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ATHENS. 
 
 Athens, the capital of Attica, the metropolis of an- 
 cient Greek culture, takes its name, probably, from 
 Athena (q.v.), 'goddess of science,. arts, and arms,' who 
 from earliest times was the patron divinity of the city. 
 Cecropia, from the mythical king and hero Cecrops, the 
 city was also called in ancient times. 
 
 Athens owes its original location, doubtles.s, to the 
 craggy rock known as the Acropolis (q.v.), that rises 
 more than 500 feet high above the Attic plain, and that 
 in earliest days served for citadel as well as for residence 
 and site of sanctuaries. With the gi'owth of the popu- 
 lation, the parts below and adjacent to the Acropolis, 
 especially on the western and southern slopes, became 
 inhabited. 
 
 Prior, however, to this earliest period in the history 
 of Athens as a Gh-eek city, it is held by many that there 
 was a settlement of Phoenicians on the slopes of the 
 hills towards the sea, numerous remains of which, in 
 the form of cellars, cisterns, graves, steps, seats, all cut 
 into the native rock, are still to be seen, constituting 
 what is generally known as 'The Rock City.' That the 
 Phoenicians visited these coasts for commerce in the 13th 
 century before our era, that they were the teachers of 
 the Greeks in various arts, and that they introduced 
 into Attica the cultivation of the olive-tree, so well 
 
4 ATHENS. 
 
 suited to the dry and chalky soil of this land, are gen- 
 erally accepted facts. 
 
 To understand the subsequent history and growth of 
 Athens, it is necessary first to take into view the natural 
 advantages of its position. Few cities, if any, can boast 
 a more beautiful situation. 
 
 The Attic plain, which immediately surrounds the 
 city on the east, north, and west, is bounded by the 
 range of Hymettus (3368 feet), famous for its purple 
 tints, on the east; by Pentelicus (3641 feet), noted for 
 its quarries of marble, rich even to-day, on the north- 
 east ; by the range of Parnes (4634 feet), well wooded 
 at the base, but barren at the summit, on the north ; by 
 the lower and nearer range of Corydallus (1535 feet), 
 extending to the bay of Salamis, on the north-west; 
 and on the west and south by the Saronic Gulf, in whose 
 waters lie, in plain sight, the islands of Salamis and 
 ^gina. The site of the city is itself diversified by 
 several hills which add greatly to the beauty of the 
 scenery. 
 
 Standing upon the Acropolis one sees to the east 
 Mount Lycabettus, a conical-shaped mount 911 feet 
 high, on whose summit Zeus once had a sanctuary where 
 now stands a small chapel dedicated to St. George, the 
 patron saint of the modern Greeks. To the south- 
 west rises the hill of the Muses, or the Mouseion, sur- 
 mounted now by the ruins of a monument, to Philopap- 
 pus, who was Roman consul about 100 B.C. In the 
 side of the Mouseion are three rocky chambers, doubtless 
 ancient sepulchres, but popularly known as the ' Prison 
 of Socrates,' according to a tradition that goes no farther 
 back than the middle ages. Immediately adjacent to 
 
ATHENS. 5 
 
 this is a lower eminence called the hill of the Pnyx, 
 from the fact that on its slope tradition locates the i)lace 
 of popular assembly. At the upper end of the terrace, 
 which is supported below by a wall of polygonal masonry, 
 stands a cube of rock surrounded at the base by steps. 
 This has long been supposed to be the ancient bema or 
 tribune of the assembly — an opinion not held by many 
 recent scholars, who take it to be a great rock altar, 
 probably dedicated to the worship of the ' Highest 
 Zeus,' to whom many votive tablets have been found in 
 the neighbourhood. 
 
 Just below the western foot of the Acropolis lies the 
 rocky hill called the Areopagus or hill of Ares (Mars), 
 so named from the myth according to which Ares was 
 tried for the murder of Hallirothios. before the twelve 
 gods of Olympus, who held court on this .eminence. It 
 was here that the most venerable court of Athens had 
 its sittings to try cases of wilful murder, to exercise 
 judicial censorship over the life of the citizens, and to 
 guard the sanctity of ancient law and tradition, particu- 
 larly such as pertained to religion. Before this court, 
 or at least on this hill, the apostle Paul delivered his 
 well-known vindication of the Christian faith recorded 
 in Acts, xvii. Just beyond the Areopagus, with a nar- 
 row valley between, lies the Hill of the Nymphs, once 
 occupied by sanctuaries and dwellings, and now the site 
 of the astronomical observatory. The view beyond in- 
 cludes the harbours of Phalerum, Munychia, Zea, and 
 the Piraeus (q.v.). The superior position and greater 
 extent of the last-named harbour have made it, ever 
 since the days of Themistocles, the seaport of Athens. 
 To the south and east of the city flows the Ilissus, and 
 
