»iw: ?Pk- ;;««:;:' 3^»y^,'j ^;>;.)i;;. i'V!:.^*'- ■?iw/ '^'^'-:^^ s.^^ '^^ .0 0. %^ ^ « ,v ■ 0^ ,- N & ^, -r ^ f^s^^ .H ^' .^^'■■^ oo' A- * .. -Jy- ^.^^• .^^ -^V' -4 r N %■ ,#' .'. FOREIGN NOTICES Of Grund^s Work on the Moral, Social and Political Relations of the Jlmericans. " This is a work of much matter, the result of a long residence in the country, and a careful observation of its moral and social habits. Mr. Grund has applied German intelligence to the investigation of America ; and whether the reader agrees with or differs from him in his arguments and conclusions, it must be admitted that he has applied his mind vigorously to his subject, and stated his ground with perfect fairness." — Literary Gazette. " The author must at once be allowed an acquaintance approaching familiarity with the matter he handles; his thoughts on politics are lib- eral, just, and comprehensive; he gives the most complete and extended view of American character we have ever met v/ith in a single work ; and his style is clear and flowing." — Spectator. ■' The Avork exhibits such an amount of ability, and is written with ^llch a familiar knowledge of the subject, that it is entitled to a large -hare of consideration." — Atlas. " It is long since we read so satisfactory a work, upon all accounts, as the present. It is full of authentic information conveyed in a very sensible and agreeable manner. He has succeeded admirably, and no person will arise from the perusal of this work, without feeling that, be- sides gaining much useful knowledge, he has learnt more fairly to es- timate the nature and value of the American character." — Morning Chronicle, January 20th, 1837. " Our limits bring us to a close ; but we cannot come to that close, without again warmly recommending these volumes to our readers. Mr. Grund, the author, we add, is a German by birth ; a circumstance which enhances the amiable character of mediator, in which he appears on this occasion. Nor can we refrain from adverting, even at this parting moment, to the beautiful and eloquent eulogiums on Britain, with which his volumes are interspersed." — Scoismo.n. " "We shall be glad to meet with this writer again : his style is good, and his views will always be wxrth attention." — Examiner. I Foreign Jfotices of Grund^s Work. "A vindication of America and the Americans is now not wanted; still it is interesting- to hear the results which are derived from the ex_ perience of one who has not only resided in the country many years but who appears ex facie, by the vigorous and philosophical tone of his' observations, to be a competent witness; one who does not see through the chia.r oscuro of any pariicular description of political spectacles, but who can analyze fairly and impartially those political and moral conditions which contribute to the importance of a nation in its foreign relations, and are essential to its own internal and domestic happiness. The author of these volumes is of this class. He gives a very clear and energetic description of the character of the Americans, in all their political and social relations, analyzing, as he proceeds, the causes by which some of the most prominent features of their characters were originally developed and subsequently confirmed. All who have read Basil Hall, Hamilton, or amused themselves with the caricatures of Mrs. Trolloppe, or with the gossip of Mrs. Butler concerning America, should read attentively these volumes by Mr. Grund." London Monthly Repository. '•' One of the most ably written books Ave have had in our hands for a long time. The energy of language, strength of reasoning, and origi- nality of remarks, by which it is distinguished, entitles it to be ranked among the first literary productions of its class of the present day." Scotsman. "A valuable contribution to our knowledge of America, and an able illustration and defence of free institutions." — Monthly Review. " One of the best books that has yet been written on America ; it is,we believe, a faithful and certainly highly interesting description of the Americans : we think every person of every party ought to do the Au- thor and his work the justice to read the two volumes." — 3IelropoUtan Conservative Journal. "A Mr. Grund has executed the task he proposed to himself with singu- lar ability, and a thorough knowledge of his s\xh]Qc\.r— Dublin Evening Post. " It is written with great intelligence and vivacity, and in a thoroughly liberal spirit." — Examiner, July 26th, 1837. " It is written with much ability, and in a spirit of fairness to which we can scarcely point out an exception." — Court Journal. " One exceedingly amusing work." — Sunday Times. " Though eulogy is the staple commodity of the work, it is the produc- tion of a man of sound sense and good education, who has mixed in so- ciety, who thinks for himself, and who, although tender of America, is not afraid boldly to attack English prejudices." — Courier, Jan. 24. THE AMERICANS, IN THEIR MORAL, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. BY FRANCIS J. GRUND. FROM THE LONDON EDITION OF LONGMAN, REES, ORME, BROWN, GREEN AND LONGMAN. TWO VOLUMES IN ONE. BOSTON: MARSH, CAPEN AND LYON. 1837. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1837, by Francis J. Grund, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. PRipfTED BY \Ym. a. Hall & Co. — Boston. ' PUllFAL^E I RESPECTFULLY siibiTiit the following work to the English public, not as the observa- tions of a tourist, but as the result of the ex- perience of one who has resided in America many years. I have anxiously endeavored to give an im- partial account of the present condition of the United States, and faithfully to deline- ate those characteristic features which dis- tinguish the Americans from the different nations of Europe. Whether I have succeed- ed, the public must decide ; of whom I claim no other indulgence than that to which I may be entitled from the rectitude of my in- tentions, and an honest desire to correct pre- judices — American or English — and not to furnish them with fresh aliment. 10 PREFACE. The Americans haye been grossly misrep- resented; and this not so much by ascribing to them spurious qualities, as by omitting all mention of those which entitle* therp to hon- or and respect, and representing the foibles of certain classes as weaknesses belonging to the nation. The object of this publication will be at- tained, if it serve to inspire the English with more just conceptions of American worth, and increase the respect and friendship of Amer- ica for England. Regent Street^ London^ Dec, 24, 1836. Erratum.— Page 80, line 16 from top, for " gratify," read mortify. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. American Manners and Society. — Fashionable Coteries. — Dandies. — Aristocracy. — Its Composition and Pe- culiarities. -------13 CHAPTER n. American Ladies. — Sanctity of Marriages. — Domestic Habits.^— Aversion to Public Amusements. — Churches. — Influence of the Want of a Church Establishment. — Keeping of the Sabbath. - . - - 31 CHAPTER III. Reception of Foreigners in the United States. — The Eng- lish, Scotch, Irish, Germans, French, Italians, and Spaniards. — American Prejudices. — Their Origin. 53 CHAPTER IV. American Theatres. — Tragedians. — Comic Actors. — American Wit. — Music. — Painting. — General Reflec- tions on the Arts. ------ 76 CHAPTER V. American Literature. — Its Relation to the English. — Periodicals. — Daily Press. — City and Country Papers. — Their Influence on the Political Prospects of the Nation. 92 CHAPTER VI. Progress of Education in the United States. — Common Schools. — American Instructers. — Low Estimation of American Teachers. — Colleges. — Medical and Law- Schools. — Theological Seminaries. — Education of the Clergy. — Public Libraries. - - - - 124 CHAPTER VIL General Observations on Americans. — Definition of Ame- rican Patriotism. — The Americans as a Moral and Re- 12 CONTENTS. ligious People. — Different Religious Denominations in America. — Unitarianism. — The Respect of the Ameri- cans for the Law.— Observations on the Lynch-Law. — Its Origin. — Temperance and other Benevolent Socie- ties. — National Charity. - . - - - 148 CHAPTER VIII. American Industry. — Quickness of Motion. — Agriculture. — The West. — Character of Western Settlers. — Influ- ence of the Western Settlements on the Political Pros- pects of America. — Foreign Settlers. — Germans. — Irish. — Removal of the Indians. — American Servants. — Relationof the Rich to the Poor. - - 202 CHAPTER IX. Commerce of the United States.— System of Credit.— American Capitalists. — Banks. — Manufactures. — Me- chanic Arts. — Wages and Hours of Labor. — Ingenuity of Americans. — Navigation. — Sailors. — The Fisheries. — Ship-building. ---__. 239 CHAPTER X. Internal Navigation of the United States. — Railroads. — Canals. — FaciHties of TravelUng. — Their Influence on the Political Condition of the People. — Steam-boats. — Public and Boarding Houses. — Hospitality of Ameri- cans. 301 CHAPTER XI. The Southern Planters.— Their Relation to the Inhabit- ants of the North. — Slavery. - . . _ 330 CHAPTER XH. National Defence of the United States. — The Army. — The Navy. — The Militia. - - . . 375 CHAPTER XIII. Political Prospects of America. — Universal Suflraf^e. State of Parties. — Relative Position of Nortii and Soutli America. — Of North America, w ith regard to Enghmd and the rest of the World. — Conclusion. - -^ 3S9 v THE AMERICANS IN THEIR SOCIAL, MORAL, AND POLITICAL RELATIONS. CHAPTER I. AMERICAN MANNERS AND SOCIETY. FASHIONABLE COTE- RIES. DANDIES. ARISTOCRACY. ITS COMPOSITION AND PECULIARITIES. There is scarcely a theme with which English readers are more familiar than that of American manners. From the grotesque sketches of Mrs. Trollope to the lofty and elegant conceptions of Hamilton and Basil Hall, the British public have been entertained with the portentous matter of an American drawing-room. I may, perhaps, disappoint my readers by not following the beaten track, so fertile in amusement and rare sports ; for I shall neither repeat the silly prating of boys and misses, (which one may hear in every country,) nor shall I make those who entertained me the subject of scorn and ridicule. — Neither shall I write an eulogy ; for, the truth being told, there is enough in the moral and social condition of Americans to inter- est the general reader. By American manners I do not mean those of the fash- ionable coteries, nor the peculiar customs of certain dis- tricts, to which the refinements of society have, as yet, hardly penetrated; but the general terms on which Amer- icans associate with each other, and with strangers. 2 14 COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN SOCIETY. Society, in America, is composed of a great number of heterogeneous elements, and the conventional standard, therefore, is less fixed than in any part ofEuro'pe. In the large towns it consists of persons from all parts of the world, with a valuable admixture of "Western," " South- ern," and " Eastern people ;" wdiich names denote al- most as many distinct varieties of the human race. Un- der these circumstances, an American drawing-room must often present anomalies, which, at first, will strike an educated Englishman; but which are hardly ever of- fensive, and may always be explained by the moral and political condition of the country. In the absence of a court, or a powerful aristocracy, elegant accomplishments are seldom cultivated with a view to ornament society ; and are rather the property of a few, whose good fortune it has been to move in the high- er circles of Europe, than a general characteristic of a po- lite education in America. The Americans have, with very few exceptions, no time to cultivate fashionable ele- gance, which they consider a mere ai)])endage to civiliza- tion ; but they are, notwithstanding, a highly sociable people, and, in their own way, both pleasing and instruc- tive. It has always been the fault of European writers to compare American manners, and especially those of the coteries styled " aristocratic," to the polished ease of the higher classes of Europe. Occasionally they have, in- deed, condescended to speak of merchants and manufac- turers, whom they have ever found equal to those of Liv- erpool and Manchester; but, with a forbearance which does credit to their ingenuity, they have not pushed the inquiry further, lest the superiority of the laboring class- es might have compensated for the inferior accomplish- ments of the fashionable circles, and a certain nameless class in Europe altogether lacked its term of com})arison in the United States. They seem to have been aware of the fact, that America is really w hat Hamilton calls the city of Philadelphia — mediocre jya?- excellence ; her politic- al institutions depriving jier of the splendor of a throne — the focus of polite society in Europe; but, at the same time, saving her from the pernicious influence of an idle and turbulent mob — the destruction of public morality AMERICAN MANNERS. 15 and virtue. Tlie manners of Americans, therefore, are as far removed from the elegance of courts, as they are from the boorishness of the lower classes in Europe ; and, perhaps, equjilly free from the vices of both. The true manners of a people do not show themselves in the drawing-room — hs hommes du salon seressemhlent partout ; but in the common transactions of public and private life; and it is, therefore, neither good sense nor justice to select a particular class, and in a peculiar situation, for the term of comparison with Europe. In order to understand the customs and manners of Americans, we must trace them to their origin ; when we shall find that most of what is valuable and substantial in their character is inherited from the English ; but that, at the same time, many of their foibles may be traced to the same source, and especially those for which they are most censured by the English. I shall not here stop to apologise for my belief that the manners and morals of the English (and there is an inti- mate connection between them,) are essentially superior to those of the people on the Continent. There may be less pliableness in the address and carriage of an English- man ; but there is something in the composition of his character which is sure to command respect; there is that dignity which is incompatible with low cunning or con- ceit, and least capable of stooping to a wilful falsehood. This character, in all its severity, and enforced by the most solemn injunctions of religion, has been transplanted to the shores of the new world, to lay the foundation of what are now called American manners and morals. New England, of all the colonies, has had the greatest in- fluence on the establishment of national customs, as apart of her sturdy population has been always emigrating westward, to renew and perpetuate the principles which gave rise to the settlement of Plymouth. But the people of New England were English, and are so now, in their feelings and sentim.ents : to the English, therefore, must be attributed most of the peculiarities for which they are condemned, as, indeed, most of the virtues for which they are celebrated. This does not seem to have been taken sufficiently into consideration by any English traveller whose work hiaf 16 ENGLISH WRITERS ON AMERICA. gone forth to enlighten the public. It is truly surprising how certain pictures of American manners could have contributed so much to the diversion of English readers, when we reflect on the fact that they were drawn from a class of society which has no particular claim to refine- ment in any country, and which, in Europe, presents the same mixture of vice and folly as in America, without, perhaps, some of its redeeming virtues. It remains to be explained why the fair author should have exposed herself to the expense and inconvenience of a long voyage, when she might have found sufficient matter for her book at home. What absurd caricatures of English manners and customs are not daily drawn by French and German sat- irists, without derogating one iota from the dignity of English society, of which most of them have nearly as correct a knowledge, from personal observation, as the author of " Domestic Manners" has of the better circles in the United States. Peculiarities and anomalies will al- ways exist in every country; but their number must nat- urally be greater in one whose boundless territory is di- vided into almost as many different states as there are counties in England. The peculiar features of a coun- try, the physical distinction of its soil and climate, the principal occupation of its inhabitants, &c., imprint each a distinct character on the people, which it is difficult to efface, even by the means of education. What difference does not, in this respect, exist between a North-Briton and an inhabitant of the Isle of Wight ; or between the latter and a native of Yorkshire? And how preposterous would not be the idea of publisliing either of these char- acters as correct specimens of the English ? Another remarkable trait of English travellers in the United States consists in their proneness to find the same faults with Americans which the people on the continent of Europe are apt to find with themselves. Thus, it has been remarked that Americans are much given to extol- ling the excellence of their own institutions, whether civil or political, and to undervalue those of foreign countries. This is precisely the complaint about the English, by their continental neighbors, the French and the Germans. If we were to investigate the matter, we should find the cause to be perfectly analogous in both countries : a cer-' AMERICAN PRIDE. 17 tain satisfaction that they are themselves belonging to that glorious community whose achievements, in the field and at home, have " astonished the world." Some apology may, indeed, be oftered fortius patriotic weakness, when we reflect on the actual superiority of British institutions, and especially on the immense influ- ence they have had on the civilization and happiness of the human race. But all the causes of British pride are equally operating on Americans. They are of the same origin ; all the glory attached to the British name is that of their ancestors ; and they have themselves had an hon- orable share in its acquisition. Their fathers were the bold settlers who first transplanted British laws and Brit- ish genius to a new world, to perpetuate them to the end of time. But they have improved upon them ; they have opened God's temples to all his worshippers; and, perhaps, for the first time on earth, raised the standard of equal liberty and justice. They have rallied round this standard to wage war against the most powerful na- tion in Europe — and they were not conquered. A second time they were arrayed in battle against England, and a second time they proved themselves not inferior to their proud progenitors. Are these no causes for national van- ity ? And is this vanity not the highest encomium which they can possibly bestow on the English 1 Do not the English furnish the standard of American pride — the character to which they will not acknowledge themselves inferior? When did any one hear the Americans draw envious comparisons between themselves and other na- tions, save the English? And what, after all, is this pride or conceit but English, strengthened and improved by the republican institutions of America ? Is it not natural for men to be proud of belonging to a nation in proportion as they have a share in its government ? Is there, in this respect, no difterence between a British peer and a com- moner ! Is it, then, a wonder that the Americans should esteem others in proportion to the franchise they have ac- quired ; and that as born legislators they should carry their heads sometimes higher than is consonant Avith the English idea of politeness ? A second not less striking characteristic of American manners is a degree of seriousness, which, at first, might 3* 18 SERIOUSNESS OF AMERICANS. almost be taken for want of sociability. An American is, almost from his cradle, brought up to reflect on his condi- tion, and, from the time he is able to act, employed with the means of improving it. If he be rich, and have con- sequently a larger stake in the public weal, then every new law, every change of election (and there are many in the course of a year,) will make him reflect on the fu- ture : if he be poor, every change may offer him an op- portunity to improve his circumstances. He is ever watchful, ever on the alert, not as most Europeans, as a mere spectator, but as one of the actors, engaged in main- taining or reforming the existing state of aff'airs. Some- thing like it may, at times, be felt in England, and per- haps even in France ; but this cannot be compared to the eff*ects of universal suff'rage in America. The whole mass of the population is constantly agita- ted ; an expression of public opinion is constantly de- manded, constantly hoped for, constantly dreaded. There is no man so rich or powerful but can be made to quail under its influence ; nor any one so humble, in whom it may not raise hopes of success and preferment. It is an all-powerful organ of public justice, sparing none, from the president down to the most obscure citizen ; elevat- ing, humbling, or annihilating whatever it meets in its progress, if justly the object of its reproach. This state of incessant excitement gives to the Ameri- cans an air of busy inquietude, for which they have often been pitied by Europeans ; but which, in fact, constitutes their principal happiness. The Americans have no lime to be unhappy — and this is saying much in favor of their government. The duties of republicans are more ardu- ous than those of men living under any other form of government; but then their performance is pleasing and satisfactory ; because it is connected with consciousness of power. No American would exchange his task for the comparative peace and quiet of Europe; because, in the words of Franklin, "he would be unwilling to pay too dear for the whistle." He finds his solace and quie- tude at home; abroad he is "up and doing." Peace there would be death to him. He would not, for the world, exchange his political activity for the speculative inertness of the Germans; the glorious privilege of having himself RESTLESSNESS OF AMERICANS. 19 a share in the government of his country, for the ^^ dolce far niente'"' of the Itahans; the busy stir of an election, for the idiot noise of a Vienna prado. Let those, who are so prodigal of their compassion for the melancholy rest- lessness of Americans, but remember the painful stupor which befel the Romans after the overthrow of the repub- lic, when, all at once, released from their active duties of citizens, they found in "tranquillity" the principal pun- ishment of their abandonment of virtue. In proportion as the liberties of a people are enlarged, and their franchise extended, they must necessarily be- come more active and serious. For an illustration we need only compare the character of the French, since the revolution of July, with that which they possessed under the old Bourbon dynasty, previous to the revolution of 1789. How much gaiety and outward politeness is there not missing; but how much understanding and rational liberty gained 1 What difference is there not between the bufioonery of "merry England," under the reign of Queen Flizabeth, and the sober, demure composition of John Bull since the acquisition of the habeas corjms, and the revolution ? And yet what unbiassed individual, in either country, would wish back " the good old times," or deny that the condition of the people has been materi- ally improved by the change? Well, then, the Ameri- cans are, in common with the English, a more sober, calm, and reflecting people than, perhaps, any other in the world ; and, for this very reason, able to bear a larger proportion of rational liberty. The influence of this character on the sociable circles of America is undoubtedly felt; but not in the manner generally described by Europeans. Thus, for instance, it does not destroy the spirit of hospitality, for which the Americans were always distinguished, although it has but too often been ill requited; it does not prevent them from receiving their friends in a cordial manner, or enjoying their own domestic fireside: but, being always accustom- ed to thought and reflection, their minds are, perhaps, too fraught with the events of the day and the apprehen- sions of the future, to preserve throughout that fashion- able indifference on all topics, which can neither affect nor cheer any of the company present, and which, for 20 AMERICAN CONVERSATION. that very reason, is considered essential to good manners in Europe. Tlieir sentiments are often expressed with warmtli bordering on enthusiasm, and require, therefore, a greater degree of attention and sympathy on the part of their audience, than Europeans of rank are willing to bestow on ordinary subjects of conversation. On this account, American society is sometimes fatiguing; and the complaint has often been made by foreigners, that it requires a certain preparation in order to understand or enjoy it. Its demands on a stranger are more numerous than is always agreeable ; and if he be a man of talent or reputation, he is expected to show off and entertain the company. The Americans, on such occasions, are always willing to listen, to learn, and, perhaps, to ques^ lion ; but Europeans are not always ready to teach or to answer, and still less disposed to receive instruction from their entertainers. In this manner, society proves often a task to men of consideration and learning, instead of offering them a convenient resj)ite, as in Europe. The most bitter reproach, however, which has ever been heaped upon American manners, is their unhallow- ed custom of talking about trade and traffic. This, dur- ing a period of more than fourteen years, I confess not to have remarked half as often as Hamilton, and never, except from one man of business to another. I rather think an honorable exception was made in his favor, in order to acquaint him the better with American affairs, on which they knew he was about to write a book ; little suspecting that subjects so intrinsically mean, as mere trade and commerce, must necessarily be beneath the no- tice of an author. The Americans, I admit, show, on all such occasions, a morbid solicitude to forestall the good opinions of their guests; and would, perhaps, succeed better if they were more careless and reserved. Notwith- standing all this, we have his own acknowledgment as to the new ideas he acquiijed in this manner, which is at least a proof that American society was not without the means of improving his stock of information.* *" Since my arrival," says Mr. Hamilton, "I have received much involuntary instruction in the prices of corn, cotton, and tobacco. My stock of information as to bankruptcies is very respectable ; and if the manufacturers of Glasgow and Paisley knew" only half as well as I do IMITATION OF EUROPEAN MANNERS. 21 The Americans have also been reproached with an al- most slavish imitation of European manners ; which, amongst the wealthier classes at least, is said to exist in a degree bordering on the ludicrous, This is decidedly the greatest and most merited charge that can be brought against them and that noble spirit of independence for which they are, in other respects, remarkable. Every nation has an indisputable right to fix its own conventional standard, which must be based on its history and the general habits of the people, resulting from the climate, soil, and the political institutions of the country. No native of Russia would judge a West Indian by the conventional standard of Petersburg ; nor would an Eng- lishman govern his conduct by the rules* of etiquette of Rome or Naples. What, in a mercantile community, might be perfectly just and proper, would, under a mili- tary government, be considered in a very different light ; and the ceremony of a Turkish divan would ill suit the council chamber of the King of England. The Ameri- cans alone seem to have given up the privilege of estab- lishing conventional rules of their own ; and thus, with a singular complaisance, judge the manners of every for- eigner, and sufter their own to be judged, by the standard of another country. The consequence of this want of independence is felt in the arrogance and presumption with which even the meanest and most ignorant of Euro- peans passes sentence on American manners, whenever they disagree with his own ; and in his unrestrained con- tempt for those whom he sees anxiously striving to imi- tate what a European valet or a footman is infinitely more successfiil in accomplishing; whilst their laws, their political institutions, and the industrious habits of the people, are in open contradiction, with the frivolities of mere fashionable life. How often have I not, myself, seen Europeans curl their lips at the apparent plainness of Americans, who were, in every respect, their superiors, save in the cut of the coat and the felicitous adaptation how thoroughly the new market is glutted with their goods, they as- suredly would send out no more on speculation." If the learned author had gathered more such "respectable" infor- mation, he would, at least, have made his work more useful to his country. 22 IMITATION OF EUROPEAN MANNERS. of a coxcomb's bow; and, what is worse, beheld these sentiments approved bj some American exquisite, who had just returned home, fraught with the follies of all countries, but seemingly light of the good sense of his own. The at.tempt to create ffishionable and aristocratic dis- tinctions, will, in America, never be crowned with success. Tlie reason is apparent. Every species of aristocracy must be based on wealth and power, and contain, within itself, the j)rinci|)le of perpetuity. Without these requi- sites their superiority will never be acknowledged, nor will they have the means of enforcing it. There exists, in the large cities of America, certain coteries, composed principally of wealthy families ; but their wealth is not permanent, an(4 they are perfectly powerless when op- posed to the great mass of the people. JVot more than one fourth of all the men who possess property in the United States have inherited it ; the rest have acquired it by their own industry. Scarcely one fourth, therefore, could have been brought up in the elegancies of fashiona- ble life ; the remainder are recruits and stragglers. But, in the total absence of monopolies, and with the immense resources of the country, the road to fortune is open to all; while those who possess property may lose it, and must, at any rate, ultimately divide it equally amongst their children. The elements of American coteries are, therefore, constantly varying; but every new change brings them nearer to a level with the people. The abrogation of primogeniture, in America, has done more towards equalizing conditions than the spirit of ex- clusiveness will ever be able to overcome ; aristocratic pretensions may exist; but they will always remain impo- tent, and die with the respective pretenders. The ab- sence of primogeniture acts as a constant moderator in society, humbling the rich and elevating the poor. It obliges the sons of the wealthy to join personal applica- tion to an honest inheritance, and elevates the hopes of the lower classes with the expectance of future prosperity. It is thus the strongest pillar of democracy in the consti- tution of nearly every State of the Union. No aristocracy can exist or maintain itself without property. The nobility of France had virtually ceased to exist long before the hereditary peerage was abolished; AMERICAN ARISTOCRACY. 23 while the patronage of the English would alone be suffi- cient to establish a power which would make itself felt, even if the House of Lords were reformed. There are even those * who beheve that in the latter case its power, instead of being confined to its usual channel, would ex- tend itself over every department of state, and absorb, for a time at least, the main interests of the country. The American aristocracy, on the contrary, possess neither hereditary wealth nor privileges, nor the power of direct- ing the lower classes. The prosperity of the country is too general to reduce any portion of the people to the ab- ject condition of ministers to the passions and appetites of the rich. It is even gold which destroys the worship of the golden calf But how can it be possible for the American aristocra- cy to lay claims to superior distinctions, when the people are constantly reminded, by words and actions, that thei/ are the legislators, that the fee-simple is in them, and that thei/ possess the invaluable privilege of calling to office men of their own choice and principles ? Are not the American people called upon to pass sentence on every individual whose ambition may prompt him to seek dis- tinction and honor at their hands? And what is not done to conciliate the good will and favor of the people 1 Are they not constantly flattered, courted, and caressed by that very aristocracy which, if it truly existed, would spurn equality with the people ? Is the judgment of the people, expressed by the ballot-box, not appealed to as the ultimate decision of every argument and contest ? Aristocracy, if it shall deserve that name, must not only be based on the vain pretensions of certain classes, but on its public acknowledgment by law, and the common consent of others. This, however, is not the work of a generation, and requires an historical connexion with the origin and progress of a country. Why, then, should the Americans recognise a superior class of society, if that class be neither acknowledged by law nor possessed of power ? How shall they be brought to worship those from whom they are accustomed to receive homage 1 — vvho are either men of their own elec- tion, and consequently of their own making, or the de- * Heine. 24 REPUBLICAN PLAINNESS. feated and unhappy victims of their displeasure ? The aristocracy of America may claim genius, and talent, and superiority, and they may be ambitious ; but it is an "ambition of so airy and light a quality that it is but a shadow's shadow " — a sort of fata morgana reflected from beyond the waters, whose baseless fabric can neither ex* cite apprehension, nor arrest the progress of democracy. Coteries there always were, and always will be, in large cities ; but they need not necessarily be connected with power. In America, moreover, they exist, principally, among the ladies; there being, as yet, but few gentlemen to be called " of leisure," or exclusively devoted to socie- ty. The country is yet too young, and offers too large a field for the spirit of enterprise and business, to leave to the fashionable drawing-rooms other devotees than young misses and elegants of from fourteen to twenty years of age. That such companies may, nevertheless, have their attractions, no one can reasonably doubt; but they are not composed of elements capable of changing the manners and customs of tiie country ; and, as long as their compo- sition does not materially alter, must remain deprived of that influence which the higher circles in Europe are wont to exercise over all classes of society. The manners of republicans must necessarily be more nearly on a level with each other than those of a people living under a monarchical government. There are no nobles to vie with the splendor of the throne ; no com- moners to outdo the nobility. The dignified simplicity of the American President and all high functionaries of state is little calculated to furnish patterns of expensive fash- ions ; and, were all Americans, in this respect, exact im- itators of the amiable plainness of General Jackson, their manners would soon cease to be an object of satire to English tourists. They would then present dignity with- out ornament, candor without loquacity, loftiness of mind unmingled with contempt for others. Europeans would then visit the United States, not to ridicule American manners, but for the purpose of studying them ; and, per- haps, carry home the useful conviction, that though republics are no fit schools for courtiers, they may, nev- ertheless, abound in good sense, agreeable address, and genuine cordiality of manners. AMERICAN INTELLIGENCE. 25 When I said that the manners of republicans must be more nearly on a level with each other than those of a people living under a different form of government, I was far from conceiving it in the sordid sense in which it has often been applied to Americans. The tendency of Amer- ican democracy is not to debase the wealthy in mind or fortune, but to raise the inferior classes to a moral eleva- tion, where they need no longer be degraded and despis- ed. It is not a drawback on individual distinction or merit, — which, on the contrary, it encourages more than any other government — but it is a great safeguard against the total abjectedness of the lower classes. The seeming equality of conditions in America is not effected by with- holding certain privileges from the educated and wealthy, but by extending them to the middle, and even inferior or- ders of society. The man of education, or of fortune, is respected in America as in Europe ; but the deference paid to his per- son is untinged with the humiliating consciousness of be- ing incapable ever to attain to the same distinctions. There is nothing in the institutions of America to dero- gate from the dignity of gentlemen ; they simply prevent a certain class from enjoying that title to the prejudice and exclusion of all the rest. They are not unjust to the rich and the learned because they are more just to the poor ; tliey do not prevent good breeding or good man- ners, but, on the contrary, spread them amongst a larger number of people. But there are men who can- not enjoy wealth unless they know that others are poor; who value knowledge only in proportion as it gives them power over their fellow-creatures; who could not relish venison unless they knew a half-starved population was dying for the want of bread. Such men have repeatedly visited the United States, and were, of course, much an- noyed with the vulgar plenty of the land, and the desire of every American to be considered "a gentleman." It was this feature of democracy which they described as begetting low breeding, because it is apt to make Amer- icans wanting in that outward respect, which a certain class of men is always sure to meet with in Europe. But deference for the just claims of others need not necessa- rily be accompanied by marks of humiliating self-denial; 3 26 AMERICAN INTELLIGENCE. and it is, perhaps, better that the whole distinction should be dropped, than that the inferiority should exist in the degree indicated by the outward forms of civility. But to judge of the manners of a people, one must have been a resident amonst them, and not a mere tourist. From the writings of Basil Hall and Hamilton, it is evi- dent that neither of these gentlemen became acquainted with any but the fashionable coteries of the great cities; and that the manners of the people, and especially those of the respectable middle classes, escaped altogether their immediate attention. What tii'ey say of them in their re- spective works is not the result of personal observation, but rather the stale reiteration of some evening's conver- sation, colored by the partisan spirit of politics and reli- gion. Mrs. Trollope, on the contrary, was hardly known in fashionable society, and only saw the western part of the country, yet ; notwithstanding all this, her book is clever, and has that superiority over the productions of her masculine com])etitors which a caricature, ever so badly drawn, has over a portrait destitute of resemblance. The most remarkable characteristic of Americans is the uncommon degree of intelligence which pervades all classes. I do not here speak of the higher branches of learning which, in the language of Europe, constitute scholarship; but of the great mass of useful knowledge calculated to benefit and improve the condition of man- kind. It is this latter knowledge for which the Ameri- cans are distinguished, and for the attainment of which they have, perhaps, made belter provision than any other nation in the world. This is as it should be. No democ- racy can exist for any length of time without the means of education being widely diffused throughout the country ; but it is certainly not to be expected that republicans should tax themselves, in order to gratify, certain elegant tastes which are of no immediate benefit to the public. The study of the higher branches of science, and the cultivation of the fine arts, find their principal reward in the pleasure arising from the pursuit, and require seldom the assistance of the law to be called into active exist- ence. Wherever this is done, the people have to bear the expense of it, without receiving the gratification. The Americans are yet occupied with what is necessary and RESPECT FOR MEN OF LETTERS. 27 useful, and are, therefore, obliged to leave the higher ac- complishments to the protection of individual munificence. But let any one cast his eye on the sums annually expend- ed for the establishment and support of common schools and colleges, and he will, at once, be convinced of the liberality of Americans in the cause of education ; al- though no allowances are, as yet, made for professorships of heraldry, or the discovery of a north-west passage. I shall not, here, discuss the matter any further, as I intend to recur to it in another place ; but I would ask what in- fluence the higher branches of learning have on the social intercourse of a people, or the manners of society in gen- eral ? What fashionable company in England was ever graced or edified by the conversation of Sir Isaac New- ton 1 What select circle in Germany ever enjoyed and delighted in the philosophical researches of Kant and Leibnitz 1 Men of letters, and more especially, profi- cients in science, are rarely welcome guests at a party ; and, in Germany, they have been uniformly banished to the universities. Neither the arts nor the sciences have, till lately, received particular encouragement from the German courts ; and it was with great justice Schiller could say of Frederic the Great that the German muse was banished from his court ; * and yet, at that very peri- od, the most effectual measures were taken, by men of letters themselves, to ensure the progress and indepen- dence of German literature. But the remark that men of letters do not hold a dis- tinguished rank in American society is totally false and unfounded. There is, perhaps, no society to which learn- * Von dem grosslen Deutschen Sohne, Von des grossen Friedrichs Throne Gieng sie schutzlos ungeehrt. Ruhmlich darfs der Deutsche sagen, Hoher darf das Herz ihm schlagen : Selbst erschuf er sich den Werth. Schiller's German Muse. From the greatest German son, From great Fred'rick's noble throne, Unprotected went she forth. Proudly may the German speak it ; Loudly may his heart repeat it : He himself achieved his worth. 28 RESPECT FOR MEN OF LETTERS. ing furnishes a better introduction ; and 1 am quite cer- tain that some of the gentlemen who have lately visited the United States " for the laudable purpose of informa- tion," owe their friendly reception there more to their high reputation as scliolars, than to any rank they may hold in the army or navy. Scholarship, in America, is, indeed, not so common as it is in Europe ; but the in- dividuals who are able to lay claims to it, are sure of meeting with the acknowledgment due to their merits, and a certain acquaintance with the elements of science is an almost indispensable requisite for admission into good company. The conversation of Americans turns, generally, more on scientific subjects than would be be- lieved by Europeans, and differs, in this respect, widely, from the insipid common-place of the fashionable circles of Europe.* There is hardly a branch of learning which, at some time or other, is not introduced into their collo- quies, and there are few scholars in America who would be denied the privilege of expressing their opinions on a favorite topic, or whose conversation would not be listen- ed to with increased interest and pleasure. To this may be added the proneness of Americans to argue, which, though it may not always correspond to the European idea of good manners, lends, nevertheless, to conversation a zest of which it would otherwise be deprived. Society, in all countries, gains more from the amount of floating intellect, and the capacity of all its members to join in conversation, than from the amount of knowl- edge treasured up in the minds of individuals. This prin- ciple applies most happily to the social condition of the United States ; for it would be difficult to find a country where information is more generally diffused, or the peo- * I write this at Munich, a city which has been much and justly ex- tolled on account of its liberal institutions, and whose progress in the sciences and the fine arts has occupied a large space in the " Foreign duarterly." The King of Bavaria is himself a poet and an artist; and possesses the most perfect judgment of every thing relating to the arts. But, notwithstanding this noble example of the king himself, and his liberal and munificent encouragement of learning, there are but two scientific gentlemen— Mr. T ** and Mr. S**— who can boast of being freely admitted into the highest circles : but as the usual topics of conversation do not often allow them to display their acquirements, they are merely pointed out to strangers someAvhat in the same manner as the giraffe or the elephant in the zoological gardens. AMERICAN DANDIES. 29 pie of all classes more capable of expressing their ideas with clearness and precision. A certain directness of thought and expression may, indeed, be considered a na- tional peculiarity of Americans, and contributes certainly much to their apparent plainness of manners. Mere fash- ionable elegance passes with them for little or nothing ; but in no country are power of reasoning, force of argu- ment, ancl acuteness of observation at a greater premium. Good sense is the ruling element of society, as it is the main-spring of all their public actions ; and the country at large is much a gainer in the result. Mannerism is hardly ever cultivated to the prejudice of the more sub- stantial acquirements, as the conventions of society offer but little or no protection to the ignorance or pretensions of impostors ; and I cannot imagine any circumstances more capable of exhibiting an idiot in trouble than an empty-headed coxcomb in company with rational Ameri- cans. Fashionables and exquisites there are in the large cities of the United States as in Europe ; but they are certainly less the object of envy or admiration, and are almost exclusively in favor with the young misses of the boarding-schools. Their bright career commences and finishes with the lights of the drawing-rooms, and their only chance of distinction is at a waltz or a quadrille. But, once entrapped by some fair enchantress, they quick- ly turn their attention to objects more useful and profit- able. The prospect of supporting a wife and family be- comes then the all-engrossing object of their thoughts and reflections ; and it is by no means un frequent, to see an American, at the age of twenty-one, settle down into a sober husband and father of a family. I have hardly ever known an American fashionable, who was not a minor; but I have never seen one at the bar, or on change. With all the misfortunes which the abolition of primo- geniture may have entailed on America,* it certainly has done much towards establishing permanent habits of in- dustry ; and as long as these last, buffoons and coxcombs must certainly despair of success. To sum up the argument. — Whatever advantages, with * The learned author of " Men and Manners " ascribes the total ab- sence of the higher elegancies of life in America to the abolition of primogeniture. 3* 30 GENERAL REMARKS ON SOCIETY. regard to elegance and external accomplishments, Euro- peans of rank and fashion may possess over the great majority of Americans, the balance of common sense, general information, and high moral rectitude, may, never- theless, incline in favor of the latter. American society offers, as yet, but few attractions to the man of the world ; but it has wherewith to satisfy the heart and the under- standing of the follower of nature : it does not command the luxuries of the aristocratic coteries of Europe ; but it abounds in comforts and rational enjoyments : its general ton and etiquette may fall short of the expectations of a courtier; but it is inferior to none — and perhaps unri- valled — in simplicity and cordiality of manners. CHAPTER II. AMERICAN LADIES. SANCTITY OF MARRIAGES. DOMES- TIC HABITS. ' — AVERSION TO PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS. CHURCHES. INFLUENCE OF THE WANT OF A CHURCH ESTABLISHMENT. KEEPING OF THE SABBATH. Having thus far expressed my opinion of American society in general, I may, perhaps, be permitted to offer a few remarks on the women. I am fully aware of the delicacy of the subject, and the difficulty of the task ; but, having- once undertaken it, I shall ofter the result of my observations, notwithstanding the failures in comparison, and the errors in judgment, of which I may have been guilty. The forms of American ladies are generally distin- guished by great symmetry and fineness of proportion ; but their frames and constitutions seem to be less vigorous than those of the ladies of almost any country in Europe. Their complexions, which, to the South, incline towards the Spanish, are, to the North, remarkably fair and bloom- ing, and, while young, by far the greater portion of them are decidedly handsome. A marked expression of intel- ligence, and a certain indescribable air of languor — probably the result of the climate — lend to their counte- nances a peculiar charm, to which it would be difficult to find a parallel in Europe. An American lady, in her teens, is, perhaps, the most sylph-like creature on earth. Her limbs are exquisitely wrought, her motions light and graceful, and her whole carriage at once easy and digni- fied. But these beauties, it is painfiil to say, are doomed to an early decay. At the period of twenty-four a certain want of fulness in her proportions is already perceptible ; 32 AMERICAN MOTHERS. and, once passed the age of thirty, the whole fabric goes seemingly into decay. As the principal cause of this sud- den decline, some allege the climate ; but I ascribe it more willingly to the great assiduity with which American ladies discharge their duties as mothers. No sooner are they married than they begin to lead a life of comparative seclusion ; and once mothers, they are actually buried to the world. At the period of ushering their children into society they appear, indeed, once more as respectable matrons ; but they are then only the silent witnesses of the triumph of their daughters. An American mother is the nurse, tutor, friend and counsellor of her children. Nearly the whole business of education devolves upon her, and the task is, in many instances, beyond her physi- cal ability. Thus it is customary with many ladies in New England not only to hear their children recite J;he lessons assigned to them at school, but actually to (ex- pound them, and to assist them in the solution of arith- metical and algebraic problems. There are married ladies who apply themselves seriously to the study of mathematics and the classics, for no other purpose than forwarding the education of their children ; and I have known young men who have entered college with no other instruction, in any of the preparatory departments, than what they received from their mothers. But this continued application to the most arduous duties, the in- creasing care and anxiety for the progress and welfare of their children, and the consequent unreasonable confine- ment to the house and the nursery, undermine constitu- tions, already by nature sufftciently delicate ; and it is thus, by the sacrifice of health and beauty, that American ladies pay to their offspring the sacred tribute of maternal affection. No human being can ever requite the tender cares of a mother ; but it appears to me that the x\meri- cans have, in this respect, obligations immeasurably greater than those of the inhabitants of any other country. But there is one perfection in ladies — sometimes the first to attract our notice, and the last to vanish when every other beauty has faded and departed — which con- sists in delicate feet and ankles. The idea is taken from Goethe's celebrated novel " Die Wahlverwandtschaften," and would have hardly found its introduction here, were EDUCATION OF LADIES. 33 L not backed bj the all-powerful authority of the immor- al poet, who, at the same time, was the most accomplished irtist. Well then, this perfection is one, of which Amer- ican ladies can certainly boast, and which they possess even in a higher degree than the French, though they take infinitely less pains to obtrude it on the notice of strangers. I would recommend this to the attention of certain tourists who have much expatiated on the forms and features of American ladies, and profess to be " com- petent judges of female beauty." With regard to education, American ladies resemble the English, which is, probably, the highest encomium which can be bestowed on their good sense and manners. If I judge right, there is, in this respect, less distinction between an English and American lady than between an English and American gentleman. Differences in poli- tics, occupation, &c., must necessarily draw stronger lines of demarcation between men than the more limited sphere of action can possibly create between woman ; but the distinction must become small, indeed, where the ed- ucation of the latter rests upon one and the same basis. The principles of revealed religion and a sound moral philosophy constitute, in America as in England, the foundation of all female instruction ; and it is (with the ex- ception of the fashionable circles) a rare case, in either country, to see the mere agrements de societe preferred to the more substantial acquirements which qualify ladies for their future stations as wives and mothers. Female dignity is ever more the result of character and principle than of mere outward grace and refinement ; and I can- not, in this respect, imagine the women of any country superior to the English or American. In the United States, where there are no classes of society debased in the estimation of the people, and, consequently, none de- graded in their own, this distinction extends even to per- sons in the humblest walks of life, and is there productive of a spe.cies of pride, which Europeans have often mis- taken for presumption ; but which, in fact, arises from a consciousness of moral worth and unexceptionable beTia- vior, which can lay a just claim to our consideration wherever we find it. I have seen nothing among the lower classes of Europe at all to be compared to it ; and 34 EDUCATION OF LADIES. it has certainly oiven me tlie highest opinion of the general morality of female repuhlicans. In point of fashionable accomplishment, American ladies are, perhaps, inferior to those of Europe ; but the elements of an English, and even classical, education are in no country more widely diffused. In addition to Latin and Greek, a young miss of respectable parents is expect- ed to become versed in the elements of chemistry, miner- alogy, botany, natural philosophy, algebra, geometry, and astronomy, to which the more gifted add even Hebrew and the higher branches of mathematics. In the pursuit of these studies, they are generally allowed to spend quite as much time, and even more, than the young men at college ; and it cannot, therefore, be surprising if the balance of general information should, in the United States, incline in favor of the women. There are few scientific topics of conversation on which an American lady would not be ready to join ; and there are certainly less of English reading which are not more or less familiar to the wives and daughters of respectable trades- people. Music and drawing are, in America, less cul- tivated than they are in France or Germany ; but there is quite as much parlor-amusements as in England, and certainly no lack of the graceful accomplishment of danc- ing. One deficiency, however, I cannot refrain from mentioning, which consists in the imperfect acquirement of modern languages. This, I think, must be the fault of the instructors, who are in the habit of teaching French or Italian in the same manner as the classics, troubling themselves little about accent or emphasis, and still less about the familiar idioms of the language. The conse- quence is, that many American ladies are well able to read French, Italian, and German, and to understand and appreciate even the literature of these languages; but there are comparatively few who can speak either of them with purity or elegance. Great improvements, however, are daily making in the American system of instruction ; and it is, therefore, to be hoped that this de- fect will soon yield to the efforts of more experienced teachers. What I have above remarked in reference to scientific acquirements, applies more particularly to the ladies of SOCIETY OF BOSTON. 35 New England, of whom it is said that they are always infused "with a slight tinge of the blue." Whether this be true or not, I am unable to judge ; but I am quite cer- tain that there are few ladies, in any country, whose company and conversation are more agreeable and en- couraging to men of letters. The society of Boston, especially, is distinguished for its unusual number of clever women, and a certain literary taste is perhaps on this account diffused even amongst the merchants. The influence of this intellectual refinement is strikingly visi- ble in the manners of the Bostonians, and has created an honorable distinction in favor of their city, which, by the common consent of Americans, is called the Athens of the United States. The ladies of Philadelphia, and the south generally, possess other advantages not less conspicuous and attrac- tive. Theirs is the province of the graces and the fine arts. I can safely affirm that I have heard as good amateur concerts in Charleston and Philadelphia as in any part of France or Germany ; and I am, certainly, not disposed to undervalue, in this respect, the claims of my native country. Drawing and painting are also much more cultivated than they are to the north ; and foreign languages, especially French and Spanish, are spoken with greater fluency. Their manners are more distin- guished for grace and elegance, and their personal attractions are in England known by the appellation of "American beauty." But all these accomplishments do not prevent them from discharging their duties as wives and mothers ; and it is quite an erroneous notion, though sufficiently prevalent in the Northern States, that the ladies of the south are deficient in their domestic arrange- ments, or negligent in the education of their children. The case is indeed quite the reverse. The household of a southern planter is generally quite as well arranged as that of a farmer to the north ; though it is infinitely more complicate, on account of the slaves. In case of sickness, even among the negroes, or any other domestic calamity, the energy and patience of the southern ladies are severe- ly taxed; and, as for the instruction of children, the task devolves almost entirely on them ; iew good schools or seminaries of learning being comparatively at the com- 36 AMERICAN LADIES mand of the parents, and among these, hardly any for the education of daughters. It has, sometimes, been remarked that American ladies, though usually fine and agreeable, are not always replete with imagination. It is not long since I heard his Royal Higliness the duke of* * , remark that he had seen many American ladies at his mother's court ; but that, to him, they were like a gallery of statues. The prince made some other very witty remarks on America, the precise meaning of which I was unable to comprehend, and con- cluded by comparing the western world to a woman, (he propably meant a young and a bearing one,) while Europe was to him the strong and lordly man of creation. I took the liberty to reply that young iiwmen were frequently more vigorous and powerful than old men, especially when the limbs of the latter aftbrded already specimens of mor- bid anatomy, which, of course, I could not be supposed to apply to the duke's own dominions. There could be nothing offensive in his sarcasm on American ladies, as it was generally whispered in society that the duke^s indis- cretions had rendered his admiration of ivomen someiohat more than suspicious. There is, in the great majority of American ladies, that calm subjection of passion and temper, which they deem indispensable to female dignity or grace ; but it does not follow that, on this account, they must be devoid of imagination and feeling. Their eyes arc, perhaps, less expressive of what, in Italy, would be called passion ; but they are beaming with intelligence and kindness ; and the great number of Europeans annually married in the United States, proves at least, that they are capable of kindling love and permanent attachment. But the strongest argument in favor of their sentiments is the almost universal practice of marrying "for love," to which only few of the fashionable coteries in the large cities seem to make an exception. The influence of this moral habit, based, as it is, on the salutary principle of a free choice, manifests itself powerfully in the rapid progress of population, and perhaps also in the substance and composition of the American people. As regards the morality and virtue of American ladies, it will suffice to say that they are not inferior to the AMERICAN LADIES. ^ English, who are universally acknowledged to be the best wives and mothers in Europe. The slightest sus- picion against the character of a lady, is, in America, as in England, sufficient to exclude her from society; but, in America, public opinion is equally severe on men, and this is certainly a considerable improvement. Ac- cordingly, there is no country in which scandal, even amongst the most fashionable circles, is so rare as in the United States, or where the term " intrigue " is less known and understood. I shall always renvember the observa- tion of a French geirtleman, who could find nothing to interest him in American society, because " it precluded the very idea of a liaison^ " il/j," exclaimed he, •* c'est le paradis des maris ! " Thus far, I have spoken of the manners of Americans in general; much, however, remains yet to be said of their peculiar domestic habits. The houses of the wealthier classes resemble those of the gentry in England, and are wanting in nothing which can materially contribute to comfort. Some of the higher elegancies of life, are, indeed, confined to a few imitators of European fashions ; but there is a sufficiency of all that is essential and needful. No ostentatious attempt is «ver mad« to display either fortune or riches ; but, on the contrary, every thing avoided, which, being contrary to republican plainness, might offend, or unnecessarily attract the attention of the people. Furniture, dress, carriages, &c. are all of the simplest construction ; and tbe oldest and most aristocratic families set, in this re- spect, the example to the more recently promoted fashion- ables. Whatever political reason there may exist for the prevalence of this taste, it is, nevertheless, a good one, and being shared by the great majority of the nation, impresses a peculiar character of simplicity on the do- mestic life of Americans. It is impossible for an Euro- pean to live for any length of time in the United States, without being constantly reminded, in town or in the country, at home or abroad, that he is living in a republic, and that the sovereign power of that republic is solely vested in the majority ; for, whatever is capable of ex- citing envy or jealousy by too glaring a distinction from the inferior classes, is condemned by public opinion, and, 4 38 HABITS OF THE LABORING CLASSES. on that account, studiously avoided by persons of all ranks of society. But then the great prosperity of the country enables even the laboring classes to enjoy com- forts much beyond the reach of superior orders in Europe ; and prevents the scale from becoming too low. On entering the house of a respectable mechanic, in any of the large cities of the United States, one cannot but be astonished at the apparent neatness and comfort of the apartments, the large airy parlors, the nice carpets and mahogany furniture, and the tolerable good library, showing the inmates' acquaintance with the standard works of English literature. These are advantages which but few individuals of the same class enjoy, by way of distinction, in Europe; but which, in America, are within the reasonable hopes and expectations of almost all the inferior classes. What powerful stimulus is not this to industry? What premium on sobriety and unexceptionable conduct ? A certain degree of respec- tability is, in all countries, attached to property, and is, perhaps, one of the principal reasons why riclies are cov- eted. A poor man has certainly more temptations, and requires more virtue to withstand them, than one who is in tolerable circumstances. The motives of the rich are hardly ever questioned, while the poor are but too often objects of distrust and suspicion. Pauper uhiquc jacet. The laboring classes in America are really less remov- ed from the wealthy merchants and professional men thaiT they are in any part of Europe ; and the term " mob," with which the lower classes in England are honored, does not apply to any portion of the American commu- nity. With greater ease and comfort in his domestic arrangements, the laboring American acquires also the necessary leisure and disposition for reading ; his circle of ideas becomes enlarged, and he is rendered more ca- pable of appreciating the advantages of the political institutions of his country. Both thought and reflection may be crushed by excessive labor, and the lofty aspir- ings of the mind enslaved by the cravings of the body. Liberty, without promoting the material interests of man, is a thing altogether beyond the comprehension of the multitude ; and there are many who, had they attained it, would, like the Israelites of old, wish themselves back DOMESTIC HABITS. 39 to their flesh-pots. I know not whether it is quest of lib- erty or property which causes Europeans to emigrate to America, but I am satisfied that there is an intimate con- nection between the two, and a constant reaction of one upon the other. An excellent habit of the Americans, which is an in- calculable promoter of domestic happiness, consists in their passing all th^ time which is not required for active business at home or in the circle of their acquaintance. To this custom must be ascribed the unusual number nf happy marriages in the United States, which is the cor- ner-stoneof the high morality of the country. Public houses, in America, are almost wholly frequented by trav- ellers ; and the practice has recently been introduced into many of them not to sell wine or liquor of any descrip- tion, except to boarders. But there is one deficiency in the general routine of pleasure in the United States, which is particularly op- pressive to the laboring classes, and consists in the almost total absence of public gardens or pleasure-grounds in the large cities. There is nothing more favorable to a community of feeling, and a certain momentary oblivion of all ranks and distinctions, which attaches us more warmly to our kind, than public places of rendezvous, frequented by all classes of society, and enjoyed alike by all. In Europe, nearly every large city is adorned with them ; and in Germany, every hamlet ; but in America, they seem to be opposed to the domestic habits of the people. New York has something in the shape of a pub- lic garden, in the establishment of Niblo's, and the battery. But there is, generally, an admission fee to both ; and neither one nor the other is large enough to contain a considerable portion of the whole population of the city. The battery, especially, can only be frequented in the evening, there being neither trees nor shrubs to afford the least shelter against the sun, though the place itself, from its elevation, commands a most beautiful view of the har- bor. Boston, alone, of all the cities in the United States, has a large public mall ; but even this (the munificent gift of an individual) is but little frequented, though the scenery around it is highly picturesque, and the walks themselves shaded by a most superb double row of chest- 40 EXCLUSIVENESS OF THE HIGHER CLASSES. nuts. There seems to be no want of disposition, on the part of the Bostonians generally, to profit by these ad- vantages ; but unfortunately the taste of the fashionable society has pronounced a verdict against it, and avoids most carefully being mixed and confounded with the mul- titude. This morbid sensitiveness, on the part of the higher classes, arises, unquestionably, from the total absence of any exterior distinction between themselves and the low- er orders, which could point them out as objects of par- ticular respect and reverence ; but I must greatly mis- take the general character of Americans if I am not right in the conjecture, that a greater degree of condescension in the learned and wealthy could hardly fail of meeting with a proper acknowledgment on the part of the people ; while, on the contrary, too great a reserve in the former must necessarily deprive them of a portion of that power and influence which they would, otherwise, be sure to possess. If the American people are guilty of any fault, it is certainly not ingratitude. Whoever has observed their conduct at public meetings, in presence of their fa- vorite speakers and representatives, can testify to the un- feigned respect and uncommon propriety of manner with which they are wont to meet those whose stations and acquirements are really superior to their own. Nothing can be more pusillanimous than the fear of being con- founded with the vulgar ; and it is certainly the w;orst ar- gument, in favor of real or assumed superiority, to- dread the contact of those whom we affect to despise. May a more Christian and charitable feeling soon take the place of this mawkish resuscitation of aristocratic pride, which would befit certain orders in Europe infinitely better than the even-born citizens of a republic. The style of buildings in America is chiefly English, with some slight variation in New York and Philadel- phia ; but, to the south, the houses are adapted to the cli- mate, and of an architecture somewhat resembling the Spanish. The parlors are usually on the ground-floor, (in all the new houses they are on the first floor,) and communicate with each other by folding-doors: the story immediately above contains the chambers and the nursery, and the third and fourth floors are occupied by STYLE OF BUILDINGS. 