IMPROVED METHODS 
 
 -CF- 
 
 Corn Growing and Intense Gilltliation 
 
 BY 
 
 J, B. ARMSTRONG, 
 
 SHENANDOAH, IOWA 
 
'?.HIV 
 
 Class _£LD-i 
 
 Book_l 
 
 H 
 
 Copyright 1^°. 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
 X 
 
''''Some qnaUi'ies Xature carefully fixes and 
 transmits hitt some, and those the finer, she ex- 
 hales jrith tlie breath of the individual as too 
 costly to perpetuate. But 1 notice also that they 
 may become fixed and permanent in any stock, by 
 painting and repainting them on every individ- 
 ual, until at last Nature adopts them and 
 bakes tJiem into her porcelain." — Emerson. 
 
1lmprove^ ^l^ctbo^0 ©f 
 
 Corn (Browing anb 
 IFntense Cultivation 
 
 Ihj J. B. AEMSTRONG. 
 
Two CoDics Received 
 
 MAR 5 1906 
 
 I cooyriffht Entry ■ 
 
 I cuss CL' X>^c No.l 
 I (1 <^ ^ O 
 
 copy "■ 
 
 %^- 
 
 n 
 
TO THE FARMER, THE FEEDER AND THE BREEDER 
 
 For the past sixty years it has been my lot to be a farmer and connected 
 intimately and very much interested in farm life. I have lived to see the 
 sickle, the cradle and the scythe, the only tools for gathering- grain and hay 
 in our New England Home give way to modern machinery. I have watched 
 with interest the strides made bj- agriculture in its progress to the West. I 
 have seen the great changes from the simple methods and simple life with 
 its few wants that were easily supplied by new and cheap land and few if any 
 taxes. I have farmed on the hilly clay and stone coveretl hills of New Eng- 
 land. I have made farms of many thousand acres of the virgin soil of the 
 prairies of Illinois, Iowa and Nebraska, therefore think I am competent to 
 give advice on Farming. But those days have passed, farm life has changed, 
 ^ere are no more cheap lands and the farmers of the past must awaken to 
 the fact that he must have more knowledge in regard to new methods and 
 new uses, that he may be better prepared to grow such crops as will pay in- 
 terest on higher priced land and give him a fair margin. The masses are 
 waking up new problems, confront them and all other vocations of life. They 
 must and will be met and I trust the farmer will be the last one who will get 
 discouraged. For him the gove'-nment has at great expense established 
 agricultural schools with teachers who are learned in all that pertains to 
 crops, soils and adaptability and each individual state has her schools work- 
 ing along the same lines and on the same subjects and the farm paper is a 
 welcome visitor at your door each week, bringing you all the latest items in 
 regard to the farmer or his family and finally we come down to the farmers 
 institutes, being held for the farmer and by the farmer. Ought there be 
 anything discouraging to the farmer or to farm lifeV We see no reason for 
 discouragement in the new problem that coofronts him. There are no other 
 callings so promising as farm life and especially have the farmers of the 
 great corn belt region of our country good reason to take new courage and 
 stay by the farm. But. never before has it been necessary |or the farmer to 
 study farming in all its bearings from a practical standpoint, so carefully as 
 at the present day and at no time has he been so much iaterested in the sub- 
 ject of farming as he is today. 
 
 In casting around for a practical treatise on the subject I have been un- 
 able to fiad a boot that seemed to the point and so condensed that it would 
 seem to be just what the farmer wanted. I have for several years issued a 
 small paper. The Fa'-mers' Guide and a book on corn growing that have met 
 with great favor amongst the farming people. I have been urged for several 
 years to give to my f irmer brothers the benefit of my experience, I have in 
 my business connection been brought in contact with farmers in all parts of 
 the United States and for their beiefit and the farming world at large I have 
 consented to write this volume, giving them my best thoughts and the best 
 teachings of those who are high in the agricultural learning and if as I wish 
 I may help give litrht on the subject I will be satisfied and ray object will 
 have been accomplished. I trust those who may read this book will criticize 
 the same in the spirit and thought that prompted me 1,0 bring it before the 
 people. 
 
BOOK OR CORN GROWING 
 
 Do Not Sell the Farm 
 
 One can hardly read the above heading without a feeling of sadness 
 With the American people there seems to be born an unrest; a longing to do 
 something or go to some place which if they wished they could not describe 
 and too often we find the farmer who in his younger days, by hard toil or in 
 substance left from his father's estate has gotten together money enough to 
 make the first payment on an unimproved farm, on which himself and his 
 young wife are starting out together to meet the pleasures and sorrows of 
 life, and in their efforts to improve their new home and care for the little 
 ones, years have past, great changes have come of which they took little 
 notice, being mostly interested in clearing away the farm mortgage. Years 
 roll on, a season of depression is at hand, the wife is over taxed with care 
 and nearly ready to give out, then is it any wonder that the farmer is blue? 
 He sees his neighbor in his fine carriage, with his family seemingly enjoying 
 life ane luxuries. It is no wonder then that when the city real estate man 
 proposes to sell his farm at a great advance that his first conclusion shall be, 
 we will sell the farm and get out of debt and try to live a more easy life. 
 The above experiences comes yearly to thousands of farmers of our nation. 
 How many object lessons they may find each day in any town or city. The 
 poor day laborer, trying by hard work for any wages he may be able to get to 
 clothe and feed his family of little ones. His wife washing or doiag such 
 work as she may have to help along. Many such wrecks may be found at all 
 times. The farmer that did not stop to thiak has sold the farm. Today 
 that same family mourned the loss of tlieir on:;e happy home. That same farm 
 todiy is worth many times the value of which it was sold. The owner is to- 
 day enjoying the improvements they had made, and fruit from the trees that 
 they had planted, all of which was lost to them through the lack of stopping 
 to consider the question of selling the farm. A farm, depend oa it, is a gift 
 from the gods and the time is fast approaching when the farmer will see it. 
 He should not be discontented, he should be cheerfully patient, conditions 
 are most assuredly going to change and he will then discover what wealth he 
 had right before his eyes and in his own possession a claim, staked and 
 fenced, whose gold is not only inexhaustable but sure, a claim, better by far 
 than one of the Klondike or India. There is an old saying derived from the 
 experience of a man in dealing with the ups and downs of life, during thou- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 sands of years which says that all things comes to him who waits. If the 
 farmer doubts the truth of the old proverb, let him cut it out and put it into 
 his pocketbook The time is coming when he will find it to be true, and the 
 truth will lie beside it in great big bank bills. God's greatest blessing to the 
 average farmer is a farm. Let us entreat of you that you do not forget the 
 advice we give. If you have the farm, be it ever so small, keep it. The 
 time will come when most needed that the farm will keep you and yours in 
 happiness and comfort. Therefore, do not sell the farm. 
 
 In support of our assertion that the great change is coming, we may 
 state the fact that $500 per acre has been paid for farmlands in England and 
 the land has paid the interest of that country on the investment. Today 
 when we note the fact of the great rate at which our naition is multiplying 
 and the huager manifested by her people for land, take the "Rosebud" land 
 as an object lesson, where thousands were turned away who could not get a 
 farm in that reservation. Then stop to consider the fact that our agricul- 
 tural land cannot be enlarged, that the increase of population will double in 
 say, ten to twenty years. Can we not reasonably be sure that by giving our 
 farms the same care and attention that they will bring even more than that 
 of England, or any other land on the face of the globe, and especially is this 
 true of the great surplus growing states. Absolutely every acre of it is 
 growing corn, the acreage cannot be enlarged, the consumption of corn is 
 doubling fast. Is it then any wonder that the man with the corn farm is 
 master of the situation? Corn is king, lucky the man who owns and controls 
 a few acres, he and his family are honorable members for life for his kingdom. 
 Then our advice and your judgment would lead you to secure land, treat it 
 fairly, reap the rewards, which says come to him who waits. 
 
 The Farmers' Sons and Daughters 
 
 To the coming generation of farmers and to the agricultural world and 
 to the prosperity of oar nation is the great question of what shall be the life 
 work of the farmers' sons and daughters. Upon their choice depends in a 
 great measure the welfare and prosperity of our American people and in 
 this article I wish to bring to their attention, the opportunities that today are 
 offered to them by our great schools of Agriculture which are being so fully 
 supported by the great government of the United States and each individual 
 state where all the practical knowledge and experiments are being taught 
 and demonstrated so vividly and truly and where the student is brought so 
 close to nature and its possibilities taat at once he becomes thoroughly im- 
 bued with his work and the possilities that he turns the fiction and dross of 
 the world down for farm life and pleasures of agriculture, forgetting the per- 
 plexing turmoil of the professional life of those in town and city and takes 
 for himself the highest and most pleasant profession offered to man— Agri- 
 culture. The first question therefore to settle in your mind is, does farming 
 and things pertaining to the farm appeal to you? Do you enjoy the freedom 
 and independence of the farm life? If you can answer these inquiries in the 
 affirmative then I think I have something to say to you about your life's work 
 and determining your profession, which is a question every young man has 
 to settle for himself sooner or later. The successful solution of this impor- 
 tant and often intricate problem will largely determine your future useful- 
 ness. You have grown up on the farm, and, I venture there are not many 
 things which come in the ordinary routine of farm work but what you pride 
 
10 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 yourself on beings able to do. Therefore, why are you not better fitted to 
 take up the study of a business you already know something' about rather 
 than jumping into something- you know practically nothing- about, but simply 
 think you would like when you once got onto it. One surely makes a mistake 
 in going into something for which they are not fitted. There is no question 
 but that farming is a paying proposition, if run on business principles. 
 
 The average farmer is not raising anything like the crops he should. 
 The average corn yield for United States, per acre, does not reach the 35- 
 bushel mark. Wheat has been condemned as a non-paying crop and dropped 
 from the rotation by many, if rotation is practiced at all. The silo and green 
 crops for soiling are given practically little consideration and scrubby mon- 
 grel animals make up the live stock outlay on only too many farms. Would 
 you like to do your part in putting farming on a better basis in your com- 
 munity? 
 
 There is always a market for the best. But without good training how 
 can you expect to produce the best? You simply cannot, and you will find 
 you have to "lay down" to the fellow who does known now. If you are hunt- 
 ing a profession that offers you an opening and a chance to "make good" 
 then look into agriculture. There is no course now offered to young men 
 which can compare with it in advantages and earning- capacity of its gradu- 
 ates. For example, take this year's graduating class at one of our leading 
 Agriculture Colleges, nine in number (there should have been fifty-nine). 
 Four of these agricultural graduates went back to the farm, the best place 
 to apply their education The other five have good positions elsewhere; one 
 is in the government experiment station; another has a responsible position 
 in the dairy department at the World's Fair; aaother is assistant farm man- 
 ager for a millionaire farmer in New York; another is dairy foreman for the 
 same man, and the other is a partner with his father in the fertilizing busi- 
 ness. Remember, this is just one year's class from one school. 
 
 Prof. H. C. Price, dean of the Ohio college of agriculture in an article in 
 the North American Farmer on the "Opportunities of the agriculturally 
 trained man," says that "among the graduates of the college of agriculture 
 of the Ohio state university who have graduated in the last eight years are 
 five men who are holding full professorships in leading colleges at a salary 
 of $2,000 or more per anum; in the United States department of agriculture 
 there are between fifteen and twenty of our recent graduates who are hold- 
 ing positions with salaries ranging from $1000 to $1500 per year." Now, if 
 you think your preferences do not lead you back to the farm, how can you 
 in the face of the above examples, and numerous others equally convincing, 
 plunge into the ordinary professions, which are now already overcrowded with 
 their burden of novices, and ignore a field which more than any other offers 
 to the ambitious young man a career of honor and usefulness? Wake up, 
 fellows, to a good thingi People are coming to realize that there is some- 
 thing really worth while in scientific agriculture and you can see for your- 
 self, when it comes to the "show down" that the agriculturally trained man 
 has hold of a mighty good string. 
 
 The farmers' son, of all young men, have the quantities first of being a 
 strong, healthy mind, clear judgment, the early thought and training from his 
 parents who are in full sympathy of this line of life work — this combined with 
 the teachings of the Great Bureau of Agriculture at Washington D. C. and 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG H 
 
 and the state Experimental stations and the great awaking- interest of the 
 people who will, at no distant day demand that the teachers of our public 
 schools shall be competent to teach the same at our public schools when in 
 a crude way they shall be a testing garden, that shall be of great interest to 
 all our boys and girls, then will their minds be stored with such knowledge as 
 will make farming and the farm home the highest ambition and make their 
 lives useful and happy. 
 
 Thoughts for the Father and Mother on the Farm— Intelligence and 
 
 * Profitable Farm Knowledge 
 
 As individuals our knowledge is very limited, but when we think that 
 every progressive farmer, feeder and breeder is a student in that greatest of 
 all schools '"the school of experience"' and that, to many of these students 
 there comes some special task that puts him, or her, as it may be; upon their 
 metal and they successfully work out the problem and wr te out the facts for 
 one of the journals, the concentration of the indivual information reaching 
 millions of eager readers searching for this very knowledge, that will be 
 found in this volume. Much of the correspendence is from the level-headed, 
 close observing men who guide the plow, put out the feed and mate breeding 
 stock. Thus these journals become bulletin boards describing facts that may 
 be relied upon. 
 
 The greatest experiment station in the world is the Department of Agri- 
 culture of Washington D. C. It has behind it the richest and most progress- 
 ive nation in the world. 
 
 Then the several state experiment stations that study soils and condition 
 pertaining to each state. In this work is an army of the bst trained special- 
 ists and not a weekly issue that does not have a record of some triumph "of 
 mind, over matter" how to destroy moulds, rusts, scab fungi and insect pests; 
 they show us lessons in better breeding. Tne students that guide the plow 
 and work in the feed lots and manage the breeding are of the primary class. 
 The experiment station experts are the intermediate. The wizards of the 
 magnifying glass, the microscope and the chemical laboratory are of the 
 "high school." They tell us of protoplasm; a name not one farmer in ten 
 thousand ever heard pronounced or saw in print, yet it stands for a quality in 
 every living thing and if it were to be destroyed in vegetable life every living 
 creature would soon perish by starvation. 
 
 They tell us how in protoplasm is developed the cell that later becomes 
 impregnated with the vital spark we call life, and in the vegetable or plant 
 world there is born from and ot this protoplasm countless myriads of a vege- 
 table growth so small that millions of separate organisms can exist in an 
 inch of soil. This growth called bacteria affects for good or bad every bite 
 of our food, every swallow of liquid: without the work of bacteria in our soil 
 our fields would become barren. These deeply learned men prove to us that 
 in or that as part of the atmosphere over every acre of soil there is fertiliz- 
 ing material that our soils are in most need of, nitrogen to the amount of 36,- 
 000 tons (nitrogen, pure, is worth $300 per ton) or over each acre the nitrogen 
 is worth $11,000,000 yet our crops starve for nitrogen. These things are but 
 as drops of water to the ocean of what these wise men tell us every week. 
 
 In 1890 a young man bought one of these supposed run down farms at the 
 moderate price of $10 per acre in a pleasant county and near a good town 
 
12 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 and shipping- station. It was called the poorest farm in the county. In ten 
 years or in 1902 the condition of the soil had been so changed and without a 
 dollar being- spent for commercial f ertiltzers, and in ways any farmer, no 
 matter how poor, can follow that it is now a first-class farm. This better- 
 ment of soil and conditions give this farm rank as one of the best in the 
 country and an offer of $40 per acre was refused. He made no substantial 
 headway until he became an earnest student of soils and soil conditions. To 
 help in his studies he bought the best books on farm subjects, he subscribed 
 for a number of leadings farm journals and became a zealous student of farm 
 problems and their solution as taught in their columns. He found in every 
 issue something- worth many times the cost of the paper or book. 
 
 When he got so as to raise more than the work stock consumed, he 'found 
 colts, calves, pigs and poultry would pay him sometimes double, often three 
 times what shippers would pay. Then feeding journals were added; the need 
 of better stock as a means of better results and breedtng journals were next 
 added. 
 
 Without the wise counsel from the able editorials and light and encour- 
 ag-ement from the correspondence in these books and journals he would have 
 no doubt but that today he would belong- to the army who believe farming 
 does not pay. I know it does pay if you know how. 
 
 Now I want to teach a million farmers how to tap the great reservoir of 
 riches— the air—and the inexhaustable mine of mineral wealth— the earth— 
 and combine this vast store of richness in the surface soil in the form of 
 available plant food, why they are failing as I failed until I found out how 
 to propagate and bring into existence the thousands of millions of bacteria 
 and iavisible organism that worked incessantly to help me. 
 
 I assume the right to teach in this great school, for I have caused three 
 bushels of great big golden ears of corn to grow where was one before and 
 more than two bushels of heavy wheat on the same land that used to bring 
 but one bushel of lijht chaffy, shriveled wheat. I want to go with the vast 
 army of farmers, feeders and breeders boldly up to the door of the temple of 
 agricultural wisdom. A knock will admit us to the inhaustable store house 
 of knowledge and each one of us, according to his zeal and intelligence, can 
 take all he can use. 
 
 The civil laws and public sentiment now requires the lawyer, doctor and 
 professional man to acquire an education in his work. The law of necessity 
 is forcing the farmer and breeder to become a student. The failures upon 
 the farm today are the result of ignorance. Success can only come of en- 
 lightenment; the shiftless drones in the hives of agricultural activities are 
 being driven out. The experiment station bulletins and the farmers' insti- 
 tutes are schools of instruction brought to our doors every week. We have 
 no excuse but indolence if we remain ignorant in the future; if we fail the 
 fault is our own. We especially plead with the fathers and mothers upon the 
 farms that they place these educational advantages within the reach of their 
 children to the end that they may fit themselves to hold their own in the 
 fiercer struggles of competition and crowded industries. In the days nearer 
 to us than we think the educated, skilful food producers will have a decided 
 advantage over any class of workers in the world. Failing to fit your sons 
 and daughters for first place you must see them become servants, "hewers of 
 wood and drawers of water" for the educated who will dignify farming as a 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 13 
 
 profession. They will do their work with the brain, while your boys and girls 
 toil with the hands. 
 
 The Farmer and the Elements 
 
 The farmer of all our workers is at the mercy of uncontrollable elements 
 to a greater extent than any other of the g-reat industries of our nation: the 
 controlling- element in his harvest is the physical condition of the soil. If the 
 soil is not in condition to produce a g-ood crop, no amount of labor can pro- 
 duce it. The farmer is at the mercy of the weather. An excess of deficiency 
 of rainfull, an excess or deficiency of heat, determine more than anything 
 else the yield of all kinds of g-rain. Given weather that will enable the 
 farmer to put his land in proper physical condition and retain it, and there 
 will be a g-reat harvest. Given weather that will forbid this and the harvest 
 will be small. In other words' the yield of the crops will depend not so much 
 on the actual fertility of the soil, its content of potassium, phosphorus or 
 nitrogen, as upon a physical condition that will enable the crops to use the 
 amount of fertility therein contained. 
 
 "Where lands are soggy, the weather cold, a good stand of corn can not be 
 obtained, no matter how good the seed. "Where the same conditions prevail 
 neither wheat nor oats can yield a full crop, because weeds can grow in soil 
 in a bad physical condition while grains can not. We mention this because 
 we wish to impress upon the farmer that what he needs to be thinking about 
 is not so much the chemistry of the soil as soil physics. He needs to study 
 the best methods by which he can get all there is in the weather, so that he 
 can utilize to the fullest extent what nature gives him in the way of heat 
 and light and moisture. These are his raw materials. He can use them to 
 the fullest extent to which they are supplied or he can waste them. If he 
 gets his soil in the best physical condition, in the best tilth possible, where 
 he can make the fullest use possible of the raw material which nature gives 
 him, he will make a success; otherwise, failure is inevitable. 
 
 "We do not like to see farmers paying too much attention to soil chemis- 
 try and spending too much of their money in buying commercial fertilizers. 
 The chemist has his place and can be and is at times of great service. Com- 
 mercial fertilizers have their place and can sometimes be used to advantage. 
 But the ordinary father had better turn his attention to the best methods of 
 keeping the soil in the very best physical condition, which can be done by ro- 
 tation of crops, by the careful use of manure, by the use of the best imple- 
 ments available, by using his best knowledge and his best skill. Spend such 
 spare time as he may have in reading some of the many farm papers in which 
 he will find many new ideas, a rich food for sound thinking; again such read- 
 ing being upon subjects that interest the wife, the sons and daughters, will 
 greatly tend to fix their minds and attention in the right direction;'will make 
 them men and women of sound judgment, contented with home and nature in 
 all its purity and comfort, satisfied with himself, his lot and the world: his 
 life will be a happy one and his children a joy in his old age. 
 
 A riodel Farm 
 
 No one would be so presumptuous as to estimate what will.be the ulti- 
 mate population of the United States. This is a subject forjmuch interest- 
 ing speculation. Some fear is even now felt that the limit of productivity 
 in this country will soon be reached by reason of the rapid settlement of_our 
 
14 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 waste and public lands. Nothing- better shows how causeless this fear is and 
 what great possibilities of further g-rowth and development still remain to 
 us, than a little pamphlet just issued by the department of agriculture, 
 styled "A Model Farm." 
 
 This model farm is situted in a very old settled district in Southeastern 
 Pennsylvania, near a large city and contaias only fifteen acres. Thirteen 
 acres are under cultivation and the remaining- two acres are occupied by 
 buildings and surrounding yards. This little tract of land came to its pres- 
 ent possessor in 1881 with a mortgage of $7200 upon it. The first year the 
 farm lacked $46 of paying expenses. By careful management the owner 
 within the next six years paid off the entire mortgage and interest. That 
 is, he made $1,200 a year oft' his fifteen acres, and this sum is the annual net 
 profit he has been setting aside ever shice the debt was paid. 
 
 The methods which this farmer employed to bring about such successful 
 results are worth the consideration of the whole agricultural world. The 
 natural soil of this little farm is very poor, reddish gravelly clay. It was so 
 run-down in 1881 that it did not support the two cows and one horse kept up- 
 on it. Now it raises the roughness for thirty head of stock, seventeen of 
 which are milch cows. The present remarkable state of fertility was 
 brought about solely by the use of stable manure applied directly from the 
 barn as it was produced. The method of handling the manure was such that 
 none was lost, either liquid or solid. iNo commercial fertilizers were pur- 
 chased, and no manure was hauled from the city or from other places. The 
 waste from the farm itsrlf, judiciously preserved and distributed, was used to 
 bring the farm up to its present high state of productivity. 
 
 On assuming management of the farm, the owner read Quincy's book on 
 the soiling of cattle, published in 1859. "Soiling'' consists in cutting and 
 feeding green feed instead of allowing the animals to run on pasture. This 
 practice the farmer adopted and carefully preserved all waste. The next 
 year he read Stewart's book on feeding animals and jearjed his first lesson in 
 "balanced rations "' He also learned to feed some dry hay with the soiling 
 crops, thus giving the manure a proper consistencv Th. nee forward the 
 management of the constantly growing herd of cows was a simple matter, 
 and the farm began not only to pay a profit, but to increase in fertility. One 
 man and a boy do the labor of the farm, except in hay harvest aad during the 
 cutting of silage. The owner does only such portions of the ordinary labor 
 as he cannot Sdfely trust to hired hands, but he p.aas all the work and sees 
 that his plans are strictly followed. So systematic is the work that he often 
 goes away for weeks at a time without notice to his laborers, or interruption 
 of the regular routine. He has plenty of time for rest and recreation. He 
 pays no regard to rotation of crops. His remarkable success depends solely 
 upon planting the right kind of crops, feeding his animals a balanced ration, 
 preserving all manure and waste and protecting the farm from being washed 
 out by ttie the torrential rains. 
 
 The lesson gained by this one man's success is that inferior lands can be 
 made to yield twice or three times as much as the present average by care- 
 ful and intelligent husbandry. Such husbandry is not yet generally practiced 
 by American farmers but eventually ic will be practiced, and then there 
 needs be no fear that the product of the farms will not keep pace with the 
 growing population. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 15 
 
 From the above it is very evident that the population of our great Agri- 
 cultural country may be increased to any number and yet the necessity of the 
 people will be fully met by the more intense methods of farming and the bet- 
 ter knowledge that we will have obtained in the methods of preserving and 
 feeding what our farms will produce no nation or people ever bad so many 
 bright minds in such earnest work digging deeply into all hidden mysteries 
 of nature which hold the combinations thit will unlock the golden treasurers 
 and double and thribble our yield and bring such plants and fruits from their 
 hidden homes in far distant lands to be di-tributed by our Agricultural Asso- 
 ciations to those parts of our great domain where they may be most at home 
 or most needed and best adapted. But a few years ago it was thought that 
 winter wheat could not be grown farther north than north Missouri and yet 
 today it may be found growing luxuriousl 7 in Minnesota and South Dakota, 
 the same being true with corn while undoubtedl/ in a tropical plant by the 
 careful selection and breeding is being grown as far north as North Dakota 
 fruits the apple, peach, plum and cherry are fast making their home in the 
 north, we have only to turn the attention of the thinking man or scientist to 
 anything that will be for the good of the people and he will find the means to 
 obtain it while it is impossible for each farmer to keep pa;e with all these 
 improvements as yet by occupying bis spare time in reading Agricultural 
 Papers and Bulletins issued by different State Experimental Stations of the 
 different states, he will be well informed on all those subj ects and be able to 
 select such things as shall seem best for himself or his vicinitj': the amount 
 of our avalabol farm lands is a fixed fact but our possibilities can not be es- 
 timated. Strive then to make your farm a model farm in your own way and 
 with your own mind and means and by so doing you will be satisfied with your- 
 self and the great world at large. 
 
 A Twenty Acre Farm 
 
 Reading an article on Page 902 on the subject of '-Land Hunger" prompts 
 me to give the readers of the Farmer my experience on a twenty-acre farm. 
 I came to this county fifteen years ago at the age of eighteen, having worked 
 from twelve years of age uatil eighteen to save enough money to bay a tick- 
 et from S ^itzerland to Kansas. I worked out on a farm by the month at from 
 $1.) to $20 and went to school a little while in Lincoln. Then I started back 
 to Switzerland with $610 which I had saved to visit my p irents and help them 
 secure a home. I stayed in Switzerland seven months, and went back to Kan- 
 sas again with only $52. I rented a farm of 120 acres, married in the spring 
 of 1897, started at the bottom, bought everything on time, and gave half of 
 the crops for rent. The first year's work paid my debts. The second year I 
 came out $270 ahead, which* gave me money enough to rent an eighty-acre 
 farm and pay cash rent. But I did not do tbis. I was raised on a six-acre 
 farm in my native couatry and I thought twenty acres would do in this 
 country, so I found a rough piece of land in Pawnee county, Nebraska, for 
 which I paid $12..50 per acre. The land next to it sold at from $40 to $50, but this 
 twenty was rough hill land, covered with brush, springs and rocks. The neigh- 
 bors there wondered what I was going to do with a piece of land like that, 
 but the more they talked the more I determined to show them what could be 
 done. Today many of them say "He makes as much on histwenty acres as 
 we do on our large farm." - 
 
 What do I raise? Well, potatoes are my money making crop, and small 
 
16 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 fruit. I have about five acres of potatoes every year and from eight to ten 
 acres of corn. I grow corn between the pot atoes and small fruit in the young 
 orchard. I put out an orchard of 950 pears, 500 peaches, 100 plums, cherries, 
 apples, quinces and every kind of small fruit that will grow here. There is al- 
 ways something ripe from the 20th of May until October. Always have some- 
 thing to sell which brings ready cash, and there is always something to do. 
 
 About the pears: I put out thirty-six the first year of the different stand- 
 ard varieties. I put them on the north slope where the timber growth was 
 hickory, oak and walnut. Those trees all have tap roots and I pulled some of 
 them out from six to ten feet in length. It is a loamy soil, twenty-two feet 
 deep, and after a rain the land is dried first, therefore I can cultivate it first 
 and let the air in and hold the moisture. On the south slope I let the timber 
 stand. Here I have a spring and nice pasture for two cows and a good pro- 
 tection against heavy winds. That is the true place for a pear orchard. We 
 must study the location, the soil, the tree and its wants if we succeed in pros- 
 pering in growing it. I have places on my farm where I could not grow trees. 
 Above the pear orchard is about an acre that is wet, which is not fit for corn 
 nor potatoes nor grain nor the small fruit. Sometimes it is not fit for pas- 
 ture. I made two ditches and filled them with rocks to drain the land and 
 made a reservoir of twelve hundred barrels to save the water. I sowed this 
 piece of ground in English blue grass and red top and it makes a lot of feed 
 and good pasture. The water Luse for irrigation in dry weather. 
 
 But I have found something better than watering my crops. We always 
 get enough rain if we take proper care of it. This is my experience the last 
 six years in working a small farm. Cultivation will do it. Not simply culti- 
 vation to kill the weeds, but cultivation so that weeds won't grow. Cultivate 
 the potatoes as long as the vines are green, but do not cut the roots. Culti- 
 vate the corn as long as it grows. Do not quit when the tassels appear, but 
 keep on with five or eight shovel-cultivator. That is the time to add bushels 
 to the acre, and these extra bushels make you money which will help you pay 
 off debts and have better homes and be better satisfied. It is not the acres 
 we plant but what we take proper care of, and this can be done on a small 
 farm, and there is where the money lies, having everything under control no 
 matter what the season. I would rather wait on the train than have the 
 train wait on me, and the same stands good with the crops. We must wait 
 on them and not have them wait on us. From five to eight hours after the 
 rain we can make a good soil mulch and get the best results and save the farm 
 most effectively. If a man has fifty or sixty acres of corn how can he expect 
 that the corn plowed at once after it when the best mulch can be made? 
 Where the plowing has been delayed a crust forms on top and the air will be 
 shut out and the moisture will evaporate rapidly. The roots will grow and 
 the root system will come close to the surface. This is true in any cultivated 
 crop. It is hard on the young orchard to let the crust form, especially hard 
 on pears. 
 
 The pear is one of the most thrifty growing trees we have. In 1901, that 
 dry year, I planted 350 and lost only three trees out of 312 where the ground 
 was continuously cultivated, and thirty-six trees which were planted in a 
 clover field and could not be cultivated. We kept a good soil mulch around 
 these latter trees, put hay around them and watered them, but I lost half of 
 them after the clover was taken off the ground. Where I cultivated I had a 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 1' 
 
 mulch all over the ground and some of the trees bloomed and fruited the same 
 year and have fruited r'g-ht along- ever since. The leaves of the trees in the 
 clover field began to look yellow, then black, and soon the limbs and stems 
 died They could not withstand the heat of the day because of lack of air 
 and moisture for the roots. In 1902 I put out 450 mDre. Pear trees planted 
 in 1898 have from one-half to one bushel of fruit to the tree. When I com- 
 menced to plant the pears the folks here said that they were not good— that 
 they blighted. They said I would never see any fruit from Ihem, that my 
 mon' y was lost. Now they see different. Everybody makes some failures, 
 but failures are worth dollars and cents to us in our future work. They teach 
 us how to become masters of a thing instead of slaves. Most of our young 
 men today need a better education and need to get it as they go along- in 
 practical work. Five young men went from our township to Dakoti for land. 
 We have plenty of land here for them if they wanted to work. I have a 
 twenty acre farm, and it is enough for any man who will work it right. 
 
 Tne above is from the pen of one of our adopted brothers, from a foreign 
 land, so different from ours where in the crowded condition of population of 
 necessity their farms must be small and the farming done in an intensive 
 manner and such care taken as to seed selection and cultivation and every 
 foot growing something, their holding-s of course being small the farmer is 
 able to, each day, inspect every rod, his habits of care and industry make a 
 good living on those very few acres and when such a farmer brought to our 
 nation and on to our rich prairie where it seems to him one has only to scratch 
 the soil and it brings forth sucn crops of golden produce that twenty seres 
 seems to him an immense farm. He puts the same methods, the same care 
 and attention as he did in his own country and the results are most wonder- 
 ful We have in mind an Englishman farmer who many years ago settled 
 near Galesburg-, Illinois. At that time land was very cheap, he possessed 
 some means but only bought forty acres, that being twice the amount he had 
 had to work in England and to him the forty acres was a large tract. His 
 methods were very much like those stated above, although he had turned 
 his attention more to cattle and hogs For many years his only land was 
 that forty where all bis time and attention were spent and until he had 
 accumulate d money that he could not let for a good interest he did not buy or 
 own any other land, b-t final'y for the purpose of employing his money safely 
 he bought more. He often said to the writer, "The forty is all I can attend 
 to as I ought " The small farm well attended brings wealth, happiness and 
 comfort and the great respect of all our friends. We may learn many valu- 
 able lessons by observation of these foreign brothers, who have been forced 
 by circumstances to conform to such rules and such economy as shall bring- 
 the g-reatest results to any nation or people. J. B. Armstrong. 
 
 The Farmer of the Past And the Farmer of Today 
 
 A few years ago I visited my old Michigan home on a beautiful Aug-ust 
 morning- when I took a stroll out from our native town down past the old 
 cemetery where so often in our boyhood days we were called to sympathize 
 with our dear friends as their loved ones were being- taken to their last rest- 
 ing- place and where later in life we laid our dear parents. This was one of 
 those days so bright, so still, so quiet that nature could talk to us in a lan- 
 guage none but ourselves could understand and as I passed along and around 
 the old farm where so many of my happy days were spent, all of those bygone 
 
18 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 frieu'ls, ia ,jur m nd, came trooping- up to give us a hearty cheer. Can you 
 wonder that I began to meditate upon the past and as I seated myself upon 
 the trunk of one of those mighty monarchs of the forest under whose 
 branch s A-e had often played and chatted with our young- friends in days 
 long past? A feeling of sadness came over us. the birds were singing just as 
 merrily, the sun was shining just as brightly, all nature was in its beauty, 
 but the companioas of our youth were not there, the bright faces, the laugh- 
 ing eyes and, friendly greeting could not be, alas where are they and the farm 
 so chanijed? In those days much of it was heavy timber, sixty years ago and 
 I could only think of the toil and labor that our friend had done to fell those 
 mighty trees and put in cultivation those beautiful lands. We were with him 
 in his days of strength and toil, his pleasures and sorrows and years ago he 
 passed on the other side. Today it is allhighly improved, nothing being left 
 but occasionally an old stump or decaying body to show i s past condition, all 
 making a huge reminder of the past; as I sat there no sound reached my ears 
 and L could only realize that as its being typical of the past. Did it ever oc- 
 cur to you that noise and the kind of noise was a sure index of our advance- 
 ment and progress in farming as well as in manufacturing? About the only 
 noise on the farm in those days was the spinning wheel and loom or the 
 happy laugh of the maid as she went out and barkened for the tinkle of the 
 bell on old brindle who was peacefully feeding far away amongst the mighty 
 trees and beautiful pasture. There were no movers, thrashers or engines 
 upon the farm, no modern sewing machines in the house, no typewriters in 
 the o£Bc ■. We realize that many many years have past since those days; 
 no other diys can b^ as happ / but with their pissing most of our young com- 
 panions have gone. The days of pioneering are mostly past. Our grand- 
 fathers have subdued the mighty forest and made them to blossom as the 
 rose and provided for us, beautiful homes. They too have gone to their eter- 
 nal reward and we are left to carry on and improve upon the work left for us. 
 Theirs was a life of hardship, labor and toil; they accepted it cheerfully and 
 did it faithfully and well and the man must indeed be an ingrate who does not 
 feel and recognize the fact that they made all far more-pleasant for us. They 
 laid the foundation and well too and we have entered upon the building prop- 
 er. Perhaps only upon the first story but I realize that we must so build on 
 their foundation that our children shall not be ashamed of cur part of the 
 building w.ien the great structure shall have been finished and let us not for- 
 get that we each and all are workers and upon us depends the solidity and 
 character of this mighty structure. We realize today as never before that 
 the farmer is the foundation of all our greatness and yet with all our think- 
 ing, writmif ani experimenting, we still find many that are a chip of the old 
 block instead of being as they ought, the grand old block with the addition of 
 a new ch p; we truit that every young man who realizes his present oppor- 
 tunities aLid advantages will try and be a greater and if possible a better 
 m in thaa his father in all respects. The farmer of today ought to be more 
 liberally 'educated along the line of his special work, that includes more than 
 book-learniu/. It requires brain-power more than physical, which will be in 
 demand in the future. He should not be worked so hard that his mental and 
 moral faculties may grow and enlarge and be the dominant character of his 
 being. He should be familiar with botany that he may intelligently observe 
 the habits of the plants, trees and shrubs and be able to classify annuals, bi- 
 ennial aad perennial . He should know enough of zoology to be able to judge 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 19 
 
 correctly of the use and injures of birds, worms and insects; he should know 
 enough of geolog-y and solid chemistry to distinguish the effect of intense 
 farming and soil robbing; he should be, above all, a Christian gentleman at 
 home, in the field, the garden, the orchard, or lawn as well as well as the li- 
 brary. "Does it pay financially V has been the great question of the past; 
 the same questions are before us today; "Does it pay to be like.our fathers; 
 does it pay to b3 a fine and cultured Christian gentleman; do^s it pay to be 
 at home at all time, in the field or with the cultured gentleman you meet 
 from other parts of our great land?" These questions are being answered 
 every d:iy by the great progress of our mighty nation. Today, you may ob- 
 serve on every hill top magnificently grand edifices of learning, where the 
 poor have the same rights and privileges as the rich, where the lowly street 
 Arab may prepare himself if he choose, for the highest honors in the gift of 
 our people. We have now arrived at the point that we must have a better 
 grade of live-stock, a more productive variety of grains, a better quality of 
 fruits and vegetables, more perfect machinery, better appliances in all di- 
 rections, for all will be in great demand. The old methods cannot supply; 
 they will not do. All products the farmer has to sell must come to market in 
 an attractive package or form, put up by clean hands and honest weight to 
 receive the highest price. Again I wish to say a few words, that it has been 
 our observation in traveling over our country that where we find the best 
 clothed and fed people, the best land, the greatest number of churches we 
 find the most contented and happy people. Can you imagine what the 
 bearing upon life may be in the beautifying of our homes and grounds; will 
 they not appeal to our preceptive faculties, to our artistic nature? If so, do 
 not build a house so large that you cannot afford to paint and adorn it; never 
 have so large a farm that you cannot have a finely cared for lawn. Such are 
 great object lessons for the good of all. How many of your neighbors will 
 follow your example, how soon will your street be beautiful if your efl:orts 
 are in the right direction? I trust this tidiness will soon sweep over Iowa 
 and that we soon shall see ease, comfort and happiness in all directions. The 
 farmer of all these should have a clear power of observation so that he may 
 readily appreciate and apply nature's laws. Upon his shoulders rest all our 
 prosperity and until the farmers of our natian are progressive to the highest 
 degree our country cannot attain that eminence we so much desire. 
 
 Let each farmer devote all spare time in stuying nature in all its forms 
 and follow our suggestions as nearly as possible and he will be able to observe 
 and comprehend many things connected with nature laws which otherwise 
 he would have passed by unobserved. Therefore, let us be thoughtful, indus- 
 trious and earnest so that those who are to take our places will say, "Peace 
 be to our fathers, their examples will be hard to excell, their task was well 
 and faithfully done." 
 
 The Plant Breeder 
 
 The plant breeder before making combination should with great care se- 
 lect the individual plant which seems best adapted for its purpose as by this 
 course many years of experiment and much needless expense will be avoided. 
 The diflierence in the individuals which the plant breeder has to work upon are 
 sometimes extremely slight. The ordinary unpracticed person cannot by any 
 possibility discover the exceedingly minute variations in form, size, color, 
 fragrance, precisity and a thousand other characters which the practical 
 
20 BOOK OR CORN GROWING 
 
 breeder perceives by lig-htning like g-lance. Ttie work is not easy, requiring- 
 an exceedingly keen perception of minute differences. Great practice and 
 extreme care entreating the organism operated upon and even with all the 
 naturally required variation added to those secured by scientific crossing and 
 numerous other means the careful accumulation of slight individual differ- 
 ences through many generations, is imperative after which several genera- 
 tions are often but not always not necessary to thoroughly fix the desired 
 type for all practical purposes. The above applies to annual or those plants 
 g-enerally produced by seed. The breeder of plants which can be reproduced 
 by division has great advantage for any valuable individual variation. Can 
 be multiplied to any extent desired without the extreme care necessary in 
 fixing linear breeding, the one which must be reproduced by seed, but even 
 in breeding perenials the first deviation from the original form are often un- 
 appreciable to the perception but by accumulating the differences through 
 many g^enerations the deviation from the original form is often astonishing", 
 but by careful and intelligent breeding any peculiarity may be made perma- 
 nent and valid. New species are at times produced by the art of the breeder 
 and there is no known limit to the improvement of plants through the educa- 
 tion of breeding and selection. How soon do the lowly native plants, fruit or 
 grasses disappear from the face of the earth? When once the plant breeder 
 has by his as it were magical touch brought forth the wonderfully improved 
 fruit, flour gains, etc. What great changes have been brought forth in our 
 day; for example, the little nubbeny eight rowed squaw corn of New England, 
 which we grew in our younger days compared with the Mammoth White and 
 Yellow ears of today. The plant breeder is an explorer into the infinite, he 
 will have no time to make money and his castle and brain must be clear and 
 alert in throwing aside possible ideas and rapidly replacing them with living 
 throbbing thoughts followed by action; then and not until then they shall cre- 
 ate marvels of beauty and value in new expression of materialized force for 
 everything of value must be produced by application of the forces of nature 
 which are always awaiting his demand. The vast possibilities of plant breed- 
 ing can hardly be estimated. It would not be difficult for one man to breed a 
 new life, wheat, barley, oats or rice which would produce one grain more to 
 each head or a corn which should produce an extra kernel to each ear, a potato 
 to each plant or an apple, plum, orange or nut to each tree. What would be 
 the result in five staples only in the United States alone the inexhaustable 
 force of nature would produce annually without effort or cost five million two 
 hundred thousand extra bushels of corn, fifteen million extra bushels of 
 wheat, twenty millions extra bushels of oats, two millions extra bushels of 
 barley, twenty-five millions extra bushels of potatoes? But these vast possi- 
 bilities are not alone for one year or for our own time or race but are bene- 
 ficient legacies for every man, woman or child who shall ever inhabit the 
 earth and who can estimate the elevating and refining influence and moral 
 value of flours with all their graceful forms and bewitching shades and com- 
 binations of colors and exquisitely varied perfumes. Those silent influences 
 are unconsciously felt even by those who do not appreciate them consciously 
 and thus with better and still better fruits, nuts, grains and flours will the 
 earth be transformed, man's thoughts be turned from the base destructive 
 forces into the nobler productive ones which lift them to higher plains of 
 action towards that happy day when man shall offer his brother man not bul- 
 lets and bayonets but richer grain, better fruit and fair flowers and beauti- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 21 
 
 ful homes undoubtedly the great Creator placed all plants upon the earth in 
 their primitive state, as it were, at the start, at the same time giving- to man 
 the ability by hard work and study to bring to our notice the grand work of 
 perfection and how nobly is this task being carried out. We see it each day 
 most notably in the great variety and beautiful colors of flowers the great 
 variety and better quality of grain and vegetables science, sees better grains, 
 nuts and vegetables, in all new forms, color and flavor with more nutrients 
 and less waste and with every injurious and poisonous qualities eliminated 
 and with power to resist sun, wind, rain, frost and destructive fungus and in- 
 sect pests and fruit without stones, seeds or spines, better fibre, coffee, tea, 
 spice, rubber, oil, paper and timber trees, starch, color, perfume, plants, every 
 one of these and ten thousand more are within the reach of the ordinary skill 
 in plant breeding. This is the work of the plant breeder. On you now rests 
 one of the next world movements; the guidance of the Creative force are in 
 your hands. Man is slowly learning that he too may guide the forces which 
 through all the ages performing this beneficent work which he sees every- 
 where, above, beneath and around him in the vast teeming animal and plant 
 life of the world. These lines were brought to our mind when wondering 
 amongst the higher peaks of the Rocky mountains, and while standing on the 
 original maturial from which this planet was made thousands of ages 
 have )»as&ed and still it remains unchanged. In it no fossils or any trace of 
 passed organic life are ever found nor could any exist for the world's creative 
 heat was too intense among those heights of rock, ice, cleft, glacier, cloud and 
 water worn; we stand face to face with the first and last pages of world crea- 
 tion for now we see also tender and beautiful flowers adding grace and form 
 of colur to the grizzly walls and far away down the slopes stand the giant 
 trees, oldest of all living things, embracing all history but even their lives 
 are but as a watch stick since the stars first shone on these barren rocks, be- 
 fore the evolutive forces had so gloriously transfigured the face of our planet 
 home. 
 
 The ripe fruit is dropped at last without violence, but the lightning 
 flashed and the storm raged, and strata was deposited and up torn and bent 
 back and chaos moved from beneath to create and flavor the fruit and color 
 the flower on your table today. 
 
 Some qualities nature carefully fixes, and transmits but some and those 
 the finer exhales with the breath of the individual as too costly to perpet- 
 uate but I notice also that they may become fixed and permanent in any 
 stalk by painting and repainting them on every individual until at last nature 
 adopts thenfand bakes them into her porcelain. 
 
 Soil, Air And Plant 
 
 [by prof. f. b. munford] 
 
 The roots of farm crops must be continually supplied with fresh supplies 
 of air, or they will turn yellow, appear sickly and die. Seeds will not ger- 
 minate in any position where they cannot receive the oxygen of the air. 
 This explains why heavy, watersoaked soils are rich in plant food, but their 
 saturated condition excludes the air, and the roots cannot grow healthy. 
 This supply of air must be continually renewed, and there must be, therefore, 
 a kind of soil breathing to supply fresh air to plant roots. 
 
 One of the most important processes in soil is the change of organic mat- 
 
22 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 ter to available plant food, This process cannot go forward in the absence 
 of air. The most important available elements of plant food in the soil are 
 the nitrates, and these are formed only in the presence of soil air. 
 
 The air must penetrate to the extreme length of the root growth of 
 plants. Th'is, in the case of clover and alfalfa air must penetrate on certain 
 soils from five to twenty feet in depth. One chief result of growing clover 
 on land is the deep holes made in the soil by the roots of the clover. "When 
 the roots decay these are left open for a time. The air thus penetrates 
 easily to the roots of succeeding crops. 
 
 SOIL VENTILATION 
 
 In nature the air in the soil is daily renewed by changes in temperature, 
 and by winds sweeping over the surface. As the soil warms up during the 
 day, the air expands, and a portion of it is forced out. As it cools down again 
 at night, the soil air contracts, and new fresh air from the atmosphere flows 
 in. Every rain which falls upon the surface carries with it air, and the per- 
 colation of this water downward forces the air from the deeper layers into 
 the natural drainage outlets, and new air rushes in. 
 
 INCREASING AIR IN SOILS 
 
 Tillage of whatever kind is one method of supplying air to soils. Plow- 
 ing, harrowing, cultivating with soil working tools are all efficient for this 
 purpose. In wet, retentive soils, under-dainage is a very efficient method of 
 bringing about soil ventilation. 
 
 The rotation of crops helps to aerate the soil. The deeply growing roots 
 of clover, alfalfa and similar crops, leave air passages in the soil, and these 
 become efficient channels for the introduction of the life-giving air. 
 
 SOIL, TEMPERATURE AND PLANT GROWTH. SOILS MUST BE WARM 
 
 The importance of a certain degree of heat in the soils fur germination 
 and for plant growth has already been considered. There are certain limits 
 between which seeds will germinate and plants grow. Neither the maximum 
 nor minimum temperature is most favorable. The soil may be too warm and 
 it may be too cold. In the Temperature Zone it may be said that with most 
 of the spring crops the average temperature during the growing season is too 
 cold to produce the largest crops. The processes which combine tc bring 
 about plant growth are mechanical processes, processes of solution, and 
 physical processes like osmosis all of which are carried on more efficiently 
 and rapidly in warm temperature The lowest temperature at which growth 
 starts in most crops is from 45 to 48 degrees fahrenheit, but the best results 
 are not reached until the soil has ri-ached a temperature of nearly 70 degrees. 
 The average soil temperatures in the northern half of the United States are 
 considerable colder than the above. At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station 
 it was found that only during two months were temperature warm enough to 
 produce the best growth of farm crops. It is, therefore, true that the aver- 
 age temperature of soils is too cold. In some practical experiments with 
 farm crops it was found that the germination of wheat, rye, oats and flax 
 does forward most rapidly at 77 degrees to 87 degrees while corn and pump- 
 kins germinate best at 92 to 101 degrees. Haberlandt found that corn would 
 germinate in three days at 65 degrees, but required eleven days to germinate 
 when the temperature was only 51 degrees. At 65 degrees oats germinate in 
 two days, but the same seeds required seven days to germinate when the tem- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 23 
 
 perature was 41 degrees. This explains why corn rots in the ground if corn 
 planting is followed by cold wet weater. The question is, Can we influence 
 favorably soil temperature by practical methods? 
 
 CONDITIONS GOVERNING SOIL WARMTH 
 
 The conditions which determine the degree of heat in soils are: (1) the 
 amount of water in the soil; (2) the incline or slope of the soils; (3) i he color 
 of soils. The most important of these conditions is the amount of water, A 
 soil that is saturated with moisture is a cold soil. It is cold becau-e of the 
 large amounts of water evaporating continually from the surf ace. Th»- evap- 
 oration of water is a cooling process. We bathe our hands and forehead 
 when heated, and the evaporation of this water from the surface of the bi)dy 
 results in cooling the system. A drop of ether or alcohol upon tbe hand 
 leaves a cold sensation, due to rapid evaporation. The physicist tells us that 
 it requires 966 heat units to evaporate one pound of water. This amount 
 evaporated from a cubic foot of soil would lower its temperature more than 
 10 degrees. 
 
 King states that 100 units of heat will raise 100 pounds of water from 32 
 to 33 degrees. It requires only 19 of the same units to raise the s im - weight 
 of dry sand one degree of temperature. A dry soil then is a warm soil and a 
 wet soil ever a cold one. Any method of cultivation which prevents t vapora- 
 tion of moisture from the surface of the soil will increase the soil tempera- 
 ture and indirectly increase the yield of crops. The under drainage of wet 
 soils results in increasing the warmth of the soils drained. Cultivation of the 
 surface, which destroys the capillary condition of the soil, and prevents rapid 
 evaporation, warms the soil and thus promotes directly the better growth of 
 plants. 
 
 Soils which slope to the south are warmer than when sloping in any other 
 direction, because they receive the direct rays of the sun. A black soil is al- 
 ways warmer than a light-colored soil, because black colors absorb the heat 
 rays of the sun, and light colors reflect them. This interesting physical fact 
 can easily be demonstrated by placing a white handerchief and a bla k cluth 
 of equal size on the snow on a bright sunshiny day. Thesn( w under the black 
 cloth will melt away while under the white cloth it will remain unchanged. 
 In general it may be said that one of the most important effects of good cul- 
 tivation of the soil which is always a factor in good farming in the warming 
 of the soil. 
 
 Prof. F. B Mumford bears out in full all that we have said in regard to 
 warning for the soil. I am anxious that each reader shall thoroughly read 
 and think < n what he says. It is interesting reading and such as will do good 
 to those who follow the thoughts given. 
 
 The Abandoned Farms 
 
 We have all seen or read of the abandoned farms in the New E'^gland 
 States, and other parts of our great country and such reports a^e stubborn 
 facts. And yet the writer, who was brought up in that section, welj remem- 
 bers when those same farms were the garden spots of our nation. Th-^y were, 
 in fact, fertile, large producing lands, that grew a great abundance oF grains, 
 grasses and vegetables but their owners knew nothing of the methods of pre- 
 serving the fertility of his lands. He did not, in fact, dream that in each 
 bushel of grain that he had sold was selling just so much of the best of of his 
 
24 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 soil and that the day would come when his land could not respond from lack 
 of humus which is the vegetable matter in the soil. Now to determine the 
 quantity present on your farm you have only to dry the soil thoroug^hly then 
 weigh a suitable quantity of the dried soil, place it in an iron vessel and set 
 it over the fire, bring- the contents to a low red heat and stir for a suitable 
 length of time, say for twenty-five or thirty minutes; when cold weigh again; 
 the difference between the weight before and after heating is the humus that 
 was in that amount of soil; this has been consumed by fire, but heat is not the 
 only thing that destroys humus. Injudicious cropping will remove humus 
 from the soil. As illustration, if commercial fertilizers, even of high grade^ 
 be employed for a sufficient Hutnber of consecutive years no means in the 
 meantime being employed to make the necessary humus, the soil will become 
 dead and compact having more the appearance of ashes, tbe humus has been 
 extracted as effectively as if done by heat. In this condition of tne soil no 
 commercial fertilizer however good or large, will produce a profitable crop. 
 The necessary quantity of humus must be restored to the soil, before there 
 can be any more profitable farming. To maintain a supply of humus a heavy 
 green crop should occasionally be turned under. When the vegetable mat- 
 ter rots it will supply the needed humus. In selecting plants for humus pur- 
 poses preference is given to those of le fume family for the reason that in ad- 
 dition to supplying humus a bountiful supply of nitrogen is drawn from the 
 air. A good crop of clover or cow peas or of other legumes easily will ma- 
 ture $15 worth of nitrogen per acre which, when turned under will serve the 
 next crop. Rye is nearly as good for humus purposes but the nitrogen, ex- 
 cept which has been drawn from the soil, is wholly lacking, none having been 
 drawn by this plant from the air. For the northern section of our country 
 red clover, alfalfa, cow peas, e.c, are the best but in the south the hirry- 
 vetch or crimson clover maybe grown during the fall and winter and cow peas 
 soy beans, etc , during the summer. The ranker the growth of these plants 
 the greater will be the quantity of nitrogen drawn from air. Hence it usual- 
 ly pays well to liberally fertilize said legume crops. Here is a good fertiliz ,t 
 for cow peas, red clover, etc., etc., which shou'd be liberally used on light or 
 thin soil M x 400 lbs of muriate of potash with 1000 lbs of acid phospeate and 
 apply 400 to 6000 lbs per acre, preferab y a few weeks before seediug. If 
 cow peas are used they should be planted in three feet drills, fertilizer ap- 
 plied in the drills and the plant thoroughly cultivated from start to finish. 
 One peck of seed per acre will be ample for forage or imp ovemeat purposes 
 with proper cultivation the fertilizer will act far better th in when broad- 
 casted without further cultivation. If the improvement of the land is the 
 object sought the entire crop at maturity should be turned uider. Whea tha 
 quantity of vegetable matter is large several months will be necessary for it 
 to properly be composed before seeding thereon. In the meantime the soil 
 should be plowed several times and tne rotted vegetable matter properly 
 mixed therewith; thea and notuntil then will the soil be ia a proper condition 
 toyield its strength Some prominent writers advocate feeding the hay andre- 
 turniag the mature to the land I f th's plan be adopted twelve mos. may eiapse 
 before it is returned to the land and by reason of the manure hi zing been 
 scattered here and there much of it will never be returned. The action of 
 the vegetable matter on the soil is such that I am emphatic in turning under 
 such portions of the green crop as can well be spared from the barn. 
 