 1* 
 
ATHENS. 
 
 to the north and west the less celebrated bnt more copi- 
 ous Cephissus. In the summer both streams are nearly 
 dry, and at no time are they large enough to deserve the 
 name of river. They are of great value, however, in 
 the winter and spring for irrigating the vineyards and 
 olive-groves that cover the plain. The most famous 
 spot in the plain is the grove of the hero Academus, 
 
 Plan of Ancient Athens : 
 
 I. Parthenon, \ 
 
 II. Ereciitheuin, I 
 
 III. Propyljea, V Acropolis. 
 
 IV. Temple of Athena Promachus, 
 v. Temple of Athena Ergane, J 
 
 VI. Prytaneum. 
 
 VII. Choragic Monnment of Lysicrates. 
 
 VIII. Theatre of Dionysus. 
 
 IX. Odeum of Herod. 
 
 X. Stoa Poecile. 
 
 XI. Sanctuary of ^Esculapius. 
 
 XII. Circuit of the walls before the Persian war. 
 
 situated about a mile north-west of the city, where the 
 ' divine Plato' taught his philosophy and founded his 
 school, which has become famous under the name of the 
 Academy (q.v.). Adjoining this grove is a knoll called 
 Colonus, in the ancient demos of that name, famous as 
 the birthplace of the tragic poet Sophocles, who cele- 
 
ATHENS. 7 
 
 brates the beauty of this reji::ion in one of the finest of 
 the odes in his tragedy of OEdipus at Colonua. On this 
 hillock are the tombs of two of the most distinguished 
 of modern archaeologists, Ottfried Muller and Charles 
 Lenormant. 
 
 That a city so beautifully situated, enjoying a delight- 
 ful climate the greater part of the year, under a sky 
 wonderful for its clearness (as Euripides says of the 
 Athenians of old, ' marching through an ether of sur- 
 passing brightness'), inhabited by a race so gifted as 
 were the ancient Ionian Greeks, should play an impor- 
 tant role in history, is not at all surprising. The history 
 of the city may be most conveniently narrated by di- 
 viding it into four epochs : (1) The period from the time 
 of Cecrops to the battle of Platsea, 479 B.C. (2) The 
 most flourishing period of Athens, extending to the close 
 of the Peloponnesiau war, 403 B.C. (3) The decline of 
 Athens, embracing the Alexandrian, Roman, Byzantine, 
 Frankish, and Ottoman periods. (4) Modern Athens. 
 
 (1) The oldest history of Athens as a city is connected 
 with the reforms of Theseus and Solon. Theseus was a 
 mythical hero to whom, as his name may indicate, was 
 attributed the credit of organising the scattered popula- 
 tion of Attica into communities and of instituting sev- 
 eral of the most important Athenian festivals. At this 
 time the Acropolis was the abode of the king and the 
 priests, and was the site of the Prytaneum or town-hall, 
 as well as of the sanctuaries and altars of Athena, 
 Erechtheus, Zeus, and Poseidon. 
 
 In the 6th century B.C., under the reforms of Solon 
 and the fostering hand of the tyrant Pisistratus, Athens 
 fairly began her prosperous career. Amid much that is 
 
