, and with them, a rational life meant a life of which all of the parts, internal and external, stood to each other in just pro- portion. The realization of this ideal, they called worth. The individual was all-important, and his perfection the g-reat end of education and life. The Spartans on the other hand subordinated the individual to the state, attempted to manufacture citizens after a certain pattern, and tried to found a static state — one which would be incapable of pro- g-ress. They, therefore, g-ave little of value to the world ex- cept a warning ag-ainst a certain kind of socialism; but the Athenian ideal was destined to g-row and produce marvel- ous results. Christianity reaffirmed the dig-nity of the individual by asserting that the soul of one person is as valuable as an- other's in the sight of God, and that man's worthiness is to be judged by his individual works. Compayre says, ''The doctrine of Christ was at first a reaction of free will and of personal dignity against the despotism of the state. A full half of man henceforth escaped the action of the state. That as a citizen of a republic, he ought to give his life for it, but that in respect of his soul, he was free and owed al- 17 legiance only to God." — Hist, of Ped., p. 61. "Render there- fore unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto God the thing-sthat are God's.'-Matthew 22:21. Henceforth edu- cation is to be not merely a training- of citizens for the service of the state, but a disinterested development "of the indi- vidual for his own sake." The subsequent development of this ideal may be traced in every step of human progress and civilization. As the consciousness of individul worth became aroused, it threw off outward restraint, denied the "divine rig-ht of kings," and even questioned the rig-ht of the church to dominate belief. Throug-h Luther and his followers, it found expression in the Reformation; from the page of Rousseau, it spoke in the French Revolution; aroused in the American patriots, it found voice in the Declaration of Independence, and established democracy in the land. Science and invention are larg-ely its products, and freedom and eqality its children. To praise is easier than to criticise the individualistic conception of education, for it is characteristic of the spirit of our times, and its appeal is almost irresistible. But granting- the profound importance of this ideal, its adequacy must not be admitted too hastily. It assumes that the individual is complete in himself, and that his development constitutes the whole of educa- cation. In this the individual is apt to think that his own opinion is supreme, and to forget that this leads to selfish- ness and arrogance. Division of interests, antagonism, wasteful competition, and struggling factions are some of the results of this belief. Society is considered something set over against the individual, with laws and regulations often opposed to his best interests. The truth, however, is that the individual is of small account when considered separate from society. He cannot stand alone. A babe is no more dependent upon its mother's breast for sustenance, than is the individual upon society. Isolation for him means death. One serious defect of the theory is that it states the 18 whole of education in terms of the end, and ignores the means bj which the end is attained. Granting every- thing- that can be rightly claimed for the subjective factor and its ideal end, it must be remembered that the objective factors — the social and physical environment — must be con- sidered. The end and means cannot be separated without having in each case a mere abstration. The inadequacy of the haymony theory is evident, when we note that its acceptance would fasten upon us a belief in the "faculty pss'chology" the error of which, briefly stated, is in assuming that the child has as dormant facul- ties all the powers of memory, imagination, reason, etc. which by introspection are found in adult consciousness, and that these "naked possibilities" are real things "iden- tical with their own realization," and, therefore, capable of being developed. It has never occurred to believers in this theory that the powers of adult consciousness instead of ex- isting at the outset begin with the child's instincts and tendencies to act, and arise as a result of a long series of changes, each of which widens the horizon of activit}^ and gives a point of departure for more complex changes and more widely related activities. Modern psychology does not believe that general pow- ers of memory, imagination, reason, etc., exist, or can be developed, but that ability to remember and reason in any subject is developed by actually studying and reasoning upon that subject. The existence, therefore, of general faculties which can be harmoniously developed is a theory which has been abandoned by philosophers and leading educators. With regard to happiness as the end, Mill himself ad- mits that it must not be sought directly. "The only chance is to treat, not happiness, but some end external to it as the purpose of life." And if an3^one got happiness and per- fection, what