 Another important feature in legumes is the high feeding value Cow 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 25 
 
 pea hay contains about the same nutritive value pound for pound as wheat 
 brand and can therefore be substituted for wheat brand The hay contains 
 ten and eight-tenths per cent of protein and thirty-six and six-tenths per 
 cent of carbohyJrates. In a well balanced ration there should be one part of 
 protein to five or seven parts carbohydrates. Timothy hay contains two and 
 eig-ht-tenths per cent of protein and forty and four-tenths of carbohydrates; 
 hence if a a ton of timothy or some similar hay, corn fodder, shredded corn, 
 etc., be mixed with a ton of pea vines, the mixture will contain one par of 
 protein to nearly six parts carbohydrate. This is a fairly well balanced ra- 
 tion and will give far better results than the two hays will if fed separately; 
 alfalfa, crimson clover, etc., may be submitted for pea vine hay. The far- 
 mer who wishes quick results may use propared fertilizer. It has taken many 
 years to reduce fertility of our lands. It will take time to restore it but so 
 surely as the above systems are followed so surely will your farm be brought 
 up to its natural standard. The laws of nature may not be broken except we 
 must most assuredly pay the penalty. The man who reads and thinks will 
 most assuredly learn the lesson, so that we may escape the hardships of our 
 fathers and there will be no more abandoned farms. 
 
 The Possibilities of Farm Education 
 
 That the farmers of our great Agricultural country are fast waking up 
 to the fact that they must be better prepared to meet the great competition 
 that the introduction of quick and cheap transportation to all parts of the 
 universe. The railroad and steamboat today make it possible and at the, 
 same time profitable to ship products thousands of miles and from many 
 foreign nations where land is cheap and labor at such figures thit our far- 
 mers could not sustain life with it, to say nothing of comfort and luxuries— 
 hence you will at once observe the great necessity of devising some methods 
 by which our American farmers may be able to compete successfully with 
 those conditions and at the same time sustain the beautiful homes and the 
 dignity of the American Agricultural world If so, their first thought must 
 be a better education along the lines of Agriculture and the management of 
 of their farms. The kini and quality of grass, grain, fruits and vegetables, 
 stock and other products. All must be of the best and to do this, knowledge 
 must be had. If so, to whom must they look? Our government recognizes 
 that the advantages of more and better knowledge have formed the Agri- 
 cultural Bureau of the United States. The best minds to be found are study- 
 ing the latest methods and applances to be found in all parts of the world, 
 together with the best plants, truits, vegetables and seeds. Fall reports are 
 made to the government who in turn through thir bulletins send it out to 
 the people. This is a great and good work but in our vastness cannot reach 
 but comparatively few. Next in importance are the state Agricultural col- 
 leges and schools. They are nearer our homes and the people. They have 
 attracted to themselves our sons and daughters who have first got the spirit 
 at home of the beauty and benefit of better understanding of the methods of 
 practical farming. At those schools they may be brought to as nearl}> per- 
 fection as it may be possible but this does not reach the masses although it 
 does create a thirst for more and better knowKdge amongst i he great masses 
 of farming people. The next and greatest educator of all that meets fully 
 the requirements necessary and scattered broadcast each week at a very 
 
26 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 nominal price are the Agricultural papers which are being- delivered each 
 week to those that they most assist. A farm paper from, as it were, a 
 farmer to his brother farmer. No new methods, appliances, fruits, flowers, 
 seeds or plants, tnat may be broug-ht to notice escape their observation and 
 criticism alongf this line. 
 
 No state has so many bright minds and forceful writers as Iowa. For 
 many years it has been our pleasure to read such papers as The Farmers Tr'ih 
 line. The Homestead, Wallace s Farmer, papers that have won and hold the con- 
 fidence of the thinking and up-tc-date farmers of our land Other states are 
 fast followinsr-their example. A mighty giant although but a few years old 
 the Twentieth Centvry Farmer of Nebrasbra has taken its place at the head in 
 that state acd is surely rolling along the noble work and we trust that the 
 time is not very distant when the good people will demand that agriculture 
 shall be taught in our public schools: that there shall, at least, be a training 
 farm in a small way where the little ones shall be taught the first rudiments 
 of plant and flower growing and a thirst developed amongst our children for 
 nature's purity and beauty instead of yellow covered literature, cigarettes 
 and fiction. When that time shall have arrived the city student will com- 
 pete with his country cousin for the substantial homes of farm life and pros- 
 perity that only comes from higher knowledge of nature in all its beauty. 
 
 Why cannot we as farmer's family read, observe and learn the new and 
 improved things as they come along and keep on a level with the city family? 
 We must read more, observe more and put into practice what education and 
 advantages we have, and do our best to keep abreast with the times. Then 
 we can feel ourselves just as intelligent, just as polished and just as much ad- 
 mired as our city cousins, and need not harbor the feeling that we are being 
 laughed at or snubbed because we toil in God's sublime instead of the dark, 
 glo'^my city office or store and when someone refers to us as "farmer" we will 
 feel as much pride in the name as others do to hear "banker," "merchant,'' 
 "lawyer," etc. 
 
 The Twentieth Century Farmer Seen by the Eyes of an Iowa Citizen 
 
 The twentieth century farmer is the best specimen of a well developed, 
 all round man the world has ever seen. He holds a unique position of power 
 and responsibility among me:^. 
 
 He is the sheet anchor that keeps the nation from drifting upon the 
 shoals of political experiments, the ballast that holds the ship of state steady 
 through a political storm every four years. He is the nation's time lock that 
 prevents the nation's wealth from all being squandered in senseless specula- 
 tion. He is the fountain of life that sends a new stream of new life blood 
 into the dissipated and exhausted cities, preventing mental collapse and 
 moral degration. He is the steward that guards well the bread-box of the 
 world, keeping monopol sts from controlling the necesiities of life. 
 
 No man is s > at the mercy of commercial life, yet no man can be so inde- 
 pendent of commercial life as the intelligent farmer. When he buys the 
 farmer pays the other man's price — when he sells the other man sets the 
 price on what he sells. But offsettiog this apparent condition of slavery 
 stands the fact that the farmer raises what he needs to eat and feed, and he 
 does not have to buy much from anyone if prices are not right, and if he is 
 out of debt he can get along without selling until the price is right. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 27 
 
 So we find this man the most independent man on earth if he owns a small 
 farm free from debt. 
 
 The world's rulers, be they called this or that, are slaves to an exacting- 
 public. They must serve the people that they rule over; they must serve 
 custom, fashion and foolishness. If one sneezes, the world knows in a few 
 minutes that he has caug-ht cold, how he caught it, who attends him, how his 
 temperature and pulse is, what his prospects of recovery are and who will be 
 the ruler if he sneezes again. 
 
 Assassins track the rulers as the hunting dog tracks the fox. Covetous 
 politicians seek their downfall. Cartoonists insult and degrade them daily. 
 Verily, rulership is slavery, not freedom. 
 
 The merchant is successful in proportion to the way that he pleases his 
 customers. He must be pleasant whether he feels Jike it or not. He must 
 flatter the women and kiss the babies, or they go elsewhere. 
 
 So it is with every line of business. Men must bow and scrape, flatter 
 and applaud, throw out bait to catch trade and work till they sweat blood to 
 hold their trade. The world is fickle. No m in can say he does not care what 
 people think of him or his goods. No man can say, "I don't care for you." 
 
 Every business, every trade, is at the mercy of a tyrant called unions. 
 No man may think he can do as he please as long as these exist. The inde- 
 pendent working man is dependent. He finds that life, liberty and the pur- 
 suit of happiness is but a Fourth of July dream. 
 
 An effort has been made time and again to o'-ganize the farmers into a 
 union or trust. Thank God, it nas never succeeded. Let us have one avoca- 
 tion that is free from tyranny within our own ranks. Let us be free to sell 
 when and where we please. 
 
 The twentieth century farmer, owner of a small farm that is free from 
 debt, stand- distinctly as the most independent man on earth. When hired 
 help organize against him he can pasture his farm and do without help till 
 men come around and a^k for a job. When railroads and grain dealers con- 
 spireagainst him he can quit raising grain ta sell until corporation come to 
 their senses. When strikes stop the wheels of commerce he can sit in the 
 shade and wait for the return of common sense and broth :^rly love. 
 
 The twentieth century farmer is the best fed man on earth. Think not? 
 Ask the parson who eats at the table of city and country people. In town he 
 goes for a call about dinner time and is spi> d by the little girl, "Mama, the 
 preacher is coming." Mama must get up a fine dinner and 'phones to the 
 market for a chicken — the preachers always like chicken. Soon the delivery 
 boy brings the chicken. It is a dead one, been dead a long time. It has hung- 
 in the shop to "cure" until it is blue and cadaverous looking, too skinny to 
 make a decent gravy. Poor parson, their troubles are many. "Won't you 
 have some more strawberries? They are so nice." Berries; they were what 
 the farmer did not want, were jolted in a wagon till more or less mashed, set 
 in the sun in front of a store, gathered enough dust to make them gritty, set 
 in the ice box till chilled, picked over and served with skimmed milk. "No, 
 thank you; berries do not agree with me.', 
 
 The reverend goes driving into the country, is spied by a good farmer's 
 wife, who calls him in to stay for dinner. Never refuses. Soon anice, plump, 
 yellow-legged chicken is shot and in the pot. Gravy? I guess yes. And big, 
 lucious strawberries that were just picked from the garden. No little sauce 
 
28 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 dish, but a big saucer full, heaped up like a cushion pyramid. Cap it with 
 sugar and baptize it with cream, real cream, and see if the parson will refuse 
 a second dish. 
 
 This is no dream. This is real life in the homes of all progressive farmers 
 today. They have a variety of garden stuff, always fresh, always ready, 
 with all kinds of meats and fruits at command, that would bankrupt a city 
 banker if he were to buy them for his table. Eat from the hands of a $150 
 chef if you will, but give the bill of fare gotten up by the farmer's wife for 
 themselves. 
 
 The twentieth century farmer is the most broadly and practically edu- 
 cated man on earth. 
 
 Book learning is not education. Education is a combination of common 
 sense and practical experience. Common sense is not learned from books, 
 nor can experience be so obtained. Books have their place. They serve as 
 references for a while and as ancient history in a year or so alter they are 
 published. Experience is ever changing. 
 
 The farmer lives a life of constantly changing experience. He is a stu- 
 dent of things as well as of books. He learns to see, hear, feel avid do. He 
 studies the book of nature with the Creator as his master — ^a master who con- 
 stantly turns news pages and forces the student into new condition, severely 
 punishing ignorance and liberally rewarding the faithful learner. 
 
 No man has to change work so constantly and study such a variety of 
 subjects as does the present day farmer. 
 
 The trend of education is towards specialization. The workman learns 
 but one thing, the professional man makes a speciality of one branch of his 
 profession. Competition narrows education. 
 
 The farmer is independent because he is sort of Jack-of -all-trades and, a 
 fair master of all. He can lay brick or stone, plaster, paint, do carpentering, 
 blacksmithing, surveying; he is a machinist, engineer, road boss and school 
 director. He must know somewhat of the sciences, of business, law, medi- 
 cine and even theology. He has something to do with ornithology, entomol- 
 ogy, horticulture, floriculture and landscape architecture. Study the curric- 
 ulum of an agriculture college and >ou will see what the young farmer of to- 
 day has to know before he even begins to farm for himself. 
 
 The farmer trains his eyes to see, his ears to hear, his taste to differenti- 
 ate, his nose to judge, his hands to feel, his feet to keep under him, his heart 
 or sound to sympathize, his brain to tbink, his judgment to act, his conscience 
 to discern. 
 
 He works with both hands, both feet, head and heart. Surely our twentieth 
 century farmer is a well developed man. None with him will compare. 
 
 Let us compare the independent farmer wiih other callings. Lest some 
 farmer should be contemplating sending his boys to the city to learn a pro- 
 fession and thus become "respectable," I want to remind him that fatmiog is 
 not what the cartojnist pleases to p'cture it incocnpirison with other business. 
 
 Wuuld you have him study law"? Law is honorable and respectable when 
 practiced by a respectable man— so is any business. But the law does not 
 offer opportunities for independent thinking and judgment. The judge looks 
 wise and is so considered, but his position depends upon his adherance to past 
 decisions. The attorney presents his ca-e based upon precedent and not up- 
 on any new thought he may have or any new theory he may present. He 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 29 
 
 quotes authority like aa encyclopedia but he never stands as an authority on 
 anything himself. He calls the expert witness— a farmer perhaps— to be 
 authority. 
 
 The law is a g-ood stepping- stone to political position, but every step 
 from the farm and the White House is a step toward dependence and away 
 from independence. 
 
 Going- to try medicine? Noble work, useful profession. But it is narrow 
 and very binding". The conscientious physician must be on duty day and 
 night. He has little or no lime for broad research or personal pleasure. 
 
 Make him a minister? The ministers has opportunities for a broad ex- 
 perience. He is listened to patiently f ir what he represents more than for 
 what he is as a man. He is a man without a permanent home. His life is 
 one of constraint and not of freedom. His troubles are many— his pleasures 
 few. 
 
 Compare the life of a prosperous farmer with that of any other and it is 
 easily seen that it is safe to go slow when pushing the boys out into the world 
 to win happiness, fortune and honor. 
 
 Do not think I advocate keeping the boys on the farm. Those who do not 
 fit into farm life should get out of it. All I am trying to do is to change the 
 minds of those parents who think farming is beneath their sons and who 
 dream of city life as one of ease and prosperity.— Twentieth Century Farmer. 
 
 The Farmer With Brains and Thought 
 
 Our readers will remember that we have heretofore referred to the fif- 
 teen-acre farm owned by J. D. Detrich of Flowertown, Pennsylvania. Twen- 
 ty years ago Mr. Detrich purchased this small farm, which was not considered 
 in his neighborhood as a piece of land which would contribute much to a 
 man's income. This Mr. Detrich also found out af^er the first year's opera- 
 tions had been concluded, as he had a hard time to make the first payment on 
 the mortgage, to meet the interest • paymt^nts and to pay for the labor em- 
 ployed. The reason for ihis Mr Detrich says was due to the fact that dur- 
 ing the first year he ran the farm according to the old methods of farming 
 generally in use. A goodly portion of the farm w.is in grass, but the whole 
 fifteen acres could not support more than two cows and a horse, as the land 
 was run out and apparently depleted of its fertility. At the end of the first 
 year, it was decided that something had to be done, either the farm had to be 
 disposed of, or else more improved methods of farming had to be employed. 
 Mr. Detrich chose the latter. Being a well educated man, he turned his at- 
 tention to books that gave information on agricultural matters. He studied 
 the experiments carried on by the experiment station, read a large number 
 of agricultural papers, and put into practice what he learned from them. 
 After reading some Mr. Detrich came across a book on soiling and finally de- 
 cided that pasturing land under his condi ions was not a paying proposition, 
 but that he must raise soiling crops, and produce more feed per acre, so as 
 to support more cattle on his small farm He never bought a dollar's 
 worth of commercial fertilizers nor did he purchase any barnyard manure, 
 but relied upon what was made on his own farm. The farm gradually in- 
 creased in fertility until now it produces eoough roughage in the way of green 
 feed, silage and hay to support thirty head of cattle the year around, or 
 in other words, it feeds two head of cattle per acre and last year one and 
 one-half tons of hay were even sold off from the place. 
 
30 
 
 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 In regard to his farming-, Mr. Detrich recently said before the Penn- 
 sylvania Board of Agriculture: 
 
 "The plan of soiling the dairy cattle was adopted over against the ex- 
 travagant method of pasture. It was conducted carefully and observingly 
 but not with the good results that were claimed for it. The production of 
 milk from cows grown and fed in the stall was not equal to the same animal's 
 yield when on pasture. Bat the saving of manure by the soiling system was 
 a marked advantage. Someone has said that no one owns deeper than he 
 plows, and the eighteen years experience in soiling suggest that no one plows 
 wider than the land is manured. 
 
 "It was about this time that the balanced ration of Wolf was being dis- 
 cussed in the journals and agricultural magazines and gave the writer agreat 
 deal of information that was entirely new on the feeding of a diary animal 
 for profit. The adopting of the balanced ration by Wolf, as a guidr-, and not 
 as an absolutely _^me.hanical rule, made the soiling system a real success. 
 
 "To carry on the soiling system many changes were iatroduced into the 
 dairy barn for the comfort of the dairy animals. Cement floors, additional 
 windows, ventilators, platform stalls, well-made water-tight gutters, with 
 cement bottoms, so as to retain all the manure po sible, bedding cut one- 
 quarter inch, water introduced direct into the dairy birn, convenient feed 
 spouts and all green and dry forage run through a cutter and dropped down 
 into the feeding passageway. 
 
 "Convenience and cleanliness are watchwords of the dairyman. Clean 
 cattle, clean milkers, clean dairy barn and clean vessels stand for clean milk. 
 For no strainer will strain dirt out of milk. The soiling of the dairy animal 
 means cleanliness. She must be curried for the sake of health as well as 
 cleanliness. And strict attention uust be given to all sanitary regulations 
 in caring for milk according to our modern civilization. 
 
 "After all these years of experience in sjiling, nothing would induce a 
 return of the old system of rota ion and pasture. By soiling the acreage of 
 the fifteen-acre farm is increased at least four times. The product of the 
 dairy is coveted, because there is never any flavor of grass, weeds, garlic or 
 any foreign taint imparted to the product of the dairy. 
 
 "The cows have a longer period of lactation, largely accounted for on 
 account of a regular supply of water, food and attention There are now in 
 vogue two systems of soiling. The one is the growing of the green crops in 
 the field and having them come in succession, so triat there is an abundance 
 of green food at least for seven months in the year in the climate around 
 Philadelphia. The other, and the one m st likeiy to be adopt d, and which 
 is a real boon to the large farms as w 11 as the small ones, lor it is entirely 
 practicj.1 for both, is the soiling of the green crops for summer as well as 
 winter use. The silo has been ttie indi-ipeosable factor on the fifteen-acre 
 farm since 1882. An abandoned chicken house on the little farm was con- 
 verted into a primitive silo to store the succulent food of summer for the 
 Jerseys. It was a venture to risk moiey, time and machinery twtnty years 
 ago. Today the earnest inquiry i?, how can I get one? There are now two 
 60-tons fcilos on the same little farm. 
 
 "The advantages in soiling are so numerous in the experience of the 
 writer that he has concluded that no man but a rich man can atford to pasture 
 a cow. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 31 
 
 "Pasture is wasteful; soiling economic. Pasture is like killing- an ox for 
 his liver; soiling- is the saving and using- of the entire animal. 
 
 "The animal in pasture has one mouth to eat and four feet to tramp. In 
 dry weather the grass is pulled out by the root; in wet weather is tramped in- 
 to mud. This farm last year wintered sixteen cows in milk, one Jersey bull 
 4 years old, four heifers 2 i^ ears old and ten head of young stock ranging 
 from 15 months down to three weeks, and two horses. All hay, bedding and 
 silage were last year grown on the fifteen acres, and none purchased at all in 
 the market. We attribute this wondrous yield to the soiling system. It 
 lifted the mortgage, paid the taxes and labor and finds its owner not com- 
 plaining that farming doesn't pay." 
 
 The above is a good example of what maybe done by intensive methods 
 of farming. It should be understood that Mr. Detrich did not do any garden- 
 ing beyond w hat was needed for his own family, but he kept good dairy cows 
 to convert the raw material of the farm into money and manure. While his 
 plan may not be adapted to our western conditions, yet it is a fact that in 
 many instances we are depending entirely too much upon pasture and are 
 not paying enough attention to the production of soiling crops. Especially 
 is this true with reference to the silo. Every man who milkes ten cows or 
 more should by alljneans own a silo and store away a large amount of green 
 feed for winter use. The time has come when we must get more out of the 
 land per acre than we have been getting in years gone by and the silo is a 
 structure that will help solve this problem. 
 
 The United States government has recently reorganized the great value 
 of Mr. Detrich's farm and has purchased the same at a cost of $1000 per acre. 
 
 The farm will be used as an object lesson of what can be done by inten- 
 sive farming methods. Scientific soil and other experiments will also be con- 
 ducted on the farm. Mr. Detrich has now gone to manage a 340 acre farm in 
 Chester county, Pa., which will from now on be conducted on the same plan 
 on which h s o^en at Plowertown has been conducted for the past twenty 
 years.— Farmers Tribune. 
 
 Agriculture at the Head 
 
 There is no need in wasting w-ords to show that the agriculture of this 
 country should be developed extensively and rapidly. The whole country 
 and its people in every profession are experiencing a development such as 
 has never been known or even dreamed of before in any period of human 
 history since time began. 
 
 The prosperity of other industries and all of the people affords an oppor- 
 tunity for this development of our agriculture, we as farmers can profit by 
 it, and what is of more consequence the country as a whole needs it. 
 
 The population of our country is doubling very fast, emigration from 
 foreign countries where never so large and all our customers and the de- 
 mand from foreign countries are fast doubling up for all products and today 
 in the corn growing part of our U. S. nearly every acre that can be success- 
 fully grown to corn is under cultivation. There are developing many new 
 uses to wh.ch it is being applied, a great expansion in the uses to which it is 
 adapted and the only way that we can supply these demands will be to im- 
 prove the seed and manner of cultivation, the methods of sustaining the 
 fertility of the soil ia such a manner that we may grow doubly and threbly 
 the amounts we formerly did under the methods of the past. Go back twenty 
 
32 
 
 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 years. Corn was but corn, of course it was a little better than the same 
 was fifty years ag^o. Though the improvements have been made by selection, 
 without any thought of what the bearing would be in the future, but when 
 the time did arrive and when man did begin to think and talk and when the 
 fact was thoroughly demonstrated that great improvements were possible 
 then came the awakening and today through the influence of thinking 
 farmer, through the agency of the agricultural press the great work is going 
 on, all realizing the fact that we must grow larger yields of better product 
 and at less expense. 
 
 We need to raise larger yields. "We know enough already to believe that 
 with better bred varieties and with better methods the same expense we 
 now bestow upon an acre should bring us better yields and at no higher cost. 
 As to the world that is to consume it, I never knew it to be too well fed, for 
 the sun has never shone upon the earth a single day without shining upon 
 starving people. We talk of our greatness, and we are inclined to ignore 
 agriculture as an occupation fit only for the inferior people, and to think 
 that the business of food production will somehow take care of itself. But 
 the stubborn fact is that mankind as a whole has never yet learned how to 
 get enough to eat. 
 
 Here we come in contact with one of the great vital problems of our suc- 
 cess. One of the imperitive laws of nature. We must heed it. Today we 
 are hearing much said in regard to the eastern states. It is said that much 
 of those sections have been so run down they cannot be made to grow enough 
 to support the wants of the most simple people, yet many of us fully remem- 
 ber when that portion of our U. S. was the great producing and feeding por- 
 tion of our nation. Why is this? In our judgment but one thing was thought 
 of at that time. The cultivation Avas simple, the only object being, to get 
 all that were possible today, no heed being given of tomorrow. The fand 
 was robbed and nature outraged, the books were closed until such usages as 
 would pay the old score and put some capital in the bank when business will 
 be resumed and good interest paid. These lessons are imperitive and must 
 be learned. 
 
 Those who have possessed themselves of good land and have made the 
 most of it have in some way prospered and have gradually possessed them- 
 selves of a large share of the earth aud the fullness thereof, laying all others 
 tribute to their energy, ability and foresight. This is now the opportunity 
 of this country, and therefore we should make our lands produce to the 
 utmost. 
 
 With new and improved seeds of all kinds our thinking toilers all along 
 the line, our great government expending many thousands of dollars in the 
 search in all parts of the world for seeds plants grasses, fruits, etc., that 
 may be adapted to our vast and varied climate and soil and while of course 
 some selections brought forth will be worthless the better will be obtained. 
 Our farmers are today the ones at the head. They are blazing the way to 
 prosperity with better varieties and their adaptibility while the manufac- 
 ture of implements are filling every want bringing out the implements that 
 seemingly have the mind of the builder. All seemingly having caught the 
 spirit of progress and are proudly marching on to capture the world. 
 
 Again, if we are to get the most out of our lands we must learn to produce 
 the highest quality. There is more money in it to the farmer and more sat- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 33 
 
 isfaction to the buyer. For oblivious reaso:ns there is g-enerally an abundance 
 of the ordinary, but American agricujture js not to be satisfied until it pro- 
 duces food of the highest grade for t^e markets of the world. Nowhere else 
 on earth is the land occupied by a people so intelligent, so educated, and 
 therefore so able as ours, and if we live up to our opportunities we shall never 
 rest satisfied until we are not only the best fed people on earth, as we are to- 
 day, but until we have attained commercial supremacy in the agricultural 
 markets of the world. It is quality with lessoned cost of production that 
 will do this, and we are, therefore, in the markets for new ideas and better 
 methods in agriculture. 
 
 Did it ever occur to you that the old Indian corn of our grandfathers' day 
 with the people who cultivated it have passed from the earth forever, and 
 that part of the world lacking in the art of up to day agriculture are only 
 half fed. are far behind in intellect, morals, and religion and it has often oc- 
 curred to me that in sending our missionaries to foreign lands to teach, as it. 
 is often said, the heathen, the great requirements ought to be the ability of 
 teaching agriculture and all of its improvements. 
 
 Must Maintain Soil Fertility. 
 
 Nor is this all of our problem. We must not only raise larger yields of 
 higher quality and produce them cheaper, but we must learn to do it with- 
 out running down the fertility of our lands. If we cannot do this then our 
 success and our greatness are but temporary, for we are selling oat, giving 
 away or wasting the very possibilities of the next generations unless we pre- 
 serve unimpaired the fertility of our lands. 
 
 Our children and our children's children will need good fool, and an abun- 
 dance of it. They will have their troubles to meet and their supremacy to 
 maintain as well as we, and altogether likely it will be under conditions more 
 complex than ours, certainly not simpler. 
 
 Here are deep and far reaching questions of public policy regarding the 
 treatment of our lands, which in the last analysis are of public and not pri- 
 vate concern. These are matters which, if well looked after, will make our 
 future as well as our present greatness and happiness possible, but which, if 
 neglected or wrongly administered, will make them impossible, no matter 
 what the form of government, no matter what the social or the religious 
 standard may be. 
 
 Nothing can be clearer than this, that if the agriculture of this country 
 is to keep pace with other internal development and if it is to accomplish 
 most for itself and for the country now and for all time, then it must take on 
 and sustain a pronounced developement; and the problems and the details of 
 this developement must be the special charge and care of the agricultural 
 people themselves. 
 
 It is not that men of other callings or professions would by design either 
 arrest or impede the developement of American agriculture All men of 
 even average intelligence see its importance and would have it developed: 
 besides they are primarily interested in other things, just as we who are farm- 
 ers believe in the necessity of great and prosperous manufacturing plants or 
 lines of transportation, and yet if their prosperity depended upon our exer- 
 tions, our active influence, our opinions, our judgements and our advice, I 
 fear their prosperity would appreciably suffer, if not come to an end alto- 
 gether. 
 
34 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 It is now aad always will be a fact that agricultural people themselves 
 must look after all matters touching agriculture. They know the details in- 
 volved; It is the means whereby they live and by which the little ones are 
 fed and fitted for life; it is life and love and opportunity and everything to 
 them. They may be prejudiced but their prejudice will get rubbed 
 away; they may be often wrong, but their judgements will be corrected; they 
 may not be equal to the task, but they will come up to it. Right or wrong, 
 equal or unf qual to the task but they as we may be, it is both the privilege 
 and the duty of the farmers themselves to study the possibilities and needs 
 of agriculture and to work in season and out of season for its most perfect 
 development. We owe it to our profession; we owe it to our country; we owe 
 it to our children and to our our land to accept this responsibility and do this 
 thing. 
 
 If, then this is to be our work, how shall it proceed? How shall the de- 
 tails be worked out? And who shall take the lead and blaze the road and be 
 the special champion of the cause? 
 
 Each division of our great nation must be educated along the line in 
 which they are to work or to which they are best adapted. The workman 
 must be earnest, honest and intelligent. In this way we may pass down to 
 our children in better condition than we took them, not only improvements 
 in all lines and all directions. It cannot be denied that the nearer we work 
 to nature and perfection the more we appreciate the great ruling power. 
 
 How Legumes Improve the Soil 
 
 In one of the year books of the department of agriculture, Washington, 
 considerable space is given to a discussion of leguminous crops. It is pointed 
 out that modern agricultural chemists have discovered that leguminous crops 
 are not only consumers of available plant foods, but they actually manufac- 
 ture the m )st valuable and most essential nitrogenous compounds using the 
 free gaseous nitrogent of the air. The transformation of an inert gas takes 
 place throu,'h the agency of minute almost infinitesimal bacteria which live 
 within the tissues of the roots of plants of this order, producing knot-like 
 swellings or galls upon them. Each variety of legume has its own peculiar 
 bacterium, comes in contact with and infests the roots; the plant cannot get 
 m^re nitrogen than could be secured by the roots of a grass or tobacco plant. 
 It can then only take up such nitrogen as is already present in the soil in 
 available or soluble form. If these bacteria are entirely absent from the soil, 
 the ciover or bean will not fully develop unless an abundance of soluble ni- 
 trates are present. 
 
 This wonderful dependence of plants of the clover family upon the minute 
 bacteria which live within the root tissues offers an explanation of the fail- 
 ure of sue I crops when tried upon soils not previously devoted to their culti- 
 vation, [t has been found by experiment in this country and abroad that such 
 new legu-ninous crops may be successfully cultivated by inoculating' the land 
 either witii ar ifi -.ial preparations or culture, containing these germs or with 
 soil from a field where this crop has b^en previously grown. Good results are 
 also sometimes secured by treating the seeds preliminary to sowing, by such 
 an inoculation the yield of total dry matter has been increased sometimes 
 from ten fold to thirty fold. Moreover it is found that there are no gall 
 tubercles formed on the roots of leguminous crops when these nitrogen bac- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 35 
 
 teria are not present in a soil and hence there can then be no utilization of 
 gfaseous atmospheric nitrogen by them. 
 
 Nitrogfen is the most important plant food; it is the most extensive fertil- 
 izer when purchased in artificial mature. It is also the most necessary ele- 
 ment of animal food. For when it is entirely absent or present in insufficient 
 quantities, there can be neither growth nor complete repair of worn out 
 tissues, hence it can readily be understood why the abundant cultivation of 
 leguminous crops is so necessary. The leguminous crops are the only crops 
 which will, when plowed under, increase the total fertilizing materials of the 
 soils. The farmer who thoroughly studies the above gets each point firmly 
 fixed in his mind, and carries out the principles as near as possible will most 
 assuredly reach a rich reward. 
 
 Bacteria And the Nitrogen Problem 
 
 [by GEORGE T. MOORE] 
 
 Phlisiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Bureau of Plant Industry. 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 There is probably no fact in plant physiology which has been more firmly 
 established than all plants must have nitrogen in order to thrive, and that 
 under normal conditions this nitrogen must be obtained through the roots in 
 some highly organized form. It is not necessary to discuss this point, for 
 practical experience demonstrates its truth every time a soil is exhausted by 
 any crop, and the farmer testifies to his belief in this fact when he tries to 
 reestablish the fertility of his ground by* adding some fertilizer rich in nitro- 
 geneous matter. While there are certain other substances, such as the 
 phosphoric acid, potash, iron, etc., which plants must have and can only ob- 
 tain through the soil, the demand for nitrogen is so much greater and in one 
 sense so much more important, that the question of the available nitrogen 
 supply in the world has come to be looked upon as lying at the very founda- 
 tion of agriculture and demanding the most careful consideration. Since the 
 conditions of life in the civilized quarters of the globe are such as to cause a 
 constant loss of nitrogen, there have been some who have predicted what has 
 been termed a "nitrogen famine,'' which is to occur within the next forty or 
 fifty years, and the possibility of such a catastrophe has been very graphi- 
 cally portrayed. On the other hand, there are investigators who feel that 
 the possibility of such a condition has been much exaggerated and that the 
 amount of nitrogen in the soil can never be exhausted to such an extent as to 
 affect the crop-producing power of the earth. In order that we may be able 
 to form a more definite opinion upon the subject, it may be well to look at 
 some of the ways in which nitrogen is lost, and then see how it may be re- 
 claimed. 
 
 HOW NITROGEN IS LOST 
 
 In the first place, the conditions of life on the ordinary farm are such as 
 to cause the constant loss of this valuable element through the removal of 
 the crops taken from the soil. If every crop that grew on the land could be 
 returned to it, nature has made provision for getting it back in suitable form 
 for plant food. In the case of nitrogen, neither plants nor animals are able 
 to produce this substance directly in an available form. It is necessary that 
 certain bacteria take hold of plant and animal products, and by means of pe- 
 
36 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 culiar chang-es produce nitrates from fats, sugars, starches, etc. Without 
 these bacteria everything- would have to come to a standstill long ago, for un- 
 less decay takes place and the decomposed elements are rearranged into 
 definite nitrogenous salts no plant is able to use them. Thus, it will be seen 
 that certain bacteria in the soil play as important a part in the food supply 
 of the earth as do the animals and larger plants upon which we think we are 
 so dependent. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to refer to the vast waste of nitrogenous material 
 that is involved in modern sewage methods.. Millions of dollars' worth of ni- 
 trogen which would naturally return to the soil under action of nitrifying 
 bacteria is every year carried off in various waterways and ultimately reaches 
 the ocean, where, of course, it is of no benefit to man. More than fifty years 
 ago Liebig said on the subject: 
 
 Nothing will more certainly consummate the ruin of England than the 
 scarcity of fertilizers. It means the scarcity of food. It is impossible that 
 such a sinful violation of the divine laws of nature should forever remain un- 
 punished, and the time will probably come for England, sooner than any other 
 country, when with all of her wealth in gold, iron, and coal she will be unable 
 to buy the one-thousandth part of food which she has during hundred of years 
 thrown recklessly away. 
 
 A third great source of nitrogen loss is through the action of a group of 
 bacteria which have the power of breaking down nitrates, depriving them of 
 oxygen, and reducing them to ammonia or nitrogen gas, when they are, of 
 course, unavailable for plant food. This process of denitrification, while very 
 useful in the septic tank, which is the most sanitary method of sewage dis- 
 posal, is the source of considerable loss to the farmer, and manures may 
 often be rendered practically worthless by the action of these bacteria. 
 
 Other means by which nitrogen is lost so far as plant foods are concerned, 
 are the washing out of nitrogen salts from the soil and the burning of ex- 
 plosives which are largely composed of.'some nitric salt that would be directly 
 valuable to the vegetable kingdom. The action of nitrate of soda, or salt- 
 peter, has been studied experimentally, and it is known that up to a certain 
 maximum about 23 pounds of nitrate of soda will yield to an increase of one 
 bu.of wheat per acre. Thus, when hundred of thousands of tons of explosives are 
 used in waging war, every battle liberating nitrogen which, if applied to the 
 soil, would increase the yield of wheat by thousands of bushels, the actual 
 cost of war should be estimated at considerably more than is usually calcu- 
 lated; and if there is soon to be a nitrogen famine, war becomes more serious 
 than ever before. 
 
 With all these destructive forces at work and nitrogen being liberated 
 on every hand, it is no wonder that thinking men have become alarmed at 
 the prospect, and have endeavored in every way possible to discover some 
 means of increasing the world's supply of this necessary element. 
 
 HOW NITROGEN IS GAINED 
 
 The most valuable compound containing sufficient fixed nitrogen to be 
 used in any quantity as a nitrogenous fertilizer is the nitrate of soda, already 
 referred to as the basis of so many explosives. This salt occurs naturally in 
 certain regions of Chile and Peru, where for countless centuries the continu- 
 ous fixation of atmospheric nitrogen has been carried on by bacteria. Un- 
 fortunately, however, like any other mineral supply in the earth, the quan- 
 tity is limited, and although it is difficult to get accurate estimates of the 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 37 
 
 amount of nitrate remaining^ in the beds, authorities seem to agree that at 
 the present rate of export the raw material will all be exhausted within 
 from forty to fifty years. To show how much more rapidly this supply is be- 
 ing- exhausted than it was possible forty years ago, it is only necessary to 
 state that in 1860 all estimates showed that the amount of nitrate of soda 
 then known would last for nearly fifteen hundred years. The demand has 
 rapidly increased, however, and although the output is controlled, there is 
 annually consumed in the world's markets nearly one and a half million tons of 
 nitrate of soda, representing a value of about $100,000,000. Of this amount the 
 United States requires about 15 per cent, and it is by far the most expensive 
 fertilizer that is in use by the farmer. 
 
 In addition to the nitrate of soda beds there have also been large deposits 
 of guano, which have served as one of the principal sources of nitrogen. The 
 greater part of the guano beds are now completely exhausted, however, and 
 although new deposits are occasionally discovered, they are of such limited 
 area, or of such a low percentage of nitrogen, as to have practically no ef- 
 fect upon the av.. liable nitrate supply. 
 
 There are certain other chemical salts which furnished a limited amount 
 of nitrogen, such as the product which remains from the distillation of coal 
 in the process of gas making, bat all of them are obtained in such compara- 
 tively small quantities that they are not worth taking into consideration when 
 one realizes the enormous amount of nitrogenous fertilizer necessary to re- 
 place the combined nitrogen which is annually removed from the soil in one 
 way or another. 
 
 Ever since the importance of increasing the combined nitrogen supply 
 has been realized, men of science have naturally turned to the atmosphere 
 as being the most promising field for experiment and the one most likely 
 to eventually solve the whole problem. When it is remembered that nearly 
 eight-tenths of the air about us isnitrogn, and that plants are able to ob- 
 tain their entire source of carbon from a gas, which is present in the com- 
 paratively small proportion of one-tenth of one per cent, it seems almost in- 
 creditable that there should be any more difficulty about a plant's nitroge- 
 nous food than about its supply of carbon dioxid. Since it seemed so well 
 settled, however, that plants could not use nitrogen as a gas, the chemists 
 and physicists have made every effort to devise some mechanical means of 
 making this element available in a combined form. It has been known that 
 discharges of lightning passing through the air are able to fix free nitrogen, 
 and, beginning with this as a basis, some very satisfactory results have been 
 obtained by the use of electricity. With a power sufficiently cneap and with 
 perfect machinery, there seems good reason to believe that in the near fut- 
 ure it will be possible to place upon the market a manufantured nitrate of 
 soda or nitrate of potash that will be superior quality to the deposits found 
 in South America, and that will also be reasonable enough in price to com- 
 pete with the natural product. 
 
 NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA 
 
 Fortunately, there are still other means by which nitrogen gas may be 
 made available for plant food, and that, too, without requiring the intro- 
 duction of a commercial product, which must always be rather expensive, 
 whatever degree of perfection may be reached in the mechanical operation of 
 the process. Ever since the earliest days of agricultural science it has been 
 
38 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 noticed that certain land, if allowed to stand fallow for a considerable length 
 of time, would gain in nitrates without any visible addition having been made. 
 It is now known that one of the principal means of this increase in nitrogen 
 content is due to a few forms of soil bacteria which have the power of fixing 
 the free nitrogen from the air and rendering it available for plant food. 
 These organisms have been isolated and cultivated artificially, and great 
 hopes were held at one time that it would be possible to inoculate land with 
 these cultures and thus bring about a large increase in the nitrogenous salts 
 without the aid of any manure or mineral fertilizer. Under certain condi- 
 tions these bacteria seemed able to do a large amount of work, and there are 
 experiments on record where the crops raised from plots inoculated with ni- 
 trogen-fixing organisms were much greater than crops from uninoculated 
 land. Unfortunately, these results were not always constant, and such a 
 large percentage of failures had to be reported that from a practical stand- 
 point the use of such cultures is no^v considered worthless. A matter of such 
 vast importance to agriculture, however, should not be neglected simply be- 
 cause of first failures. It is quite possible that as we become better ac- 
 quainted with the habits of these bacteria and learn the conditions which are 
 most favorable to fixing nitrogen and the causes which prevent this operation 
 from going on at all times, we shall be able to discover some means of using 
 these nitrogen gatherers in practical farming. 
 
 ROOT TUBERCLE BACTERIA 
 
 In the meantime there is still one other means at hand which can be used 
 and has been used for countless centuries as a most efficient method of con- 
 serving the world's nitrogen supply. Ever since the time of Pliny and other 
 early writers upon agricultural topics, it has been known that certain legumi- 
 nous crops, such as clover, beans, peas, etc., did not require the same amount 
 of fertilizer as other plants, and iadeed it seemed as though they actually 
 benefited the soil instead of being a detriment. Various theories have been 
 advanced to account for this effect, perhaps the most widespread opinion be- 
 ing that members of this family, owing to the unusual length and strength of 
 their root system, were able to draw upon a store of food that was not avail- 
 able to wheat and corn and other crops not belonging to the p.;d-bearing 
 group It is only within a comparatively recent time that the real cause of the 
 beneficial effect of these legumes has been fully understood, and it seems 
 that here again the bacteria are responsible for the nitrogen-gathering power; 
 for it is because these plants are able to fix and use the free nitrogen of the 
 air that fhey are of such benefit in rotation and in reviving poor and ex- 
 hausted land. The immense yield of wheat following alfalfa or clover are 
 easily understood when it is realized that there has actually been added to 
 the soil a certain definite amount of nitrogen in such form that the wheat 
 can be benefited by it. Such efficient users of the atmospheric nitrogen are 
 clover and peas and similar crops that they can actually live and thrive in a 
 soil that has not the first trace of combined nitrogen within it. If quartz 
 sand be ignited to red heat, thus burning out all the nitrates, and then be 
 planted with peas or beans, it is possible to bring these plants to full matur- 
 ity without in any way allowing a particle of fixed nitrogen to find its way 
 into the soil. On the other hand, wheat or potatoes, or crops not legumes, 
 will die as soon as the small amount of nitrogen available from the seed is 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 39 
 
 exhausted. What is the reason for this? It cannot be merely a difference 
 in the length or extent of the root system, because plants'flourish where it is 
 certain there are no available nitrates whatever. For a long- time the pres- 
 ence of certain peculiar nodules or tubercles upon the legum' s has been 
 noted and speculated upon. These formations are always pres-ent upon the 
 roots of leg-uminous plants grown under proper conditions, and may vary in 
 size from that of the smallest pin head, in some clovers, to a cluster as large 
 as a potato. They have been thought to be due to the bites of worms and 
 insects, or to be caused by conditions of the soil and various abnormal climatic 
 effects, and only within very recent years has it been learned that these forma- 
 tions are due to the presence of the innumerable bacteria, and that unless 
 these tubercle-producing bacteria exist the plant is no more able to use the 
 nitrogen from the air than wheat or any of the other crops which do not have 
 such nodules on their roots. 
 
 MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE OF TUBERCLES 
 
 If a thin cross section of one of these tubercles be] examined under the 
 microscope it will be seen that the cells are very much larger than in a nor- 
 mal root, and that almost the entire contents have been replaced by masses 
 ot minute bacteria. These bacteria gain an entrance into the plant through 
 the root hairs, and may assume shapes very different from the ordinary rods 
 and spheres that are usually found in this group. The appearance of branch- 
 ing has led some observers to consider that these tubercle {formers were not 
 true bacteria, but belonged to some group intermediate between the bacteria 
 and fungi. This is not probable, however, for there is abundant evidence to 
 prove their relationship to the true bacteria, and while the p -culiar shapes 
 are somewhat characteristic of the group, they are not exclusively of this 
 form, many tubercles having nothing but the short rods. 
 
 Just where the nitrogen is fixed and how it is used by the]plant have been 
 debated questions. Some have supposed that the presence of the bacteria 
 in the roots simply acted as a stimulus, and that the leaves of the pLint were 
 thus able to take in nitrogen as a gas and to elaborate nitrates from it in 
 some such way as carbon is formed from carbon dioxid. It seems much more 
 probable, however, that the bacteria themselves fix the nitrogen in the roots 
 of the plant and that it is then used as nitrates would be used fr.)m the soil. 
 It is certain that these tubercle organisms can fix free nitrogen in cultures, 
 and there is no reason to suppose that this power is lost when within the 
 roots of a legume. Furthermore, it seems as though the plant actually uses 
 the contents of these tubercles, for at the end of the season tfie tubercles 
 are found to be much softer and shrunken, and are practically emptied of 
 their mass of bacteria. 
 
 EFFECT OF TUBERCLES 
 
 It is a weil-established fact, and has been shown by a number of inde- 
 pendent investigators in various parts of the country, that the leguminous 
 crop which bears tubercles will exceed a similar crop with 'Ut tubercles by 
 from 100 to 1000 per cent; that is, a field of clover grown "U such poor soil 
 that it would only yield 200 pounds to the acre would be so invigorated by the 
 presence of tubercle-forming bacteria that on exactly similar soil it would 
 produce from 400 to 2000 pounds to the acre, and this without any cost what- 
 ever for fertilizers and. with very little more labor. In ad ition to the in- 
 crease of the actual weight of the crop, tubercles also cause tbe plants to 
 
40 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 flower and fruit earlier, and the number of seed produced is very much g-reater. 
 
 Thus it will be seen that it is worse than useless to attempt to grow any 
 leguminous crop without being certain of the presence of the bacteria which 
 enable the plant to fix free nitrogen. It would be much better to fertilize 
 heavily and attempt to raise some more profitable crop than to introduce 
 clover or beans or some other legume for the purpose of enriching the soil. It 
 cannot be too strongly emphasized that unless the tubercles are present the 
 leguminous crop is of absolutely no more benefit to a soil than wheat or po- 
 tatoes. 
 
 While these organisms are pretty generally distributed throughout the 
 earth, and it is quite possible in many parts of the country to grow almost 
 any leguminous crop and secure these tubercles, it is also true that certain 
 regions are practically devoid of the right kind of bacteria, and that unless 
 some artificial means of introducing the germs be resorted to the crop will be 
 a failure. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL INOCULATION OF THE SOIL 
 
 In the past there have been two methods used in attempting to bring 
 about artificial inoculation. Naturally where a certain leguminous crop has 
 been grown successfully for a number of years the soil will become filled with 
 tubercle organisms, and by transporting this earth to new fields the organ- 
 isms will thus become available for forming the nodules in localities where 
 they previously had not existed. This was the means by which the soy-bean 
 organisms were brought from Japan, and there are very few places in this 
 country where soy is now grown that did not receive their inoculation, indi- 
 rectly at least, from the Japanese soil. 
 
 There two serious objections to soil inoculations, however. One is the 
 expense, for it requires anywhere from 500 to 1500 pound? of earth per acre 
 to produce a satisfactory growth of tubercles, and if this has to be trans- 
 ported for a large farm, the cost is almost prohibitive. There is still an- 
 other and more serious objection, however, and that is the danger of trans- 
 mitting plant diseases by this method. Several of the more serious diseases 
 which attack crops are readily conveyed in the soil, and there are numerous 
 cases on record wherediseases of leguminous and other crops have been in- 
 troduced into regions previously entirely free from them through an effort 
 to bring about a soil inoculation of the tubercle-forming organism. Conse- 
 quently, if any safer and cheaper method could be devised for making these 
 germs available, it would be most desirable. 
 
 A few years ago certain German iavestigators put upon the market a 
 product known as aitra?in, which purported to be a pure culture of the root- 
 tubercle organism. These cultures were oaly adapted to specific crops, for 
 it has been held that eaca kind of legumlnms plant had a special germ bet- 
 ter adapted to produce tubercles upon it than any other form, and for this 
 reason it was necessary to use oae organism for clover, another for peas, and 
 so oa. Tais preparation, nitragin, has been used with varying success abroad. 
 Some experiments seemed to show that it was of the greatest value, while 
 others are complete failures in demonstrating its worth. The failures so far 
 outnumbered the successes, however, that its manufacture has been aban- 
 doned, and it can no longer be obtained. A few attempts have been made to 
 use these cultures in this country, and while some very satisfactory results 
 were obtained, the number of failures was even greater than abroad, the 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 41 
 
 varying- condition involved in transportation and the length of time which 
 elapsed before the germs could be used being fatal to about 8i) per cent of 
 the material imported. 
 
 IMPROVED METHOD OF INOCULATION 
 
 A little more than a year ago the investigation of these nltroaren-fixing 
 bacteria was begun in the laboratory of plant physology of the Bureau of 
 Plant Industry, with the hope of discovering some method of artificially in- 
 oculating soils which were devoid of the proper organisms, and insuring' their 
 producing the desired result. It was soon found that the method in use 
 by the German investigators was not adapted to the life of the organism: 
 that is to say, the use of rich nitrogenous food matt rial, such as decoctions 
 of the host plant, were not calculated to produce an organism which would 
 fix free nitrogen from the air. It was found that while the bacteria grew 
 luxuriantly upon such media, they became less and le^s active, until event- 
 ually they lost completely this nitrogen-fixing power. It seemed as though 
 the large amount of nitrates in the media upon which they were grown made 
 it no longer necessary to draw nitrogen from the air, and consequently they 
 deteriorated until they became of no more value than the common soil forms. 
 It has been found, however, that by gradually reducing the amount of nitro- 
 gen in the culture medium it is possible to greatly increase the nitrogen-fix- 
 ing power of these germs, and that by proper manipulation their activity 
 may be increased from five to ten times that which usually occurs in nature. 
 Practical field experiments have shown that of two cultures, one grown on 
 nitrogen-free media and and the other on a medium rich in nitrates, vhe first 
 will produce abundant tubercles, while the latter will be absolutely worthless 
 and fail to produce a single nodule. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION AND METHODS OF USE OF CULTURES 
 
 Having secured an organism which was able to fix such a large amount 
 of nitrogen, it was necessary to devise some me ins of preventing this proper- 
 ty from being lost, as well as to enable the cultures to be distributed in 
 sufficient quantity to be of some practical use. It is now known that the 
 bacterid, when grown upoa nitrogen-free media, will retain their higa activ- 
 ity if they are carefully dried out and then revived in a liquid medium at the 
 end of varying lengths of time. By using some absorbent which will soak up 
 millions of the tubercle-forming organisms and then by allovs^ing these cul- 
 tures to become dry the bacteri i can be s :nt to any ]• irt of the United States, 
 or the world for that matter, and yet arrive in perfect condition. Of course, 
 it is necessary to revive the dry germs by immersion in water, and with the 
 addition of certain nutrient salts the origin il number of bacteria is greatly 
 increased if allowed to stand for a short time. BYequent y twenty-four hours 
 are sufficient to cause the water in a pail to turn milky white with the num- 
 ber of organisms formed in that time. Thus, by s ndiag out a dry culture, 
 similar to a yeast cake and no larger in size, the original number of nitrogen- 
 fixing bacteria may be multiplied sufficiently to inoculate at least an acre of 
 land. The amount of material thus obtained is limited only by the quantity 
 of the nutient water solution used in increasing the germs. It is evident* 
 therefore, that the cost of inoculating land is very small. The principal cost 
 is in obtaining the organisms, but the methods perfected by the Department 
 of Agriculture now make it possible to produce these at a comparatively 
 
42 
 
 BOOK OR CORN GROWING 
 
 small cost. Special facilities for increasing the culture>n a large scale are 
 being- provided. 
 
 The way in which this liquid culture may be introduced into the soil 
 varies somewhat with the character of the seed to'be ". used and the area of 
 the field to be treated. With large seed it is often more convenient tolsimply 
 soak them in fluid and then after they are sufficiently dryito sow them in the 
 ordinary way. In other cases it is frequently more feasible to introduce the 
 liquid culture directly into the soil. This may be done^by spraying, or per- 
 haps a simpler method is to mix the culture thoroughly^with a wagonload of 
 earth and then to distribute and harrow this in just^las a; fertilizer would be 
 handled. Inoculations of this character have been tried on a large scale in 
 practical field experiments, and the results have been so|;satisfactory that 
 the Department of Agriculture will probably soon be able to begin the intro 
 duction of cultures into such localities as are now deficient in tubercle-form- 
 ing germs. It should be born in mind that such inoculations are usually not 
 necessary in soil that is already producing tubercles. While the introduction 
 of fresh organisms will generally considerably increase the^number of nodules, 
 the effect upon the crop is not appreciable, and it dsShardly worth the ex- 
 penditure of time and iabjr necessary to make the inoculation. Wherever 
 legumes that fail to produce tubrcles are being grown, however, or in those 
 localities where the soil is so poor that legumes will not grow and^because of 
 the lick of the proper organisms they cannot make a start,^^every effort 
 should be made to get the bacteria into the soil. 
 
 Corn Improvement and Selection 
 
 We are now just in the wake of the wave of awakened interest in corn 
 improvement which has swept over the country the past three or four years. 
 During that time many new theories have been advanced and abandoned, and 
 even those which have stood the test of time have been constantly modified 
 as we have learned new facts. 
 
 Corn men now generally agree that yield is the most important consid- 
 eration, even though the high yielding corn may have few/or none^^^of the 
 fancy points catalogued as essential to the "ideal ear." 
 
 The first thing for a farmer to do, who intends taking up practical corn 
 breeding, or selection is to find the variety that is best adapted and gives best 
 yield under his condition?. There are hundreds of varieties, and that they 
 vary greatly in yield when grown under the same conditions is easily seen by 
 taking up the report of any variety test of corn conducted by the experiment 
 stations. 
 