8 ATHENS. 
 
 mythical in the history of the reforms of Solon, it is 
 certain that he gave a new place to the demos as the unit 
 and centre of political life, and to the ecdesia or popular 
 assembly, before which all acts of -government were to 
 be brought for discussion and approval. By him also 
 the populace was divided for political purposes on a 
 property basis into four classes, of which the first three 
 were eligible to office. At this time the chief rule was 
 already lodged in the hands of nine archons who were 
 chosen annually. To the family of Pisistratus Athens 
 owes the earliest structures that were at all beautiful or 
 imposing. On the Acropolis Pisistratus erected a tem- 
 ple in honour of Athena, which was destroyed by the 
 Persians, and some architectural remains of which are 
 still seen built into the northern wall of the Acropolis. 
 There are some who believe that the foundations of a 
 large temple, recently exhumed between the Parthenon 
 and the Erechtheura, are the ruins of this Pisistratean 
 structure. Still more imposing was the temple begun 
 by Pisistratus on the bank of the Ilissus in honour of 
 Olympian Zeus, and ever since known as the Olympieura. 
 Within a peribolus of four stadia a structure was reared 
 whose dimensions afterward became 354 feet in length, 
 171 in breadth, and which when completed was adorned 
 with 120 columns of Pentelic marble, 60 feet in height 
 and 6 feet in diameter. The ruins of this colossal tem- 
 ple, consisting of 16 columns, most of which have an 
 architrave, form one of the most impressive sights of 
 Athens. 
 
 The reforms of Clisthenes in 506 B.C. gave the gov- 
 ernment of Athens a still more democratic form by 
 making all citizens eligible to office, by enlarging the 
 
ATHENS. 9 
 
 authority of the popular assembly, and by creating 
 popular courts of justice. Doubtless these reforms 
 stimulated the erection of new buildings for the use of 
 the state, many of which were located about the ancient 
 Agora, whose exact situation has been a matter of much 
 dispute until this very day. The conflict with Persia 
 which originated in the Ionic revolt and the destruction 
 of Sardis in 499 B.C., indirectly led to the naval suprem- 
 acy of Athens, under the wise guidance of Themistocles. 
 In 480 B.C. the Athenians abandoned their city to the 
 ruthless vengeance of the Persian invaders, who burnt 
 and destroyed all its houses and temples. 
 
 (2) After the victories of Salamis and Platsea, the 
 Athenians splendidly rebuilt their city, which now 
 entered upon the most brilliant epoch of its career. 
 Under the leadership of Themistocles, Cimon, and 
 Pericles, Athens reached the zenith of her power, and 
 became fortified by numerous walls and bulwarks, and 
 beautified by the erection of splendid temples. To this 
 period belong the walls around the Acropolis, and the 
 city walls with their ninety-seven towers and ten gates, 
 measuring a circumference of forty-three stadia, or al- 
 most five miles. The chief gate was at the north-west, 
 and led to the Academy. It was called the Dipylon 
 or double gate, and its form may still be seen from the 
 foundations which have recently been brought to view 
 by excavation. Just outside of this gate was the Cera- 
 micus ('Potter's field') or ancient cemetery, where one 
 sees to-day some of the most beautiful sepulchral reliefs 
 known to art. For the better defence of the city and of 
 its harbour, Piraeus, the famous 'long walls' were built 
 by Pericles. Together with the fortifications of the 
 
10 ATHENS. 
 
 Piraeus, which had previously been built by Themistocles, 
 they formed a complete fortress, sometimes denominated, 
 on account of its length, which was about five miles, the 
 * Long Fortress.' The inclosure between the two paral- 
 lel walls was for the larger part of the way about 550 
 feet wide, and formed a continuous broad street between 
 the city and its port. Traces of these walls are still to 
 be seen. The age of Pericles in Athenian history cor- 
 responds to the Elizabetiian period in the history of 
 England. Among the great names of this illustrious 
 period may be mentioned Mnesicles and Ictinus in archi- 
 
 Map of the Country round Ancient Athens, 
 
 tecture, Phidias and Myron in sculpture, -^schylus and 
 So[)hocles in tragedy, Socrates and Plato in philosophy, 
 Herodotus and Thucydides as historians, and Pindar and 
 Simonides as lyrists. Of the monuments of architecture 
 and sculpture belonging to this period the most important 
 are the Parthenon (q.v.), the Erechtheum, the Temple of 
 Wingless Victory {Nike Apteros), the Propylge, the The- 
 seum, the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, and the 
 statues and reliefs that adorned these structures. It is 
 
ATHENS. 
 