would they be, and what would he do with them? Would they not be mere inert, static conditions without an end or purpose; and, in consequence, would not activity cease and consciousness disappear? After all, happiness is not the completion of an end, 19 nor does it come as the mere pursuit of an end, but it con- sists in "the process of becoming- satisfied," or, in other v/ords, in the progressive attainment of some good — each step in the series being the point of departure for contin- ued activity. Action ceases with the attainment of the end, ar.d the feelings connected with the process vanish, hence pleasure also disappears. While the necessity for having a worthy ideal is evident, happiness does not fur- nish a satisfactory one. And with respect to perfection, be- sides the difficulty of forming an adequate idea of what it means, the fact remains that without a content, it is an abstraction of little value to education. To man, at least, perfection must always remain a relative conception. (i). The social-organic theory of ediicatioit )i3.^ arisen because of the inadequacy of the individualistic ideal to meet the requirements of education. Philosophers and the more thoughtful educators, alone, are familiar with this theory. The average teacher is subject to strong, conserv- ative influences which keep him in well-beaten paths, and cause him to look with suspicion upon new and untried theories. But that this ideal is present in educational thought may be seen from the following: *'It is to this progress of the race towards a higher and more perfect state of development that the term education in its widest sense is applied. The entire human race is re- garded as a unit, a single individual, who, from the earli- est times to the present has been in a state of progress, his powers gradually improving, his knowledge gradually ex- tending, and who is destined to reach a much higher and more perfect state in the future." — D. Kay, E. andE., p. 5. '•What a man is depends in a great measure upon the influences that are working upon him in the family, in the society, and in the party to which he belongs." — H. W. Beecher. "Education sets before itself the task of relating the individual intrinsically to the social tradition so that he may become an organic part of society." — Vincent, The Social Mind and. Ed., p. VIII. 20 "There is no individual man for ethics, for psychology, for log-ic, for sociolog-y, except by abstraction — that is if by individual man we mean a being- not influenced by social forces — nor are there any feelings, thoughts, or volitions in any man which are independent of such forces." — Prof. Tufts, Amer. Jor. Soc, Jan. 1896. "Pedagogy ought to be defined as the art ot adapting new generations to those conditions of life which are the most intrinsic and fruitful for the individual and the spe- cies." — Guyan in Vincent, p. 93. "Education is the preparation of the individual for re- ciprocal union with society, the preparation of the individ- ual so that he can help his tellow-men, and in return re- ceive and appropriate their help." — Com. W. T. Harris, Put. Ped., pp. 14 and 15. The quotations above show clearly the importance of the social side of education, but they do not indicate clear- ly what the relation of the individual is in this theory, and about all that is done is to contrast society with the indi- vidual, and thus bring to light the antithesis between the two. There seems no good reason, therefore, to prefer this to the individualistic theory. We have seen that the indi- vidual is a fundamental factor in education, and it appears from the above that society is scarcely less important; hence we must include both of these factors in an adequate conception of education. We believe the organic theory of society provides the necessary union. This theory conceives society as essentially an organism, in which every member is free from every other and from the w^hole, so far as the particular function is concerned which it carries on; yet each part is related structurally and vitally to every other and to the whole so that it would lose its function and could not exist as such if separated. The function of the eye is to see, but it sees for the good of the whole body as well as itself, and if it were separated, it would lose its function and meaning, and become an in- ert, perishing mass of matter. So the individual is intrins- ically related to society. One exists for and conditions the other. Neither could exist, or have any meaning or 21 purpose without the other. According- to McKenzie's So- cial Phil., p. 148, "An org"anism may be defined as a whole whose parts are intrinsically related to it, which develops from within, and has reference to an end which is involved in its own nature." Society is such an organism. "The rational nature of the beings who compose it is entirely dependent for its being- and continuance on the existence of certain social relations. Its unfolding- and development come from within. It has reference to an end which is involved in its own nature; for the end of society is to preserve the life, and to secure the highest