 It is today an established fact that the selection, say 100 ears of corn 
 from the very best seed obtainable, that by close observation and examina- 
 tion, ihat but very few of such ears will have all the good qualities desirable 
 in such a variety, hence the necessity of a test by one who is thoroughly 
 learned first in what constitutes a desirable corn for the general farmer, but 
 the tests that may be of most value to the farmer are first, heft of ear, 
 second, legnth of cob; third, length and size of kernel; fourth, the amount of 
 life and oil or fat bearing por' ions in comparison to the whole, lastly, the 
 shape of the kernel. The surest test of value being weight of grain in com- 
 parison to cob. Pick first your best ear, having the most of the above 
 points in your judgment, shell it carefully, weigh the cob and the grain care- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 43 
 
 fully making- a note the comparative weig-htof each, shell as many such ears 
 as you may wish, making careful notes of each ear, have a plat of ground 
 thoroughly fitted, in which remember first, the finely prepared seed bed— long 
 enough so that the corn from one ear may plant one row, have this trial plat 
 as far removed from other corn as possible, that there may be no mixing of 
 pollen, give this plat rich attention, allowing no weeds or barren stalks to 
 grow. As soon as the tassels begin to show and the ears begin to set or form, 
 keep close watch and if from any cause there are stalks that do not set an 
 ear or more cut it out, do not in all your plat allow even one stalk of this 
 barren variety to have a chance to shed its pollen amongst the fertile grow- 
 ing stalks. In this manner you will have laid the foundation for your coming 
 crops of corn. At gathering time pick in good season allowing it to stand as 
 late as possible without being caught by killing frosts, being very careful to 
 put each row by itself giving it some number or mark by which you will know 
 the row in which it was grown Be very careful that you do not store it at 
 any place where it may come in contact with other corn and be very sure 
 that it does not freeze^ at least until thoroughly dried and remember one 
 fact that all corn for seed will keep better until such time as it is wanted on 
 the cob. When it is r-ady to shell for planting first, take each ear care- 
 fully, weigh it before shelling and the same after, this will give you the cor- 
 rect amount of cob and corn. Showing which are the best, as to the heft of 
 corn compared to heft of cob, which decides the worth or desirability. By 
 following this method for a few years, you will have brought out a variety of 
 corn to your own liking and one that will surprise you as I think that no 
 other grain will show the great improvement in so short space of time as 
 corn, nor pay as well for the work and trouble that will have been laid out in 
 this direction. We are positive in our opinion that the above named rules 
 thoroughly carried out year after year, will be one of the greatest invest- 
 ments and one of the most pleasant occupations that any farmer can enter 
 into, upon his farm. 
 
 Seed Corn 
 
 Illinois' annual corn corp, about 2-10,000,000 bushels, is raised on near- 
 ly 8,000,000 acres of land. It required almost 1,000,000 bushels of seed corn to 
 plant the corn fields of this state. 
 
 If the character of the seed has any coosiderable influence upon the crop 
 produced, then the production and use of the best possible seed corn becomes 
 a matter of tremendous importance. 
 
 What is the quality of the seed corn planted by the Illinois farmers? To 
 this question it will be necessary to study the character of seed corn under 
 several different heads. 
 
 UNIFORMITY 
 
 As a rule little attention has been given to the character of the seed 
 corn; little examination has been made of the proportion of the corn to cob, 
 of the purity of color, the space between the rows, the filling out of ends, 
 the length, circumference, or shape, or of any of the important points which 
 go to make up a good ear of corn. 
 
 It has been found by seed corn growers that the length, circumference 
 or shape of the ear can be varied at will by selection, and there is every rea- 
 son to believe that these characteristics can be so fixed that practically all 
 
44 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 of the ears in a field grown from pedigreed, uniform seed will be of approxi- 
 matel}' uniform size and shape. Further it has been found that the number 
 of rows of kernels on the cob, the filling- out of the ends or other character- 
 istics, can be improved by planting- from seed having these characteristics. 
 It has beeii. demonstrated that it is not good practice to plant small ker- 
 nels of g-rain of any sort. Therefore, it is not good policy to plant the tip 
 kernels. As the butt kernels usually vary greatly in size from the kernels on 
 the rest of the ear, it is a good plan to shell off and discard both the tips and 
 butts of the ears selected for seed. Again, as the butts of the ears mature 
 first and the tips last, it is probable that the parts have been fertilized by 
 pollen of an early or late variety from some neighboring field: so by shelling 
 off the butts and tips, part of the danger of mixed seed can be avoided. In 
 general, shell off the small and the extremely large kernels, so that the por- 
 tion of the ear remaining for seed has kernels of approximately uniform size. 
 With most varieties of corn, about one-half inch of butt kernels and one inch* 
 of tip kernels should usually be shelled off. 
 
 VITALITY 
 
 Owing to a late spring or early frosts, it frequently happens that the 
 seed corn does not fully mature. In this condition the ear is likely to mould 
 and decay, thus destroying the vitality of the grain. As the majority of 
 farmers in Illinois allow the seed corn to remain in the general crib during 
 the winter exposed to the sudden and violent changes in temperature, such 
 corn, full of moisture, will freeze, and consequently the life of the germ may 
 be weakened or destroyed. The seed corn in central Illinois, selected from 
 the crop of 1898, was so much injured in this way that the university tests of 
 the vitality of seed corn sent in by farmers from this section of the State 
 gave an average of only 76 percent germination. Such seed was not fit to 
 plant, but as no provision had been made by the farmers for drying and prop- 
 erly preserving seed corn, and as this was the only seed available it was 
 planted with a resultant poor stand, light crop, and a loss of profits. 
 
 Immature seed should not be planted for several reasons: First, such ker- 
 nels do not contain as much plant food as those which are fully developed, 
 and thus do not provide as much nourishment for the young plants which con- 
 sequently, do not get so vigorous and healthy a start as those from mature 
 seeds. Second, the excessive moisture in the immature seeds renders them 
 liable to begin to germinate in the fall in the crib, and thus use up a part of 
 their strength; or a sudden drop in temperature may freeze the corn and de- 
 stroy the life of the seed. 
 
 Seed corn should test 95 per cent vitality; 1. e., of the seed planted in the 
 seed bed 95 per cent should grow. If the seed does not give this test of vital- 
 ity a poor stand will be the result. Nor is it wise lor the farmers to try to 
 make up for poor seed by planting a greater number of grains, because of 
 seeds which give a test of vitality many of those which do grow lack strength 
 and vigor and will consequently produce weak plants. Furthermore, an un- 
 even stand will sure result, some hills being over-crowded (frequently with 
 weak plants), and other hills being left with perhaps no plants at all because 
 of the unequal distribution of the seed that will germinate. Seed of low vi- 
 tality will inevitably tend to the production of a poor crop. Ic is important, 
 therefore, that the farmer make a test of the vitality in order that he may 
 know the quality of his seed. A most simple, effective, and practical method 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 45 
 
 of testing- the vitality of seed corn is as follows: Fill common dinner plates 
 nearly level full of fine sand, pour water over the sand until it is more than 
 saturated, shake g-ently to level the sand, allow it to settle, and then drain 
 ofif the surplus water. Push 50 kernels into the sand in each plate, turn a 
 smaller plate over the sand to prevent too rapid evaporation of moisture, 
 and set both in a warm place. Keep the sand moist and in seven days all of 
 the healthy kernels should sprout. By counting" the kernels sprouted the per 
 cent of good seed can easily be computed. 
 
 PEDIGREE 
 
 As a matter of fact the history of the development of most of the strains 
 of corn now grown in the State, is very brief With few exceptions no record 
 has been kept of the various crosses, and but few varieties have been se- 
 lected toward a particular type for a special purpose for any considerable 
 length of time. There have been but few systematic or practical attempts 
 at improvement, and the result is that we are, as a rule, growing mongrel or 
 scrub varieties. A few varieties however, have been carefully selected, in 
 accordance with definite ideas as to improvements, for about a quarter of a 
 century and have developed certain characteristics, distinguishing them from 
 other varieties. In such instances it has been found that, if the corn has 
 been selected toward a uniform standard type, the yield has been increased 
 because of ttie production of uniformly better ears. The yields of varieties 
 tested at this experiment station from 1888 to 1900 inclusive, show the same 
 result. Also enough has been accomplished to prove that almost any char- 
 acteristic desired in a variety can be fixed by persistent selection, and that 
 these characteristics can be continually improved by further selection. 
 
 The development of the per ecnt of sugar in sugar beet furnishes a splen- 
 did illustration of the possibilities of plant breeding. Starting with ordinary 
 beets with about 4 per cent of sugar, the French and German seed growers 
 by selection have increased the sugar content to an average of 12 to 16 per 
 cent, making it possible to manufacture profitably sugar from this source. 
 There is little doubt that there are as great or greater possibilities in the corn 
 plant, and that these possibilities can be as easily developed as the increased 
 sugar content of the beet. The development of our present breeds of cattle 
 and other live stock plainly shows how careful, systematic, and intelligent 
 selection and breeding have improved those breeds. We have developed the 
 dairy type and the beef type from the same source; the light and drafthorse 
 from the same type of breeding and selection. 
 
 Corn responds to selection as readily as do beets and cattle, and there is 
 no longer any doubt but that varieties of corn can be further improved by 
 similar methods. 
 
 it has been found that the chemical composition of the corn kernel varies, 
 and the experiments conductedlby this station have conclusively shown that 
 the proportion of the constituents of chemical composition can be varied at 
 tne will of the Breeder, "Improvement in the Chemical Composition of the 
 Corn Kernel." In other words, it has been found possible to increase or de- 
 crease the proportion of oil, or of starch, or of protein, by seed selection. 
 When seed high in protein is planted, a product high in protein is the result 
 and vice versa. The same thing holds true with seed high in starch, or oil. 
 
 What is true of the chemical composition, is eminently true of the physi- 
 cal characteristics of the ear; for instance, the shape of the Leaming kernel 
 
46 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 has been changed by twenty-five years of selection from the original shoe- 
 peg shaped kernel to a broader, deeper grain with a deep Ident. Along 
 with this variation in shape of kernel has gone an increase in 
 length of ear, and a slight increase in circumference. Again, 
 in the case of the Boone County White variety, the tips of the origi- 
 nal corn were poorly filled. This fact was due principally to the reason that 
 the Buone County white ears are very long. As an ear matures from the 
 butt, towards the tip, the tip maturing last, it frequently happened that the 
 pollen was all gone before the tips of some of these ears which were well 
 filled, in other words, the ears all parts of which matured in time for the 
 pollen to fertilize tnem, the best samples of this variety have become well 
 filled at the tips. 
 
 Yellow Rose corn was originally a medium to shallow grained corn but by 
 constant selection toward deeper kernels and deeper dent, the variety has 
 developed a very deep kernel with an unusually deep indentation. It has been 
 found at the university through five years of expeii mentation, that the 
 amount of husks, length of shank, size of stalk, position of the ear on the 
 stalk, the number of leaves, in fact every physical characteristic can be 
 varied by the simple selection in a short space of time. 
 
 At present our meager records show only the incomplete history of the 
 parentage of the varieties of corn. It is just as important that we know the 
 character of every part of the corn plant, as that we know every character- 
 istic of the stalk strongly influence the development of the ear; and it is 
 probable also that we shall need to know the nature of the root development 
 in order to breed intelligently. 
 
 HOW TO GROW SEED CORN 
 
 The farmer who is especially interested in corn can well afford to grow 
 his own stock seed. He can select for those qualities he particularly desires, 
 adapt the corn to his peculiar conditions of soil and climate, and continue to 
 produce a constantly improving grade of corn. 
 
 The first essentia in growing seed corn is, that one obtain from some re- 
 liable corn breeder 30 or 40 ears of highly bred seed , of the variety desired. 
 Corn suitable "for growing seed is difficult to obtain. It does not exist in 
 large quantities, because of the high standard of perfection which must be 
 maintained in its seltction, and so it must be very expensive, but the farmer 
 can well afford to pay a high price in order to get it for breeding purposes. 
 It is absolutely necessary that the farmer obtain this seed corn in the 
 ear, because it is impossible to judge accurately the quality of seed corn after 
 it is shelled. 
 
 An acre or more of good land should be selected which is located at a dis- 
 tance of about.40 rods from any other corn field (unless thick groves or hedges 
 are between), and, if possible, further, especially in the direction of the most 
 prevalent summer winds, in order that the corn may not be mixed by the poll- 
 en from other varieties or from low grade corn ©f the same variety. After 
 the seed bed is well prepared and the field marked both ways, plant the corn 
 from each ear by itself, either in plots about 9 or 10 hills square, or in rows 
 lengthwise of the field. The planting is best done by hand, and must be so 
 done if the plot system is adopted. A square field of 36 square plots of 100 
 hills each is a little more than 1 acre: or 28 rows of 127 hills each make pract- 
 ically an exact acre, if the hills are 3 feet 6 inches apart each way. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 4'7 
 
 Discard all tips and butts and any other abnormal or mixed kernels and 
 plant each plot or each row with corn from a single ear. What is left of the 
 ears may be mixed tog-ether and used to plant a border around the acre field 
 to futher protect it from foreign pollen. This border is, of course, cultivat- 
 ed with the rest of the field. Keep each year a carefully selected typical 
 ear for purposes of comparison and to show the changes effected year by 
 year. 
 
 As soon as the ears begin to set and the character of the stalks can be 
 determined, go through the field and cut out all of the poor, dwarfed, or barr- 
 en stalks, and also any volunteer or accidental stalks which may appear in 
 the field, so that the pollen from these inferior stalks cannot fertilize the 
 future seed. The same object may be accomplished by detasseling these im- 
 perfect stalks just as the tassels begin to peep through the leaves. 
 
 Husk each plot or row grown from a single ear separately. Examine the 
 ears closely and select ears for the next year's seed acre from those plots or 
 rows having the g^reatest proportion of ears true to type. The ears which 
 produce this large proportion of ears true to type must have a prepotency 
 for the production of ears of this uniform type, and by planting ears from 
 such a crop, which has inherited this prepotency, and by following this meth 
 od of selection for a series of years, a rapid improvement will take place. 
 
 After the required number of the very best ears has been taken as de- 
 scribed for the next year's seed acre, a considerable quantity of highly bred 
 seed can be selected for common planting- or for planting- in a separate field 
 to produce larg-er quantities ot stock seed. This stock seed being but one or 
 two g-enerations removed from the highest type of seed, will naturally retain 
 qualities and preserve characteristics of the highly bred corn. 
 
 Two systems of planting, which may be termed the -'plot system" and the 
 "row system," are both used and both will doubtless give good results. It is 
 thought that the plot system may effect a closer in-breeding-, but whether 
 this is true, it is desirable or advantageous, is not yet determined. For sim- 
 plicity the row system is recommended. It has been used for several years 
 at this experiment station in the above mentioned corn breeding experiments 
 by which marked improvement has been effected in the chemical composition 
 of corn, and it has been adopted by several breeders who are taking up simi- 
 lar lines of corn breeding. — D. SJianuL III. College of Agriculture. 
 
48 
 
 BOOK OX CORN GROWING 
 
 Acclimation of Corn and How to Get Good Seed 
 
 f^ 
 
 GRAND PA'S 
 iBIG EARS 
 
 We are hearing a great deal 
 said in regard to acclimated seed 
 corn and of thoroug"hly breeded 
 seed corn and seed corn that will 
 resist both drought, wet and cold, 
 and many other points that to the 
 practical thinking man seems very 
 strange. There are leading men 
 who are talking upon this subject 
 and who are saying to their farmer 
 friends, do not send away for your 
 seed corn, but buy from your neigh- 
 bor if you have not got it on your 
 own farm and at the same time 
 they are saying, plant thoroughly 
 breeded blooded seed corn such as 
 has been planted with the view 
 that first, there shall be no barren 
 stalks, second, a uniform color, 
 size of ears, and with straight rows 
 fully covering both tip and butt 
 with deep grains finely set on the 
 cob, and so full of fat producing 
 substances that the struck half 
 bushels will weigh from 32 to 33 
 pounds. Do you for one moment 
 think, that you can find a farming 
 community where the ordinary 
 farmer is growing corn with all or 
 any great number of these quali- 
 ties'? The thinking man will at 
 once say no, the ordinary farmer 
 has not the time for all this, many 
 of them are good judges of good 
 corn, but how many know how to 
 grow it to secure the above results, 
 and how many of them have the 
 time to spare in such tests even if 
 they did understand the process 
 fully? The next question then is, what is meant by thoroughly bred seed 
 corn? i! If we get the right idea, it would mean simply that a man must plant 
 but one kind and that grown at or near some particular farm or locality, for 
 years, selection being made each year of those ears which show a strongly 
 defined type. If this be done corn must be different from all other grain, 
 in breeding vegetable or animal life. 
 
 We know from experience that breeding along these lines while it may 
 give a smooth symetrical body it does not give strength, life or solidity. 
 What in your estimation gives the best, strongest and heartiest cattle and 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 49 
 
 hog-s? Most assuredly not in breeding-. Now the thinking- practical man will 
 choose first from the same strain to be of no kin from the mostfrugged. We 
 all know of the results of inbreeding- bringing weak constitution unprofitable 
 sickly stock. Then why not with cornV There seems to be a point in corn 
 breeding- which have not been brought to the attention of the people and to 
 it we attach great importance. Our business for many years has been the 
 breeding- and selecting- of corn, for seed. Not the fancy kind for show, but 
 that which the practical farmer wants, strong- prolific and full of oil and life. 
 What does the ordinary farmer care for straight rows or sameness of ears, 
 so long- as he gets a larg-e yield, of well matured and sound corn, such as will 
 meet the demands of commerce, give the g-reatest number of pouads of 
 shelled corn per acre, fat his hogs and cattle make a big return on his in- 
 vestment, pay off the mortgag-e and allow him a fine carriage, in which to 
 visit his friends or make his journey to town. The reputation of my corn 
 has been universal for years, and it has been the wonder of many who have 
 thought along this line, how it could be that my corn received the same 
 recomrriendations from north to south and fiom east to west, and yet to us 
 there is no secret upon this subject. For years it has been my habit of 
 sending to those who have grown our corn in Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, 
 Nebraska, Minnesota and the Dakotas, to obtain from those states the best 
 that have been grovrn, bringing it back and planting the same upcn the 
 pleasant valley seed corn farm. This being the same strain of corn having 
 been sent to these various different sections, and having become acclimated 
 to their climate, being brought back here and grown upon our farm, gives it 
 new life, new blood with strong vitality and prolific tendency, which it must 
 in our soil and climate, and which makes it truly adapted to the growth of 
 the best and strongest corn ever grown upon the face of the globe, ready for 
 planting at all different points of the compass. This operation ard from the 
 testimonials which we have received from all those states mentioned fully 
 convince me, that this is the true method of acclimating corn, that shall be 
 a success from north to south and from east to west. 
 
 There is no man today but will admit that corn grown in our valley far 
 out ranks any corn grown in any other part of the world. We have grown 
 corn for the past thirty years, in this valley. We were many years ago 
 convinced that the soil aLd climate wou'd produce com, better matured, 
 stronger vitality, more prolific than any other section that we have ever 
 seen. Today our most sanguine expectations are more than realized. There 
 are now hundreds of thousands of bushels of seed corn being shipped from 
 our city, to all parts of the U. S , Canada and Mexico and other foreign 
 countries. It has required thirty years to demonstrate the fact of our 
 theory along this line, but today, I assure you that no other section is as 
 widely known for seed corn as the city of Shenandoah. What has thus firmly 
 established this reputation and built up this immense trade"? It must most 
 assuredly be something substantial. Truth will prevail, if so our theory of 
 acclimation, cultivation and selection must be right. 
 
 A large number of our readers, men as well as boys, are managing corn 
 breeding plats, and to these we have a word of advice, two of them in fact: 
 In most cases they will find where they have planted rows with one ear each 
 that many of the rows are very much inferior to those adjoining. This means 
 that the ear from which the row was planted was poor, perhaps low in ger- 
 
50 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 minating power, resulting- in a thin stand, but more likely low in vitality. 
 Its stalks at this time of the year probably from three to six inches shorter 
 than the adjoining- row. 
 
 These poor rows should not be allowed to produce pollen. Therefore as 
 soon as the tassels appear go throug-h and pull them out. That is, the tassels. 
 You will need to do this about three times during- the week or ten days in 
 which the tassels are appearing. The stalks in this row will be fertilized by 
 the pollen from the strong-er rows adjoining- or within a rod. This, however, 
 is not the main object in detas?eling. The main object is to prevent the 
 pallen from these rows of low vitality decreasing the vitality of the better 
 rows and thus reducing their value as seed for next year. Take your seed 
 from the stronger rows and prevent their vitality from being reduced by 
 pollen from the weaker rows. This is a matter of a very great importance. 
 
 Where our readers have not planted ears in separate rows, but have 
 mixed the seed, go through and detassel all the poor stalks in the entire plat. 
 We have always advised planting in rows because the differences between 
 the rows of low and great vitality are plainly to be seen, and also because it 
 is easier to detassel a whole row than it is to detassel a stalk here and there 
 in the hill. 
 
 Another very important point must be borne in mind. The corn plant 
 differs from almost every other plant in this: that it must have considerable 
 of a stock before it will produce an ear of any value. Any stalk too small to 
 produce an ear becomes a weed. The stalk is the factory in which the plant 
 food is converted into grain, and must therefore be considerable of a factory 
 that is, a pretty well developed stalk, before it will even attempt to produce 
 an ear. You don't get a big ear on a small stalk, nor do you get a large pro- 
 duct of anything from a small factory. It is different with grass. You may 
 have an inferior growth of grass, but the grass that you have will be quite as 
 valuable per ton as the grass taken from a larger crop. It may be better 
 because it don't have so much moisture. The main object in growing corn 
 is to produce the ear, and unless you have a considerable development of 
 stalk you can't produce an ear of any size. In other words when the stalk is 
 formed and the tassel and silks are dead, the plant is just beginning to do 
 effective work. Heretofore it has simply been getting ready, and if it did 
 not get a good ready then you can't have a good ear. For this reason, there- 
 fore, the corn breeder should cut out all stalks that have not sufficient devel- 
 opment to enable them to start a good ear. 
 
 This is not practical in a field where corn is grown simply for commercial 
 purposes. There is not time to do that. The way to avoid weak stalks in 
 that field is to look after your seed plant and get seed of such vitality that it 
 will produce big stalks the next year. The weak stalks will have some value 
 for fodder, if not for corn. Better let the weak stalks go in the field. In 
 fact y^u can'c do anything else, but avoid them by getting seed corn of your 
 own of such high vitality that unless some unavoidable accident happens to 
 it it will grow a great big strong stalk and be ready to develop big ears in the 
 field another season. 
 
 We hope our readers who are engaged in corn breeding will not forget 
 these two points. They are very important when you come to think of the 
 next year's crop. Good, vigorous seed and the adoption of our suggestion 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 51 
 
 will help very much in the near future, not merely next year but for many 
 years to come. 
 
 Do Not Plow Too Deep. 
 
 Last fall in order to demonstrate the advisability and importance of 
 shallow cultivation in the latter part of the corn growing' season, two corn 
 plants were taken from tne field and mounted just as they had grown in the 
 soil. All who have seen the specimens are convinced their previous beliefs 
 notwithstanding- that shallow cultivation is the only system after the second 
 cultivation. The specimens taken. for this purpose were selected from hills 
 having- but one stalk and g-rowing- under the most natural and ordinary con- 
 ditions, such as are found in any averag-e field of corn. One was taken up at 
 the time that the corn was about three and one half feet high, the other 
 when the shoots were coming^ out of the stalks. For convenience corn roots 
 may be classified in two kinds, lateral ard vertical roots or the feeders, and 
 brace roots the lateral roots were found to be very numerous and from five to 
 eight inches below the ground. They gradually took a lateral oblique course 
 downward to about twenty to thirty inches in every direction and then went 
 straight down. 
 
 The roots were found to have many fibers and rootlets penetrating the 
 soil in every direction. It is these root hairs that get the food from the soil 
 for the plants, these characters indicating the r usefulness in gathering plant 
 food from the surface soil 
 
 GROWTH OF BRANCH ROOTS 
 
 The varieties of brace roots come out at the lower nodes about the time 
 it begins to tassle, growing very rapidly and nearly vertical, with a slight 
 outward curve. They are inclined to be very straight with few if any root 
 fibers, terminating in a translucent delicate tip in the moist sub-soil. The 
 character and form of these roots ind cate that they serve two purposes, 
 namely, to aid the stalk in holding the weight of the ear, and to get moisture 
 from below. Their lack of fibers indicate that they are of little value in se- 
 curing food. In the specimens that we took up these roots descended over 
 five feet, into the sub-soil, thus showing their great penetrating power. 
 
 The lessons taught from these specimens are of great importance. In 
 the ordinary method of cultivating especially the third time, the shovels are 
 set deep and the soil ridged up against the hills of corn; this is often done to 
 kill weeds, and because a farmer thinks he is helping the plants by such vig- 
 orous stirring of the ground. Now, what he actually does is to cut off three- 
 fourths of the length of those laterals or feeding roots, just at a time when 
 the plant is exerting all its energy in stirring up food, in the ear and stalk, 
 the roots in the center of the row are exposed or left with so little covering 
 that they are injured by the sun and air. Evidences of this work are shown 
 by the numerous white roots that accumulate on the cultivator shank. How 
 many of the farmers who may read these lines, remember how after such a 
 cultivation the leaves of their corn rolled up, they innocently believing that 
 the heat and the drought were the cause, while most assuredly it was the cut- 
 ting of the sustaining and feeding roots of the stalks. 
 
 LOSS BY DEEP TILLAGE 
 
 Just think what this means. Statistic* tell us that the average yield of 
 corn in the most favored states are only about 23 bushels per acre. Ninety- 
 
BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 four millions of acres considered. N ^w if there were only one good, ear of 
 corn to each hill, three fee*: six inches each way, we would averag^e over fifty 
 bushels per acre admitting- that other factors effect the yi^ Id Yet with from 
 only two-fifths to one-half of its normal roo'. system left the other three- 
 fifths to one-half being- destroyed by deep cultivating- to do the work at the 
 time the plant is at the climax of its growth it is litt'e wonder that our corn 
 does not mature and y eld as much as we expect or by one-half of wh 51 1 it 
 might. The writer has in mind two large f irms one on which seven to eight 
 thousand acres of corn were grown the' last reason. In both cases with the 
 exception of a few acre?, the corn was cultivated ?s deeply as possible, the 
 last time over with a re-ult that two-thirds of the crop dd not mature. The 
 few acres giyen shallow cultivation produced well matured corn wiihafar 
 greater yield per acre although under the Fame c ndition as prevailed with 
 the above named exceptions. Is further illustration n cessary? To kill the 
 weeds, cultivate deep and early, to conserve moisture and aid maturity culti- 
 vate shallow and late. Today we have' so many illustraiians'from leliable 
 sources that we cannot help believe that the experience and results given in 
 the above are wonderfully true. Most assuredly it is a great object lesson 
 and one that should rot be forgotten by the think'ng up-to date farmer. 
 
 The following cut w 11 give a fine illustration of the roo^s described so 
 vividly in the ab^ve communication.— 7?^ A. L. Cotrell, Iowa Agricultural College. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 53 
 
 The Tillage Problem 
 
 The tillag-e problem is one that confronts the farmer at the beginning- of 
 spring-'s work and stays by him until the frost stops operation on the farm in 
 the f ili, in fact it stays with him all the year to be most successfully carriied 
 out, he muse know the land thoroughly and be ready at all times to give it 
 such crops and tillage as is best adapted to each particular lot, each crop so 
 planted that it will be in the very best condition for the one to follow, so that 
 when one plants for the crop of the pres nt year he also has in mind the one 
 to follow then if proper cultivation is not offered any kind of la»d it becomes 
 cloddy, hard and unproductive. A clod yields ho nourishmen': to plants until 
 it is crushed, therefore, the physical condition of the soil has much to do with 
 the size of the crop. The soil may bs filed with an abundance of plant food, 
 yet if it be hard and lump;, it will not prodcc i maximum crops 
 
 The object of tillage is two fold. First, to improve the mechanical con- 
 dition of the soil, by breaking up and fining it, sj that the roots of the plants 
 may eadly and freely find their way downward and through the soil; second, 
 by giving warmth early in the sprinT;-, by coatrolling a uniform condition oi 
 moisture and temperature throughout the growing season, affording the soil 
 mulch, and making available plant food, which is acted upon by air, water 
 and fermentation, bringing it into a state of utility. 
 
 The tools used in tillage may be divided into th"ee general classes— deep, 
 surface and compact. The ordinary p'ow belongs to the tools of the first 
 cla^s, and it may be truly said that good plowing lies at the basis of all suc- 
 cessful agriculture. 
 
 True economy in farming is where large crops are produced on small areas, 
 ard when cultivated soil is deepened, th • root pasturage is correspondingly 
 increased. By deep plowing we break up the hard pan, if too near the sur- 
 face, and distribute food e'ements found in the &ub-soil. Deep plowing should 
 be done gradually: and it may not be always best to plow deep. Certain con- 
 ditions must be taken into consideration; sand soils for instance and natural- 
 ly mellow soils require les^ depth in plowing. The furrow slice turned in plow- 
 ing howevt^r, sh>uld not be inverted, ut ra'^her broken and pulverized in the 
 turning. Clay laad should be plowed with juigmeat and never when it is too 
 wet. 
 
 The time for plowing will d epend upon the season, the co edition of the soil 
 and crops desired. Heavy soils, as a rule are benefitted by fall plowing and 
 in many sections of our country such soils are often benefiti-ed by being 
 plowed several times. For mast crops, it is better to do thin some little time 
 before the sf ed is planted as a moder :tely c mpact soil is better than one of 
 extreme looseness By employ ng the subsoil p'ow the advantages of deep 
 tillage may be obtained. Especially is this true in preparing ground for 
 orchards and root plants Subsoil plows are of many designs, and they are 
 really plows without the moldboard and follow in the farrow made by the 
 ordinary p'ow, thus stirrinT' the lower soil and leaving it in the same position. 
 
 Surface tillage is usually confined to the uppermrst three inches of the 
 soil and may be carried on by the u-te of cultivators, harr iws, we ;ders, rakes, 
 etc. It has for its object first, the making of a mellow seed bed where seeds 
 maybe properly covered or plants set; secon'',the conservation of mo'sture by 
 the producing of a soil mulch;' third, it serves a means for the destruction of 
 weeds and adds to the general improvements of soil conditions. 
 
54 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 COMPACTING SOILS. 
 
 The implements employed in the compacting- of soils, are rollers, plank- 
 ers or floats and their value depends largely upon the nature of^the soil'fand 
 local conditions attending the seasons and the crops that are planted. With 
 the light, loose, sandy or gravelly soils, where it is desirous to pack the par- 
 ticles of soil tog-ether,these compacting implements have an important place* 
 
 Where land is seeded during- a dry season the soil should be rolled in order 
 to bring the moisture to the surface to hasten germination Where .possible 
 such a rolling should be followed by a light harrowing, thus restoring the 
 surface mulch in order to prevent evaporation. • 
 
 However beneficial this may be on some soils, yet all lands dOinot'respond 
 to such treatment with equally good results. Clay land, for instance, may be 
 injured by rolling, especially if fo'lowed by rain. If, however, land is plowed 
 during a dry spell, it is a good idea to immediately follow the^plowed land 
 with a roller to crush clods, and to hold moisture in the soil and^prevent dry- 
 ing out of the land. A good method with many crops is to roll before the 
 seed is sown; then harrow, maki ig a good seed bed; afterwards drill in the 
 grain. 
 
 Rolling serves a good purpose on many pasture lands in the spring, by 
 pressing into the soil the roots of grasses that have been heaved^up by frosts 
 during the winter. We have often followed this practice on meadows and 
 pasture lands with excellent results. Wherever rolling is employed, the aim 
 should be to restore the soil mulch by tillage just as soon as possible, which is 
 shown in the accompanying cuts. 
 
 Preparing the Qround. 
 
 So much has been said in recent years in the agricultural press on the 
 above topic that it is difficult to add anything new. On account of the differ- 
 ent circumstances and conditions, it is impossible to lay down any one rule by 
 which the farmer can safely be guided in the use of the harrow or the imple- 
 ments. His own past experience, if he has had any in this direction, will 
 probably be his safest guide. Nevertheless, it is worth while to point out the 
 object which the farmer may have in view or rather the conditions in the 
 corn field which he should desire and which are essential to his greatest suc- 
 cess, and then he can determine whether these conditions can be better se- 
 cured by the use of the harrow or by some other implement. 
 
 A finely pulverized seed bed we find is very essential and must be had. 
 There is no doubt todav that one cannot secure a too finely pulverized seed 
 bed. In fact one may do the greater amount of their corn cultivation before 
 the corn is planted by thoroughly working in this direction. One secures 
 first, perfect assurance of a full stand of corn from the fact that each kernel 
 is brought fully in contact with the soil in that condition that insures each 
 grain the proper surrounding for producing a quick germination; second, in 
 securing an even stand while if not so prepared and clods and trash are left 
 and are brought in contact with the plantinjf the seed will from lack of 
 moisture, too much air and heat be entirely killed or weakened and the gro >■ th 
 retarded until such times as the rain has decomposed the clods and brought 
 the soil fully in contact with the corn giving yo'ar corn from the same culti- 
 vation at least from one to two weeks variation in maturing, the latter often 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 55 
 
 being- caught by the frost, the damage being charged to poor seed when in 
 fact it was due to the cultivation. 
 
 A satisfactory seed bed having been prepared and planted in due time 
 with good seed, what next does the farmer desire? He wishes the corn to 
 have the free use of every square inch of that field; he wishes freedom from 
 weeds; he wishes to utilize the moisture held in reserve in the subsoil for the 
 best possible growth of the crop for the next ninety days. 
 
 When conditions are all right and the sun warm and the ground dry we 
 would as soon as possible follow such cultivation with a corn plow or cultivat- 
 or running deep and as near the row as possible without disturbing the corn, 
 which will thoroughly kill all weeds that have been germinated and giving 
 the ground between the rows deep cultivation crossing the same with a har- 
 row, or better still the modern weed killer, a tool that we have found very 
 efficient, but in its place with a grand effect one can use their harrow which 
 gives a thorough cultivation until your corn may be from four to eight inches 
 hig-h when we use mostly the Eagle Claw or better still the Tower Surface 
 cultivator. In crossing this with the weeder or harrow in this manuer the 
 work is done most effectively, quickly and easily. 
 
 If the weeds are allowed to become deep rooted, then deep cultivation 
 must be adopted, and this necessarily involves root pruning which, however 
 advisable in certain climates and under certain conditions is certainly not 
 advisable in the Mississippi valley. See cut of roots. 
 
 Once more we call the attention of our readers to the fact that a dust 
 mulch of two or three inches shuts off to a great extent the evaporation of 
 the water and utilize the main bulk of the stored water in growing a crop of 
 corn. This must be done if we are to get the very best results. It is not pos- 
 sible for any man to grow a good crop of corn with the average rainfall, 
 alone, of the Mississippi Valley. A good crop of corn can be grown only by 
 utilizing the water stored in the subsoil, and to utilize this we must have re- 
 source to the mulch of dry dirt formed wherever you have surface, cultiva- 
 tion following a well prepared seed bed and shallow cultivation ^cannot be 
 adopted unless the soil is thoroughly prepared before planting. If planting- 
 is done amidst a crop of weeds, these in all probability will be so firmly es- 
 tablished as not to be disturbed by the shallow shovel. Under such circum- 
 stances it is our practice to use deep shovels to destroy the first crop of weeds 
 before the root system of the corn is developed to an extent that will render 
 them liable to injury. Indeed, I would advise the complete destruction of 
 weeds at ail hazards, although it is much better to do this when they are 
 young and tender. 
 
 There is another factor that should receive some attention, that is the 
 leaving of the surface soil as siii.)0th and level as possible after every plow- 
 ing. A ridged surface exposes more soil to the d'-yiog action of the sun than 
 a smooth one, whici is another argument ia fav ^r of shallow plows. This 
 may seem a saaall matter and jet the difference between success and failure 
 in any business is often due to the attention paid to details and to "small 
 things." 
 
 Maintaining Fertility of tlie 5oil 
 
 To the farmer who has very rich land, as is the case in many parts of the 
 west, the maintaining of the soil fertility may not seem of much importance, 
 but in the course of time he will come to know how very important it is just 
 
56 BOOK OR CORy GROWING 
 
 as the New Eag-land farmer has long- since learned. Many farmers in the 
 western states are already noticing- the decrease in the yield of crops from 
 older lands, and if better methods of farming- are not resorted to, it will not 
 be many years before the application of commercial fertilizers will be neces- 
 sary. 
 
 The fertility of the soil is one of the great corner stones of prosperity to 
 the people and the wealth of the nation is dependent upon it. We should be 
 careful to use better methods of cultivation and return as much plant food to 
 the soil as we take from it. The term fertile, as it is g-enerally used, means 
 the ability of a soil to produce crops. Althoilg-h a soil may be rich in plant 
 food it is not really fertile unless the elements that constitute this food are 
 in available form. 
 
 The fertility of the soil may be maintained in many ways. First, let us 
 investig-ate different methods of tillag-e as to the effect of each upon soil fer- 
 tility. Many farmers harvest their crops early enough to let the land be fall 
 plowed while others do not work the land in the fall at all. The man who cul- 
 tivates his land in the fall is the man who raises the larg-est crop from a given 
 area. Fall tillage loosens up the land so that the water from the melting 
 snow soaks into the ground, the land freezes and thaws to a greater 
 depth, which is very beneficial to soil that has a scarcity for available plant 
 food. Fall plowing, also, turns up tke subsoil to the action of the elements, 
 and not only brings this soil with the dormant plant food to the top, but pul- 
 verizes it and breaks up the soil granulfes, so as to expose much new surface 
 of the soil grains to the action of the elements. Thus tillage helps greatly 
 in maintaininj the fertility of the soil. 
 
 The rotation of crops tias been given much attention in the last few yeafs 
 by the leading farmers. Taere are several practical systems of crop rotation 
 and of course the one to use is the one that best fits your condition and local- • 
 ity. Sjil will not stand contiaual croppiag without deterioration to some 
 extent. Every rotation should have some pasturage or meadow grass in it. 
 Change the meadow or pasture from field to field as often as it can be profit- 
 ably done. More than two grain crops should not be raised in succession 
 from the same fi .*ld if it be possible to raise some cultivated crop or some 
 legume crop A catch crop or cover crop can easily be worked in between 
 grain crops and with great Advantage in most cases. If necessary, plow 
 catch crops under for green manure. If possible, use a legume crop, either 
 to harvest or for green manure, such as soy beans or cow peas, since these 
 crops add considerable nitrogen to the soil. Legume crops of one kind or an- 
 other shou'd enter into all rotations, for nitrogen is one of the chief constitu- 
 ents which most soils are deficient in. 
 
 Barnyard manure is a source of fertility which is sadly neglected by many 
 farmers. If the crops < f the farm are fed to stock and ttie manure returned 
 to the land in good condition, the problem of maintaining the soil fertility 
 becomes much simpler. Quite often the manure is piled up where the rain 
 •will percolate through it and take out the nitrates and other valuable con- 
 stituen';s, carrying them down the ditches anl into the creek or river. If 
 manure cauno"- be hauled directly upon the land as it is made, it should be 
 stored under cover or in a cement basia so that the liquid manure may be 
 saved. The cheapest and best way to handle it, however, is to haul it out 
 just as often as possible and if there is no cultivated land to receive it, spread 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 it on the pasture and make two blades of grass grow where one grew before. 
 Manure adds humus to the soil and humus is what much of the worn out land 
 needs. 
 
 Commercial fertilizers are very expensive and farmers in general cannot 
 afford to use them where they have to compete with the farmer who has kept 
 up the fertility of his soil by cheaper means and methods. Chemical fertiliz- 
 ers, however, are used a great deal in truck farming and market gardening 
 to good advantage. Since so much depends upon the products of the soil let 
 all of us who are interested in agriculture, strive to keep up the fertility of 
 the soil and thus help to increase the wealth of the nation, and in addition 
 reap our own large harvests. 
 
 Select And Care For Seed Corn. 
 
 It is chosen before being injured by frost and kept in artifically heated 
 rooms. 
 
 Mr, Cownie tells how the matter is handled on the farms of the state of 
 Iowa. 
 
 Over in one of the state board of con^.rol offices, there are 30 or 40 cigar 
 boxes full of earth, out of which are growing great lusty corn stalks. It is 
 from the seed selected last fall for our farms. We did not wait to select our 
 corn until after the frost had frozen the life out of it. There were selected 
 from the corn of the same farms twice as many bushels of corn as would be 
 needed for seed, the spring following, and this work was done in the first week 
 of October. The result is that we have out of the kernels planted in those 
 trial boxes a stand of 94 to 95 par cent, and when the ears which are slightly 
 molded are thrown out and the time comes to plant we will most assuredly 
 have a stand of 100 per cent We are careful not to plant on the state farm 
 corn which is not perfect the way to get perfect corn is to select it in the fall 
 before the freezing frost comes, then keep the seedjin artificially heated and 
 constantly warm quarters; in this way you will hive 100 per cent grain from 
 grain so treated. I want seed corn that has been kept in the artificial heat 
 all winter, it is the best. We had corn selected at Cherokee, kept in the 
 cellar there at a temperature of a 120 degrees. Every grain of it sprouted 
 and came up with sturdy stalks in good season. It is impossible to go to the 
 corn crib and pick good seed, it cannot be done. The time to pick seed is in 
 the fall, as I have stated. The boa d of control is competent to discuss the 
 seed corn proposition. The state grows something like 1000 acres The 
 products are all chopped into fodder. The instructions about selecting seel 
 corn, have been issued annually to the superintendents of the different insti- 
 tutions. Last year all but one inst tution followed the instruction?, it bought 
 twelve bushels of seed but 75 per cent of a crop. The other institutions grew 
 a magnificent crop. 
 
 The danger of delay in selecting the corn in the fall, is that when the 
 frost comes it will kill the germ In 1901 it was dry, warm weather without 
 frost. Corn pi ked at any time in the fall of the year would germinate and 
 grow, healthy stalks. In 1902 frost killed the grain, and last fall it did the 
 same thin/. Had the board waited until November or December 
 to select seed corn, it would have gone without. As it is by selecting it early 
 before the frost, preserving it in hot quarters all winter and testing it, in 
 the earth in the spring it has a prospect for a perfect yield and a bountiful 
 crop. 
 
58 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 Each farmer who reads these lines, ought to be more interested in the 
 selection and care for the seed that is to make his crop for the coming year. 
 As the man who is employed by the state of Iowa to look after those matters, 
 on the one hand there is but the interest and honor to prompt correct ac- 
 tion. While on the other, the full conditions in fact all the dependence 
 of living in comfort and welfare of the family, would prompt the right effort 
 at the right time. I trust my farmer friends will take a lesson from the ex- 
 perience and warning given by the director of the farms of the great state 
 of Iowa. 
 
 Again we give you the experience of oae in high authority, 'upon plant 
 making in a Dutch garden, published in a recent number of Everybody's 
 Magazine, which greatly strengthens the writer in an opinion which he long 
 since formed that farmers pay too little attention to the improvement and 
 care of their seeds they are to use in making their crops. The article des- 
 cribes very conclusively how a Dutch professor of the University of Amster- 
 dam developed anew variety of clover, bearing four, five and even seven 
 leaves. What this will avail to the farmer whose substance comes from 
 broad acres of clover land, is not difficult to determine. As a fodder and en- 
 richer of the soil, the value of the crop wi.l be increas d to a very appreci- 
 able extent. Good luck certainly will come to those who substitute this new 
 variety for the old three leaf clover. Yet the painstaking professor did 
 nothing which the farmer had he the time and inclination could not have 
 done. He simply assisted nature who is always trying to improve, carefully 
 nourishing a few plants which bore four leaves. He saved and sowed the 
 seed of the new crop; only those that bore four or more leaves were allowed 
 to go to seed and so the process went on. Soon five leaves became abundant 
 and after years of patient culling out, stalks with even seven leaves appear- 
 ed, but none were developed with leaves above this number. It has long 
 been taught that like produces like, even in plants and the wise farmer has 
 already learned that if he saves his seed corn from stalks that bore three 
 ears, in his new crop will be a much larger percentage of stalks of the same 
 kind, and some with even four. Should thi culling process be carried on a 
 few years, he will arrive very closely to a permanency of the three eared 
 kind. If the farmer plants small potatoes ye ^r by year in order to save the 
 large ones for the market, nature will at last give up and reward him largely 
 with the same kind, a just punishment for his greenness. Care and labor in 
 the selection of farm seeds are always m jre thin recompensed. While the 
 market is full of that which is good there is always a demand at a higher 
 price for something better. A farmer of our acquaintance procured at some 
 trouble and expense a variety of oats which yielded much better than that 
 grown by his neighbor; although the market was dull he found no difficulty in 
 disposing of his crop at a figure 25 per cent higher than the current prices. 
 What he did, anyone of intelligence and of good judgment can do. Every 
 farmer should at least make a specialty of one thing: it will not only lessen 
 the monotony and relieve the drudgery of farm work but will also prove a 
 diversion and put money in the pocket of him who undertakes it. 
 
 We trust that each farmer will have had a lesson upon the desirability 
 of preserving his seeds with their full strength and vitality so that he may 
 raise such crops as shall be sure of giving a large yield and desirable grain. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG ' 59 
 
 Planting Corn 
 
 "Planting corn is a very particular part of corn growing- and should be 
 carefully done by an experienced hand." 
 
 During^ a recent trip through four of the greatest corn states the writer 
 estimated the loss from this cause alone, at fully $100,000 to each county. 
 From many personal visits to numerous localities throughout the corn states, 
 during the past few years I have concluded that the average annual loss 
 occasioned by having the stand of corn too thick, or too thin, at a very con- 
 servative estimate, is fully fifteen bushels per acre. This would average 
 about seventy million bushels that are annually lost in the total yield of our 
 corn crop, owing to poor stands of corn. Too thick a stand of corn is just 
 as poor a stand as too thin a stand. Many farmers not realizing the impor- 
 tance of seed corn of the highest possible germinating power, almost annual- 
 ly^use seed corn not of the best vitality. They usually delay the selecting, if 
 selecting it can be called, until they are almost ready to plant, when they 
 pick the foundation of their corn crop hurriedly, and in many instances 
 carelessly depending on "luck" for a good stand. There is no mistake so 
 often made by the great masses of our farmers as the putting in of too much 
 seed in the ground. It seems to me many are trying to grow two or three 
 crops on the same ground at one time This mistake is often made by old 
 farmers who seem to forget the sad results of former years and in my estima- 
 tion there is more loss occasioned by over seeding than from floods, droughts 
 and storms combined. I have in mind one of our farmers who the past year 
 left to his hired man the planting of his large crop and he put in at least 
 twice the amount required. This mistake was to him a dear experience. It 
 would seem that any man who had farmed for years would do better than to 
 trust the planting of their corn to inexperienced hands. They had far better 
 take the management of the planting of the corn. The result of hiring in- 
 experienced men in this direction was that at least twice the seed was plant- 
 ed that should have been put upon this piece of ground. Every kernel grew; 
 the season was wet and a wonderful growth of foliage was made and a vast 
 number of ears were set by the thick foliage, and the wet and cold weather 
 prevented so much from maturing. The result was a large number of nub- 
 bins and soft corn. Had this corn been planted with three to four kernels to 
 the hill this one farmer would have had $1,000 to $1,500 more for his crop than 
 he actually received from the same. This is but one of the many thousands 
 we might mention and while many mny not have as poor results as this 
 farmer did, there are but few who have not suffered from the same cause, 
 making it sure that if the farmer cannot attend to this matter personally he 
 ought to hire one who cannoc only drive so as to plant a straight row, but 
 be sure that his planter is at all times doing such work as is wanted, as the 
 right amount of seed placed at the right depth even dropping by the check 
 row, or even distances apart with the drill. This in a great degree governs 
 the returns that the farmer is to receive. 
 
 Very often again we have to face the problem of replanting; poor seed, 
 cut worms and moles are what have to do with our stand so that very often 
 we have a corn field that seems to the ordinary observer, as you will often 
 hear said, it just amounts to no stand. .What is to be done? In our opinion 
 it is this: do not try to fill in or replant, but if you have what seems to be a 
 half a crop give this good care and it will surprise you with great big fine 
 
60 ' BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 ears of corn at gathering- time, but if in your opinion it must be replanted 
 put in the corn plow and the drag- and plant it over -with an earlier seed. In 
 this way you may make it, but I always take the first planting if there is any 
 show. 
 
 The careful farmer will first thoroughly test his seed corn before plant- 
 ing time, that he may know from the first what to expect from it, then he 
 will be sure to so test his planter that he knows to a certainty the amount it 
 will drop, then knowing his ground he is fully prepared to get such a stand as 
 he wishes. The next thing to consider is, what is a stand of corn? 
 
 Three to four stalks in a hill, when check-rowed, and the same amount 
 when listed or drilled, makes a good stand. That means one stalk where the 
 rows cross and one stalk in the middle if drilled or listed. This is all I want 
 on any soil or in any year. This amount, if of a large sized variety, planted 
 in soil sufficiently fertilized to produce a full crop, will give a yield from 75 
 to 100 bushels per acre ia all seasons that are favorable. 
 
 I often pass fields of corn with from four to seven stalks in a hill, whether 
 check-rowed or drilled. No field can produce a good crop under such cir- 
 cumstances. When you observe this state of affairs you will see a lot of slim 
 half starved stalks of corn, with two and maybe three, half starved, chaffy 
 ears to a hill, the rest will be entirely barren. If the season be a dry one, 
 very many of the hills will be without an increase. 
 
 On two fields, both having the same appearance as to amount, one was re- 
 planted the other no^t, and the one not replanted, had ■ by far the better and 
 more corn. The cases are very rare indeed, when it really pays to replant. 
 We find m iny tcday who advocate cutting and saving all the corn fodder but 
 I contend that the farmer is only entitled to his share, the ground being en- 
 titled to enough to keep up fertility and manure a crop. I am of course 
 growing corn for seed, I want all the vitality and strength left in the corn, as 
 only a strong yigorous corn produced by a strong soil, will make such seed as 
 can be depended upon, for the best results. 
 
 I find after land has been so treated for a few years, corn will stand a six 
 weeks' drouth and never faze it, and it seems to grow better each year it is 
 thus treated. The reason I assign for it is, that turning under the stalks 
 each year before they are fairly dried they soon rot which adds such qualities 
 of fertilizing matter to the soil that the growing plants are so vigorous that 
 they seed their roots deep into the subsoil and gather moisture, while plants 
 growing on enfeebled soil have a weak stt of roots, not penetrating to any 
 great depth, and when drought strikes them they fire up and produce no crop. 
 The b:st results are what we all wish — try my plan and see what it will do 
 for you. 
 
 Early and Late Planting 
 
 An old farmer named Sjlomon, who must have run an experiment station 
 on his own account, laid d jwn s )me rules for planting for the guidance of his 
 tenants: "In the morning sow thy seed, and in the evening withhold not thine 
 hand; for thou knowest not whethe' shall prosper, either this or that, or 
 whether they both shall b3 alike good." It is simply another way of saying 
 plant your cor'n when'you are ready and do not try to guess whether the early 
 planting or the late planting will be the best. 
 
 In 1901 late planted corn yielded the best crop, while the early planted 
 corn was largely a failure. The late planted escaped the extreme heat which 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 61 
 
 killed the tassels of the early and got some benefit of the later showers. 
 From this many farmers jumped at the conclusion that late planted corn 
 would be best and planted their corn in 1902 a week or ten days later than 
 was necessary. The result was corn caught by the frost, or, if not, soft and 
 chaflfy. 
 
 No living man can tell when he plants his corn whether the early or late 
 will be best. There is a limit before which he cannot plant successfully be- 
 cause there is not heat enough for germination; there is a limit after which 
 it is useless to plant corn for a grain crop, for we know that except in years 
 of abnormally great heat there will not be enough heat units to mature it. 
 Corn may be planted in central Iowa from the first of May to the first of 
 June, preference being given by most farmers to the hiiddle ten days in May, 
 beginning with the 10th on stalk ground and ending with the 20th on sod. 
 These periods will vary with latitudes either north or south, but in our opin. 
 ion fully as much or more in nearby or adjoining farms, from the fact of the 
 great difference in the lay of the land, the advantages of drainage, the 
 methods of cultivation, etc. Each farmer to be successful and who makes 
 his farm pay must thoroughly study his land and use good judgment as to 
 what crop wi'l be best for each lot or field, then he must plan his rotation of 
 crops in such a manner that each shall receive the: change necessary or what 
 might be termed rest. That will assure the bsst results on such lands, as are 
 liable to be cold or backward. I recommend thorough fall plowing on the 
 great majority of land through the Mississippi Valley. In this way one may 
 get an early start with the disc or drag. The next great advantage will be 
 the thorough packing of the soil which has a great bearing upon the coming 
 crop of all that portion of territory. By thus stirring the top early, the soil 
 is being warmed up many degrees above what it would be if not so treated 
 but one thing sure do not forjjet the fact, do not plant until you have a thor- 
 oughly prepared seed b;d. We are fully aware of the great anxiety of the 
 farmer to plant his corn as soon as he hears the click of the planter on his 
 neighbor's tarm, but I consider the man will be safest who makes haste slow- 
 ly but sure. Those days spent in discing and harrowing and preparing the 
 seed bed before planting will be a great saving of time a wonderful factor in 
 the thorough germination of the seed planted and will give the man great 
 results. We then ask you to be sure if you are tigiit arid when so satisfied, do 
 your work thoroughly and quickly. 
 
 Corn Planting the Foundation of the Crop 
 
 Do the farmers ful'y realize the great gain or loss that may accrue from 
 the good or poor planting? With seed of the desired variety, with kernels 
 of the right shape and right chemical composition, and with the desired 
 power of proper germination, one may be certain of the coming crop so far 
 as the seed and placing of it in the ground are concerned. After the seed 
 comes the planting and the preparation of the seed bed, is another important 
 item in all successful corn culture. We have said much from time to time 
 about the thorough cultivation, before the planting of any crop, and at this 
 time will merely mention the fact that one half of the cultivation ought to 
 be done before the seed is planted. We should remember that the better the 
 ground is prepared the better the crop of corn is sure to be, and that added cul" 
 tivation before planting will tend to lessen the amount required by the grow- 
 ing crop. There need never be any fear of doing too much work in the prep- 
 
62 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 aration of the land. It is better to be a little late in planting- a crop, and 
 thereby being" thoroughly prepared than to seed exa -tly on time or a little 
 early with a lack of proper cultivation. It is of course, very desirous to 
 plant in g^ood season, but it is far better to be a trifle late, if necessary, and 
 have the seed go into the moist earth in a suitable condition. With careful 
 manag-ement it is possible to have all these conditions fairly favorable. 
 