 11 
 
12 ATHENS. 
 
 from the contemplation of these ruins and remains that 
 the beholder gains such a conception of the purity and 
 exquisite grace of ancient art as he can get nowhere else. 
 The simplest and most majestic structure of all is the 
 Parthenon, built in the Doric style, and richly orna- 
 mented with polychromatic colouring. Its cella con- 
 tained the chryselephantine statue of the virgin goddess 
 from the hand of Phidias. Its pediments were adorned 
 with groups of statuary representing the birth of Athena, 
 and the contest of Poseidon and Athena for the posses- 
 sion of Attica. The frieze around its cella wall portrayed 
 the procession of the Panathenaic festival. Of these 
 sculptures the largest part of what has been preserved 
 was carried by Lord Elgin to the British Museum, where 
 the collection is known as 'the Elgin Marbles' (q.v.). 
 The temple first became a ruin in 1687, through the 
 bombardment of the Venetians, one of whose lieutenants 
 had the wretched good luck to send a bomb into the 
 powder stored by the Turks in the cella. Shattered and 
 battered though it is, the Parthenon is perhaps the most 
 beautiful ruin in the world. Of the Erechtheum, which 
 was built in the Ionic style, and which has a form entirely 
 different from that of any other known temple, the most 
 beautiful part, the so-called ' Porch of th» Caryatides,' is 
 still in fair state of preservation, and shows six graceful 
 female figures supporting the architrave. The Propylsea, 
 which formed the entrance to the Acropolis, consisted of 
 three parts — viz. a central porch with five gates, and a 
 north and south wing. It was the most massive secular 
 structure of ancient Athens, but, probably through the 
 distractions and expenditures of the Peloponnesian war, 
 was never completed. Contiguous and in front of the 
 
ATHENS. 13 
 
 south wing of tlie Propylsea is the Temple of Wingless 
 Victory, built in the Ionic style and of Pentelic marble. 
 On a slight elevation north-west of the Acropolis stands 
 the so-called Theseum, the best preserved of all the struct- 
 ures of the ancient city. It was built somewhat earlier 
 than the Parthenon, is also of the Doric order, and 
 derives its name from the tradition that here the remains 
 of Theseus were brought from the island of Scyros and 
 interred. Most modern scholars believe it was a temple 
 of Heracles or of Hephaestus. In the middle ages it 
 served as a Christian church dedicated to St. George. 
 The gold-brown tint of the weather-stained Pentelic 
 marble presents, in the glow of the rising or setting sun, 
 a peculiarly beautiful effect. 
 
 In an out-of-the-way corner, south-east from the 
 Acropolis, amid squalid surroundings, stands the grace- 
 ful Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. This monument 
 owes its origin to the custom of dedicating the tripods 
 given in the Dionysiac contests to the victorious chorus. 
 It is in the form of a small circular temple, which served 
 as the base of the tripod, and is one of the earliest spe- 
 cimens of the Corinthian architecture. On the south 
 slope of the Acropolis was the sanctuary of Dionysus, 
 where later was built the great theatre, the remains of 
 which, consisting of seats hewn into the rock, marble 
 thrones, pieces of a later proscenium, and other archi- 
 tectural fragments, still testify to the interest of the 
 Athenians in the festivals of the god of the vine. 
 Closely adjacent, on a higher terrace, lay the sanctuaries 
 of ^sculapius, Themis, Aphrodite, and Demeter, of 
 which little except the foundations remain. 
 
 (3) In its most flourishing period, Athens contained 
 
 -1 
 
14 A THENS. 
 
 upwards of 10,000 dwellings, and numbered at least 
 100,000 free inhabitants, and more than twice as many- 
 slaves. The number of citizens who were entitled to 
 vote and to hold office was about 20,000. The decline 
 of Athenian power and prosperity dates from the close 
 of the Peloponnesian war (403 B.C.), which had ex- 
 hausted the resources of Athens and broken her spirit. 
 Still, at this time there were not Avanting patriots and 
 statesmen, such as Demosthenes and Lycurgus, who 
 secured for Athens a new though brief ascendency 
 among the states of Greece, and made her the bulwark 
 of Hellenic independence, until the fatal battle of 
 Chsetronea (338 B.C.), which established the Macedonian 
 supremacy. Lycurgus, who stood for many years at 
 the head of the financial administration of Athens, was 
 most active in fortifying and building up the city. A 
 new and magnificent arsenal in the Piraeus, called after 
 its architect the arsenal of Philon, was erected under his 
 direction, and in Athens he built a new stage structure 
 and lined the seats of the Dionysiac theatre with marble. 
 On the banks of the Ilissus he laid out the Stadium, 
 used for the first time in 330 B.C.. for the games of 
 the Panathenaic festival ; it had seats for no less than 
 45,000 persons. He enlarged and beautified the gymna- 
 sium known as the Lyceum, where Aristotle expounded 
 his science and philosophy. During the subsequent 
 Macedonian occupation, Demetrius of Phalerum gave 
 the city a wise administration. Now Athens became 
 the seat of schools of philosophy and rhetoric, and the 
 metropolis of polite learning. The long list of bene- 
 factors of Athens during the Alexandrian period begins 
 with Ptolemy Philadelphus (284 B.C.), who founded a 
 
ATHENS. 15 
 
 gymnasium and library which bears his name. The 
 kings of Pergamus, Attains and Eumenes, built mar- 
 kets and halls and theatres, and the Syrian Antiochus 
 Epiphanes (175 B.C.) resumed the building of the Olym- 
 pieum, which for a long time had remained half com- 
 pleted. With the destruction of Corinth in 146 B.C. by 
 the Romans, and the dissolution of .the Achseau League 
 (q.v.), Athens with the rest of Greece became a Roman 
 province. Yet for a long time the conqueror Rome sat 
 at the feet of the conquered Athens, to learn her art and 
 letters, and to gain from her sages teachings of philoso- 
 phy and rules of statesmanship. Of the buildings of 
 this period should be named especially the Tower of the 
 Winds, which served as a kind of public clock and ba- 
 rometer, built by Andronicus Cyrrhestes, and the Gate 
 of the Agora. The Emperor Hadrian, probably no less 
 through a desire to gratify his vanity than from a love 
 of Greek culture, gave Athens a fresh revival of art and 
 a new prosperity. An entire quarter of the city, south- 
 east of the Acropolis, was named after him, as is attested 
 by an inscription which can still be read on the ' Gate 
 of Hadrian.' He finished the great Temple of Zeus 
 begun by Pisistratus, which was thus more than 600 
 years in course of building. About the same time a 
 wealthy Athenian, Herodes Atticus of Marathon, built, 
 in honour of his wife Regilla, a magnificent theatre or 
 odeum, the ruins of which rise conspicuously above all 
 other remains of the ancient city at the foot of the 
 Acropolis. But here is the turning-point. From this 
 time onwards the history of Athens is only one of spo- 
 liation and destruction, first by Romans, then by Goths, 
 then by Christians, and last by Mussulmans. The 
 
16 ATHENS. 
 
 Athenians had to pay dearly for espousing the cause of 
 King Mithridates against the Romans. After a long 
 siege, the Romans under Sulla took Athens and plun- 
 dered it of many works of art. In 267 a.d. the city 
 was captured by the Goths. In the next century Con- 
 stantinople began to draw works of art from Athens for 
 her adornment. The schools of philosophy, especially 
 the Neoplatonic, still maintained their existence, and 
 were the support of pagan religion. At last the Em- 
 peror Justinian, in 529 a.d,, closed by edict the Athe- 
 nian schools of philosophy, and the light of science and 
 learning that had been shining for so many centuries, 
 though but dimly at the last, was now wholly extin- 
 guished. The temples were converted into churches, 
 whereby they suffered many architectural changes. In 
 1019 the Emperor Basilius II. held in the Parthenon, 
 now called Panagia, or the church of the Madonna, a 
 religious celebration in gratitude for his victory oyer the 
 northern barbarians. In 1204, after the conquest of 
 Constantinople, Boniface de Montferrat became king of 
 Greece. Athens was ruled by a succession of Frankish 
 dukes until 1456, when the city fell into the hands of 
 the Turks, under whose blighting despotism, with a brief 
 interruption of Venetian ascendency, it remained until 
 the deliverance of Greece was effected in 1833 through 
 the intervention of the great powers of Europe. 
 
 (4) With the liberation of Greece from the yoke of 
 Turkey begins the history of Modern Athens. Before 
 the transfer of the capital from Nauplia by King Otho, 
 who had been chosen to the throne of the new kingdom, 
 Athens was a wretched village of a few hundred houses. 
 Since that time it has enjoyed a prosperous growth. 
 