life, more- over, consisting not in the attainment of anything exter- nal either to the individuals or to society, but the perfect realization of their own rational nature, which can be at- tained only in perfect social life." — p. 238. The whole maybe considered as a system of "relative- ly independent parts" in which the freedom of each part is secured in and through the system, but could not exist apart from the system. *'Just as our wills are free although they are the ex- pressions of our character, so the individual has an inde- pendent life, although he is the expression of his society." —p. 239-240. A wide-reaching truth is expressed in this organic conception. It more nearly furnishes a satisfactory basis for education than any other theory examined. In it the individual and society are interdependent, one presup- posing and conditioning the other; therefore the antithesis existing between the two, when they are isolated, is re- moved by this theory. A strong statement of this intimate union and relationship is in the following-: "Just as the successive states of consciousness in the individual form a coherent unity with which self or per- sonality is associated, so society gains unity and self-con- sciousness from a well-organized and continuous collective tradition which therefore constitutes the essential vital principle of the social organism." — Vincent's Social Mind and Ed., p. 91. 22 Prof. A. W. Small in "Demands of Sociology upon Pedag-og-y," adds the following: "The end of all education is, first, completion of the individual: second, implied in the first, adaptation of the individual to such co-operation with the society in which his lot is cast that he works at his best with the society in perfecting- its own type, and, consequently, in creating- con- ditions favorable to the development of a more perfect type of individual." — p. 1. "Sociology in the study of society urges three demands upon pedagogy: (1) interdependence, (2) order, or co- operation, (3) progress, or continuity. By the first, I mean the universal fact that every act or event in human life has been made possible or necessary by other acts or events connected with other lives both past and present, and that it helps to make or mar the lives of others. Beginning with the family, and extending to the compass of the race, society is a network of interdependencies. By the second, I mean the machine-like interplay of actors and action> in every minute social group as well as in large societies. Wherever men have been associated even in the most tem- porary society, the measure of stability in their relations has been preserved by an institutional order, as real while it lasted as though it were defined by the iron decree of Medes and Persians. By the third, progress or continuity, I mean the conception of man and events as always work- ing out new iadividual conditions and social arrangements, the truth, on the one hand, that the roots of the present are deep in the past, on the other hand, that the present cannot escape responsibility for the future." — p. 26. But unquestionably the best statement of the organic theory as related to education is by Dr. Dewey in "My Pedagogic Creed," pages 1-7: "I believe that all education proceeds by the participa- tion of the individual in the social consciousness of the race * * that the only true education comes through the stimulation of the child's powers by the demands of the so- cial situation in which he finds himself. Through these demands he is stimulated to act as a member of a unity, to emerge from his original narrowness of action and feeling, and to conceive of himself from the standpoint of the wel- fare of the group to which he belongs. Through the re- sponses which others make to his own activities he comes 23 to know what these mean in social terms. The value which they have is reflected back into them. I believe that this educational process has two sides — one psychological, and one sociolog"ical; and that neither can be subordinated to the other or neg-lected without evil results following-. Of these two sides, the psychological is the basis. The child's own instincts and powers furnish the material and give the starting point for all education. * * * Knowledge of social conditions, of the present state of civilization, is nec- essary in order properly to interpret the child's powers. The child has his own instincts and tendencies, but we do not know what these mean until we can translate them in- to their social equivalents. We must be able to carry them back into a social past and see them as the inheritance of previous race activities. We must be able to project them into the future to see what their outcome and end will be. "I believe that the psychological and social sides are organically related, and that education cannot be regarded as a compromise between the two, or a superimposition of one upon the other. In sum, I believe that the individual who is to be educated is asocial individual, and that socie- ty is an organic union of individuals. If we eliminate the social factor from the child we are left only with an ab- straction; if we eliminate