 In the planting- of corn there is one thing that deserves special attention 
 and that is in regard to the number of kernels that each hill shall contain or 
 the distance between kernels when planted in drills. This of course is a mat- 
 ter of personal opinion among farmers, and will depend more or less on what 
 special use the crop is intended for or the fertility or richness of the ground 
 upon which the crop is to be g-rown. The size and final development of both 
 the ear and stalk will depend much upon the amount of seed planted. That 
 is the greater the number of kernels in a hill or the closer the seed in the 
 row the g-reater will be the tendency towards smaller stalks and smaller ears 
 of grain. On the other hand if the seeds are less numerous in either Hill or 
 row the effect will be to cut down the yield per acre. It may be said that 
 more farmers prefer that three kernels to the hill as they have in their es- 
 timations the best results. This number in fact is the one usually set on and 
 composes the ideal hill of corn. In the drill it is quite desirous that the seed 
 be not less than eight inches apart on the very rich ground and not more than 
 twelve to fourteen on ordinary fields of corn. Each farmer will have to be 
 his own judge as he knows the soil he is planting-, and set his gauge as he may 
 wish knowing the soil in which he is planting. This matter of uniform plant- 
 ing now becomes not only an important one but a particular one as well. It 
 is a difficult matter to always have the hand or horse planter to always drop 
 the right number of kernels at just the right place, regulate the machines as 
 we may. This is especially so in the case of the drill. The drill or planter 
 may work their best but the seed will not always appear as desired. How- 
 ever the planter is not wholly to blame for all such irregularities. We may 
 by the selection of seed after thorough testing it in the planter determine to 
 a large degree this matter of . uniform planting. When the kernels are of 
 different sizes and shapes there is no planter or drill that will drop the exact 
 number of grains every time, nor should we expect it to do so. The seed 
 planted should not only be selected as to the pedigree and germinating quali- 
 ties but as to uniformity and size of the kernel. The small farmer who is 
 only plantiag a few bushels of corn would best, after his seed has been selected 
 and shelled by himself or someone who with a good eye and judgment, spread 
 upon the table and run or pick over the same, tbrowingout all small, inferior^ 
 cracked or long, light kernels A few hours spent in this selection will be 
 wonderfully paid by the uniform dropping, the better stand of corn and better 
 yield in bushels. Upon every ear the kernels will vary more or less as to 
 shape and size, according to their location upon the cob, whether from the 
 tip, the butt or the middle. The use of the entire ear including tips, butts 
 and middles will not give or cannot make a uniform seed. Where only the 
 middle kernels are used and the tips and butts are discarded better results 
 with the planter are bound to result. In a recent test made at the Iowa Ex- 
 perimental Station in this regard it was found that where the entire ear was 
 used the planter dropped three kernels sixty-six times out of one hundred. 
 Four kernels, twenty-five times; five kernels, once; six kernels, once; two 
 kernels, six times and one kernel once. From this it will be seen that only 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 63 
 
 sixty-six per cent of the hills contained free kernels. When the tips and 
 butts were discarded the planter dropped three kernel?, ninety-two times out 
 of one hundred. In another instance where corn was used in which the 
 length of germs differed considerably on the various ears only seventy-five 
 hills out of every hundred contained three kernels, while the same ears when 
 classified when placing those with shallow kernels by themselves ninety-five 
 per cent of the hiils contained three kernels, in one test and in the second 
 test ninety-four. These trials show very plainly the importance of uniform 
 seed planting in reference to the plants ard also to the uniform stand of corn 
 to be had. In drilling corn the results would not be so very different and in 
 every case we should be careful about the grading of the seed that we are to 
 use. The more uniform and even we can make our hills and rows of corn the 
 more uniform and better will be our yield of both grain and stalk. This is a 
 matter deserving great attention, and something we can all be more careful 
 about in our future planting. The little money expended in thoroughly pick- 
 ing the seed in testing the planter will be repaid more than a hundred fold in 
 satisfactory yield of corn. 
 
 Corn Experiments 
 
 [FROM WALLACE'S PARMER] 
 
 Mr. T. S. Hunt, a student of the Iowa Agricultural college, is helping us 
 with our corn work, and has just noted an effect of harrowing that may be of 
 value to our young readers who have wet fields. 
 
 We are making a test of planting corn, at different dates ani are taking 
 the temperature of the soil at the time of each planting. The experiment is 
 being made on fall plowed land. The day each planting is made the land of 
 that planting is thoroughly disked and then harrowed. Our first planting 
 was made April 22ad and the second planting April 27th Mr. Hunt found at 
 the time of the second planting that the land on which the first planting was 
 made had a temperature of 55 degrees, three inches below the surface. While 
 the freshly harrowed land on which the second planting was made bad a tem- 
 perature of 50 degrees at the same depth. This shows that disking and har- 
 rowing had the effect of warming up the soil 5 degrees in five days. Some 
 years ago the writer had a large area of land in another state to be planted 
 with corn. It rained almost constantly until May loth, and the soil was stiff 
 and cold. It was so late in the season when the rain stopped that something 
 had to be done immediately to prepare the ground for planting. We started 
 disc harrows as soon as the surface became dry although the horses' feet 
 sank three to five inches in the mud. If this disked land had been allowed to 
 become dry it would have been very lumpy. Just as the disc soil became dry 
 enough to crumple it was cross disked and this left it dry and mellow enough 
 for immediate planting. A small lot was left as a test until it became suffi- 
 ciently dry to work in the ordinary way. This m de planting so late that the 
 corn was a failure while a heavy crop was secured on the land disked while it 
 was wet. 
 
 Professor King in his book upon the soil says that it requires nine and 
 two-thirds times as much heat to evaporate water from the soil as it does to 
 warm an equal quantity of water in the soil 100 degrees. Does not this ex- 
 plain why Mr. Hunt and the writer found disking so effective in warming up 
 the soil. The disking made a good surface mulch that prevented evaporated 
 
64 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 water from the soil and the consequent cooling of it and turned the full effect 
 of the sun's heat into warming- the land. Th^s would seem to indicate that 
 each farmer should be able to so handle his wet soil in such a way that it 
 shall be warmed up and will grow and produce a crop as heavy and in as good 
 season as the dry land. Must assuredly there is something to think of along 
 this line. 
 
 The Cultivation of Corn 
 
 [By C. P. Hartley,] 
 
 Assistant in Physiology, Plant-Breeding Laboratory, Bureav of Plant Industry. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 The object of this article, like that in the Yearbook* for 1902, is to pre- 
 sent to farmers some suggestions as to the surest and quickest means of in- 
 creasing the production of corn per acre. The writer feels certain that it is 
 possible within a few years to double the average production of corn per acre 
 in the United States, and to accomp ish it without any increase in work or 
 expense. It is not to be understood from this that it is desirable to double 
 the present corn crop, but that it is desirable to produce the same yield on a 
 smaller number of acres and with less labor. If 60 bushels are raised on 1 
 acre instead of on 2 acres, the labir of plowing, harrowing, planting, culti- 
 vating and harvesting is greatly reduced. Some farmers produce from year 
 to year an average of more than 60 bushels per acre, but the average of the 
 entire United States for the past ten years (23^ bushels per acre) shows that 
 many are annually harvesting less than half this quantity. Since the average 
 crop in the states best adapted to corn grow'ng is but little above the general 
 average of the entire country, it is evident that the average is not lowered 
 to any great extent by the poor crnps in sections unsuiled to corn growing. 
 Moreover, the yield per acre in the New England States, with their poor soil 
 and short growing season, is greater than in any other part of the country. 
 This clearly indicates the possibility of greatly increasing the yield per acre 
 in the corn belt. This is especially easy of accomplishment in the Southern 
 States, where the present average is low and where the growing season is not 
 shortened by frosts. 
 
 Practical corn growers will understand the impossibility of giving speci- 
 fic directions regarding the best methods of planting and cultivating corn 
 that would be applicable to any considerable portion of the United States. 
 The soil or drainage of different farms is often so different as to demand 
 different methods of culture. [See article] It is therefore only possible in a 
 general article of this kind to tell what methods have been successful in 
 some sections of the country and to discuss the general effects on the soil and 
 crop of certain methods of plowing and cultivating, leaving it to the judg- 
 ment of the grower to decide upon the best methods for his particular soil 
 and climate. 
 
 The most valuable information regarding the growing of corn in any par- 
 ticular section can be obtained from unprejudiced observant corn growers of 
 many years' experience; and the writer wishes to thank the hundreds who 
 have so kindly given him such information. The fact that the experi- 
 ences of growers in different localities and the reports of experiments from 
 the various State experiment stations do not agree should not lower the 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 65 
 
 estimation of the value of either. Such disagreement follows necessarily 
 from the different soils, altitudes, latitudes and seasons. Conflicting" pub- 
 lished statements have caused some to cease trying to learn better methods 
 from the experiences of others, but a study of the conditions will show good 
 reasons for the conflicting results reported. 
 
 The methods of cultivation in general use in one section of the country 
 differ greatly from those in another section. The implements and methods 
 employed in Iowa are as different from those of Connecticut as these in turn 
 are different from those of Georgia; and while these differences are to some 
 extent due to the nature of the farm land or to the class of labor employed, 
 they are to a still greater extent due to the conservatism of the farmers 
 themselves. That certain kinds of cultivators or plows or methods of plant- 
 ing have been in use in Georgia or Iowa for many years does not prove that 
 implements or methods found successful in other states might not be used 
 there to advantage. It is much too common for a majority of growers in a 
 locality to adhere to methods accepted as best simply because they have 
 been followed for years. They often purchase a particular kind of plow, corn 
 planter, or cultivator because it is the one in general use or the only kind for 
 sale by the local implement dealer, without considering whether some other 
 kind might not be better suited to their farms. Merchants or manufacturers 
 are so familiar with the methods or machinery of their competitors that any 
 time or labor saving system or device adopted by one soon comes into general 
 use. A similar diligence and enterprise should be exercised by farmers. If 
 every corn grower couid visit all the corn-producing states of the Union, the 
 general result would be the discarding of poor and the adopting of improved 
 methods. No section excels in all respects, but almost every section excels 
 in some respect. 
 
 In the South Atlantic States the observant corn grower would notice 
 the u-e of terraces for preventing the washing away of the top soil. He 
 would also see the advantage of spacing rows and stalks in the rows at dis- 
 tances suited to the fertility of the soil; and, where poor soil necessitates 
 the planting of the rows 6 feet apart, he would perceive the ecoaoaiy of 
 growing a soil enriching-, leguminous plant between the corn rows. On the 
 broad prairies of the Western States he woald leirn methods of curtiiling 
 expenses by the use of plows, planters, cultivators and corn harvesters de- 
 signed so that one man can work a large number of horses and thereby ac- 
 complish a maximum of work. With such imp emants one man can, without 
 help, plant and care for 40 or 60 acres of corn in addition to his other crops- 
 The same methods and implements are suitable for many farms where more 
 tedious and laborious methods are now followed. 
 
 SOME LAND TOO POOR FOR PROFITABLE CORN GROWING. 
 
 While it is true that proper attention to seed selection and methods of 
 cultivation will grea-ly in -.rease the average oroduction per acre for all land 
 now devoted to corn growinsr, it is equally true that the cultivation of corn 
 will never be found profl table on very poor l.-ani for grain crops alon^ but 
 may be grown on such land where the stalks a^ fodder have a large cash value 
 for feeding. The plowing and cultivating of poor soil is as expensive as the 
 plowing and cultivating of fertile soil. Corn growing should not be attempt- 
 
66 _ 300K ON CORN GROWING 
 
 ed on such land until it is brpug-ht j^tp a ,^firt;ile co?id.ition by th,e growing" and 
 plowing under of leguminous crops, the application of manures, etc. In the 
 Jneantime some of the crops that require less fertility than corn may be 
 grown. It should be remembered that the nature of the corn plant is such 
 that it will not produce grain unless the soil is rich enough to afford a con- 
 siderable growth of stalk, and that the best yield of ears is not obtained un- 
 less the stalks have made a maximum growth. For this reason some other 
 plants will produce small or fair crops on soil too poor to produce corn. A 
 cotton plant adjusts its yield of liat to the fertility of the soil, a small plant 
 producing a small number of bolls containing lint of as good a quality as that 
 from a larger plant bearing many more bolls. A hay crop is also in quite 
 regular proportion to the fertility of the soil. This is not true, however, of corn. 
 When poor soil dwarfs grass to half its normal sizQ, the crop of hay is re- 
 duced by about one-half , but when poor soil dwarfs the corn plants to half 
 their normal size it is probable that there will be little or no grain yield, and 
 any ears that are produced will be small and inferior. 
 
 Even in the best corn producing states there is some land so poor that 
 farmers who persist in attempts to grow corn on it receive nothing for. their 
 labor. Such land, however, in a tew years' time can be made to produce 
 good corn crops. The growers who are quickest to learn the futility of at- 
 tempting to grow corn on impoverished land are those whose farms contain 
 some poor upland fields and some fertile bottom land. They find it necessary 
 to fertilize and renovate the poor fields or confine corn growing to the bot- 
 toms. In moit regions creek bottoms and river valleys are particularly 
 adapted to corn growing, as they usually have a fertile soil and a subsoil 
 well supplied with moisture. 
 
 Another explanation of the low yield per acre on many farms is the 
 amount of unsuited or unimproved areas frequently embraced within the 
 boundaries of fields planted to corn. In many cornfields throughout the 
 country may be seen portions or spots on which it is impossible for corn to 
 thrive. Tnese may be clayey spots or swampy or undrained areas or ground 
 adjacent to timber. It is too great a waste of labor to plow, harrow and cul- 
 tivate such unproductive spots. They should be improved so that they will 
 yield a profit, or they should not be planted at all. The poor clay spots 
 should be enriched, the swampy places drained or filled, and the corn should 
 be planted farther from the timber, with a strip ot timber grass next to the 
 trees. Many farms could be made more profitable by rearranging the fields 
 in order to make them more uniform as regards moisture and soil fertility, so 
 that the entire field may be treated as the character of the soil may demand. 
 No field can be well tended if the corn rows extend through a portion too 
 wet for cultivation when another portion is in best condition for cultivation. 
 
 MEANS OF PREVFNTING SOIL WASHING. 
 
 ' More land has been rendered unfit for corn growing by the washing away 
 of the surface soil than by constant cropping. Soil washing must be guarded 
 against if profitable crops jare to be harvested from the same field for a num- 
 ber of years, and with proper attention in this respect the farm will become 
 better from year to year, The effect of heavy rains is to wash out gullies 
 and ditches and to carry away the soil and plant food as muddy water. If 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG . _ . 67 
 
 this is allowed to continue unchecked the fertility is reduced, the soil itself 
 is carried away, and the land becomes less productiv,e from year to year. One 
 heavy rain will sometimes carry away from a field more soil than a man with 
 a team and wagon could restore in a week. It is to be regretted that farmers 
 in the newer and more fertile sections of the country are not as wide awake 
 to the destructive effects of soil washing as they are in older sections, where 
 the farms have already been injured by the rains of pist centuries, and 
 where constant attention is now necessary to retain the fertility which is at 
 some expense put into the soil. 
 
 ROLLING OR HILLY LAND. 
 
 It should not be supposed that because land is rolling or hilly washing 
 must take place. Some very hilly sections which have deep, porous soils, full 
 of humus, wash but little, and that only when the ground is frozen to a con- 
 siderable depth and thaws on the surface. Hard soils that do not readily 
 take up the water that falls upon them wash much more than loose, porous 
 soils. The most effective means of preventing washing is to cover the soil 
 with vegetation and loosen the subsoil so that t-ie rainfall can penetrate and 
 be absorbed instead of running off. The rows of corn, moreover, should run 
 at right angles to the direction of the slope. Terraces are also effective bar- 
 riers to soil washing, and their use is to be encouraged. These methods 
 could be profitably employed on the sloping lands near the Ohio and Missis- 
 sippi rivers. It is the desire of most farmers to have straight corn rows, and 
 on level land this is preferable, but on hills better success will be obtained by 
 running the rows at the same level around the hills This will necessitate 
 curved rows, but the curves will usually not be abrupt enough to make culti- 
 vation difficult; in fact, cultivation is thus rendered much easier, since it is 
 tot necessary to plow up and down the hill, which, to prevent soil washing, 
 should always be avoided. 
 
 ABSORPTION or RAINFALL. 
 
 The carrying away of soluble plant food and lighter portions of soil is not 
 the only objectionable feature of soil washing. The water itself is likely to 
 be needed during some portion of the summer. By loosening the subsoil and 
 covering the surface with a growth of vegetation, the soil can be made so 
 absorbent that the water will penetrate the ground and be held in reserve to 
 sustain the growing plants during times of drought. It would seem that after 
 a period of heavy rainfall, during which 8 or 10 inches of water fell within a 
 month, the soil and subsoil of all fields would be alike saturated, but such 
 is not the case. The condition of the surface soil has much to 
 •do in determining how much of the rainfall will be absorbed. The 
 condition of the subsoil is also important. If its moisture has been 
 exhausted by lack of cultivation and injudicious cropping, it will 
 absorb water more slowly than when it is already moist. Thus it is that the 
 subsoil of some fields remains dry to a depth of several feet during a season 
 •of heavy rains, while that of other fields absorb? water in sufficient abun- 
 dance to sustain crops during periods of drought. To readily absorb the 
 water that falls during times of heavy rains the surface soil must be loose 
 
68 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 and porous, so as to take up the water rapidly before it has time to accumu- 
 late, and hold it thus until by capillary attraction it is drawn to the subsoil. 
 Some very fine clay subsoils are so compact that they turn water almost 
 as effectually as a slate roof. Such subsoils should be rendered permeable 
 and the most effective and cheapest way to accomplish this is by growing- 
 deep-rooted plants; such as clovers, alfalfa, melilotus, etc. The roots of 
 these plants penetrate the subsoil and, decaying, leave numerous ducts 
 through which water from the surface soil will pass to greater depths. That 
 this is exactly what occurs is proved by comparisons of plats of ground on 
 which such plants have been grown with adjacent plats on which they have 
 not been grown. The former plats are firm soon after heavy rains, because 
 the water has found its way into the subsoil, while the latter plats remain 
 muddy on the surface. Some subsoils are the reverse of those just referred 
 to; instead of being too compact they are too open. A subsoil of coarse 
 gravel may allow the water to pass through too readily, thus washing out 
 and draining away the fertility. Sach subsoils are not compact enough to 
 supply the surface soil with moisture by capillary attraction. Soils of this 
 nature are greatly benefitted by the plowing under of vegetable matter, 
 which, besides adding greatly to the soil fertility, checks the rapid leaching 
 through the subsoil and enables it to retain moisture better during dry 
 weather. The application of vegetable matter improves the fertility and 
 physical condition of almost all soils, regardless of whether the subsoil is 
 compact or porous. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF RETAINING SOIL MOISTURE. 
 
 The amount of moisture needed to produce a crop is much greater than 
 would be imagined. In the case of corn, it is sufficient to cover the field 
 with water to a depth of from 10 to 15 inches, [a) About three-fifths of this, 
 quantity, or from 6 to 9 acre-inches of water, is absorbed by the roots and ex- 
 haled by the foliage of the growing crop. (6) More corn crops are cut short 
 by an insufficient quantity of available soil moisture than by any other cause. 
 This is well demonstrated by the fact that fields situated by rivers or lak'es 
 in such a manner that the subsoil always contains sufti:ient moisture seldom 
 fail to produce good corn crops. The greater portion of the corn-growing 
 area, however, is dependent directly upon the rainfall for its water supply, 
 and it is for this reason that this matter is here considered so important. 
 
 After the soil and subsoil have become well supplied with m isture by the 
 rains of fall, winter and spring, the next important consideration is the 
 means by which it can be retained in the soil constantly within reach of the 
 growing crop. The effect of suashine and wind is to cause the moisture to 
 pass rapidly from the soil directly into the atmosphere, and unless cultural 
 methods are employed to lessen evaporation much of the soil moisture will 
 pass into the air without benefitting the crop except in a very slight and in- 
 direct way. For the good of the crop as much of the soil moisture as possible 
 
 («) Ninth Annual Report Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 p. 99. 
 
 {b) Experimental investigations into the Amount of Water Given off by 
 Plants. Roihamsted Memoirs, by Lawes and Gilbert, Vol. I. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG , 69 
 
 should pass into the atmosphere through the plants. In this way it will carry 
 the soluble plant food into the plants, whereas if allowed to evaporate from 
 the surface of the soil it will leave the soluble plant food deposited on or 
 near the surface, where it will be inaccessible to the roots until it is culti- 
 vated deeper into the soil or washed there by succeeding rains. 
 
 As the moisture from the surface evaporates it is replaced by moisture 
 drawn from greater depths by capillary attraction, just as oil is drawn 
 through the wick of a lamp to replace that which is consumed by the flame. 
 The rapidity with which moisture will evaporate from the ground depends 
 upon the condition of the capillary tubes or pores that connect the surface 
 with the deeper soil. Any dry blanket that can be placed between the at- 
 mosphere and the damp soil will check this evaporation. The most practical 
 protection is a covering of finely pulverized dry soil 2 or 3 inches deep. By 
 thoroughly loosening the surface layer, the soil particles are disarranged so 
 that the capillary tubes are not continuous. In this condition the surface 
 soil becomes quite dry and remains so without absorbing moisture from be- 
 low, thus acting as a mulch and retaining the muisture within reach of the 
 plant roots. It is necessary that this soil mulch be fine, for, if composed of 
 clods, air circulates between them and causes evaporation to take place from 
 the soil below the surface. A rain, however, will wet the surface, causing 
 the soil to run together and crust, thus restoring capillarity. This makes 
 another cultivation necessary in order to renew the blanket of fine, loose 
 soil. 
 
 FERTILIZERS AND CROP ROTATION. 
 
 The question of the chemical fertilizers best suited to the corn plant is 
 too broad for discussion within the limits of this article. The corn plant 
 needs plenty of food and for most profitable results should be grown on fer- 
 tile soil. A soil lacking in plant food can, of course, be made to produce a 
 crop of corn if the requisite amounts of nitrogen, phosphate, potash, and 
 other essential elements be added and the soil kept in a good physical condi- 
 tion; but the growing of corn on very poor land is usually attended with very 
 little or no profit, and the application of commercial fertilizers does not per- 
 manently improve the soil. It is usually preferable to spend a given sum of 
 money in buying corn rather than to make the same outlay for fertilizers in 
 order to raise the crop on impoverished soil. If the soil is of such a nature 
 that the application of one or a few elements at a small cost will cause it to 
 produce good corn crops, these elements should be supplied; but if the soil is 
 little more than a foundation, to which must be added a large portion of the 
 necessary plant food, corn growing should be suspended until the soil is per- 
 manently enriched by applying large quantities of barnyard manure or by 
 liberal and continued growing and plowing under of leguminous crops rich in 
 nitrogen. 
 
 Nitrogen, which is an essential element of plant growth and the most 
 costly ingredient of chemical fertilizers, in a free state constitutes four-fifths 
 of the atmosphere. By the aid of microscopic organisms (a) leguminous 
 plants, such as clovers, vetches, beans, peas, and the like, extract nitrogen 
 from the atmosphere and store it in the soil in a form available to succeed- 
 ing crops. This is one of nature's ways of applying fertilizer, and by work- 
 
70 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 ing" in harmony with nature man can hasten these processes and render poor 
 soils fertile in a few years' time and at bUt slight expense other than for 
 labor. Soils enriched by the growing- and plowing under of leguminous plants 
 retain their fertility well, but no soil, unless it be a river bottom which is 
 frequently renewed by overflows, should be planted to corn year after year. 
 The fertility should be maintained and improved by crop rotation and by 
 the turning under of green crops, which can often be grown the same season 
 with the crop grown for profit* 
 
 In sections where wheat, oats or other crops are harvested in early sum- 
 mer, it is almost always desirable to follow them with a soil improving crop 
 that can be turned under that fall or the following spring. Clover sod, turn- 
 ed under in the autumn and then torn to pieces and well mixed in the soil by 
 cultivation the next spring, furnishes one of the best seed beds in which to 
 plant corn. This is the method employed by a Pennsylvania farmer who re- 
 ports that his yield has not been less than 100 bushels of com per acre during 
 the past twelve years, with the exception of two seasons. He also practices 
 frequent shallow cultivation in a manner well suited to conserve the soil 
 moisture, and is confident that with average rainfall during fall, winter and 
 early spring he can raise a fair crop without any rain from planting time 
 untilTiarvest. A field of his corn as seen in August, 1902, is shown in PL 
 XIV, fig. 1, when it appeared that the yield would exceed 100 bushels per 
 acre. A later report gives 130 bushels as the average yield from 90 acres. 
 Some implements used on this farm are shown in PI. XIII, fig. 2 — on the left 
 a 4-horse or 5-horse cultivator, used in the spring for loosening and tearing 
 to pieces the clover sod plowed under in the autumn, and on the right a 
 planter made expressly to plant corn according to this farmer's idea of the 
 best method for his farm. 
 
 Whatever maybe the system of crop rotation, all fields which are subject 
 to blowing or washing of the soil should be kept covered with some crop 
 during the winter. This is usually advisable, even though the field is not 
 subject to blowing or washing, and if the proper crop is grown during fall 
 and early spring it will enrich the soil when plowed under. If oats are to fol- 
 low a corn crop, clovers, cowpeas, soy beans, velvet beans, wheat, rye, or 
 some other crop should be planted in the cornfield at the last cultivation, or 
 as soon as the corn is cut. Although such crops may not have time to make 
 much growth, they will protect the soil during fall, winter and early spring, 
 and add to its fertility when turned under or uprooted by cultivation. The 
 growing of beans, peas, clovers, etc., is a great help to the soil even 
 though the seed be gathered or the vines cut for hay, but the turning under 
 of the entire crop enriches the soil to a greater extent and on poor soils 
 causes a very noticeable increase in yield for two or more years. 
 
 FALL PLOWING. 
 
 Fall plowing can not be recommended for all soils and localities, but 
 should be more generally practiced than at present. If a cover crop or sod 
 is turned under in the autumn, decomoosition will increase the amount of 
 
 (rt) "Bacteria and the nitrogen problfm," by George T. Moore, Yearbook 
 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902, p. 333. 
 
BY J. B, ARMSTRONG 71 
 
 plant food available for the crop the next sunimer. This is true to some ex- 
 tent even thoug-h sod is not turned under, inasmuch as the simple loosening- 
 of the soil admits atmospheric oxygen and increases chemical action upon 
 vegetable and mineral matter. Fall plowing is one of the methods of com- 
 bating grubworms, cutworms and cornroot worms, which are often destruc- 
 tive to corn. Because tne surface of ground plowed in the fall is drier at 
 planting time in the spring than that of ground not so treated, it does not 
 necessarily follow that there is less moisture in fall plowed ground. The fall 
 plowing has enabled the rainfall better to penetrate the subsoil, allowing the 
 surface to dry more rapidly. In the spring, fall-plowed fields usually contain 
 much more moisture, but at the same time have a drier surface than fields 
 which remain undisturbed until spring. In sections where there is much rain 
 during the winter it is better not to harrow the fall-plowed land in the 
 autumn. This is especially true of fine clay soils that run together and pack 
 readily. In comparative tests of fall and spring plowing, preceding a dry 
 summer, the fall-plowed fields have generally yielded better. The same is 
 true of subsoiling. Deep spring plowing and spring subsoiling are likely to 
 result in diminished crops, especially if done after the spring rains. The 
 loosening of the soil to great depths admits air and facilitates the loss of soil 
 moisture; it also interrupts the capillarity, so that moisture is not as readily 
 drawn from greater depths, and during a dry summer there is not enough 
 available moisture to support a good crop. 
 
 DEPTH OP PLOWING. 
 
 From the above, it is plain why there has been so much contradictory 
 evidence regarding the best depth to plow for certain crops. For a deep, 
 rich soil deep plowing is best, providing it is done in the fall or does not ren- 
 der the soil too loose and dry. For thin clay soils subsoiling is better than 
 very deep plowing, because it does not turn the compact clay to the surface, 
 yet at the same time loosens the soil to a good depth. The plowing should 
 not be at the same depth from year to year, as by such a practice the soil is 
 not mixed well and a hard surface is left at the bottom of the furrows where 
 the horses walk and the plows drag. A little subsoil turned to the surface 
 occasionally allows the elements to act upon it, liberating plant food, and as 
 it becomes mingled with surface soil and vegetable growth the soil depth 
 will be increased. To accomplish these desired results it is well to plow a lit- 
 tle deeper each year for several successive seasons, and then for one season 
 give a plowing at about half the depth of the deepest plowing. It is well to 
 have the farm mapped, the various fields numbered, and records kept of the 
 annual treatment and production of each field. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 Throughout all corn-growing sections of the country it is the general ex- 
 perience that corn planted early most often gives the best yield. Occasion- 
 ally later plantings yield best, but they are exceptions. In 1902 the writer 
 saw fields of corn in Georgia, planted in February, that yielded 40 bushels per 
 acre, and others adjoining, planted two months later, that did not produce 5 
 bushels per acre. In the Northern States there is little choice as to time of 
 
72 BOOK OR CORN GROWING 
 
 planting-. Corn must be planted as soon as the ground is sufficiently warm, in 
 order that it may mature before early fall frosts. In the Southern States 
 the growing' season is long enough to allow planting at different dates, thus 
 lessening the likelihood of having the entire crop cut short by drought. 
 Growing conditions are more favorable in the spring, and corn usually pro- 
 duces better if planted at that time. Although the Southern summers are 
 long enough to afford plenty of warm weather, corn planted in the summer 
 will ripen in less time and usually produces less than if planted in the spring. 
 Fields planted early frequently escape attacks of the bud-worm, while later 
 plantings of the same year suffer severely. As the result of many years' 
 trials at different State experiment stations the best planting season has 
 been found to be, respectively: Middle Georgia, March 15 to 20; Illinois, May 
 11 to 18; Middle Inriiana, May 1 to 11; Kansas, May 2; South Dakota, May 10 
 to 20; Iowa and Nebraska, April 25 to May 25. 
 
 Corn should, of course, not be planted in cold or wet ground simply be- 
 cause the calendar shows that the usual planting time has arrived; but by 
 good drainage, fall plowing, etc., every farmer should strive to have his land 
 in good condition to plant at the proper time. Underground drainage wilj 
 prove most profitable in the end, but as this is rather expensive it is some, 
 times desirable to use low, flat land for earn before it is possible to have it 
 tile drained. Sometimes such fields are plowed in small strips or "lands" 4 to 
 6 feet wide, and a row of corn is planted on the ridge or backfurrow of every 
 land. This places the plants above surface water, and for this reason is sat- 
 isfactory during wet weather, but the high situation of the stalks places 
 them at a disadvantage during dry weather. The method of planting illus- 
 trated in fig. 3 gives more general satisfaction for such fields. The ground is 
 backfurrowed in lands 8 feet wide, making thereby dead furrows every 8 feet. 
 On each side, and 2 feet from each dead furrow, shallow rows are marked off, 
 and in them the corn is planted. By this method the plants have drainage 
 during wet weather and are better situated for enduring drought than when 
 standing on the higher ridges. 
 
 A little more care can be exercised to advantage as regards dropping a 
 precise number of kernels and covering them with mellow soil when the 
 planting is done by hand, but the labor saved by the use of planters is so 
 great that for p'-ofitable corn growing their use is indispensable. Moreover, 
 if the seed bed is in the proper condition any good planter can be made to 
 cover corn as satisfactorily a,s it can be done with a hoe; and, if seed ears 
 having kernels of uniform size be selected and the small kernels at the ex- 
 tremities of the ears be rejected, good modern corn planting machines can 
 be made to drop with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes. However, 
 the yield depends to such an extent upon the proper number of stalks and 
 their even distribution that too much stress can hardly be placed upon the 
 necessity for selecting seed ears having kernels of uniform size and plates 
 for the planter that will drop the proper number at the required distance. 
 Every spring the planter should be thoroughly tested and adjusted until it 
 will drop accurately the seed to be used. These are some of the many essen- 
 tials that can be attended to before the rush of planting time arrives. 
 
 DEPTH OF PLANTING. 
 
 The proper depth to plant must be governed by the quality and moisture 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 73 
 
 of the soil. If it is a stiff, heavy clay containing- plenty of moisture at plant- 
 ing- time, 1 inch is sufficiently deep; but if it is a light, open, dry soil, 3 or 4 
 inches is a satisfactory depth. If the cora is planted deeper than 4 inches 
 much of the food supply stored in the seed will be consumed before the young- 
 plant can reach the surface and expand its leav s. Plants can not be made 
 to send their roots deeply into the soil by planting the seed deeply. They 
 can better be fortified against dry weather by planting the seed in a furrow: 
 here is where the lister g-ets in its best worK, covering- it slightly, and then 
 gradually cultivating the furrow full of soil as the plants grow. This requires 
 some care, however, as the furrow should not be filled to any great depth un- 
 til the plants have attained the height of a foot or more and are in a vigor- 
 ous condition. This method of planting is especially well adapted to deep 
 soils where dry weather is likely to prevail during the middle or latter part 
 of the growing season. The lister, tne implement with which a large part 
 of the corn is planted in the Prairie States, fulfills the requirements of this 
 method of planting. 
 
 PLANTING WITH A LISTER. 
 
 The lister is used for planting fields that have been thoroughly plowed 
 and also for planting directly in last year's cornfield or stubble field without 
 previous preparation. This latter practice, however, is not recommended 
 for shallow or stiff clay soils. 
 
 The results of a majority of the comparative tests in the deep soils of 
 the states just west of the Mississippi river have been in favor of listed 
 rather than surface-planted corn, and the increased yield of listed plats has 
 been greatest in dry seasons. By planting in a deep furrow, as is done with a 
 lister, weeds in the corn rows are more easily covered by cultivation, and as 
 the furrow becomes filled by cultivation the root system is placed at a greater 
 depth. The corn is thus better enabled to endure drought, and the stalks 
 are not so easily blown down. On soils where corn can be listed without pre- 
 vious preparation of the ground, this method is profitable because of the 
 labor saved, but it can be successfully employed only on very deep, loose 
 soils. When the drill is attached to the lister, one man with three strong 
 horses can do in one day all the work connected with the planting of 7 acres 
 of corn. The drill is so constructed that it can be detached from the lister 
 and used separately. By this means an additional man and horse are re- 
 quired to drill the corn in the furrows made by the lister. If the soil is stift" 
 and heavy it should be well plowed and brought into good condition for plant- 
 ing before the corn is listed. A lister or a planter with lister attachment 
 which lists two rows at once and makes a mark to guide the driver on his re- 
 turn, can then be employed. Disks or double moldboards, could be attached 
 to the various makes of planters and check rowers, and thereby the corn 
 could be planted in the bottom of furrows below the general surface of the 
 field. For the reasons mentioned, this method of planting would be an im- 
 provement for many localities where extensive areas of corn are yearly 
 planted by means of check rowers which leave the surface of planted fields 
 smooth. See article entitled Prosperity and Expansion. 
 
74 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 PLANTING WITH A CHECK BOWER. 
 
 Perhaps more corn is now planted by means of a check rower than by 
 any other device. This implement is adjustable, so that the spacing" of the 
 rows and the distance between the plants or hills in the row can be regulated 
 to suit the requirement^ of the soil. By means of the wire chain stretched 
 across a field one man and team can plant in straight rows in both directions 
 across the field 12 or 15 acres per day, thus admitting- of cross cultivation. 
 Corn planted in this way can be kept free of weeds and well cultivated with- 
 out costly hoeing or the cutting of weeds. A summary of numerous tests 
 made by various State experiment stations shows that there is practically 
 no difference in yield of corn planted in hills of several stalks each or drilled 
 so that the stalks stand separately in the rows, provided there is the same 
 number of stalks per acre in each case. The former system facilitates cul- 
 tivation and the latter provides for a more equal distribution of roots 
 throughout the soil. Check rowers are best adopted to large and compara- 
 tively level fields free from trees or stumps. Hillsides and sloping ground 
 can not be planted in checks without increasing the liability to soil washing. 
 
 DISTANCES BETWEEN ROWS AND HILLS 
 
 The distances between rows and stalks or hills in the rows affect to a 
 great extent the production per acre. A proper number of stalks evenly 
 distributed, so that none will suffer from crowding and so that there will be 
 enough to produce the greatest number of well-formed ears, constitutes the 
 best stand for the production of ear corn. If planted thicker than this the 
 weight of stover increases and the production of good ears decreases. If 
 planted thinner the weight of the stover as well as of ears decreases. Small- 
 growing varieties should be planted thicker than varieties producing tall 
 stalks. The scope of this article precludes the giving of specific directions 
 as to the best distances for planting the various strains of corn, but remem- 
 bering that for greatest production rich soil requires thicker planting than 
 poorer soil, each farmer must determine the best distances for his particular 
 corn and soil. In 1897, 1898, and 1899 the Georgia experiment station ob- 
 tained the best results by having the rows 4 feet apart and the stalks 3 feet 
 apart in the row. In 1900 the conclusion was reached that for upland soils 
 capable of producing from 35 to 40 bushels of corn per acre, rows 4 feet apart, 
 with one plant every 2 feet, would yield a larger quantity of grain than any 
 greater or less distance. As an average for eight years the Indiana State 
 experiment station obtained best results from rows 3 feet 8 inches apart, 
 with the stalks lOf inches apart in the rows. On many farms of slight fer- 
 tiliy in the leading corn states of the Mississippi Valley the annual yield is 
 considerably reduced because the corn is planted as thickly as would be ad- 
 visable on fertile prairie or bottom soils. Here, the thinner planting prac- 
 ticed in regions generally less fertile could be adopted with advantage. 
 Where the soil is so poor as to necessitate the placing of corn rows 5 or 6 
 feet apart, it is best to grow another crop between the rows. Pindars or 
 peanuts, cowpeas, soy beans, or other leguminous crops are well adapted to 
 this purpose. They enrich the soil and do not interfere with the growth of 
 the corn. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 75 
 
 The distance for planting in a particular soil should be decided upon and 
 :he planter adjusted to plant accurately and regularly. Spots missed by the 
 planter, as well as those depleted by crows, insects, etc., greatly decrease 
 ;he yield per acre. The custom of planting a little thicker than the stand 
 )f stalks desired is not a good one. It may meet the requirements for small 
 matches that can be thinned by hand to the desired stand, but hand thinning 
 arge fields is too tedious to be profitable. If the seed shows a germination 
 )f 97 per cent or more in a thorough germination test and it is then properly 
 )lanted the stand will be almost perfect unless very adverse weather ensues, 
 n which case all the plants will be so injured that the planting of the entire 
 ield again will be preferable to replanting. the missing hills and will be more 
 ;asily accomplished. It is not only a waste of land to have missing hills in a 
 ;ornfield, but also a waste of labor in cultivating them. If a field has been 
 [rilled in but one direction and for any reason a poor stand is obtained, it can 
 )e replanted with a check rower set to drop one kernel at a time operated 
 without the tripping chain. The check rower is driven at right angles to 
 he rows of the first planting and operated so as to plant just as it crosses 
 ;ach row. For this purpose two men will usually be required, one to drive 
 md one to trip the check rower as it crosses the corn rows. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OP THOROUGH EARLY CULTIVATION 
 
 The most successful corn growers realize the importance of thorough 
 larly cultivation, thus preventing any check in the growth of the plants be- 
 ;au8e of weeds or crusted soil. The farmer should see that, from the time 
 if gerhiination to the maturing of corn, the plants are not subjected to any 
 infavorable conditions, but are given an opportunity to make a steady, vig- 
 irous growth. If their development is checked from any cause they will 
 lever fully recover, no matter how favorable the latter treatment. As a 
 onsequence of heavy rainfall the stalks may increase rapidly in height, and 
 it the same time, for lack of cultivation or of plant food, or for other rea- 
 on, they may be slender or of poor color. Thrifty corn plants are thick, 
 trong, and of dark green color. 
 
 Horse weeders and harrows should be used when needed to break a sur* 
 ace crust or kill young weeds that start before the corn is up or large enough 
 o be worked with other implements. During the first cultivation, or while 
 he plants are very small, narrow shovels that throw the soil but very little 
 hould be used, and fenders are usually found desirable to prevent the cover- 
 ng of the plants (PL XIII, fig. 3). 
 
 DEPTH OF CULTIVATION 
 
 Many comparative experiments of deep and shallow cultivation have 
 leen made, and on the whole the results are in favor of shallow cultivation, 
 'here are but few occasions when deep cultivation is preferable. If excess- 
 ve rains have packed the soil and kept it water soaked deep cultivation will 
 elp to dry and aerate the soil. Breaking the roots of the plants must be 
 voided so far as possible (PI. XIV, fig. 2). If roots are broken the plants 
 rill rapidly produce other roots, but it will be at the expense of the vitality 
 ■nd food supply. After the plants have reached a height of 3 or 4 feet, the 
 
76 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 soil even in the middle of the rows should not be cultivated deeper than 4 
 inches, and 3 inches is usually better. For retaining soil moisture a loose 
 soil mulch 2 or 3 inches in thickness should be maiotained. 
 
 FREQUENCY OP CULTIVATION 
 
 The best answer to the question of how frequently corn should be culti- 
 vated is that it shou'd be cultivated often enough to keep down weeds and to 
 maintain constantly a loose soil mulch till the corn has attained its growth. 
 To this end a greater number of cultivations will be necessary when rains at 
 intervals of about a week cause th^ surf ace soil to run together and crust. 
 This crust must be broken and the soil mulch restored, or evaporation will 
 soon rob the soil of its moisture. It is a mistake to think that the longer the 
 drought the more frequent should be the cultivations. After a fine mulch of 
 about 3 inches in depth has been produced, its frequent stirring is not neces- 
 sary except in so far as it is required to keep weeds from starting. The es- 
 sential object of cultivation is to restore the soil mJlch as soon after a rain 
 as the condition of the ground will permit. If this time is allowed to pass 
 and the ground becomes hard and baked dry, the crop will suffer greatly, for 
 the cultivation of hard, dry ground breaks it up into clods, allowing the air 
 to penetrate to greater depth and causing more injury than if such cultiva- 
 tion had not been given at all. All ob-ervant farmers have seen crops 
 injured in this manner. Many crops are cut short by stopping the cultivator 
 because the corn is too tall for the use of a double cultivator without break- 
 ing down the stalks. If the condition of the soil demands it, shallow cultivation 
 should continue even though the corn is tasseling. See article entitled Do 
 Not Cultivate Too Deep. 
 
 Selection of Seed Corn 
 
 GOOD SHAPES OF EARS 
 
 Fig 3 illustrates good forms of ears. These ears are well proportioned. 
 Their butts and tips are good. The rows are straight and the kernels uni- 
 form. The ears are full in the middle parts, showing strength, constitution, 
 and good breeding. It is very essential that an ear shows fullness in the 
 middle portion, as this is the place where the greatest quantity as well as 
 the best quality of corn will be found. Ears 1 and 2 would plant well to- 
 gether. Ears 3 and 1 are slightly better in shape than 2 and 4. 
 
 The fact that the selection of seed corn has a broad bearing upon the 
 amount of corn grown per acre, and fully governs the good or bad qualities 
 of the same is without question; therefore, to those persons who are best 
 fitted to make the best selections, at least to the general farmer, results 
 have proven that he who has made the propagation and growing of corn a 
 study, and whose mind runs in the right direction, who possesses a sound 
 judgment and who is looking for that which will benefit the world at large, 
 will receive the best results. 
 
 Selection is truly the plant breeder's magic wand and with its aid the 
 ready thinking man has brought forth wonders; in fact, from the scanty 
 yielding Indian corn he has brought forth the mammoth golden ears, and 
 from a yield of but a few bushels per acre, he has perfected that variety that 
 will yield its hundreds of bushels. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 77 
 
 It is true that natural selection has had much to do with the architect- 
 ure of the present plant world. It has guided the tendency toward variation 
 in plants in such a manner as to cause them to become fitted for their en- 
 vironments. Whenever a variation occurs that is not for the well being of 
 its species, natural selection sweeps it out of existence. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Tie law of natural ^election materially aid^ man in the form of this 
 type; this is due to the fact that most vigorous plants constantly tend to be 
 a great deal more fruitful than the weaker ones; selection gives exercise to 
 the highest facilties of man, although not one in a thous'U'l has accuracy of 
 eye and judgment sufficient to become an eminent plant breeder, but if 
 gifted with these qualities and he studies his subject for years, and devotes 
 
78 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 his lifetime to it with an indomitable perseverance he will most surely suc- 
 ceed and make great improvements. If selection is to benefit agriculture, 
 it must be followed up incessantly for a type of corn that is not in a state of 
 progression will very surely degenerate. It is true that there has been ever 
 since the remotest beginning of agriculture a sort of unconscious selection, 
 which is exemplified by the farmer when he takes the largest ear of corn 
 from which to plant his crop, but this practice often leads to bad results. 
 
 A much better mode for the selection of seed corn is to go into the field 
 and select from the first ears that are ripened, which are to be gathered 
 from a uniform plant, healthy, strong and showing fully matured ears, not 
 forgetting that the great point to keep in mind is weight of corn — not cob. 
 The really effective part of plant breeding is intelligent selection, because it 
 is effective. Selection gives the operator the opportunity of exercising his 
 choice, and by proper exercise. of his judgment and experience, he is able to 
 avoid all needless conflict with the heredity tendency; in fact, he must work 
 in the same direction with heredity in order to make his labor sufficient. 
 
 Although selection is of great importance in the development of a typej 
 its office is of still greater impprtance in preserving that type; after a de- 
 sirable variety has been secured, the ease with which it will degenerate will 
 require the keen observation and careful selection with the same idea in 
 view that guided the originator'in.his labors. We must therefore learn that 
 eternal vigilance is the price of success, as man by his observation and ex- 
 periments has transformed very many seemingly worthless plants to beauty 
 and goodness, but none more so than King Corn, as the riches of the Klon- 
 dike make no comparison with the vast wealth we reap from the wonderful 
 advance made in the yield by the man who has brought forth two ears where 
 was but one before. I therefore consider that selection is the key that opens 
 the great treasure box to the world. Hoping the above will strengthen my 
 brother farmers to greater efforts and that all may reap the reward for the 
 same. 
 
 The Best Method of Corn Breeding 
 
 The manner by which the general farmer may most assuredly get corn 
 for seed best adapted for his farm and surroundings, a subject upon which 
 we have written in other articles within this book, we give yet another 
 article upon the same subject In our judgment a small plat by itself planted 
 with the very best seed obtainable and thoroughly fertilized and worked and 
 by the removal of all barren stalks detasseling all weaker growth, will in our 
 judgment at once show its superiority and worth. There are a great many 
 good farmers, who d) not believe that it will pay to detassel corn, that corn 
 has always produced barren stalks and that it will always continue to do so. 
 Some have a theory that the soil has something to do with the production of 
 barren stalks while others are equally positive that it is due to climatic con- 
 ditions, such as excessively wet weather. That corn has always produced 
 barren stalks wc are unable to dispute, because we have no figures that tell 
 anything about it. That barren stalks can entirely be done away with in a 
 given variety is very doubtful, at least this is true for a great many genera- 
 tions to come, but that the percent of barren stalks can be greatly reduced 
 in a variety of corn, if proper precautions in seed selection be taken, the 
 writer firmly believes. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 79 
 
 Experiments at some of our stations have proved this beyond a doubt. If 
 we stop for a moment to inquire into the cause of barrenness, the most logi- 
 cal conclusion one can arrive at is to suppose that there must be a possibility 
 to breed out a tendency to produce barren stalks. "Like produces like" is a 
 well-established fact in both plant and animal breeding-. If we breed a 
 Chester White sow to the Poland China boar, we would be greatly surprised 
 should some of the offspring not resemble the sire in color and other char- 
 acteristics. In other words, everyone is well aware of the influence of both 
 parents on the offspring. The sheep breeder increases the prolificacy of his 
 flock by selecting his rams and ewes that produce twins and the hog breeder 
 prefers to choose his boars from large litters for the same reason. 
 
 In the corn plant we have both male and female organs on the same 
 plant. A barren stalk is one that produces no female organs or silks, but 
 which does produce male organs or tassels. It is evident that a barren stalk 
 is not a perfect one and hence the pollen which it produces partially par- 
 takes of this imperfection, and when such a pollen grain fertilizes an ovary, 
 the result of which is a new kernel of corn, it is clear that this new kernel of 
 corn must partially partake of the imperfection of the tassel stock. One 
 would naturally suppose that 100 kernels produced by the union of the male 
 and female elements from two normal plants would produce less barren stalks 
 than would 100 kernels that had been produced on perfect mother plants, but 
 had all been fertilized by pollen stalks. Whenever pollen from barren stalks 
 is allowed to fall upon the silks of other stalks we are simply propagating- 
 a bad character which ought to be weeded out as much as possible. 
 
 The above view of the situation leads to the conclusion that unless bar" 
 renness is kept in check by detasseling that this undesirable quality would 
 be increased to such an extent as to become alarming-. It must be remem" 
 bered, however, that we always have a great preponderence of fertile stalks 
 in the field and that barrenness is only one of the qualities of a plant and 
 hence may not always appear in the offspring-, even though a tendency to 
 produce barrenness is inherent in the kernel. In other words, this character 
 may remain recessive for a number of years. Further, it should not be for- 
 gotten that it is only possible to transmit barrenness from the male side of 
 the plant as the female must certainly always be fertile in order to produce 
 kernels at all. These causes therefore operate against barrenness, increas- 
 ing above a certain reasonable percent. What we are to do, however, is jto 
 minimize barrenness as much as possible. 
 
 To illustrate that this can be done, we refer to some work accomplished 
 along this line at the Minnesota Experiment station. This station has orig- 
 inated a variety of corn which is a superior yielding variety and which is al- 
 so an early maturing corn. It is called Minnesota No 13 corn. For a num- 
 ber of years detasseling has bt en carried on in the breeding plots with this 
 variety and in 1903 it produced less than 1 percent of barren stalks, while 
 other varieties, with which no care had been taken to eliminate barren 
 stalks produced 20 percent of barren s'alks. Having established the fact 
 that the tendency to produce barren stalks can be increased or decreased at 
 will, the question naturally arises how shall we make use of these facts in 
 practice? Will it pay to go through our main corn fields and detassel all 
 barren stalks? The answer is, no. 
 
 At the same time we also say, don't select seed from the main crop, and 
 
80 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 one reason for that is because of the many barren stalks that are found 
 there. Have a special seed patch or nursery for the production of your seed 
 corn and in this nursery it will pay well not only to detassel all barren stalks, 
 but to destroy all weak ones as well. If you have not such a seed patch on 
 the farm this year, lay aside a strip along" one side, or better still, a square 
 in one corner of the main corn field and detassel all barren stalks there as 
 soon as the tassels begin to appear and are well out of the sheath and before 
 any of the pollen is ripe. Go through this seed patch or nursery every day 
 or two for a week or ten days until the corn is fully tasseled out and each 
 day remove the tassels that have come out since the day before. By keep- 
 ing up such detasseling for a number of years the tendency to produce barren 
 stalks will gradually be decreased, and hence the yield will necessarily be 
 correspondingly increased. Detasseling of the barren stalks should not be 
 considered to increase the yield of the fertile or remaining stalks, as it will 
 have no effect on them whatever, but it will improve the crop in future 
 years as has been shown above. This work is especially to be commended to 
 those who took a good deal of pains with their corn last spring and who may 
 have gone to considerable expense in introducing a good yielding variety of 
 corn on their farms. 
 
 BARREN STALKS 
 
 Out of the five stalks in these two hills only one produced a g-ood ear. 
 Note how weak and sickly the non-productive stalks are compared with the 
 productive one. Barrenness is one of the greatest sources of lots in corn 
 growing. To the farmer who grows corn for the grain alone these barren 
 stalks are worse than a complete loss. They not only deprive the productive 
 stalks of food, moisture and light, but they produce pollen which fertilizes 
 the silks of the good stalks and so reduces the vigor and future producing 
 power of many of the good ears. Nubbins are simply a mild form of 
 barrenness. 
 
 This subject of barren stalks is very closely related to that of "The Pro- 
 duct of a Single Hill." (SeeFig. 10. ) 
 
 This cut gives an illustration of the class of stalks which produce the 
 nubbins, or what is worse, nothing at all. The unproductive stalk^^ in these 
 two hills have hundreds of brothers scattered here and there throughout the 
 field wherever the kernels from the ear that produced them were planted. 
 Some of these brothers of course bore something but a large percent of the 
 plants that came from that ear would be about like four of those in this cut — 
 worse than nothing. On the other hand the stalks bearing the good ear 
 would have hundreds of brothers throughout the field, which came from the 
 same good ear it did, bearing — not nubbins or nothing at all as these are do- 
 ing — but strong, vigorous stalks producing in turn, a large percentage of 
 good vigorous ears. 
 
 This question resolves itself into one of getting rid of these unprofitable 
 ears and of planting only vigorous ear-producing ones. On an average one 
 stalk in every seven produces nothing because of barrenness. One acre in 
 every seven planted to corn is worse than wasted because of these unpro- 
 ductive stalks. Yet a little time and care in selecting our seed corn — not a 
 dollar in outlay is required^will materially lessen this enormous loss. We 
 cannot pay too much attention to the careful selection of our seed corn. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 81 
 
 FiS. 11. 
 
 Prof. P. G. Holden of the Agriculture Collcg-e of Iowa h^s fuUy studied 
 the subject of barren stalks and their elTect on rhe future yield of cora ^rown 
 from pollen supplied f-otu th'^m See cut No 11 and you will get a fair idea 
 of his illustration from vvhich y -u will learn that the yield will be cut down 
 wonderfully if the m fitter is not brought to the. attention of the farmer in a 
 forcible manner — tlii< su j ct tou hes the pocket-book. The results there- 
 fore are most easily br lu^h: to one's mind, in fact all the subjects brought 
 out from illustrations selectcl from the Year Rook are most vivid; such as 
 you may find at any time in your own or your neighbor's cornfield and coming 
 as it does from so eminent and reliable a source as to b? confirm us proof of its 
 worth. It is said that the bjok learned farmer is no good. He does not deal 
 
82 
 
 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 directly with the farm but ia this case we have the farm and the educated 
 man combined. Study this matter fully, it will do you good 
 
 J. B. ARMSTRONG. 
 
 12. 
 