ATHENS. 17 
 
 Modern Athens has been built chiefly on the eastern 
 and northern sides of the Acropolis, while the ancient 
 city lay chiefly on tlie southern and western sides, and 
 in its public buildings and newer parts it reminds one 
 of the better-built German cities. Its present popula- 
 tion is about 85,000, that of the Piraeus being more than 
 30,000. It has a gymnasium on the German model, a 
 school for the higher education of girls, several })rivate 
 schools of excellent character, a polytechnic school, and 
 a university which numbers more than 50 professors in 
 the various faculties, and about 1400 students. A rail- 
 way connects Athens with the Piraeus, and tramways 
 run to outlying villages. Except in the back streets 
 and remote corners, one would hardly think of Athens 
 as at all an oriental city. Its two chief business streets, 
 'Hermes' and 'JEolus/ cross each other at right angles, 
 and divide the city into four nearly equal parts. Of 
 modern public buildings the most noteworthy are the 
 University, the Academy, which is built almost wholly 
 of marble and shows .with beautiful effect the jwlychro- 
 niatic decorations of the ancient Doric style, the Exposi- 
 tion Hall, and the Palace, externally an ugly square 
 building, but containing some spacious and handsome 
 salons. Among the most recent erections are a mag- 
 nificent building for the national library, and a fine 
 theatre. Both these structures, as well as the Academy 
 and the Exposition Hall, are the gifts of wealthy Greeks, 
 who reside mostly abroad, and take this way of showing 
 their interest in the prosperity of their native country. 
 Athens has become a centre of archseological interest and 
 study. Aside from the monuments mentioned above, it 
 has many remains of antiquity stored and exhibited in 
 
18 ATHENS. 
 
 its three museums. At the eastern end of the Acropolis, 
 the Arch geological Society of Athens has erected a low 
 building in which are preserved the remains and frag- 
 ments of ancient art that have been exhumed on the 
 Acropolis. The most noteworthy of these are several 
 slabs of the Parthenon frieze, a few reliefs of the beau- 
 tiful balustrade of the Temple of Wingless Victory, 
 fragments of the frieze of the Erechtheum, and the 
 fourteen archaic statues of divinities or priestesses found 
 in 1886 west of the Erechtheum. The museum con- 
 tained in the Polytechnicum embraces the Mycense col- 
 lection made by Dr Schliemann, a large number of fig- 
 urines from Tanagra, Myrina, and other places, and a 
 collection of vases illustrative of every period in the his- 
 tory of vase-painting. The National Museum is espe- 
 cially rich in archaic statues and in sepulchral steles and 
 reliefs. The Greek Archaeological Society generously 
 affords every facility to foreign students who are pur- 
 suing archaeological studies, and is constantly expending 
 considerable sums of money in carrying on excavations. 
 At present the entire surface of the Acropolis is under- 
 going excavation under its supervision. Interest in these 
 researches has been greatly stimulated by the planting of 
 foreign archaeological schools at Athens, of which there 
 are four. The French school was established in 1846, 
 and possesses a good library and a small but choice 
 museum. The German Institute was opened in 1873, 
 and has been very active in carrying on researches, the 
 results of which are published in an annual volume en- 
 titled Mittheilungen des Deutschen Archseologisohen Insti- 
 tuts. The French school issues a similar publication 
 called Bulletin de Correspondance HelUnique. Both 
 
ATHENS. 19 
 
 these schools are supported by their respective govern- 
 ments. The American school was founded in 1882, 
 and is maintained by the co-operation of twelve of the 
 leading colleges, and by the friends of classical studies 
 in the United States. The British school was opened 
 in 1886, and is under the patronage of the society for 
 the promotion of Hellenic studies. As ancient Athens 
 was for so many centuries the intellectual centre of the 
 world, so the undecaying interest and charm that attaches 
 to the remains of this ancient home of art and science, 
 beautiful even in ruin and decay, attract more and more 
 the student and the tourist to the ' violet-wreathed city 
 of Athena.' — The principal Athenians are treated of in 
 separate articles. See also Greece, Art, Sculpture ; 
 and Dyer's Ancient Athens: its History, Topography, and 
 Remains [luond. 1873); Bursiau, Geographie des Griech- 
 enlands (1873), important for antiquities and art; Wach- 
 smuth, Stadt Athen (vol. i. 1874); Burnouf, La Ville et 
 PAeropole d'Athenes aux diverses epoques (Par. 1877); 
 Curtius and Kaupert, Atlas von Athen (Berlin, 1878); 
 Forbiger, GHechenland im Zeitalter des Perikles (3 vols. 
 1882); and Milchhofer's, Athen (in Baumeister's Denk- 
 maler des Klassischen Altertums, Munich, 1884). 
 

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