the individual factor from society, we are left only with an inert and lifeless mass. * * The school is primarily a social institution." The social-organic ideal offers an almost irresistible argument in favor of its acceptance as an adequate theory of education. It points the direction that educational thought must travel. Other theories have been found in- adequate, but this contains essential elements of the others and avoids many of their errors. In this theory, neither the individual nor society is considered the more important factor — one cannot be subordinated to the other, because both are intrinsic, and each conditions and makes possible the other. This theory gives the individual that freedom of action, and that povler to invent and to work out his ideal so far as they are consistent with his best good, which is, at the same time, the best good of society. He must be considered the dynamic factor— the factor that initiates, that changes existing conditions, and makes progress pos- sible. On the other hand, society makes use of and gives 24 meaning- to the activity of the individual. It insures him the exercise of his freedom, and g-ives value to the g-ood V7hich he contributes by exchang-ing- the surplus for some other g-ood which he himself could not produce, but, with- out which he could not exist. Society g-ives meaning- and value to all activity and to all of its products. Throug-h it the g-ood contributed by all is used for all. This theory recognizes the dependence of the members of society upon each other, and teaches that the good of each is the g-ood of all. Who could estimate the value of this conception if it were g-enerally accepted and practiced? If it were put into the school, what a chang-e in ideals and method would result! Then the activities of the home, the community, and the school would be in harmony. Force, formalism, and ferocity would disappear, and self-g-overnment, community interest, and g-ood-will would take their place. Laurie says that a nation puts into its educational thoug-ht what is uppermost in its life. No one can deny that individualism has reached the limit of its disinteg-rat- ing- tendency, and that social questions are forcing- them- selves into public consciousness. When a few millionaires intoxicated by ambition, can so monopolize the resources and industries of the nation as to place the g-reat body of people in danger of industrial slavery, it is time that the social problems of organization, co-operation, and control should receive attention. These problems must be solved, and they must be solved soon. Since the school must reflect what is uppermost in the minds of the people, the teacher may confidently expect that the social-organic conception will find its way into the school. From all that has been said, this conclusion is evident; The -popular definitions and explanations of education are inadequate^ and are opposed more or less to each other^ yet each contains some essential phase or factor of education. 25 II. In our discussion of the various theories of education, we have discovered a number of necessary phases and fac- tors; and we must now seek a means of relating- and unify- ing them. Education has to do primarily with the child, and from the nature and needs of the child, therefore, we must de- termine what education is and what the means are that must be used. From psychology we learn that the child inherits from the race certain instincts and tendencies which express themselves in some form of activity. This spontaneous power of action is the great phenomenon of life, and the one fundamental principle upon which all growth and development depend. In this activity we have the first principle of education. This activity in its very nature is expectant, and is seeking to enter into relations with some object in order to further its interests. Objects of the environment are absolutely necessary to its welfare, because they furnish the only means by and through which the activity directs itself and acquires meaning and value. The activity alone would have no meaning, and the object alone would be an abstraction, but the relation entered into between the two gives rise to sensation, feeling, and consciousness, and makes possible the whole complex of men- tal development. Hence the relation between the two is in- trinsic — one cannot be considered without the other. Edu- cation, then, must have two fundamental principles which may be called the subjective and objective. Springing from these principles will be discovered the various essential phases and factors of education, the relationship of which will be seen in the following diagram: 26 O o p Q 1^ {1^ U pq O rn <4-( cr ;-4 0) O o O r-i C/3 -4-> o -♦-» d a r1 «4-i .ti u r^ o o 3 H ^ CU 5= a S o c .t; o > '<-> r-> ;> a S3 ^ rt oi w n C/5 Ph 1 >-v .-^ '-I rj W v^ c: 3 J- 5^ n o e -S frt . .^ o o „ *: p 5-. p R i? 8iiS Si^ |i o > o o > bo o o o o o o "o o >>£ ex o > c >.— 9- c bOa, .2 o x "3 o o njx> o'O^:^ -r? ^ >- 3oci!.S C3 X> O tS CU ■s ^ \ M ^ f^ 53 u a 42 t3 c m V» GO , S3 1— t H-( 1 •i-f o .t-t ^ c o 53 bl .5 o o I O o o c 1 13 c o 13 c .2 > 1 o o (D *t:; v,_ ^ o c o