 PRODUCT OF A SINGLE HILL 
 
 Fig-. 12 illustrates what is too often seen in a single hill— a good ear, a 
 poor ear anda nubbin. We have seen this so often that we never stop to 
 think what it mean?. Why do not all these stalks bear ears Jike No. 3? Be- 
 ing in the i^ame hi'l, the conditions of soil, climate and moisture must have 
 been ex ictly the same One could not have received more thorough cultiva- 
 tion than another. From the time the corn was dropped there was no good 
 reason why Nos. 1 and 2 should not be as good as No. 3. Why, then, is there 
 this wide variation? Can we do anything to bring Nos, 1 and 2 up to the 
 standard set by No. 3? We can. The difference in yield of these three ears 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 83 
 
 was not due to dififerences in soil, climate or cultivation. The difference lay 
 behind all this— it lay in the character of the parents planted. If we could 
 locate all the stalks in the field which spring from the brothers of the kernel 
 that produced No. 2 we would find that the great majority of them were ears> 
 on an average, as good as it is. The same thing would hold true in the case 
 of the parents of No. 1 and No. 3. This would lead us to the conclusion that 
 the difference in these three ears is due to the difference in the producing- 
 power of their parents. 
 
 In our study of individual ears we saw the wide variation in the yield 
 which different ears produced. We saw that while one ear yielded 90 busliels 
 per acre, another ear beside it, which ha.d exactly the same conditions, pro- 
 duced only 36 bushels. Some ears produced twelve times as many barren 
 stalks as others and the same held true with the broken stalks. Now if we 
 can select the ear which gives the large ear-producing stalks and leave out 
 the one which produces the small ear and the one which produces the nubbins, 
 we will have gone a long way toward materially increasing our yield for it is 
 evident that this wide variation is due to the difference in the producing 
 power of these two ears. In this work of selection the ear may be taken as 
 the unit. While there is something in the individuality of each kernel, we 
 are sure of getting good corn and a large increase iri' the number of good 
 ears to the hill if we study our seed ears carefully and plant only the best. 
 Fourteen ears on an average will plant an acre, therefore, if we put in one 
 ear that produces a great many nubbins and barren stalks we greatly reduce 
 our yield on that acre. 
 
 Don't Get the Cultivator Too Deep 
 
 The ground finely cultivated before the corn is planted will leave it in 
 such condition that you may at the first plowing before the corn roots have 
 spread out plow as deep as you wish to, as to fully kill and cover all weeds 
 
 after which the cultivator must be run more shallow but never deep enough 
 to interfere with the root system. 
 
84 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 Why deep enough to kill the weeds? Simply because you are trying to 
 grow grass or weeds in the same field. We sometimes think that weeds act- 
 ually poison the ground but whether or not, they take the strength of the 
 land which should go to the corn, they rob the corn of its moisture, and hence 
 they should not be tolerated. 
 
 Have you ever seen a cornfield in which weeds had come up after planting 
 till they threatened to take the crop, and the farmer had gone through and 
 tried to hoe them out and then got tired and quit? If you ever see that (and 
 you may see it every year) just notice, please, the difference between the 
 corn out of which the weeds have been cut or pulled, and the corn where 
 they have been allowed to grow. Corn and weeds cannot live together in the 
 same house. 
 
 Why not plow deep? Simply because by the time the corn is knee high 
 the roots reach from row to row and come up just as near the surface as they 
 can get moisture. See cut: the top of the ford shows top of the soil. Why 
 should you cut off these roots— why limit the pasture field of the corn plant? 
 The amount of corn that you will get is proportionate root growth. If a man 
 will take a day off and wash out a hill of corn for the purpose of finding out 
 where the roots are, where they are feeding, he will do his corn more good 
 than if he plowed corn that day. It is quite as necessary for the farmer to 
 understand the anatomy of the corn plant as it is for the surgeon to know 
 the bones and veins and arteries and muscles and ligaments and tendons and 
 nerves of the man on whom he proposes to operate. 
 
 Another reason why you should not go deeper than necessary to kill the 
 weeds is because you want to leave the space between the rows just as level 
 as possible. You want to use all the field as a pasture for corn roots, and the 
 corn root must have moisture. The more level you have it, the greater pro- 
 portion of the pasture the corn roots can utilize. They must have moisture, 
 and if the corn is ridged up it has better opportunity to dry out; hence there 
 is less moisture and the roots must go deeper. Don't get the old idea that 
 was prevalent when we were boys that you have to throw the soil up around 
 the corn to keep it from blowing over. Nature has provided means for en- 
 abling the corn to stand uo straight. It has provided an admirable root sys- 
 tem for that purpose; therefore let nature run that part of the business. It 
 should be your aim to keep your soil in such shape that the plants will have 
 the greatest spread of loots and the greatest supply of available moisture. 
 Nature will look after the rest. 
 
 Deep vs. Shallow Cultivation of Corn 
 
 By James .lllinson, Ass't. in Agriculture nt fhe Iowa Experimental Station, Ames, loica. 
 
 The amount and dstribution of the rainfall throughout the corn belt is 
 jast sufficient to carry the corn crop through the average season. Indeed it 
 is the comparatively light rainfall, together with a certain amount of sun- 
 shine and a given temperature, that creates thi^, the greate>-t corn belt in 
 the world. It is true that there are exceptional seasons when the rainfall is 
 sufficient to safely mature a crop, and yet, as the science of cultivation be- 
 comes more fully understood, the damage to the corn crop on account of a 
 meager supply of moisture is becoming very much lessened. In the past the 
 cultivator has been used largely as a weapon for destroying weeds. When 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 85 
 
 its purpose was accomplished in this direction, its duties for the season were 
 at an end. 
 
 The modern idea concerning the corn cultivator, or cprn plow, as it is 
 mostly called, attributes to the implement a three fold purpose, namely, the 
 conservation of moisture, the destruction of weeds, and the aeration of the 
 soil. Concerning the first factor mentioned, that of conserving moisture, 
 there is no longer any dispute as to the great value of cultivation in this re- 
 spect. King found a daily loss of more than three tons of water from an 
 acre under cultivation than from the same area uncultivated, which loss was 
 directly due to greater evaporation from the uncultivated soil. This would 
 amount to a two-inch rainfall in the course of two months, quite enough to 
 save a crop in a dry season. However, this great saving of moisture is not 
 accomplished by any fixed number of plowings, as, for example, it is the 
 practice of certain farmers to cultivate only twice while others practice 
 three plowings. As a matter of fact it is impossible for anyone to say just 
 how frequently corn should be plowed as so much depends upon climatic 
 conditions. Every rainfall prepares the soil in the best possible manner for* 
 the evaporation of moisture by leaving the surface soil filled with small 
 pores, which act as water conductors between the lower soil and the atmos- 
 phere. Just as soon as the free water that enters the soil by the force of 
 gravitation is arrested by the capillary forces in the soil it immediately be- 
 gins to arise toward the surface by virtue of the same force that arrested its 
 downward course. It therefore follows that the breaking up of these sur- 
 face pores will check this flow of water into the atmosphere, hence the wis- 
 dom of making free use of the cultivator after heavy rains. 
 
 But there is less controversy over the importance of freouent cultivation 
 than there is on the subject of depth to which corn should be plowed And 
 right here let it be said that the nature of the soil and the climatic condi- 
 tion are very important factors. Our experiments up to the present time 
 favor shallow culture, that is, a depth of from one and one-half to two and 
 one-half inches, as compared with a depth of four to five inches. In 1899 the 
 yield from the shallow cultivation was seventy-two bushels per acre and 
 from the deep sixty-nine bushels. In 1900 the crop that received shallow 
 cultivation yielded ninety-three bushels per acre, while the deep culture 
 crop yielded eighty-nine bushels. During a period of five years the Illinois 
 Experiment station reports a gain of five bushels per acre from the shallow 
 culture as compared with the deep. While these experiments are decidedly 
 in favor of shallow cultivation, yet they cannot be accepted as applying" 
 under all circumstances. But let it first be explained why better returns are 
 obtained from the shallow culture. It has been demonstrated by King that 
 a three-inch mulch will conserve more moisture in a cornfield than one an 
 inch deep, and yet nearly all experiments favor the shallow culture. The 
 explanation of this seemingly contradictcry situation is found in the fact 
 that while the roots of the corn penetrate the soil to a depth of four or five 
 feet, it is, after all the surface roots that are the principal agents through 
 which food elements enter the plant. Not that the lower roots are incap- 
 able of taking up plant food if it existed in the lower layers of the soil but 
 that the conditions for the liberation of food elements are only favorable in 
 the surface soil, where there is moisture, warmth and an abundant supply of 
 air. It therefore follows that a crop can ill afford to part with any erf its 
 surface roots. I nave often heard farmers say that they like to hear the 
 
86 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 Cultivator tearing the corn roots, as they believe they are then doing- some 
 good. It is true that the plant will tend to develop a stronger system below 
 this line of cultivation, but, as said before, there is but a scant supply of 
 plknt food in this lower soil upon which they can feed, their office being 
 largely the taking up of water. In a dry season it is especially injurious to 
 a crop to destroy part of its root system, and indeed it is reasonable to sup- 
 pose that no good will be accomplished by root pruning at any time. 
 
 However, there are conditions under which it may be advisable to plow 
 to considerable depth. If a soil contains any considerable amount of clay, 
 and the season would be wet, it may be necessary in order to warm the soil 
 and destroy the weeds to plow or cultivate to considerable depth. On this 
 topic John Cownie says: "In heavy soil and wet weather shallow cultivation 
 is a mere waste of time and labor, while deep and thorough stirring of the 
 soil, leaving the surface between the rows somewhat rough, destroys weeds 
 and assists in the evaporation of surplus moisture, and in addition deep cul- 
 tivation allows the air to permeate the soil, to warm it and assist in forcing 
 ' growth. Bui with light soil and during dry weather, surface cultivation will 
 destroy weeds very effectively, for growth is then slow and greatly retarded 
 and the object should be to conserve moisture, and this is best accomplished 
 by thorough and repeated stirring of the surface soil, leaving it as fine and 
 snooth as possible." 
 
 Shallow cultivation cannot be adopted unless the soil is thoroughly pre- 
 pared before planting. If planting is done amidst a crop of weeds, these in 
 all probability will be so firmly established as not to be disturbed by the 
 shallow shovel. Under such circumstances it is our practice to use the deep 
 shavels to destroy the first crop of weeds before the root system of the corn 
 la developed to an extent that will render them liable to injiire. Indeed, I 
 wouM advise the complete destruction of weeds at all hazards, although it is 
 mtrch, better to do this when they are yOung aM tender. In crder to cope 
 with a variety of conditions we have two sets of shovels with every plow, the 
 deep ones to be used during the early part of the season if necessary, and 
 the shallow ones when the rainfall is light and the weeds are well in check. 
 
 There is another factor that should receive some attention, that is the 
 leavBttg of the surface soil as smooth and level as possible after every plow- 
 ing. A rigid surface exposes more soil to the drying action of the sun than 
 a smcxith one, which is another argument in favor of shallow plows, I like 
 the attachment on the Tower cultivator which levels the soil after the 
 knives, leaving it smooth and level. This may seem a stnallmattei:, andyet 
 the difference between success and failure in any business is Often due t(^/tb.6 
 attention paid to details to "small things." JAMES Afit^NS5i^;^;^^ ; ';' ^ 
 
 Iowa Experiment Station, Ames, fd'wa. ' " 
 
 The above fully carries out the ideas that for years' we hkve been tklk- 
 ing to our farmer friends and practicing on our Pleasant Valley Corh'Fkffti. 
 
 J. B. ARM^TRtyNG; ; ''.f ^' " 
 
 What May be Done to Increase the Yield of Cdffl ^ 
 
 GOOD SHAPF OF EARS ■. . J 
 
 Pig. 16 illustrates good form of ears. All are .well proportioned, have . 
 ■good butts and tips, the rows are str.aight and the kernels uniform. All the 
 ^ears show strength, constitution and good breeding. Ears 1, 3 and 4, would 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 87 
 
 plant well togfether. Ears 3 and 1 are slightly better in shape than ears 2 
 and 4. 
 
 
 
 
 ^■; 
 
 ri§. 16. 
 
 When we realize the possibilities that are wrapped up in a siisgle ear of 
 corn and then make the careful selection the importance of the subject de- 
 mands we can, in a few years, greatly increase the value of the corncrbp.' > 
 
 Recently the Journal gave an account of the success of corn breeding in 
 Illinois, Kansas and Iowa. Missouri has done little or nothing in- this di- 
 rection. If we may believe Geo M. Tucker, instructor in soils and crops at 
 the Missouri State University, he notes in a recent bulletin that Illinois has 
 increased the average of her corn crop during the past ten ye^rs, 22 per cent. 
 In the same time Indiana has increased her av^age 12 per een-tajadjowa: Jaas 
 brought hers up to 28 per cent, ^and Kansas and Nebraska 14 to 16 per cent,, 
 but Missouri has made but 1 per cent and in all these states the increase is 
 
BOOK OR CORN GROWING 
 
 due to corn breeding- and selection and better attention to cultivation. Here 
 we have before us a striking object lesson of what attention of this sig^ht 
 might do for Missouri. The acreage of corn in Missouri in the last year was 
 767,645,600, and increase of one bushel to the acre would mean 7,645,600 more 
 bushels of corn or an increase of over two millions of dollars in value. The 
 state revenue by direct taxation last year was two million six hundred and 
 thirty-two thousand dollars, so an additional bushel of corn to the acre would 
 almost pay the whole direct taxation of the state. "Now"' says Mr. Tucker, 
 "if three, four or five bushels could be raised, two millions two hundred and 
 ninety-three thousand, four million five hundred and eighty-seven thousand 
 or sixty-eight hundred and eighty-one thousand would be clear proGt to the 
 farmers of the state and five bushels to the acre would be an increase if all 
 the farmers in Missouri paid attention to their seed." 
 
 Improved seed may be obtained if buying it of reliable seed growers. In 
 planting those varieties of corn that have been degenerated by time and are 
 producing twisted, spindling, dwarfed, abnormally large with little tendency 
 to produce strong stalk or healthy leaf. The farmer cannot expect to get a 
 large yield of grain from the seed grown upon such field. It will be subject 
 to a similar abnormal growth and a poor development. It is a well estab- 
 lished fact that the quantity of the grain depends upon the plant that bears 
 it, and the plant which had fertilized Seed plants should be strong and vigor- 
 ous, with an erect symetrical and well developed stalk, tapering regularly 
 from the base to the tassel with well developed broad leaves uniformly set 
 upon the stalk, and no appearance of dwarfed or stunted ears at the various 
 nodes but with one or two well developed ears and these born at a medium 
 height above the ground. It is not adisible to select seed corn from large or 
 abnormal plants, nor select large abnormally ears to plant. The result of that 
 kind of selection will be to develop a tendency to produce plants that the soil 
 will not be strong enough to bring to maturity and the grain must suffer in 
 consequence. In a field or breeding plot there are always abnormally small 
 and abnormally large plants but the actual adaption of the soil is measured 
 by the average and not by the extremes. When everything had been done 
 to secure a perfect stand there may yet be a relatively small number of ears 
 in the field on account of the barren stalks. Many stalks that came from the 
 best selected kernels may not bear ears. Therefore, it'is necessary in order to 
 secure a large yield to detassel the barren stalks in the breeding field in order 
 that they may not pass their barrenness along through the ears which their 
 pollen reaches. The farmer who desires to breed up his own seed must have 
 a breeding field at some distance from his other corn if possible. This field 
 must be kept in a good state of cultivation, the barren stalks must be detasseled 
 as soon as their tassels appear and further selection may be advanced by de- 
 tasseling others than barren stalks if they are not considered suitable. Then 
 when the crop is made there should be a selection of seed ears by measure- 
 ment, weight, etc., not only with the eye to the ears themselves but also the 
 plants which produce them. Then by selecting the best kernels from the 
 best ears for use in the breeding field another year, the farmer can soon 
 breed up a corn perfectly adapted to his surroundings. 
 
 It used to be the idea and is often carried today, in selecting seed corn, 
 that a big ear with larg^e kernels was the nearest to perfection, but a great 
 variety of tests made by our best thinking corn growers have proven to me 
 conclusively that big ears may be least desirable. Seed of a variety which 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 89 
 
 have been grown on a rich soil for a number of years have acquired the habit 
 of using large quantities of plant food and developing large plants and large 
 ears out of this food. Now it is evident that if seed of this description is 
 planted on thin soil, it will exhaust the food supply in its effort to build a 
 larger plant for the larger ear which it is in the habit of growing and the re- 
 sult is, a crop giving a large yield of fodder and a small amount of grain. 
 The reverse is also true and seed from thin soil will reach the capacity of its 
 growth long before it has exhausted the soil and the result will be a smaller 
 yield than the soil is capable of producing. It should therefore be the ob- 
 ject of each farmer knowing as he ought to, his farm soil, and possibilities to 
 select such seed as may be adapted to it, and make his selection according. 
 I find many farmers who are growing on the same farm several varieties of 
 corn; this is all wrong as when this is done the corn will become mixed and 
 while the first year they may do fairly well this second planting will usually 
 be a sickly failure. Get first, what seems to you best, give it the best of cul- 
 tivation and attention. Secure with care your seed and you will surely do 
 yourself eood and by thus doing raise the standard of yield from year to year. 
 
 The Possibilities of Selection and Association 
 
 The following cut fully shows to what extent selection and cultivation can 
 do for our corn crop. Several years ago the writer found a stalk of corn 
 which attracted his attention by the strong growth of stalk and leaf on which 
 there were five medium ears of corn;from this stalk the best ear was selected 
 for an experiment for the following year, at which time this corn so selected 
 was planted in a small plat from which the stalk and tassel, which we show 
 you in above cut, was grown with two strong heavy ears, also shown in cut, 
 the strangest part of all. Upon this one stalk wa? the tassel, wnich you will 
 note by the cut, is very different from the ordinary tassel. 
 
 It had one hundred fully formed ears of corn, the husks were perfect in 
 shape as was the the cob which was fully covered with minature kernels, 
 even the silks being present, all, of course, of minature size. Had this stalk 
 of corn been grown in some section where the frost had not killed it so early we 
 would have had a better illustration of what nature may do with corn when 
 the right selection is made. Many will say this is only a corn freak; it may 
 be so, yet there were several other stalks in the same plat that bore the 
 same minature ears upon the tassels fully covered with husk. 
 
 From this we have a fair hint of what may be possible for man to occom- 
 plish with corn. Did it ever occur to you how closely the life and a prosper- 
 ity of corn is bound up and connected with man. And were man with his 
 thoughts and mind to be wiped from the earth and all conditions for growing 
 corn were left as now, corn could not survive him more than one year. Other 
 grains, grasses, fruits and vegetable would survive, not so with King corn. 
 
 Man by his magic touch has so transformed him that the human family 
 must be his associates and the finer and more prolific will be the varieties of 
 corn. It is but a few years, in fact, not further back than many that read 
 this article will remember, that the only corn had or being cultivated was 
 the little nubbiny, spotted, squaw, eight rowed corn. 
 
 But a few years since the man of thought began to study the possibilities 
 of improvement along this line may we then not look forward with great 
 confidence to a greater and grander improvement that will surely come with- 
 in the life time of the working, thinking, educated farmer of today. 
 
90 
 
 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 We find that in the study of corn growing- and the more intense farming 
 that the student who had once started on this subject never finds the place 
 at which to stop, but ends his time only as the stalk of corn; when its work is 
 
 finished the harvest is at hand, 
 passes from earth. 
 
 the frost has come, then he most happily 
 
 Laying Corn By 
 
 Some of the farmers in the corn-belt are beginhing- to appreciate the fact 
 that the old idea of "laying- the corn by" in early July and permitting it to 
 battle with the elements and work its own way to ndaturity without further 
 pursuing or assistance is a grave error. The past few seasons have many il- 
 lustrations of the value of latter cultivation which will be apparent. It is 
 not a question as to whether you should concede the correctness of some 
 other fellow's theory, but purely a business proposition. Will you leave the 
 field to take its chances or will you give it further protection, to the exent 
 of possibly 20 to 40 cents worth of labor per acre, with a poissible g-ain of not 
 only 10 to 20 bushels per acre, Tjut of a!' ^'ihuch better quiality? No matter 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 91 
 
 whether you wish to sell the corn or feed it, a perfectly matured crop is 
 worth much more per bushel. 
 
 With the unusual rainfall that we have had in May, June and early July, 
 and continued cool weather, we are quite likely to get hot, dry weather in 
 in the latter part of July and August. Damage is sure to come from two 
 sources should this prove true to any great extent — first, loss of moisture by 
 evaporation; second, the crusting of the surface or crusting beneath the 
 mulch, and shutting the air out of the soil, both of which can be prevented 
 by additional and later cultivation of the right kind, and especially is this 
 true and very important if a fairly heavy rain should come after your last 
 cultivation. 
 
 At this writing, now past the middle of July, our soils are full of mois- 
 ture, and the corn crop in a very healthy and rapidly growing condition. If 
 this moisture is conserved, and the surface of the moist soil kept from crust- 
 ing, an enormous crop of choice, well matured corn may be garnered. True, 
 the cultivation must now be done with a one-horse cultivator, and the driver 
 must walk behind it; this, to most farmers, looks like a slow and expensive 
 job; but stop — don't consider the part of labor and expense without con- 
 sidering the possible returns. 
 
 SOME MARVELOUS RETURNS 
 
 Mr. Arnold Martean of Pawnee county, Nebraska, raised 84 bushels of 
 fine, well finished corn per acre in 1893, while his neighbors got from 15 to 30 
 bushels'of low grade corn, due to the fact that they laid their corn by and 
 left it to worK out its own salvation while Mr. Martean put forth a little ef- 
 fort and saved fully 50 bushels of corn per acre that was lost to them. 
 
 Another man in Franklin county, Nebraska, in 1902, raised over (jO bushels 
 of choice corn per acre by going over his cofh two times after his neighbors 
 had laid their corn by. From this neglect they only got from 15 to 20 bushels 
 of very light, chafly corn. 
 
 Another very remarkable case was the result of an unintentional cultiva- 
 tion after a heavy rain in 1901. This was the year of extreme heat for a per- 
 iod of more than two months. In Fillmore county, on the 7th of July, cover- 
 ing a small district of country they had nearly four inches of rain. The man 
 referred to was about half through cultivating his corn, preparatory to lay- 
 ing it by, when this rain came, and as soon asthe ground Was sufficiently dry- 
 he cultivated the balance of the field. "When hUrvest ti&e came he was sur- 
 prised to find that he had from 15 to 18 bushels more corn per acre on the 
 land cultivated after the rain than from the part cuftivated before the rain'. 
 We could quote many similar results, but mis is enough t6 convince anyone 
 that there is much to be looked for from thi tiglit tithe, and' th^ right kind 
 of cultivation. * "^ , - . 
 
 . ;, .some: REASONS,, |VHY^, , 
 
 We fully appreciate the fact that:it.^,i^^,vnpt sufficie^l^^ that a nji^aii should 
 know what to do, but he should kqctw w.fey hedoes it. - *.»?'■ 
 
 Air and water are two principal, elements^ngcess^^y for healthy and pro- 
 lific plant growth and development. Now with the ground so full of moisture 
 and corn in a very fine, healthy condition, ,|t*^uds every man in hand to see 
 that he does all he can to reach the hig^hest possible yield. When we come 
 to realize that with a firm' surface, as lefT 'after a raiti, ^that as high ks one 
 and a half quarts of water will be'lifteatdtlieWr^ce l^Saplflary attraction 
 
92 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 and lost by evaporation from a square foot of soil in a sing^le day, and even 
 as high as two quarts during such conditions with high wind and high tem- 
 perature such as prevailed generally in July, we are then in position to seek 
 the remedy. When we come to realize that with the soil loosened and made 
 fairly fin^, to a depth of three inches, would lose but a vei^ small per cent of 
 this amount, and but vt ry little would get away, why should we not try at 
 least a small piece for comparison? The experiment will be very valuable in 
 two ways — first, it will add bushels to your corn crop; second, it will prove 
 the correctness of this principle. 
 
 REGULATE THE AIR 
 
 Air in the s6il is a very important element; shut it out to some degree 
 and you will see the plant begin at once to turn yellow and cease, to a great 
 clc£Tee, to grow, no matter how abundant the moisture may be. 
 
 One of the most marked illustrations of this fact was taught out on the 
 Burlington model farm in 1903. For several previous years this land had 
 been put to small grain by simply disking. The fire guards had been plowed 
 parallel with the railroad, which ran angling through the field. This ground 
 was i;lowed in the spring of 1903 fully six inches deep, packed and harrowed 
 and sowed to oats; as the work was pretty thoroughly done the field looked to 
 be level. When the oats were about six inches high there was a sudden and 
 heavy rain of about two inches, which resulted in settling the surface very 
 firm. As soon as the surface was dry enough to permit, we harrowed the 
 field with a combined weeder and harrow. Then followed eleven days of hot, 
 dry weather, at the end of which we chanced to notice a peculiar and very 
 interesting condition. Running parallel with the road were streaks of light 
 green colored oats, and darker green color. Close investigation showed that 
 the light green streaks were the result of the open furrows, left by plowing 
 the fire guards. The rain had settled the field so there was a slight depression, 
 and in harrowing the field the teeth passed over, leaving a packed, crusted 
 surface, which had shut out the air; the leaves were narrower, shorter stalks 
 and lighter color, while the back furrow was higher aad the harrow teeth had 
 cut deeper, loosening the soil more fully. 
 
 There was a narrow strip of oats, with taller coarser stalk, wider and 
 longer leaf, and a darker color. To nothing can we attribute this except the 
 increase of air in the soil where the harrow cut deepest and a decrease where 
 the surface was not loosened. We have noted several similar conditions 
 with correspondin? results, all of which point to the importance and value of 
 watching and handling the soil in your cornfields until the corn is made. 
 
 Never use the expression again — that of "laying the corn by." It's a 
 bad idea to get into the minds oi the corn growers that the growing corn 
 crop can be advantaged by stopping its cultivation, and this when it gets 
 shoulder high or thereabouts. 
 
 Let the thinking farmer next year test this matter fully by selecting an 
 acre or more, at the time he lays by his field, put a one-horse cultivator into 
 it, keep it going until the corn is glased, and note the increase. He will find 
 that in that cultivation he made his easiest money. — Kebraslca Farmer. 
 
 The Harrow in the Cornfield. 
 
 So much has been said in recent years In the agricultural press on the 
 above topic that it ii difficult to add anything new. On account of the differ- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 93 
 
 ent circumstances and conditions, it is impossible to lay down any one rule by 
 which the farmer can safely be gfuided in the use of the harrow. His own 
 past experience, if he has had any in this direction, will probably be his safest 
 gfuide. Nevertheless it is worth while to point out the objects which the far- 
 mer may have in view, or rather the condition in the corn field which he 
 should desire, and which are essential to his greatest success, and then he 
 can determine whether these conditions can be better secured by the use of 
 the harrow or by some other implement. 
 
 A g-ood seed bed having- been prepared and planted in due time with good 
 seed, what next does the farmer desire? He wishes the corn to have the free 
 use of every square inch of that field; he wishes freedom from weeds; he 
 wishes to utilize the moisture held in reserve in the subsoil for the best pos- 
 sible growth of the crop for the next ninety days. How can he best gain 
 these three points, each of which is essential to the growth of a first class 
 crop of corn? 
 
 "What may happen to prevent it? Several things. A soaking rain may 
 happen followed by a hot sun. T^his will not interfere very much with the 
 growth of the weeds, but on heavy lands it may form a crust and prevent the 
 more tender corn from pushing itself into the sunlight. If there is nothing 
 done, the weeds may attain such a hold that it may not be easy to eradicate 
 them by surface culture, and with anything else than shallow culture he may 
 not be able to secure the mulch of dry dirt so essential to the utilizing in the 
 most complete way of the stored water. 
 
 In view of these contingencies, which are very likely to occur, our pref- 
 erence would be to immediately follow the corn planter with a shov^el plow 
 cultivator, or disc, and give very deep cultivation before the corn appears, 
 running as close as possible to the drill or planter marks without disturbing 
 the corn and thus bury what weeds have already sprouted and securing deep 
 cultivation at the start. We would then follow witb the harrow and harrow 
 right along, first crosswise until the corn was up and keep on harrowing so 
 long as the ground was in fine condition and no damage was done to the young 
 plants, using of course, a light slanting toothed harrow. It is not necessary 
 to say that we would under no condition use the harrow on very wet land for 
 the reason that it would not kill the weeds nor would it better th'? condition 
 of the land; neither would it promote mulcb. We would wait until the ground 
 was drying oft', then would not harrow late in the evening for the reason that 
 there would not be enough sun heat to kill the weeds; nor would we care to 
 harrow on a cloudy day. 
 
 Just how long the harrow can be used depends on circumstances. When 
 the corn is a couple of inches high, it is not advisable to harrow very early 
 in the morning as there is more breakage before th^t sun t ughens the leaves 
 and blades. When the conditions are all right, the sun warm and the ground 
 dry, one may apparently do a great deal of damage with the harrow and yet 
 at the same time do the corn great benefit. The beauty of harrowing is that 
 it enables you to get close to the stalks, even rak'ng through the hills if the 
 harrow be light enough an-l slanting toothed, thus thoroughly breaking up 
 the crust and at the same time killing all the weeds. 
 
 Under conditions where it is possible to use the harrow thus effectively 
 corn needs but comparatively little work afterwards, providing it has had 
 deep cultivation between the rows to begin with. About all that is necessary 
 afterwards is to create the dust mulch in order to conserve moisture, and this 
 
94 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 cannot be done without killing the weeds. Shallow cultivation without any 
 kind of implement then becomes pr3.cticable. If the weeds are allowed to 
 become deep rooted, the deep cultivatiop, m,ust be adopted, and this necessar- 
 ily involves root pruning which, however, is not advisable in the Mississippi 
 Valley. , , 
 
 Once more we call the attention of our readers to the fact that a dust 
 mulch of two or three laches shuts off to a great extent the evaporation of 
 the water and utilizes the main bulk of the stored water in growing a crop of 
 corn. This must be done if we are to get the very best results. It is not pos- 
 sible for any man to grow a good crop of corn with the average rainfall, alone' 
 of the Mississippi Valley. A good crop can be grown only by using the water 
 stored in the subsoil and to utilize this we must have resource to the mulch of 
 dry dirt formed wherever you, have surface cultivation following a well pre- 
 pared seed bed and deep cultivation before thecorn is up. Keeping these 
 points in mind, which need only be stated to win the approval of every read, 
 er, the farmer can determine for himself when to use the harrow and when to 
 let it alone. ' 
 
 Our riethod of Corn Cultivation. 
 
 We are receiving communications very often asking many questions in 
 regard to our views on all subjects pertaining to corn growing. Our manner 
 of planting and cultivation, the different tools we use upon our farm, the 
 number of times that we cultivate Qur corn and what time it is best to lay 
 our corn by, etc. In a former communication we have given answer in a 
 general way to many of these questions but just now in our latitude the 
 planting of corn is the one which is the thought of our farmer friends and is 
 foremost in their mind. We will give you what seems best to us on our seed 
 corn growing farm. I wish if it were possible that our ground might have 
 been fall plowed. The ground has been left as rough as possible. At spring- 
 time it would have been so thoroughly frozen up that many of the worms and 
 insects would have perished and the soil wou'd have been given new life for 
 the coming year but if we are to plant upon ground not fall plowed we would 
 start the stalk cutter as soon as the stalks are fully dried and do the best job 
 possible and follow this with the stalk rake burning at once all such trash as 
 we may gather. This we would follow as soon as convenient with the disc as 
 this will so fix the ground that most of the weed seeds still left will very soon 
 germinate and grow; then comes the best opportunity that you will have at 
 any time for killing the great crop of weeds which are sure to spring up. 
 This may be done with the drag, the weeder or any other light cultivator. 
 Our next operation is to start the lister making our rows as straight as pos- 
 sible having it deep into the ground but not planting the corn. This we 
 would follow with a high wheeled corn planter, dropping thecorn if possible 
 to the average of three in a hill on high ground, four on rich land, using the 
 check row. 
 
 In this manner of planting you derive the advantage of both methods of 
 planting, to-wit: the planter, the check row and the lister system and by 
 this method your corn is in the ground in shape that it may be easily tended 
 in both directions. Our first cultivation would be with the two-rowed cultiva- 
 tor following in the lister rows as with listed corn filling in the rows of corn 
 covering the roots over far down in the ground and giving the stalks better 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 95 
 
 protection, from being" hurt by the root louse or the wire worm and of the ad- 
 vantage of cultivating- both ways. After making two plowings with the 
 double-rowed disk cultivator we turn and cross this with the Eagle Claw 
 which leaves the ground smooth and level. For ten years this has been our 
 method of cultivating and it has done us good. I have stated in a former 
 communication that I have two sets of implements which I use, the two- 
 rowed cultivator being the first and the Eagle Claw the second, although any 
 of the small shovel cultivators may do as well. We find that when our ground 
 is leveled up we may use the weeder with great success as one horse and man 
 will be able to go over at least 20 acres per day. This leaves the ground in 
 fine shape. Oar custom is to keep this cultivation up with the Eagle Claw 
 and weeder as .long as we can work the corn witout injury. Do not quit be- 
 cause your neighbors do or because the 4th of July has arrived, as each plow- 
 ing after these dates bring you many bushels of finely matured corn. Do not 
 forget that eternal vigilence and intelligence and hard work makes a bounti- 
 ful crop. Among the very best surface cultivator is the Eagle Claw. This 
 is one of the first gotten our for this worn and has always kept at the head 
 of the procession. I have two different makes of weeders, both good. One 
 thing I wish to say to all interested, don't be in a hurry as to planting your 
 corn. You can do better work for your crop by thoroughly pulverizing the 
 soil and getting you'- seed bed in such shape that when you do plant there 
 will, if the weather be favorable, be nothing to stop the germination or 
 growth of your corn. ■ . 
 
 Corn Breeding Or Selection. 
 
 Twenty-five years ago we started the study of corn with the view of the 
 possibility of getting a larger ear, stronger stalk, a greater amount of foli- 
 age, a more prolific bearer and a greater amount of feeding value and today 
 looking back over those years of study and experiment we can hardly realize 
 the great progress we have made in this direction. Our first venture along 
 this line being with corn grown in central Illinois and taken to northern 
 Michigan. The wonderful growth of the foliage, stalk and corn was the talk 
 of those who saw it, and was convincing proof to me that there was a great 
 possibility along this line brought out by this little experiment. Our study 
 years ago, as many of the readers of this paper will remember gave our efforts 
 and the Early Yellow Rose, corn much notoriety but such things only prompted 
 us to greater efforts until our corn was given first place at the Experimental 
 and Testing Station at Ames, Iowa, and when we were informed by letter 
 from Secretary Wilson t. en in charge of the Agricultural Station that our 
 corn had made the wonderful yield of 90 bushels per acre and had shelled 62^ 
 pounds from 70 pounds of ears whxh beat all competitors we realized as never 
 before that our efforts were not in vain and that we were on the right track, 
 that in fact we were doing the world and the farmers good although our 
 enthusiasm was slightly chilled when we in our honest way showed the letter 
 to a farmer friend he very cooly asked what we paid for such a recommenda- 
 tion, and well do I remember the answer given to him at that time, "There 
 are some things that can be bought but no such letter of recommendation 
 could be bought from Secretary Wilson who wrote the letter." Soon after 
 this one of the most progressive farmers who had bought his seed from me 
 and who had grown a wonderful fine crop of one hundred acres or more said 
 he was feeding several car loads of cattle and weighing them every week so 
 
96 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 as to know just the amount of grain they were making- from each bushel of 
 corn and he found that when he stopped feeding our variety of corn and 
 commenced feeding corn bought promiscuously from the surrounding farmers 
 his cattle lost fully twenty-five per cent of the gain that they were making 
 when feeding upon our corn. This was positive proof to me that our corn 
 which had been awarded 7 pounds more weight of shelled corn per bushel than 
 other varieties was the corn that would lead the world. We were not theorists, 
 no scientists, but were working on honest undisputed proof from facts. Soon 
 the Experimental and Testing Stations commenced work along the line that 
 we had been following for years. The subject of selecting and improving 
 corn with a view to securing the largest amount of gain has begun to take 
 hold of the mind of the farmer only in the last year or two. In two or three 
 years more farmers will all be thinking on the subject and then we may ex- 
 pect progress at a very rapid rate. When a country is new and the mind of 
 the farmer is intent on paying for his farm and erecting suitable buildings, 
 cattle are just cattle, hogs are just hogs and corn is simply corn. But when 
 the stock breeding has been established on a firm basis, we begin to have im- 
 proved cattle, improved hogs, improved sheep, and improved corn. 
 
 The farmer begins to realize that there is corn and corn and that some 
 seed corn is worth a great deal more than others in the same way that he has 
 realized tbat there are cattle and cattle and some breeding cattle are worth 
 many times as much as others. 
 
 The object in breeding corn, is to secure a type of stalk and ear suitable 
 to the district in which it is grown. Similarly the object of the farmer in 
 breeding cattle is to secure a type adapted to his environment and to the 
 market. Why grow eight rowed corn such as the Indians grew on a farm 
 that will grow twelve, fourteen or sixteen? Why grow this last on farms 
 that will grow eighteen, twenty or twenty-four? Why grow an ear eight 
 inches long when the land will produce a ten inch ear or even better? 
 
 There are many things involved in the breeding of corn besides the shape, 
 the circumference and the length of the ear. Why grow corn that has 30 
 per cent of barren stalks when by careful breeding a variety can be developed 
 that has ten percent, five per cent or even less? The bre ding of corn in- 
 volves a careful study of this question; what is tt-e cause of barren stalks? 
 It is too thick planting or some injury to tne stalk or uafavorab'e conditions 
 under which the ear cannot develop? Or it is in addition to this a particular 
 kind of corn mixed with the seed which under no ci-^cumstances would pro- 
 duce an ear but the pollen of which fallin^r upon fertile stalks will produce 
 grain which under no circumstances would proluce a bearing stalk in the 
 future? We do not regard this paint as altog^ethar settle 1 bat it is worthy 
 of the most careful study. It is a fact that the original of the corn was ear- 
 less and produced grain on the tassel as it sometimes does now on suckers 
 but in a long slow process of evolution and not yet entirely completed, a bar- 
 ren stalk is the result. 
 
 That we have for years been trying to solve by cutting out all barren 
 stalks and planting only such corn as is produced by strong healthy stalks 
 and bearing fully matured ears that are finely covered at both butt and tip 
 which produces a variety which under proper cultivation produces an ear or 
 more for every stalk. 
 
 All breeding whether of cattle or corn, must take into consideration the 
 environment. Hence corn breeding is most intimately connected with corn 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 97 
 
 growing. There can be no successful breeding without the very best kind of 
 culture as there can be no successful breeding of live stalk without the most 
 careful breeding. The most highly bred corn if poorly cultivated in a bad 
 season will produce inferior corn, the merit of it however, being that it will 
 do better under unfavorable circumstances than corn not properly bred. In 
 fact, the breeding of corn or any other grain must proceed along the lines 
 already well established in live stock breeding, and the same mistakes will 
 occur. 
 
 Any number of farmers will be taken with the cross craze in corn breed- 
 ing just as they have been with live stock breeding and will meet with the 
 same disappointments. Other men will think that everything is in the breed 
 and neglect the cultivation. Still others will not take advantage ol: breed- 
 ing but like the man who believes in corn-crib cross will say that the breed- 
 ing goes in at the mouth and that rich land makes big corn no matter what 
 kind is planted. 
 
 Nevertheless the breeding of seed corn will proceed. The subject has 
 taken full posession of the best informed and thinking men along this line 
 and the farmer who buys his seed corn has learned the fact that the intelli- 
 gent, thinking man, who is making corn his life study will be more apt to 
 bring out and place before the people not only corn that will grow, > ut will 
 combine length of kernel the per cent of corn as compared to cob, the keep- 
 ing quality, the time of maturit}^, the amount of foliage, the per cent of 
 barren stalks and many other questions that make 6r mar the desirability of 
 each variety. 
 
 Adapting Corn Varieties 
 
 We are always learning something new about the corn plant. One thing, 
 new at least to a good many students of the corn plant, is that corn varieties 
 differ so greatly in their characteristics that success or failure with corn de- 
 pends on the selection of the right varieties for certain fields. It is not un- 
 usual to hear of a man declaring that the variety of corn he grows is one of 
 the most profitable in the world, will give mo^t astonishing yi- Ids. The fact 
 is that lie is growing it on a location that is admirably suited to it. We are 
 now coming to have varieties of corn adapted to uplands and to lowlands, to 
 rich land and to poor land and it may soon be that we may add taat variety 
 adapted to the thor ugh worker and the slipshod farmer, but thus far it has 
 been fully demonstrated that those varieties grown on rich bottom land for 
 a length of time will not do nearly so well when changed to hii'her and thin- 
 ner soil until they have fully adapted them-elves to the great change so that 
 it is oftea the case that two farmers in the same neighborhood may buy seed 
 corn from the sime grower, one have a fihe crop to matue early, bearing 
 large, fine, sound, heavy ears,' while the neisfhbors get very unsatisfactory 
 and light chatiy corn, the one saj's, "my failure is from the fact that my 
 seed was not acclimateo" while the neighbors think the acclimat on was just 
 right but in our judgment the adaptability of the corn was wrong, as one had 
 a hill farm and the other a bottom farm, hence the great difference. 
 
 The lowland variety may do very well on the upland in a wet year, but in 
 a dry year proves almost a failure, while the variety adapted to the upland 
 yields well even in bad seasons. At the present time this differentiation is 
 only beginning to be made. During this summer corn growers would do well 
 to watch the behavior of corn on lowlands and uplands. At the present time 
 
BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 we have only very meag'er data by which to figure out what kind of corn a 
 man should select for the bottom lands and what kind for the uplands. Some 
 of our experimenters are only now just beginning- to study the corn plant 
 from this standpoint. We have, however, much to hope for from our agri- 
 cultural colleges in this matter. The students are taking great interest in 
 such matters and are taking up every phase of corn growing. This study of 
 varieties is one that may well engross the attention of some of the brightest 
 minds. 
 
 The above is very good and yet the man who has by association learned 
 the various different varieties of corn is fully aware that the large heavy 
 eared variety, such as require a long season and great quantities of plant 
 food, must necessarily be cut short of the same when put on hilly light soil, 
 while the same land will grow fairly well the smaller and quicker growing 
 varieties. 
 
 The Farm Boy Who Aspires to be A Farm Manager 
 
 True leadership is a rare quality. Few men possess it. A successful 
 farm manager is a man who is a leader and organizer of men; a leader of 
 thought along agricultural lines; a leader in accepting and putting into 
 practice new agricultural truths which are almost certain to increase the 
 profits of the farm, writes W. H. Stevenson in Wallace's Farmer. There, 
 fore, the young man who aspires to prepare himself for a farm manager- 
 whether the farm is to be his own or another's, aspires to reach a goal which 
 is worthy of the most earnest effort, persistent work and years of self-denial, 
 for we believe that his reward will be ample, not only in a financial way, biit 
 also in the consciousness of a life well spent amid the surroundings which 
 usually tend to bring to their best development a man's mental, moral and 
 physical qualities. 
 
 The farm boy of today who accepts farm management as his chosen line 
 of work, enters a field of endeavor which calls for the very best there is in 
 him. He caaaot aff jrd to miss a single opportunity to gain experience 
 and acquire scientific knowledge which pertains to the widely diversified 
 facts which will always stand as all important factors in his work. 
 
 Valuable experience regarding many practical subjects can be gained on 
 the farm, where the young man comes face to face with certain problems 
 day by day, but that more fundamental strength which springs from scien- 
 tific knowledge can best and most easily be acquired in these latter days in 
 our agricultural colleges. We have ample proof for this statement in the 
 splendid records made by young men in all parts of our country. Almost 
 without exception, where we find an agricultural college graduate in a farm- 
 ing community there we find a man who is doing something of real merit not 
 only to better his own condition, but also to lead his neighbors to fuller ap- 
 preciation of the pressing need for better methods and greater knowledge 
 regarding their farm work. Atid who can measure the value to any com- 
 munity of a leavening element at once so potent and helpful? 
 
 The young man who is to take charge of a farm needs this larger train- 
 ing because a new agriculture is dawning; an agriculture with more numer- 
 ous and complex problems; an agriculture which .demands that hand work 
 must be combined with head work; an agriculture which will not give a boun- 
 tiful return to the man who knows only how to plow, harrow, reap and sow 
 but an agriculture which will abundantly bless the one who brings to his as- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 99 
 
 sistance every resource of a fertile brain as well as a skilled hand. This is 
 true in part because the virg'in fertility which nature so lavishly bestowed is 
 rapidly showing- the effect of a system of husbandry which has been character- 
 ized in many instances by reckless expenditure of soil fertility. These soils, 
 though cropped continuously, have not been so exhausted but that intelli- 
 gent, scientific care will make them profitable for ages to come. 
 
 But just this one phase of farm management, if carried to a successful 
 issue, will require clear thinking and much study. In addition, diversified 
 crop production, physical soil conditions, and rotation must be studied, and 
 the intelligent and successful management of a herd of improved live stock 
 requires skill of an exceedingly high order. These, in brief, are the condi- 
 tions which necessitate trained brains and trained hands. Therefore, be- 
 cause there are on the farm so many complex problems for solution — prob- 
 lems which tax every resource of even the best equipped men — how import- 
 ant it is that our young farm manager give his time and strength to lay 
 broad and deep the foundations of his agricultural education. 
 
 Grant that the young man has a good general education; that it is his 
 good fortune to have a scientific agricultural training and a goodly fund of 
 practical experience, but if he has these and has not qualities of a business 
 man his most earnest efforts cannot wrest success from the unfavorable con- 
 ditions which will confront him on every side. Every successful farm man- 
 ager emphasizes again and again the fact that he really knows the business 
 methods, practices business methods and is business-like. It is the business 
 farmer of today who is able to sort over the scientific and theoretical facts 
 which are given to the world — pick out the practical and valuable and apply 
 them in a business-like way to the business of farming. The successful far- 
 mer of today is a business man because the conditions of his work make it 
 absolutely necessary; he is a farmer because he chooses to be. He is success- 
 ful in proportion as he brings business methods to bear upon his every trans- 
 accion. Recall, if you can, a present day successful farm manager upon his 
 forty acres or upon a priacely estate who is not a business man. 
 
 This fact did not carry in many sections the same weight more than half 
 a century ago; then the farmer accumulated money and added to his acres 
 year after year more because of favorable circumstances than because of any 
 particular business ability which he possessed. Then vague business meth- 
 ods were in vogue amung the early settlers in many sections; little money 
 was in circulation and barter was the principal means of exchange. In those 
 days the wants of a farmer's family were few — the means for meeting them 
 perhaps were even fewer. But today things are changed, the farmer and 
 his family live in a luxurious age, and luxury, we must remember, always 
 costs money. Therefore, if the farm manager is to meet the larger demands 
 made upon the land for increased profits he must depend for success upon 
 the practice of methods which have made the great commercial enterprises 
 of the country successful. Certainly broad-gauged comprehensive business 
 methods were the underlying factors which made for the success of these 
 enterprises. 
 
 The farm manager needs a liberal scientific education, business training 
 and ability. Does he not also need in a full measure that peculiar gift which 
 we sometimes call good judgment? It is a characteristic not easy to des- 
 cribe, and yet how important it is; for good common sense, and good judg- 
 ment in applying it to the many and varied operations on the farm often 
 
100 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 measure a man's true worth as a farm manager. The young- man who is 
 striving- to fit himself for this work should ever be on the lookout to streng-th- 
 en his g-ood judgment. It is a rare possession. It is secured and strengthen- 
 ed by the exercise of the faculties of good common senwe, observation, tact 
 and experience. It cannot be obtained dishonestly; it will not be used inju- 
 diciously. Good judgment will aid the farm manager to systematize his work. 
 System above all things must be the way to success en the farm. It is the 
 secret ot great business success. In very few lines of business, however, are 
 there as many disturbing elements which interfere with nicely laid plans as 
 in farming operations. The manager may plyn the work with consummate 
 skill but atmospheric changes and the pressing demands of various crops at 
 the sapie time often bring confusion and disorder to even the most carefully 
 regulated establishment. Therefore, to meet these emergencies, the man- 
 ager must do consid rable thinking and wise planning, and just here is where 
 his gocd judgment will serve bim well, for all too often conditions are such as 
 to compel him to cut loose from precedent and grope along into new and un- 
 tried ways. The way must be rugged acd a'most blocked at times with un- 
 expected obstacles, but intelligent effort based on coalmen sense and good 
 judgment is a powerful lever with which to remove these hindrances. He 
 who wisely' uses this lever leads his own business en to victory and success. 
 
 Our successful farm manager will master bookkeeping. The business on 
 a majority of farms cbnsists of several departments The business man 
 makes use of his set of books in many ways, but in none so much as to learn 
 just what departments of his business are making or losing money. Is it not 
 essential that the farmer do the same thing? Bookkeeping is a lighthouse 
 to the business man: it will as unfailing guide the farmer past many a shoal 
 and breaker and often enable him to reach a harbor of safety which might 
 otherwise be unknown to him. A simple system oi bookkeeping not only 
 will be a source of satisfaction to the farmer but will also prove financially 
 profitable. Wou'd it not be helpful for him to know, as nearly as the actual 
 cost could be approximated, the amount expended in producing a certain 
 field of corn, wheat, oats or hay; to know what i.t cost to raise his calves and 
 yearlings and fit his stock for the markets; just how much it costs to keep 
 his milk cows a year; what his machinery, help, repairs, incidental expenses, 
 etc, cost. A knowledge of these points will enable him to really know his 
 own affairs and be master of them; without this knowledge it is not easy for 
 him to discover the leaks and ev n mighty apertures through which the 
 floods of hard times, low prices and poor crops carry the profits and gains. 
 
 Again, the youi:ig man who aspires to be a farm manager will endeavor 
 to be a careful man. Care is a mighty safeguard against many a loss, many 
 a catastrophe; carelessness is a withering blight that dwarfs and destroys- 
 everything within the range of its influence. 
 
 The conclusion of the matter is this: The thoughtful young man on the 
 farm who is planning to make farming his life work will earnestly endeavor 
 during his days of preparation to build into his life and character those ele- 
 ments of strength which will prepare him to meet with assuranee and ability 
 the problems and perplexities which in the fullness of time will unfailingly 
 meet him face to face on the farm. — If'itlUice's Fanner. 
 
 What Is The Farm? 
 
 The farm is a factory for converting the inert mineral matters of the 
 
BY J. B ARMSTRONG 101 
 
 soil and the elements of the air into food products for either man or beast. 
 The hijjhest type of these factories are those which turn out only the 
 finished product. Why not have all our farm factoiies of this type? Why 
 not turn this material into beef, mutton, pork, butter, egg?, etc., etc., before 
 they leave the farm where this transformation was begun? 
 
 The farmer is the one who is most competent to run such a factory. 
 There are no complicated engines necessary, no hired, skilled laborers or en- 
 gineers. Instead of this a good sound judgment, a practical man — one who 
 at least enjoys his calling, who knows a good horse, cow, hog or sheep and 
 who enjoys dealing with nature. To such I wish to say: It requires only about 
 twelve pounds of feed to make a pound of butter. Why not condense your 
 results into products of this kind and save the freight on all that extra bulk? 
 If the man at the other end of the line can buy your grain and rough feed 
 and make money by the operation after paying all this freight surely the 
 farmers can find still greater profit in feeding these foods where they are 
 grown. Every pound of grain and roughage produced in this middle West 
 should be fed right here where it is grown. 
 
 Not only would this practice insure greater immediate return, but it 
 would also insure a continuance of the producing powers of our lands. Our 
 section of the country has been especially favored in its natural endowment 
 of soils and climatic conditions, but nevertheless it is only a question of time 
 when wasteful or improper methods will produce the conditions now found in 
 the East, where hu.dreds of farms have been abandoned because the occu- 
 pants could no longer make a living on them. There are a very large num- 
 ber of farms in this section that have had their productive capacity very 
 greatly reduced already. 
 
 In days past it was talked that our rich prairies could stand the soil rob- 
 bing process for any length of time, but many farmers are learning by sad 
 experience that their day of judgment is fast coming and if they are to pre- 
 serve their beautiful homes and solid bank accounts they must return to the 
 farm the amount of fertilage that rightly belongs to it, or soon the lock will 
 be fastened and the account closed, until such methods are adopted as shall 
 bring to our lands the richness which once was there. And there is no better 
 and quicker way to get the knowledge required than to read some of the best 
 farm papers, using your own best judgment as to your own farm or factory. 
 But on one point do not forget the best of all kinds of seeds and stock. Give 
 them the care they need in an intelligent way and your bank account will 
 grow and your factory pay forever. 
 
 The Farmer Waking Up 
 
 He sees object lessons in the improved crops of his neighbors, in the fine 
 bred horses he is driving as he takes his family to town, before the fine new 
 carriage that he has just got, and he begins to wonder how he can afford so 
 fine a rig. He begins to think and observe and soon concludes there is some- 
 thing worth knowing and doing that he has not yet acquired. We trust that 
 many such will now read the ideas advanced of those who are leaders in this 
 direction, and the readers of reliable farm journals where in their best judg- 
 ment it would seem possible for them to do. But a few years ago, we knew of 
 a certain young lady who was presented with a fine watch, but to her great 
 mortification and distress it would not run, and on taking it to the jeweler he 
 informed her that it had not been wound and consequently in that condition 
 
102 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 could not run. What was the trouble? Merely this: she had turned the 
 stem the wrong- way, and that was all that was wrong- with the beautiful 
 watch, and this is the trouble with a great many things along the agricultu- 
 ral lines, they are not started in the right way and never will go until they 
 are star ted right. Land will improve itself if left alone, but nature's pro- 
 cess is so slow that its owner will never get any good from it. He will have 
 to start it and keep it wound up if it makes him anything. Thousands of 
 men know better than they do simply because they have never been wound 
 up and started. They read with great pleasure the improved methods of do- 
 ing things, they are wonderfully interested in the fine development of agri- 
 cultural implements and of science in regard to their business but they get 
 no practical good from them because they never make a start. It is easy to 
 get in the habit of thinking that all these discoveries and methods are for 
 the so called advanced scientific or fancy farmers only. But I assure you 
 they are not; they are for everyone and it is surprising how simple some of 
 them are, how easy it is to get them and how much good they will do after 
 one gets started. The time has now arrived when the common farmer must 
 be what we term up-to-date. In this we mean the one who has learned to 
 grow such crops and animals as will sell for the highest prices, such as will 
 pay the interest on our hundred dollar land instead of as formerly on ten. 
 This may be done, in fact is being done. New ideas, tools, seeds and methods. 
 The old is past, the new is here, strive to lead the procession and others will 
 follow. 
 