41 the remainder of the family and the servants. Nearly all the houses of the wealthier citizens contain a number of spare rooms, reserved for the accommodation of guests from the country; and the same kind hospitality is fre- quently tendered to strangers. Most of the modern hous- es are of brick or stone, and generally from three to four stories high ; the Americans showing great fondness for large and spacious dwellings, and the ground in the cities being already too dear to allow them to expatiate much in area. The exterior of the buildings is less marked by style or elegance than the interior is clean and comfort- able ; and the custom prevails, as in England, for each family to occupy a house of its own. , The principal or- nament consists in a sort of portico of various dimen- sions and orders, and a flight of steps leading up to the entrance. In Boston and New York, these steps are commonly of sandstone or granite (a species of sienite ;) but, in Philadelphia, they are of beautiful white marble, which, by daily ablution, is kept as clean as the floor of the parlors, and contributes much to the neat appearance of the streets. The residence of a planter, in the southern states, is altogether adapted to the climate; the rooms having as many windows as practicable, and a large covered piazza, resting on wooden or stone pillars, extending tlie whole front of the building. This piazza is sometimes carried all round the house, and composed of as many stories as the building itself. Its efl"ect on the eye is far from disa- greeable, and its practical advantage in aff'ording shelter against the sun and the dew of those climates, makes it a pleasant retreat for all the members of the family. The streets of the large cities are well paved or mac- adamised, and the side-walks, commonly of brick or of flag-stone, elevated, as in England, to protect the people against horses and vehicles. In Boston and Philadelphia, they are kept exceedingly clean ; but in New York, with the exception of Broadway, the principal street, they oft- en contain wherewithal to feed multitudes of those gen- tle creatures "that plow not, nor obey thy call." The continued bustle and stir of business in New York seems to preclude the possibility of sweeping and cleansing them ; and it may, therefore, be considered a happy cir- 4* 42 AMERICAN CITIES. cumstance, that a set of scavengers should have been found willing to do the needful from sheer inclitiation ; and ready, at any time, to ])ay with their own flesii and blood for whatever advantages they may thus be suffered to enjoy. It must not be inferred, however, that the part inhabited by the more wealthy inhabitants (which is now the West end of the town, and bids fair to rival, at some future day, the most fashionable parts of London,) are in the same filthy state. There all is neatness and cleanliness. The streets are daily swept and sprinkled with water ; the side- walks are kept clean ; the porticos of the houses are of marble orsienite; in short, that part is superior in style and elegance to anything exhibited in other cities of the United States. Neither is the vicinity of the dwellings of the lowest classes more disgusting and mean than some of the dirty lanes of London or Southwark, and certainly far superi- or to the wretched hovels of the poor in Dublin. When- ever the Americans speak of the poor, the term is used merely in contradistinction to the rich, but never denotes that abject order of human beings, who, in the larger cap- itals of Europe, offend and disgust the eye with scenes of the most abandoned wretchedness. How lonsf this stale of prosperity is to last, it is difficult at present to foretell, but as long as any portion of the Western territory re- mains to be settled, no period can be assigned to its dura- tion. At the beginning of this work I proposed to myself not to give descriptions of inanimate objects, further than might be necessary to illustrate the manners of the peo- ple. Whether works of architecture come under this head or not, I am unable to decide ; but I think it not in- consistent with the general plan of this work to offer a few remarks on American churches. The greater num- ber of these, when compared to the wealth of their re- spective congregations, are decidedly mean, both in their exterior and interior appearance ; and there exists, in this respect, an infinitely greater disparity between them and the houses of worship in Europe, than between the dwellings of the rich and the palaces of European princ- es. If republicans are at all permitted to display splen- AMERICAN CHURCHES. 43 dor and magnificence, without offending the pride of their fellow-citizens, it is certainly in the edifices of public worship, and in the halls of their legislative assemblies. With regard to the latter, the Americans possess, already, a proud monument of national grandeur. The capitol at "Washington, situated on an eminence commanding an unobstructed view of many miles in circumference, is an edifice of the most imposing structure and proportions; and, from its very position, incredibly superior to any of the public palaces in Europe. The interior, too, corres- ponds well with the dignity of the design ; but the most sublime effect is produced by its standing high, free, and alone, as the institutions it guards in its bosom ; over- shadowing hills and valleys, and rivers of the mighty land over which it exerts the benign influence of law and jus- tice. But, proud as the Americans may be of their halls of congress, they have not, as yet, a single place of worship at all to. be compared to the finer churches in Europe, where they might render thanks to the Omnipotent Being for the unexampled happiness and prosperity with which he has blessed their country. Some not altogether unsuc- cessful attempts have been made in Boston and Balti- more, at what might be called a cathedral ; but neither the size nor the order, nor even the materials, are resem- bling those of the nobler specimens of Gothic architec- ture in Europe.* Our feelings and emotions are always tinged with the reflections from the objects around us ; and I cannot, therefore, divest myself of the opinion that a superior style of architecture in an edifice of public worship may materially assist the imagination, and enable the mind to turn from mere wordly objects to the contemplation of heaven and the adoration of God. I have known persons who could never pray so fervently as when encompassed by the sombre vaults of a gothic cathedral, and I have, myself, experienced the same feelings on similar occa- sions. But, in addition to the deficiency in style and ornament * Trinity Church, in Boston, is a building of pure taste and uniform architecture ; and the cathedral at Baltimore enjoys the reputation oX being the finest church in the country. 44 AMERICAN CLERGYMEN. there exists, in America, an almost universal practice of building churches, or at least the steeples, of wood, to which are frequently given the most grotesque figures, partaking of all orders of architecture, from the time of Noah to the present day. There is scarce an excuse for this corruption of taste, except the cheapness of the ma- terial, which may recommend the custom in practice. A church ought to be the symbol of immutability and eter- nity, the attributes of the Infinite Being; but nothing can be more averse to either, than its construction of so frail a material as wood. An imitation of stone-work is still more objectionable, as it appears like an attempt at deceit — a sort of architectural counterfeiting, least par- donable in a house of prayer. Such an edifice seems to be unworthy of its noble purpose — a sordid mockery of grandeur, which, without elevating the mind, represents to it only the melancholy picture of human frailties. Yet the Americans are not deficient in liberality to- wards their clergymen, whose pecuniary compensation is certainly generous, when compared with the moderate salaries of the first ofiicers of state, and enables them, generally, to live in houses much more tastefiilly built, and better furnished within, than those in which they de- liver their sermons. This is again republican, and shows the Americans to be much more attached to substance than to forms. The most essential part of divine service is assuredly perform- ed by the clergyman, whose example and admonitions have a more salutary influence on the general morals of his congregation, than the most gorgeous cathedral, or the most moving cantahilc of Haydn. Yet the latter have their advantages too, which, no doubt, will, at some future day, be duly appreciated in America as in Europe. In the Western States, where new settlements are daily form- ing, it would be absurd to erect buildings, the use of which would be reserved for the third or fourth genera- tion. The principal object, there, must necessarily be immediate usefulness ; and it is certainly better for the people to worship in a wooden church than to have no church at all. Another cause, operating against the erecting of costly churches in the United States, is the absence of a power- AMERICAN CLERGYMEN. 45 ful hierarchy. Churches in America are built when they are wanted, or whenever a congregation is sufficiently nu- merous and able to pay a preacher. With them the cler- gyman must be of more importance than the church, in the building of which they voluntarily tax themselves, without having recourse to the pecuniary assistance of others. This will always keep the church poor ; but I doubt whether the practice, while it lasts, does not actu- ally benefit the people. I am convinced there is as good preaching in the United States, and quite as fervent too, as in any country with a church establishment. Setting aside the injustice (of which Americans at least are fully persuaded) of taxing people of a different be- lief with the support of an establishment in which they have no stake or interest, there is, in an hierarchy, that which makes its members indolent and lazy. A person provided for, cannot, by the rules of common sense,, be supposed to work as hard as one who has to exert himself for a living, or whose services are remunerated in propor- tion to their merit and usefulness. An hierarchy, from its superior organization and discipline, may have its po- litical didw?i\\\.3.ges nnder peculiar forms of government ; but I cannot see any spiritual benefit accruing from it to the people. Every member of a hierarchy is necessarily more interested in the continuance of the establishment, than in the discharge of his duties toward the people. He is paid by the establishment, of which he is either a func- tionary or a pensioner, and is as much concerned in its welfare as a British mariner in the safety and endurance of Greenwich Hospital, or a clerk in the solvency of his employers. In America, every clergyman maybe said to do business on his own account, and under his own firm. He, alone, is responsible for any deficiency m the dis- charge of his office, as he is alone entitled to all the credit due to his exertions. He always acts as principal, and is, therefore, more anxious, and will make greater effi>rts to obtain popularity, than one who serves for wages. The actual stock in any one of those firms is, of course, less than the immense capital of the Church of England ; but the aggregate amount of business transacted by them jointly, may, nevertheless, be greater in the United States. The subordinate member of a hierarchy does not act on 46 AMERICAN CLERGYMEN. his own responsibility ; he merely discharges the obliga- tions enjoined by his superiors. It is to them he must look for advancement, as a soldier looks for promotion to his commanding officers ; and a fault of discipline is more severely reprimanded than an actual injustice to- wards a different order. Like the soldier, he has frequent- ly an interest different from that of the people ; and, like him, he is ready to turn his weapons against them whenever the establishment itself is in danger. A church establishment resembles always, more or less, a standing army. It is strong, endurable, and disciplined, but a se- vere tax upon the people, and nearly as dangerous an in- strument for their subjugation. The situation of an American clergyman is usually comfortable ; but there are no church-livings as in Eng- land ; no rich prelates, or other high dignitaries, sufficient- ly wealthy to employ large sums in the building of church- es. Every preacher is paid by his congregation ; and there is, consequently, no accumulation of wealth on the part of the clergymen, nor proportionate poverty on the part of those who employ them. The conditions of the different members of the clergy are, as nearly as possible, on a level with each other and those of the private citi- zens — no distinction being claimed, save that which is based on superior talent and application. Hence the American churches resemble each other as the dwelling- houses. They are built for use, not for ornament; and are neither calculated to attract particular attention, nor to embellish or adorn the cities. But what they lack in quality is more than compensat- ed by increase of nimibers ; and in this consists the ad- vantage of the system. There is no village in the United States without its church, no denomination of Christians in any city without its liouse of prayer, no congregation in any of the new settlements without the spiritual con- solation of a pastor. Religious instruction is obtained every where, at a comparatively cheap rate, without di- rectly taxing the people ; and the enormous sums which would be required for the maintenance of an established church circulate freely in commerce and manufactures, and contribute to the general prosperity of the country. Before I leave this subject, I ought, perhaps, to say at KEEPING OF THE SABBATH. 47 few words on the observation of the sabbath. No univer- sal practice exists, in this respect, in the United States; the Northern and Western States following the example of England, or rather of Scotland, whilst the extreme south are yet adhering to their original French manner of considering Sunday as a day of amusement.* A sabbath in New England is peculiarly impressive and solemn, but at the same time, so cheering, that I do not remember having spent, in Europe, a day half so satisfactorily. It is only by contrast that the real merit of religious insti- tutions may be duly appreciated; and especially those of the Americans. The sabbath was instituted for the poor. As the gos- pel was preached to them in order to dir.ect their hearts to heaven, as the period of their sufferings and the reward of their toils, so the keeping of the sabbath was to alle- viate their bodily hardships below ; once a weekj at least, the rich are to render thanks to the Almighty for the kind dispensation of His providence ; but, on that day, the poor also are to rejoice in a partial exemption from labor, and even the beasts of the field are to be reclaimed from the yoke of their owners. It is the day on which all na- ture is to sanctify the Lord by the universal happiness of His creatures. I have always looked upon the sabbath as the most democratic feature in the whole Christian re- ligion. On the sabbath all aristocratic distinctions of rank and fortune are to be forgotten. The jrowerful are to be humbled before the Lord, and the meanest of man- kind exalted to a momentary equality with the highest of their fellow beings, by worshipping the Father of all, in the common capacity of His children. " The sabbath was made for man, and not man for the sabbath." Mark ii. 27. As a religious and political institution, it is alike une- qualled in church or state ; and, on this account, the Amer- icans, and especially the people of New England, have, at an early period, directed to it the whole wisdom of their legislation. * A notion is sufficiently prevalent in England that the Catholics alone indulge in amusements on the sabbath ; but the Protestant parts of Germany, and many of Switzerland, have adopted the same prac- tice. 48 KEEPING OF THE SABBATH. It has been the established maxim of the "Pilgrim fa- thers'* that the principles and doctrines of revealed reli- gion constitute the broadest and safest basis of every ra- tional system of liberty. No sooner, therefore, had they organised themselves into a political community than they enacted a series of laws for the strict observation of the sabbath ; and althouo;h many of them were not marked by the spirit of liberality of the present age, they were, nevertheless, of incalculable advantage in practice ; and did more for the preservation of the infant colony than any other provision which, at that time, tSiey could have made for that purpose.* The religious principles incul- cated at the solemn meetings of the people on that day, created a unity of faith and sentiment, which gave their deliberations and actions that singleness of purpose, which alone enabled them to triumph over all obstacles which the soil and the climate had placed in the way of their progress. It cannot be objected that other religious institutions, besides the sabbath, might have been capable of produc- ing the same salutary eiiect ; or that religion might have been taught and practised at all times, without appoint- ing a particular day for that purpose. An observance generally enjoined is more apt to be neglected and forgot ten than one commanded at specified periods. A duty which we are required to perform at a certain time is always more impressive than one to which we are rendered familiar * Amongst the earliest laws for the observation of the sabbath were these : " Whoever profaneth the sabbath after admonition, pays, for the first offence, 5s. ; for the second, 10s. ; and to be bound over to the County Court for the third. Governors of youth imder seven years, to suffer for them. " Drinking and sporting on Saturdays, after sunset, pays 5s,; persons refusing to pay, must suffer corporeal punishment as^the Court deter- mines. " No work to be done on the sabbath, on penalty of 10s, for the first of- fence, to be doubled for every following one. " To travel to a meeting, not allowed by law, is a profanation of the sabbath. " Whoever sells drink to a person, except to a stranger, in time of a lecture, pays 5s. " Constables may search for offenders on the Lord's day; they forfeit 10s. for any neglect," Neal's History of New England^ London, 1720. KEEPING OF THE SABBATH. 49 by daily usage. No legislator would entrust the safety of a state to the liahit of its representatives to assemble for the purpose of enacting laws ; but would specify the pe~ riod on which they are to discharge their duty without fail. Besides, it is impossible to make laws capable of embracing generalities, or of binding men to certain uni- versal principles of morality and religion. If a law be not enacted for a specific purpose, which it is distinctly to state, with all its bearings on those whom it is to guide, no true obedience to it can be enforced ; and it can only serve to bring the Legislator into contempt. A law, recommending, in general terms, the principles of the Christian religion, would be of little more force than one enjoining all men to be good, or to abstain from evil. We are to know in what religion consists, and by v/hat exter- nal evidence we are to judge of its being practised. No testimony can, in this respect, be more solemn and uni- versal than an act of public worship ; and nothing more satisfactory than a repetition of it at stated periods. For this reason, it has been the practice of all nations to fix upon certain times for the exercise of their religious rites, which were considered as national distinctions, and as so many means of instilling patriotism and virtue. The his- tory of every country is intimately connected with that of its religious progress ; and it is a fact not less remarkable than instructive, that the period of the greatest religious devotion of a people is always coeval with its heroic age. The sabbath of the Jews was long the rallying point of their religion, under the banners of which they accom- plished all their victories, and which, while they kept it unsullied, protected them against every assailing power. With the early Christians, the observation of the Lord's day was scarcely of less moment, and became subsequent- ly one of th-e characterising distinctions of the different sects. Each denomination of Christians celebrated it ac- cording to their peculiar form of worship, and availed it- self of its recurrence as a means of propagating their doc- trines and principles. The observation of the sabbath be- came associated and identified with the religion to which it gave support, and contributed powerfully to the forma- tion of the Christian character. When the dissenters became the object of the most un- 5 50 KEEPING OF THE SABBATH. relenting persecution in England, the sabbath became the day of their spiritual comfort. On tliat day they gather- ed strength to bear the sufferings to which they were ex- posed, and fortified themselves against the trials which awaited them in the future. This is the reason why, im- mediately after having effected a settlement in America, for the free exercise of their religious worship, they turn- ed their attention to the strict observation of the sabbath. On the Lord's day the whole of their little community was assembled to implore the blessings of Providence on their infant state, alike struggling against famine and the cru- elty of the Indians. With them, it was, at once, a reli- gious, political, and social institution, creative of a kind of patriarchal feeling for which their descendants are yet remarkable. It is to this feeling I would allude, in speak- ing of a New England sabbath. Much of the original severity of religious discipline has, indeed, yielded to sentiments of greater liberality and for- bearance ; enough, however, is yet remaining to reflect the customs and habits of the first settlers. The sabbath is no longer a day of mere " humiliation and prayer, " but also of" thanksgiving and rejoicing ;" yet partaking of all the gravity which distinguishes the character of the New Engiander. Whatever change the feelings of the people may have undergone, the external forms of worship are still preserved, and give to the whole a solemn dignity, which cannot but increase their respect for public wor- aJiip. Sunday is ushered in by a universal stillness on the evening of Saturday. The theatres are closed ; the sound of music and of revel is alike hushed; and the mem- bers of the different families assemble and fill up the pe- riod of cessation from labor with cheerful and friendly conversation. Strangers are not usually admitted to those circles; but those who are, will leave them with feelings of reverence. I was neither born in New England, nor liv- ed there at a very early period of my life ; but I can easily conceive them to beget a strong attachment to home, and to fill the mind with reminiscences which, wherever a New Engiander may wander, will associate the idea of the sabbath with the happiest dreams of his childhood. On Sunday itself, the quiet and stillness of the eve contin- KEEPING OF THE SABBATH. 51 ue till after the evening lecture, when a certain portion of the people relax from the severity of religious perform- ances, by joining a small party of friends and relatives, similar to that in which other families indulge on the evening of Saturday. These rewmows are far from being marked by noise and merriment. No music or song is heard, save the sacred composition of the German mas- ters, and the ruling character of the whole is happiness and peace. In the other cities of the United States, the Lord's day is observed as in England. The shops are closed ; the chiming of bells invites to fore and afternoon service ; the people are moving to church to worship God, each ac- cording to the dictates of his own conscience ; in short, every thing indicates the worship of pious Christians : but the pecular spirit of peace of a New England sabbath is wanting, and, I feel sure, is not to be found in any other part of the world. In some parts of the Southern states, I have seen the sabbath kept in a manner still more rigor- ous than in any town of New England; yet I could not catch the inspiration, which, though a stranger, educated under different influences, and in a different religion, I often felt during my long residence in Boston, CHAPTER III. RECEPTION OF FOREIGNERS IN THE UNITED STATES. THE ENGLISH, SCOTCH, IRISH, GERMANS, FRENCH, ITALIANS, AND SPANIARDS. AMERICAN PREJUDICES. THEIR OR- IGIN, When thousands of emigrants, of all nations, are an- nually embarking for America, with the determined pur- pose of making it their home, the question would natural- ly arise, whether, on their arrival thither, they may all ex- pect the same welcome ; and, if there exist any prejudices with regard to the inhabitants of the different countries of Europe, in whose favor, or to whose detriment they are established. It might also be proper to inquire whether these prejudices are purely of a national character, in which case they would refer to the moral habits of the people ; or, whether they relate more to certain profes- sions more exclusively practised by some of them, and re- pugnant to the feelings of Americans. In either case, the inquiry would be interesting and useful ; as it might not only serve to put foreigners in America on their guard, but explain also a number of peculiarities in the inter- course of Americans with strangers, which, by most trav- ellers, have been traced to a wrong source. That the Americans have prejudices, I do not pretend to deny ; what nation is entirely free from them ? — though a great number of these must be put to the account of their ancestors; and the remainder is proportionably small, as their intercourse with foreign nations is great, and the means of information extensively diffused throughout their country. A large portion of these con- AMERICAN PREJUDICES. 53 sist, howev^er, in retaliations on the prejudices of others, and especially on those of the English. The Americans are proud of having achieved their in- dependence, proud of the moral and political progress of their country since that period, proud of the wealth and power they have acquired, and exceedingly jealous lest other nations, and particularly those whose opinions they value most, should not give them sufficient credit for wis- dom, perseverance, and patriotism. The Americans cannot persuade themselves that the English will ever do them justice, (and it must be confessed that hitherto little jjjstice has been done to them,) and are, therefore, more frequently guilty of solecisms of deportment with regard to them than towards any other nation with whom they come ill contact. A German or a Frenchman might reside for years in the United States without being struck with those traits of Americans, which prove, sometimes, annoying to the English. He might, perhaps, complain of their na- tional prejudices in other respects ; but the complaint would arise from a different source, and would be similar to that which might be caused by a residence in England. I will explain. There <^^ists, in America, as, perhaps, in every other civilized Ci untry, a strong prejudice in favor of the Eng- lish nation. The Americans love and admire British thoughts and conceptions, which they have chosen for their permanent models ; they entertain a high respect for British customs and laws, on which they have estab- lished their own, and cherish a proud remembrance of the achievements of that glorious people from whom they are themselves descended. They allow, in many instaa- ces, the superiority of the English over themselves ; but they are too well informed to apply the same distinction indiscriminately to individuals. An American, in his private capacity, will receive any stranger with politeness, and is always willing to dis- tinguish individuals in proportion to their reputation and acquirements. In the words of Mr. Hamilton, " he is quite aware of high breeding, when he sees it ;''^ but he is the last ready to pay homage to any man, merely " be- cause England has produced him." This, however, is pre- cisely what most Englishmen expect; and they are, 5* 54 AMERrCAN PREJUDICES therefore, often bitterly disappointed. Few English gentlemen of reputation, however, will visit America with- out meeting with a cordial reception, bearing witness of the prejudice which is there established in their favor. The Americans are, on all such occasions, anxious to make the most favorable impressions ; but are, perhaps, inclined to praise and even exaggerate the advantages of their country, from the known propensity of their guests to make the most liberal discount. Many anomalies of conduct of which they are found guilty towards the English, arise from the conviction that their usual simplicity of manners would be apt to be mis- construed ; and that the English, accustomed to judge all people by their owai conventional standard, will not make allowances for those changes which the difference of the climate, the political institutions of their country, and the early habits of the people may have rendered neces- sary. In such cases, therefore, they endeavor to copy Europeans au pied de la leltre^ and thereby furnish, them- selves, the standard by which they are but too often con- demned. The Americans are not often guilty of a similar error v/ith regard to Europeans from the Conti- nent. To them they show themselves as they are, and are even proud of their national peculiarities. The con- sequence is a greater freedom of manners, and a degree of cordiality which is seldom experienced by Englishmen. Few distinguished Germans or Frenchmen would bestow so much philosophical criticism and analysis on the man- mers of those who receive them with kindness and hospi- tality: they would find in the civil and political institutions of America enough to arrest their attention ; and enjoy at least this advantage over the English, that they might converse with Americans without being taken for spies. Amongst the number of works which have been pub- lished in England, on the United States of America, it is really surprising to see the quantity of space devoted to the subject of "manners;" and this not to the manners of the people in general, hui (with the exception of Mrs. Trollope) to those of the fashionable coteries. Is this not sufficient to justify the belief of Americans that the English are abusive critics, whose severity increases even with the obligation conferred upon them to win their WITH REGARD TO THE ENGLISH. 55 good will? The Americans, in return, are guilty of an- other injustice ; they ascribe the abusive character to the British NATION, when, in fact, it is the peculiar gift of individuals^ who, dissatisfied with their own country, are travelling over the Continents of Europe and America in order to annoy themselves at leisure, and occasionally publish a book to defray a part of their expenses. Cen- sure to them is as natural as the sting to the scorpion, and it is even dangerous to approach them by way of ren- dering them a service. On their way they abuse every thing that is not English ; on their return to England, every thing that is English ; and when they think of the future, every thing that loill be English in less than a century. We must look to the political doctrines of these gentlemen for an interpretation of their sentiments as regards society. We shall find that their attachment to every thing claimed by age is perfectly legitimate ; that they are themselves travelling antiquities, belonging to an age that is past ; and that,' consequently, America is much too young to merit their serious attention. Her achievements require no herald, though they may be suf- ficient for a chronicle. Nothing, indeed, can be more gratuitous than the ex- traordinary pains which the Americans take to please foreigners, who are to give an account of their country. Tourists, especially from England, are literally loaded with civilities ; and, perhaps, the more kindly received by the fashionable coteries of the large cities, as their stay is expected to be short, and their grateful returns as ever- lasting as paper and ink can render them. In this man- ner a number of individuals may hope to be introduced to the English public, whose fame, were it confined to America, could hardly be wrested from oblivion, and whose wise sayings would never be known to the world, were they not quoted as valuable specimens of American sapience. No sooner is the arrival of some English literati gazett- ed in America than all is bustle and confusion ; and the question is seriously debated in what manner they must be received, and what sacrifices ought to be made in order to win their good opinion. Invitations and visits crowd upon them, and they can actually find no time to 56 RECEPTION OF ENGLISH LITERATI^ observe what is truly interesting. From the time of their landing to the hour of their departure, they are never left alone, and have, therefore, no opportunity of seeing America as it is, but as it is slioion tO' them. The Ameri- cans are then sitting for their portraits ^ and, as is usual on such occasions, contort their features either in an unnatu- ral frown, or disfigure them by an insignificant simper, ill suited to their habits of business and reflection. Under such circumstances an accurate likeness can hardly be expected from the most accomplished artists, much less from the pseudo dilettanti who have lately travelled to those regions. But the task of an English tourist is rendered doubly difficult by the inordinate adulation with which his vanity is pampered. He must imagine himself really a great man, when he sees the elite of a nation willing to pay him homage, in order to be entitled to a portion of his favor. He is made the arbiter of their political and religious dis- sensions, and is expected either to become the apostle of their fame, or the rigid censor of their public and private morals. Both, the Americans and the tourist, are put in a false position ; and if the former are disappointed in seeino^ themselves caricatured, the mortification of the latter must be equally great, when, on his returp to England, he finds himself divested of his imaginary pow- er, and his ofus magnum levelled to an equality with the ephemeral f)roductions of the day. The incurable wounds which he thought to inflict on the Americans are scarcely felt, except by a few of those who see their hospitality so ill requited ; and the great bulk of the nation is quietly progressing onward, in their happy simplicity hardly suspecting that any one has been aiming a blow at them. That some of the writers on American society thought it in their power to injure the United States past all recovery, is sufficiently evident from the dedication of the learned author of " Men and Manners," to William Wolryche Whitmore, Esq., M. P. " But," says our author, "when I found the institutions and experience of the United States deliberately quoted in the reformed parliament, as affording safe precedent for British legislation, and learning that the drivellers who uttered such nonsense, instead of encountering ENGLISH WRITERS ON AMERICA. 57 merited derision, were listened to wilh patience and ap- probation, by men as ignorant as themselves, I certainly did feel that another work on America was yet wanted, and at once determined to undertake a task which inferior considerations would probably have induced me to decline.^'' Would one not be led to infer, from this dedicatory epis- tle, that he thought it as easy to make the quietus of a nation as to despatch a novel ? The event, however, must have convinced him of his error; as it may, perhaps, persuade the Americans that justice would sooner be done to them if they were to show themselves more indifferent on trial, and less anxious to win the good opinion of their judges. But the prejudices in favor or against Englishmen which exist amongst the fashionable coteries of the United States are not the same as those which belong to the la- boring classes ; and the civilities with which an English gentleman is loaded, on his first arrival in America, un- dergo a material change, from the time he intends to become a resident, or to enter into competition with the natives. He will then find, that in proportion as the elite recede from him, the middle classes are ready to receive him. He will find no difficulty in procuring patrons and friends, and no prejudices to debar his success, provided it be based on individual exertion, and not upon national preference. The Americans are always ready to associate with Englishmen on terms of equality ; they are willing to consider English as part of their own family ; but they will not pardon overweening conceit, and are most un- compromising on questions of a national complexion. The Americans, of all people in the world, are the readiest to take and resent an insult ; but they are more particularly sensitive with regard to the offences of the English. If any such be given by a person of notoriety, it will be prudent for him to avoid the popular revenge. His best friends will not be able to protect him from in- jury, and the wisest plan for him to adopt will be to make a speedy reparation. I write this particularly for the benefit of certain actors who may visit the United States for the purpose of paying their debts. Let them not abuse the popular favor which their talents are sure to receive ; let them be guarded in their language, not only 58 ANTIPATHY TO ENGLISH CUSTOMS. on the stage, but also in their private intercourse with Americans ; let them not consider the condition of any man so low as to be unable to injure them; in one word, let them keep out of the debt of the people ; for the peo- ple will make themselves paid. Nor is it always popular violence which, in such cases, is most to be dreaded. Whenever a national insult is given, the Americans of all classes unite to punish the offender. His career in the United States is blasted for- ever, and he is, at once, banished from society, to which neither fortune nor cleverness will be able to procure him a second introduction. But if the Americans are thus severe in their punishment, they are equally generous in their reward of forbearance. Their favor is easily won, and still more easily preserved. They claim of the English but that which the English claim of every other nation in the world — a compliance with their rules and customs, and a total abstinence from censure ; for which, in return, they are willing to make every honest conces- sion, and even those public acknowledgments which it would be impossible to extort from them by derision and scorn. The customs and peculiarities of the English are not generally liked in the United States ; and a settlement of several hundreds of them in one place would excite con- siderably more jealousy than one of so many thousand Germans. The reason is this. The Germans have their peculiar habits, which, however, they are careful not to obtrude upon others. They persevere in them, not be- cause they think them superior to those of other nations, but merely because they are accustomed to them, and do not like to quit the early companions of their childhood. This is perfectly well understood in America, and, there- fore, no fears entertained of their ever attempting to make proselytes. The French, too, have their peculiarities ; but their notion of good breeding forbids their exhibiting them wherever they might give private or public offence. Not so with the English. They glory in the most trifling difference between themselves and other nations ; because they are accustomed to consider that difference in their favor. They obtrude it, therefore, constantly, on the uotice of others, or, at least, take no pains to soften it& ANTIPATHY TO ENGLISH CUSTOMS. 59 appearance. They heed not the feelings of others, or are so much in the habit of considering every other people inferior to themselves, that they care not, if, by chance, they give offence. In Europe they pay for this arrogance with money ; in America wiih the loss of personal con- sideration. It is true, there are ample apologies for the conduct of the English. They are really, in most respects, superior to other nations, and especially to their neighbors on the Continent. They enjoy, in the first place, a greater de- gree of political freedom than any other people, save the Americans, in the world. They have produced the ablest statesmen, the wisest legislators, and (with few ex- ceptions) the bravest and most skilful commanders of armies and navies. Their philosophers have been the glory of the human mind, and have wrested more truths from nature than all other sages combined together. They can boast of the most manly and classical literature of the moderns, and may, perhaps, add that there is not a valuable thought which the human mind is capable of conceiving which is not already, and most happily, ex- pressed in the English languages. They have surpassed all other nations in the mechanic arts, and have become equally superior in every thing relating to manufactures. They have increased the facilities of commerce by the es- tablishment of powerful colonies, and have (with probably but one exception) distinguished themselves for the hu- manity and justice with which they have governed them. They have carried the blessings of civilization and religion wherever they went, and established, in every clime, the glory of the British name. But in their intercourse with Americans, they ought to remember that the latter are of the same origin ; that they have not only the means, but also the disposition to imitate them in all that is great, and enough prudence and experience to avoid falling into the same errors. They ought to reflect, that if the Americans have as yet a comparatively small catalogue of great men, these men were, nevertheless, distinguished by the most exalted vir- tues, and that, on the other hand, there is no black list of names to detract from their national honor. They ought to consider that America is the country, which, eventual- 60 RECEPTION OF THE SCOTCH. ly must rival even England, and that the Americans, con- scious of their physical and political advantages, are, perhaps, a little prone to anticipate the future. They have already entered upon a fair competition with the English in almost every branch of human indus- try; and, by the universal consent of all nations, become their peers in navigation and commerce. A people, pro- gressing with such rapid strides, is not apt to bear taunts with good nature, or allow others to constitute themselves masters of ceremonies. Their progress has been one of uninterrupted prosperity, and as long as this lasts, they will consider their policy and their customs, if not superi- or, at least equal, to those of any other nation. As re- publicans, they love their country with an enthusiastic ardor, which can only be understood and appreciated by those who have, themselves, a share in the government of their country. It is, therefore, neither wise nor expedi- ent to treat their peculiarities with contempt, or to wound their national pride by a too rigid adherence to a set of manners, which, from peculiar associations, have become irritating and offensive to the people. I do not mean to say that an Englishman in America must necessarily be a radical ; but if he means to become a citizen, (especial- ly in the Western States,) toryism will be less pardoned in him than in a native of America. He will create ene- mies without making himself friends ; while those who are his friends will not show their friendship in public. If he should undertake any thing, the success of which depends on the favor of the public, he will hardly be able to succeed ; and even in his social relations he will find himself deserted and alone. What I have said of the English will equally apply to the Scotch, though in such matters the latter seldom need admonition — their manners and customs being already similar to those of the New Englanders. They usually succeed in whatever they undertake, and hardly ever fail to make America their home. Most of them, on their arrival in the United States, are poor but industrious ; and having been emigrants before, have had sufficient instruc- tion, in the school of adversity, to bear success or ill-for- tune with equanimity and patience. They do not easily olTend the prejudices of the people among whom they RECEPTION OF THE BRITISH GENERALLY. 61 hope to prosper, and, in general, understand their own interests too well to require advice from others. To the acquisitiveness of the New Englanders they join the great art of saving, which is the cause of their accumulating wealth with even greater facility than native Americans ; and it insures to them its quiet possession. Their senti- ments are generally in accordance with those of the majority of the people, and they are, therefore, doubly certain of meeting with that sympathy and hospitality which the Americans are always ready to extend to the natives of Britain. To sum up the argument, English and Scotch are re- ceived in America as relatives. Their younger brethren are willing to share with them the paternal estate. They love them, befriend them, assist them; in short, do ev- erything for them which one brother can for another; but they burst into indignation at the very mention of primogeniture, or the least attempt to claim, by right, what they are willing to concede from kindness. The Irish are, by the great majority of Americans, considered as an oppressed and injured people, which is sufficient to entitle them to the sympathies of freemen. It is true, the greater number of Irish who arrive in the United States are poor, and some of them tainted by the vices of poverty, which, in some of the states, have creat- ed a prejudice against them. But, considered collectively, they constitute a highly useful part of the American com- munity, and contribute, by their honest industry, to in- crease the wealth of the country. They perform the hardest labors at the lowest wages given in the United States, and are satisfied and happy to provide for them- selves and their children the bare necessaries of life. But it is even their being contented with little, and their less heeding the future, which render their actions and motives less acceptable to the Americans. The Ameri- cans (as I shall prove hereafter) are living altogether for their children. They are ready to make any sacrifice for the advancement of future generations, and love their country not as it is ; but as it will be made by their enter- prise and industry. The Irish, on the contrary, are by habit, inclination, and the vivacity of their temperaments. 62 RECEPTION OP THE IRISH. inclined to enjoy the present. Their previous lives con- tain but the sordid catalogues of privations and distresses, and, on their emerging from the most cruel misery which ever extorted groans from a nation, they are apt — as all human creatures would be — to draw the first free breath with joy and exultation. Like Lazarus, they were ac- customed to feed upon the crumbs that fell from the rich man's table ; and now that they are invited to sit down, and partake themselves of the banquet, those rigid cen- sors stand by and scoff at their greedy appetites, A man whose morning meal consisted of capon can certainly await dinner with better grace, than he who went hungry to bed and awoke to breakfast on sorrow. Cheer to him is manna distilled from heaven, to support him on bis, way through the desert ; and he is eager to snatch at a gift of which he knows not when it will again be within his grasp. Excess is the companion of poverty, and its con- sequences perpetuate its direful existence. Misery they drown in stupefying potions ; for oblivion alone is the happiness of the damned. These are the vices of some of those wretches who are annually thrown upon the hospitality of the Americans. And shall America, the land of political and religious freedom, cast them from her * and let them perish, while a bounteous Providence has put in her possession the most fertile regions on earth, capable of supporting thou- sands and millions of human beings 1 And shall the sup- plications and prayers of these emigrants ascend up to heaven without invoking a blessing on the children of liberty ? Are their habits and their vices not to be cor- rected by improving their wretched condition 1 All human experience speaks loudly in the affirmative. Set before them the prospect of steady employment, the hope of not only earning a subsistence, but something more ; give their children an opportunity of education ; and you will breathe into them a new vivifying principle. Occupation will prevent the commission of crimes ; the influence of religion and good example will abolish the vice of in- temperance, and the facilities of instruction will make * In some of the States provisions have lately been made against the importation of foreign (Irish) paupers. PREJUDICES AGAINST THE IRISH. 63 respectable citizens of their children. This is not decla- mation. I speak of facts which I know, and to which I shall have occasion to allude hereafter. The Irish in Boston are a remarkably orderly people. They are not usually given to intemperance ; but on the contrary, willing to aid in its suppression. If the annals of prisons and houses of correction furnish a larger num- ber of Irish than American names, it must be remember- ed that, in all countries, the greatest number of culprits is furnished by the poorer and the least educated classes, and that as strangers, unacquainted with the peculiar police regulations of the towns, they are more apt to trespass against the laws, and make themselves liable to punishment, than those who have been brought up under its influence, and with whom obedience to it has become a habit. Abstract numbers are no criterion of public morals. Hundreds of crimes against God and against man are not amenable to the law, while others, arising sometimes from innocent motives, are visited by its severest penal- ties. During the space of nearly ten years I have lived in Boston, but very few capital crimes were committed, and certainly not more than three or four considerable robberies and forgeries ; but not one of them, so far as my remembrance goes, has been perpetrated or abetted by an Irishman. Their offences consisted, principally, in disorderly conduct, and in infringing on the police regulations of the city. Theft they were rarely charged with ; and I am fully persuaded that were it not for the still too pernicious influence of ardent spirits, not one half of these acts would have been committed, and no stain left on the honest reputation of even the lowest of the Irish laborers. But, when we reflect upon the num- ber of crimes committed by the poor, we ought not to forget their exposed situation ; and when we praise the moral rectitude of the rich, we ought to consider the high premium which is paid to their virtue. It does not be- long to man to condemn a whole nation as vicious, or to pray,— " Lord, we thank Thee that we are not as these men are;" for they too will pray, and "the prayer of the 64 ADVICE TO THE IRISH. poor shall be heard," as it is more likely to come from the heart. Who never ate his bread with tears, Who ne'er, through nights of bitter sorrow, Sat weeping on his wretched bed , He knows ye not, ye heavenly powers ! * But it is not so much the vices of the Irish, as their politi- cal principles, which prove sometimes offensive to Amer- icans. Some disturbances which of late arose in New York, at the election of the Governor, and in which the Irish unfortunately participated, furnished a certain party with a convenient pretext to ascribe their want of success to the destructive influence of the Irish. In consequence of this, a series of resolutions were adopted to prevent their occurrence in future. The subsequent election, how- ever, proved the insufficiency of the groundthey had tak- en ; for, not only did it pass without the public peace be- ing, for one moment, disturbed, but the majority for the geverninent \ra§ nearly doubled. But I shall not expa- tiate on this subject now, and will only remark that the Irish are naturally supposed to be in favor of democracy, having been, for centuries, the victims of the opposite doctrine. But, whatever be the character of some of the Irish emigrants, on their landing in. the United States, they all improve with their circumstances, and their children are found amongst the most peaceful and respectable citizens. There are Irish names in the History of America of which she must ever be proud, and which will act as me- diators between the angry feelings of a party, and the hospitable inclinations of a whole nation. Let the Irish, on their arrival in the United States, be, above all things, careful not to disturb the peace of the citizens, by revels of any kind ; let them remember that the Americans are proud of their voluntary submission to the law, and that they cannot respect those who habitual- * Wer nie sein Brot mit Thrfinen ass, Wer nie durch kiimmervolle Nachte Auf seinem Bette weinend sass Der kennt Euch nicht, Ihr himmlischen Machte ! Gothe's William Meister. ADVICE TO THE IRISH. 65 ly infringe on them, or are given to excess of any kind. Let them abstain from all participation in political quar- rels, before they are able to form a correct opinion or to obtain sufficient information on the subject. Let them re- frain from violence of any kind, even if they should be provoked ; and let them not fight or break the peace with each other. If they should happen to be wronged, let them appeal to the law ; and the Americans will assured- ly procure them justice; for the Americans love peace, and liberty, and justice, more^ than any people in the world. If there exist prejudices against the Irish, they are principally founded on their readiness to avenge their own wrongs. Let them remember that there is no occasion for it in the United States ; for America never assumed more jurisdiction over them than over her own citizens ; but, on the contrary, received them with generous hospi- tality, and entitled them to all the privileges of her own children. They must be aware that they remain guests till the period prescribed by the law shall have entitled them to the honor of citizens, and that they are, conse- quently, bound not to abuse the hospitality of their enter- tainers by disregarding their rules of society, or meddling with their family dissensions. If a dispute should arise amongst the Americans them- selves, let them remain neutral, until, as naturaUzed citi- zens, they shall have become members of the same fam- ily ; and even then let them imitate the forbearance and moderation of Americans. In this manner they will win golden opinions from all parties, and establish a reputa- tion which will recross the Atlantic, and combat preju- dices, which, in Europe itself, are detrimental to the pro- gress and final emancipation of their country. They have already made a noble beginning in Boston. Let it be imitated throughout the United States— nay, let it be imitated in Ireland itself; and their worst enemies will be obliged to render them '^justice,''' Few words need be said about the French in the United States. Not only is emigration from France exceedingly limited, but those who do emigrate are so seldom inclined to interfere with the policy of the country that, as a po- litical party, (with the exception of the French Creoles 66 CHARACTER OF FRENCH SETTLERS. ill Louisiana,) they are hardly forcing themselves on the notice of Americans. The French do not take an active part in politics, at least nothing to compare with the En- glish or the Germans, and, where they cannot conform to the customs of the country, follow their own with so much modesty and so little intrusion on the established rules of society, that their conduct is approved and commended in every part of the country. In Philadelphia, Baltimore, Charleston, and New Or- leans, French society is not only numerous, but of the highest respectability; and as much may be said of the French society of New York. But in all these places, except New Orleans, they have exchanged the fashions of France for the more substantial customs of America; or, at least, blended them with the English, and thereby produced a mixture which I cannot but think an improve- ment on social intercourse in general. As to the French poor, who resort to America as a means of improving their condition, they are known to be remarkably peaceful and industrious. They possess the art of being contented with less than almost any oth- er people, and their whole lives offer, sometimes, instances of the utmost frugality and continued self-denial. This applies also to the French emigrants who have seen better days in Europe. It has been my good fortune to become acquainted with some of these gentlemen, who, during the empire, had held distinguished ranks in Buonaparte's army. They were all distinguished by a peculiar meek- ness of demeanor, and a total absence of that acidity of temper which is but too frequently engendered by sudden reverses of fortune. When addressed on the subject of their exile, they would answer with the utmost patience^ and accompany their explanations with some of those smiles of which it was difficult to determine whether they were produced by the irony of their fate or the unsuspect- ing simplicity of the inquirer. They evinced an entire resignation to their lot, which enabled them to enjoy life in a new form, and under different auspices, though the affections of their hearts were still fastened to the beauti- ful land of their nativity. Yet, with all these amiable qualities of the French, the English are generally preferred to them in almost every PREJUDICES AGAINST THE FRENCH. 67 employment, except the teaching of their native language and other fashionable accomplishments in which they are known to excel. A Frenchman, on his arrival in the United States, must depend more on the patronage of his own countrymen, or such Americans as have visited, or resided in France, than on a popular feeling in his favor. The Americans have inherited the prejudice from their ancestors that gravity of deportment is inseparable from solidity of character ; and they cannot, therefore, per- suade themselves that the French, with their fondness for public amusements, can combine those essential domestic virtues with the continuance of which they associate the welfare of their country, and the stability of their politi- cal institutions. Neither are the Americans converts to the philosophy of Rousseau and Voltaire ; but are, unfor- tunately, in the habit of beholding in every Frenchman a true disciple of these masters. French reasoning and French doctrines are not in vogue in the United States ; neither is the political expe- rience of France in very high repute with American Statesmen. If the French revolution has advanced the cause of liberty in Europe, it has had a chilling influence on the ardor of its votaries in America. It has made a portion of the Americans doubt their own sentiments, and filled even the mind of Washington with anxious ap- prehensions of the future. The murdered victims of the French revolution were nigh acting on the Americans as Caesar's wounds on the Romans, and their spirits are, to this moment, haunting the Senate Chamber of the Capi- tol. Were it not for the awful warning of the Modern History of France, democracy in America would have met with less opposition, and would have been established quietly, without the assistance of a party. The French, then, are looked upon with suspicion, though, in a national point of view, they are much admir- ed and caressed. The Americans are too honest and just, not to bow to their genius; but they are slow of im- itation while having the example of the British. They prefer English routine to French philosophy, and are more willing to follow a precedent than to establish a new doctrine. I do not think that the French will ever make proselytes in America ; though the agreeableness of their 68 CHARACTER OF GERMAN SETTLERS* manners, and the peculiar charm of their conversation> will always insure them the most favorable reception at the drawing-rooms. The Germans and Dutch are old settlers in the United States, and have, in a measure, acquired a legitimate right to the soil. The Dutch, as is well known, settled New York and a considerable portion of New Jersey, before the colony was conquered by the English, and be- came the property of the Duke of York. The Germans, also, were amongst the earliest settlers of Pennsylvania, and amongst the most pious and virtuous quakers who had been converted by the preaching of William Penn.* They introduced the manufacture of paper, linen and woollen cloth, f and were, from the earliest period of the colony, amongst those who contributed most to its wealth and prosperity. Germantown was entirely founded by Germans, previous to the establishment of Philadelphia, and descendants of those settlers, or new emigrants from Germany, are now conducting the principal manufactur- ing establishments in that city. The Germans fought with the Americans in the early wars against the Indians, | and assisted them in their struggle for independence. They raised amongst them- selves several regiments of militia, and shared the fatigues of Washington's army in the long war of the revolution. § The question with regard to them, therefore, is no longer whether they shall be tolerated, or what hopes they may have of success 1 — they are citizens, who have already succeeded. They, are, moreover, possessed of political power; for, having, at an early period of their settlement, adopted the plan of remaining together, they have brought whole districts under their influence ; and there are now villages in the states of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and even in the new state of Illinois, where no other lan- guage is spoken but their own. Their power is derived from the possession of the soil, and the remarkable union which prevails in their senti- ments. It is, indeed, a gratifying spectacle to see those Germans, who from the time of Tacitus to the present • Proud's History of Pennsylvania. t Ibid. t Ibid. § Botta. Storia della giierra delV independenza. CHARACTER OF GERMAN SETTLERS. 09 day, could not unite on any uniform government of their own, rally cheerfully round the banner of the American republic, and uphold it as their guide and their law. I know that they love that republic with all the fervor with which their brethren in Europe are attached to their ideal Germany, which, as yet, exists only in song.* Neither do the Americans themselves doubt the sincerity of their attachment to their adopted country, though some may differ from them as to the manner in which it ought to be manifested. I shall give, hereafter, my views on the po- litical character of the Germans, and their influence on the government of the United States, from which it will appear, that, much as it may be deprecated by one party, it is gratefully hailed by the other. Neither is the power of the Germans stationary, but, on the contrary, increasing constantly in numbers and possessions. Thousands of Germans are annually emi- grating to the United States; and thousands of them pur- chase real estates, or acquire them by persevering indus- try. They do not disperse and become mixed with the Americans, l?ut increase the settlements which are already established by their countrymen, or settle in their imme- diate neighborhood. They are, therefore, in the very outset less dependent on the Americans than on their own brethren, from whom they derive the principal means of support. Their own countrymen undertake their instruc- tion in the rules and regulations of the country, and, be- ing for the most part, sturdy democrats, teach them to re- frain from all measures not in strict accordance with that doctrine. Their sentiments are easily explained. The Germans, even in Europe, are more fit for a republican government than any other nation on the continent. Their habits, inclinations, morals, and, above all, their superior educa- * The English know the patriotic song of Arndt^ " Where is the German fatherland 1 Wherever the German tongue is spoken^ And sings songs to God in heaven, &c. Wasist des Deutschen Vaterland 1. So weit die Deutsche Zunge klingt, Und Gott im Himmel Lieder singt/' &c. 70 CHARACTER OF GERMAN SETTLERS. tion, render them fit for a democratic republic. For near- ly twenty-five years their efforts were directed towards a gradual improvement of their social and political institu- tions ; and amongst the most ardent partisans for improve- ment were three-fourths of the talent, enterprise and learning of all Germany. Were the Germans united un- der one government, the largest standing army could not have withstood their movement, for it has communicated itself to all classes, and, in part, even to the army itself. There is no opposition to it, except from the ignorant and vulgar ; because even those whose interest it is to prevent the spreading of liberal doctrines are convinced of their moral and philosophical justice, and differ from the rest only as to the manner in which they are to be applied in practice. Even the rulers of Germany are tacitly admitting their truth, and relent in the persecution of those who have sin- ned against sacred majesty. Many German princes have, at least, given a semblance of a constitution to their sub- jects. They have surrendered the riglit of arbitrary tax- ation, and would, perhaps, have done more, if Austria and Prussia had allowed it. But, whatever the form of government in Germany may be, the abstract rights of the governed, and the sacred obligations of the rulers, were always implicitly admitted. I do not remember having read an imperial decree of Austria, in which the emperor did not undertake to justify his motives to his people, in order to convince them that he is taxing them for their own good. There is, in truth, this peculiarity in the character of Germans, that they can neither act against, nor ever act, except from conviction. They are most intrepid when convinced of the rectitude of their intentions ; but they are totally incapable of motion before the principle itself is established. Their strength is derived from their con- sciences, and not from the degree of exaltation of which their passions are capable. Hence, reform in Germany has not begun with an appeal to national glory or cupid- ity ; but with the establishment of truths in the minds of the people. It has altogether been of an intellectual na- ture ; but, in that sense, it has, perhaps, progressed fur- ther than in any other country. Its action has, indeed^ PREJUDICES AGAINST THE GERMANS. 71 been too much confined to education and literature ; but by these means it will not less find its way to all classes ; and what shall once have become the unanimous will of the nation, will be with difficulty withheld by their rulers. But the Germans will, for a long time yet, abstain from positive violence, in which they have as little faith as their Saxon kindred the English. They will not pull down one edifice before they have erected another ; but, like the British, prefer a " coat with many patches" to one which does not fit. With these characteristics of the Germans we shall find no difficulty in comprehending the position they have taken in the United States. The democratic principles of the American government agreed perfectly with their notions of right, justice and humanity ; and they have, therefore, embraced them with the same holy faith with which their ancestors clung to the principles of the refor- mation. They are morally convinced of their excellence ; and instead of ratiocinating and subtilizing about them, believe in them as they do in their Bible, and transmit their faith to their children. Every new comer is initi- ated into their creed, and soon becomes a convert to it ; for if he should not, they would shun him as given to idol- atry. In this manner the doctrine spreads with the ex- tent of the territory they occupy; but they never over- step their boundary, or obtrude their faith on the Ameri- cans. So far from preaching their doctrines to the in- habitants of other states, they are satisfied with enjoying liberty at home; and, instead of acting as a moving prin- ciple in the political councils of the nation, their influence is only felt by the masses which they oppose to, or employ in favor of, a particular measure. Yet, with all their quietude and forbearance, they have not been able to escape from sarcasm and ridicule, and the terms "high" and "low Dutch" are applied to them in all the various significations of which they are capable. The feelings of an educated German are not very nicely touched by certain figurative expressions from the lips of ladies ; such as " a regular Dutch figure," (meaning the reverse of Mdlle. Taglioni ;) "a Dutch face," (some- what quadrangular and full of listless simplicity ;) " a Dutch head," (not one of Raflfaello da Urbino's; but 72 PREJUDICES AGAINST THE GERMANS. square at the top with large bumps behind the ears, indic- ative of gentle resistance ;) "a Dutch mouth," (capable of holding a common-sized orange without injuring the skin;) " a jOi(^c/i foot," (the highest American concep- tion of magnitude and expansion;) "Dutch manners," (any thing but good breeding,) &c. These epithets are sometimes inadvertently used in the presence of Germans from Europe, when the mistake will be instantly repaired by assuring them that they do not apply to them, but to their awkward countrymen in Pennsylvania. The Ger- mans, however, are far from taking these sallies in dudg- eon, but, on the contrar3% concede to the fair satirists the most unrivalled superiority in wit, beauty and accomplish- ments. With regard to the American prejudices for, or against Germans, I can only say that some are highly favorable ; but others decidedly against my countrymen. I shall be- gin with those in their favor. These exist principally in the Northern States, and especially in New England. To a more limited extent they are also to be found to the south, and more particularly in South Carolina. The New Englanders and the southern planters are acquaint- ed with German literature, and transfer a portion of their regard for that imaginary world of beauty, harmony and grandeur, the creation of German genius, to every well- educated individual from that country. But while they look upon Germany as a fairy land, in which one cannot wake, sleep or move, without being charmed or tormented by some spirit, they are apt to consider its inhabitants as dreamers, and its philosophers as so many weavers of moonshine. A very similar opinion is sufficiently preva- lent in England, even among the lierati, though the con- ceptions of the German mind are there more highly prized and better understood than in any other country. The cause is apparent. Few German authors, especial- ly on metaphysics, have, as yet, been ably translated into English ; and if the public are to rely on the judgment of critics, they will always be told that those workslcon- tain " moonshine," rather than " that their light is inca- pable of illumining the dark ; " though it may be suffi- cient to *' make darkness visible." The Americans, enter- taining on most subjects of taste and learning the same PREJUDICES AGAINST THE GERMANS. 73 feelings as the English, or, taking the English for their standard, do not consider German thought and reasoning as very safe guides to '^practical truths,^'' and bestow, therefore, but a limited confidence to professional men of that school. They are willing to give the Germans credit for general scholarship and great grasp of mind ; but they will not easily trust them in a particular branch, ex- cept, perhaps, in the elementary departments of educa- tion, which they think sufficiently removed from the "practical business of life " to be safely confided to their care. German theology, medicine, and jurisprudence are at a considerable discount ; but philosophy is an absolute drug. If a poor emigrant from Germany, on his arrival in the United States, should possess no other marketable commodity, he may prepare to die at the alms-house ; for private charity might at last become weary of supporting him. If he be not " hanged," he will at least be buried *' at the State's expense," though during his life-time he may enjoy the sympathy of scholars and friends. The Americans will treat him with kindness, and show the greatest consideration for his mind and character. There will be those who will offer him pecuniary assistance ;but by far the majority will be ready to confine him to a mad- house. The most prudent course for him to pursue will be to hire himself out on a farm, to make himself, in some way or other, " useful to the community." In no other country could he be so forcibly convinced of the truth of Mephistopheles' comparison, — I tell thee, friend, a man who speculates, Is like a beast upon a barren heath, ; Forever led in circles by the devil ; While all around full fresh the meadows bloom.* With regard to the mechanical arts, the Germans are hardly better. If they are not employed by one of their own countrymen, their chance of success is but small, and by no means equal to the English. Not only will * Ich sages dir ; ein Kerl, der speculirt, 1st wie ein Thier, auf diirrer Heide Von einem bosen Geist im Kreis herum geftthrt, Und rings, umher liegt schone grOne Weide. Go THE 's Faust. 7 74 ADVICE TO THE GERMANS. they find their language an impediment, but most of their work either done better than what they are accustomed to do in Germany, (because the American master mechanics give and obtain higher prices for Labor,) or forestalled by the British who excel in it, and are, therefore, certain of having the preference overall other competitors. Agricul- ture is the proper resort of Germans emigrating to the Uni- ted States ; and there are few instances in which they have not been successful. But any honest trade will succeed amongst their own countrymen, who will sooner patron- ize them than Americans tliemselves. My advice to the German emigrants, therefore, is, not to remain an instant longer in any of the large sea-port towns than is absolutely necessary to make provisions for their journey westward; for, every moment they tarry in the cities is a loss of time and money, and, consequently, an impediment to their ultimate success. As cultivators of the soil, they have the finest prospect before them ; for no other country offers the same re- sources, or will so riclily reward their industry. As far- mers, the German emigrants have a decided advantage over all other settlers ; for they find friends, relatives, and a home in three or four of the largest and most fertile states of the Union. There the German language is no obstacle to their progress ; because thousands around them speak no other. They will find German papers, German churches, and German schools. Their officers of justice will be Germans ; their physicians, and — if they sliould be so unfortunate as to need them — their lawyers. It will appear to them as if a portion of the land of their fathers had, by some magic, been transplant- ed to the New World. They will find the same dwell- ings, the same corn-fields, the same orchards, and, of late, the same vines. Every object which may strike their eyes will revive some dream of their childhood, and in- crease their aff'ection for the country of their adoption. The peace, quietude, and happiness of Germany will be unfolded to their delighted senses; only the fore and back ground will be indistinct — they will discover neither princes nor beggars. It remains for me yet to say something of the reception of Italians, Spaniards, and Portuguese. Practically there SPANIARDS AND PORTUGUESE. 75 can be no prejudices against gentlemen from any coun- try ; but theoretically there exists, in the United States, as in England and all the North of Europe, a peculiar dislike to Southerners in general, which must always be more or less injurious to individuals. The Texian war is not apt to soften these prejudices with regard to the Spaniards ; nor has the late history of Italy very materi- ally increased the respect which the English entertain for the Italians. There is something in the manners, hab- its and inclinations of these nations which appears to be repugnant to the feelings of the North, and there is some- thing even in their love of liberty, which will fill an Amer- ican with horror. The number of Spaniards and Portuguese in the Uni- ted States is comparatively small, and is not likely to in- crease ; as they are generally as little satisfied with the country as the people with them, and seldom resort to America, except when every other enterprise has failed. Yet there are some highly respectable Spanish families in all the sea-port towns, and a considerable number of them in the State of Louisiana. They, there, imitate the manners of the Americans; and, acquiring property by honest industry, become sincerely attached to the cus- toms and institutions of the country. CHAPTER IV. AMERICAN THEATRES. TRAGEDIANS. COMIC ACTORS. AMERICAN WIT. MUSIC. PAINTING. GENERAL RE- FLECTIONS ON THE ARTS. The Americans, as a nation, cannot be said to be very fond of theatrical performances ; though nearly all the large cities of the Union are provided with one, or sever- al good play-houses. In the fitting up of these there is often displayed considerable elegance ; and in New York and Philadelphia they may be said to be decorated with taste. Boston has two theatres ; New York three, and an Italian Opera ; Philadelphia three ; Baltimore one ; Washington one ; Cincinnati one ; and the city of New Orleans, besides the English house, a very good French Vaudeville and Opera Comique. The company of the latter quit New Orleans in the summer, and per- form in all the large towns of the North ; which, therefore, in addition to the English plays, may be said to possess, (for a season, at least,) a French Comedy. All these establishments seem to prove that the Ameri- cans take an interest in theatres ; but when we inquire into the financial operations of the managers, we must either conclude that the taste of the people is not suffi- ciently understood and gratified, or that the Americans have not, as yet, contracted that particular habit of amuse- ment. Of all the theatres in the United States there is but one (in 'New York) which is known to have carried on a profitable business ; and most of the enterprises of individuals have entirely failed. For my own part, I do not think the fault lies so much with the managers, as with the public itself The Amer- icans are not fond of any kind of public amusement; and are best pleased with an abundance of business. Their SUCCESS OF ENGLISH ACTORS. 77 pleasure consists in being constantly occupied ; and their evenings are either spent at home, or with a few of their friends, in a manner as private as possible. The continued public excitement, occasioned by their political proceed- ings, the extent and magnitude of national enterprise, and the constant activity which pervades all classes of society, render rest and quietude much more desirable than an additional stimulus, were it but to pleasure. The Ameri- cans are too young a people ; they are yet themselves too active performers in the historical drama of their coun- try, to take delight in contemplating the world as it is re- flected from the stage. There is not yet any thing "foul in the state " to create a taste for tragedy. Theatrical performances, moreover, are opposed to the religious doctrines of the majority of Americans, and they always interfere with their domestic arrangements and habits. Few ladies, therefore, are ever seen at the thea- tres ; and the frequenting of them, even by gentlemen, is not considered a recommendation to their character. In several places where theatres had been established, they have again been abolished by the religious influence of the clergy ; and there are Christian churches in America who will not allow any of their members to be seen at a play-house. Under these circumstances, the only harvest of an American theatre (with a few honorable exceptions at home) is the arrival of some stars from England, who have so much found their account in the journey, that of late whole constellations have travelled out of their or- bits to afford brother Jonathan an opportunity of improv- ing his taste. Some of these have even published their bright career in the New World, and have not a little con- tributed, on and off the boards, to the general diversion of the public. But this apparent success of English actors in Ameri- ica must not be ascribed to a taste for dramatical perform- ances. It is, then, curiosity, and not a particular interest in the play, which acts as a stimulant on the Americans ; they rather go to see what pleases the English, than in order to be pleased themselves. But their curiosity be- ing ojice satisfied, they soon relax into their domestic habits, and abandon the drama to the actors. The exhi^ 7# 78 THE AUTOMATON CHESS-PLAYER. bition of a sagacieus elephant, or a learned dog, would have afforded them a similar attraction ; and of all the pub- lie exhibitions of any kind, none succeeded so completely, or drew, for so long a period, full and fashionable audien- ces, as that of the automaton chess-player and the "confla- gration of Moscow." But, then, Mr. Maelzel, who exhib- ited these wonders, was a very agreeable man, who, with a good-natured German smile always reserved the first benches for the children, and regularly pampered them with sugar-plums. There was, besides, mechanical inge- nuity in the performance ; and a problem to solve, which is always interesting to Americans.* Of all the English actors and actresses who have visited America at differ- ent periods, none have so completely succeeded as Miss Keinble ; but even her talents and accomplishments had a fearful rival in the powerful attractions of the automa- ton Turk. It appears, then, that the Americans, in some instances at least, are willing to pay for the privilege of being specfa- to7's, but that few of them only are ever desirous of becom- ing actors ; that they are sometimes willing to be amused, but not disposed to divert others. — This might be expect- ed from a young enterprising people, whose talents and labors are turned to a better account in agriculture or commerce ; and whose early habits and education are re- pugnant to the comparatively inactive lives of performers. Yet the Americans have produced some very good trage- dians, and have amply supplied the comic department, for which they seem to have a prevalent taste. But Jonathan's wit is essentially different from the English, and is, with very few exceptions, deficient in humor. I never saw an American attempt the broad humor of John Bull without his appearing outre, and un- natural ; but I have hardly ever know n him to fail in * The automaton chess-player was but a short time in the United States, when an American rival appeared, in every respect equal to that which was exhibited by Mr. Maelzel. The niechanisra was the same, and it was exhibited in the same maimer, by opening: but one door of the box at a time. But Mr. Maelzel had the triumph of beating him, or rather of making: him decline his challenge ; the person concealed in the American automaton being a weaker player than Mr. Schlum- berger (employed by Mr. Maelzel) whose skill in the game had for ma- ny years been tested by the players of the Caf6 deRegence. AMERICAN WIT. 79 satire and sarcasm. Neither did T ever hear those shouts of laughter, in America, which an English comic actor is wont to draw forth from his audience at home. The Americans do not laugh at honest bluntness, or good-natured simplicity, and are, of all people in the world, the least capable of appreciating la bagatelle. If Jonathan is to laugh he must have a point given him, or, in other words, he must laugh to some purpose. One re- semblance, however, there is between him and his brother, which consists in both being very fond of laughing at the expense of their neighbors. English, French, Dutch and Germans are in turn made to suffer the stings of American wit, and the respective descendants of these nations in the United States furnish a fund of anecdote for that pur- pose. Accordingly the Germans of Pennsylvania, the Dutch of New York, the Creoles of New Orleans, &:c., have each, their caricaturists, and are successively rep- resented on the American stage. The western people, especially, are the objects of peculiar merriment, and among them the Kentuckians, on account of their natural boldness and simplicity, are the most prominent. The latter are, perhaps, the only people in the United States, who, with great natural wit combine also a fund of humor and good nature. They are the Irish of America, at whose expense every body laughs, and who, in return, make spoTt of every body. The best anecdotes are told of them, and the keenest repartees are ascribed to their shrewdness. Tiiey are represented as reckless of enter- prise, intrepid in danger, chivalrous of conduct, and as jolly in company as any son of the Emerald Isle. But they have this advantage over the Irish, which is manifest in their whole carriage — that their merits are acknowledg- ed, and their peculiarities (the offsprings of many manly virtues) readily excused by the more charitable feelings of their countrymen. But the most salient point of American wit consists in their political caricatures, which have all the poignancy of the French, with the weight and substance of the English. I remember many of them which were exceedingly inge- nious, and as readily seized by the people, as those of France are by the Parisians. I shall only mention one of these, illustrative of Jonathan's capacity to take off 80 AMERICAN COMIC ACTORS. characters. Before the late amicable adjustment of the difficulties with France, a caricature was published in America, representing General Jackson shaking his cane at the King of the French, while in the left hand he was holding a bag of money, bearing the inscription " 25,000,000 francs ; " with the words to his mouth, *' 'Tis well that you paid me, or by the Eternal " to which the king was represented bowing and waving his hands with the words " Not another word of apologi/, my dear General, I beg you." It would, perhaps, be difficult to make a better comment on the conduct of either of these distinguished individuals than is contained in that print. Yet with all this wit the Americans do not laugh as much as either the English or the French, and indulge in sarcasm only for their private gratification, or to gratify an enemy. Owing to this peculiarity of character, few English actors, in the comical department, have ever satisfied an Ameri- can piibVic, for ani/ length of time, and their own country- men, however popular, must equally despair of success. I know no object more deserving of pity, than a comic actor on an American stage. He is always expected to say something witty ; and yet, he is to give no oflTence to any part of his audience. His doings and sayings are to be pointed ; yet, in whatever direction he turns, he is sure to give ofience, and to have his transgressions visit- ed on his head. He is to be a politician, and yet offend no party ; he is to ridicule the whims and follies of wo- men, but not offend any of the ladies present ; he is obliged to please the taste of the rich, who are best capa- ble of rewarding his merits ; but he must take care lest, by offending the poor, he may be hissed off the stage, and when too late be made to repent of his folly. For this reason there are but few characters well rep- resented on the American stage, among which that of " a tar," is always sure to give satisfaction. The Irish, of late, has also become very popular. But since Power's representation of that character, few Americans can hope to succeed in it. Punning, therefore, is the usual resort of a comic actor in trouble. But this is a kind of wit, which, in time, is sure to produce surfeit, and requires such a variety of objects for its exercise, that it is with THE ITALIAN OPERA. 81 difficulty replenished when it is once spent upon one. The efforts, too, which a punster is contantly obliged to make to conceal the ebbs and flows of his wit, are dis- agreeable, and deprive it of the best part of its effect. Besides, it is impossible to be always ne.w and success- ful ; and the disappointment produced by a bad pun, or one with which we are already familiar, is more than suf- ficient to overbalance the pleasure which we receive from one that is pointed and original. We can see a good character represented an hundred times, and still be pleased by the performance ; but it would be difficult to listen to a repetition of puns without feelings of perfect disgust. In music the Americans seem to succeed better than in tragedy or comedy ; and the establishment of an Italian Opera in New York, on a scale which would do credit to any capital in Europe, shows, at least, the willingness of a certain portion of the people to contribute largely to the cultivation of that taste. The Italian Opera-house in the city of New York, was built in a very costly style ; singers were procured from Italy at a great expense, and the orchestra filled with skilful performers from France and Germany. The company left nothing undone which could gratify the public ; but unfortunately the prices of boxes and the pit were very high, (just double of what they were in the other theatres,) and the entertainments not sufficiently varied to please the American palate. The undertaking, therefore, proved a failure, and involved its projectors in considerable loss. The principal cause of this ill success must have been the language, to which the by far greater part of the audience were total stran- gers ; and which, to brother Jonathan, is, after all, not half as sonorous as the King's English. But of whatever depravity of taste the lower classes of Americans and EngHsh may be judged guilty, (for I be- lieve John Bull is, in this respect, not a whit better than his brother,) I maintain that their relish of what they are able to understand is far from being discreditable to their good sense, and is at least as valuable as the spurious re- finement of those distinguished admirers of the opera, who frequent it only because it is a fashionable entertain- ment. Music, it is true, does not address itself directly to 82 TASTE FOR MUSIC. the understanding; but affects it indirectly through the feelings ; yet I do not see how the understanding can be made judge of it at all, M^ithout the medium of language. I am aware there are those who believe that the under- standing has not4iing to do with it, and that harmony and melody are productive of a sort of agreeable sensation in the ear, similar to that which a cat may feel when its ears are scratched. But there are others who opine — and probably with more justice — that music has the power of indicating the particular tone of our feelings, and of causing them to sympathise with those of the composer. They main- tain that an opera is but a musical drama, in which melody and harmony take the place of declamation, and that its excellency, therefore, must be judged by the perfect agreement between the music and the text. On this ac- count they are apt to admire the compositions of Mozart and Beethoven, and prefer them by far to the brilliant works of Rossini and Bellini. They claim of an overture that it shall be a proper introduction to an opera, by pre- paring the feelings of the audience for the dramatic action which is to follow, and to which it ought to be the index. For this reason they extol the overtures to " Don Juan '* and "Fidelio," and criticise those of the " Gazza ladra " and " Tancredi " as being little adapted to their respective subjects. They can see no miracle in Mozart's compos- ing the overture to " Don Juan " within an hour of the time of its first performance ; because it was merely the index to a work, which, as the author, he must have known by heart. Neither do they wonder at the musi- cians' performing it prima vista; because, having re- hearsed the opera, they must have been familiar with the theme. Our modern composers and performers, they pretend, would be reduced to a greater stress were they ever placed in similar circumstances. These doctrines, it must be allowed, contain a tolerable apology for the simple taste of Americans in not patron- ising the Italian opera. If the perfection of an opera consists in the mutual agreement between the text and the music, the good people of JVew York lost, at least, one half of the entertainment by not- understanding the lan- guage, and were obliged to pay for the remaining half TASTE FOR MUSIC, 83 double of what they were accustomed to pay for a whole night's amusement at another theatre. The ratio was as one to four when compared to the other plays, and was, consequently, too unreasonable to satisfy such nice calcu- lators as the Americans. A beautiful song, of which we understand neither the words nor the meaning, can, after all, produce little more satisfaction than original iambics to a person unacquaint- ed with Greek. He might be pleased with the measures and the harmony; but he could not appreciate their adap- tation to the subject of the poem. Whatever opinions men of fashion may entertain on this subject, I shall always believe that there is no more charity in condemn- ing a man's taste for music, because he does not join in the common-place admiration of Italian operas, than in denying his taste for literature, because he is not delighted with the original text of an author of whom he does not understand the language. But it must not be inferred that, because the Americans have not patronised the Italian opera, they are utterly insensible to music. They are, on the contrary, passion- ately fond of it ; but gratify their taste in a manner much more substantial and profitable. They like to become musicians themselves, and prefer paying for tuition to a master, to encouraging the art in others. Most of the Italian and German performers, who, at first, gave concerts in the United States, were finally in- duced to become teachers, and, in the latter capacity, have not only been able to maintain themselves, but have laid up something for the future. The success of the in- structers can only be ascribed to the readiness of the pupils to improve ; which, in turn, bespeaks a prevalent taste for the accomplishment. Neither are the Americans behindhand in supporting operas performed in English ; and the names of the best German, Italian and French composers have, in this manner, become as familiar to American ears as they are to any dilettanti o{ Europe. "Der Freischiitz," "The Barber of Seville," " The White Lady," " Fra Diavolo," and " Gustavus," have all had their run on the American stage; and it may even be observed that MadameMalibran 84 HANDEL AND HAYDN SOCIETY. was first brought into notice by the encouraging plaudits of an American audience.* The general predilection, however, is in favor of sa- cred music ; and there exist, in most of the large cities of the United States, societies for its cultivation and en- couragement. Among these the *' Handel and Haydn Society " of Boston, and the " Musical Fund Society" of Philadelphia, are most deserving of notice, as they are both extremely well organised, and directed by able and scientific leaders. The latter, especially, ranks amongst its members not only a great number of German and French amateurs, but also a very respectable body of pro- fessors, whose talents are called into active exercise by frequent conceits and oratorios, and by the liberal prizes which the society annually offers for the best compositions in the various departments of the art. One fact, however, is most remarkable in the " Handel and Haydn Society" of Boston, which consists in most of its members being mechanics, cultivating music for no other purpose than because they are really fondof it, and wish to introduce it into their churches. Vocal music, therefore, is their principal object, and the choruses the best part of their oratorios. The taste is certainly lauda- ble, and the more so as it is peculiar to a class of men which are unjustly supposed to be incapable of refine- ment. It is quite a curious spectacle to see the sacred compo- sitions of the old German masters revived and studied by a company of unassuming workmen in the New World, while, in Germany, it would be difficult to procure a fash- ionable audience for either, as long as Lanner and Strauss set the whole population on waltzing. The much admir- ed sensibility of the Germans seems, by some sad perver- sion, to have betaken itself to their heels, where it is now productive of such vehement revolutions as are scarcely equalled by the wheels of a locomotive. Even the classic- al operas of Mozart are gradually withdrawing from the German stage, to go begging in England ; and I am cer- tainly not exaggerating the case when I state it as my * I am aware that Madame Malibran first sung in England ; but she was then not so much applauded as subsequently in America. AMATEUR PERFORMERS. 85 candid opinion that the best compositions of Mozart and Beethoven are becoming more familiar to English and American ears, than to the greater portion of their own countrymen. I have already alluded to the parlor amusement in the United States, which consists principally in vocal and in- strumental music. The performers, on such occasions, are usually ladies ; the gentlemen's accomplishments in the arts being commonly confined to the flute. I do not remember having heard a single amateur performer on the violin during my whole residence in the United States. The ladies who are able to devote a much longer time to their education, are, in this repect, vastly superior to the gentlemen, and perform often exceedingly well on the pi- ano, the guitar, and the harpsichord. Those of Philadel- phia and Baltimore are most accomplished in the art, as they are not only more assiduous in its cultivation, but enjoy the advantage of the best German instructers. Their being, in part, descended from Germans, may also contribute to their predilection in favor of " concord of sweet sounds," which taste is any thing but diminished by a southern latitude. On the whole, I should judge the musical talents of Americans superior to those of the English, especially in the middle and southern States, where they have been constantly improving by emigrants from the continent of Europe. The English will hear the best music as long as they are willing to j>a?/ for it; but the Americans will soon be able to make it themselves. The English will al- ways remain great consumers of musical talent, but the Americans will produce it. No transition seems to be more natural than that from music to painting ; and it will be proper, therefore, to of- fer a few remarks also on that subject. As far as I am able to ascertain, there is, in America, no deficiency of talent either for drawing or painting ; but there is little or nothing done for their encouragement. The education of an American artist, with the only exception of a few, not very competent drawing-masters, is altogether left to him- self, and to the chance he may have of visiting Europe and studying the old masters. There exists, as yet, no public gallery in any of the large cities of the United 8 86 AMERICAN PAINTERS. States, to which a young painter could have free access, or where his taste might be formed. There is not even a school for painting, or any other public institution of a more elevated nature, to foster or develop talents of this kind ; and yet the Americans have produced some very eminent painters, amongst whom it will suffice to mention the names of Stuart and West. The former was one of the best portrait painters of the age, and the latter is too well known in England to need further comment. Mr. Alston, of Cambridge, New England, has, by dint of ge- nius, become an historical painter of vast poetic concep- tions; and Mr. Harding has, from a soldier and a chair- painter, with no other assistance than that of his own en- ergetic mind, become one of the most successful portrait painters of America. He went to England to learn and improve his native talents, but met with such encourage- ment that he was not only able to pursue his main design, but also to lay the foundation to his subsequent indepen- dence. Where talent forces its way through such obstacles, and triumphs at last over all difficulties in the way of its pro- gress, it must be genuine, and warrant the conclusion that, with a little more encouragement on the part of the peo- ple, and some appropriate institutions for the education of artists, the Americans might be made to compete with Europe also in this department. It has been observed, frequently, by French and German M^riters, that the Unit- ed States of America, could, with difficulty, be made the successful sphere of an historical painter. This maybe true for at least the next fifty years, but then, I would ask in what part of Europe his talents would now meet with adequate acknowledgment ? Where are the histor- ical painters in Europe, who, in this age of political and mechanical improvement, could be sure of not dying the death of starvation ? With the exception of the court of Bavaria, there is no royal favor extended to these victims of a more sanc- tified taste — though their works and their fame might live to eternity. The encouragement, which, by persons of rank and distinction, is given to this branch of the art, is almost wholly confined to purchasing a few works of the old masters for a gallery. This is a kind of gratification MODERN PAINTERS. 87 in which a patron of the arts will always more readily in- dulge, than in encouraging a growing talent. A fine gal- lery is constantly admired, and reflects on the good taste of the owner ; but the money laid out on an artist is not always sure of bearing interest or of pampering the pat- ron's vanity. Neither are the performances of the present schools more than a feeble reflection of the glory of former days. Neither the feelings, nor the imagination, nor the taste of our modern artists resemble those of the old masters, in- spired by a holy faith and fraught with religious devotion. They are no longer personations of the Divinity itself; but, at best, but tolerable copies of prosaic originals, or of the world as it appears to our senses, unadorned by what Goethe would call "the glorification of the Italian painters." The mysticism of catholic worship, as it ex- isted in the middle ages, and the spiritualism of those ages gave to the genius of the artist a noble direction, and imprinted on his works a peculiar dignity of charac- ter, for which they will ever be distinguished. This applies equally to the specimens of architecture which remain of that period. They all bear the iiistor- ical characteristics of their age, and represent to us, — if I am permitted the expression, — ideas rather than objects to delight our senses: the conception is in all of them su- perior to the form by which it is expressed, and the peculi- arities of the artist's mind lost in the grandeur of his sub- ject. In this, I believe, consists the true superiority of the ancient over the modern schools ; but it is a superior- ity which belongs to their age more than to the individu- als who flourished in it, and cannot, therefore, be re-pro- duced by the most strenuous efforts of our contempora- ries. Our present artists move in a narrower sphere. Their province does not extend beyond the borders of humanity ; and their conceptions, therefore, must be of a lower cast. They may picture to us man in his most perfect form ; but beyond this, their imagination will not easily soar, and in beholding their works we are irresistibly chained to the earth. They may still have the power of gratify- ing the senses, but they lack the nobility of conception and the divine spirit which presides over the works of the old masters. so PORTRAIT PAINTERS. Neither are our modern worshippers of the art any longer imbued with the same spirit which characterised the people of the middle ages. Ours is the age of de- monstrative philosophy, the most totally opposed to the gentle sympathies of a believing mind. Our understand- ings have become accustomed to seize abstract forms and ideas, established by a process of reasoning, rather than to be led to a generous belief by the beauty and harmony of nature. In proportion as we have trusted our under- standing, our feelings have lost the power of guiding us, and our imagination has become dull and obscure. Hence, instead of representing angels, genii, and saints to our turbid imaginations, our modern artists entertain us with subjects more on a level with ourselves ; and what can be more so than the portrait of a friend, or of our own perfections. Portrait painting has become the chief branch of the art to which all others are not only acces- sory and subordinate, but without which no other can now please or succeed. The artist, therefore, has no longer the choice of his subject ; but exhausts his talent, as he may be employed and directed ; and, instead of following his own imagina- tion and genius, is obliged to conform to the peculiar taste of his patrons. The art, it is true, has become more popular, but, with the greater number of its votaries, its former sanctity is lost. It gives more universal pleasure, but is less capable of affecting individuals; and instead of entertaining them with subjects above them, is obliged to descend to their level. This is the reason why portrait painting has become so universally popular. We hardly become tired to look at ourselves in a glass, which, moreover, reflects our image without flattery, and exhibits to us daily the visible marks of time and decay; how much more, then, must we be pleased with a portrait, which is not subject to decrepi- tude, and represents us always under the most favorable combination of light and attitude ? The foible is par- donable, and flatters our vanity. What, after all, can be more satisfactory to a man of taste than to leave to the world some traces of his ephemeral existence ? — to be im- mortalized by a favorite of the muses, and hung up in a gallery amongst a whole heaven of gods and goddesses? PORTRAIT PAINTERS. 89 —to carry the sweet consolation to the grave that his pic- ture; after generations shall have past, may yet be more valuable than the original 1 If he wear an uniform, a mitre, or some other decoration to distinguish himself from the rest of mankind, nothing but a toitch of the brush will be required to transmit his merits, iii the brightest colors, to an admiring posterity ; and if his name be not inscribed on marble, he may at least cherish a hope that some of his friends will have it engraved on steel, " from an original picture of Sir Thomas Lawrence." Our feelings have grown too egotistical even to under- stand the works of the old masters ; much less to imitate them. Amongst the hundreds who annually visit Rome and Florence for the laudable purpose of improving their tastes, there is scarcely one whose mind is tuned in unison with their spirit, to comprehend the vastness of their de- signs, or to perceive the divine attributes of truth and eternity which are every where imprinted on their poetic personages. But without sympathising with the masters of the old school, we shall in vain attempt to catch the inspiration of their works. Let us analyze them as we may, let us descend to the minutest details ; the soul will not be found in any particular part of the body, but will forever escape our anatomical investigation. It is of too sublime a nature to cling to so rude an instrument as the knife of a modern dissector. The old painters are doom- ed to the fate of the classics, an acquaintance with which is indispensable to erudition ; but whose works are no longer understood without a commentary. They may still be the object of universal admiration, but inspire no longer those electric feelings which prompted the ancients to deeds of heroic valor. If this is the fate of the masters exalted in the opinions of mankind, what can be the prospects of a beginner 1 Which way is a young artist to turn, to keep his heart and his mind uninfluenced by the growing egotism of the world ? Where are the awful mysteries of religion, and the enchantments of a spiritual world to fecundate his imagination, and to preserve it pure in an age of unbelief and material philosophy ? Cause and effect of real great- ness in the arts are alike vanishing from the present gen- 8# 90 CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF PAINTING. eration ; and the lofty pupil of the divine masters degene- rates into a sordid copyist of his patron's pimples. The great advantage, then, which Europe possesses over America, with regard to the fine arts, are the nu- merous collections of paintings and statuary treasured up in her churches and galleries. These will probably re- main forever unequalled, not only by Americans, but also by European artists of all times. They are now more the objects of pride and vanity in their owners than of re- al veneration for the genius of their author. Ours is an age of science, and not of the arts. The eternal truths "of nature and of nature's God," which it is the province of the fine arts to reveal m forms, are no longer the objects of pious mysticism, but of philosophical discussion and mathematical demonstration. The pres- ent age cannot be affected by what they are unable to understand, and not convinced, except by a process of reasoning. Hence the progress of the exact sciences and their accessories, — and the visible decline of poetry and the arts. The aggregate of human knowledge is increas- ed, and the condition of man improved beyond all com- parison ; but the more delicate feelings of our hearts have become blunted, and the sacred awe of the spiritual world changed into a self-sufficient complacency at the subjugation of inanimate nature. In proportion as the understanding and the judgment are cultivated, the imagination must suffer or be checked in its progress, and, with it, the arts to which it gives life. The more accurately a thing is defined, the less room is left to the imagination to enlarge upon it ; and the mind once accustomed to the rigor of mathematical demonstra- tion, is not apt to lose itself in the boundless regions of fancy. Judgment, too, partakes always of the nature of criticism. It is an analytical process of the mind, which consists rather in dissecting and destroying, than in unit- ing different objects to an harmonious whole. In every work of art, on the contrary, the unity of all the parts — the totality of the impression — is the principal object to which all others must be subordinate. The genius of the artist is creative, and his conceptions are at once a com- plete and perfect whole ; the province of science is the universe, and the means of exploring it a finite intelli- ARTS AND SCIENCES CONTRASTED. 91 gence. The man of science, therefore, can only combine what exists; but in no instance is he able to add, create, or improve on a single object in nature. Step by step is nature to be conquered ; each new idea must give birth to another, and it is only by their painful combination that the truth is finally revealed. But the characteristic of science is certainty, and its reward consciousness of pow- er. Its applications are universal, and contribute every- where to the amelioration of conditions. The arts may flourish in a despotic country ; but the light of science cannot be diffused amongst a people without raising them above the condition of slaves. The arts may be employ- ed for mean and sordid purposes, but science always en- nobles human nature, and is, of all pursuits, the most cal- culated to secure permanent happiness. Monarchs may patronise the arts — republics must encourage the sci- ences. In proportion as the sciences advanced, the arts deteri- orated ; but it was not until the decline of the latter, that America rose into an independent existence. The period in the history of Europe, advantageous to the cultivation of the arts, was passed : the very settlement of the Unit- ed States was owing to protestantism in religion and pol- itics. There were no monuments of Rome and Greece to awaken a taste for the arts ; and the wild dramas of the Indian wars called for energies and talents different from those which play in the lap of the Muses. Hardly had America escaped from destruction at home, and oppression from abroad, before the French revolution began to convulse the whole world with its doctrines and victories. America was again forced into a war, and it is scarcely twenty years since she has enjoyed unmolest- ed tranquillity. But what period is this for a nation in its history of the fine arts'? And what has been the pro- g7'ess of the arts during that period in Europe ! Let the question be presented in this light, and its inevitable an- swer must be, that, compared to former times, they have, in Europe, deteriorated, while in America they have cer- tainly progressed, notwithstanding the almost total want of encouragement of artists in the United States. CHAPTER V. AMERICAN LITERATURE. ITS RELATION TO THE ENGLISH. PERIODICALS. DAILY PRESS. CITY AND COUNTRY PA- PERS. THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE POLITICAL PROSPECTS OF THE NATION. " The termination of the Revolutionary War," says the learned author of " Men and Manners," " left the United States with a population graduatina; in civilization from slaves to planters. The scale went low enough, but un- fortunately, not very high. The great mass of the white population, especially in the Northern States, were by no means deficient in such education, as was suited to their circumstances. In a country in which abject poverty was happily a stranger, there existed few obstacles to the gen- eral diffusion of elementary instruction. But between the amount of acquirement of the richer and poorer classes little disparity existed. Where the necessity of labor was imposed on all, it was not probable that any demand should exist for learning, not immediately connected with the business of life. To the groiver of indigo and tobac- co, to the feller of timber, or the retailer of cutlery and drij goods, the refinements of literature iverc necessarily unhnoion. In her whole population America did not number a single scholar in the higher acceptation of the term, and had every book in her whole territory been contributed to form a national library, it would not have afforded the materials from which a scholar could be framed." * * # "In short, the state of American society is such as to afford no leisure for any thing so unmarketable as abstract AMERICAN SCIENCE AND LITERATURE. 93 knowledge. For the pursuit of such studies, it is neces- sary that the proficient 'should fit audience find, though few.^ He must be able to calculate on sympathy, at least, if not encouragement; and assuredly he would find neither in the United States." * * * "I am aware, it will be urged that the state of things I have described is merely transient, and that when popu- lation shall have become more dense, and increased com- petition shall have rendered commerce and agriculture less lucrative, the pursuits of science and literature will engross their due proportion of the national talent. I hope it may be so ; but, yet it cannot be disguised that hitherto there has been no visible approximation towards such a condition of society. In the present generation of Americans 1 can detect no symptoms of improving taste, or increasing elevation of intellect. On the contrary, the fact has been irresistibly forced on my conviction that they are altogether inferior to those, whose place, in the course of nature, they are soon destined to occupy. Compared with their fathers, I have no hesitation in pronouncing the younger portion of the higher classes to be less libe- ral, less enlightened, less observant of the proprieties of life, and certainly far less pleasing in manners and de- portment." Thus ends his discussion on American literature and education, in which not a single author or work is named, to corroborate his statements, and which it would be im- possible to recognize as bearing on literature at all, if the reader were not good-naturedly informed of it by the run- ning title of the book. Every assertion it contains is purely gratuitous,* and but the echo of his own feelings * Except, perhaps, his observation on the manners of the yonng men of the ''higher classes." But in America the offspring of the higher classes are usually not only inferior to their progenitors, but, in the greater number of instances, also to the children ol the inferior orders. The most active and enterprising merchants of Boston and New York are not sons of rich men. Neither were the names of the most distin- guished American statesmen known in the fashionable circles, before their fame had connected them with the history of their country. Ge- nius is seldom hereditary ; and in a country where every man advances by his own talents and energies, we need be as little astonished to see the son of a rich man inferior to his father, as to behold the offspring of poor parents rise to consideration and dignity. 94 EARLY STAGE OF SCIENCE and prejudices. Surely the learned author furnishes a powerful illustration of the quantity of philosophy a man may gather from travelling, and how the inmost thoughts and springs of action of a nation may be discovered from the top of a stage coach. There is nothing so easy as for a man who has, either from disposition or habit, taken a strong dislike to republican institutions, to declaim, in general terms, on their pernicious influence on science and literature ; but if he attempt to state facts with which he is only acquainted from hearsay, he will assuredly be- tray the particular tone of his sentiments, or be guilty of misrepresentations. America, at the close of the revolutionary war, did number amongst its population, not only scholars, but men of the purest and loftiest genius. — Franklin and Thomas Jefferson would have immortalized themselves by their writings and reasonings, even if neither of them had ever risen above the political horizon of his country. The theory of electricity of the former would, alone, have sufficed to mark him as one of the most logical intellects which ever graced science, and would have transmitted his fame to the latest posterity. America could boast of orators like James Otis and Patrick Henry,* and exhibit- ed the virtues of her legislators in the framing of her con- stitution. John Edwards, William Douglas, and William Bartram had distinguished themselves by their writings ; and the latter, a quaker of Pennsylvania, was pronounced by Linnaeus to be "the greatest natural botanist in the world." Thomas Godfray, of Philadelphia, was the inven- tor of the invaluable instrument to navigators which, afterwards, by a misnomer, was called " Hadley's Quad- rant ; " David Rittenhouse invented a new method of fluxions ; and Timothy Cutler, Elisha Williams, and Tim- othy Clap, of Yale College, were celebrated for their knowledge of classical literature.f In 1761 the transit of Venus was observed from the coast of Newfoundland (the most westerly part of the world from which the conclu- sion could be seen,) by Professor Winthrop, of Harvard * " Henry, the forest-born Demosthenes, Whose thunder shook the Philip of the seas." Byron. t Grahame's Histoiy of the United States. AND LITERATURE IN AMERICA. 95 College ; who acquitted himself of the task in the most able manner ; and had his expenses defrayed by the gen- eral court of Massachusetts.* This undoubtedly proves that " to the grower of indigo and tobacco, to the feller of timber, and the retailer of cutlery and dry goods, the refinements of literature were necessarily unknown." Mr. Hamilton attributes the infant state of literature in the United States to the state of society, and especially to their republican form of government. Let us see how far his conclusions are borne out by history ? Let us in- quire how much England has done for the mental emanci- pation of her colonies ; and whether the arts and sciences have received a check or an impulse, by the declaration of independence 1 We find Britain, in the earliest stage of her American colonies, desirous of governing them not only by superior physical power, but also by a preponderance of intellect. Commerce and literature were alike monopolised by Eng- land, whose interest it was to keep America dependent on British manufacture and science. This state of servi- tude, the most degrading which ever existed in any coun- try, was enforced by the most rigorous laws ; and the privilege of printing and publishing books was, by the very charter, refused to some of the colonies. The encouragement which American gentlemen of sci- ence and literature had to expect from England, was most happily illustrated by the conduct of William Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham, who refused to commune personally with Dr. Franklin, but sent him word, through one of his under secretaries, " that he thought him a re- spectable man." t Franklin was then at the zenith of his scientific and political renown ; and if he received such flattering testimonies of his " respectability" from men, favorable to the cause of America, what could he and his •colleagues hope for from the jealousy of their political opponents. The only literary institution aided by royalty, in Ame- rica, during the space of two centuries, was the college of "William and Mary," in Virginia, to which a donation * Grahame's History of the United States. Ibid. 96 EARLY STAGE OF SCIENCE was made by the King and Queen, more for political and religious purposes, however, than for the actual promotion of learning. When Dean Berkeley (afterwards Bisliop of Cloyne) went to America to establish a seminary of learn- ing, the House of Commons voted the sum of 20,000/. for that purpose ; but this sum was never paid — and after- wards voted in aid of the colony of Georgia, a kind of military establishment, for the protection of the frontiers of South Carolina. Gibson, bishop of London, after re- peatedly pressing the subject on Walpole, obtained finally the following unceremonious answer : " If you put this question to me as a Minister, I must and can assure you that the money shall undoubtedly be paid, as soon as the public convenience ivill alloiv ; but if you ask me as a friend whether Dean Berkeley should continue in America, expecting the payment of the 20,000/., I advise him, by all means, to return to Europe, and to give up his present expectations." The attorney-general expressed himself in still plainer terms ; for, when the agent of the colonies applied to him for his sanction to have a patent sealed confirming the grant of the 20,000/. under the religious plea, that it was for the benefit of the souls of the colonists, he merely replied, laconically, "Never mind their souls" — "let them plant tobacco." Governor Johnston, of North Carolina, (the first royal governor after the surrender of the proprietary Charter,) levied, it is true, taxes for the purpose of founding schools ; but unfo; mately employed the money so raised for other purposes. No sooner, however, was the declaration of independence acknowledged by Great Britain, than the Assembly of North Carolina, " aware of the bonds which connect hioioledge with liberty^ and ignorance with despot- ism^''^ founded a seminary of learning in that province. Yale, and Princeton colleges were established by the munificence of the people, without the assistance of the British government, or of royal bounty. Harvard Col- lege was established by the Puritan fathers only ten years after their settlement in America ; but never enjoyed the academical privileges of similar institutions in England ; though many laws were enacted, for that purpose, by the provincial legislature of Massachusetts, which were all AND LITERATURE IN AMERICA. 97 disallowed by the British parliament, bent upon protract- ing the period of America's mental and national pupillar- ity. The editors and authors of periodicals were thrown into prison, and until 1730 a strict censorship established in New England, the most literary of all the colonies. " No encouragement," says Grahame, "seems ever to have been given by the English government to the culti- vation of science and literature in the American prov- inces, except in the solitary instance of a donation of William and Mary in aid of the college which took its name from them in Virginia. The policy adopted by the parent state in this respect is very directly indicated by one of the royal governors in the beginning of the eighteenth century. * As to the college erected in Virginia,' says the officer, * and other designs of the like nature, which have been proposed for the encouragement of learning, it is only to be observed in general, that although great advantages may accrue to the mother state both from the labors and luxuries of its plantations, yet they will probably be mis- taken loho imagine that the advancement of literature, and the improvement of arts and sciences in our American colonies, can be of any service to the British state? ♦' We have already seen the instructions," continues Grahame, " that were given to the royal governors by the English court, both prior and subsequent to the revo- lution of 1688, to restrain the exercise of printing within their jurisdiction. Many laws were enacted in New England after that event, for enlarging the literary privi- leges and honors of Harvard university, which were all disallowed by the British government." With what justice, therefore, does our modern tourist, after expounding on venison and Madeira — for the learned author of " Men and Manners " treats very fully on these subjects — obtrude his remarks on American literature and science at that period? — and this to prove that liberal governments are necessarily opposed to their progress 1 Again, Mr. Hamilton assures his readers that in the present generation of Americans *' he can discover no symptoms of improving taste, or increasing elevation of in tellect." On the contrary, the fact has been irresistibly 9 98 AMERICAN PUBLICATIONS. forced on his conviction " that they are altogether inferior to those whose place, in the course of nature, they are soon destined to occupy." By what facts does he estab- lish this gratuitous assertion ? Have the Americans, since the revolutionary war, produced no men of science known in Europe 1 no writer of note whose works have been republished in England and on the Continent 1 One single fact will answer these questions better than all speculations on the subject. The "American Booksellers' Advertiser" notices the following different publications, during the year 1835, ex- clusive of pamphlets, periodicals, and new editions. (The first column contains the number of original American publications; the second, the number of republications of foreign works ; and the third, the sum total of both.) Sabjects, American, Foreign. Total. Biographies . . . History - - - - Travels by Sea and Land Statistics and Commerce - Theology Religioiis and Domestic Duties - Miscellaneous - - . Almanacks . _ _ Ethics and Politics Law _ - - _ Medicine and Surgery Arts and Sciences Novels and Tales Poetry - - • . Education Juvenile - - - . 19 4 12 9 20 15 24 10 5 9 6 15 31 7 60 22 11 8 11 2 22 15 10 .3 3 5 8 33 12 15 17 175 30 12 23 11 42 30 34 10 8 12 11 23 64 19 75 39 268 443 Making in all 443 works, or 547 vols. Allowing each edition to consist only of 1000 copies, the number of vol- umes printed amounted last year (1835) to 547,000 ; ex- clusive of pamphlets, periodicals, and new editions. We remark here the great increase of original publica- tions, instead of the diminution which struck the learned author of "Men and Manners." ESTIMATION OF LITERATURE. 99 In 1833, there were published, in the United States, one third more foreign than original works ; but, in 1835 the ratio had already increased in favor of the former. A German writer* observes that this is a strong proof that the United States are about to form their own literature, especially as regards the solid and useful branches of ed- ucation. These publications show better than all reason- ing that in America an author may at least " fit audi- ence find," and that he may calculate on the sympathy and encouragement of the public ; else the enterprising spirit of the Americans would not be engaged in publish- ing and republishing books. But Mr. Hamilton says, in another part of his work, that literature in the United States is a disgrace^ and that he heard the term "literary gentleman," applied, in Washington, in the most taunting manner, to one of the representatives. This was a gross misunderstanding on his part. All parties in the United States — those in and those out of power — are proud of the literary achieve- ments of their champions; but they are alike averse to mere rhetorical flourishes. The term "literary " is some- times applied ironically to a politician, in contradistinc- tion to practical good sense, which, indeed, was the case when Mr. Hamilton heard it pronounced on the floor of Congress; but then the distinction is not so absurd as he imagines, there being more than one " literary gentle- man " to whom it will happily apply. Once more I would ask whether the writings of Hill- house, of Bryant, Percival, Paulding, and, above all, of Washington Irving and Fennimore Cooper are so little known in England and Europe generally, as to entitle the learned author of " Men and Manners " to the con- clusion that America will never enjoy a state of society favorable to literature ? What was the literary and scientific condition of Amer- ica at the time of her emancipation ? — and what is it now ? Have no improvements been made in the system of edu- cation ? Is there any branch of literature in which the Americans do not, at least, enter into competition with Europe, from the most abstruse science of mathematical * In the journal entitled " Das Ausland." 100 POETRY. analysis down to the "woful ballad " and the "flower- garden of epigrams and sonnets?" It may, perhaps, be observed, that in all these branch- es the Americans are as yet the imitators of Europe. Granted. But what are fifty years in the history of a nation's literature, or in the scientific development of a people yet combating against nature and the savages ? Only a small portion of the inhabitant? of the United States are as yet permanently settled ; the rest are no- mades, or lead the lives of conquerors. Yet these wan- dering tribes know the value of literature and science, and, wherever they go, establish schools and seminaries of learning. All other nations have conquered by the sword, and their traces were marked by ruin and desolation : America, alone, vanquishes her foes by civilization, and marks her course by moral and religious improvements. There is poetry in her national development, and the settlements of her early colonists. Poetry is s^ much diflfused throughout nature, and so intimately connected with man, that there is hardly an object, or an historical fact, incapable of inspiring its sentiments. There is po- etry in light, color, sound, form, and even in numbers. The creation and redemption of man is the most sublime and Godlike poetry recorded in the Bible. Newton, by his optics, has become the philosopher and poet of light ; Mozart and Chladni sang, the one from inspiration, the other by philosophical combination, the praises of music ; and the Greeks have given us the most perfect models of the poetry of forms. The gigantic antediluvian drama, with its volcanos, and earthquakes, and floods, involving all creation in a general wreck, has found its poet in Cu- vier; but the sublimity of his conceptions consists in num- bers.* The spiritualism of the middle ages, and the holy inspiration of the followers of Christ, are the subject of Walter Scott's poetry ; and the military enthusiasm of imperial France, and its tragical end, have begot the plaintive strains of Lamartine. The colonization of New England, by the pilgrim fathers, their manly assertion of liberty, and the sacrifice of all that is dear to mankind, for the very theory of freedom, is one of the most poetic- al, and noble spectacles which the world ever witnessed. * Heine. AMERICAN AUTHORS. 101 The struggle of a young and uncorrupt race against the gigantic forests and rivers of a pristine world; the expir- ing groans of her children, and the noble enthusiasn* of the Americans for their proud republic, form the theme of the poetry of Cooper. Whatever may be said of his im- itation of Walter Scott, he is original in his scenes and conceptions, and will forever remain a rival competitor of the great master. His works have been translated in- to all European languages, and, despite of the illiberal criticism of his own countrymen, will be read and admir- ed as long as there shall be a heart capable of enthusiasm for liberty. Whatever the Americans may now think of Cooper, he is, and will, probably, for a long time remain, the most manly and national representative of their lite- rature. Washington Irving's style is superior to Cooper's in el- egance and finish ; but his pictures are diminutive, and he succeeds best in sketches. His acquaintance with, and I may perhaps say, predilection in favor of European characters, rather pleases the Americans, who are flatter- ed to see him ranked amongst the most classical English writers of the age. James K. Paulding is likewise one of the most fertile novelists of America. " The Dutch- man's Fireside," "John Bull in America," "Westward, Ho," &c. are well known even in England, and are hon- orable productions of a descriptive mind. He has also written several plays, and a parody on Walter Scott's *'Lay of the Minstrel," entitled "Lay of the Scotch Fiddler." Among the lyric poets of the Americans, James G. Percival holds decidedly the first rank, though Bryant and Dana have, perhaps, more tasle and elegance. He is a calm, contemplative genius, joining a powerful imagina- tion to a masculine style, and a patriotic ardor which we •only recognize again in the works of Fennimore Cooper. His poems, entitled " Clio," were republished in England, and he was the coadjutor of Webster in the publica- tion of his dictionary. Bryant is editor of " The New York Evening Post," and Richard H. Dana, was, for a time, editor of the " North American Review." The best prose work of the latter is "The Idle Man," and amongst his poems the Buccaneer is justly entitled to the 9* 102 AMERIAAN AUTHORS. high reputation it enjoys in America. Some of the poems of Bryant have been lately translated into German, and were pronounced, by competent critics, to be equal to the best productions of British Bards. John Howard Paine and Hillhouse are the Coriphei of American dramatic literature. The best works of the latter are "The Last Judgment," " Percy's Mask," and "Hadad." The plays of Paine appeared first in Eng- land, and, I believe, met with a favorable reception. The author has since returned to America, where some of them have been revived on the stage, and performed to fashionable audiences. Dr. Bird, of Philadelphia, the author of several popu- lar novels, is also worthy of considerable distinction as a dramatic writer. His Indian tragedy of Oroloosa was highly successful, though it was rather too full of stage trick and clap-trap. His Gladiator is a much superior performance. Though it has many faults, it possesses much redeeming merit; and the personation of Mr. For- est not only insures its permanent popularity in the Unit- ed States, but obtained for it a most favorable reception before a London audience. The Bride of Genoa, by Epes Sargent, was produced in Boston, at the Tremont Theatre, in the spring of 1837, the popular and clever native actress. Miss Clifton, sustaining the principal male character. The play is founded upon incidents in the ca- reer of Antonio Montaldo, a plebeian, who made himself Doge of Genoa, in the year 1393, when he was only 22 years old. In the " History of the Revolutions of Ge- noa," he is described " as daring and ambitious, with a genius equal to the most extensive views, yet of a forgiv- ing temper." Great license is taken with history in the conduct of the play, but the character of Montaldo is faith- fully and well represented. The success of this drama, on its production in Boston, was very decided, and the house, on the third night, crowded to overflowing with the most brilliant audience of the season. Its represen- tation in the other principal cities of the Union will prob- ably precede its publication, there being, unfortunately, no law in the United States securing to dramatic writers a compensation for the production of their published works on the stage. Another play, by the «ame author, a tragedy of the most powerful dramatic inte> st, entitled AMERICAN AUTHORS. 103 Velasco, is in preparation, and has, by competent judges, been pronounced vastly superior to the first ; if so, its complete success cannot for one moment be doubtful. Besides these authors there is yet a number with whose names the British public are familiar. Miss Sigourney, Miss Sedgwick, (author of Hope Leslie,) Mrs. Child, (par- ticularly known as a moral and political writer,) and Charles Brockden Brown (author of Edgar Huntly, Car- win and Wieland,) need no commendation from my pen. Nathaniel P. Willis, the youngest of the American min- strels, has earned glory and the minstrel's reward in England, and Mr. Theodore S. Fay is well known as the author of " Norman Leslie." Mrs. Child has just pub- lished a new novel, " Philothea," replete with imagina- tion and classical learning, and imbued with that spirit of morality which distinguishes all her productions. In the deparlment of science and education a number of original writers have distinguished themselves, not only by composing text-books, but also by publishing works in the higher departments of knowledge. The philosophical works of Cousin have been translated and published in Boston ; and Dr. Nathaniel Bo wd itch has furnished the best translation of La Place's " Mecanique Celeste," with notes and figures (these were wanting in the original) occupying nearly one half of the work.* * It is, perhaps, not unworthy of notice that Mr. Hamilton, in his learned criticism on American scholars, should have so far travelled out of his orbit, as to condemn them, because they thought themselves mathematicians without reading La Place, and philosophers without understanding Cousin. This idea the learned author introduces amongst a number of not less ingenions remarks on American college- education, compared to that of England. Now, whatever the advan- tages of an English collegiate education may be. La Place's Mecanique Celeste forms no text book either in a British or French university, and is not even among the works prescribed for the pupils of the 6cole polytechdque. As regards the philosophy of Cousin, which, in fact, is based upon his intimate acquaintance with German metaphysics, I am inclined to believe that many a British scholar would have to renounce his claims to philosophy, if the works of that writer were to be made the criterion of his knowledge. Cousin is far from being generally understood by his own countrymen; and we may, therefore, infer that he is not quite so intelligible to every Englishman as to the author of " Men and Manners." At any rate, the Americans possess a transla- tion of Cousin, and until the English shall have shown the same taste for metaphysics, Mr. Hamilton's remarks on American scholarship can only prove injurious to his own countrymen. 104 NATIONAL LITERATURE. Were these works published in a new, original lan- guage, no doubt could exist, in the mind of any European philosopher, as to their composing the most ample ele- ments of a national literature; but, published in an Euro- pean language an invidious comparison obtrudes itself in- voluntarily on the reader; and he declares them — perhaps against his will — as imitations of the classical literature of England. The Americans, as they increase in wealth and power, will enlarge also the field of their literature. It will be strongly tinctured with the spirit of freedom which pervades their country ; their imagination will re- flect the gigantic scenery of the New World, in compari- son to which that of Europe (with the exception of Swit- zerland) represents but a miniature picture; they will have their epos, their lyric and dramatic poesy, but to an Englishman they will appear as so many annexations to British literature. America has an European origin, an European lan- guage, and an European civilization ; three circumstances which will always connect her with Europe, and estab- lish a reciprocal action between the Old and New world. Every English classical poet will be read in America, as the works of every American author of celebrity will con- stitute part of an English library. Washington Irving and Cooper are now as much read in England as Scott and Bulwer in America; and there is no reason why a similar reciprocity should not exist in the future. But the English classics, Shakspeare and Milton, will forever remain the models of Americans, as they are to this moment the beau ideal of the Germans. Genius be- longs to no soil ; its action is universal, and cannot be shut out frorh a country like an article of contraband. Where it is once admitted, it creates admirers ; and from admiration to imitation the transition is too natural to suppose that the Americans alone should prove an excep- tion to the rule. Besides, the national distinctions which characterise the people of Europe and America are grad- ually dying away : the feelings and sentiments of Amer- icans are fast gaining ground, not only in Europe, but all over the world ; and unless some forcible revolution take place must eventually become those of mankind in gene- ral. What changes of feelings have not the English and REFLECTIONS ON AMERICAN LITERATURE. 105 French undergone for tlie last thirty years? What, those of the Germans 1 But every pohtical change in the gov- ernment of a nation must necessarily affect its literature. England, France and Germany furnish examples of this doctrine. There is less difference now between the senti- ments of a liberal German and an Englishman, than there was, at the time of the American revolution, between the British and the inhabitants of the United States ; and there is certainly more similarity between the writings of Byron, Schiller and Lamartine than could ever be discov- ered between those of Shakspeare and Racine. But if the literature of a ])eople, speaking a different language is gradually losing its national characteristics, what can be expected from a literary branch of one and the same language ? Another circumstance checking the growth of a nation- al, independent literature in America, is her constant and increased intercourse with Europe. The national pecu- liarities of a people — in which their literature always participates — are generally founded on prejudices, or re- ligious superstition. Both these must yield to the superi- or light of Christianity and the knowledge resulting from actual observation. The national features of the English, the French and the Germans, are not derived from the period of their civilization ; but, on the contrary, from the times of their barbarism. The warlike manners of the French are still those of the ancient Gauls, the most characteristic fea- tures of the English are yet Saxon, and the best knowl- edge of the German character may yet be derived from Tacitus. America was civilized in her very origin. The early settlers felt, thought, and believed as their brethren in Europe ; or, at least, did not differ from them sufficiently to create permanent distinctions. The people who ob- structed their progress and whom they conquered by arms, were not sufficiently powerful to call for an extraor- dinary demonstration of valor. It was not an expedition of Argonauts in quest of the golden fleece : it did nol even partake of the military glory of the conquest of Mexico. The American Indians were a degraded race, without history, memory, or tradition. They seem to 106 REFLECTIONS ON have been the remnants of a once powerful people,* whom a general plague or a series of internal wars had reduced to the condition of the most abject wretchedness. There was no renown attached to their subjugation; it was the victory of intelligence over the barbarism of sav- ages. No poetry, therefore, attaches to the conquest of the American soil, and the history of it is only remarka- ble from its conjunction with that of Europe. It was the oppression of Europe which settled the American wilder- ness ; it was the resistance against Europe, which intro- duced America into the ranks of nations. Previous to that period America had been a European province, and its history an appendage to that of Ewigland. America enjoyed the political existence of a nation before it had an historical one by geniture. No mythological fable is blended with her origin. Her children are not descended from the gods or the sun ; they are pious Christians, who, from simple colonists, have at once risen into a powerful national independence. Had the American Indians, at the time of the European settlements, been a strong or- ganized nation, who, by amalgamating with the colonists, would have tinctured the manners of the settlers, and in turn received the superior arts of civilization, then a na- tional literature, essentially different from the English, might, perhaps, have arisen from the conjunction; but it would have been that of the Indians, and not of the set- tlers ; it w^ould have retarded the progress of indepen- dence for centuries, and, in its stead, given birth to anoth- er system of vassalage. Another means of levelling national distinctions con- sists in the propagation of learning. The man of sci- ence belongs to no country, and has no prejudices except in favor of those who are his superiors in knowledge. In the common course of nature, the art's precede the sci- ences in every country, as poetry comes before prose: in America alone the sciences have preceded the arts, and thus raised the nation beyond the tender susceptibility of fic- tion. — Rousseau's motto, " Plus'qu'on raisonne moins qu^on aime,^^ applies not only to man, but also to Nature. The poetry * Their religion, rites, and even their bravery seem to warrant this> conclusion. AMERICAN LITERATURE. 107 and awe with which Nature inspires an untutored mind are no concomitants of the demonstrative reasoning of mechanical philosophy; and her terrors cease to be sub- lime when disarmed by the discovery of Franklin.* The sciences, which teach us to subject nature to human will, are most destructive of the imagination ; and the universe itself appears pitiable in the shape of an orrery. Even the most profound researches of mathematical analysis diminisii the poetic grandeur of the heavens, by reducing the infinite and boundless to the computation of the " in- finitely smalU^ How immeasurably great, how infinitely sublime are the heavens ! But the spirit of liitlemss pulled even heaven down.t The Americans, as a nation, cannot be said to be infe- rior in science to any people in Europe ; for not only are its most useful branches more generally diffused and applied in the United States than either in England or France, but also the most abstruse departments of knowl- edge are cultivated and improved by men of competent tal- ents. Their number, assuredly, is not as great as in Eu- rope ; but still they exist, and are sufficient to imprint a character on the nation. But men of science, as I have remarked before, belong to no country, and are, in them- selves, incapable of giving a national impulse. They may excite emulation and contribute to the development of intellect ; but they cannot create such lasting distinctions and peculiarities, as we are in the habit of claiming for ihe national literature of a people. America has not passed through the different stages of civilization, each of which leaves its historical monu- ments and a distinct impression on the people. There was no community of religion, and hardly of feeling previous to their common resistance against England ! It was the genius of liberty which gave America a national elevation ; and it is to this genius, therefore, we must look for national productions. It is the bond of union, the con- fession, the religion, the life of Americans ; it is that which distinguishes them above all other nations in the world. * What can be more averse to poetry, than the thunderbolt of Jove made harmless when caught by a lightning-rod. t " So unermesslich ist, so mnendlich erhaben der Himmel! Aber der Kleinigkeitsgeist zog auch den Himmel herab." Schiller's Poems. 108 REFLECTIONS ON But the genius of liberty, though it has chosen Ameri- ca for its permanent dwelling, overshadows, also, a por- tion of Europe. England, France, and Germany are roused by its summons ; and the poet of Europe, inspired by the same muse, kneels at the same altar, and worships the same God. Thus, the Americans, instead of being a distinct people, have become the representatives of liberty throughout the world. Their country has become the home of the banished; the asylum of the persecuted, the prospective heaven of the poHtically damned. Every people of Europe is represented in the United States ; every tongue is spoken in the vast domain of freedom ; thehislory of every nation terminates in that of America. But this gigantic conglomeration, while it prognosti- cates the future sway of the United States, while it prom- ises to revive the history of all ages and of every clime, is, nevertheless, one of the principal causes why America possesses, as yet, no national literature. Yet there is suf- ficient of English leaven in this enormous mass to pene- trate even its uttermost particles. The fructifying prin- ciple is every where visible, and the fruits are not tardy of coming. But the seed is English, though the soil and the climate may give it a different development. But, though the literature of America be not a legiti- mate child of the soil, it may become so by adoption, and as such form a most important and distinct branch of that of England. Compared to English literature, its position will, perhaps, be similar in rank to the respective political importance of the country; and who can tell, but at some future period, when the British muse may have become si- lent, her younger sister may revive her memory, and pro- claim her fame, and her glorious effusions, to all the na- tions of the world 1 Mr. Cliasle^ in the Revue des deux 3Iondes, expresses his belief that America is not the land of the muses ; be- cause the commerce and continued occupation of her in- habitants preclude alike the commission of great crimes, and the leisure required for poetic inspiration. With him, the Americans are too happy a people. They marry at too early an age, live without intrigue, and prosper till they grow old. There is nothing so prosaic in the eyes of Mr. Chasle as steam-boats, rail-roads, and the building AMERICAN LITERATURE. 109 of new cities. Where there is commercial and industri- ous activity, there is, in his opinion, no spot consecrated to poetry.* * D'ailleurs, " says Mons. Chasle," il y a peu de mal-itre en AmArique ; la poesie sovffre de cet Hat prospere. Le Mal-etre fait les grands POETES. (!) How unfortunate must have been the times of Shakspeare ! What influence must they not have had on Goethe! ^' En A7)i6riqn£," continues Mons. Chasle, " des qu'un citoyen est vidcontent, qii'unfils trouve sa Ugitivie trop courts, q^c^un hanqueroutier se lasse de sa cinquieme banqueroute, il y a, pour tous ces hommes, la res- source du desert, ressource honorable et rehabilitante,. colonisation inces- sante et facile. On dtfriche, on exploite, on travaille, et nul n'y trouve a redire. La socitti cample sur cet exutoire perp6tueL Mais aussi elle Ti'a pas de Lord Byron, que les souffrances des salons grandissent (! !) et irritent; pas de chapelain Crabbe qui ait vecu a V6cole de la faim et de la souff ranee; pas d' Ebenezer Elliot qui se plaigne en vers eloquents de n^ avoir pas de pain ; fas de Lamartine, que les tourmcnts de Vempire et de la restauration aient rameni a la poesie r6ligieuse, pas de B6ranger qui exprinie avec un sourire amer le d6sillusionement des peuples. Helas I que d'amertume suns doute chez tous ces poetes 1 Que d'angoisses dans Vinspiration de lews chants. VAmerique septentrionale est trop hfureuse aujourd' hui de son exertion physique pour produire rien qui en ap- procheJ^ Alas ! how distant is yet the golden age of American Literature The coteries are yet too kind and condescending to produce a Lord By- ron ; the people too well fed to become poets, and there is no man in the United States who can sing " that he has no bread." No military despotism nor political misrule has, as yet, brought sufficient misery on the people to make their poets once more embrace the religion which they never abandoned ; and there is no man to smile on their delusive love of libertv and independence ! As long as the West remams open to the enterprise of merchants and settlers, as long as the soil is fertile and the people willing to exert themselves to obtain an honest liveli- hood, just as long will America be deprived of poets; who, in the opin- ion of Mr. Chasle of the Revue des deux Mondes, have this remarkable property in common with the grey-hounds, that they show their talents best when they are hungry. Again he says, " 11 est (the American) trop paisiblement heureux, trop facilement moral (1) par temp&ravient et par habitiide. Sa d6stin6e marche o.vec une simpiicii6 trop grave. 11 n'a pas memc le loisir de se crier ces douleurs de milancolique reverie, ces douleurs voluptueuses dont nous cannaissonstouteVamertumeettotde la sensuality, ces peinesraffinies qid sont des tristesses de luxe. VHat social dans lequel il vit Voblige^ a Vadiviti la plus constante ; tout ce qui Ventoure partctge cette activitt ; les routes se creusent, les rainures se forment ; les bois 5' abattent, V eau gronde dans les canaux : le sol est bouleversd ;les manufactures naissent; les machines siffient, murmurent, enf anient leur prod^dts ; les villes sor- tent de terre comme le fungus apres la pluie ; la vapeur et les chemins de fer anAantissentVespdce et muUiplient la terre. Poisiel Poisiel toi qui veuxle silence, V ombr e,le bonheur durepos; toi qui n'es ficonde que loin 10 110 REFLECTIONS ON This rhapsody savors much of the French criticism of German literature, when, not more than fifteen years ago, "one of the members of the Academy" declared in plena that tlie Germans could never become an imaginative peo- ple, because their sky was never blue. Mr. Chasle's ob- servations are neither founded on philosophical observa- tion, nor do they betoken the least knowledge of the hu- man heart. All the feelings and passions which ever stimulated men to virtue or hurried them into the com- mission of crimes; all the disappointments of life which tune the heart to melancholy sadness ; frustrated hopes, baffled ambition, ''the pangs of despised love," and "the spurns that patient merit of the unworthy takes," exist in America as in Europe : the nation alone is as yet exempt- ed from the tragedy. In all her combats, in all her strug- gles, the republic has been the victor, and the individual woe is buried in the general prosperity. There is enough of the drama in the lives of Americans, though it may es- cape the eye of a French critic. de Vadiviti matirlellc, et dc la production brute^ iu n'as rien a (aire en untelpaysJ' « * * * * * * " Je ne dis point que la vertu soit incompatible avec le ginie. Non cer- tes; peuples et individus n^achkierontpas le ginie en adoptoM le vice; mais U71C certaine exactitude de comptoir, une certaine pi6t6 deformule, une certaine r6gularitt micanique, iteignent le feu des arts, sans profit po^ir la veritable vertu." {[) Less industry, less honesty, and less regularity in the manners and habits of the people, would probably be more congenial to the g&nie d' artiste, and to what Mr. Chasle calls " une moraliti. haute, passionie, religieuse, puissante," though it would be difficult for an Englishman to understand the precise meaning of a high, passionate, religions, pow- erful morality, which, to a logical mind, would convey nothing but a contradictio in adjccto. But Mr. Chasle's idea of poetry will be better understood from the following ultra-Uheral sentiment. " Si vous 6tez a la France sa sociabilite feconde en dijauts et en illu- sions, sa galant eric enevvie dcsma^urs et de lafidilite conjugale, safa^ cilit6 cV impression et d'emotion, a VEspagne son vdpris romain pour la vie des hommes etson orgueilleuse etiquette, et son catliolicisme terrible, e i son point dlwnneur firoce, vous dessicherez lastve vitale du g6niechez ces nations diver scvient grandes." The English were probably ignorant of the fact stated by Mr. Chasle, that the want of conjugal fidelity in the French, and the bigotry and besottedness of the Spaniards, form the principal elements of their greatness. Many a generation must pass away before the Americans will catch the inspiration, and become as "great and poetical a nation " as the French or the Spaniards! AMERICAN LITERATURE. Ill But there is something in their activity, in the enthu- siastic ardor with which they penetrate into their hoary forests, and subject nature to their will, which is truly in- comprehensible to Europeans. Most nations, in the early stages of their history, had to fight for their existence ; every foot of territory was disputed by their neighbors, and it was through combat they became strong and pow- erful. The Americans had no such enemy to contend with, none to resist their expanding power, or to call their martial valor into action. Yet war and strife con- stitute the lives of nations as of individuals ; and this war the Americans wage against the elements. There is something heroic in the voluntary banishment of a New Englander to fertilize the wilderness; there is sublimity in the sufferings and hardships of those exiles from the re- finements of civilized Europe. The boldness and daring of the Western settler is really chivalrous, and surpasses even the achievements of the mariner. This is the Trojan war of the Americans, though they have not, as yet, found a Homer to immortalize their exploits. No Roman vir- tus milUaris is nursed by their deeds, no terror and deso- lation mark their footsteps ; but a nobler virtue is reared in the midst of those forests of a thousand years — a vir- tue which will outlast the memory of Greece and Rome — the virtus civilis of the Americans. In the Western States the foundation is laying for the wealth and power of future empires. But, I repeat it, America is not yet settled ; her youthful forces are yet em- ployed in subduing nature and establishing governments. The first act of the American drama has hardly com- menced, and should we already judge of its completion 1 Who can deny the capacity of Americans for literature, when the very first day of their national existence brought forth authors who could dispute the palm with the most fer- tile poets of Europe 1 Where is the French novelist whose works, in literary Germany, are read with as much delight as those of Cooper and Irving 7 There never was a na- tion incapacitated for literature, if once capable of civili- zation ; the idea itself is a logical absurdity. Add to this that the Americans are already in possession of a classic- al language, capable of expressing thoughts with ele- gance and precision, and the assertion becomes a bare- 112 TASTE FOR POETRY AND NOVELS. faced effrontery. In whatever contemptuous terms Eu- ropeans may speak of American literature, it is neverthe- less a most powerful propagator of intelligence, and occu- pies and expands the mind until scenes of a different na- ture shall rouse it to increased poetic action. But if the Americans are not all poets, they, at least, read poetry with an avidity which borders on gluttony. Poetry is produced and consumed in America in most enormous quantities. Besides the publications in the newspapers, of which they form the necessary condiment, there hardly passes a day without ushering a new volume into existence, which is greedily read, admired, censured — but at any rate — sold. There are, certainly, more po- ets among the Americans than prose writers, owing to a kind of musical impulse, which makes them express them- selves in rhymes. But, above all, it is the prevailing taste of the readers, which calls for this extraordinary ex- ertion on the part of the authors, as the manufactory of goods must increase with the consumption. The Americans, as a nation, are the most reading peo- ple on the face of the earth. I can safely assert that there are annually more volumes read in the United States of America, than either in England, France, or German; but the favorite works are poetry, and next to them novels. This tender and delicate taste is owing to the circum- stance of the ladies reading more than the gentlemen ; the latter being at a very early period of their lives enga- ged in business, or in a habit of improving their leisure hours with the more serious works on the sciences. Every volume of English poetry, every English novel, is reprint- ed in America within sixty days or less of its publication, and, in addition to these, five or six hundred native au- thors keep the press continually thronged, and contribute to the diversion of the public. The Germans publish an- nually a great number of books; but they are, in these respects, vastly inferior to the Americans ; and, above all, they are not so much read. There exists in Germa- ny a " Republic of Letters," but its fame has hardly reach- ed the middle and lower classes. The German literati form a distinct class by themselves, and are supported and fed by one another, which accounts sufficiently for their want of corpulency. In America they prey upon TASTE FOR SCIENCE. 113 the people at large, and their flushed cheeks and sprightly carriage show, at least, that they are not in want of the necessary beef and mutton. What consolation, after all, is it to an author to be read and admired by a few of his jDcers, while, in the mean time, he is starving in his gar- ret ? The Americans, of all people, are the most grate- ful to their authors ; and there is many an European writer that would give half of his fair reputation for a share in the favor of the Trans-atlantic public. Of scientific works, those on mathematics are most generally studied ; and next to them the works on natu- ral philosophy, chemistry, and mineralogy, with which the greater portion of Americans (even of the inferior or- ders) are tolerably well acquainted. I have often been surprised at the philosophical explanations given by ope- rative mechanics of the various processes of their art; and I have seldom known one who, in so doing, would not use the most appropriate technical terms. Elementary works on the sciences are read by all class- es without distinction, and the authors of them have fre- quently become rich by the rapid sale of their works. Many of them are really possessed of intrinsic merit and originality, and have even been reprinted in England. Colburn's Algebra and Arithmetic have been published to the number of more than one hundred thousand copies ; Comstock's Philosophy has passed through four or five large editions, and new works in these branches are con- stantly issuing from the press. The call for scientific works does not, in many instan- ces, extend much beyond the elements ; but this is the case in all countries, and must be still more so in the Uni- ted States, where a great proportion of the reading and studying community is composed of persons, who, in Eu- rope, would never take up a book. I have known but few American operatives, who, at the age of thirty or forty, were not willing to improve their early education by the study of mathematical and other works, to which they would apply themselves in the hours of rest. An American is never too old to go to school, and this is one of the happiest traits of his character. It is a feature which, as far as I remember, has not been ob- served by any English traveller. Mr. Hamilton is the oii« 10* 114 HISTORICAL WRITERS- ly one, who, in his " Men and Manners," observed, that, in Boston, he listened to a lecture on the steam-engine, which was evidently delivered by an operative mechanic^* and was, in his opinion, remarkably clear and instructive. He ought to have added that the greater number of his hearers were also composed of mechanics, and of men of butiness, who employed the hours of relaxation in the im- provement of their mental faculties. Had Mr. Hamilton taken further information on the subject, he would have learned that lectures on every branch of useful knowledge are periodically delivered in Boston and Philadelphia, and that the most respectable inhabitants of those cities are in the habit of frequenting them for their favorite recreation. He might have enlarged on the influence which such a prevailing taste must necessarily have on the morals of the people, and to what improvements it must lead in every department of science. He might have learned also that in almost every town and village throughout the United States there exist associations of gentlemen and operative mechanics for the promotion of useful knowledge;! that the most learned and informed of these lecture gratuitously to the others ; and that each of these societies is provided with the necessary books and maps for the study of its junior members. He might have seen that same operative of whom he speaks in his work, instructing a class of other operative mechanics and apprentices, in the elements of algebra and geometry, and would have been satisfied with the proficiency of both teacher and pupils. But the learned author deemed it sufiicient to visit the library of Harvard College, near Boston, and judged at once, from its meagerness (it con- tains at present little more than 40,000 vols.) that the Americans will always remain tyros in the sciences. The historical department of American literature is more deficient than any other ; but historical writers sel- dom live in the period of a nation's prosperity, and when they do, their history is poetry. The Americans, more- over, from their great respect for their patriots, seem to be more inclined to reading and writing biographies, which * It was Mr. Claxton, of Boston, one of the most ingenious philo- sophical instrument makers of thai city, t These have received the name of " Lyceums.-' GEOGKAFH^CAL WORKS. 115 furnish at least excellent data for history. Jared Sparks and George Bancroft are authors of great eminence, and deserve all possible credit for the honesty and scrupulous- ness with which they have collected the materials for a History of the United States; but the arrangement of their works (of George Bancroft's History of the United States, I have only seen the first volume) does not appear to be throughout suitable to the subject; and above all, there seems to be wanting that indispensable classification of greater and minor events, that subordination of inferior incidents to the leading facts, that philosophical view and calm contemplation of events as connected with the des- tinies of mankind, and the development of human char- acter in general, which constitute the chief merit of an historian. The best history of the United States, publish- ed in America, was written by Marshal, in form of a " Bi- ography of George Washington ; " and to this moment the ablest commentaries on the rise and progress of the United States of America are to be found in the lives and memoirs of her Statesmen. But there is one particular branch, as I shall hereafter have occasion to remark, in which the Americans excel, and for the study of which they have made the most am- ple provisions. I would allude to the knowledge of ge- ography, which in no country is so generally diffused as in the United States. The cultivation of this branch of learning is facilitated by excellent maps, published in all the large cities of the union, at prices even lower than those of Germany. The art of engraving or lithograph- ing maps has been much perfected in Boston and Phila- delphia, and from the latter city have issued the best and most correct publications of atlases. For charts, howev- er, the Americans have generally recourse to the English, which, I believe, are preferred by all navigators, on ac- count of their great correctness and minuteness of detail. The mania for periodicals, which exists in all the large towns of Europe, has also spread to America, and ac- cordingly the " North American " and "Quarterly" re- views, besides a number of " Monthly Magazines," bear- ing the names of "American," " Boston," "New Eng- land," (fcc. have been called into existence, not so much to encourage or damn the offsprings of American geniusj 116 AMERICAN AND FRENCH PERIODICALS- as to talk promiscuously about the literature and science of Europe, and to afford the critic an opportunity of ex- hibiting his own profundity of knowledge. Something similar to it exists also in England, and particularly in Scotland, where the title of the book on which the critic expands is frequently the means of introducing his own reflections, without the least regard to the work he is about to review. A very inferior writer may thus find an opportunity of acquiring celebrity by coupling his name with that of an author of superior reputation, and pass- ing sentence on him to whom the public look up with reverence. There is a peculiar arrogance in assuming the judge's seat without a jury or counsel for the defend- ant ; and the vulgar are but too apt to believe in the wisdom of gentlemen in office. Neither is there an ap- peal from the judgment of these petty tyrants, except to the public at large, whose opinion is generally forestalled by the criticism of the reviewer. In Germany there ex- ist already several literary journals, admitting of critique and contre-critique, and inserting neither one nor the oth- er without the name of the author. A man knows in this way by whom he is wronged, and is not injured beyond the possibility of redress. The American periodicals, like the English, are often devoted to politics ; and party feelings and scandal are frequently mixed with learned dissertations on the sci- ences. The " Southern Review," which was published in Charleston, South Carolina, was probably the best peri- odical which ever appeared in the United States. Though its contributions were anonymous, they were evidently the effusions of the most prominent talents of the south ; and though its editors were also unknown, Mr. Legare, the late American charge d'affaires at the Court of Brussels was named as its chief conductor. The principal English pe- riodicals are all reprinted in the United States, and a col- lection of them appears, in New York, for not quite the price of any one of them in England. When the bulk of these publications is considered, it is really astonishing that the Americans should find time to read half of them, with their own works and newspapers, without neglecting their more serious oc- cupations — commerce, manufactures and agriculture. A Revue Frangaise is published in New York, and a SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS. 117 French paper, " Le Courier des Etats Unis "^ is also es- tablished in that city. But no German literary establish- ment does, as yet, grace any city of the Union. The German daily and weekly papers, which are published in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois and Missouri, do not deserve that name. Several French classical authors have been reprinted in the United States, but, with the exception of prayer-books, no similar honor has as yet been done to a German writer of eminence. Is there not one among the five hundred periodicals of Germany which deserves be- ing republished or read in the United States? Would not a collection from the best of them, published, quarter- ly, in form of a translation, be an useful addition to Amer- ican reading? Amongst the periodicals dedicated to science, " Profes- sor Silliman's Journal " occupies the first rank, and is well known throughout Europe ; the remainder, however, contain chiefly extracts from English publications, with very little original matter. "The Mechanic's Magazine," of New York, however, is a clever publication ; and " The Mathematical Diary," published by Professor Renwick, contains nothing but original communications. The best medical journals are " The American Journal of Medical Sciences," of Philadelphia; "The Archive of Medicine and Surgery," of Baltimore ; " Tiie Journal of Medicine and Surgery," of Boston, — ^' The Medical Magazine," published at the same city, and the " Journal of Medicine and Surgery in the United States," published in New York ; besides a great number of others on dif- ferent branches of the science. On jurisprudence there are but few periodical publica- tions in the shape of journals or magazines ; but on the- ology there are several commanding the attention of the public. The '^Christian Examiner," published by the Unitarians in Boston, contains essays on ethics and mor- als, written in a masterly style, but cannot strictly be call- ed a theological publication, in the sense in which the term is generally applied in Europe. As to the number of newspapers published in the Unit- ed States, nothing definite can be said about it, except that it baffles all attempts at computation; there being hardly a village or a settlement of a dozen houses in any part of 118 NEWSPAPERS. the country, without a printing establishment and a paper. The amount of knowledge and useful information circu- lated by these most powerful engines of civilization, is really enormous ; and, although no great depth of reason- ing or proficiency of learning particularly distinguishes the fraternity of editors, common good sense is neverthe- less the characteristic of an American paper ; as without this most necessary commodity it would be difficult for them to make the least impression upon the public* The amount of circulation is prodigious, and greatly facilitated by the reduced postage. Each paper, not carried out of the state in which it is published; or if carried out of the state not over one hun- dred miles beyond it, pays but one cent, and if over one hundred miles out of the state, never more than one and a half cent postage ; and it is even contemplated to abol- ish the postage on newspapers altogether. Printers of newspapers may send one paper to each and every other printer of newspapers within the United States free of postage, under such regulations as the Postmaster Gene- ral may provide. f Thus, an inhabitant of Boston or New * The first printing-press was established in Massachusetts, in 1638; and the first printing done in 1639. The first American newspaper, " The Boston News Letter," Avas published in Boston, in 1704. " The Boston Gazette " succeeded in 1719; and at the same time (Dec. 22d. of the same year) " The American Weekly Mercury " was published at Philadelphia. The first newspaper in New York, " The New York Gazette," was printed in 1725; and from that lime newspapers w^ere in- troduced into all the other colonies. All these journals, however, were subjected to a kind of censorship, which continued till the year 1755. It is, perhaps, not altogether unworthy of notice that the first three things printed in America were " ike freeman'' s oath" " an almanac cal- culatcdfoY New England," and " the psalms in metre" — three publica- tions singularly expressive of the New England character. t The rate of postage on Magazines and pamphlets is as follows: — If published periodically, distance not > . , , exceeding 100 miles - - \ ^^ ^^^^ P®^ ^^^^^^• Ditto, distance exceeding 100 miles 2^ ditto. If not published periodically, distance) , ■,■,. not exceeding 130 miles - - \ ^ ^"^°' Ditto, distance over 100 miles - 6 ditto. " Ev^ery printed pamphlet and magazine, which contains more than twenty-four pages on a royal sheet, or any sheet oiless dimensions, shall be charged by the sheet; and small pamphlets, printed on a half or quarter sheet of royal or less size, shall be charged with half the a-^ mount of postage charged on a full sheet." INFLUENCE OF THE PERIODICAL PRESS. 119 York is able to read the New Orleans papers with little more than an additional expense of four dollars fifty cents, or less than one pound sterling per annum; and the in- habitants of the South are at the same cheap rate furnish- ed with information from the North. Of all the instruments which have been invented for the emancipation of the human mind, the periodical press is the most powerful. Its action is unceasing ; its force irresistible ; its achievements more lasting than the conquests of arms. The pen has disarmed the sword; and the type-metal of the printer speaks louder than the despot's cannon. This is as well understood in Europe as in America. While England looks upon the liberty of the press as the "palladium of her civil and religious rights," * the French are constantly endeavoring to throw off the shackles with which their cunning legislators have at all times tied and disarmed it ; and the petty tyrants of Germany, while they hardly object to large volumes of liberal sentiments, take great pains to enslave the jjcriodi- cal press by a most odious censorship, lest, little by little, the minds of their subjects might catch the Promethean fire.t The most sublime idea expressed or read only once, makes but a faint impression when compared to the effects of unceasing, daily repeated sentiments, spoken by a thou- sand tongues, and repeated and rehearsed by thousands of thousands. It is not so much the force of eloquence with which these sentiments are uttered ; it is the repeti- tion of them which accounts for their power. The same idea is expressed in a thousand different manners, until finally one of them is suited to the capacity of the reader, and produces the desired effect. The operations of the press are slow, when compared to the effects of oratory ; hut they are more lasting and universal. Few only can be convinced by the power of speech, millions re-echo the sentiments of the press. They are brought every day to our doors : wherever we move, their action follows us ; * Junius. t A work consisting of more than 20 sheets may be published in some of the smaller states of Germany, without being previously submitted to the censor ; but all smaller publications and papers cannot be printed without it. 120 INFLUENCE OF TSfi in business or amusement, at home or abroad. Not a thought is expressed, not an idea is conceived, which is not destined to make the tour of the world ; and what was formerly the property of a few, becomes now the common wealth of millions. The periodical press, and the increased facilities with which its publications are distributed, have done more towards changing the face of the world, than was in the power of half a million of philosophers, or the bayonets of all the nations of Europe. But their action has only com- menced ; the future will show their power and influence on the destinies of mankind. Nothing is more common in the United States, (and, perhaps, also in Europe,) than to hear persons speak dis- paragingly of country papers and editors ; as if it were absurd for every hamlet to have its own press, and to ex- press its own sentiments. I confess myself no partisan to this opinion, and this for reasons which I am about to explain. Every society of men is capable of a certain intelli- gence, proportionate to their consciousness of power, and the degree of their moral and political independence. Nothing can promote either so much as the creation of a distinct organ for the assertion of both, or a means of extending their influence. Such an organ is created by the establishment of a newspaper, which, in every country where liberty of the press exists, must necessarily repre- sent the feelings and sentiments of the majority of its readers. Besides the political and other information which a little community derive from it, at a much cheaper rate than would be possible, if they were confined to the reading of city papers, they have in it also a means of communicating their own sentiments to the inhabitants of the towns, and thus to establish a kind of reciprocity, without which they would be reduced to a state of mere passiveness. Political life and action is thus created in every village, and a general interest in the public pros- perity produced throughout the country. There is nothing so dangerous to a republic, or to the institutions of good government in general, as a morbid excitability in one or a few of the large towns, with a comparative inaction on the part of the country. France COUNTRY PRESS. 121 has, at all limes, given a most melancholy demonstration of the correctness of this doctrine ; and her present situa- tion is far from proving an exception to the rule. All the political life of France is concentrated at Paris, while the provinces are hardly able to re-echo the sentiments of the capital. Neither is the consent of the country deemed necessary whenever the Parisians think it expedient to change the form of their government, or to make conces- sions incompatible with the chartered liberties of the na- tion. There exists not even a means of ascertaining the sentiments of the country; since it possesses no organ of public opinion, and is not even conscious of the right of being heard, when the national institutions are in danger. A licentious mob, or a profligate faction may thus rule the destinies of a nation without the least regard to the benefits of those for whom government is properly insti- tuted. The country will forever be the best moderator of the cities. The passions of men are sooner excited when living in continual contact with one another, where per- sonal animosities and family quarrels lend to the fury of political parties, than where they are scattered over a large surface, mutually independent of one another, and therefore less anxious to make proselytes. On this account large cities will always be the worst repositories of public liberty, while the country will prove its best guardian.* If the inhabitants of the cities have better means of gathering intelligence, those of the coun- try have more leisure to think and reflect, and are less subject to the influence of parties. Each class of citizens has its peculiar advantages, and is entitled to an expres- sion of its opinion : and it is the interest of tiie politician, and the duty of the legislator, to bestow on both an adequate share of attention. . But there is yet another point of view in which country papers appear to me particularly useful. Thousands of persons are, by their influence, made to read, who wotild hardly think of it, if no other publications than those of * This, of course, must be understood of the farmers and planters in the United States, who are all proprietors and independent of one an- other— QXid not of the dependent farmers in England. 11 "!l22 INFLUENCE OP the large cities were at their command, whose sentiments and ojjinions correspond but seldom with their own, and from which they are too remote to be directly concerned in their political proceedings. They prefer to read what is dedicated to their immediate interests, and, by so doing, obtain a vast deal of political information, which they would not have been disposed to draw from any other source. It cannot be objected that the same, or even a greater degree of information would be gatliered from the period- ical publications of the cities, which would, undoubtedly, be read in lieu of those of the country. Independent of their style being less acceptable to the taste of those read- ers, they would establish a system of tutorship and de- pendency, which would preclude the free exercise of their judgment. The editor of a daily paper ought to be the representative of public opinion, and not a dictator, or a political pope, as in France, who preaches his infallible doctrine to town and country, without restraint or fear of contradiction. The editor of a city paper is always ready to pronounce judgment in a cause in which he never hears more than one party ; and, depending for subscrib- ers principally on the population of the large towns, it is not difficult to foresee in whose favor his judgment must incline. How easily is not the fountain of such informa- tion troubled ! Does not the same sentence convey dif- ferent meanings to men living at a distance from, and to those who are eye witnesses of, certain scenes? And, sup- pose the editor of such a paper to change sides, or to abandon a cause which, to him, appears no longer plau- sible, (to say nothing of the possibility of his being brib- ed,) are not the great majority of his country readers misled until they are made acquainted with the circum- stances of his conversion ? And may it not in this manner happen, that when there are but few organs of public opinion, and those misled or won by the leaders of a party, the opposition may, for a time, be left without a champi- on, or a means of asserting their rights ? Have we not a happy illustration of all this in the history of the period- ical press of France ? To how many parties was not the Journal dcs Dehats devoted ? How many times will it yet change sides and opinions ? And yet it was always COUNTRY PAPERS. 123 edited with talent, and ranks now with the best periodical pubUcations of France. Were there more papers pub- lished in the French provinces, their very number would be an obstacle to their being bribed ; and the govern- ment, by silencing half a dozen editors in Paris, would not effectually gag the whole nation. 1 repeat it — the in- habitants of the country are entitled to, and ought to have, their own organs of public opinion, as they enjoy the privilege of sending their own representatives to Con- gress. In whatever contempt country politicians may be held by a certain party, they are, nevertheless, a wholesome check upon the leading politicians of the cities, and save the country alike from the tyranny of a factious mob, and a selfish and narrow-minded aris- tocracy. Let no one say the people in the country ought to be differently employed from speculating upon politics ; or, that they ought to attend to their domestics concerns, and leave politics to the town. Such a guardianship would be fatal to their liberty and independence. The present times are neither made for Arcadian shepherds, nor for a patriarchal life, whatever poetry may be attached to either. Guardianship on the part of the rulers implies want of pupillaritj in the gnvfirned, and contains the principles and essence of slavery. On this account I congratulate America on the great number of country papers, which circulate throughout the Union, whatever be the literary deficiencies of some of their editors. Their number, and the good sense which pervades them, atone practically for the want or elegance of style in any one of them ; as their great utility is a sufficient apology for their comparatively slender pretensions to refinement and taste. CHAPTER Vr. PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. COM- MON SCHOOLS. AMERICAN INSTRUCTERS. LOAV ESTIMA- TION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS. COLLEGES. MEDICAL AND LAW SCHOOLS. THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES. EDUCA- TION OF THE CLERGY. PUBLIC LIBRARIES. With the exception of Protestant Germany, there is no country in which so much has been done for the edu- cation of children, as in the United States of America. In all the large cities of the Union there are public free schools, and there is scarcely a hamlet unprovided with the means of elementary instruction. The States of New England have, in this respect, taken the lead, and all others have since made the amplest provisions for this branch of national development. In the State of Connecticut there is a school fund, from which the following dividends are made to each county. Counties. Children. Dividend in Dollars. Dollars. Cents. Fairfield 13,524 12,171 60 Hartford 14,2G1 12,834 90 Litchfield 12,601 11,340 90 Middlesex 7,337 6,603 30 New Haven ... 11,789 10,788 30 New London 12,044 10,339 60 Tolland 6,671 5,103 30 Windham Total of Children 8,057 7,251 30 86,284 76,433 20 FREE SCHOOLS. 125 It appears, from this table, that there exists, in that State, a provision by which something more than four shiUings sterling per annum are allowed to every child from four to sixteen years of age, for the purpose of edu- cation ; a liberality which, I believe, is unequalled in any part of the world. Nor is this a solitary instance of American liberality in the department of instruction. The amount of tax raised in the State of Massachusetts for the support of common schools, averaged 350,000 dollars, or 70,000/. sterling per annum. The state of New York has a school fund of 2,116,000 dollars, or 423,200/. sterling, invested in 9580 school-houses ; and the expenses of common schools in that State amounted, in 1833, to 1,262,670 dollars 97 cents, or 252,514/. sterling, nearly. Ohio, Pennsylvania, and South Carolina have also adopted the principle of free schools, and other States are gradually following the example. The inhabitants of Boston have made the most ample provisions for the edu- cation of children ; and the system of free schools, in that city, has become a model for imitation throughout the United States, where similar institutions are now fast rising into existence. The ablest and most skilful instructers in the United States are natives from New England, who are generally supposed to be better acquainted with school discipline, and better versed in the art of communicating ideas, than the rest of their countrymen. Their religious habits, and the severity of their morals, seem to qualify them par- ticularly for the task of "teaching the young idea how to shoot." It is computed that not less than sixty thousand New Englanders are employed annually in the instruc- tion of children, in the different States ; which single fact is more creditable to New England, than all the praises which could be bestowed on the industry and in- genuity of her inhabitants. I am afraid, however, that the pecuniary advantages of these gentlemen are not in proportion to their exertion, and that the vocation of an instructer is, after all, not the most honored in the United States. Much as the Amer- icans appreciate the services of a teacher, they neither reward or esteem him according to his merits, and are 11* 126 LOW SALARIES OF hardly ever willing to associate with him on terms of fair reciprocity and friendship. The same feeling exists, in a still higher degree, in many parts of Europe, especially in England ; but then there is no reason why it should continue in America, in a country in which no disgrace ought to attach to any honest pursuit ; but in which, on the contrary, men should be honored, in proportion as they contribute to the moral and intellectual advancement of the State. The correctness of this doctrine, however, is so well understood in the United States, that the people are ashamed of their own sentiments, and leave no oppor- tunity unimproved to evince that respect for the vocation in private^ which they are most deficient of showing on all public occasions. Many a fashionable gentleman of the large cities would be glad of the company of the instruct- or of his children to a family dinner; but would be un- willing to introduce him to a party of friends, and would think himself disgraced, were he to be seen with him on 'Change. The Americans have a nice sense of justice, and un- derstand their own interest too well, to be entirely neg- lectful of the attention due to instructers of youth ; but the more fashionable part of the community are too mod- est to exhibit their sentiments in public. Much, however, has lately been done for the improvement of the condition of teachers ; and it is to be hoped that the newly formed " American Institute of Instruction," which among its members numbers already some -of the most influential and wealthy men of the country, will at last succeed in raising the character of instructers, and thereby increase the sphere of their usefulness. The salaries of teachers in the public schools in most of the States are mere pittances, when compared with the remuneration of professional men, or clerks in the count- ing-rooms of respectable merchants. The compensation of private instructers is, in general, higher, but still of too sordid a character to enable them to live as gentlemen. This inadequate compensation of the most arduous la- bor, is not only unjust and ungenerous, but productive of the most serious consequences to the public. The pro- fession of teacher is embraced by a large number of men, AMERICAN INSTRUCTERS. 127 who, though qualified for the office, resort to it only as a temporary means of subsistence, which they quit as soon as an opportunity of preferment offers itself in some other quarter. The immediate consequence is an almost an- nual change of instructers, and the succession in office of novices unqualified by age or experience. No proper system of school-discipline can, in this manner be intro- duced by the teacher ; because in children the liahit of obedience does more than the law, and it is the principle of authority to grow stronger by usage. The branches of education themselves must be taught in a loose and dis- connected manner; because every teacher has necessarily a method of his own, which can only be improved and modified by a more intimate acquaintance with his pupils. No great application on the part of the teachers or pupils can be expected under such circumstances. Neither can there exist between ihem that mutual relation of friend- ship and respect, which is the most powerful stimulus to exertion, and inspires a taste for the cultivation of the sciences, on the principle of emulation, more lasting than that which results from a momentary enthusiasm in their pursuit. But the greatest evil arising from the too frequent changes of instructers in the United States is the una- voidable contempt to which it exposes the veterans in the profession. — Many of the most eminent lawyers, min- isters, and physicians of New England have, during a certain period of their lives, been obliged to resort to teaching, either to finish their collegiate education, or to obtain the necessary means for the study of their respec- tive professions. They have thus been in a habit of con- sidering the employment of an instructor as a sort of re- lief from the most pressing necessities ; but not as an end to be proposed by a man who aspires at honorable dis- tinction. This creed, once established in the minds of professional men, has communicated itself to all ranks of society ; so that, instead of the thanks of his fellow-citi- zens, an ancient instructer is only sure of being consid- ered as a man of inferior talents; else he would have fol- lowed his colleagues in their professional career. As long as this opinion of instructers is entertained in the United States, the schoolmaster's task will be degraded. 128 Those whom necessity shall reduce to it, will look upon it as defiimiiig their fair reputation, and embrace the first opportunity to leave it with disgust and detestation. But with what zeal can a man devote himself to a pro- fession, at once laborious and difficult, in which the great- est success is incapable of procuring distinction ? — which exposes him to unmerited contempt and reproach ? And why should a pettifogging lawyer or a quack, con- sider himself better than an honest and successful in- structer? " Honor and shame from no condition rise ; Act well your part — there all the honor lies." With regard to the plan of instruction, considerable improvements have been made within the last ten years. The mechanical Lancastrian system has every where been improved or superseded by the inductive method of Pestalozzi ; which, as it is calculated to draw out the thinking faculties, is naturally better adapted for the in- struction of republicans. The branches of learning, which are best taught in American schools, and in which the pupils seem to be better informed than those of any school I have seen in Europe, are arithmetic, geography, geometry, grammar, and reading: those in which they are most deficient, are history and foreign languages. The taste for mathe- matics is so prevalent in the United States, that even the young misses study geometry and algebra, and this prin- cipally on account of their usefulness in strengthening and invigorating the intellect. Mechanics and astronomy, together with the elements of natural philosophy and chemistry, are taught in all female seminaries throughout the country; and there are some in which even plane and spherical trigonometry are introduced as regular branch- es of instruction. Tliere are many schools for young ladies entirely con- ducted by gentlemen ; and the undertaking has proved so profitable to the instructers, that many of the most dis- tinguished professors of colleges have resigned their chairs, to assist in the education of women. By a singular ca- price of the American coteries, the principals of these IMPROVEMENTS IN EDUCATION. 129 schools are exempted from the odium which is generally attached to the profession : they are the only instructers in the United States who enjoy a fair share of the repu- tation and esteem, to which they are justly entitled by their talents and labors. The improvements which have lately been made in the system of education in Germany have not passed unno- ticed by the vigilance of Americans ; and a society is al- ready formed at Albany, in the state of New York, charg ing itself with the translation of the Prussian school-books. — The object of the society is to improve the system of instruction in the state of New York, and to adopt, instead of the disconnected treatises now in use in the different schools, the uniform system of the Prussian text-books. This liberality of the Americans, with regard to the sys- tem of education in general, must, ere long, extend itself also to the instructers. It will raise the standard of their profession, and remunerate their services in a manner which shall induce them to follow their task from choice, and not from necessity. The high respect which is paid to all persons engaged in the business of instruction in Germany is, perhaps, the principal reason why it is so cheerfully embraced by gentlemen of literature and sci- ence, and has done more for the improvement of common schools, than all the laws enacted for that purpose. To show in what low estimation teachers are held in the United States, notwithstanding the general call for public instruction, and the importance attached to it by private individuals and legislative assemblies, I here insert an extract from the "Annual Report of the Superintend- ent of Common Schools of the State of New York," made January, 1835. " The incompetency of teachers" says the report " is the great evil of the common school system of this State, and it may, indeed, be said to be the source of the only other material defect which pertains to it, — a low stand- ard of education in most of the schools. The evil, how- ever, is by no means universal. There are many teachers of ample qualifications, and many schools of high stand- ing, both as regards the nature and extent of their ac- quirements. The principal obstacle to improvement is the low wages of teachers ; and, as this is left altogether 130 INCOMPETENCY OF INSTRUCTERS. to be regulated by contract, between them and their em- ployers, there would seem to be no effectual remedy for the evil, but to inspire the latter with more just concep- tions of the nature of the vocation, and its high responsi- bilities ; and of the necessity of awarding to those who pursue it, a compensation in some degree suited to its arduous duties and requirements. So long as the com- pensation of teachers is on a level with that which is com- manded by the most ordinary employments, it is not to be expected that men of the necessary talents will prepare themselves for the business of teaching ; but it may justly be said that there is scarcely any vocation, in which the best talents can be employed to greater advantage. The practice of paying " lotv wages " has, as might be ex- pected, introduced into the common schools, teachers wholly incomj:)etent to execute their trusts, who have brought in bad methods of teaching, and kept down the standard of requirement for their pupils on a level with that by which their employers have measured their quali- fications. * " Although the compensation of teachers is still extreme- ly low, it is gratifying to reflect that it is increasing. In the districts heard from the number of schools kept during the year 1833, an average period of eight months was ^9,393. The amount annually paid for teachers' tvages in the same district was about 665,000 dollars. This sum, divided by the schools, would give each teacher 8 dollars 85 cents a month.* But it is supposed that fe- male teachers are employed about half the time at a com- pensation of about 5 dollars (a guinea) a month. t In this case, the average compensation of male teachers * Equal to II. 16s. nearly, or about 9s. a week ; in a country, where the commonest day-laborer may earn from 50 cents to 1 dollar or 25. Sd. to 4s. 6d. each day. The wages in the cities average still more ; and there is no servant or housemaid to be obtained at less than from 10 to 15s. per week, besides board. t This is another sordid practice introduced throughout the United States. Female teachers are employed for no other apparent end than because they are less expensive than regular instruclers. Women in general (unless mothers) are not the most appropriate teachers of boys, even in a nursery ; much less are they capable of superintending the more advanced education of male children. The system of instruction iu every branch of learning requires considerable modification accord* ARISING FROM LOW COMPENSATION. 131 would be 12 dollars and 70 cents (21. 10s. 5(7.) nearly. By a similar estimate for the year 1831, contained in the report of the superintendent made in 1833, it appears that the average rate of wages was but 11 dollars 85 cents {21. 85. 5f/.) A similar estimate for 1832 would give 12 dollars 22 cents (2/. 9s. 6d.) Thus it appears that the rate of icages is regularly advancing, although still alto- gether inadequate to the services rendered." This report, which was evidently drawn up by a gen- tleman engaged in improving the system of instruction of common schools, appears, nevertheless, from the unhappy choice of terms, replete if not with contempt, at least with little consideration for the vocation of teachers. A regret is expressed that instructers are not better paid ; because " low wages " are not apt to act as a premium on the skill and application oi worhnen ; but the idea does not seem to be for one moment lost sight of, that teachers are hire- lings, whose labors are always to be commanded with money, as the services of journeymen mechanics. I am not inclined to believe that the character of teachers in the State of New York will improve as long as they receive " wages ; " and am fully convinced that half the number of teachers employed in that State, if they were qualified for the business, would be more serviceable to the public than two or three times their actual number, with their present inferior acquirements, joined to the disadvantages of their position. Owing to the system of education generally introduced in the schools of the United States, text-books written in the catechising form (with questions and answers) are preferred to more compact treatises. In some branches of education tiiis method of instruction maybe advan- tageous ; but in others it must prove a serious evil. Me- chanical methods ought to be carefully avoided as beget- ting indolence in both teacher and pupil, and taxing the ing as it is to be applied to the pupils of one or the other sex :* and on this account I think female instructors as little qualified for the instruc- tion of hoys, as male teachers to superintend the education of young ladies. The teacher ought to represent the parent, which to a boy must be the father, and to a girl the mother of the child, t *Schwari, Erziehungslehre. Leipsig, 1829. ■^J\riemeyer. Grundsalze tier Erziehung. Halle, 1825. 132 SYSTEM OP INSTRUCTION. memory without exercising the nobler faculties of the mind. I do not think, however, that the Americans are, in this respect, more deserving of censure than the gen- erality of the English ; and they are certainly superior to the lamentable deficiency of French elementary in- structers. But their system of instruction could not, as yet, be compared to that of Germany, either in method or discipline ; although a vast number of improvements have already been adopted, and legislative assemblies and private individuals are constantly aiding the progress of elementary education. There are two branches of instruction, however, which I consider to be better taught in America than even in Germany. I would refer to reading and speaking. The Americans, in general, take more care to teach a correct pronunciation to their children, than the English; and the Germans are almost wholly unmindful as to the cor- rectness of utterance, or elegance of language. They are so much attached to the substance of thoughts, that they heed little in what form the latter are expressed, and are satisfied with teaching their pupils to understand what they are reading, or to comprehend with the eye what they are unable to express with clearness and precision. A German boy knows often more than he can express in his abstract and unmanageable language : an American says at least as much as he knows, and is seldom embar- rassed except with the difficulty of the subject. ' This readiness of the Americans to express with promptness and precision what they have once been able to understand, is as much owing to their system of edu- cation, as to the practical genius of the nation, and of immense advantage in the common business of life. An American is not as "manysided" as a German ; but what- ever he has learned he has at his fingers' ends, and he is always ready to apply it. A little, in this manner, will go a great way, and the amount of intellect and apphca- tion which is thus penetrating every corner of the United States is prodigious, when compared to the seemingly slender means by which it is produced. Propose a ques- tion to a German, and he will ransack heaven and earth for an answer. He will descend to the remotest antiquity to seek for precedents ; and, after having compared the SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION. 133 histories of all nations, and the best commentaries oh them in half a dozen languages, he will be so perplexed with the contradictory statements of authors, that his con- scientiousness will hardly allow him to venture an opin- ion of his own. He will give you a most erudite resume of the subject ; acquaint you with all that has been said on it in Sanscrit and Arabic, and, after having made some remarks on the respective credibility of these writ- ers, leave the conclusion to your own ingenuity. An American, with hardly one tenth of the learning, would have submitted the subject to common sense, and, ten chances to one, would have given you a satisfactory an- swer. The Germans are the best people in the world for collecting materials, but the Americans understand best how to use them. 1 know no better combination of char- acter than that of German and American ; and there is probably no better system of instruction than a medium between the theoretical rigor of the former, and the prac- tical applications of the Americans. The German system favors the development of the mind to the exclusion of almost all practical purposes ; the American aims always at some application, and cre- ates dexterity and readiness for action. One is all con- templation, the other all activity — the former is adapted to the abstract pursuits of philosophy, the latter to the practical purposes of life. Each of these systems has its own advantages and dis- advantages, and corresponds well to the genius of the re- spective nations among whom it is established. There is probably no better place than a school-room to judge of the character of a people, or to find an explanation of their national peculiarities. Whatever faults or weak- nesses may be entailed upon them, will show themselves there without the hypocrisy of advanced age ; and what- .ever virtue they may possess is reflected without admix- ture of vice and corruption. In so humble a place as a school-room may be read the commentaries on the past, and the history of the future development of a nation. Who, upon entering an American school-room, and witnessing the continual exercises in reading and speak- ing, or listening to the subject of their discourses, and watching the behavior of the pupils towards each other 12 134 AMERICAN SCHOOLS. and their teacher, could, for a moment, douht liis beinc^ amongst a congregation of young rej3ul)Iic;ins ? And who, on entering a German academy, would not be struck with the principle of authority and silence, whicli reflects the history of Germany for the last half dozen centuries? What difficulty has not an American teacher to maintain order amongst a dozen unruly little urchins; while a German rules over two hundred pupils in a class with all the ease and tranquillity of an Eastern monarch ? In an American school every thing is done from con- viction; in a German, obedience is from habit and prece- dent. How active is not the strife for consideration and power amongst a class of young Americans; how per- fectly contemplative the same collection of Germans, in- tent only upon their studies and the gratification of indi- vidual tastes. The majority of the pupils of an American school will imj)rint their character on the institution ; the personal disposition of the teacher in Germany can always be read in the behavior of his pupils. There is as little disposi- tion on the part of American children to obey the uncon- trolled will of their masters, as on the part of their fa- thers to submit to the mandates of kings ; and it would only be necessary to conduct some doubting European politician to an American school-room, to convince him at once tliat there is no immediate prospect of transfer- ring royalty to the shores of the New World. It has been observed, that with Americans mathematics come by instinct. This is true tvitli regard to the applica- tions of the science, which in America are as well, or bet- ter understood, than in any part of Europe; but there is no taste visible for the mere abstract knowledge of it, as is the case in France and Germany. The Americans are born analyzers, and are better able to understand a principle from its application, than to seize a truth in the abstract, nor would they think such a truth an acquisition, unless they saw its practical bear- ings. I have known several excellent mathematicians in Boston and Philadelphia, but their talents were all of the order 1 have described ; and I suspect, therefore, that they are not very eminent teachers. The method of instruc- tion must necessarily be synthetic, and implies a process PARTICULAR GENIUS OF THE AMERICANS. 135 of reasoning, which, as far as my experience goes, is least acceptable to American palates. In politics analysis is the only means of arriving at fair conclusions; but in the exact sciences it is less direct and secure, although it is the method of invention and the most fertile in applica- tions. On the whole, I do not think that the Americans have a greater share of mathematical talent than Euro- peans; but they certainly apply it to greater advantage, and evince an acquaintance with the science in all their civil and political transactions. Mathematics with them are an active principle ; not an abstract science, as in Eu- rope. For history, the Americans seem to have the least fond- ness ; but they are great admirers of statistics, and have an astonishing memory of numbers. An American con- siders the history of his country as the beginning of a new era ; and cares, therefore, less for the past, than he does for the present and the future. Statistics is never- theless a still-standing history,* and the key or index to the future fate of a nation. This truth is as well under- stood in America as in any other country ; and accord- ingly, the rage for statistical tables, as a means of obtain- ing knowledge in a quick and easy manner, exists in the United States to a still greater degree than in England or France. I have known few persons in Europe, as well acquainted with the imports and exports, revenue and expenditure, amount of national debt, standing ar- mies and navies, Slc. of their own and foreign countries, as the great mass of Americans. Geography is well taught from excellent text-books, some of which have been translated into several European languages. The proficiency of the pupils in this branch is highly creditable to the instructers, and surpasses in minuteness and correctness that of most scholars of the same age in Europe. But the most surprising fact, in the whole course of American education, is the total absence of religious in- struction^ in most of the elementary schools. This is entirely left to the care of the parents, and confined, prin- cipally, to the reading of the Bible and the hearing of * SchUzer. Lehrbuch der Statistik. Gottingen. 136 PRECOCITY OF CHILDREN. sermons and lectures on the Sabbath. I confess myself unable to judge of the expediency of this course, which is perhaps rendered necessary by the great number of re- ligious sects who send children to one and the same school ; but whatever its disadvantages may be, I am quite certain there is as much theoretical and practical religion in the United States as in any other country. Before I conclude these observations on elementary in- struction in America, I would mention a subject, which, as yet, seems to have escaped the attention of most trav- ellers, though it is sufficiently interesting in itself, and ex- planatory of a great many peculiarities in the lives of Americans. I would allude to the precocity of children, which results from the plan of education pursued in schools and at home, and perhaps, also, from the peculiar climate of the country. An American boy of ten or twelve years of age is as much of a young man as an European at sixteen ; and when arrived at that age, he is as useful in business, and as much to be relied upon, as a German at twenty-four, or a Frenchman at fifty. Something similar to it may also be found in England ; but neither climate nor education promote it to the same extent as in America. From the earliest period of his life, a young American is accustom- ed to rely upon himself as the principal artificer of his fortune. Whatever he learns or studies is with a view to future application; and the moment he leaves school he immerses into active life. His reputation, from the time he is able to think, is the object of his most anxious care ; as it must affect his future standing in society, and in- crease the sphere of his usefulness. As a school-boy, he has his opinions on politics and re- ligion, which he defends with as much ardor as if he were a senator of the republic, or a minister of the gos- pel. By the time he is able to read and write, he is al- ready forming the plan of his future independence ; and I have heard boys from ten to twelve years of age enlarge on the comforts and advantages of married life, with as grave an aspect, as if they had been reciting a mathemat- ical lesson, or discussing the merits of an essay on poli- tics. They were calculating the prospects of domestic happiness, as a merchant would the profits of a mercan- PERIOD OF EDUCATION. 137 tile speculation, or a banker his commission on a bill of exchange. American children study the foibles of their parents and teachers, which they are sure to turn to their own advantage, and at the age of twenty-one are better judges of characters, and human nature in general, than many an European at the age of fifty. In girls this precocity is blended with bashfulness and modesty ; but the most characteristic feature of American children, whether male or female, is, nevertheless, an early development of the understanding, and a certain untimely intelligence seldom to be found in Europe. The Americans have a much shorter period assigned to them, for the completion of their studies than Europeans; but the quantity of knowledge acquired in that time is really prodigious, and it is a wonder if the memory can retain one fourth part of it in after life. A child from four to five years of age is already obliged to be six hours a day at school, and to study perhaps two or three more at home ; and as it advances in age, the number and va- riety of these studies increase in a duplicate ratio. At the age of twelve, a boy will study Latin, Greek, French, Italian, Spanish, algebra, geometry, mechanics, moral philosophy, mineralogy, natural philosophy, chemistry, and Heaven knows what ! and manages at least to recite his lessons to the satisfaction of his teachers. I have nev- er seen an attempt at any thing similar in Europe, and am satisfied of the utter impossibility of its success, were it to be hazarded in England or Germany. If the time devoted to an American college-course were anyways in proportion to the intensity of application on the part of the pupils, the American seminaries would be the first in the world, and its professors and students the most remarkable for application and learning. But, un- fortunately, the period of a collegiate education is limited to four years, which is about one half of what ought to be allowed for the completion of the course prescribed for an American college. Not much more than the rudi- ments of science can be acquired in so short a period ; and the American scholar, therefore, must chiefly depend on the resources of his own mind, and the assistance of libraries, to become eminent in any department of knowl- 13*^ 138 AMERICAN COLLEGES. ledge, or to compete with men of learning in Europe. A number of American students are, for this purpose, an- nually visiting the Universities of Europe, especially those of Germany, and many distinguished scholars in the United States are as intimately acquainted with the liter- ature of that country, as with the literary institutions of their own. But if the Americans do not as yet possess the higher institutions of learning, which are the ornament of the most civilized states of Europe, the elements of a classical and mathematical education are, at least, disseminated throughout their whole country, and the means of laying the foundation of scholarship in every State of the Union. Tliey had, in 1835, not less than seventy-nine colleges, thirty-one theological seminaries, twenty-three medical, and nine law schools. There were also five Roman Catholic seminaries, viz. at Baltimore and near Emmitsburg, in Maryland ; at Charleston, South Carolina ; near Boardstown, and in Washington county, Kentucky, and in Perry county, Missouri. In these colleges there were, in 1835, 639 instructers employed in teaching Latin, Greek, mathematics, philoso- phy, astronomy, and other elementary branches of learn- ing to 7810 students ; and besides, 220 professors in the higher departments of science for an average number of 5000 pupils. The number of alumni and students amounted to more than 33,000, and the number of vol- umes in the libraries, to 456,420 ; of which 277,770 be- longed to the colleges, 113,220 to the students' libraries, and 05,430 to the theological seminaries. But since 1835, five new colleges have been established, viz., Haddington college in Pennsylvania, Shurtleffand McRendrean col- leges in the state of Illinois, Columbia college in Missouri, and Bufi*alo college, on a munificent scale in the slate of New York. It is to be observed, moreover, that out of the whole number of colleges, more than one half have sprung up since 1820, and nearly one third since 1830. Most of them were established in the western states, where civilization has scarcely penetrated within a dozen years ; and the theological seminaries date nearly all from the period of 1820. We shall see, hereafter, how RAPID INCREASE OF COLLEGES. 189 the remarks of some English writers agree with these facts. When we speak of the merits of American institutions of learning, we ought not to forget that the United States are still settlings and not settled; and that, consequently, all the Americans have done thus far, for the promotion of learning, is rather t© be considered as indicative of their taste and the high value they set on intellect, than as a fair specimen of what they will be able to accomplish in the course of time. The attention of the public must be earnestly directed towards improvements in education, in order to establish, within the space of ten years, eight new colleges in a state, which has only been settled within the last forty years, as is, for instance, the case with the colleges of Oxford, New Athens, Hudson Gambler, Granville, Mari- etta, New Elyria, and Chagrin, in the state of Ohio. In the state of Kentucky, vVhich, in 1790 contained but 73,677 inhabitants, of whom about one third were slaves, there are now six colleges, with nearly forty instructers. The state of Alabama, which in 1810 had but a popula- tion of 10,000 people, including slaves, had ten year^ later already a seminary of public instruction with six professors in the various departments of science. The state of Mississippi did not exist three years (it was only admitted into the Union in the year 1817,) whhout insti- tuting a seminary of learning with ten professors ; though its whole population, at that time, did not exceed 75,000, of whom about 33,000 were slaves. The college of St. Louis was incorporated in 1829, nine years after the ter- ritory of Missouri had been admitted into the Union as an independent state, though it contained at that time little more than 100,000 inhabitants, of whom nearly 25,000 were slaves ; and a new college has been established since 1835, in that state. The college of Bloomington, Indiana, was established in 1827, though the whole state did not yet contain a single large town, (New Albany, the largest of them, containing in 1831 but 2500 inhabitants,) and the college of Jacksonville, in the state of Illinois, in 1830 ; the whole county of that name containing then little more than 1500 inhabitants. Judge Hall, in his oration, delivered at Vandalia (!) on the 4th of July, 1830,. 140 ACADEMICAL COURSE. expressed his sentiments in reference to this college in the following manner : — * "All who have explored this state, (Illinois,) agree in awarding to it the capacity to sustain a larger amount of population, than any other equal expanse of territory in the United States. But it is the moral more than the physic- al character, lohich raises a state to a proud elevation among her sister republics. Illinois is destined to have wealth and strength ; and it is important that she should also have intelligence, virtue, and refinement, to enable her to direct her mighty energies to the noblest ends. Industry and arts will soon make their abodes among us. Millions of freemen will draw their subsistence from our prolific soil. Let us train up our young republicans to virtue. Let us educate the children, ivho, in a few yearSj must stand in our places. Let us lead back their minds to the example of the pilgrims, who forsook their country and their homes, rather than violate conscience or offend their God." Where such sentiments prevail the best hopes must be entertained of the future. The literary institutions of America may be as young as the states in which they are formed ; but they are, at least in proportion to their pop- ulation^ more numerous than in any part of Europe, Ger- many not excepted, and afford ample means of initiating beginners into the elements of science, at an expense of little more than one third of what is required, for similar purposes in England. The academical course, as I remarked before, is com- pleted in four years, at the end of which the degree of Bachelor of Arts is conferred without any of those rigid examinations which are customary in the universities of Germany. No dissertation is required, on a particular subject, and the candidates for academical honors are not obliged to become authors before they are pronounced to be scholars.! The merits of the students are comput- ed from their daily recitations in the various departments of instruction ; and the system is, at least, daily produc- tive of application, which, in the more scientific institutions * I quote it here, because it is strongly expressive of the feelings of the people in general, t This is the practice in Germany. AMERICAN COLLEGE LIBRARIES. 141 of Germany, is constantly deferred to the end of the "semester." An American student does not learn as much, at any one time, as a German, and his knowled were as follows : — 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825. 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 ]833 1834 1835 Total in 19 years, or about 300,000/. sterling. The number of Bibles and Testaments, issued from the depository of the Society, till 1835, was 1,767,936; and that of the year 1835 alone, 123,230. Besides the issues from the depository, large sums of money have been granted to missionary establishments at Constanti- nople, Bombay, Ceylon, Burmah, China, and the Sand- wich Islands, to aid the printing and circulating of the Scriptures in various pagan tongues into which they have been translated. " The American Board of Commissioners " is another ociety for the promotion of Christianity. The designs Dollars. Cent 35,877 46 36,564 30 53,223 94 41,361 97 47,009 20 40,682 34 52,021 75 42,416 95 49,693 08 46,115 47 65,192 88 75,879 93 143,184 33 170,067 55 125,316 79 107,059 00 84,935 48 86,600 82 100,806 26 1,404,009 50 AMERICAN RIISSIONARIES. 195 of this society are stated to be '* By disseminating prima- rily the Christian religion, and subordinately all kinds of useful knowledge ; to improve the social, intellectual, and religious condition of heathen and other anti-christian na- tions ; and for this purpose to send abroad preachers, phy- sicians, male and female school-teachers, mechanics, ag- riculturalists, &LC. ; who are employed in preaching the Gospel, translating, printing, and putting into the hands of the people the Holy Scriptures, religious tracts, school- books, &c. ; in teaching and superintending schools, training native preachers and schoolmasters, and admin- istering medicine to the diseased ; and in teaching the mechanic arts and husbandry." A more extensive plan of charity was certainly never conceived by human be- ings, nor executed with more cheerfulness and persever- ance. By this Society the New Testament has been translated and printed in the Mahratta, the Armeno-Turk- ish and the Hawaiian languages ; and one or more of the Gospels in the Cherokee, Choctaw and Seneca. Books, portions of the Scriptures, and religious tracts, have been printed in seventeen different languages, exclusive of the English, viz. Italian, Greek, Armeno-Turkish, Ancient Armenian, Arabic, Mahratta, Tamul, Chinese, Hawaiian, Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, Osage, Seneca, Ojibwa, Ot- tawa, and Abernaquois. The Board possesses nine print- ing establishments, two type and stereotype foundries, and several bookbinders' establishments. The Society- employs 102 preachers, (7 of whom are physicians,) 9 physicians, 9 printers, 30 teachers, and 161 married and unmarried females. The number of schools is 474 ; that of the pupils, 37,311 ; and the whole number of those who have been educated, not less than 80,000! There are al- so connected with the Society two seminaries for the ed- ucation of native preachers and teachers, with about 250 students. The funds of the Society, which consist entirely of vol- untary contributions, and the income from the " Mis- sionary Herald," a periodical published by the Society, amounted, in 24 years, to about 288,000/. sterling. The following table, taken from the " American Alma- nac and Repository of Useful Knowledge" of 1836 will show the missions, the time when each was commenced, and the iiuraber of stations, preachers, &c., connected with each. 196 AMERICAN MISSIONARIES. ■St U . . . .rHi-( . •na •'-r^coa>cooiai — conoir-i i i a .-to(NMr^i^(M .-^js*^ •*^m22S'^'^ '' :'^*®"®°° : S Teach- ers, Printers, Farm- ers. : : : i"^ : : :"*'"' :'~* i^'^^n .Tj^rHrnotM^-* ; ?5 Physi- cians not or- dained. I-- ::::-: :^-^ : :<^- : i-^ :::::: :-^ en it r-(l0(NMWII ii i«iiS-si||iii||^iillig|||.'i 3 HOME MISSIONARY SOCIETY. 197 It will also be perceived that the funds and usefulness ■of the Society are on the increase ; 14 new stations hav- fsj ing been created since 1830. The " American Home Missionary Society " was insti- \^ tuted in the city of New York on the 6th of May, 1826. The number of its missionaries and agents consisted, in 1835, of 719 ; and the number of congregations and mis- sionary districts, aided by the Society, was 1050. Under their ministry about 25,000 individuals had been added to the churches of Christ ; from 10,000 to 40,000 children were annually instructed in Sabbath Schools ; and in Bi- 5 ble Classes, from 2,000 to 12,000 of all ages, " The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions " being under the patronage of the Congression- al Church of New England, and the Presbyterian and the Reformed Dutch Churches of the Middle, Western, and Southern States, the Baptists formed another mission- ary society, under the name of " The Baptist Gener- al Convention of the United States for Foreign Missions." The object of the Society is "the propagation of the Gos- pel among the heathens, and the promotion of pure Chris- tianity in Christendom." The funds received during the last year (1835) were 58,520 dollars, 28 cents, or about 11,704/. sterling. I 1 17^ 198 MISSIONARY STATIONS. The Missionary Stations are Mission- aries. Valley Towns, Cherokees, North Carolina - Thomas, on Grand River, Michigan - Sault de Ste. Marie, near Lake Superior Tonawanda, near Niagara, New York - Shawanoe, Kansas River, near Missouri Delawares, near the junction of the Kansas and Missouri Otoes and Omahas, Bellevue, near Great Plate River Putawatamies, North of the Missouri - Ottawas, South of Shawanoe . - . - Creeks near the junction of the Arkansas and Verdigris Cherokees, in Flint district, Cherokee comity Choctaws, Choctaw agency, on the Arkansas Port au Prince, Hayti - Paris, France Hamburg, Germany - - - - - Liberia, Africa ------- Maulmein, Burmah Rangoon, ditto - - - - - Ava, ditto Chummerah, ditto Newville, ditto Tavoy, ditto Mergui, ditto , - N. Arracan, ditto S. Arracan, ditto Bankok, Siam Total 72 Assist- ants. Eighteen churches are connected with these stations, embracing 1400 members ; and about 600 scholars are taught in the schools. One printing-press is employ- ed in the Indian territory, and four in Burmah, from which publications are issued in seven difterent lan- guages. '^ The Baptist Home Missionary Society" has for its ob- ject to preach the Gospel in North America, (comprising Upper and Lower Canada.) The receipts of this Society during the last year, (1835) were 9000 dollars, or 1800/. sterling. The Methodist Episcopal Church have also formed a missionary society. Its receipts, ending 1835, amounted BAPTIST AND EDUCATION SOCIETIES. 199 to 30,500 dollars, or about 6,100/. sterling. It employed 14 preachers at Liberia (all colored men), and six school- teachers. The number of church members was 204, and about 200 children were taught at schools. Including other missions, the society had 144 missionaries, 16,430 members, and 32 teachers, and instructed 940 pupils. The Protestant Episcopal Church have also formed a " Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society." Its receipts in 1834 amounted to 24,007 dollars 97 cents, or about 5,200/. sterling ; it employed 20 Missionaries in the South- ern and Western States, two in Greece, and two in China. For the education of young men for the ministry the " American Education Society " was established, under the superintendence of a president, one vice-president and twelve directors. This society offered, first, gratuitous assistance to young men ; but finding that this encouraged idleness^ they fixed upon a definite sum to be granted to beneficiaries, throwing them for support, in some measure, on their own resources. In 1820, another method of as- sisting them by loans was adopted ; and an obligation required of them, to refund one half the amount received. This was found to operate so favorably, that since 1826 an obligation has been required to refund the lohole with interest, after a reasonable time subsequent to the bene- ficiary's education, and his entrance upon the active du- ties of his profession. The notes, however, of foreign and domestic missionaries, and of ministers settled over feeble churches, may be cancelled at the discretion of the Board of Directors. The sum annually furnished is 48 dollars or 9/. 125. sterling, to academical students, and 75 dollars or 15/. sterling, to collegiate and theological stu- dents. Since its foundation, the society have assisted 2,258 young men ; of those who received aid from the funds of the society, during the year 1835, 200 were con- nected with 17 theological seminaries, 538 with 37 col- leges, and 302 with academical and public schools ; — mak- ing in all 1,040 young men connected with 152 institutions of learning. The whole amount refunded by beneficiaries, since they have entered on the ministry, is 14,111 dollars 16 cents, and their earnings, by preaching and school- keeping, 132,623 dollars, or 26,524/. sterling. The so- ciety publishes a journal, entitled the "American Quar- terly Register," 200 SUNDAY SCHOOL UNION AND TRACT SOCIETIES. The American Sunday School Union, after the plan of that established in Great Britian by Robert Raikes, is entirely under the direction of laymen. No clergyman can ever be an officer or manager of the society ; and to secure a more perfect concurrence of Christians, the agents, missionaries, and other persons employed by the society, are selected indiscriminately from different denom- inations. Its object is " the establishment and support of Sunday schools, and the distribution of the society's pub- lications at the lowest prices, or gratuitously, not only in America, hid at the various Protestant missionary stations on the earth, lohere they are wanted for English readers, as well as for the aid of compilers and translators in native languages," The reports of this society, up to May, 1835, show that there are, or have been connected with it, 16,000 schools 1 15,000 teachers, and 799,000 pupils. The publications cost 1 mill /^er page, (equal to about one-third of a farthing.) " The American Tract Society " w^hose object it is to distribute tracts " for the promotion of morality and re- ligion," has received during the ten years of its existence the sum of 225,304 dollars 25 cents, or above 45,000Z. sterling, with which they have published 754 new pub- lications, and distributed altogether 481,990,418 pages. The most important feature of " the American Unitarian Association" is the establishment, in Boston, of a ministry for the moral and spiritual benefit of such of the poor as have no place of worship, and no religious instruction. The benefits which this ministry confers on the poor, in the person of the benevolent and eloquent Rev. Joseph Tucker man, are incalculable ; and it is perhaps the most charitable institution in that philanthropic city. On the whole, it appears that the receipts of the prin- cipal benevolent institutions in the United States during the year 1835 amounted to 815,302 dollars 23 cents, or 163,000/. sterling. All these societies are formed for the promotion of morality, religion, and education ; and impose a tax of 3s. sterling per annum on every white inhabitant of the United States. When to this are added the ordinary taxes for the support of common schools, it will be found that the Americans pay more for the moral and religious BENEVOLENCE OF AMERICANS, 201 improvement of society, than any other nation, England herself, in proportion to her population, not excepted. And yet they have been reproached with selfishness ; with a sordid attachment to pecuniary gain and profit, and a total neglect of the nobler qualities of the mind ! " Mon- ey," it has been added, "is the sole talisman of the Amer- icans ; " but not a word has been said of the manner in which they disburse it. Europeans could see no other causes of prosperity in the United States, than the mer- cantile habits of their inhabitants, and the immense nat- ural resources of the country. But the time will come when they will be convinced of their error — when the moral progress of America will keep pace with her phy- sical development, and her influence on mankind, in gen- eral, be^iailed with joyful gratitude. CHAPTER VIII. AMERICAN INDUSTRY. QUICKNESS OF MOTION. AGRI- CULTURE. THE WEST. CHARACTER OF WESTERN SET- TLERS. INFLUENCE OF THE WESTERN SETTLEMENTS ON THE POLITICAL PROSPECTS OF AMERICA. FOREIGN SETTLERS. GERMANS- IRISH. REMOVAL OF THE INDIANS. AMERICAN SERVANTS. RELATION OF THE RICH TO THE POOR, There is, probably, no people on earth with whom busi- ness constitutes pleasure, and industry amusement, in an equal degree with the inhabitants of the United States of America. Active occupation is not only the principal source of their happiness, and the foundation of their national greatness, but they are absolutely wretched with- out it, and instead of the " clolce far jiie?ite,^^ know but the liorrors of idleness. Business is the very soul of an American : he pursues it, not as a means of procuring for himself and his family the necessary comforts of life, but as the fountain of all human felicity; and shows as much enthusiastic ardor in his application to it as any crusader ever evinced for the conquest of the Holy Land, or the followers of Mohammed for the spreading of the Koran. From the earliest hour in the morning till late at night, the streets, offices, and warehouses of the large cities are thronged by men of all trades and professions, each fol- lowing his vocation like a per petuu?7i mobile^ as if he never dreamed of cessation from labor, or the possibility of be- coming fatigued. If a lounger should happen to be pa- rading the street, he would be sure to be justled off the side-walk, or to be pushed in every direction, until he keeps BUSINESS HABITS OF AMERICANS. 203 time with the rest. Should he meet a friend, he will only talk to him on business : on 'change they will only hear him on business ; and if he retire to some house of enter- tainment, he will again be entertained with business. Wherever he goes, the hum and bustle of business will fol- low him ; and when he finally sits down to his dinner, hoping there, at least, to find an hour of rest, he will dis- cover, to his sorrow, that the Americans treat that as a business too, and despatch it in less time than he is able to stretch his limbs under the mahogany. In a very few minutes, the clang of steel and silver will cease, and he will again be left to his solitary reflections, while the rest are about their busiriess. In the evenings, if he have no friends or acquaintances, none will intrude on his retire- ment ; for the people are either at home with their fami- lies, or preparing for the busi?iess of the next day. Whoever goes to the United States, for the purpose of settling there, must resolve, in his mind, to find pleasure in business, and business in pleasure, or he will be dis- appointed, and wish himself back to the sociable idleness of Europe. Nor can any one travel in the United States without making a business of it. In vain would he hope to proceed at his ease : he must prepare to go at the rate of fifteen or twenty miles an hour, or conclude to stay quietly at home. He must not expect to stop, except at the places fixed upon by the proprietors of the road or the steamboat; and if he happen to take a friend by the hand an instant after the sign of departure is given, he is either left behind, or carried on against his intention, and has to inquire after his luggage in another state or terri- tory. The habit of posting being unknown, he is obliged to travel in company with the large caravans which are daily starting from, and arriving at, all the large cities, under convoy of a thousand puffing and clanking engines, where all thoughts of pleasure are speedily converted into sober reflections on the safety of property and persons. He must resign the gratification of his own individual tastes to the wishes of the majority who are travelling on business, and with whom speed is infinitely more impor- tant than all that contributes to pleasure ; he must eat, drink, sleep, and wake, when they do, and has no other remedy for the catalogue of his distresses but the hope of 204 SETTLING OF THE WEST. their speedy termination. Arrived at the period of his sufferings he must be cautious how he gives vent to his joy, for he must stop quickly if his busy conductor shall not hurl him on again on a new journey. Neither is this hurry of business confined to the large cities, or the method of travelling ; it communicates it- self to every village and hamlet, and extends to, and penetrates, the western forests. Town and country rival with each other in the eagerness of industrious pursuits. Machines are invented, new lines of communication established, and the depths of the sea explored to afford scope for the spirit of enterprise ; and it is as if all America were but one gigantic workshop, over the en- trance of which there is the blazing inscription " iVo ad- mission here, except on business.''^ The position of a man of leisure in the United States is far from being enviable ; for unless he take delight in literary and scientific pursuits, he is not only left with- out companions to enjoy his luxuriant ease, l3ut, what is worse, he forfeits the respect of his fellow-citizens, who, by precept and example, are determined to discounte- nance idleness. That the influence of such a system must be highly beneficial to the national standard of morality, is, of itself, sufiiciently evident, and another cause for the comparatively small number of crimes com- mitted in the United States, and the general correctness of principle which pervades all clssses of society. There is more philosophy and morality contained in the admoni- tion of Dr. Panglos, " Travaillons notre jarclin,^^ than Voltaire intended to put in his mouth ; and this philoso- phy the Americans possess by instinct. Labor is as essential to their well-being as food and raiment to an European. This national characteristic of Americans, together with their love of independence, is a complete commentary on the history of all their settlements, and the progress of manufactures and com- merce. Thousands of persons who, as servants, or in other inferior walks of life, might be able to provide for themselves in the large cities, emigrate to the western woods, to procure for themselves a larger field of enter- prise and useful occupation. There is no hardship or privation incident to the lives of new settlers, which their CHARACTER OP WESTERN SETTLERS. 205 robust and athletic constitutions would not willingly suffer, to gratify their insatiable desire after active and independent labor : there is no pleasure within the range of all a city can afford equal to the proud satisfaction of beholding the daily results of their indefatigable exer- tions. These phenomena it would be in vain to explain by the mere spirit of adventure. There are no gold mines in the western states ; no active commerce equal to that from which they emigrate; no accumulated wealth to allure their covetousness. The riches of the soil can only be explored by active labor and a series of harassing details, connected with the sacrifice of every convenience of life : the commerce of the explored region is to be created by new roads and lines of communication, which call for new and increased exertion on the part of the settlers ; and it is only after a period of many years their sturdy industry can hope for an adequate reward of ease and prosperity. Such prospects are not apt to allure the weak, either in body or mind, and require a determina- tion and steadiness of purpose totally incompatible with the vague and loose spirit of adventure. Neither is there any thing in the character of the western people which could give the least foundation to such a suspicion. They are a hardy persevering race, inured to every toil to which human nature can be sub- jected, and always ready to encounter danger and hard- ships with a degree of cheerfulness which it is easily perceived is the effect of moral courage and conscious- ness of power. They are distinguished from the rest of the Americans, and, perhaps, the rest of mankind, by huge athletic frames of body, a peculiar naivete in their manners, and a certain grotesqueness of humor, which, as far as I am acquainted, is not to-^J^e found in any other part of the United States. Theie amphibious na- ture — being obliged to make themselves, at an early period of their lives, familiar with the navigation of the Avestern rivers — together with the boldness of their dis- position, has won for them the characteristic appellation of^^JialfJiorse, and half alligator ; '' which, in the lan- guage of the western Americans, is full as honorable a term as the ^'- preux chevaliers,'''' applied to the chivalry of the middle ages; though they prefer the rifle and the 18 206 INFLUENCE OF THE WESTERN SETTLEMENTS somewhat barbarous amusement of " gouging " to the more knightly combat with spears and lances. It appears, then, that the universal disposition of Americans to emigrate to the western wilderness, in order to enlarge their dominion over inanimate nature, is the actual result of an expansive power, which is inherent in them, and which, by continually agitating all classes of society, is constantly throwing a large portion of the whole population on the extreme confines of the state, in order to gain space for its development. Hardly is a new state or territory formed, before the same principle manifests itself again, and gives rise to a further emigra- tion ; and so is it destined to go on until a physical barrier must finally obstruct its progress. The Americans, who do not pretend to account for this principle at all,* are nevertheless aware of its existence^ and act and legislate on all occasions as if they w^ere to enjoy the benefits of the next century. Money and property is accumulated for no other visible purpose than being left to the next generation, which is brought up in the same industrious habits, in order to leave their children a still greater inheritance. The laboring classes of Europe, the merchants, and even professional men, are striving to obtain a certain competency, with which they are always willing to retire : the Americans pursue business with unabated vigor till the very hour of death, with no other benefits for themselves than the satisfaction of having enriched their country and their children. Fortunes, which, on the continent of Europe, and even in England, would be amply sufficient for an independent existence, are in America increased with an assiduity which is hardly equalled by the industrious zeal of a poor beginner, and the term of "rezii/er" is entirely unknown. The luxurious enjoyments which riches alone can pro- cure are neither known nor coveted in the United States; and the possession of property, far from rendering them indolent, seems to be only an additional stimulus to un- remitting exertion. In this disposition of Americans the attentive peruser of history must evidently behold a wise dispensation of * Compare the Remarks on American Literature, Chapter IV. ON THE GOVERNMENT. 207 Providence, though it may, for a time, impede the pro- gress of refinement and the arts. Without the spirit of enterprise and the taste for active labor, the immense resources of the country, and the facility with which riches are acquired, would become the means of indi- vidual and national corruption and the introduction of expensive habits, which would not only undermine the private morals of the people, but eventually subvert their republican government. The sudden introduction of European refinements, if it were possible to make them universal, would, at this period, be the ruin of the American constitution. The framers of that noble work, perhaps the proudest achieve- ment of the human mind, did not contemplate a state of society as it exists in Europe, and could, therefore, with safety repose the highest power and trust in the virtue and integrity of the people. America was then but thinly settled, and her population spread over a wide surface ; her inhabitants were distinguished for the simplicity of their manners and the high moral rectitude of their <5haracter; they were a highly civilized people, though they could not have been called refined in the sense in which the term is applied in the fashionable circles of London and Paris. It was of the utmost importance for the safety of the government, which, at that time, was only an experiment, that the people should retain their simple habits, until age should give strength to the con- stitution, and accustomed the people readily to submit to the newly-instituted authorities. It was necessary for the rulers, as well as the governed, to acquire a routine of business, and to establish that mutual confidence in one another, without which every free government must soon be converted into despotism. An habitual obedience to the law was to be created without the intercession of force, which, at the beginning of a republic, where the rulers and the governed are yet itoo nearly on a level with one another, partakes always more or less of the character of usurpation, and threatens the dissolution of government. This was the case with ithe republic of France, and hence its speedy overthrow. The habits and morals of a people are the surest guaran- tee of the continuance of any government ; they are th© 208 INFLUENCE OF THE WESTERN SETTLEMENTS life and essence of its existence, without which the con- stitution is but a dead letter. The charter must live in the minds of the governed, or it will soon be carried to the grave. The thinly-scattered population assisted the government prodigiously in cooling the passions of the discontented, Or in rendering them harmless. Even the multiplicity of interests and parties proved an additional security, as it weakened the power of the opposition, and prevented them from uniting under any one principle, the carrying of which might have endangered the safety of the consti- tution. Every liberal government must, in the outset, depend more on the weakness of the opposition than on its own strength, which it is dangerous to increase before the rights of the governed have become the common law of the country. The history of France furnishes a com- plete index to this truth, while a special providence seems to have presided over the destinies of America. It is with regard to this principle that the western settlers are of incalculable advantage to the government ; for not only is by their means the population of the Atlantic states relieved of its annual increase, but new sources of wealth opened to the nation at large, which increase the occupation and prosperity of those who remain. Every new settlement requires laborers for the construction of roads, canals^ &c., to facilitate its communication with the Atlantic states, and every new road and canal in- creases the commerce of the seaports. But it is not the general prosperity of the people — though of course this must be counted among its happi- est results, — it is their useful occupation^ and the creation of new and powerful interests, which are of the greatest advantage to the government. Every new colony of set- tlers contains within itself a nucleus of republican insti- tutions, and revives, in a measure, the history of the first settlers. Its relation to the Atlantic states is similar to the situation of the early colonies with regard to the mother country, and contains the elements of freedom. Every society which is thus formed must weaken the fury of parties by diminishing the points of contact — while the growing power of the western states becomes a salutary check on the spreading of certain doctrines, which are ON THE GOVERNMENT. 209 continually importing from Europe, and to the evil influ- ence of which the Atlantic states are more particularly exposed. The western states, from their peculiar position, are supposed to develope all the resources and peculiarities of democratic governments, without being driven to ex- cesses by the opposition of contrary principles. Their number too augments the intensity of republican life by increasing the number of rallying points, without which the principle of liberty would be too much weakened by expansion. It is a peculiarly happy feature of the con- stitution of the United States, that every state has itself an independent government, and becomes thus the repos- itory of its own liberties. The inhabitant of Arkansas, lUinois, or Indiana, living on the confines of the state, and the very skirts of civili- zation, would, in all probability, be less of a patriot if his attachm_ent to the country were only to be measured by his adherence to the general government. He would be too remote from the centre of action to feel its immedi- ate influence, and not sufiiciently affected by the political proceedings of the state to consider them paramount to the local interests of his neighborhood. Political life would grow fainter in proportion to its remoteness from the seat of legislation, and the energies of the people, in- stead of being roused by the necessity of action, would degenerate into a passive acknowledgment of the protec- tion offered by the government. This is more or less the case in every country, except England and America, and perhaps the principal reason of their little progress in freedom. Hence the feverish excitement in their capi- tals and large towns, and the comparative inertness and palsy of the country. Every town and village in America has its peculiar re- publican government, based on the principle of election, and is, within its own sphere, as free and independent as a sovereign state. On this broad basis rests the whole edifice of American liberty. Freedom takes its root at home, in the native village or town of an American. The county, representing the aggregate of the towns and vil- lages, is but an enlargement of the same principle : the state itself represents the different counties ; and the con- , 18* 210 POLITICAL ADVANTAGES OF THE GOVERNMENT. gress of the United States represents the different states. In every place, in every walk of life, an American finds some rallying point or centre of political attachment. His sympathies are first enlisted by the government of his native village ; then, by that of the county ; then, by the state itself; and finally, by thatof the Union. If he is ambitious, he is obliged to make an humble beginning at home, and figure in his native town or county ; thence he is promoted to the dignity of representative or senator of his state ; and it is only after he has held these prepara- tory stations that he can hope to enjoy the honor of rep- resentative or senator in the congress of the nation. Thus the county i'^ the preparatory school for the politician of the state, and the state furnishes him with a proper intro- duction to national politics. The advantages of this system are manifold. It creates political action where otherwise all would be passiveness and stupor; it begets attachment to the institutions of the country by multiplying the objects of their political affec- tion, and bringing them within the sphere of every indi- vidual ; it cools the passions of political parties, by ofter- ing them frequent opportunities of spending themselves on various subjects, and in various directions; it estab- lishes a strong-hold of liberty in every village and town, and accustoms all classes of society to a republican gov- ernment ; it enforces submission to laws and institutions which arc the type of those of the nation ; and it furnish- es numerous schools for young politicians, obliging them to remain siilficiently long in each not to enter the univer- sity of congress without age and proper experience. This system, while it lasts — and there are no symptoms of its being speedily abolished — will prevent novices in politics from entering the senate or house of representatives of the Unite ''".tes, and reserve the dignity of president for the wibiiom of sexagenarians. In France, where no similar freedom and independence exist in the provinces, where the "^-r jm of centralization is constantly forcing the whole political power into the capital and a few of the large towns, leaving the country without life, motion, or means of defence, all attempts to establish a rational sys- tem of liberty were confined to its superstructure, with- out enlarging its foundation. The most awful lessons of INFLUENCE OF THE WESTERN SETTLEMENTS. ^11 history have been taught to her people in vain ; and it seems as if they were the only nation who never profit by experience. The western states of America are each a nursery of freedom : every new settlement is already a republic in emhrijo. They extend political life in every direction, and establish so many new fortified points, that the principle of liberty has nothing to dread from a partial invasion of its territory. Every new state, therefore, is a fresh guarantee for the continuance of the American constitution, and directs the attention of the people to new sources of happiness and wealth. It increases the interest of all in upholding the general government, and makes individual success dependent on national prosperity. But every year which is added to its existence increases its strength and cohe- sion, by reducing obedience to a habit, and adding to the respect which is due to age. If it be true that the life of nations and political institutions resembles that of individ- uals, it is equally true, that the different periods of their development are exposed to the same dangers. One third of all that are born die in childhood ; the greater number of them are healthy during the period of their manhood, and all must eventually die of old age. Climate and soil breed particular diseases, which must be cured according to their peculiar constitutions; but of these, fevers and consumptions are the most dreaded. Violent cures are apt to weaken the system, but are often rendered unavoid- able by a criminal delay of the proper remedies ; and a total neglect of them is sure to produce an incurable dis- temper. A child is exposed to more diseases than a man ; and so is it with a young country. America is fast ap- proachino; her period of pupillarity, and the constitution of a century will be established on a firmer basis than that of a dozen years. The people will have experienced its blessings, and cherish it as the venerable inheritance of their fathers. Each succeeding generation will be born with an increased respect for it, and will be taught, at school, to consider it as the basis of their happiness. Age always commands reverence ; and the people are not so easily persuaded to lend their aid in the destruction of a government under which they have prospered for 212 FOREIGN SETTLERS. centuries, than of one within their own recollection and of their own making, which they may hope to rebuild on a new plan. We quit reluctantly an old mansion, though a new and better one should be offered to our habitation ; and the force of habit and the endearment of time are stronger than the force of principles or the power of ar- gument. I think that the Americans have, spontaneous- ly, found the right track; and that no better admonition can be given to the young republic than the wise saying of Dr. Panglos, which can never be too often repeated, " Que chacun travaille son jar din.' ^ But the western territory of America is not wholly peopled by emigrants from the Atlantic states ; a large number of the inhabitants being settlers from Switzerland and Germany. The Irish, though emigrating to the United States in large numbers, prefer, generally, a resi- dence in a city, with such transient occupation as they may find, to the quiet industry of the Germans, who are more particularly attached to the cultivation of the soil. The advantages of the German cultivators in the United States over all other competitors are, indeed, numerous ; but most of them arise from the manner in which they emigrate, and settle in the various districts. Whoever has witnessed the parting of a caravan of Germans from their friends and relations, or their pro- ceeding on the way until they reach the seaport of their destination, will be convinced of their resolute determi- nation to make America their home, and to assist each other in their new vocation of settlers. This I consider the principal reason of their success. Having no longer an alternative before them, they apply themselves to the cultivation of the soil, not as adventurers for the sake of experiment, but as farmers, who mean to keep possession of it. They prefer the western states for their settlements, and, being in this manner at once cut off from an uninter- rupted correspondence with the country which gave them birth, son learn to make themselves a home in America. They direct their undivided energies towards improving their estates, instead of lingering in a state of indecision with their eyes half turned towards their native land. The habit of remaining together, and settling whole town- ships or villages, serves to render their exile less painful, f GERMAN SETTLEUS. 213 and enables them, if the phrase be permitted, to transfer a part of their own country to the vast solitudes of the new world. They hardly feel that they are strangers in the land of their adoption, as long as each of them sees in his neighbor the friend of his youth, or the companion of his childhood, A man cannot be said to have left his home if he be not separated from his nearest relations, or from those who are most dear to his heart. In this manner the German emigrants in the United States pre- serve, to a great degree, their original simplicity of man- ners ; and, being frugal by habit, and sociable by rtature, are soon able to rear their little hamlets by mutual assist- ance, and to give stability and permanency to their set- tlements. Being not much given to money speculations, their care is less to hoard riches than to improve and in- crease their estates, and, by that means, they hardly ever fail to become independent and opulent. They are less enterprising than the native Americans, especially the ^e\Y Englanders, on which account they are often con- sidered dull and inactive ; but they yield to no part of the population of the United States in unremitting labor and persevering industry. There are few of them grow rich by sudden turns of good luck ; but it is a comparatively rare case to see any of them behindhand in the manage- ment of their household; and, preferring, from inclina- tion, agriculture to commerce, they are less exposed to the caprices of fortune, and more certain of ultimate suc- cess. They are universally allowed to possess the finest farms in the United States , because it is their settled maxim not to hold more land than they are able to culti- vate, and to keep it for their own use, and not for the pur- pose of speculation. The dwelling of a German farmer is generally humble ; but his granary and stables are of huge dimensions, and exhibit the provident husbandman. The improvement of his farm is with him a more urgent consideration than his own individual comfort. His cat- tle are the object of much solicitude, and his labor is the more productive as it is seconded by every member of his family. It is a fact no less curious than remarkable, that these characteristics of German farmers apply to all of them, in whatever part of the country they may have formed 314 PECULIARITIES OF their settlements ; and that there is, in this respect, no difference between a settler in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illi- nois, or the valley of the Mississippi. Neither the soil nor the climate seems to change their manners and cus- toms. I have seen German settlers in Hjjngary and Transylvania resembling those of Pennsylvania, as much as one New Englander resembles another; but wherever they dwell, and to whatever country they may emigrate, I have always known them to be sober, industrious, and living on good terms with each other and their neighbors. Nor does time change their habits materially. The Moravian settlers of Georgia, who went to America under the kind auspices of General Oglethorpe, were in this respect substantially the same as those who emigrat- ed previously to Carolina and Pennsylvania; and the description of the latter, given by William Penn, corres- ponds yet with those of the present inhabitants of that state. Until recently, the emigrants from Germany were chiefly composed of agriculturists, with an occasional admixture of operatives; but the late unfortunate struggle for liberty in Germany has, within the last five or six years, caused the expatriation of a more intellectual class; and, accordingly, settlements have been made in the val- ley of the Mississippi and in the state of Illinois, by a body of Germans whose education fitted them rather for the drawing-room and the closet, than for the hardships of cultivating the soil. Yet they have cheerfully embrac- ed their new vocation ; and of physicians, lawyers, theo- logical and other students, who arrived about three years ago in the United States, have become active husbandmen, though they were obliged to resign the romantic idea of founding a ^^ Netv Germany ^^ in the western territory of the United States. Immediately after their arrival they established a press and a paper, in which they published the history of their little settlement. Extracts from it, speaking in highly favorable terms of the climate and soil, appeared in nearly all the public prints of Germany ; and large numbers of their countrymen are preparing for the same destination. I ought yet to observe, in this place, that it is absurd to settle in America with the intention of hiring the labor GERMAN SETTLERS. 215 of the poor. The price of it is high, and cannot always be commanded with money. The Germans especially prefer working on a farm, in which they have an interest, or the hope of ultimately possessing a part of it — which is the surest means of making them eventually independent. Proud, in his "History of Pennsylvania," observed already the singular circumstance of most of the poor laboring classes becoming rich, while men of property, commencing with large fortunes and estates, were gradu- ally becoming poor ; and alluded to the singular habit of some Germans of property, to hire themselves out as servants, until they obtain a sufficient knowledge of the climate and soil to commence business on their own account. The quiet temper of the Germans does not allow them to take a very active part in politics, though their number would be sufficient to form a most powerful party. In Pennsylvania they have, nevertheless, acquired great in- fluence, and the governors of that state have, for many years past, been selected from amongst their countrymen. This is a matter so much settled by mutual consent, that, even at the last election, when there were two democratic and one whig candidate for office, all three were taken from the ranks of the Germans, and none other would have had the least chance of success. In the state of Ohio, though it was originally settled by emigrants from New England, there are, at present, not less than from thirty-five to forty thousand German voters. The state of New York, though originally settled by the Dutch, contains, nevertheless, a large German population in several counties, especially in that of Columbia, which gave birth to Mr. Van Buren, the present vice-president, and, in all probability, the next president of the United States. The state of Maryland contains a large propor- tion of German voters; the population of Illinois is nearly one third German; and the valley of the Missis- sippi is being settled by thousands of new emigrants from Europe. I do not think it an exaggeration to state, that not less than one hundred thousand votes are annually cast by Germans, and that, in less than twenty years, their number will have increased to half a million. In the city of New York the Germans have already a great 216 PREJUDICES OF influence on the election of mayor and the other city officers ; the number of those who are entitled to vote amounting now to three thousand five hundred. Under these circumstances, " fAe German vote^'' as it is termed, becomes a matter of great soUcitude with politi- cians of all ranks and persuasions; and, accordingly, newspapers in their own language are established in all parts of the United States where they have settled. In Pennsylvania alone there are now more than thirty Ger- man (mostly weekly) papers ; and in Ohio and Illinois, as many more are published and circulated, A considerable number of them is also published in Maryland ; and the "New York Staatszeitung" was entirely established by the democratic Germans of that city. If these papers were ablj directed by a standard publication in any of the large cities, whose editor should understand the pecu- liarities of the German mind, the local circumstances of their settlements, and their relation to the general gov- ernment, they could be made a most powerful political engine, which would give strength and perpetuity to any party in whose favor it should once declare itself. But the Germans in the United States have, to this day, no powerful political organ to express their opinions and sentiments; and their policy, therefore, is but a reflec- tion from the ruling doctrines of the other states : they are unconscious of their power, and more bent on in- creasing their numbers, than on concentrating their eftorts, and directing them to a certain point. The Ger- mans in America are not so easily excited as their brethren to the south or north, and are consequently often indif- ferent on a variety of minor questions, the connection of which with the more important principles of government, seems to escape their immediate notice. In this man- ner they are often defeated in their own ranks, and, contrary to their intentions and purposes, made the tool of insidious politicians. But no sooner is an important question of state agitated, than they unite again ; and, despite of all efforts to disseminate discord by appealing to their prejudices and local interests, — an appeal which is hardly ever made in vain to the inhabitants of any other section of the country, — persevere in supporting the men and principles of their adoption. GERMAN SETTLERS. 217 They are not apt to speculate on politics, but rather act in accordance with general maxims, which are as liberal as possible, and of which they never question the utility, provided they agree with their ideas of moral and political justice. They seldom enter on details, but never desert a principle ; and are, therefore, least actuat- ed by motives of interest and selfishness. Their practical sense is republican ; and, as I have previously observed, they are democratic almost by instinct.* But the time may come when they will be conscious of their power ; and they will then form a party, the strength and impor- tance of which will, in all probability, be beyond the computation of mere abstract politicians. For the education of youth, the Germans in Pennsyl- vania and Ohio have as yet done little, when compared with the efforts of the New England states for the gene- ral difiiisioii of learning. In 1833 there were yet a large number of children in both states who could neither read nor write, and, although improvements are gradually making in the system of instruction, it is not to be ex- pected, that, in this respect, an equality will soon be effected with the other states. t The reminiscences of the Germans in the United States of their former situation in Europe are not calculated to inspire the humbler classes with a particular regard for the sciences. They were oppressed by men of literary pretensions at home; and the unusual number of feed clerks with whom the king- dom of Wurtemberg (which furnishes the greatest num- ber of emigrants) was yet, a few years ago, infested as with a plague, struck the peasantry of that country with horror for every thing which, in their provincial dialect, they called a " scAreiier/e " (little scribbler.) I remember some years ago, when travelling in Pennsylvania, to have asked a German at Easton, (a town situated about sixty miles from Philadelphia,) whether he would not be glad to see a college established in his place, | which would * I have given the reason of this in chapter III. t What I have here said of the state of education in Ohio, applies merely to its German population. The New England settlers have excellent schools and semmaries of learning. t Lafayette College has since been established in Easton, even by the co-operations of some well-informed Germans of that place. 19 218 GERMAN PREJUDICES afford his children an opportunity of superior instruction ? He merely shrugged his shoulders, and observed, that his soJis should not go to it, as he intended them for active farm- ers, and not for lazy thieves, to live on other people's indus- try. Not even the prospect of realizing a larger income from his estate by the influx of students from Philadel- phia and New York could quiet his apprehensions of the abuse of learning; and the idea that any of his children should quit the paternal estate in order to study a profes- sion, which would change their simple manners into the more fashionable carriage of gentlemen, proved a perfect torture to his mind. There is so much philosophy and good sense in this species of ignorance that one might almost call it ingenious, though it contrasts sadly with the habits of the more aspiring population of the eastern states, who are never satisfied unless their sons are called doc- tors or lawyers. The profession of the law is rarely embraced by Ger- mans ; and, accordingly, most of the gentlemen of the bar, in the German settlements of the United States, are either from New England or Ireland. The idea of going to law strikes a German as something wrong and debas- ing, and in case he is obliged to have recourse to it, he prefers to hire some one to do it for him. This is a sen- timent which pervades, not only the German population of America, but also a considerable portion of the people of Germany itself The profession of the law, to which that of politics is so closely aUied, is, by German writers of eminence, in the most uncharitable manner, called a prostitute amongst the sciences ; because it is the only one which, instead of proposing the investigation of absolute truth, renders the noblest powers of the mind subservient to mere temporal benefits, which are often incompatible with honor or justice. The theologian, the mathemati- cian, the physician, &c., are all paid for the investigation and assertion of positive truth, or, at least, of what they consider as such. The lawyer alone is knowingly feed for its perversion. So privileged is he in his calling, that we can hear him plead the cause of a notorious culprit, or see him employ the best fjiculties of his understanding to prove the correctness of that which he hardly credits himself, without being prejudiced against his character. AGAINST LAWYERS. 219 But the prostitution of the mind is more abject than that of the body, and just in that ratio more humiliating and degrading as mind is superior to matter. Reason becomes madness ; benefit a curse ; Alas ! that thou should'st be an heir ! That right which has been born with thee, That right alone they know not* Nothing can be further from me than the belief that tlie practice of the law must necessarily be attended by such moral disadvantages ; but it is certainly liable to very great abuses. How often is not lawful right opposed to moral Justice, and the advocate, through whose instru- mentality the former is asserted, compelled to offend against the latter ? In how many cases does not the issue of a litigation depend on mere forms ? — on the omission of a word, or the want of precision of language, in a le- gal instrument? And is not the advocate obliged to take advantage of all such circumstances ? It is true he does not appear in his own cause, but merely represents his client. He only says that for his client which the latter himself would say if he were endowed with legal knowl- edge. But this does not rid the profession of the re- proach to which it is unfortunately exposed; because, when the client is a knavc^ the superior skill of the ad- vocate is employed in perfecting his craft, and in injur- ing his honest adversary. Neither can the advocate previously examine the cause of his client, to satisfy himself of the truth or justice of the cause : he has not even a right to do so ; for this would be constituting himself jwd^e of the case, and give rise to the still greater abuse of turning away clients which are poor, or whose adversaries are rich and power- ful. He is, in fact, obliged to take up the case as it is stated to liim, or as it appears on trial ; and it is but the verdict of the jury which informs him of its legal justice. He is compelled to start from premises, the correctness of which it is neither in his power or his duty to ascer- * " Vernunft wird Unsinn, Wohlthat, Plage 5 Weh dir, dass du ein Enkel bist ! Vom Rechte, dass mit dir geboren ist, Von dera ist leider, nie die Frage." — Gothe's Faust. 220 IRISH SETTLERS. tain or examine, and is, therefore, in the exercise of his profession, less concerned in the investigation of absolute truth than men of science in every other department. The imperfection, however, does not properly exist in the advocates, but in the law itself The laws of nature and of God are immutable, and in perfect harmony with each other in their most remote consequences. Those of men are the product of a finite intelligence, and are, therefore, subject to frequent changes, and liable to disa- gree with each other. They are enacted for specific pur- poses, not always corresponding with the universal laws of the world, but protecting the peculiar interests of hu- man institution : they are adapted to circumstances, and to the state of society in each country ; not to the abstract properties of humanity, and are, therefore, often favor- ing peculiar trades and professions, at the expense of phi- losophical justice. Thus, the laws against forgeries, and other crimes against property, are established for the pro- tection of credit; military and naval laws for the main- tenance of discipline, &c. In all these cases the legis- lators consider, principally, the immediate advantages, and not the moral consequences of the law ; their object is to secure a direct and positive benefit, though in so do- ing they may infringe on the natural rights of individuals. One principle is often sacrificed to another — as the minor interests must yield to the community at large, and the prosperity and happiness of individuals to the national progress of the commonwealth. It is this peculiar property of jurisprudence which dis- tinguishes it from every other science, and tinges, in the opinion of many, even the moral and intellectual charac- ter of advocates. Besides, the profession of the law is, more frequently than any other, embraced for its worldly advantages ; and Archimedes' reply to the scholar who wished to study mathematics because their application had rendered the country some service, applies a fortiori to the lawyer: *' He who worships the goddess must not woo the woman.^'' The Irish are almost diametrically opposite to the Ger- mans, in disposition and enterprise. The industry of the lower classes consists more in bodily exertion than in its direction to any definite purpose. Possessing, naturally, IRISH SETTLERS. 221 great generosity of character, they are satisfied with ac- quiring what is necessary for the present, and share even this with each other, without prudently heeding the future. While they are thus content to be hired in large bodies to dig canals or construct railroads, they neglect the more useful cultivation of the soil, which would, at once, make them independent and respectable. The second genera- tion, however, fare much better. Being for the most part brought up in the large cities, they have an opportunity of benefiting by the superior means of instruction held out so liberally in all parts of the United States, and to raise themselves, by theirtalents and acquirements, to an equality with the most informed and wealthy. Some of the most eminent lawyers and statesmen of America are of Irish extraction, and General Jackson himself is de- scended from an Irish family. They are a warm-hearted, patriotic race, who require nothing but the cooling influ- ence of a certain number of years' residence in the United States, in order to become most useful and peaceable cit- izens.* Individually, an Irish gentleman is more esteemed than a German, and, perhaps, on account of the greater con- geniality of thought and learning, a more useful member of the American community. But, as a mass, the Ger- mans are greatly preferred. They have done more, or at least as much, as any class of Americans for the improve- ment of the country, and contributed largely, and in the most systematic manner, to the development of its inter- nal resources. The first American manufactures which excited the jealousy of Great Britain were the German paper, woollen and linen cloth manufactures of Pennsyl- vania ; and to this moment Pennsylvania and Massachu- setts are rivalling each other in this species of industry.f The mechanic arts are allowed to have made greater pro- gress in Philadelphia than in any other city of the United States ; but the principal workmen are Germans,| and * Compare the Irish character described in the chapter on American prejudices. t Frond's " History of Pennsylvania " and Graham's " History of the United States." t Of late, a number of English mechanics have emigrated to the United States, and depressed the labor of the Germans. 19* 222 IRISH VOTERS. many of the first merchants of that city are also descend- ed from Germany. Such occupations are not apt to shed a particular lustre on the names of individuals ; but they characterise the whole body as a highly industrious and useful class of g^tciety, which, by its smaller excitability and great steadiness of mind, may, at some future time, prove a salutary check on the inordinate ambition of a faction. The political influence of the Irish, which is the sub- ject of so much discussion in the United States, as well as in England, and to which one of the political parties has ascribed all its recent defeats, is, in itself, exceeding- ly small, and only felt in some of the large towns on the sea-coast. It is a well ascertained fact that a large ma- jority of the country, and not of the cities, has voted in favor of the present administration and the measures of General Jackson ; and that almost all cities, with the ex- ception of New York, have declared themselves against them. Even the majority in the city of New York did not materially influence that of the state, which was suf- ficiently great to compensate for a failure in any of the large towns. The Irish are not nearly as unanimous in their votes as the Germans, and do not hold sufficient property in any one state to have an immediate influence on the elections. The Germans, on the contrary, consti- tute, by themselves, a majority in Pennsylvania, and a very respectable and wealthy party in many other states. Being for the most part proprietors of the soil, their vote is independent, which can hardly be said of the lower classes of the Irish, who are mostly employed by the rich capitalists. If the Irish, then, have voted for the admin- istration, I take it for granted that they have done it from principle ; because a view to their immediate interest might, perhaps, have dictated an opposite course. Com- merce and manufacture, from which the greater number of Irish, at least indirectly, draw their subsistence, might have invited them to vote ditferently; whilst the farmer in the interior is, by his very position more independent of the monied institution of the large cities. The Irish, were they united to a man, could not have the influence and power of the Germans, with whom disposition, habit, occupation, and property unite to make them what they NEW ENGLAND SETTLERS. 223 are, the stoutest democrats of the country. I am far from being instigated by any partisan spirit, either in favor of or against the Irish or Germans ; neither do I speak of the correctness or injustice of their vote ; but merely of the credit which is to be attached to it as a moral and independent action. In the settlements of new districts it is seldom that Europeans are found to be actively engaged. This honor belongs almost exclusively to emigrants from New Eng- land, who may most emphatically be called the pioneers of the United States, and to whose enterprising spirit and recklessness of danger may be ascribed most of the valu- able improvements of the country. They are, however, satisfied with tracing the road which the others are to follow, and occupying the most important stations : the intervals are afterwards filled up with settlers from other states and from Europe. The character of the New England emigrants has been too well described by Wash- ington Irving for me to attempt to add to it more than is necessary to understand a certain political type, which may be observed in all states to which they have emigra- ted in large numbers. The talent of a New Englander is universal. He is a good farmer, an excellent school- master, a very respectable preacher, a capital lawyer, a sagacious physician, an able editor, a thriving mer- chant, a shrewd pedlar, and a most industrious trades- man. Being thus able to fill all the important posts of society, only a few emigrants from New England are required to imprint a lasting character on a new state, even if their number should be much inferior to that of the other settlers. The states of Ohio and Michigan, and even a large part of the state of New York, offer striking instances of this moral superiority acquired by the people of New England ; but it would be wrong thence to con- clude that their own habits do not undergo an important metamorphosis, or that, in their new relations in the western states, they merely act as reformers, without being, in turn, influenced by the character of their fellow settlers. The change, however, is altogether for the bet- ter. Their patriotism, instead of being confined to the narrow limits of New England, — a fault with which they have been reproached as early as the commencement of 224 INCREASE OF POPULATION. the revolutionary war,* — jjartakes there more of a. na- tional character. The continued intercourse with stran- gers from all parts of the world, but more particularly from the different states of the Union, serve in no small deg;ree to eradicate from their minds certain prejudices and illiberalities with which they have but too commonly been reproached by their brethren of the south. Toler- ance, the last and most humane offspring of civilization, is, perhaps, the only virtue of which the New Englander is usually parsimonious ; but even this seems to improve and to thrive in the western states ; and 1 have no hesi- tation to say, that, in this respect, the inhabitants of those districts are by far more emancipated than those of the Atlantic states, w hatever advantages the latter may pos- sess with regard to refinement of manners. I know of no better specitnen of human character than a New Eng- lander transferred to the western states. To form a correct idea of the rapid increase of culti- vated territory in the western states, it is only necessary to cast a glance at the unparalleled increase of popula- tion, The state of Pennsylvania, which in 1810 contained but 810,091t inhabitants, had in 1830, 1,347,672; in- crease, 537,581 : the population of the state of New York, which in 1810 was but 413,763, had in 1830 al- ready increased to 1,913,508 ; increase, 1,499,745: the population of Alabama was less than 10,000, but in 1830 already C08,997 ; increase 298,997, or nearly 2,990 per cent, in twenty years : that of Mississippi, which in 1810 amounted to 40,352, was in 1830, 136,800; increase in twenty years 96,448, equivalent to 2.39 per cent. : Ten- nessee contained in 1810 but 261,727 inhabitants, but in 1830, 684,822; increase 162 per cent, nearly: in Ken- tucky the population increased, in the same time, from 406,511 to 688,844, or by about 70 per cent.: that of Ohio advanced, in the space of time, from 230,760 to 937,637 ; increase more than 300 per cent. : the popula- tion of the same state was, in 1790, but 3,000 ; increas^ein 40 years, 31,154 y^^- per cent.: Indiana contained in 1810 but 24,520 inhabitants; but in 1830 already 341,- ■* Botta, " Storia dclla gucrra delV independenza degU Stati Uniti." t These numbers arc taken from the census of 1810, 1820, and 1830. AMERICAN INDIANS. 225 582; increase more than 1,293 per cent. : but the popu- lation of Indiana consisted in 1800 only of 5,641 ; conse- quently the total increase in 30 years, or less than a whole generation, is more than 5,955 per cent. Illinois con- tained in 1810 only 12,282 inhabitants, which number was in 1830 increased to 157,575 ; equal to about 1,183 per cent. : Missouri had in the same space increased to seven times her original population ; that of 1810 being 19,833, and that of 1830, 140,074. The population of the eastern and southern states I have here omitted, be- cause, though on the increase, they present nothing so striking as the rapid growth of the west. The states of Pennsylvania and New York, however, extend far to the westward, and thence arises their incredible augmentation of population. More than nine tenths of all the people who emigrate to the west are farmej's ox planters ; and it is consequently chiefly the agricultural interest which causes the settling of the immense territory of the United States yet open to the spirit of enterprise. Commerce and manufacture, it is true, follow the path of the new settlers ; but they never lead the way to those regions, and are rather accessaries than originators of civilization. The continent of Ameri- ca might have been visited, like the islands of the South Sea, by a thousand enterprising merchants and naviga- tors, without being for one moment redeemed from its savage state. It is but the actual cultivation of the soil, and the indisputable right to property arising from actual labor, which lays the foundation of states and empires, as it furnishes, perhaps, the only legitimate title to the pos- session of a country. Let no sensitive European, therefore, complain of the barbarous cruelty of the Americans in chasing the Indians from the soil of their fathers, or in forcing them to flee from the approach of civilization to the unhospitable woods of the western territory. The American aborig- ine, with but very few exceptions, never possessed the soil on which they trod any more than the air which they breathed. They never cultivated it to any extent, nor had they, individually, any distinct title to it arising from actual labor. They held it in common with the beasts of the forest, and it was useful to them only as it afforded 226 AMERICAN INDIANS. them {he means of prey. Tlie English had as good a riglit to call the ocean their own, hecause they moved on it, as the American Indians to claim possession of their continent because they roamed in its woods. There was barbarity in the conquest of Lima and Mexico, the inhabit- ants of wJiich were already in possession of many of the arts of peace ; but there can be none in the quiet progress of civilization in the United States, except what is pro- voked by the Indians themselves, and for wliich they alone must remain accountable. The American settler takes possession of a soil which has never been cultivated, and which, therefore, has had no owner. He builds his log-house in a country in which there is room enough for the supi)ort of millions, and in which there are hardly a few hundred stragglers to follow the track of the deer. Is this robbery? Is it cruel to civilize and improve a country, and to open a new road to wealth and comfort to thousands of intelligent beings from all parts of the world, who would otherwise starve or be reduced to pov- erty, because in so doing they cannot avoid intruding on the favorite hunting-grounds of some wandering tribes, and disturb their game 1 This, however, they do; and, with the deer, the American aborigines disappear from the soil. It is in vain to talk of civilizing them. If it could be done which is more than doubtful, (considering the many unsuccessful attempts which have already been made,) liey would hardly be able to compete with their teachers in any one human occupation calculated to secure a live- lihood in a civilized country, and would, therefore, from necessity, become outlaws to society, and incur the pun- ishment of the law.* We cannot but regret the fate of that doomed people ; but we can hardly think of rescuing them from it, without being guilty of the most flagrant injustice to the rest of mankind. * The state of the Creek and Cherokee Indians furnishes a new proof of this assertion. Red Jacket, an Indian chief of great eloquence, in his answer to the missionaries, observed that it was very probable God had intended the white and the red races for different purposes. " To you," he said, " He has given the arts; to these He has forever closed our eyes. Why should He not have given j^ou another religion alsol — Bed- Jacket's reply to the missionaries, by Thomas Jeferson, AMERICAN INDIANS. 227 The power arising from the actual cultivation of the soil and the establishment of fixed habitations in a coun- try is so irresistible and unsparing, that it must eventu- ally triumph over all obstacles, and resist even the de- structive consequences of wars. This is the reason why the British colonies in America prospered so rapidly, and finally finished by swallowing up Canada. The military force of the French settlements was vastly superior to that of the English ; their lines of fortification extended from the mouth of the Mississippi to the river St. Law- rence ; but they had no possession of the intervening territory by virtue of actual settlements, and the result soon convinced them that where the most property is ac- cumulated, there also will be the strongest means of de- fence ; on that side, consequently, must eventually incline the victory. But if the policy of the Anglo-Americans was sufficient to destroy so powerful a rival as the French, what can be expected from the unconcerted ill-advised resistance or attack of the aborigines, unskilled in milita- ry tactics, and not sufficiently strong, on any one point, to offer a serious impediment to tlie grasping power of the settlers ? Neither is it reasonable to suppose that the quitting of their favorite hunting-grounds can give the American Indians the same pangs which an everlasting farewell to the paternal soil, the scene of all early attachments, and the habitation of all that we love, fraught with the memo- ry and tradition of centuries, can cause to a civilised nation. The Indians quit what never was precisely their own ; they leave no object of memory or tradition be- hind ; and, although the loss may be felt by the tribe^ no individual is actually despoiled of his own. But it is the feelings of individuals which we must here consider; not that of the tribe or nation. A people cannot be said to feel the wrongs and pains inflicted upon it by another, except in proportion as the sufferings of the whole are felt and responded to by individuals. This, however, presupposes a degree of moral development, and a pitch of national enthusiasm, of which even history is sparing in furnishing us with examples, and of which certainly but few traces are to be found in the Indian character. Let no one mistake the hatred which the colored races 228 FERTILITY OF THE AMERICAN SOIL. bear to the whites, and to each other, for a strong love of country and an attachment to their native woods. Hatred of others is but a negative and barbarous quahfi- cation of nationahty, and is by no means a necessary concomitant of its positive virtues. The hatred between the different races is something animal and instinctive, and is far removed from the noble disinterestedness of genuine jiatriotism. Whatever color poetry may lend to the removal of the Indians, it is, nevertheless, but the re- moval of a sick bed from a place where death is certain, to one from which it is more remote. Neither is it the death of youth or of manhood, but that of old age and decrepitude, which the Indian is doomed to die ; and in his mouldering ashes germinates the seed of empires, destined to change the face of the world. This is but ap- plying the universal law of nature to man : there is no life without death to precede it ; no seed without destroy- ing the blossom ; no offspring without destruction to its genitors. One nation must perish to make room for another; and it is the peculiar good fortune of America that she can suffer these revolutions to go on without a feverish excitement of her vitals, or hurrying the succes- sion of events by the horror and bloodshed of war.* But the west would not be so rapidly settled if the cul- tivation of the soil did not promise a task rewarded with comfort and independence. There can hardly be a doubt of the fact, that the soil of the valley of the Mississippi is the richest and most fertile on earth; and that, producing every thing which is necessary to the existence and com- fort of man, it is intended to become the habitation of hundreds of millions.f Alexander von Humboldt gave it as his opinion, that America is the most fertile quarter of the world ; and it has since been computed that the whole population of Europe could find ample room and subsistence on the borders of the Mississippi alone. The whole population of the five great continents has * What is termed " the Indian war," is nothing but a succession of skirmishes with a few of the neighboring tribes ; and is only protracted because it is deemed too insignificant to warrant a general armament on the part of the United States. The case is very different with the French colony of Algiers. t Compare De Tocqueville " De la Democratic en Amerique." ADVANTAGES OF POSITION. 229 been estimated at about one thousand millions; but what important change may we not expect in the condition of the human race, when we know that there exists a con- federacy of republics capable of sustaining, with a greater degree of ease than was ever before shared by any por- tion of the human family, a population»surpassing that of the entire globe 1 There is no country or tract of land on earth whose physical and geographical position are so well adapted to agriculture and commerce as that part of the American continent which composes the territory of the United States. Like China, America may be said to be independent of the rest of the world; inasmuch as she is capable of producing, not only what is essential to human existence, but also the luxuries inseparable from a certain degree of refinement. Her territory embraces every climate, from the extreme north to the further- most south, and every species of vegetation intended for manufacture and commerce. But the faciUty of river communication, and the internal navigation of the United States, have no equal on earth, and may be considered the most durable cement by which the various states are united. There is hardly a settlement in the Union which has not more or less the means of communicating with some market town or city, and, therefore, not only the elements of prosperity in its domestic arrangements, but also the hope of obtaining the value of its produce, and thereby to become rich and independent. What is even the situation of China with regard to the commerce of the world, compared to that of the United States, when they will once be settled and extend from one ocean to the other? The largest empire, Russia, would require the Swedish peninsula, in order to hold a position at all to be compared to it ; and even then, the extent of intervening country, the difficulty of communication, and the extreme northern latitude of her possessions, would deprive her of its principal advantages. A single glance at the map of the United States, and a slight acquaintance with the people who inhabit them, are sufficient to convince even the stoutest unbeliever that America is destined to become the first in agriculture, the first in commerce, and the first in manufacture of all countries in the world. It will touch the extreme east and west of the remaining 20 530 EMIGRATION TO AMERICA. continents, and possess equal facilities of trade with the East and West Indies. It must become the centre of civilization ; and, from its equal proximity to both Asia and Europe, exercise a most powerful political influence on all nations of the globe. Europeans learn with aston- ishment the rapid progress of civilization and power in America; but all she has done to this moment is but a feeble prelude to the gigantic part which she is destined to perform in the universal drama of the world. Already a most uncommon spectacle presents itself. Emigration to America is no longer confined to those parts of Europe which are over-peopled, (Wurtemberg and Ireland,) but comm unicates itself also to the less populated parts of Germany and France. Large num- bers of the inhabitants of Old Bavaria and of the French province of Alsace are annually wandering to the United States ; and so inviting are the letters of those who are already settled, to their friends and relations in Europe, that some of the German governments have already been obliged to make provisions to arrest the depopulation of their country by law, and to enjoin the civil and military authorities to use their utmost influence to prevent emi- gration in the future. Neither is it only the lower and destitute classes who are daily embarking for the United States. On the contrary, the obstacles thrown in their way are such that only those who have property are able to receive their passports. There is now a law in Wur- temberg which obliges every subject, desirous of emigrat- ing to America, to deposite the sum of 300 florins (640 francs) with the civil authorities of Stutgard, which sum is only remitted to him at the seaport of his embarkation. Thus every German emigrant, from that part of the country, must not only be able to provide for his journey to the seaport, but must also have a sum of 640 francs to spare, which is sufficient lo pay his passage, and leave& him, on his arrival in America, with sufficient funds to proceed to the west. Much, indeed, has been said in America on the subject of foreign paupers ; though it would be easy to prove, by the registers of emigration in Germany, that the emigrants from that country pay an- nually more than two hundred thousand dollars for their passage, independent of the money and goods which they carry to the United States. ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS. 231 And now, be the merits of this work what they may, I still flatter myself with the hope of seeing it translated into German ; and as it will probably be read by many who will feel disposed to change the old for the new world, I will say a few words to these emigrants, equally applica- ble to those from other countries. Let no one go to America merely on speculation ; but at once with the resolute determination of making it his home. Let him not expect to lead a life of comparative idleness ; but, on the contrary, one of hard work and persevering industry, if he wishes to realise the fruits of his labor, and to become independent of the assistance of others. Let him remember that he is going to settle amongst the most industrious people on earth, whose con- stitution and government protect him, it is true, in the unmolested posession of property ; but that he himself must be the principal artificer of his fortune ; and that nothing hut personal exertion will ensure his ultimate suc- cess. Let him come unencumbered with farming utensils, machines, &-c., which will only increase the expenses of his journey, without being of any real use in practice. Most of them he will be able to buy, in the United States, not only cheaper and of better quality, but also better adapted to the general use in the country. Many emi- grants are in a habit of bringing ploughs, waggons, &c. to America, without reflecting, for one moment, that the expenses of transportation amount to more than their actual value ; and that it is more than probable that these implements may prove entirely useless or unmanageable in a different soil or on a difl^erent road.* Again, let them abstain from all mercantile speculations, of which they often know Httle or nothing, and which can never succeed, unless they are thoroughly acquainted with the state of the market. Let them remember, that, once out of money, they must sell their merchandise for what they will bring, not for what they are worth ; that commerce requires capital and credit, and that without them they must necessarily become the tool of every trader and pedlar whom they may meet on their way. * This is, to my knowledge, the case with several European farming Wtensils. 232 ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS. On their arrival in the United States let them not re- main too long in the Atlantic cities. Every day they stay there without occupation, is lost to their enterprise, and diminishes their funds. Let them rather begin humbly in the country, by working on farms, than become servants in the towns, or commence business immediately on their own account. If there are several members of a family, let only those remain in the cities who have learned a particular trade, or who may expect immediate employ- ment: but it is far better for a whole family to move at once to the west, where they may find occupation much more suitable to their habits than they can hope to find on the sea-coast, where a too sudden transition from rural life to the refinement of the towns may prove destructive to their morals. Let them bear in mind, that in the cities, though individuals may prosper, they will hardly be able to raise themselves to an equality with the native inhabitants; whereas in the country, and especially on new land, they must, by persevering industry, become as respectable and powerful as the rest of their fellow-citi- zens. In the country they will enjoy an hundred indul- gences of which they must necessarily be deprived in the cities. They will there be allowed to follow their own inclinations and habits, which they must never expect in a large city, in which they must necessarily conform to the manners and customs of the majority. Let them, above all things, abstain from politics, before they have had time to study the institutions of the coun- try, and to know the government under which they are going to live. A too hasty adoption of principles, before they have thoroughly weighed them, may be fatal to their own influence, and interfere with their prospects in life. It is the duty of every European settler to make himself acquainted with American laws and manners, in order to judge for himself to what party he is to lend his sup- port. The Germans especially ought to show more zeal in acquiring the English language, without which it is impossible to understand the true meaning of a thousand things with which it is important they should be rendered familiar. The American papers contain infinitely more information than any of the German ones I have seen ; which, with but few exceptions, contain nothing but AMERICAN SYSTEM OF FARMING. 233 mutilated extracts from the daily American press, in a language of which it is difficult to say whether it is less German or English. I have said before, that in order to succeed in any one undertaking, but especially in farming, it is necessary that the proprietor should work himself, and not merely be an idle spectator or employer of the labor of others. I will now add, that without personal exertion on his part, he will not only be unable Xo advance, but absolutely fail and be ruined. America, (thanks to her institutions and the infinite resources of the soil,) is not yet a country for a gentleman farmer; a circumstance which has been much regretted by Mr. Hamilton, but which is the cause of much rejoicing to every unbiassed and intelligent in- habitant of the United States. An American prefers cul- tivating the smallest patch of his own, to working on the largest farm of his neighbor, and rather emigrates further to the west, than consent to become, in any manner or degree, dependent on his fellow-beings. The Germans who are found willing to hire themselves out on an estate are seldom content to serve for wages, but wish to be paid in land or produce, and become thus partners, instead of servants to their employers. "But America," says Mr. Hamilton, "is not the place for a gentleman farmer. The price of labor is high, and, besides, it cannot always be commanded at any price. The condition of society is not yet ripe for farming on a great scale. (!) There will probably be no American Mr. Coke for some centuries to come. The Transatlan- tic Sir John Sinclairs are yet in ovo, and a long period of incubation must intervene before we can expect them to crack the shell." What a beautiful metaphor ! It is to be hoped they will never be hatched. "As things at present stand," continues he, " small farmers could beat the great ones out of the field. What a man produces by his ow nlabor and that of his family, he produces cheaply ; what he is compelled to hire others to perform, is done expensively. It is always the interest of the lat- ter to get as much as he can, and give as little labor in exchange for it." Why does he not say, in few words, a man works harder for himself than for others ? " Then arises the necessity of bailifi*s and overseers ; fresh mouths 20* 234 AMERICAN SYSTEM OF FARMING. to feed and pockets to be filled ; and the owner may con- sider himself fortunate, if these are content with devour- ing the profits, without swallowing the estate into the bargain." "When the condition of society in America will "be ripe" for the English system of farming, then the pro- gress and prosperity of the United States will be on the decline. What is the farming system in England but a sort of tail to the feudal system, which, though it may have its advantages to the proprietors where it is once established, cannot benefit a country where it is to be newly introduced. And what is the Irish system of " tenants at will " but one of the many melancholy forms under which the misery of her people is entailed from one generation on another? It is not the unfortunate state of society which, in America, diminishes the number of gentleman farmers; it is the unexampled jorospenV?/ of the country, and the distribution of wealth throughout the whole population, which raises them at once above the condition of servitude. Whoever emigrates westward, goes thither on his own account ; for, if he be an honest man, he can buy land on credit, or for a trifling amount of cash ; and under such circumstances it is not to be supposed he will hire himself out to others. The present condition of the United States is such that but few are exempted from labor, and even these are not proud of their distinction. No disgrace attaches to industry, nor does the term "gentleman" necessarily imply a man who has nothing to do. Large real estates neither contribute to the general prosperity of a country, nor are they very congenial with liberal institutions. The present prosperity of France and of some of the minor states of Germany is universally allowed to be produced by the division of property; and where such a division can be eftected in the outset, with- out injustice to any one class of society, it would be ab- surd and criminal not to promote it. No hired laborer can be expected to do as well as he who works for him- self; and it is therefore the interest of the country at large to have as many proprietors as possible. The greatest quantity of labor will be produced by the greatest number of persons interested in it ; and the greatest AMERICAN SYSTEM OP FARMING. 235 profits realised where they are obtained with little assist- ance from others. These truths are so generally under- stood, that even at the late diets of Hungary and Transyl- vania, the lower nobility* wished to change the law of expropriation of the peasantry, by allowing them to possess freehold estates by the same tenure as them- selves; "because," they observed, "our property when divided will be worth more than it is entire, and we shall sell the fragments for more than the whole." Now, while the policy of such an arrangement is acknowledged in all civilised parts of the world, while even the nobility of Hungary and Transylvania are willing to try so wise and salutary a measure, is it not strange that so enlight- ened an author as Mr. Hamilton, in so enlightened an age as ours, should publish, in "the most enliglitened country of the world," a work in which he derides the American system of independent farming? Of what immense advantage is not the division of property in a country like the United States? Is it not, in a degree, necessary to the continuance of its republican institu- tions? Does the greater number of proprietors not in- crease the number of those who have a direct stake in the government ? Is not independence of suffrage best secured by independence of properly? There are, as- suredly, proprietors of large tracts of uncultivated land ; but no sooner are settlements made upon them, than they are portioned out in little lots, and cultivated by men of small fortunes. This is, indeed, one of the means of realising fortunes out of real estates. Land, in America, is treated like any other kind of merchandise ; it is bought in large quantities, and retailed in small lots. Without this policy the population would not have in- creased so rapidly during the last twenty or thirty years, and many of the western farms, which are now in a thriving condition, would yet be as uncultivated as the borders of the Pacific. Nothing but the love of inde- pendence could induce those sturdy settlers to make the wilderness their home. If they wished to consult their * The Hungarian diet is composed of two chambers, the magnates and the nobles, or the lower and higher nobility. Each free town counts as one nobleman in the lower chamber. No person can possess real estate, except a nobleman or a citizen of a free town. 236 AMERICAN SERVANTS. ease, they might become servants in the cities or cultivat- ed districts ; for they have no chance of finding it in the western woods. The willingness of the rich to work, and the disposition of the poor to prefer hard independent labor to easy, well-paid servitude, are the principal causes of the increasing prosperity of the United States. The unwillingness of the poorer classes of Americans to hire themselves out as servants, and the little satisfac- tion with their lot when circumstances compel them to do it, furiiish a subject of incessant complaint with the wealthier, and more aristocratic families. The theme is too fertile for European tourists not to profit by it, and, accordingly, their works are adorned with copious de- scriptions of the ludicrous pretensions of American ser- vants. I admit at once that there are but few native Americans who would submit to the degradation of wear- ing a livery, or any other badge of servitude. This they would call becoming a man's man. But, on the other hand, there are also but few American gentlemen who would feel any happier for their servants wearing coats of more than one color. The inhabitants of New Eng- land are quite as willing to call their servants " helps," or " domestics," as the latter repudiate the title of *' master " in their employers; and as it is a matter of agreement between them, I do not see that either party is actually injured. It is true, an American servant will not suffer the treat- ment of a liveried vagabond ; but then it is the meanest gratification to be permitted to treat a fellow-being with contempt. Neither is an American servant that same indolent, careless, besotted being as an European. He knows how to read and write, and is sure to understand arithmetic ; he takes an interest in politics, reads the pa- pers, and attends public meetings and lectures. He is a member of the militia, pays poll-tax, and is entitled to vote.* His mind is constantly engaged in making plans for the future ; and, far from being content to remain all his life a servant, he is earnestly contemplating his chance * I heard, myself, an American servant tell of the gentlemann "he lived with," that he liked him very icell ; but ahoays crossed him in poli- tics. His master knew this ; but kept him in his employ, because he was, in every other respect, a trustworthy servant. AMEKICAN BEKVAJNTS. 237 of success in some trade. No sooner has he earned a few dollars than he sets up a shop; and there are many of them who finish by becoming respectable merchants. With these hopes before him, it could not be expected that he would always be a ready, cringing sycophant; but it does not follow that he must necessarily be unwilling to do his duty, or to accomplish that which he has agreed to do with promptitude and cheerfulness. I am quite con- vinced that American servants work harder, and quicker than even the English; and that, from their greaterintel- ligence, they are, on the whole, the most useful. An American gentleman has seldom more than one man-servant, who is at once porter, footman, bottler, and, if necessary, coachman to the family. He cleans the boots, brushes the clothes, washes the windows, cleans the house, waits at table, goes to market, keeps the reck- oning, and is, in one word, the factotum o^ XhQ household. He does that which it would at least take six others to ac- complish, and, notwithstanding his high wages, proves a cheaper servant than could be obtained in Europe. He is always at home, always busy, and hardly overspending his leisure hours at a public-house. So far from being unable io procure good servants in America, the only dif- ficulty consists in keeping them ; there being but ^ew amongst them w hose capacity for trade will suffer them to remain satisfied with what they think an inferior con- dition. As to female servants, ^ew complaints, I believe, are made of their want of fidelity or submission, though they require a treatment very different from that to which the same class are accustomed in Europe. Despite of Mrs. Trollope's masterly sketches of American domestics, she could find nothing to impeach either their honesty or mo- rality ; (which, no doubt, the fair author would have been glad to do if it had been in her power ; ) and one instance, in particular, which she gives of the pride of a young girl, in her own service, who would rather starve than eat in the kitchen, and whom she always found obedient yet bathed in tears, exhibits a nobility of sentiment, of which certainly not a trace is to be found in her lady's writings. The waiting-women at the inns and taverns are possess- ed of a peculiar dignity of demeanor, which effectually 238 RELATION OF THE RICH TO THK POOR. prevents every improper approach, on the part of the vis- iters, and, being generally tolerably well educated, it is easy to perceive at once, that they are in many respects vastly superior to some of the sots whom they are obliged "to help." The superiority of the women over the men, which is everywhere perceptible in the United States, ex- tends equally to the servants ; and it is, consequently, a rare case for one of these fair " helps " to marry a fellow- domestic. They are generally joined in wedlock to some respectable mechanic; and, acquiring property by frugal- ity and industry, finish by taking the stations of their for- mer employers. Much has been said on the relative position of the rich and poor, by men who enjoy great reputation as scholars and statesmen. Yet I believe their arguments are more founded on theories and analogies, than on actual obser- vation of the different classes of society in the United States. There is no distinct line of demarcation between the rich and the poor, as in Europe ; the deserters from both ranks, but especially from the latter, being more nu- merous than those who remain ; and the number of new comers putting computation altogether out of the ques- tion. Neither is there that envy amongst the laboring classes which characterizes the ^^ canaille'" of Europe, and manifests itself by an indiscriminate hatred of all whose fortunes are superior to their own. Exemption from labor, the beau ideal of the French and Italians, is not even desired by the industrious population of America ; and the poor, are willing to protect the possessions of the rich, because they expect themselves to need that protec- tion at some future period. In all the hues and cries against the bank, there was not the least manifestation of a desire to despoil the rich of their property : all that the people contended for was, in their opinion, an equal chance for acquiring it. They wished to put down that which they deemed a monopoly and an impediment to the progress of the small merchant; but never dreamed of plunder. This question has been sadly misrepresented in Europe, and accompanied by pictures of the cupidity of the lower classes, to which it would be difficult to find the originals in the United States of America, CHAPTER IX. COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. SYSTEM OF CREDIT, AMERICAN CAPITALISTS. BANKS. MANUFACTURES.— MECHANIC ARTS. — WAGES AND HOURS OF LABOR. IN- GENUITY OF AMERICANS. NAVIGATION. SAILORS. THE FISHERIES. SHIP-BUILDING. Descended from the first maritime nation, and invited by a sea-coast of more than sixteen hundred miles, pos- sessed of the most excellent harbors, the Americans need but follow their natural impulse, and improve the advan- tages of their geographical position, in order to become the most powerful commercial nation on the globe. The water is the native element of the Transatlantic republi- can ; and it is upon the ocean he appears truly great and heroic. Even the navigation of the American lakes and the great western rivers presents a spectacle unequalled in any other part of the world. In no other country is so large a portion of the whole population engaged in navigation — in none other is the water treated with the same familiarity as the land. The Americans are the most amphibious bipeds on the face of the earth ; and such is the abundance of water communication in the in- terior, that a man will hardly call on his next neighbor without embarking on board of some steam-boat. With the unparalleled spirit of enterprise, and the mer- cantile genius of her inhabitants, it is impossible that Amer- ica should not develope all the mighty resources vi^hich a country, whose shores are bathed by two oceans, and whose interior is intersected by a thousand mighty streams, must naturally offer to its merchants and seamen. At the 240 MERCANTILE NAVY. present time, at which probably not more than the one- hundredth part of the facihties of navigation are improv- ed, the mercantile navy of America is but second to that of England ; but in skill, energy, and boldness inferior to none in the world. Compared to the entire population, the number of her ships and mariners is greater than that of any existing nation, and forms a broad and noble basis for her future maritime power. It is the merchant's service from which the navy is recruited, and without which it is impossible to educate sailors for the use of men-of-war. The naval power of every people has in- creased with its commerce, and, in the event of a war, the question is not so much how many ships she could muster in her docks, but rather how many she could man and navigate. The American navy is perhaps the smallest whichever protected so extensive a commerce; but, in case of need, the United States could, in one year, build as many vessels, and man tliem, as any other nation, save England, could get ready for sea. The materials for ship-building are cheap, the skilful workmen numerous, and experienced sailors to be found in every harbor. The history of the American flotillas on tiie lakes, and the achievements of their frigates on the ocean, prove suffi- ciently the celerity and energy which they are capable of developing on important occasions, and that, notwith- standing the small number of government ships, America must be ranked amongst the first maritime powers. It is the commerce of the United States which not only furnishes a market for the increasing manufactures and the immense natural productions of the soil, but consti- tutes also the right arm and strength of the national de- fence of the country. It is not merely an accessory to the arts of civilization ; it is not resorted to merely as a means of obtaining riches; it is a /ia^/ona/ occupation, im- bued with all the spirit and energy of character which dis- tinguish the American community. An American merchant is an enthusiast who seems to delight in enterprise in proportion as it is connected with danger. He ventures his fortune with the same heroism with which the sailor risks his life ; and is as ready to embark on a new speculation after the failure of a favor- ite project, as the mariner is to navigate a new ship, after ENTERPRISE OP THE MERCHANTS. 241 his own has become a wreck. An American carries the spirit of invention even to the counting-room. He is con- stantly discovering some new sources of trade, and is always wilUng to risk his capital and credit on some terra incognita, rather than follow the beaten track of others, and content himself with such profits as are realised by his competitors. This is undoubtedly the cause of a great number of unfortunate speculations and subsequent fail- ures ; but it constitutes also the technical superiority of the American merchant over the European. He is an inventor, not an imitator ; he creates new sources of wealth instead of merely exhausting the old ones. Hence his vigilance and application. The ordinary routine of busi- ness is not sufficient to ensure his success; he must think, invent, speculate ; for it is more by ingenuity and fore- sight, than by the regular pursuit of trade, that he can hope to realise a fortune. None of the present French or Dutch fashions of trade, would now prosper in the United States. Fortunes there are not made by small savings, but by large and successful operations. It is not by small savings, but by large and successful operations. It is not by hoarding money, but by employing and in- vesting it, that property accumulates in America ; and the inexhaustible riches of the country open daily a thou- sand new roads to industry and commerce. The majority of Americans are, perhaps, not as good financiers as the Dutch, but they are more enterprising and successful merchants ; they are willing to run greater risks, in order to secure larger profits ; and it may be said of them that their minds expand in proportion to their stakes in trade. What, after all, can be more despicable than the charac- ter of a miser such as Holland teemed with since the de- cline of her active commerce, when, with the largest cap- ital in the world, her merchants became money-lenders, and the creditors of all Europe 1 What difference is there not between some of those hairgard-looking, dirty, usu- rious financiers, and an active, liberal-minded, enter- prising merchant, the support of an hundred small traders and mechanics, whom he trusts or employs in the various ramifications of business. Let anyone compare the pres- ent population of Amsterdam to that of New York. The 21 245 MERCHANTS OF NEW YORK. aspect of the one is gloomy, contracted, sordid — that of the other all gaiety, frankness, and liberality. Except to a man of business, a residence at Amsterdam is wholly devoid of interest. Everywhere he meets the same greedy pursuit of money ; the same avaricious abstinence from all which contributes to pleasure. Even the ordinary conveniences and comforts of life are enjoyed only by a few of the oldest and richest families; the rest lead a life of privation. How very unlike this is the picture of New York ! Every thing there bears the aspect of ease and cheerfulness. The streets are wide and airy, the houses of the wealthier classes are decorated with taste, and the whole population bears the impress of opulence and pros- perity. In spite of the hurry and bustle of business during the day, the evenings of many of the wealthy families are devoted to social intercourse, and their doors are open to the reception of friends. No one can accuse the Ameri- can merchant with want of hospitality. He is liberal and generous in his dealings, affable and obliging in his inter- course with strangers, a sincere friend, and a calm re- flecting politician. The extent of his speculations pre- pares bis mind for sudden success or ill fortune, and he is able to sustain losses with a degree of fortitude and equan- imity which is utterly beyond the comprehension of ordi- nary men of business in other countries. His mind be- comes enlarged by the extent of his enterprise, and be- comes naturally superior to the niggard calculator of groats. There seems to be something ungenerous in the mere business of a money-broker, charging his one quarter or one half per cent, commission, and hoarding a fortune by the small droppings from the estates of those who are ac- tively engaged in commerce. One of the meanest occu- pations of men is the mere computation of numbers; but It may become destructive to the noblest faculties of the mind, when these numbers represent nothing but money. The first of all th.e sciences, mathcMiatics, when uncon- nected with philosophy, may serve to enslave the njind and deprive it of imagination and fancy. Even the as- tronomer, who is solely confined to his ciphers, without seeing in them the laws and type of his God, degenerates into a mechanical book-keeper of the universe, without CHARACTER OF AMERICAN MERCHANTS. 243 having an interest in its noblest transactions. The busi- ness of trading and jobbing in stocks is not only mean in itself, but may in many instances prove a serious injury to commerce. It may absorb a large portion of the capi- tal which would otherwise be invested in merchandise, and give a wrong direction to the national industry of a country. The merchant must needs be influenced by the fluctuations of exchange, and must provide against them; but it is the gambler alone makes a living by them. It has been observed, in all countries, that in propor- tion as active commerce declines, in that same proportion opens the game for the agioteurs on 'change ; and there is no more certain mark of spreading demoralization than to see the people at large take an active part in it. It is then sure to dry up the fountains of wealth and virtue, and to convert thousands of industrious men into so many vagabonds and beggars. Very remarkable, and not devoid of historical interest, is the comparison between the rise and progress of com- merce in Holland, and the equally rapid success of trade in the United States of America. There are so many points of resemblance in the histories of both countries, so many similar causes which stimulated their inhabitants to exertion and prompted their ingenuity, that I cannot refrain from directing the attention of my readers to some of the principal facts w^hich became the elements of their respective greatness. In speaking of the commerce of the United States, it must be remembered, however, that during the war of independence, and immediately after it, trade and traffic were principally confined to the New England states — neither the south, nor Pennsylvania, nor even New York, being, at that time, possessed of a con- siderable mercantile navy, or participating largely in commercial enterprise. What, therefore, I have to say of the origin of American commerce, will apply, princi- pally, to the New England States, though its progress, of course, refers equally, and even more, to New York than to any other state in the Union. Three principal causes there were to rouse the activity of the Dutch, and develope those mighty energies for which they have long been distinguished ; the utter insufficiency of the soil to minister to their physical wants, the neces- 244 HISTORY OF sity of protecting themselves against the fury of the ele- ment which continually threatened to ingulf them, and their long-protracted struggle for political and rehgious freedom against the then greatest power of Europe. The physical obstacles which they had to overcome whetted their ingenuity and directed their enterprise to commerce and the fisheries ; while the war with Spain, and their being exchided from the Portuguese ports, obhged them to seek the trade in Indian commodities at its source in the East and West Indies. The New England states were similarly circumstanced. Their soil, especially that of the province of Massachusetts Bay, was generally bar- ren and rocky, and obliged the settlers, at an early period of their history, to resort to other means of subsistence than mere agriculture. The sea they had less to dread ; but the severity of the climate, the merciless hatchet of the Indian, and their remoteness from the centre of civil- ization and from succor, taught them to rely principally on their own strength and industry. The continued wars with the aborigines, their defence against the incessant encroachments of ^the French, and, finally, their struggle for independence with England, were well calculated to develope all the energies of which they were possessed, and to direct their early attention to the establishment of a powerful navy. The fisheries had become not only a means of sup- plying their wants, but a source of national wealth ; as the herring-fisheries had at one time been the source of prosperity to Holland. During the war with Spain, the Dutch made immense prizes by the capture of Spanish vessels on the coast of America and in the West Indies, which enabled them, in part, to defray the expenses of the war. The Americans had to proceed to the coast of Africa for the very powder which they required to carry- on the revolutionary war, while their privateers were scouring even the coasts of Europe, to annoy British trade at its strong hold, at home. All nations seem to grow powerful in proportion as their early existence is threatened by some mighty foe. Rome grew strong in its wars with Carthage ; Holjand became the first maritime republic by its struggle against the greatest monarchy ; America accomplished her indepen- AMERICAN COMMERCE. 245 dence by challenging into the field the most enterprising nation on the globe. The first war with England laid the foundation to the American navy ; and as it was the most powerful nation they had to contend with, they had no other alternative than either to become great themselves, by surpassing every moral and physical obstacle to their progress, or be conquered and swallowed up by their su- perior antagonist, A series of circumstances combined to make them accomplish the former ; and they have since kept possession of the ground they have assumed, and even succeeded in enlarging it. Th9 Americans must either have become equal to the English^ in navigation, or forever resign the thought of becoming a commercial nation ; and confine themselves chiefly to agriculture. England possessed immense ad- vantages over America by her possessions in the East and West Indies, and the geographical position of her North American colonies, from which she might have checked the growing trade of the United States. The Dutch conquered a portion of the Spanish colonies, and established themselves in Uae East Indies on the ruin of the Spanish influence. The Americans could not hope to reap any such signal advantages over any European colony established in the East ; and had, therefore, no other means of competing with their European rivals than those which were furnished by the skill of their navigators, and the enterprise and ingenuity of their mer- chants. The Americans had to purchase commodities from the European settlements in the East and West Indies in order to sell them again to European nations at a less price than they were sold by the merchants of those countries. They had, therefore, to employ all their sagacity in trade to compete with them. They had to make shorter passages, navigate their ships at a less rate, and content themselves with smaller profits. But it was even the disadvantages under which they labored which developed their commercial energies ; and without a single possession in the East and West Indies, they have now more private ships engaged in the India trade than any European nation, save England. The number of American ships trading to the Dutch settlements in the East Indies was, more than ten years ago, already supe- 21* 246 HISTORY OP rior to that of all the ships employed by the Dutch East India Company, and they have since wrested from Hol- land a large portion of her trade to Russia and all the ports of the Baltic. But if the commercial importance of the United States was ,in the outset, favored by circumstances similar to those which promoted the trade and navigation of the Dutch; if, in the course of their progress, the Americans were powerfully assisted by the long wars between France and England, acting on their commerce, as the civil wars of France and Germany acted on the prosperity of Holland, they were equally fortunate in avoiding most of the evils with which the commerce of Holland was incumbered even during its most flourishing period, and which, ultimately brought on its rapid decline. Some of these were inseparable from the political and geo- graphical position of Holland ; the rest were owing to misgovernment. To the former we must reckon the op- pressive taxation, which was rendered unavoidable by the long war with Spain, and subsequently with France, and the struggle of the renublic for supremacy with the growing power of Englaffl ; to the latter belong the in- troduction of monopolies, the excessive accumulation of capital, and the consequently reduced profits in trade, and the introduction of the financiering system by which the Dutch became the money-lenders of Europe. But to understand this subject properly, and, at the same time, to be enabled to draw a correct inference from it with regard to the future prospects of America, I must be pardoned for alluding to a work with which the English are already familiar through the pages of the Edinburgh Review ;* but which sheds too great alight on the history of commerce of all nations, and especially on that of the United States, not to be once more intro- duced to the attention of British readers. I would refer to the " Reclierches sur le Commerce de la HoUande,^^ pub- lished at Amsterdam in 182J!^. From an attentive perusal of the work, and a proper comparison of the history of Dutch commerce with that of the United States, the con- viction will be irresistible that political and religious free- *Ju]y, 1830. AMERICAN COMMERCE. 247 dom were the two most prominent moral causes which promoted the trade of both nations, and that every at- tempt to circumscribe that freedom either by the estab- lishment of monopolies or any other prohibitive system, must arrest the progress of commerce, and become an impediment to industry. There can be no stronger ar- gument in favor of this proposition than the answer of the Dutch merchants themselves to the queries addressed to them by the Stadtholder William IV.,— Why the trade of Holland had been rapidly declining, and hy what means it was to he re-established and placed on its ancient footing ? In replying to these questions the merchants were obliged to enter fully on the moral and physical causes which co- operated to raise Holland to her former proud eminence, as also on the reasons which led to her gradual decline. Their arguments were all based upon facts, and are the more entitled to credit as they proceeded from practi- cal men, who had themselves experienced either the benefits or the disadvantages of the various systems of Dutch policy. They may therefore be supposed to con- tain a valuable lesson for all trading communities, and particularly for the prosperous Americans, I shall here repeat their statements, in order to apply them to the history of commerce in the United States. The causes which favored the trade of Holland are divided into three classes, viz. the natural and physical, the moral and political, and the adventitious and ex- ternal. „ I. The natural and physical causes are the ad- vantages of the situation of the country, on the sea and at the mouth of considerable rivers; its situation between the northern and southern parts, which, by being in a manner the centre of all Europe, made the republic be- come the general market, where the merchants on both sides used to bring their superfluous commodities, in order to barter and exchange the same for other goods they wanted. ,, Nor have the barrenness of the country, and the necessities of the natives arising from that cause, less contributed to set them upon exerting all their applica- tion, industry, and utmost stretch of genius, to fetch from foreign countries what they stand in need of in their own, and support themselves by trade. 248 HISTORY OF "The abundance of fish in the neighboring seas put them in a condition not only to supply their own occa- sions, but, with the overplus, to carry on a trade with foreigners, and out of the produce of the fishery to find an equivalent for what they wanted, through the sterility and narrow boundaries and extent of their own countr}^ "II. Among the moral and political causes are to be placed the unalterable maxim and fundamental law rela- ting to the free exercise of different religions ; and al- ways to consider this toleration and connivance as the most effectual means to draw^ foreigners from adjacent countries to settle and reside here, and so become instru- mental to the peopling of these provinces. " The constant policy of the republic to make this country a perpetual, safe and secure asylum for all per- secuted and op{)ressed strangers, — ^no alliance, no treaty, no regard for, or solicitation of any potentate whatever, has, at any time, been able to weaken or destroy this law, or make the state recede from protecting those who fled to it for their own security and self-preservation. "Throughout the whole course of all the persecutions and oppressions that have occurred in other countries, the steady adherence of the republic to this fundamental law, has been the cause that many people have not only fled hither for refuge with their whole stock in ready cash, and their most valuable effects, but have also set- tled and established many trades, fabrics, manufactories, arts, and sciences, in this country, notwithstanding the first materials for the said fabrics and manufactories were almost wholly wanting in it, and not to be procured but at a great expense from foreign parts. "The constitution of our form of government, and the liberty thus accruing to the citizen, are further reasons to which the growth of trade, and its establishment in the republic may fairly be ascribed ; and all her policy and laws are put upon such an equitable footing, that neither life, estates, or dignities depend upon the caprice or ar- bitrary power of any single individual ; nor is there any room for any person, who, by care, frugality, and dili- gence, has once acquired an affluent fortune or estate, to fear a deprivation of them by any act of violence, oppres- sion or injustice. AMERICAN COMMERCE. 249 " The administration of justice in the country has, in like manner, always been clear and impartial, and with- out distinction of superior and inferior rank — whether the parties have been rich or poor, or were this a foreigner and that a native ; and it were greatly to be wished we could at this day boast of such impartial quickness and despatch in all our legal processes, considering how great an influence it has on trade. " To sum up all — amongst the moral and political causes of the former flourishing state of trade, may be, likewise, placed the wisdom and prudence of the administration ; the intrepid firmness of the councils; the faithfulness with which treaties and engagements were wont to be fulfilled and ratified ; and particularly the care and caution prac- tised to preserve tranquillity and peace, and to decline, in- stead of entering on a scene of war, merely to gratify the ambitious views of gaining fruitless or imaginary con- quests. " By these moral and political maxims were the glory and reputation of the republic so far spread, and foreign- ers animated to place so great a confidence in the steady determination of a state so wisely and prudently conduct- ed, that a concourse of them stocked this country with an augmentation of inhabitants and useful hands, whereby its trade and opulence were from time to time increased. " III. Amongst the adventitious and external causes of the rise and flourishing state of our trade may be reck- oned, — " That at the time when the best anji wisest maxims were adopted in the republic as the means of making trade flourish, they were neglected in almost all other countries ; and any one reading the history of those times, may easily discover that the persecution, on ac- count of religion throughout Spain, Brabant, Flanders, and many other states and kingdoms, have powerfully promoted the establishment of commerce in the republic. "To this happy result, and the settling of manfacturers in our country, the long continuance of the civil wars in France, which were afterwards carried on in Germany, England, and divers other parts, have also very much contributed. >' It must be added, in the last place, that during our 250 HISTORY OF most burdensome and heavy wars with Spain and Portu- gal, (however ruinous that period was for commerce, other- wise) these powers had both neglected tlieir iiavy ; whilst the navy of the republic, by a conduct directly the reverse, was at the same time formidable, and in a capacity not only to protect the trade of its own subjects, but to an- noy and crush that of their enemies in all quarters." Every word of section 1st and 2d is directly applica- ble to the history of the United States ; and a large por- tion of the adventitious causes which protected and fa- vored the commerce of Holland have equally found a parallel in the progress of trade in America. The cen- tral position of Holland with regard to Europe, is but the counterpart to the superior situation of the United States with regard to the rest of the American continent and the West Indies. The United States have become the mart of the whole South American and Mexican produce, while the city of New York has become the centre of the bullion trade in the world. They are, besides, the principal market for European manufactures, and export them again, or their own, to all other parts of the globe. The barrenness of the soil, which is stated as one of the causes which prompted the Dutch to industry and ap- plication, applies, it is true, but to a small portion of the United States, comprising a part of New England ; but then the New Englanders, as I have said before were the first merchants of America, and the rest of the inhabit- tants were, from the newness of their settlements, inca- pable of availing themselves of the advantages of the soil, and, with regard to manufactures, entirely depend- ent on Europe. The fisheries, therefore, were early re- sorted to as a means of support, and are yet a rich source of national wealth to the Americans. They have carried this branch of industry further than any other nation, and there are whole towns and districts in the United States employed by the whale fisheries alone. The moral and political causes which favored the growth of Dutch commerce are still more coinciding with those which operated in favor of the United States. The religious freedom and tolerance of America have been the cause of the settlement of whole states, as was, for instance, the case with the quakers in Pennsylvania, and AMERICAN COMMERCE. 251 the establishments of tlie puritans in New England. They were the immediate motive of emigration to America of thousands of Europeans from England, as well as the continent, and, more than any other, instrumental in peopling the country. In like manner have the United States offered "a safe, secure, and perpetual asylum " for all persecuted and oppressed strangers, and have, in this manner, added to their population, capital, manufactures, commerce, and arts and sciences. Nor has the constitu- tion of the United States been surpassed by any political instrument, in the degree of liberty and protection which it affords to the lives and properties of citizens. It gives equal rights to the rich and the poor, and administers justice independent of rank, titles or hereditary distinc- tions. The good faith which the Americans h.ave kept with all nations, their keeping aloof from European politics, and the care and caution with which they have always endeavored to preserve peace, whenever it could be done without injury to their national honor, have made European capitalists willing to entrust money and proper- ty to the rectitude and enterprise of Americans ; and at this moment an investment of capital in the United States is considered as safe, or safer, than any European invest- ment which can be made. With regard to the adventitious causes which have in- creased the commercial prosperity of the United States, it may equally be asserted that the erroneous course of legislation in other countries has acted as a premium on the ingenuity of the American merchants. The monopo- lies of the English and Dutch East India companies cre- ated the India and China trade of the United States; and though the late system of free bottomry must necessarily interfere with its further progress, itjs no longer able to crush it. The Americans have become experienced and skilful in the trade; they have enriched themselves by its profits, and have created the capital by which to carry it on. They haye procured themselves customers in every part of the world; and it will require a long and tedious opposition to drive them from the vantage-ground they have assumed. If the civil wars in France, Germany and England contributed largely to the mercantile greatness of Hoi- 252 HISTORY OF land, those of the French revolution gave the Americans almost a monopoly, and made them the carriers of all Europe. But if this was a fortunate circumstance, which gave them an opportunity of becoming skilled in naviga- tion and commerce, they have improved it to the utmost extent of their power ; and, by a system of unremitting industry and perseverance, have, since the establishment of peace, retained most of the advantages for which they are indebted to the war. This is the point of culmination of the whole history of American commerce, and here the history of Holland and the United States are at issue. After the universal peace of 1815 all nations were at liberty to pursue trade, and increase their mercantile nar vies as it suited their genius and circumstances. The com- petition of England and France, which proved so injuri- ous to Dutch commerce, after the peace of Aix la Cha- pelle, now threatened to annihilate the American. The United States possessed no colonies either in the East or West Indies; they had less capital than any of the princi- pal mercantile nations ; they were at a greater distance from the principal European marts, and they had to pay higher wages to their seamen. But, notwithstanding all these difficulties, the American shipping has since that period increased even more rapidly tlian before, and their ships are now generally preferred to those of all other nations. Two principal causes were assigned by the Dutch mer- chants for the serious decline of their trade : enormous taxation, and the competition of France and England. The former induced the merchants of other countries to export their superfluities in their own ships, to the coun- tries where they were needed, and to barter them for oth- er commodities, which they equally brought home in their own bottoms. By this means they avoided being taxed by the republic; and the latter lost its carrying trade, and ceased to be the mark of Europe. The immense internal resources of the United States, and the principle of rigid economy introduced into every branch of their government enable them to avoid a simi- lar calamity. The American commerce is as free from direct taxation as it is from monopolies ; and these are, probably, the principal reasons of its uninterrupted pro- AMERICAN COMMERCE. 253 gress, notwithstanding tiie increased competition of all Europe. The extortions and barbarities of the Dutch East India Company, its small capital, which did not ex- ceed 6,500,000 florins, or about 541,700/. sterling, and with which they monopolized a trade which might have employed millions of the sums the Dutch were then obliged to lend to other countries for want of some better invest- ment, and the infamous means by which they absorbed and diminished the spice-trade in the East Indies, were all instrumental in checking the progress of their trade, and were, in effect, a premium on the industry of other nations. The United States, on the contrary, laid it down as a maxim that trade, in order to prosper, must be free, and, therefore, granted tlie same privileges not only to all na- tive citizens, without distinction, but also to all foreigners who chose to settle, reside or trade, in any American city. By this means no particular kind of trade is made to ab- sorb an undue portion of the capital of the nation, or is embraced and cultivated to the detriment and neglect of other branches; and foreigners, from all parts of the "World, establishing themselves permanently in the United States, make them, in a measure, the central station of their commerce. But the progress of commerce in the United States gives rise to yet another consideration, which, at this mo- ment, is of universal interest. The question may arise whether the trade of America is increased or diminished by the want of colonies in the East and West Indies ; and whether such colonies, independent of the political advantages which they afford to the different nations of Europe, actually increase the profits of their merchants. Under the former system of trade, colonies unquestionably augmented the commercial prosperity of a nation. They were, in fact, considered as an investment of property in order to realise a greater per-cent-age on capital. Each nation guarding jealously the produce of its own colonies, with a view to establish a monopoly, success in trade, was, of course, in a great measure dependent on the possession of the most important maritime and commercial stations; and, accordingly, we have seen the nations of Europe at 22 254 PROGRESS OF war with each other for the possession of colonies in the East and West Indies. But the commerce of the world has since undergone an important change. The principle of free trade suc- ceeds rapidly to that of monopoly. The colonies them- selves have risen into importance ; and their trade, in- stead of being confined to the mother country, is open to the competition of foreigners. They have attained a political consequence, and their interests and commerce require a different policy from that which led to their es- tablishment. Etirope is no longer the only consumer of Indian commodities; a large portion of them being used in the United States and other parts of America, and much also being bartered for the produce of other colo- nies, or consumed at home. In proportion as the colonies become settled, a portion of the national wealth becomes permanently transferred to them, and is employed in en- riching them instead of the mother country. The money invested in plantations proves a drain on the capital of Europe ; and the interest of that money is again cliiefly invested in the colonies.* Neither does the traffic in their produce benefit exclusively, the merchants of the mother country; because other nations being at liberty to trade with the colonies on nearly the same terms, the planters naturally give the preference to those customers from whom they may, in return, receive those commodities at the cheapest rate, which they themselves stand most in need of By this means they have, to a certain extent, be- come commercially independent, and pursue now them- selves the trade, and realise the profits on it, for the ex- clusive advantage of which the nations of Europe were induced to establish them. Their interests are no longer identified with those of the mother country, and their riches are no longer a part of the national wealth. Mean- while the expenses of their governments increase with the extent of cultivated territory and the political con- sideration to which they become entitled by the number and possessions of their inhabitants. The mother country, " It must be observed, that these remarks apply principally to those colonies where the English have formed permanent settlements, and Avhich have attamed a powerful political consequence by the establis?i- ment of provincial assemblies. AMERICAN COMMERCE. 255 which bears a great part of these expenses, is obliged to concede to them every year new rights and privileges which render them still more independent, and give greater liberty to their commerce. Thus it may be said that in proportion as the colonies increase, the profits of the mother country diminish ; they become every year more expensive to the government, and a direct tax on the country which gave them birth; making but inade- quate and indirect returns by the facilities which they afford to its commerce, and imposing a heavy duty on many articles of European commerce, which must act as a premium on the trade of America. The Americans have no drawbacks, whether originat- ing in colonies or otherwise, on their commerce. They have not to expend large sums to favoi a particular branch of trade, and thereby tax all the rest ; they have not to create artificial interests which force a portion of the national wealth into an unnatural channel, or alienate it from home ; and they never have any considerable portion of their capital invested, without bearing them interest. .The profits realised in trade return directly home to their country, and there beget new wealth. America has no fixed possessions out of the United States, and has no other interests to protect than her own. Her merchants need not pursue any particular branch of trade longer tlian it is profitable, or yields greater returns than they can hope to realise from any other kind of industry. The American trade, therefore, is more free tlian that of any other nation; for it leaves the articles of commerce, the place of purchase, and the best mart of their sale entirely at the option of the dealers. It gives them the greatest latitude of speculation, and the largest field for enterprise. It is connected with the smallest taxation to the merchants and the community at large, and enables them to become general dealers^ without being obliged to become store-keepers^ in any particular part of the world. The expenses of trade are thus re- duced, and American merchants successfully compete with those of Europe, notwithstanding their apparently small profits, and the seeming disadvantage of their position. That the internal resources of America have most ^56 AMERICAN SHOPKEEPERS. powerfully contributed to extend the commerce of the United States, no one can reasonably deny; but the policy of the country, its laws and political institutions, and the peculiar mercantile genius of the inhabitants, have done the rest. I do not believe that any other na- tion, placed under similar circumstances, would have developed the same commercial talent, and none could have succeeded without the political freedom of America. For shopkeeping, the Americans seem to have less talent than any people in Europe. They lack the patience which is necessary for retail trade, and exhibit evidently less taste in the display of their goods, than either the French or the English. The shops in New York and other large cities are well stored with every description of merchandise from India and Europe ; but the econom- ical habits of the people do not allow them to expend any considerable sums in decorating their premises. In this they follow the inclination of their customers, who do not like to pay for the outfit, but value merchandise only according to its intrinsic worth and usefulness. Good articles, at a cheap rate, command the greatest patronage ; and no fashionable preference being generally established in favor of one or the other shop or its locali- ty, the retailers follow the example of the merchants, and avoid every unnecessary expense which would tax their trade and reduce their profits. Neither do they seem to have any particular regard for the qualify of their cus- tomers ; but endeavor to increase their number, which can only be done by reasonable prices adapted to the means of the multitude. The American shopkeeper depends on the public at large, and has, therefore, no inducement to gratify the fancy of particular classes by an attempt at expensive refinements. He prefers a trade in the commonest arti- cles, to the dealing in costly fashions; and, by a peculiar mercantile instinct, is better satisfied with small profits on large sales, than with large profits on small ones. The Americans, of all nations in the world, understand least how to buy and sell things on a small scale, and are least in the habit of increasing their estates by the pro- portional smallness of their expenditure. I do not mean to say that they are an extravagant people, or fond of the AMERICAN SPOPKEEPERS. 257 higher elegancies and luxuries of life ; but a certain de- gree of comfort, and even affluence, is shared by all classes of society, and is alike indispensable to all. Of all nations in Europe, the French seem to be best adapted to the business of retail trade. They understand the whole art of buying things at five sous, and selling them again at six, without growing weary and impatient. They are a people who can enjoy life in every form and variety ; and are generally more remarkable for excelling in the minutiae of a particular department, than for the readiness with which they endeavor to enlarge it. They are frugal and industrious by nature, and, perhaps, as happy in their limited sphere, as the most enterprising nation in the world, and more certain of moderate suc- cess. They know best how to proportion their expenses to thei-r income. They always manage to save something, be it ever so little ; but they are less active and enterpris- ing than either the English or Americans. Most of the small shopkeepers in Paris have their principal stock in trade at the window; but then there is taste in its ar- rangement, and ingenuity in its display. If they are asked for an article, they will enter upon an exposition of its qualities with a minuteness of detail, and a prodigality of reasoning, which will satisfy the inquirer at once that they are at home in their department, and not anxious to quit the premises. To a French shopkeeper, his boutique is the universe. He there commences and finishes his observations; and, thougli sometimes subject to political aberrations, returns to it willingly, as the principal scene of his usefulness. An American, and especially a New Englander, has in his very constitution more or less of the spirit of a mer- chant. He cannot with good grace stoop to the retailing of ribbons and pins ; and if, from a want of funds or credit, he is obliged to resort to so humble a beginning, he is eagerly panting for an extension of business, and will seize upon the first opportunity to disengage himself from so disagreeable a task. In the large Atlantic cities of the United States, the retailers of goods follow the same routine as the mer- chants. They receive and give extensive credit, employ a book-keeper and a number of clerks, and, though there 22*. 258 GENERAL REFLECTIONS ON AMERICAN TRADE. are generally more than one partner in a firm, manage to live and maintain their families in a style to which the same classes in Europe are almost entire strangers. Many of them are themselves importers, or supply the retailers in the country ; and there is, perhaps, not one who would not willingly risk half his fortune to increase his facilities of trade. They are seldom content with their present situation, which they are always ready to improve by circumstances, and are only by great misfor- tunes and losses debarred from becoming respectable merchants. Rousseau, with more irony than flattery to either sex, commended the business of shopkeeping to women; and it must be allowed that the women of France, at least, are most remarkably fit for that purpose. Whether he intended to increase the profits in trade by the petty manoeuvres of which he judged females alone capable, or whether he wished to preserve the minds of men from a task which he thought humiliating and destructive to the higher powers, I know not; but certainly his advice has been followed in France, and the general morality of the people is far from being improved by it. The American shopkeeper's wife and daughters are never seen at the scene of business, for v/hich they are neither intended nor qualified; and, being unable to assist him in trade, are more happily employed in preserving the purity and sanctity of his fire-side. They give him tiiat which he would otherwise be obliged to resign — a home in the bosom of his family. . Trade, in America, does not consist in the mechanical purchase and sale of goods. The prices of articles are not so stable as in Europe, and depend in a far higher degree on the state of the money-market at home and abroad, and on the political prospects of the country. These it is not in the power of ordinary minds at all times justly to estimate; and it is therefore only the well- informed and the shrewd, who can reasonably hope to succeed. Fortunes are sometimes made by unexpected turns of good luck; but in the far greater number of instances, they are the result of well-planned and execut- ed speculations; and none of them are preserved without prudence and good sense. In every other country the SYSTEM OF CREDIT. 259 number of inherited fortunes is greater than that of the acquired ones; in America the case is entirely the re- verse, most of them being the result of severe application to business, accompanied by sobriety and frugality of habits. It is a circumstance worthy of observation that almost all the enterprising merchants of New York, Boston, and the other seaports, sprung from nothing, and that in nearly all instances, good sense and industry have gone further than mere capital, with inferior qualifications for business. It would be difficult to explain so general a phenomenon merely by the general prosperity of the country, the fertility of its soil, and the millions of acres of land yet left to be explored by the people. The fortunes of farmers and mechanics might be accounted for in this manner; because in these occupations it is personal labor chiefly which insures ultimate success. But in the case of the merchants, I would more willingly ascribe tlie source of prosperity, first, to the increased facilities of credit, and secondly, to the willingness of the rich capitalists to invest their money in trade. A young beginner with talents finds always a partner with money, — in many instances a silent one, — while the son of a rich man either studies a profession, or receives less of that practical education which alone can fit him for business. There is, probably, no other country in which credit is so purely personal as in the United States. In England it is already more so than in France ; but in the rest of Europe it is chiefly based on property, and consequently with few individual exceptions, beyond the grasp of mere intelligence, honesty, and industry. In this manner, the investments of money are, assuredly, more secure; but the floating capital always less than the real amount of property, and active commerce, whose soul is credit, al- most entirely out of the question. The money lent on real estate or any other security is no bonus paid to the personal qualifications and probity of the borrower, and cannot, properly, be said to constitue a trust. It does not actually increase his means ; for he obtains it only as an advance on something of still greater value. It may- be of great advantage to him at the moment, because it 260 SYSTEM OF CREDIT. enables liim to dispose of, and employ, a certain part of the value of his estate without being compelled to re- nounce its possession ; but the transaction is as far re- moved from the operation of credit, as the accommodation of a pawn-broker who lends on pledges. It is with the utmost difficulty that a poor German or a Frenchman succeeds in the acquisition of property : his progress is slow and tedious, and his facilities of credit never much in advance of his actual stock in trade. In America the case is different. Men there are trusted in proportion to their reputation for honesty and adaptation to business. Industry, perseverance, acquaintance with the market, enterprise — in short, every moral qualification of a merchant increases his credit as much as the actual amount of his property. The facilities of a beginner are even greater than those of a person established for some time, unless the latter have given evidence of his superior fitness for business. An American is more willing to trust a young man who has to establish a reputation by faithfully discharging his engagements, than one whose fortune is made, and who, on that account, is less depend- ent on the opinion of others. "A young man," he says, "is naturally more enterprising; he has a much longer career to run, and will, therefore, do more to win golden opinions from his friends, than one who has advanced to old age, and can neither atone for or correct the follies of his youth." Neither are American capitalists, as I have said before, contented with so small a per-centage on their money as Europeans ; but rather venture a certain portion of their' fortunes, in order to realise a greater income ; and are, consequently, always ready to trust and employ those who possess more mind than capital, or to go into partnership with them. Thus the amount of floating capital in the United States is not merely based on the gross value of real and personal estate, but also on the moral qualifi- cations of the merchants, and the resources of the country which it is the genius of the people to develope. The fig- ures on 'change denote not merely money and merchan- dise ; but represent also the intelligence, enterprise, econ- omy and probity of the people : they fire the index to the mind as well as to the property of the merchants. SYSTEM OF CREDIT. 261 The influence which this method of transacting busi- ness must exercise on the extension of commerce cannot, for one moment, be doubtful. The advantages arising from it, to the country at large, are incalculable. It ena- bles merchants to extend their transactions to sums vastly superior to their positive means ; holds out facilities of trade to persons who would otherwise be entirely dis- possessed of them, and has a decided tendency to bring foreign capital into the market. Where the greatest profits are realised, and the greatest amount of business transacted, to that place will capital emigrate — be it India or China, England or the United States. Millions are thus circulating in many an American town, which would otherwise be confined to a small and limited trade, and thousands of people, who are now engaged in com- merce, and employed in enriching themselves and the country, would be obliged to resort to manual labor, to ob- tain for themselves a bare subsistence. But it is not the country where the greatest capital is owned, but, on the contrary, that in which the greatest amount of it circu- lates, which must eventually become rich and powerful ; and, with the present prospects of America, no limit can be assigned to her future prosperity. The advantages of the American system of credit are not only felt in the operation of commerce ; they have also a strong moral influence on the people, and it is prin- cipally this which commands our serious attention. Where credit is solely based on property, there it must naturally stifle the spirit of enterprise, or confine it to a small class. A large number of those who possess for- tunes will only be intent on the most sordid means of in- creasing it, and every additional pound which they amass is a fresh obstacle to the progress of a poor beginner. Meanness and avarice must take the place of a well-di- rected extensive commerce, and petty savings and usury be substituted for activity and liberal industry. That such a process is humiliating to the mind, and entirely incom- patible with that generosity of feeling which we associate with the character of a gentleman, will hardly be disput- ed ; and it is therefore not surprising that in those coun- tries the position and employment of a merchant should be looked upon as debasing the nobler faculties. 262 SYSTEM OF CREDIT. In Germany, with the exception of three or four com- mercial cities, which by the Confederation areallowed to have their own government, the merchants hold a very inferior rank in society ; and there is no officer, civil or military, or no man of liberal education, in general, who would not be considered to confer a favor by his inter- course with any one connected with trade. Not so in America. The business of a merchant, in the United States, is rather calculated to expand and liberalise his mind than to contract and destroy it. His^firm represents not only his property, but also the intelligence, industry, and enterprise of which he is possessed. His credit in- creases not only with his capital ; but is founded also on his personal qualifications, and the innate or acquired superiority of his intellect. He can supply the deficiency of capital by a more enlarged sphere of knowledge and experience, and is thus, by his moral advantages, raised to an equality with the more wealthy and prosperous. The rich are obliged to employ the talents of the poor in order to increase their wealth ; and the latter may, in turn, hope to become opulent and independent. Com- merce, in this manner, is not monopolized by a few weal- thy families, but becomes the national occupation of the whole people, in which all, who have talent and industry, have an equal chance of success. An American merchant obtains and gives more credit than an European, and has, therefore, a wider range of speculation and action before him, than one possessed of the same capital in any other country. His mind becomes enlarged with the development of the immense national resources which form the basis and element of his enter- priscv One half of the internal improvements of the country would yet be i?i embryo, or not even thought of, were it not for the liberality of the merchants and capitalists who have furnished the money, or the talents and industry of beginners who were willing to take charge of the enterprise. Without the system of personal credit, neither commerce, nor manufactures, nor even agricul- ture would have advanced with the same rapidity of pro- gress ; and fertile districts, animated by the arts of civil- ization, and provided with schools and seminaries of learning, would yet be the abode of the deer, and the haunt of the American Indian, OPERATIONS OF THE SYSTEM OF CREDIT. 263 The extensive and diversified commerce of the United States, the peculiar manner of transacting business, and the great number of persons who participate in it, cause an incessant contact of all classes of society, which can- not but be beneficial to all, but particularly advantageous to the merchant. He is made more intimately acquainted with the wants, means, and feelings of the mechanic, the manufacturer, the agriculturist, the politician, and the professional man — all of whom have a more direct influ- ence on his prosperity, and are directly or indirectly in- terested in his success. His information extends with his business, and he becomes, from necessity, a shrewd observer and judge of human actions and motives. He is continually watching the current of events, the changes of public opinion, and the different directions of industry; for if he fail to profit by them before they are generally known, he is sure to be distanced by his numerous and more vigilant competitors. Again, credit being personal, and business done to a much larger amount than is covered by property, it is not sufficient for him to know the fortunes and present means of those whom in the course of his ordinary transactions he is obliged to trust : he must be able to judge of their honesty, their talent for business, and the motives which they may have for fulfilling their engagements. He is thus compelled to study characters, while his own is made the subject of the severest scrutiny ; and becomes as skil- ful in discovering the personal qualifications of others, as he is solicitous to banish from his own conduct all that can give rise to premature judgments or suspicions. This is the reason why the American merchants enjoy such a high reputation for shrewdness and sagacity ; and why they are universally allowed to be excellent judges of men and their actions. Mr. Hamilton observed a similar feature, but did not trace it to its right source.* * " Of whatever solecism of deportment they are themselves guilty," says Mr. Hamilton, " The Americans are admirable, and perhaps not very lenient judges of manners in others. * * * With them vulgar audacity will not pass for polished ease, nor will fashionable exterior be received for more than it is worth. I know of no country where an impostor would have a more difficult game to play in the prosecution of his craft, and should consider him an accomplished deceiver were he able to escape detection amid observation so vigilant and acute." 264 FREQUENCY OF FAILURES. To the advantages of their position in society, the American merchants join, for the most j3art, those of a superior education, and there are many of them, especial- ly in the city of Boston, who have completed a college- course. To this we must add the information acquired by travelling at home and abroad, and their consequent freedom from a variety of prejudices inseparable from men who have not had an opportunity of observing and judging for themselves. Many of them have taken an active part in politics ; and, although they were not al- ways so successful as in trade, have at least exhibited a penetration and comprehensiveness of mind which are seldom surpassed by professional legislators. There are merchants in the Senate and in the House of Representa- tives of the United States, and the same may be observed in the Senate and House of Representatives in each in- dividual state. To sum up the whole, the American merchants, as a body, are a well-bred, intelligent and liberal-minded set of men, and in point of sagacity, judg- ment, and general information, inferior to no class of society either in America or Europe. One serious objection which has been made against the American system of credit, is the great number of failures which are its necessary consequence. Now, granted that there occur more failures in the United States than in any country of the same population in Europe, it does not follow that, considering the amount of business, and the number of those who engage in it, there is more injury sustained from bankruptcies than either in France or England ; on the contrary, it is more than probable that the profits, realised in any kind of trade, bear a better proportion to the losses sustained by insolvent debtors than in any other country. To judge correctly of the frequency of failures in America, we must not only consider the vastness of specu- lation based on a comparatively small capital, but also the fact that in the United States there exists as yet no bankrupt law to exclude persons of whatever employment This panegyric of American sagacity the learned author intended only for their judgment of manners; but a little further investigation would have convinced him that it has a more solid foundation, and applies equally to the moral and intellectual qualifications of men. AMERICAN BANKS. 265 or trade of the advantages enjoyed by merchants. Mer- cantile speculations are not confined to any one class; the tradesman, the mechanic, the agriculturist, the lawyer, the physician, and even the schoolmaster have their share in them ; and, considering the liabilities of all these persons, we shall find the number of those who actually avail themselves of the benefit of the " act for insolvent debtors," not only small, but incapable of affecting the community. If the facilities of credit were less, the number of failures would, undoubtedly, be less also ; but in the same ratio would also diminish the facilities of trade, and the profits arising from an active and liberal commerce. The nation would be deprived of one of its principal sources of prosperity, and thousands of enter- prising individuals prevented from participating in an ex- tensive business. Those who are against the credit sys- tem of the United States, ought for the same reason to oppose navigation, on account of the frequency of ship- wrecks. The American banks are all banks of issue, discount and deposite, and, in the large Atlantic cities, extremely well managed. I believe there are but very few instances known in which any of them have failed in Boston, and those of New York and Philadelphia enjoy equally the highest credit. Their number, however, is prodigious, which is, perhaps, one of the principal reasons why they are less secure than those of Europe. The system of credit in the United States renders them, of course, liable to frequent losses ; but they are, nevertheless, one of the principal engines in the rapid improvements of the country, and increase the facilities of intercourse and business. All that can be said in their favor or against them, re- fers to the American credit system, of which the banks are but the auxiliaries, and is, consequently, already im- plied in what I have said on that subject. To avoid re- petition, therefore, I shall content myself with stating, in the following table, the amount of banking capital and bills in circulation, in each state; from which the reader may form an estimate as to the extent to which this principle is applied in practice. The table refers to the commencement of the year 1834, and does not include 23 266 AMERICAN BANKS. the United States Bank with a capital of 35,000,000 of dollars, and its numerous branches. Nor is it necessary to add that since that period numerous other banking institutions have sprung up, and are daily rising into ex- istence, which, of course, must render all such state- ments incomplete. A table of tliis kind can only serve to exhibit the ratio which exists between capital and credit, and perhaps not even that with mathematical precision. State. Maine - - N. Hampshire Vermont Massachus'tts Rhode Island Connecticut New York - New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland - Virginia N. Carolina S. Carolina Georgia Alabama Mississippi Louisiana Tennessee Kentucky Ohio - - Indiana Illinois - - Missouri * - District of ) Columbia j Florida - - Michigan Arkansas t - Sum total No. of Banks. 14 24 17 102 51 21 79 22 41 4 22 4 3 7 13 5 2 12 2 3 20 1 1 Capital. 487 Dollars. 2,727,000 2,454,308 911,980 28,236,250 7,438,848 5,708,015 27,846,460 6,375,000 17,084,444 2,000,000 9,270,091 5,694,500 1,824,725 3,156,318 6,534,691 4,308,207 3,666,805 23,664,755 2,242,827 1,875,418 5,986,625 150,000 200,000 3,355,305 1,000,000 2,250,000 Bills circulated. 175,962,572 Dollars. 1,303,671 1,063,145 1,234,178 7,889,110 1,264,394 2,557,227 15,471,328 5,840,000 10,366,232 504,000 2,441,698 5,598,392 981,114 3,724,442 3,055,003 2,054,471 2,100,426 4,793,730 2,110,880 838,091 1,945,917 75,000 100,000 1,109,389 600,000 428,000 r9,449,838 * There was no bank in that state, except a branch of the United States Bank, t There was no bank in that territory, except a branch of the bank of Maryland, which failed in March, 1834. AMERICAN BANKS. 267 Most of the southern banks have a number of branches which are included in the amount of capital given above. The bills of the United States Bank circulating in 1835 amounted to twenty-two millions of dollars, and the specie in its vaults to 13,912,577 dollars 47 cents. There were twenty-nine banks selected for the deposits of the government with a capital of 34,847,203 dollars, which issued bills to the amount of 15,521,997 dollars. The bank capitals in the different states, for the year 1834-5, compiled from official returns, as stated in Bick- jiell's "Philadelphia Counterfeit Detector,"were as follows. Maine - . - - Dols. 2,724,000 New Hampshire - - - 2,454,308 Vermont 911,900 Massachusetts . - - - 29,409,450 Rhode Island - - - - 7,438,848 Connecticut - - - - 5,708,015 New York . . - - 31,781,460 New Jersey _ - - - 6,375,500 Pennsylvania - - - - 17,084,444 Delaware 2,000,000 Maryland 9,270,091 Virginia 5,694,500 North Carolina - - - - 3,324,725 South Carolina - - - - 7,331,318 Georgia 8,034,691 Alabama 4,308,207 Mississippi - - - - 11,000,000 Louisiana 33,664,755 Tennessee 5,242,827 Kentucky - - . ^ - 10,000,000 Ohio 5,086,125 Indiana - . - - - 1,500,000 Illinois 1,700,000 District of Columbia - - - 3,355,305 Florida Territory - - - 1,000,000 Michigan Territory - - - 2,250,000 Total - 219,250,549 dols. From 1811 till 1830, 165 banks are known to have failed, with an aggregate capital of 24,212,339 dollars. The number of failures, therefore, averaged between 268 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. eight and nine per annum, which is not yet one for every two states of the Union, and consequently but a small drawback on the extensive benefits of the system. After what I have said of American commerce and merchants, it will perhaps be not unwelcome to some of my readers, to have some numerical details about the imports and exports of the United States. The following are taken from official reports ; and it will be perceived from them that the exports in 1834 surpassed those of 1830 by 7,174,654 dollars; and that in the year following (1835) they increased by further 23,312,811 dollars, making in all a total augmentation of 30,487,465 dollars in five years. The exports of 1830 (the year ending Dollars. September 30th) amounted to 73,849,508 Of which there were — Domestic produce Foreign ditto Total Those of 1834 were Of which — The sea yielded The forest, - - - Vegetable food, Tobacco, - _ - Cotton, _ - _ Other agricultural products, Manufactures, And other articles not ) enumerated, ) Total Finally, the exports of 1835 to - Of which there were — Domestic produce Foreign ditto Total Dollars. - 59,462,029 - 14,387,479 - 73,849,508 - 81,024,162 2,071,493 4,457,997 10,884,052 6,595,305 49,448,402 453,028 5,998,012 1,115,873 81,024,162 Dollars. 104,336,973 Dollars. - 81,024,162 - 23,312,811 - 104,336,973 AMOUNT OF TONNAGE, ^69 The imports in 1835 were - - 126,521,332 Those of 1830 - - ^ - 70,876,920 Increase in five years - 55,644,412 The amount of imports and exports in American vessels is to that in foreign vessels as six to one nearly. (In the year 1830 it was 51 : 8, or 6^ : 1.; and in 1834 as 175: 32, or 5^1-: 1.) It will also be perceived from those statements that while in 1830 the exports surpassed the imports by 2,972,588 dollars, the balance of trade has, in 1835, been turned against America. This, however, was owing to particular circumstances connected with the history of the United States Bank, and the great depression of foreign exchange, which must always act as a premium on the importation of foreign goods. To form an idea of the increasing navigation of the United States, we need only reflect on the amount of tonnage which at the beginning of the year 1833 was registered in the principal seaports and districts as fol- lows : New York, (State of New York) - 298,832 Boston, (Massachusetts) - - 171,045 Philadelphia, (Pennsylvania) - - 77,103 New Bedford, (Massachusetts) - 70,550 New Orleans, (Louisana) - - 61,171 Portland, (Maine) - - - 47,942 Baltimore, (Maryland) - - 47,129 Bath, (Maine) . . - - 33,480 Salem, (Massachusetts) - - - 30,293 Nantucket, (Massachusetts) - - 28,580 Barnstable, (Massachusetts) - - 28,153 Waldoborough, (Maine) - - 24,948 New London, (Connecticut) - - 24,225 Penobscot, (Maine) - - - 22,115 Newburyport, (Massachusetts) - 20,131 Providence, (Rhode Island) - 19,136 Belfast, (Maine) . - - - 18,576 Plymouth, (Massachusetts) - - 17,669 Portsmouth, (New Hampshire) - 17,126 Norfolk, (Virginia) - - - 15,790 23* 270 AMOUNT OF TONNAGE. Passamaquoddy, (Maine) - - 13,370 Gloucester, (Massachusetts) - - 13,266 Wilmington, (North Carolina) - 13,265 Charlestown, (South Carolina) - 13,244 Vienna, (Maryland) - - - 13,129 Bristol, (Rhode Island) - - 12,879 Bridgetown, (New Jersey) - - 12,690 Fairfield, (Connecticut) - - 10,892 Alexandria, (District of Columbia) - 10,599 Pittsburgh, (Pennsylvania) - - 10,091 Total - - 1,197,419 Tons. exclusive of the tonnage of steamboats. If we allow since 1833 but an increase often per cent., (which I think is small, considering the rapid progress of commerce and manufactures,) we shall have the actual amount of ton- nage in the thirty principal districts 1,317,160 tons; and, considering the low rate at which ships are generally registered in the United States, and the districts not enu- merated in the above statements, I do not think that two millions of tons would exceed the actual amount of Ameri- can tonnage. This, for a country whose independence has been acknowledged little more than half a century, is certainly enormous, and a gigantic index to her future mercantile importance. The followin 'c a? 2 o H O C4-4 o CO O z ;3 o Ph « 2 c o — 02 *- i> CO o 10 M 10^0 ^»o Tf^oi^cc r^ X, CO ^ ^- CO l-^ O O O" (?i «" go" CO o'cT CO cc COC^OCl'^t^OCOTt^iCiOtOO ^ CO o o r>r-o Ci ^ GO Oi OOD 1 i^ o --HO Tf O 1—1 "^ i> »0 iO 00 :o C5 CO C^l CO o 10 »o 10 CO o O C^ CO CO Ci 1— I 10 1-1 — ' Tt* O? Ci 05 'X O O O i- »0^ 10 GO ^ CO LO''co"cft>-'"(M'" »0 iO Ci i^ -H O CO (M 10 o c^f of of 00 Ci CO GO — i^ 0^ T-< Tt^ GO CO — I O C5 10 '-H^t^ cTco^r-" GO 00 10 CO CO GO co" c o" co" ^ rt< i^ o 10 ^ 0?_ CO o? co'~o'-^'~ GO GO i^ « o f^ iO '-gi CO r- CO'co'^ 01 — I ^ OJ t^ GO t^ 10 ^ GO o? o 10 t^ O^ O! Ci Tt< -^^ CO GO^ -^ 10 O of GO i^ t^ ^ GO O^GO CO i> -{T^CO^of »0 O O? -H i> O -H O t- O CO O ^ GO GO i-^ -^ t^ »0> CO CO O O '^ CO r-^ GO 05 O? 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The whole cotton crop of 1835 was estimated at four hundred and eighty milhons of pounds, growing on up- wards of two millions of acres. The capital invested in the growing of cotton was estimated at eight hundred millions of dollars, or one hundred and sixty millions pounds sterling. The whole amount of capital, therefore, invested in the growth and manufacture of cotton, amount- ed, in that year, to eight hundred and eighty millions of dollars.* In 1816 an official report made to Congress showed that forty millions of dollars capital were invested in cot- ton manufactures, ai.d twelve millions in woollen. It was stated also that the whole amount of cotton consumed in the United States did not exceed 90,000 bales, and the value of the goods manufactured did not amount to more than sixty millions of dollars. At present the manufac- tures of all kinds amount annually to two hundred and fif- ty millions of dollars, of which more than twenty-five milllions are exported, and the rest consumed in the countty.t I will now subjoin some tables from " Pitkins's Statis- tics," showing the progress of cotton manufactures in twelve states ; but especially in that of New York, and the town of Lowell, in the state of Massachusetts. This town, it must be remembered, has only become the seat of manufacturing establishments within the last fourteen years ; but is now connected by a railroad with the city * To this the official document remarks: — "One of the beneficial ef- fects of our present active cultivation of cotton is, that while it yields the greatest agricultural profits in proportion to the capital in land and stock, it has a sure tendency to diminish the quantities of rice, tt^bacco, indigo, grain, andcatile raised in the cotton districts in America, and keeps up the price of those articles in a manner highly favorable to those who raise them. The moderate quantity of rice produced in 1801 and 1802 is a positiv^e evidence of this profitable truth. The North American rice is of the best class. The body of our rice planters raise but three quarter crops from their attention to cotton. Having so much less to sell, the market is not glutted. The price is consequently not low. It is favorable. The growers of Indian corn in the southern states have also turned to raising cotton. Hence Indian corn and pork are ev- ery where better supported in price to the general benefit of owr farm- ers. Much corn will go from counties out of the cotton district to coun- ties in the cotton district, for sale and consumption. So will fish, and all eatables and drinkables." t Historv of the Rise and Progress of Manufactures, bv George S, White. ^ . ^ STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURES. 279 of Boston, and employs a capital of five millions four hundred and fifty thousand dollars in the manufacture of cotton goods. Tabular View of the Cotton Manufactures in 12 of the American States in 1831. N. B. The state of Pennsylvania includes five hundred thousand dollars, and Delaware one hundred and sixty-two thousand dollars for the capital employed in hand-looms. The cotton consumed amounted to 77,757,316 lbs., 214,822 bales of the average 3G1_8_6^ The following Table contains the price and distribution of labor. States. IS . II- Wages of males per week. 13 Wages of females per week. il "1 dls. cts. dls. cts. dls. cts. Maine 8 91 84 5 50 205 2 33 — — N. Hampshire 40 3,530 875 6 25 4,090 2 60 60 2 Vermont 17 352 102 5 363 1 84 19 1 40 Massachusetts 256 8,981 2,665 7 10,678 2 25 — — Rhode Island 116 5,773 1,731 4 25 3,297 2 20 3,472 1 50 Connecticut 94 2,609 1,399 4 50 2,477 2 20 439 1 50 New York 112 3,653 1,374 6 3,652 1 90 484 1 40 New Jersey 51 815 2,151 6 3.070 1 90 217 1 40 Pennsylvania 67 6,301 6,545 6 8,351 2 — Delaware 10 235 697 5 676 2 — Maryland 23 1,002 824 3 87 1,793 1 91 — — Virginia ' 91 143 2 73 275 38,297 1 58 4,691 Total 801 '33,433 18,560 280 STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURES The Cotton Manufactures in the State of New York, as stated in Williams's 'New York Annual Register for 1835, were as follows : ^ a lb li o " = Counties. o o 1-3 II Dolls. O c a 'T3 11! !3| = III III Oneida 20 735,500 31,596 1,705.290 175,080 5,273,200 2,354 Renselaer 15 525,000 16,606 854,300 147,110 2,790,315 1,621 Dutchess 12 445,000 17,090 833,000 185,500 1,952,000 1,974 Otsego 11 304,000 15,344 618.543 56,000 2,322,000 1,077 Columbia 7 218,000 13,260 559,000 199,000 1,150,400 1,265 Westchester 5 115,000 9,400 486,000 438,000 - 280 Washington 5 100,000 3,(;06 168,800 33,500 717,650 275 Herkimer 5 35.000 - 2,290 106,237 33,500 209,912 128 Saratoga 4 144 ,000' 5,752 270,000 1,210,660 460 Jefferson 3 170,000 ; 6,020 327,000 22,600 1,004,720 595 Ulster 3 140,000] 5,796 410,000 330,000 115,001) 475 Orange 3 135,0001 4,200 251,000 4,000 740,000 460 Madison 3 30.000 1,998 35,000 31,500 - 35 Tompkins 3 28,000| 812 55,500 1,000 199,063 97 Onondaga 2 62,000; 2,100 125,000 5,000 460,000 225 Monroe 2 55,0001 2,648 208,000 105,000 300,000 320 Clinton 2 16,000 . 884 25,000 - 100,000 70 Rockland 1 100,000 3,500 200,000 40,000 460,000 500 Schenectady 1 77,000, 2,000 1 118,000 20,000 416,000 200 Chenango 1 75,000 4,474 200,000 - 800,000 225 Seneca 1 70,000 4,000 190,000 - 550,000 150, Cayuga 1 70,000 2,692 180,000 8,000 180,000 138 Franklin 1 10,000 Suffolk 1 10,000 576 30,000 33,000 1,867,790 21,010,920 30 Total 112 3.669,500 I57,316'7,96],670 12,954 It will be perceived from this table that the number of persons supported by manufactures in the state of New York, the most commercial state in the Union, and com- prising immense agricultural districts, amounted, never- theless, in 1832 to more than three fifths per cent, of the whole population, which at that period was estimated at two millions nearly. The valuation of property in that state, from the comptroller's report of January, J835, was as follows: Real estate - - ' 350,346,043 dollars. Personal estate - - 108,331,941 Total 458,677,984 The capital invested in manufactures amounted there- fore to III, or nearly one per cent., and with the increase IN THE UNITED STATES. 281 since 1831, amounts now, probably, to more than two per cent, of the whole assessed property of the state. The whole bank stock of that state was as follows: State banks - - 31,481,460 dollars. Savings' bank - - 3,855,517 Total - 35,336,977 But the amount of capital invested in manufactures, allowing but ten per cent, increase since 1831, (which I think rather small, considering the vastness of manufac- turing enterprise throughout the Union,) was probably more than 4,000,000 of dollars, and consequently nearly one eighth of all the capital invested in banking. But what is the estimate of the state of New York compared to that of Massachusetts ! The whole popula- tion of this state is not much more than 600,000, and the number of males and females employed in manufactures may now be estimated at 15,000, making 2J per cent, of the whole population, or one person out of forty engaged in manufactures. The valuation of property in that state was, in 1831, 208,236,250 dollars, (of which the city of Boston furnished more than 80,000,000;) but the capital invested, at that time, in manufactures, was 12,891,000 or 13,000,000 dollars nearly. The ratio, therefore, was more than six per cent, of the whole assessed property of the state ; and it has increased since that period. The bank capital of the state was reported (in 1834) to be 29,409,450 dollars. Allowing the capital invested in manufactures to have increased since 1831 only by ten per cent., we may estimate it as something more than 14,000,000 of dollars ; which would make the property invested in manufactures equal to nearly one half of the banking capital in the state. The statistics of a single town, — that of Lowell, — will show the unprecedented increase of manufactures in that state, 34^ 282 STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURES Lowell Cotton Manufactories. (From Pilkins's Statistics, 1831.) , ^ . 1 Fem.l » Yards , Bales j Companiea. Capital. Dolls. s Spin- dles. J em- ply'd c3 per week. per week. 1,500.000 5 26,000 1,000 1,200 500 125,000 86 800,000 •6 15,000 500 700 200 70,000 65 Api)leton Lowell 500,000 2 9,500 350 475 60 80,000 86 500,000 1 4,000 132 200 175 42,000 58 Suffolk 450,000 y 10,000 352 475 60 90,000 86 Tremont 500,000 2 10,000 410 475 60 120,000 86 Lawrence 1,200,000 4 23.000 750 1,050 100 170,000 160 Total 5,450 000 19 97,500 3,494[4,.575 1,155 697,000 627 Thus, one small town employed, in 1831, nearly 6000 persons in cotton manufactures alone, and produced more than two-thirds of a million of yards per week, or about thirty-six millions of yards per annum. Of these, eight millions were printed; and including these (which sold at from 10 to 28 cents — b\d. to 15fZ. — per yard,) the whole may be estimated at 10 cents per yard ; making 3,600,000 dollars, or .£720,000 sterling ^er annum. The different periods at which these companies were incorporated show sufficiently the rapid increase of manufacture in that town. The Merrimack Company ) ^^^ commenced was incorporated in ) Hamilton - - 1825 Appleton - - 1828 Lowell - - 1828 Suffolk - - - 1830 Tremont - . - 1830 Lawrence . - 1830 1S23. 1825. 1828. 1828. 1832. 1832. 1833. But in 1835 (as appears from a letter dated Lowell, April 20th, 1835, inserted in White's "History of Manu- factures") the Merrimack company had increased the number of its spindles to 34,432, and that of its looms to 1253; they employed 1321 females, 437 males, and manufactured 172,000 yards per week. The Hamilton company had increased their spindles to 19,000, and the number of looms to 600 ; they employed 800 females and 200 males, and manufactured 78,000 yards of prints and IN THE UNITED STATES. 283 drillings per week. The Appleton company had increas- ed the number of spindles by 1500 ; the Lowell company by more than 500; and the Suffolk company by 250, in the space of three years. There were, besides, incorporated a "Locks and Canals company," with a capital of 600,000 dollars, for supplying water-power to the various manufacturing es- tablishments ; (this company had an extensive machine shop, for the manufactory of cotton and woollen machine- ry, railroad cars, engines, &c., and employed 200 men,) and the Middlesex company with 500,000 dollars for the manufacture of broadcloths and cassimeres. The latter consumed annually 470,000 lbs. of wool, and 1,500,000 teasels. They ran two mills, 3120 spindles, 98 looms, and gave employment to 240 females and 145 males; making 6000 yards of cloth per week.* The same com- pany have since enlarged their business so as to manufac- ture, additio?iall7/ , 5Qi) yards of satinet per day; using upwards of 2000 lbs. of wool per day. The above establishments consumed annually 11,239 tons of anthracite coal, 4750 cords of wood, and 50,549 gallons of oil. The total amount of cloth made was be- tween thirty-nine and forty millions of yards, and the amount of cotton used, between twelve and thirteen mil- lions of pounds. The bleacheries used 310,000 lbs. of starch, 380 barrels of flour, and 500,000 bushels of coal per annum. The wages amounted to 22,500 dollars, or c£4,500 sterling per week. This is the progress of manufactures in a single town of 15,000 inhabitants ; and similar improvements have taken place in the establishments at Smithfield, Paw- tucket, Fall River, Slaterville, Greenville, Cabotsville, Paterson,t Newark, Cincinnati, Pittsburg, Lancaster, Philadelphia, &c. * In 1805 all the woollen manufactures in the United Stales could not furnish 6,000 blankets for the use of the army ! — White's History of Manufactures. t "This town contained (1827) already fifteen cotton manufactories, with 24,000 spindles; two factories of canvass with 1,644 spindles, em- ploying 1450 persons, whose annual wages amounted to 224,123 dollars. The town contained also extensive machine-shops and iron works. It consumed annually 620,000 lbs. of flax, and 6000 bales of cotton; spun 1,630,000 lbs. of cotton yarn, 430,000 lbs. of linen yarn; produced 630,000 284 AMERICAN COAL-PITS, The water-power of these places is, as yet, far from being employed to one half, or even one fourth of the extent to which it is capable of being used in manufac- tures ; and there is, besides, a vast amount of power in other places which is entirely disused. The water-power of the town of Lowell (the manufacturing establishments of which I have just described) is capable of propelling more than one hundred times the present machinery ; that of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, is almost inexhaustible, (the town being built on the river Susquehanna ;) and the same may be said of the water-power of all the manufacturing establishments in the neighborhood of the large rivers. Whatever advantages Great Britain may, at this moment, enjoy over the United States with regard to the cheapness of coal, America possesses in the multi- tude of her streams, rivulets, and waterfalls, the most efficient means of propelling machinery at a cheaper rate than can be procured in any other country. As an appendix to the foregoing, I shall here subjoin a table which was attached to a report made by Mr. Parker, to the senate of the state of Pennsylvania, on the 4th of March, 1835, showing the amount of anthracite coal, mined and brought to the market, in each year from the year 1820 to the year 1834, inclusive. Total No. Year. Lehigh. Schuylkill. Lackawana of Tons. 1820 365 - _ - _ _ _ 365 1821 1,073 - _ - - . - 1,073 1822 2/^10 - _ - _ - - 2,240 1823 5,823 . . - 5,823 1824 9,541 _ _ . - . . 9,541 1825 28,393 5,306 - - - 33,699 1826 31,280 16,835 - _ - 48,115 1827 32,074 29,492 - _ - 61,567 1828 30,232 47,181 _ - - 77,413 1829 25.110 78,293 70,000 1^,403 1830 41.750 89,984 42,000 173,734 1831 40;965 81,854 54,000 176,819 1832 75,000 209,271 84,500 368,771 1833 121,000 250,588 111,777 486,365 1834 106,244 226,692 43,700 376,636 yards of cotton and linen duck, 3,354,000 yards of cotton cloth, and ex- ported 796,000 yards of yarn; and new manufactories were then build- ing." — Report of the Society for estoMisMng useful manufactories irh Neio J«riey. AMERICAN TRADE. 285 This table evidently exhibits the increasing facilities even as regards coal, and these added to the water-power, must render America one of the first manufacturing na- tions of the world. The only difficulty, then, consists in the comparatively high wages now given in the United States; but this is an objection which the increased com- petition of every succeeding year has a natural tendency to remove, and is therefore, of itself, incapable of pre- venting America from becoming, in this respect also, the successful rival of Europe, But it is not only the large manufacturing establish- ment, but also the grand manufacturing scale on which most of the mechanic arts are exercised in the United States which merits particular attention. It is the pecu- liar genius of the American people to excel in all kind of trade ; and there is scarcely an article which does not furnish them with new means of exercising their inge- nuity. Thus a large trade is carried on, by the people of New England, in painted chairs, which are sent by thousands all over the United States, and exported also to South America and to the West Indies. The shoe trade of some of the towns in the neighborhood of Boston is hardly less remarkable, the value of nearly tvvo millions of dollars having been manufactured last year, and sent to the west alone. The state of Connecticut possesses the most extensive wooden clock manufactories in the world — affording them at about half the price of those made in the Black Forest. The glass manufactories of New England, Pennsylvania and Maryland, produce not only some of the finest specimens of pressed and cut glass, but carry on an extensive trade with South Ameri- ca and the West India islands. The gun manufactories of Lancaster, and the steel manufactories of Paterson, are established on a large scale ; the manufactories of paper and iron ware have long since competed with the impor- tations from England ; and the bronze manufactories of Philadelphia bid fair to rival those of Birmingham. 286 AMERICAN TRADE. The following Table, taken from Williams's "New York State Register," will exhibit a Summary of Man- ufactures in that State, according to the Census of 1S35 : Value of raw Value Num- materials used of ber. and manufactured manufactured. Articles. Dollars. Dollars. Grist mills 2,051 17,687,009 20,140,435 Saw mills 6,948 3,651,153 6,881,055 Oil mills 71 214,813 275,574 Fulling mills 965 1,994,491 2,894,096 Carding machines 1,061 2,179,414 2,651,638 Cotton manufactories - 111 1,630,352 3,030,709 Woollen manufactories 234 1,450,825 2,433,192 Iron works 293 2,366,065 4,349,949 Trip hammers 141 168,896 363,581 Distilleries 337 2,278,420 3,098,042 Asheries 693 434,394 726,418 Glass manufactories - 13 163,312 448,559 Rope do.- 63 664,394 980,083 Chain cable do. 2 20,871 28,625 Oil cloth do. 24 63,119 95,646 Dyeing and printing do. 15 1,999,000 2,465,600 Clover mills 69 95,693 110,025 Paper mills - 70 358,857 685,784 Tanneries 412 3,563,592 5,598,626 Breweries 94 916,252 1,381,446 This is but the statistics of manufactories in one state ; but New England and Pennsylvania are in this respect powerful rivals of New York, and, of late, large manu- factories have also been established in the western states, and in the northern districts of Virginia. The book trade, and especially that of school-books, is almost wholly monopolized by the eastern states; the hundreds of thousands of " arithmetics," "geographies," " grammars," and "spelling-books," which are annually printed and consumed^ surpassing, by far the number of SCHOOL-BOOK TRADE. 287 similar publications in Europe.* Large fortunes have been realised by the authors and publishers of these books, and their success has invited others to follow their example. I believe I am correct in introducing this subject under the head " manufactures and commerce ;" because the making of school-books in the United States partakes more of the enterprising spirit of trade, tlian of the timid scrupulousness of literature ; and the sale of them is only inferior to that of "bread-stuffs, and beef" Nothing is left undone, by the authors and venders of these books, to procure an extensive sale of a commodity so useful to the minds of the young; teachers and school committees are furnished gratis with every new work which issues from the press ; and whole editions are given away to schools, to procure the introduction of a book. In order that both author and vender may be as much as possible interested in the sale, the copyright, instead of being bought by the bookseller, (as is done in most parts of Europe,) is dis- posed of for a per-centage on the profits, which on school- books averages from five to ten per cent, on the nominal retail price of the work. The author or compiler is thus paid according to the success of his book, and the pub- lisher risks only the expenses of printing and publishing the first edition. Hence an American author, the moment he has written a school-book which promises to be largely introduced, commences his peregrinations to the western andsouthern states, in order, by his personal influence and reputation, to support the merits of his work ; and per- haps, also, to earn a commission on the sale of it. The whole is considered as a commercial transaction ; and the immense competition of authors and publishers has had a decidedly happy influence on the merits and low prices of American school-books. There are several book-selling establishments in Boston and Philadelphia, trading al- together in school-books ; and I am quite certain, that their joint sales of elementary works alone, amount to more than a million of dollars per annum. I have seen * These books being generally printed on bad cotton paper wear out so rapidly, that it is by no means unfrequent for children to change them several times in 'the course of a year. 288 MECHANIC ARTS. the sixtieth edition of an arithmetic ; the fiftieth of a geography, the seventieth or eightieth of a spelling-book, and Heaven knows how many editions of " Peter Parley."* In the mechanic arts the Americans are the successful imitators of the English; which accounts for their being already superior, in most of them, to the French and Ger- mans. Furniture is made in Philadelphia, Boston, and New York, much better than in any part of the continent of Europe, Paris itself not excepted; and the New Eng- land " rocking-chairs," the ne plus ultra of all comforts in the shape of furniture, have acquired an European repu- tation. It is not so much the elegance as the excellent adaptation to the purpose for which they are intended, M'hich distinguishes every article manufactured in the United States. One sees at once that the maker must have been a thinking creature, who understood all the time what he was about, and left nothing undone which could materially improve the usefulness of his handicraft. An American mechanic does not exercise his trade as he has learned it: he is constantly making improvements, study- ing out new and ingenious processes, either to perfect his work or to reduce its price, and is, in most cases, able to account for the various processes of his art in a manner which would do credit to a philosopher. A certain mechanical perfection, arising from a greater division of labor and long-followed practice in a narrow, circumscribed trade, is, assuredly, less to be found in America than in England, and has frequently given rise to the unjust complaint, that American mechanics can make nothing equal to the English. This, however, is an idle assertion, contradicted by reason and experience. A number of articles are made as well in the United States, and cheaper, than in England, and if, in other instances, their productions are not so good, the reduced prices are more than in proportion to their inferiority ; and rather * This is a work, consisting of about one hundred volumes, con- taining a Liliputian encyclopedia of all sciences, trades, and professions for children. Most of them are v/ritten in the form of dialogues or nar- ratives, and contain nothing less than the stories of Rome, Greece and America, together with essays on mythology, natural philosophy, geog- raphy, mathematics, ethics, and moral philosophy. They were pub- lisned in the form of pocket editions, the best adapted to their species. AMERICAN WORKMEN. 2^9 show the unwillingness of the consumers to pay a proper price for them, than the incapacity of the workmen to produce a superior quality. Besides, there is nothing which could prevent experienced Enghsh workmen from settling in the United States, if they were sure of earning there more than at home. In several cases, they have attempted to do so, and experienced the quickness with which Jonathan learns and improves. There is no branch of industry, in which the Americans do not participate, the moment any profits are to be realised from it ; and it is, in nearly all cases, the state of the market, or some more lucrative and attractive em- ployment, which prevents them from manufacturing arti- cles in the same style as in other countries. If they are not in a habit of subdividing labor as in England, in order to reduce handiwork as much as possible to an equality with machinery, they may, perhaps, in a few cases, be unable to work so cheap and with so little loss of time ; but individually they must become superior to mere me- chanical w^orkmen. The man who knows the different parts of a watch, and their mutual adaptation to the me- chanism of its regular movement, is evidently superior to him who all his life manufactures only the wheels, with- out troubling himself about the machine in which they are to operate, — as a man who understands a princi'ple is su- perior to the empiric who is only acquainted with the routine of particular cases. In China, where the division of labor is carried to its greatest extent, the laboring class- es are reduced to mere machines. Their skill is, as- suredly, astonishing ; but they acquire it with the extinc- tion of every mental faculty : the whole nation partakes more or- less of this mechanical stupefaction, and is '* great in every thing that is small, and small in every thing that is great." In the United States it is of the greatest importance that no part of the whole population should remain en- tirely ignorant ; but that, on the contrary, all should be- come accustomed to thought and reflection. The various processes of the mechanic arts offer a thousand oppor- tunities for the exercise of the reasoning faculties ; and I deem it a particular advantage of the American operatives, that they are placed in a situation to improve them. The 25 SUPERIOR CONDITION high price of labor, and the peculiar habits of the people, contribute much to facilitate the means of instruction ; and the natural disposition of Americans prompts them to avail themselves of the advantages of their position. Where a man has to labor all day in order to obtain for himself and family a bare subsistence, there it is im- possible for his mind to act with a proper degree of freedom. The physical wants are too urgent to allow him sufficient respite for thought and reflection, and the only thing coveted, after the cravings of his stomach are appeased, is the necessary rest to restore his physical abilities. In America, not only the master mechanic, but also his journeymen, have the means of earning more than is required for a mere living; they are able to procure for themselves comforts which would hardly enter the imagi- nation of similar orders in Europe. They are enabled to command a portion of their time ; and their minds being free from the anxieties of a precarious life, and less vitiated by a desire of frivolous pleasures, are better qualified for study or improvement, — the only sure means by which they can hope to better their conditions. Their domestic habits, and the custom of spending the Sabbath at home, are highly favorable to the development of their mental faculties, and in this respect, of immense advan- tage to the general morals of the people. The majority of the lower order of European workmen hardly think of becoming independent, or doing business on their own account; and, being less sustained by hope, in the exer- cise of their physical powers, need more relaxation and amusement than the Americans, who consider the hardest of labor but an introduction to something better which is to follow. The American operatives are sustained by the very efforts they make, and need not have recourse to the sordid pleasures of debauchery, or the bottle, in order to plunge themselves into a momentary and brutal oblivion of their present necessities. I wonder the superior condition of the laboring classes in America has not been taken notice of by any English tourist, (if we except Mr. Hamilton's philosophical dia- logue with the Scotch baker,) while they were so tedious- ly minute in describing the fashionable coteries ! No drawing-room, in any part of the world, is without its OP AMERICAN WORKMEN. 291 second and third-rate performers, and their number in America may even be greater than in Europe. Nor will I deny that an American exquisite is, per se, an inferior being. A man, in Europe, may be a coxcomb, or a buftbon, in a manner peculiar to his own country, in which case he is still a national character ; but to be a slavish imitator of the follies of others, in a country where they are only known to be despised, presupposes a degree of presumptuous imbecility, for which no excuse can be found in the customs and manners of the people. If Englishmen censure Americans for imitating the fashions of Europe, they ridicule them justly for not being wiser than themselves, or for succeeding less in an unprofitable enterprise. But, let them turn their attention to the thousands with whom they hardly come in contact on their tours ; let them observe and watch the elevated character of the merchants, the skilful industry of the mechanic, the sober regularity of the workmen, and they will find ample room for a more charitable exercise of their judgment ; they will then find the true strength and superiority of the American people over all other nations on the globe. They will find no humiliating imitation in the trade and commerce of the United States. They will see the arts exercised on a most liberal and extensive scale ; the character of workmen raised by emulation to that of respectable citizens; and, instead of machines or mechanical operatives, they will discover everywhere intelligent beings, capable of accounting for every pro- cess, and improving it constantly by their own ingenuity. In no other country could they behold a similar spectacle; in none other witness the same emancipation of the mind. In England and Scotland a most generous begin- ning has been made to arrive at similar results ; but the improvements have not yet penetrated to all classes, and for many a generation, America yet will be unrivalled in the moral elevation of her citizens. A great deal has been said, by American and foreign writers, on the subject of trades' unions and other socie- ties of operatives known under the name of *' workies," and especially about their cries for " equal and universal education." I confess I never knew that the workmen wished to arrest the progress of education, in order to 293 AMERICAN "WORRIES. reduce the moral superiority of the higher classes to a sordid level with themselves, but, on the contrary, under- stood them to covet the same opportunities of mental improvement, which are enjoyed by the wealthier portion of the community. I am quite certain there is no class of Americans so utterly degraded in their moral senti- ments, as to wish for universal ignorance, or a compara- tive* mediocrity of talents, in order to protect and excuse their own imbecility. The workmen of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, have struck for the " ten-hour system," on the ground that if a man work more than ten hours a day, "Ae is unfit to read and improve his mind in the evening, or to superintend the education of his children ;^^ a plea which expresses certainly a very different desire from that of destroying the opportunities of acquiring superior knowledge. The wages of American workmen are high; but then it is seldom known that they make an improper use of their money ; and they abstain entirely from the European custom of spending in one or two days, the whole earnings of the week. They understand not only how to make money, but also the art of saving it; and the amount of capital deposited in the various savings banks of the country furnishes the strongest evidence of the prudence and frugality of their habits. As long as these last, I cannot possibly persuade myself that the institutions of the country are in danger, what- ever be the aberrations of individuals, or whole classes, in their respective political orbits. The system of credit, established in manufactures and commerce, extends also to the business of the mechanic, and in some instances even to the workmen. An Ameri- caq^shoemaker will give his note of six or eight months for leather ; a tailor his, in exchange for cloth ; a carpen- ter will buy timber, a printer his type, a blacksmith his iron, on nine, or twelve months' credit, and will in turn take the notes of his customers. Trades-people are in this manner as much subjected to sudden changes of fortune by fluctuations of exchange, and venture as much in the investment of their capital, as the active merchant ; and nothing, therefore, is more common than a combina- tion of the two characters in one and the same person. The mercantile genius of the country pervades all classes AMERICAN SEAMEN. 293 of society, and by its universal influence unites them effectually to a large homogeneous whole, in which the most diversified qualities of individuals bear yet the mark of the general character. I have, in the beginning of this chapter, briefly touched on the subject of navigation as connected with commerce ; it remains for me yet to enlarge upon the character of seamen. The United States, and especially the northern and eastern states, furnish, in proportion to their popula- tion, a greater number of sailors than can be mustered in any other country save, perhaps, England ; and possess, besides, the advantage of employing those of all other nations in the regular service of their merchants. The high wages, and the protection offiered them by the gov- ernment, are sufficient inducements for thousands of foreigners to enlist annually on board of American ves- sels ; and there are comparatively few amongst them, who, once accustomed to the service, are again willing to quit it. Their task, it is true, is more severe than on board the ships of other nations, but then they are paid in proportion, and their provisions are better than those of the common sailors of other countries.* With these additional expenses, the question may be asked, how it is possible for Americans to realise any * De Tocqueville, in his work " De la Dimocratie en Amirique" traces the progress of navigation in the United States to the same source. He compares the American method of navigating ships, to the new military tactics invented by the generals of the French repub- lic; which were victorious until imitated by their enemies. '' Les Am^ricains,''^ says the French jurist, " ont introduit quelque chose d^ ana- logue dans le commerce. Ce que les Fram^ais faisaient pour la victoire, Us lefont pour le bon TnarcM.^^ " Le navigateur extropien ne s'aventure qxCavec prudence sur les mers; il ne part que quand le temps Vy convie ; sHl lui survient un accident imprdvu, il rentre au port; la nuit il serre une partie de ses voiles, et, lorsquHl voit Vocian hlanchir a Vapproche des terres, il ralentit sa course et interoge le soleil." " VAm6ricain niglige ces precautions et brave ces dangers. 11 part tandis que la tempete gronde encore ; la nuit comme le jour il abandonne au vent toutes ses voiles ; il r6pare en marchant son navire fatigu6 par forage, et lorsquHl approche enfin du terme de sa course, il continue a voler vers le rivage, comme si ddjd, il appercevait le porV " V AmAricain fait souvent naufrage ; mais il n'y a pas de navigateur qui traverse les mers aussi rapidement qu£ lui. Faisantles mimes choses qu^un autre en mains de temps il peut lesfatrir a moins defrais." 25* 294 AMERICAN SEAMEN. profits on the navigation of their siiips? This query is answered, by the much smaller number of sailors, and the greater rapidity of passages. They make four pas- sages where other ships make two or three, and save in time, what others save in wages. Again, making their sailors work harder, and keeping them constantly em- ployed, they manage their ships with less hands, and are better able to maintain discipline. The intrepidity of American seamen is proverbial, and is sometimes border- ing on recklessness. They are known to carry sail until rent by the blast, and to pursue their course amidst the howling and raging of the storm. It does not follow, however, (as De Tocqueville believes,) that, on that account, they are less safe than the ships of other nations. Being continually exposed to dangers, they are better prepared to meet them ; and carrying sails to the last moment they will hold, they are accustomed, when urged, to execute the necessary changes and manoeuvres with greater promptness and precision. There never is the least confusion on board of American ships; and I am not quite certain whether fewer hands, equally and steadily employed, are not more conducive to order and good management, than a large number of sailors accus- tomed to less work, and in a habit of relying on one another. To this we must add, that a person who is six weeks at sea, is naturally exposed to more accidents, than one who performs the same passage in four or five ; and that every day saved in this manner from the tediousness and peril of a long voyage, increases the comfort and safety of the passengers and crew. The preference given to American ships by the merchants of most Euro- pean ports, argues strongly in favor of the skill of their commanders; and the great patronage bestowed on the New York packets, is the surest indication of the willing- ness of the people of all countries to trust their lives and their property to the experience and science of American navigators. I have remarked before, that a large number of sailors employed in the American merchants' service, are for- eigners ; but I do not remember having known many of them advance to mates and masters of vessels. The officers of American ships are generally natives of the AMERICAN SEAMEN. 2&5 United States, and, without any national prejudice, it is easy to assign the reason. A sailor is a jolly, jovial, careless being, all the world over. He thinks less of the future than men of any other occupation in life, and being provided against physical wants, gives himself up to merriment. " Perils," says Bacon, "love to be rewarded with pleasure;" but the American sailor's reward is promotion. Being generally better educated than the seamen of other nations, and prudent and economical by instinct, a Yankee tar will not only think of advancement on board of his ship, but speculate also on the probability of becoming a merchant. Encouraged by the success of so many others before him, and, as is often the case, by that of his own commander, he employs his leisure hours rather in the study of navi- gation, than in frivolous recreations, which would only retard his progress in life. He is, perhaps, as gay as any other sailor ; but above all things he is a Yankee, and as such, intent upon bettering his condition, and, in this laudable undertaking, seconded by his employers. If he does not succeed, it is in most cases his own fault; for it would be difficult to conceal either talent or inferi- ority from such watchful eyes as those of his officers, who, with very few exceptions, have gone tlirough the same career themselves, and are consequently the best judges of his ability and character. There exists, if I mistake not, a strong aversion amongst American merchants, to trust themselves or their property to the care of captains, who, in the lan- guage of sailors, " have crept through the cabin window; " while, on the other hand, they are most liberal patrons of those who by courage and dexterity have acquired a just title to their favor. Hence merit is sure of its re- ward, and there is no stronger inducement to exertion. Neither have the Americans, (judging correctly of the importance of their maritime power,) left any thing un- done which could serve to promote the education and industry of sailors. The merchants of the large Atlantic cities have liberally contributed towards the establish- ment of churches exclusively for the religious instruction and improvement of mariners; savings banks for sailors have been formed under the auspices of the most enlight- 296 NAVAL ADVANTAGES OF AMERICA. ened citizens, who have volunteered their services as presidents and directors ; and a project for the establish- ment of naval schools, to educate seamen for the mer- chants' service, is now before the Congress of the United States, and will probably pass at the next session. Reli- gion, and voluntary abstinence from the use of ardent spirits, have had a prodigious influence on the moral habits of the sailors, and have saved thousands of them from that mental degradation to which they are continu- ally exposed by their occupation and habits of life, and into which they are often misled, even by the best features of their character. I have been so fortunate as to hear several sermons preached by the Rev. Mr. Taylor at the seamen's church in Boston, and have listened with intense pleasure to his pathetic exhortations to industry and sobriety. He had himself been a sailor on board of an American man-of- war, and understood admirably how to touch the feelings of his audience. His expressions were occasionally in- termixed with seamen's phrases, which, it was easy to perceive, produced the desired efl*ect. He would some- times, in the midst of a sermon, call upon individuals, and especially on captains of vessels, to use their personal influence in suppressing the vice of intemperance, and to exhort the men under their command to a proper worship of God, and the obedience of His laws. It was a moving scene to hear those sturdy navigators reply in the affirm- ative, and pledge their honor and their faith to fulfil the injunctions of their preacher. Mr. Taylor possesses evidently great powers of oratory, which he employs in the most humane and charitable manner, for the benefit of his fellow-creatures. His church is always crowded, and in the countenances of his hearers may be read the effects of his eloquence. I have never listened to sermons more deeply imbued with the spirit and sanctity of religion, than those of "the sailors' minister;" and I can only wish, for the sake of his noble and disinterested undertaking, that he may preserve his original simplicity and vigor of style, and not be misled into an unprofitable imitation of the flights and tropes of his colleagues. The American sailors, though they may be inferior in numbers, are morally superior to those of most nations; AMERICAN FISHERIES. 297 and it is for this reason they are generally promoted to mates and captains of vessels; while the others, more easily satisfied, are content to remain seamen all their lives. Whatever be the extent to which the navy of the United States may, at any time, be increased, there will always be a sufficient number of native officers to com- mand their ships ; and as long as this is the case, the American navy will be as national an institution as that of any other country. Suppose the Americans at war with any nation save the English, and Congress obliged to increase the naval power of the country ; then, whatever be the number of ships which may be added to the navy, (and the facilities of ship-building are great,) there will always be found a sufficient number of British seamen, ready to enlist in the service, from no other reason than because the same language is spoken, and higher wages paid, on board of American vessels, than they can obtain by serving on board of the ships of their own country. But the number of such British seamen joined to that which the American merchants' service would furnish, would by far surpass the force which could be mustered by their enemies. Whatever inferiority the navy of the United States may present in point of number, the facility of increasing the establishment, when required, is greater than in any other country ; and in this consists the strength of a maritime nation. Every new merchant-man which is launched from the stocks, is an addition to the naval force of the country, and increases the means of national defence ; with this difference only, that instead of increasing the national expenditure^ it increases the national wealthy and directs the industry of the people to new sources of general prosperity. At the beginning of a maritime war, the Americans would have to act on the defensive ; but it would depend on their own will, and on the unanimity of their sentiments, whether they are to continue in that state, or assume an attitude which would at once com- mand the respect and attention of any power in Europe. Another means of increasing the naval pov/er of the United States is furnished by their fisheries. The navy of every country requires for its existence and mainte- nance, a certain constant trade and employment, which 298 WHALE FISHERIES. shall act as a school for apprenticing young mariners. Such is the coal-trade of England, and the fisheries of the eastern states of America. The whale, mackerel, and cod fisheries of the United States occupy and enrich a large portion of the population of New England, and produce the hardiest and most enterprising sailors for the service of the merchants' navy : by their means, large fortunes are amassed in the midst of towns and villages which are built on barren rocks, and which, but for the bold spirit of their inhabitants, would be left without the natural means of subsistence. The fisheries, in the year 1834, yielded 2,071,493 dol- lars, nearly equivalent to £420,0U0 sterling. These were distributed as follows: — Dried fish or cod fisheries - 630,384 dollars. River fisheries - - 223,290 — Whale and other fish oil - 740,619 — Spermaceti oil - . 50,048 — Whalebone . - 169,434 — Spermaceti candles - - 257,718 — Total - 2,071,493 dollars But it is not so much the pecuniary benefit, as the in- calculable advantage arising from it to the education of seamen, which gives to this branch of industry a national importance. The hardiest seamen of the United States are from that part of the country, and more than one half of all the officers employed in the navigation of American ships are natives from New England. Most remarkable, for the manner in which they are carried on, are the whale fisheries of the United States. The equipment of the ships and crews employed in that trade resemble a privateering expedition — officers and sailors receiving, in a measure, prize-money instead of regular wages. Every man on board has a share in the profits, which is according to his rank and employment. Being thus paid according to what they earn, the crews are willing to bear greater hardships, and are indefatiga* AMERICAN SHIP-BUILDING. 299 ble in the chase. Every moment they remain on shore they consider as lost; and it is not unfrequent to see an American whaleman return from the Pacific Ocean with a full cargo of oil, without having once touched the land since he left home. The American sailors become thus inured to the worst dangers and hardships of the sea, and accustomed to the severest toils which fall to the lot of seamen. They become habituated to every species of privation, and find the merchants' service in which they may subsequently engage comparatively easy and cheerful. Ship-building is another branch of industry in which the Americans excel. They are universally allowed to build the fastest vessels ; but considerable doubts were entertained as to the expediency of building them princi- pally for making short passages. Experience has since shown these apprehensions to have been ill-founded; for it is now an uncontested fact that the American ships are, in all quarters of the world, the successful competi- tors of those of every other nation. The packets espe- cially, are renowned for their speed and the elegance of their construction ; and they have had the preference, thus far, over all other ships sailing for American ports. The postage on letters conveyed by them from Great Britain and Ireland alone, amounts annually to more than £ 120,000 sterling, and the number of passengers to and fro, to from forty to fifty thousand. This is certainly a Jstrong argument in favor of expedition, and is more than sufficient to prove that the Americans have found the proper way of building and navigating ships, and that they understand admirably to supply their inferior tonnage by a greater number of fast-sailing vessels. The successes of the Americans during the last war with England, were by English officers themselves at- tributed to the skilful manner in which they navigated their ships, and especially to the superior construction of their large frigates. These were built in such a manner as to unite all the advantages of small, fast-sailing vessels, with the heavy calibre of seventy-fours, and were conse- quently capable of attacking and defending themselves against heavy ships of the line, while they were more than a match for ordinary frigates. The first idea of these 300 AMERICAN FRIGATES. vessels was conceived by the Americans, and has since been imitated by all other maritime powers. But the same spirit of invention, which has already been tri- umphant, may, in time of danger, contrive fresh expedi- ents to ensure once more the success which is inseparable from genius. CHAPTER X. INTERNAL NAVIGATION OF THE UNITED STATES. RAIL- ROADS. CANALS. FACILITIES OF TRAVELLING. THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE POLITICAL CONDITION OF THE PEO- PLE. STEAM-BOATS. PUBLIC AND BOARDING HOUSES. HOSPITALITY OF AMERICANS. No country is, by nature, favored with such large navigable streams as America ; but it may also be added that none has done so much to improve its internal navi- gation. From the mighty Mississippi and its noble tributaries the Ohio and the Missouri, down to the smallest and most insignificant creek or inlet, the Ameri- can waters are covered with steamers, boats, and rafts of all descriptions ; and where the natural communication was not sufficient, the want has been supplied by canals. In the year 1831, there were on the western waters alone, one hundred and ninety-eight steam-boats running, and one hundred and fifty had been worn out or lost by acci- dents. The whole number of boats, therefore, built on those waters since 1811 was 348, of which one hundred and eleven were built in the city of Cincinnati alone. But the Americans were not satisfied with improving merely what nature had done for them ; they went fur- ther. They connected the western waters with those of the Atlantic, and the lakes with the Gulf of Mexico ; and established an artificial water communication by means of canals, which, in extent is nearly half the length of the Mississippi, the largest river in the world. Mr. Pitkins, in his " Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States," estimates the number of miles of 26 302 CANALS AND RAILROADS. canals in the United States completed on the first of January, 1835, or which would not long after be com- pleted, at two thousand eiojht hundred and sixty-four, and their cost, at ^ 64,573,099, or ^12,914,620 sterling. — "When the cost of the railroads in the United States," continues he, " is added to that of the canals, it will be found that there has been, or will soon be expended in this country, on these two kinds of internal improvements alone, a sum not less than ninety-four millions of dollars," — about nineteen millions pounds sterling; — "and this has been done, principally, since 1817." According to this statement, which I think rather falls short of the truth than exceeds it, the Americans have expended, in that branch of improvement alone, the sum of one mil- lion pounds sterling annually, which is more than twenty per cent, of the whole expenditures of the national govern- ment. The extent of railroads was nearly seven hundred miles, without including any of the large projected schemes for extending them to the west, and connecting the southern states v.ith those of the east and north. These, liowever, have already been partially carried into execution ; and it is to be expected that in less than twenty years a traveller in the United States will be able to traverse the country from the western extremity to the shores of the Atlantic, and from the borders of Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, without beinsr once obliged to slacken his speed, or to excbange a locomotive car or a steam-boat for the less expeditious method of a carriage drawn by horses. The railroads, in progress, or completed, in the month of January, 1835, exceeded sixteen hundred miles in length, and their cost was in "Pitkins's Statistics " esti- mated at thirty millions of dollars or six millions pounds sterling nearly. This statement, however, must, I think, fall short of the truth ; as there were, in the state of New- York alone, fifty incorporated railroad companies, with a capital of upwards of thirty-four millions of dollars, or six millions eight hundred thousand pounds sterling; and similar companies were chartered in all other states. RAILROADS. 303 The following of these Railroads were completed at the close of the year 1836 ; Length. 1. The Railroad from Buffalo to Black Rock 3 miles. 2« — Ithaca to Oswego - 29 — 3. — ■ Albany to Schenectady 16 — - 4. — Troy to Ballston - 24| — 5. — Rochester to Carthage 3 — 6. — Saratoga to Schenectady 22 — 7. — Utica to Schenectady 77 — Total 174i miles. The following Railroads were commenced : Length. The Railroad from Auburn to Syracuse - 26 miles. — Buffalo to Niagara Falls 21 — — Catskill to Canajoharie - 68 — — Prince St. to Haerlam - 7 — — Hudson to Massachusetts line 30 — — Lockport to Niagara Falls 24 — — Brooklyn to Greenport - 98 — — N, York city to Lake Erie 505 — — Saratoga Spr'gs to Whitehall 41 — ' — ■ Rochester to Utica - 45 — Total 865 miles. At the last session of the legislature of New York in 1836, no less than forty-two new railroad companies were incorporated, of which the most important ones were the Attica and Buffalo, Auburn and Ithaca, Batavia and Lockport, Brooklyn Bath and Coney Island, Courtlandt- ville and Oswego, Herkimer and Trenton Falls, Lansing- burgh and Troy, Chittenango and Cazenovia, Oswego and Utica, Rochester and Genessee Port, Schenectady and Troy, Staten Island, Syracuse and Binghampton, Syra- cuse and Brewertown, and Utica and Syracuse Rail- roads, — The state of New York alone, therefore, will ia 304 RAILROADS. a few years have ninety-two railroads, facilitating the in- tercourse of its principal towns and villages, or connecting them with the railroads of other states in order to estab- lish lines of communication with the southern, western and eastern parts of the country. The same spirit of improvement is stirring in the other states. In the state of Maine there has been completed (in 1836) a railroad from Bangor to Orono ; a company for another to extend from Portland to Dover, New Hampshire, has been incorporated at the last session of the legislature, and three new ones have been projected, one of which is to extend from the coast of Maine to Quebec. In the state of New Hampshire, two railroad companies have been incorporated, both of which have already commenced operations ; and in the state of Ver- mont four others, with an aggregate capital of 4,000,000 of dollars. In the state of Massachusetts, there are al- ready completed three principal railroads, viz., from Bos- ton to Providence, from Boston to Worcester, and from Boston to Lowell. Each of these has again its branches extending to other towns in the state, or connecting them with the railroads of the state of New York. The "West- ern Railroad," which was incorporated by the legislature of Massachusetts in 1833 was commenced in 1836, the state having subscribed to it the sum of 1,000,000 dollars. This railroad will extend from Worcester to the Connec- ticut river at Springfield ; thence to the boundary line of the state of New York, where it will be connected with three different railroads, one leading to Albany, another to Hudson, and a third to Troy. From Albany a rail- road to the westward is already completed as far as Uti- ca ; from Utica to Buffalo a new railroad has recently been incorporated ; and from Buffalo it is to be continued through the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois to the borders of the Mississippi ; which will estab- lish a direct line of communication between Portland, in the state of Maine, and New Orleans, in the Gulf of of Mexico. In addition to these, three new railroads were incorporated by the legislature of Massachusetts at its last session in 1836 ; one of which, from Boston to Salem, Newburyport and Portsmouth, N. Hampshire, is already in progress. In the state of Connecticut, three railroads RAILROADS. 305 are now in progress, and five new ones have been incor- porated ; in New Jersey, three railroads are completed, and three new ones in progress ; in Pennsylvania thirteen are completed, and eight or ten in progress ; and in the small state of Delaware one is completed, and another in progress. The Baltimore and Ohio railroad was incorporated by the legislature of Maryland in 1827, and is to extend from the city of Bahimore to the banks of the river Ohio, dis- tance 360 miles. In 1835, eighty-six miles of this road were completed at an expense of 3,106,507 dollars. The company had in operation ten engines, fifty passengers' cars and 1,200 wagons for transporting merchandise. It is to be observed, moreover, that the company did not import their machinery from England, but relied entirely on the ingenuity of American workmen ; and they are now believed to possess locomotives of the best kind, and with the most powerful engines. For the prosecution of this railroad, the legislature of the state has recently sub- scribed 3,000,000 dollars, and the city of Baltimore other 3,000,000 dollars. Two other railroads have been com- pleted in that state, and three new ones incorporated. In the state of Virginia three railroads of thirteen, fifty-nine, and thirty miles in length respectively, were completed in 1830 ; three new ones were commenced, and eighteen others incorporated since 1835, with a joint capital of 12,595,000 dollars, or ^2,519,000 sterling. In the state of North Carolina six new railroads are projected, and some of them commenced. In South Carolina there exists already a railroad from Charleston to Hamburg, distance 136 miles ; and another is projected on a huge plan. It is to extend from Charleston to Cincinnati (Ohio,) dis- tance 607 miles, connecting the valleys of the Ohio and the Mississippi with the Atlantic ocean. The expenses of this road are estimated at $15,000,000 or £3,000,000 sterling. In the state of Georgia there are completed two railroads, and three others are in progress, extending 90, 200, and 210 miles in length respectively. In the state of Alabama nine railroads are commenced ; in the state of Mississippi three, and in the state of Louisiana one rail- road is completed, and five or six others in progress. In Kentucky two railroads are completed, and three or four 26* 306 CANALS. in progress. In the state of Ohio twelve railroads were incorporated in 1832, of which the *' Mad river and lake Erie railroad," which is to extend 153 miles, was com- menced in 1835, and thirty miles of it completed in 1836. In 1835, twenty-eight new railroad companies were in- corporated in that state with a capital of more than 20,000,000 dollars or .£4,000,000 sterling. In the state of Indiana four railroads are projected. In the state of Illinois there were chartered in 1835 nine railroads of which the " Alton and Galena railroad " alone was to be 350 miles long ; and at the last session of the legislature (in 1836,) fourteen new ones were incorporated. In the state of Missouri two railroads are projected ; and the legislature of the state of Michigan, a state which has only been recently admitted into the Union, has already chartered four railroad companies, and a large number of others are projected. The whole population of that state is averaged only at 120,000, and consisted, accord- ing to the census of 1834, only of 85,856 inhabitants. Several railroads have been projected also in the Florida territory, and one or two of these are now in progress. The canals of the United States are not of so late a date, but are nevertheless constructed chiefly since 1820. Ten years' improvements however, with so new and enter- prising a people as the Americans, are sufficient to change the aspect of things, and to give the whole country a new character. The attention of the Americans has within the last five or six years chiefly been turned to the con- struction of railroads ; but I must be greatly mistaken if canals would not, in many instances, answer the same purpose ; and they would, under particular circumstances, be far less expensive. The natural facilities of water communication seem to invite the Americans not to neg- lect this branch of internal improvement ; and the profits realised on the principal canals now in operation, ought to be a sufficient inducement for speculators to invest their capital in so useful and national a branch of in- dustry. The principal Canals in the United States, completed in January, 1835, were the following; Blackstone canal - - 45 miles. Black river - - - 76 — CANALS OF NEW YORK. 307 miles. Cayuga - - 20 Champlain - - 63 Chemung _ - 23 Chenango _ - 96 Chesapeake and Ohio (j lot yet completed) - - 340 Chesapeake and Delaware 14 Delaware _ - 60 Delaware and Hue Ison - 108 Delaware and Rar iton - 421 Dismal Swamp - - 23 Erie - - 363 Farmington . - 78 Lehigh - - 461 Middlesex , - 27' Miami - - 66 Morris _ - 97 Ohio . - 334 Oswego - - 38 Pennsylvania - - 277 Santee - - 22 Schuylkill - - 110 Union - - 80 Wabash and Erie - - 200 Total 2,759 That the construction of canals in the United States has in most cases been a profitable undertaking, yielding on an average from ten to twelve per cent, interest 'per annum on the capital invested,* will appear from the sub- joined report of the canal commissioners of the state of New York, which may be relied on as official, as these canals are owned by the state itself. * In one or two instances some private canal companies have de- clared a dividend of 102 per cent, per annum I 378 CANALS OF NEW YORK. 1 Length No. of Cost in Name. Miles. Locks. Dolls. & Cts. Erie 363 84 7,143,789 86 Champlain - - ) Glen's Fall's Feeder j 76 34 1,257,604 26 Osweo-o 38 14 565,437 35 Cayuga - - _ 21 11 236,804 74 Chemung - - ) Navigable Feeder - j 39 53 331,693 57 Crooked Lake 8 27 156,776 57 Chenango Feeders 113 109 1,960,456 28 658 11,652,562 96 The average cost, per mile, therefore, was 18,000 dol- lars, or ^3,600 sterling. The Tolls received in the year 1835 were as follows Erie and Champlain canals Oswego - - - Cayuga and Seneca Chemung - - - Crooked Lake Dollars. 1,492,811 29,180 20,430 4,720 1,829 Cts. 59 62 11 44 63 39* tolls Total - 1,548,972 which is 13| per cent, nearly of their cost. The on these canals have been annually increasing ever since the completion of the enterprise. In 1831 they amount- ed to lOJ per cent., in 1832 to lOf per cent., in 1833 to 12f per cent., in 1834 to 11 J per cent., and in 1835, as I have just stated, to 13| nearly, of the whole cost of the canals. The folloicing table icillshow the increase of tolls during the la.&t five years. Comparative View of Tolls for Five years. Canals. 1831. 1832. 1 1833. 1834. Dolls. Cts. 1835. Dolls. Cts. Dolls. Cts. Dolls. Cts. Dolls. Cts. Erie Champlain 1,091,711 20 102,896 23 1,085,612 28 110,191 95 1,290,136 20 I 132,559 02 1,294,649 66 1,492,811 59 Oswego 16,271 10 19,786 20 22,950 47 1 22,168 02 99,180 62 Cayuga 12,920 39 13,893 04 17,174 69 1 18,130 43 20,430 11 Chemung _ . 694 00 , 3,378 05 4,720 44 Crooked Lake Total - - 200 84 1,463,715 22 1,473 40 1,829 63 1,548,972 39 1,223,801 98 1,229,483 47 i,339,7li9 56 * Chenango canal is not yet in operation j but was to be completed in November, 1836. CANALS OF PENNSYLVANIA. 309 Pennsylvania has always been the rival of New York with regard to internal improvements; and it will there- fore be not improper to give a short statement of the canals of that state, Pennsylvania possesses twelve state canals, extending 601J miles in length, and two state railroads of 81 and 37 miles respectively, making jointly a distance of 720 miles, exclusive of the improvements carried on by private companies. The following Tables will exhibit the Length and Cost of each Canal, together with the Amount of Tolls received during the last Five Years : Name, Length in Miles. Cost. Dolls. Cts. Delaware Division - 59| 1,238,027 69 Eastern Do. - - - 43 1,283,733 46 Juniata Do. - - ) Feeders - - ^ 1321 2,490,290 13 Western Do. 1061 2,758,937 71 Feeders - - - - - 64,255 00 Susquehanna Do. - 39 1,039,256 77 West Branch Do. - 25| 421,771 00 North Branch Do. 551 1,096,178 34 Wyoming Do. 17 342,796 55 Lycoming Do. Feeders Do. 41| H I 1,205,573 77 Beaver Do. - - - 30| 476,401 48 Franklin Line Do. 22J 442,558 34 French Creek Do. Total 23J 441,455 45 6011 13,301,235 69 Amount of Tolls received since 1830. In 1830 1831 1832 1833 Dolls. as. 27,012 90 38,241 20 50,909 57 151,419 69 310 CANALS OF DIFFERENT STATES. Dolls. Cts. 1834 - - - 309,789 15 1835 - - - 684,357 77 Total - 1,261,730 23 Nor have the other states been behindhand with regard to internal improvements of this sort. There was one canal constructed in the state of Maine ; four others in New Hampshire; four in Massachusetts; two in Con- necticut ; three in ^e\v Jersey ; one in the state of Dela- ware ; three in Maryland ; six in Virginia; three in North Carolina; six in South Carolina ; one in Georgia; two in Alabama ; four in Louisiana ; and two in the state of Ohio, viz. the " Ohio Canal," from Portsmouth on the Ohio to Cleaveland on Lake Erie, 307 miles in length, with 152 locks, and the " Miami Canal," sixty-five miles in length, with thirty-two locks; and there were, besides, eight new canal companies incorporated by the legisla- ture of that state. The legislature of the state of Indiana passed a bill in January, 1836, providing for a loan of 10,000,000 dollars to be expended in "improving river navigation, and constructing canals, railroads, and turnpike roads." In consequence of this bill, three canals, two railroads, and two macadamised turnpike roads have been commenced in that state, and are now in active progress. In the state of Illinois, two canal companies were recently in- corporated, one of which, with a capital of 7,000,000 dollars, is to construct a canal from Chicago on Lake Michigan, to Ottawa on the Illinois river, distance nine- ty-five miles. The breadth of this canal is to be thirty-six feet at the bottom, sixty at the surface, and its deptli six feet. Thirty-six miles from Chicago, the canal must be cut twenty-four miles through solid rock, from seven to twenty-eight feet in depth, making this part alone cost 4,000,000 of dollars. The commissioners advertised in July, 1836, for 10,000 workmen, offering them from twenty-five to thirty dollars (five to six pounds sterling) a month. The post-offices and post-roads have increased in the same proportion as the canals and railroads. POST OFFICES AND POST ROADS, 311 T ., iodern whigs, have occasionally undergone an apparent change. The party were careful to avoid general opposition, abandoned, oc- casionally, some of their most obnoxious doctrines — at least for a time, until they should have an opportunity of rising once more into power — and sailed, when prudence required it, under false colors. But with all the incli- nations and variations of their political compass, the point they were always endeavoring to make, was to confide power to comparatively few, and to deprive the masses of the privilege of voting. They take it as a political axiom that the people can never govern themselves ; because the people are never sufficiently enlightened for that pur- pose ; and yet they expect that the people, who now pos- sess the power, will have sufficient good sense voluntarily to surrender it to them ; and to appoint them trustees of the wealth, wisdom, and progress of the nation. The federal party deny that all men are born "free and equal," — the very words used in the American dec- laration of independence, — and yet, in their arguments, will adduce the example of Greece, Rome, England and France, and maintain that one nation is exactly like another, because human nature is everywhere the same. They thus admit that their own does not differ from that of the rest of mankind ; but that circumstances have ele- vated them to a proud eminence over tlieir fellow-crea- tures. They are, in fact, admirabhj fit to govern, and this is a sufficient reason for them to claim the government; and to deride those, who from sheer ignorance, are con- tinuing to rule themselves and their antagonists, when they might resign the irksome task to the more intelligent and learned. The federal party have studied the art of government, and reduced it to a science. They can prove 408 STATE OF PARTIES IN AMERICA. »' by a plus 6, divided by z; that the sheep must be red, and die with the small-pox,"* when their ignorant oppo- nents would never know more than that it was a sheep. The sum and substance of their argument is this. The people must be led in order to prevent them from taking a wrong direction, or from remaining too far behind. In order to lead them, it is, of course, necessary, that some citizens (always the enlightened and scientific) should be placed at the head, with sufficient power to compel the rest to follow. Ail this is evidently for the good of the people, which the people themselves do not know. But the people unfortunately wish to remain judges of their own good, and never like to have the head too far removed from the body. This is in truth all the difference of opin- ion which exists between the present parties in the United States, though a great deal of learning has been exhausted, by Mr. Hanmton and others, to account scientifically for the political schism. Whoever has been an impartial observer of the Ameri- cans, will have come to the conclusion that no other form of government, save a pure democracy, could have ever insured their freedom, or satisfied their love of liberty; and that every attempt to introduce aristocratic institu- tions into their country, must necessarily rouse the oppo- sition and indignation of the people. De Tocqueville ob- serves that at the present period, the nations of Europe have no other alternative than to choose between a de- mocracy and an absolute despotism ; but he might d for- tiori apply the same doctrine to the Americans. Without believing with De Tocqueville that the laws of a democ- racy must necessarily be imperfect, but, on the contrary, convinced that they must always benefit the majority or be soon abrogated, I am fully persuaded of the correct- ness of the remainder of his argument, and especially of the truth of his remarks on the spirit of family. t He ap- * "Voltaire's Candide. t " Mais de nos jours oil touies les classes acMvent de se confondre, oh Vindividu disparait de plus en plus dans la foule, et se perd aisdment au milieu de Vobscuriti coviviune, aujourd'hui gue Vhomieur monarchique ayant presque perdu son empire sans etre remplaci par la vertu, rien ne soutientplusVhommeau dessus de lui-meme, quipeut dire oil s'arreteraient les exigejices du pouvoir et les complaisances de lafaiblesse ? ARISTOCRACY IN AMERICA. 409 plies this part of his argument chiefly to the condition of France ; but how much more must it hold with regard to the United States 1 If hereditary distinctions have, in a manner, been abolished in France, where still all their trappings and titles are left, tliey have never existed in America ; and the law of primogeniture was always op- posed to the manners and customs of the people. It hardly ever takes more than two or three generations to reduce the wealthiest families in the United States, in point of fortune, to an equahty with the industrious class- es; and in the ordinary course of nature genius is not hereditary. The Americans, therefore, are not apt to form attachments to certain families, who have no power of rewarding their fidelity ; and the road to honor and distinction being open to all, view with peculiar jealousy any attempt at elevation resting on ancestral pretensions. Aristocracy, in America, must first be created, before it can exercise its influence ; but all the institutions of the country are totally opposed to its birth. Notliing indeed is more common, than to hear Ameri- cans themselves aver that " there is a great deal of aris- tocracy in their country, of which Europeans, generally, " Tant qu^a dur6 Vesprit defamille, Vhomme qui luttait contre la tyran- nie n^6toAt jamais seul; il trouvait autour de lui des cliens, des aviisMri- ditaires, des proches. Et eel appui lui eut-il manqtid il se sentait encore soutenu par ses aieux et animi par ses descendans. Mais quand le patri- moine se divise, et quand en pen d'annies ies races se confondent^ oil placer Vesprit de famille ? " * * * * " Ceci ne 7)i6rite-t-il pas quJon y songe 7 Si Ies hommes devaient ar river, en effet a ce point quHl falliU Ies reiidre tous Hbres ou tous csclaves, iotis 6gaux en droits ou tous privis de droits ? Si ceux qui gouvernent Ies soci6tis en ttaient reduits a cette alternative d'i.lever graduellement la foule jusqu' a eux, ou de laisser tomber tous Ies citoyens au dessoics du niveau de r/iumaniten'en serait ce pas assez pour vaincre bicn des doutes, rassurer bien des consciences^ et priparer cliacun a faire aisiment de grands sacrifices 7 " ih * * * '' Les volontes de la d6mocratie sont chcmgcanies, ses agens grossiers; ses lois imparfaites. Je Vaccorde. Mais sHl etait vrais que bientot il ne dut exister aucun intermediaire entre V empire de la dimocratie et le joug d'un seul, ne devrions nous pas plutot tendre vers Vun que nous soumettre volontairement h Vautre 7 Et sHl fallait enfin en arriver a une compUte 6galit6 ne voudrait-il pas mieux se laisser niveller par la liberty que par un dcspote 7 " — Tocqueville de la Democratic en Am6rique. 35 410 UNITERSAL SUFFRAGE. are entirely unaware." Now I have remained nearly fif- teen years in the United States ; but I have never been able to discover this aristocracy, nor its trappings, pow- er, influence, or worshippQrs. I have, assuredly, known a variety of fasliionable coteries, — at least, what in America would be called fashionable, — composed of highly respectable merchants, literary and professional men, politicians and others, who, it was evident, con- sidered themselves the nobility and gentry of the land ; but they never had the courage of avowing their senti- ments and pretensions in public; and have, of late, been as much excluded from the government of the country, as they avoided being confounded with the rest of their fel- low-citizens. On the other hand, I have had an oppor- tunity of observing a class of society, again composed of highly respectable merchants, literary and professional men, politicians and others, who never exhibited the least symptoms of imaginary superiority over their country- men, but always acknowledged themselves to be public servants, paid and provided for by the people, and who, in fact, possessed considerable more power and influence than tiieir aristocratic neighbors with tiie exclusive sen- timents. One party was always dreaming of influence and distinction, the other actually possessed them. This is all the difference I have ever known between the aris- tocracy and democracy of America. Universal suffrage has been decried as leading to anar- chy, and thence to despotism. General Jackson had al- ready been represented as the future dictator of the re- public. How have these predictions been verified? The democratic party have developed more union and strength than any previous one in power. They have reconciled the south with the north, and preserved the integrity of the Union. They have in every instance upheld the law and subjected states and individuals to the proper au- thority of Congress. They have, at the same time, ab- stained from any undue and unconstitutional interference with the internal regulations of the states, and procured justice for all that were injured. They have made the government respected abroad, and obliged even the most powerful nations to preserve peace and good faith with the United States. In short, they deleated their antago- UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE. 411 iiists at home and abroad, and inspired universal confi- dence in the safety and stabihty of American institutions. And what has become of the dictator? He is indeed yet the idol of the people whose interests he endeavored to protect by every act of his military and political life; but he is retiring from office, as all his predecessors, with no other personal gratification than the affections of America, and the admiration of Europe. He will leave to his successor the example of his virtue, and a govern- ment established on liberty and justice. Democratic institutions, as they exist in America, are without a precedent in history. The ancients never dreamed of a government similar to that of the United States ; and its very existence was precluded by the igno- rance of the masses, and the absence of a periodical press. Never, before, have the people at large partici- pated in, or assumed, the government of a state. All the arguments in the world in favor or against democracy must, therefore, remain conjectures till time shall have solved the problem. The question, in America, is no longer whether democracy is to he established, but whether it is to be changed. It exists there already, and cannot be abolished without a most dangerous and violent revo- lution. The tories are the revolutionists in America: the democrats are the conservatives, and adhere to the government. The point at issue is, whether the latter are to give up a form of government under which they have prospered, and made such immense improvements, mere- ly because doubts are entertained as to the possibility of retaining it forever? — whether they shall surrender a power, which once departed from them will never return to its source, and to obtain which they would have to make new and additional sacrifices ? The face of the world is changed ; why should the old forms of government be the only ones adapted to its new character ? The people have acquired information and power ; why should they not use them in the establish- ment of governments, when they can do so without com- mitting an act of injustice to others ? Democracy in America, is a legitimate and historical form of government, and does not clash with the established manners and customs of the country. The most perfect despotism — 412 THE WAR IN TEXAS. that of China — has lasted for thousands of years ; why should liberty alone be forever banished from the earth? If tyranny could find sucli a basis, should justice be built in the air? I much rather believe that the liberty of the ancients was not established on a basis sufficiently large to withstand the attacks of factions, and that the over- throw of their republics was chiefly owing to the little power which was vested in tlie majority of the people. A whole nation is seldom deceived about her true in- terests, and cannot be bribed by a party. The people may make faults, but they have always the power of re- pairing them, and where they have a share in the govern- ment, are identified with its continuance and progress. If it be true that " universal history contains the judgment of the world,"* we must consider the downfall of Rome as the punishment of its political crimes, and may hope for the freedom of America as long as her people shall be worthy of it. Of the greatest importance to the progress of the United States, is the present contest of the Texians with the republic of Mexico. The Americans were not bound to assist their brethren, who had quitted their country ; yet the enormous sums, and the number of volunteers which, since the commencement of the war, have been sent from the United States to assist those bold adven- turers, are totally incommensurate with the American interests in that province. It was the sympathy of coun- trymen, and of political friends, which procured money and troops for the Texians, and enabled them to repel the attacks of their enemies. I never, from the commencement of hostilities, believed that the Mexicans would be able to reconquer their terri- tory, and I certainly do not think so now ; but I am far from considering tlie annexation of Texas to the United States in the light of many politicians, who view in it only the subject of future quarrels. I think it rather favorable to the continuance of the Union, than threaten- ing to change its principles. The New England and northern states, generally, will at first lose a portion of their political influence ; but they will recover it again in *" Die Weltgescliichte ist das Weltfrericht.-" — Schiller. INFLUENCE OF TEXAS ON THE UNION. 413 the future, enabling the south in the mean time to reas- sume its wonted influence in Congress. The territory of Texas may easily be divided into three or four indepen- dent states, which, for a period, would insure a majority of southern members in the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives. But I do not apprehend that the power of the south can ever be so far increased, as to endanger the safety of the nortlr. At present, the southern states are jealous of a possible interference of the north with the institution of slavery. They are morbidly sensitive on this subject, because they feel that they are, in a measure, at the mercy of the north, who might offend them without dreading their revenge. By the accession of Texas, they will be able to defend themselves, and establish a system of equality, which cannot but be pro- ductive of greater harmony and friendship. No passion is so destructive to a sincere attachment as fear ; nothing so opposed to a mutual good understanding as a mind filled with suspicion. These obstacles to friendship can only be avoided by a greater equality of position, which shall render it impossible for one party to injure and oppress the other. Under such circum- stances, an hundred concessions will be made, which the weaker would have refused from jealousy, and which, on the part of the stronger, would have had the appearance of condescension. Thus, the southern states of America may hereafter abolish slavery ; but they will not do so as long as the measure appears to be forced upon them ; and until they have the means of protecting themselves against the possible encroachments of the blacks. The more powerful the district is which becomes thus united by the same interests, the less will they apprehend from their slaves and the northern agitators ; the more chari- table therefore will they be in their treatment of their negroes, and the more ready to listen to the voice of humanity. There is no reason to believe that the admission of Texas into the Union will create a distinct interest, op- posed to that of the northern and western states. The north, and a portion of the west, (those states which increase more rapidly than all the rest,) have no material interest which could be endangered by the continuance 35* 414 INFLUENCE OF TEXAS ON THE UNION. of slavery ; and the question therefore, can only be one of political eminence. But whatever additional power the south may, in this manner, acquire, must finally be overbalanced by the much more rapid increase of the white population in the western stales, and can therefore only serve to re-establish, for a limited period, the position which the south held immediately after the establishment of peace. Instead of stirring up the question of slavery, with a view to excite prejudices which, in course of time, may endanger the Union, I am inclined to believe it will cause the subject to sleep — each party reposing on its own strength, until, in the natural course of events, the power of the north will have again surpassed that of the south, rendering its intentions and motives a fresh matter of suspicion. So far then from causing a separation, the annexation of Texas will be a promoter of harmony and friendship, and allay those prejudices which the ill-guided zeal of a few individuals has excited in the minds of the southerners. Neither will the financial condition of the southern and northern states be altered by the new accumulation of territory. The soil of Texas is favorable to the cultivation of cotton, and its climate and position, in other respects, similar to those of the southern states. Texas, therefore, can only be a competitor of the south, and perhaps de- press the price of cotton ; but to the north it will open an additional market for manufactures, and new means of promoting navigation and commerce. Neither will the condition of the west undergo a material change, except for the better. The inhabitants of Texas will become consumers of the western produce, without the least probability of competing with it in other markets ; and the west, enriched by its new customers, will furnish ad- ditional employment to the industry and enterprise of the north. In every direction it must increase the prosperity of the country, and enlarge the stake which the Ameri- cans have in the Union. The southern states will not be individually benefited, but tlieir rights and privileges, as a ivJwle, will receive an additional support. The northern states, on the contrary, will receive no such addition ; but they are far from standing in need of it, and will be satisfied with the pecuniary advantages, which they must MEXICO AND THE UNITED STATES. 415 assuredly derive from so large an accession to their markets. Nor will Texas be exclusively peopled by southerners. No sooner will the independence of Texas be acknowl- edged, and the state itself be admitted into the Union, than thousands of the most active and enterprising popu- lation of the north, and especially New Englanders, will proceed thither in quest of happiness and fortune. Texas will not represent the prejudices of a particular section, but the intelligence and industry of every part of the United States. It will derive its capital from the north ; but it must, in time, benefit every section of the country; though its geographical position must render it an ap- pendage to the southern and western states. In less than ten years, lines of communication will be established, from the centre of the province to all the large commer- cial emporiums of the United States; and a journey from New York to Texas will be accomplished with more ease, than, twenty years ago, a trip from Washington to Boston. Every state will have a portion of its capital invested in Texas, and be united to it by ties of consanguinity and friendship. The Texians will, in every respect, be situ- ated like the inhabitants of any other state in the Union ; but their position to Mexico will in all probability re- main hostile. It is difficult to foretell to what extent the contempt for the Spanish race, and the rapid augmenta- tion of their own strength, will finally lead the Americans; but in a further contest with Mexico the victory cannot be doubtful. The Mexicans bear to the United States very nearly the same relation as the American Indians: there is scarcely more union and discipline amongst them, though considerably less energy and bravery. The Mexicans, it is highly probable, will have to pay the penalty of their inertness, and in course of time be- come subject to their more industrious and enterprising neighbors. The whole number of pure Spaniards in Meoico does not amount to one million, which, in less than ten years, will scarcely be a power sufficient to with- stand the encroachments of the western settlers alone. Opposed to the United States, Mexico is but a power of the second or third rank, incapable of improving the ad- vantages of its position, and too much divided in itself^ 416 SOUTH AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES. ever to oppose an energetic force to a continental enemy. The incalculable resources of the Mexican soil, its fine climate, its inexhaustible mines, and the superiority of its geographical position, with excellent ports on the Pacific, will hold out sufficient temptations to the Americans, to venture fresh settlements on its territory, or to embroil the two nations in war ; until, finally, the United States will extend from the river St. Lawrence to the isthmus of Panamas; aud from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. Neither will the progress of the Americans be arrested there. If they remain united, and the South American states do not increase in power, but, on the contrary, be- come more and more enfeebled by internal divisions and the growing oppositions of the Indians, the latter must, directly or indirectly, be brought to acknowledge the superiority of the United States. Already is the Ameri- can influence on those countries an object of jealousy with its impotent patriots ; but the commencement being once made with Mexico, the conquest of all the remaining American states, and the final occupation of the whole continent by the Anglo-Saxon race, would be compara- tively easy. Mexico is the only one of those states which has a sufficient land force to resist an enemy. The settlements of the Portuguese in Brazil, and those of the Spaniards in Buenos Ayres, never extended into the interior of the country ; with whose wealth, re- sources, and facilities of navigation they are far less acquainted than the people of the United States. Their whole power is confined to the sea-coast, defended by a few frigates and minor ships of war, which, in the Eng- lish or American navy, would scarcely be pronounced sea-worthy, and commanded, for the most part, in a man- ner equal to the fittinir-out of the vessels. The whole white population of Brazil does not, probably, surpass five or six luuidred thousand ; the rest are persons of color and Europeans. These, even at the present mo- ment, could not oppose the execution of any ambitious design on the part of the United States, which could only be checked by an active interference of the European powers. The fate of these states depends chiefly on the assistance of England ; without which they may, at any time, become annexed to the United States, or reduced to ADVANTAGE OF POSITION OF THE UNITED STATES 417 American colonies. Neither does there appear to be any other prospect for the tranquillity and welfare of those countries, than their being annexed to the United States. Florida and Louisiana have in this manner be- come wealthy; Texas will soon follow their example; Mexico itself will not be able to avoid its fate ; and should we hope for the independence of the minor states ? One step towards the final subjection of the whole American continent, was made by the people of the Spanish provinces themselves, in adopting the constitu- tion of the United States, or some similar fundamental law, which they will never be able fully to carry into execution, until they shall have mixed with the American race, and acquired its customs and manners. By this means Louisiana has become reformed, and is now es- sentially an American state. We may even without great stretch of imagination suppose the case in which the South American republics themselves may seek the protection of the United States, and prefer being annex- ed to a powerful and free nation, to being exposed to the attacks of the Indians, and the cruelty and rapacity of their own military chieftains. The different powers of Europe always quarrelled for the possession of the South American continent. Brazil, especially with its diamond mines, excited their cupidity and jealousy ; why should not the descendants of those powers conclude the strife, by uniting under one and the same government? When the United States shall have risen to that political emi- nence, which will enable them to make war and dictate peace, the powers of Europe may themselves be at war with each other, and be obliged to submit to such an un- expected aggrandisement. The United States hold a position, with regard to America, somewhat similar to that which England occu- pies in reference to Europe. They are the first and only maritime nation of the new world ; but, at the same time, join to it the advantages of a huge continental power, occupying nearly one third of the whole continent. They are, therefore, with regard to America, what France and England, joined, would be in opposition to the rest of Europe; only that their antagonists are less intelligent, less numerous, and by far less martially in- 418 GOVERNMENT OF clined than the northern powers of Europe. The only line of communication between the large settlements on the coast of Brazil is by sea ; without which the whole country would not have a single point cVapinii. But the navy of the United Slates is alone more numerous than the whole naval force of the South American and Mexican states ; and the private citizens — especially the western hunters — are better soldiers than the most experienced Brazilian troops of the line. The whole remainder of the Americaji continent does not possess such naval ad- vantages as the United States. Three fourths of all the navigation of South America are already absorbed by United States' vessels ; and, under these circumstances, it is not probable that any of these provinces will ever become a strong maritime power. The fate of the South American republics depends on the mercy of the United States; and unless they succeed in establishing regular governments, they may have to implore their assistance to be saved from inevitable destruction. And is it not for the interest of the human race, that those beautiful countries should be settled and governed by a ditierent people from those who are now vegetating in them, without advancing one step in any of the useful arts and sciences? Is it not desirable that tlie interior of the South American continent should be explored, and its treasures employed in ameliorating the condition of the human family ? Are the luxuriant and heallliy prov- inces of Brazil, and the valley of the La Plata never to yield their produce to civilised nations ; and are industry and commerce to be forever banished from one half of the American continent ? The nations who are now in- habiting those climes are scarcely capable of keeping possession of the little territory their European ancestors have conquered, and are daily degenerating in habits and principles. Their governments are insufficient to protect either life or property; and they are equally destitute of the means of improving them. Their finances are in the most miserable condition, and their credit entirely an- nihilated. The number of inhabitants, too, is far from increasing in a ratio similar to that of the United States ; and their most active citizens are Indians and Mulattos. I do not wish to overcharge this picture : those who are SOUTH AMERICA. 419 acquainted with the situation and government of South America will readily admit the truth of my statement, to whicli I would only add that the condition of the Spanish and Portuguese settlements are best described, by calling them exactly the reverse of the peace and prosperity of the United States. Mexico was the only power which could have opposed the progress of America. After her humiliation and dismemberment, the United States will be left without a rival. They may now blockade the whole American continent, as England did Europe in the war against Napoleon ; and the settlements being confined to the coast, reduce them with little opposition. If Europe should ever become jealous of America, it would not be of her physical force, but of the moral energy which her citizens are wont to develope, wherever they form settlements. It is not so much the possession of Mexico, but wliat the Americans would make of it, in the course of fifty years, which would cause fears and apprehensions in Europe. When America shall once be firmly established between two oceans, commanding the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific ocean, she will occupy the centre of the world; while Europe will act as from a corner. The historical theatre will be changed, and the centre of civilisation removed to the valley of the Missis- sippi. The centre of America is giving birth to a new race of beings, more powerful and athletic than the inhabitants of the eastern coast, and more reckless of dangers than any which the world has seen. Love of liberty and ad- venture are their strongest passions, and they combine the intelligence of Europeans, with the pliysical advantages of savages. They must eventually penetrate to the bor- ders of the Pacific, where a new life must spring up, different from that which the reflection of European civilisation has created on the shores of the Atlantic, and still more congenial with the most enlarged principle of freedom. The coast of the Pacific ocean enjoys a better and healthier climate than that of the eastern states, and is, perhaps, equally fertile. A thousand new sources of wealth will at once be opened to those settlers ; and their adventurous spirit will soon make the ocean its scene of action. 420 WARLIKE CHARACTER From the western coast of America incursions may be made on the whole Indian archipelago, and on the coast of Asia itself. If America should ever become a con- quering nation, the wealth of India would be more tempt- ing than that of Europe, and equally near at hand. Who knows but what tliis hardy race of " half horse and half alligator" may renew tlie adventures of the Argonauts, but change the scene from Colchis to Japan and China? We have known a handful of Normans conquer all Italy and tlie most valuable part of France ; why should not a nation like the Americans, eminently skilful and daring at sea, and possessed of the courage and energy of those western settlers, be able to make an impression on the civilised barbarians who inhabit the eastern extremities of Asia? At present, the idea is too distant to excite the least apprehensions, and it may perhaps be considered preposterous; but then no people ever had such a passion for emigration and expansion ; and it is therefore not to be supposed that the sea will arrest their progress. Like every other commercial nation, the Americans will have their colonies, and revive the history of England in the new world. When the continent shall be settled, they will conquer and subdue the nearest islands, to which their naval genius will invite them; and, having succeeded in that, they may venture themselves on the neighboring continent. As far as our knowledge of history extends, the inhabit- ants of our globe have, with but very iew exceptions, travelled westward. It is even probable, and has lately been maintained by a number of writers, that Asia re- ceived its first population from the western shores of America. Now, why should the most enterprising nation on earth — the Anglo-Americans — arrest this genera] mo- tion of the human race, and confine tliemselves to their own borders ? And this, at an age where distances are annihilated by steam, and the terrors of the ocean dis- armed by the skill of the mariner ? The modern essence of European and American civilisation is motion, ccmmu- nicated by inspiring life into the masses. That of the Asiatics consists in a quiet contemplation of the past, and a calm resignation to the future. The civilisation and power of the Americans, when they shall have arrived on OF THE WESTERN SETTLERS. 421 the- shores of the Pacific, will have acquired a fearful momentum, to which the nations of the East will have nothing to oppose but inert masses. Europe has nothing to apprehend from the Americans. Their march is westward ; and they will, in their course, sooner reach China, than, by a retrograde motion, the land of their own sires. With regard to the powers of Europe, the United States will, for a longtime yet, act on the defensive; but westward they will expand, and as- sume the air of dictators. Besides, Europe will have little to tempt the Americans, their own country being richer and more fertile, and their commercial interests opposed to a maritime war. But the East will hold out different allurements, and greater probabilities of con- quest. The Americans may proceed to the very coast of China, and prevail by superior intelligence. A small naval force would be sufficient to reduce the islands, and the population of these might furnish the warriors for the continent. As long as the Americans shall follow their favorite inclination of proceeding westward— as long as their coun- try shall afford scope for industry and enterprise— as long as they shall be able to discover new sources of wealth and employment, either within or without their country, they will preserve the Union, which protects most effectu- ally their own interests, and is the only means of their arriving at greatness and power. The United States are yet in their infancy; and it would be an anomaly in history, to see a young and healthful nation perish, before it has reached the climax of its power. England must always be a natural ally of America, both nations being of the same origin, and the institutions and genius of the one, being the elements of greatness in the other. Whatever prejudices there may yet exist be- tween them, must yield to the soothing influence of time : the injuries will be forgotten, the lasting benefits remem- bered, and the people of both countries — who never were opposed to each other — will look upon each other as children of one and the same family. Why should it be otherwise 1 Why should political and geographical limits separate two nations so intimately linked to each other by consanguinity, language, customs, manners, and laws 1 36 422 ENGLAND AND AMERICA. Is not every new settlement in America an offspring of British genius ? And are the British not invited to enjoy and partake of its benefits 1 Are the British excluded from America? Does British capital not find its way to the far west? And are the inhabitants of the American wilderness not consumers of British manufactures 1 Does the expanding greatness of America not re-act favorably on England 1 Is not every new village in America a new market for British productions 1 An Englishman may travel all over Europe and Asia, and be a stranger in every country ; but if he proceed to the west, he will recognise a whole world as his home. If he enter a private dwelling, he will behold the same domestic fireside ; in the streets the hum of business will be English ; at the halls of justice, he will hear the judges expound the laws of his country ; at the theatres, English actors will perform English plays ; and on the Sabbath, the sanctified stillness of the day will again be a picture of England. What, then, is America, but England, re- flected in huge proportions, from a spherical mirror ? What is England, but the vastness of American genius, concentrated and condensed to a focus 1 The English must see themselves perpetuated in America ; while America possesses in the mother coun- try a sage mentor, whose political and legislative experi- ence is still directing her progress. The only natural feeling between England and America is friendship; every other is barbarous, mean, unworthy of either nation, and destructive to the interests of both. Enmity between England and America cannot advantage either country. America, though separated from England, still lends to English influence throughout the world; England, though no longer ruling over America, is still her guide and in- structer ; and the historian, who shall write the future history of America, will find his data in England. The progress of America reflects but the glory of England ; all the power she acquires, extends the moral empire of England: every page of American history is a valuable supplement to that of England. It is the duty of the patriots of both countries, to support and uphold each other, to the utmost extent compatible with national justice; and it is a humiliating task, either for private CONCLUSION. 423 individuals or public men, to make the foibles of the one the subject of ridicule in the other. The English and Americans are the only two nations which are really free, and their liberties are based on the same law. United, they are sufficient to withstand the world : why should they be envious of each other's great- ness ? There can be no more war between England and America; for it would be detrimental to the liberties of both, and interfere with their national advancement. The most formidable power of America need not excite apprehensions in England ; for it is travelling westward — receding from Europe — and may progress for cen- turies, before it can come in contact with the most remote part of the British empire. In the same manner may the power of England increase without exciting suspicions in America. England can never endanger the safety of the United States ; but her political and moral influence may serve as a bulwark to American institutions. It is a fortunate circumstance that the British sovereign should lately have been the mediator between France and America. It is the first act of royal favor extended to the Americans for many years, and will afford a proof of the disinterested attachment of England to the future welfare and prosperity of her daughter. It will serve to soothe the angry feelings, which British statesmen and British writers have often wantonly roused in their brethren beyond the Atlantic, and be hailed as the har- binger of peace and amity between the two greatest nations in the world. May that friendship never be interrupted ; and may the Americans and the English, instead of entertaining un- worthy prejudices, cherish that mutual affection to which they are invited by the ties of consanguinity, and the re- gard due to their mutual perfections. ^^"rsiOl .^V , ^ c , ^ '^^ ^'^^^-^ ax> ^- ^^' '^/. "^ ^ 8 i ^ .<^ „ •"^r o"^ .^^ .^^' \^^ x^^' % 1j 1 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 011 291 490