 An Article of Qreat Interest to All 
 
 DOES IT PAY TO SPRAY POTATOES? 
 
 Does it pay to spray potatoes? is the question which is asked by growers 
 of that universal vegetable, and as for a vast majority of them the question 
 remains unanswered, while each season the problem becomes more pressing. 
 The experiment stations of New York and Maine have of late years giyen 
 large attention to this subject, and the answer of both stations to the query 
 is emphatically in the affirmative. The New York station (Geneva) recently 
 has issued a bulletin on the subject, prepared by Profs. Hall, Eustace, Stew- 
 art and Sirrine, which is so timely that we make generous extracts from its 
 pages. And for the photograph from which the illustration of the simple 
 but effctive sprayer herewith is produced we acknowledge obligations to 
 Prof. Hall. The illustration shows just how the work is done in the exper- 
 ience conducted on the farm at West Rush and suggests to any "handy' *" 
 farmer how to make one out of materials at hand or very easy to secure. 
 
 The experiments made were taken up as a result of the tremendous losses 
 suffered from the ravages of late blight. A conservative estimate, says the 
 bulletin, places the loss during 1903, in New York state, from preventable 
 diseases at fifty bushels per acre; for in maay districts the crop was hardly 
 worth digging, and, so far as known, there were no considerable areas where 
 diseases did not do more or less injury. These figures indicate a loss to the 
 state, largely unnecessary, of nearly $10,000,000; for the area devoted to po- 
 tatoes in recent years has been about 400,000 acres, and the average value of 
 late potatoes at harvesting time this season was about 50 cents a bushel. 
 
 Experiments made last year at the station and at Riverhead, Long Is- 
 land, confirmed the belief held by all students of potato diseases that spray- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 103 
 
 ing- with bordeaux mixture will prevent most of this loss; and tests made dur- 
 ing" the past season at the same places and at six other localities in the state 
 lend most emphatic support to the belief. The potato grower who sprays 
 thoroughly every year insures his crop ag"ainst serious damage from blight 
 and rot, and in a season when disease is epidemic will make enough profit to 
 repay the cost of treatment for many years. For example, the gain from 
 spraying at Geneva in 1902 was 123 bushels per acre and in 1903, 118 bushels a 
 gain for the two seasons, at the lowest allowable figure, $1 a barrel for pota- 
 toes, of $80. Allowing each application of the spray mixture to cost $1 per 
 acre, a very liberal estimate, this profit would allow the station to spray po- 
 tatoes for thirteen years, making six applications each year, and come out 
 even if no further damage from blight should occur. Is there any potato- 
 grower who believes that thirteen years will elapse before blight again 
 strikes the potato crop of the state? 
 
 To meet the objection that the tests made in 1902 on the station grounds 
 were too limited fairly to determine the effectiveness of spraying, arrange- 
 ments were made with six farmers scattered over the state, who co-operated 
 with the stations in the tests, three near Phelps, from six to eight miles from 
 Geneva, one at Southampton, on Long Island, one at West Rush in the Gene- 
 sse valley, south of Rochester, and one at Charlotte, north of Rochester. 
 Each grower was to give the crop only such conditions, culture and care as 
 he would ordinarily; to spray as often as he thought bes*-, using his own mix- 
 tures, apparatus and methods, and to keep an itemized account of the ex. 
 pense of spraying. The station merely required that a portion of the field 
 fairly representative of the whole be left unsprayed and the product weighed 
 for comparison with the yield on an adjacent acre of sprayed rows. 
 
 On the total area of 61 1 6 acres sprayed in the six experiments in differ- 
 ent parts of the state, there was a total increase in yield of 3,746 bushels, or 
 an average of 61.24 bushels per acre. At 50 cents per bushel the increase was 
 worth $1,873. Subtracting from this amount the total expense of the spray- 
 ing, $296.49, there is a remainder of $1,576.51, which is the total net profit. 
 This is at the rate of $25. 77 per acre. 
 
 The authors of the bulletin point out that some farmers report failure 
 and are inclined to condemn the practice of spraying, but they declare that 
 the disappointment is largely due to two preventable sources of failure. BMrst) 
 it is necessary to spray at the right tim^- Spraying is a preventive of plant 
 diseases, not a cure; and if treatment be delayed until signs of damage begin 
 to appear but little good will be likely to result. When the leaves begin to 
 turn brown at the edges and curl up, the little plants which grow within the 
 potato leaves and stalks and cause the disease have already become thorough, 
 ly established inside the tissues and are out of reach of any spray mixture. 
 Though the foliage be thoroughly drenched with spray each day after this 
 time, the infected plants are certain to die quickly if weather conditions be 
 right. Spraying to be effective must be done before any signs of disease ap- 
 pear. 
 
 Second, it is necessary to spray thoroughly, for unless the entire surface 
 of the foliage be protected by a film of bordeaux mixture, some of the tiny 
 germs (or seeds) of the disease may find a spot on which to germinate and 
 from which to send their little tubes down into the tissues of the host plant. 
 In time of moist warm weather the potato is growing rapidly and new sur- 
 face is constantly being exposed. 
 
104 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 Make the bordeaux with g-ood stone lime slacked gradually by adding- just 
 enough water to keep it moist, not to flood it. When slaked, dilute with 
 one-third or one-half the water required by formula, and add the dissolved 
 copper su'ph ite diluted with the rest of the water. The common formula 
 for bordeaux for potato spraying is 6 lbs. copper sulphate, 4 lbs. fresh stone 
 lime, and 50 gallons of water. 
 
 For poisoning the bugs add to the amount of the mixture you will use in 
 coveriog one acre, one pouodof paris green or its equivalent in white arsenic 
 in the form of arsenite of lime. 
 
 This latter material is cheaper and better than paris green. It costs 
 abiut one-third as much per pound, and is equal in poisoning properties to 
 twic ' as much paris green. It requires some time and thought to prepare, 
 however. It is made and used as follows: Dissolve one pound of white arsenic 
 and f )ur pounds of salsoda ( washing- soda) in on gallon of water by boiling 15 
 or 20 minutes. This makes the stock solution, which can be bottled and kept 
 until desired for use. For spraying potatoes add two quarts of the stock so- 
 lution (one-half pound white arsenic) to the quantity of bordeaux required 
 to cover an acre. This is equivalent to an application of one pound of paris 
 green per acre. 
 
 In using the white arsenic stock solution with bordeaux mixture pre- 
 pared by the potassium ferrocyonide test it is always advisable to add lime 
 a little in excess of the amount required to satisfy the test in order to pre- 
 vent the possibility of injuring the foliage. In our experience it has not in- 
 jured the foliage in the least when used with bordeaux. If used in lime the 
 foliag-e will be injured. 
 
 Tmis bulletin is of direct advantage to the potato grower everywhere 
 But it may be of even larger value in its suggestion ard proof of the effect, 
 ivene-s of spraying in modifying the ravages of plant diseases. How great- 
 ly the nation suffers from these causes is indicated by a a report just issued 
 by the department of agriculture on ''Plant Diseases in 1903." This shows 
 that many mil ions of dollars were lost to agriculturists and horticulturists 
 in the United States and the island possessions in 1905 by plant diseases and 
 parasites. One of the largest items of loss was from potato blight and rot, 
 the ravages of which were particularly severe in New York, Pennsylvania, 
 Ohio, Michigan and Wisconsin. The cotton rot in Texas prevailed to a 
 greater extent than for many years before, the loss being estimated at $2,- 
 000,000. Rice blast has spread rapidly, and in the past six years the loss from 
 this cause has been $1,000,000. One comparatively small item in cucumber 
 downy rust, which in the trucking section near Charleston, S. C, alone cost 
 the truck farmers $100,000. Tomato blight and tomato rot in Porto Rico 
 caused the loss of almost the whole of these two crops. The ravages of black 
 rot in the grape were destructive, but the experts are receiving encourage- 
 ment i J their efforts to develope a vine that will resist. Of general interest 
 to the South is the rapid spread of the watermelon wilt. In Ottaway county, 
 Oaio, the loss from peach leaf curl was $50,000. Under such conditions there 
 can be no doubt that the use of the sprayer must become universal if the 
 American tiller of the soil is to save himself from destruction. Tibe ordinary 
 farmer has but to try any of the recommendations made and he will be so 
 thoroughly convinced of their reliability that he will very surely follow them 
 fully but from such authority and what you will find in the following from 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 105 
 
 the Agricultural Bureau at Washington will be fully convincing and if fol- 
 lowed mike you much money. 
 
 Potato Culture. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 This bulletin is not intended as a complete treatise on potato culture. 
 The discussion of varieties and manuring' has been merely touched upon, the 
 importance and intricacy of these subjects meriting- fuller treatment in a 
 separate publication. But special attention has been given to the most pro- 
 fitable amount of seed, and as factors in this question the proper distance 
 between seed pieces and other closely related subjects have been briefly 
 treated. Some other cultural questions have also been considered. In re- 
 gard to fuaguous diseases the reader is referred to Farmer's Bulletin No. 15 
 of this Department, "Some destructive potato diseases/" Methods of com- 
 bating insect enemies are treated in Farmer's Bulletin No. 19, "Important 
 insecticides." 
 
 The potato [Sulanum Tuberosum) is a native of America, though it is widely 
 known as the Irish potato because of its general use in Ireland Aside from 
 its universal cultivation in gardens it constitutes an important field crop 
 over the greater portion of the country. The value of the annual potato 
 crop of the United States is approximately $100,000,000. Yields of i.'^O or 300 
 bushels per acre are frequenclv obtained over large areas, and there are not 
 a few records of more than 500 bushels. These encouraging figures stand in 
 bold relief against those giving the average yield for the United States, 
 which is less than 100 bushels per acre. 
 
 SOIL AND ROTATION. 
 
 The potato is grown in every State and Territory, and naturally on a 
 great variety of soils. Indeed, it has been grown on nearly every class of 
 soils, but this fact does not minimize the importance of selecting for the 
 potato the Vind of soil best adapted to it. The ideal soil for this crop should 
 be one so light as to offer no great resistance to the enlargement of the 
 tubers, so applied with organic matter as to be rather moist without being 
 wet, and so rich as to furnish an unfailing supply of fertilizing ingredients. 
 A rich, sandy loam abundantly supplied with organic matter and naturally 
 well drained is preferable. Stiffer soils may be rendered suitable for the 
 potato by drainage and by the incorporation of farm manures; or better 
 by plowing under green erops. Very heavy clay should be avoided if the 
 farm contains any lighter soil. Recently cleared ground suits the potato. 
 Sandy soils, if not too subject to drought, may be fitted for this plant by the 
 addition of organic matter. It is claimed that potatoes grown on sandy land 
 are of better quality than those grown on stiffer soil. 
 
 The potato requires a rich goil, bat even more important than natural 
 fertility is a proper mechanical condition of the soil. Artificial fertilizers 
 may be substituted in part for natural fertility, but they are effective only 
 when the soil is in such a condition as to furnish a constant supply of water. 
 The potato should have the best soil on the farm, since it is more exacting in 
 this respect than the other staple crops and since the product of an acre is 
 generally of greater value. 
 ;^ The success of the potato is largely dependent on the crops preceding it 
 
106 BOOK OR CORN GROWING 
 
 in the rotation. If clover, cowpeas or other leg"uminous plants are grown 
 just preceding- potatoes, its stubble furnishes organic matter and adds to the 
 store of available nitrogen in the soil. Corn after sod frequently precedes 
 potatoes, and this is generally regarded as the best rotation. 
 
 Rye is sometimes sown in late summer or fall and plowed under so as to 
 lighten a heavy soil. Buckwheat and other plants have also been used for 
 the same purpose. On light soils and ia rather mild climates, crimson clover 
 for green manuring may advantageously take the place of rye where early 
 plantiDg of potatoes is not specially desirable. One year, or at most two 
 years, is as long as a field should be devoted to continuous potato culture, 
 although this crop is sometimes grown for more than two years in succession 
 on the same land. This latter course taxes heavily the fertility of the soil 
 and necessitates liberal manuring; moreover it involves considerable risk of 
 injury from funguous diseases, especially from potato scab. A clean crop of 
 potatoes can not, as a rule, be grown on land which in the preceding year 
 produced scabby tubers. The germs ( f the disease once in the soil must be 
 starved out by growing on the infected field other crops, such as grass or 
 grain for several years. In certain localities in the central part of the 
 United States and elsewhere the following three years' rotation has given 
 highly satisfactory results on farms where potatoes are extensively grown: 
 Fall wheat, in which clover is seeded in spring; second year, clover, plowed 
 under in fall or winter; and third year, potatoes. In some localities the un- 
 certainty in obtaining a catch of clover renders this rotation inexpedient. 
 
 Detailed directions for the preparation of one class of soils would not 
 apply to others, hence it can only be said that preparation should be deep 
 and thorough, and that unnecessary compacting of the soil shou'd be avoid- 
 ed. Plowing can scarcely be too deep, provided that much of the subsoil is 
 not brought to the surface; when practicable, the depth should be gradually 
 increased from year to year. Though the tubers are usually formed within 
 6 inches of the surface of the ground, the roots feed deeper. At the Utah 
 Station a very large proportion of potato roots were found 12 inches below 
 the surface. At the New York State Station potato roots penetrated to a 
 depth of 34 inches. Girard, in France, measured single roots nearly 6 feet 
 long growing on rich soil, deeply prepared. (See fig. 1, p. 7.) 
 
 Practical experience, as well as the extent of the distribution of potato 
 roots in the soil, emphasize the importance of deep and thorough prepara- 
 tion of the soil for this crop Whether fall plowing is advisable depends on 
 a variety of local considerations. In general in a mild climate fall plowing 
 of light land exposes it to leaching; on the other hand, fall plowing is some- 
 times necessary, as, for example, when a field is badly infested with injurious 
 insects. 
 
 MANURING. 
 
 The potato requires liberal manuring. Barnyard manure usually affords 
 a large increase in the crop, for not only does it supply nitrogen, phosphoric 
 acid and potash, but it improves the mechanical condition of the soil. How- 
 ever, its direct application to the potato affords conditions favorable to 
 potato diseases, and thus injures the quality of the crop. For this reason the 
 best practice is to apply barnyard manure to corn or grass the year before 
 potatoes are grown. If it is considered necessary to apply it directly to the 
 potato crop it should first be well rotted. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 107 
 
 If for several years before potatoes are planted the land has been proper- 
 ly manured with farm manures, or with green crops plowed under, commer- 
 cial fertilizers can be advantageously used on most soils. Generally, a com- 
 plete fertilizer should be used — i. e , one which contains nitrogen, phosphoric 
 acid and potash. The farmer is justified in supplying all three of these fer- 
 tilizing ingredients, unless by previous tests he has learned that on his soil a 
 certain one of them can be safely omitted. 
 
 Of nitrogenous fertilizers, one of the best for potatoes is the quick-acting 
 nitrate of soda. Of phosphatic fertilizers, superphosphate is preferred. 
 Among potash fertilizers the sulphate of potash has been found to afford a 
 better quality of potato than kainit and muriate of potash. Ashes are ex- 
 tensively and effectively used to supply potash to potatoes. 
 
 Numerous special potato fertilizers are on the market, their chief pecu- 
 liarity consisting in a higher percentage of potash than is contained in the 
 ordinary brands of mixed commercial fertilizers. American experiments in- 
 dicate that a fertilizer mixture for potatoes should contain a high percent- 
 age of potash. 
 
 Since the proper position of fertilizers with reference to the seed pieces 
 doubtless depends on the character of season, soil, and manure, no general 
 rule can now be given further than to caution the reader against applying 
 the fertilizer in immediate contact with the seed piece. 
 
 VARIETIES. 
 
 The following are among the most widely grown varieties: Early, Early 
 Ohio, Early Rose, Beauty of Hebron, and Triumph. Medium and late, Bur- 
 bank, Rural New Yorker No. 2, Empire State, Mammoth Pearl, White Star, 
 and Dakota Red. 
 
 These are standard varieties, and though not necessarily the best, they 
 seem to have given general satisfaction. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
 
 The rows should be laid off as close together as practicable without in- 
 terfering with horse cultivation. Generally the seed pieces should be drop- 
 ped in furrows made in the level field and not on ridges. However, low ridges 
 are advantageous for an early crop and on poorly drained land. In covering 
 the seed pieces, whether they are planted flat or on ridges, it is well to leave 
 a small, sharp ridge marking the line of the row. In some localities, how- 
 ever, where excessive moisture is not feared the opening furrows are only 
 partially filled after planting, leaving a depression along the row to be filled 
 by the use of the smoothing harrow or other implement. In planting late in 
 the season this course is sometimes advisable. 
 
 The pieces may be dropped by hand in the open furrow, or a potato plant- 
 er may be used, dropping and covering the seed pieces at one operation. 
 There are several potato planters that do very satisfactory work, but their 
 cost restricts their use to those who plant a large acreage in potatoes or to 
 cases where several farmers can use one together. Their more extended use 
 is perhaps desirable, since they save a considerable amount of labor and en- 
 able the potato grower to take full advantage of even a brief period of fav- 
 orable weather at planting time regardless of scarcity of labor. 
 
 There is not sufficient evidence now available to determine whether 
 
108 
 
 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 there is any difference in yield due to the cut surface of the set being placed 
 upward or downward when planted. Probably tnere is no loss in letting the 
 seed pieces fall as they will from the planter or from the hand: 
 
 In the preparation of th-? ground and in planting, the earth along the 
 line of the row should be compacted as little as possible consistent with 
 thorough work, and hence the team should be made to walk between the 
 rows whenever possible instead of along the drill. There is a simple potato 
 coverer constructed somewhat like a triangular snowplow, with the wide 
 end forward and a portion of the point or apex cut away so as to leave a nar- 
 row opening at the rear, ino special implement, however, is required for 
 this purpose. 
 
 TIME OF PLANTING 
 
 Each community is the best juge of the proper date for planting. Where 
 potatoes are grown for the early market the aim is to plant as early as pos- 
 sible, without subjecting the young plants to severe cold. The crop should 
 be planted at such a date as to bring the stage of growth during which the 
 tubers are rapidly developing at a time when there is ordinarily dry weather 
 
 i s most certain 
 varies with the lo- 
 cality, and each po- 
 tato grower should 
 so time his planting 
 as to be least af- 
 fected by drought. 
 Where the growing 
 season is long the 
 crop that is to be 
 stored over winter 
 should be planted 
 very late, so that it 
 may remain in the 
 ground until cool 
 weather. On the 
 other hand, where 
 the season is short, 
 late varieties should 
 be planted in time 
 to ripen before frost. 
 
 DEPTH OF PLANTING 
 
 The roots of a 
 young potato plant 
 grow, not directly 
 from the seed piece, 
 but from the under- 
 ground joints or 
 nodes of the stem. 
 From these under- 
 ground nodes also 
 grow the short stems 
 Fig. l.—Entrfe plant, showing root system. " which bear the tub- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 109 
 
 ers at their extremities. (See fig". 1.) Hence the seed pieces should be 
 placed deep enough in the soil to permit several of these joints to form be- 
 low the surface, so as to afford room for an ample supply of roots and tuber- 
 bearing" stems to grow. 
 
 Many experiments have been made to ascertain the best depth for plant- 
 ing". The results, with some exceptions, favor planting not less than 4 inches 
 deep. The favorable effects of deep planting" were especially marked on well- 
 prepared, friable soil and in dry seasons. 
 
 Very deep planting is open to objection because of the increased labor of 
 harvesting and the danger of a deficient stand when weather conditions are 
 unfavorable. Very shallow planting reduces the yield and injures the qual- 
 ity of the Crop. 
 
 To test the effect on the yield of using seed potatoes from difl'erent lo- 
 calities, several varieties of potatoes grown in Vermont and Maryland were 
 planted in both states. The seed grown in Vermont gave larger yields both 
 in Vermont and in Maryland than seed grown in Maryland. 
 * It has been found advantageous to change seed potatoes every few years, 
 but from the small amount of definite experimental data now available we 
 believe no final conclusion can be drawn as to the effect of the practice. To 
 make the change, tubers of the desired strain may be sent to the grower at a 
 distance, and after two years' cultural under new conditions the stock may 
 be brought back to its original home. 
 
 A common practice in the regions where a second crop can be grown on 
 the same land in the same year is to plant in the spring a small area with 
 Northern seed potatoes, replanting the resulting tubers in July or August, and 
 using the crop produced in the fall for the main spring planting. By this 
 course seed is renewed frequently without sacrificing any of the advantages 
 resulting from the use of second-crop seed stock, such as freedom from 
 sproutling, etc 
 
 SEED END V. STEM END 
 
 When potatoes are cut in half through their smaller diameter we have a 
 seed or bud end more or less crowded with eyes and a stem or butt end on 
 which there are few eyes. (See fig. 2, p. 14.) The experiments to determine 
 the relative value of cuttings from the stem end and from the seed end of 
 tuber have been numerous. The majority of these showed that the yield was 
 greater when the seed end was used. The superior productiveness of the 
 seed end as compared with the stem end was maintained, whether the halves 
 of the potatoes, the thirds, or smaller cuttings were employed 
 
 In a few instances, however, the results suggest that the general super- 
 iority of the seed end may not be maintained with some varieties and with 
 immature seed tubers. 
 
 EFEECT OF SPROUTING 
 
 The growth of sprouts before planting is made at the expense of the 
 tubers from which they draw their support. Hence if these shoots are 
 rubbed off before planting there is a total loss of the nutriment contained in 
 them. Moreover, numerous weak shoots grow from the injured eye. To pre- 
 vent these evil consequences of premature sprouting, seed potatoes are 
 stored in a dark, dry, cool place. In spite of all precautions the tubers 
 sometimes sprout; but when practicable only potatoes that have not sprouted 
 should be selected for planting. 
 
110 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 If the eyes appear dormant in spring", seed potatoes may be exposed to 
 the light and warmth for a few days before planting so as to promote ger- 
 mination and prompt growth. If long exposed, sprouts will form and careful 
 cutting and planting by hand become necessary, so as to avoid breaking off 
 these sprouts. 
 
 QUANTITY OP SEED POTATOES PER ACRE 
 
 A bushel of potatoes (60 pound) may contain 240 quarter-pound tubers. 
 When the seed pieces are planted afoot apart in 3-foot rows an acre requires 
 14,520 sets. When tubers averaging 4 ounces are employed an acre requires 
 at these distances 60 bushels for planting whole potatoes, 30 bushels when 
 halves are used, and 15 bushels when quarters are planted. In a number of 
 tests the amount of seed cut to two eyes, spaced 1 by 3 feet, averaged 13 
 bushels per acre, the usual range being from 10 to 14 bushels. In 18 experi- 
 ments with many varieties the average amount of seed cut to single eyes 
 was at these distances 6.3 bushels per acre, the usual range being from 5 to 7 
 bushels, though the varieties with large tubers bearing few eyes required 
 considerably more seed. 
 
 Results which follow in these pages suggest that it is generally advisable 
 to plant at least 15 to 30 bushels per acre. 
 
 SIZE OF SEED PIECES 
 
 In the size of the seed piece planted the practice of different farmers 
 varies widely, some advocating a liberal use of seed and others claiming 
 equally good results from small cuttings. To aid in settling this question 
 the State agricultural experiment stations have numerous tests of seed 
 pieces of different sizes. Taken separately these experinents show a certain 
 amount of divergence in results, as might naturally be expected of tests con- 
 ducted under widely different conditions However, the majority of these 
 tests, and especially the figures expressing the average results of all avail- 
 able American experiments, may be safely taken as indications of what the 
 farmer, under ordinary conditions, will generally, but not always obtain. 
 
 The effect of size of seed pieces on yield of crop will be treated here 
 under three distinct heads: (1) On the total yield; (2) on the gross yield of 
 salable potatoes, and (3) on the net yield of salable potatoes, i e., after de- 
 ducting the amount of seed planted. 
 
 EFFECT ON TOTAL YIELD 
 
 In making up the averages below it was found practicable to use the re- 
 sults of 19 tests of single eyes r. 2 eye pieces, 4 tests of 2-eye cuttings r. quar- 
 ters, 17 comparisons of quarters and halves, and 44 tests of halves v. whole 
 potatoes. The results of other experiments less completely reported were 
 used for the purpose of corroboration. 
 
 The following table shows the average results of these tests, including 
 potatoes of all sizes: 
 
 Average differences per acre in total yields from different seed pieces. 
 
 Excess from use of— 
 
 2 eye pieces over 1-eye pieces. 
 
 Quarters over 2-eye pieces 
 
 Halves over quarters 
 
 Whole tubes over halves 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 111 
 
 If we compare all the total yields with the total yield produced by single 
 eyes we have an increase of 21 per cent for 2-eye pieces, 41 per cent for quar- 
 ters, 67 per cent for halves, and 96 per cent for entire tubers. The total yield 
 resulting- from planting whole potatoes is practically double that obtained 
 by planting single eyes. 
 
 Thus far we have considered only the total yield, i.e., large and small 
 potatoes, and have found that the total yield increases somewhat uniformly 
 as the size of the seed piece is increased. Hence, if it is the aim simply to 
 secure an enormous yield without much regard to expense, in contests for 
 prizes, etc., a lavish use of seed is justifiable. The farmer and gardner, how- 
 ever, have to consider other factors than the total yield, for a heavy crop 
 may consist very largely of tubers too small for the market, or the great ex- 
 penditures for seed when large pieces are planted may more than counter- 
 balance the increased yield. Before noting the gross and net yields of large 
 or salable tubers, resulting from seed pieces of different sizes, we may con- 
 sider the causes inducing a somewhat regular increase in total yield accom- 
 panying the use of larger seed pieces. 
 
 Several causes operate to increase th'e yield when large seed pieces are 
 planted. The larger the cutting the greater generally the number eyes and 
 the number of stalks. The young shoot, before it develops a strong system 
 of feeding roots, is dependent for nutriment on the material stored up in the 
 seed piece; hence the more abundant this supply the more vigorous the 
 growth of the plant and this increased luxuriance is not confined to the early 
 stages of growth, but is marked throughout the growing season. Investiga- 
 tion has shown that severing the connection between the seed piece and the 
 growing vine, even after the latter is thoroughly rooted, reduces the yield of 
 potatoes. 
 
 The danger of partial or entire failure resulting from an imperfect stand 
 is much greater with small cutting than with large seed pieces. The small 
 pieces with extensive cut surfaces are liable to perish should the season be 
 unfavorable, either through excessive moisture or drought. The sprouts 
 from small cuttings being weaker reach the surface with difficulty, or fail 
 entirely on soil not properly prepared. 
 
 EFFECT ON GROSS SALABLE YIELD 
 
 By averaging the results of the experiments referred to above, we find 
 that the actual increase in the potatoes of salable size due to using larger 
 seed pieces was as follows: 
 
 Average differences per acre In gross salable yields from different seed pieces. 
 
 Percent. 
 
 Excess from use of- 
 
 2-eye pieces over 1 -eye pieces 33 21 
 
 Quarters over 2-eye pieces 10 15 
 
 Halves over quarters 15 1.5 
 
 "Whole tubers over halves 14 10 
 
 Every increase in the size of the seed pieces was followed by an increas- 
 ed gross salable yield. 
 
112 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 EFFECT ON NET SALABLE CROP. 
 
 Before concluding that the largest seed pieces are the most profitable it 
 becomes necessary to deduct from the crop the amount of seed planted. It 
 is plain that the increased amount of seed potatoes required when larger 
 pieces are used may more than counterbalance the increase in yield obtained. 
 
 The true test of profit is the market value of the crop produced, less the 
 cost of seed planted. Should the quantity of seed potatoes used be subtract- 
 ed from the total yield of large and small potatoes or from the salable crop? 
 If small or unsalable seed potatoes are planted, then the former course is the 
 proper one, but since large or medium tubers (either entire or cut) are gen- 
 erally selected for seed purposes, it seems best to subtract the seed from the 
 salable crop, thus ascertaining the net salable yield. 
 
 The following table shows the actual average results for the net salable 
 yield; that is, the crop alter deducting the small potatoes and the seed used: 
 
 Average difference per acre in net salable yield from different seed pieces. 
 
 Percent 
 
 Excess from use of— 
 
 2- eye pieces over 1-eye pieces I 15.0 
 
 Quarters over 2-eye pieces , 7.0 
 
 Halves over quarters 5.0 
 
 Halves over whole tubers 8.5 
 
 The amount of the net salable crop rose with the increase in the size of 
 the cutting employed, but when the whole potato was planted the figures de- 
 clined on account of the large amount of seed potatoes which had to be de- 
 ducted. The above figures indicate a very slight advantage in planting 
 halves rather than quarters when the price of seed and of crop produced are 
 the same. As a matter of fact, spring prices are usually somewhat higher 
 than fall prices. A high price for seed potatoes may make it profitable to 
 plant smaller pieces (as, for example, quarters) than would be economical 
 where seed and crop command the same price per bushel. 
 
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON THE AMOUNT OF SEED POTATOES. 
 
 In the following diagram 100 represents the total yield from planting 
 single eyes. The figures may be read as bushels per acre, if it is constantly 
 borne in mind that we are talking about soils of such character as to average 
 100 bushels of large and small potatoes per acre when planted with 1-eye 
 pieces. 
 
 The first group answers the question, "What size of seed piece generally 
 affords the largest yield of large and small potatoes?" The second group 
 answers the query: "Waatsizeof seed piece generally gives the greatest 
 yield exclusive of small potatoes?" The third group offers an answer to a 
 still more important question: "What size of seed piece generally produces 
 the largest vield after deducting both the small potatoes and the amount of 
 seed planted?' 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 113 
 
 Yield from planting different seed pieces, assuming 100 as the total yield from single eyes. 
 
 RELATIVE TOTAL YIELD. 
 
 1 eye 
 
 2 eyes 
 
 Quarters. 
 Halves... 
 Wholes... 
 
 100 
 121 
 141 
 107 
 19G 
 
 RELATIVE GROSS SALABLE YIELD. 
 
 1 eye — 
 
 2 eyes... 
 Quartern 
 Halves.. 
 Wholes.. 
 
 1 eye 
 
 2 eyes — 
 Quarters. 
 Halves... 
 
 Wholes 107 
 
 87 
 105 
 123 
 142 
 157 
 
 83 
 
 0.5 
 109 
 115 
 
 RELATIVE NET SALABLE YIELD. 
 
 Taking- as the correct measure of profit the yield of salable potatoes less 
 the amount of seed used, we see by the third section of the diagram that with 
 seed and crop at 1 he same price per bushel it was more profitable in these 
 tests to plant halves than smallercuttings and whole potatoes. 
 
 If we take account of the y it-Id of small potatoes the advantagre of larg-e 
 seed pieces is even g-reater than the figures in the last section of the diagram 
 would indicate, for the yield of small potatoes is g-veater with large than 
 small seed piece?. Where large quantities of small potatoes can be profit- 
 ably utuliz d, as, for example, as seed for the second crop, the potato planter 
 may therefore use quite large setd pieces with advantage. 
 
 On the other hand, the high -r price of potatoes in spring than in fall is 
 an argument in favor of planUajg quarters rather than halves or whole tub- 
 ers. A number of investigators have noted that large seed pieces (either 
 large cuttincfs or entire potatoes) afford an earlier crop than very small cut- 
 tings, a matter of much iatf^rest to growers of early potatoes. However, 
 some growers have repor:ed that uncut potatoes germinate more slowly than 
 large cuttings. Most of those who raise potatoes for the early market use 
 large cuttings rather than whole potatoes. 
 
 In this connection it may be said that the seed-end half gives an earlier 
 
114 BOOK OR CORN GROWING 
 
 crop than ttie outer half. This sug-gests the expediency of cutting- a potato 
 lengthwise when halves or quarters are to be planted, thus securing on each 
 piece one or more of the eyes which germinate first. Another advantage of 
 cutting lengthwise is that it insures a more even distribution of the eyes on 
 the several pieces. Of course this system is not practicable when very small 
 cuttings are to be made from long, slender potatoes, since the large amount 
 of exposed surface would render the long pieces susceptible to injury both 
 from moisture and dryness. 
 
 If it is desired to cut the potato into small pieces the operator should be- 
 gin at the stem end, and the pieces should be cut in a compact shape, and of 
 as nearly equal size as is practicable without leaving any piece entirely de- 
 void of eyes. There are special implements for cutting potatoes, and their 
 use is reported as enabling a man to cut four or five times as many bushels 
 of seed per day as by hand. The character of the work is said to be satisfac- 
 tory. 
 
 No definite rule can be given as to the best size of the seed piece, for 
 this depends somewhat on the distance between the hills and on the charac- 
 ter of the soil and season. Another important factor in determining the 
 proper amount of seed is variety. Some varieties are able to produce a crop 
 almost as large from small cuttings as from large pieces. Thus, in several 
 experiments, the variety Clark No. 1 has given indications of this capacity 
 to produce well even with light seeding. 
 
 SIZE OP SEED TUBERS 
 
 A study of more than a hundred experiments testing the relative values 
 of large, medium and small uncut tubers confirms the general law that an in- 
 crease in the weight of seed planted afiords an increase in the total crop. 
 The yield of salable potatoes increases less rapidly than the total yield. 
 "With whole potatoes as seed the salable yield reached its extreme upward 
 limit in one test when tubers weighing about half a pound were planted; in 
 another when those weighing 4i ounces were employed. The limit of profit- 
 able increase was reached with tubers weighing 4.V and 3 ounces, respective- 
 ly. The size of seed tubers selected becomes a matter of importance when 
 they are to be cut, for we have seen that the heavier the cutting the larger 
 the total yield, and seed tubers for cutting should be of such size that their 
 halves, quarters or other divisions shall not be extremely small. 
 
 CAN SMALL. POTATOES BE PROFITABLY USED FOR PLANTING? 
 
 Whether or not to use uncut small potatoes for seed is an important 
 question on which farmers are divided. Some present the plausible argu- 
 ment that the use of undersized potatoes results in degeneration. If this 
 claim is based on the results of experience it should determine practice, but 
 if the coaclusion is simply a generalization based on the fact that large seed , 
 usually give b:st results the reasoning is defective, and the question remains 
 open. The potato tuber is not a seed, but an underground stem, and the re- 
 lations existing between seeds and their progeny do not necessarily exist be- 
 tween a tuber and its descendants. Others hold that potatoes just below 
 marKetable size, if shapely and sufficiently mature, may be used without ser- 
 ious deterioration, and that for economic reasons their use is especially de- 
 sired, because if not planted or used at home they must be lost or fed tu stock, 
 for which purpose their value is usually smaller than the market price. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 115 
 
 The result of tests at a number of experiment stations have uniformly 
 indicated that small tubers uncut can be used for seed purposes without det- 
 riment to the succeeding crop. It may still be urg-ed. however, that the 
 :hoice of small seed year after year will result in degeneration. On this 
 juestion the information is meager, but two experiments, extending over 
 four and eight years, respectively, have been reported in which no degenera- 
 :ion resulting from the continued use of small potatoes from the preceding 
 :rop was apparent. 
 
 Although the evidence seems fairly conclusive that small uncut seed po- 
 ;atoes may sometimes be used with profit, we cannot advise that small seed 
 ;ubers be selected year after^year from a crop which has been grown from 
 .mail potatoes. 
 
 Girard's investigations in France justified the usual practice of the most 
 Drbminent agriculturists and horticulturists in carefully selecting seed pota- 
 toes. By selecting for several generations average-sized tubers from the 
 jest hills he affected a considerable improvement in productiveness. To as- 
 :ertain the best hills by digging each is exceedingly laborious, but Girard 
 "ound that the best hills in'an^evenly manured field containing only one va- 
 riety were those in which the vines were most vigorous. Selection was thus 
 ■endered easy by means of stakes placed beside the luxuriant plants. This 
 :orrespondence between the vigor of vegetation and yield of tubers has been 
 frequently noted at the State agricultural experiment stations, especially 
 vith seed pieces of different sizes, 'in which case the growth of vines is in pro- 
 portion to the size of the seed^piece planted. American experiments indi- 
 :ate some advantage in selecting seed tubers from the most productive hills. 
 
 PotTtoes of irregular shape and injured tubers should be rejected as un- 
 it for planting. 
 
 NUMBER OP EYES AND WEIGHT PER SET 
 
 Many potato growers cut tubers into pieces containg one, two or more 
 ;yes, laying greater stress on the number of eyes than on the size of the cut- 
 ting. Extensive experiments at the Indiana station and elsewhere prove 
 that of the two factors, number of eyes and weight of piece, the latter is 
 aaore important. Of course it is desirable that each piece, whether large or 
 small, should contain at least one eye, and it has been generally profitable 
 for it to bo of such size ss to contain at least several eyes; but whether it has 
 3ne or mr;ny eyes it is important that the seed piece be heavy enough to fur- 
 aish abundant nutriment to the shoots which spring from it. A single eye 
 may give rise to several stalks, for each eye is a compound bud or cluster of 
 Duds. An eye can be bisected, and each half may then grow successfully if 
 Lt is not a victim to dryness or decay, to which its exposed condition subjects 
 it. . 
 
 In one series of experiments it was foand that the number of stalks grow- 
 ing in a hill was less dependent on the number cf eyes than on the size of the 
 seed piece, whether cut or entire. In general, as the number of eyes per 
 piece increased each eye became less prolific in sending up stalks, so that 
 there was less crowding of stalks where large seed pieces with many eyes 
 were used than would be expected from the large number of eyes planted. 
 After numerous experiments touching on almost every aspect of this subject 
 the investigator advised that tubers be cut so as to make each piece of a con- 
 stant size or weight, whatever the number of eyes that might fall to its share. 
 
116 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 NUMBER OF CUTTINGS PER HILL 
 
 A custom not uncommon among- those who plant small cuttings is to drop 
 two pieces in each hill. They usually get a larger yield by so doing- than by 
 planting single pieces, the increase generally, though not always, being suf- 
 ficient to pay for the excess of see:?!. This does not prove the practice profit- 
 able, for better results may be secured by planting a s'ngle piece weighing- 
 as much as the combined weight of the two pieces which would have been 
 dropped in one hill. Thus the labor of cutting is considerably reduced and, 
 what is more important, larger pieces improve the chances of getting a good 
 stand in an uafavorable season, because they have less exposed surface than 
 two small pieces of e()uivalent weight, hence are less liable to dry out ex- 
 cessively when drought folio >^s planting. They are also better able to resist 
 rotting if wet weather prevails. 
 
 NUMBER OF STALKS PER HILL 
 
 The most common objection urged against planting large seed pieces is, 
 next to the expense, the danger of having the hills so crowded with stalks, 
 and conseouently with tubers, that a large proportion of the potatoes never 
 develop to marketable size. The objectionisprobably valid for entire tubers, 
 and also for halves planted very close in the row. The evidence available 
 does not permit us to conclude that in the case of q'larters used as seed there 
 results any injurious crowding, and it may be questioned whether halves give 
 rise to this trouble when planted under favorable conditions and at consider- 
 able distance apart. 
 
 The number of stalks that can be advantageously grown in each hill 
 varies greatly with variety, season, soil, and distance apart. At the Indiana 
 Station it was found that when uncut tubers of 1 to 5 ounces were planted in 
 hills 3 feet apart the gross jield of large potatoes and the net yield of large 
 potatoes increased with every increase in the number of stalks per hill up to 
 9 stalks for Burbank and eight stocks for Beauty of Hebron, growing in both 
 cases from tubers weighing U ounces. Eight stalks per hill would probably 
 be excessive for distances less than 3 feet each way. In experiments in 
 Maine, extending over several years, 6 stalks per hill gave larger yields than 
 4 to 2 stalks, the amount of seed planted being the sama in each case. 
 
 As to the effects of thinning the stalks, recorded experiments are incon- 
 clusive, and with ordinary seed pieces it appears to be unnecessary. 
 
 DISTANCE BETWEEN PLANTS 
 
 In deciding on the proper distance at which to plant potatoes it is neces- 
 sary to take into consideration the size of the seed piece that is to be em- 
 ployed. In general, small seed pi ;;ces should be planted close and the dis- 
 tance allotted to each hill should be greater as the weight of the piece is in- 
 creased. Close planting for small cuttings is best attained, not by narrow- 
 ing the row to less than about 2i or 3 feet (for if the distance is much less 
 horse cultivation becomes difficult), but by planting the seed pieces close to- 
 gether in the row. 
 
 To frame a general rule giving best distances for seed pieces of different 
 sizes is plainly impossible, for the distance at which the largest jields is ob- 
 tained depends also on the variety, the season, the soil, and the fertilizers. 
 However, the results of some of the investigations covering this matter af- 
 ford help in deciding on the proper distance under varying conditions. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 117 
 
 It has been shown that if very small cuttings are used, and if the soil is 
 fertile, the distance can be reduced to 6 or 9 inches without sacrilicing the 
 yield, provided the season happens to be favorable, but this is not gfencrally 
 advisable. 
 
 On rich s il cuttings of considerable size can be advantageously planted 
 as close as 12 inches. 
 
 Checkihg etfects a saving" of labor in cultivation, and also in planting and 
 harvesting, when these latter operations are performed by hand; hence ex- 
 pensive labor and the absence of machines for planting and harvesting the 
 crop are conditions in favor of caecking. For planting in checks a variety 
 can be chosen which makes a large growth of vines and which forms many 
 tubers in each hill, thus more completely utilizing the space at its disposal 
 than could a variety with small vines and few tubers. In checking there is 
 danger on rich soil that some of the tubers may grow to an objectionable 
 size. Potato growers in attempting to obtain a phenomenal yield, as in con- 
 tests for prizes, almost universally plant in drills rather than in hills, and 
 place the seed pieces from 8 to 15 inches apart. 
 
 The advocates of planting in drills claim that by this method a larger 
 yield can be obtained, and experience seems to confirm the correctness of 
 this view. The few experiments that have been made on this question are 
 not entirely conclusive, though the majority of them favor drills. 
 
 Although no fixed rule regarding distance of planting can be given, the 
 following general considerations are widely applicable: 
 
 (1) For maximum yield of salable potatoes plant in rows as narrow as 
 can be conveniently cultivated. 
 
 (2) Crowd small seed pieces close together in the row, increasing the 
 distance with every increase in the size of the seed piece; avoid on the one 
 hand such close planting as to greatly reduce the average weight of the 
 tubers, and on the other such wide spacing as to leave any considerable por- 
 tion of the soil unshaded by the full-grown vines. 
 
 (3) As a rule, the richer the land the less required distance between sets. 
 
 (4) Varieties with strong growth of vines or which set many tubers in a 
 hill should have greater distance between plants than is necessary with less 
 vigorous varieties 
 
 CULTIVATION 
 
 Soon after planting, and again just as the young plants are beginning to 
 appear above ground, the field should be harrowed, inclining the teeth of the 
 harrow backward. This is a cheap method of cultivation, since a wide space 
 is covered. It is also effective in destroying small weeds, in leveling the 
 ridges left in planting, in preventing the formation of a surface crust, and 
 in keeping the land covered with a mulch of dry earth, thus conserving mois- 
 ture within the soil below. Subsequent cultivation should be frequent so as 
 to accomplish these same ends. Almost any pattern of cultivator may be 
 used, provided it is made to do shallow work. However, if the ground has 
 become packed the first cultivation may be deeper. Experience and exact 
 experiments generally favor flat or nearly flat cultivation. Excessive hilling 
 during cultivation intensifies the injurious effects of dry weather. It also re- 
 sults in breaking many of the feeding roots between the rows. The frequent 
 use of the cultivator should be substituted as far as possible for hoeing. If 
 a severe frost is apprehended soon after the plants come up, the tops should 
 be covered by throwing a furrow to each row. 
 
118 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 MULCHING 
 
 While mulching- with hay, straw, leaves, or other litter frequently in- 
 creases the yield and is specially valuable in tiding- over a season of drought, 
 it is not generally practicable on farms where potatoes are grown on a large 
 scale. Its place is in the garden rather than in the field. It is a substitute 
 for cultivation, and it is generally cheaper to maintain a soil mulch by fre- 
 quent cultivation than to apply litter. If a mulch is employed, it can: be ap- 
 plied over the entire surface or in the furrow above the seed pieces, or be- 
 tween the rows. Mulching in the furrow is not commended by the results 
 of tests in Colorado, Louisiana, and Michigan. In strivinsf for a large yield, 
 with little regard to cost, or to insure against drought, mulching is useful. 
 
 Material intended to serve as a mulch should first be exposed to the 
 weather, so as to cause the sprouting of any seed it may contain. It is bet- 
 ter to apply a mulch after potato plants haye made some growth, as an 
 earlier application may result in smothering some plants and in injury from 
 late frosts. 
 
 HARVESTING AND STORING. 
 
 The death of the vines is the signal for digging the main crop. For the 
 early market potato growers do not wait for this, but are governed by the 
 size of the tubers. As long as any portion of the vine is green the tubers 
 can continue to grow. At the Vermont Station White Star potatoes, planted 
 May 20, yielded 163 bushels per acre of merchantable potatoes when dug 
 August 22; 234 bushels September 1; 303 bushels September 12, and 353 bush- 
 els September 22. More than one-third of the merchantable crop was made 
 after September 1. At the above dates the average size of all tubers was, 
 respectively, 3.7, 4.4, 5.2, and 5.7 ounces, respectively. These figures show 
 the importance of protecting the foliage from the late blight by spraying, 
 and they also alTord some data as to the rate at which potatoes develop late 
 in the season. 
 
 ^ In gardens very early potatoes are sometimes obtained by carefully re- 
 moving a few of the larger tubers from the growing plant, replacing the soil 
 and allowing the smaller potatoes to continue growing ("grabbling"). Ex- 
 periments conducted in Germany by Wollny and Nobbe, and in Austria by 
 Leydhecker showed little or no loss as a result of this operation carefully 
 done. The large amount of labor required prohibits "grabbling" except 
 when early potatoes are selling at a price very much higher than can be ex- 
 pected from the later crop. . 
 
 In harvesting a large area a high-priced potato digger is frequently used; 
 hand digging with a four-tined fork is probably the best method on small 
 areas, though many make use of a potato hoe or of a plow. Careful handling 
 always pays, and extreme carefulness is necessary, especially with the early 
 crop, to prevent injury to the tender skin of the immature potatoes. 
 
 In harvesting, as well as in storage, potatoes should be exposed to light 
 as little as possible. In storing potatoes a low temperature is required. The 
 potato tuber is uninjured by a temperature of 33 degrees F., and one author- 
 ity gives the freezing temperature ot potatoes 30.2 degrees F. Warmth 
 favors sprouting, which injures potatoes both for planting and eating. 
 
 SECOND-CROP POTATOES. 
 
 In most of the territory south of Maryland, Kentucky and Kansas two 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 119 
 
 crops of potatoes are frequently grown in one year on the same land. In the 
 warmer portions of these three states, and indeed a little farther north, a 
 second crop can sometimes be produced. The Agricultural Experiment 
 Station at Manhattan, Kans , had fair success when 225 days elapsed between 
 planting- the first crop and digging- the second, but a growing season of 195 
 days proved too short for two crops. 
 
 The second crop is grown by methods somewhat different from those em- 
 ployed with the main crop. Small potatoes from the early crop are exten- 
 sively used for seed, and these should be planted whole (or with only a small 
 slice removed), for when cuttings have been planted in August or September 
 a poor stand has generally resulted. 
 
 It is best to allow the crop which is to furnish seed potatoes for the 
 second crop to remain in the ground until the vines are entirely dead. How- 
 ever, the culls may be used even when the early crop is dug before complete 
 maturity. To prepare these culls for prompt growth and to eliminate those 
 too immature to sprout, the small potatoes are exposed to the light in a 
 shady place for several days, or until they become greenish; then they are 
 spread out on the ground in a single layer and a little fine dirt sifted among 
 them, covered with straw or pine needles, and the bed kept constantly moist. 
 "The potatoes will sprout earlier if before bedding them under the straw a 
 small piece is clipped off one end and rejected." 
 
 Planting time varies from the last of July in Virginia to September in 
 Florida. For the Gulf States, and others with similar climate, the usual time 
 for planting the fall crop is the first half of August. Plant without ridging 
 in furrows about 6 inches deep. In the bed select only the potatoes that have 
 sprouted. Drop them in the freshly opened and moist furrow, cover at once 
 with about an inch of soil, leaving a depressed row to be filled b}'^ subsequent 
 cultivation. In covering with the hoe the man should walk in the row and 
 thus compact it. Professor Massey recommends the use of a home-made 
 coverer consisting of an ordinary plow beam and handles with a crossbar in 
 front, to which are attached two spiked teeth a foot apart: behind these teeth 
 is a roller. By planting deep the moisture of the soil is made available to 
 the young plants, and by covering lightly prompt growth is insured. For the 
 second crop an early variety should be employed. 
 
 The advantage of second-crop potatoes is their superiority in keeping 
 qualities. In a warm climate potatoes dug in June or July can not well be 
 kept without sprouting, and thus injuring their value for eating and plant- 
 ing, while the second crop, dug in October or November, can be kept perfect- 
 ly through the winter and late into the following season. 
 
 Recently the claim has been made that the second-crop potatoes excel 
 ordinary potatoes for seed purposes. It is undoubtedly true that unsprouted 
 second-crop seed potatoes are better than sprouted potatoes from the main 
 crop. This makes the use of second-crop seed popular in portions of the 
 South where unsprouted seed potatoes are difficult to obtain. Recent ex- 
 periments at the Kansas Experiment Station indicate a superiority for 
 second-crop seed even as far north as Manhattan, Kans. There in 1890 second- 
 crop seed produced a crop 27 per cent larger than main crop seed of the same 
 varieties. In the following year the excess was 70 per cent in favor of seed 
 potatoes of the second crop. 
 
 Whether or not the continued use of second crop seed propagated by 
 means of culls results in degeneration seems at present an open question. 
 
120 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 Many successful growers have employed second crop seed for a number of 
 years in succession. Many of those who grow early potatoes for market use 
 northern seed in spring- to obtain potatoes for planting- the second crop, 
 which in turn is intended as seed for the next early crop. Thus the advan- 
 tages of second crop seed and of frequent renewal of the stock are secured. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 (1) A rich, sandy loam, well drained and well supplied with vegetable 
 matter is the best soil for the potato. Stlffer land may be improved as a 
 potato soil by green manuring and drainafje, and lig-hter soils can often be 
 made sufficiently rich by the addition of g-reen manures and fertilizers. 
 
 (2) Potatoes should not, as a rule, be grown continuously on the same 
 land, but should be alternated with other crops. Barnyard manure maybe 
 freely used, but should, as a rule, be applied to previous crops in the rotation. 
 
 (3) If commercial fertilizers are used, a mixture containing nitrogen in 
 form of nitrate of soda, phosphoric acid as superphosphate, and potash as 
 sulphate, and in which potash predominates, is recommended. 
 
 (4) Preparation of the land should be deep and thorough. 
 
 (5) Planting without ridging generally affords the larger yields, but a 
 stiff soil and the desire for an extra early crop sometimes necessitate plant- 
 ing on ridges. 
 
 (6) Th^ best time for planting depends on the climate of each locality. 
 The planting should be so timed as to bring the period when the tub- 
 ers are rapidly forming at a date when the average rainfall is ample. 
 
 (7) On mellow, well drained soil deep planting (3 to 5 inches) is best, es- 
 pecially when the season happens to be dry. For the early crop, or on stiff 
 soil with a tendency to bake, the depth of planting may be decreased. 
 
 (8) The use of the harrow before the plants are all up and frequent 
 shallow cultivation afterwards, until the vines shade the land, are advisable 
 
 (9) Seed potatoes grown in New England in several tests proved superior 
 to Maryland seed both in New England and in Maryland. However, the data 
 seem insufficient to determine definitely the relative value of seed potatoes 
 from different climates. 
 
 (10) Cutting the seed pieces a few days before planting appears to exer- 
 cise no injurious influence, provided, of course, that the cuttings are care- 
 fully stored in the interim. 
 
 (11) The yield from planting the seed or bud end is generally greater than 
 from the stem or butt end of the tuber. The eyes on the seed end are the 
 first to germinate, and hence are especially important when an early crop is 
 desired. 
 
 (12) Exposing unsprouted tubers in a warm place before planting hastens 
 growth, but if continued until sprouts form (which are rubbed off) the yield 
 may be considerably reduced. 
 
 (13) Experiments indicate that it is more important to cut the tuber in- 
 to compact pieces of nearly uniform size than to so shape the pieces as to 
 have a definite number of eyes on each set. No piece should be entirely de- 
 void of eyes, and the majority of the seed pieces should be large enough to 
 support at least two eyes, and better three or more. 
 
 (14) At distances of 1 by 3 feet, and with seed tubers averaging 4 ounces, 
 an acre requires of quarters about 15 bushels. 
 
 (15) The total yield increases with every increase in the size of seed 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 121 
 
 piece from the single eye to the whole potato. This increase occurs both in 
 the larg-e and in the small potatoes, but chiefly in the latter. 
 
 (16) The gross yield of salable potatoes (large and medium) also increases 
 with the size of the seed piece from one eye to the whole potato. 
 
 (17) The net yield of salable potatoes (found by subtracting the amount 
 Df seed potatoes and the yield of small potatoes from the total yield) in- 
 creases with every increase in the size of seed piece from one eye to the half 
 potato. The half potato affords a larger net salable crop than the whole 
 potato, on account of the excessive amount of seed required in planting en- 
 tire tubers Taking the average of many experiments, it was found that for 
 every 100 bushels of net salable crop grown from single eyes there were 114 
 bushels from 2 eye pieces, 131 bushels from quarters, and 139 bushels from 
 halves, but only 129 bushels from planting whole potatoes. 
 
 (18) These results favor the use of halves as seed pieces if seed potatoes 
 and crop are assumed to be of equal value per bushel, but when seed potatoes 
 command a very high price quarters may be used to advantage. 
 
 Potato Die eases and Their Treatment 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 A number of diseases affect the Irish potato in thi? country, and the 
 losses they occasion are often a serious drain on the farmer's income. The 
 object of this bulletin is to briefly describe the most important diseases and 
 to outline methods of treatment which experience has shown to be success- 
 ful in holding them in check. 
 
 POTATO LEAF BLIGHT, OR EARLY BLIGHT 
 
 {Alternaria solani (E. & M.) Sorauer.) 
 
 This disease is widespread and destructive. It is confined to the leaves 
 and green stems, and appears about the time the tubers begin to form, but 
 may be noticed earlier if the growth of the plants has been checked in any 
 way. The first indications of its presence is the appearance on the leaves of 
 grayish brown spots, which soon become hard and brittle. The disease pro- 
 gresses rather slowly; the spots gradually become larger, especially along 
 the edges of the leaflets. At the end of ten days to two weeks half of the 
 leaf surface may be brown, withered, and brittle while the rest is of a yellow- 
 ish green color. Three weeks or a month may elapse before all the leaves 
 succumb. The stems in the meantime remain green, but they too finally per- 
 ish through lack of nourishment. The tubers stop growing almost as soon as 
 the leaves are attacked, and as a result the crop is practically worthless. 
 
 TREATMENT 
 
 Early blight may be held in check by the application of the fungicide 
 Bordeaux mixture. This is prepared and applied as follows: Pour into a 50- 
 gallon barrel 25 gallons of clean water; then weigh out 6 pounds of crushed 
 bluestone, or copper sulphate, and after tying it in a piece of course sacking 
 suspend the package just beneath the surface of the water by means of a 
 string tied to a stick laid across the top of the barrel. In another suitable 
 vessel, such as a tub or half barrel, slack 4 pounds of fresh lime. Slack the 
 lime carefully by pouring on small quantities of water at a time, the object 
 being to obtain a smooth, creamy liquid, free from grit. When the lime is 
 
122 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 slacked add suf&cient water to make 25 gallons. As soon as the blue stone is 
 dissolved, which will require an hour or more, pour the lime milk and blue- 
 stone solutions together, using a separate barrel for the purpose and stirring 
 constantly to effect a thorough mixing. It sometimes happens that sufficient 
 lime is not added, and as a result the foliage may be injured. To be certain 
 that the mixture is safe, hold a steel knife blade in it for two or three min- 
 utes, and if the polished surface of the blade shows a copper-colored tinge 
 add more lime, but if it stays bright the mixture is safe to use. Application 
 of the mixture should begin when the plants are 4 to 6 inches high, and should 
 be repeated at intervals of twelve to fourteen days until five or six treat- 
 men' s have been made. By adding 8 ounces of Paris green to each barrel of 
 the Bordeaux mixture a combined fungicide and insecticide is obtained, 
 and this will prevent the attacks of the Colorado potato beetle, the flea 
 beetle, and other insects. Before adding the Paris green it should be mixed 
 with a small quantity of water, and when a thin paste is obtained this should 
 be thoroughly stirred into the barrel of Bordeaux solution. 
 
 The success attending the application of the Bordeaux mixture depends 
 in large measure upon the thoroughness with which it is applied. To reach 
 all parts of the plants above ground with a fine spray requires a good force 
 pump and a suitable nozzle. The knapsack sprayer, now on sale in nearly 
 every section of the country, will be found one of the most useful machines 
 for spraying fields of .3 acres or less. For larger plantations more powerful 
 machines should be used. A cheap and serviceable apparatus, well suited 
 for this work, may be made by mounting a good, strong force pump on 'a 
 barrel, and then placing the barrel and mounted pump in a light wagon. 
 The entire outfit, including barrel, pump, hose, nozzles, operator, and boy to 
 drive, may be drawn by one horse. As the wagon is drawn slowly between 
 zhe rows the man in the wagon may operate the pump and at the same time 
 time keep the mixture stirred, while two others on the ground hold the noz- 
 zles and direct the spray over the plants. The nozzle found to be best suited 
 to the work is the Vermorel. This is now offered for sale by pump manu- 
 facturers and dealers in seeds and agricultural implements in various parts 
 of the country. Where there are only a few plants to treat, simple devices 
 for the application of the fungicide, such as watering cans, the syringes used 
 by florists, etc., may be used. 
 
 POTATO BLIGHT, LATE BLIGHT, OR ROT 
 
 [Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de By.) 
 
 This disease attacks the leaves, stems, and tubers. Generally the first 
 noticeable effect upon the leaves is the sudden appearance of brownish or 
 blackish areas, which soon become soft and foul smelling. So sudden is the 
 appearance of the disease in some cases, that fields which one day look green 
 and healthy may within the next day or two become blackened as though 
 swept by fire. The rapid spread of the disease, which is caused by a par- 
 asitic fungus, is dependent in large measure upon certain conditions of mois- 
 ture and heat. A daily mean or normal temperature of from 72 degrees to 
 74 degrees F. for any considerable time, accompanied by moist weather, fur- 
 nishes the best conditions for the spread of the parasite. On the other hand, 
 if the daily mean or normal temperature exceeds 77 degrees for a few days, 
 the development of the disease is checked. This fact explains why the fun- 
 gus seldom occurs to any serious extent in sections where the mean or normal 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 123 
 
 daily temperature exceeds 77 degrees for any length of time, and probably 
 why it appears later than the disease discussed under the former heading. 
 
 The tuber affected with the disease show depressed, dark-colored areas on 
 the surface while within are blotches and streaks of a brownish or blackish 
 color. Other diseases may produce similar effects, so that in this case the 
 changes are not so characteristic as those shown by the leaves. For many 
 years it was believed that most of the injury to the potato was due to this 
 disease, but recent investigations have shown that view to be erroneous. 
 
 TREATMENT 
 
 The same treatment as recommended for early blight should be followed 
 here, and will be found to prevent the blighting of the tops and rotting of 
 the tubers. In regions where late blight is known to occur, care should be 
 taken to begin the application of the Bordeaux mixture before the attacks 
 of the fungus. In all this work it must be constantly kept in mind that the 
 main object is prevention rather than cure. Benefit will undoubtedly result 
 if only clean, healthy potatoes are used as seed. Decayed and discolored tu- 
 bers should be fed to the hogs, as it is poor policy to plant them. 
 
 BROWN ROT 
 
 [Bacillus solanacearum Smith.) 
 
 This disease occurs in many parts of the South, and in addition to at- 
 tacking the potato, is found to seriously injure eggplants and tomatoes. In 
 the case of the potato, the leaves, stems, and tubers are affected. The dis- 
 ease usually manifests itself by a sudden wilting of the foliage and soon the 
 whole plant may become affected, the leaves and stems shriveling and then 
 turning brown or black. The disease reaches the tubers through the stems, 
 producing a brown or black discoloration of the tissues and ultimately a com- 
 plete breaking down or rotting of all the parts. Brown rot is caused by a 
 bacillus, a minute organism, which multiplies in the tissues and through its 
 action produces the effects mentioned. Various insects, such a Colorado 
 beetles, flea beetles, and blister beetles, serve as carriers of the disease. 
 These insects may feed on a diseased plant, and in their visits to adjoining 
 healthy ones infect the tissues through bites and possibly in other ways. 
 
 TREATMENT 
 
 Throughout the South, namely, in South Carolina Mississippi, Alabama, 
 and adjacent States where this disease is known to occur, a thorough system 
 of spraying, such as recommended for early blight, should be followed. In 
 addition, all diseased vines should be removed and destroyed as soon as pos- 
 sible, and the tubers should be dug and either used at once or stored in a cool, 
 dry place. In planting it would be well to avoid land which has just been 
 used for tomatoes or eggplants, and finally seed tubers from localities where 
 the disease is absent should be used if practicable. 
 
 POTATO SCAB 
 
 {Oospora scabies Thaxter.) 
 
 Scab is one of the most widespread diseases affecting the potato. In- 
 juries of various kinds may produce a roughened surface, but it is safe to say 
 that most of what is known as scab is due to the attacks of a minute parasite 
 fungus, first studied and described by Dr. Roland Thaxter, of Harvard Uni- 
 
124 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 versity. The effects of the disease on the tuber are plainly noticed in scabby 
 patches and blotches are so common we believe any one can identify it. 
 
 TREATMENT 
 
 Potato scab may be successfully controlled by treating- the seed before 
 planting. Two fungficides are used for the purpose namely, corrosive sub- 
 limate solution and formalin solution. To prepare the first, dissolve 2* 
 ounces of corrosive sublimate, or bichloride of mercury, in about 2 gallons of 
 hot water and after ten or twelve hours dilute with clear water so that the 
 whole quantity makes 15 gallons. Corrosive sublimate is a poison and must 
 therefore not be placed where it can fall into the hands of children or irre- 
 sponsible persons. To prepare the formalin solution, mix 8 fluid ounces of 
 commercial formalin (otherwise known as 40 per cent formic aldehyde) with 
 15 gallans of water. 
 
 To treat the potatoes with the corrosive sublimate solution, immerse 
 them for an hour and a half in the liquid and then spread out to dry. 
 
 Finally cut and plant in the usual manner. A large barrel is a convenient 
 receptacle for the solution. The potatoes may be placed in a coarse sack 
 and suspended in the liquid, care being taken to wash the tubers before dip- 
 ping, provided they are very dirty. All treated tubers should be planted in 
 order to avoid danger from the poison upon them. 
 
 It has been shown that the formalin is fully as effective against scab as 
 the corrosive sublimate solution, and as it is far less dangerous it will prob- 
 abably come into more general use. In treating seed with this preparation 
 the whole potato should be soaked for two hours in the solution already de- 
 scribed. After soaking, the potatoes may be dried, cut and planted in the 
 usual way, care being taken not to allow them to become contaminated by 
 coming in contact with bags, boxes, or bins where scabby potatoes have been 
 kept In practice it is found that 15 gallons of either of the foregoing solu- 
 tions will be suflBcient to treat 20 to 25 bushels of potatoes, taking ordinary 
 precautions of course not to waste too much of the fluid as each lot of tubers 
 is dipped. 
 
 TIP BURN, LEAF BURN, OR SCALD 
 
 This disease of the leaves occurs in many parts of the country and is 
 often confused with early blight. The tips and edges of the leaves turn 
 brown and these discolored areas soon become hard and brittle. 
 
 The burning or sca'ding may occur at any time and as a rule is the result 
 of unfavorable conditions surrounding the plant. Long continued cloudy and 
 damp weather followed by several hot and bright days is very apt to result 
 in the burning of the foliage. This is especially the case on soils carrying a 
 comparatively small percentage of moisture. When the weather is cloudy 
 and damp the tissues of the potato become gorged with water and this has a 
 tendency to weaken them. If the sun appears bright and hot while the 
 leaves are in this condition, there is a rapid evaporation of the moisture 
 stored up in their cells. The evaporation may be faster than the supply fur- 
 nished by the roots, and if this continues for any length of time the weaker 
 and more tender parts first collapse, then die, and finally turn brown and dry 
 up. Tip burn may also occur as the result of protracted dry weather. 
 
 TREATMENT. 
 
 Little of a specific nature can be said on the treatment of this trouble. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 125 
 
 Numerous factors are involved in the matter, so that only general state- 
 ments are possible. Every effort should be made to keep the plants in good 
 growing condition, for if they become checked through lack of proper food 
 or cultivation or both they are more apt to burn. It is a fact that where 
 the Bordeaux mixture is used for other diseases burn is less apt to occur, and 
 this furnishes another instance of the remarkable properties of the fungi- 
 cide. Briefly, therefore, the plants should be kept as vigorous as possible by 
 good cultivation, plenty of available food, and the application of Bordeaux 
 mixture, as recommended for early blight. 
 
 ARSENIAL POISONING OF POTATO LEAVES. 
 
 In many sections where Paris green in water is applied to potatoes in- 
 juries are produced which cannot be distinguished from early blight by any or- 
 dinary examination. It frequently happens, therefore, that farmers are led 
 to believe that their potatoes are affected with early blight and other dis- 
 eases when the trouble has been brought on by themselves through the im- 
 proper use of Paris green. Injuries resulting jrom the use of this substance 
 are very apt to occur where flea beetles have eaten the foliage. The arsenic 
 attacks the tissues at such points, and as a result more or less circular brown 
 spots are produced, having for their centers the holes eaten out by the flea 
 beetles. By combining the Paris green with Bordeaux mixture, as already 
 described, these injuries may be wholly avoided. 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 The cost of the work of spraying as described here will depend to a con- 
 siderable extent upon the kind of machinery used and the price paid for labor. 
 With suitable apparatus and labor at $1 50 per day. potatoes may be sprayed 
 six times for about $6 per acre. This estimate is based upon experiments 
 extending over several years and includes the cost of chemicals as well as 
 labor. The cost of treating scab is mainly in the labor involved in dipping 
 and drying the seed and seldom exceeds 15 cents per acre. Much attention 
 has been given to the effects of Bordeaux mixture on the growth and yield 
 of potatoes aside from its value in keeping parasitic foes in check. It has 
 been shown conclusively that it pays to apply this preparation if for no 
 other purpose than to induce a more vigorous growth. Three or four appli- 
 cations of the mixture have in many cases increased the yield of potatoes 50 
 per cent, so that no matter where the crop is grown or whether diseases are 
 present or not the writer feels warranted in recommending the application 
 of the mixture on the ground that its use will yield a handsome return, 
 
 Humus in the Soil 
 
 don't forget it— you MUST HAVE HUHUS IN THE SOIL 
 
 It seems like telling the same story over again, but we must talk a little 
 more about humu?, or the oartially decayed vegetable matter in soils. You 
 see that fellow on the adjoining farm who is p'owing and putting in corn the 
 third year in succession. He will put in oats next year, spring wheat per- 
 haps the next and then take three more crops of corn and sell it all on the 
 market. He is probably a renter on a year's lease and has a landlord who 
 does not know anything about farming. What is that landlord forcing the 
 tenant to do? Rob the soil of the humus. For what did the Lord of all farms 
 put that humus in the soil? He had two or three things in mind. One was 
 
326 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 to warm it up in the spring by its slow decomposition. Another was to en- 
 able it to absorb water in a wet time and to hold it and give it out slowly in 
 a dry time. Another was to keep the soil particles apart so that they would 
 not bake, and another was to keep it from washing. Still another was to 
 have on hand a constant source of nitrogren, and another, a source of car- 
 bonic acid by means of which the plant roots could take up the mineral mat- 
 ter. That is what the Lord of the farm and of the soil had in view when he 
 commenced putting humus in all soils capable of sustaining vegetation. 
 And now this fellow is spoiling the work of the great master. He is trying 
 to exhaust that humus. The more he cultivates it the more rapid is the 
 action of the atmosphere, and in time he will have nothing but gas, which 
 has gone into the air and ashes which remain in the soil, and his soil will be- 
 come a muck in a wet time and bake in a dry time. It will have no reserve 
 moisture. It will wash away by the rains and the fellow will think that the 
 soil has been exhausted. Probably it might be as well to let him think so 
 and go off somewhere else. In point of fact, however, it is not exhausted, 
 and there is just as much potash and phosphoric acid in the soil as there ever 
 was, only the great Farmer of farmers has locked it up, turnded the key and 
 put it away where this fellow will not find it. 
 
 Now, just this is the trouble with nearly every soil naturally good that it 
 is said to be exhausted in all these states of the central West. That is the 
 trouble over in Illinois on lands rich beyond the dreams of avarice that are 
 being rented year after year for grain crops until they are refusing to re- 
 spond and the fellows think the climate has changed or there is something 
 wrong with the administration. That is the trouble with rented farms all 
 through Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, Minnesota adn 
 away out in the Red River valley. 
 
 If you will go with me to portions of Mississippi, Alabama* or Florida, I 
 will show you tnousands of farms with their once beautiful mansions, sur- 
 rounded by parks, trees and shrubbery, which today are a total wreck. 
 Thousands of acres of beautiful farm land on which apparently nothing will 
 grow except shrub palmetto and sickly wire grass and yet at one time those 
 farms were wor .h from $100 to $200 per acre, today they may be bought from 
 $5.00 to $20 per acre. And wby? For years they grew cotton which was sold 
 throughout the world and made their owners rich. The day of judgment has 
 passed, the richness ( f the soil was sold, the land was literally robbed, no 
 humus left. The soil once black and rich, today has the appearance of 
 bleached ashes, no life, and cannot respopd to the farmer's call until it has 
 been recuperated with that which brings new life and no one plant can so 
 surely i;ive the needed relief as clover. 
 
 We do not blame the tenant, who probably cannot help himself, but the 
 owner ought to know better, and if the tenant does not know better it is 
 time for him to subscribe for an agricultural paper and learn something. 
 This subject, like others, has been investigated carefully by the experiment 
 stations, and the following is the result in Minnesota: 
 
 Where there is 33 per cent humus in the soil at the beginning, four j ears' 
 cultivation in given crops brought it down 3 per cent; one-seventh of it was 
 gone. On a plat of similar soil, part of the same plat, where the rotation 
 was wheat, clover, wheat and oats, one crop of clover in four years, the per 
 cent of humus rose to 30 per cent, showing how easy it is not merely to stop 
 the waste, but to actually increase the humus in the soil. For better bring- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 127 
 
 ig to your observation I give you the experience of a practical farmer as 
 'ell as a learned scholar, such matter as carries conviction of truth and 
 tioroughly backed by actual farm tests. It will do you good to read, think 
 nd act. 
 
 SOME SOIL PROBLEHS FOR PRACTICAL FARMERS. 
 
 By E. C. Chilcott, 
 
 Professor of Geokxjn (ind.lfironomy in the South Dalota Agricultural College. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 That the practical farmer, the tiller of the soil, should thoroughly under- 
 tand the soil that he tills is a proposition so self-evident that at first thought 
 ; would seem useless to discuss it, and yet careful observation will surely 
 lake us realize how slow practical farmers have been to avail themselves of 
 iie knowledge within their reach concerning the soil, its origin, and its prop- 
 rties. The responsibility for this condition of affairs does not rest entirely 
 ith the farmers themselves. It is largely the result of faulty methods of 
 iucation in our common schools, high schools, and colleges. 
 
 STUDY OP GEOLOGY AND SOIL CONDITIONS. 
 
 In many of the common schools the study of physical geography is either 
 ntirely neglected or taught by instructors who know little more of the sub- 
 let than is contained in the very elementary text-books used, who have no 
 nowledge of geology, and no conception of the very inti-nate connection be- 
 jveen physical geography and the agricultural resources of a country Many 
 f these teachers have never had an opportunity to learn at first hand from 
 ature the things they are expected to teach They are not to be blamed for 
 lis condition; it is one of the very unsatisfactory results of our system of 
 iucation, which places the instruction of the young, especially in the rural 
 :hools, in the hands of ioexperienced teachers. Such t^eachers can not be 
 xpected to impart a broad and comprehensive knowledge that will be of 
 alue to the practical farmer in after life, for they do not possess it them- 
 ;lves. 
 
 Much has been written lately in favor of teaching agriculture in the 
 ublic schools; but, until leachers can be, found who can teach physical geo- 
 raphy and geology from an agricultural standpoint, there is little prospect 
 f finding competent teachers of agriculture. 
 
 TEACHING GEOLOGY IN HIGH SCHOOLS AND AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. 
 
 The teaching of geology in high schools and colleges is not much more 
 itisfactory. Even in many of the agricultural colleges very liitle attention 
 i given to geology, and what little iastruction 1s given is by teachers who 
 ave no knowledge of agriculture, and who, consequ ^ntly, do not attempt to 
 each the student the close connection between geology and agriculture. 
 
 Geology is so broad a subject that teachers of this science are almost 
 orced to select some quite restricted branch of the subject along which they 
 'ill specialize, to the partial or entire neglect of other branches. Unfor- 
 unately, we have very few geolo^nsts who have specialized along the line of 
 gricultural geology. The agricultural colleges should,, and it is hoped that 
 1 time they will, turn out young men well equipped to .teach geology from 
 n agricultural standpoint. 
 
128 • BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 THE STUDY OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY BY THE FARMER. 
 
 In the meantime, what is the practical farmer to do, who realizes that 
 he does not possess the knowledg"e of physical geography and geology neces- 
 sary for intelligent comprehension of the practical problems in connection 
 with the tillage of the soil, in order to supply the defects in his early educa- 
 tion? 
 
 First, let the farmer procure a copy of any one of the numerous standard 
 modern elementary text-books of physical geography. No farmer of aver- 
 age intelligence and a fair knowledge of the English language, who will 
 bring to the task a mature mind, more or less practical experience and ob- 
 servation, and an earnest desire to learn, will find any difficulty in mastering 
 the subject, as set forth in such a text-book, in a very short time He will 
 not find it necessary to learn so very much that is entirely new to him, but 
 he will be brought to see the relations and bearing of many facts that he 
 was already familiar with. He will frequently be surprised to discover what 
 a fund of valuable information he had gathered from experience and obser- 
 vation, bat had not been ab'e to use because his attention had never been 
 called to the bearing and relation of these facts. 
 
 If there are young members of the family who are studying or have studied 
 physical geography in school, they can materially assist their elders in the 
 study; and, furthermore, it will be a great stimulus to these young people if 
 they- find the subject has a practical side of such importance that their par- 
 ents are interested in it. The practical knowledge and experience of the 
 mature man will supplement the theoretical knowledge of the student, and 
 they will be mutually helpful to one another. 
 
 THE STUDY OF GEOLOGY BY THE FARMER. 
 
 Havng become familiar with the subject of physical geography, the 
 next step should be to take up the study of some elementary work on geo- 
 logy. In selecting a text book the name of th^ author is not of so mach im- 
 portance as that the work itself be up to date. The science of geology is ad- 
 vancing so rapidly that all the publishers of standard text-booksfind it neces- 
 sary to make frequent revisions, and only the latest editions should be used. 
 It is a quite generally accepted opinion among those who have never studied 
 geology that it is so profound, not to say mysterious, a science that only 
 those with college training can comprehend it. Such an opinion is entirely 
 erroneous: for while it is true that the geologist who would undertake origi- 
 nal investigation, either in the field or in the laboratory, must be well 
 grounded in the sciences of mineralogy, chemistry, physics, biology, astron- 
 omy, and mathematics if he expects to take a place among the leaders of the 
 profession, it is also true that these investifir?,tors are able to expound many 
 of the complf X problems in geology in language easily comprehended by any 
 person of ordinary education; and this has been done in tie elementary text- 
 books in use in the schools. 
 
 In no other vocation, with the possible exception of mining, is a know- 
 ledge of the fundamental principles of geology more necessary than in farm- 
 ing. It might even be questioned whether the miner is able to utilize the 
 teaching of geology as fully as can the farmer; for while the miner must 
 possess some knowledge of structural geology, gained either from books or 
 from experience and observation, the farmer finds a knowledge of all the 
 subdivisions of geology equally serviceable to him, A knowledge of dynamic,! 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 129 
 
 structural and physiographical g-eology gives him an insight into the origin 
 and characteristics of the soil, the tillage of which constitutes so large apart 
 of his vocation, while a knowledge of historical geology shows him how all 
 the plants and animals with which he has to deal have slowly developed from 
 lower and simpler forms. In fact, the work of the farmer and stock breeder 
 in improving cultivated plants and domesticated animals is simply a continu- 
 ation of the process of improvement carried on by nature before man existed 
 and for a long period after his advent, and before he had developed in the 
 scale of intelligence to the point where he began to recognize the benefit to 
 himself that would result from his taking advantage of the forces of nature 
 to shape animals and plants to his rapidly increasing needs and wants. 
 
 There are very few practical farmers who will not find it profitable to 
 devote some time to the study of physical geography and geology after their 
 minds have matured and they have acquired a store of practical experience. 
 
 The extent to which the study should be carried must necessarily be de- 
 termined by the tastes and intellectual bent of the individual concerned, but 
 it should certainly be sufficient to enable him to read intelligently the vari- 
 ous reports issued by the United States and his own state geological surveys. 
 He should make himself thoroughly familiar with these reports, at least so 
 far as they deal with the conditions in his own state, or with broader and 
 more general problems with which he has to deal as a practical farmer and 
 business man In this day of world-wide competition it is not sufficient that 
 the farmer shall be acquainted with his local conditions only. He must pos- 
 sess a general knowledge of the conditions surrounding those with whom he 
 is to compete in supplying the world with its food products. Commercial 
 geography is a subject with which all producers as well as all dealers should 
 be familiar. 
 
 No doubt many farmers who read the above will say that this is simply 
 theorizing, and that it is not practicable for a farmer to undertake such a 
 course of study. It is hoped that the writer may be excused for stating that 
 he is and has been for twenty years a practical farmer, and that the above 
 opinions are the outgrowth of his personal experience as such. 
 
 ESSENTIALS FOR THE PROGRESSIVE FARMER 
 
 With the knowledge above suggested the farmer is in a position to 
 keep abreast of new developments along agricultural lines by keeping in 
 close touch with the agricultural college and experiment station of his own 
 State and with the Uaited States Department of Agriculture. He will also 
 be in a position to take up lines of investigation and experimentation for 
 himself on his own farm that will not only add to his prosperity, bat will give 
 him a added interest in his farm life. 
 
 HOME STUDY OF SOIL PHYSIOS 
 
 In nearly all of the more progressive agricultural colleges of the country, 
 laboratories are equipped with quite extensive and elaborate apparatus for 
 the study of soil pUysic^, as is fully described and illus'ratid in a recent pub- 
 lication of the United State^s Department of Agricu'ture. a ^11 farmers who 
 can take a course in soil physics in one of these institutions should 
 do so; but there are thousands of intelligent, progressive far- 
 mers who cannot spend the necessary time away from their 
 farms. These farmers, however, need not feel dis:ouraged. There 
 are a great many very important problems in soil physics that 
 
130 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 must be solved on the farm if they are ever to be solved, and, indeed, 
 the value of laboratory training" and study depends entirely upon the char- 
 acter, experience, and practical knowledge of the soil, and its behavior under 
 actual field conditions, possessed by the teacher. The ultimate object of all 
 study of soil physics by those who are fitting" themselves for practical far- 
 mers is to become so thorougly acquainted with the various types of soil with 
 which they are likely to have to deal in actual farm operations that they 
 will be able to recognize them as soon as they see and handle them, and to 
 know the crop-producing powers of each under the conditions where they 
 are found; to be able to decide what methods of tillage will place each in the 
 best possible condition for the crop to b2 grown upon it under varying climatic 
 
 a Bulletin No. 127 of the Offlce of Experiment Stations. 
 conditions, and how best to supply any lack of food that may exist. 
 
 There is no doubt that most of this knowledge must be acquired in the 
 field, under actual farm conditions. Laboratory methods of instruction that 
 will assist in acquiring this knowledge without obscuring the objects sought 
 are to be commended. But the time and energy of the student must not be 
 so taken up with mastering the details of the methods adopted for establish- 
 ing certain facts as to lose sight of the object for which these facts are 
 sought. The teacher must coaatantly keep before the mind of the student 
 the practical application of the principles demonstrated in the laboratory. 
 
 STUDY OF MECnANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS 
 
 Every practical farmer should know something of the mechanical char- 
 acteristics of different types of soil, and particularly of those with which he 
 has to deal on his own farm. If he can have made for him, by some compe- 
 tent person, mechanical analyses of the various types of soils with'which he 
 has become acquainted through pr,:ctical experience and observation, he 
 will be able to see the causes of some of the productive peculiarities of these 
 soils that he has already observed but cannot explain, and in many other 
 ways the knowledge gained from these analyses v ill be of value. For a 
 practical farmer to uodertake to become an expert sdII analyst is however, 
 a waste of time. The same may be said of nitrogen and specific gravity de- 
 terminations and many other laboratory proc s>es required of students in 
 some of the agri:ultural cuU^ges. "Art for art's sake'' is nowhere more out 
 of place than in laboratory instruction in soil physics for the practical farmer. 
 
 REQUISITES FOR THE SUCCESSFUL TEACHER OR INVESTIGATOR 
 
 The above remarks do not, of course, apply to those who are fitting them- 
 selves for teachers or investigators in the theory of soil physics, for to them 
 laboratory work is of the higoest importancp, and such work offers a very in- 
 viting field of usefulness for those who are fitted for it. It is most import- 
 ant, however, tiat every teacher or investigator in agriculture should be 
 thoroughly familiar with the soil and all farm operations. He should know 
 bow the different soils behave under different methods of tillage in the field, 
 under all the varying climatic conditions that are to be met with in the 
 couatry where he is locatec'; and in addition to this he should have a broad 
 general knowledge of conditions, methods, and results in other parts of the 
 world He should have a good working knowledge of geology, physics, and 
 chemistry, in so far as they apply to the soil and plant production, and he 
 should not only be familiar with the results obtained by specialists in labora- 
 tory investigations in soil physics, but also with the methods used in their 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 131 
 
 investigations. Without these qualiflcations he cannot be a successful 
 teacher. 
 
 The farmer should have the same general knowledge of the soil, agricul- 
 tural methods, and climatic and economic conditions as is needed by the 
 teacher or investigator. He should also be acquainted with the results ob- 
 tained by these investigators, though he need not be able to perform the 
 laboratory manipulations. There are thousands of successful business men 
 who never attended a business college and who know nothing of the methods 
 of instruction employed in them. Although many of our best farmers attained 
 their success without direct assistance from the agricultural colleges and 
 experiment stations, all of them have profited very largely from the indirect 
 benefits they have received trom these institutions, which have, by investi- 
 gation and teaching, added so enormously to the general store of knowledge- 
 This knowledge has become pub ic property, and has benefited thousands of 
 men who have never come in direct contact with any of these institutions. 
 
 RELATION OF THE SCIENTIST TO THE FARMER 
 
 Farmers as a class are conservative, and they have not been as quick to 
 grasp indirect benefits as those engaged in other vocations. The reason for 
 this is largely their failure to realize how, by a little effort on their part, 
 they can fit themselves to make available the vast stores of more or less 
 theoretical knowledge accumulated by the scientists. 
 
 On the other hand, there has been, and still is, a tendency on the part of 
 some scientists to belittle the value of the knowledge and experience of 
 these unacquanted with the mere machinery that they have used in obtain- 
 ing their knowledge. A better understanding is, however, being brought 
 about between the practical farmer and the experiment-station worker. The 
 very best men in the agricultural colleges and experiment stations frankly 
 admit that many practical farmers who know little or nothing of the meth- 
 ods adopted by scientists, nevertheless, have, by observation and practical 
 experience, gained such a knowledge of the soil and its requirements for 
 crop production that they can, from a simple examination of the soils with 
 which they have become acquainted, make a reliable estimate of their crop- 
 producing capacity 
 
 What is needed is that the scientist should be thoroughly acquainted 
 with the soil and p'ant growth under actual field conditions, and should know 
 the actual results of the various methods of tillage and farm management, 
 although he does not perform any of the actual operations of the fai'm him- 
 self, and that, on the o'her hand, the farmer, should keep himself posted as 
 to the actual results of the investigations carried on by the scientist. 
 
 All information given to the farmer by the scientist, either in the class 
 ro'm or through the publications or public lectures, should de-il with results 
 and not ■« ith details of the methods by which those results were obtained. 
 Only such in*"ormation should be given concerning the details of the methods 
 used to to obtain the results as will enable the farmer to j^dge intelligently 
 of the value of those results. And in giving these details the scientist should 
 be absolutely frank in admitting the defects and limitations of his methods- 
 Field conditions cannot be duplicated in the laboratory, and laboratory re- 
 sults will not hold good under field conditions, although certain general prin- 
 ciples may be demonstrated by laboratory methods. 
 
132 BOOK OR CORN GROW.«NG 
 
 CROP ROTATION, METHODS AND VALUE 
 
 Among- the many problems that may and should be worked out both at 
 the agricultural experiment stations and upon private farms, few can be 
 found that are of greater importance and of more universal application than 
 that of crop rotation. 
 
 Some very sig^nificant facts are brought out in the article upon "Prac- 
 tices in crop rotation," contributed to the Yearbook for 1902 by George K. 
 Holmes, of the Division of Statistics, Department of Agricultural. He says: 
 "Haphazard is a mild word to describe the impression given by the re- 
 ports of the correspondents with regard of the rotation of crops in many 
 counties and parts of counties of the United States. Although there may be 
 an annual change of crop on the same land, this change is so uncertain, so 
 unsystematic, that at first it seems impossible to establish order out of the 
 chaotic mass of particulars." 
 
 In another place Mr. Holmes says: 
 
 "A diminution in the degree of rotation hardly appears until Ohio is 
 passed, and then the diminution is gradual until in the longitude of middle 
 Kansas rotation is of the simplest, when existing at all." 
 
 In the same article, speaking of the use of fertilizers, is the following: 
 "There are still extensive regions in the United States where barn ma- 
 nure is considered a farm nuisance. In a county in Oregon the neighbor is 
 welcome to haul away this manure, and that neighbor is likely to be a thrifty 
 German with a large garden; in other Oregon counties the manure is burned. 
 In a California county the manure is dumped into ravines; it goes to the 
 creek in Oklahoma; it is hauled to a hole in the ground or put on one side of 
 the field in Kansas; South Dakota farmers burn it to be rid of it, and some" 
 times burn it for fuel. In North Dakota farmers haul barn manure to piles 
 and leave it there until it disappears; farmers in Missouri deposit it by the 
 roadside, and in Idaho scrapers are used, and it is 'often seen piled as high 
 as a barn.' 
 
 In many counties between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean 
 farmers not only find barn manure a nuisance, but they have a grievance 
 against it, claiming in South Dakota that it produces dog fennel, elsewhere 
 that it produces other weeds, and in various counties that it has such an ef- 
 fect of 'poisoning' the soil that farmers are afraid of it." 
 
 The foregoing statements are all true but they ought not to be. One 
 can not help exclaiming in the words of Polonius, '"Tis true 'tis pity; and 
 pity 'tis 'tis true." Not only are these statements true when applied to the 
 localities mentioned, but they wculd be equally true of many other localities. 
 The farmers are not alone to blame for this condition. In the article 
 quoted the statement is made that "The farmer is in a rut, lacks initiative, 
 and needs help to get out." This is true and to a certain extent always will 
 be. Are the agricultural colleges and experiment stations doing all they 
 might do and ought to do to help the farmer out of this rut? In some states, 
 yes; in others, no. It would not be difficult to name some agricultural col- 
 leges where thousands of dollars are being expended annually in teaching 
 young farmers how chemical and physical analyses are made where absolute- 
 ly nothing is b2ing done in a practical, systematic, scientific way to test the 
 value of crup rotation and the application of manures under ordinary field 
 conditions. Is there not, then, some ground for the "contempt of book farm- 
 ing" mentioned by Mr. Holmes as being felt by some practical farmers, and 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 133 
 
 are not the colleges and stations in part to blame for the condition mention- 
 ed? 
 
 WORK IN CKOr ROTATION AT EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 
 
 There may be experiment station farms in the United States where it is 
 impracticable or needless to carry on work in crop rotation but it would be 
 difficult to imagine where they are located. Most, if not all, should be carry- 
 ing on experiments, not with oae but with many systems of crop rotation. 
 This work should be carefu ly planned and systematically and uninterrupted- 
 ly carried on for a long succession of years. In fact there is no limit to the 
 length of time to which it should be extended. It will become more and 
 more valuable as time goes on. It should embrace not only those rotations 
 which the experience of practical farmers has indicated as best adapted to 
 the local conditions in the state; but it should also include others, both good 
 and bad; those that seem to be bad may prove to be good, and those that 
 prove to be bad may be as valuable, as object lessons, as those that give bet- 
 ter results. 
 
 In connection with this work of crop rotation many other lines of work 
 could be carried on, such as studies in the movement and conservation of soil 
 moisture, application of fertilizers, methods of tillage, nitrification, leach- 
 ing of soils, effect of green manuring, and the growth of leguminous plants- 
 etc. But these should be considered as accessory to the main problem ot 
 crop rotation Crop production through a long term of years should be the 
 crucical test of the value of any rotation, and these results should never be 
 obscured by the introduction of any side line. 
 
 As a rule, it will not be advisable for the practical farmer to carry on 
 more than one, or at the most two, rotations on any one farm. A system of 
 crop rotation should be planned to last for generations, and should not be 
 undertaken without careful consideration. The farmer should become thor- 
 oughly acquainted with the subject before be adopts any system. This he 
 ought to be able to do by applying to his own state experiment station The 
 men in charge of the work there ought to be able to furnish him with more, 
 and more valuable, information than he can obtain from any other source. 
 Here, then, is a field for the practical application of the science of soil 
 physics where close cooperation between the practical farmer and the scien- 
 tist can be mutually beneficial. 
 
 COMPARISON OF HUMID AND SEMIARID REGIONS. 
 
 Mr. Holmes, previously quoted, makes the following statement in the 
 article mentioned: '^Insemiarid regions barn manure needs to be used cau- 
 tiously on unirrigated land." He also mentions "the limitations of the semi- 
 arid regions," and finally says: "Unirrigated lands in the arid and semiarid 
 regions labor under such limitations that they can not be compared with 
 other parts of the country in such a manner as crop rotation." These state- 
 ments, like the others quoted, are in the main true, but the limitations of the 
 semiarid regions are not as restricted as might be inferred from the words 
 quoted. Neither does it seem true to the writer that crop rotation in semi- 
 arid regions is so difl'erent from crop rotation in humid regions that the two 
 can not be compared. On the other hand, it would seem that a comparison 
 of the problems Involved in crop rotation in the humid and in the semiarid 
 regions would be of value in bringing out certain fundamental principles in- 
 volved in both. The limitations are mainly in the kind and number of crops 
 
134 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 that can profitably be produced in the two reg'ions, and the difference in this 
 respect is not so great as might at first be supposed, as will be seen from an 
 examination of the rotations given below. 
 
 The main differecce in the nature of the problems involved, between the 
 humid and the semiarid regions, is that in the humid regions the most impor- 
 tant object sought is the conservation of the soil fertility or plant food, 
 while in the arid and semiarid regions it is the conservation of soil moisture. 
 Of course, neither of the. factors can be disregarded in either region, but the 
 relative importance of each is as stated. In other words, the farmer in the 
 humid region is mainly interested in the chemical problems involved, while 
 in arid and semiarid regions the most important problems are those of soil 
 physics. 
 
 USE OF BARNYARD MANURE. 
 
 What has been quoted from Mr. Holmes concerning the need of caution 
 in using barn manure is true, and it is true because the physical effects pro- 
 duced by an application of the manure are often of greater importance than 
 the chemical ones. It is quite frequently the case that the bad physical 
 effects of the application more than offset the beneficial chemical ones. But 
 when this fact is recognized and due consideration is given to these physical 
 effects, manure can be applied in semiarid regions with beneficial results 
 without danger to the physical condition of the soil In summing up the re- 
 sults of some experiments in the application of manure to wheat, conducted 
 by the writer in 1897 and 1898, and published in Bulletin No. 79 of the South 
 Dakota experiment station, the following statements are made: 
 
 The farmer should fully understand that while the application of barn" 
 yard manure to the soil is certain to have a beneficial effect by adding to the 
 store of plant food, its effect may not be apparent in the results of the first 
 crop after the application, and that the immediate mechanical or physical 
 effects upon the soil may be either beneficial or detrimental, depending upon 
 the character of the soil, the kind of manure, the time and method of appli- 
 cation, the nature of the crop, and the character of the season as to moisture 
 and temperature. 
 
 The soil of the farm should be considered a bank in which the surplus 
 resources of the farm, in the form of plant food, should be deposited with the 
 understanding that the surplus can not be withdrawn at once, but is to re- 
 main until such time as the conditions are favorable for its utilization. With 
 our light rainfall and retentive soil the danger of loss from leaching is very 
 slight. 
 
 From our experience and observation we believe we are warranted in re- 
 commending as the surest method of guarding against the possible bad phys- 
 ical effects of the application of the manure that it be applied to land intend- 
 ed for corn instead of wheat; that it be hauled direct from the stable during 
 the late fall, winter and spring, and plowed under in the spring. The corn 
 will be likely to be benefitted, and the wheat crop that should follow the corn 
 will probably be improved as much or more than it would be if the manure 
 were applied directly to that crop. 
 
 CROP ROTATION AT SOUTH DAKOTA EXPERIMENT STATION, 
 
 The writer has been engaged in experiments in crop rotation at the 
 South Dakota experiment station for the last seven years. Below is given a 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 135 
 
 list of the various rotations which have been carried on continuously and 
 systematically for that period and are still under way: 
 
 1. Flax, barley, millet, wheat, corn. 
 
 2. Wheat, oats, peas (fed), a wheat, roots. 
 
 3. Oats, wheat, fallow, wheat, corn. 
 
 4. Wheat, barley, peas (plowed), a wheat, corn. 
 
 5. Wheat, oats, corn, flax, millet (fed). 
 
 6. Wheat, barley, peas (cut), a wheat, corn (fed). 
 
 7. Wheat, corn, wheat, oats. 
 
 8. Wheat, corn, oats, millet. 
 
 9. Wheat, corn, (manured), wheat, oats. 
 
 10. Wheat, corn, oats. 
 
 11. Oats, fallow, wheat. 
 
 12. Barley, millet, wheat. 
 
 13. Barley, peas (cut), wheat. 
 
 14. Wheat, wheat, fallow. 
 
 15. Wheat, wheat, corn. 
 
 16. Wheat, fallow. 
 
 17. Wheat, corn. 
 
 18. Wheat, vetch. 
 
 19 Wheat continuously, no manure. 
 
 20. Wheat continuously, manured every five years. 
 
 21. Wheat continuously, manured every three years. 
 
 22. Wheat continuously, manured every year, 
 
 23. Wheat seeded to brome grass, brome, brorhe, flax, wheat, corn. 
 
 24. Wheat seeded to brome grass, brome, brome, wheat, corn. 
 
 Space will not permit more than the briefest mention of the results of 
 these experiments; but in order to bring about the beneficial effects of a 
 proper rotation under arid conditions the following table and explanation 
 are given. The season of 1900 was one of the most unfavorable experienced 
 here for many years. Crops on many neighboring farms were a complete 
 failure on account of the lack of sufficient moisture at the proper time, while 
 the season of 1901 was a fairly favorable one. The yields given are the aver- 
 ages for plats in the aforementioned rotation, grouped together according 
 to the kind of crops which immediately preceded the wheat and oat crops, 
 respectively. 
 
 The following table shows that the average yield of wheat from 30 plats 
 was but 9 15 bushels per acre for 1900, while that from the same number 
 of plats in the same rotations was 16.38 bushels for 1901. 
 
 The average yield of oats from 8 plats was 20.69 bushels per acre for 1900 
 and 47.87 bushels for 1901. These figures fully bear out the conclusions ar- 
 rived at from previous considerations, that 1900 was a very unfavorable and 
 1901 a fairly favorable season; but in spite of the very unfavorable conditions 
 which prevailed in 1900 there were 12 plats out of the 30 that yielded on an av- 
 erage 14 27 bushels of wheat per acre. Four of these had been summer fal 
 
 a Where the words "cut," "fed," and "plowed" are used in parentheses 
 after a crop they indicate whether the crop was allowed to mature, and was 
 c«/or harvested in the usual manner, was fed off by stock before it reached 
 maturity, or was /^/o?rerf under for green manure. The word "manured" fol- 
 lowing a crop indicates that barn manure was applied at time of planting. 
 
136 
 
 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 lowed in 1899, 6 had raised a crop of corn, 1 a crop of potatoes, and 1 a crop 
 of peas which had been plowed under. The other 18 plats yielded an average 
 of only 6.23 bushels. Of these, 4 had raised oats in 1899, 3 peas, 1 vetch, 4 
 millet, and 6 wheat. 
 
 Of the 8 plats of oats raised in 1900, the 5 that followed wheat yielded 
 only 12 63 bushels per acre, while the three that followed corn produced 28.75 
 bushels per acre. 
 
 Yields of wheat and oats in different rotations compared for an unfavorable and a fav- 
 orable season. 
 
 
 dum- 
 ber of 
 plats. 
 
 1900 
 
 1901 
 
 Rotation. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Ratio, 1 
 to— 
 
 Straw. Grain. 
 
 Ratio, 1 
 to— 
 
 Wheat after- 
 Fallow 
 
 4 
 6 
 4 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 6 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 2,375 
 
 2,280 
 
 1.150 
 
 1,920 
 
 1,645 
 
 2,290 
 
 2,300 
 
 1,620 
 
 1,773 
 
 1,77 
 
 1,415 
 
 Bu. 
 
 15 00 
 
 13.91 
 
 3 96 
 
 7.16 
 
 4.66 
 
 14.83 
 
 13.33 
 
 7,16 
 
 6 55 
 
 10 50 
 
 3.60 
 
 2.64 
 2 73 
 
 4 84 
 4.46 
 
 5 87 
 2.57 
 2 88 
 3.77 
 4.51 
 2 81 
 
 6 63 
 
 Lbs. Bu. 
 2 848 15.66 
 
 3.03 
 
 Corn 
 
 2,9.58 
 2,558 
 2 660 
 3,020 
 2,980 
 2,870 
 2,580 
 2,770 
 3,020 
 2,805 
 
 17 35 
 16 75 
 
 18 16 
 
 14 66 
 17.00 
 17.16 
 15.33 
 16 33 
 16.33 
 
 15 46 
 
 2 84 
 
 Oats 
 
 2.54 
 
 Peas (fed) 
 
 2.44 
 
 Peas (cut) 
 
 Peas (Plowed under) 
 Potatoes 
 
 3.43 
 
 2.92 
 2.79 
 
 Vetch 
 
 2.80 
 
 Millet (cut) 
 
 2.83 
 
 Millet (fed) 
 
 Wheat 
 
 3.08 
 3.02 
 
 
 
 Averagfe 
 
 
 1,86" 
 
 9.15 
 
 
 2,824 
 
 16.38 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oats after- 
 Wheat 
 
 5 
 3 
 
 2,046 
 
 2.280 
 
 12 63 
 
 28 75 
 
 5 06 
 
 2 48 
 
 2,358 
 2.343 
 
 48 14 
 
 47.59 
 
 153 
 
 Corn 
 
 1.54 
 
 Average 
 
 
 2,163 
 
 20 69 
 
 
 2,35C 
 
 47.87 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 It will be seen that in the case of the wheat an increased yield of 8.04 
 bushels was obtained where the wheat followed summer fallow, corn, potatoes* 
 or peas plowed under, while the advantage of raising oats after corn instead 
 of after wJieat was 16.12 bushels of oats. As a bushel of wheat is usually 
 worth from three to four times as much as a bushel of oats, it would have 
 paid better to have raised wheat after corn and oats after wheat in all the ro- 
 tations. 
 
 The yields of both wheat and oats for 1901 were quite uniform and fairly 
 good, although they were undoubtedly 2 or 3 bushels less than they should 
 have been, judging from the growth of straw. This reduced yield was caused 
 Jby the very hot weather in July. It will be noticed that the heaviest yields 
 of grain were from plats having the lightest growth of straw, and the light* 
 est yields of grain were from plats having the heaviest straw, showing, as 
 has frequently been observed, that where there is a very rank growth of 
 straw the damage from hot winds is usually greater than where the growth 
 has not been so luxuriant. There seems to have been no advantage from 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 137 
 
 sowing- wheat on summer fallow or corn land. In fact, the summer fallow 
 plats fell below the average by 0.72 bushel per acre. 
 
 While we should guard against forming too positive opinions upon an ex- 
 perience limited to six years, the evidence so far obtained certainly points 
 very strongly toward the conclusion that, during years when there is a suffic- 
 ient supply of moisture and a suitable temperature properly distributed 
 throughout the g"rowJng season, good yield of wheat may be obtained from 
 our average prairie soils, where the crop is properly put in, without much 
 regard as to the kind of crop the land has raised the preceding season. But 
 when the supply of moisture is deficient for the season, or is not properly 
 distributed, a fair averaged crop can be produced where a suitable rotation 
 is practiced, while partial or total failure will result where wheat is sown 
 after a crop that does not leave the soil in the proper physical condition. In 
 short, it would seem that our soils, after twenty years' continuous cropping, 
 have a sufficient supply of plant food to produce good crops, provided the 
 physical condition of the soil is such that there is enough water to make this 
 supply of food available to the plant. 
 
 CONCLUSION 
 
 From the results of the above experiments and from a residence of twenty 
 years in the semiand regions, the writer feels waranted instating the opinion 
 that in no part of the United States is the subject of crop rotations of great- 
 er importance than in the arid and semiarid regions. 
 
 Crop rotation is only one of the many soil problems that should be worked 
 out in the field at the experiment stations and by farmers upon their own 
 farms: and the farmer and the scientist should keep in close touch, so that 
 each may profit by the experience of the other. 
 
 Practical Farming. 
 
 The following will form one of the chapters of the book, "Practical Corn 
 Growing," which J. B. Armstrong has written and which will soon be issued. 
 Mr. Armstrong wrote this article a number of years ago and has had time to 
 observe wnether or not he was correct in his contentions, and now, after giv- 
 ing close observation, he intends to put it in the book exactly as he wrote it 
 ten years ago. 
 
 How to grow corn and other grains and keep up the fertility of the farm, 
 that it will make a paying crop, ought to be the study of every tiller of the 
 soil. As the world will always have to depend upon the great corn belt of the 
 United States for its supply of the best and most prolific corn seed, and of 
 those varieties that grow the strongest, that resist the drought and hot 
 winds, that best give the most amount of fat-giving quality; this being the 
 case, it is necessary that every farmer do his best that we may not disap- 
 point the world and at the same time reap the rich reward of bountiful crops. 
 
 It must be evident to all observing men that the old idea that anyone 
 could farm successfully is fast being abandoned and the people are beginning 
 to learn that preparation for successful farming is as necessary as in any of 
 the professions and that those who are keeping at the front are those who 
 read, think and experiment; that thorough preparation is the first thing that 
 each one should practice. Second a thorough knowledge of the land that 
 they are to cultivate and next the proper seed to be used, especially in corn. 
 The old idea that corn is corn is true, but that the seed grown by the intelli" 
 
138 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 gent specialist with the view ia mind that first vitality, sturdy, strong- stalk, 
 broad leaf and prolific tendency are the requisites to a paying- crop it being- 
 evident to every mind that such seed bought from a reliable grower and prop- 
 erly cultivated will do away with the low general yield. 
 
 I am thoroughly convinced that the farm papers, especially in the corn 
 belt, who are advocating the holding of farmers associations, who are asking 
 for the views of tbose who are prosperous in that direction are doing a won- 
 derfully good missionary work and ought to be fully sustained with a liberal 
 patronage and the individual farmer, while he must to a certain extent di- 
 versify his farming, he should take some one thing as a specialty and do a 
 great amount of work along that line, and then be sure to give your neigh- 
 bors your experience. 
 
 One such farmer with whom we talked but yesterday says: "Five years 
 ago I read your little book, 'Hints on Corn Growing,' and it awakened in my 
 mind a new train of thought. I procured some improved seed and did my 
 very best to make a good crop and with me the results have been wonderful. 
 My yield for the five years that T have grown it on 80 to 280 acres has made 
 an average for all of these years of 67 bushels per acre. The best year was 
 82 bushels. Now mind, all of my corn is weighed in at the time of gathering, 
 and this year I weighed in from the field 4200 bushels and sold the same after 
 being in the crib (iO days and delivered it in the market seyen miles distant 
 and only had 41 bushels of shrinkage. I wish all farmers could understand 
 the value of thorough system and correct methods as well as I do at the pres- 
 ent time. The experience those five years and the efforts that I have made 
 are convincing proof to me that one has only to study, read and practice what 
 he may find in those farm papers being so thoroughly scattered throughout 
 our broad land. At least I receive this year three hundred dollars more for 
 the crop of corn that I have to sell than I should have gotten had I not plant- 
 ed reliable corn and that grading at the head. Just such trials and test are 
 what bring out the grand results. Hoping that the above may stimulate 
 many of my readers to a better and stronger effort, I am. 
 
 The Sick Farm 
 
 The Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station has recently published 
 Bulletin No. 65 which is unusually suggestive to men who are thinking about 
 fertility, commercial fertilizers, and in general about the methods of in- 
 creasing crop production. The title — "The Bacteriological Analyses of Soil" — 
 might scare some reader and for that reason we have chosen a different head- 
 ing for our article. We assure them that a bacterium (singular for bacteria> 
 is something that one need not be afraid of and it is well that we should know 
 just how he is helping us. 
 
 The bulletin goes on to state that forty-nine analyses of the typical soils 
 of the United States showed as an average result that they had in the first 
 eight inches enough nitrogen to last for ninety crops, enough phosphorus for 
 500 and potash for 1000 and yet these same soils where the chemist has found 
 so much fertility may under certain conditions become so utterly barren of 
 results to the farmer as to lead him to believe that they are actually devoid 
 of plant food. 
 
 The bulletin goes on further to state that the soil at Rathamsted. Eng- 
 land, which had been cropped with wheat for fifty years without manure and 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 139 
 
 which had consequently been exhausted producing" only eight bushels per 
 acre, still contained phosphorus, in which it was especially exhausted, to 
 last a hundred years to come. We have seen this identical piece of land and 
 saw two or three crops of wheat growing' on it. The reason this plot, with a 
 supply of phosphorus to last a hundred years, had become exhausted was sim- 
 ply because it was not in shape to be available for the plants. 
 
 You say what has this to do with microbes or bacteria? A very great 
 deal. The trouble with the Rothamsted soil, and the trouble with nearly all 
 so-called exhausted soils, is not that they are deficient in the elements sup- 
 plied by commercial fertilizers but because they are deficient in vegetable 
 matter — humus — something for the bacteria or microbes to feed on. It is 
 through these that the unavailable forms of plant food become available. 
 To quote from the bulletin: 
 
 "When vegetable or animal matter is incorporated with the soil it under- 
 goes a process of decay. In this decay certain products are formed which 
 react upon the insoluble or unavailable forms of plant food in the soil and 
 render them soluble and available. This latter decay is brought about 
 through the agency of myriads of bacteria present in the soil." 
 
 Here is an idea which may be quite new to many of our readers and yet 
 it explains a good many things that happen in their experience. You must 
 use vegetable matter in order to make your mineral matter available to 
 plants; in other words, to allow digestion and assimilation to go on. The 
 bacteria of the soil are simply cells and they do work quite similar to 
 what the cells which outline the glands of our own bodies do in the process 
 of digestion. No matter how much food we may have in oiir stomachs, or the 
 stomachs of our live stock, it does neither them nor us any good unless it is 
 digested. If our digestion is out of order, or we take something indigestable 
 into our stomachs, we run to the drug store to get patent medicines. If 
 something is the matter with our land which we do not understand we buy 
 commercial fertilizers. What we need in either case is to get our digestive 
 system at work regularly without tonics or stimulants, and the best tonic you 
 can give your land is vegetable matter. This will start digestion to work by 
 giving it something to work on and the rest doeth itself. Man suffers from 
 the indigestion; so does the soil, and the worn out soil is simply one that has 
 a bad case of dyspepsia. Give it something for the bacteria to work on and 
 they will increase and multiply and digest even the rocky particles, thus fur- 
 nishing available plant food. Then give it thorough cultivation so as to en- 
 able it to prepare food for the plant, and you have solved the problem. 
 
 There is a closer relation between man and the soil than we sometimes 
 imagine. Both of them are liable to indigestion and as the man who has in- 
 digeition falls away in flesh because he is using more force than his system is 
 supplying him from day to day so soil that is troubled with indigestion is us- 
 ing up plant food faster than it can be made avaible in the soil and it, like a 
 dyspeptic man, goes into a decline and is said to be worn out. We do not 
 think the good Lord intended the soils of the Mississippi valley to be worn 
 out in ten, fifty, or five hundred years and they will not be unless the farmer 
 allows them to get an attack through the neglect of inficiency of either 
 acute or chronic indigestion. 
 
140 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 A Oreen Manure Crop 
 
 A subscribsr living- ia Grant township, Ind., writes: "I have a field of fif- 
 teen acres, black ground and clay, that needs green manure. The field has 
 been in timothy four years. It is in corn this year and in making- some 
 changes in fields and rotation I find it desirable to plant corn again in this 
 field. I want a top dressing- or covering- for the ground through the winter. 
 What would you do, sow crimson clover, cow peas, mommoth clover, rape or 
 rye? Which is best? When and how to sow?" 
 
 We could not advise you to sow crimson clover on your fifteen acres that 
 are now in corn. If it were possible to get this clover to gro-w in the corn, it 
 would be just the thing to sow. It should be sown some time in August, say 
 about the first or 15th, but thi^ is a time when we usually have rather dry 
 weather in this latitude and the corn plant takes up about all the moisture 
 in the soil and if the seed germinates at all the plant is likely to die. If the 
 corn could be removed at that time and the soil prepared for the seed, you 
 would likely get a good stand. The same is true of cow peas and soy beans, 
 only there is more liklihood of getting a stand of these two plants. These, 
 however, would not furnish a covering for the grouni during the winter. 
 What is needed on this land is a nitrogen gathering plant and it is hardly 
 possible for you to grow that this fall. This, however, depends upon the sea- 
 son. 
 
 Rape, in this latitude, freezes down in winter and cannot be pastured with 
 safety after freez'ng weather comes. If five or six pounds of seed be sown 
 sometime during the present month, considerable pasture could be had about 
 the first of September and until freezing or frosty weather. By sowing rye 
 a corn crop can begrown and some pasture secured from it, but aside from 
 the humus it would form, it does not benefit the soil any except that it fur- 
 nishes a covering during the winter season. We hold that farmers can af- 
 ford to sow a rye crop or other crop for the special purpose of keeping the 
 ground covered and preventing washing. 
 
 You do not say what rotation you desire to use, but if you wish to get 
 this field into clover again you can do so by sowing rye this fall and seeding 
 heavily to clover in the spring and either cutting the rye crop or pasturing 
 it. A good clover and timothy sod can be grown and at the same time pas- 
 ture the rye field. If it is necessary to plant this field to corn next year, we 
 would let the rye go until it was ten inches or a foot high, plow it down and 
 thoroughly pack the soil before planting. Do not let such a crop get too 
 heavy before plowing it for corn. A heavy crop of this kind turned under 
 has a tendency to separate the furrow slice from the subsoil and cut off the 
 rise of moisture. 
 
 What would we do? We would sow rye then to clover and pasture the 
 field and not plant to corn next year. This field has already produced five 
 crops that are (J uite large users of soil fertility. No one can hope to raise 
 maximum crops in this section and follow the above system. Timothy yield- 
 ing 2500 pounds of hay per acre, removes 81i pounds of plant food which in 
 the above case has removed 32(5 pounds of fertilizer per acre. If another 
 crop of corn is removed from our correspondent's field the total plant food 
 consumed would be 647 pounds par acre. What would we do with this field? 
 We would right-about f. ice in our treatment and try to regain the vast 
 amount of plant food r». moved from its soil. This field is your bank. The 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 141 
 
 Creator placed on deposit there material with which to grow crops for you. 
 He limited the amount of the deposit and trusted you to keep up the bank 
 account by annual or biennial deposits. Let's not take any more from this 
 bank until a good big deposit has been made. Let's make amends for the 
 past abuses on what the God of nature has stored up for us. Let's be friends 
 of this black and yellow bank by feeding it with chemical fertilizers, by barn- 
 yard fertilizers, and by growing these crops which will extract plant food 
 from the air and delve deep into the lower depositories for that placed there 
 for our use. 
 
 Warming Up The Ground. 
 
 It is a common mistake to suppose that the chief reason for digging or 
 plowing the land is to separate its particles. On the contrary, we are oblig- 
 ed to add to the labor of loosening up the soil that of recompacting it by har- 
 rows and rollers before we can intrust seed or plants to it for a summer's 
 growth. No doubt the plowing and pulverization facilitates] expansion of 
 roots and helps during dry weather, but no healthier, handsomer growth is 
 obtained by it than we often see on surface not worked at all. 
 
 Twenty years ago we learned, partly by accident, that it was not neces- 
 sar}^ to plow the land deeply in order to secure a maximum crop, and since 
 that time we have never, excepting for purposes of experiment and compari- 
 son, turned our land more than four and a half to five inches deep. 
 
 SOIL AND CROPS. 
 
 Perhaps the question will be asked: "What k'nd of land have you and 
 what crop do you grow?' And the answer is a clay loam clay subsoil, and 
 the crops those general in the central states, excepting that we grow some 
 tobacco. 
 
 Our land was in part cleared before the year 1800, and in the past twenty- 
 years our maximum yield per acre thirty-six bushels wheat, eighty five of 
 corn, two hundred twenty-five of potatoes and 1,700 pounds of tobacco; it may 
 thus be seen that our land is far from sterile. We pin our faith to breaking 
 at the depth mentioned, and then thorough'y working the soil to the very- 
 furrow bottom before entrusting seed or plants to it. 
 
 Thorough pulverization of the soil as deeply as broken is of vastly great- 
 er importance than the depth of breaking, and we will insure any man a bet- 
 ter crop on one half his field, broken four inches deep and cut in perfect con- 
 dition for the crop, than on the other half broken eight inches deep and fitted 
 for seed with two harrowings. 
 
 Did you ever stop to think what the forces of nature are doing year after 
 year to assist vegetation to exist and flourish even in times of extreme 
 drought? 
 
 HOW ROOTS GROW. 
 
 For every blade of grass that grows up to be cropped by the teeth of our 
 stock, cut by the mower or to perish by the frosts of winter there is, compar- 
 atively speaking, a root that goes down into the earth. If we could examine 
 these roots with a glass of high power we would find that they are covered 
 with mouths to take up food for the plant. A p ant root does not bore its 
 way through the soil like a gimlet; neither does it force its way like a naii 
 driven by a hammer. By means of a mild acid that it secretes from its tip,it 
 
142 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 dissolves its way, and after a start is made its expansive power is sufficient 
 to burst even a stone. 
 
 Hence it is not necessary, nor is it even desirable, that the soil in which 
 the plant roots develop be as loose as the proverbial ash heap. Now, we go 
 back to the point at which we stopped to speak of the manner in which the 
 roots of the plant make their way through the soil. It is generally supposed 
 that most of the plant roots which go deep into the subsoil are seeking for 
 moisture rather than for plant food, and the supposition seems a reasonable 
 one, for the reason that by far the greater part of fertility in ordinary soils 
 is contained in the upper six inches while the greater part of the soil mois- 
 ture, of course, lies deeper. 
 
 When we break up a field we break ud the connection which nature has 
 established between the top soil, in which the plants get the most of their 
 food, and the subsoil from which they get the moisture necessary to dissolve 
 that food, for plants take all their food in fluid form. If we do not re-estab- 
 lish that connection by use of the harrow, roller and drag, and if we have a 
 mass of clods and trash at the furrow bottom, the growing crop must suffer 
 even in seasons of moderate drought. 
 
 No Money in an Average Crop. 
 
 Whether it be corn, wheat, oats or grass, there is no money in an aver- 
 age crop. Take the average corn crop for instance, of any state in the Union. 
 Figure out for yourself the average cost of production which you can do 
 within a few cents, and then take the average price either you will soon 
 learn that you have small rents on the land or the interest on the money in- 
 vested. The only way that a man can figure out that he is making money on 
 an average price isto count his time at a great deal less than it is truly 
 worth. Farmers must learn in making their estimates to figure the cash 
 value of their labjr. If you have to hire another man to do the work you 
 have, you cannot afford to hire yourself at any less price. We don't care to 
 make the figures but prefer that the farmers make ihem, themselves. 
 
 The farmer who grows an average crop or less, gets a living and if he 
 gets rent for land or interest for money he must take it off from the price of 
 his own labor. The money is made in growing crops above the average. 
 Thirty bushels of corn per acre will pay expenses, fifty bushels will furnish a 
 nice profit. It costs more to raise a fifty bushel ci op than it does to raise 
 thirty; it costs more to husk and it costs more to prepare the ground but the 
 difference is far less than tv». enty bushels of corn per acre. 
 
 The average wheat crop of the Unied States or particularly of Iowa is 
 not far from fourteen bushels per acre, worth in the market about eight dol- 
 lars or less, counting two-fifths for the rent. The farmer must furnish the 
 seed, prepare the ground, cut ard thresh the crcp. He can very easily see 
 that he is not getting much for his money in a deal of this kind. 
 
 The difference between an average crop and a paying crop lies in the 
 adoption of a rotation tbiat will maintain the fertility of ihe land; second, a 
 better preparation of the seed bed. This requires a little more labor but is 
 more a matter of judgement and clear thinking than of labor. The next 
 difference is the better care of the seed. This may cost more but in general 
 costs only a little more time and the use of a good fanning mill in blowing out 
 the light and small grains, and screening out sp.-outing grains if such there 
 be. The paying crop costs perhaps a pound of twine more to the acre, four 
 
BY J. B. ARjyST iONG 143 
 
 cents per bushel for the thresher and a little extra for the hands. The same 
 applies to the corn crop. Given the proper rotatian and cultivated with 
 brains and it costs not a great deal more to grow a paying crop than an av- 
 erage crop, until the time of husking and it does not cost twice as much to 
 husk a fifty bushel crop as it does to husk a twenty-five bushel crop. 
 
 If the farmer gets it clear in his mind that an average crop never pays 
 and the profit of grain growing is altogether in growing more than an aver- 
 age crop, he will have made a long start in being an up-to-date farmer. He 
 will then begin to study the method of his ground and its surrounding as to 
 the overflow, draining, etc., he will study to find the crop best adapted to 
 every particular location and the varieties of crop thit will be of most value 
 in a mony way, and yet at the same time preserve the fertility of his land. 
 He will strive to adopt such methods as will insure the largest crop on the 
 least number of acres. He will study the great advantage of improved seeds 
 and up-to-date implements for cultivation. He will spend his spare time in 
 reading one of the up-to-date Agricultural Papers, edited by men who are 
 thoroughly and practically in touch with the farmers and the one in which 
 he will fiad many communications from farmers who are fast forging to the 
 front. We do not wish you to understand that we mean fancy or book farm- 
 ing. Less acres, more intense farming, better seeds, up-to-date tools, etc. 
 We may put more work on the crop than we get paid for, but as a general 
 rule if we put more work and especially more hard thinking on a crop we get 
 extra value for additional work aad clear thinking. — Jf'al/ace's Fanner, 
 
 To Prevent Potato Blight. 
 
 some" FARM EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED BY NEW YORK EXPERIMENT STATION. 
 
 For years scientists and investigators have held that the diseases respon- 
 sible for far the greater part of what is called "blight" are largely prevent- 
 able, and have advocated the use of bordeaux m'xture as an easy, cheap and 
 practical remedy for these diseases. But new methods gain a foothold in 
 farm practice only slowly and after conviociog proof of their value, so spray- 
 ing potatoes for diseases has not been generally practiced. 
 
 Experiments conducted at the Geneva station by F. H. t ull, F. C. Stew- 
 art, H J Eustace and F. A. Sirrine have shown striking success in spraying. 
 
 In bulletin No. 241 of that station are given results secure d by five farm- 
 ers in spraying potatoes, and the figures pn sented should go far to convince 
 the m )st skeptical that the use of bordeaux mixture pays. 
 
 These "farmers' test" were carried on by the potato growers without 
 dictation or criticism from the station, each farmer using his own apparatus, 
 preparing his o\/n mixtures, spraying as many or as few times as he chose 
 and giving his fields just such care cs seemed best to him. The station mere- 
 ly arranged that a sufficient area of each field should be left unsprayed as a 
 check and that the yields on the checks and on equal sprayed areas should be 
 carefully weighed when the potatoes were dug. 
 
 In all sixty-one and one-sixth acres of potatoes were sprayed in different 
 parts of the state, and comparisons with the check acres showed an increase 
 in yield, due to the spraying, of 3,746 bushels, or an average of 6U bushels 
 per acre. The total expense of the spraying was $296.49, which subtracted 
 from the value of the increase at 50 cents a bushel, leaves $1,576 50 as the 
 total net profit, or $25.77 an acre. 
 
144 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 In the second year's test of a ten-year experiment to be carried on by 
 the station in two places there was a g-ain at Geneva of 88 bushels to the acre 
 from three sprayings and of 118 bushels from five sprayings. On Iiong Island 
 the gains were 3!)* and 56 bushels per acre from three and five sprayings re- 
 spectively. 
 
 Red Clover And Varieties. 
 
 Perhaps no plant in this state has more friends than red clover and just- 
 ly so, as it is a good yielder, a splendid forage, and a grand soil enricher— on 
 this point I seriously doubt whether its equal grows within our borders. It 
 has been my fondest dream to establish clover in the rotation on my farm. I 
 have not yet succeeded in growing it to my satisfaction, having made more 
 failures than successes. This I regret for as a legume it was my earliest 
 love. In my dreams I live again amcngthe hills of Missouri where I grew 
 from early childhood to manhood, turrounded by great clover fields, lazy sheep 
 and lowing herds. I sow red clover every year on two of my bluegrass pas- 
 tures not subject to overflow. It makes a splendid variety in the pasture. 
 On lands subject to overflow I sow alike. This little clover should have 
 more friends. It makes good pasture and an excellent quality of hay, prac- 
 tically free from dust It will stand more overflow of water than any other 
 tame forage plant. I had several acres continually under water last May for 
 twenty daj s. It came out looking very sickly, but in a few days regained its 
 color and made a good growth, furnishing lots of nice pasture the rest of the 
 season. 
 
 Brome grass has no place on the tillable lands of this state. Why should 
 we spend our time and energy in the cultivation of a plant which in the end 
 furnishes us a better quantity, a poorer quality, and of a lower feeding value 
 than our old time, honored, frined-timothj? I will not take time to write 
 about this grass. It's all right. Just throw a dash of red clover seed in the 
 hopper when seeding. Your stock will enjoy it and your land will be bene- 
 fitted. In regard to the wild bay of the bottom lands, I can truthfully say, I 
 never liked it. It is too coarse and woody. But why write of a dying cause? 
 Its days are numbered. I can as best but sing its requiem 
 
 It cannot stand close cutting every year and never gets a chance to re- 
 seed itself. Blue grass too has entrenched itself. It never retreats, but 
 with bull dog tenacity advances its skirmish lines year after year and always 
 wins the battle; the big grass must go I tip my hat, I say good bye, without 
 a tear or sigh. Its very abundance has caused our farmers to partially ex- 
 haust the fertility of their soil because it was not necessary for them to grow 
 legumes. 
 
 ''Many a flower is blown to blush uEseen and waste its fragance on the 
 desert air.'" but barley is one of the unnuals that will be on my list of forage, 
 plants as long as I grow stock. I like to feed it, my stock, both horses and 
 cattle do well on it. It is especially good for milch cows. It cures a nice 
 ligtit green. It is dustless. My stock clean out their racks more completely 
 when I feed barley hay than any other forage I haye, with the possible ex- 
 ception of sorghum. My stock requires a much less grain ration when I feed 
 it. I use the common bearded variety. I sow as soon as the frost is 
 out of the grouad. I cut in the early dough stage, a^out the 18th or 20th of 
 June. If I have not grown it as a nurse crop, I plow up the ground and sow 
 to sorghum or millet at once. Barley will cut from two to three tons per 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 145 
 
 acre. In many parts of California and the extreme West, work horses are 
 fed no grain ration, fed absolutely nothing but barley cut in the milk stage. 
 
 The Early Man. 
 
 Many farmers are too slow in planting their corn crop in the spring". 
 They are slow in starting to break the soil, in pulverizing the soil; and, last, 
 but not^least, in planting after they are ready. It will always pay in the 
 long run to commence breaking the soil as soon as possible after the ground 
 has settled in the spring. Then you will not be so crowded with your work. 
 As a general rule the early man is ahead in plowing as well as in cutting up 
 his corn crop, thus having less danger from early frost in the fall. In the 
 last few years we have tried to plant our corn as early as 'possible in the 
 spring, so that we would not have to be crowded during haying time. Last 
 season while we were getting ready to plant we were talking with one of our 
 neighbors about early corn. We told him we preferred planting during 
 April, because we had a better crop and it matured earlier. "Well," he 
 said, "I believe I will wait a week or two yet." Before that corn of his was 
 cut up he said that we hit the time and he missed it. Our crop did a great 
 deal better than his, which was just over the fence. 
 
 Another advantage for us is that our ground is so rich that when corn is 
 planted late it makes very large and tall stalks, while on the other hand 
 early corn is not quite so tall. If the early corn is frosted down it will be 
 early enough to plant it over. The first and second plowings make a large 
 per cent of the crop, and the man with the early corn can plow his corn be- 
 fore the hot season comes on, which is so hard on both man and beast. In the 
 early season one day or week makes a great difference with corn, for if a man 
 gets his corn plowed over before the May rains he will have the start of 
 weeds; but on the other hand, should we have a week or more of wet weather 
 before the later corn is large enough to plow, the weeds would have the start 
 in the uncultivated fields. 
 
 Value of Rape as a Hog Food 
 
 In the second annual report of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment 
 Association the above subie^t is discussed by Mr. C. E. Jones, of Waukesha 
 county, Wis., who says: 
 
 . "My experience in using rape as a forage plant for pigs has been growing 
 the last two years, although we have been growing rape for about five or six 
 years. We farme-'s came to the conclusion that in order to raise hogs the 
 most economical and thrifty way was to grow a bulky, succulent food for 
 them to graze upon. By doing this you will enlarge the frame (or body) of 
 the growing pig and expand his digestive system which will give him the 
 the power to digest grain feed closer. 
 
 Pigs fed in this way will make a quicker growth with less grain feed re- 
 quired for one pound of gain. Tiie pig feeding experiments at our expert" 
 ment station where rape was used as a for^.ge plant will prove this to you. It 
 even took less grain feed per pound of gain where rape was used than where 
 clover was used. My experience has tanght me that in order to produce rape 
 as forage you need other pasture connected with it, such as clover, rye, etc. 
 When you have a variety of feeds which sharpens their appetites, your pigs 
 will not be troubled with scours. Tsvo years ago I sewed one acre of rape 
 
146 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 connected with clover pasture. The pigs took as readily to the rape as to 
 the clover. It is best to allow rape to harden or until some of the lower 
 leaves turn brown before pasturing. By feeding at the 'proper stage you will 
 have better results. The latter part of the season when old pastures are 
 getting short and dry, we are in need of a forage crop for pigs. Rape is the 
 very plant that fills the bill of fare. Using rape as a forage will give us an 
 opportunity to change our pigs on different ground. This keeps down disease 
 and produces cleanliness. Last season I plowed up our old hog yard and 
 sowed rape. 
 
 It produced enough forage for eight brood sows from September until 
 winter. This is just the food for the brood sow. Pasturing on rape will make 
 her more active and hasten growth of frame. It seems the only true way of 
 making a good mother of her. The kind of soil we have grown rape on is a 
 sandy loam. About two pounds of seed should be sown broadcast per acre. 
 Sow when the ground is moist or just before a rain so as to give it a start. 
 You can sow rape from early spring until late in August. Allow me to urge 
 upon every member of the experiment association who raises hogs to pre- 
 pare a small piece of ground, sow it to rape and use it as a pasture crop for 
 the pigs this coming season. Study the results and see if you do not reap a 
 benefit and profit from it." 
 
 We feel that it is almost impossible to over-emphasize the importance of 
 the rape crop for hog feeding purposes. Rape comes in at a time when other 
 pastures are beginning to dry up, asd during August, September and October 
 if one has a small area into which he can turn his hogs he will find that it 
 will effect a very large saving in the amount of grain required. 
 
 There are those who have had a little hard luck while pasturing rape on ac- 
 count of the skin of hogs becoming blistered. Where there is any indication 
 of this taking place it is an excellent idea to turn the hogs out of the rape at 
 night and keep them out until the crop has become well dried off the next 
 morning. It is entirely practical to sow rape even as late as the first of 
 A.ugust, and yet obtain considerable food before the ground freezes in the 
 fall. Of course, in this case there must be moisture in the surface soil to 
 germinate the seed at once, otherwise a crop may not result 
 
 There are but few farms but what have some wet or awkward coruers 
 that cannot be worked or cultivated at the time that other crops are planted. 
 We have often sown such places, if but very small and have enjoyed the pleas- 
 ure of seeing the look of satisfaction and pleasure exhibited by tbat hog or 
 other animal so confined for some reasjn that green pasture could not be had 
 saying in our imagination, oh how good and acceptable and if no other place 
 is available so soon as the wheat, oats or early potatoes are taken from the 
 ground, plough an acre and sow to rape and you will be surprised at the 
 great amount of feed you will get from it before frost will kill it giving your 
 hogs health, fat and comfort and just the time it will be most wanted. 
 
 Improving Our Grain Crops. 
 
 We have on several occasions called attention, through these columns, to 
 the fact that grains could be improved by the use of a system of grading that 
 would separate the plump heavy grain from that which is light and shrunken. 
 The advice given in the past has been based on a somewhat extensive practi- 
 cal experience, backed by results obtained at a number of experiment sta- 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 147 
 
 tioDS. A world renowned seedsman arid plant breeder, Mr. H. L. J. de Vil- 
 morin, in a paper given in the report of the Royal Agricultural Society takes 
 an entirely opposite view of the matter. He says: 
 
 In concludiug these notes on selection, it appears advisable to touch upon 
 a point to whicli certain people attach great importance, but on which my 
 opinion does not agree with that usually held. I refer to the custom of col- 
 lecting seeds from some certain part of a plant in preference to another. 
 There is no idea more prevalent in gardening than that of the superiority in 
 seeds from the base of the central stem over those of the top of the same 
 stem and especially over those of the lateral branches. I have made, and 
 had made, experiments on this subject, and I have invariably found no differ- 
 ence among the seeds collected from various parts of the same pl.ant with 
 respect to the proportion of single and double plants obtained. I have re- 
 peated these experiments many times on ornamental plants with respect to 
 the doubling of Mowers, on vegetables with respect to the size and quality of 
 the roots, and on cereals with respect to the yield in weight and appearance 
 of the seed, and I have always found that while individual plants may d'lSet 
 from each other with respect to the transmission of character, yet from the 
 same plant there was a great uniformity of results obtained. The larger 
 seeds produce slightly more vigorous plants in the earlier periods of growth, 
 but do not give any guarantee of ability to transmit superior qualities. When 
 a plant is known to be thoroughbred and its ability to transmit its own char- 
 acter has been established I should always prefer the smallest seed that came 
 from it, although collected from the part of the plant which is considered 
 the least favorable in the common opinion to the largest seed taken from the 
 part believed to be the most favorable of a plant whose pedigree is less cer- 
 tain. 
 
 It would seem to smack of audacity for the average man to set up his 
 opinion on matters of this kind opposing so eminent an authority as Vilmorin 
 and in view of this we can but resort to some data given in a report of the 
 Ontario stdtion that bears directly on this subject. So speaking of his ex- 
 periments in barley Prof. C. A. Zivitz says: 
 
 The experiments with the different selections of seed birley extend over 
 a period of six years, the average results for the whole period being as fol- 
 lows: Large plump seed, 53.8 bushels of grain per acre, 1.5 tons of straw per 
 acre, and 49 5 pounds of grain per measured bushel; small plump seed 50.4 
 bushels of grain per acre, 1.5 tons of straw per acre and 48 8 pounds of grain 
 per measured bushel; and shrunken seed, 46 bushels of grain per acre, 1.4 tons 
 of straw per acre, and 49 1 pounds of grain per measured bushel. From these 
 results it will be seen that the large plump seed has given an average of near- 
 ly 8 bushels per acre more than the shrunken seed and a little over 3 bushels 
 per acre more than the small plump seed. 
 
 Speaking of the effect of seed selection in the case of spring wheats, the 
 same experimenter says: 
 
 The experiment in seed selection with spring wheat has now been con- 
 ducted for a period of eight years The average results for the eight years 
 show that large plump seed produced 21.7 bushels of grain per acre, 1.4 tons 
 of straw per acre, and g-rain which weighed 59 1 pounds per measured bushel; 
 that the sma'.l plump seed produced 18 bushels of grain par acre, 1.3 tons of 
 straw per acre and grain which weighed 58.3 pounds per measured bushel; 
 and that shrunken seed produced 16.7 bushels of grain per acre, 1.2 tons of 
 
148 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 straw per acre, and grain which weighed 56 9 pounds per measured bushel. 
 The plump seed produced grain which was heavier than that produced from 
 shrunken seed the difference being 5 bushels per acre in favor of the former. 
 The large plump seed, therefore, g"ave practically 30 per cent more grain 
 per acre than that which was produced by the shrunken. 
 
 In the case of oats the results were even still more striking than with 
 barley and spring- wheat. Professor Zavitz found that during- a period of 
 seven years large plump oats g^ave an average yield of 62 bushels per acre, 
 the grain weighing 33.2 pounds per bushel; that medium size produced 54.1 
 bushels per acre, the grain weighing 32.2 pounds per bushel; while the small 
 seed produced 46 6 bushels per acre, the grain weighing 31 8 pounds per mea- 
 sured bushel. It will be seen in this case that the large oats produced 15.4 
 bushels per acre more than that produced by the small seed, or an increase 
 of 33 per cent 
 
 In the face of results like these, coming from one who is noted for his 
 accuracy in scientific matters of this kind, we cannot but believe that the 
 greater vigor of plants grown from large plump seed in the early part of the 
 season is apparent throughout the entire growing season, and that at thresh- 
 ing time the difference is still as noticeable as ever, viewed from the stand- 
 point of bushels per acre. To our way of thinking it would be just as reason- 
 able to say that the small pig of a litter is of equal merit for breeding pur- 
 poses as the larger and better proportioned ones, as to say that a small ker- 
 nel from a wheat head will produce the same results when sown, as a large 
 plumo one. 
 
 There has been so much said of late as to corn breeding and how to im- 
 prove corn and it seems those who are working along this line have forgotten 
 the fact that oats and wheat are governed by the same laws of nature and 
 that they will just as readily respond to selection, good soil and cultivation 
 as any other crop grown. The fact is, our wheat, oats and other grains are 
 scrubs, and have not been improved by breeding, although they can be im- 
 proved as readily as corn by selection and breeding. The fact that on our 
 rich land the average of oats is about 32 bushels to the acre, showing that 
 we are raising scrub oats, and also that we are not raising as much of that 
 as we could if our system of cultivation was better. The same thing holds 
 good with wheat, and I think in a greater extent. In our stock breeding we 
 realize that like produces like, we know the same thing now about our corn 
 and the same thing is true about our oats. If we sow scrub, light, inferior 
 grain we certainly will raise the same kind as we sow; if we sow good, heavy, 
 perfect seed, we will raise that kind. We can breed good by sowing good 
 seed, as surely as we can raise gord cattle by using good blood. Too often 
 we think that anything will do to sow that will come up; if we want to im- 
 prove our oats and wheat we must sow only the heaviest grain The seed 
 should be run through one of our best fanning mills, that will save only the 
 very heaviest grains. It may be desirable to run the grain through the sec- 
 ond time. It will take some work to thus prepare the seed. In this way you 
 will have seed that will raise good heavy grain. The grain grown from this 
 seed will weigh at least 2 to 4 pounds to the bushel more than the ordinary 
 grain. This means an increase of 6 to 10 per cent and instead of our average 
 yield beinJ 32 bushels to the acre, will be from 40 to 75 for oats and 30 to 40 
 for wheat. These small gains of a few bushels per acre will easily pay all 
 the taxes or interest upon the farm. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 149 
 
 We hope that the farmers will pay as much attention to improvinfr their 
 seed oats and wheat as thev (^o to improving" their stock, and when they do 
 this they will get better crops and make more money. 
 
 We consider the above an object lesson that should be studied by every 
 thinkingf farmer and if fully carried out to the bsst of their opportunities 
 will result in a fine paying- proposition. 
 
 The Score Card And The Common Farmer. 
 
 VITAL POINTS MISSED IN SCORING CORN VALUE. 
 
 Plant Sliould Not Be Grown For Its Beauty But For Its Meat And Mill Producing Quali- 
 ties—Some Important Things Overlooked In Score Cards- 
 
 That there is a good deal of clap trap about corn judging is not to be 
 denied, and Professor J. T. Willard, director of the Kansas experiment sta- 
 tion, writes a timely criticism of the methods employed in some quarters. 
 He says: 
 
 "Within the last few years great interest has been awakened in the pos- 
 sibilities of improvement in corn and it tias been demonstrated that by intel- 
 ligent selection strains may be produced in which protein, starch or fat is 
 made the dominant characteristic. The agricultural colleges are giving 
 marked attention to instruction in corn judging, the agricultural papers ex- 
 ploit the subject, and the hard-headed, practical farmers are beginning to 
 think that there may be something of value in it. 
 
 All of this interest is right, and if rightly yielded must bring valuable re- 
 turns but from much that appears it would seem that some of the most vital 
 factors in making up one's judgment on a variety of corn are almost, and in 
 some cases completely, neglected. To rationally judge corn we must keep 
 constantly before us the object fcr which corn is produced. Though a hand- 
 some plant, corn ig not grown for ornament; though an ear of corn may be a 
 thing of beauty, beauty is not the aim in its production By far the greater 
 portion of the corn crop is produced and used directly for feeding purposes. 
 
 The remainder, not required for seed, is used in certain industries in 
 which one or another of its constituents may possess a special value. For 
 the great majority of farms, therefore, that corn is bast which will produce 
 the most nutriment per acre. The production of nutriment per acre, cpnsid- 
 ering now the ears only, will depend upon (1) the weight of the shelled corn 
 per acre and (2) upon its chemical compositioa. Here, then are the vital 
 points in corn production— yield and composition— yet neither of these ap- 
 pears on the ordinary score card, though, of courss, some of the points con- 
 sidered in scoring have a direct bearing on them. 
 
 SOME DOUBTFUL SCORE CARDS. 
 
 "The score cards emphasize points that have much to do with the beauty 
 of the individual ear, but have little or no bearing upon its practical value. 
 Varieties are judged with reference to an arbitrary standard selected as a 
 type, notwithstanding the fact that the type of any variety of corn is altered 
 by a change of climatic relations. It is insisted upon that the ends of the 
 cob must be well covered with grain, that white corn have little white cobs, 
 and yellow corn red cobs, and that the rows must be straight. 
 
 "All these are merely fancy points, conformity to which does not insure, 
 or even tend toward a maximum production of nutriment per acre. It might 
 even be argued that possession of a cob which is not always filled to the ut- 
 
150 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 most limit is a variety characteristic that is to be sought rather than to be 
 discarded, since it indicates a habit of growth which in certain seasons might 
 be taken advantage of to extend the length of the rows of grain. 
 
 "We have seen how quality has been made subservient to fads in respect 
 to color of pure-bred cattle; we see in the judging of poultry how the practi- 
 cal points have been almost surpressed by the fancy in scoring. Should we 
 not take pains to avoid any such degeneration in corn judging? 
 
 "Corn judging will lack very much of being on a practical basis until a 
 variety is judged by its crop producing power first. The chemical composi- 
 tion of the corn is the next consideration, after which accessory and fancy 
 points may recieve some attention. 
 
 PROTEIN THE THING. 
 
 "A variety producing thirty bushels of handsome ears per acre should 
 not receive a moment's favorable consideration as compared with one pro- 
 ducing thirty-five bushels of ears, however deficient in beauty the latter may 
 be. 
 
 "Differences in composition cause equal weights of corn to have different 
 values. Corn being deficient in protein and our most abundant grain, a var 
 iety showing yield equal to another, but having a higher percentage of pro' 
 tein, would possess superior value. So, too, fats though containing the same 
 elements as carbohydrates, contain them in different proportion, and weight 
 for weight, possess^about two and one-fourth times as great feeding value. 
 
 "Fifty-six pounds of corn containing 7 per cent of fat would have about 
 as great feeding value as fifty-eight pounds of corn containing only 4 per 
 cent of fat, the amount of protein being supposed to remain the same in the 
 two cases. 
 
 " 'Handsome is as handsome does.' Let us judge varieties of corn on a 
 record of past performances, rather than of promise for 'the future, based 
 merely on good looks." 
 
 Utilizing the Wet Places 
 
 There are to be seen a great many wet places in cornfields where a stand 
 of corn is entirely lacking. Throughout the corn belt the ground that is liable 
 to remain unproductive on account of wetness will amount to an exceedingly 
 large area. It may seem at present as though it is difficult to do anything to 
 prevent this ground from growing up to weeds during the balance of this 
 season. 
 
 While cornfields are generally reluctantly patched, yet we believe that 
 it often pays to patch them. In some cases draws that have dried out are be- 
 ing sown to millet, while in other cases, sorghum is being planted. Of course, 
 these crops are not sown in rows and no attempt is made to cultivate them. 
 The fields are cultivated just the same as if no crops were sown in these 
 places, but the shovels are lifted out while crossing the draws. By the last 
 time the corn is cultivated a little damage may seem to be done by the 
 tramping of the horses, but it is surprising how much fodder may often be 
 obtained in spite of a little rough treatment, especially if the season happens 
 to be reasonably dry after seeding. Where sorghum is used it is advisable to 
 sow somewhat thick, using it at the rate of from 80 to 100 pounds of seed per 
 acre. When sown in this way sorghum makes a most excellent fodder, and 
 will be found to be palatable for all kinds of stock. It is usually cut with the 
 
BY J, B. ARMSTRONG 151 
 
 mower, although in case the crop is not very heavy it may be handled with, 
 an ordinary self-binder. 
 
 Sometimes it is practicable to plant a little early-maturino- corn in these 
 low places. As the draws usually run in an angular direction across the field 
 it is impossible to check the corn so that it will match the rows, hence it is 
 just about as well to make no attempt to check it, but to drill in the seed. 
 Of course the shovels must be raised when the field is crossed, and while this 
 corn may not be large when the regular crop is laid by, it may be possible to 
 obain all the way from twenty to forty bushels per acre from these places 
 that would otherwise go to waste. Pride of the North and Longfellow Dent 
 are varieties that mature in about ninety days so that it is possible 
 throughout a large area of the (?orn belt to sow even as lace as the 1st of 
 July and yet obtain a reasonably good stand. It is necessary before planting 
 to thoroughly set back all weed growth by the use of the seed disc. This is 
 hignly important, as but little opportunity will be afl'orded for cultivation 
 during the growing season. 
 
 riore Depends on Grass Than Any Other Crop 
 
 The late Senator Ingalis of Kansas, during his long life of public service 
 said many good things in an eloquent and charming manner. The following 
 is taken from one of his notable addresses on Agriculture: ^ 
 
 "Next in importance to the divine profusion of water, light and air, 
 those three physical facts which render existence possible, may be reckoned 
 the universal beneficences of grass. Lying in the sunshine among the butter- 
 cups and dandelions of May, scarcely higher in intelligence than those minute 
 tenants of that mimic wilderness our earliest recollections are of grass; and 
 when the fitful fever is ended, and the foolish wrangle of the market and the 
 forum is closed, grass heals over the scar which our descent into the bosom 
 of the earth has made and the carpet of the infant becomes the blanket of 
 the dead. 
 
 "Grass is the forgiveness of nature — her constant benediction. Fields 
 trampled with battle, saturated with blood, torn with the ruts of cannon, 
 grow green again with grass, and carnage is forgotten. Streets abandoned 
 by traffic become grass grown, like rural lanes, and are obliterated, 
 forests decay, harvests perish, flowers vanish, but grass is immortal. Be- 
 leaguered by the sullen hosts of winter, it withdraws into the impregnable 
 fortress of its subterranean vitality, and emerges upon the solicitation of 
 spring. Sown by the winds, by wandering birds, propagated by the subtle 
 horticulture of the elements which are its ministers and servants, it softens 
 the rude outlines of the world. It invades the solitude of deserts, climbs the 
 inaccessable slopes and pinnacles of mountains and modifies the history, char- 
 acter and destiny of nations. Unobtrusive and patient, it has immortal 
 vigor and aggression Banished from the thoroughfare and fields, it bides 
 its time to return, and when vigilance is relaxed, or the dynasty has perished 
 it'silently resumes the throne from which it had been expelled, but which it 
 never abdicates. It bears no blazonry of bloom to charm the senses with 
 fragrance or splendor, but its homely hue is more enchanting than the lily or 
 the rose, it yields no fruit in earth or air, yet should its harvests fail for a 
 single year, famine would depopulate the work." 
 
 The Score Card 
 
 As applied to corn gfrowing and judging- in our opinion, an object lesson 
 
]52 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 calling- the attention to certain points or rules adopted by certain organiza- 
 tions to be used for the purpose of making award to the person showing an 
 ear of corn having the most of the points thus described in such Score Card 
 and has nothing to do with the real value of the corn as to weight, yield or 
 desirability, time of maturity and therefore has no bearing upon the work of 
 the farmer or the breede'" or the honest man who may be at the head of our 
 testing stations or state farms who are working along well defined lines and 
 who are selecting from the best planting under various conditions and culti- 
 vation making tests of dilt'erent combinations of crossing and watching the 
 results iu this way they are brought in close connection with nature. The 
 writer has spent many years in such study and fully understands the difficul- 
 ties under which one must work. It takes time and patience. froi. J. T. 
 Willard of the Experimental Station of Kansas, in an able article publised 
 in the Drovers Journal in which he callei attention to the score card and said: 
 
 "It has its merits, it should not be forgottea that the most important 
 factors, yield per acre aud chemical composition, are not taken into consid- 
 eration in the score card. He is inclined to think that too much attention is 
 being directed to fancy points and not enough to the points of real value* 
 Prof. Willard says: 'Let us judge varieties on a record of past performance 
 rather than of promise for the future, based merely on good looks.' 
 
 Commenting upon this article, one of our contemporaries recently said: 
 'It is true the score card should emphasize those points that contribute most 
 to the yield per acre, and yet we cannot help but think that it has contrib- 
 uted to this end as much as any other factor. It has taught us that it is not 
 necessary to have 'homely' looking corn in order to have a large yielding 
 corn, and experiment station offi:ers would do well to get into line instead of 
 belittling the efforts of those scientists and workers who have been improv" 
 ing our varieties of corn and teaching other? to do the same during the last 
 decade. We though that the blunder made by the Minnesota Station along 
 this line was sufficient example to prevent its repetition. That station 
 started out to acclimate and improve a variety of corn that would outyield 
 anything on the market. We understand that after a time this object was 
 attained, but so homely was the corn, owing to the neglect of these 'fancy' 
 points in selection that seedsmen could not dispose of it. Consequently this 
 variety has fallen into disrepute, and the workers of that station are now 
 tnaking strenuous efforts to improve not only the yielding qualities but also 
 the outward appearance of this corn. This example should stand as a warn- 
 ing to men who are filled with fear over the danger of getting good looking 
 corn that does not produce the pounds per acre " 
 
 In regard to the "blunder" made by the Minnesota Station, we wish to 
 say tha" that station has not made any blunder as their corn itself has proved- 
 It is quite evident that our contemporary has been misinformed on this par- 
 ticular point. It is true that when the Minnesota Station began the improve- 
 ment of corn varieties by breeding and selection, those conducting the work 
 did not lay a great deal of stress upon "fancy points" because they deemed 
 yield p^r acre of far greater importance than mere outward appearance of 
 the ear, and we most decidedly think they did well. It is also true that now, 
 since yield has been obtained, they are giving some attention to appearance; 
 never, however, do they lose sight of the fact that the past performance 
 records, as regards yield per acre, are of far greater importance than mere 
 fancy points. That great progress has been made at the Minnesota Station 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 153 
 
 in plant breeding- is generally known to those informed upon that subject and 
 to read of the great "Blunder" was therefore no little surprise to us. Class 
 Bulletin No. 14, recently written by Prof Coates P. Bull, who now hascharg-e 
 of corn improvement at the Minnesota Station, was issued May 10, 1904, and 
 amply sets forth the fact that the Minnesota plant improvement has brought 
 forth important practical results. Their corn, Minn. No. 13 for instance, 
 which yielded an average of 48,6 bushels during- a four years' trial, when sub- 
 sequently selected according to the method in use at that station for five 
 consecutive years, increased its yielding- capacity by 16.3 bushels per acre. 
 In other words, the average yield from '94 to '97 was 48.6 bushels, while from 
 '98 to '03 the average was 64.9 bushels per acre. Where the "Blunder" comes 
 in is difficult to see when viewing the results from a standpoint of practical 
 utility. 
 
 In regard to the fact that seedsmen were unwilling- tc handle the corn of 
 the Minnesota Station, we are not aware of any such cases and we happen to 
 be well informed upon th it point. In 1903 and 1904 the demand for this 
 "homely" corn was far in excess of the supply, and further, a record from 
 experiment station distributions to farmers in various parts of the state 
 g-ives, in nearly every case, a satisfactory report. Aside from this, the South 
 Dakota Station has found it acceptable for conditions in that state: Wiscon- 
 sin and North Dakota are also cultivating its acquaintance. To keep a new 
 variety of grain up to its full yielding capacity a system of constant selec- 
 tion must be practiced, and this to be eftective, must be based upon capacity 
 to yield a large crop. Corn is no exception and will deteriorate rapidly if 
 not selected with care. Under common methods, a highly bred variety will 
 run down to an inferior quality, and this is probably what happens under 
 seedsmen's management. 
 
 These in brief, are some of the facts regarding the corn, Minnesota No. 
 13, to which presumably, our contemporary refers. It would seem that the 
 Minnesota Station has been grossly misrepresented, and we are glad to, at 
 least, in part, correct the error. It is very easy for those of the score card 
 school, to temporarily lose sight of the real value of an ear of corn. The 
 yield per acre is what the farmer wants, and what the farmer wants, is also 
 what the merchant and the manufacturer wants. It is perfectly true that 
 the qualities set forth in most score cards are to a certain extent valuable, 
 but the yield cannot be measured entirely by looks. What do the factory 
 men care about looks so long as they can get the quantity and quality suited 
 to their purpose? What is there left of the beauty of an ear of corn after it 
 has been shelled, the cob burned or ground and the grain ground into forty 
 ■different manufacturing products? Yield is also what the feeder wants, and 
 little does the steer or hog care whether his corn is pretty to look at or is 
 homely so long as he gets quantity and quality. 
 
 It is not the purpose here to ridicule or denounce the score card for it 
 has a purpose and fills it well when in the hands of the proper teacher. But 
 it is the purpose to call to mind the fact that yield is first and of greatest 
 importance. Experience in corn breeding has amply demonstrated that it 
 is not necessarily the good looking ear or the one scoring highest according 
 to the score card that should be used in the improvement of varieties, but 
 the one wnich yields most shelled grain and shows by its progeny that it has 
 a strong prepotency to produce an abundant yield per acre. Let us first look 
 for yield, early maturity and such other practical points as may suggest 
 
154 
 
 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 themselves and let appearance and fancy points be of secondary importance. 
 
 
 Intense Cultivation 
 
 Cut of a Cornfield that by Intense Cultivation and Improved Seed turned out 
 
 140 Bushels per Acre. 
 
 In the production of all kinds of crops we must have more intense culti- 
 vation. No matter what crop or in what section of the world, the more and 
 better the cultivation the better the crop. It is a recognized fact that in- 
 tense cultivation and civilization go hand in hand, and we must in truth say 
 the same for the new and better education. 
 
 We get our living from the earth and mostly from the farm. By reference 
 to page 23, you will note what is said in regard to abandoned farms. Had the 
 people who cultivated those farms had the knowledge we possess today and 
 have been able to give those farms the intelligent and intense cultivation as 
 we understand it, there would have been no abandoned farms. The first idea 
 of each farmer is the money consideration. We all want money. But it 
 must not be obtained in such a way that we rob the soil and make no returns, 
 hence the better knowledge. 
 
BY J. B. ARMSTRONG 
 
 155 
 
 Again thfere is no place on the farm for tlie lazy man, and I am positive 
 that money can be made on the farm if we only work with energ-y in a rational 
 and scientific manner, first planning- our work with judgment and thought 
 then carying it out faithfully. We cannot blame those of the past for not 
 doing- all they ought, for in their time the people did not possess the know- 
 ledge that we may so easily have at this time. 
 
 The agricultural world had not awakened up to the fact that they would 
 be required to feed the people of the universe, and furnish the sustenance 
 that would support the workers in all the industries of the world, that they 
 were in fact the chosen ones who could and would sustain the mechanic, the 
 merchant, the manufacturer, together with the other thousand of in- 
 dustries. Today we face this problem. This being the case how important 
 then must it be that we must be learned in all that pertains to the farm, in 
 such a manner that we may get the best there is from the soil. First, by 
 knowing all that pertains to the soil and second, all that pertains to intense 
 farming in all its different forms. When we have mastered these points we 
 occupy the high position of master of the situation and be able to raise 100 
 bushels of corn per acre easily. See cut. 
 
 We note the fact that in many of the farm papers that there is fear ex- 
 pressed that our boys will not stay on the farm. This may in many cases be 
 true yet it has been our observation that the farm boy who has had the right 
 training and surroundings will not forget the old home, and the honorable 
 vocation of his father, nor the gentle teachings of his mother. But he will 
 
 Cut of a cornfield that from poor cultivation, poor seed and lack of know- 
 ledge turned out fifteen bushels per acre. 
 
 read and thirst for more and better knowledge. He will seek the agricultural 
 schools in which he will be an earnest worker and when his education is fin- 
 ished he will hasten back to the old farm home with that pride that justly 
 belongs to the honest student. When he will be prepared to impart to others 
 that knowledge that shall and will enthuse and engage others in the great 
 work of progress and the good to be derived from such learning and observa- 
 tion will obviate their many ruined cornfields. 
 
 The men who guide our nation today were boys from the farm one day; 
 
156 BOOK ON CORN GROWING 
 
 the men who shall take their places in the future are yet on the farm. They 
 are getting- the inspiration, and the grand work will roll on; the farm boy 
 will be the one to fill the high positions of our nation, and make farming the 
 most honorable calling amongst the people, and with the latest improved 
 implements and methods of today the most profitable vocation that can be 
 found. It raises the standard of morality and intellect, it gives one a life of 
 toil and at the same time enjoyment of quiet and rest with which no other 
 occupation can compare, for their old and declining days, The art of science 
 is nothing but knowing how to do while that intenseness is but doing with a 
 will what we have to do in a right way. This can and will be done. But 
 let me say to the fathers and mothers who have the first training of 
 the young, do your best to make the home and surroundings as happy and as 
 pleasant as possible for the young children, but do not forget the one fact 
 while you are doing this keep this one point in view. The farm home, the 
 
 Farm machinery that was used in growing 100 bushel per acre. 
 
 farm association and the farm papers have them of the purest type. The 
 first impression of the young and the one that stays with them the longest 
 are those of youth, and will come to their assistance in after life when most 
 needed. Occasionally the son or daughter while young and thoughtless will 
 wander away, yet when they come to that point when they must face the 
 realities of life those early teachings and surroundings come back with double 
 force. Then will the education obtained in their younger days under the 
 above teachings be in great worth in rounding out their happily declining 
 years. 
 
 I most sincerely hope that all who have thoroughly studied this volume 
 may and will understand its teachings, and prosper by the same. And I trust 
 at least it will do all such lasting good. 
 
 Truly yours, 
 
 J. B. ARMSTRONG. 
 
 The ripe fruit is dropped at last without violence, but the lightning 
 flashed and the storm raged, and strata was deposited and up torn and bent 
 back and chaos moved from beneath to create and flavor the fruit and color 
 the flowers on your table today. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A 
 A twenty acre farm. 
 Ag-riculture at the head. 
 
 Acclimation of corn and how to g"et gfood seed. 
 Absorption of rainfall. 
 A green manure crop. 
 Adopting- corn varieties. < 
 
 B 
 Bacteria and the nitrogen. 
 Barren stalks problem. 
 
 C 
 
 Corn improvements and selection. 
 
 Corn planting- the foundation of the crop. 
 
 Corn experiments. 
 
 Corn breeding- or selection. 
 
 Can small potatoes be profitably used for planting-. 
 
 Cultivation. 
 
 Crop rotation, methods and value. 
 
 Crop rotation at South Dakota experimental station. 
 
 D 
 
 Do not sell the farm. 
 
 Do not plow too deep. 
 
 Depth of ploug^hing. 
 
 Depth of planting. 
 
 Distance LCtween rows and hills 
 
 Depth of cultivation 
 
 Don't get the cultivation too deep. 
 
 Deep versus shallow cultivation of corn. 
 
 Does it pay to spray potatoes. ( An article of great interest to all. 
 
 Distance between plants. 
 
 E 
 Early and late planting. 
 Effect of sprouting 
 Effect engross saleable yield. 
 Effect on net saleable crop. 
 Essential for the progressive farmer. 
 
 P 
 Page 69. Fertilizers and crop rotation. 
 Page 70. Fall ploughing. 
 Page 76. Frequency of cultivation. 
 
 H 
 Page 34. How legumes improve the soil. 
 Page 141. How roots grow. 
 
 I 
 Page 7. Introduction. . The feeder and the breeder. 
 Page 68. Importance of retaining soil moisture. 
 Page 75. Importance of thorough cultivation. 
 
 L 
 Page 90 Laying corn by. 
 
 M 
 Page 33. Must maintain soil fertility. 
 Page 5.5. Maintaining fertility of the soil, 
 Page B(i. Means of preventing soil washing. 
 Page 106. Manuring potato ground. 
 Page 118. Mulching. 
 Page 15 L. More depends on grass than any other crop. 
 
 Page 
 
 15. 
 
 Page 
 
 31. 
 
 Page 
 
 48. 
 
 Page 
 
 67. 
 
 Page 
 
 140. 
 
 Page 
 
 97. 
 
 Page 
 
 35. 
 
 Page 
 
 80. 
 
 Page 
 
 42 
 
 Page 
 
 61. 
 
 Page 
 
 63. 
 
 Page 
 
 95. 
 
 Page 
 
 114. 
 
 Page 117. 
 
 Page 
 
 132. 
 
 Page 134. 
 
 Page 
 
 8. 
 
 Page 
 
 51. 
 
 Page 
 
 71. 
 
 Page 
 
 72 
 
 Page 
 
 74. 
 
 Page 
 
 75 
 
 Page 
 
 83. 
 
 Page 
 
 84. 
 
 Page 
 
 102. 
 
 Page 
 
 116 
 
 Page 
 
 60. 
 
 Page 109. 
 
 Page 
 
 110. 
 
 Page 
 
 112. 
 
 Page 
 
 129. 
 
N 
 Pag^e 115. Number of eyes and weight per set. 
 Page 116. Number of stalks per hill. 
 Page 142. No money in an average crop. 
 
 P 
 
 Page 23. Possibilities of farm education. 
 
 Page 54. Preparing the ground. 
 
 Page 59. Planting corn, 
 
 Page 71. Planting. 
 
 Page 73. Planting with a lister. 
 
 Page 74. Planting with a check rower. 
 
 Page 82. Products of a single bill. 
 
 Page 89. Possibilities of selection and association. 
 
 Page 105. Potato cultivation. 
 
 Page 107. Planting potatoes. (General directions. ) 
 
 Page 121. Potato diseases and treatment. 
 
 Page 122. Potato blight. (State blight or rot.) 
 
 Page 123. Potato scab. 
 
 Page 137. Practical farming. 
 
 Q 
 Page 110. Quantity of seed potatoes per acre, 
 
 R 
 
 Page 67. Rolling or hilly ground. 
 
 Page 93. Regulate the air. 
 
 Page 130. Requisites for successful teacher or investigator. 
 
 Page 131. Relation of the scientist to the farmer" 
 
 Page 144. Red clover and other varieties. 
 
 Page 43. Seed corn. 
 
 Page 57. Selection and care for seed corn. 
 
 Page 65. Some land too poor for profitable corn growing. 
 
 Page 109. Seed end versus stem end. 
 
 Page 110. Size of seed pieces. 
 
 Page 114. Size of seed potatoes. 
 
 Page 119. Second crop potatoes. 
 
 Page 120. Summary. 
 
 Page 127. Soil problems for practical farmers. 
 
 Page 130. Study of mechanical characteristics of tbe soil. 
 
 T 
 Page 9. The farmer's sons and daughters. 
 
 Page 11. Thoughts for father and mother on the farm, intelligent and pro- 
 fitable farm knowledge. 
 Page 128. The study of geology by the farmer. 
 Page 143. To prevent potato blight. 
 Page 145. The early man. 
 
 Page 149. The score card and the common!farmer. 
 Page 151. The score card. 
 Page 138. The sick farm. 
 
 U 
 Page 134. Use of barnyard manure. 
 Page 150. Utilizing the wet places. 
 
 V 
 Page 145. Value of rape as hog food. 
 
 W 
 Page 86. What may be done to increase the vield of corn. 
 Page 100. What is the farmV 
 
 Page 133. Work in crop rotation at experimentaljStation. 
 Page 141. Warming up the ground. 
 
 Y 
 Page 113. Yield from planting different pieces. 
 
m.ii i. ,joo 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS