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 A 
 
 LATIN GRAMMAR 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, 
 
 BY I K MAD VIG, 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL GERMAN, WITH THE 
 SANCTION AND COOPERATION OE THE AUTHOR, 
 
 EEV. GEORGE WOODS, M.A., 
 
 OP UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, OXFORD ', RECTOR OP SULLY, GLAMORGANSHIRE- 
 
 FOURTH EDITION, WITH AN INDEX OF AUTHORS. 
 
 OXFORD, 
 
 AND 377, STRAND, LONDON : 
 JOHN HENRY and JAMES PARKER. 
 
 M DCCC LIX. 
 
486£ 
 
 N. 4, '35 
 
 
 ^M< 
 
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 <' 
 
 PRINTED BY MESSRS. PARKER, CORNMARKET, OXFORD. 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 Before the appearance of the present work, the author, 
 Professor Madvig, of Copenhagen, had acquired a high 
 reputation on the Continent as a critic and philologist, 
 both by a variety of dissertations, published at first in an 
 ephemeral form, and subsequently collected and arranged 
 by him in two series of Opuscula a , and also by an excel- 
 lent edition of Cicero de Finibus. The Latin Grammar, of 
 which a translation is now given, being intended for use 
 in the schools of Denmark, originally appeared in Danish ; 
 but in order to ensure for it a more extensive circulation, 
 and to make his views known in a country pre-eminently 
 distinguished by the zeal and industry of its scholars, he 
 afterwards clothed it in a German dress. And although in 
 many points he controverted the views of German critics, 
 and attacked some well-known names, in his " Supplemen- 
 tary Observations," with considerable severity, yet the book 
 was favourably received, and a second edition has become 
 necessary. With this view the Professor has considerably 
 enlarged and improved the original work, and the Trans- 
 lator gladly embraces this opportunity of expressing his 
 acknowledgments to him for the ready kindness with which 
 he has communicated to him, in manuscript, all the ad- 
 ditional matter which he had prepared for publication. 
 
 It does not appear necessary here to point out in what 
 respects the following treatise differs from other works on 
 
 a " Opuscula Academica," Haun. 1834, and " Opuscula Acai^saic» 
 altera," Haun. 1842. 
 
 a2 
 
IV 
 
 the same subject, or to enter into a defence of the writer's 
 views on some debated topics. In general it may be left 
 to speak for itself, and the intelligent teacher will judge 
 how far the arguments used are conclusive, and the rules 
 borne out by the examples cited. One or two peculiarities, 
 however, may be adverted to, which seem to require expla- 
 nation, and for which the author has adduced his reasons 
 elsewhere 1 '. " In §. 28 b. obs.," he remarks, "the reader 
 will find only a small remnant of the rule impressed on us 
 from our childhood, viz. that the names of places and coun- 
 tries (as such) belong to the feminine gender. The real 
 fact is, that not a single Latin name of a place, irrespec- 
 tively of the character of its termination, is of this gender, 
 nor had the Eomans any particular fancy for giving words 
 of this class a feminine form, as plainly appears from the 
 terminations urn, % e, ur, o. The names of places in us are 
 all without exception Greek, and the Eomans were so well 
 aware of this, that when Silius Italicus wished to sub- 
 stitute for the simple Latin Tarentum a Greek form with 
 a more agreeable sound, he wrote Tarentus, forgetting that 
 the actual Greek name is Taras. The same remark ap- 
 plies to Saguntum, for which Latin form, the only one ad- 
 missible in good prose (and which is also found in Strabo), 
 the poets and writers like Mela and Moras have Saguntus. 
 The names of places in on are also Greek. The Italian 
 names in o are masculine, following the Latin analogy of 
 this termination, and this analogy has been extended even 
 to the Greek Crohn in the form Croto ; the Spanish names 
 of places, on the other hand, so far as the gender can be 
 determined, are feminine (Barcino, Tarraco, Castillo), and 
 the same is therefore to be inferred of the rest (Odulco, 
 Olisipo, &c.) In the instance of Narho, which undoubtedly 
 belonged originally to the same class, and is feminine in 
 Greek writers, as, for instance, Strabo, but as a Eoman 
 
 b " Bemerkungen iiber verschiedene Puncte des Systems der Latini- 
 schen Sprachlehre." Braunschweig, 1844. 
 
translator's preface. v 
 
 colony was called JVarbo Martins, we see clearly how in 
 a Bomanized town, where the popular language gained 
 the upper hand, the Latin analogy contended successfully 
 against the influence, whatever it may have been, which 
 led to other words of this class being cited as feminines. 
 The gender of the names of countries in Latin is also 
 simply decided by the termination, but this, with the ex- 
 ception of the few in «, is the same for all, viz. the 
 feminine a [Africa). Those in us are Greek." 
 
 The arrangement adopted for the cases in this work, 
 especially as it regards the place of the accusative, differs 
 from that which has been commonly followed by Latin 
 grammarians. On this subject, the following remarks, 
 from the Supplementary Observations, will be found in- 
 teresting. After observing that the accusative is placed 
 immediately after the nominative in Sanscrit, and that the 
 same order has been adopted by the distinguished philo- 
 logist Eask, as applicable to the Grammar of the European 
 languages generally, the Professor goes on to say : "In 
 the most simple inflection of substantives in the neuter, 
 there is but one form of the word to express its most simple 
 relations in the proposition, which form it also has when 
 used as a simple appellation (out of the proposition). In 
 words, which to the imagination conveyed an idea of per- 
 sonality or resemblance to it, a greater prominence being 
 given to the subjective relation, the above common form 
 was divided into two, for instance, magnum into magnus 
 and magnum, and it was only in this way that, in Latin 
 and Greek, a peculiar masculine termination originated 
 through the formation of the cases, the masculine gender 
 having no distinct characteristic of its own independently 
 of this, while it is otherwise with the generality of femi- 
 nine words, viz. those which belong to the open form. 
 The form which in the neuter belongs both to the nomina- 
 tive and accusative, and which in the other genders re- 
 mains as an accusative after the formation of the nomina- 
 
vi translator's preface. 
 
 tive, is itself in no way formed by the addition of a termi- 
 nation or suffix ; it is the word without any relational sign, 
 the theme (calcar, ver), only usually somewhat modified 
 in the pronunciation. In the open substantives (those in 
 u and a) the word ends with the obscure and weak nasal 
 sound, in Latin with m, which disappears by elision, in 
 Greek with v, the parasitical nature of which as a final 
 letter may be clearly seen in the v ifaAKvo-riKov. In the 
 close substantives (of the third declension) no such sound 
 is usually appended in the neuter, but one of two final 
 consonants is dropt by a slovenliness in the pronunciation 
 (lac, cor), or the last vowel becomes more obscure in the 
 close syllable (corpus, robur) ; in some words (in most ad- 
 jectives) a light final vowel e is attached to the consonant, 
 e. g. rete, forte ; in the other genders on the contrary this 
 final vowel takes also the nasal sound, consulem, urbem (in 
 Greek the final vowel a alone is attached to these genders). 
 That we have nothing here before us but euphonic modifi- 
 cations, is shewn both by the relation of the open and close 
 words in the neuter, the former of which take m, the latter 
 some of them no suffix, and others e, and by that of the 
 close words in the neuter and the other genders, the neuter 
 having either no termination or e, the others em ; and this 
 is made further evident by the nominative function of the 
 form ending in m in the open neuter words (lignum), be- 
 sides which we may remark, that an accusative suffix, as 
 will be shewn below, is completely superfluous. The re- 
 jection of the euphonic addition where the utterance was 
 more animated, was sufficient to form the nominative in 
 feminine words in a, and in some close masculine and 
 feminine words, which by the loss of this appendage were 
 further exposed to the weakening and dropping of the 
 final consonant (sermo for sermon) . From this comparative 
 
 c '* To confirm this view of the accusative being nearly allied to the 
 nominative, and the latter only a special termination of a later date, I 
 may remark, that the Italian has retained the word in an accusative form. 
 
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. Yll 
 
 view of the formation of the Greek and Latin nominative 
 and accusative, which is borne out by the analogy of the 
 whole family of languages to which these belong, it follows 
 first, that we ought to place the two cases together, that 
 the unity of the neuter may not be broken up into two or 
 (if the vocative is also placed separately) three forms. In 
 the next place that case (the accusative), which is only 
 the theme euphoniously modified, ought not to be inserted 
 between cases which are formed by special terminations 
 of their own. Hence this further advantage is gained 
 by the correct arrangement, that the simple form which 
 in the plural corresponds to the dative and ablative sin- 
 gular is not divided into two by the interposition of the 
 accusative, and that in the singular too the forms in o are 
 not separated in the second declension. And even if no 
 importance is attached to a correct view of the character 
 of these forms and the relation it bears to their proper 
 functions, yet it is not to be overlooked on behalf of the 
 learner, that in this way the complicated series, signum, 
 signi y signo, signum, signum, signo, and further, signa, sig- 
 norum, signis, signa, signa, signis, is reduced to the more 
 short and simple one ; signum, signi, signo ; signa, signorum, 
 signis ; an arrangement which is followed by all gramma- 
 rians in the Greek dual. It is another and no trifling ad- 
 vantage that the learner is thus led to see clearly what is 
 often lost sight of even by the authors of grammars, viz. 
 that a case is not the word used in a certain construction, 
 but the word used in a certain form by virtue of the con- 
 struction, and that there are consequently, in fact, no more 
 cases in a language, than there are distinct forms of cases d . 
 
 but with the omission of the nasal sound, domino being derived from 
 dominvm, and ponte from pontem. The modern Greek exhibits precisely- 
 similar phenomena. The idea that the forms of the Italian nouns are 
 derived from the Latin ablative is, it is to be hoped, completely exploded." 
 d " In itself it is not quite correct to assign to Latin neuter nouns loth 
 the nominative and the accusative, since they have not these two cases : 
 the same holds good of the dative and ablative plural. For the sake of 
 
viii translator's preface. 
 
 We not unfrcquently meet with writers who do not cor- 
 rectly know how to distinguish between what is marked 
 in a language by peculiar forms of inflection, and that 
 which, without any such mark, is no less clearly present 
 in the mind of the speaker, and communicated by him to 
 the hearer, a confusion which often appears in speaking 
 of the supposed excellencies and deficiencies of different 
 languages. To counteract this it will be useful to under- 
 stand distinctly that the Latins have only one case in the 
 plural to express the same relations, for which they have 
 two in the singular, the dative and the ablative, and that 
 in the singular itself they have one case more in masculine 
 and feminine than in neuter nouns. Further, the identity 
 of the dative and ablative in the plural may serve to 
 remind us that the cases in a language have not developed 
 themselves in conformity with some defined, abstract idea, 
 and that the original signification of these two cases in 
 particular was distinguished by a vague limit, which only 
 acquired precision by degrees." 
 
 "It is of great practical moment, that the accusative, 
 and its relation to the other cases, should be rightly treated 
 in the Syntax, and for this the way is prepared by a 
 correct arrangement in the first part of the Grammar. 
 The accusative having been hitherto placed between the 
 dative and ablative in the Etymology, the same arrange- 
 ment was adhered to in the Syntax, i. e. the first and most 
 important definition of the predicate was considered after 
 the more special and remote, while at the same time the 
 relation indicated by the accusative was placed exactly in 
 the same light as that expressed by the dative and ablative. 
 Hence when efforts were made in more recent times to fix 
 with precision the primary signification of the several so- 
 
 convenience the undivided case is designated by the united names of the 
 two forms, into which it is divided in the other genders or the other 
 number, instead of a distinct name of its own. Still more does this hold 
 of the vocative." 
 
TRANSLATOR S PREFACE. IX 
 
 called oblique cases, which in the datiye and ablative was 
 rightly found to consist in a relation of place and the direc- 
 tion of a movement, the same notion was transferred to the 
 accusative, and it was said to designate that to which a 
 motion takes place. Thus starting with that use of the 
 accusative of the names of places which is quite subordi- 
 nate and special, these writers in effect charged the lan- 
 guage with the absurdity of designating the object as a 
 point out of the action, to which it moves. — The dative and 
 ablative denote ideas which are considered as external to 
 the action, and bear a relation to it, which is primarily a 
 local one, and designated as such ; the object, on the other 
 hand, is concerned in the action no less than the subject. 
 Here there is no relation to the action to be expressed, and 
 the word is simply added to the verb without inflection. 
 This juxtaposition, however, is also made use of in some 
 cases, when an idea is not represented as the immediate 
 object of an action, but yet in consequence of the peculiar 
 character of the predicate as well as its own bears such an 
 obvious relation to it, that any special form to express it 
 would be superfluous (the accusative of time and measure). 
 The prepositions are some of them prefixed to the unin- 
 flected word, so that the relation is expressed by the pre- 
 position alone, some are combined with the word in a form 
 which of itself generally indicates a certain relation, so that 
 in the case of prepositions with the ablative (in Greek with 
 the genitive and dative), the relation is expressed in a 
 twofold way. — A case being formed in masculine and femi- 
 nine nouns to express the subject, the accusative remains 
 as the word without any farther grammatical definition, 
 than that it is not the subject (or predicative word with 
 sum or a passive verb), and it is employed whenever there 
 is no necessity for some more special description. — By the 
 present arrangement the Learner is at once introduced to 
 the most simple method of completing the predicate, and 
 sees the connection between the active and passive forms 
 
 b 
 
x translator's preface. 
 
 of the proposition ; lie becomes accustomed not to look for 
 any special signification indicated by the form when he 
 meets with the accusative as an object, and hence easily 
 connects with it the other applications of the same case, 
 having actually here before him the same undistinguished 
 combination which recurs in those languages in which the 
 forms of the cases (with the exception of the genitive) have 
 been given up, as, for example, Danish and English, only 
 that in Latin he has, in all but the neuter, the distinction 
 of the nominative. Consequently he does not miss in the 
 neuter a form to correspond to that employed in the other 
 genders." 
 
 With respect to the pronunciation of the Latin vowels 
 (in which, by the way, the English schools and universities 
 differ not only from the Continental usage, but also from 
 each other), the author recommends that the long and short 
 should be distinguished, wherever it can be done with cer- 
 tainty and precision. Thus the o in sol should not be pro- 
 nounced as in the first syllable of the English word solitude, 
 but like that in sole e , the second o in konos like that in 
 bonos, while os, oris, should be distinguished in pronuncia- 
 tion from os, ossis. 
 
 In the typographical execution of the work, regard has 
 been had to the convenience of the teacher, by printing the 
 observations, and those paragraphs which are adapted only 
 to more advanced pupils, in a smaller type. It might be 
 well, however, to restrict the first course within still nar- 
 rower limits than those thus pointed out, that a knowledge 
 of the forms may be acquired as soon as possible. Professor 
 
 e The most usual practice in this country is to pronounce sol as if it 
 were short (soZ), and the same vowel in sbleo as if it were long (soleo), 
 the pronunciation being thus regulated, in many instances, not by the 
 actual quantity of the vowel, but by the division of the syllables. It is 
 almost unnecessary to observe, that this very much tends to hinder the 
 acquisition of a correct knowledge of prosody. On this subject, so far as 
 it applies to the Greek language, the reader may consult Buttmann with 
 advantage. 
 
translator's PREFACE. XI 
 
 Madvig considers, and it is the opinion, be it remembered, 
 of one who is at once an able scholar, and himself practi- 
 cally acquainted with education, that the study of Latin is 
 commonly commenced too early. " The object," he remarks, 
 "is a remote and difficult one, for which the learner is not 
 yet prepared by those which are nearer and easier of accom- 
 plishment, it is therefore acquired but slowly, and for a 
 long time with a certain indistinctness and confusion, which 
 are removed with difficulty at a later period : the student 
 has to go through the hands of many instructors, and be- 
 comes wearied of the task, without having acquired any 
 clear and definite views. Begin teaching Latin a few years 
 later (say at the age of twelve), but then with concentrated 
 energy and with habits of learning and application already 
 formed, and as favourable a result would be obtained with 
 less irksomeness to the pupil." 
 
 It is recommended that the learner should make use of 
 a reading-book as soon as he has mastered the two first 
 declensions. Even before he has learned the verbal in- 
 flection he will have no difficulty in understanding short 
 and easy sentences, the verb being put in the third person 
 of the present indicative, and the signification of this form 
 explained without any further analysis. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 In preparing the present Edition for the Press, the translation 
 has been carefully revised throughout, and compared, wherever a 
 doubt presented itself, with the original German. In this way a 
 few inaccuracies have been corrected, while passages which ap- 
 peared obscure or ambiguous have been expressed, it is hoped, 
 with greater precision and perspicuity. Some additional examples, 
 for which the Translator alone is responsible, have been added in 
 the Notes, and are distinguished by brackets. Should they be 
 considered of little value or importance, they can, at least, easily 
 be passed over. It only remains for him to express his gratifica- 
 tion at the favourable reception the book has met with from Eng- 
 lish Scholars, and the progress which, though it has had several 
 established rivals to contend with, it is evidently making in our 
 Schools and Universities. 
 
C O.N TENTS. 
 
 Introduction 
 
 PAGE 
 
 1 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 I. Of Pronunciation. 
 
 I. The Letters ' < . 
 
 II. The Measure of the Syllables and Accentuation (Prosody) 
 
 II. Of the Inflection of Words. 
 
 I. The Classes of Words. Inflection, Theme, and Termina 
 
 tion . 
 II. Of Gender {genus) and Inflection by Cases in general 
 
 III. First Declension ..... 
 
 IV. Second Declension .... 
 V. Third Declension .... 
 
 VI. Peculiarities of the several Cases and of the Greek forms 
 
 in the third Declension . 
 VII. Fourth Declension .... 
 
 VIII. Fifth Declension .... 
 
 IX. Of some peculiarities in the use of the Numbers of Sub 
 
 stantives, and of some irregularities in their Inflection 
 X. The Inflection of Adjectives 
 XI. The Numerals (nomina numeralia) 
 XII. The Pronouns .... 
 
 XIII. The Inflection of the Verbs in general . 
 
 XIV. The Verb sum^ and examples of the four Conjugations 
 XV. Verbs with a Passive Form and Active Signification 
 
 (Verba deponentia) .... 
 XVI. Some peculiarities in the Conjugation 
 XVII. Of the irregular Perfects and Supines in general, and 
 especially those of the first Conjugation 
 
 16 
 19 
 
 23 
 25 
 29 
 
 43 
 
 47 
 49 
 
 50 
 59 
 69 
 75 
 83 
 91 
 
 109 
 113 
 
 115 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 chap. 
 
 XVIII. The irregular Perfects and Supines of the second Conju- 
 gation ...... 
 
 XIX. Perfects and Supines of the third Conjugation 
 XX. The irregular Perfects and Supines of the fourth Con 
 j ligation ..... 
 
 XXI. The irregular Supines (Participles) of the Deponents, and 
 
 some other Irregularities of these Verbs 
 XXII. Irregular Verbs (Verba anomald) 
 
 XXIII. Defective Verbs {Verba defectiva) 
 
 XXIV. Impersonal Verbs (Verba impersonalia) . 
 XXV. The Adverbs and Prepositions 
 
 III. "Rules for the Formation of Words. 
 
 I. Formation of Words in general. Derivation of Substan- 
 
 tives ..... 
 
 II. Derivation of Adjectives . 
 
 III. Derivation of Verbs 
 
 IV. Derivation of Adverbs . 
 V. The Formation of new Words by Composition 
 
 118 
 122 
 
 133 
 
 134 
 137 
 143 
 146 
 148 
 
 153 
 163 
 170 
 173 
 
 177 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 Rules for the Construction of Words . • ,183 
 
 Past the First. 
 Of the Combinations of Words in a Proposition. 
 
 I. Of the Parts of a Proposition. Of the Agreement of the 
 
 Subject and Predicate, the Substantive and Adjective . 184 
 
 II. The relations of Substantives in the Proposition, and the 
 
 Cases ; the Nominative and Accusative , . 194 
 
 III. The Dative . . . . . .212 
 
 IV. The Ablative 223 
 
 V. The Genitive . . . . .242 
 
 VI. The Vocative ...... 263 
 
 VII. Of the Use of the Adjectives (Adverbs), and particularly 
 
 of their Degrees of Comparison . . . 264 
 
 VIII. Peculiarities in the Construction of the Demonstrative 
 
 and Relative Pronouns . . . . .275 
 
contents. xv 
 
 Part the Second. 
 
 On the Mode of distinguishing the Character of the Assertion^ and the 
 Time of the Fact asserted. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. Of the Kinds of Propositions, and the Moods in general . 284 
 
 II. The Indicative and its Tenses . . . .287 
 
 III. The Conjunctive . . . .298 
 
 III. (Appendix.) Of the Formation of Objective Propo- 
 
 sitions in the Conjunctive, and of the Particles employed 
 
 in them . ... . . '325 
 
 IV. The Tenses of the Conjunctive . • . .333 
 V. The Imperative . . . . , .340 
 
 VI. The Infinitive and its Tenses . . . .341 
 
 VII. Of the Supine, Gerund, and Gerundive . . . 363 
 
 VIII. Of the Participles . . . . .371 
 
 IX. Combination of coordinate and subordinate Propositions, 
 
 and the Use of the Conjunctions for this purpose. The 
 
 interrogative and negative Particles . . .380 
 
 Part the Third. 
 
 Order and Position of the Words and Propositions. 
 
 I. Of the Order of the Words in the Proposition . .415 
 
 II. Arrangement of the Propositions . . .425 
 
 First Appendix to the Syntax. 
 
 Of some special Irregularities in the Construction of 
 Words . . . . ... .429 
 
 Second Appendix to the Syntax. 
 
 Of the Signification and Use of the Pronouns . .436 
 
 The most important Rules of Latin Metre (Versification) 452 
 
 Supplements to the Grammar. 
 
 I. Of the Roman way of expressing the Date . . 464 
 
 II. Computation of Roman Money and Fractions . . 465 
 
 III. Abbreviations ...... 467 
 
LATIN GRAMMAR. 
 
 §. 1. Latin Grammar {Grammatica Latino) teaches the Form 
 of Latin Words, and their Combination in a sentence. It is 
 divided into Etymology and Syntax. Latin Metre, or the rules 
 for the structure of Latin verse, will be treated as supplementary 
 to the Grammar. 
 
 Ois. The remaining part of Latin philology relates to the signification 
 of separate words, and is comprised in Dictionaries (Lexica). 
 
 §. 2. The Latin language was formerly spoken by the Romans, first in 
 a part of Central Italy, and subsequently in the whole of Italy, and in 
 other countries which they had subjugated ; at present it is known only 
 from books and other written monuments of this nation. 
 
 The oldest Latin writings which have come down to us were composed 
 about 200 years before the birth of Christ. In the 6th century after that 
 epoch the language became entirely extinct, being thoroughly corrupted 
 and mixed with their own tongues by foreign nations who had migrated 
 into the Roman territories. By these means various new languages (as 
 Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese) were gradually formed. The nu- 
 merous authors, who have written in Latin in later times, learned it as a 
 dead language. 
 
 During the long period above specified the language underwent many 
 changes, not only in the number of words, and in their significations, 
 forms, and combinations, but partially also in the pronunciation. In this 
 Grammar it is for the most part represented as it was spoken and written 
 during the most brilliant period of Roman literature, from about the time 
 of Caesar and Cicero till shortly after the birth of Christ. (This period 
 is commonly termed the golden age of the language, and the following, to 
 about 120 years after the birth of Christ, the silver age.) 
 
 Obs. The Latin language is primarily most nearly related to the Greek, 
 and from this also it borrowed many terms at a later period, when the 
 Romans became acquainted with the arts, the sciences, and the insti- 
 tutions of the Greeks. Further, both languages belong to the same 
 stem, from which the German and Northern tongues, with many others, 
 have sprung ; as the ancient Sanscrit, now totally extinct, in India, and 
 the Zend in Persia. All these languages are designated by the common 
 name of Indo- Germanic or Japhetic. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 B 
 

 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 §. 3. Etymology treats 1. Of the Sounds, of which words con- 
 sist, and their Pronunciation. 2. Of the Inflection of words, 
 and 3. Of their Derivation and Composition. 
 
 I . Of Pronuncia Hon. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Letters. 
 
 §. 4. The Latin language is written with twenty-three Letters 
 {litterae), a, b, c, d, e,f, g, h, i, (j), k, I, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, (v), 
 x, y, z (zeta). The consonants which have an affinity with the 
 vowels i and u, viz. j (i consonans) and v (u consonans), were writ- 
 ten by the Romans like those vowels (v for u as well as for v), 
 These vowels and consonants are now usually distinguished in 
 writing. The letters y and z do not belong to the original Roman 
 characters, and are employed only in Greek words, which were 
 adopted uy the Latins at a later period {litterae Graecae). 
 
 Obs. 1. The Romans made no distinction between large and small 
 letters. According to the present usage large initial letters are usually 
 employed only at the commencement of a sentence, and in proper names, 
 with the adjectives and adverbs derived from them. 
 
 Ohs. 2. The Latin characters, as well as the Greek, were borrowed 
 from the Hebrew and Phoenician. 
 
 §. 5. a. The vowels (litterae vocales) were pronounced partly 
 short (with a sharp utterance, broken off by a movement of the 
 organs of speech), partly long (with a broad, continuous sound), 
 but this difference of pronunciation is not discriminated in writing. 
 
 Obs. 1. In elementary books (as, for example, in this Grammar) the 
 long vowels are sometimes distinguished by ', and the short by w , placed 
 over them. (The sign - denotes that the vowel over which it is placed 
 was pronounced sometimes long and sometimes short.) Anciently a long 
 vowel was sometimes distinguished by reduplication. The long * was also 
 expressed by ei (heic for hie, as it was always pronounced, eidus, arteis). 
 
Chap. I. — The Letters. 3 
 
 05s. 2. J is a consonant (j) at the beginning of Latin words before 
 every other vowel, except in the participle tens. So also in the middle 
 of words between two vowels, (major, Pompejus, bnt Ga'i), except in 
 tenuia, tenuior, assiduior, (in the Greek names Acliaja, Grajus, Maja, 
 Ajax, Troja, bnt Tro'ius). Before a vowel at the beginning of Greek 
 words it is a vowel (i-ambus). 
 
 Obs. 3. Z7is a consonant (y) at the beginning of words before a vowel 
 (vado), and in the middle of words between two vowels (avidus), also 
 after ng, I, and r, when u does not belong to the termination of inflection 
 (angvis, solvo, arvum, but colui), and in some words after the initial s 
 (svadeo, svavis, svesco, Svetonius). In compound words it follows the 
 same rule as in the simple, e. g. e-ruo. After v it was the old usage to 
 pronounce and write o in the place of u, e. g. servos for servus, divom for 
 divum, and in some words o for e, e. g. vaster, vortex, for vester, vertex. 
 
 Obs. 4. For the sake of the verse the poets sometimes give to i, after a 
 consonant, the sound of j, and to u that of v, e. g. abjes, consilium, genva, 
 tenvia, for abies, consilium, genua, tenuia. Conversely they resolve v into 
 u, as su-emus instead of svemus, and frequently after I {silu-a, dissolu-o, 
 dissolu-endus. This is called diaeresis (resolution) a . 
 
 Obs. 5. In some cases the pronunciation wavered between two cognate 
 vowels, or varied at different periods, which also led to a variation in the 
 orthography, e. g. in classes and classis (accus. plur.), keri and here, 
 yesterday, fa cie?idus and faciundus. In some few words and forms, where 
 i was both spoken and written at a later period, the sound of u was 
 formerly predominant (even down to the time of Cicero and Caesar), e. g. 
 lubet for libet, optumus for optimus. 
 
 b. Of the compound vowel sounds (Diphthongs) those commonly 
 met with are ae, oe, and au ; eu (which has nearly the sound of ev) 
 occurs only in a few words (Jieus, heu, eheu, ceu, seu, new, neuter, neuti- 
 qyain) ; ei only in the interjection hei; ui in liuic and cui, and in the in- 
 terjection hui. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Ae originated in ai, as it was also written in the earliest times, 
 oe in oi. In pronunciation oe had some resemblance to u (poena, punire) . 
 These Diphthongs correspond to the Greek ai and ol (llecataeus, Pliile- 
 taerus, Oeta). 
 
 Obs. 2. In words adopted by the Latins from the Greek, ei is expressed 
 before consonants by i, before vowels by l or e (Heraclitus, JEuclldes, An 
 stoglton, Ecllpsis ; Dareus, and Darius, Alexandria and Alexandria, Aris 
 totellus and Aristoteleus). 
 
 Obs. 3. In some w^ords the pronunciation and orthography wave 
 
 8 The word diaeresis is Greek, as well as the names synaloephe, synaeresis, synizesis, 
 ecthlipsis, and syncope, which occur in the ensuing paragraphs. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 Of Pronunciation. §. 
 
 between ae and e (saeculum, sanpire, taeter, are better than seculum, &c, 
 Jiercs better than liaeres), in others between oe and e (fecundus, femina, 
 fen us, fetus), in others again between ae and oe {caelum, caeruleus, 
 maereo) ; in ohscoenus between all three forms. Au and b were also 
 interchanged in some words (plaudo, plodo, Claudius, Clddius). A pre- 
 ference should be given to such forms as are most sanctioned by ancient 
 inscriptions. 
 
 c. The following remarks apply to tlie permutation of the vowels 
 as resulting from the inflection, derivation, and composition of 
 words. 
 
 If the radical vowel be lengthened in the inflection, a is generally 
 changed into e (dgo-egi). If the radical vowel be weakened by an 
 addition before the word, ae is often changed into i (laedo, illldo), 
 a into i, if the syllable be open (i. e. ending in a vowel), and into e, 
 if it be close (i. e. ending in a consonant), e. g.facio, perfi-cio, per- 
 fec-tus ; e in an open syllable is often changed into i (teneo, con- 
 tineo, but conten-tus ; nomen, nomi-nis ; semen, but seminarium ; 
 before r it remains unchanged, e. g. affero, congero, from fero, 
 gerd) ; conversely l is changed into e in a close syllable, e. g. judex 
 from the theme judic. in an open syllable often becomes u in a 
 close one, e. g. in adolesco, adultus ; colo, cultus ; ebur, eboris ; cor- 
 pus, corporis. U often takes the place of other vowels before / 
 (pello, pepuli ; scalpo, exsculpo ; familia, famulus) . 
 
 §. 6. "When two consecutive vowels are to be separated and pronounced 
 distinctly, a kind of hesitation (hiatus, gap) is produced in the utterance, 
 especially if one vowel concludes a word and the other commences one 
 (e. g. contra audentior). Hence in reading verse the former vowel is 
 regularly omitted without regard to the quantity, which is termed elisio 
 (striking out), or synaloepJie (blending) ; e. g. saper* aude for sap ere aude, 
 qvoqv' et for qvoqve et, Dardanid' e muris for Dardanidae e muris, ultr 1 
 Asiam for ultro Asiam. The same takes place if the second word begins 
 with li, or the first ends in m, e. g. toller 1 humo for tollere liumo, mulf 
 ille for multum ille ; see §. 8 and 9. (For the exceptions compare 
 §. 502 b.) "Without doubt something like this occurred in ordinary pro- 
 nunciation. 
 
 Obs. 1. It often happens also, that in the formation and inflection of 
 words, what were originally two vowels are contracted into a long vowel 
 or diphthong, especially when a or o is followed by another vowel, 
 or the same vowel repeated twice, e. g. cogo from coago, tibicen from 
 tibucen, rnensae from mensai. Sometimes only one vowel was pro- 
 nounced, though two were written (deest, deerunt). In some cases, con- 
 
Chap. I.— The Letters. 5 
 
 trary to the prose usage, the poets allow themselves to combine two 
 vowels into one sound (by synaeresis or synizesis, sinking together), as 
 deiii, delude, prmnde, quoad, particularly e with i, a, and o, in words, the 
 nominative of which ends in eus, ea, or eum, e. g. alvei, cerea, aureo, as 
 well as anteis, anieit, from the verb anteeo. The old Comic writers 
 (Plautus and Terence) go much further in this (quia, &c). 
 
 Obs. 2. In the interrogative particle ne attached to the end of words 
 the vowel was sometimes left out in the ordinary pronunciation, even 
 before a consonant (e. g. nostirf, qvaeso) ; in this case the final s is also 
 omitted in the second person sing. pres. of some verbs, and in satis (vidert 
 for videsne, audirf for audisne, satin' for satisne). 
 
 §. 7. Of the Consonants (litterae consonantes) some are mutes 
 (mutae) b, c, {k, q,) d, f, g, p, t, which have an abrupt sound, some 
 liquids (liqvidae), I, m, n, r, which (particularly I and r) may be 
 easily attached to a preceding consonant. To these may also be 
 added the sibilant (littera sibilans) s. X is a double letter for 
 cs, z (Greek) for sd. 
 
 Of the mute consonants c (k, q,) and g are palatals (palatinae), 
 p and b labials {labiates), t and d dentals (dentales). Some have 
 a harder and rougher pronunciation (c, p, t } tennes,) some a softer 
 and with somewhat of an aspiration (b, g, d, which, in relation to 
 those which have the strongest aspiration, ch, ph, th, are called 
 mediae) . F approaches nearly to the labials, but has at the same 
 time somewhat of a dental sound. 
 
 §. 8. With reference to the pronunciation of the particular con- 
 sonants it may be observed, that c was always pronounced by the 
 ancients like k, or with only a slight modification of that sound (in 
 doces as in doctus, in accipis as in capis) . At a very late period, 
 when the language was on the verge of extinction, that pronun- 
 ciation came into vogue which is now usual in Germany, viz. of 
 giving c before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu, the sound of ts (compare ti). A 
 peculiar variety of the sound c was qv (qu), which is reckoned as 
 one consonant, as inqvilinus from incolo. The subordinate sound 
 was occasionally dropped in some words (qvotidie and cotidie, as it 
 was often pronounced and written, coqvus and cocus). Before a 
 consonant qv is either changed simply into c, as in relictus, coxi 
 [coc-si) from relinqvo, coqvo, or in some cases into cu, as in secutus 
 from seqvor. If in the inflection u would have to stand after qv, the 
 Latins pronounced and wrote either cu, or qvo (according to §. 5. a. 
 Obs. 3.), as secuntur or seqvontur ; at a later period however they wrote 
 
6 Of Pronunciation, § 
 
 qvum, and, according to the present usage, seqvunlur, relinqvuntur. 
 (Conditio, from qvatio.) 
 
 K was only used in a few words as an initial letter before a, especially 
 in abbreviations, K.=^Kaeso (a pracnomen), K. or Kal.=Kalendae. 
 
 Ti is now pronounced before vowels like tsi*, except after s and t 
 (just lor, mixtio, Attius), in the lengthened passive infinitive ( pettier), 
 and in Greek words (Isocratlus = Isocrateus, Boeotia); but this pro- 
 nunciation dates from a very recent period. Thus in the later pro- 
 nunciation ti before a vowel, and ci, came to have the same sound, 
 and were occasionally interchanged in writing, e. g. in the deri- 
 vative ending cius (patricius, suppositicius) . 
 
 M as a final consonant, when followed by a vowel, had an obscure 
 and scarcely audible sound, on which account it is dropped in 
 reading verse (by ecihlipsis, squeezing out), together with the 
 vowel which precedes it, precisely as if that terminated the word 
 (ventur' excidio for veniurum excidio, need' etiam for necdum 
 etiam). See §. 6. 
 
 M and n are related in such a way (as nasal sounds) that m is 
 heard before m, b, and p, but n before the remaining consonants 
 (comburo ; but concipio, condo ; turn, but tunc). Before the en- 
 clitic particles ne and que m is retained (deorumne, hominumqve). 
 Before c (q) and g, n had the same sound as in the English word 
 long. 
 
 R now stands in many Latin words where there was formerly an 
 s, since the Romans, with the exception of a few words (such as 
 quaeso, vasis, &c, from vas, asinus, miser), have changed s between 
 two vowels into r (Papirius, Veturius, for Papisius, Vetusius, arbo- 
 rem for arbosem, gero for geso, whence gessi, oris for osis, from os). S 
 however always remains unchanged, when another consonant has 
 been dropt before it (divisi for dividsi, from divido) } or when it 
 begins the last part of a compound word (de-silio). 
 
 §. 9. iJis not a consonant, but the sign of a guttural aspiration 
 (aspiratio) of the vowel, so that two vowels with an h between them 
 are considered as immediately following each other, and the elision 
 of a final vowel is not prevented by h (§. 6). Hence some words 
 with h between two voxels are occasionally contracted (nihil and 
 nil, prehendo and prendo, vehemens and vernens). At the begin- 
 ning of some words h was sometimes prefixed, and at other times 
 omitted (arundo, harundo, ave } have, hedera, edera, herus, erus). 
 
 * In England ci, ti, and si coming before a vowel in Latin words are generally pro- 
 nounced like shi. 
 
Chap. I.— The Letters. 7 
 
 In the earliest times tne consonants were scarcely ever aspirated 
 (pronounced with h) : afterwards this was done in Greek words 
 (thesaurus, elephantus, delphbius) , and in those of barbarous origin 
 (rheda), but only in very few genuine Latin words, as brachium, 
 pulcher, triumphus (sepulchrum is incorrect), and in some proper 
 names, as Cethegus, Gracchus. 
 
 §.10. A regard for Euphony and convenience of pronunciation 
 has often much influence on the consonants in words, and leads to 
 alterations in them. 
 
 At the end of words (as a final consonant) no consonant is 
 doubled (we have therefore met, fel, although the gen. is mellis, 
 fellis) : no consonant is doubled before another in the middle of a 
 word, except a mute before a liquid (effluo ; but falsum from fallo, 
 cur sum from curro). Yet among the words compounded with the 
 prepositions trans and ex (ecs) we sometimes find transscribo, and 
 frequently exspecto, exstinguo (ecsspecto) for expecto, extinguo. A 
 consonant has sometimes been dropt from the end of a word 
 w r hich has no termination of inflection (sermo, sermonis, cor, cordis, 
 lac, lactis). 
 
 Changes take place more especially when consonants of a dif- 
 ferent character are brought together, either by composition, or by 
 the addition of a termination of inflection or derivation. 
 
 Before a liquid a tenuis is often changed into the corresponding 
 media (negligens from nee), and a media before a tenuis or s into 
 the corresponding tenuis, in the pronunciation, though not always 
 in writing. (G before t and s always becomes c, actus, from ago, 
 unxi (unc-si) from ungo, and b before t and s generally becomes p, 
 scriptus, scripsi, yet we find both obtineo and optineo, absens, ob- 
 sideo, urbs.) 
 
 Sometimes (by assimilation) a consonant was completely changed 
 into that which succeeded it (d, t, and b into s in cessi, fossum, pas- 
 sus, fassus, jussi, from cedo, fodio, patior, fateor, jubeo, d into c in 
 qvicqvam, gvicqvid, n and r into I in corolla, agellus, from corona, 
 ager), especially the final consonant of the prepositions (attingo 
 from ad and tango), in which case however the change was often 
 not distinguished in writing (compare §. 173 and 204, Obs. 1.). 
 Sometimes one consonant was obliged to give way to a folio wing- 
 one, particularly d and t to s, e. g. divisi for divid-si, from divido, 
 mons for monts, nox for nocts (genitive noct-is), flexi for fleets?,. 
 
 §.11. In order to facilitate the pronunciation, a vowel is some- 
 times inserted between two consonants (e in ager, gen. agri, u in 
 
8 Of Pronunciation. §. 
 
 vinculum, which was also pronounced vinclum). On the other hand, 
 a vowel was sometimes left out in familiar discourse, and here 
 and there in writing (by syncope, abbreviation), e. g. dextra for 
 dexter a, consumpse (instead of consumpssse, §. 10), for consumpsisse. 
 Abbreviations of this kind are frequent in the Comic writers. 
 
 Obs. The oldest pronunciation of all nations shews itself inclined to cer- 
 tain combinations of sound and averse to others, and particular sounds are 
 somewhat modified by nations of kindred origin. The pronunciation too 
 alters very much before the introduction of written language. These are 
 the causes of certain variations in the Greek and Latin pronunciation, e. g. 
 in the sounds v and/, in m and v as final consonants, in the aspiration 
 (which stands at the commencement of several words in Greek which in 
 Latin begin with s, e. g. virep, super, vtto, sub, vkrj, silva, vs, sus). Hence 
 also arise other variations in several particular words which were originally 
 identical : e.g. an initial consonant has been dropt in Latin in uro (jrvp, 
 comburo) andfallo (o-<paX\a>), and in Greek in rpifa (strido). Such modi- 
 fications in the pronunciation and form of words shew themselves also in 
 the inflection, which has sometimes preserved traces of an older form of 
 the word, e. g.fluxi, struxi, from fluo, struo. 
 
 §. 12. The orthography of the Romans was somewhat undeter- 
 mined, even at the same period, since some invariably followed the 
 pronunciation, which again in some words and forms was not quite 
 definite and distinct (e. g. in urbes or urbis as the ace. pi.). Others 
 on the contrary in compound or derivative words looked more to 
 their origin (e.g. tamqvam, numqvam, although they were pronounced 
 as tanqvam or nunqvam) or adhered to an orthography which had 
 been once adopted, though it might be no longer conformable to 
 the pronunciation then in vogue. Far greater was the diversity 
 in the orthography of different periods, inasmuch as the pronun- 
 ciation also underwent many changes. On the whole it is now best 
 and safest to follow the orthography of the later Roman gramma- 
 rians, which corresponds to the pronunciation of that day, or to a 
 gradually established usage. In doubtful cases we shall often find 
 what is right by considering the origin of the words, and what may 
 from thence be probably inferred as to their pronunciation (e. g. 
 condicio from condicere). But in editions of the works of the older 
 writers, e. g. Cicero and Virgil, the antiquated orthography is re- 
 tained in many words, e. g. divom, volt (§. 5. a. Obs. 3). 
 
 §.13. In the writings of the ancients the words at the end of the 
 lines were not divided accurately according to the syllables (syl- 
 labae). A consonant between two vowels belongs to the last vowel, 
 
CnAP. II.— Measure of Syllables. Accentuation. 9 
 
 with which it is also combined in the pronunciation; of two or 
 more consonants the last, or if they can begin a Latin word, the 
 two last go with the following vowel, the other or others with the 
 preceding {pa-tr is, fascia, ef-fiuo, perfec-tus, emp-tus). The double 
 letter x, which belongs partly to the preceding, partly to the fol- 
 lowing vowel, is best connected with the preceding. In words com- 
 pounded with prepositions the final consonant of the preposition is 
 not separated from it (ab-eo, ad-eo, praeter-eo, so prod-eo, red-eo). 
 
 Ohs. 1. Latin words cannot begin with any other combinations of con- 
 sonants than with a mute followed by I or r, or s with a tenuis (sc, sp, st), 
 or s with a tenuis and r or I (splendor, scribo, spretus, stratus). Yet we 
 find gnarus and (rarely) gnavus, gnatus. 
 
 Ohs. 2. Yet according to a very prevalent usage the words are in many 
 books so divided, that all those consonants likewise, which can begin a 
 word in Greek, and all mutes with liquids (even if they cannot begin a 
 Greek word, e. g. gm), and, lastly, similar combinations of two mutes 
 (e g. gd and et) are attached to the syllable following (i-gnis, o-mnis, 
 ra-ptus, Ca-dmus, i-vse, scri-psi, Le-slos, a-gmen, Da-pJine, rly-thnus, 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Measure of the Syllables and Accentuation (Prosody)*. 
 
 §. 14. The pronunciation of the syllables varies according to the 
 duration of the sound (the quantity of the syllables, quantitas sylla- 
 barum) and the accentuation (accentus). As the ancients them- 
 selves pronounced, the first distinction, according to which the 
 position of the accent is also regulated in Latin, was the clearest 
 and most perceptible, and on this Euphony depends both in prose 
 and verse : at the present day (as in our own and in modern lan- 
 guages generally), the difference of accent only is commonly heard 
 distinctly and indeed more strongly than was the case with the 
 ancients, while the difference of quantity is only observable in par- 
 ticular cases, and not in the continued sequence of the syllables. 
 
 §. 15. Some syllables are long, some short; to the first is at- 
 tributed twice the duration (mora) of the last ; a very few only are 
 doubtful {ancipites), so that they may be pronounced either way. 
 A syllable is long either by nature, when its vowel has of itself the 
 
 b The 
 
 Greek word iroosaK* (properly an accompanying song, a tone accompanying 
 •enunciation) signified first the accentuation, but at a later period it was used also 
 lo demote Uie quantity (length or shortness) of the syllables, and the rules relating to it 
 
10 Of Pronunciation. §• 1« 
 
 long, broad pronunciation, e. g. sol, trado (§. 5 a), or by the posi- 
 tion (positio) of the vowel, when on account of two or more follow- 
 ing consonants a vowel which is in itself short must be sustained 
 for a longer time, e. g. the first syllable in ossis. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the old pronunciation it was distinctly heard whether a 
 vowel before two or more consonants was long in itself, without any re- 
 ference to position, (as in mans, gentis, pax, gen. pads, est for edit), or 
 whether the vowel itself was short and the syllable consequently only 
 long by position (as in fax, gen. facis, est from sum) : but we are often 
 not acquainted with this distinction, since we have generally no other 
 means of ascertaining the quantity of syllables than from the usage of the 
 poets, where it makes no difference what is the nature of the vowel pro- 
 vided there be position. 
 
 Obs. 2. To pronounce a syllable long is called producer e sylldbam, to 
 pronounce it short corripere syllabam. 
 
 §. 16. a. All Diphthongs are long. 
 
 Ols. The Diphthong ae in prae is shortened before a vowel in com- 
 pound words, e. g. praeacutus, but in all other (Greek) words it is always 
 long, even before a vowel, e. g. Aeolides, Aeetes. 
 
 b. Every vowel before another vowel in the same word (even 
 if an h be interposed, §. 9) is pronounced short (deus, contraho, 
 adveho). 
 
 From this rule are excepted 
 
 1 . e before i after a vowel in the genitive and dative of the fifth de- 
 clension (diei, but fidei). 
 
 2. a in the resolved genitive in a'i in the first declension (mensai). 
 
 3. i in the genitives in ius {alius, &c). 
 
 4. a and e before i in the vocative of proper names hi jus in the second 
 declension, (Gd'i, Pompe'i). 
 
 5. The first vowel in the interjections eheu and ohe (but also ohe), in 
 the adjective dius, sometimes in the proper name Diana (more frequently 
 Diana), and in all the forms from fid, except fierem (fieres, &c.) and 
 fieri. 
 
 6. Greek words, in which the vowel retains the quantity which it has 
 in Greek, der, eos, heroics, Meneldus. In such words therefore e and i are 
 long before another vowel, when rj or et occur in the Greek (Briseis,, 
 Medea, Aeneas, Alexandria or Alexandria, JEpicureus, Spondeus ; chorea 
 alone is sometimes chorea) ; on the other hand they are short, when the 
 
 Greek has e or i (idea, philosophia). But we find academia (aKabrjfiia). 
 
 Obs. At the end of a word a long vowel or ae may sometimes be short- 
 
L9. Chap. II. — Measure of Syllables. Accentuation. 11 
 
 ened in Terse before a vowel following, instead of being elided. Compare 
 §. 502 b. 
 
 §. 17. Those vowels in the middle of words which have origi- 
 nated from contraction and syncope are long (cogo from codgo, 
 malo from mdgevolo, tibicen from tibiicen, junior from juvenior). 
 
 §.18. The quantity of the radical syllables of words which are 
 not monosyllables cannot be determined by rules ; but the radical 
 syllables and their vowels retain the same quantity in all inflec- 
 tions of the word, and in all its derivatives and compounds, even if 
 the vowel be changed into another cognate vowel, e. g. mater, ma- 
 temus ; pater, pdternus ; scribo, scrlbere, scriba, conscribere ; clrno, 
 amor, amicus, dmicitia, inimicitiae ; cddo, incido ; caedo, incldo. In 
 the same way the vowel of a particular form of inflection retains 
 the same quantity in the further modifications of this form, and in 
 the words derived from it, e. g. docebam,, docebamus, docebamini ; 
 amatus, amdturus ; monitum, admonitio. 
 
 From this rule are excepted 
 
 1. Inflections: a. Perfects in i formed without reduplication, which 
 lengthen the first syllable, unless one vowel stands before another : see 
 §. 103 b: b. Perfects and supines, (with the forms derived from them,) 
 in which the last radical consonant of the verb has been dropped before 
 si, sum, turn (divido, div'isi, divlsum ; video, visum; moveo, mbtum ; cddo, 
 eastern) : c. JPosui, positum, from pbno : d. Some monosyllable nomina- 
 tives of words of the third declension, in which the vowel is long, though 
 the radical syllable in the other cases is short, see §. 21, 2 b. 
 
 2. Derivatives : a. Hilmanus (homo), secius (secus), rex, regis, regula 
 (rego), lex, legis (lego), tegula (tego), susp'icio (suspwor), vox, vocis (voco), 
 sides (sedeo), persona (sono) : b. Ambitus, amVitio (ambitum from am- 
 hire), condicio (cond'ico), dicax, and the words in dlcus (maledlcus, &c.) 
 from dico, dux, duels (diico), fides, perfidus (f~ido,fidus, infidus), nota, 
 notare (notus), pdciscor (pax, pdcis), sopor (sdpire), labo (labor, labi), 
 lucerna (luceo), molestus (moles). From stare come both stdturus, and 
 stdtio, stabilis. 
 
 3. Compounds : dejero, pejero (juro), cognltus, agnitus (notus), pro- 
 nubus, innubus (nubo). For connubium we have also connubium (or con- 
 nubjum according to §. 5 a. Obs. 4). 
 
 Obs. If a word with a particular grammatical termination becomes the 
 first part of a compound, or has an additional syllable appended to it, the 
 quantity of the termination remains unchanged, e. g. qydpropter, qvdtenus 
 (qva), mecum, memet (me), qvilibet (qvi), alioqyi (alio), introduco (intro), 
 agrlcultura (agrl). (Yet we find siqyidem from si, qvandoqyidem from 
 qyando.) 
 
 c2 
 
12 Of Pronunciation. §. 
 
 §.19. The quantity of those syllables by which derivative words 
 arc formed, and of the last syllables but one of the terminations of 
 inflection is noticed in its proper place among the rules for the for- 
 mation and inflection of words. We now give the rules by which 
 the quantity of the final syllable may be determined, both in poly- 
 syllables and monosyllables. 
 
 In the termination of polysyllables which end in a vowel, 
 
 1. a is short in nouns (mensd, nom. and voc., lignd, animalid, 
 Palladd) except in the abl. sing, of the first declension (mensa), 
 and in the voc. from the nom. as (Aened, Palld from Pallas, 
 Pallantis), but long in verbs in the imperative (amd), and in inde- 
 clinable words (intra, extra, ergd, anted, quadragintd,) except ltd, 
 quid, ejd, and putd, signifying for example. 
 
 2. e is short (patre, curre, nempe, prope, facile, legere, liosce, 
 reapse, suopte), except in the ablative of the fifth declension (specie), 
 in the imperative of the second conjugation (mone), in the adverbs 
 in e formed from adjectives in us (docte), together with fere, ferme, 
 ohe, hodie, and in Greek words in rj (crambe, Tempe) . But the ad- 
 verbs bene, male, inferne, and superne, have the e short. 
 
 Ols. The poets use also some dissyllable imperatives of the second 
 conjugation, the first syllable of which is short, with a short final syllable 
 (e. g. cave, hale, vale, vide, tdce). The ablative of fames (third declension) 
 has the e long, fame. 
 
 3. i is long (pueri, gen. and nom., patri, fructui, vidi, videri) ; 
 short only in the voc. of Greek words in is (Pari), and in nisi, 
 qvasi (and cui, when considered as a dissyllable) ; either long or 
 short in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubl. (From ubl are formed necubi, sicubi, 
 idnvis, uVtnam, ublqve, ubicunqve.) 
 
 4. o is most frequently long in the nom. and in the first person 
 of verbs, but occasionally short (more commonly in the later poets) ; 
 in Greek words in co it is always long (Id, Echo) ; long in cases of 
 the second declension, in ambo, and in adverbs (e. g. porro, quo, 
 falso, qvando, idcirco, vulgo, omnino, ergo), with the exception of 
 modo (with its compounds, tantummodo, dummodo, qvomodo), cito, 
 immo ; it is short in duo, odd, ego, cedo (tell me), endo (for in). 
 
 Obs. The poets of the silver age also use the adverbs ergo (therefore), 
 qvando, porro, postremo, sero, and the ablative of the gerund (vigilando) 
 with a short o (always qvando gvidem). 
 
 5. u is always long (comu, diu), y (occurring in a very few Greek 
 words) is short (molp). 
 
Chap. II. — Measure of Syllables. Accentuation. 13 
 
 §. 20. All final syllables of polysyllabic words, which, end in any 
 other (single) consonant than s, are short [donee, illud, consul, 
 amem, carmen, for sit an, amer, amaretur, ager, pater, caput, amdt), 
 except in alec, lien, componnds of par (dispdr), cases (except the 
 nom. masc.) and adverbs from illic and istic (Hide, iliac), and in 
 Greek words with a Greek form, which retain their original quan- 
 tity (aer, aether, crater, which form in the accus. aera, crateras, 
 Siren, Aenean, Callidpen, Epigrammaton) . But the ending cop is 
 shortened into or (Hector, rhetor, from "E/ircop, prfrcop). 
 
 Of the final syllables in s, 
 
 1. as is long (mensds, aetds, amas), except in anas (andtis), in 
 the Greek nom. in as, gen. ddis (Bids), and in the Greek accus. 
 plur. of the third declension (herods) . 
 
 2. es is long (eludes, aedes, nom. sing, reges, series, ames, dices, 
 gvoties), except, a. the nominatives sing, of the third declension, 
 which have in the gen. etis, itis, idis (seges, miles, obses) ; the fol- 
 lowing however, with etis in the gen,, have es long, abies, aries, 
 paries : b. compounds of es (from sum), ades, abes, potes : c. the 
 preposition penes : d. Greek nominatives plur. of the third de- 
 clension in e? (crateres, Arcades) : e. Greek neuters in e? (Cyno- 
 sarges, Hippom,anes) . 
 
 3. is is short (ignis, regis, facilis, diets), excepting, a. in the dat. 
 and abl. plur. (?nensis, pueris, nobis, vobis), and in the ace. plur. of 
 the third declension (omnis for omnes) : b. in gratis (gratiis) for'is : 
 c. in the second pers. sing. pres. of the fourth conjugation (audls), 
 and in the verbs vis, sis, (adsis, possis, &c.),/?5, veils, noils, malls, 
 and often in the second pers. of the futurum exactum and perfect 
 conjunctive (amaverls) : d. in the nominatives Qvirls, Sam?ils, Sa- 
 lamls, Eleusis, Simols. 
 
 4. os is long (honos, multbs, illos), except in compos, impos, and 
 in the Greek termination of cases in o? (Delos, nom. Erinnyos, gen.) 
 
 5 . us is short (annus, tempus, vetiis, fontibus, legimus, tenus, fun- 
 ditus) except, a. in the gen. sing., and nom. and ace. plur. of the 
 fourth declension (senatus, but in the nom. sing, senatus) : b. in 
 the nominatives of the third declension which have long u in the 
 genitive (villus, virtutis ; palus, paludis ; tellus, telluris) ; c. in the 
 Greek gen. ou? in the third declension (Sapphus), and in some 
 Greek proper names with ou? in the nom. (Panthus, Melampus). 
 But (Oedipus, Oedipi). 
 
 6. ys (in Greek words) is short, e. g. Cotys. 
 
 §.21. 1. All words of one syllable, which end in a vowel, are 
 
14 Of Pronunciation. %. < 
 
 long [a, e, ne, that not ; da) ; only those particles, which are at-. 
 tached to the end of other words, are short (qve, ve, and the inter- 
 rogative we). 
 
 2. Of words of one syllable, which end in a consonant, it is to 
 he observed : 
 
 a. Those, which are declined or conjugated, follow the general 
 rules for final syllables (das, fles, scis, ddt, stdt, flet, qvis nom. is, 
 id, his, qvis, dat. and abl. qvi, qvos, qvds, hoc, hdc) ; es from sum is 
 short, from edo long. 
 
 b. The nominatives of substantives and adjectives are long (6s, 
 gen. oris, mos, as, sol, ver, fur, plus), even if the radical vowel in 
 the other cases is short (lar, sal, pes, mas, bos, vds, gen. vddis, 
 pa?°) ; but vir, cor, fel, lac, mel, os, gen. ossis, are short. The pro- 
 noun hie is either long or short, hoc is long. 
 
 c. Words that do not vary are short (db, bb, per, at, qvbt, nee) ; 
 but the following are long, en, non, qvin, sin, eras, cur, and the ad- 
 verbs in c (hie, hue, sic). 
 
 d. The imperatives die, due, fdc, and fer, retain the quantity of 
 their verbs. 
 
 §.22. A syllable with a short vowel is long by position, when it 
 ends either with two consonants or a double consonant (amabunt, 
 fax), or itself ends in a consonant, while the next (either in the 
 same or another word) begins with a consonant (dantis, inferretqve, 
 passiis sum), or when the next syllable of the same word begins 
 with two consonants, which are not mutes with the liquid r or /, or 
 with j, which when standing between two vowels is as it were 
 doubled in pronunciation (resto, major). 
 
 Obs. J does not constitute a position in the compounds of jugum 
 (bljugus, qvadrtjugios). 
 
 If the next syllable of the same word begins with a mute and 
 with I or r, only weak position (positio debilis) results, i. e. the 
 syllable may be used as either long or short, e. g. patris, tenebrae, 
 mediocris, vepres, poples, Atlas, assecla, as in this verse of Ovid 
 (Met. XIII. 607) : Et primo similis volucri, mooc vera volucris : and 
 the following of Virgil (Aen. II. 663) : Natum ante or a pdtris, 
 pdtrem qui obtruncat ad aras. (We always have Ob-repo, sub-rigo, 
 &c, when the mute and the liquid belong severally to their part of 
 the compound. If the vowel be long by nature, the same quantity of 
 course holds without any reference to the position, as in salubris from 
 salus, ambulacrum, delubrum.) 
 
 Obs. 1 . In a few words, however, familiar pronunciation, as well as the 
 
Chaf.II. — Measure of Syllables. Accentuation, 15 
 
 practice of particular poets, has established a certain, usage, so that in 
 some the vowel is almost always lengthened, as in the cases of n7ger, and 
 piger, (nigri, pigri), in others never, as in arbitror. In prose, that syllable 
 which is only lengthened by positio debilis is always pronounced short 
 (tenebrae). 
 
 Obs. 2, In Greek words weak position is also formed by a mute with 
 m or n (Cycnus, Tecmessa, Daphne). 
 
 Obs. 3. If a word ends with a short vowel and the following begins 
 with two consonants or a double consonant, no lengthening by position 
 takes place (praemia scribae, ilice glandis, nemorosa Zacyntlws) . 
 
 Obs. 4. The oldest poets (before Virgil and Horace) often allow sasa 
 final consonant (on account of a certain weakness in the pronunciation) to 
 form no position with the folio v^ing initial consonant (e. g. certissimus 
 nuntius mortis, or certissimiC nuntiiC mortis). 
 
 Obs. 5. Since the lengthening of syllables by position is quite distinct 
 from the proper length of the vowels, the older comic poets have often 
 thought themselves justified in disregarding it. 
 
 Obs. 6. The poets allow themselves in certain defined cases to supply 
 the place of a long syllable in a verse with a short one ; but this is 
 founded on the structure of the verse, not on the nature of the syllable. 
 (See §. 502 a.) 
 
 §.23. In every word the accent (tone) falls on a particular syl- 
 lable, and is either acute {accentus acutus) or drawn out (accentus 
 circumfleocus), but is not distinguished in writing. (In books of in- 
 struction the accentus acutus is designated by', the circumflexus 
 by A ). The prepositions only before their cases have no proper ac- 
 centuation (per urbem, propter moenia ; but moenia propter). 
 
 Monosyllables have the accentus circumflexus if the vowel is long 
 by nature, otherwise the accentus acutus. 
 
 In words of more than one syllable the last (ultima) is never 
 accentuated. In dissyllables therefore the accent falls on the first. 
 In words of three or more syllables it falls on the last but one 
 (penultima) if this be long, but if this be short, on the third from 
 the end (antepenultima) . The accent on the last syllable but one 
 is a circumflex, if the vowel be long by nature (not the syllable 
 only by position) and the last syllable short ; otherwise an acute ; 
 on the third syllable from the end it is never a circumflex (Roma, 
 Roma, homo, lectus ; Romdnus, Romdnds, Metellus, moribus, carmi- 
 nibus, homines). 
 
 Obs. 1. In compounds of facio with other words than prepositions 
 (palamfacio, calefacio) the accent always remains on facio (calefacit). 
 
 Obs. 2. If a new word is formed by the addition of qve, the accent fol- 
 
16 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 lows the general rule (itaqve, uterqve) ; but if qve, ne, ve, are attached to 
 a word as enclitics, the accent is thrown on the last syllable of the word 
 (itaqve = et ita, Musdqye in the abl., Musdqve in the nom.) 
 
 Obs. 3. He who is accustomed to the correct accentuation of the words 
 may thence determine the quantity of the last syllable but one (thus in 
 expo nit the o is long, in comparat the a is short in the penultima). 
 
 II. Of the Inflection of Words, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 The Classes of Words. Inflection, Theme, and Termination. 
 
 §. 24. Words (verba or voces) are divided according to their dif- 
 ferent application in speaking into certain Classes (partes oratioms, 
 parts of speech). 
 
 1. The word, by which something (a conception) is expressed by 
 itself alone, is called a noun substantive, nomen substantivum i 
 (from substantia, existence), e.g. vir, the man, domus, the house, 
 actio, the action. It either denotes a thing with reference to its 
 kind and the general idea, which may comprise a number of indi- 
 vidual objects (an appellative or common noun, nomen appella- 
 tivum), e. g. corpus, ovis, flos, or a single denned object without re- 
 ference to its kind or the general idea (a proper name, nomen pro- 
 prium), e. g. Lucius, Sempronius, Roma. 
 
 2. The word, by which a thing is named and denned according 
 to- some property appertaining to it, is called a noun adjective, 
 nomen adjectivum, e. g. magnus, great. When joined to the sub- 
 stantive, it forms a descriptive appellation, e. g. vir magnus (the 
 property itself is expressed by magnitudo). 
 
 Substantives and adjectives are comprised in the class of nouns 
 (nomina). 
 
 A noun, which denotes a number, is called a numeral, nomen 
 numerate, and is usually an adjective, inasmuch as it serves to 
 describe a thing by its number, e. g. tres homines. The number 
 however may be conceived and described as a thing by itself, and 
 the word is then a substantive, e. g. millia, thousands. 
 
 Instead of naming an object, we may distinguish it by pointing to 
 some relation or other in which it stands. A distinguishing word 
 of this kind is called a pronoun, pronomen, e. g. hie, this here, 
 We, that there, ego, I, tu, thou. A pronoun may either be em- 
 ployed alone, to denote the idea, and then stands as a substantive, 
 
Chap. I.— Classes of Words. Inflection, &c. 17 
 
 m g. ego, tu, hie ; or it may be combined with a substantive to give 
 a more precise definition; and then it stands as an adjective, e. g. 
 hie vir, ilia domus. 
 
 Obs. 1. Numerals and pronouns are not distinct classes of words in 
 the same sense as the rest, since their application in the sentence is not 
 different from that of the other nomina, but are distinguished only accord- 
 ing to the idea which they convey ; they belong therefore to the class of 
 rans. In their inflection they have some peculiarities. 
 
 Obs 2. The Latin language does not distinguish, like the English and 
 many other languages, by the addition of a word (the article) or a termi- 
 nation, whether a substantive is intended to denote a single defined person 
 or thing, or an indefinite one amongst several of the same kind, e. g. vir, 
 the man, and a man, viri, the men, and simply, men, as the context may 
 determine. 
 
 3. A verb, verbum, is that word which expresses the idea of an 
 action, or condition of a thing, and thus forms an assertion, or 
 proposition, e. g. vir sedet, the man sits, puer currit, the boy runs. 
 (The action or condition in itself is called sessio, cursus.) 
 
 From the verb are derived certain forms, which are used as nouns, 
 either to denote the action or condition more by itself, e. g. legendo, 
 by reading; or to specify and describe some object, to which the 
 action or condition relates and appertains as a property, e. g. liber 
 lectus, the book read ; vir legem, the man reading. The substantive 
 forms are called supinum and gerundium, the adjective form is 
 termed participium. 
 
 4. An adverb, adverbium, is a word which serves only for a 
 stricter definition of a description (with an adjective), or of an 
 assertion (with a verb), e.g. vir valde magnus, a very great man, 
 eqvus celeriter currit, the horse goes swiftly. 
 
 5. Words which only denote a relation to a thing are called 
 prepositions, praepositiones (from praeponere, to put before), e. g. 
 in, in, apud, with, or at the house of; as in urbe, in the town. 
 
 6. Conjunctions, conjunctiones, mark the combination of indivi- 
 dual words or whole sentences, and their connection in the dis- 
 course, e. g. et, and; as vir et femina, the man and the woman, 
 vir sedet et puer currit. 
 
 Obs. Prepositions, conjunctions, and the adverbs derived from pronouns, 
 are also called particles. The same word may at one and the same time 
 shew the connection of two propositions, and by this connection define the 
 assertion more exactly (e. g. turn venit, qvum ego absum), so that certain 
 adverbs and conjunctions are intimately connected with each other. 
 
18 Inflection of Words. §• I 
 
 7. The interjections, interjediones, are mere sounds, which are 
 called forth by certain feelings, but represent no idea, as, all! 
 They are therefore only improperly called words. 
 
 §. 25. Nouns and verbs are inflected (flectuntur, declinantur) , 
 i. e. altered in their form, in order to denote the various combina- 
 tions and relations of words in a proposition, and the various kinds 
 of propositions. The alteration generally takes place only in the 
 last part of the word, more rarely the remaining part is modified 
 either in the pronunciation (veni from venio) or by an addition at 
 the beginning (tetigi from tango) . 
 
 Of the adverbs only a few have a certain inflection (that of com- 
 parison) : the remaining adverbs, with the prepositions, conjunc- 
 tions, and interjections, are not inflected (indeclinabilia) . 
 
 Obs. Inflection has originated partly from the addition of particular 
 words, which in pronunciation gradually became incorporated with those 
 words to which they were appended, and could no longer be distinguished 
 (as e. g. the personal endings of the verbs originated from pronouns), 
 partly from the pronunciation alone, which was modified according to the 
 way in which an idea was conceived or combined with other ideas : in 
 this way originated the lengthening of the radical vowel (veni) or the re. 
 duplication (tetigi) in the perfect. 
 
 §. 26. That which remains of a word capable of inflection, after 
 the variable terminations or affixes are removed, is called the theme 
 (thema), to which the signification of the word properly belongs, 
 e. g. amator in amator-i, amator-es ; leg in leg-o, leg-is, leg-unt. In 
 most Latin words the theme does not appear alone, but only as 
 united with some termination. The theme and termination are 
 frequently so incorporated that one or both undergo some modifi- 
 cation. 
 
 Obs. 1. From the theme we must distinguish the root (radix), i. e. the 
 original, simple primary word, which has received no accession of any 
 kind. For many words not only have terminations of inflection, but are 
 previously formed from other words by derivation and composition. 
 
 Obs. 2. Analogy (avaXoyia, proportion) is the name given in Grammar 
 to the agreement between several relations and circumstances ; hence in 
 the rules for inflection it is applied to similarity in the inflection of a 
 number of words. A deviation from analogy is called anomaly (aw/taMa, 
 unevenness, irregularity). 
 
3. Chap. II. — Of Gender and Inflection by Cases, 19 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of Gender (genus) and Inflection by Cases (declinatio) in general*. 
 
 §. 27. The Latin substantives are considered as being either of 
 the masculine gender {genus masculinurn), or the feminine [genus 
 femininum), or neither of the two : the last class is comprised 
 under the appellation neuter gender (genus neutrum). The adjec- 
 tives and participles have generally different forms, according to 
 the gender of the substantive to which they belong, e. g. masc. vir 
 magnus, a great man, fern, femina magna, a great woman, neutr. 
 folium magnum, a great leaf. In some words the gender may be 
 determined from the signification, but in by far the greater num- 
 ber it must be inferred from the termination. 
 
 Obs. 1. The names of things, which have not, like living creatures, any 
 actual sex, are referred to the masculine or feminine gender, because in 
 certain relations of things the imagination discovered a resemblance with 
 male or female qualities. But this comparison was very fortuitous, so 
 that no fixed rule can be founded on it, and one often fails to perceive the 
 ground for the determination, especially as in many instances words have 
 changed their signification. From the termination on the other hand we 
 can draw an inference as to the gender, because many terminations of 
 derivation, and some of inflection (especially in the nom. and accus.), have 
 been applied according to the gender of the words. 
 
 Obs. 2. The gender of some words may be explained from the consi- 
 deration, that they are properly adjectives, in which case regard is had 
 to a substantive which is omitted : so, for instance, annalis is masc. be- 
 cause liber is masc. Greek words generally retain the same gender which 
 they have in Greek. 
 
 §. 28. a. The following are masculine, without reference to the 
 termination. All general and particular appellations of men and 
 beings of the male sex {vir, the man, scriba, the clerk, consul, the 
 consul, poeta, the poet, Deits, God, genius, the genius) ; the male of 
 animals (aries, the ram, verres, the boar, taurus, the bull) ; and 
 the names of rivers and winds (Tiberis, Albis, Sequana, Garumna, 
 Cremera, Etesiae) . Of rivers some few in a are excepted, particularly Allia 
 (Matrona, Albuld) and the imaginary rivers Lethe and Styx in the lower 
 world, which are feminine, with some of barbarous origin (i. e. neither 
 Latin nor Greek) in r> e. g. Elaver, which are neuter. 
 
 a Declinatio properly signifies any grammatical inflection, but is now more particu- 
 larly used in this restricted sense. 
 
 d2 
 
20 Inflection of Words. §..2i 
 
 Obs. 1 . Words, which are only improperly used of a man, and strictly 
 denote an impersonal object, are regulated by their termination and pro- 
 per meaning, as mancipium, a slave (strictly, property), acroama, a flute- 
 player or jester (strictly, entertainment for the ear) : so also words, which 
 are used in an improper sense of men taken collectively, e. g. vigiliae, 
 sentinels, auxilia, auxiliary troops. 
 
 Obs. 2. The names of the months are masculine, as adjectives belonging 
 to the word mensis, which is masculine, understood, e. g. Aprllis (fre- 
 quently mensis Aprilis). 
 
 b. The following are feminine. All appellations of women and 
 female beings, uxor, the wife, soror, the sister, socrus, the mother- 
 in-law, dea, the goddess, nympha, the nymph. The only exceptions 
 are the terms of reproach scortum and prostibulum, which originally did 
 not signify a person. 
 
 Obs. The names of trees and towns with certain terminations are also 
 feminine, although these terminations do not otherwise imply this gender. 
 See §. 39. b and c. and §. 47. 
 
 §. 29. General names of persons, in which the distinction of sex 
 is not thought of, are masculine, e. g. hostis, the enemy ; but some 
 of them may be used as feminines, if a woman be expressly referred 
 to, and these are therefore called common (communia) . (In Eng- 
 lish a particular termination is sometimes used to denote the female 
 sex.) Such words are adolescens, a young man or woman, affinis, a 
 male or female relative, antistes, a priest or priestess (though the 
 latter is commonly expressed by antistita), artifex, an artist, civis, a 
 citizen, comes, an attendant, conjux, husband or wife (generally the 
 latter), dux, a leader (male or female), heres, an heir or heiress, 
 hostis, an enemy, infans, an infant, interpres, an interpreter, mu- 
 niceps, a citizen (of the same municipal town), obses, a hostage, 
 parens, father or mother, patruelis, a cousin, sacerdos, a priest or 
 priestess, satelles, a guard, vates, a seer ; e. g. civis Gaditanus, a 
 citizen of Cadiz (man), civis Gaditana, a citizen of Cadiz (woman). 
 
 Obs. 1. The poets use also as common, auctor, an author, augur, a 
 soothsayer, custos, a guardian, Jiospes, a host oi guest, (the feminine is 
 better hospita), judex, a judge, juvenis, a youth, miles, a soldier, par, a 
 comrade, testis, a witness. 
 
 Obs. 2. Some other words, though used sometimes of persons of the 
 female sex and in apposition to feminine substantives, are never themselves 
 found as feminine substantives with an adjective, e. g. index, vindex, in- 
 cola (vox index stultitiae). 
 
 § 30. a. The names of the different classes and species of ani- 
 
1. Chap. II. — Of Gender and Inflection by Cases. 21 
 
 mals have usually a particular gender, either masculine or feminine, 
 which is known by the termination, without reference to the actual 
 sex of the animal named, e. g. the masculines, cancer, the crab, 
 corvus, the raven, passer , the sparrow, piscis, the fish; and the 
 feminines, avis, the bird, anas, the duck, aqvila, the eagle, feles, the 
 cat, vulpes, the fox. These are called epicene (epicoena h ). The 
 actual sex of the particular animal is denoted by the addition of 
 mas (male), or femina (female), e. g. anas mas, the drake (also with 
 the adjective masculus, anas mascula), vulpes femina, the fox bitch. 
 
 b. Some few names of classes, which are usually masculine, are 
 also (as common nouns) used as feminine, if it be intended spe- 
 cially to designate a female, particularly bos, the ox, in the fern, 
 the cow, and occasionally lepus, mus, elepliantus, miser , e. g. mures prae- 
 gnantes repertae sunt (Plin. Maj.). 
 
 c. The names of some species of animals are used (without re- 
 ference to the individual) both in the masculine and the feminine 
 (are incerta, undefined), as angvis, the snake, canis, the dog, camelus, 
 the camel, dama, the deer, grus (almost always feminine), the 
 crane, serpens, the serpent, sus (usually feminine), the boar, or 
 sow, talpa (generally masculine), the mole, tigris, the tiger. If a 
 female be expressly spoken of, they are always used as feminines. 
 
 Obs. In the case of some species of animals a particular feminine form 
 is derived from the name in order to denote the female, e. g. agnus, the 
 lamb, agna, cervus, the stag, cerva, the hind, eqvus, the horse, the stallion, 
 eyva, the mare, gallus, the cock, gallina, the hen. Conversely a masculine 
 form is sometimes moulded from the feminine words, simia, the ape, colu- 
 bra, the snake, lacerta, the lizard, luscinia, the nightingale, which are 
 generally used as epicenes of the whole class, simius, coluber, lacertus, 
 luscinius. (Columba and columbus, the dove, as a class ; columbus, the 
 male, cohwiba, the female.) 
 
 §. 31. The following are neuter. All indeclinable substantives, 
 e. g. fas, right, nefas, wrong, gummi, gum, and all words which are 
 used as substantives, without being actually such, e. g. scire tuwn, 
 your knowledge ; also every word which is used only to designate 
 its own sound (materialiter) , e. g. hoc ipsum din, this very word diu, 
 arx est monosyllabum, arx is a monosyllable. For this reason also 
 the names of the letters are neuter, though they are sometimes 
 used as feminine, with a reference to littera understood. 
 
 Obs. So likewise the names of ships and dramatic compositions, even 
 though they be not feminine, have the adjective in that gender, navis, the 
 
 b 'EiriKoiva, common to both genders. 
 
22 Inflection of Words. §. 31 
 
 ship, or fabula, the play, being understood (per synesim, according to the 
 signification) ; e. g. EunucJius acta est (Svet.), the play entitled Eunuchus ; 
 centauro inveliitur magna (Virg.), the great ship Centaur. (The same 
 occurs more rarely, and only in some particular writers, with the names 
 of plants, lierba being understood.) 
 
 §. 32. The Latin language distinguishes between the Singular, 
 numerus singularis, and the Plural, numerus pluralis. 
 
 In order to express the connection and relations of ideas, nouns 
 have six relational forms or cases (casus ; strictly, falls) ; casus 
 nommativus (by which the thing is named), accusativus (which 
 denotes the object of an action, e. g. pater castlgat filium, the father 
 chastises the son), vocativus (by which a person is called to), geni- 
 tivus (which denotes a connection or possession, e. g. domus patris, 
 the father's house), dativus (which denotes the person to whom 
 any thing is given, e. g. pater dat filio librum, the father gives the 
 son a book), ablativus (which denotes means, place, circumstances, 
 &c, e. g. hasta, with the spear). 
 
 All substantives do not, however, distinguish all these cases in 
 both numbers. In the plural the dative and ablative are always 
 alike. In all neuter words, the nominative and accusative are 
 always the same. The vocative is distinguished from the nomina- 
 tive in only a very few genuine Latin words (in the 2d declension), 
 never in the plural, or in words of the neuter gender. 
 
 Obs. The nominative and vocative are termed casus recti, the others 
 obliqvi ; but the accusative, both in its form and application, is more 
 nearly related to the nominative than to the other cases. 
 
 §. 33. The endings of the cases are not the same in all words. 
 
 There are five kinds of inflection or declensions, of which the 
 endings are : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 1st decl. 
 
 2d decl 
 
 3d decl. 
 
 4<lh decl. 
 
 5th decl. 
 
 Nom. a (e, as, 
 
 es) us, er, 
 
 s, or 
 
 us 
 
 es 
 
 
 neut. um 
 
 undetermined 
 
 neut. u 
 
 
 Voc. a (e, a) 
 
 e, — ■ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Ace. am (en) 
 
 um 
 
 em, im 
 
 neut. like the nom 
 
 um, u 
 
 em 
 
 Gen. ae 
 
 i 
 
 is 
 
 us 
 
 ei 
 
 Dat. ae 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 ui, u 
 
 ei 
 
 Abl. a 
 
 
 
 e or i 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 u 
 
 e 
 
 Nom. Voc. ae 
 
 i, neut. a 
 
 es, neut. a (ia) 
 
 us, neut. ua 
 
 es 
 
 Ace. as 
 
 os, neut. a 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Gen. jirum 
 
 orum 
 
 um (ium) 
 
 uum 
 
 erum 
 
 Bat. Abl. is 
 
 is 
 
 ibus 
 
 ibus (ubus) 
 
 ebus 
 
 
:. Chap. Ill,— First Declension. 23 
 
 Obs. 1. There are properly but two series of terminations ; but they are 
 connected in different ways with the theme, and also occasionally inter- 
 mixed. In the first and second declension, the terminations, which were 
 originally alike, have become united with the last vowel of the theme (in 
 the first declension a, in the second u, according to the older pronuncia- 
 tion o) , or have expelled it. The third and fourth declensions have the 
 same terminations, but in the third declension the theme ends in a con- 
 sonant, in the fourth in u. In the fifth declension the theme ends in e, 
 and the terminations are partly those of the first and second, partly those 
 of the third declension, 
 
 Obs. 2. It cannot always be known by the nominative alone, to which 
 declension a word belongs, because this case may have the same termina- 
 tion in different declensions, e. g. us in the second, third, and fourth. 
 
 Obs. 3. Of the Greek substantives which have been adopted into the 
 Latin language, those which were most frequently used, and were intro- 
 duced at the earliest period, acquired a completely Latin form, occasionally 
 with some modification. From the Greek word iroirjTrjs is formed, for 
 example, the Latin poeta, from x"P TT l s (masc.) the Latin chart a (fern.). 
 Other Greek words, on the contrary, retained their Greek form and 
 termination, e. g. dvudo-rrjs, dynastes, 'AyxiV???, Anchises. In several cases 
 these words have partially Greek inflections. Writers vary from each 
 other in this respect, sometimes keeping nearer to the Latin, sometimes 
 to the Greek form. Where both forms are in use, it is better to adhere 
 to the Latin. 
 
 Obs. 4. For the peculiarities in the declension of the numerals and pro- 
 nouns, see Chapters 11 and 12. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 
 First Declension. 
 
 
 §. 34. All originally Latin words of the first declension end in 
 
 the nominative in a, and are declined as j 
 
 bllows : 
 
 (Mensa, the table ; Scriba, 
 
 the clerk.) 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 Norn. Voc. mensa 
 
 scriba 
 
 Ace. mensam 
 
 scribam 
 
 Gen. mensae 
 
 scribae 
 
 Dat. mensa 
 
 scribae 
 
 Abl. mensa 
 
 scriba 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 Nom. Voc. mensae 
 
 scribae 
 
 Ace. mensas 
 
 scribas 
 
 Gen. mensarum 
 
 scribarum 
 
 Dat. Abl. mensis 
 
 scribis 
 
24 
 
 Inflection of Words. §• 34- 
 
 In this way are declined also the adjectives and participles in a 
 (fern.), as magna, great, picta, painted. Mensa rotunda, a round 
 table. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the older poets ae of the gen. sing, is sometimes resolved 
 into at, e. g. auldi, pictdi (Virg.). 
 
 Obs. 2. At a very early period the gen. sometimes ended in as. Hence 
 the word familia, a family, when it is compounded with pater, mater, 
 filius, filia, has the gen.familias, e. g. -paterfamilias, the father of a family 
 (ace. patremfamilias, gen. patrisfamilias, &c), plur. patresfamilias, fathers 
 of families ; though we find also paterfamiliae, patresfamiliarum. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the antiquated style urn (as in the third declension) is used 
 in the gen. plur. of some words instead of arum, especially drachmum, 
 ampMrum (with the addition of a numeral ; trium ampTiorum), for dracl- 
 marum, amphorarum ; by the poets also in the words in gena and cola 
 (from gigno, to beget, to bear, and colo, to till), e. g. terrigena, earthborn, 
 coelicola, an inhabitant of heaven ; and in patronymics in des, e. g. Aene- 
 adum for Aeneadarum; so also in some Greek names of peoples, e. g. 
 Zapithum for Zapitharum. 
 
 Obs. 4. Some few words, which have masculines in us corresponding 
 to them in the second declension, particularly, dea, the goddess, smdfilia, 
 the daughter (deus, films), rarely liberta, a freed woman (libertus), and a 
 few others, have in the dat. and abl. plur. besides the regular form (is) 
 another, dbus : e. g. dis deabusqve omnibus (Cic), cum duabusfiliabus vir- 
 ginibus (Liv.)- 
 
 Obs. 5. Concerning the gen. and dat. of una, sola, and some other ad- 
 jectives in a, see §.37. Obs. 2. 
 
 §. 35. (Greek forms.) To the first declension belong some Greek 
 words and proper names in e, as, and es, (77, as, j?s), which are declined in 
 the singular with some variations (see §.33, Obs, 3) : 
 
 Norn, epitome Aeneas anagnostes 
 
 (the abridgment) (proper name) (the reader) 
 
 y oc , Aenea anagnosta 
 
 Ace. epitomen Aeneam anagnosten 
 
 (Aenean) (anagnostam) 
 
 Gen. epitomes Aeneae anagnostae 
 
 Dat. epitomae Aeneae anagnostae 
 
 Abl. epitome Aenea anagnosta (anagnoste). 
 
 Obs. 1. The greater number of common nouns in e, especially the names 
 of the arts and sciences in ce (e. g. musice, logice), have also (and this is to 
 be preferred) the purely Latin form, musica, logica, musicam, &c. Of pro- 
 per names some have almost always the Latin form, e. g. Helena, Creta, 
 others most usually the Greek, as Circe, but in this respect writers differ. 
 
Chap. IV. — Second Declension. 25 
 
 (In answer to the question, where ? the names of towns always have the 
 Latin genitive, as Sinopae, at Sinope). 
 
 Obs. 2. The Greek nominative as was sometimes changed by the older 
 writers and in the language of common life to a, e. g. Mena, Apella. In 
 the accusative am is most common in prose writers, an in the poets. 
 
 Obs. 3. Words in es rarely have the Latin form of the nom. in a, either 
 in proper names (e. g. Aeeia), or in appellatives (e. g. sopMsta, better 
 sopliistes) except in words which have been completely Latinized, and 
 never have a Greek form, e. g. poeta. The voc. besides the termination a 
 (Atrida) has also e, when this termination occurs in Greek (in patrony- 
 mics, e. g. Atride), sometimes a (according to the Doric dialect, e. g. 
 Anchisd, Virg.). 
 
 Obs. 4. Of the proper names in es, which in Greek belong to the first 
 declension, some are declined in Latin according to the third (Aescliines, 
 Apelles, those in des which are not patronymics, e. g. Alcibiades, Euripi- 
 des, and barbaric names, as Astyages, Xerxes). In the accus., however, 
 they have likewise en, as in the first declension, Aeschinen. Some are 
 found declined in both ways, e. g. Orestes (mostly like the third). The 
 common noun acinaces, a sabre, follows the third declension ; sorites (the 
 name of an argument in logic) is declined in the sing, according to the 
 third, in the plural according to the first declension. Satrapes, a satrap, 
 which follows the first, has however also the gen. satrapis (3). 
 
 §. 36. (Gender). All substantives of the first declension in a are 
 feminine, if they are not appellations of men (as scriba, the clerk, 
 nauta, the sailor, collega, the colleague, aurlga, the charioteer, ad- 
 vena, the new-comer), or names of rivers, see §. 28. a. Hadria, the 
 Adriatic, is also masculine. (With respect to dama, talpa, see 
 §. 30. c.) Words in e are feminine, those in as and es masculine, 
 e. g. cometes. (All in as are proper names). 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Second Declension, 
 
 §. 37. Words of the second declension end mostly in us and 
 (neutr.) urn, some in er. They are declined in the following 
 manner : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. dominus, the lord puer, the boy signum, the sign 
 
 Voc. domine 
 
 Ace. dominum puerum 
 
 Gen. domini pueri signi 
 
 Dat.y Abl. domino puero signo 
 
 E 
 
26 Inflection of Words. §. 3* 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Nom., Voc. do mini pueri signa 
 
 Ace. dorainos pueros 
 
 Gen. donrinorum puerorum signorum 
 
 Dat. AM., dominis pueris signis 
 
 In the same way are declined the adjectives in us and er (masc), 
 and um (neutr.), e. g. bonus, good, miser, wretched, bonum, mise- 
 rum. Dominus bonus, signum magnum, puer miser. 
 
 Like puer is also declined the solitary word that terminates in ir, 
 vir, the man, virum, viri, viro, together with its compounds, e. g. 
 triumvir, and the national appellation Trevir, with the adjective 
 satur, sated (saturum, saturi, &c). 
 
 Most words in er have the e only in the nom. and voc. (where it 
 has been inserted to facilitate the pronunciation) but not in the 
 other cases, where it is dropped before r, e. g. ager, the field, 
 agrum, agri, agro, plur. agri, &c. liber, the book, librum, &c. The 
 e is retained in the substantives adulter, the adulterer, socer, the 
 father-in-law, gener, the son-in-law, Liber, the god Liber or Bac- 
 chus, liberi, liberorum, children, puer, a boy, vesper, evening, in the 
 adjectives asper c , rough, liber, free, lacer, torn, miser, wretched, pros- 
 per, prosperous (better prosperus), tener, tender, and in those which 
 end infer and ger (from fero, to convey, bring, and gero, to carry), 
 mortifer, deadly, mortiferum, mortiferi ; aliger, winged, armiger, 
 armour-bearer, and in the national appellations, Iber, Iberum, Iberi, 
 and Celtiber, Celtiberum, Celtiberi. Dexter, right, has dexteri and more 
 frequently dextri, Mulciber {Mulceber), an epithet of the god Vulcan, 
 JKulciberi and Mulcibri, 
 
 Ols. 1. Words in ius and ium have according to analogy ii in the gen.; 
 in older times however only one i was used in the substantives (not so in 
 the adjectives), e. g. Appi from Appius ; ingeni, consili, instead of ingenii, 
 consilii, from ingenium, genius, consilium, counsel (but egregii from egre- 
 gius, distinguished) ; and so always in verse in Virgil and Horace {Capi-> 
 toll immobile saxum, elided, CapitoV imm. Virg. Afterwards this form, 
 became obsolete. 
 
 Ols. 2. The following adjectives and pronouns, which in the masc. and 
 neutr. follow the second, and in the fern, the first declension, unus, solus, 
 totus, ullus, nullus, alius, alter, uter, neuter, with the compounds of uter 
 uterg_ve, utercunqve, uterlibet, utervis, alteruter), have in all genders lus 
 in the gen. and i in the dat. uriius, solius, totius, ulllus, nullius, alius, alte- 
 rius, utrlus, neutrucs, uni, soli, toti, ulli, nulli, alii, alteri, utri, neutri. 
 
 c Aspris for asperis is found in Virgil. 
 
Chap. IV. — Second Declension. 27 
 
 (So also in the fern., una, unani, unlus, uni, abl. una). In verse the i is 
 sometimes made short in the gen., most frequently so in alterius (alterius). 
 The terminations formed according to analogy are very rare (e. g. alii 
 generis in Varro, aliae peeudis in Cicero, nullo usui in Caesar). 
 
 Obs. 3. Words in ins (jus) have in the voc. not ie (je), but i, e. g. 
 
 Mercuri, Ga'i (Ca'i), Pompe'i (sometimes in verse Poinpei, as a dissyllable), 
 Demetri, fill, son. geni, guardian spirit, Feretri, from the adj. Feretrius. 
 Most common nouns and adjectives (as gladius, the sword, fluvius, the 
 river, egregius) have no vocative. Greek adjectives, e. g. Cynthius, and 
 proper names in lus (also Greek) or eus, aos, e. g. Arms, have ie. Mens 
 makes mi in the voc. Deus always has the voc. like the nom. (Compare 
 Syntax, §. 299. b. Obs. 1.) 
 
 Obs. 4. The gen. plur. of some substantives is occasionally formed in 
 urn instead of oricm, viz. of the appellations of money, weights, and mea- 
 sures, nummum, sestertium, denarium, talentum, modium, medimnum, from 
 nummus, a piece of money, sestertius, a sesterce (a certain coin), denarius 
 (also a coin), talentum, a talent, (a sum of money), modius, medimnus, a 
 bushel (especially after millia, e.g. duo millia nummum, decern millia ta- 
 lentum, but tantum nummorum), and of the distributive numerals, e. g. 
 senum, denum, from seni, six apiece, deni, ten apiece, sometimes also that 
 of the cardinal numbers in centi (genti), e. g. ducentum pedum ; further, 
 liberum from liberi, children, deum from deus, duumvirum, triumvirum 
 (also liberorum, &c), and finally of some other words in certain combina- 
 tions, e. g. praefectus fabrum, prefect of the workmen (in the army), from 
 faber ; in the poets also viruni from vir ; and of the names of nations, as 
 Argivum, Pelasgum, for Argivorum, Pelasgorum ; compare § . 34. Obs. 3. 
 
 Obs. 5. The word deus has in the nom. and dat. plural, dei, deis, ac- 
 cording to analogy, but it is more frequently written di, dis, also dii 
 diis. 
 
 §.38. (Greek forms). 1. Greek proper names of towns and islands and 
 some few appellatives are sometimes found with the Greek termination os, 
 on, in the nom. and ace. sing., e. g. Delos, ace. Delon, scorpios, a scorpion, 
 Felion (neutr.) . In a few solitary instances we find in names that are very 
 rarely used oe (oi) in the nom. plur., e. g. caneplioroe, the basket-bearers, 
 and on in the gen. plur. of adjectives in the titles of books (e. g. libri 
 Georgicon), and in a few proper names (colonia Theraeon, Sail.). The 
 proper name TLdvOoos, contracted TlavBovs, is called by Virgil Panthus, voc. 
 Panthu. 
 
 Obs. Greek proper names in pos, preceded by a consonant, generally 
 have their termination in Latin (in prose always) in er, Alexander, Anti- 
 pater, Tewcer, Meledger, gen. Alexandri, etc. (Yet we have Codrus, and 
 in the poets Evandrus and the like). So also hexameter, but diametrus. 
 
 2. Greek proper names, which follow the so-called Attic second declen- 
 
 e 2 
 
28 Inflection of Words. §. 3| 
 
 sion, either take a purely Latin form (e. g. Tyndareus from Twbapecos) or 
 retain some Greek terminations, as in the nom. Athos, Androgeds, Oeds, in 
 the ace. Athon. The name of mount Athos is also inflected according to the 
 third declension, Atlw, Athonem, and so also, Androgeo, Androgednem. 
 
 3. Greek proper names in evs (gen. eons) are either declined with a Latin 
 form thus, nom. Orpheus (as a dissyllable), ace. Orpheum, gen. Orphe'i (and 
 Orphei), dat. and abl. Orpheo (without a voc), or with a Greek form (like 
 the third declension) thus, nom. Orpheus, voc. Orpheu, ace. Orphed, gen. 
 Orpheus, dat. Orphei (Orphei) ; but the forms which follow the third 
 declension, with the exception of the ace, are for the most part found only 
 in the poets. The gen. Achillei and Ulixei ('Ax^eus) are also formed in 
 this way, though Achilles, JJlixes, otherwise follow the third declension. 
 
 The name Perseus (Uepaevs) is sometimes declined like Orpheus ; Per- 
 seus, ace. Persea, gen. Persei, dat. Perseo and Persi (for Persei), abl. 
 Perseo ; sometimes it has the form Perses, and follows the first declen- 
 sion. 
 
 §. 39. (Gender). Words in us (os) and r are masculine, those in 
 um (on) are neuter. 
 
 But of the words in us the following are feminine : 
 
 a. The words alvus, the stomach, carbdsus, linen, colus, the dis- 
 taff (rarely masc.) humus, the ground, vannus, the winnowing shovel. 
 
 b. The names of towns and islands, e. g. Corinthus, Bhodus, with 
 the following names of countries, Aegyptus, Chersonesus, Epirus, 
 Peloponnesus. (These names in us are all Greek; Canopus, how- 
 ever, is masculine). 
 
 c. The names of all trees and of some shrubs, e. g. alnus, the 
 alder, fagus, the beech, ftcus, the fig-tree (also the fig), malus, the 
 apple-tree, pirus, the pear-tree, pomus, the apple-tree, populus, 
 the poplar, ulmus, the elm, &c. d , buxus, the box- tree, juniperus, 
 the juniper, nardus, the nard (an odoriferous bush), papyrus, the 
 papyrus plant (rarely masculine), with some Greek names of plants, 
 chiefly ending in os (buglossos), and the word balanus, the acorn or 
 date. 
 
 Ols. Other Latin and Latinized names of plants and flowers are mascu- 
 line, as acanthus, the acanthus, amaranthus, the amaranth, asparagus, aspa- 
 ragus, boletus, the mushroom, calamus, straw, a reed, carduus, the thistle, 
 dumus, the thorn-bush, fungus, the mushroom, helleborus, hellebore, 
 hyacinthus, the hyacinth, pampinus, the vine (rarely fern.), rulus, the 
 bramble, &c. ' ^ 
 
 d On the other hand pomum, the apple, pirum, the pear, malum, the apple. {Malus, 
 a ship's mast, is masc.) Also buxum, boxwood. 
 
). Chap. V. — Third Declension. 29 
 
 d. Some words originally Greek, which in Greek are feminine, 
 as those compounded with 686 s ; methodus, the method, periodus, 
 the period, and the words atomus, the atom, antidotus, the antidote 
 (also antidotum), dialectus, the dialect, diametrus, the diameter, 
 diphthongus, the diphthong, paragraphias, the paragraph (which 
 words are originally adjectives with a substantive understood) ; 
 further, the names of most precious stones, e. g. amethystus*. 
 Lastly arctos (the constellation), the Bear. Barbitos, the lyre, is 
 both masculine and feminine. 
 
 The following in us are neuter ; virus, poison, vulgus, the com- 
 mon people (rarely masc), and pelagus, the sea (to 7re\a<yos). 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Third Declension. 
 
 §. 40. Words of the third declension have various endings in the 
 nominative, since they either attach the nominative termination s 
 to the theme, or remain without any special termination for that 
 case. The theme, to which the terminations are affixed in the 
 other cases, ends with a consonant, but is often modified in the 
 nom., so that, before we can decline a word, it is necessary to 
 know, not only the nom., but also the theme, from one of the other 
 cases; but of this we shall speak afterwards (§. 41). (We name 
 the gen. sing, in order to indicate the theme, which is ascertained 
 by taking away the termination is, peculiar to the case.) 
 
 In consequence of this modification of the theme, words, which 
 are different in the other cases, may have the same termination in 
 the nom., e. g. caedes, the death-blow, gen. caedis; miles, the soldier, 
 gen. militis ; interpres, the interpreter, gen. interpretis. 
 
 The rest of the declension may be seen from the following exam- 
 ples, which shew at the same time the different forms of the words, 
 according as the theme remains unaltered in the nom., or is 
 modified by the assumption of a termination and by the pronun- 
 ciation. 
 
 1. Masculine and feminine gender. 
 
 a. Words in which the theme undergoes no alteration what- 
 ever in the nom., so that the terminations of the other cases are 
 merely affixed to it. 
 
 e But smamgdus, beryllus, opdlus (and the Latin carbwiculus), are masculine. 
 
oO 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 (Consul, the consul, dolor, the pain.) 
 
 §. 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 No)n. Voc. 
 
 
 consul 
 
 dolor 
 
 Acc. 
 
 
 consulem (consul-em) 
 
 dolorem (dolor-em) 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 consulis 
 
 doloris 
 
 Bat. 
 
 
 consuli 
 
 dolori 
 
 Abl. 
 
 
 consule 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 dolore 
 
 Nom. Voc. 
 
 Acc 
 
 . consules 
 
 dolores 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 consulum 
 
 dolorum 
 
 Bat. Abl. 
 
 
 consulibus 
 
 doloribus 
 
 Obs. Themes ending in I and r never have 
 
 a termination affixed to the 
 
 nominative. 
 
 b. Words in which the nominative termination s is affixed to the 
 theme, which otherwise undergoes no alteration. 
 
 (Urbs, the city.) 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. Voc. urbs 
 
 Acc. urbem (urb-em) 
 
 Gen, urbis 
 
 Bat, urbi 
 
 Abl. urbe 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. Voc. Acc. urbes 
 Gen. urbium 
 
 Bat. Abl. urbibus 
 
 Obs. Of the termination ium (urb-iwn) in the gen. pi. see §. 44. 1. 
 
 c. Words in which the nom. termination s is affixed to the 
 theme with the vowel i oy e (so that is and es are dropped from 
 the nom. before adding the terminations of the other cases). 
 {Avis, the bird, caedes, the murder.) 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. Voc. 
 
 
 avis 
 
 caedes 
 
 Acc. 
 
 
 avem (av-em) 
 
 caedem 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 avis 
 
 caedis 
 
 Bat. 
 
 
 avi 
 
 caedi 
 
 Abl. 
 
 
 ave and avi 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 caede 
 
 Nom. Voc. 
 
 Acc. 
 
 aves 
 
 caedes 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 avium 
 
 caedium 
 
 Bat., Abl. 
 
 
 avibus 
 
 caedibus 
 
 Obs. 1 . These words, the theme of which is found by the rejection of 
 is and es, are called, to distinguish them from other words of the same 
 
), 
 
 Chap. V. — Third Declension. 
 
 31 
 
 declension in is and es, parisyllables, because they have the same number 
 of syllables in the nom. as in the other cases singular. 
 Obs. 2. Of the termination i in the ablative, see §. 42, 3. 
 
 d. Words, in which the s of the nom. is affixed in such a way, 
 that the theme is at the same time changed by the omission of a 
 consonant, (d or t), or by the transition of i into e, or in both 
 ways. 
 
 (Aetas, the age, judex, the judge, miles, the soldier.) 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 aetas 
 
 judex 
 
 miles 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 aetatem 
 
 judicem 
 
 militem 
 
 
 
 (aetat-em) 
 
 (judic-em) 
 
 (milit-em) 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 aetatis 
 
 judicis 
 
 militis 
 
 Bat. 
 
 
 aetati 
 
 judici 
 
 militi 
 
 AM. 
 
 
 aetate 
 
 judice 
 
 milite 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Ace. aetates 
 
 judices 
 
 milites 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 aetatum 
 
 judicum 
 
 militum 
 
 Bat.. 
 
 AM. 
 
 aetatibus 
 
 judicibus 
 
 militibus 
 
 Obs. I is c 
 
 tianged into e, because the open syllable 
 
 becomes a close 
 
 one; see 
 
 §.5. 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 e. Words 
 
 in which the nom., 
 
 without any termination affixed, 
 
 deviates from the theme for the sake of the pronunciation. 
 
 (Sermo, 
 
 the discourse, pater, 
 
 the father, mos, the custom.) 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Voc 
 
 sermo 
 
 pater 
 
 mos 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 sermonem 
 (sermon-em) 
 
 patrem 
 
 morem 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 sermonis 
 
 patris 
 
 moris 
 
 Bat. 
 
 
 sermoni 
 
 patri 
 
 mori 
 
 AM. 
 
 
 sermone 
 
 patre 
 
 more 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. Voc. Ace. sermones patres mores 
 
 Gen. sermonum patrum morum 
 
 Bat. AM. sermonibus patribus moribus 
 
 Obs. In sermo n has been dropped : in pater e has been introduced ; in 
 mos s belongs to the theme, and is changed in the gen. into r (§. 8). 
 
 2. Neuter Gender. The words of this gender never affix s in 
 the nom., but the theme is sometimes different in the nom. and in 
 the other cases on account of the pronunciation. 
 
32 Inflection of Words. §. 4 
 
 a. Words with the theme unchanged. 
 
 [Animal, the animal.) 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Norn. Voc. Ace. animal Norn. Voc. Ace. animalia 
 
 Gen. animalis Gen. animalium 
 
 Dat. Abl. animali Dat. All. animalibus 
 
 Ols. On the termination ia in the plural see §. 43, 1. 
 
 b. Words which have the theme different in the nom. and in the 
 other cases. 
 
 (Nomen, the name, corpus, the body, lac, milk). 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 corpus lac 
 
 corporis lactis 
 
 (corpor-is) (lact-is) 
 
 corpori lacti 
 
 corpore lacte 
 
 .URAL. 
 
 corpora 
 
 corporum (not used) 
 
 corporibus 
 
 is not a mere termination, but belongs to the theme, 
 and is changed in the gen. into r (§. 8). In lac the last consonant of the 
 theme has been dropped in the nom. (§. 10). 
 
 c. Words in e, which does not belong to the theme, and is drop- 
 ped before the terminations of the other cases. 
 
 (Mare, the sea.) 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. Voc. Ace. mare Nom. Voc. Ace. maria 
 
 Gen. maris (mar-is) Gen. marium 
 
 Dat. Abl. mari Dat. Abl. maribus 
 
 Many adjectives also follow the third declension, and are declined 
 like those substantives, with which they agree in the nominative 
 and in the form of the theme, e. g. gravis, heavy (masc. and fern.) 
 like avis (but in the ablative only i, gravi), and grave, (neutr.), like 
 mare. Dolor gravis, corpus grave. In the neuter gender of adjec- 
 tives the accusative is always like the nominative, whatever be the 
 termination of the latter, and the plural, like that of the neuter 
 substantives, is formed in a (ia) . 
 
 §.41. In the third declension the gender cannot be ascertained 
 
 Nom. Voc. Ace. 
 
 nomen 
 
 Gen. 
 
 nominis 
 
 
 (nomin-is) 
 
 Dat. 
 
 nomini 
 
 Abl. 
 
 nomine 
 
 Nom. Voc. Ace. 
 
 nomina 
 
 Gen. 
 
 nominum 
 
 Dat. Abl. 
 
 nominibus 
 
 Obs. In corpus s 
 
 is not a mer 
 
Chap. V. — Third Declension. 33 
 
 from the nom. alone, but from the nom. and the theme (as seen in 
 the other cases) in conjunction. There are, however, some forms 
 of the theme and the nom. in which no rule could be given for the 
 ender (especially the masc. and fern.), which would not be liable 
 to numerous exceptions. Of some forms of the theme only a few 
 or solitary examples occur f . 
 
 All appellations of male and female beings, and of the males and 
 females of animals, follow the natural gender (according to §. 28 
 and 29), although the form may otherwise properly belong to 
 another gender, e. g. uxor, the wife, feminine, though words in or, 
 gen. oris, are otherwise masculine ; Juno, the goddess Juno, fern. 
 (o, onis, masc.) ; flamen, the priest, masc. [en, mis, neutr.) . So 
 also the names of rivers are masculine, without reference to the 
 termination (§. 28). 
 
 To the third declension belong a number of Greek or foreign (barbarous) 
 words which came from the Greeks to the Romans, and which are declined 
 according to the corresponding third declension in Greek ; these conform 
 in Latin, in respect both of the theme and gender, to the Greek. 
 
 The theme of a substantive or adjective, the nominative of which 
 is known, may be often determined from other cognate words, 
 especially verbs, since in them the letters are found, which in the 
 nominative have been dropt or modified, e. g. custos, gen. custodis, 
 the guardian, because we have custodio, to guard ; nex, necis, death, 
 on account of neco, to kill ; but grex, gregis, the herd, on account 
 of congrego, to assemble. 
 
 1. The following sketch shews what genitives (and hence at the 
 same time, what themes) correspond to the various nominatives, 
 and also gives the gender for every form of the nom. and the 
 theme. 
 
 Nom, e, gen. is, neuter; as mare, maris, the sea. 
 
 The abl. of Praeneste, the name of a town, sometimes stands in the 
 fern, by synesis, e. g. Praeneste sab ipsa. (Compare §. 31. Obs.) 
 
 Nom. o, gen. onis, masculine ; assermo, sermonis, the discourse. 
 
 But words in io, which are derived from verbs or adjectives, are 
 feminine, e. g. lectio, reading, oratio, the speech, legio, the legion 
 (from lego, to select), regio, the district (from rego, to rule), natio, 
 
 1 From the nominative alone only so much can be inferred of the gender, that a word 
 which ends in s, which does not belong to the theme (and consequently not found in the 
 other cases in the form of 5 or r), is either masculine or feminine ; but that on the other 
 hand it is neuter, if it neither ends in s, nor belongs to one of those forms which never 
 assume s for the sake of the pronunciation (as the themes in I, n, r), e. g. rete, caput. 
 
3-i Inflection of Words. ! 
 
 the nation (from nascor, to be born), coenatio, the dining-room 
 (from coeno, to dine), seditio, uproar (from eo, to go, compounded 
 with se), communio, the community, (from communis, common),cow- 
 sortio, the community (from consors, participating). (Other words in 
 io are masculine, e. g. papilio, the butterfly, septentrio, the north, vesper- 
 tilio, the bat, scipio, the staff, unio, the pearl, senio, the number six, ter- 
 nio, the number three ; so also pugio, the dagger, though from pungo). 
 
 Further, some names of (Spanish) towns are feminine, as Barcino, 
 Barcelona, Tarrdco, Tarragona. (Other names of towns are masculine, 
 as Sulmo, Narbo, Vesontio). 
 
 Obs. Some names of nations have the gen. oms, as Macedo, Seno. 
 (Laco, Laconis, Io, Iunis). 
 
 Nom o, gen. inis (in do and go), feminine, hirundo, hirundinis, 
 the swallow, imago, imaginis, the picture, Carthago, Carthaginis. 
 
 But the following are masculine, ordo, order, cardo, the hinge, 
 and usually mar go, the edge. (Cupido as the name of a god is mascu- 
 line, as an appellative masculine only in the poets, otherwise feminine). 
 
 Obs. Besides words in do and go only the following have this genitive, 
 homo, the man, turbo, the whirlwind, nemo, no one, and the name Apollo, 
 all of which are masculine. The following words in do and go have onis 
 (and are consequently masculine), praedo, the robber, spado, the eunuch, 
 ligo, the spade, mango, the slave-dealer, harpdgo, the hook. 
 
 The feminine caro, flesh, gen. carnis, must be noticed sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 Nom. c, neuter, as lac, lactis, milk. 
 
 (Besides lac we have only the word alec, alecis, brine from fish, which 
 has also the form alex, alecis, fem.) 
 
 Nom. al, gen. dlis, neuter, as animal, animdlis, the animal. 
 
 Sal, salt (which is masculine, rarely neuter in the sing.), has dlis. 
 So also foreign proper names, as Hannibal, Hannibdlis. 
 
 The following substantives in / are to be noticed separately. 
 The neuters fel, gall, mel, honey, fellis, mellis : the masculine, 
 sol, solis, the sun ; some masculine names of persons in sul, consul, 
 the consul, exsul, the exile, praesul, the leader in a dance, consulis, 
 &c. ; with pugil, the boxer, pugilis, and vigil, the sentinel, vigllis 
 (as an adjective, watchful) s. 
 
 Nom. en, gen. inis, neuter, as nomen, nominis, the name. 
 
 The following are masculin-e : pecten, the comb, and from their sig- 
 
 e Mugil, mugilis, a kind of fish ; also nom. mugilis, with the nominative termina- 
 tion is. 
 
Chap. V. — Third Declension. 35 
 
 nification^amew, the priest, cormcen, the horn-blower, jidtcen, the harper, 
 tibwen, the flute-player, tubwen, the trumpeter. 
 
 Norn, en, gen. mis, masculine, as ren, rents, the kidney (com- 
 monly only in the plur., renes). 
 
 Obs. Besides this only the following are similarly declined. Lien, the 
 spleen, and the Greek words, splen, the spleen, lichen, a complaint of the 
 skin, attagen, a partridge, Anien, the name of a river (in the nom. likewise 
 Anio), with the feminines Siren, the Siren (a fabulous female being), and 
 Troez.en, a Greek town. 
 
 Nom. ar, gen. arts, neuter, as calcar, calcdris, the spur. 
 
 The following have the gen. dris, (also neuter) : baccar, a kind 
 of plant, jubar, a sunbeam, nectar, nectar, and the proper names 
 Caesar, Ilamilcar, Arar (the name of a river), the Saone, and lar, 
 laris, the household god (masc). 
 
 From the adjective par come par, par is, the comrade, masc. 
 (common) ; and par, the pair, neuter. 
 
 The following, which are neuters, are to be separately noticed j 
 far, f arris, corn, and the Greek word Tiepar, liepcitis, the liver. 
 
 Nom. er, gen. eris, masculine, as career, carceris, the prison h . 
 
 But the following are neuter ; cadaver, the corpse, tuber, the 
 swelling (also the truffle), uber, the udder, verber, (only in the plur. 
 verbera), the blow, and all botanical names, e. g. acer, the maple, 
 papaver, the poppy, piper, pepper. Tuber, a kind of apple, is 
 masculine. (Mulier, the woman, fern.) 
 
 Nom. er, gen. ris, masculine, as venter, ventris, the belly. 
 
 Linter, the boat, is feminine (so mater, the mother). 
 
 In the same way are declined all ending in ter (except only later, la- 
 teris, masc, the brick), and imber, the shower. 
 
 We must notice separately the two neuters, iter, itineris, the 
 journey, and ver, veris, the spring, with the name of the god Jup- 
 piter {Jupiter), Jovem, Jovis, &c. (The nom. is compounded of 
 the old name and the v?ord pater). 
 
 Nom. or, gen. oris, masculine, as dolor, doloris, pain. 
 
 The following are feminine by reason of their signification ; soror, 
 the sister, uxor, the wife. 
 
 Obs. The words lionor, honour, and lepor, wit, have frequently in older 
 writers (Cicero) the nom. honos and lepos ; so also occasionally other 
 words if they are not derived from verbs, e. g.- labor, labour, labos, 
 
 Nom. or, gen. oris, neuter, as aequor, aequcris, the surface of 
 the sea. 
 
 h Also the two Greek words, air, aether. 
 
 f2 
 
36 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 (So marmor, marble, ador, spelt). Arbor (arbos), the tree, is femi- 
 nine. (The Greek word rhetor, a teacher of rhetoric, is masculine, from 
 the signification ; so also proper names, as Sector) . 
 
 The following is to be separately noticed ; cor, cordis, the heart, 
 
 NEUTER. 
 
 Norn, ur, gen. uris, neuter as fulgur, fulguris, lightning; Tibur, 
 the city Tibur. 
 
 The following are masculine j furfur, bran, turtur, the turtle- 
 dove, vultur, the vulture ; and from its signification, augur, a sooth- 
 sayer. 
 
 Nom. ur, gen. oris, neuter, as robur, roboris, strength. 
 
 (Of this kind we have only the following ; elur, ivory, femur, the 
 thigh, jecur, the liver.) 
 
 Fur, furis, the thief, masc. from its signification, is to be sepa- 
 rately noticed. 
 
 Nom. as, gen. dtis, feminine, as aetas, aetdtis, age. 
 
 Anas, the duck, has andtis, fern. 
 
 The following are to be separately noticed ; the masculines, as, 
 assis, an as (a copper coin), mas, maris, the male, vas, vddis, the 
 surety ; and the neuter vas, vdsis, the vessel, (in the plur. vasa, vaso- 
 rum, see §. 56, 6). 
 
 Nom, es, gen. is, feminine; as caedes, caedis, the murder. 
 Palumoes, the wood-pigeon, masc. and fern. ; vepres, the thorn-bush (not 
 used in the nom., commonly in the plural), masc. Verres, the boar, and 
 the names of rivers, e. g. Euphrates, are masc. from the signification. 
 
 Ols. Some words in es, gen. is, have also is in the nom., with the same 
 gender, e. g. aedes, the temple ; feles, the cat ; vulpes, the fox ; and aedis, 
 felis, vidpis. 
 
 Nom. es, gen. itis, masculine ; as miles, militis, the soldier. 
 
 Ales, the bird (properly an adjective, winged) is masculine and 
 feminine, merges, the sheaf, feminine h . 
 
 Nom. es, gen. etis, masculine or feminine ; as paries, parietis ■ 
 the wall, masculine ; seges, segetis, the corn-field, feminine. 
 
 Besides the above, the following are masc. from their signification; 
 aries, the ram, interpres, the interpreter : abies, the fir, and teges, 
 the mat, are feminine. 
 
 The following are to be separately noticed : the masculines bes, 
 bessis, two-thirds of an as ; pes, pedis, the foot (with its compounds, 
 
 h Like miles are declined the personal names antistes, comes, eqves, hospes, pedes, sa- 
 telles, veles, and of other substantives ames, cespes, fomes, gurges, limes, merges, palmes, 
 pop la, stipes, termes, frames, tudes. 
 
Chap. V. — Third Declension. 37 
 
 as sesqvipes, a foot and a half) ; praes, praedis, the surety ; coses, 
 the hostage, and praeses, the protector ; obsidis, praesidis ; heres, 
 heredis (common), the heir or heiress; the feminines, merces, mer- 
 cedis, wages ; qvies, qvietis, rest (reqvies, rest, recreation) ; Ceres, 
 Cereris, the goddess Ceres. 
 
 Ols. From pes comes the feminine compes (generally eompedes, phir.), 
 fetters ; the adjective qvadrupes is used as a substantive feminine (bestia) 
 and neuter {animal) of a four-footed beast in general, in the masculine of 
 a horse. 
 
 The neuter aes, aeris, copper, must be separately noticed. 
 
 Nom. is, gen. is, masculine or feminine, as piscis, piscis, the 
 fish ; avis, avis, the bird. 
 
 The following are masculine ; amnis, the river, axis, the axle, 
 callis, the path (rarely fern.), canalis, the water-spout, cassis, a hunts- 
 man's net (generally casses, plur.), caulis, the stalk, collis, the hill, 
 crinis, hair, ensis, the sword, fascis, the faggot, finis, the end, the 
 boundary (rarely fern., and that only in the singular signifying 
 end) , follis, the bellows, funis, the rope, fastis, the club, ignis, fire, 
 mensis, the month, orbis, the circle, panis, bread, piscis, the fish, 
 postis, the door-post, scrobis, the ditch (also scrobs, sometimes fern.), 
 sentis, the thorn-bush, torqvis, the collar (also torqves, rarely f em.), 
 torris, the firebrand, ungvis, the nail, vectis, the lever, vermis, the 
 worm. Further, some words originally adjectives, which are used 
 as substantives, and with which a masculine substantive is under- 
 stood; annalis, the year-book (liber), natalis, the birthday {dies; 
 also natales, natalium, the descent), molar is, the millstone, (lapis), the 
 grinder (dens), pugillar es, pugillarium, writing tablets (libri). Further, 
 the compounds of the word as, e. g. decussis, ten asses, manes, ma- 
 nium, the spirits of the dead, Lucretilis, the name of a mountain. 
 (So also from their signification, hostis, testis, and the names of rivers, as 
 Tiberis.) 
 
 The following are more frequently masculine than feminine ; an- 
 gvis, the snake, canis, the dog ; the following sometimes one, and 
 sometimes the other ; corbis, the basket, clunis, the hind leg. 
 
 The rest are feminine. 
 
 Obs. Here too may be noticed the Greek words in sis (also feminine) 
 which are derived from verbs, e. g. poesis ; the names of towns ending in 
 polls, as Neapolis ; and some few other words and feminine proper names. 
 
 Nom. is, gen. eris, masculine, as cinis, cineris, ashes. 
 
 Ols. In this way are declined only cucumis, the cucumber, more rarely 
 
38 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 cucumis in the gen. : pulvis, dust, and vomis, the ploughshare, which has 
 more frequently the form vomer l . 
 
 Nom. is, gen. idis, feminine, as cuspis, cuspidis, the point of a 
 spear. 
 
 Lapis, the stone, is masculine (and, from their signification, the 
 names of rivers, as Phasis). 
 
 Obs. Only a very few Latin words have this termination, e. g. cassis, 
 the helmet k , but it belongs to various Greek words, which have been 
 adopted in Latin, e. g. Pyramis, the Pyramid, tyrannis, tyranny, and 
 several names of men and women. Ibis, ibidis, the ibis, has in the plural 
 ibes, ibiam. Tigris, the tiger, has in the gen. both tigridis, fern., and 
 tigris, masc. and fern. ; in the plur. tigres, tigrium. 
 
 The following in is are to be separately noticed ; the masculines 
 sangvis, blood, pollis, fine flour (not used in the nom.), sangvinis, 
 pollxnis ; glis, gliris, the dormouse, semis, semissis, half an as ; the 
 feminines lis, litis, the lawsuit, vis, force, without a genitive. (See 
 §. 55, 2.) 
 
 Obs. The Greek names Salamis, Salammis, feminine, and Sinio'is, Simo- 
 entis (a river), masculine. 
 
 (Like lis are declined the proper name Dis, the adjective dis, and the 
 national names Qviris and Samnis.) 
 
 Nom. os, gen. oris, masculine ; as mos, maris, the manner. 
 
 Os, 6ris~ the mouth, is neuter 
 
 Nom. os, gen. otis ; cos, cotis, the whetstone, and dos, the dowry, 
 are feminine; rhinoceros is masculine. So also from their signifi- 
 cation, nepos, the grandson, sacerdos, the priest. 
 
 The following are to be separately noticed ; custos, custodis, the 
 watchman, masc, hos, bovis, cattle, common ; 6s, ossis, the bone, 
 neuter. 
 
 Nom. us, gen. utis, feminine, as virtus, virtutis, virtue. 
 
 Nom. us, gen. udis, feminine, as palus, paludis, the marsh. 
 
 (Like palus are declined incus, the anvil, and the following with a di- 
 phthong ; laus, laudis, praise, /raws, deceit 1 .) Pecus, a head of cattle, 
 h&specudis (also pecus, pecoris, neutr. See §. 56, 7.) 
 
 Nom. us, gen. eris, neuter ; as genus, generis, a kind, race" 1 . 
 
 (Fern. Venus, the goddess so called.) 
 
 _ ' x The s in these words belongs to the theme, and has been changed into r in the geni- 
 tive- _ k Capis, promulsis. l Subscus. 
 
 m Like genus are declined acus, chaff, foedus, funus, glomus, latus, munus, olus, onus, 
 opus, pondus, rudus, scelus, sidus, ulcus, vellus, viscus, vulnus. Like corpus are declined 
 decus (dedecus), f acinus, fenus, frigus, littus, nemus, pecus (see us, gen. udis), pectus, 
 
Chap. V. — Third Declension, 39 
 
 Nom. us, gen. oris, neuter; as corpus, corporis, the body. 
 
 Lepus, the hare, is masculine. 
 
 Nom. us, gen. uris, neuter, as jus, juris, right, law. 
 
 Mus, the mouse, is masculine, tellus, the earth, feminine. Ligus, 
 a Ligurian, has Liguris. [Lemur es, ghosts, occurs only in the 
 plural.) 
 
 The following must be separately noticed ; sus, the sow, grus, 
 the crane, suis, gruis, mostly fern., rarely masc. n 
 
 Nom. ns, gen. ntis, masculine, as mons, montis, the mountain, 
 dens, dentis, the tooth. 
 
 Obs. Some words belonging to this class are properly participles, with 
 which a masc. substantive is understood, as or ions, east, occidens, west, 
 sol being understood. 
 
 The following are feminine ; gens, the family or race, lens, lentils, 
 mens, the intellect, the mind, frons, the forehead, with bidens, signi- 
 fying a sheep of two years old [bidens, the axe, is masc). Serpens, 
 the serpent (properly a participle), is usually feminine [bestia), 
 rarely masculine [angvis). Animans, a living being, is feminine, in 
 the plural also neuter [animanfia) ; signifying a rational being it is 
 masculine. Continens, the continent, is usually feminine [terra), 
 rarely neuter. The rare philosophical words ens, the being, consequens, 
 the conclusion, accidens, an accident (in logic), are neuter. 
 
 Nom. ns, gen. ndis, feminine, as glans, glandis, the acorn. 
 
 (In this way are declined juglans, the walnut, frons, foliage °.) 
 
 Nom. bs, gen. bis, feminine, as urbs, urbis, the city. 
 
 Nom. ps [eps), gen. pis, [ipis). The following are ieminine; 
 stirps, the stem, (rarely masculine when it denotes the trunk of a 
 tree), and daps, dapis, food. 
 
 The following are masc and fem. ; adeps, fat, forceps, a pair of 
 tongs. 
 
 Personal names in ceps are masculine, as manceps, a purchaser 
 at an auction, princeps, the first, the chief. Auceps, the fowler, 
 has aucupis in the genitive. 
 
 Obs. Greek words in ps which have been received into the Latin are 
 masculine, and their inflection is regulated according to the Greek, as 
 hydrops, hydropis, the dropsy, Pelops, Pelopis (a proper name), gryps, 
 grypliis, the griffin. 
 
 penus (see §. 56, 7), pignus, stercus, tempus, tergus (commonly tergum, tergi). From 
 pignus we have also pigneris. Like jus are declined the monosyllables crus, pus, rus, tus. 
 a These two words, with strues, struis, the heap, and lues, luis, a contagious disease, 
 are the only Latin words of the third declension, the theme of which terminates in a 
 vowel, viz. u. ° Lens a nit, libripens. 
 
40 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 Nora, rs, gen. rtis, feminine, as ars, artis, art. 
 
 The following feminines in s with a consonant preceding must be 
 separately noticed ; hiems, hiemis t winter, puis, pultis, broth. 
 
 Nom. t. The only example is caput, capitis, the head, neuter, 
 with its compounds occiput and sinciput. 
 
 Nom. ax, gen. dels, as pax, pads, peace. 
 
 The Latin words {pax, fornax, the oven, fax, gen. fdcis, the 
 torch), are feminine ; the Greek are masculine, as thorax, thora- 
 cis, the breastplate, except the feminine Umax, the snail. 
 
 Ohs. Greek proper names have also acis, as Corax, Cordcis, and those 
 in anax have anactis, as Astycmax?. 
 
 Nom. ix, gen. ids, feminine, as salix, salicis, the willow. 
 
 The two following are masculine ; calix, the cup, fornix, the 
 vault ; varix, a varicose vein, is both masculine and feminine. 
 
 Nom. ix, gen. Ids, feminine, as radix, radicis, the root'*. 
 
 Phoenix, the bird so called (a Greek word), is masculine (also a 
 national appellation, a Phoenician). 
 
 The following feminines should be separately noticed ; nix, nwis, 
 snow, strix, strigis, a fabulous being in the form of a bird. 
 
 Nom. ox, gen. ocis, feminine, as vox, vocis, the voice. 
 
 (The only other word declined in this way is celox, a swift vessel.) 
 
 The feminine nox, noctis, night, must be separately noticed. 
 
 (The national names Cappadox, Cappadocis, Allobrox, Allobrogis.) 
 
 Nom. ux, feminine, as crux, crucis, the cross. 
 
 The genitive is variously formed with c and g, u and u ; nux, 
 nucis, the nut, the nut-tree, lux, lucis, light, conjux, conjugis, the 
 wife (as common of two genders it denotes also a spouse) ; frux, 
 frugis, fruit (not used in the nom.), faux, faucis, the throat (not 
 used in the nom.) 
 
 The following are masculine ; tradux, traducis, the layer of a 
 vine, and from its signification, dux, duels, the leader (also common), 
 with the proper name Pollux, Polliccis. 
 
 Nom. x, with a consonant preceding, gen. cis, feminine, as arx, 
 arcis, the citadel. 
 
 The words in unx denoting the twelfth parts of an as are mascu- 
 
 p In Greek we find also common names in ax, acis, but scarcely any one of these is 
 met with in Latin. 
 
 i Like salix are declined besides the words cited above ; coxendix, filix {fulix),hy strix, 
 natrix, fix, and the national name Cilix, a Cilician. Like radix are declined several 
 words, viz. cervix, cicatrix, comix, coturnix, lodix, perdix, vibix, and the feminine appel- 
 latives in trix, e. g. victrix. In appendix the quantity is uncertain. 
 
Chap. V. — Third Declension. 41 
 
 ine, deunx, eleven twelfths of an as, quincunx, septunx (rarely calx, 
 he heel, lynx, a lynx). 
 
 Ols. The Greek words Sphinx, the Sphinx, phalanx, a c rtain order of 
 cattle, syrinx, the reed, have gis, e. g. sphingis. 
 
 Nom. ex, gen. wis, masculine, as apex, apicis, the extreme point. 
 
 The following are feminine, ilex, the holly, carex, sedge, for- 
 fex, a pair of shears, vitex, a species of tree, and, from its signification, 
 pellex, a concubine. 
 
 The following are masc. and fern., imbrex, the tile, obex, the bolt, 
 [not used in the nom. sing.), rumex, sorrel, and in the poets also 
 cortex, bark, silex, flint. (Atriplex, the orache, is nenter.) 
 
 The following must be separately noticed ; a. The masculines 
 with an irregular genitive, grex, gregis, the herd, with aqyilex, a dis- 
 coverer of springs, and the national name Lelex ; rex, regis, the king, 
 remex, remigis, the rower, vervex, vervecis, the wether, senex, senis, 
 the old man, foenisex, foenisecis, the haymaker. 
 
 b. The feminines with an irregular genitive ; nex, necis, death, 
 prex, precis, the prayer (not used in the nom. sing.), lex, legis, the 
 law, supellex, supellectilis, household goods, faex, faecis, lees. 
 
 2. Further, there are found in the foreign words which have 
 been adopted from the Greek and other languages different forms 
 of the theme and of the nominative, which do not occur in words 
 originally Latiu. (A more copious notice of the Greek words must 
 be sought for in the Greek dictionary.) These terminations are ; 
 
 Nom. ma, gen. mdtis, neuter : as poema, poemdtis, the poem. 
 
 Nom. i, gen. is, neuter, as sindpi, sindpis, mustard. 
 
 Ols. In this way are declined in the sing, without a plural, some names 
 of foreign products, and those of a few Spanish towns, as Illiturgi. Most 
 of them are not used in the gen. ; the other cases all end in i. Sinapi has 
 also the fern, form sinapis (jioin.). Oxymeli, oxymelttis, a mixture of 
 vinegar and honey, is neuter (jueXt) ; so also one or two others in nieli. 
 
 Nom. y, gen. yis (yos), neuter ; as misy, misyis (contr. onisys), vitriol (?) 
 
 (There are very few words of this class ; misy is also found indeclinable, 
 asty or astu, the city [of Athens], only in the accusative.) 
 
 Nom. on, gen. bnis, feminine, as Alcyon, Alcyonis, the kingfisher. 
 
 (So aedon, the nightingale, sindon, muslin ; with some names of towns, 
 e. g. Anthedon, Anthedonis, Chalcedon.) 
 
 Canon, a rule or plummet, is masculine (with names of men, as Ixion, 
 &c.) 
 
 Nom. on, on, an, en, in 
 
 Gen. onis, ontis, anis, enis, inis 
 
 Q 
 
 I MASCULINE. 
 
42 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 Greek proper names, of which the names of towns are feminine ; 
 as Babylon, Babylonis ; Ctesiphon, Ctesiphontis ; and Eleusin. {Del- 
 plan, Delplnnis, the dolphin, also delphinus, delphini.) 
 (Of the nom. of names in on, see §.45.) 
 
 Nom. ter, gen. teris, masculine, as crater, crateris, the bowl. 
 
 Nom. as, gen. ddis, feminine, as lampas, lampadis, the torch. 
 
 (The national names Nomas and Areas, employed also as feminine 
 adjectives.) 
 
 Nom. as, gen. antis, masculine, as adamas, adamantis, the dia- 
 mond. 
 
 Jlfelas, Melanis, masc., the name of a man, a river, and a disease. 
 
 Nom. as. gen. Mis, neuter, as erysipelas, erisypeldtis, the complaint so 
 called. 
 
 (Very few instances, commonly only in the nom. and ace.) 
 
 Nom. es, gen. etis, masculine, as lebes, lebetis, the caldron. 
 
 (So magnes, the magnet, tapes, the carpet, Tunes, the city Tunis.) 
 
 Nom. es, neuter, as cacoethes, a malignant tumour. 
 
 Nom, os, neuter, as epos, an epic poem. 
 
 (Both of these occur in but very few words, and only in the nom. and 
 ace.) 
 
 Nom. os, gen. 6'is, masculine, as heros, hero'is, the hero, demigod. 
 
 Nom. its, gen. untis, masculine, as Pessinus, Pessinuntis (a town). 
 
 (Only geographical names are thus declined. The names of towns are 
 sometimes used as feminine by synesis, e. g. Amathus in Ovid.) 
 
 Nom. us, gen. ddis, masculine, as tripus, tripodis, the tripod. 
 
 (None but compounds of itovs. Oedipus generally, and polypus, the 
 polypus, always, follow the second declension.) 
 
 Nom. ys, gen. yis, feminine, as chelys, chelyis, the cithara. 
 
 (Mostly proper names. Othrys, the mountain so called, is masculine.) 
 
 Nom. ys, gen. ydis, feminine, as cTilamys, clilamydis, the cloak. 
 
 Nom. yx, gen. ycis, ycis, ygis, ygis, ychis, masculine, as calyx, calycis, 
 the cup of a flower. 
 
 The genitives are determined according to the Greek. In Greek many 
 words in yx are feminine ; of those which have been received into the 
 Latin only sandyx, sandycis, a kind of red colour, and occasionally howibyx, 
 bombycis, the silkworm, sardonyx, sardonycMs, a precious stone. 
 
-42 Chap. VI.— Peculiarities in the third Declension. 43 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Peculiarities of the several cases and of the Greek forms in the third 
 
 declension. 
 
 A 43 1. In some words in is (gen. is) the accusative singular 
 Jb inim instead of em, namely, in amussis, the ruler ten,, the 
 Jough-tail, eueumis, the cucumber, rams, hoarseness, «ft., ttars , 
 JL, a cough, vis, force, and in the names of towns and nve*. 
 , g. Hispalis, Tiberis, Ugeris; commonly too m febns, the fever, 
 Jvis, the basin, puppis, the hinder part of a ship, resUs, the rope, 
 term, the tower, «<**, the axe ; more rarely m clams, the key, 
 messis, the harvest, navis, the ship. 
 
 Ols. The accusative also ends iu m (or in the Greek form m), in many 
 Greek words in is ; see §. 45, 2 b. . , . 
 
 2 The genitive of Greek and foreign proper names in et {pan- 
 syliaba) often ends in the earlier period (e g in Cicero) m . instead 
 of if e.g.* JriffottB, /«.«•««, iWi, AMh, 0*«. But this 
 neve; happens in those words, of which the theme has heen 
 altered in the nominative, e. g. Laches, Lachehs.) .... 
 
 3. The ablative commonly ends in e, hut in some words m h in 
 some both in e and i. 
 
 The following have i ; 
 
 a. Those words, which have only im in the accusative, e. g. sit h 
 
 Tiberi, ( voesi, see 1 Obs.) .... 
 
 h ih neuter words in e, i, al, ar, gen. Sri,, as man, smapz, ««- 
 mali, calcari (but safe, masc, and nectare, farre). 
 
 Obs. But the names of towns in e have e in the abl e. g. Prameste, 
 Caere • so Hkewise mostly rete, and mare frequently in the poets _ 
 
 c The adjectives of two and three terminations (is, e, and er, is, 
 e), ' as facUis,M.facili, acer, abl. acri, with those substantives in 
 % which were originally adjectives, e. g. famzhan, natah. 
 
 Obs 1. Such substantives, even if they be no longer in use as adjec- 
 tives may be recognized by their adjective terminate (,*., ans, ** 
 
 " Zd Some substantives of this kind, however, often have e, as ^ 
 
 nles oT:ls ( e J g. Veliensis from Telia) have also someUmes e, other 
 adjectives only in some particular passages of the poets, 
 q [Regnum Alyaitei (Hor. iii. Od. 16. 14.)] 
 G 2 
 
41 Inflection of Words. §.42 
 
 The following have both e and i : 
 
 a. Those words which have both im and em in the accusative, 
 e. g. puppi and puppe. (But Testis always has reste, and securis, securi.) 
 
 b. Adjectives and participles of one termination, e. g. prudenti 
 and prudente, inerti and inerte. I is, however, the prevailing form, 
 e. g. prudenti, ingenti, felici, vecordi, Arpinati, except in ablatives 
 absolute (see §. 277), when e is always used, e. g. Tarquinio reg- 
 nante; or when adjectives in ens stand for substantives, e.g. a 
 sapiente, in omni animante. 
 
 Obs. The following adjectives, however, have e only ; compos, impos, 
 coelebs, deses, pauper, princeps, pubes (puberis), super stes, and almost 
 always ales, dives ; commonly, too, vetus, uber. Par r and memor, on the 
 contrary, always have i. 
 
 c. The comparatives of adjectives, e. g. major e, majori ; e how- 
 ever is the more usual termination. 
 
 d. Sometimes too the ablative in i is used from other substantives in 
 s, gen. is (parisyllaba), besides those above named, e. g. igni, avi ; like- 
 wise from some, which have another termination, as imbri (imber), supel- 
 lectili (supellex), ruri, in the country (rus), and from some names of towns 
 with the signification in (the town), e. g. Carthagini, in Carthage, Tiburi, 
 Anxuri*. 
 
 §. 43. 1. The nominative and accusative plural of neuter words 
 generally end in a ; but the substantives in e, at, ar (dris), with 
 adjectives and participles in the positive (not in the comparative), 
 have ia, e. g. animalia, calcaria, elegantia, inertia, animantia. Vetus 
 only has Vetera. 
 
 Obs. Several adjectives of one termination, which follow the third de- 
 clension, form no neuter in the plural ; see §. 60, c. 
 
 2. Those masculines and feminines, which end inium in the gen. plur. 
 (see §. 44), had, in the accusative, in the older period, besides es, the ter- 
 mination is, which was long the usual one, e. g. classis, omnis. (It was 
 also written classeis, omneis.) But this pronunciation and orthography 
 were not without exceptions. At a later period they disappeared, but 
 the more ancient orthography is still found here and there in the editions 
 of the early writers. 
 
 §. 44. 1. In some words the gen. plur. is formed by affixing ium 
 to the theme (as exhibited in the other cases) instead of urn, viz. 
 
 a. In the parisyllables in es and is (§. 40. 1, c), e. g. aedium, cri- 
 nium ; except ambages, a circuit (of which the ablative alone is 
 used in the sing.), strues, the heap, vates, canis,juvenis, which have 
 
 The substantive par has also pare. {Impure numero, Virg..) 
 In the antiquated style even parti, carni. 
 
 
-4. Chap. VI. — Peculiarities in the third Declension, 45 
 
 um (ambagum, canum), with volucris, the bird (properly an adjec- 
 tive), which most usually has um; and apis, the bee, sedes, the 
 seat, mensis, the month, which often have that termination. 
 
 b. In the several words imber, linter, venter, titer, a leather bottle, 
 Insuber (a national name), and caro (carnis), e.g. imbrium, carnium. 
 
 c. In the monosyllables in s or x preceded by a consonant, e. g. 
 mons, montium, arx, arcium, (except opum from ops unused in the 
 nom.), and in the several monosyllables as, glis, lis, mas, mus, os, 
 gen. ossis, vis (vires, virium),faux (not used in the nom. sing.), nix 
 (nives, nivium), nox, and sometimes fraus, (also fraudum) . 
 
 Obs. 1 . The Greek words, gryps, lynx, sphynx, are to be excepted. 
 
 Obs. 2. Some monosyllables do not occur in the gen. plur., though the 
 remaining cases of the plural are in use : of these, the following may be 
 especially noticed ; cor, cos, rus, sal, sol, vas, gen. vadis. 
 
 d. In words of more than one syllable in ns and rs, e. g. clientium, 
 cohortium, from cliens, the client, cohors, the cohort (a division of 
 soldiers) ; sometimes, particularly in the poets, these words have um 
 (parentes, parentum, a form also common in prose). 
 
 e. In neuter words in e, al, ar, (gen. dris), and in those adjectives 
 and participles which have a neuter plural, e. g. marium, animalium, 
 calcarium, from mare, animal, calcar ; acrium, facilium, felicium, 
 elegantium, inertium, locupletium, from acer, facilis, felix, elegans, 
 iners, locuples 1 , except the adjective vetus (veterum), and gyadrupes, 
 versicolor, (anceps, praeceps,) which have um. 
 
 From the adjectives in ns we find now and then um instead of 
 ium, e. g. sapientum ; from those in is very seldom, and only in the poets, 
 e. g. caelestum from caelestis. 
 
 Obs. If, on the other hand, the adjectives have no neuter plural 
 (§. 60, c), the genitive ends in um ; consequently, we have inopum, divi- 
 tum, uberum, vigilum, from inops, dives, uber, vigil. Celer, hebes, teres, 
 are not found in the gen. plur. Celeres, the body-guard of the Roman 
 kings, has in the gen. celerum. 
 
 f. In national names in is and as, e. g. from Qviris — Qviriiiwn, 
 from Arpinas — Arpinatium, and in the two plural words, penates, 
 the guardian gods, and. optimates, the nobles (rarely um) . Other 
 words also in as, atis, sometimes have ium, e. g. civitatium (but civu 
 tatum is better). 
 
 2. The names of some Eoman festivals, which end in alia, and 
 are used only in the plural, have in the genitive iorum (as in the 
 second declension) as well as ium, e. g. Bacchanalia, Bacchanaliorum, 
 
 t Facilium is, at the same time, in conformity with rule a., elegantium, and inertium, 
 in conformity with d. 
 
46 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 the feast of Bacchus. So also the word ancile, a shield which fell from 
 heaven {anciliorum). 
 
 3. The dative and ablative plural of Greek words in ma generally 
 have the termination is for ibus, e. g. poematis from poema. 
 
 4. The word bos, bovis, has in the gen. plur. bourn, in the dat. 
 and abl. bdbus or bubus (in the nom. and ace. regularly boves) . Sus 
 has in the dat. and abl. plur. suibus, and (contracted) subus. 
 
 §. 45. (Greek forms in Greek words.) 1. Greek proper names in a>v, 
 gen. (ovos {cnis), and ovos {onis), usually assume the Latin form o, e.g. 
 Plato, Zeno, Bio, Laco, Agamemno ; but on is retained in some writers 
 (as Cornelius Nepos), e. g. Dion, Conon, and almost always in geographical 
 names, e. g. Babylon, Lacedaemon. Those in <cv, ovtos, and covros {ontis), 
 for the most part retain the n, e. g. Xenophon. (In Plautus and Terence, 
 however, some names of this kind are altered in the inflection, e. g. Anti- 
 pho, Antiphonis, instead of Antiphon, Antiphontis.) 
 
 2. a. In the poets and some prose writers the accusative occasionally 
 ends in a, when the Greek has this termination, but in prose, with a few 
 exceptions, only in proper names, e. g. Agamemnona, Babylona, Periclea 
 {Pericles), Troezena, Pana, and, in the poets, heroa, thordca. Only the 
 words aer and aether have in prose, too, almost always, aera, aethera. 
 
 b. Greek words in is, gen. is, have in the accusative im (Latin) and in 
 (Greek), e. g. poesim, poesin, Charybdim, Charyhdin. Of the words in is, 
 idis, those which in Greek have iv and iSa in the accus., have, for the most 
 part im {in), in Latin, rarely idem (Greek ida), e. g. Paris, Parim, Parin, 
 rarely Paridem ; except those in tis, which have both forms, e. g. Phthidtis, 
 PhtJiiotim {Phthiotin), and PJithiotidem {PhtJtiotida) . 
 
 Those which in Greek have only tSa (i. e. all oxytons), have in Latin 
 also idem {ida), e. g. tyrannis, tyrannidem {tyrannida). (So especially 
 feminine patronymics and national names, e. g. Aeneis, Aeneidem, and 
 Aeneida.) 
 
 c. Words in ys, gen. yis, have in the ace. ym (Latin), or yn (Greek), 
 e. g. Othrym, Othryn. 
 
 d. Those proper names in es, gen. is, which in Greek follow the first 
 declension (§. 35. Obs. 4), have en as well as em, e. g. Aeschinen, Mithri- 
 daten ; so also sometimes those which in Greek follow the third deck, but 
 have in the ace. both rj (according to the third deck) and rjv (according to 
 the first), e. g. Xenocraten. (Others but rarely, as Sophoelen, instead of 
 Sophoclem.) 
 
 e. Proper names in es, etis, e. g. Tholes, have in the ace, besides 
 Thaletem, a shorter form llialem, Thalen (abl. Thole ; in the gen. and dat. 
 this shorter form, Thalis, Thali, is unusual). 
 
 3. In the genitive of Greek words, the poets use not unfrequently the 
 form os, but particularly in words in is and as, gen. idos and ados (espe- 
 
). Chap. VII. — Fourth Declension. 47 
 
 cially in proper names), e. g. Thetis, Thetidos, Pallas, Pallados ; in those 
 in ys, gen. yos, e. g. TetJiys, Teihyos ; and in proper names in eus, gen. 
 cos, e. g. Peleus, Peleos (Latin, Peleus, Pelei ; see §. 38, 3). 
 
 The gen. seos from words in sis, e. g. poeseos fvom poesis, is not found 
 in good writers. 
 
 Greek female names in o, as Io, Sappho, have mostly the Greek geni- 
 tive us (ovs). In the ace, dat., and abl., 5 is used, e. g. Sappho (ace. 
 2an(pa>, dat. 2cnr<f)oi), rarely the Latin form, Sajpphonem, Sapphoni, Sap- 
 phone. 
 
 4. The Greek words in is, ys, and eus, have the Greek vocative, which 
 is formed by the rejection of s, e. g. Phylli, Alexi, Coty, Orphew ; but 
 those in is, idos, have often too (in Latin) the voc. like the nom., e. g. 
 Thais. Names of men in as, antis (the voc. in Greek being av and a), 
 have a, e. g. Calchas, voc. Calchd. 
 
 Proper names in es have es and e, e. g. Carneades and Carneade, 
 Chremes and Chreme (from Chremes, Chremetis). 
 
 5. In the nom. plur. of Greek words the poets often use es (es) short, 
 instead of making the final syllable long, as is usual in Latin words (§. 
 20. 2). In the name Sardls (gen. Sardium) is stands for the Greek ft?. 
 
 6. The accusative plural sometimes ends in as, as in Greek, especially 
 in the poets, e. g. Aebhiopas, Pyramidas. This termination is also used in 
 some barbarous national names, which in their form resemble Greek words, 
 e. g. Alloorogas, Lingonas, from AXlobrox, Ling on. 
 
 7. The Greek ending of the genitive on is only used in the titles of 
 books, e. g. Iletamorphoseon liori u . 
 
 8. The termination of the dative in si (sin) is very rarely used by a few 
 poets from feminine words in as and is, e. g. Troasin, Charisin, from 
 Troades, Charites. 
 
 9. From the few Greek neuter words in os and es there are formed a 
 nom. and ace. plur. in e (77), without any further inflection, e. g. melos, 
 mele. (Tempe, §. 51. g). 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Fourth Declension. 
 
 §. 46. Words of the fourth declension end in us or (neutr.) u, 
 and are declined as follows : 
 
 n Maleon, MaAtewu, the Maleans, Curt,, 
 
48 Inflection of Words. g 
 
 
 
 (Fructus, fruit, cornu, 
 
 the horn.) 
 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 Nom 
 
 Voc 
 
 
 fructus 
 
 cornu 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 
 fructum 
 
 cornu 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 
 fructus 
 
 cornus 
 
 flat. 
 
 
 
 fructui 
 
 cornu 
 
 Abl. 
 
 
 
 fructu 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 cornu 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc 
 
 fructus 
 
 cornua 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 
 fructuum 
 
 cornuum 
 
 Bat. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 
 fructibus 
 
 cornibus 
 
 Obs. 1. Like cornu are declined only a few words (genu, the knee, veru, 
 the spit). Some cases of other words are formed according to this exam- 
 ple, but the word has at the same time other forms, as from pecu, cattle, 
 nom. and ace. plur. pecua, and dat. pecubus ; but otherwise pecus, pecudis, 
 and pecus, pecoris, after the third declension. (See amongst the Abun- 
 dant ia §. 56, 7). Gelu, cold, is in ordinary language used only in the 
 ablative. (In other cases we find the form, not a common one, gelum, 
 geli. The nom. gelu belongs to the later Latin, and gelus is obsolete). 
 
 Obs. 2. The termination us in the gen. sing, is contracted from uis, 
 which sometimes occurs in the older language, e. g. anuis, of an old woman. 
 From some words, especially senatus, the senate, and tumultus, the stir, 
 some writers (e. g. Sallust) form the genitive in i, e. g. senati, tumulti*. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the dative ui is often contracted into u, e. g. eqyitatu for 
 eqvitatui, as in cornu. 
 
 Obs. 4. In the dative and ablative plur. dissyllables with c before the 
 termination (acus, the needle, areas, the bow, laeus, the lake, qverens, the 
 oak, speeus, the cave, and^m*), with the words artus, the joint, partus, 
 birth, tribus, the tribe, and veru, the spit, have itbus, instead of ibus, e. g. 
 artubus. Tortus, the haven, has portibus and portubus. 
 
 Obs. 5. The names of some trees in us, especially cupressus, the cypress, 
 ficus, the fig-tree, laurus, the laurel, and pinus, the pine, are sometimes de- 
 clined throughout like the second declension, sometimes they take those 
 cases of the fourth declension which end in us and u, e. g. gen. laurus, abl. 
 lauru, nom. and ace. plur. laurus. (Qvereus is declined entirely accord- 
 ing to the fourth declension). So also the word colus, the distaff. 
 
 Domtis, the house, forms some cases exclusively according to the 
 second declension, while in others it has both forms, as follows : 
 
 * It is not correct to assume that the words in u had u also in the genitive. Only 
 cornu bubulum, cow's-horn, and cornu cervinum, stag's-horn, were inflected in later times 
 as if the substantive and adjective made only one word ; cornububuli, cornucervini. 
 
I Chap. VIII.— Fifth Declension. 49 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. Voc. domus Nom. domus 
 
 Ace. domum Ace. domos (rarely domus) 
 
 Gen. domus Gen. domuum, domorum 
 
 Bat. domui (rarely domo) Bat. Abl. domibus 
 
 Abl. domo (rarely domu) 
 
 The genitive form domi is only used in the signification at home ; 
 see §. 296. hJ 
 
 §. 47. (Gender). Words of the fourth declension in us are mas- 
 culine, those in u neuter. But of those in us the following are 
 feminine ; the names of trees, as qvercus, with acus, colus, domus, 
 manus, the hand, penus, a store of provisions (see §. 56, 7), porticus, 
 the portico, tribus, the tribe, and the plurals idus (iduum), the thir- 
 teenth or fifteenth day of every month, and qvinqvatrus, a certain 
 feast, in the older language also specus ; (further, from their signi- 
 fication, anus, an old woman, nurus, a daughter-in-law, socrus, a 
 mother-in-law) . 
 
 Obs. Colus is also found in the masculine, specus (in the nom. and ace.) 
 in the neuter, both but rarely. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Fifth Beclension. 
 
 §. 48. This declension comprises only a few words, which all end 
 in es, and are declined as follows : 
 
 (Res, the thing, dies, the day.) 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom 
 
 Voc. 
 
 res 
 
 dies 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 rem 
 
 diem 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 rei 
 
 diei 
 
 Bat. 
 
 
 rei 
 
 diei 
 
 Abl 
 
 
 re 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 die 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Voc. Ace. 
 
 res 
 
 dies 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 rerum 
 
 dierum 
 
 Bat. 
 
 Abl. 
 
 rebus 
 
 diebus. 
 
 Ohs. 1. In the gen. and dat. singular the e in ei is long after a vowel, 
 short after a consonant. In the older period the contracted termination e 
 
 y By some written also domui, on the authority of manuscripts. 
 H 
 
50 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 was also used in these cases, (e. g. fide, acie, die, for fidei, aciei, diet, 
 in the gen. in Horace, Caesar, Sallust,^^ in the dat. in Horace) 2 . In the 
 genitive there occurred also an old form in i, e. g. pernicii for jperniciei. 
 
 Obs. 2. Only res and dies are declined throughout in the plural. The 
 words acies,facies, effigies, species, and spes (in Virgil glacies), are used 
 in the nora. and ace. plur., not in the other cases. The remaining words 
 have no plural. 
 
 Obs. 3. Some words have a double form, according to the fifth declen- 
 sion, and according to the first with the nom. in a : see among the abun- 
 dantia, §. 56, 3. 
 
 §. 49. All words of the fifth declension are feminine, except dies, 
 which is masculine and feminine in the singular, in the plural only 
 masculine. In the singular too, with the signification day, it is 
 usually masculine in good prose writers, but with the signification 
 term, time (longa dies), it is almost always feminine (in prose 
 always). (Meridies, mid-day, is masculine.) 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Of some peculiarities in the use of the numbers of Substantives, and 
 of some irregularities in their inflection. 
 
 (Anomalia declinationis.) 
 
 §. 50. [Peculiarities relating to the numbers). Many words in 
 Latin (as in our own language) are not used in the plural, because 
 they are either proper names of defined individual objects (e. g. 
 Roma ; so also tellus, humus, used of the earth in general, but terrae, 
 lands), or denote an idea in the most general way (in the abstract), 
 and considered as a whole, without regarding the several indivi- 
 dual objects in which the idea shews itself, as the names of the 
 properties and circumstances of a being, of a collection of any thing, 
 of a material; e. g. justitia, justice, humanitas, humanity, senectus, 
 old age, fames, hunger, qvies, rest, scientia, knowledge, indoles, the 
 natural ability, — plebs, vulgus, the populace, supellex, furniture, — 
 aurum, gold, ferrum, iron, sabulum, sand, triticum, wheat, oleum, oil, 
 sangvis, blood, virus, venom. 
 
 If such words, as usually designate a whole, alter their significa- 
 tion, and are used to denote individual objects, they have also the 
 plural, e. g. aera, instruments of copper, bronze statues, cerae, wax 
 tablets, wax masks, ligna, pieces of wood, billets. 
 
 * [Constaniis juvenem fide (Hor. Od. iii. 7, 4), Libra die somnique pares ubi fecerit 
 horas (Virg. Georg. i. 208).] 
 
I. Chap. IX.— Irregular Declension. 51 
 
 Obs. 1 . Such changes of the signification must be ascertained by atten- 
 tive reading and from the dictionary. Thus mors, death, is used in the 
 plural of fatal attacks, kinds of death, while letum, death, is never so em- 
 ployed. In this the poets go further than the prose writers, e. g. tria 
 tura, three grains of incense, from tics, incense. Sometimes the poets 
 employ names expressive of abstract ideas and names of classes or mate- 
 rials in the plural without a change in the signification (as of a whole 
 consisting of several parts), e. g. silentia, silence, murmur a, murmuring, 
 flamina, blowing, Tiordea, barley, but chiefly only in the nom. and ace. 
 Thus the poets sometimes use ora, pectora, corda, of a single individual. 
 
 Ohs. 2. The Latin word may sometimes have originally a more abstract 
 signification than the English which most nearly corresponds to it, and 
 therefore be without a plural, as specimen, a proof. (Various horticul- 
 tural productions, as fruit and flowers, as well as the different species of 
 corn, are in Latin named in the singular, when it is intended to designate 
 the whole kind, or an indefinite quantity, e. g. abstinere faba, mille rnodii 
 fabae (Hor. Ep. i. 16, 55, beans in general; but fabae, beans taken 
 separately,) glande vesci (Cic. Or. 9), in rosa ja-cere. This applies also 
 sometimes to other kinds of produce). 
 
 Obs. 3. The Latins (unlike ourselves) often use words which express ab- 
 stract ideas in the plural, when the idea (an activity, property, condition, 
 being) is to be conceived as applying to several persons or things (seve- 
 ral subjects), or when it is intended to d( note that the idea is exhibited 
 several times and in a variety of forms. Thus we find in Cicero ; adventils 
 imperatorum, exitiis bellorum mites, odia liominum, novorum liominum in- 
 dustriae, proceritates arborum, — invidiae multitudinis, iracundiae, timores, 
 tarditates, celeritates, — tres constantiae (three kinds of constantia) ; omnes 
 avaritiae (all the ways in which avarice displays itself a ). So of the wea- 
 ther we find the expressions nives, snow-storms, grandines, hail storms, 
 soles, bursts of sunshine (in the poets, days), frigora, cold seasons b . 
 
 Obs. 4. Proper names are used in the plural, not only when borne by 
 several individuals (e. g. Valerii omnes, duo Scipiones Africani), but also 
 figuratively of men of a certain kind, e. g. multi Cwerones (many orators 
 as distinguished as Cicero). 
 
 Obs. 5. In some historians and poets certain words, which denote a 
 man of a particular class or rank, are sometimes used in the singular of 
 the whole class, e. g. Romanus for the Romans, eqyes for the knights, 
 miles for the soldiers. 
 
 §. 51. Some words are used only in the plural (are pluralia tan- 
 turn), because they either designate a plurality of individual objects, 
 i which are so named only in the aggregate, and not when taken 
 
 1 [Rectlqve cultus pectora roborant (Hor.) Tantacne animis coelestibus irae ? (Virg.)] 
 b [Siccitates pallidum (Caes. B. G. iv. 38).] 
 
52 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 separately, e. g. major es, ancestors ; or because they are used of 
 something which originally suggested the idea of several consti- 
 tuent parts, of repetition, or the like, e. g. arma, gen. armorum, 
 armour, fides, gen. fidium, the cithara c . 
 
 Obs. Of such words the following are the most usual : 
 
 a. Libert, children, majores, ancestors (properly the comparative of 
 magmis, great), procures and primores, men of rank, inferi, the inhabitants 
 of the lower world, superi, the inhabitants of the upper world, caelites, the 
 inhabitants of heaven, penates, household gods, manes, the spirits of the 
 departed, munia (only in the nom. and ace), employments, utensilia, uten- 
 sils, provisions, verbera, stripes (verbere, see §. 55, 3). 
 
 b. (Parts of the body) artus, the limbs, cani (adj., with which capilli is 
 to be understood), grey hairs, cervices, the neck (in the later writers cer- 
 vix), exta, intestina, viscera (rarely viscus), the intestines, fauces, the 
 throat (fauce, see §. 55, 3), praecordia, the diaphragm, ilia, the flank, 
 renes, the kidneys. 
 
 c. (Material, compound objects) altaria, the altar, arma, armour, arma- 
 menta, tackling, balneae, the bath-house {balneum, a private, single bath, 
 plur. balnea), cancelli., the lattice, casses, a fowler's net, castra, the camp 
 (castrum as the name of a place, e. g. Castrum Novum),, elathri, a grating, 
 clitellae, the pack-saddle, compedes, fetters (compede, see §. 55. 3), cunae, 
 cunabula, incunabula, the cradle, exuviae, an integument stripped off (arms 
 taken in fight), fides, the lyre (fidem, fidis, fide, see §. 55, 2), fori, rows 
 of seats, loculi, a repository (with several compartments), lustra, a lurk- 
 ing-place of wild beasts, manubiae, booty, moenia (moenium), the wall of 
 a town, obices, a bolt (obice, see §. 55, 3), phalerae, the ornaments of 
 horses, sallnae, salt-works, scalae, stairs, scopae, the broom, sentes, the 
 thornbush, spolia, spoils, valvae, folding doors, vepres, brambles (veprem, 
 vepre, see §. 55, 2), virgulta, the thicket; and generally, bigae, a carriage 
 with two horses, qvadrigae, a carriage with four horses, and the partici- 
 ples sata, the cornfields, serta, garlands of flowers. 
 
 d. Ambages, a roundabout way, (§. 55, 3), argutiae, witty, ingenious 
 discourse, crepundia, playthings, deliciae, delight, dirae, a curse, (from 
 the adj. dirus), divitiae, riches, excubiae, the guard, exseqviae, funeral 
 solemnities, epulae, the banquet (sing, epulum, generally a public enter- 
 tainment), fasti, the calendar, grates, thanks (only in the nom. and ace), 
 induciae, an armistice, ineptiae, silliness (rarely in the sing.), inferiae, a 
 
 c Majores denotes all the individual ancestors, but only as taken together ; a single 
 ancestor is not called major. The same holds good with liberi. In these cases therefore 
 regard is had to the individuals which make up the number, and three children is ex- 
 pressed by tres liberi. Fides, on the other hand, denotes the compound stringed instru- 
 ment, but not its several parts (the strings are called nervi) ; arma is a suit of armour, 
 which consists of several pieces. Here therefore regard is had to the compound unity, 
 and trhia arma (according to §. 76 c) signifies three suits of armour. Most of the plu- 
 ralia tantum belong to this latter description. 
 
Chap. IX. — Irregular Declension, 53 
 
 sacrifice' to the dead, insidiae, the ambuscade, inimicitiae, enmity (but 
 amicitid), minae, threatening, nugae, nonsense, nuptiae, a marriage, prae- 
 stigiae, a blind, deception, preces, supplication (prece, see §. 55, 8), pri- 
 mitiae, the first-fruits, reliqviae, the remains, sordes, dirt (sordem, sorde, 
 see §. 55, 2), tenebrae, darkness, vindiciae, a judicial sentence ; so also usu- 
 ally angustiae, a strait (embarrassment), blanditiae, flattery, illecebrae, 
 enticement. 
 
 e. (Names of days and festivals.) Calen dae, the first day of the month, 
 Nonae, the fifth (or seventh), Idus, the thirteenth (or fifteenth), feriae, 
 the holyday, nundinae, the market-day, 'Bacchanalia, the feast of Bac- 
 chus, Saturnalia, the feast of Saturn, and other names of festivals in alia 
 and ilia. 
 
 f. The names of many towns, e. g. Veji, Atlienae, Leuctra, Gades. (Of 
 those in i some designate both the town and its inhabitants, e. g. Delphi, 
 Leontini.) 
 
 g. The mountain chains Alpes and Acroceraunia, and the valley of 
 Tempe (§. 45, 9). (The poets use some Greek names of mountains as 
 neuter in the plural instead of masculine in the singular, as Taygeta for 
 Taygetus.) 
 
 §. 52. Some words, which in the singular are employed to denote 
 a single object or idea, are used in the plural to express not only 
 a number of such objects, but also (as pluralia tantum) a more com- 
 plex object which bears some affinity to them, or a collection of 
 objects, e. g. litter a, a letter of the alphabet, litterae, either 
 l letters or an epistle, auxilium, aid, auxilia, resources or auxiliary 
 troops. {Binae litterae, two epistles, bina auocilia, two bodies of 
 auxiliaries, see §. 76 c. We also find litterae sometimes without 
 a numeral to signify epistles, e. g. afferuntur ex Asia qvotidie lit- 
 terae, Cic. pro leg. Man. 2.) 
 
 Obs. Further instances of such words are : 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 aedes, the temple. aedes, a. temples, b. a house. 
 
 aqya, water. aqvae, a. waters, b. a mineral 
 
 spring. 
 career, the prison. career es, the space partitioned off by 
 
 the barriers (on the racecourse). 
 codicillus (rare), a small log. co^'cz'Zfo', the writing-tablet, the note. 
 
 copia, fulness, a store, a number. copiae, a. stores, b. troops. 
 
 comitium, a place in the market in comitia, an assembly of the people. 
 
 Rome. 
 fortuna, fortune. fortunae, the goods of fortune. 
 
 gratia, thankfulness (in action and gratiae, thanks. 
 
 in feeling). 
 
^ Inflection of Words. c 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 hortus, the garden. Urti, a. gardens, b. pleasure-gar 
 
 dens, a country house. 
 
 wipedimentum, the hindrance. impedimenta, a. hindrances, b. bag 
 
 firasre. 
 
 Wa*. play, a jest. j udi , a public spectacle. 
 
 nans, the nostril. ^ tlle nose (rareJy £n the ^ 
 
 in this signification). 
 »**«&. (adj. dies), a birthday. «afofe», pedigree. 
 
 ops (not used in the nom.), help. opes, power, riches. 
 
 pars, a part. ^^ a partg b< ^ ^ ^ f 
 
 an actor in a play), side, party. 
 rostrum, a beak, the beak of a rostra, the platform for the Orators 
 ip ' in ^e market at Rome (adorned 
 
 iZ7 ,_ , with beaks of ships). 
 
 tabula, the board, tablet. tabulae, a. boards, &c. b. an ac- 
 
 count-book, a document d . 
 §. 53. In some compound words, which consist of two entire 
 unaltered words in the nominative, and may be again resolved into 
 their constituent parts (spurious compounds), both parts of the 
 compound are declined, e. g. respublica, the state, ace. rempMi. 
 cam, gen. rezpublicae, &c. (according to the fifth and first decl) 
 jmjurandvm the oath, gen>m>W*, &c. (according to the third 
 and second). 
 
 . , § ' f 4 ' ^™ few substa ntives have no inflection of the cases (are 
 mdechnahha), namely, the Latin and Greek names of the letters 
 (a, alpha, fee.), the words /„, right, nefas, wrong, instar, equality 
 (m size and syndication), mane, the early morning, caepe, the onion, 
 gnmrm gum; but these words, with the exception of the letters 
 are only used as nominatives and accusatives. Mane however is 
 also used as an ablative (summo mane, at the earliest dawn). 
 
 Oh*. 1. The names of the letters are also used as genitives, datives or 
 ablates when the addition of an adjective (e. g. y Iraecae) or th on 
 nection clearly shows the ease. ; 
 
 Obs. 2. For gummi writers also use gummis, gen awmmu f™ „,„1 
 ffumen, neuter: for caepe often caepa, gen. caepj " ' ' ^ 
 
 Ob, 3. Panda is also undeclined, being used sometimes as an abl sin* 
 «gnifying mweight , e.g. earonar, uurea m , U iram panda (a pouna fn 
 weight, wcghing a pound), sometimes as a plural noun in the nom. ace 
 
 indivffi ** ( h »Sl.tine 8S ), and spirit, haogh.iness, pride ; used also of a single 
 
Chap. IX. — Irregular Declension. 55 
 
 and gen., e.g. qvinqyagena pondo data consulibus ; torqyes aureus, duo 
 pondo (by apposition) ; corona aurea pondo ducentum (ducentorum). 
 
 Obs. 4. Barbarous names, the Hebrew, for instance (in Christian au- 
 thors), often receive a Latin termination, in order to make declension 
 practicable, either in the nominative, e. g. Abraliamus, or in the other 
 cases, the foreign form being used for the nom., e. g. David, gen. Davidis. 
 The name Jesus has in the ace. Jesum, in the other cases Jesu. 
 
 §. 55. Some words have an inflection of the cases, but not 
 throughout (are defectiva casibus, deficient in their cases). 
 
 Obs. According to the number of the cases in use, such words are 
 
 called monoptota, diptota, triptota, or tetraptota, words with one, two, 
 
 three, or four cases e . The cause of this incompleteness resides in the 
 
 i notion or the usage of the word, which made only certain cases necessary 
 
 or retained no others in use. 
 
 1. The following words want the nom. ; [daps, obsolete) dapis, 
 food, (dicio) dicionis, dominion, (frux) frugis, fruit, (internecio) in- 
 ternecionis, destruction, (pollis) pollinis, fine flour. 
 
 2. The following words are used in the sing, only in certain 
 i cases ; 
 
 fors, accident, in the nom. and abl. (forte, usually as an adverb, 
 accidentally), without a plural. 
 
 (Jldes orfidis, unused, the lyre), in the ace, gen., and abl., fidem,fidis, 
 fide. Used only by the poets ; commonly fides, fidium, as aplur. tantum. 
 
 (impes, unused, violence), in the gen. and abl. impetis, impete. (With- 
 out plural. Usually impetus, after the fourth declension.) 
 
 lues, an epidemical disease, in the nom., ace, and abl. luem, lue. (No 
 plural.) 
 
 (ops, unused, help), in the ace, gen., and abl. opem, opts, ope. In 
 the plural opes, opum, power, riches, it is declined throughout, see 
 §•52. 
 
 (sordes, unused, dirt), in the ace and abl. sordem, sorde, both rare. 
 Usually sordes, sordium, as plur. tantum. 
 
 (vepres, unused, the bramble), in the ace and abl. veprem, vepre, both 
 rare. Commonly plur. tant., vepres, veprium. 
 
 (vicis or vix, unused, change), in the ace, gen., and abl. vicem, 
 vicis, vice. In the plural vices, vicibus ; the gen. is wanting. 
 
 vis, force, in the nom., ace, and abl. vim, vi. In the plural vires, 
 viriitm, the powers, completed 
 
 3. The following words are used in the ablative only of the sin- 
 
 e From iTTwais, case, with the Greek numerals. t Ace. plur. vis, in Lucretius. 
 
56 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 gular ; ambdge, compede, fauce, obice, prece, verbere, and all, if we 
 except prece and (rarely) verbere, only by the poets ; otherwise they 
 are pluralia tantum, ambages, &c. (§. 51, Obs.) s 
 
 4. Sponte, an impulse (fern.), is used in the abl. sing, only (with- 
 out a plural) with a possessive pronoun (e. g. sua sponte, of his own 
 accord, nostra sponte) ; so likewise several verbal substantives in u 
 from supines, which are constructed only with a genitive or a pos- 
 sessive pronoun, e. g. jussu populi, by order of the people, mandatu 
 Caesaris, by a commission from Caesar, rogatu rneo, at my request, 
 together with natu, in respect of age (birth), e. g. grandis natu, ad- 
 vanced in age. (In promptu, in procinctu.) 
 
 5. The following substantives are only used in one particular case and 
 in certain combinations ; dicis (dicis causa, for form's sake), nauci (non 
 nauci, as gen. of the price, not worth a farthing ; non nauci facio, non 
 nauci est), derisui {esse, to be a laughing-stock, according to §. 249, and 
 so also), despicatui and ostentui (esse), injitias (ire, to deny), suppetias 
 (ferre, to bring assistance), venum (ire, to be sold, dare, to sell) h . 
 
 Secus, sex, with the adjective virile or niuliebre, is used without alter- 
 ation in the ace. in apposition to all cases, signifying of the male (or fe- 
 male) sex, e. g. Liberorvm capitum, virile secus, ad decern millia capta 
 (Liv. XXVI. 47). (Otherwise sexus, after the fourth declension). Re- 
 petundarum and (de) repetundis (pecuniarum, pecuniis) are found only in 
 these cases, when reference is made to judicial proceedings on account of 
 money raised illegally. 
 
 6. The gen. plur. is wanting m some monosyllables of the third declen- 
 sion ; (see §. 44 c. Ohs. 2.) 
 
 7. The plural grates, some plurals used only by the poets (see §. 50. 
 Obs. 1.), and the plurals of some monosyllables of the neuter gender 
 (aera, jura, rura, farra), are found only in thenom. and ace. ; so likewise 
 some plural words of the fifth declension (§. 48. Obs. 2), and of the fourth, 
 impetus, spiritus. 
 
 §. 56. Some words are declined in two or more ways (are abun- 
 dantia), and of these some vary in gender as well as in the termi- 
 nation of the nominative case. In some instances, however, one 
 form is used more frequently than the other. 
 
 Obs. Words with various inflections are termed heteroclita, those with 
 various genders heterogenea \ 
 
 Particular examples of this have been already mentioned, as 
 
 « (Ambages, nom. sing., in Tacitus?), preci, dat., in Terence, verberis, gen., in Ovid. 
 h Astu, craftily, as an adverb : in later writers also astus, craft, nom., and astus, nom. 
 and ace. plur. 
 
 ' From %Tzpos, another, and. ic\l<ris, inflection, yevos, gender. 
 
Chap. IX. — Irregular Declension. of 
 
 e laurus, lauri, and laurus, domus, &c. (§. 48, Obs. 5), as also the 
 ^ variation between Greek and Latin forms, e. g. logice and logica 
 (§. 35, Obs. 1.). 
 To this class belong also the following : 
 
 1. In the second declension some words end both in us (masc.) 
 and in urn (neutr.), as callus and callum, the callosity, comment a- 
 rius and comment arium, the memoir. Jugulusandjugulum, the throat; 
 some names of plants, as lupinus, lupinum, the lupine ; parvus, pornim, 
 the leek ; cubitus, the elbow, also cvMtum (particularly cubita, ells) ; 
 balteus, the belt, baculum, the stick, clipeus, the shield, more rarely bal- 
 teum, baculus, clipeum. 
 
 2. Menda and mendum, the fault, varies between the first and 
 second declension. Vesper a, the evening, has at the same time 
 vesper, and ace. vesperum, after the second declension, in the abla- 
 tive usually vesper e, vesperi, after the third. (Vesper, vesperi (2), 
 the evening-star.) (Aranea and araneus, the spider, columlus and co- 
 lumba, the dove, and some other names of animals ; see §.30, Obs. 
 
 3. Some words in ia and ies vary between the first and fifth de- 
 clension, e. g. barbaria and barbaries, mollitia, mollifies, luxuria, 
 luxuries. (In the gen., dat., and abl. these words rarely follow the 
 fifth decl.) (The form materies is generally used to denote wood for 
 building, materia for matter.) 
 
 4. Some substantives of the fourth declension derived from verbs 
 have an additional form in um, i, e. g. eventus, eventum, the event. 
 So also angiportus (4) and angiportum (2), a narrow street, sugges- 
 tus (4) and suggestum (2), the platform, tonitrus (4) and tonitruum 
 (2), thunder. 
 
 5. The following are to be separately noticed : 
 
 plebs, plebis (3), and plebes, plebei (5), the common people. (Tru 
 buni plebis and plebei, also pie bi ; see §. 48, Obs. 1.) 
 
 reqvies, reqvietis, rest ; in the ace. and abl. also reqviem, re- 
 qvie (5). 
 
 gausape, gausapis, and gausapum (2) neutr., a kind of woollen stuff, also 
 gausapa (1) fem., and gausapes, gausapis, masc. 
 
 praesepe, praesepis, neutr., the manger : also praesepes, praesepis, fem., 
 and praesephem (2). 
 
 tapes, tapetis, masc, the carpet; also tapete, tapetis, neutr., and tape- 
 turn, tapeti. 
 
 ilia, the flanks (plur. tant.), gen. ilium (3) and iliorum, dat. and abl. 
 ilibus. 
 
 6. Jugerum, jugeri, an acre, is declined in the singular after the 
 
 i 
 
58 Inflection of Words. §. i » 8 
 
 second declension, in the plural after the third ; jugera, jugerum, 
 jugeribus. (Rarely jugeris.) 
 
 Vas, vasts, the vessel (3), follows the second declension in the 
 plural ; vasa, vasorum, vasts. 
 
 7. In some words not only the terminations of inflection, but 
 even the theme itself varies (so that they are properly distinct 
 words, not merely different ways of inflecting one). Of this class 
 are to be noticed : 
 
 femur, the thigh, femoris and feminis (from the unused nom. 
 femen), and so the remaining cases. 
 
 jecur,jecoris, the liver; in the gen. also jocinoris, jecinoris,joci- 
 neris, and so the remaining cases. 
 
 juventus, juventutis, youth ; in the ipoets juventa (1), and Juventas, 
 Juventatis, the goddess of youth. 
 
 Senectus, old age, in the poets senecta (1). 
 
 Pecus, pecudis, fern., a head of (small) cattle (the nom. rare) : 
 pecus, pecoris (generally collectively, cattle) ; also pecua, plur. iant. 
 pecubus. 
 
 penus, penoris, piur. penora, a store of provisions ; also penus, 
 penus, fern., and penum, pent (the two last forms without a plural). 
 
 So also colluvio (3) and colluvies (5), filth washed together, a confused 
 mixture ; contagio (3) and contagium (2, in the poets and later writers), 
 contact, contagion ; scorpio (3) and scorpius (2), the scorpion, with some 
 others. 
 
 Obs. Some Greek words are partly adopted in their Greek form, partly 
 employed in a Latin form somewhat modified, e. g. crater (3, masc.) and 
 cratera k (fern.), elepJias (elepJiantis, 3) and elephantus (2), tiaras (1, masc.) 
 and tiara (fern.) ; see §. 33, Obs. 3. Of the words chaos, chaos, cetos, the 
 whale, melos, a song (3, neuter), we find (but rarely) the Latin forms cliaus 
 (abl. chad), cetus, melus (masc). The city of Argos is also named in Latin 
 Argi, Argorwm (§. 51 £). 
 
 §.57. Some few words change wholly or partially in the plural 
 the gender which they have in the singular ; viz. 
 
 jocus, the jest, plur.Jocz and joca. 
 
 locus, the place, plur. loca, places, in a material signification, 
 loci, passages in books, objects. (Some authors however use loci in 
 the sense of loca.) 
 
 carbasus, linen (fern.), plur. carbasa (sails). 
 
 coelum, heaven, plur. coeli. 
 frenum, the hit, freni andfrena. 
 
 t [Hor. Od. iii. 18, 7.] 
 
Chap. X. — Inflection of Adjectives. 59 
 
 rastrum, the mattock, rastri and rastra. 
 
 ostrea, the oyster, ostreae and ostrea, ostreomim. 
 
 sibilus, hissing, sibili, poet, sibila. 
 
 Tartarus, heil, plur. Tartar a. (A Greek word, used only in the poets.) 
 
 Obs. Oibalneae and epulae (balneum, epulum), see §. 51, Obs. c, d. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 The Inflection of Adjectives. 
 
 §. 58. Adjectives and also participles have an inflection by cases, 
 but this inflection is somewhat modified by the gender of the sub- 
 stantive to which they belong. This modification (motio) is shown 
 in those adjectives which follow the second declension in the mas- 
 culine, by the theme assuming the termination a throughout in the 
 feminine gender, and consequently following the first declension ; 
 in those, on the other hand, which follow the third declension (the 
 theme of which ends in a consonant), only by regulating the ter- 
 mination of the nominative and accusative in conformity with this 
 declension. They thus become (in the nominative) adjectives of 
 three, two, or one termination. They are then declined like sub- 
 stantives with a similar theme and of the same gender, as is shown 
 under the declension of substantives. (No adjectives belong to the 
 fourth or fifth declension.) 
 
 1. {Adjectives of the first and second declension, and three termi- 
 nations.) Those adjectives, which in the masculine and neuter 
 gender follow the second declension, end either in us, in the neuter 
 in um, and in the feminine in a, e. g. probus, proba, probum, honest, 
 or in er, erum [rum), era (ra), e. g. liber, libera, liberum,free, niger, 
 nigra, nigrum, black; one ends in ur ; satur, satura, saturum, 
 sated K 
 
 Those adjectives in er, which retain e before r in the gen. sing, 
 (and have already been enumerated in §. 37.) retain it also in the 
 fern, and neutr., e. g. liber, gen. liberi, libera, liberum ; the others 
 omit it, e. g. niger, gen. nigri, nigra, nigrum. 
 
 Obs. 1 . In this way are also modified the participles in us, as amatus, 
 amata, amatum, loved, awiaturus, amatura, amaturum, that will love, and 
 amandus, amanda, amandum, that is to be loved, loveable. 
 
 Obs. 2. Of the irregular gen. and dat. of some adjectives in us, we have 
 already spoken in treating of the second declension (§. 37, Obs, 2.). 
 
 1 It is usual to name the genders in this order, though the masculine and neuter are 
 most nearly related in respect of form. 
 
 12 
 
60 Inflection of Words. §. - 
 
 Obs. 3. The distinction between the two classes of adjectives consists 
 only in this, that those in er have not assumed the termination us in the 
 nominative (as propems, praeposterus, and triqvetrus have done, as well as 
 all those with a long e, as severw), and that in some of them an e has been 
 inserted in the nominative. Of cetera, ceterum (ace. ceterum, ceteram, 
 ceterum, and so on in all genders), and ludicra, ludicrum (ace. ludicrum, 
 htdicram, ludicrum, &c.) the nom. masc. sing, is not in use, that of pos- 
 terus rarely occurs. 
 
 §. 59. 2. [Adjectives of the third declension and two or three termi- 
 nations.) Of the adjectives of the third declension some end in is 
 in the nominative of the masculine and. feminine (with the connecting 
 vowel i inserted between the theme and s, see §.40, 1, c) in that of the 
 neuter in e (with e as an affix, see §. 40, 2, c), e. g. levis, leve, light 
 (abl. levi, neutr. plur. levia, gen. plur. levium ; see §. 42 — 44). The 
 distinction between the neuter and the other genders is only marked 
 in the nom. and ace. sing, and plur. (levis, leve ; levem } leve ; leves, 
 levia.) 
 
 Thirteen adjectives, the theme of which ends in r } and which are 
 in other respects declined like those adduced ending in is, e, have 
 in the nom. sing. masc. gender er for ris, and therefore in this case 
 three terminations, e. g. masc. acer } fern, acris, neutr. acre (gen. 
 acris, &c). These adjectives are acer, keen, aldcer, alert, cam- 
 pester, belonging to the field, flat, celeher, much frequented, famous, 
 celer, swift, eqvester, belonging to the cavalry or to knighthood, 
 paluster, marshy, pedester, belonging to the infantry, puter, putrid, 
 saluber, wholesome, Silvester, belonging to a wood, wooded, terrester, 
 belonging to the earth or continent, volucer, winged. Celer alone 
 retains the e in the inflection, fern, celeris, neutr. celere, gen. celeris. 
 
 Gbs. 1. Sometimes these adjectives end in the masc. also in ris, so that 
 they in no respect differ from the others in is, e. g. annus saliibris (Cic), 
 collis silvestris (Caes.). But this occurs but rarely in most words of this 
 class, and chiefly in the poets. 
 
 Obs. 2. To the same form as these adjectives belong the names of the 
 months September, October, November, December, which in the nom. 
 sing, occur only in the masc. (mensis), but are found in the feminine in 
 such phrases as Kalendae Septembres, &c. (libertate Decembri, the free- 
 dom of December, Hor.). 
 
 Obs. 3. Some few adjectives have both the form in us {a, urn) and that 
 in is (e), viz. hilarus, hilaris, merry, and various adjectives formed by com- 
 position from substantives of the first and second decl. ; imbecillus (ion- 
 lecillis, rare), weak, imberbus, imberbis, without a beard, inermus, inermis, 
 unarmed, semiermis, semiermus, half-armed, exanimus, cxanimis, deprived 
 
Chap. X. — Inflection of Adjectives. 61 
 
 of life, semianimus, semianimis, half deprived of life, unanimus, unanimis, 
 unanimous, bijugus, qyadrijugus, inultijugus, and bijugis, &c, with two, 
 four, or many horses, infrenus, infrenis, unbridled. So of accllvis, rising (in 
 the form of a hill), decllvis, inclined downwards, procllvis, inclined down- 
 wards (also, inclined to anything, and, easy), there is found a rare form 
 accllvics, &c. 
 
 §. 60. 3. (Adjectives of the third declension and one termination.) 
 a. The remaining adjectives of the third declension have only one 
 termination in the nominative, e. g. sapiens, wise, felix, happy, gen. 
 sapientis, felicis : so also the participles in ns, as amans, loving, le- 
 gem, reading. But the neater gender is distinguished in the sin- 
 gular by having the ace. the same as the nom. (masc. and fern, sa- 
 pientem, felicem, neu.tr. sapiens, felix), and in the nom. and ace. 
 plural by the termination ia (masc. and fern, sapientes, felices, 
 neutr. sapientia, felicia). (Only veins has Vetera, see §. 43. 1. 
 Ablative sapienti and sapient e, see §. 42 ; genitive plural sapientium, 
 see §. 44.) 
 
 b. Adjectives of one termination are found in many of the forms 
 of the theme and nominative given under the substantives (§. 41, a.) 
 Those which occur most frequently are : nom. as, gen. dtis, e. g. 
 Arpinas, Arpindtis, belonging to the city of Arpinum ; ns, ntis, e. g. 
 sapiens, sapientis, wise ; ax, dcis, e. g. ferax, ferdcis, fruitful. 
 The remaining forms are er, gen. eris (viz. degener, pauper, uber) ; es, 
 gen. itis (viz. ales, coeles, dives, sospes,superstes) ; es, Mis {Jiebe-, indiges, 
 praepes, teres : the following should be noticed separately ; deses and re- 
 ses, desidis and residis ; locuples, locupletis ; pubes, puberis, and impti.bes, 
 impvMris, which is also declined impubis, impiibis) ; ex, wis (e. g. sup- 
 plex) ; ix, wis, (felix, per nix) ; ox, dcis (atrox, ferox, velox ; but prae- 
 cox, praecocis) ; the several words caelebs, caelibis ; cicur, ciciiris ; com- 
 pos and impos, compotis, impotis ; dis, (litis ; memor, memoris ; oscen, os- 
 cinis ; par, pdris (dispar, impar) ; trux, trucis ; veins, veteris ; vigil, 
 vigXlis, with some which are formed from substantives of the third declen- 
 sion, and have the theme of these substantives, as concors, concordis, with 
 others from cor ; biceps, bicipitis, with others {anceps, praeceps, triceps) 
 from caput ; intercus, iniercutis, from cutis ; iners, inertis, from ars ; 
 discolor, discolbris, from color ; qyadrupes, qvadrupedis, with others from 
 pes, &c. (Exsangvis however has exsangvis in the genitive.) 
 
 c. The neuter plural is only formed from those adjectives of one 
 termination, which end in ans and ens, in as (rarely), rs, ax, ix and 
 ox, and from the numeral adjectives in plex, e, g. elegantia, sapientia, 
 Larinatia, sollertia, concordia, tenacia, felicia, atrocia, simplicia, 
 duplicia, (from elegans, elegant, sapiens, wise, Larinas, belonging to 
 
G2 Inflection of Words. §. < 
 
 the city of Larinum, sollers, prudent, ingenious, concors, agreed, 
 tenax, tenacious, persevering, felix, happy, atrox, horrible), and 
 from the following, to be separately noticed, anceps, two-sided, 
 vraeceps, steep, locuples, rich, par, equal ; in later writers also from 
 hcbes, blunt, teres, round, qyadrupes, four-footed, versicolor, of various 
 colours. (Consequently not, for example, from memor, pauper, supplex, 
 trux, compos, &c.) 
 
 Some adjectives, which otherwise have no neuter in the plural, 
 nevertheless occur with neuter substantives in the dat. and abl., 
 e. g. supplicibus verbis, with suppliant words (Cic), discoloribus sig- 
 nis, with signs of various colours (id.), puberibus foliis, with sprout- 
 ing leaves (horn pubes, Virg.). 
 
 Obs. 1. Some few adjectives vary between the third and the second 
 and first declension, as, opulens, rich, and opulentus, a, um, violens, violent, 
 and more frequently, violentus. Dives, rich, changes with dis (gen. ditis), 
 neutr. dite ; the neuter plural is ditia, the comp. and superl. both divitior, 
 divitissimus, and ditior, ditissimus. 
 
 Obs. 2. The substantives derived from verbs (personal names) in tor, 
 which form feminines in trice (see §. 177, 2.), are sometimes connected as 
 adjectives with other substantives, especially victor, the conqueror, as an 
 adj., victorious, fern, victrix, and ultor, the revenger, as an adj. revenging, 
 fem. ultrix, e. g. victor exercitue, ultrices deae. From these two the poets 
 form a neuter plural, victricia (e. g. arind) and ultricia (e. g. tela), and in 
 the same way from the substantive Jiospes, the stranger, the guest, the 
 neuter plural hospita (e. g. aeqvord). 
 
 Obs. 3. Some other appellations of persons are also used by the poets 
 and later writers as adjectives (by apposition), e. g. artifex, the artist (ar- 
 tifex motus, artificial motion, Quinet.), incola, the inhabitant (turba incola y 
 the crowd of inhabitants, Ovid), but very rarely with a neuter substantive 
 (ruricola aratrum, the field-tilling plough, Ovid) ,n . 
 
 Obs. 4. Juvenis and senex are poetically used as adjectives (juvenes anni, 
 youthful years, Ovid) ; junior and senior are completely such. Prin- 
 ceps is an adjective (princeps locus, principes viri), but most frequently as 
 belonging to a verb ; as, Gorgias princeps ausus est, Gorgias first ven- 
 tured. (See Syntax, §. 300, a.) 
 
 Obs. 5. Words are formed in Greek from the names of countries, towns, 
 and nations, ending in as (ados) and in is (idos), which are feminine na- 
 tional names, and feminine adjectives. These the Latin poets also use as 
 feminine adjectives, and form others on the same principle, e. g. Pelias 
 Jiasta, the Pelian spear (from mount Pelion), Ausonis or a, the Ausonian 
 coast (Ausones), Hesperides aqvae, the Hesperian (Italian) waters. 
 
 §. 61. Certain forms of some adjectives are not in use, as the nomina- 
 m [populum late regem, (Virg.), regina pecunia, (Hor.).] 
 
Chap. X. — Inflection of Adjectives. 63 
 
 tives primor, eminent, seminex, half-dead, sons, guilty (caeterus, ludicrus, 
 §. 58. Obs. 3.). JHoclex, without law, and exspes, without hope, are found 
 only in the nom. and ace. pernox, through the night, in the nom. and abl., 
 trillcem, of three threads, only in the ace. JBauci, few, and generally 
 pleriqye, most (many), are used in the plur. only, the last without a geni- 
 tive. We find however pleraqye nobilitas, juventus, the greater part of 
 the nobility, of the youth, plerumqve exercitum (ace), and sometimes 
 plerumqve (neut.), signifying the greater part. JFrugi, good, and neqvam, 
 good for nothing, are indeclinable in all cases. {Homo frugi, hominem 
 frugi, Tiominis frugi, kc. ; homines frugi, &c.) 
 
 Obs. The words opus and necesse (also undeclined) are only used in con- 
 nection with the verb sum : {opus est, sunt, it is necessary ; necesse est, 
 impers., it is necessary), 
 
 §. 62. Besides the form which is used when a property is simply 
 attributed to an object [gradus positivus), adjectives have two 
 forms of comparison {gradus comparationis). One is used when, in a 
 comparison of two objects, a property is attributed to one in a higher 
 degree than to the other (or than to the same at another time), 
 and is called gradus comparativus, e. g. vir probior, a more upright 
 'man. The other form is employed when a property is attributed 
 to an object in the highest degree, and is named gradus superla- 
 tivus, e. g. vir probissimus, the most upright man. The changing 
 of the adjective from the positive to the other forms is called its 
 comparison. 
 
 The participles in ns (present participle active), and the passive 
 participle (perf. part.) in us, are also compared, when they take the 
 complete signification of adjectives, i. e. when they signify a pro- 
 perty without reference to time. 
 
 Obs. The participle in urus (future participle active) and the gerundive 
 (in ndus) are never compared. 
 
 §. 63. The comparative is formed by adding to the theme (as it 
 iis seen in the positive, when the termination of inflection is re- 
 moved) the terminations ior (masc. and fern.) and ius (neutr.), e. g. 
 probus (prob-us), compar. probior, probius ; liber (slcc. liber-urn), li~ 
 ; berior, liber ius ; niger, (ace. nigr-um), nigrior, nigrius ; levis (lev-is), 
 levior, levius ; sapiens (ace. sapient-em) , sapientior, sapientius ; felix 
 (ace. felic-em), felicior, felicius. (Ace. probiorem, probius, gen. pro- 
 bioris, &c. according to the third declension, abl. probiore, more 
 rarely probiori, plur. probiores, probiora, gen. probiorum.) 
 
 Obs. From the comparative of some adjectives there is formed a dimi- 
 nutive in cuius (see §. 182, c. Obs.), e. g. duriusculus, duriuscula, duriuscu- 
 
Gi Inflection of Words. §. 6 
 
 7w», grandiusculus, longiusculus, majusculus (from major), sometimes to 
 show a slight preponderance, e. g. Thais, qvam ego sum, grandiuscula est, 
 a little older, sometimes to diminish the force of the positive, e. g. durius- 
 cidum est, it is somewhat hard. 
 
 §. 64. The superlative generally ends in issimus {a, urn), which 
 is added to the theme in the same way as the termination of the 
 comparative, e. g. probissimus, levissimus, sapientissimus, felicis- 
 simus. 
 
 In adjectives that end in er in the nom. masc. (both of the second 
 and third declension) the r of the nom. is doubled, and the termi- 
 nation imus affixed, e. g. liber, liberrimus, niger, nigerrimus, acer, 
 acerrimus, celer, celerrimns. On the same principle are formed 
 veterrimus from vetus (gen. veter-is), and prosperrimus from pro- 
 sperus. Maturus, ripe, has maturissimus and maturrimus (especially 
 the adverb maturrime). 
 
 The adjectives facilis, easy, difficilis, difficult, gracilis, slender, 
 thin, humilis, low, similis, like, dissimilis, unlike, form the superla- 
 tive, after removing the termination, by doubling the I and adding 
 imus ; facillimus, difficillimus, gracillimus, &c. (From imbecillis, 
 weak, is formed imbexillimus, but from imbecillus imbecilUssimus ; see 
 above, §. 59, Obs. 3.) 
 
 Obs. 1. The remaining adjectives in His have the usual form, e. g. 
 utilis, utilissimus, but many want the superlative (see below). 
 
 Obs. 2. We may remark the antiquated orthography probissumus, niger- 
 rumus, &c, for probissimus, nigerrimus, (see §. 5, a. Obs. 5.) 
 
 §. 65. Some adjectives vary from the regular comparison. 1. 
 Adjectives in dicus,ficus, volus, derived from the verbs dico,facio. 
 volo, e. g. maledicus, slanderous, munificus, liberal, benevolus, well- 
 wishing, form the comparative in entior, the superlative in entissi- 
 mus (as if from participles in ens) ; maledicentior, munificerdior, be- 
 nevolentior, maledicentissbnus, munificentissimus, benevolentissimus n . 
 
 Obs. Egenus, needy, and provfdus, prudent, take for their degrees of 
 comparison those of the participles egens and providens, as egentior, egen- 
 tissimus. 
 
 2. The following adjectives form their degrees of comparison 
 either with some change of the theme, as it exists in the positive, 
 or from an entirely different theme, sometimes too with variations 
 in the ending. 
 
 n Mir ijic issimus from mirificus, in Terence. 
 
:) 66. 
 
 Chap. X. — Inflection of Adjectives. 
 
 Go 
 
 POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 bonus, good melior, melius optimus 
 
 malus, bad pejor, pejus pessimus 
 
 magnus, great major, majus maximus 
 
 multuSj much In the singular only the plurimus 
 
 neutr. plus, more, nom. 
 and ace, with the ge- 
 nitive pluris, in the 
 plur. plures, plura, se- 
 veral, plurium, pluribus 
 parvus, little minor, minus minimus 
 
 neqvam, good for neqvior neqvissimus 
 
 nothing (indecl. 
 in the positive) 
 frugi (indecl. in the frugalior frugalissimus. 
 
 positive) 
 From senex,juvenis, are formed the comparatives senior, junior, 
 without a superlative. 
 
 Ohs. Multus in prose signifies much ; as mult us sudor, multa cura. In 
 the poets it denotes in the sing, many a, e. g. multa talella, multa viciima. 
 Pluris is used only as a genitive of the price (Syntax, §. 294). Pluria for 
 plura is rare and antiquated. From plures conies complures, complura 
 (rarely compluria), gen. complurium. 
 
 §. 66. a. Some adjectives which denote the relation of time or 
 place which one object bears to another, are commonly used only 
 in the comparative and superlative. The positive is either not 
 used at all (but only a corresponding preposition or adverb), or 
 only in certain particular combinations, or with a peculiar meaning. 
 The superlative in these adjectives has an irregular, and in some 
 a double form. 
 
 (positive. 
 (citra, prep.) 
 
 COMPARATIVE. 
 
 citerior, on this side. 
 
 SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 citimus, most of all on 
 this side. 
 (exteri, in the plur. exterior, outer extremus, the utmost 
 
 only, extra, prep . ) (rarely extimus) . 
 
 Ohs. Exteri, strangers, foreigners; also exteraenationes, extera regna, &c. 
 (inferum, plur. inferi inferior, lower infimus or imus, the low- 
 prep, infra) est, undermost. 
 Ohs. Inferum is commonly used only in the combination mare inferum 
 
66 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 the sea below Italy, southward of Italy ; inferi, the inhabitants of the 
 infernal regions ; infera flumina, inferae partes, the rivers of the lower 
 world, the subterraneous parts of the world. 
 
 [intra, prep.) interior, inner intimus, most inward. 
 (prope, prep.) propior, nearer proximus, nearest. 
 
 Obs. Propinqyus is used for the positive. Its comp., propinqvior, is 
 rare. 
 
 [posterus, prep, post) posterior, later, hinder postremus, the last. 
 
 Obs. Posterus (unused in the nom. masc.) signifies the following, the 
 next (in order of time), e. g. posterum diem, postera node, in the poets 
 postera aetas, and so on. Posteri, posterity. The superlative form postu- 
 onus is found in good writers only in the signification (last-born) born after 
 (after the father's death), filius postumus. {Anterior, from ante, is found 
 only in later writers.) 
 
 [superum, plur. superi, superior, upper supremus, the extreme, 
 prep, supra.) last (in point of time). 
 
 summits, the highest. 
 
 Obs. Superum is usually found only in the expression mare superum, 
 the sea north of Italy (the Adriatic) ; superi, the gods above ; super a, the 
 upper parts of the world. (Rarely as an adjective, res superae, belonging 
 to the upper world, limen superum.) 
 
 {ultra, prep.) ulterior, on the other ultimus, the last 
 side, further 
 vrior, the first, former primus, first. (See 
 
 §• W.) 
 
 b. The following comparatives and superlatives also want the 
 positive : 
 
 aeterior, worse deterrimus 
 
 ocior, swifter ocissimus 
 
 potior, preferable potissimus 
 
 Obs. Seqvior, seqvius, worse, less good, is rare as an adjective. It ap- 
 pears to be related to the adverb secius. 
 
 §.67. Many adjectives have no forms for the comparative and 
 superlative, because they only shew that an object does or does not 
 belong to a strictly limited class, so that it is impossible or difficult 
 to conceive a difference of degree, e. g. aureus, golden, and all 
 those which designate a material, Graecus, Greek, pedester, belong- 
 ing to the infantry, aestivus, belonging to the summer, hesternus, of 
 yesterday, and others which denote a certain period of time, vivus, 
 
Chap. X. — Inflection of Adjectives. 67 
 
 living, sospes, uninjured, merus, mere, pure, memor, remembering. 
 Other adjectives have no comparative or superlative, because, from 
 the form of the adjective, these would want euphony. On account 
 of one or other of these impediments the following adjectives have 
 commonly no forms of comparison. 
 
 a. Those which have the termination us preceded by a vowel, 
 e. g. idoneus, convenient, dubius, doubtful (but tenuis, thin, tenuior, 
 tenuissimus). 
 
 Obs. Those in uus however are sometimes used in the superlative ; 
 assiduissimus, strenuissimus (from assiduus, persevering, strenuus, vigor- 
 ous), more rarely in the comparative, as assiduior. Of those in ius there 
 occurs the comparative egregior from egregius, distinguished, with some 
 others, and the superlatives egregiissimus and piissimus from plus, pious, 
 but not in the better writers. 
 
 b. Most of those which are compounded of verbs or substantives, 
 e. g. those in fer and ger from fero, gero, ignivomus, vomiting fire 
 (vomo), degener, degenerate (genus), discolor, of various colours 
 (color), inops, poor (ops),magnanimus, noble-minded (animus). We 
 must however except those in dicus, ficus, volus, from dico, facto, 
 volo, of which several (not all) are compared (see §. 65. 1.), and 
 those from ars, mens, cor, as iners, sollers, demens, concors, discors, 
 vecors (rarely misericors) . 
 
 c. Most of those which are manifestly derivatives (from Latin 
 words in use) with the terminations icus, alis or aris, llis, ulus, 
 timus, inus, ivus, orus (e. g. civicus, naturalis, hostllis, qverulus, legi- 
 timus, peregrmus, furtivus, odorus), with those derived from sub- 
 stantives with the terminations atus and itus (e. g. barbatus, 
 bearded) . 
 
 Obs. Some exceptions however occur, partly in the comparative and 
 
 I superlative, e. g. Tiospitalis, hospitable, liberalis, liberal, divinus, godlike, 
 
 divine (liheralior, liber alissimus, &c), partly in the comparative alone, as 
 
 rusticus, rural, rustic, aeqvalis, equal, uniform, capitalis, fatal, capital, 
 
 popularis, favourable to the people, regalis, royal, salutaris, wholesome, 
 
 I civilis, civil, tempestivus, seasonable (aeqvalior, &c). 
 
 d. To these are to be added some particular words, which can- 
 not be referred to any general rule, e. g. ferus, wild, gnarus, know- 
 ing, mirus, wonderful, navus, active, rudis, raw, unpolished, trux, 
 
 j harsh (while verus, clarus, dims, with the same form, have the degrees of 
 comparison). 
 
 Obs. 1. Of adjectives with certain terminations, especially idus, many 
 
 k2 
 
68 Inflection of Words. §. t 
 
 remain without comparison (e. g. trepidus, apprehensive), while others 
 are compared (e. g. callidus, sly, candidus, white, &c). In some adjec- 
 tives it may be simply accident, that the forms of comparison occur in no 
 old writer. 
 
 Obs. 2. The words dexter, right, and sinister, left, express already in 
 the positive a relation to some other object, and the comparative is conse- 
 quently superfluous. Yet some writers have used dexterior and sinisterior 
 in the signification of the positive, and even the superlative dextimus 
 (Sail.). 
 
 §. 68. a. The following adjectives have no comparison in use, 
 while the superlative occurs ; falsus, false, inclitus, renowned, novus, 
 new (novissimus, the last), sacer, holy, serus, late (serissimus is 
 rare), vetus, old (veterrimus ; on the other hand vetustus, vetustior, ve- 
 
 Obs. Several participles are also used in the superlative without a com- 
 parative, e. g. meritus and invictus, unconquered, invincible, compounded 
 with in. (But doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus ; indoctus, indoctior, 
 indoctissimus, &c.) 
 
 b. Many adjectives in ilis (bttis), which are derived from verbs, 
 have the comparative, but not the superlative, e. g. agilis, active, 
 docilis, teachable, credibilis, credible, probabilis, allowable, probable; 
 also the following, ater, black, coecus, blind, jejunus, fasting, longin- 
 qvus, distant, proclivis, leaning downwards, propinqvus, near (see 
 under propior, §. 66, a.), surdus, deaf, teres, round, and some others. 
 (Adolescentior from adolescens, young, commonly a substantive, the 
 youth.) 
 
 Obs. Others in His (bilis) are compared throughout, e. g. a/mabilis,fra- 
 gilis, fertilis (fero), nobilis (nosed), ignobilis 7 mobilis, utilis. (Subtllis 
 and vilis are not derived from verbs.) 
 
 c. When it is necessary to institute a comparison, where the 
 form of the comparative and superlative are not in use, magis, 
 more, and maccime, most, are prefixed to the adjective, e. g. magis 
 mirus, maxime (summe, in the highest degree) mirus. Otherwise 
 this circumlocution is generally used only by the poets. 
 
 Obs. With a view to heighten the signification per is prefixed to many 
 adjectives, and by all writers, e. g. percommodus, very convenient. Those 
 Avith prae, e. g. praegelidus, very cold, are found more in the poets and 
 later prose. Adjectives which have their signification enhanced in this 
 way, are not compared. Only praeclarus, illustrious, is compared as a 
 simple word, and used by all writers. 
 
Chap. XI. — The Numerals. 69 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 The Numerals (nomina numeralia). 
 
 §. 69. Those numerals, which are used only to count and to ex- 
 press a given number are called cardinal numbers [nomina numeralia 
 oardinalia) ; those derived from them, which express the number 
 of an object and its place in the series, e. g. tertius, the third, are 
 called ordinals (nomina numeralia ordinalid). Besides these two 
 kinds there are in Latin numbers expressing division or repetition 
 [distributives; nomina numeralia distributiva), which express a 
 number as thought of several times (one for each object or case), 
 e. g. seni, six each (several sixes, and one each time, one for each). 
 
 §. 70. The Cardinals are named as follows (the forms of the Latin nu- 
 merals are subjoined) ; 
 
 I unus, una, unum. 
 
 II duo, duae, duo. 
 
 III tres, tria. 
 
 IV qvattuor. 
 
 V qyinqye. 
 
 VI secc. 
 
 VII sept em. 
 
 VIII octo. 
 
 Villi or IX novem. 
 
 X decern. 
 
 XI undecim. 
 
 XII duodecim. 
 
 XIII tredecim or decern et tres 
 (tres et decern). 
 
 XIV qvattuor decim. 
 
 XV qvindecim. 
 
 XVI sedecim (sexdecim, decern et 
 sex). 
 
 XVII decern et sept em or septen- 
 decim (septem et decern). 
 
 XVIII duodeviginti (properly 2 
 from 20, 20 minus 2) or (more 
 rarely) decern et octo. 
 
 XIX undeviginti or (more rarely) 
 decern et novem 
 
 XX viginti. 
 
 XXI unus (a, urn) et viginti or 
 viginti unus (a, um). 
 
 XXII duo (duae) et viginti or vi- 
 ginti duo (duae), and so on, e. g. 
 
 XXV qyinqye et viginti or viginti 
 qvinqve. 
 
 XXVIII duodetriginta or (more 
 rarely) octo et viginti or viginti 
 octo. 
 
 XXIX undetriginta or (more rare- 
 ly) novem et viginti or viginti 
 novem. 
 
 XXX triginta, and so on, as with 
 viginti, e. g. 
 
 XXXIX undeqvadraginta or (more 
 rarely) novem et triginta or tri- 
 ginta novem. 
 
 XL quadraginta 
 
 L qvinqvaginta. 
 
 LX sexaginta. 
 
 LXX septuaginta. 
 
 LXXX octoginta. 
 
 XC nonaginta. 
 
 XCVIII nonaginta octo, octo et no - 
 naginta. 
 
 XCIX or IC nonaginta novem, no- 
 vem et nonaginta, undecentum. 
 
 C centum. 
 
 CI centum et units, or centum 
 unus. 
 
70 Inflection of Words. §. 
 
 CII centum et duo, centum duo, DCCC octingenti, ae, a. 
 &c, e. g. DCCCC nongenti, ae, a, 
 
 CXXIV centum etviginti qvattuor, CIO or M mille. 
 
 centum viginti qvattuor. CIOCIO or MM duo millia, kc. 
 
 CC ducenti, ae, a. 100 qvinqve millia. 
 
 CCC trecenti, ae, a. I00CI0CI0 or IOMM septem mil- 
 
 CCCC qvadringenti, ae, a. lia. 
 
 10 or D qvingenti, ae, a. CCIOO decern millia. 
 
 DC sexcenti, ae, a °. 1000 qvinqvaginta millia. 
 
 DCC septingenti, ae, a. CCCI000 centum millia. 
 
 Obs. 1. To these numbers correspond the pronominal words (see §.93) 
 tot, so many, qvot, how many ? and totidem, just so many. (The numeral 
 adjectives multi, pauci, omnes, nulli, nonnulli, pleriqve, are also allied to 
 them in signification.) 
 
 Obs. 2. The Latin numeral signs, with the exception of M (an abbre- 
 viation of mille), were originally not letters, but arbitrary signs, which 
 subsequently received the form of letters. A stroke (I) with a (in- 
 verted) is 500, and every additional corresponds to a cipher in our 
 figures, therefore 100=5000, IOOO = 50000. The number is doubled 
 when as many C's are put before the stroke, as there stand O's after it : 
 therefore CIO=1000, CCIOO=10000, CCCIOOO=100000. In more 
 modern books our (Arabic) numerals are sometimes made use of. 
 
 §. 71. The numerals under mille are adjectives; the three first 
 are declined : the numbers from qvattuor to decern, those which end 
 in decim, and the tens {viginti, triginta, &c.) with centum are unde- 
 rlined : so also undeviginti, duodeviginti, and the others which are 
 formed in the same way (by subtraction). Ducenti and the fol- 
 lowing hundreds are declined like the plural of adjectives in us. 
 
 Unus, una, unum, has in the gen. in all genders unlus, in the dat. 
 uni (see §. 37. Obs. 2), but is otherwise regularly declined after the 
 second and first declension. It has also a plural uni, unae, una, in 
 the signification alone, of one kind, with plural substantives. 
 ( Uni Svevi, the Suevi alone ; unis moribus vivere, Cic. pro Flacc. 26, to 
 live with manners unchanged. Uni — alteri, the one party — the other. Of 
 unae litterae, see §. 76, c. Obs.) 
 
 Duo is thus declined : 
 
 MASC AND NEUT. FEM. 
 
 Nom. duo duae 
 
 Ace. duo, masc. also duos duas 
 
 Gen. duorum duarum 
 
 Dat. Abl. duobus duabus 
 
 • Sexcenti is used of an indefinite large number, as a hundred, a thousand, in English. 
 [So trecenti in Horace : Amatorem trecentae Pirithoum cohibent catenae (Od. iii. 4, 79).] 
 
Chap. XI.— The Numerals. 71 
 
 In the same way is declined the word amoo, ambae, ambo, both 
 (e. g. ace. masc. ambo or ambos). The gen. of duo has also the 
 form duum^ especially duum millium. (See §. 34. Obs. 3. §. 37. 
 Obs. 4.) 
 
 Tres is declined according to the third decl. thus : 
 Norn. Ace, tres Neutr. tria 
 
 Gen. trium 
 
 Bat. Abl. tribus 
 
 §. 72. a. i^7/e is usually an indeclinable adjective, e. g. mille 
 homines, mille hominum, mille hominibus. Sometimes however it is used 
 as a substantive in the sing., and is followed by the name of the objects 
 enumerated in the gen., e. g. ea civitas mille misitmilitum (Corn. Milt. 5), 
 but then usually only in the nom. or ace. 
 
 Obs. 1. "When mille stands as a nom. in the way last mentioned (as a 
 substantive with the gen. following), it is notwithstanding usually fol- 
 lowed by a verb in the plural ; mille passuum erant inter urbem castraqve 
 (Liv. XXIII. 44). Such a phrase as ibi mille hominum occiditur is anti- 
 quated. 
 
 Obs. 2. Mille seldom occurs as a substantive in any other case than the 
 nom. and ace, and then only in combination with millia in the same case : 
 cum octo millibus peditum, mille eqvitum (Liv. XXI. 61). 
 
 b. From mille comes the plural millia (milia), thousands, a 
 substantive (gen. millium, dat. abl. millibus), to which the smaller 
 numerals are prefixed; tria, sex, viginti, centum millia, with the 
 gen. of the objects enumerated (see §. 285, a), e.g. sex millia pedi- 
 tum, duo millia eqvitum. 
 
 Obs. 1 . When smaller (adjective) numerals are subjoined after millia, the 
 name of the objects enumerated, provided it comes afterwards, is put in 
 the same case as millia (not in the genitive), e. g. Caesi sunt tria millia 
 trecenti milites ; Caesar cepit duo millia trecentos sex Gallos. But if the 
 name of the objects enumerated comes first it is usually put in the geni- 
 tive, governed by millia, e. g. Caesar Gallorum duo millia qyingentos sex 
 cepit. Sometimes however ; Gallos cepit duo millia qyingentos sex. ( Om- 
 nes eqyites, XV millia numero, convenire jubet, in apposition. Caesar B. 
 G. VII. 64.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Bis mille, ter mille, instead of duo millia, tria millia, is poetical. 
 
 §.73. From the examples in §. 70 it is seen, that in compounding the 
 numbers that fall between the tens from 20 up to 100, either the ten 
 without et, or the smaller number with et, is placed first {viginti unus, unus 
 et viginti. Viginti et unus is rare). For 28, 29, 38, 39, &c, the expres- 
 sions formed by subtraction are the most usual (duodetriginta,undetriginta). 
 
72 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 The hundreds (in prose) are always placed before the tens, with or with- 
 out et, and then the tens before the units, e. g. centum et sexaginta sex or 
 centum sexaginta sex. (Deviations from this are rare.) 
 
 A million is denoted in Latin by the expression 10 times 100000; 
 decies centum niillia or (with the distributive numeral, see §. 76, b.) decies 
 centena niillia, and so on, above a million ; undecies, duodecies centum or 
 centena millia (1100000, 1200000), vicies,tricies centum millia (2000000, 
 3000000), vicies qvinqvies centena millia (2500000). To these the single 
 thousands are added in the following way ; decies centena millia triginta 
 sex millia centum nonaginta sex (1036196). 
 
 §. 74. The Ordinals (ordinalia) are all adjectives in us, a, urn, and 
 are regularly declined. Their names are : 
 
 1 primus first (oft wo prior, which 
 is a comparative, see §. 66, a). 
 
 2 secundus or alter. 
 
 3 tertius. 
 
 4 qvartus. 
 
 5 qvintus. 
 
 6 sextus. 
 
 7 septimus. 
 
 8 octavus. 
 
 9 nonus. 
 
 10 decimus. 
 
 11 undecimus. 
 
 12 duodecimus. 
 
 13 tertius decimus (rarely decimus 
 et tertius, &c.) 
 
 14 qvartus decimus. 
 
 15 qvintus decimus. 
 
 16 sextus decimus. 
 
 17 septimus decimus. 
 
 18 duodevicesimus (more rarely 
 octavus decimus). 
 
 19 undevicesimus (more rarelv 
 nonus decimus). 
 
 20 vicesimus (vigesimus). 
 
 2 1 unusetvicesimus (unaetvicesima, 
 unumetvicesimum), more rarely 
 primus et vicesimus, vicesimus 
 primus. 
 
 22 alter (rarely secundus) et vice- 
 simus, vicesimus alter, or duoet- 
 
 vicesimus (duoetvicesima, duoet- 
 vicesimum) . 
 
 23 tertius et vicesimus, vicesimus 
 tertius. 
 
 24 qvartus et vicesimus, vicesimus 
 qvartus, and so on. 
 
 28 duodetricesimus, more rarely 
 octavus et vicesimus, vicesimus 
 octavus. 
 
 29 undetricesimus, more rarely no- 
 nus et vicesimus, vicesimus nonus. 
 
 30 tricesimus (trigesimus). 
 
 31 primus et tricesimus, tricesimus 
 primus or unusettricesimus, &c, 
 as in vicesimus. 
 
 38 duodeqvadragesimus, more rare- 
 ly octavus et tricesimus, tricesi- 
 mus octavus. 
 
 39 undeqvadragesimus, more rarely 
 nonus et tricesimus, tricesimus 
 nonus. 
 
 40 qvadragesimus. 
 50 qvinqvagesimus. 
 60 sexagesimus. 
 70 septuagesimus, 
 80 octogesimus. 
 
 90 nonagesimus. 
 
 100 centesimus. 
 
 101 centesimus primus. 
 110 centesimus decimus. 
 
Chap. XI. — The Numerals. 
 
 73 
 
 124 centesimus vicesimus qvartus, 
 
 &c. 
 
 200 ducentesimus. 
 
 300 trecentesimus. 
 
 400 qvadringentesimus. 
 
 500 qvingentesimus. 
 
 600 sexcentesimus. 
 
 700 seating entesimus. 
 800 octingentesimus. 
 900 nongentesimus. 
 1000 millesimus. 
 2000 fo's millesimus, and so on, 
 
 with adverbs, e. g. 
 10000 decies millesimus. 
 
 Obs. 1. Deviations in the composition of the intermediate numbers 
 from 20 to 100 (e. g, primus vicesimus without et, or vicesimus et primus 
 with et) are unfrequent. Unus in unusetvicesimus, &c. is declinable, but 
 we find also in the feminine the abbreviated form unetvicesima, with un 
 invariable. Duo in duoetvicesimus, &c. is undeclined. 
 
 Obs. 2. To these numbers belongs the interrogative qvotus p , which in the 
 series ? Every third, every fourth, &c. are expressed by tertius qvisqve, 
 qvartus qvisqye, &c. with the pronouu qvisqve ; but every other {every se- 
 cond} is usually expressed by the adjective altemus, with the substantive 
 in the plural, e. g. (abl.) alternis diebus, every other day. Qvotus qvisqve 
 hocfacit properly signifies, which in the series does this in the way of 
 repetition ? (e. g. is it every seventh, every eighth? &c). It also signi- 
 fies, how many do it, pray ? (always in a disparaging sense). 
 
 Obs. 3. The number of years is expressed in Latin by annus with an 
 ordinal number : annus millesimus octingentesimus qvadragesimus octavus. 
 
 §. 75. The distributive or repetitive numbers (distributiva) are 
 adjectives of three terminations following the first and second de- 
 clension in the plural. (In the gen. they often have um instead of 
 ovum ; see §. 37. Obs. 4.) They are as follows : 
 
 1 singuli, ae, a, one each, 
 
 2 bini, ae, a. 
 
 3 terni (trini). 
 
 4 qvatemi. 
 
 5 qvini. 
 
 6 seni. 
 
 7 septeni, 
 
 8 octoni. 
 
 9 noveni. 
 
 10 deni. 
 
 11 undeni. 
 
 12 duodeni. 
 
 13 terni deni. 
 
 14 qvatemi deni, and so on. 
 18 octoni deni or dnodeviceni. 
 
 19 noveni deni or undeviceni. 
 
 20 viceni. 
 
 21 viceni singuli. 
 
 22 viceni bini, &c. 
 30 triceni. 
 
 40 qvadrageni. 
 
 50 qvinqvageni. 
 
 60 sexageni. 
 
 70 septuageni. 
 
 80 octogeni. 
 
 90 nonageni. 
 100 centeni. 
 200 duceni. 
 300 treceni. 
 400 qvadringeni. 
 
 p [Qyo/«5 a«/ms (Hor.).] 
 
X 
 
 ;i Inflection of Words. %.T> 
 
 500 qvingeni. 000 nongeni. 
 
 600 sexceni. 1000 singulamillia (or only millia). 
 
 700 septingeni. 2000 fo"ft# millia. 
 
 800 octingeni. 10000 <feft0 «wi'ZKa. 
 
 Ofo. To these numerals corresponds the interrogative qvoteni, how many 
 for each ? 
 
 §. 76. The distributives are employed 
 
 a. When it is denoted that a certain number (or something in a certain 
 number,) is repeated for each of the persons or things mentioned or 
 thought of,e. g. Caesar etAriovistus denos comites ad colloquium adduxerunt, 
 brought each ten attendants ; agri septena jugera plebi divisa sunt, seven 
 acres to each citizen ; pueri senum septenumve denum annorum, of sixteen 
 or seventeen years (each of that age) ; turres in centenos vicenos pedes 
 attollebantur ; ambulare Una millia passuum (every day or each time). 
 Tritici modius erat (was worth, stood at) sestertiis ternis (Cic. Ver. III. 
 81). Singuli homines, singuli cives, each several man (the men each for 
 himself), each single citizen. 
 
 Obs. If in expressing a division singuli, each, be added, the number may 
 be either a distributive or a cardinal, e.g. pro tritici modiis singulis 
 ternos denarios exegit (Cic.) ; singulis denarii trecenti imperabantur 
 (id.). Instead of singula millia the word millia is sometimes used 
 alone ; so also asses for singuli asses (an as each), and some other words 
 which denote a specific measure, weight, &c. 
 
 b. When a multiplication is to be expressed, e. g. bis bina, twice two, 
 ter novenae virgines, decies centena millia. (But also decies centum millia, 
 and particularly in the poets bis qyinqye viri, ter centum, &c.) 
 
 c. With those plural substantives (substantiva pluralia tantum) which 
 denote a compound object, which can be repeated and counted, e. g. cas- 
 tra, a camp, bina castra, two camps, litterae, a letter, qyinae litterae, five 
 letters. (On the contrary, tres liberi, three children, because they are 
 counted as individuals. 
 
 Obs. In such instances uni is employed, not singuli (§. 71), e. g. unae 
 litterae, one letter, una castra, one camp ; we also usually meet with the 
 form trini for terni, 3. 
 
 d. Sometimes with reference to objects, which are reckoned in pairs, 
 e. g. Uni scyphi, a pair of goblets (belonging to each other ; Cic), and not 
 very rarely in the poets with precisely the same meaning as the cardinals, 
 e. g. bina liastilia, two spear-shafts (Virg.). 
 
 Obs. The poets sometimes use the singular of the distributives to ex- 
 press a complex object : as binum corpus, a double body (Lucr.) ; septeno 
 gurgite, with sevenfold flood (Lucan), of the Nile. 
 
>. Chap. XII. — The Pronouns. 75 
 
 §.77. From some numbers are formed adjectives of one termination in 
 ple'x (from plicare, to fold), to denote the multiplication defined by the 
 numeral, namely simplex, simple, duplex, double, triplex, triple, qyadru- 
 plex, qvincuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex. They are called ad- 
 jectiva multiplicative^, and regularly declined. 
 
 Ohs, 1. Some words hi plus {simplus, duplus, triplus, qvadruplus, \sep- 
 tuplus~\, octuplus), are commonly used only in the neuter, to denote a 
 magnitude, so many times greater than another magnitude. (Duplum, 
 the double of something else ; duplex, twice as great as something else, 
 or double in itself. 
 
 Ohs. 2. On the numeral adverbs see the rules for the formation of 
 words, §. 199. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Pronouns. 
 
 §. 78. The Lathi pronouns (properly so called) are distributed 
 according to the manner in which they denote an object, into six 
 classes, viz. the personal (pronomina personalia) , the demonstrative 
 (pr. demonstrativa) , the reflective (pronomen reflexivum) , the rela- 
 tive {pronomina relativa), the interrogative (pronomina interroga- 
 tiva), the indefinite (pronomina indefinita). To these may be added 
 some adjectives derived from pronouns, and termed pronominal 
 adjectives. 
 
 Most pronouns have different terminations for the genders of the 
 objects signified, and may be combined with them like adjectives 
 (hie vir, haec femina, hoc signum) . 
 
 §. 79. The Personal Pronouns denote the speaker himself (in the 
 plural the speaker and those in whose name he speaks), and the 
 person or persons spoken to. They have no distinction of gender, 
 and are not combined with a substantive, inasmuch as they contain 
 in themselves all the definition required. They are declined in the 
 following manner : 
 
 First Person. Second Person. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. ego, I. tu, thou (so also Voc). 
 
 Ace. me, me. te, thee. 
 
 Dat. mihi, to me. tibi, to thee. 
 
 Abl. me. te. 
 
 l2 
 
76 Of Inflection. §.7 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. Ace. nos, we, us. vos, you (so also Voc). 
 
 Gen. (occasionally) nostrum. vestrum. 
 
 I)at. Abl. nobis. vobis. 
 
 Obs. ] . Instead of the genitive of these pronouns the derivative adjec- 
 tives (pr. possessiva) meus and tuns, noster and vester (see §. 92) are 
 sometimes made use of, sometimes the genitive neuter of these adjec- 
 tives, met {of my being), tui, nostri, vestri ; nostrum audi vestrum are only 
 used in certain combinations : on this see §. 297. 
 
 Obs. 2. To all cases of these pronouns, except tu, nostrum, and vestrum, 
 may be affixed the syllable met, which gives prominence to that person in 
 comparison with others (I myself) ; frequently ipse too is added, e. g. 
 temetipsum. From tu are formed tute and tutemet with the same signi- 
 fication. 
 
 Obs. 3. For mihi the poets often use mi (contracted) ; tete is sometimes 
 found for te in the most ancient style. Tu and vos are the only vocatives 
 of pronouns. 
 
 §. 80. The Demonstrative Pronouns point to some defined object 
 (or give it prominence). They are, hie, this here, this, iste, that 
 there (with you), ille, yon, that there, is, that (which has been al- 
 ready mentioned, or is now defined by the addition of which), he 
 (she, it), idem, the same, ipse, self; to which may be also added, 
 alius, another, and alter, the other (when two are spoken of). 
 
 Obs. Hie, iste, ille, may be named direct demonstratives, is an indirect 
 demonstrative, idem and ipse emphatic demonstratives. Alius and alter 
 denote the opposite of something defined, but alter has also an indefinite 
 signification : one (of two persons or objects). 
 
 §.81. The demonstratives are declined as follows : 
 
 1. Hie. SINGULAR. 
 
 Masc. Fern. Neutr. 
 
 Nom. hie haec hoc 
 
 Ace. hunc hanc — 
 
 Gen. hujus in all genders. 
 
 Dat. huic in all genders (monosyllable). 
 
 Abl. hoc hac hoc. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. hi hae haec 
 
 Ace. hos has — 
 
 Gen. horum harum horum 
 
 Dat. Abl. his in all genders. 
 
Chap. XII. — The Pronouns. 77 
 
 Obs. Ce is sometimes appended to the cases in m {no) and s, particularly 
 the last, e. g. hunce, hujusce, Jiosce, horunce, and this form is more em- 
 phatic. In those cases which end in c, an e was sometimes heard after the 
 c in the older pronunciation, as Jiice, Twice. From this with the interroga- 
 tive particle lie originated hicine, hocine (less correctly hiccine), &c. (In 
 the cases in c the demonstrative particle ce coalesces with the theme of 
 I the pronoun. Hicae, haece, for hi, hae, was antiquated.) Huic, pro- 
 nounced as a dissyllable, belongs to a late period. 
 §. 82. 2. Iste. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Masc. Fern. Neutr. 
 
 Nom. iste ista istud 
 
 Ace. istum istam 
 
 Gen. istius in all genders. 
 
 Dat. isti .... 
 
 Abl. isto ista isto. 
 
 The plural (isti, istae, ista) is declined regularly after the second 
 and first declension. 
 
 3. In the same way is declined tile, ilia, Mud. 
 
 Obs. 1 . From an old form ollus for ille we find in Virgil a dat. sing, and 
 nom. plur. olli. The gen. Mi, Mae for illius, and the dat. Mae (fern.) for 
 Mi are obsolete. (Instead of istius and illius we also find in verse istius 
 and illius : comp. §.37. Ohs. 2.) For ellum see under is. 
 
 Ols. 2. For iste and Me we find also istic, fern, istaec, neutr. istoc or 
 istuc, smd Mic, illaec, Moo or illuc, which in the nom., ace, and abl., are 
 declined like hie. Sometimes in the antiquated style ce is appended to 
 other cases of iste and ille, e. g. Masce. 
 
 4. Like iste is declined ipse, ipsa, ipsum, only with m (not d) in 
 'he neuter. 
 
 Obs. Ipse (sometimes in the comic poets ipsus) is formed from is and the 
 termination pse, as idem is formed from is and dem. The old forms ea-pse, 
 eam-pse, and eo-pse, for ipsa, ipsam, and ipso, are found in Plautus, and 
 eapse in the word reapse, which was in use also at a later period, (=re 
 ipsa, in fact) . 
 
 §. 83. 5. Is. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Fern. Neutr. 
 
 ea id 
 
 earn — 
 
 ea eo. 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 is 
 
 Ace. 
 
 eum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ejus i] 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ei . 
 
 Abl. 
 
 eo 
 
78 Of Inflection. §. 8 
 
 
 Of Inflection. 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 ii (ei) 
 
 eae 
 
 ea 
 
 eos 
 
 eas 
 
 — 
 
 eoruni 
 
 earum 
 
 eorum 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Bat. Abl. iis (eis) in all genders. 
 
 In the same way is declined Idem (for is-dem), compounded of is and 
 the syllable dem, viz., idem, eddem, idem, dem being added to the 
 cases of is. (Ace. eundem, eaudem, gen. plur. eorundem.) 
 
 Obs. 1. The orthography ei in the plural is rare (eidem scarcely ever 
 used), eis less common than iis. Ii and iis were probably pronounced as 
 monosyllables, and in the poets iidem and iisdem are always dissyllables 
 {idem, isdem). 
 
 Obs. 2. From the particles ecce and en (see there !), and the ace. masc. 
 and fern, of is and ille, there originated in familiar language the forms 
 eccum, eeeam, eccos, eccas, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas, which occur in Plautus 
 and Terence. (In eccillum, eccistam, the e only is elided.) 
 
 §. 84. 6. Alius. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Masc. Fern. Neutr. 
 
 Nom. alius alia aliud 
 
 Ace. alium aliam 
 
 Gen. alius in all genders. 
 
 Bat. alii .... 
 
 Abl. alio alia alio. 
 
 The plural is declined regularly after the second and first de- 
 clension. 
 
 Alter, altera, alterum, gen. alterius, dat. alter i (see §.37, Obs. 2), 
 otherwise regular. 
 
 Obs. Alteri in the plural signifies, one (of two plurals), one (of two 
 parties, &c), and in the same way (viz. of two plurals) the plural of the 
 other pronouns in ter is employed, namely, uiri, neutri, and the com- 
 pounds of uter. 
 
 §.85. The Reflective Pronoun se (himself, herself, itself, them- 
 selves) refers back to the person or thing which is the subject of the 
 proposition, without beiug itself united to a substantive. It has in 
 the ace. and abl. of both numbers se or sese, in the dat. sibi. The 
 nom. is wanting, as also the gen., in place of which is used the 
 derivative suus, or its neutr. gen. sui, as with ego mens and mei 
 (§. 79, Obs. 1.) 
 
 Obs. Met is affixed to se and sibi, as to ego (§. 79. Obs. 2). 
 
Chap. XII. — The Pronouns. 79 
 
 &. 86. The Relative Pronoun qvi (who, which) refers to some- 
 thing in another proposition, to which a definition is subjoined by 
 means of the pronoun {Cato, qvi; is, qvi). It is declined as 
 follows : 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Masc. Fern, Neutr. 
 
 Nom. qvi qvae qvod 
 
 Ace. qvem qvam 
 
 Gen. cujus in all genders. 
 
 Bat. cui (monosyllable) 
 
 Abl. qvo qva qvo. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. qvi qvae qvae 
 
 Ace. qvos qvas ■ 
 
 Gen. qvorum qvarum qvorum 
 
 Bat. Abl. qvibus (qvis) in all genders. 
 
 Obs. 1. The more ancient way of writing the genitive and dative was 
 qvojus and qvoi. Cm, as a dissyllable, is found only in the later poets. 
 
 Obs. 2. The ablative qvls (qveis is only another way of writing it) is 
 antiquated, but sometimes readopted by later writers. An old form qvi 
 occurs as an abl. sing., but is only used by good writers in combination 
 with the preposition cum (qvicum=qvocu?n, masc. and neut., in the more 
 antiquated style olso=qvacum, fern.) and with verbs in some few expres- 
 sions as a neuter after an indefinite pronoun understood ; habeo, qvi utar 
 (what I can make use of) ; vice reliqvit, qvi efferretur (enough to bury 
 him) ; compare §.88, Obs. 2. 
 
 §. 87. The Indefinite Relative Pronouns (pronominarelativa inde- 
 finita) qvicunqve, qvisqvis (every one who, whoever), uter, utercunqve 
 (whichever of two), show that the definition comprises several, and 
 that it is indifferent which is thought of. 
 
 Qvicunqve, qvaecunqve, qvodcunqve, is declined like qvi (the affix 
 cunqve remains unaltered) ; uter, utra, utrum (usually an interroga- 
 tive pronoun, is regularly declined (except in the gen. and dat. sing. 
 utrius, utri ; see §. 37, Obs. 2), and so also utercunqve. 
 
 Qvisqvis is usually found only in the nom. masc, and the nom. 
 and ace. neutr. (qvidqvid or qvicqvid, subst.), also in the abl. masc. 
 and neutr. (qvoqvo) : we rarely meet with qvemqvem, qvibusqvihus, and 
 not till a late period with the abl. fern, qvaqva. From the unused gen. 
 has originated by an abbreviated pronunciation the expression cuicuimodi, 
 of whatever kind. 
 
80 Of Inflection. §. gfl. 
 
 Obs. 1. It is rarely (in the best writers only in the expression qvacunqve 
 ratione, in any way, qvocunqve modo, Sail.), that qvicunqve occurs simply 
 as an indefinite pronoun with the notion of universality (every one), with- 
 out a relative signification. So also qvisqvis in the expression qvoqvo 
 inodo, in any way *. 
 
 Obs. 2. Qvicunqve is sometimes resolved and separated by the interpo- 
 sition of an unaccented word, e. g. qva re cunqve possum (even by two pro- 
 nouns ; qvo ea me cunqve ducet, Cic). The same division (tmesis) occurs 
 in qvaliscunqve (§. 93), e. g. necesse est, aliqvid sit melius, qvale id cunqve 
 est. It occurs less frequently in qvantuscunqve and qvilibet (cujus rei libet 
 simulator, Sail.). 
 
 §. 88. The Interrogative Pronoun, which denotes an object, which 
 it is required should be specified, is qvis or qvi, fern, qvae, neutr. 
 qvid or qvod, who ? which ? with the more emphatic form qvisnam, 
 qvinam, qvaenam, qvidnam, qvodnam, who then ? which then ? and 
 of two, uter, utra, ulrum, which? (see §. 87). Qvis and qvisnam, 
 with the exception of the double nom. masc, and the nom. and ace. 
 neutr., are declined exactly like the relative pronoun qvi. In the 
 neuter qvid and qvidnam are substantives, qvod and qvodnam adjec- 
 tives (qvid feci? qvod f acinus commisit ? qvodnam consilium cepit ?). 
 In the masculine qvis is both a substantive and adjective, qvi fox the 
 most part an adjective (qvi cantus?). 
 
 Obs. 1. Qvis (with the nominative terminations) occurs as an adjective 
 in the older writers (Cic.) chiefly with substantives which denote a person 
 (qvis senator f qvis rex ? but qvi vir ? in the signification, what man = 
 what sort of man ?) but often too with others (qvis locus ? qvis casus ?). 
 Qvi (qvinam) on the other hand is rare as a substantive, and is found al- 
 most exclusively in dependent interrogative clauses, as, non id solum 
 spectatur, qvi debeat, sed etiam qvi possit ulcisci (Cic. Divin. in Caec. 16). 
 In independent interrogative sentences (e. g. qvi primus Ameriam nun- 
 tiat ?) it is almost unused. 
 
 Obs. 2. The ablative form qvi (see §. 86, Obs. 2) is used only in the 
 signification how ? (qvi fit ? qvi convenit ? how is it suitable ?) 
 
 §. 89. The Indefinite Pronouns (pr. indefinita) are qvis, one, any 
 one, aliqvis, qvispiam, one, any one, qvisqvam, any one whatever, 
 ullus, any, qvidam, some one, a certain one, alteruter, one or the 
 other (of two), with those which denote a division; qvisqve, each 
 severally, unusqvisqve, each individual, uterqve, properly, each of 
 two separately ; then, both (uterqve f rater, both brothers ; uterqve 
 
 q Qvidqvid for qvidqve (§. 89) in certain combinations, as ut qvidqvid for ut qvidqve 
 (Cic.) is rare and antiquated. 
 
hi. Chap. XII. — The Pronouns. 81 
 
 eorum, both of them ; utriqve, both parties), and those which de- 
 note a universality without distinction (which may be named inde- 
 finite! univer solid) ; qvivis, qvilibet, any one you like (whoever it may 
 be), utervis, uterlibet, any one you like (of two) ; to which may also 
 be added the negative words nemo, no one (subst.), nihil, nothing 
 (subst.), nullus, no, none, neuter, neither. 
 
 §. 90. 1. Qvis, qvi, fern, qvae and qvd, neutr. qvid and qvod, is 
 declined (except in the nom.) like the relative pronoun, with the 
 exception, that the nom. and ace. neutr. plural, as well as the nom. 
 sing, fern., have both forms qvae and qvd. Qvid is used as a sub- 
 stantive, qvod as an adjective; qvis as both, and in all combinations 
 (dicat qvis, si qvis, si qvis dux), qvi only after the conjunctions si, 
 nisi, ne, num, both as a substantive and an adjective, but chiefly as 
 an adjective [ne qvis and ne qvi, si qvis dux and si qvi dux). Qva 
 is more common in the neutr. plural than qvae 1 '. 
 
 The following are formed from qvis and declined like it : ecqvis, 
 ecqvi, ecqva, ecqvae, ecqvid, ecqvod, does any one ? and the stronger 
 form ecqvisnam (also numqvisnam). 
 
 2. Like qvis is declined aliqvis, except that it has only aliqva in 
 the fem. sing, and neutr. plur. Aliqvid is used as a substantive, 
 aliqvocl as an adjective, aliqvis as both, aliqvi as an adjective. 
 
 3. Qvisqvam, neutr. qvidqvam (qvicqvam) without a fem., and 
 without a plur., is declined like qvis (without qvi or qvod). 
 
 Ohs. Qvisqvam is used as a substantive, and also as an adjective with the 
 appellations of persons {scriptor qvisqvam, qvisqvam Gallus) ; the corre- 
 sponding ullus as an adjective, but sometimes (in the best writers only 
 ullius and ullo, in some also the dat. ulli) it is used as a substantive. 
 
 §.91. 4. Qvidam, qvispiam, qvivis, qvilibet, and qvisqve, are de- 
 clined like the relative pronoun, except that as substantives they 
 have in the neuter the form qvid (qviddam, &c), as adjectives qvod 
 (qvoddam, &c). In unusqvisqve both words are declined (unaqvae- 
 qve, unumqvidqve and unumqvodqve, unumqvemqve, &c). 
 
 In utervis (utrdvis, utrumvis), uterlibet {utralibet, utrumlibet), 
 uterqve (utrdqve, utrumqve), uter is declined {utriusqve, &c, see §. 
 87). In alteruter sometimes both words are declined (alteraufra, 
 alterumutrum, gen. alteriusutrius, &c), sometimes only the last 
 (alterutra, alterutrum) . The adjectives ullus (a, urn), nullus, non- 
 nullus, neuter {neutra, neutrum), are regularly declined, except in 
 the gen. {ullius, &c. neutrius) and in the dative {ulli, &c. neutri). 
 
 1 And, to judge by the poets, in the fem. sing. also. 
 M 
 
82 Inflection of Words. g 91 
 
 Nemo is a substantive of the masculine gender, and follows the 
 third declension (see §. 41 under the termination o } mis). The 
 genitive is not used in common language, nor the ablative in the 
 best writers; in their stead nullius and nullo are used*. 
 
 Obs. Nemo is also used as an adjective with the names of persons, 
 c. g. nemo scrvptor, nemo Gallus. (Also scriptor nullus, but with national 
 names always nemo.) 
 
 Nihil is nominative and accusative without any other cases. 
 (The form nihilum with the genitive nihili and the ablative nihilo is used 
 in some few combinations ; see §. 494 b. Obs. 3.) 
 
 §. 92. From the personal and reflective pronouns are derived 
 adjectives, which denote that an object belongs to the speaker, or 
 the person addressed, or the subject previously named ; mens, tuus, 
 suus, noster [nostra, nostrum), vester (vestra, vestrum), my, thy, his 
 (reflect.), their, our, your. They are called possessive pronouns 
 [pronomina possessiva), and are regularly declined after the second 
 and first declension, except that mens has mi in the voc. masc. 
 
 Obs. 1. &e is sometimes affixed to the abl. sing, of these adjectives 
 (most frequently to that of suus), in order to express more emphatically 
 that a thing belongs to a person, as contrasted with what is not his own • 
 as meppte ingenio, suopte pondere. Met is also attached to suus (as to ego 
 se), most frequently when followed by ipse, e. g. suamet ipse fraude, by his 
 own deceit. This appendage is but rarely found with mea (meamet facta, 
 ball. ; meamet culpa, Plaut.). 
 
 Obs. 2. A possessive pronoun is also formed from the relative and in- 
 terrogative pronoun, cujus, cuja, cujum, whose ? (he) whose, e. g. cujwn 
 pecus? is, cuja res est; but it is only used in the antiquated and legal 
 style, and there, besides the nom. and ace. sing, only in the abl. fern, sins 
 {cuja causa), and the nom. and ace. plur. fern. 
 
 Obs. 3. From noster, vester, and cujus (interrogative) come the adjec- 
 tives of one termination, nostras, vestras, cujas (ace. nostratem, &c.) of our 
 nation (belonging to our town, our nation), of your nation, of which 
 nation? corresponding to the adjectives in as derived from names of 
 towns. 
 
 §. 93. Besides the possessive pronouns the Latins have other 
 adjectives, which denote a person or thing pronominally (by way of 
 reference) with relation to if. quality, size, or number, as talis, 
 such. The adjectives, which are formed to denote one and the 
 
 r^Z^T^J^' " e ' ine iD T ^- S «<»»-> ** ^e dat. nulU is 
 
Chap. XIII.— Inflection of the Verbs in general. 
 
 83 
 
 same idea as modified according to the different kinds of pro- 
 nouns, are called correlative adjectives. 
 
 These adjectives are, 
 
 Demonst. Belat. and Interrog. Indef. rel. Indefinite. 
 
 (Indefin. and indef. univers.) 
 
 talis, e, of such qvalis, e, (oUuch qvaliscunqve 
 
 a quality. 
 
 tantus {a, um] 
 so great. 
 
 a quality) as of what 
 
 (rel.) ; of what quality 
 
 quality ? (in- soever, 
 terrog.) 
 
 qvantus (so great) qvantuscun- 
 
 as (rel.) ; how qve, how 
 
 great? (in- great so- 
 
 terr.). ever. 
 
 of 
 any quality 
 you please. 
 
 aliqvantus, of a 
 certain, tole- 
 rable size. 
 
 qvantuslibet, of 
 any size you 
 please. 
 
 qvantusvis. 
 
 aliqvot, some. 
 
 M(undecl.),so qvot (so many) as qvotcunqve, 
 
 many. (rel.) ; how ma- qvotqvot, how 
 
 totidem (un- ny ? (interr.) many soever, 
 decl.), just 
 so many. 
 
 qvotus, which in 
 the series ? 
 Ols. 1. Qvaliscunqve and qvantuscunqve are also used as simply indefi- 
 nite (not relative) pronouns. Aliqvantus is commonly used only in the 
 neuter gender (aliqvantum, aliqvanto\ and as a substantive or adverb. 
 From tantus, &o. are formed the diminutives {demmutiva) tantalus of 
 such (small, insignificant) size, qvantulus, qvantuluscunqve, aliqvantulum 
 (a little). From tantum is formed tantundem (nom. ace. neut.), just so 
 much, gen. tantidem. 
 
 Ols. 2. For the pronominal adverbs see the RuWfor the Formation of 
 Words, §. 201. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 The Inflection of the Verbs in general. 
 § 94 A Verb expresses the condition or agency of a person or 
 thing (the subject), e. g. caleo, I am warm; curro, amo, frango, I 
 
 run, I love, I break. 
 
 m 2 
 
81 Inflection of Words. §. 9< 
 
 The agency denoted by the verb either passes immediately to an 
 object which is operated upon, and the name of which is added (in 
 the accusative), and then the verb is called transitive (properly, 
 passing over, from transeo), e. g. amo Deum, frango ramum, I love 
 God, I break a branch; or it is complete in the subject alone, 
 without passing immediately to an object, and then the verb is 
 termed intransitive (not passing over) or neuter, e.g. curro. 
 
 Ohs. A verb which is usually transitive may also be sometimes used in 
 such a sense, that no object is to be considered as acted on, e. g. amo, I 
 am in love, Ubo vinum, I drink wine (trans.), biho, I drink (without speci- 
 fying more particularly, intrans.). In the same way an intransitive verb 
 may assume a signification, in which it becomes transitive, e. g. excedo, 
 I go out, excedo modum, I exceed bounds. 
 
 §.95. From transitive verbs a new form is deduced, by which it 
 is expressed of a thing, that it suffers the action, or is the object of 
 it, e. g. amor j I am loved, ramus frangitur, a branch is broken. 
 This form is called the Passive, forma passiva (the suffering form ; 
 also genus verbi passivum, verbum passivum), in contradistinction to 
 the original form, which is called the Active, forma activa (form of 
 activity; genus activum, verbum activum). 
 
 Obs. Intransitive verbs may be used in the third person of the passive 
 form without a definite subject (impersonaliter), e. g. curritur, it is run 
 (they run) ; see the Syntax, §. 218 c. 
 
 §. 96. {Modi, Moods, Ways.) The Latin verbs have four modi 
 or forms, to distinguish the way in which a thing is stated. These 
 are, 
 
 a. Modus indicativus, the declarative way, by which a thing is 
 declared as actually taking place or existing, e. g. vir scribit, the 
 man is writing. 
 
 b. Modus conjunctivus u , the suppositive way, by which a thing 
 is simply declared as supposed, e. g. scribat aliqvis, some one may 
 write ; ut scribat, that he may write ; scribat, may he write ! (de- 
 noting a wish.) 
 
 c. Modus imperaiivus, the commanding way, by which a thing is 
 commanded or desired, e. g. scribe, write ! 
 
 d. Modus infinitivus, the indefinite way, by which the action or 
 circumstance is denoted in a general and indefinite manner, e. g. 
 scribere, to write. 
 
 u Conjunctivus literally signifies, adapted to combine. 
 
§. Chap. XIII. — Inflection of the Verbs in general. 85 
 
 §. 97. {Nominal forms.) Besides these, verbs have a substantive 
 form in um and u (accusative and ablative) , which are called the 
 first and second Supines, and like the infinitive denote the action 
 in general, but are used in certain special combinations, e. g. scrip- 
 turn, in order to write, scriptu, to be written (as facilis scriptu, easy 
 to be written) x . 
 
 Further there are three Participles (participium, from par- 
 ticeps, sharing), or adjective forms, to denote that the action is 
 thought of as a property belonging to a person or thing. Two of 
 these participles are active, the third passive : 
 
 a. Participium praesentis (temporis) activum, the participle pre- 
 sent, e. g. scribens, writing ; 
 
 b. Participium futuri (temporis) activum, the participle future, 
 e. g. scripturus, (a, um), who will write, is on the point of writing ; 
 
 c. Participium perfecti (temporis) passivum, the participle perfect, 
 e. g. scriptus (a, um), written, (from transitive verbs). 
 
 Further there is a form in the neuter, which follows the second 
 declension, but without a nominative, which is called the Gerund y, 
 and is used to denote an action in general (like the infinitive), but 
 only in certain cases, e. g. scribendo, by writing, ad scribendum, to 
 writing. 
 
 From the gerund there is formed in transitive verbs (by the ter- 
 minations us, a, um) a participle or participial adjective in the pas- 
 sive, which is called the Gerundivum, and denotes that the action 
 is happening or must happen with reference to a person or thing, 
 e.g. in epistola scribenda, in writing the letter; epistola scribenda 
 est, the letter is to be written, must be written 2 . 
 
 From intransitive verbs the perfect participle and the gerundive are 
 formed only in the neuter, and not used as adjectives, but only in combi- 
 nation with the verb esse, to be, to form an impersonal sentence ; as cur- 
 sum est, it has been run (they have run), currendivm est, it must be run 
 (they must run). 
 
 Obs. Of the declension and comparison of participles w r e have already 
 treated under the adjectives, Chap. X. 
 
 §.98. In the different moods the verbs have again distinct 
 forms to express the time to which the transaction may belong. 
 These forms are found most complete in the indicative active, 
 namely ; 
 
 x The name Supine is borrowed from the adjective supinus, bent backward. 
 
 y From gero, I perform. 
 
 * It is less correctly named the future participle passive. 
 
86 Inflection of Words. §. 9 
 
 1. for the present time, tempus praesens, e. g. scribo, I write. 
 
 2. for the past time, tempus praeter 'i turn, three forms : 
 
 a. The perfect, t. praet. perfectum (of a thing, which is simply 
 and absolutely declared as past) e. g. scripsi, I wrote, I have 
 written ; 
 
 b. the imperfect, t. praet. imperfectum (of a thing, which was 
 present at a certain given time), e. g. scribebam, I was writing (at 
 that time) ; 
 
 c. the pluperfect, t. praet. plus qv amp erfectum (of a thing 
 which had already taken place at a certain time), e. g. scripseram, 
 I had written ; 
 
 3. for the future time, tempus fut ur urn, two forms ; 
 
 a. the simple future, t. fut. simplex, or only futurum (of a 
 thing which is denoted as simply and absolutely future), e. g 
 scribam, I shall write ; 
 
 b. the future perfect, t. fut. ex actum (of a thing which will 
 be already past at a certain future time), e. g. scripsero, I shall 
 (then) have written. 
 
 The Present, the Perfect, and the simple Future are the three 
 leading tenses. 
 
 The Conjunctive has the same tenses as the Indicative, except 
 the future passive, which has no form to express it. 
 
 The Imperative has two tenses, the present and future;. 
 
 The Infinitive has the three leading tenses. 
 
 §.99. {Persons and Numbers.) Verbs have distinct terminations 
 in the Indicative and Conjunctive, according as their subject is the 
 speaker himself (first person, prima persona), or the person ad- 
 dressed (second person, secunda p.), or is different from both (third 
 person, tertiap.) ; they also receive different terminations, according 
 as the subject is in the singular or the plural, e. g. scribo, I write, 
 scribis, thou writest (you write), scribit, he (she, it) writes, scribi- 
 mus, we write, scribitis, ye write, scribunt, they write. 
 
 Obs. In the active the termination of the first person singular is o, i, or 
 m, of the second s (sti), of the third t ; in the plural that of the first mus, 
 of the second tis, of the third nt. In the passive the terminations are, in 
 the singular, 1. r ; 2. ris and re ; 3. tur : in the plural, 1. mur ; 2. mini ; 
 3. ntur. 
 
 The imperative has only the second and third person, not the 
 first, since it always expresses an exhortation or command ad- 
 dressed to others. 
 
1. Chap. XIII. — Inflection of the Verbs in general. 87 
 
 §. 100. [Conjugations.) The way in which the terminations, which 
 express moods, tenses, persons, and numbers, are combined with 
 the theme of the verb, and sometimes these terminations them- 
 selves, differ more or less according to the last letter (the charac- 
 teristic letter) of the theme, and hence arise four kinds of inflection, 
 called Conjugationes*, to one of which every verb belongs. 
 
 a. To the first conjugation belong those verbs, the theme of 
 which ends in a, which in the first person of the present indicative 
 active is nnited by contraction with o, e. g. amo, I love, but is seen 
 in the second person amas, and in the other forms, e. g. in the pre- 
 sent infinitive active in are, as amare, to love. 
 
 Ols. The a may be preceded by another vowel, e. g. creo, I create, inf. 
 creare, crucio, I torture, cruciare, sinuo, I bend, sinuare. 
 
 b. To the second conjugation belong the verbs with the charac- 
 teristic letter e, which in the present infinitive active end in ere, 
 e. g. moneo (mone-o), I advise, remind, infinitive monere. 
 
 c. To the third conjugation belong those verbs, of which the 
 characteristic letter is a consonant or the vowel u ; in the present 
 infinitive they have ere, e. g. scribo, I write, scribere, minuo, I lessen, 
 minuere. 
 
 Ohs. To the third conjugation belong some verbs, in which an i has 
 been inserted in the present indicative active after the proper character- 
 istic, e. g. capio (cap-i-o), I take, infinitive capere. 
 
 d. To the fourth conjugation belong the verbs with the charac- 
 teristic i; in the present infinitive they have Ire, e. g. audio, I hear, 
 audlre. 
 
 Ols. Since the present indicative may have the same termination in 
 verbs of different conjugations, e. g. creo belonging to the 1st, moneo to 
 the 2nd, lego to the 1 st, lego to the 3rd, capio to the 3rd, audio to the 4th, 
 it is best to name the present infinitive active, in order to denote the con- 
 jugation to which the verb belongs. 
 
 §. 101. The first and second conjugation, with the vowels a and e for 
 their characteristic letters {verba pur a), resemble each other (as the first 
 and second declension). The consonants of the terminations are appended 
 to the vowel of the theme, e. g. ama-s, wione-s, ama-nt, onone-nt. In the 
 third conjugation (which corresponds to the third declension, verba im- 
 
 * Conjugatio properly signifies a combination in one class, and denotes only the verbs 
 •which belong to the same class. But it is now used of the inflection itself, and we say, 
 to conjugate a verb, an expression not used by the Romans, who employed the term de- 
 clinare. 
 
Inflection of Words. §• U 
 
 pura), a connecting vowel is inserted between the consonants of the theme 
 and the termination, e. g. leg-is, leg-u-nt. The verbs of the second con- 
 jugation (with some few exceptions, §. 122) reject the e in the perfect and 
 supine, and are here declined like impure verbs. The. fourth conjugation 
 is partly similar to the two first conjugations, e. g. in audi-s, audl-re, 
 audi-vi, partly to the third, e. g. in audi-unt, audi-ebam, audi-am (in the 
 future). 
 
 §. 102. {Derivation of the particular forms in all tenses and moods.) 
 If the present indicative be known, the theme is found by taking 
 away o, the termination of the first person (and in the first conju- 
 gation adding at the same time the a, which has been amalga- 
 mated with this termination ; see §. 100 a), as ama (first person 
 amo), mone (moneo), scrib (scribo), audi (audio). From this theme 
 is formed the present of the other moods, the imperfect of all the 
 moods, the future indicative and imperative, the participle present 
 and the gerundive, by adding the particular termination of each 
 form, as is shewn by the examples which follow below (§. 109) of 
 all four conjugations. 
 
 Ohs. 1. The characteristics a, e, i, are always long when they terminate 
 a syllable, and are not followed by a vowel. 
 
 Obs. 2. Of those verbs of the third conjugation, in which an i is inserted 
 after the characteristic letter (§. 100 c. Obs.), it is to be observed, that 
 this i is everywhere dropped before another i, and before e when followed 
 by r (therefore capis, capere, but capiet), and also in the formation of the 
 perfect and supine, and those forms which are regulated by them (§ 103. 
 —106). 
 
 §. 103. The formation of the perfect indicative active is particu- 
 larly to be noticed. 
 
 a. In the first and fourth conjugation it is formed by adding vi 
 to the theme ; amavi, audlvi : in the second conjugation the cha- 
 racteristic e is rejected and ui affixed ; monui (mon-ui) b . 
 
 Obs. The deviations from this rule are noticed below, Chap. 17, seq. 
 
 b. In the third conjugation the perfect in some verbs ends only 
 in i, in others in si, in others in ui. The most simple form is found 
 in verbs with the characteristic letter u, where i is affixed to the 
 theme, e.g. minuo, I diminish (minu), perf. minui, and in many 
 with the characteristic letters b, p, c (qv, h), g (gv) and d, where si 
 is affixed, d being omitted before this termination (bsi is changed to 
 
 b Ui and vi are originally the same termination. 
 
 : 
 
,»5. Chap. XIII. — Inflection of the Verbs in general. 89 
 
 psi, gsi and csi to xi; see §. 10,) e.g. repsi from r<?/>o, I creep [rep), 
 scripsi from scribo, I write, e^i from dico, I say, laesi from /aecfo, 
 I hurt. What termination is used with each of the other verbs, 
 will be shewn lower down (Chap. 19.). 
 
 Those verbs, which form their perfect only with i, and have a consonant 
 for their characteristic, lengthen the vowel in the syllable which precedes 
 the termination when it is short, and there is no position, e. g. legi from 
 lego, to choose, read (collegi from colligo). Some verbs with the perfect 
 in i have the reduplication, i. e. the first consonant with its following 
 vowel, if this be o or u (o, u), but otherwise with e, is prefixed to the 
 theme, e. g. curro, I run, perf. cucurri; in this case the vowel of the radi- 
 cal syllable is not lengthened, but occasionally modified (weakened), e. g. 
 cado, I fall, perf. cecidi. In compound words the reduplication is dropt, 
 e. g. incidi from incido (compounded of in and cado), except in some par- 
 ticular verbs (which are given below in the list of the perfects and 
 supines). 
 
 Obs. The lengthening of the radical vowel takes place also in verbs of 
 the other conjugations, which (varying from the general rule) have i only 
 in the perfect. The following only have a short syllable before i ; bibi, 
 ftdi, scidi, tuli, from bibo,findo, scindo,fero. In some verbs the reduplica- 
 tion is irregular, e.g. steti from sto (1 conjug.), stiti from sisto, spopondi 
 from spondeo (2nd conj.). 
 
 §. 104 By the perfect indicative active is regulated the perfect 
 of the other moods (the conjunctive and infinitive), together with 
 the plusqvamperfectum and the futurum exactum (indicative and 
 conjunctive) in the active, so that the particular terminations of 
 these tenses are added to the form of the perfect indicative, after 
 the termination of the first person, i, has been removed, e. g. amav- 
 eram (plusqvamperf. indie, act.) from amav-i. 
 
 §. 105. The supines in the first, third, and fourth conjugation, 
 are formed by adding to the theme the terminations turn (1st sup.) 
 and tu (2d sup.), before which b is changed by the pronunciation to 
 P) 9 (Q v > hi 9 V ) to c > §• 10; amiilum, scriptum (minutum), auditum, 
 amatu, scriptu (minutu), auditu. In the third conjugation the verbs 
 | with the characteristic d have the terminations sum, su, before 
 which d is dropt, e. g. laesum, laesu } from laedo, I hurt. 
 
 In the second conjugation the e of the theme is rejected, and 
 itum, itu, are affixed; as monitum, momtu. (J is a connecting vowel 
 inserted for the sake of the pronunciation.) 
 
 Obs. 1. With respect to the irregularities which are produced by the 
 
 N 
 
90 Inflection of Words. §.10, 
 
 addition of sum instead of turn in other verbs (besides those already men- 
 tioned), and by changes in the theme, see Chap. 17, seq. 
 
 Obs. 2. The termination itum is everywhere the regular one, where the 
 perfect has ui (also in the third conjugation, and those verbs of the first 
 which vary from the general rule), e. g. gemo, I groan, perf. gemui, sup. 
 gemitum, except where u is the characteristic letter of the theme, e. g. 
 minuo, miniltum. 
 
 Obs. 3. J is always long in the supine, when the perfect has vi, except 
 in itum, citum, litum, qvitum, situm, from the verbs eo, cieo, lino, gveo, sino, 
 with an irregular formation. The following only have a short a; datum, 
 ratum, satum, from do, reor, sero, also formed irregularly. Rutum from 
 ruo is the only instance with a short u. 
 
 §. 106. The participle perfect of the passive, and the participle 
 future of the active, are formed like the supine, by substituting 
 their terminations us, a, um, and urus, ura, urum, in the place of 
 urn ; amatus, monitus, scriptus, laesus, audltus, amaturus, moniturus 
 scripturus, laesurus, auditurus. It is therefore only necessary to 
 name the first supine, to shew the form of both supines as well as 
 these participles. 
 
 Obs. 1. If the supine be not regularly formed from the present, these 
 participles vary in the same way. 
 
 Obs. 2. In some few of those verbs, of which the supine and participle 
 perfect vary from the regular formation, the participle future is neverthe- 
 less formed from the present, turus or iturus being added to the theme ; 
 juvaturus, secaturus, sonaturus, pariturus,ruiturus, moriturus, nasciturus, 
 oriturus; see under the irregular verbs juvo, seco, sono, of the 1st conj.' 
 pario and ruo of the third, and under the deponents morior, nascor (3), and 
 orior (4). 
 
 §.107. For some tenses no simple form is deduced from the 
 verb, but they are expressed periphrastically by the combination ; 
 of a participle with a tense of the verb sum, I am (auxiliary verb). * 
 This occurs in the future conjunctive and infinitive of the active 
 voice (which are formed with the participle future), and in the pas- 
 sive in the perfect, and all those tenses which in the active are re- 
 gulated according to the perfect. (These are formed with the par- 
 ticiple perfect.) 
 
Chap. XIV.— The Verb Sum. 
 
 91 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 The Verb sum, and examples of the four Conjugations. 
 
 §. 108. The verb sum, I am ; is in a great measure declined dif- 
 ferently from the other verbs, in the following manner : 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 (Modus Indicatives.) 
 
 (Modus Conjunctivus.) 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 (Tempus praesens.) 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 sum, I am. 
 
 sim, I may be. 
 
 es, thou art. 
 
 sis 
 
 est, he (she, it) is. 
 
 sit 
 
 
 Plural. 
 
 sumus, we are. 
 
 simus 
 
 estis, you are. 
 
 sitis 
 
 sunt, they are. 
 
 sint 
 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 eram, I was. 
 
 essem, I might be. 
 
 eras 
 
 esses 
 
 erat 
 
 esset 
 
 eramus 
 
 essemus 
 
 eratis 
 
 essetis 
 
 erant 
 
 essent 
 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 fui, I have been. 
 
 fuerim, I may have been. 
 
 fuisti 
 
 fueris 
 
 fait 
 
 fuerit 
 
 fuimus 
 
 fuerlmus 
 
 fuistis 
 
 fueritis 
 
 fuerunt 
 
 fuerint 
 
 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 fueram, I had been. 
 
 fuissem, I might have been 
 
 fueras 
 
 fuisses 
 
 fuerat 
 
 fuisset 
 
 fueramus 
 
 fuissemus 
 
 fueratis 
 
 fuissetis 
 
 fuerant 
 
 fuissent 
 
 
 n2 
 
92 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §• 108 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 ( Modus In dicativus. ) 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 {Modus Conjunctivus.) 
 
 ero, I shall be. 
 
 FUTURUM (SIMPLEX). 
 
 futurus (a, um) sim (from the 
 fut. part, and pres. conj.), I 
 shall be. 
 
 ens 
 
 erit 
 
 erimus 
 
 eritis 
 
 erunt 
 
 sis 
 sit 
 
 futuri (ae, a) simus 
 
 sitis 
 
 sint 
 
 FUTURUM EXACTUM. 
 
 fuero, I shall have been. fuerim, &c. like the perfect. 
 
 fueris 
 
 fuerit 
 
 fuerimus 
 
 fueritis 
 
 fuerint 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 {Modus Imperativus.) 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 2 Pers. es, be ! 
 
 2 Pers. este, be ! 
 
 Singular. 
 
 2 Pers. esto ; thou shalt be. 
 
 3 Pers. esto, he shall be. 
 Plural. 
 
 2 Pers. estote, you shall be. 
 
 3 Pers. sunto, they shall be. 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 (Modus Infinitivus.) 
 Present, esse, to be. Perfect, fuisse, to have been. 
 
 Future, futurus (a, um) esse, or (in the accus.) futurum (am) 
 esse, plur. futuri (ae, a), futures (as, a) esse. 
 
 PARTICIPIUM. 
 Future, futurus, a, um, that will be, future. 
 Obs. 1. The supine and gerund are wanting. The participle present is 
 
 tin? ^ a Z l aS a SubstantiTC ft ia f °™« (rarely) in philosephieal 
 language, ens, the being. F 
 
109. Chap. XIV.— The Verb Sum. 93 
 
 Obs. 2. Like sum are declined its compounds; absum, I am absent 
 (abfui or afui), adsu/m, I am present (or assum, perf. affui or adfui, see 
 §. 173), desum, I am wanting (deest, deeram, &c. were pronounced dfotf, 
 deram), insum, I am in, inter sum, I am present, obsum, I am in the way, 
 praesum, I am at the head, prosum, I profit, suhsum, I am amongst, super- 
 sum, I am remaining, of which absum and praesum alone form the parti- 
 ciple present ; absens, absent, praesens, present. Prosum inserts a d 
 before the e of the verb, e. g. prosum, prodes, prodest, prosumus, pro- 
 destis, prosunt. 
 
 Obs. 3. For futur us esse (the fut. inf.) there is another form /or*?, and 
 for essem (imperf. conj.), a ioxvn. for em, fores, for et, for ent (affore, afforem, 
 profore, proforem, &c), on the use of which see §. 377, Obs. 2, and §. 410. 
 (In combination with a participle fore must always be used, e. g. laudan- 
 dum fore, not laudandum futurum esse.) 
 
 Obs. 4. The forms siem, sies, siet, sient, in the pres. conj., are anti- 
 quated, and still more fuam, j ? uas, fuat,fuant ; the forms escit, escunt {esit, 
 esuni), in the fut. indie, are quite obsolete. When est came after a vowel 
 or m, the e was omitted in the earlier period both in speaking and writ- 
 ing [nata st, natum st, oratio si) ; in the comic writers the termination 
 us also coalesces with est (factust, opust, for f actus est, opus est), and oc- 
 casionally with es (Qvid merits s? Ter. Andr. III. 5, 15). 
 
 Obs. 5. The forms of the verb sum are properly derived from two 
 themes, es (whence esum, afterwards sum, and all the forms beginning 
 with e) an&fu {fuo). (In Greek elfii and cf)v(o.) 
 
 §. 109. The whole formation of the tenses, and the declension 
 according to persons and numbers in each tense in the four conju- 
 gations, may be seen from the following verbs, which are given 
 entire as examples; amo (theme ama) of the first, moneo of the 
 second, scribo of the third, audio of the fourth conjugation. Under 
 the third conjugation are given at the same time tenses ofminuo, 
 as an example of a verb with the characteristic u } and of capio, as 
 an example of a verb with an i inserted after the characteristic 
 letter. 
 
94 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §• m 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 ,3 
 
 
 
 ^, . 
 
 
 
 HH^ 
 
 09 
 
 
 ^O O) -+o 
 
 1« 
 
 s 
 
 n3 "T3 r 3 
 
 rd rg 
 
 H3 
 
 g 2 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 PJ 
 
 co 03 03 
 
 03 03 
 
 cc 
 
 £> 
 
 
 
 
 | -s 
 
 
 # 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 o 
 
 P 
 
 > 
 
 h- 1 
 
 
 B0 
 
 £> 
 
 H 
 
 EH 
 
 
 h- i 
 
 <j 
 
 »25 
 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 hH 
 
 w 
 
 
 <1 
 
 P 
 
 Ph 
 
 .. cr .a .-a 
 
 S :2 :S r2 
 
 ?« ° ° « 
 
 &JD M «2 !» 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 4^ 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 b3 
 
 
 
 
 
 •<s> 
 
 +-> 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 «3 
 
 ""eg 
 
 
 2 
 
 05 
 
 4-3 
 
 6- 
 
 
 § 
 
 *4J 
 3r-H 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 CD 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 !q 
 
 rO 
 
 rO 
 
 09 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 09 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 cD 
 
 
 02 
 
 3D 
 
 ce 
 
 a 
 
 M 
 
 IH <3 »* 
 
 > 
 
 03 
 
 O «5 -M 
 
 CD CD CD 
 
 o o o 
 
 a a a 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 +3 
 
 +3 
 
 CD 
 
 ■ CD 
 
 CD 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 £ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 a a a 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 . r> 
 
 
 
 
 -^ -2 
 
 CD ^— s 
 
 CD 
 
 > 
 
 (you) love, 
 [they) love. 
 
 o 
 
 hou) lov 
 e, she, it 
 
 
 t^r 
 
 ^t£. 
 
 09 
 
 S3 
 
 a 
 
 CO +? 
 
 
 0!? -4^ 
 
 •+3 fl 
 
 o 
 
 03 03 
 
 103 
 
 ice 03 
 
 a 
 
 a a 
 
 a 
 
 a a 
 
 a 
 
 03 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 03 
 
 rH 
 
 e>* CO 
 
 r— 1 
 
 O* CO 
 
109. Chap. XIV.-— -Examples of the four Conjugations. 95 
 
 r3 ***" 05 "t2 *— 
 
 rt § 2 ^ 3 S ^ » H 0? 
 
 & c3 c$ io3 <c3 c3 
 
 -s ^ a -g ,g •§ 
 
 ^ 2 2 2 .2 .2 § -§ id 5 a *pS *r5 ^ 
 
 Id d d d r^ rt p d r^rr^r^jrrjrr^^ 
 
 g §§§§§ £ <« c* <S c3 c« c* — 
 
 CO 
 
 I 
 
 T3 
 
 § 
 
 rtf g O 
 
 00 CD g 
 
 ^ os O «g 
 
 .Pi d «, ^ ^ H 
 
 P 03 -+3 <-T 
 
 +3 
 
 05 £ 
 
 g -s» -c =§ ^ -g -g *g -I g -"g 8 g s £ & E s -a 
 
 CD 
 
 bfi 
 
 § I a -e ? .- 3 .9 1 's 
 
 5 •* 2 -rt P 
 
 
 I § H 1 1 1 <5 . rt | .-a a .2 .s 
 
 O ^pOpOrQrO rd 3 3 3 3 P P d 
 
 ^ 1 1 1 1 1 * i i i i s § i 
 
 ■+3 
 
 05 
 
 t-i CD 
 
 05 > 
 
 o - o 
 
 o .So 
 
 CD 
 
 d l ~""' 4-» 5-t 
 
 03 g 50 „ c3 "^ 
 
 3 » ^ S m . .- g .2 3 S 
 
 j 1 1 II II ;i 1 g s 1 1 & § 
 
 is o t« (« d d s S^Sdddd^ 
 
 a™ 1 1 i 1 1 i lllll^- 
 
 c3 cS d d d d °* 
 
90 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §• 101 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 g 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 q 
 
 as 
 
 +* 
 
 3 
 
 05 
 
 OS 
 
 03 
 
 cc 
 
 to 
 
 ■ cO 
 
 *H 
 
 f-< 
 
 f-i 
 
 Ph 
 
 *4 
 
 ■* 
 
 »03 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 Q-> 
 
 cu 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 i"t3 r p r C '"C '"P ""P 
 
 CO cO cO cO CO cO 
 
 02 
 
 d p .2 if 
 
 cO CD CD iCD iCD CD 
 
 r P r ^3 r ^ ""P t3 r P 
 
 a fi S S PJ fj 
 
 co cO cO CO CO co 
 
 I 
 
 ^p 
 
 CO ICO 'CO c3 
 N ?-i J4 ?h 
 
 >C O C O O (B 
 
 03 J» J/3 03 OJ 02 
 
 ft ft ft a &, ft 3 
 g -S 
 
 CO 9 
 
 
 "+3 i» W 95 CO 
 
 »5 
 
 a-ij s 
 
 CO CO CO I CO 
 
 ?H s-i Ph S-i J-i ?h 
 
 >CD CD CD CD CD CD 
 
 P P P p P P 
 
 q q g q q q 
 
 o o o o o o 
 
 ? 
 
 O 
 
 e s 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 '■§ 
 1 
 
 cu 
 
 05 
 
 9 GO -1-3 3 '-+3 q 
 
 CO CD CD i CD "CD CD 
 
 rQ pQ ^ rQ rC ,0 
 
 •£ '£ '£ '£ '5 '£ 
 
 CD CD CD CD O O 
 
 02 «» 02 02 02 02 
 
 i 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 -t-3 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 'ft 
 
 
 cO 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 JJN 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 CD 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 3rH 
 
 +3 
 
 O 
 
 SO 
 
 +3 
 
 a 
 
 § 
 
 ^ 
 
 £ 
 
 ^ 
 
 £ 
 
 rO 
 
 ^o 
 
 !CD 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 q 
 
 P 
 
 a 
 
 p 
 
 a 
 
 P. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 s a a a a a 
 
 ■"P 
 CD 
 
 | 
 
 cO 
 
 rP 
 
 § * -p a 4J pi 
 
 CO CO CO ICO ICO CO 
 
 >CD CD CD CD CD 0) 
 
 c3 c5 cO 
 
 aaaa 
 
 CO CO cO cO 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i — i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s=j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rP 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 -4-3 
 
 cT 
 
 »3 
 
 +3 
 
 3rH 
 
 '■43 
 
 § 
 
 rQ 
 
 £ 
 
 ^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 3 
 
 rO 
 
 ICO 
 
 CO 
 
 cO 
 
 CO 
 
 cO 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 B 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 c0 
 
 c0 
 
 cO 
 
 CO 
 
 eO 
 
 
Chap. XIV. — Examples of the four Conjugations. 9' 
 
 02 
 
 5<U CD CD CD CD CD § 3 »2 -to 3 "■£ 2 
 
 > p> m > t > ^> ^> <» t <3 # o3 o3 ic3 ja3 c3 
 
 ^3 r^^jnd^d^O _g^c3nd^3^Snda3 
 
 3 £2332 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 
 
 ^_^ o3 e3 o3 o3 o3 o3 •<-> o3 & d o3 o3 o3 
 
 2 S 
 
 pa <d 
 
 £ 
 
 
 -1-3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &* 
 
 > 
 
 CD 
 O 
 
 02 
 
 | 
 
 CO 
 
 -4-3 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ■■g 
 
 o3 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 a» 
 
 d 
 
 e3 
 
 o3 
 
 ice 
 
 Io3 
 
 c3 
 
 ^ 
 
 .-2 
 
 r2 
 
 -Q 
 
 pQ 
 
 r2 
 
 pQ 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 *rH 
 
 *£ 
 
 ■fi 
 
 ■c 
 
 "S 
 
 "S 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 1 
 
 6b 
 
 2 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 co 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •s* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 8,1 ll'l'llf g !.--la 
 
 <rj a> &o co co co co &o }ii n c! 
 
 fej -+ J 60 GO 50 60 GO 60 H H-j CO • <«<<« w uu cu c« jh *-< 
 
 M * PS 
 
 EH «« 
 
 S -~ ■ w 
 
 pa 
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 p3 
 £ 
 
 g" 
 
 5^ 05 
 
 a g .2 4j 
 
 g >3 S & cd S cd 
 .3 3 2 3 3^3 
 
 g 3 2 3 3 3 3 
 
 So o o o o o 
 
 s a a a a a a 
 
 C5 
 
 p3 
 
 r3 
 
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 - co -M. a 
 
 Si ^3 
 
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 c3 O o3 e3 o3 c3 o3 o 0) « "O; iOJ © 
 
 a ^ a a a a a aaaaaa 
 
 03 rt S S K K tj S ri Ci t! S 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 <D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
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 o 
 
 a 
 
 • r-l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -3 
 
 r3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 • 1-1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pg 
 
 
 
 ©5 
 
 
 
 
 J-fl 
 
 03 
 
 -*J 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 0Q 
 
 '-fa 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 u 
 
 S c8 
 
 o3 
 
 03 
 
 io3 
 
 iC^ 
 
 03 
 
 
 e cd 
 
 <u 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 
 nation 
 mon 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 pH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 pH 
 
 P-l 
 
 "H 
 
 "S 
 
 ph 
 
 o 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 p* 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 c3 
 
 c3 
 
 03 
 
 C3 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 B 
 
 rt 
 
 c3 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
98 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §•109,1« 
 
 co 
 
 P a .2 If 
 
 p co -u p 43 p 
 
 (D (U D i(U iOJ aj 
 
 ?H f-< f-J f-i ?-( f-l 
 
 IrH «l-l »iH .rl .,-< .H 
 
 *"C ""P ""P ""P «"p ""P 
 
 o3 o3 03 o3 o3 03 
 
 CO 
 
 0) 
 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 -u 
 
 pS 
 
 03 
 
 ■g 
 
 
 •fl 
 
 •3 
 
 *£h 
 
 3, s 
 
 Sir- 1 
 
 •fl 
 
 
 3C0 
 
 0) 
 
 CD 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 
 CO 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 > 
 
 £ 
 
 &► 
 
 t> 
 
 
 
 .Eh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^3 
 
 n3 
 
 '^3 
 
 ^3 
 
 h3 
 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 pi 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 
 c3 
 
 C3 
 
 03 
 
 o3 
 
 03 
 
 o3 
 
 •*"N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 +3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •r-l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •P 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 *H 
 
 3C0 
 
 CO 
 
 & a 
 
 a -a -a 
 
 +j P -+j p 
 
 CO CO CO iCO iCO CD 
 
 ^| ^H ^H ^, ^ ^H 
 
 3 CO CO CO CO CO CO 
 
 u f* *H f-l 
 
 CO CO CO o 
 
 W Xfl CO CD CD CD 
 
 o o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 fH 
 
 
 3C0 
 
 , 
 
 PS 
 
 H 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 
 
 W 
 
 y 
 
 P=i 
 
 
 ed 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 Pm 
 
 ■a 
 
 3C0 
 CO 
 
 Ph 
 
 'r- 1 sir* " 
 
 I a 
 
 UJ <I1 UJ VJ <JJ ^ 
 
 ^Ph _Ph _Ph _P _Ph g 
 
 '£ '£ "3 "S "S .2 
 
 o o o co co g 
 
 co co co en co P 
 
 P co -+J P 43 P 
 
 CO CO CO iCO iCO co 
 
 *H *h f* f-, jL< Ph 
 
 i CO CO CO CO CO CO 
 
 p p p p p p 
 
 o o o o o o 
 
 aaaaaa 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 4-3 
 
 p 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 *43 
 
 ■4-a 
 
 P 
 
 .5 
 
 •c 
 
 "S 
 
 *£ 
 
 "£ 
 
 "C 
 
 '£ 
 
 rj 
 
 >co 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 PS 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 p. 
 
 p 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r— 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 fe£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 i-s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fc 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 I— < 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 r-t 
 
 S w 
 
 +a 
 
 P 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 CO CO 
 
 CD 
 
 ■CD 
 
 iCD 
 
 CO 
 
 
 .03 o3 
 
 pH 
 
 Fh 
 
 c3 
 
 a 
 
 £ 
 
 
 s a 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 03 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 CO 
 
 5 
 
 0^ 
 
 a . 
 
 3C0 co 
 
 > > 
 
 03 O 
 
 I" 
 
 CO 
 
 p 
 
 CO +3 P 
 
 CO CO CO 
 
 £ £ S 
 
 a a a 
 
 o3 03 03 
 
 o3 03 
 
09, 
 
 Chap. XIV. — Examples of the four Conjugations. 
 
 99 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PS 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 02 
 
 -o 
 
 OQ 
 
 PJ 
 
 a 
 
 OQ 
 
 '43 
 
 +3 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 103 
 
 103 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 pj 
 
 
 
 
 as 
 
 05 
 
 OQ 
 
 OQ 
 
 72 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 03 
 
 BQ 
 
 BQ 
 
 BQ 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '> 
 
 *g 
 
 *> 
 
 "> 
 
 *> 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 +3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . r=H 
 
 
 
 
 "i 
 
 
 
 
 ^S 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^3 
 
 T3 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 s 
 
 pi 
 
 =5 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 c3 
 
 <a 
 
 03 
 
 cS 
 
 p3 
 
 S3 
 
 
 
 cS 
 
 
 
 •*» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 a" 
 
 
 &D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 «3 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •> 
 
 
 
 • i-i 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 OQ 
 
 1 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •N 
 
 
 
 $H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 cf 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 PS 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 cf 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 05 
 
 +3 
 
 +3 
 
 P 
 
 S3 
 
 CD 
 
 «J 
 
 02 
 
 'B 
 
 Pi 
 
 "a 
 
 
 PS 
 'P 
 
 +3 
 
 # ft 
 "3 
 
 CD 
 W 
 
 p 
 
 O 
 
 H3 
 ft 
 
 CD 
 05 
 05 
 
 "o5 
 
 ft 
 "A 
 
 o 
 
 05 
 
 CD 
 «3 
 
 02 
 
 ' 'o2 
 
 t ft 
 
 "S 
 o 
 
 OQ 
 
 o 
 
 02 
 
 dq 
 
 'at 
 
 "3 
 
 o 
 
 05 
 
 i03 
 
 05 
 
 BQ 
 
 'oB 
 
 ft 
 
 "§ 
 
 >03 
 
 _73 
 
 ft 
 
 «2 
 
 CD 
 
 05 
 03 
 
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 ^ft 
 
 CD 
 05 
 
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 ■PS 
 
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 PI c£ 
 
 1 
 
 £h 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 1=3 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 P-i 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ■«5 
 
 
 
 
 
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 a 
 
 
 OS 
 
 ■4J 
 
 p 
 
 a 
 
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 *4J 
 
 % 
 
 += 
 
 CD 
 
 
 03 
 
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 ■eg 
 
 103 
 
 03 
 
 a 
 
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 73 
 
 OQ 
 
 73 
 
 p 
 
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 PS 
 
 
 'P 
 
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 P 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 PI 
 
 P 
 
 P! 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
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 a 
 
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 4a 
 
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 a 
 
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 CD 
 
 , 
 
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 03 
 
 103 
 
 103 
 
 03 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 00 
 
 BQ 
 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 
 05 
 
 ca 
 
 BO 
 
 BQ 
 
 OQ 
 
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 > 
 
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 >■ 
 
 > 
 
 '> 
 
 "> 
 
 
 Cj 
 
 
 
 cS 
 
 Ct 
 
 ed 
 
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 rt 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 2 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 a 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
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 b3 
 
 £ 
 
 7i 
 
 <?3 
 
 3 
 
 05 
 
 +j 
 
 <-> 
 
 a 
 
 .° 9 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■73 
 
 02 
 
 i 
 
 p 
 
 cf 
 
 05 
 P 
 
 -P 
 
 c3 
 
 s 
 
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 ■73 
 
 'oQ 
 
 "o2 
 
 03 
 
 oT 
 
 cS 
 
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 -4-3 
 
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 '■73 
 
 o 2 
 
100 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §. 10; 
 
 o iO 
 
 ^ ^ pg 
 
 ^ fl A 
 53 o3 03 
 
 ® 3 
 
 fl 
 
 .3 
 
 ■"fl ^ 'TIS 
 o3 c3 c3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 T3 
 
 > 
 i— i 
 H 
 
 1 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 P-i « 
 
 'fl 
 
 CD 
 
 ,0 J3 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 „ 
 
 
 ^j 
 
 
 -tJ 
 
 |Q3 
 
 iO) 
 
 CN 
 
 OJ 
 
 © 
 
 fl 
 
 o 
 
 
 CD 
 
 rfl 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 
 53 j-£ -H S .tn 
 
 ^ JD lo .O 5 
 
 t3 -n "Pi -n fl 
 
 g 
 
 5 s 
 
 o 
 
 ° o 
 
 CO 
 P-i 
 
 3CD 
 
 St 
 
 m m m 
 
 CD 
 O iO 
 
 fl 
 
 i CD 03 CD 
 ' fl 
 
 O 
 
 
 § e -a -s -s 
 
 & a * 
 
 § P3 H3 
 
 ~ * £ 
 
 QQ 
 
 P 
 
 CN 
 
 aas 
 
 Q ,03 
 
 v -' o 
 
 fl 
 
 I* 
 
 c fl 
 
 fxj Ph CD 
 
 3 CD M 
 
 s * 
 
 CNi C* 
 
 fl ^ 
 
 o 
 
 CD 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 4-3 
 
 fl 
 
 ic3 
 
 03 
 
 e3 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 c3 
 
 03 
 
 c3 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 H3 
 
 
 
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 c3 
 
 
 
 o} 
 
 C* 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 &0 
 
 *H 
 
 
 £5 
 
 3 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 r— 1 
 
 
 CD 
 > 
 
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 e3 
 
Chap. XIV. — Examples of the four Conjugations. 
 
 01 
 
 
 <D 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 CD 
 CO 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 cc 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 to 
 to 
 
 CD 
 
 a" 
 
 c3 
 
 c3 
 
 of 
 
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 •> 
 
 oT 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 | 
 
 c3 
 
 to 
 
 p 
 
 g 
 
 • pH^ 
 
 p 
 
 § 
 
 3 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 -*-» 
 
 -+3 
 
 ■+J 
 
 ■4-S 
 
 
 • r^ 
 
 
 
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 rd 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 pi 
 
 pi 
 
 c3 
 
 C3 
 
 CS 
 
 o3 
 
 Pi 
 
 ^3 
 
 P* 
 CD 
 
 i 
 
 CD 
 en 
 to 
 
 CD 
 
 a 
 
 PS 
 
 I 
 
 a^ 
 
 
 PS 
 
 Pi 
 
 CD 
 
 «.111 
 
 CD 
 
 GO 
 
 to 
 <D 
 
 
 CD 
 
 a 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 CD 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 PS 
 
 a~ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CD 
 C3 
 
 
 <D 
 
 e3 
 
 
 of 
 
 
 cc 
 
 
 aT 
 
 
 c/T 
 
 C3 
 
 
 »T 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 e8 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 PS 
 
 
 pj 
 
 
 • i-T 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 h 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 5h 
 
 
 P* 
 
 
 PS 
 
 
 ps 
 
 
 P5 
 
 
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 +3 
 
 
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 "3 
 
 
 '3 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 
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 c3 
 
 
 to" 
 
 C3 
 
 
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 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 pS 
 
 a 
 
 C3 
 
 CD 
 
 I» 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 B 
 
 PS 
 Pi 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 EH 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 PS 
 
 'U 
 
 -4-3 
 
 a 
 
 c3 
 
 o 
 
 GO 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 
 E3 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 Sh 
 PS 
 c3 
 
 a 
 
 C3 
 
 CD 
 
 CO 
 
 C/3 
 
 c3 
 
 a 
 
 
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 a 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ci 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 CD 
 «1 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 <1 
 
 
 bb 
 
 
 
 
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 fl 
 
 
 
 
 PS 
 
 
 
 
 ce 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 Bh '3 "& '3 
 
 H 
 
 .« .3 
 
 to fl 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 J a 
 
 a 2 
 
 •2 a 
 
 PI 
 
 <D 
 O 
 O 
 
 CD 
 
 8 
 
 •a a I 
 
 rT PS H3 
 
 Q »1 a 2 
 
 g 'P*S 'a 
 
 . CM 
 
 Pi 
 
 .2 ^ 
 
 .5 CD 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 £ a 
 
 
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 6 
 
 
 ci 
 
 rd 
 
 
 s 
 
 C3 
 
 a 
 
 
 3 
 
 03 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 . 
 
 p* 
 
 be 
 
 3 
 
 nd 
 
 . 
 
 03 
 
 Pi 
 
 . 
 
 
 cj 
 
 CD 
 
 
 a 
 
 CJ 
 
 eg 
 
 b3 
 
 eg 
 
 
 -- 
 
102 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §• 1C 
 
 © 
 
 u 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 .9 
 
 ©' 
 
 - 1 1 
 
 03 o3 
 
 ;; 
 
 H3 
 
 O 
 
 2 W r<3 
 H GO O 
 
 Ph Ph <m 
 
 PI 
 
 rK 03 
 
 PI 
 
 © 
 
 J 3 
 
 S SI f-* 
 
 ^ ipj 15 
 
 +3 
 
 B 
 
 
 »2 9 "<j 
 
 o 
 
 P4 
 
 O 
 
 © 
 
 g 3 
 
 .S ■? 
 § I 
 
 © '2 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 a § 
 
 a a 
 
 ** .2 
 o fi 
 
 'O 'TJ T3 Tj rQ rg 
 
 g a ps £ pj ps 
 
 » «J c3 cS o3 (ij 
 
 ^ 02 
 
 CI £ 
 PI «J 
 
 o3 4j 
 
 P' 
 O 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '£ 
 
 p> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3© 
 
 o3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 © 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ce 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 5-T 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tf 
 
 a 
 
 £5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 *Ph 
 
 & 
 
 ■4-3 
 
 Pi 
 pj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 'Sh 
 
 p 
 
 
 H2 
 
 
 ps 
 
 '8 
 
 PJ 
 
 -4-5 
 
 
 PJ 
 
 63 
 
 H ^5 
 
 P-l 
 
 o 
 
 
 a 
 
 3l-H 
 
 r5 
 
 
 PI 
 Pi 
 
 43 
 
 o 
 ps 
 
 
 a 
 
 <j H 
 
 '£ 
 
 '£ 
 
 'h 
 
 '£ 
 
 "S 
 
 • r-l 
 
 Pi 
 
 q 
 
 O QQ 
 
 o 
 
 © 
 
 05 
 
 02 
 
 a 
 
 02 
 
 o 
 
 B3 
 
 © 
 
 02 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 p P3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 © 
 
 © 
 
 o s £ a a p 
 
 ^ i© i© i© © a) 
 
 o 9 8 p rt > 
 
 o o o o o o 
 
 8 a a a a s 
 
 1 
 
 OQ 
 © 
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 © 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 • 03 
 
 
 nS 
 
 a 
 
 
 © 
 
 03 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 ^O 
 
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 a 
 
 o3 
 
 
 esj 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 .^ 3 
 
 
 - 8 a "S 
 
 O io3 io3 io3 o3 c3 
 
 I § § § a a 
 
 03 03 o3 03 03 o3 
 
109. Chap. XIV. — Examples of the four Conjugations. 103 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 a~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 «3 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 u 
 
 is 
 
 a 
 
 a ^ 
 
 d 
 
 03~ 
 
 o3 
 
 •03 io3 
 
 icS 
 
 e3 c3 
 
 m 
 
 ,T3 
 
 rQ ^ 
 
 r& 
 
 rO ^ 
 
 d 
 
 IS 
 
 <u cd 
 
 o 
 
 CD CD 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 T3 ^d 
 
 ^d 
 
 r£ r£ 
 
 ""d 
 
 d 
 
 d d 
 
 Pi 
 
 d 2 
 
 5 
 
 ,-e 
 
 c3 03 
 
 a 
 
 p3 c3 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .'S 
 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 *H 
 
 & 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S-i 
 
 0? 
 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 P 
 
 +a 
 
 P 
 
 a* 
 
 ■ CD 
 
 d 
 d 
 
 
 o3" 
 
 d 
 02 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 io3 
 
 ■03 
 
 io3 
 
 s 
 
 eS 
 
 
 02 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EH 
 
 ^Q 
 
 ^2 
 
 rO 
 
 r^ 
 
 pQ 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 103 
 
 CD 
 
 . i— i 
 
 CD 
 
 CD 
 
 a 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 '§ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fX| 
 
 '£ 
 
 *H 
 
 '£ 
 
 "£ 
 
 *£ 
 
 '£ 
 
 
 &3 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 OS 
 
 02 
 
 O 
 
 02 
 
 o 
 
 02 
 
 
 c 
 
 02 
 
 'a 
 
 p=l 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c5 
 
 a^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 oT 
 
 *H 
 
 d 
 
 '8 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 03" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S-i 
 
 
 a 
 
 "1 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 02" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c3 
 
 io3 
 
 io3 
 
 io3 
 
 e3 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,fi 
 
 r^ 
 
 rO 
 
 r^ 
 
 rQ 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 
 -h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7S 
 
 CD 
 
 0) 
 
 cd 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 PI 
 
 Pi 
 
 Pi 
 
 p 
 
 PI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 09 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !> 
 
 > 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o3 
 
 O 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pd 
 
 1—1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?-i 
 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-H 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 cd 
 
 
 O 
 
 --d 
 
 n5 
 
 CD 
 l> 
 O 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 ,. d 
 
 02 
 
 V> 
 02 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 o3 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 pfl 
 
 0) 
 
 .— 1 02 IS «3 
 
 CD 
 
 03 
 
 
 09 
 
 03 
 
 fn 
 
 d 
 
 '8 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 02 
 
 
 
 CD CD v^ 
 
 03 
 0? 
 
 
 
 
 
 03" 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 03 
 
 d 
 
 4J 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 
 +3 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
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 a 
 
 
 <& 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 io3 
 
 ic3 
 
 !~ 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 •r? 
 
 
 
 io3 
 
 ■S 
 
 •s 
 
 -a 
 
 -8 
 
 ■9 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-3 
 
 03 
 
 d 
 
 
 -3 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 B 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 s 
 
 03 
 
 ce 
 
 c3 
 
 o3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
304 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §•1 
 
 . 
 
 
 eg 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 eg 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 03 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 
 of 
 
 o 
 
 OB* 
 
 o 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 -I-» 
 
 <* 
 
 • i-H 
 
 
 ■73 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 03 
 
 P-l 
 
 03 
 
 I S 
 
 03 03 
 
 S Ph" w" 2 
 
 o ; +i 
 
 ^ 'E 9 
 P3 c S 
 
 hH* 
 
 a"* 
 
 03 
 Ph 
 
 03 
 
 ., a 
 
 5 3 
 
 03 r03 i Q3 
 
 ^3 ^3 ^3 
 
 2 5 s 
 
 03 03 03 
 
 ps 
 
 "3 
 
 Ph 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 
 
 id) 
 
 >03 
 
 0) 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 H3 
 
 ns 
 
 pj 
 
 P3 
 
 pS 
 
 OS 
 
 03 
 
 OS 
 
 X! 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 PL, 
 
 Prl 
 
 03 
 
 .3 
 
 Ph 
 
 P 
 
 |Q3 
 
 l-H 
 
 .o 
 
 *Q 
 
 rO 
 
 0Q, 
 
 "S 
 
 "B 
 
 'pH 
 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 S 
 
 «2 
 
 j» 
 
 cc 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 Ph" 
 
 
 
 
 t3 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 £3 
 
 
 
 
 P* 
 
 
 
 
 * fH H 
 
 o 3cu ^ 
 
 103 03 CD 
 
 5 a a 
 
 o o o 
 
 a a a 
 
 T3 
 
 oa Ph 
 
 
 
 
 ■fi ,.' 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 03 03 
 
 
 
 
 'U*& 
 
 
 
 
 03 •> 
 
 
 
 
 ° S 
 
 
 
 
 o a 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 103 
 
 
 
 
 o3 "r* 
 
 
 
 
 •S Ph 
 
 
 
 
 Ph cT 
 
 
 
 
 03 03 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 Ph 
 
 '3 
 
 U 
 
 tf 
 
 PS 
 
 P5 
 
 P$ 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 S3 
 
 Ph 103 
 
 103 
 
 103 
 
 03 
 
 mua 
 capi 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 03 
 
 a 
 
 Ph 
 Pi 
 
 a 
 
 *3 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 =2 
 
 rO 
 
 rO 
 
 pfi 
 
 OJ 
 
 03 
 
 OJ 
 
 a 
 
 Pi 
 
 Pi 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 O 303 iS 
 
 rO ,0 rO 
 
 ■ o3 o3 o5 
 
 § a a 
 
 03 o3 03 
 
 ,a.g g 
 
 rQ rQ rQ 
 
 03 C3 C3 
 
 a a a 
 
 o3 o3 o3 
 
 
Chap. XIV. — Examples of the four Conjugations. 105 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 
 1 
 
 d 
 1 
 
 03 
 
 icS 
 
 ic3 
 
 ice 
 
 c3 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rS 
 
 t5 
 
 ^s 
 
 ^3 
 
 ! 3 
 
 TJ 
 
 d 
 
 P 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 5 
 
 03 
 
 " o 
 
 Oh 
 
 DQ 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 "S 
 
 O 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 & 
 
 a"* H 
 
 p-j c3 io3 to3 
 
 § a £ a 
 
 3 B S S 
 
 £S «3 02 0G 
 
 3 
 
 d .9 
 
 ice cc3 c3 
 
 *£ >£ 'B 
 
 "K "5 *S 
 
 o o o 
 
 05 00 00 
 
 of . 
 
 d o 
 
 5 =3 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 ■a I 
 
 a 
 
 a -s 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 '5 
 
 ict) ie3 
 
 led 
 
 c3 03 
 
 
 0) 
 
 03 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 03 
 
 
 a 
 
 d d 
 
 d 
 
 d d 
 
 
 o 
 
 o g 
 
 o 
 
 o o 
 
 
 g 
 
 a a 
 
 a 
 
 a a 
 
 
 a» 
 
 § 
 
 i— i 
 
 » s 
 
 rC .03 
 
 >> a 
 
 eS 03 
 
 05 3 
 
 CD i03 i03 
 
 a a 
 
 03 03 
 
 o3 
 
 3 S 3 
 
 a a U 
 
 |Q3 03 03 
 
 o3 o3 03 
 
10G 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §• 109. 
 
 da 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 BO 
 
 Fh 
 
 F-, 
 
 "8 
 
 • iH 
 
 Fh 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 Fh 
 
 '£ 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 V, 
 
 CD 
 
 Iflp 
 
 icu 
 
 ■o) 
 
 o 
 
 9 
 
 <* 
 
 A 
 
 r^ 
 
 Fh 
 
 Fh 
 
 Fh 
 
 g 
 
 
 t3 
 
 £l 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^5 
 
 n3 
 
 
 g 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 p 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 o3 
 
 o3 
 
 o3 
 
 03 
 
 d 
 
 oS 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 
 Fh 
 
 FH 
 
 "fh 
 
 1 
 
 Fh 
 
 •a 
 a 
 
 ■a 
 
 o 
 
 EH 
 
 O 
 
 !CD 
 
 i4) 
 
 «43 
 
 4) 
 
 4) 
 
 
 Fh 
 
 Fh 
 
 Fh 
 
 Fh 
 
 Fh 
 
 FH 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 >0) 
 
 0) 
 
 O) 
 
 03 
 
 4) 
 
 4) 
 
 
 w 
 
 £ 
 
 ^2 
 
 ^3 
 
 pQ 
 
 «Q 
 
 «Q 
 
 
 
 '£ 
 
 'SI 
 
 "fi 
 
 "fl 
 
 "'Fh 
 
 "IS 
 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 cj 
 
 O 
 
 
 W 
 
 «J 
 
 QQ 
 
 OS 
 
 OB 
 
 03 
 
 in 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fh 
 
 4) 
 
 8 
 
 ca 
 o 
 
 Fh" 
 
 4) 
 Fh 
 
 4) 
 
 PI 
 
 «J 
 
 * u 
 
 Fh Fh HJ 
 
 4) 14) 14) 
 
 Fh Fh Fh 
 
 10) 0) 0) 
 
 Pi PI Pi 
 
 o o o 
 
 ass 
 
 1 
 
 a s 
 
 0) 10) i0) 
 
 S-h F-J FjH 
 
 ice 03 c3 
 
 ass 
 
 c3 o3 o3 
 
 0) 0) 
 PI Pi 
 
 Fh 
 
 
 
 "8 
 
 Fh 
 
 P 
 
 s 
 
 *§ 
 
 -s 
 
 ICU 
 
 0) 
 
 CO 
 
 Fh 
 
 Fh 
 
 Fh 
 
 03 
 
 c3 
 
 03 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 03 
 
 OS 
 
 03 
 
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 03 
 go 
 
 Chap. XIV .—Examples of the four Conjugations. 107 
 
 Bfl 
 
 S3 
 
 EH 
 
 O 
 
 cp 
 
 Ph 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■» 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ct 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f— 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PI 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 +3 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^T" 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 bJQ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 '§ 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 
 
 hH 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 co 
 
 
 n 
 
 hO 
 
 
 
 i-j 
 
 ■+-a 
 
 2 
 
 03 
 
 as 
 
 -iJ 
 
 S3 
 
 03 
 
 > 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 03 
 
 03 
 
 EH 
 
 o3 
 
 GO 
 
 SO 
 
 CO CO 
 
 SO 
 
 CO 
 
 ^ 
 
 so 
 
 ss 
 
 oo co 
 
 CO 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 13 
 
 03 03 
 
 03 
 
 
 m 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 e3 
 
 
 P* 
 
 — i 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 ±i 
 
 of 
 
 
 c3 
 
 •> 
 
 
 c3 
 
 ;3 
 
 
 a 
 
 ce 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 ce 
 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 i— i 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 33 ,p 3 
 
 
 H3 
 pS 
 o3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /-n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 %C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3<S> 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 3*> 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 -+J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■pi 
 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 "i 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 'p^ 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 rP 
 
 
 o3 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 .3 
 
 C3 
 
 
 H-3 
 
 PI 
 
 • rH 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 303 
 
 
 
 
 4-J 
 
 *Ph 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 PT 
 
 . 03 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 &JD 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 • rH 
 
 *j .pi 03 
 
 S g,S 
 
 303 .Pi p! 
 
 o 03 a 
 
 m cc fl 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 1 ° 
 
 p -(J 
 
 .3 
 
 Vt-3 
 
 i— i 
 
 S! 
 
 PS 
 
 EH 
 
 c3 
 
 P5 
 EH 
 
 H-3 
 
 Pi 
 c3 
 
 3rH 
 
 r2 
 "?h 
 
 o 
 m 
 
 i'a 
 
 03 
 
 Ph 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 PH 
 
 PS 
 
 3 
 
 l-H 
 
 d 
 cm 
 
 
 P=J 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 O 
 
 
 cc 
 03 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 h-T 
 
 co 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 "§ 
 
 JH 
 
 a» 
 H 
 
 03 '3 
 Pi Pi 
 
 o o 
 
 a a 
 
 03 
 5> 
 O 
 
 
 d 
 
 "i 
 
 Ph 
 03 
 
 U 
 O 
 -u 
 103 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 03 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o3 
 
 Ph 
 O 
 
 HH> 
 
 PS 
 
 03 
 Pi 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 — . Ph 
 
 03 pj 
 > c3 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 -s a 
 
 
 
 
 
 -° -a 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 '§ 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 io3 c3 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a a 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S3 S 
 
 
 
 o3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c* w 
 
 
 
 C3 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 bb Ph 
 
 m Ph 
 
 
 
 fcJD 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 p2 
 
108 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §. 109- 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 a? 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 © 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 ■f 
 
 
 «T 
 
 • fH 
 
 3 
 
 Sh 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 nb 
 
 ^3 
 
 PS 
 
 3 
 
 C3 
 
 c« 
 
 •s 
 
 CJ 
 
 G 
 
 fl 
 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 to 
 
 
 <u 
 
 ^3 
 
 -O 
 
 s 
 
 O 
 
 cS 
 
 
 T3 
 
 CO 
 
 S 
 
 t— i 
 
 
 £ § 
 
 !3 © 
 
 
 ■g\S 
 
 CO 3 
 
 h3 
 
 g 
 o 
 
 r— I 
 © 
 
 a S a" 
 
 2 © 
 
 £ g 
 
 ■s J 
 
 a" 5 
 
 
 © © 
 
 O 
 
 03 m 
 
 © 
 e8 22 
 
 © fl 
 oo c3 
 
 <3 © 
 
 I* 
 
 © 
 
 o 
 
 3 «1 
 o 
 
 .52 « 
 
•110. Chap. XV.— Deponent Verbs. 109 
 
 1 CONJUG. 2 CONJUG. 3 CONJUG. 4 CONJUG. 
 
 E. PARTICIPLE. 
 PERFECT. 
 (Termination us, affixed to the supine, after rejecting urn.) 
 amatus, a, um, monitus scriptus audltus 
 
 loved. minutus 
 
 GERUNDIVE (FUTURE). 
 (Termination in the 1st and 2nd Conj. ndus, in the 3rd and 4th endus.) 
 amandus, a, um, monendus scribendus audiendus. 
 
 that is to be 
 loved. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Verbs with a Passive Form and Active Signification ( Verba depo- 
 
 nentia) . 
 
 §. 110. Various verbs in Latin have a passive form with an 
 active signification, in some cases transitive, in others intransitive, 
 e. g. hortor, I exhort, morior, I die. They are called verba depo- 
 nentia (literally, laying down, from depono, because they lay down 
 the active form). 
 
 Obs. 1. The form of the deponents is to be explained by the considera- 
 tion, that the form, which is now passive, had not at first definitively and 
 exclusively this signification. Some verbs, which are reckoned among 
 the deponents, are, however, actual passives from active verbs in use, with 
 a signification somewhat modified, e. g. pasci, to graze (intrans.), from 
 pasco, to graze (trans, to lead to pasture), to fodder. Some verbs occur 
 both as deponents and in the active form. See Chap. 21. 
 
 Obs. 2. The verbs audeo, I dare, Jldo, I trust {confido, diffldo), gaudeo, 
 I rejoice, soleo, I am accustomed, have in the participle perfect an active 
 signification, and form with it the perfect and the tenses derived from it 
 in a passive form (with an active signification) ; ausus sum, Jlsus sum, 
 gavisus sum, solitus sum ; pluperf. indie, ausus eram, conjunct, ausus 
 essem, &c. They are therefore half deponents, semideponentia. (Concern- 
 ing^, see §. 160. Placeo too and some impersonal verbs of the second 
 conjugation have in the perfect a passive as well as an active form ; see 
 §. 128 a. Obs. 1. and §. 166.) A few others, e.g. revertor, I turn back, 
 have a deponent form in the present, but an active form on the other hand 
 in the perfect, reverti. See under verto, §. 139, and perio, §. 145. 
 
 Obs. 3. Some few active verbs with an intransitive signification have 
 
110 Inflection of Words. §. 110-|y 
 
 notwithstanding the perfect participle (but no other form) in the passive, 
 and this participle has then an active signification, e. g.juratus, one who 
 has sworn, from juro, I swear (injuratus, one that has not sworn, conju- 
 ratus, a conspirator, from conjuro), coenatus, one that has dined, from 
 coeno, I dine. The others are adultus, cretus, coalitus, exoletus, invete- 
 ratus, nupta, obsoletus, potus, pransus, svetus, each of which, with its 
 verb, is adduced in Chaps. 17, 18, 19. More rare are conspiratus from 
 conspiro, I combine, conspire, deflagratus from deflagro, I burn down 
 (intrans.), placitus, assumed, approved of, from placeo. In Sallust pace 
 conventa, from, pax convenit*. 
 
 §. 111. The deponents are referred according to their character- 
 istics to one of the four conjugations, and inflected according to 
 the ordinary passive form of each conjugation. The supine and 
 perfect participle are formed from the theme as in active verbs. 
 Besides the supine, they have also the present and future participle 
 in the active form, so that a deponent has three participles with an 
 active signification for the three leading tenses. The future con- 
 junctive and infinitive are compounded from the future participle 
 as in active verbs. 
 
 The gerundive, unlike the other forms, retains a passive signifi- 
 cation as hortandus, that is to be exhorted. It is formed therefore 
 only from transitive deponents ; but the intransitives also have a 
 gerund (with an active signification, §. 97). 
 
 Ohs. The deponents pascor, vehor, versor, which are properly the pas- 
 sives of active verbs in use, have the participles pascens, veJiens, versans, 
 not only in the signification belonging to them in the active, but also in 
 that which they have as deponents. 
 
 §. 112. The following are examples of deponents of all four 
 conjugations in all tenses and moods. 
 
 £ Consider -atus, considered, and (as an adjective), considerate. 
 
12. 
 
 Chap. XV. — Deponent Verbs. 
 
 Ill 
 
 
 *H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '*£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cd 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ha 
 
 O 
 
 I divi 
 &c, 1 
 
 Sh 
 
 a 
 
 co 
 
 1 
 
 ?H 
 
 
 o 
 SH 
 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 -> «T 
 
 c3 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 I» 
 
 <* 
 
 _o Sh 
 
 _lCD 
 
 P 
 
 +3 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 P 
 
 4-3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • t— i 
 
 
 
 "•4J IS 
 
 VE» 
 
 4J 
 
 +3 
 
 -u 
 
 4-3 
 
 
 *H Sh 
 
 ?H 
 
 SH 
 
 sh 
 
 a 
 
 Sh 
 
 
 c3 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 
 Ph Ph 
 
 S^ 
 
 Ph 
 
 Ph 
 
 pi 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 o 
 
 GO 
 50 
 CD 
 
 ' 02 
 
 QG 
 
 
 Sh 
 
 r/l 
 
 »2 
 
 ?H 
 
 Sh 
 
 CJ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 03 
 
 Sh 
 
 -P 
 
 +-> 
 
 -M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 +3 
 
 4-3 
 
 +j 
 
 +J 
 
 4-: 
 
 PH 
 
 fH 
 
 SH 
 
 Sh 
 
 Sh 
 
 KS 
 
 ca 
 
 ed 
 
 :i 
 
 ea 
 
 &4 &4 P* &4 P* 
 
 .Sh 4-3 
 
 P^ P^ 
 
 
 
 S «^ 
 
 fa *■* 
 
 O 3CL) 
 
 +3 4-3 
 
 pi P 
 
 03 
 
 _Q CO 
 
 To ps 
 
 -4-3 GO 
 
 pi Pi 
 
 03 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 SH 
 
 
 
 
 CU 
 
 
 CD 
 
 W 
 
 
 sh 
 
 CD 
 
 Pi 
 
 s 
 
 Pi 
 
 i—i 
 
 O 
 
 Sh 
 
 05 
 
 Sh 
 
 JCD 
 
 
 
 GO 
 
 -1-3 
 
 +J 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 «J GO 
 
 pi Pi 
 
 GO 05 
 
 Pi Pi 
 
 Pi Pi 
 
 Sh 
 M 
 
 <£ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Pi 
 
 GO 
 
 a 
 
 c3 
 Sh 
 
 CD 
 
 
 o 
 
 Sh 
 CD 
 
 
 
 3 g 
 
 'w 
 
 a 
 
 CD 
 w 
 
 CD 
 
 J 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 4-3 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 GO 
 '£ 
 
 ■ CD 
 
 3 
 Ph 
 
 A 
 ■CD 
 
 GO 
 
 P 
 +3 
 
 93 
 
 Pi 
 
 s 
 
 •CD 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 CD 
 
 Sh 
 
 s 
 
 CO 
 
 ■+3 
 
 
 CD 
 
 s 
 
 sh 
 
 &H 
 
 Sh 
 
 'SH 
 
 'Sh 
 
 N 
 
 *5h 
 
 Sh 
 
 Sh 
 
 Sh 
 
 Sh 
 
 'I* 
 
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 103 
 
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 loa 
 
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 103 
 
 103 
 
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112 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §• til 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 <£ 
 
 
 6 
 
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 qT 
 
 
 
 
 
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 GO 
 
 
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 '■+3 !+3 "+3 *+3 
 
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 ft ft ft p. 
 
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 8 
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 5 £ 
 
 
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 ft Ph P^ G 
 
 II 
 
-114. Chap. XVI. — Peculiarities in the Conjugation. 113 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Some Peculiarities in the Conjugation. 
 
 §. 113. a. In the perfect and the tenses formed from it in the 
 first conjugation, if r or s follows ve or vi, the v may be omitted, 
 and a with the e or i contracted into a, e. g. amarunt, amarim, 
 amasti, amasse, for amaverunt, amaverim, amavisti, amavisse. So 
 also ve and vi may be dropped before r and s in perfects in evi 
 (from irregular verbs of the second and third conjug.), and the 
 tenses formed from them, e. g. flestis, nerunt, deleram, for flevistis, 
 never unt, deleveram, deer esse for decrevisse (from decerno), and in 
 the perfects novi from nosco, and movi from moveo with their com- 
 pounds, e. g. norim, nosse, commosse. (But always novero.) 
 
 b. In the perfects in ivi and the tenses formed from them, v may 
 be left out before e, e. g. definieram, qvaesierat, for definiveram } qvae- 
 siverat, from definio, qvaero (perf. irregular qvaesivi) : also before i, 
 when followed by s, in which case ii in prose is almost always con- 
 tracted into i, e. g. audissem, petisse (poetically petiisse), sisti } for 
 audivissem, petivisse, sivisti. More rarely (in the poets) v is left 
 out before it (iit for ivit), e. g. aw^ii^ for audivit. 
 
 Obs. 1. The form w£ occurs not unfrequently m petiit (peto), and is the 
 only one used in desiit (desino), and in the compounds of eo, e. g. rediit. 
 In these compounds the formed is also always used in the first person, e. g. 
 praeterii, peril. See under eo, §. 158. Otherwise this is quite unusual. 
 {Petii for petivi.) 
 
 Obs. 2. In the later poets we find, but rarely, for redii and petiit, the 
 contracted form also redl, petit, although not followed by s. 
 
 Ois. 3. In the perfects in si {xi) and the tenses formed from them, a 
 syncope is sometimes admitted in the older style and by the poets (even 
 Horace and Virgil), when an s follows si, the * being omitted, and either 
 one or two s dropped according to §. 10, e. g. scripsti for scripsisti, absces- 
 sem for abscessissem, dixe, consumpset, accestis, for dixisse, consumpsisset, 
 accessistis. 
 
 §. 114. a. In the third person plural of the perf. indie, act. ere 
 (rarely in Cicero) is also used for erunt {amavere, monuere, dixere i 
 audivere), in which case the v cannot be omitted. In erunt the 
 poets sometimes use the e short, e. g. steterunt (Virg.). 
 
 b. In the second person singular in the passive (except in the 
 present indicative) the termination re is very usual for ris (in Cicero 
 
 Q 
 
114 Inflection of Words. §. 114— 
 
 it is the one most commonly used) ; in the pres. indie, (e. g. arbi- 
 trcire, videre) it is rare (in the third conjugation very seldom, and 
 in the fourth never used) . 
 
 c. The verbs dico, I say, duco, I lead, facio, I do, make, fero, I 
 bring, of the third conjugation, have in the present imperative 
 active, die, due, fac, fer, without e, and in like manner the compounds 
 of duco (educ), fero {offer, refer), and those of facio, in which the a re- 
 mains unchanged {calefac, but confice : see under facio, §. 143). 
 
 Obs. Face sometimes occurs in the poets, more rarely duce and dice. 
 From scio (4th Conjug.) sci is unused, scite rare : for these we find the 
 future scito, scitote. 
 
 According to an older pronunciation the gerundive in the third 
 and fourth conjugation has also the termination undus instead of 
 endus, e. g. juri dicundo, potiundus. 
 
 §. 115. {Obsolete forms of tenses.) a. In the old language and in the 
 poets the pres. inf. passive sometimes ends in ier instead of *, e. g. ama- 
 rier, scribier. 
 
 b. The imperf. indie, active and passive of the fourth conjugation had 
 sometimes in the more ancient language the terminations bam, bar, instead 
 of ebam, ebar, e. g. scibam, largibar (from the deponent largior). 
 
 c. The future indie, active and passive of the fourth conjugation had 
 sometimes in the older style the endings Ibo, ibor, instead of», iar, e. g. 
 servibo, opperibor (from the deponent opperior). 
 
 d. In the present conjunct, active we find an old termination im, is, it, 
 especially in the word edim, occasionally used for edam, from edo, I eat, 
 and in duim from the verb do, with its compounds, particularly in prayers 
 and execrations ; di duint, di te perduint (Cic). 
 
 Obs. This termination was retained in sim, and in velim, nolim, onalim 
 (as in the conj. of the perf. and fut. exact.). 
 
 e. The future imper. passive in the second and third person singular 
 was anciently formed also by affixing to the theme the termination mino 
 (in the third conjug. imino), e. g. praefamino, from the deponent praefari, 
 progredimino from progredior. 
 
 f. In place of the usual future another was formed in the older language 
 in the first, second (rare), and third conjugation, by affixing to the theme 
 the termination so (in the first and second conjugation sso), as, levasso 
 (levo), prohibesso (prohibeo), axo {ago). In verbs of the third conjugation 
 in io the i was dropped ; capso, faxo, from capio, facio, and the same 
 modifications were introduced for the sake of euphony as in the formation 
 of perfects in si, e. g. adempso from adimo, ejfexo from efficio, like ejfectum, 
 
"—117. Chap. XVII. — Perfects and Supines of the first Conjugation. 115 
 
 because it is a close syllable. Those verbs of the second conjugation, 
 which follow the third in the perfect, do so also in this, e. g.jusso from 
 
 juleo (perf. jussi) . From this future there was formed a conjunctive in 
 im (levassim, prohibessim, faxini), e. g. ne nos curassis, ' don't trouble 
 yourself about us.' The language in its more refined state retained from 
 
 facio the fut. indie, faxo (in the first person, in the poets, in threats and 
 promises), and the fut. conjunc. faxim (in wishes, as a pres. conjunc. 
 
 faxis, faxit, faximus, faxitis, faxint), and from audeo the fut. conj. ausim 
 (in doubtful assertions, I might venture, ausis, ausit, ausint). 
 
 g. A participle is formed from some verbs, mostly intransitive 
 (both active and deponent), by adding to the theme bundus, {a, 
 u?n), in the third conjng. ibundus, e. g. coniionabundus, cunctabun- 
 dus, deliberabimdus (from contionor, cunctor, delibero), furibundus, 
 moribundus (from furo, morior, 3 ; fremebundus, tremebundus, with 
 e, from fremo, tremo ; pudibundus from pudet, 2). It has the signi- 
 fication of the present active. 
 
 Obs. This participle is rarely found with an accusative, e. g. vitabundus 
 castra (Liv. XXV. 13). 
 
 §. 116. By a combination of the participle future active and the 
 participle perfect passive with the tenses of the verb sum, more ex- 
 pressions may be formed than those adduced above (which corre- 
 spond to the several tenses of the indicative) to denote special rela- 
 tions of time, e. g. dicturus sum, I am he that will say=I am about 
 to say, dicturus eram, I was about to say, po situs fui, I have been 
 placed. For the use and force of these combinations see the Syn- 
 tax (§. 341-314, 381, and 409). 
 
 Similar combinations are formed from the gerundive and sum, 
 which express something as fitting in the different moods and 
 tenses, e. g. faciendum est or erat, it is (was) to be done, it must be 
 done (ought to have been done). See on this subject the Syn- 
 tax (§. 420 and 421). 
 
 All these combinations are comprised under the name conjugatio 
 periphrastica, periphrastic conjugation. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Of the irregular Perfects and Supines in general, and especially 
 those of the first Conjugation. 
 
 §. 117. Some verbs, though they have the perfect and supine 
 (participle perfect) with the terminations specified in §. 103 and 
 
 q2 
 
116 Inflection of Words, §• 117- 
 
 §. 105, do not form tliem regularly from the theme, as exhibited 
 in the present, some modification being introduced, e. g. fregi from 
 frango (with the termination i, and lengthening of the vowel ac- 
 cording to §. 103, but with the omission of the n). To the theme 
 so altered there is often affixed the termination of a conjugation 
 different from that, to which the theme of the present belongs, 
 e. g.jiivo, I help, /wvare (1), perfect juvi, with i, as if from a theme 
 of the third conjugation (juv) ; peto, I beg, petere (3), perfect pe- 
 tivi, with vi, as if from a theme in i (4), supine petitum ; so like- 
 wise seco } I cut, secdre (1), supine sectum, as if from a theme of the 
 third conjugation (sec). When the perfect and supine (part, perf.) 
 of these verbs are known, the other tenses, which are determined 
 by these (§. 104 and 106), are formed regularly from them. 
 
 Compound verbs are declined like the simple (uncompounded) 
 verbs, from which they are derived. Those simple verbs therefore, 
 which are irregular in the perfect and supine, are specially noticed 
 below for each conjugation. Some want either both perfect and 
 supine, or the supine alone, and consequently those tenses also 
 which are derived from them. 
 
 §. 118. The variation of the perfect and supine from the present gene- 
 rally originated in the circumstance, that those were formed from the 
 more simple and ancient theme, while the theme used in the present was 
 extended from the original by modifying the pronunciation. This exten- 
 sion consists most frequently either in the addition of a vowel after the 
 final consonant (characteristic letter) of the theme, e. g. sona (pres. indie. 
 sono, I sound, infin. sonar e (1) for son (perf. sonui, sup. soriitum) ; ride 
 (rideo, I laugh, 2) for rid (perf. risi, sup. risum) ; veni (venio, I come, 4) 
 for ven (perf. veni, sup. ventum), or in the insertion of the letter n, some- 
 times after a vowel, e. g. si-no, I permit (3), perf. si-vi, sometimes before 
 a consonant, in which case it may also be changed by the pronunciation 
 tow (according to §. 8), e. g. frango, perf. fregi, rumpo, perf. rupi z .) 
 The theme of the present is reduplicated in gigno (genui, genitum, from 
 gen) and sisto. A peculiar extension of the theme is the terminal affix sco ; 
 see §. 141. In consequence of this extension in the present, many verbs 
 which there have the characteristics a, e, i (1, 2, 4 Conjug.) have a perfect 
 and supine according to the form of the third conjug., and some of which 
 the characteristic letter is a consonant in the present, form their perfect and 
 supine as if from a theme ending in a vowel. In uro, gero (us-si, ges-si, 
 us-turn, ges-tum), and some others, the theme in the present has not been 
 
 s The insertion takes a peculiar form in cemo, sperno, sterno, perf. crevi, sprevi, 
 st'-avi. 
 
117. Chap. XVII. — Perfects and Supines of the first Conjugation. 117 
 
 extended, but modified with a view to euphony. (In the perfect and su- 
 pine oifluo, struo, veJw, traho, vivo, we meet with a consonant, which in the 
 present has either been rejected altogether, or weakened, as h, or appears 
 in another form as v.) Some apparent irregularities in the perfect and 
 supine arise only from the concurrence of the characteristic and the termi- 
 nation si in the pronunciation. 
 
 The supine sometimes exhibits a remarkable irregularity, in having turn 
 (without any connecting vowel, not, as usual, itum) where the perfect has 
 ui (§. 105. Ohs. 2). 
 
 Ohs. It is to be remarked of the supine, that this form rarely occurs, 
 and the supines of many verbs are consequently not found in Latin au- 
 thors ; but we have here considered them to be in use wherever the part, 
 perf. passive or the part. fut. active occurs, as these are moulded after the 
 same form. 
 
 §. 119. (First Conjugation.) In the first conjugation the follow- 
 ing verbs (with their compounds) have in the perfect and supine 
 ui, itum. 
 
 Obs. The compound verb annexed in each instance serves to fix the 
 correct pronunciation of the radical syllable, when there is no position, 
 and shows at the same time how the vowel is altered in the composition, 
 if such a change takes place (according to §. 5, c). 
 
 Crepo (crepui, crepitum), to creak, make a noise. Discrepo. 
 Cubo, to lie. Accubo h . 
 
 Ohs. When the compounds of cubo insert an m before h, e. g. incumbo, 
 they are declined according to the third conjugation, and acquire the sig- 
 nification to lay oneself '(to pass over into the condition of lying), e. g. ac- 
 cumbo, aceumbere, accubui, accubitum ; accumbit, he lays himself by, accu- 
 bat, he lies by. 
 
 Domo, to tame. Perdomo. 
 
 Sono, to sound (part. fut. act. sonaturus ; §. 106. Obs. 2). Con- 
 sono. 
 
 Tono, to thunder. Attono (attonitus, as if struck by thunder, 
 stunned). (Intono has for its part, intonatus.) 
 
 Veto, to forbid. 
 
 (Plico, to fold.) It is found only in its compounds (applico, to 
 apply, complico, to fold together, explico, to unfold, implico, to fold 
 in, entangle, replico, to unfold) which have both ui, itum, and avi, 
 
 h Incubavit for incubuit in Quinctilian. 
 
118 Inflection of Words. §.119- 
 
 atum. (Generally the perfect has ui, the supine atum ; but eocpli- 
 cavi usually occurs in the signification to explain, and applicavi.) 
 
 §. 120. The following verbs have the terminations ui, turn: 
 Frico, to vub, fricui, fric turn (but also fric atum) . Perfrtco. 
 
 Seco, to cut. (Part. fut. active, secaturus : §. 106. Obs. 2.) 
 Disseco. 
 
 Mico, to glitter, has micui, without a supine. Emico, emicui, 
 emicatum. Dimico, to fight, dimicavi, dimicatum. 
 
 Eneco, from neco, to kill (necavi, necatum), has both enecui, 
 enectum, and enecavi. 
 
 §. 121. The following should be separately noticed : 
 
 Do, to give, dedi (with the reduplication), datum, dare. In this 
 verb the a of the theme is always short, except in da and das. So 
 also the compounds circumdo, to surround, venundo, to sell (venum, 
 for sale), pessundo, to throw down (pessum, downwards, to the 
 ground), satisdo, to give security (satis, enough), e. g. circumdedi, 
 circumddtum. The remaining compounds (with prepositions of one 
 syllable) are declined after the third conjugation; see §. 133. 
 (Duim, §. 115, d.) 
 
 Juvo, to help, juvi, jutum. (Part. fut. act. juvaturus ; §. 106. 
 Obs. 2. Adjuvo.) 
 
 Sto, to stand, steti, stdtum. The compounds change the e of the 
 perfect into i, as praesto, to stand for (to give security), to perform, 
 praestiti, praestatum, persto, to persevere ; only those compounded 
 with prepositions of two syllables [antesto, circumsto, intersto, su- 
 persto) retain e, e. g. circumsteti, but have no supine. Disto is with- 
 out either perfect or supine. 
 
 Lavo, to wash, bathe, without a perfect, which is borrowed from 
 lavo, lavere, lam, lautum (lotum), after the third conjug., the present 
 of which is antiquated and only used by the poets. (Lautus, lotus, 
 washed, clean, lautus, splendid.) In the compounds it takes the form 
 luo, (e. g. abluo) after the third conjugation (§. 130). 
 
 Toto, to drink, potavi, pot atum, and more often potum (potus, one 
 that has drunk ; §.110. Obs. 3). Epoto. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 The Irregular Perfects and Supines of the second Conjugation. 
 
 §. 122. The following verbs affix vi and turn to the theme in the 
 Perfect and Supine (as in the first and fourth conjugation) : 
 
'-125. Chap. XVIII. — Perfectsand Supines of the second Conjugation. 119 
 
 Deleo, to blot out, destroy, delevi, deletum. 
 
 Fleo, to weep. 
 
 Neo, to spin. 
 
 (Pleo, to fill) . Used only in its compounds, as compleo, eccpleo, 
 impleo, &c. 
 
 Aboleo, to abolish (from the unused oleo, to grow), has abolevi, 
 abolitum. 
 
 Obs. These verbs are throughout verba pura, as (with the exception of 
 abolitum) they have everywhere the vowel e as a characteristic letter be- 
 fore the termination ; see §. 101. 
 
 §. 123. The verbs in veo have i in the perfect (with the radical 
 vowel lengthened), turn in the supine. 
 
 Cdveo, to beware, cavi, cautum. Praecaveo (pr deceives). 
 
 Faveo, to favour, favi, fautum. 
 
 Foveo, to cherish, foster, fovi, fotum. 
 
 Moveo, to move, rnovi, motion. Commoveo (commoves). Com- 
 mosti, commosse ; see §. 113, a.) 
 
 Voveo, to vow, wish, vovi, votum. Devoveo (devoves). 
 
 The following want the supine : 
 
 Conniveo, to close the eyes, close one eye, connivi or connioci 
 (both forms little used). 
 
 Ferveo, to glow, boil, fervi and (especially in the compounds) 
 ferbui. (Anciently fervo, fewer e, 3.) 
 
 Paveo, to be afraid, pdvi. 
 
 The following have the terminations ui in the perfect, and turn 
 in the supine : 
 
 Doceo, to teach, docui, doctum. Dedoceo (dedoces). 
 
 Teneo, to hold, tenui [tentum) . The supine and forms derived from 
 it are little used, except in the compounds defineo, obtineo, and retineo. 
 Contentus (contineo) is used only as an adjective. 
 
 MisceOj to mix, miscui, mixtum and mistum. 
 
 Torreo, to dry up, burn, torrui, tostum. 
 
 The following has ui and sum : 
 
 Censeo, to think, estimate, censui, censum. Of the compounds 
 (e. g. accenseo) recenseo has in the supine both recensum and recen- 
 situm. 
 
 §. 125. The following have i in the perfect, and sum in the 
 supine (as in the third conjugation) : 
 
 Prandeo, to breakfast, prandi, pransum. {Pransus, one that has 
 breakfasted; §.110. Obs. 3.) 
 
 Sedeo, to sit, sedi, sessum. Assideo (assides). Compare sido, §. 133. 
 
120 Inflection of Words. §.125- 
 
 Possideo, to possess, or take possession of, possedi, possessum. 
 
 Video, to see, vidi, visum. Invideo (to envy), invides. 
 
 Strideo, to hiss, whistle, strldi, without supine : also strido, stri- 
 dere, 3. 
 
 So also, but with the reduplication, which is dropped in the 
 compounds, 
 
 Mordeo, to bite, momordi, morsum. (Demordeo, demordi.) 
 
 Pendeo, to hang, pependi, pensum. (Impendeo, to hang over, 
 impend, impendi). Compare pendo, 3. to hang, trans. 
 
 Spondeo, to vow, promise, spopondi, sponsum. (The compounds 
 without reduplication, spondi, e. g. respondeo, to answer, respondi, 
 responsum). 
 
 TondeOy to shear, totondi, tonsum. Attondeo, to clip (attondi, 
 attonsum). 
 
 §. 126. a. The following have si in the perfect, and turn in the 
 supine' : 
 
 Augeo, to increase, auoci, auctum. 
 
 Indulgeo, to be disposed to overlook, give oneself up (e. g. to a 
 passion), indulsi, indultum. 
 
 Torqveo, to twist, torsi, tortum. 
 
 b. The following have si in the perfect, and sum in the supine : 
 Ardeo, to burn (intrans.), arsi, arsum. 
 
 Haereo, to adhere, hang fast, haesi, haesum. Adhaereo. 
 Jubeo, to order, jussi, jussum. 
 
 Maneo, to remain, mansi, mansum. Permdneo (permdnes). 
 Mulceo, to stroke, mulsi, mulsum. 
 
 Mulgeo,tomi]k,mulsi, mulsum. (The substantives mulctra, mulctrum, 
 and mulctral, a milk-pail, as if from mulctum). 
 
 Rideo, to laugh, risi, risum. Arrldeo (arrides). 
 Svddeo, to advise, svasi, svasum. Persvddeo (persvddes). 
 Tergeo, to dry, to wipe, tersi, tersum. (Also tergo, tergere, 3.) 
 
 c. The following have si in the perfect, without a supine : 
 Algeo, to freeze, alsi. 
 Frigeo, to be cold, frixi. 
 
 Fulgeo, to shine, glitter, fulsi. (In the poets fulgo, fulgere, 3.) 
 Luceo, to give light, shine, luxi, Eluceo (elucet). 
 Lugeo, to mourn, luxi. (The substantive luctus, mourning.) 
 Turgeo, to swell, tursi (very rare in the perfect). 
 Urgeo, to press, ursi. 
 
 ' c, g, qv after r or I are dropped before 5 and t. 
 
 
128. Chap. XVIII. — Perfects and Supines of the 2nd Conjugation. 121 
 
 §. 127. The following must be separately noticed: 
 CieOj to stir up, excite, c~ivi, citum ; also do, cire, 4, but always 
 citum. 
 
 Ohs. In the compounds, e. g. concieo or concio, the forms that follow the 
 second conjugation are scarcely used except in the pres. indie. Accire, 
 to fetch, has in the participle accitus, exc'ire both excitus and excitus. 
 (Concitus is rare.) 
 
 Langveo, to be languid, sick, langui, without supine. 
 
 IAqveo, to be clear, liqvi or licui, without supine; together with 
 the half deponents (§. 110. Obs. 2.) ; 
 
 Audeo, to dare, ausus sum, (Old fut. conjunct, ausim, §. 115 f.) 
 
 Gaudeo, to rejoice, gavlsus sum. 
 
 Soleo, to be accustomed, solitus sum. Assolet (impers.), it is the 
 custom. 
 
 §. 128. a. Many of the remaining verbs of this conjugation 
 (chiefly intransitive) have a regular perfect, but no supine, e. g. 
 oleo, to smell, have a scent (redoleo, reddles\ sorbeo, to sip. (Those 
 which have a supine, and are declined entirely like moneo, are the 
 following : caleo, to be warm, careo, to be without, coerceo, to 
 restrain, and exerceo, to exercise (from a?*ceo, arcui, to ward off), 
 debeo, to owe, be obliged, doleo, to be in pain, grieve, hdbeo, to hav& 
 (adhibeo, adhibes, &cc.),jdceo, to lie (adjdceo, adjdees), liceo, to be 
 on sale, mereo, to deserve (also mereor), noceo, to injure, pareo, to 
 obey (appdreo, appdres, to appear), pldceo, to please {displiceo, dis- 
 plices, to displease) , praebeo, to afford, tdceo, to be silent (reticeo, 
 retices, to be silent, to suppress), terreo, to frighten, valeo, to be 
 strong, to be able. 
 
 Ohs. 1. Placeo however has also in the perfect (in the 3rd person) 
 placitus est. 
 
 Obs. 2. In that portion of these verbs which is intransitive, the supine 
 is known only from the future part., e. g. caliturus, cariturus. 
 
 b. Some verbs (almost all intransitive) occur neither in the per- 
 fect nor in the supine, viz. adoleo, to set fire to, aveo, to covet, desire, 
 calveo, to be bald (calvus), caneo, to be grey-headed {canus), clueo, to be 
 named, denseo, to thicken, heap up (commonly densare, 1), Jlaveo, to be 
 yellow (flavus),foeteo, to be fetid, liebeo, to be blunt (Jiebes), Jmmeo, to be 
 moist (Jiumidus), lacteo, to suck (the breast), liveo, to be of a livid colour 
 (lividus), imnuneo, to bend over, threaten, promtneo to jut out {emlneo, 
 eminui, to be prominent), moereo, to be sad, polleo, to be powerful, renldeo, 
 to glitter, smile, scateo, to gush out, sqvaleo, to be dirty (sqvalidus), vegeo 
 
 R 
 
122 Inflection of Words. §.128— 
 
 (rare), to stir up, vieo (rare), to plait. Others acquire a perfect, when 
 they assume the inchoative form (see §. 141), e. g. areo, to be dry, aresco, 
 to become dry, arui, I became dry. 
 
 Obs, On the impersonal verbs of the second conjugation see Chapter 
 24. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Perfects and Supines of the third Conjugation. 
 
 §. 129. The verbs of the third conjugation have various forms in 
 the perfect and supine (see §. 103 and 105), and are consequently 
 all enumerated here, arranged according to the characteristic 
 letter, so as to shew to which form every (simple) verb belongs. 
 
 §. 130. a. Verbs in uo have i in the perfect, and turn in the supine, 
 as minuo, to lessen, minui, minutum. (So acuo 3 to sharpen, imbuo, 
 to steep, give a taste of something, induo, to clothe, put on, exuo, 
 to put off, spuo, to spit, statuo, to set up, determine, sternuo, to 
 sneeze, suo, to sew, tribuo, to impart.) In like manner also solvo, 
 to loose, pay, solvi, solutum, and volvo, to roll, volvi, volutum. 
 
 b. The following want the supine : 
 
 Arguo, to accuse. {Argutus, adj., sharp, clever.) Coarguo. 
 JBatuo, to beat, fence. 
 Luo, to expiate. 
 
 Obs. Of the compounds which have the signification to wash, to rinse 
 (see §. 121), some have the part, perfect, viz. abilities, dilutus, elutus,per- 
 liitus, prolutus. (Luiturus belongs to a late period.) 
 
 (Nuo, to nod.) Used only in composition, e. g. renuo. (But 
 abnuo has abnuiturus. 
 
 Congruo, to meet, to agree, and ingruo, to invade, impend over. 
 
 Metuo, to fear. 
 
 Pluo (generally impersonal ; pluit, it rains.) (The perfect is also 
 written pluvi.) 
 
 Ruo, to fall, throw down (generally intransitive), has the supine 
 rutum (part. perf. 7 , utus) > but the part. fut. act. ruiturus (§. 106. 
 Obs. 2). The compounds are partly transitive, as e. g. diruo, part. 
 diriltus, obruo, part, obrutus, partly intransitive, as corruo, irruo. 
 
 c. The following are irregular : 
 
 FIuo, to flow, fluxi, without a supine. {Fluocus, loose, slack; 
 fluctus } a wave). 
 
 Struo, to heap up, build, struxi, structum. 
 Vivo, to live, vixi, vie turn. 
 
-132. Chap. XIX. — Perfects and Supines of the 3d Conjugation. 123 
 
 §. 131. a. The verbs in bo and po have regularly si {psi), turn 
 (ptum); viz. 
 
 Glubo, to peel, glupsi, ghiptum. Beglubo. 
 
 Niibo, to marry (of women). (Part, nupta, married.) Obnubo, 
 to cover with a veil. 
 
 Scrlbo, to write. Describo. 
 
 Carpo, to pluck. Decerpo. 
 
 Clepo, to steal. (Rare and antiquated.) 
 
 Repo, to creep. Obrepo. 
 
 Scalpo, to scratch, scrape, cut (with a chisel), and sculpo, to form 
 (with the chisel). (Properly the same word; the compounds always 
 have u (compare §. 5. c), e. g. insculpo.) 
 
 Serpo, to creep. 
 
 b. The following deviate from this rule : 
 
 [Gumbo.) The compounds of cubo with m inserted (see §. 119), 
 e. g. incumbo, incubui, incubitum. 
 
 Rumpo, to break, rupi, ruptum. 
 
 St?*epo, to make a noise, strepui, strepitum. Obstrepo. 
 
 Bibo, to drink, bibi. Imbibo. ~\ 
 
 Lambo, to lick. Lambi. > without supine. 
 
 Scclbo, to scratch. Scabi. ) 
 
 §. 132. a. The verbs in co (not sco), qvo, go, gvo, ho, have regu- 
 larly si, turn (which with the characteristic letter becomes oci, ctwn) . 
 
 Dico, to say, dioci, dictum. Praedico, to say beforehand. 
 
 Duco, to lead, duxi, diictum. Adduco. 
 
 Coqvo, to cook, coxi, coctum. Concoqvo. 
 
 Cingo, to surround, cinxi, cinctum. 
 
 (Fligo, to strike.) Commonly used only in the compounds, af- 
 fligo, to strike to the ground, confligo, to fight, infllgo, to strike 
 (against something). (Profilgare, 1, to heat to flight, overthrow, bring 
 nearly to an end.) 
 
 Frigo, to parch. (Supine also frixum.) 
 
 Jungo, to join. 
 
 Lingo, to lick. 
 
 Emungo, to blow one's nose. 
 
 Plango, to beat (plango and plangor, to beat oneself for sorrow.) 
 
 JRego, to direct, manage. Arrigo, corrigo, erigo, porrigo, subrigo. 
 But per go, to go on (from per and rego), has perrexi, perrectum, and 
 surgo, to rise (from sub and rego), surrexi, surrectum. Adsurgo, ad- 
 surreoci, adsurrectum. 
 
 Silgo, to suck. Exsugo. 
 
 it 2 
 
12 i Inflection of Words. §. 132— 
 
 Tego, to cover. Contego. 
 
 Tingo, tingvo, to dip. 
 
 Ungo, ungvo, to anoint. 
 
 (Stingvo, to extinguish, rare). Exstingvo, restingvo, to extin- 
 guish, distingvo, to distinguish. 
 
 Traho, to draw, traxi, tractum. Contraho. 
 
 Veho, to carry, lead. \Vehor as a deponent, to drive, ride: in- 
 vehor, to attack.) 
 
 Ango, to vex, anxi (vvcz in the perfect). 1 itll0ut gupine> 
 
 Ningo (ningit, it snows), rci??^ (ninxit). J 
 
 Clang o, to resound, without perf. or sup. 
 
 b. The following deviate from this rule : 
 
 Fingo, to form, invent, finxi, fictum. 
 
 Mingo, minxi, mictum. (In the present more frequently mejo, 
 mejer'e.) ■ ; - • - 
 
 Pingo, to paint, pinxi, pictum. 
 
 Stringo, to graze, touch lightly, draw tight together, strinxi, 
 strictwn. 
 
 Mergo, to immerse, mersi, mersum. {Emergo, to come to the sur- 
 face, intrans., but in the perf. part, emersus ; comp. §. 110. Obs. 3.) 
 
 Spargo, to scatter, sprinkle, sparsi, sparsum. Conspergo, to be- 
 sprinkle. 
 
 Tergo, to wipe, tersi, tersum. (Also tergeo, 2.) 
 
 Vergo, to incline, without perfect or supine. 
 
 Ago, to drive, egi, actum. Adigo, adegi, adactum (abigo, exigo, 
 subigo, transigo) ; but per ago {peregi, per actum) and circumdgo. 
 Ambigo, to doubt, dego, to pass (aetatem), satdgo, to be busy, with- 
 out perfect and supine. (Degi belongs to a late period.) Prodigo, 
 (to drive forth), spend, without sup. Cogo, to drive together, force, 
 coegi, coactum. 
 
 Obs. Age (pres. imp.), come now ! addressed also to several ; age, con- 
 siderate ; though we also find agite so used. 
 
 Frango, to break in pieces, fregi, fractum. Confringo, confregi, 
 confractum, 
 
 Ico (icio?), to strike, conclude, (foedus), ici, ictum. (Of the pres. 
 indie, icit, icitur, icimur alone are found ; the only forms in general use 
 are ici, ictus, and icere ; ferio is used instead of the present.) 
 
 Lego, to collect, choose, read, legi, ledum. Allcgo, to choose in 
 
133, Chap. XIX. — Perfects and Supines of the 3d Conjugation. 125 
 
 addition, per lego, to read through; praelego, to read aloud; relego, 
 to read again (without a change of the vowel), allegi, allectmn, 
 &c. ; colligo, to collect, deligo, eligo, seligo, to choose out, collegi, 
 collectum, &c. ; but diligo, to love, has dilexi, dilectum, and so also 
 intelligo (intellego), to understand, a.n.&neglfgo (neglego), to neglect. 
 
 Lingvo, to leave, llqvi (Jictum). Relinqvo, rellqvi, relictum, is 
 more common. 
 
 Vinco, to conquer, vici, victum. 
 
 Flgo, to fasten, fixi, fixum. Afflgo. 
 
 Parco, to spare, peperci [parsi, rare) parsum. Comparco and 
 comperco, comparsi. 
 
 Pungo, to prick, pupugi, punctum. The compounds have puncci 
 in the perfect, e. g. interpungo. 
 
 Pango, to fasten, panoci and pegi {panctum, pactum). In the sig- 
 nification, to fix (in the way of agreement), it has for its perfect 
 pepzgi, sup. pactum, but in this sense the deponent paciscov is 
 always used in the present. Compingo, compegi, compactum, and 
 impingo. Oppango, oppegi, oppactum. 
 
 Tango, to touch, tettgi, tactum. Attingo, atiigi, att actum ; con- 
 tingo. (Contingit, contigit, impers., it falls to one's share.) 
 
 §. 133. a. The verbs in do have regularly si, sum, with the 
 omission of the d : 
 
 Claudo, to shut, clausi, clausum. Concludo. 
 
 Divido, to divide, divlsi, divlsum. 
 
 Laedo, to injure. Collido, to strike together, &c. 
 
 Ludo, to play. CollTido. 
 
 Plaudo, to clap the hands. Applaudo. The remaining com- 
 pounds have plodo, as eocplodo, to drive off the stage. 
 
 Rcldo, to scrape. Corrctdo, to scrape together. 
 
 Bodo, to gnaw. Arrodo. 
 
 Trudo, to thrust. Extrudo. 
 
 Vddo, to go, step, without perfect or supine. But invado, in- 
 vdsi, invasum, and so also evddo, pervado. 
 
 b. The following are exceptions : 
 
 Cedo, to yield, cessi, cessum. Concedo. 
 
 (Cando, unused.) Accendo, to set on fire, accendi, accensum. So 
 also incendo, succendo. 
 
 Cudo, to forge on the anvil, cildi, cusum. Excudo. 
 
 Defendo, to defend, ward off, defendi, defensum. So also offendo, 
 to insult, strike against. 
 
126 Inflection of Words. §. 133— , 
 
 Edo, to eat, edi, esum. Comedo. (On the peculiar irregularity 
 in some forms of this verb see §. 156.) 
 Fundo, to pour, fildi, filsum. Effundo. 
 Mando, to chew, mandi (rare), mansum. 
 
 Prehendo, to lay hold of, prehendi, prehensum. (Also prendo.) 
 Scando, to climb, scandi, scansum. Ascendo, &c. 
 Strido, to hiss, whistle, strldi, without supine. (Also strideo, 2.) 
 Rudo, to roar, bray ; rudivi (rare), without supine. 
 
 Findo, to cleave, fidi, fissum. Diffindo, (diffidi). 
 
 Frendo, to champ, gnash the teeth, without perfect, fressum and 
 fresum. (Also frendeo, 2.) 
 
 Pando, to spread out, pandi, passum (rarely pansum) . Expando. 
 (Dispando has only dispansum.) 
 
 Scindo, to tear, scidi, scissum. Conscindo, conscidi, conscissum, &c. 
 Absdndo and exscindo (excindo) are not nsed in. the supine, exscindo not 
 even in the perfect. (In its stead we find abscisus, excisus, from abscido, 
 excido ; see caedo.) 
 
 Sldo, to seat oneself, sedi (rarely sldi), sessum. Assido (adsldo) 
 assedi, assessum, &c. (Compare sedeo, 2.) 
 
 Cddo, to fall, cecidi, casum. Concido, concidi (without redupl. and 
 without supine) &c. (Of the compounds only occido and recido have a 
 supine, occdsum, recdsum ; rarely incido.) 
 
 Caedo, to fell, beat, cecidi, caesum. Concido, concidi, concisum, &c. 
 
 Pendo, to weigh, pependi, pensum. Appendo, appendi, appensum, 
 &c. (Suspendo, to hang up.) (Compare pendeo, 2.) 
 
 Tendo, to stretch, tetendi, tensum, and tentum. Contendo, con- 
 tendi, contention, &c. (The compounds generally have tentum ; extendo, 
 retendo, both tentum and tensum; detendo, to take down (tabernacula), 
 ostendo, to show, only tensum. Substant. ostentum ; ostentus=obtentus, 
 stretched out before, spread out.) 
 
 Tundo, to beat, pound, tntudi, tusum, and tunsum. Contundo, 
 contudi, contusum (rarely contunsum), &c. 
 
 Credo, to believe, credidi, creditum. Accredo, accredidi, accre- 
 ditum. 
 
 (Do.) All the compounds of do, dare (1 Conj., §. 121) with 
 prepositions of one syllable are declined after the third conjuga- 
 tion, as addo, adder e, addicli, additum (condo, trado, &c). 
 
 Obs. The doubly compounded abscondo (abs and condo) has in the per- 
 fect abscondi (rarely abscondidi). From vendo, to sell, the passive participle 
 
135. Chap. XIX. — Perfects and Supines of the 3d Conjugation. 127 
 
 venditus, and the gerundive vendendus are in use, but otherwise its pas- 
 sive is supplied in good writers by the verb veneo (see §. 158). So like- 
 wise pern? (see eo, §. 158) is generally used instead of the passive of perdo, 
 to destroy, to lose (except perditus, perdendus, and the compound forms). 
 
 Fldo, to trust, fisus sum (a half- deponent). Confldo, confisus 
 sum ; diffido. 
 
 §. 134. a. The verbs in lo have ui, turn (ztum) : 
 
 Alo, to nourish, alui, altum (and alitum). 
 
 Colo, to till, cherish, colui, cultum. Excblo. 
 
 Consulo, to consult, care for, consului, consultum. 
 
 Occulo, to conceal, occulta, occultum. 
 
 Molo, to grind, molui, moUium, 
 
 Excello, to excel, distinguish oneself, perf. excellui (rare), without 
 supine ; antecello,praecello, without perfect or supine. (Also eoccelleo, 
 antecelleo.) 
 
 b. The following are excepted : 
 
 Fallo, to deceive, fefelli, falsum. Refello, to refute, refelli, with- 
 out supine. 
 
 Pello, to drive away, pepuli, pidsum. Expello, expuli, expulsum, 
 &c. 
 
 Per cello, to strike down, perculi, perculsum. 
 
 Psallo, to play on a stringed instrument, psalli, without supine. 
 
 Velio, to tear, velli (rarely vulsi), vulsum. Convello, to tear 
 away, convelli, convulsion, &c. Only avello and evello have also 
 (but rarely) avulsi, evulsi. 
 
 Tollo, to raise up, take away, has sustuli, sublatum (with the 
 preposition sub ; the supine from another theme ; see under fero 
 §. 155.) Extollo, without perfect or supine. 
 
 §. 135. Verbs in mo. 
 
 Como, to adorn, compsi, comptum. 
 
 Demo, to take away, dempsi, demptum. 
 
 Promo, to take out, prompsi, promptum. 
 
 Sumo, to take, sumpsi, sumptum. 
 
 Obs. The other way of writing these verbs, without p (sumsi, sicmtiim), 
 is not so correct. The p has been inserted with a view to euphony. 
 
 Fremo, to roar, murmur, fremui, fremitum. Adfremo. 
 
 Gemo } to sigh, gemui, gemitum. Congemo. 
 
 Vomo, to vomit, vomui, vomitum. Evomo. 
 
 Tremo, to tremble, tremui, without supine. 
 
 HLmo, to buy, emi, emptum (less correctly emtum) . Coemo, coemi, 
 
128 Inflection of Words. §.135— 
 
 coemptum. The remaining compounds have i instead of e in the 
 present, as adimo, to take away, ademi, ademptum {dirimo, to sepa- 
 rate, eximo, interimo, perimo, redimo). 
 
 Premo, to press, pressi, pressim. Comprimo, compressi, compres- 
 sion, &c. 
 
 §. 136. Verbs in no. 
 
 Cdno, to sing, cecini. Of the compounds, concino, occino (also 
 occano) and praecino have for their perfects concinui, occinui, prae- 
 cinui; the others {accino, &c.) want this tense. (Substantive cantus, 
 song, concentus, &c. Canto, cantare.) 
 
 Gigno, to beget, genui, genitum. 
 
 Pono, to put, posui, positum. Compono. (Poetical contraction; 
 postus, compostus, for positus, compositus.) 
 
 Lino, to smear, anoint, levi (llvi), litum. Oblino, oblevi, obli- 
 tum, &c. 
 
 Ohs. The later writers use the form linio regularly according to the 
 fourth conjugation. (Circtmlinio, Quinetil.) 
 
 Sino, to permit, sivi, situm {situs, situated) . Desino, to leave off, 
 desivi, (desisti, desiit, desieram, &c. without v; §.113 b. Obs. 1.) 
 desitum. (For desitus sum see under coepi, §. 161.) 
 
 Obs. In the perfect conjunctive of sino i and e are contracted into I : 
 sirim, siris> sirit, sirint. (Not in desierim.) 
 
 Cerno, to sift, decide, crevi, cretum. Decerno, &c. In the signi- 
 fication to see, to look, cerno has neither perfect nor supine. 
 
 Spemo, to despise, sprevi, spretum. 
 
 Sterno, to throw to the ground, strew, cover, stravi, stratum. 
 Consierno, to cover, constravi, constratum, &c. 
 
 Obs. In the perfect, and the tenses derived from it, the rejection of the 
 v, and contraction, as in the first conjugation, occur but seldom, e. g. 
 prostrasse, strarat. 
 
 Temno, to despise, tempsi, temptum ; most usually contemno, con- 
 tempsi, contemptum (less correctly contemsi, contemtum). 
 
 §. 137. Verbs in ro. 
 
 Gero, to carry, perform, gessi, gestum. {Conger o.) 
 
 JJro, to burn (trans.) ussi, ustum. Aduro, adussi, adusium, &c. 
 {amburo, eocuro, inuro), but comburo, to burn up, combussi, combustum, 
 (From an older form of the theme.) 
 
 Curro, to run, cucurri, cursum. The compounds sometimes 
 retain the reduplication in the perfect {accucurri), but generally 
 lose it {accurri). 
 
9. Chap. XIX. — Perfects and Supines of the 3d Conjugation. 129 
 
 Fero, to bear, carry, tuli, latum; see §.155. 
 Faro, to rave, without perfect or supine. 
 
 Qvaero, to seek, qvaeswi, qvaesitum. Conqviro, conqvisivi, conqvi- 
 siium, &c. 
 
 Obs. In the first person singular and plural of the present indicative the 
 old form qvaeso, qvaesumus is used, to give the style a colouring of anti- 
 quity, or as a Parenthesis (pray /). 
 
 Sero, to plait, put in rows (serui, sertum). The perfect and su- 
 pine of the simple verb are not in use (only the neuter plural of the 
 part, perfect passive serta, garlands of flowers, wreaths), but those 
 of the compounds are so, as consero, conserui, consertum. (Insero, 
 exsero y desero, to forsake, dissero, to develop.) 
 
 Sero, to sow, sevi, satum. Consero, consevi, consitum, &c. (In- 
 sero, to graft, inter sero, to sow amongst k .) 
 
 Tero, to rub, triyi, trltum. Contero, &c. 
 
 Verro, to sweep, verri, versum. 
 
 §. 138. Verbs in so (xo) : 
 
 Viso, to visit, visi, without supine. Inviso. (From video.) 
 
 DepsOj to knead, depsui, depstum. 
 
 Pinso, to pound, pinsui and pinsi, pinsitum and pinsum. (Also 
 p)iso, pistum.) 
 
 Texo, to weave, texui, textum. 
 
 Those in esso have ivi, itum, viz. 
 
 Arcesso or accerso, to send for, arcesswi, arcessltum (accersivi, 
 accersitum 1 ). 
 
 Capesso, to take in hand. (A lengthened form of capio, §.143.) 
 
 Facesso, to make, cause. (Yvom facio, §. 143.) 
 
 Lacesso, to provoke. (From the unused lacio, §. 143.) 
 
 Incesso, to attack, incessivi, without sup. (The perfect in the expres- 
 sions timor, cura, &c, incessit homines, animos, is from incedo, although the 
 present of the latter verb is not used in that signification.) 
 
 Petesso, to seek, without perf. and sup. (Antiquated form, from 
 peto.) 
 
 §. 139. Verbs in to. 
 
 Meto, to mow, reap, messui (rare), messum. Demeto. 
 Mitto, to send, misi, missum. 
 
 Peto, to beg, seek to obtain, petivi (petiit ; §. 113 b. Obs. 1), 
 petltum. Appeto. 
 
 K Conseruisset for consevisset in Livy is an error of the transcribers. 
 1 In the infin. pass, we sometimes find arcessiri. 
 
130 Inflection of Words. §. 139— 
 
 Sisto, to place, set up, stiti (rare), stdtum (adj. status, fixed); 
 rarely in an intransitive signification, to remain standing, place one- 
 self, and then in the perfect steti (from sto, 1, from which sisto has been 
 formed by reduplication.) Desisto, destiti, destitum, &c. (Consisto, ex- 
 sisto, insist o, resisto, all invariably intransitive.) Circumsisto alone 
 has circumsteti, from circumsto. 
 
 Sterto, to snore, stertui, without supine. 
 
 Verto, to turn, verti, versum. Of the compounds (adverto, whence 
 animadverto, averto, &c.) the intransitives devertor, to put up (at an 
 inn, &c), and reverter, to return, are deponents in the present and 
 the forms derived from it (revert o is very rare) ; in the perfect on 
 the contrary they are active verbs, deverti, reverti (more rarely re- 
 versus sum and the participle reversus). Praeverto, to be before- 
 hand with, surpass, has a deponent form in the intransitive signi- 
 fication, to attend to a thing (above every thing else), but other- 
 wise very seldom. 
 
 Fleet o, to bend, flecei, flexum. 
 
 Necto, to tie, nexi and nexui (both rare), nexum. 
 
 Pecto, to comb, pexi snadpexui (both rare), pexum. 
 
 Plecto, to punish, without perfect or supine. In the signification, 
 to plait, we find only the part. perf. passive plexus (compound 
 implexus) . 
 
 §. 140. Verbs in sco. They are partly those in which the sco 
 belongs to the theme, and is retained in the inflection, partly those 
 in which sco is a prolongation of the theme, and is dropped in the 
 perfect and supine. 
 
 Of the first kind are (all without supine) 
 
 Compesco, to confine, compescui. 
 
 Dispesco, to separate, dispescui. 
 
 Disco, to learn, didici. Addisco, addidici (with redupl.), &c. 
 
 Posco, to demand, poposcL Deposco, depoposci (with the redupl.), 
 &c. 
 
 Glisco, to increase, spread, without perfect or supine. 
 
 §. 141. Sco is a prolongation in the inchoative verbs (verba in- 
 choativa), which are derived from a verb (inchoativa verbalia), or a 
 noun (inchoativa nominalia), most frequently an adjective, to denote 
 the commencement of a state (see §. 196). The inchoativa verbalia 
 have the perfect of the verbs from which they are derived, e. g. 
 incalesco, incalui, from caleo, calui ; ingemisco, ingemui, from gemo, 
 gemui ; deliqvesco, delicui, from liqveo, liqvi, or licui. Some of those 
 inchoativa nominalia, which are derived from adjectives of the 
 
•M2. Chap. XIX. — Perfects and Supines of the 3d Conjugation. 131 
 
 second declension, have a perfect in ui (without a supine), as ma- 
 turesco, to ripen, maturui, from maturus ; obmutesco, to grow dumb, 
 obmutui, from mutus ; percrebresco, to grow frequent (creber) , per- 
 crebmi (by some written percrebesco, percrebui). (So likewise 
 evilesco, to become worthless, evilui, from vilis.) Irraucesco, to 
 grow hoarse (raucus), irrausi, is irregular. The others derived 
 from adjectives in is, with many of those from adjectives in us, 
 have no perfect, e. g. ingravesco. (Vesperascit, the evening comes on, 
 and advesperascit, have vesper avit, advesperavit.) 
 
 Ohs. Some few inchoatives have also the supine of their themes, viz. 
 Coalesco (alesco from alo, 3), to grow together, coalui, codlitmn (in the 
 
 part. perf. coalitus, grown together). 
 
 Concupisco, to desire, concupwi, concupltum. (Oupio, 3.) 
 
 Convalesco, to become strong, healthy, convalid, convalitum. (Valeo, 2.) 
 
 Fxardesco, to take fire, exarsi, exarsum. (Ardeo, 2.) 
 
 Inveterasco, to grow old, inveteravi, inveteratum (part. perf. inveteratus, 
 
 rooted). (Yvom. vetus ; also invetero.) 
 
 Obdormisco, to fall asleep, oldormlvi, ohdormltum. (Dor?nio, 4.) 
 Revivisco, to come to life again, revixi, revictum. {Vivo, 3.) 
 
 §. 142. Some verbs are lengthened with sco, but have lost their 
 inchoative signification, or are formed from themes which are no 
 longer extant, so that they are considered as simple, underived 
 verbs. These are the following : 
 
 Adolesco, to grow up, adolevi. So also abolesco, to disappear, 
 cease, exolesco, to disappear, grow old, inolesco, obsolesco. (From the 
 unused oleo, to grow.) From adolesco comes the adjective adidtus, 
 grown up, from exolesco exoletus, from obsolesco obsoletus, obsolete. 
 (Compare aboleo, §. 122.) 
 
 Cresco, to increase, crevi } cretum. Concresco, &c. (Part. perf. 
 cretus, and particularly concretus.) 
 
 Fatisco, to crack (grow languid), without perfect or supine. 
 (Fessus, weary, adjective. Defetiscor, to grow weary, defessus sum, de- 
 ponent.) 
 
 Hisco, to open the mouth, without perf. or sup. 
 
 Nosco, to become acquainted with, inform oneself concerning, 
 novi, notum. The perfect signifies (I have made the acquaintance 
 of) i" know, the pluperfect, / knew. Notus is only an adjective 
 (known), and the fut. part, is not in use. (On the contraction 
 nosti, norim, see §. 113 a.) Of the compounds, (from the old form 
 gnosco) agnosco (adgnosco) , to recognise, cognosco, to become ac- 
 quainted with (recognosco), have agnitum and cognitum in the supine ; 
 
 s2 
 
132 Inflection of Words. §. 142- f 1 
 
 ignosco, to pardon, has ignotum. The remaining (dignosco, inter- 
 nosco) have no supine. 
 
 Pasco, to feed (cattle), pavi, pastum. (Pascor, as a deponent, to 
 graze.) Depasco. 
 
 Qviesco, to rest, qvievi, qvietum. 
 
 Svesco, to accustom oneself, svevi, svetum. (Part. perf. svetus, 
 accustomed. Ancient present svemus from sveo.) The compounds 
 have sometimes a transitive signification, e. g. assvesco, to accustom one- 
 self, and to accustom one ; generally however we find assvefacio in the 
 transitive signification. Mansvetus, tame. 
 
 Scisco, to order, ratify (a law), sclvi, scltum. (From scio.) 
 
 §. 143. Verbs with an i inserted after the characteristic letter. 
 (The perfect and supine are formed from the theme without i.) 
 
 Capio, to take, cepi, captum. Concipio (concipis), concept, con- 
 ceptum, &c. 
 
 Facio, to make, do, feci, factum. (Old fut. indie, faxo, conj. 
 faxim; §. 115 f.) Fio serves for a passive in the present and the 
 tenses formed from it: see §. 160; but the participles (f actus, 
 faciendus,) and the compound forms are from facio. So also the 
 compounds with verbal themes, e. g. calefacio, to make warm, cale- 
 feci, calef actum, calefio ; patefacio, patefeci, patef actum, patefio m ; 
 and with adverbs, e. g. satisfacio, to give satisfaction, satisfeci, satis- 
 factum, satisfit. The compounds with prepositions alter the vowel, 
 and are declined like perficio, perfeci, perfectum, in the passive 
 (regularly) perficior. (But conflcio sometimes has confieri in the 
 passive as well as conficior, see §.160. Obs. 1.) 
 
 Jdcio, to throw, jeci, j actum. Abjicio (abjlcis), abjeci, abjectum, 
 &c. 
 
 Obs. At an earlier period the compounds were generally spoken and 
 written with an t, e. g. dbicio, disicio. 
 
 Cupio, to wish, cuplvi, cupitum. 
 
 Fodio, to dig, fodi, fossum. Effodio, effodis. 
 
 Fugio, to flee, fugi, fugitum. Aufugio, aufugis. 
 
 (Lacio, to entice, whence lacto, lactare, to make sport of one.) It 
 is used only in compounds, alltcio, to entice, allexi, allectum ; so 
 also illicio, pellicio ; but elicio, to entice out, has elicui, elicitum. 
 (Prolicio is not found in the perfect and supine.) 
 
 Pario, to bring forth, peperi, partum. (Part. fut. act. pariturus ; 
 §. 106. Obs. 2.) 
 
 m Some of these however have no other passive forms than those deduced from facio, 
 e. g. tremefacio, tremefactus. 
 
-145. Chap. XX. — Perfects and Supines of the 4/A Conjugation. 133 
 
 Qvatio, to shake {qvassi, unused), qvassum. Conditio, concussi, 
 concussum; percutio, &c 
 
 Rdpio, to snatch, take away by force, rapui, raptum. Arrzpz'o, 
 arripui, arreptum, &c. 
 
 Sapio, to taste, have taste, understanding (sapivi), without sup. 
 Desipio, to be foolish ; without perf. 
 
 Ohs. The inchoative resipisco, to become wise again, has resipivi and 
 resvpui. 
 
 (Specio, to look, whence specto, spectare.) Used only in the com- 
 pounds; asptcio, to behold, aspexi, aspectum ; conspicio, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 The Irregular Perfects and Supines of the fourth Conjugation. 
 
 §. 144. The following verbs have si, turn (one sum), as in the 
 third conjugation : 
 
 Far do, to stuff, far si, far turn (farctum). Refer cio, refer si, re- 
 fertum, &c. 
 
 Fulcio, to prop, falsi, fultum, 
 
 Haurio, to draw (water), hausi, haustum. (Part. fut. hausturus 
 and hausurus.) Exhaurio. 
 
 Sancio, to ratify, sanxi, sancltum, aud very often sanctum. 
 
 Sarcio, to patch, sarsi, sartum. Resarcio. 
 
 Sentio, to feel, think, sensi, sensum. Consentio, &c. Assentio is 
 more often used as a deponent, asseniior, assensus sum. 
 
 Saepio (sepio), to fence, saepsi, saeptum. Obsaepio. 
 
 Vincio, to bind, fetter, vinxi, vinctum. 
 
 §. 145. The following have other irregularities : 
 
 Amicio, to clothe, amictum. Not used in the perfect. 
 
 Cio, civi, citum; see cieo, §. 127. 
 
 Eo, to go, ivi, itum; see §.158. 
 
 Ferio, to strike, without perfect or supine. 
 
 (Perio ?) Aperio, to open, uncover, aperui, apertum ; so also 
 operio, to cover over, and cooperio. 
 
 {Perio ?) Reperio, to find, repperi (reperi), repertum ; so also 
 comperio, to learn, comperi, compertum. (Rarely with a deponent form 
 in the present, comperior.) 
 
 Sdlio, to leap, salui (rarely, and not in the first person, salii). 
 DesUio, desilui (rarely desilii), &c. (The substantives saltus, desultor.) 
 
134 Inflection of Words. §. 145— \\ 
 
 SepeliOy to bury, sepelivi, sepultum*. 
 
 Venio, to come, veni, ventum. (Convenio.) 
 
 Some intransitive verbs derived from adjectives want the perfect 
 and supine, e. g. superbio, to be proud, caecutio, to be blind (see 
 §. 194. Obs. 2; but saevio, and the transitives, as mollio, are com- 
 plete). These forms are also wanting in tbose verbs in urio, which 
 denote an inclination {verba desiderativa ; see §. 197), e. g. dormi- 
 turio, to be sleepy. (From esurio however we have esuriturus in 
 Terence.) 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 The irregular Supines {Participles) of the Deponents, and some other 
 Irregularities of these Verbs. 
 
 §. 146. In some deponents the supine or participle perfect 
 (whence the perf. ind., &c. are formed by composition) varies from 
 the present in the same way as in the active verbs. 
 
 Obs. The supine itself occurs but seldom in the deponents. The perf. 
 part, with sum (perf. indie.) is here named instead of it. 
 
 In the first conjugation, to which the greater part of the depo- 
 nents belongs, they are all declined regularly. 
 
 Obs. In ferior, to keep holiday, be idle, and operor, to busy oneself 
 with, the perf. part, has a present signification : feriatus, idle, unoccu- 
 pied, operatus, busied. The same also generally holds good of arbitratus, 
 and some others. 
 
 Obs. 2. Concerning the derivation of the deponents which follow the 
 first conj. see §. 193 b. 
 
 §. 147. a. Of some deponents of the first conjugation the active 
 form is also found either frequently or occasionally in good writers, 
 e. g. populor, to lay waste, and populo. The most important of these 
 are, alter cor, to dispute (alterco, Ter.), auguror, to foretell, cornitor, to 
 accompany (comito, poet), conflictor, to struggle {conflicto, Tei\),fabricor, 
 to m%kQ,feneror, to lend at interest, luctor, to wrestle {lucto, Ter.), ludi- 
 ficor, to make sport of, to banter, muneror, to present, remuneror, to re- 
 compense, oscitor, to yawn, palpor, to stroke, flatter, populor, to lay waste, 
 stabulor, to be in the stall, have one's station. The active form of many 
 others is here and there met with in the older writers. 
 
 b. On the other hand, some verbs of the first conjugation, which 
 have most commonly the active form, are used by some particular 
 
 n Perf. first person sepeli (from sepelii ; §, 113 b. Obs. 1 and 2.) in Persius. 
 
49. Chap. XXI. — Irregular Supines of the Deponents. 135 
 
 authors as deponents, e. g. fluctuo, to fluctuate, also fluctuor (Liv.) 
 (Further examples of such verbs are, hello, to make war [bellor, Virg.], 
 communico, to communicate [communicor, Liv.], elucuhro, to work out 
 \_eluculror, Cic. .], frutico, to shoot out branches \_fruticor, Cic], luxurio, 
 to be luxuriant, murmuro, to murmur [commurmuror, Cic], opsdno, to 
 buy food, [opsonor, Ter.], velifico, to set sail [veliflcor, Cic, to work for, 
 to favour]). 
 
 §. 148. In the second conjugation the following deponents vary 
 from the usual formation ; 
 
 Fateor, to confess, fassus sum. Confiteor, confessus sum, &c. 
 (Diffiteor, to deny, without part, perf.) 
 
 Eeor, to think, rdtus sum. (Without part, pres.) 
 
 Medeor, to heal, without part. perf. 
 
 Miser eor y to have pity on, has most generally the regular perfect mise- 
 ritus sum, more rarely misertus sum. (Of miseretur as an impersonal, see 
 §. 166 b.) 
 
 Tueor, to protect (look at), {tuitus sum). Part. fut. tuiturus. 
 Instead of the unused perfect we find tutatus sum, from tutor. The 
 perfect of contueor, intueor, contuitus sum, intuitus sum, is rare. (An 
 antiquated form is tuor, 3, whence the adjective tutus.) 
 
 Ohs. The regular deponents of the second conjugation are liceor, to bid 
 for, mereor, to deserve (also in the active form mereo ), polliceor, to pro- 
 mise, vereor, to fear. 
 
 §. 149. To the third conjugation belong the following deponents, 
 which may be arranged like the actives according to their charac- 
 teristic letters : (fungor is declined like the passive of cingo, patior like 
 that of qvatio, qveror, qvestus, like that of gero, gestum, &c.) 
 
 Fruor, to enjoy, fruitus and fructus sum (both rare) ; part. fut. 
 fruiturus. 
 
 Fung or j to perform, functus sum. 
 
 Gradior, to step, go, gressus sum. Aggredior, aggressus sum, &c. 
 
 Labor, to slide, fall, lapsus sum. Collabor, &c. 
 
 Liqvor, to melt (intr.), to flow away, without part. perf. 
 
 Loqvor, to speak, locutus sum. Alloqvor. 
 
 Morior, to die, mortuus sum. Part. fut. moriturus. Emorior. 
 
 Nltor, to lean, exert oneself, nixus or nisus sum. Adnitor, 
 (Enltor, to bring forth young, enixa est.) 
 
 Patior, to suffer, passus sum. Perpetior. 
 
 Mereo is chiefly used of what is gained by trading and of military service ; merere 
 stipendia, m. eqvo; on the other hand we generally have bene, male mereri; in the perf., 
 also in this signification, chiefly merui, but in the participle meritus {bene merittis). 
 
136 Inflection of Words. §. 149- 
 
 (From plecto, to plait, to twist, §. 139.) Amplector, complector, 
 to embrace, amplexus sum, complexus sum. 
 
 Qveror, to complain, qvestus sum. Conqveror. 
 
 Ringor, to shew one's teeth, without part. perf. 
 
 Seqvor, to follow, secutus sum. Conseqvor, 
 
 Utor, to use, usus sum. Abutor. 
 
 [Verto, revertor, &c, see §. 139.) 
 
 §.150. Further the following in scor (see §. 141) : 
 
 Apiscor, to obtain, aphis sum. Adipiscor, adeptus sum, is more 
 usual. (Indipiscor, indeptus sum.) 
 
 Defetiscor, to grow weary, defessus sum. (From fatisco ; §. 
 142.) 
 
 Expergiscor, to awake, intr. experrectus sum. {Expergefacio, to 
 •vake [trans.]. Obsolete participle expergitus.) 
 
 Irascor, to grow angry (from the subst. ird). Iratus (adj.), 
 angry, iratus sum, I am angry. ("I grew angry" is expressed by 
 succensui or suscensui, from succenseo or susce?iseo.) 
 
 (Meniscor.) Comminiscor, to devise, commentus sum. Reminiscor, 
 to remember, without part. perf. 
 
 Nanciscor, to obtain, nanctus and nactus sum. 
 
 Nascor, to be born, natus sum. Part. fut. nasciturus. Enascor. 
 (The adjectives agnatus, cognatus, from a i brm gnascor.) 
 
 Obliviscor, to forget, oblltus sum. 
 
 Paciscor, to make an agreement, pactus sum. Compaciscor or 
 compeciscor, compactus or compectus sum. {Ex compacto, according to 
 agreement.) Pepigi, from the theme pango (§. 132), is also used for 
 the perfect. 
 
 Proficiscor, to travel, profectus sum. 
 
 Ulciscor, to revenge, ultus sum. 
 
 Vescor, to eat, without part. perf. 
 
 §.151. In the fourth conjugation the following deponents vary 
 from the regular form : 
 
 Assentior, to agree, assensus sum. See sentio, §. 144. 
 
 Experior, to try, experience, expertus sum. (Compare comperio, 
 §. 145.) 
 
 Metior, to measure, mensus sum. 
 
 Ordior, to begin (trans.), orsus sum. 
 
 Opperior, to wait for, oppertus (opperitus) sum. 
 
 Orior, to rise, ortus sum. Part. fut. oriturus. (The gerundive ori- 
 undus with the signification " descended.") 
 
 Obs. 1. In the present indicative the form of the third conjugation is 
 
■154. Chap. XXII.— Irregular Verbs. 137 
 
 used, over is, oritur, ofimur : in the imperf. conj. both orirer (4) and orerer 
 (3). (From adorior, adorlris, adoritur are in use.) 
 
 Ohs. 2. The regular deponents of the fourth conjugation are blandior, to 
 natter, largior, to present, rnentior, to lie, molior, to move, undertake, par- 
 tior, to divide (rarely partio ; but dispertio, impertio [impartio] are more 
 usual than dispertior, impertior), potior, to obtain, sortior, to take by lot, 
 punior, to punish (in Cicero, otherwise we usually fm&punio). 
 
 Ohs. 3. From potior the poets and some prose writers occasionally use 
 in the present indicative pofitur, potimur, and in the imp. conj. poterer, &c. 
 after the third conjugation. 
 
 §. 152. Those deponents, of which the active form is in use, sometimes 
 receive a passive signification, as comitor, I am accompanied, fabricantur, 
 they are made, populari, to be laid waste, but particularly the part, perf., 
 e. g. comitatus (in all writers), elucubratus, fabricatus, populatus, meritus. 
 
 §. 153. A few rare instances are met with of other deponents in a pas- 
 sive signification (e. g. in Cicero adfdor, aspernor, arbitror, criminor, in 
 Sallust ulciscor). Of some deponents the participle perfect only is used 
 by good writers in a passive signification also, [cibominatus, adept us, 
 auspicatus, amplexus, complexus, commentus, commentatus, confessus, 
 despicatus, detestatus, eblanditus, ementitus, expertus \inexpertus~\, ex- 
 secratus, interpretatus, ludificatus, meditatus \_praemeditatus~\, tnensus 
 \dimensus\ metatus [dimetatus~], moderatus, opinatus \_necopinatus~], 
 pact us, part it us, perf unctus, per iclitatus, stipulatus, test at us, ultus 
 [inultus, unavenged], with some others in the poets and second-rate 
 writers P. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Irregular Verbs. [Verba anomala). 
 
 §. 154. Those verbs are termed irregular, which vary from the 
 usual form, not only in the formation of the perfect and supine, 
 but also in the terminations of the tenses and the mode in which 
 they are combined with the theme. An example of one such verb, 
 sum, has already been adduced. The others are now given. 
 
 Possum, to be able, is declined in the following manner : 
 
 INDICATIVE. CONJUNCTIVE 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Sing. possum possim 
 
 potes possis 
 
 potest possit 
 
 p In the fut. imp. we sometimes meet with uttto, tuento, &c. for ufitor, tuentor. 
 
 T 
 
138 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §. 154- 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 l ur. possumus 
 
 
 possimus 
 
 potestis 
 
 
 possitis 
 
 possunt 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 possint 
 
 poteram, as, at, 
 
 
 possem, es, et 
 
 poteramus, atis, ant 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 possemus, etis, ent 
 
 potui, isti, it 
 
 
 potuerim, is, it 
 
 potuimus, istis, erunt 
 
 PLUPERFECT 
 
 potuerimus, itis, int 
 
 potueram, as, at 
 
 
 potuissem, es, et 
 
 potueramus, atis, ant 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 potuissemus, etis, ent 
 
 potero, is, it 
 
 
 Wanting 
 
 poterimus, itis, unt 
 
 
 
 FUTURUM EXACTUM. 
 
 potuero, is, it Like the perf. conj. 
 
 potuerimus, itis, int 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 pres. posse perf. potuisse fut. Wanting. 
 
 The Imperative is wanting. The participle present potens is only- 
 used as an adjective; powerful. 
 
 Obs. Possum is compounded of potis (or properly pot) and sum {possum 
 from potsum). Anciently and by the poets it was expressed hj potis es, 
 est, sunt {potis being invariable in gender and number) for potes, potest, 
 posstmt : in common language also simply pote for potest. For possvm, 
 possis, possit, there was also an obsolete form possiem, &c (siem) ; potesse 
 for posse. 
 
 §. 155. Fero } to carry, after the third conjugation, borrows its 
 perfect and supine tuli, latum, from other themes. In some of the 
 forms derived from the present the connecting vowel between the 
 theme and termination is omitted, in the manner following : 
 
 ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 
 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE. 
 
 fero, fers, fert, feror, ferris, fertur, 
 
 ferimus, fertis, ferunt ferimur, ferimini, feruntur 
 
—156. 
 
 Chap. XXII. — Irregular Verbs. 
 
 139 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 PASSIVE. 
 
 IMPERFECT CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 f err em, ferres, ferret 
 f err emus, ferretis, ferrent 
 
 ferrer, ferreris, ferretur 
 ferremur, ferremini, ferrentur 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Present fer, ferte 
 Future (2, 3) ferto 
 
 fertote, ferunto 
 
 Present ferre, ferimini 
 Future (2, 3) fertor 
 (3) feruntor 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 ferre ferri 
 
 The remainder is regular. (Imp. ind. act. ferebam, pass, ferebar, 
 plup. tuleram, tulissem, fut. exact, tulero, from tuli, &c.) In the 
 same way are declined the compounds (in which the prepositions 
 before fero, tuli, latum, are modified according to §.173), e. g. 
 offero, attuli, alldtum, offero, obtuli, obldtum. Aufero, from ab-fero, 
 has abs-tuli, ablatum; refero, rettuli (retuli) relatum. Suffero, to 
 carry, bear, has rarely sustuli in the perfect : instead of this sus- 
 tinui is employed, and sustuli, sublatum are used for the perfect 
 and supine of t olio, to lift up (§. 134). Differo, to put off, spread 
 out, has distuli, dilatum, but in the intransitive signification, to 
 differ, it has neither perfect nor supine. 
 
 §. 156. The verb edo, to eat, edi, esum, of the third conjugation 
 (§. 133), in addition to the regular inflection, has also shorter forms 
 in the present indicative, imperfect conjunctive, the imperative, and 
 present infinitive, agreeing in the letter with those forms of the 
 verb sum which begin with es, viz. 
 
 IMPERFECT CONJUNCTIVE ACTIVE. 
 
 ederem, ederes, ederet 
 
 essem, esses, esset 
 
 ederemus, ederetis, ederent 
 
 essemus, essetis, essent. 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 edere 
 esse 
 
 t2 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 INDICATIVE ACTIVE. 
 
 edo, 
 
 edis, 
 
 edit 
 
 
 es, 
 
 est 
 
 edimus, 
 
 editis, 
 estis 
 
 edunt 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 
 Present 
 
 ede, 
 
 edite 
 
 
 es, 
 
 este 
 
 Future 
 
 edito, 
 
 editote 
 
 
 esto, 
 
 estote 
 edunto. 
 
140 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §. 156- r 
 
 In the passive estur is found for editur, and essetur for ederetur i. 
 The same abridged forms are also used in the compounds, e. g. 
 comes, contest, comesse, for comedis, comedit, comedere, from comedo. 
 §. 157. Vblo, I will, nolo, I will not (from ne volo), malo, I will 
 rather, (from mage, i. e. magis volo), are declined as follows : 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 
 PEESEKT. 
 
 
 volo 
 
 nolo 
 
 malo 
 
 vis 
 
 non vis 
 
 mavis 
 
 vult (volt) 
 
 non vult 
 
 ma vult 
 
 voliimus 
 
 noliimus 
 
 malumus 
 
 vultis (voltis) 
 
 non vultis 
 
 mavultis 
 
 volunt 
 
 nolunt . 
 
 IMPEEEECT. 
 
 malunt 
 
 volebam 
 
 nolebam 
 
 malebam 
 
 volebas, &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 PEEEECT. 
 
 &c. 
 
 volui, &c. 
 
 nolui 
 
 malui 
 
 PLTTPEEEECT. 
 
 volueram nolueram malueram 
 
 
 EUTUEE. 
 
 
 volam 
 
 (nolam, unused) 
 
 (malam, unused) 
 
 voles, &c. 
 
 noles, &c. 
 
 EUTUEUM EXACTUM. 
 
 males, &c. 
 
 voluero 
 
 noluero 
 CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PEESENT. 
 
 maluero 
 
 velim 
 
 nolim 
 
 malim 
 
 velis 
 
 nolis 
 
 malls 
 
 velit 
 
 nolit 
 
 malit 
 
 velimus 
 
 nolimus 
 
 malim us 
 
 velitis 
 
 nolitis 
 
 malitis 
 
 velint 
 
 nolint 
 
 malint 
 
 «1 The shorter forms have been produced by the omission of the connecting vowel and 
 a modification of the letters ; the e in these is pronounced as long by nature. 
 
-15* 
 
 Chap. 
 
 XXII. — Irregular 
 
 IMPEEEECT. 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 
 vellem 
 
 nollem 
 
 
 mallem 
 
 velles 
 
 nolles 
 
 
 malles 
 
 &c. 
 
 &c. 
 
 PEEEECT. 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 voluerim 
 
 noluerim 
 
 PLTJPEEEECT. 
 
 
 maluerim 
 
 voluissem 
 
 noluissem 
 
 
 maluissem 
 
 141 
 
 Wanting. 
 
 EUTUETTM EXACTTJM. 
 
 (Like tlie Perfect.) 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 Pres. sing, noli, plur. nolite. Wanting. 
 Fut. sing. 2, 3. nolito, plur. 2. nolitote 
 
 3. nolunto 
 
 velle 
 
 voluisse 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PEE SENT. 
 
 nolle 
 
 PEEEECT. 
 
 noluisse 
 
 malle 
 
 maluisse 
 
 volens 
 
 Wanting. 
 
 PAETICIPLE PEE SENT. 
 
 nolens 
 
 Obs. The following are obsolete forms ; nevis, nevult, nevelle, for non 
 vis, lion vult, nolle; mavolo, mavelim, mavellem, for malo, malim, mallem. 
 From si vis, si vultis, annexed to a command or request (pray, if you 
 please), originated in familiar language, and the style intended to imitate 
 it, the expressions sis, sultis : Vide, sis, ne qvo abeas (Ter.). liefer ani- 
 mum sis ad veritatem (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 16). Facile, sultis, nitidae ut 
 aedes meae sint (Plaut.). 
 
 §. 158. The verb eo, to go, ivi, itum, of the fourth conjugation, is 
 thus inflected in the present and the forms derived from it : 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 eo, is, it 
 lmus, itis, eunt 
 
 PEE SENT. 
 
 IMPEEEECT. 
 
 ibam, ibas, ibat 
 ibamus, ibatis, ibant 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 earn, eas, eat 
 eamus, eatis, eant 
 
 irem, ires, iret 
 iremus, iretis, irent 
 
142 Inflection of Words. §.158- 
 
 INDICATIVE. CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 EUTURE. 
 
 Ibo, ibis, ibit iturus, a, urn, sim, &c. 
 
 ibimus, ibitis, ibunt 
 
 IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 
 
 Pres. sing. I ! plur. ite ! Pres. ire 
 
 Fut. sing. 2 and 3. Ito, plur, 2. itote 
 
 3. eunto 
 Participle pres. iens, euntem, euntis, &c. 
 Gerund eundum. 
 
 The rest is regularly formed from Ivi (iveram or ieram, ivisse, isse, 
 &c.) and itum [iturus, iturus esse). Eo being an intransitive verb, 
 the passive can only be formed in the third person (impersonally, 
 §. 95. Obs.), viz. itur, ibatur, ibitur, itum est, &c, edtur, iretur. 
 
 In like manner are declined also the compounds, which usually 
 have ii, not ivi, in the perfect, e. g. abii, redii. Some of them (adeo, 
 ineo, praetereo) take a transitive signification, and these form 
 a complete passive, thus : Ind. pres. adeor, adiris, aditur, adimur, 
 adimini, adeuntur, Imperf. adibar, &c. Fut. adibor, adiberis, &c. 
 Conj. pres. adear, &c. Imperf. adlrer, &c. Imper. pres. adlre, fut. 
 adltor, plur. adeuntor ; Infin. pres. adiri, part. perf. aditus, Gerun- 
 dive, adeundus, a, urn. 
 
 From eo comes also veneo (venum eo), to be put up for sale, be 
 sold, which is used as the passive of vendo (§. 133), and declined 
 like the other compounds. (In the imperf. indie, sometimes veniebam.) 
 
 AmbiOj to go about, is the only compound which is regularly 
 declined according to the fourth conjugation, e. g. participle 
 present, ambiens, ambientem, ambientis. (The imperfect is sometimes 
 ambibam 1 '.) 
 
 §. 159. Qveo, to be able, and neqveo, to be unable, are declined 
 like eo, but without imperative, future participle, or gerund. 
 
 Obs. 1 . The part. pres. is also quite unused in ordinary language, and 
 qvibam, qviveram, qvibo, neqvibo, are obsolete and rare forms. Qvis and 
 qvit in the pres. indie, are used only with non {non qvis and non qvit for 
 neqvis and neqvit) ; in general qveo is used only in negative propositions, 
 and far more rarely than possum. 
 
 Obs. 2. In the older style a passive form was sometimes used where an 
 
 r The irregularity in eo consists in the radical vowel i being changed into e before a, o, 
 and m, and in its having in the imDerf. and fut. indie, the form in bam, (for ebam,) and 
 bo (§. 115 b. c). 
 
■161. Chap. XXIII.— Defective Verbs. 143 
 
 infinitive passive was subjoined ; forma noscinon qvita est (Ter.) ; ulcisci 
 (pass.) neqyitur (Sail.). Compare coeptus sum, §. 161. 
 
 §. 160. Fio, to become, be done, answers as a passive to the verb 
 facio (§. 143), from which it borrows the perf. part, and the com- 
 pound tenses. 
 
 The remainder varies only slightly from the regular inflection : 
 INDICATIVE. CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PKESESTT. 
 
 fio, fis, fit flam, fias, fiat 
 
 (fimus, fitis), fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant 
 
 IMPEKEECT. 
 
 fiebam, fiebas, &c. fierem, fieres, &c. 
 
 FTTTTTKE. 
 
 fiam, fies, &c. Wanting. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. 
 
 Pres. sing, fi, plur. fite Pres. fieri 
 
 (Factus sum, eram, ero, sim, essem, factum esse, factum iri). 
 Ohs. 1. For the compounds see under facio. Confieri has only confit, 
 confiat, confer et (3 pers.) ; defieri (to be wanting) only deft, deflunt, defiat. 
 Ohs. 2. In this verb (contrary to the general rule) the vowel i is long 
 before another vowel, except in fieri, fierem. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Defective verbs [verba defectiva.) 
 
 §. 161. Several verbs are not completely declined in all the forms 
 of which their signification would allow. Those which want the 
 perfect or supine have been already specified. Some of the irre- 
 gular verbs are at the same time defective. Here those verbs are 
 especially noticed which want the present, or are only used in a 
 very few isolated forms. 
 
 The verbs coepi, I began, begin, memini, I remember (comme- 
 mini), and odi, I hate, are not used in the present and the tenses 
 derived from it. The perfect of memini and odi has the signification 
 of a present, the pluperfect that of an imperfect, and the futurum 
 exactum that of a future. These verbs are thus declined : 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 Perf. 
 
 coepi, coepisti, &c. memini, &c. 
 
 odi, &c 
 
 Plup. 
 
 coeperam me miner am 
 
 oderam 
 
 Fut. ex. 
 
 coepero meminero 
 
 odero 
 
144 
 
 Inflection of Words. 
 
 §• 161- 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Perf. coeperim 
 Plup. coepissem 
 Fat. ex, (same as perf.) 
 
 memmenm 
 meminissem 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Wanting. 
 
 Perf. coepisse 
 
 Perf. pass, coeptus 
 Fat. act. coepturus 
 
 Fat. sing. 2. memento 
 plur. 2. mementote 
 
 INFINITIVE, 
 meminisse 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 Wanting 
 
 oderim 
 odissem 
 
 Wanting. 
 
 odisse 
 
 (osus, obsolete) 
 osurus. 
 
 Ohs. From osus, which has an active signification, we find the com- 
 pounds exosus, perosus, hating. 
 
 Coepi is found also in the passive, coeptus sum, which is joined to 
 a passive infinitive, e. g. urbs aedificari coepta est ; but we may also 
 say aedificari coepit. (In the same way also desitus est is used, from 
 desino, to cease [§. 136], e. g. Veteres orationes legi sunt desitae (Cic.) ; 
 but also desii, e. g. helium jam timeri desierat, Liv.) 
 
 Ohs. IncipiG {incepi, inceptum, from capio) serves for a present of coepi, 
 and more rarely occipio (occepi, occeptum). Incipio facer e, coepi facer e 
 (less frequently incepi 5 ). 
 
 §. 162. a. Ajo, to say, say yes, is used in the following forms : 
 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE. 
 
 ajo, ais, ait 
 ajunt 
 
 PRESENT CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 — ajas, ajat 
 ajant 
 
 PARTICIPLE PRESENT, 
 ajens (adj. affirmative) 
 
 IMPERFECT INDICATIVE. 
 
 ajebam, ajebas, &c. 
 
 (In Plautus and Terence aibam. 
 
 Ohs. The Imperative a'i is quite obsolete. 
 
 b. Inqvam, I say, is used in the following forms : 
 
 8 Coepi with the accusative of a substantive is rare, incipio common (incipere oppug- 
 nationem ; proelium incipitur, Sail. Jug. 74?) ; but we find in the passive ludi coepti sunt 
 (Liv.), and the participle {opus coeptum) is not uncommon. 
 
■163. 
 
 Chap. XXIII.— Defective Verbs. 
 
 145 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 PEESEtfT. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 inqvam, inqvis, inqvit 
 inqvimus, inqvitis, inqviunt 
 Per/. — inqvisti, inqvit 
 
 — — inqviebat 
 Fut. inqvies, inqviet 
 
 IMPERATIVE (rare). 
 Pres. sing, inqve Fut, sing. 2. inqvito. 
 
 Obs. This verb is used only when a person is introduced speaking in his 
 own words, and is inserted after one or more words of the speech cited, 
 e. g. Turn ille, Nego, inqvit, verum esse, I deny, said he, that it is true. 
 Potestne, inqvit Epicurus, qvicqvam esse melius ? Inqvam is also used in 
 narrations as a perfect. 
 
 c. In/it, he begins, is used only in the third person of the present indi- 
 cative, either alone, signifying, " begins to speak," or with an infinitive, 
 usually one which implies speaking (e. g. laudare, percontari infit). (An- 
 tiquated and poetical. Perhaps fvom. fari.) 
 
 §. 163. Fari, to speak (a deponent of the first conjugation), with 
 its compounds (affari, effari, praefari, prof art), is used in the fol- 
 lowing forms (but those within brackets are found only in the 
 compounds) . 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 — — fatur 
 (famur, famini) 
 
 (fabar) 
 
 fatus sum, &c. 
 
 fatus eram, &c. 
 
 PEE SENT. 
 
 IMPEEEECT. 
 
 PEEEECT. 
 
 PLUPEEEECT. 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Wanting. 
 
 ETJTTJEE. 
 
 fabor (faberis), fabitur 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 Pres. sing, fare 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 Pres. fari 
 
 (farer, &c.) 
 fatus sim, &c. 
 fatus essem, &c. 
 
 Wanting. 
 
 SUPINE (second), 
 fatu 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 Pres. fantem, fantis, &c. (without nominative). 
 Perf. fatus, a, um. 
 Gerund, fandus, a, um (e. g. fanda atqve nefanda). 
 
 Obs. The simple verb fari is antiquated, and used chiefly by the poets. 
 
 u 
 
146 Inflection of Words. §. 164— 
 
 §. 16 k Salveo (to be safe, uninjured) is used only in salutations, 
 in the imperative, salve, hail ! plur. salvete (fut. sing, salveto), in the 
 infinitive in the construction solvere (te) jubeo, I bid you welcome, 
 and in the fut. indie, salvebis (in written salutations). In the same 
 signification we find the imperative ave [have), hail! good day! 
 plur. avete, fut. sing, aveto ; rarely avere jubeo. (Aveo means, I am 
 inclined, have a desire; §. 128 b.) 
 
 An old imperative is apage (aTray€=abige), away with! apage te, pack 
 yourself off! away with you! (Also simply apage, away !) 
 
 As an imperative we find also the very unusual form cedo, give 
 me ! (cedo librum), out with it ! tell me! (cedo, qvid faciam) . In 
 the plural (obsolete) cette. 
 
 Obs. Besides the verbs here expressly adduced there are others, of 
 which one or two forms are not found, because there was but seldom oc- 
 casion for their use, and their sound was perhaps also disagreeable, e. g. 
 dor, der, deris, from do. From the verb ovo, to rejoice (used especially of 
 a victorious procession, less important than the triumph), we commonly 
 find only the participle ovans, in the poets also ovat (ovet, ovaret). 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Impersonal Verbs (verba impersonalia) . 
 
 §. 165. Those verbs are called impersonal which are used only 
 in the third person singular, and have usually no reference to a 
 subject in the nominative. 
 
 Obs. Besides those verbs which are exclusively impersonal, some, which 
 are otherwise personal, are used impersonally in certain significations, e. g. 
 accidit, it happens, from accido. See the Syntax, §. 218. 
 
 §. 166. The following verbs are impersonal : 
 
 a. Those which indicate the weather, e. g. ningit, it snows, 
 pluit, it rains, grandinat y it hails ; also the two inchoatives lucescit 
 
 (illucescit), it grows light, day, and vesper ascit (advesperascit), the 
 evening comes on. 
 
 b. The following verbs of the second conjugation : 
 Libel, it pleases, libuit and libitum est (as a half deponent). 
 Licet, it is permitted, licuit and licitum est. 
 
 Miser et (me), (I) pity, without perf. ; also miser etur, miser itum 
 est. 
 
 Obs. Misereor is also used personally. Miseror, miserari, generally 
 signifies, to compassionate (in words). 
 
, — 168. Chap. XXIV. — Impersonal Verbs. 147 
 
 Oportet, it is right, necessary, oportuit. 
 
 Piget, it vexes, piguit and pigitum est. 
 
 Poenitet (me), (I) repent, poenituit. 
 
 Pudet, it causes shame (p. me, I am ashamed), puduit &ndpudi- 
 tum est. 
 
 Taedet, it is irksome, causes vexation {taedet me, I am weary of 
 it), without a perfect, instead of which the compound pertaesum est 
 is made use of. 
 
 Obs. The verhs decet, it becomes, befits, decuit, and dedecet, it is unbe- 
 coming, are, properly speaking, not impersonal, because they may refer to 
 a definite subject and occur in the plural (pmnis eum color decet, parva 
 parvum decent), but yet they are used only in the third person, inasmuch 
 as they can be predicated neither of the speaker nor the person addressed. 
 
 c. Pefert, it is of importance, retulit (from fero ; distinguished 
 from refer o by the pronunciation). 
 
 §. 167. The impersonal verbs (and those which are sometimes used 
 impersonally) are declined regularly in the several forms, in con- 
 formity with the present and perfect, but their signification does 
 not allow them to have an imperative, a supine, or a participle 
 (except in some verbs the perf. part. pass, in the neuter, combined 
 with est, &c). Oportet has therefore in the Indicative, oportet, 
 oportebat, oportuit, oportuerat, oportebit, oportuerit ; in the Conjunc- 
 tive, oporteat, oporteret, oportuerit, oportuisset, oportuerit ; in the 
 Infinitive, oportere, oportuisse. But libet, licet, poenitet, pudet, have 
 participles somewhat modified in their meaning and application. 
 
 Obs. Libens, willing, with pleasure; licens (adj.), free (unbridled); 
 licitus, allowed ; liciturum est, liciturum esse. Pudens (adj.), modest, 
 {pudibundus, bashful), poenitens (rare), penitent; poenitendus, to be re- 
 pented of ; pudendus, what must cause shame. Hence as a gerund (as 
 from personal verbs), ad poenitendum, pudendo. 
 
 Concluding Observations on the Inflection of the Verbs. 
 §. 168. In order to avoid mistakes, the beginner must take particular 
 notice that some verbs, the meaning and inflection of which are totally 
 different, are alike in the first person of the present indicative, as, 
 
 aggero, to heap up, 1 Conj., and (in aggero, to bring to, 3 (from gero). 
 
 prose usually exaggero) 
 
 appello, to name, 1 appello, to land, 3 (pello). 
 
 compello, to address, call, 1 compello, to drive together, 3 {pello). 
 
 colllgo, to bind together, 1 (Jigo) colllgo, to collect, 3 (lego), 
 
 consterno, to confuse, terrify, 1 consterno, to cover over, 3 (sterno) . 
 
 ejfero, to make wild, 1 effwo, to carry out, 3 {fero). 
 
 u2 
 
148 Of Inflection. §. 168— 
 
 f undo j to found, 1 fundo, to pour, 3. 
 
 mctndo, to give in charge, 1 onando, to chew, 3. 
 
 obsero, to bolt up, 1 obsero, to sow, 3. 
 
 salio, to dance, salui, saltum, 4 salio, to salt, salivi, salitum, 4. 
 
 volo, to fly, 1 volo, to wish, verb, irreg. 
 
 Others are distinguished by a difference in the quantity of the radical 
 vowel, as, 
 
 colo, to till, to take care of, 3, and colo, to strain, 1. 
 
 dico, to dedicate, 1 dico, to say, 3. 
 indwo, to inform of, praedico, to indico, praedico. 
 declare 
 
 edit co, to educate, 1 ediico, to lead out, 3 (duco). 
 
 lego, to read, collect, 3 lego, to send as a deputy, bequeath, 1. 
 
 allego, to choose in addition allego, to send a deputy, allege, 
 
 relego, to read again relego, to banish. 
 
 Some other verbs, of the second and third conjugation, have, as is seen 
 in Chapters 18 and 19, the same form in the perfect or supine and the 
 tenses formed from them, e. g. victurus from vinco and from vivo. (Obli- 
 tus, smeared, from oblino ; oblltus, one who has forgotten, from obliviscor). 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 The Adverbs and Prepositions. 
 
 §. 169. The Adverbs have no inflection except comparison. 
 Generally speaking only those adverbs can be compared which are 
 derived from adjectives and participles which are themselves com- 
 pared, with the terminations e (o) or ter (see §. 198). The compa- 
 rative of the adverb is then the same with that of the adjective in 
 the nom. neutr., and the superlative of the adverb is formed like 
 that of the adjective, but with the termination e instead of us, e. g. 
 docte (doctus), doctius, doctissime ; aegre (aeger), aegrius, aegerrime; 
 fortiter {fortis), fortius, for tissime ; acriter [acer) , acrius, acerrime ; 
 audacter {audaoc), audacius, audacissime ; amanter (amans), aman- 
 tius, amantissime ; facile (facilis), facilius, facillime. 
 
 Obs. Tuio makes in the sup. tutissimo, and merito, meritissimo (quite 
 according to his deserts). 
 
 §. 170. If the comparison of the adjective be irregular or de- 
 fective, that of the adverb is so in the same way, e. g. bene (bonus), 
 melius, optime ; male (malus), pejus, pessime ; multum (the neuter 
 of the adjective, used as an adverb), plus, plurimum (the same) ; 
 
172. Chap. XXV. — The Adverbs and Prepositions. 149 
 
 parum, little, too little (parvus), minus, minime (minimum, in ex- 
 pressing a measurement ; minimum distat, minimum invidet, Hoy.) ; 
 deterius, (deterior) , determine ; ocius, (ocior), ocissime ; potius (po- 
 tior), potissimum ; prius (prior), primum and primo (properly the 
 ace. and abl. neuter) ; nove (novus), novissime. 
 
 The following should be particularly noticed ; magis (compar. 
 more), maxime, from magnus, compared throughout, and uberius, 
 uberrime, from uber. Valde, very, strongly (for valide, from vali- 
 dus), has validius (rarely in the poets valdius), validissime. 
 
 Obs. These adverbs which denote a mutual relation of place, and from 
 which adjectives are formed in the comparative and superlative (§. 66), 
 have a corresponding comparison as adverbs, prope, propius, proxime ; 
 
 intra, interius, intime ; ultra, extra, post ulterius, exterius, posterius 
 
 ultimum or ultimo, &c. (particularly postremum trndpostremo) ; supra, 
 
 superius, summe (in the highest degree), summum (at the highest), supre- 
 rnum, at last, for the last time (rare) ; citra and infra have only citerius, 
 inferius, without a superlative. 
 
 §. 171. Of other adverbs only the following are compared : 
 
 Diu, long, diutius, diutissime. 
 
 Nuper, lately, nuperrime, without a comparative. 
 
 Saepe, often, saepius, saepissime. 
 
 Secus, otherwise, ill, secius (non, nihilo secius, no less, never- 
 theless.) 
 
 Temperi (tempori), betimes, temperius. 
 
 §. 172. The Latin language has the following Prepositions, in 
 order to denote the relation between substantives. 
 
 I. (Those which are constructed with the Ablative.) 
 
 Ab, a, from. (Ab is always used before vowels, and often before 
 consonants, a only before consonants ; before te abs is also used, 
 abs te*.) 
 
 Absqve. without (antiquated ; absqve te si esset, if it were not for 
 you). 
 
 Coram, before, in presence of. 
 
 Cum, with. 
 
 Obs. Cum is put after and joined to the personal, reflective, and relative 
 pronouns ; niecum, nobiscum, secum, qyocum, qyacum, qyibuscum. It may 
 however be prefixed to the relative pronoun (especially in the poets), e. g. 
 cum qyo, cum qyibus. (Mecum et cum P. Scipione.) 
 
 * In the use of ab and ex before consonants writers vary from each other, and are not 
 always even consistent with themselves. 
 
150 Inflection of Words. §. 172- 
 
 De, of, from, (down from), concerning. 
 
 Ex, e, out of. (Ex, before vowels and consonants, e only before 
 consonants.) 
 
 Prae, before, in comparison with, on account of. 
 
 Pro, before, for. 
 
 Sine, without. 
 Tenus, up to (is put after its case : pectore tenus). 
 
 Ols. Tonus occurs rarely with the genitive, e. g. crurum tenus (Virg.). 
 
 II. [Those constructed with the Accusative.) 
 
 Ad, to, with respect to (close by, ad manum). 
 Adversus, adversum, against. 
 Ante, before. 
 Apud, at or with. 
 
 Circa, circum, round, round about. (Circum amicos, urbes, in- 
 sulas, to the friends, in the towns, in the islands round about.) 
 Circiter, towards, about (of time; circiter horam octavam). 
 Contra, opposite, against. 
 Cis, citra, on this side of. 
 
 Erg a, towards (generally of a friendly way of feeling or acting) . 
 Extra, on the outside of, out of. 
 Infra, on the lower side of, beneath. 
 Inter, between, among. 
 Intra, on the inside of, within. 
 Juxta, near, by. 
 
 Ob, before (oculos), on account of. 
 Penes, with, in the hands or power of any one. 
 Per, through. 
 Pone, behind. 
 Post, after. 
 
 Praeter, beyond, except. (Praeter ceteros, before the others.) 
 Prope, near. 
 
 Propter, near, on account of. 
 Supra, on the upper side of, above. 
 Secundum, next to, according to. 
 Trans, on the other side of. 
 
 Versus, towards. Stands after its case, but is used only with 
 the names of towns (Romam versus) . 
 Ultra, on the other side of, beyond. 
 
 i-l 
 
-173. Chap. XXV. — The Adverbs and Prepositions. 151 
 
 III. [Those constructed with the Ablative or Accusative.) 
 
 In, in, on (abl.) ; into, towards (ace). 
 
 Sub, under (abl.); under, about (ace.). 
 
 Subter, beneath, on the under side of. 
 
 Super, concerning (abl.) ; above, on the upper side of (ace). 
 
 On the construction of these four prepositions further particulars 
 will be given in the Syntax (§. 230). 
 
 Obs. 1. For the particular ways of employing the above prepositions, 
 and their application in certain idioms and phrases, the dictionary must be 
 consulted. The idiom of the Latins, in consequence of a different way of 
 conceiving the relations of things, is very often different from our own, 
 e. g. when it is said in Latin, initium facere ah aliqya re, and not cum.) 
 (Hence also we find, Unde initium faciam ?) 
 
 Obs. 2. Some prepositions are also used as adverbs, the name of the 
 person or thing referred to not being specified, viz. coram (personally, face 
 to face), ante (before, previously, anted), circa, circiter, contra, extra, infra, 
 intra, juxta, pone, post (behind, afterwards, postea), prope, propter (in the 
 neighbourhood), supra, ultra, subter, super. (In antiquated style Iprae ! 
 go first! ire adversum, to go to meet.) {Ad is used as an adverb with 
 numerals in the signification about, without any influence on the case, 
 e. g. ad duo inilia et qvingenti, Liv. IV. 59. Praeter is sometimes used in 
 the signification except, with the same casus obliqvus, which precedes, 
 e. g. Caeterae multitudini diem statuit praeter rerum capitalium damnatis, 
 Sail. Cat. 36.) 
 
 Obs. 3. On the other hand some adverbs are occasionally used as pre- 
 positions, viz. with the ablative ; palam, publicly, in presence of (populo), 
 procul, far from {procul mari, most generally procul a mari), simul, 
 together with (simul Ms, poet, for simul cum his) ; with the accusative ; 
 usqye {usqye pedes, but rarely and only in late writers, otherwise usqye ad 
 pedes) ; with the ablative or accusative ; clam, without the knowledge of 
 {clam patrem, clam vobis) . 
 
 Obs. 4. Prope is often combined with ah, prope ab urbe. Propius and 
 proxime, from prope, are also used as prepositions with the accusative ; 
 propius urbem, proxime urbem (also propius, proxime ab urbe. Very rarely 
 a dative is put after propius and proxime. Versus is subjoined to ad and in, 
 e. g. ad Oceanum versus, toward the Ocean, in Italiam versus, toward Italy. 
 
 Obs. 5. Ergo, for the sake of, is used (in antiquated style) as a prepo- 
 sition with the genitive, and is put after its case, as, victoriae ergo. 
 
 §. 173. In composition with verbs, and with other words begin- 
 
152 Inflection of Words. §. 173— 
 
 ning with consonants, some prepositions undergo a modification in 
 the final consonant, particularly by its assimilation with the follow- 
 ing (according to §. 10). Cum (con) is also modified before vowels. 
 
 Ab. Abscedo, abscondo (cedo, condo) ; aufero, aufugio (fero, 
 fugio, but afui, afore, or abfui) ; amoveo (moveo) ; asporto ( porto) ; 
 abstineo (teneo) ; avello. In the other compounds ab remains un- 
 changed, as abdo, abluo, abnego, abrado, absumo. 
 
 Ad. D is changed into the following consonant : accedo, affero, 
 agger o, allino, annoto, appareo, acqviro, arrogo, assumo, aspicio (not 
 asspicio ; see §. 10), attingo ; but d generally stands before m (ad- 
 miror), and always before,/ and v (adjaceo, adveho). Some however 
 wrote adcedo, adfero, &c. and particularly adspicio. 
 
 Ex. Effero (fero, antiquated form ecfero) ; existo (also written 
 exsisto), exspecto (and expecto, as pronounced, see §. 10). (Edo, 
 egero, eluo, emoveo, enato, erigo, eveho ; but excedo, expedio, exqviro, 
 extendo.) 
 
 In. Imbibo, immergo, importo (before b, m, p) ; illino, irrepo ; 
 otherwise unaltered. (But we find inbibo, &c. written.) (Indigeo, in- 
 dipiscor, from an older form indu.) 
 
 Ob. Occurro, offero, oggero, opperior ; otherwise unchanged. 
 (Instances of irregularity are found in obs-olesco, os-tendo, o-mitto.) 
 
 Sub. Succurro, svfficio, suggero, summitto, supprimo, surripio 
 (but subrideo, to smile, subrusticus, somewhat clownish) ; otherwise 
 unaltered. (The following are formed irregularly : sus-cipio, sus- 
 cito, sus-pendo, sus-tineo, sus-tuli, from subs, with su-spicio and sus- 
 censeo or sue cense o. 
 
 Trans. Usually trdduco, trajicio, trano, sometimes tramitto (al- 
 ways trado and traduco in an improper signification) ; otherwise 
 unaltered. (Transcribo.) 
 
 Cum in compounds is changed before consonants to con, when the 
 n is modified as in in (comburo, committo, comprehendo, colligo, cor- 
 ripio). But some wrote also conburo, &c. Before vowels and h it is 
 changed to co, coalesco, coemo, coire, coorior, cohaereo. (But comedo. 
 Cognosco, cognatus.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Inter is modified in intelligo, per mpellicio (pelluceo and per- 
 luceo), ante in anticipo and antisto. 
 
 Obs. 2. Of the preposition pro it is to be observed, that it is shortened 
 in some few compounds, namely, in prof art, prqficiscor (but proJicio),proJi- 
 teor, prof ugio,profugus, prof estus, pronepos ; in procuro and propello the 
 pro is sometimes short. (Profundus, prof anus,) Otherwise it is always 
 
174. Chap. I. — Derivation of Substantives. 153 
 
 long, produco, promitto, &c. (In Greek words the preposition pro is short, 
 as in Greek, except in prologus, propino.) We may also notice prod-eo, 
 prodesse, prodigo (ago), prodambulo ; but proavus, proliibeo. (Otherwise 
 pro is not used before vowels.) 
 
 Obs. 3. For circumeo, from circum and eo, we sometimes find circueo, 
 especially in the part. perf. circuitus, whence the substantive circuitus. 
 
 III. Rules for the formation of Words. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Formation of words in general. Derivation of Substantives. 
 
 §. 174. Roots (radices) is the name by which we distinguish the 
 first original words or expressions of a language, which have neither 
 received any augmentation nor are combined with any other word. 
 By receiving terminations of inflection or being used in a certain 
 defined way in speaking, the roots become primitive words or 
 themes [verba primitwd) of a certain class, as duc-o, dux (dues). 
 When a verb is immediately formed from the root (as duco), it is 
 usual to consider and speak of it as the root. 
 
 Obs. 1. Besides those roots, which express the definite idea of an 
 object, there are also roots, which contain only a notice and reference, 
 whence the pronominal words have taken their rise (e. g. is, ibi, ita). Of 
 those roots which denote ideas, most express an action or condition, and 
 by means of the terminations of inflection are immediately converted into 
 verbs, so that the root is at the same time the theme, to which the termi- 
 nations are attached (§. 26). But various substantives are likewise formed 
 immediately from the root by the simple addition of the terminations of 
 the cases, e. g. dux. In many cases the root is not found as a verb, but 
 only as a substantive or adjective, e. g. sol,frons, laus, probus, levis (from 
 which again are derived frontier e, laudare, probare, levare). 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes a root, in becoming a verb, is modified and aug- 
 mented in the pronunciation, so that the root and the theme of the verb 
 (in the present) are not entirely alike, e. g. frango (theme of the present 
 frang, root frag, whence the perfect fregi). See §. 118. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the primitive verbs of the second conjugation the e does not 
 properly belong to the root, except in those which have evi in the perfect. 
 (Hence wion-ui, onon-i-tum, without e.) But to avoid prolixity and con- 
 fusion, it is most convenient on the present occasion to speak of the e as 
 if it belonged to the root. 
 
 x 
 
15 i Formation of Words, §.175- 
 
 §. 175. a. To the root as it is contained in the primitive words 
 formed from it, are attached terminations of derivation (svffixes, 
 from suffigo, to attach at the end), by which derivative words {verba 
 derivata) are formed. From a derived word others may be again 
 derived, so that one and the same word may be both a deriva- 
 tive itself, and a primitive in relation to others. From the root 
 in amo (ama) comes amabilis, and from that amabilitas ; from the 
 root in probus comes the verb probo, from that probabilis, and from 
 this probabilitas. 
 
 Obs. Properly speaking, the termination of derivation forms only the 
 theme of the new word, which does not become an actual word till it 
 receives the termination of inflection, by which the termination of deriva- 
 tion is itself occasionally modified. From prod in probus is first formed 
 proba (the theme of the verb), which, with the termination of the first 
 person present, becomes probo. From probabil is formed probability, 
 which with the nominative termination becomes probabilitas. For the sake 
 of convenience the endings of derivation are here named with the proxi- 
 mate ending of inflection (especially since a particular derivation requires 
 at the same time a particular way of declension), in substantives therefore 
 as the nominative, in adjectives as the nominative masculine, in verbs as 
 the first person of the present indicative. 
 
 b. Terminations of derivation denote a certain idea of a parti- 
 cular class (e. g. an action, a person, a property, &c.) in which 
 the signification of the primitive is contained, so that the words 
 formed with one and the same termination belong to the same class, 
 and denote ideas which are conceived in the same way ; e. g. words 
 in tas are substantives, which denote a property. The most im- 
 pc rtant of these kinds of derivation are here adduced according to 
 the classes to which the derivatives belong. 
 
 Obs. 1. There are many derived Latin words, the root or primitive of 
 which cannot be found ; others are derived according to forms which are 
 unusual or can no longer be recognised ; some terminations of derivation 
 (especially of substantives) are used only in a very few words, or chiefly 
 in those, the theme of which is unknown, so that the meaning of the ter- 
 mination cannot be ascertained. In the case also of those terminations, 
 the force of which is more evident, the signification is sometimes very 
 comprehensive and rather undefined. 
 
 Obs. 2. There are sometimes several terminations which have the same 
 meaning and application, e. g. tas and tudo, to denote properties ; in these 
 cases one termination is employed in some words, the other in others. 
 Some derivative terminations are rarely found in the older writers, but 
 became common at a later period. 
 
— 176. Chap. I. — Derivation of Substantives. 155 
 
 Obs. 3. The examining and ascertaining of the origin of words from 
 their roots and primitives is called Etymology (eVu^oXoyta) 11 ; the primitive 
 word is also called etymum (krv/xov, the true). 
 
 §. 176. a. The terminations of derivation are attached to the 
 theme of the primitive, divested of the terminations of inflection ; 
 e. g. from the substantive miles } gen. milit-is, are formed the verb 
 milit-are, the substantive milit-ia, the adjective milit-aris. In sub- 
 stantives of the first and second (often also of the fourth declension) 
 both a and u are dropped. When primitive verbs are modified in 
 the theme of the present (§. 174. Obs. 2), the derivation is formed 
 from the unaltered root (which is shewn in the inflection of the 
 verb, e. g. from frango {frag) are derived the substantive frag or, 
 and the adjective fragilis. 
 
 Obs. If the last syllable of the theme has a different sound in the in- 
 flection, according as it is open or close (e. g. semen but se?niit-is, colo but 
 cultus), this is also shewn in the derivation {serninarium, colonia, but se- 
 inentis, cultura). 
 
 b. In verbs of the first and second conjugation a and e are 
 dropt before those terminations of derivation which begin with a 
 vowel [am-or, pall-or, opin-io). E is also dropt before consonants 
 (except in those verbs which have evi in the perfect). 
 
 Obs. In themes ending in u, u is changed into uv before a vowel, e. g. 
 pluviae, colluvies (but ruin a). 
 
 c. When the theme ends in a consonant and the termination of 
 derivation begins with a consonant, a short connecting vowel (com- 
 monly i, more rarely u) is frequently interposed. Sometimes no 
 vowel is interposed, but a consonant rejected (e. g. fulmen from 
 fulg-eo). This often takes place when the theme ends in v, in 
 which case the preceding vowel is lengthened, e. g. mbtus, mobilis, 
 from moveo, adjumentum from adjuvo. 
 
 d. The final vowel of the verbal themes [a, e, i, u) is always long- 
 before the termination of derivation {veldmen, complementum ; mo- 
 limen, volumen). 
 
 e. Sometimes the derivation is made not immediately from the 
 theme of the verb, but from the supine, so that a new termination 
 is affixed to its t or s (with the omission of um), e. g. ama-t-or. 
 
 Obs. The supine and participle are themselves formed like substantives 
 and adjectives by derivation from the verb. 
 
 w It will be seen that the term is here employed in a more restricted sense than when 
 applied to the first part of Grammar. 
 
 x2 
 
156 Formation of Words §. 177 — 
 
 §. 177. Substantives are derived from verbs (substantiva ver- 
 balia) and from other substantives, or from adjectives (subst. deno- 
 minativa). 
 
 Obs. From the proper derivative terminations of the substantives, by 
 which they are formed from known themes with a definite modification of 
 their meaning, we must distinguish the final vowels a and u before the 
 terminations of inflection, by which the substantives acquire the open form 
 of declension (first and second). These terminations belong to a great 
 number of substantives of which the roots are unknown, but it is only in 
 a few instances that substantives from known roots are formed by these 
 alone (as the personal names scriba, advena, perfuga, from scribo, advenio, 
 perfugio, a being at other times a feminine termination ; coqvus from 
 coqvo) ; but they are found in combination with other derivative termina- 
 tions (ia, ium, &c). Some few personal names are formed by simply 
 adding the terminations of the declension (nom. s) to known roots or 
 verbal themes (dux, rex, pellex, praeses, from duco, rego, pellicio, prae- 
 sideo), as also some other substantives (lex, lux, nex, vox, obices, from 
 lego, luceo, neco, voco, obicio). 
 
 Of the terminations with which substantives are formed from 
 verbs, the following are to be noticed : 
 
 1) or, affixed to the theme of intransitive verbs (mostly of the 
 first or second, never of the fourth conjugation), forms substantives, 
 which denote the action or condition ; amor, error, clamor, favor, 
 pallor, furor (amare, err are, clamare, f aver e, pallere, fur ere). 
 
 Obs. Various substantives in or are not derived from any known verb, 
 while on the other hand verbs are formed from them, e. g. honor, labor 
 (Jwnos, labos) — Tionorare, laborare. 
 
 2) or, affixed to the theme of the supine (tor or sor), denotes the 
 (male) agent : amator, adjutor, monitor, fautor, victor, cursor, peti- 
 tor, auditor, largitor. 
 
 From many such substantives in tor there are formed feminines 
 in trios, e. g. venatrix, victrix , fautrix , adjutrix, more rarely in strix 
 from those in sor, e. g. tonstrix from tonsor. (JExpultrix from expulsor, 
 rejecting the s.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes personal names in tor (ator or itor) are formed also 
 from substantives of the first or second declension, e. g. viator, gladiator, 
 f auditor, from via, gladius,funda (janitor from janua, vinitor from vinea). 
 
 Obs. 2. Masculine names of persons in o, onis, derived from verbs, arc 
 of less frequent occurrence, e. g, erro from errare, and lieluo from lieluari. 
 
 §.178. Further ; 
 
-179. Chap. I. — Derivation of Substantives. 157 
 
 3) io (ion-is), affixed to the theme of the supine (tio, sio), de- 
 notes the action, e. g. admimstratio, tractatio, cautio, actio, accessio, 
 divisio, largiiio. (Mentio, from the unused meniscor.) 
 
 Obs. 1 . More rarely io is affixed immediately to the theme of the verb, 
 e. g. opinio (opinor), obsidio (pbsideo), contagio {tango, tag), oblivio (from 
 the original theme in obliviscor). Consortio, communio, are formed in the 
 same way from adjectives. 
 
 4) us (gen. us), affixed to the theme of the supine, also denotes 
 the action, e.g. visus, usus, auditus. 
 
 Obs. 1. From some verbs substantives are formed both in io and in us, 
 e. g. contemptio and contemptus, concursio and concursus. In some words 
 some writers prefer the one, others the other form (later authors more 
 usually adopt the form in .us), without any difference in the signification ; 
 in others some difference is found in the usage, e. g. auditio, the act of 
 hearing, auditus, the sense of hearing. To signify on, in consequence of, 
 by (this or that action), the second supine of many verbs, (abl. in u) is 
 made use of, without a perfect substantive being formed, e. g. jussu, man- 
 datu, rogatu (compare §. 55, 4). 
 
 Obs. 2. In some of these words in io and us the signification of an 
 action is lost, e. g. coenatio, a supper-room, regio, a district (rego, to 
 govern), legio, a legion (lego, to choose), victus, a way of life, sustenance. 
 
 5) Of the same signification as io and us, but somewhat rarer, is 
 ura, affixed to the theme of the supine, e. g. conjectura, pictura, cul- 
 tura, mercatura, sepultura, natura (from nascor, different from natio) ; 
 still more rare is ela affixed to the theme of the verb, e. g. qverela 
 (qveror), or to that of the supine, e.g. corruptela (corrumpo). Ium, 
 affixed to the theme of the verb, has nearly the same signification, 
 e. g. desiderium, imperium, judicium, gaudium, studium, praesidium, 
 odium, colloqvium, perfugium (place of refuge), vaticinium (vati- 
 cinor) . 
 
 Obs. From some few verbs there are formed substantives in igo, which 
 denote an action or a condition arising out of it, e. g. origo (orior), vertigo 
 (turning, dizziness), tentlgo (tendo), prurigo (prurio). (Cupido,formido, 
 libido, from cupio,formido, libet.) Ies denotes rather a result produced, 
 e. g. congeries, effigies (from jingo without n), species (from the unused 
 specio), acies from actio . 
 
 §.179. Further; 
 
 6) The termination men (min-is) denotes a thing, which does 
 something or serves for something, e. g. velamen, vimen (vieo) flu- 
 men (fluo), lumen (luceo, the c rejected), specimen (specio, spexi), 
 
158 Formation of Words. §-179 '> 
 
 legmen (also tegimen, tegumen), molimen, examen (for exagmen from 
 ago). (In a passive sense, volilmen, what is rolled together, a roll, acumen, 
 what is sharpened, a point. Sometimes this termination denotes the action, 
 certamen, regimen. Some words in men are used only by the poets and 
 later writers, e. g. conamen for conatus.) 
 
 7) The termination mentum denotes, a mean, an instrument, a 
 thing which is employed for something ; ornamentum, complemen- 
 tum, instrumentum, alimentum {aid), condlmentum (condio), monu- 
 mentum, documentum (jnoneo, do ceo, with the connecting vowel u), 
 adjumentum, (adjuvo, adjuv-i, v being rejected), momentum, moveo i 
 tormentum (torqveo). (Compare §. 176 c.) 
 
 Obs. Sometimes such words in mentum are formed from substantives or 
 adjectives of the first or second declension, in such a way as if they came 
 from verbs of the first conjugation (amentum), e. g. atr amentum (means of 
 blackening, black paint, mk), f err amentum. 
 
 8) culum (more ancient orthography and pronunciation, clum) 
 and bulum denote the means or implement (sometimes the place) of 
 an action ; gubernaculum, coenaculum (a garret, properly a dining- 
 room), ferculum (fero), operculum (operio, oper-ui), vehiculum, ever- 
 riculum, vocabulum, pabulum (pasco, pa-vi), stabulum (a stall, stand- 
 ing-place), latibulum (lateo), infundibulum (infundo). If the theme 
 ends in c or g, only ulum is added : vinculum (vinc-io), cingulum 
 (cingo) . 
 
 Obs. 1. Crum is used instead of clum (culum) when there is an I in the 
 preceding syllable or the one before it ; sepulcrum (sepelio), fulcrum 
 (fulcio), simulacrum, lavacrum. Brum is used instead of bulum, when 
 there is an I in the preceding syllable ; fiabrum, ventilabrum (also crlbrum 
 from cerno, and some feminines in bra, e. g. dolabra, latebra, vertebra, as 
 fabula from fari). 
 
 Obs. 2. The same meaning is expressed by trum, before which d is 
 changed to s ; aratrum, claustrum (claudo), rostrum (rodo). 
 
 Obs. 3. Some few such words are formed from other substantives ; e. g. 
 turibulum, a censer, from tus, candelabrum (see Obs. 1.) from candela. 
 
 §.180. Substantives derived from other substantives have the 
 following terminations : 
 
 1) ium, affixed to personal names, denotes a condition and 
 relation, sometimes an action or employment, e. g. collegium, 
 convivium, sacerdotium, ministerium, testimonium, from collega, con- 
 viva, sacerdos, minister, testis. (The following have an irregular signi- 
 fication, matrimonium, marriage, patrimonium, patrimony.) Affixed to 
 
■180. Chap. I. — Derivation of Substantives. 159 
 
 personal names in tor, it denotes the place of the action, e. g. audi- 
 torium from auditor. 
 
 2) atuSj affixed to personal names, denotes a relation and office ; 
 consulatus, tribunatus, triumvir atus. {Censura, dictator a, praetur a, prae- 
 fectura, qvaestura.) 
 
 3) a?ius denotes a person, who engages in something as a trade, 
 e. g. statuarius, argentarius, sicarius ; avium, a place for collecting 
 or preserving anything; granarium, seminarium, armamentarium, 
 vivarium (place for preserving living animals), from granum, semen, 
 armament a, vivus. (Compare the adjective termination arius, §. 
 187. 10.) 
 
 4) ina, affixed to personal names, denotes an employment and 
 a place for carrying on a thing; medicina, sutrina (sutor), doctrina i 
 disciplina — tonstrina (tonsor). {Officina, from officium, piscina, from 
 piscis, aurifodina from fodio, ruina from ruo, rapina from rapio ; in the 
 neuter textrinum, pistrinum). In regina, gallina, it denotes only the femi- 
 nine gender.) 
 
 5) al, ar (the last form is nsed when an I occurs in the preceding 
 syllable or the one before it, compare §. 179, 8. Obs. 1.) denotes a 
 material object, which stands in relation to a thing or belongs to 
 it, e. g. puteal, animal, calcar, pulvlnar, from puteus, animus, calx, 
 pulvinus. 
 
 Obs. Properly the neuter of the adjective termination alls (arts) with- 
 out the e, which is retained in a few words, e. g. ramale, brushwood. 
 
 6) etum, affixed to the names of plants, denotes a place where 
 they grow together in a quantity, and also the plants themselves 
 collectively, e. g. olivetum, myrtetum, fruticetum, arundinetum, qver-* 
 cetum, from oliva, myrtus,frutex, arundo, qvercus. 
 
 Obs. The following are formed irregularly : salictum, carectum (salix, 
 car ex), arbustum (arbos), virgultum (yirgula). 
 
 7) tie, affixed to the names of animals, denotes a stall ; bubile, 
 ovlle (bos, ovis). (Affixed to verbs it also signifies a place ; cublle [a 
 place to lie down], a couch, sedile.) 
 
 Obs. Examples of derivative terminations of rare occurrence or with a 
 less obvious signification in substantives derived from substantives are o 
 or io (in some personal names, e. g. praedo from praeda, centurio, mulio, 
 restio, from centuria, mulus, restis, but in many other words from some 
 theme unknown), ica, (e. g. lectica from lectus, and in words from an un- 
 known theme), tea (fahrica from faher, with others of uncertain deriva- 
 tion), ia (e. g. militia from miles), ugo (e. g. aerugo from aes), uria (e. g. 
 centuria, luxuria). 
 
I GO Formation of Words. §. 181- 
 
 §. 181. From some names of male persons and animals in us and 
 er corresponding feminine nouns are formed by affixing a to the 
 theme, at the same time rejecting us s e. g. eqva, cerva, capra, from 
 eqvus, cervus, caper (see §. 30), dea 3 filia, her a, serva, magistra, from 
 deus, filius, herus, servus, magister ; also in trice from personal names 
 in tor (§. 177, 2). Those substantives which have a corresponding 
 feminine form are called subst. mobilia. 
 
 Obs. It is only in a few solitary instances that a is found attached m 
 this way to themes of the third declension ; antistita, clienta, hospita, tibi- 
 cma, from antistes, cliens, hospes, tibicen. A rarer formation still is that 
 of regina, gallina, leaena, from rex, gallus, leo ; avia, neptis, socrus, from 
 avus, nepos, soeer. 
 
 §. 182. The following terminations should also be noticed; 
 
 1) By means of lus, la } or lum, and cuius, cula, or culum, are 
 formed diminutives (nomina deminutiva) , which denote littleness, 
 and are often used by way of endearment, commiseration, or to 
 ridicule something insignificant, e. g. hortulus, a little garden, mater- 
 cula, a (poor) mother, ingeniolum, a little bit of talent. The dimi- 
 nutives have the same gender as their primitives, and end accord- 
 ingly in us, a, or um. Both terminations are combined in different 
 ways with the different themes, and hence occasionally assume an 
 irregular form. 
 
 With respect to this it is to be observed ; 
 
 a. lus (u, um) is used with primitive words of the first and second de- 
 clension, and with some few of the third, (but always when the charac- 
 teristic letter is c or g). It is affixed to the theme (after rejecting a or us), 
 with the connecting vowel u (therefore ulus, ula, ulum), e. g. arcula, ce- 
 rula, litterula, lunula, virgula, servulus, Jiortulus, oppidulum — aetatula, 
 adolescentulus, facida, vocirfa, radicula, regidus ; from area, cera, littera, 
 lima, virga, servus, liortus, oppidum, aetas, adolescens, fax, vox, radix, rex. 
 If a vowel precedes us, a, um, in the primitive, then the diminutive ends 
 in olus (a, um), e.g. fliolus, gloriola, lineola, ingeniolum; from films, 
 gloria, linea, i/ngenium. 
 
 b. To themes of the first and second declension in ul, r with a consonant 
 preceding, and n, with some others in er and n, lus (a, um) is affixed with- 
 out a connecting vowel ; r and n are assimilated with the following I; u 
 and i are changed into e, and e inserted before r after a consonant {ellus, 
 ella, ellum), e. g. tabella, catellus, ocellus, popellus, (tabula, catulus, oculus, 
 populus) ; libella, ag ellus, libellus, lab ellum (from libra, ager [_agrf\, liber, 
 labrum ; lamella, pagella, asellus (from lamina, pagina, asinus), catella, 
 
—182. Chap. I. — Derivation of Substantives. 161 
 
 corolla, opella, puella (from catena, corona, opera, and the unused puera 
 from puer). 
 
 Obs. 1. Diminutives of this class are sometimes formed from other dimi- 
 nutives ; cista, cistula, cistella, and (by again adding ula) cistcllula. 
 
 Obs. 2. Some few words have the termination illus [a, um) instead of 
 ellus, as bacillum, pugillus, sigillum, tigillum, pulvillus, from baculum, 
 pugnus, signum, tignum, pulvinus. Codicillus, lapillus, angvilla, from co- 
 dex, lapis, angvis, are formed in the same way from primitives of the 
 third declension. 
 
 c. cuius (a, um) is used with primitives of the third, fourth, and fifth 
 declension. In primitives of the third declension in I, r, and s, if this last is 
 not merely the termination of the nominative case (consequently when it is 
 changed to r in the genitive), the diminutive termination is affixed imme- 
 diately to the nominative ; animalculum, fraterculus, matercula, tubercu- 
 lum, anxat or cuius, uxorcula, corculum, flosculus, osculum, opusculum, mu- 
 nusculum, pulvisculus, from animal, f rater, mater, tuber, amator, uxor, cor, 
 fios, os (oris), opus, munus, pulvis. (Vasculum from vas, vasis.) 
 
 Obs. From rumor is formed rumusculus, and from arbor arbuscula (and 
 in the same way grandiusculus, &c. from the comparative grandior) ; ven- 
 triculus from venter (acriculus from the adj. acer). From os, ossis, is 
 formed ossiculum. 
 
 d. From primitives in o (on-is, or in-is) is deduced the form unculus, 
 e. g. sermunculus, virguncula, ratiuncula, Tiomunculus [sermo, virgo, ratio, 
 homo). (Caruncula from caro, pectunculus from pecten.) 
 
 Obs. The following are formed irregularly with the same termination : 
 avunculus, domuncula, fur unculus, from avus,domus, fur (^ranunculus from 
 rana with a change of gender.) 
 
 e. In primitives in es, gen. is or ei ; and is, gen. is, the termination is 
 affixed to the theme, after dropping the nominative termination s; nube- 
 cula, diecula, pisciculus, from nubes, dies, piscis (aedicula from the form 
 aedis) : in the words in e the e is changed into i, e. g. reticulum from rete. 
 
 f. In those words in which the nominative termination s is affixed to a 
 consonant, and in the fourth declension, the termination is affixed to the 
 theme with the connecting vowel i (the u being first rejected in the fourth 
 declension), e. g. ponticulus, particula, coticula, versiculus, corniculum, 
 (from pons, pars, cos, versus, cornu.) 
 
 Obs. I. If the theme ends in c or g, the termination lus is made use of; 
 see a. 
 
 Obs. 2. The following are irregular forms: Tiomuncio (JiomiUlus), from 
 homo, eculeus from eqyus ; aculeus, a point or sting, masc. from the femi- 
 nine acus. 
 
 Y 
 
1G2 Formation of Words. % 182— 
 
 Obs. 3. The diminutive form illus (a, um) occurs in some words with 
 the characteristic x, which appear to be immediately derived from verbs, 
 but have shorter substantives corresponding to them, formed by rejecting 
 the x, and contraction, e. g. vexillum (veho, vex-i) and velum, paxillus 
 (pango) widLpalus, maxilla and mala. {Tela from texo.) 
 
 §. 183. From the Greek the Latin poets have taken the Greek 
 patronymics (the prose writers only in making mention of well- 
 known Greek families) which designate a person as some one's son, 
 daughter, or descendant, e. g. Priamides, a son or descendant of 
 Priam, Tantalis, a daughter of Tantalus. 
 
 The masculine patronymics generally end in ides, which is affixed to the 
 theme, e. g. Priamides, Cecropides (Cecrops) ; but from names in eus there 
 is formed the termination ides (eiS/?*), e. g. Atr'ides, Pelides. From names 
 in as of the first declension is formed ddes, e. g. Aeneddes ; from ius iddes, 
 e. g. Thestiddes (Thestius), which termination however is used also in other 
 names after a long syllable for the sake of the versification, e. g. Atlantid- 
 des from Atlas. 
 
 The feminine patronymics end in is, which corresponds to ides (Tantalis 
 from Tantalus), eis, which corresponds to ides (Nereis from Nereus), or ias, 
 which corresponds to iddes (Thestias from Thestius). (There is a pecu- 
 liarity in the form Aeneis from Aeneas.) 
 
 §. 184. Substantives which denote a quality are formed from 
 adjectives, by the following terminations : 
 
 1) tas, with the connecting vowel i (itas) affixed to the theme of 
 the adjective, e. g. bonitas, asperitas, crudelitas, atrocitas. From ad- 
 jectives in ius is formed ietas, e. g. pietas, varietas ; from those in stus is 
 formed stas, e. g. honestas, venustas. 
 
 Obs. The following are without a connecting vowel : libertas, paupertas, 
 pubertas, ubertas, facultas, difficultas. Some few substantives of this form 
 are derived from substantives, as auctoritas, civitas, or from verbs, as 
 potestas. To this is allied the termination tus, e. g. virtus, juvent us, from 
 vir, juvenis. 
 
 2) ia, mostly from adjectives (and participles) of one termina- 
 tion, e. g. audacia, concordia, inertia, dementia, elegantia, abun- 
 dantia, magnificentia (from magnificus, like magnificentior) , (but also 
 miseria, perfidia, &c, and from those in cundus ; facundia, iracundia, ve- 
 recundia ; but jucunditas). 
 
 3) tia (itia), from a few adjectives of three terminations, e. g. 
 malitia, justitia, laetitia, avaritia, pigritia, tristitia. 
 
 Obs. Some of these have also a form in ies, as mollitia and mollities t 
 
— 185. Chap. II. — Derivation of Adjectives. 163 
 
 usually planities {-planus). From pauper we find pauperies (commonly 
 paupertas) . 
 
 4) tudo, affixed to the theme (of adjectives of three or two ter- 
 minations) with an i, e. g. altitudo, aegritudo, similitudo. 
 
 Ols. 1. To some adjectival themes in t udo alone is affixed, e. g. consve- 
 tudo, sollicitudo. 
 
 Ols. 2. From some adjectives there are formed substantives both in tas 
 and tudo, e. g. claritas and claritudo,firmitas andjlrmitudo. In such cases 
 the substantive in tudo is generally the least used. 
 
 Ols. 3. From dulcis is formed duleedo (usually in an improper significa- 
 tion, attraction, or charm ; dulcitudo, sweetness, is rare), and from gravis 
 (subst. gravitas, weight), gravedo, signifying heaviness of the head, cold. 
 (Torpedo, from torpeo.) Later writers form some additional substantives 
 in this way ; pingvedo (for pingvitudo), putredo, &c. 
 
 Ols. 4. A more rare and peculiar termination is monia x , e. g. sanc- 
 timonia, castimonia, aerimonia. (Parsimonia, frugality, for parcimonia, 
 qverimonia, a complaint, from the verb qveror.) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Derivation of Adjectives. 
 
 §. 185. Adjectives are derived partly from verbs, partly from 
 substantives. From verbs are formed adjectives with the following 
 terminations (besides the participles, which — both those in ordinary 
 use, and those in bundus, §. 115 g — may also be included in this 
 class) ; 
 
 1) zdus (dus with the connecting vowel i), affixed chiefly to the 
 theme of intransitive verbs in eo, denotes the condition and pro- 
 perty, which are expressed by the verb, e. g. calidus, frigidus, tepi- 
 dus, humidus, aridus, madidus, timidus, from caleo, &c. (Some few 
 are formed from other verbs or from substantives, or without any known 
 primitive, e. g. rapidus, turlidus, lepidus, trepidus, whence trepidare (gra- 
 vidus from gravis.) 
 
 2) a. ilis (lis with a connecting vowel), affixed to themes ending 
 in a consonant, denotes passively the capacity of being the object 
 of an action, e. g. fragilis (brittle), facilis (what may be done, easy), 
 utilis, docilis, habilis (doc-eo, hab-eo). 
 
 b. This is still more often expressed by bills (with the connecting 
 vowel, ibilis), e.g. amabilis, probabilis, flebilis (fleo,flevi) } volubilis 
 
 * [Answering to the neuter monium, §. 180, 1.] 
 
 i2 
 
16 4 Formation of Words. §. 185 — 
 
 {volv-o), credibilis, vendlbUis (mobilis, nobilis, from mov-eo } novi, re- 
 jecting the v). 
 
 Obs. 1. Some sucli adjectives have an active signification, e. g. praesta- 
 bilis, terribilis (causing fright). {Penetrabilis, penetrating and penetrable.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Some adjectives in ilis are formed from the supine, partly with 
 the signification of a possibility, e. g.Jlssilis, what may be cleft, versatUis, 
 what may be turned ; partly (and chiefly) with the mere signification of 
 the passive verb (produced by, like the perf. part.), e. g. Jictilis, coctilis, 
 altilis. (Some in bilis also are formed from the supine; compreTiensibilis, 
 comprehensible, fleccibilis, pliant, plausibilis, commendable y.) 
 
 3) ax, affixed to the theme, denotes a desire, inclination, most 
 frequently one that is too violent, or vicious, e. g. pugnax, audax, 
 edax, loqvax, rapax (rap-io) ; sometimes only the action itself (like 
 the part, pres.), e. g. minax, threatening,/^//^, deceiving. (Capax, 
 that which can contain.) 
 
 4) Less usual are the terminations cundus (capacity, inclination, ap- 
 proach to an action), e. g. iracundus (Jra-scor), facundus (fari), vere- 
 cundus, rvtiicundus (ruddy, rubeo 2 ) ; ulus (Jus with u), denoting either a 
 simple action, or an inclination to it, e. g. patulus, qyerulus, credulus, (gar- 
 rulus from garrio) ; uus, with a passive signification from transitives, e. g. 
 conspicuus, perspicuus, individuus, sometimes (poetically) with an active 
 sense from intransitives, e. g. congruus, innocuus. 
 
 §. 186. Adjectives are formed from substantives chiefly with the 
 following terminations, of which some closely resemble each other 
 in meaning, and cannot in all cases be clearly distinguished. 
 
 1) eus denotes the material of which a thing consists, e. g. aureus, 
 ligneus, cinereus, (cinis, ciner-is), igneus } vimineus. It more rarely 
 denotes something which a thing resembles in its nature, e. g. vir- 
 gineus (poet.), maidenlike, arundineus (sometimes, like a reed), 
 roseus (poet.). 
 
 Obs. To denote the kind of wood of which a thing is made, the termi- 
 nation neus or nus is commonly employed, e. g. iligneus, or ilignus, qver- 
 neus, qvernus, saligneus, salignus, populneus (rarely populnus, also populeus), 
 fagmus (connecting vowel i), cedrinus. In the same way we find eburneus, 
 eburnus, coccinus, coecineus, and adamantinus, elirystalUnus. The termina- 
 nation nus also signifies what belongs to a thing or comes from it, as pa- 
 temus,fraternus, rnaternus, vernus (of spring), supemus, infemus, 
 
 2) icius (cius with i) denotes the material or the belonging to 
 
 7 Invictits, incorruptus, invincible, incorruptible. z Jucundus (juvo), fecundus. 
 
-187. Chap. II. — Derivation of Adjectives. 165 
 
 something, e. g. latericius, caementicius — tribunicius, aedilicius, gen- 
 tilicius (relating to the gentiles, the members of the same gens) . 
 
 Obs. Sometimes adjectives in icius are derived from the part. perf. pass. 
 or from the supine, and denote the way in which a thing originates, and 
 consequently its kind : commenticius, feigned, collaticius, effected by con- 
 tributions, adventicius, subditicius,insiticius (inserere, to graft). {Novlcim 
 from novus.) 
 
 3) dceus denotes the material or a resemblance, or the belonging 
 to something, e. g. argillaceus, chartaceus, rosaceus, — ampullaceus 
 (formed like a bottle), — gallinaceus. 
 
 Ohs. Mostly from substantives of the first declension, and, except the 
 last, not much used by the older writers. 
 
 §.187. Further: 
 
 4) icus (cus with i) denotes to what a thing belongs or relates, 
 e. g. bellicus, civicus, hosticus. 
 
 Obs. 1. Instead of civicus, liosticus, prose writers rather use civilis, 
 liostilis (5), except in the solitary combinations, corona civica, ager 
 hosticus. 
 
 Ohs. 2. From these must be carefully distinguished the following words 
 derived from verbs or prepositions, amicus, inimicus, pudlcus, anticus, 
 posticus (aprlcus, from an uncertain root). 
 
 Obs. 3. The belonging to a thing is also expressed by ficus, e. g. aqya- 
 ticus, rusticus, domesiicus. 
 
 5) ills denotes what is agreeable to the nature of a thing and 
 resembles it, also what belongs to it ; civilis, hostilis, virilis, puer- 
 ilis, unilis (anus), scurrilis, herilis, gentilis (but tribulis from tribus, 
 fidelis from fides). Seoctilis, Qvintllis. (Subtilis of uncertain deriva- 
 tion, but liumilis, jparilis). 
 
 6) alls has the same signification as His, but is far more common, 
 e. g. naturalis, convivalis, annalis, fatalis, decemvir alls, judicialis, 
 auguralis, mortalis, pedalis, regalis, virginalis (liberalis, from the 
 adjective liber). If the termination be preceded by an I, or if the 
 preceding syllable begins or ends with I, aris is used instead of alis 
 (compare §. 179, 8, Obs. 1), e. g. popularis, militaris, palmaris 
 (but pluvialis, fluvialis). 
 
 Obs. atilis, what belongs to a thing, is at home in a thing, is suited to 
 a thing ; aqy atilis, fiuviatilis, umbratilis. 
 
 7) ins denotes a conformity, or belonging to something, e. g. 
 
1G6 Formation of Words. §.187— 
 
 patrius, regius. It is usually formed from personal names in or ; 
 praetorius, imperatorius, amatorius, nugatorius, sororius, uxorius. 
 
 8) Inus denotes what belongs to a thing or proceeds from it, e. g. 
 div'inus, marinus, libertinus (peregrinus from peregre) ; particularly 
 from the names of animals, e. g. ferinus, caninus, eqvinus, agninus, 
 anatinus (e. g. of meat, agnina 3 ). 
 
 Obs. 1. From this termination we must carefully distinguish inus (nus 
 with a connecting vowel), of the material, especially with the names of 
 trees and plants (§. 186. 1. Obs.). We must also distinguish between this 
 and finus in adjectives derived from words which denote a time, e. g. diu- 
 tinus, annotinus (a year old, of the preceding year), liornotinus, pristinus. 
 (But matutinus, repentlnus, vespertmus.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Of those ending in inus we must also note clandestlnus, in- 
 
 9) amis denotes a resemblance, a belonging to a thing ; monta- 
 nus, urbanus, rusticanus, meridianus (humanus from homo) ; espe- 
 cially from ordinal numbers, in order to show what belongs to a 
 particular number ; miles primanus (a soldier of the first legion), 
 febris qvartana (a quartan ague). 
 
 10) arius, what concerns or belongs to a thing ; agrarius, grega- 
 riuSy legionarius, ordinarius, tumultuarius. (In the masc. it is often 
 used as a substantive, of a person who occupies himself with any- 
 thing, see §. 180. 3.) From the distributive numerals are formed 
 adjectives in arius in order to denote that a thing bears a parti- 
 cular relation to a certain number, e. g. nummus denarius, a coin 
 which contains ten asses, senex septuagenarius, an old man of 
 seventy, &c, numerus ternarius, the number three. (The following 
 are formed from adverbs : adversarius, contrarius, temerarius ; necessa- 
 rius from necesse.^ 
 
 11) wus, what belongs or is adapted to a thing; festivus, furtl- 
 vus (fur turn), aestivus (irregularly from aestas). Affixed to parti- 
 ciples, it denotes (like icius) the way in which a thing has ori- 
 ginated, e. g. natwus, sativus, captivus. 
 
 §.188. Further; 
 
 12) osus denotes the property of being full of a thing, and of 
 bringing it on ; ingeniosus, calamitosus, generosus, libidinosus, lapido- 
 sus, damnosus, periculosus (ambitiosus, superstitiosus from ambition-is, 
 
 a Bubulus, ovillus, suillus. 
 
189. Chap. II. — Derivation of Adjectives. 167 
 
 superstition-is, omitting the n; laboriosus). From substantives of 
 the fourth declension there is formed uosus, e. g. saltuosus. 
 
 13) ulentus (lentus with a connecting vowel; after n and i olen- 
 tus), full of a thing ; connected with a thing, e. g. fraudulentus, tur- 
 bulentus, sangvinolentus, violentus. 
 
 14) The termination atus (formed like a participle of the first 
 conjugation) denotes what a thing has, or is provided with, and 
 forms a great number of adjectives, e. g. ansatus, barbatus, calceatus, 
 dent atus j falcatus (set with sickles ; sometimes, formed like a sickle), 
 virgatus (striped), auratus (gilt), togatus. 
 
 Obs. 1. From substantives in is, gen. is, is derived the form itus, e. g. 
 auritus, turritus, crhiitus (all poetical or of more recent date ; also mellttus 
 from met, galeritus from galerus) ; from words of the fourth declension are 
 formed a few in iitus, as cornutus, astidus (nasutus from nasus, 2), but ar- 
 cuatus (arqvatus). 
 
 Obs. 2. With tus are also formed onustus, robust us, venustus,funestus, 
 scelestus, — honesties, modestus, molestus. 
 
 15) Less important terminations are timus (legitimus), rnus (something 
 belonging to a particular time, diurnus, nocturnus, hodiernus), ensis (be- 
 longing to a particular place ; castrensis, forensis), ester (campester, 
 eqyester), aneus (from verbs and adjectives, in signification approaching 
 to the part. pres. and the original adjective ; consentaneus, subitaneus, 
 swpervacaneus ; by composition, mediterr aneus). 
 
 Obs. 1. From some substantives in or, which are derived from verbs (§. 
 177, 1), the poets form adjectives in drus, canorus, honor us, odor us (odor 
 from oled) ; decorus (decet) is used in prose. 
 
 Obs. 2. From some adjectives are formed diminutives according to the 
 rules given above (§. 182) for the substantives ; parvulus, aureolus, pul- 
 chellus, misellus, pauperculus, leviculus (parvus, aureus, pulcher, miser, 
 pauper, levis). JBellus (bonus), novellus (novus), and paullum (parvus) 
 are formed irregularly. 
 
 §. 189. Adjectives are formed from proper names according to 
 special rules. Of adjectives derived from the names of men and 
 families it is to be observed ; 
 
 1) The Roman family names in ius are properly adjectives (Fa- 
 bius, gens Fabia), and are used as such of a mam's public or political 
 works and undertakings, e. g. lex Cornelia, Julia, via Jppia, circus 
 Flaminius. Any thing else that relates to an individual of a family 
 and is named after him, is expressed by adjectives in anus derived 
 from the former, e. g. bellum Marianum } classis Pompejana* 
 
168 Formation of Words, §. 1 
 
 2) From tlie Roman surnames are formed adjectives in ianus, in 
 order to show what relates to a man or is named after him, e. g. 
 Ciceronianus, Caesarianus ; more rarely in anus from some in a, 
 e. g. Sullanus, and from some few in us, e. g. Gracchanus (more 
 usual forms are Lepidianus, Lucidlianus, &c), also rarely in inus, 
 e. g. Verrinus, Plautinus. 
 
 Ohs. Some few adjectives, which have become surnames, are partly 
 used as adjectives applying to the family and the individual (domus Au- 
 gusta, portus Trajanus), partly have new adjectives derived from them, as 
 Augustanus. By the poets and later writers adjectives in eus were formed 
 from Roman names, as Caesar eus, Bomuleus (even gens Romula). 
 
 3) From Greek proper names the two Greek forms in eus [ius, eios) 
 and wus are made use of, of some both forms, but of others one alone, 
 or at least chiefly, e. g. Aristotellus, Fpicureus, Platonicus, Demostlie- 
 nicus. 
 
 §. 190. From the names of towns adjectives are formed in Latin 
 by the terminations anus, inus, as, ensis, which express what be- 
 longs to the town, and are at the same time used as substantives 
 to denote the inhabitants [nomina gentiticia). These Latin adjec- 
 tives are formed also from many Greek towns (or such as were 
 known to the Romans through the Greeks), but not from all. 
 
 1) anus is used with names ending in a, ae, um, i, e.g. Rornanus, 
 Soranus, Formianus (Formiae), Tusculanus (Tusculum), Fundanus 
 [Fundi) ; also with some Greek names in a and ae, e. g. Trojanus, Syra- 
 cusanus, Thebanus, and some others, which have also in Greek an ad- 
 jective in anus, e. g. Trallianus [Tralles). 
 
 Obs. From the names of towns, which in Greek form an adjective in 
 ites (itt]s) to express the name of the inhabitants, adjectives are formed in 
 Latin in itanus, e. g. Tyndaritanus (Tyndaris), Panormitanus [Panormus), 
 Neapolitanus (and so from all in polis). (Gaditanus from Gades.) 
 
 2) inus with names ending in ia and ium, e. g. Amerinus [Ame- 
 ria), Lanuvinus (Lanuvium), [Praenestinus, Reatinus, from Prae- 
 neste, Reate), and with various Greek names, which have Inus also in the 
 Greek, e. g. Centuripinus, Tarentinus, Agrigentinus. 
 
 3) as (gen. dtis) with some in a, ae, and um (mostly na, nae, and 
 num), e. g. Capenas (Capena), Fidenas (Fidenae), Arpinas, Urbinas, 
 Antias. (Never with Greek towns.) 
 
 4) ensis with names in o and some in a, ae, um, e. g. Sulm,o- 
 nensis, Tarraconensis, Bononiensis (Bononia), Cannensis [Cannae), 
 Ariminensis [Ariminum), [Carthaginiensis, Crotoniensis) ; and with 
 
■192. Chap. II. — Derivation of Adjectives. 169 
 
 Greek names of towns, from which the names of the inhabitants are 
 formed in eus (ievs, iensis), e. g. Patrensis, Chalcidensis, Laodicensis, JVico- 
 medensis, Thespiensis, with some others (Atheniensis). 
 
 Obs. 1. In some rare instances eus is retained from evs, e. g. Cittieus for 
 Cittiensis, Halicarnasseus for Halicarnassensis. 
 
 Obs. 2. The following adjectives derived from the names of towns are 
 irregular in their form ; Tiburs, Camers, Caeres, Yejens. 
 
 5) The Greek adjectives in tics (to?) formed from the names of towns 
 and islands (in us, um, and on, with some others), are retained in Latin, 
 e. g. Corinthius, Rhodius, Byzantius, Lacedaemonius, Clazomenius, (Clazo- 
 menae), (Aegyptius, from the name of the country, Aegyptus) ; so also 
 those in enns, e. g. Cyzicenus ; sometimes also those in aeus, e. g. Smyr- 
 naeus, Erythraeus (Cumanus in prose, Cumaeus in poetry, and so with 
 several others). 
 
 Obs. The Latin writers also occasionally retain the Greek names of the 
 inhabitants in tes (ates,ites, dies), e. g. Abderites, Spartiates (adj. Sparta- 
 nus), Tegeates (adj. Tegeaeus), Heracleotes. 
 
 §.191. The names of nations are often themselves adjectives, 
 formed with the terminations adduced in the preceding paragraphs, 
 e. g. Romanus, Latinus (from Latium), Sabinus (without a primi- 
 tive), and in sous or eus ( Oscus, Volscus, Etruscus, Gh^aecus) ; in this 
 case they are used as perfect adjectives to express whatever con- 
 cerns and belongs to the people (bellum Latinum, &c). From 
 other national names, which are pure substantives, are formed 
 adjectives in icus, and from the Greek (or such as were adopted 
 from the Greeks) also in ius, e. g. Italicus, G alliens, Marsicus, Ara- 
 bicus, Syrius, Thracius, Cilicius {Italus, Gallus, Marsus, Arabs, 
 Syrus, Thrax, Cilia?) . Of individuals however such expressions are 
 used as miles Gallus, &c, not Gallicus, and the poets use and even 
 decline as adjectives national names in us which are otherwise 
 substantive, e. g. orae Italae (Yirg.), aper Marsus, flumen Medum 
 (Hor. for Medicum), Colcha venena. 
 
 Obs. 1 . In the same way we read in the poets flumen BJienum for 
 flumen Bhenus. (Mare Oceanum, Caes.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Concerning the use of the Greek feminine national names and 
 adjectives in is and as in the Latin poets, see under the Rules for Inflection, 
 §. 60, Obs. 5. They also employ the Greek feminines of some national 
 names ending in ssa (Cilissa, Cressa, IAbyssa, Phoenissa, Threissa, or 
 TJiressa) both as substantives and adjectives, e. g. Cressa pharetra (Virg.). 
 
 §. 192. From the names of countries (which are regularly formed from 
 the national names by the termination ia ; Italia, Gallia, Graecia, Cilicia, 
 
 z 
 
170 Formation of Words. g. 192- 
 
 Phrygia) adjectives are sometimes again formed to denote what is in the 
 country (not the people) or comes out of it, e. g. pecunia Siciliensis, exer- 
 citus Hispaniensis (the Roman army in Spain). (Africanus, Asiaticus.) 
 
 Obs. 1. We must notice some names of countries in turn (like names of 
 towns), e. g. Latiwm, Samnium ; with some of Greek origin in us (Aegy- 
 ptus, JEpirus). 
 
 Ols. 2. There are several names of nations from which no names of 
 countries are formed, but the same word is used to designate both, e. g. 
 in Aeqyis, Sabinis, Bruttiis habitare, hiemare ; in Bruttios ire; ex Se- 
 qvanis exercitum educere. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Derivation of Verbs. 
 
 §. 193. Verbs are derived from substantives, from adjectives, and 
 from other verbs. 
 
 a. Many transitive verbs are derived from substantives simply 
 by affixing to the theme the terminations of the first conjugation. 
 These verbs signify to exercise and employ on something that 
 which is denoted by the substantive, e. g. fraudare, honorare, lau- 
 dare, numerare, turbare, onerare, vulnerare. 
 
 Ols. 1. In the formation of such verbs a preposition is sometimes pre- 
 fixed, e. g. exaggerare, to heap up (agger ; aggerare is rare and poet.), ex- 
 stirpare, to root out (stirps) ; see under the Rules for the composition of 
 words, §. 206. b. 2. 
 
 Ols. 2. In a few instances intransitive verbs are formed by this mode of 
 derivation, e. g. lalorare, militare, germinare, from labor, miles, gernien. 
 
 Ols. 3. Some few such verbs are formed after the fourth conjugation, 
 e. g.finire, vestire, custodire, punire (finis, vestis, custos, poena) ; the in- 
 transitive servire ; a few intransitives after the second, e. g.fioreo,frondeo 
 (flos,frons). 
 
 b. In the same way are formed from substantives (and adjec- 
 tives) a great number of deponents of the first conjugation, mostly 
 with an intransitive signification (to be something, behave like 
 something, occupy oneself with something, &c), e. g. ancillor, to 
 be a maid-servant, philosophor, to be a philosopher, philosophise 
 (pkilosophus) , graecor, to act or live like a Greek (Graecus), aqvor, 
 to fetch water (aqva), piscor, to fish (piscis), negotior, to traffic (ne- 
 gotia), laetor, to be joyful (laetus) ; far less frequently with a tran- 
 sitive signification, e. g. interpret or, to interpret, explain, (interpres, 
 
■195. Chap. III. — Derivation of Verbs. 171 
 
 an interpreter), osculor, to kiss {psculum, a kiss), furor, to steal 
 {fur 3 a thief), &c. (Partior, sortior, from pars, sors.) 
 
 Ohs. The following have peculiar derivative terminations, navigo (litigo, 
 mitigo), and latrocinor (patrocinor, vaticinor). 
 
 §. 194. Transitive verbs are formed from adjectives (mostly from 
 those of the first and second declension) by adding the terminations 
 of the first conjugation, first with the signification, to make a thing 
 what the adjective denotes; and then with a signification often 
 modified in various ways ; e. g. matarare, to make ripe, to hasten, 
 levare, to make smooth (levis), ditare, to enrich (dives), honestare, 
 to honour, probare, to approve, memorare, to make mention of (me- 
 mor). Such verbs have rarely an intransitive signification, e.g. 
 nigrare, to be black, concordare, to be agreed, propinqvare, to draw 
 near; durare (trans.), to harden, (intrans.), to endure. 
 
 Ohs. 1. In forming such transitive verbs they are sometimes com- 
 pounded with a preposition, e.g. dealhare, to whiten (alius), exMlarare, 
 to cheer (Jiilarus). (Compare §.206. b. 2.) 
 
 Ohs. 2. Some few such verbs are formed after the fourth conjugation, 
 e. g. lenire, mollire, stahilire (lewis, mollis, stabilis), and some intransitives, 
 e. g. superhire, ferocire (superhus, ferox ; the deponent hlandior from Man- 
 dus) ; some few intransitives after the second, e. g. alheo, to be white, 
 caneo, to be grey. 
 
 §.195. Erom verbs are derived new verbs with a signification 
 somewhat modified in the following ways : 
 
 1) By the termination ito (itdre, 1) are derived verbs, which de- 
 note a frequent repetition of an action, verba freqventativa. The 
 termination is affixed to the theme of verbs of the first conjugation, 
 and to the theme of the supine of verbs of the third, and those 
 of which the supine is similarly formed, e. g. clamito, rogito, volito, 
 minitor (minor), lectito, dictitojactito, cursito, haesito (haereo), visito 
 (video), ventito (venio). 
 
 Ohs. Prom ago, qyaero, nosco (3), are formed agito, qvaerito, noscito, as 
 from verbs of the first conjugation. Latito, pavito, pollicitor, from lateo, 
 paveo, polliceor (2). 
 
 2) The signification of a repeated action is also expressed by 
 simply affixing the termination of the first conjugation to the 
 theme of supines formed according to the third, e.g. cur so (cur- 
 sare), merso, adjuto (adjutum), tutor (tutus from tueor), amplexor 
 (amplexus from amplector), ito (itum). Most of these verbs however 
 denote not a simple repetition, but a new idea of an action, in 
 
 z Z 
 
172 Formation of Words. §. 195- 
 
 which a repetition of the original action is implied, e. g. dido, 
 die tare, to dictate (dico, to say), noto, to observe (nosco, to become 
 acquainted with), pulso, to beat (petto, to thrust), qvasso, to break 
 to pieces (qvatio, to shake), tracto, to handle (traho, to draw), salto, 
 to dance (salio, to leap, skip), capto, to snatch at (capio, to lay hold 
 of). (Canto, to sing, from cano, to sing and play, gesto, to carry, 
 from gero, to carry, carry on.) 
 
 Ohs. Habito, liciior, from habeo, liceor, 2. 
 
 §.196. 3) The termination sco (scere, 3) is affixed to the theme (in 
 the second conjugation retaining the e, in the third with the con- 
 necting vowel i) to form verba inchoativa, which denote the begin- 
 ning of an action or condition. By far the greater number of in- 
 choatives are formed from verbs of the second conjugation, and often 
 have a preposition prefixed at the same time, e. g. tabasco, to begin 
 to stagger (labare), calesco, to grow warm, and incalesco (cateo), 
 exardesco, effloresco (ardeo, floreo, not exardeo or effloreo), ingemisco, 
 to sigh over (gemo), obdormisco, to fall asleep (dormid). 
 
 Besides the inchoatives derived from verbs many are formed in 
 esco from adjectives (inchoativa nominalia), e. g. maturesco, nigresco, 
 mitesco (maturus, niger, mitis) ; see the Rules for Inflection, §. 141. 
 Integrasco from integer, puerasco from puer, silvescere from silva, to run 
 to wood (of the vine), ignescere from ignis, to take fire. 
 
 Ohs. Of verbs in sco (scor) without an inchoative signification, see 
 §. 140 and 142. 
 
 §. 197. 4) The termination urio (urire, 4), affixed to the theme 
 of the supine, from verba desiderativa, which express an inclina- 
 tion to a thing, e. g. esurio, to have a desire to eat, to be hungry, 
 empturio, to wish to buy, parturio, to be in labour. There are 
 however only a few such verbs, and they are little used, except 
 esurio and parturio. 
 
 Obs. Ligurio, scaturio, &c, are not desideratives. 
 
 5) The termination ilto (illare, 1), affixed to the theme, forms 
 some few diminutive verbs, verba deminutiva, e. g. cantillo, to 
 quaver, from cano. 
 
 6) From some intransitive verbs there are formed by a change 
 of the conjugation, sometimes also by a change in the quantity of 
 the radical syllable, transitive verbs, which signify the effectuating 
 of that which is denoted by the intransitive ; from fugio, to fly, 
 jaceo, to lie, pendeo, to hang, weigh (intrans.), liqveo, to be clear, 
 
of-198. Chap. IV. — Derivation of Adverbs. 173 
 
 fluid, come fugo (1), to put to flight, jacio, to throw, pendo, to 
 weigh (by hanging up), Hqvo (1), to clarify; from cado, to fall, 
 sedeo, to sit, come caedo, to fell, sedo (1), to pacify. 
 
 Obs. The signification is otherwise altered in sido, to sink, ass'ido, to seat 
 oneself, sedeo, to sit, assideo, to sit by. See also nnder cubo, §. 119. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Derivation of Adverbs. 
 
 §. 198. Adverbs are derived from adjectives (numerals), sub- 
 stantives (pronouns), and the nominal forms of verbs (participles 
 and supines), rarely from other adverbs or prepositions. 
 
 Adverbs, which express a way or manner, are derived from ad- 
 jectives, by the terminations e (o), and ter. 
 
 a. The termination e is affixed to the theme of adjectives and 
 participles used adjectively (perf.), of the first and second de- 
 clension, e. g. probe, modeste, libere, aegre (aeger, aegri), docte, 
 ornate. 
 
 Obs. 1. From bonus is formed bene (of the e see §. 19. 2), from validus, 
 valde. 
 
 Obs. 2. From some adjectives and participles of the second declension 
 there are formed adverbs in o (abl.), as tutd, crebro, necessario, consulto. 
 From certus are formed both certo and certe, which are generally used 
 alike : certe scio and certo comperi (for certain) ; certe eveniet, it certainly 
 will happen, and nihil ita exspectare qvasi certo futurum ; but in the sig- 
 nification at least we always find certe h . 
 
 b. The termination ter is affixed to the theme of adjectives and 
 participles of the third declension (with the connecting vowel i), 
 e. g. graviter, acriter (acer, acris) , feliciter (audacter is preferred to 
 audaciter) ; but if the theme ends in t, one t is omitted, e. g. sapi- 
 enter (instead of sapient-ter), amanter, solerter. 
 
 Obs. 1. From hilar us and hilaris are formed hilar e and hilariter, from 
 opulens and opulentus opulenter. 
 
 Obs. 2. From some adjectives in us there is formed besides the adverb 
 in e another in ter, e. g. humane and humaniter,firme an&firniiter ; espe- 
 
 b The others in o which are used in good writers are arcano, eito, continuo, /also, for - 
 tuito, gratuito, liqvido, manifesto, perpetuo, precario, raro {rare, thinly, far apart), secreto, 
 sedulo, serio, sero, auspicato, directo, festinato, necopinato, improviso, merito, (according to 
 one's deserts) and immerito, optito, sortito (according to lot) ; further, primo,secu?ido, &c» 
 See §. 199. Obs. 2. 
 
174 Formation of Words. §.198— 
 
 cially from those in lentus, e. g. luculente and luculenter. (Always vio- 
 lenter, usually gnaviter.) 
 
 Obs. 3. From difficilis, alius, and neqvam are formed difficulter, aliter, 
 neqyiter. From brevis is formed breviter, briefly, and brevi, shortly, in a 
 short time ; from procllvis proclivi (proclive), downwards. 
 
 c. From some adjectives no proper adverb is formed, but the 
 neuter (accus.) serves as an adverb. This is the case with facile 
 (but difficulter) , recens (lately), sublime (on high), multum, plurimum, 
 paullum, nimium (but more often nimis), tantum, qvantum, ceterum, 
 plerumqve, potissimum. 
 
 Obs. (Commodum, opportunely, commode, properly, suitably). On the 
 use of neuter adjectives for adverbs by the poets, see Syntax, §. 302. 
 
 §. 199. From the cardinal numbers are formed adverbs, which, 
 with the exception of the four first, end in ies ; e, o, em, im, inta, 
 um and i being dropped before the termination. These are the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 semel, once (with a distinct root sexies decies or sedecies 
 
 from unus) sept ies decies 
 
 bis, twice (from duo, by a change duodevicies or octies decies 
 
 in the pronunciation) c undevicies or novies decies 
 
 ter vicies 
 
 qvater semel et vicies or vicies semel d (vi- 
 qyinqyies (older form qvinqviens) cies et semel) 
 
 sexies {sexiens, &c.) bis et vicies, or vicies bis (vicies et 
 septies bis, &c.) 
 
 octies tricies 
 
 novies qvadragies, &c. 
 
 decies centies 
 
 undecies centies tricies or centies et tricies 
 
 duodecies ducenties, &c. 
 
 terdecies or tredecies millies (bis millies, decies millies, 
 qvaterdecies or qyattuordecies centies millies, &c.) 
 
 qyinqyiesdecies or qvindecies 
 
 Obs. 1. To these adverbs correspond the pronominal adverbs toties, so 
 often, qvoties, how often ? (See §. 201 . 4.) 
 
 Obs, 2. From the ordinals are formed adverbs in um and o, which are 
 employed to signify, for which time, e. g. tertium consul, consul for the 
 third time, qyartum consul (eo anno lectisternium, qyinto post conditam 
 urbem, habitum est, Liv. VIII. 25), or in enumerations, primum, in the 
 first place, tertium, thirdly. For the first time, first, is generally ex- 
 
 c [So bellum, from duellum, bonus from duonus, &c] 
 d Not semel vicies. 
 
—201. Chap. IV. — Derivation of Adverbs. 175 
 
 pressed by primum : pritno usually signifies in the beginning {from the 
 beginning). For the second time is expressed by iterum ; secundum is 
 not used ; secundo, secondly, for which however the Latins more fre- 
 quently say dei?ide, turn. For the remaining numbers the forms in um 
 are the most usual, particularly in the signification of a certain number 
 of times. For the last time is expressed by ultimum {postremum, extre- 
 mum) ; now or then for the last time, hoc ultimum, illud ultimum. 
 
 §. 200. a. Some adverbs are derived from substantives with the 
 termination itus, to denote a proceeding from something, e. g. coe- 
 litus, from heaven, funditus, radicitus. The following are formed 
 in the same way from adjectives ; antiqvitus, from times of yore, 
 divinitus, by divine providence or suggestion, humanitus, humanly, 
 after the manner of men. 
 
 d. By atim (as if from supines of the first conjugation) adverbs 
 are derived from substantives and adjectives, denoting in this or 
 that way, e. g. catervatim, gregatim, gradatim, vicatim (by streets, 
 from street to street), singulatim, severally, privatim, as a private 
 individual. 
 
 Obs. The following are formed without a ; tributim, by tribes, viritim, 
 man by man, furtim {fur), ubertim {uber). 
 
 c. By the termination im adverbs are derived from the supine, 
 which denote the way and manner of a thing, e. g. caesim, punctim, 
 by striking, by stabbing, carpthn, partially, separatim, separately, 
 passim, here and there (scattered and without order, pando). 
 {Mordicus, with the teeth, from inordeo, is formed quite irregularly.) 
 
 §.201. From the pronouns are formed adverbs, which denote 
 place, time, degree, number, manner, and cause, with the same kind 
 of reference as is expressed by the several pronouns. For each idea 
 (of place, time, &c.) there are formed adverbs corresponding with 
 each other (correlatives) according to the different classes of pro- 
 nouns, demonstrative, relative and interrogative, indefinite relative, 
 and indefinite. The relative adverbs connect the sentence to which 
 they belong with another, and are conjunctions ; the adverbs of 
 place are different according as they signify remaining in a place 
 or motion to a place, away from a place, or on a certain road; 
 
 1) Adverbs of place: 
 a. (in a place) Demonstr. ibi, there {hie, here, istic, there, by you, illic, 
 there, ibidem, exactly there, alibi, elsewhere) ; relative and interrogative, 
 vbi (there) where ; where ? indefinite relative ubicunqye, ubiubi, wherever ; 
 
176 Formation of Words. §. 201— 
 
 indefinite, alicubi, uspiam, usqvam, anywhere (nusqvam, nowhere, utrobi- 
 qve, in both places) ; indef. univers., ubivis, ublqve, ubilibet, in any place 
 you will, everywhere. 
 
 b. (to a place) Demonstr. eo, thither (hue, istuc, and isto, illuc and Mo, 
 eodem, alio) ; relative and interrogative, qvo (utro, of two) ; indefinite re- 
 lative, qvocunqve, qvoqvo ; indefinite, aliqvo, usqvam (nusqvam, utroqve) ; 
 indefinite universal, qvovis, qvolibet. 
 
 c. (from a place) Demonstr. inde, thence (hinc, istinc, Mine, indidem, 
 aliunde) ; relative and interrog., unde ; indef. relative, undecunqve (rarely 
 undeunde) ; indefinite, alicunde (utrinqve) ; indefinite universal, undiqve, 
 undelibet. 
 
 d. (on the road) Demonstr. ed, on that road (Jiae, istac, Ma and iliac, 
 eddem, alia) ; relative and interrogative, qvd ; indefinite relative qvacun- 
 qve (qvaqva) ; indefinite, aliqvd ; indefinite universal, qvavis, qvalibet. 
 
 2) Adverbs of time: Demonstr. turn, then (tunc) ; interrogative, qvan- 
 do, when 1 (ecqvando, whether ever ?) ; relative, qvum, when, as ; inde- 
 finite relative, qvandocunqve, qvandoqve, whenever ; indefinite, aliqvando, 
 once (qvandoqve, rarely qvandocunqve), unqvam, ever (nunqvam, never). 
 
 Obs. 1. In place of the indefinite pronominal adverbs derived from dli- 
 qvis (alicubi, &c.) shorter forms derived from qvis are used after the con- 
 junctions ne, num, si, and nisi, which are the same as the longer forms 
 with the removal of ali, e. g. necubi, that nowhere, neqvo, necunde, ne qva, 
 ne qvando. 
 
 Obs. 2. Ubicunqve, qvocunqve, undecunqve {undeunde), rarely occur 
 without a relative signification as indefinite words expressing universality. 
 
 3) Adverbs of degree : Demonstr. tarn, so (so very) ; relative and in- 
 terrogative, qvam (so — ) as, how — ? indefinite relative, qvamvis, qvam- 
 libet, how much soever. 
 
 4) Adverbs of number : Demonstr. toties, so often ; relative and inter- 
 rogative, qvoties (so often) as, how often? indefinite relative, qvotiescunqve, 
 how often soever ; indefinite, aliqvoties, sometimes. 
 
 5) Adverbs which express way and manner : Demonstr. ita, sic, so, in 
 this way (corresponding to is and hie) ; relative and interrogative, ut (so) 
 as, how ? (qvi, how ?) ; indef. rel., utcunqve. (In later writers qvaliter, 
 rarely taliter.) 
 
 6) Adverbs of the cause : Demonstr. eo, therefore ; relative, qvod, qvia, 
 because ; interrogative, cur, wherefore ? 
 
 From these adverbs others are again formed by composition, e. g. eate- 
 nus, qvatenus, &c. (See §. 202. Obs.) 
 
< -—203. Chap. V. — Composition of Words. 177 
 
 §. 202. Some adverbs are yet to be noticed, which denote relations of 
 locality : 
 
 a. In o (as in eo, qvo, &c.) from prepositions (or adverbs), to express 
 motion to a place ; citro, altro (to that side ; then, of his own accord, into 
 the bargain), intro, porro (forwards, further, ivom. pro), retro (re). 
 
 b. In orsum, orsus, oversum, oversus (from versus), to denote a direction 
 to one side, from pronouns and prepositions ; horsum, qvorsum, aliorsum, ali- 
 qvoversum, qvoqvoversus,prorsum, forwards (prorsus, completely, through- 
 out), retrorsum, (rursuon, rursics, again), introrsum, sursum (from sub), deor- 
 swm, seorsum. (Dextrorsum, sinistrorsum.) (The following are mutually 
 opposed ; extrinsecus, from without, intrinsecus, from within.) 
 
 c. fariam, in — places, in — parts, from numerals ; bifariam, quadrifariam 
 (onultifariam). 
 
 E Obs. Some of the remaining derivative adverbs are substantives in a 
 certain case (sometimes in an obsolete form), used with a particular 
 meaning, e. g. partim (old accusative from pars), forte (fors), temperi, 
 vesperi, noctu (nox ; interdiu, by day), mane, foris (esse, out of the house, 
 from home), foras (ire, out of doors). Others are compounds of a case 
 and a governing word, e. g. hactenus, qvemadmodum (intered, praetered, 
 proptered, anted, posted, with an unusual construction). Innudiustertius, 
 the day before yesterday, nudiusqvartus, nudiusqvintus, &c, words gram- 
 matically connected are fused into one by the pronunciation (nunc dies 
 tertius, qvartus, &c, viz. est). 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Formation of new words by Composition. 
 
 §. 203. By Composition two words are formed into a new com- 
 pound word (verbum compositum } as opposed to verbum simplex), the 
 signification of which is made up of those of the two compounded 
 words (the members of the compound) in combination. 
 
 If two words are used in a definite succession to denote a single 
 idea, but are yet syntactically combined as separate words with a 
 distinct grammatical form, the composition is termed spurious. 
 Such compounds are formed from a substantive and adjective, 
 which are both declined, e. g. respublica, the state, jusjurandum, an 
 oath (§.53), or from a genitive and a governing word, e. g. sena- 
 tusconsultum, verisimilis. The words thus connected may occa- 
 sionally be separated, especially by qve and ve ; resqve publica, 
 senatusve consulta (res vero publica) . 
 
 Obs. Even in genuine compounds of a verb (or participle) with a 
 
 A a 
 
178 Formation of Words. §.203 — 
 
 preposition or the negative in, the older poets occasionally separate the 
 particle from the verb by qve, e. g. inqve ligatus for illigatusque, bound up 
 (Virg.) ; inqve salutatus for insalutatusqve, ungreeted (Virg.) ; so also 
 liactenus, eatenus, qvadamtenus, by a word interposed, e. g. qvadam prodire 
 tenus (Hor.). In prose this separation {tmesis)* is sometimes used with 
 the intensive per, e. g. per mihi mirum visum est ; pergratum jperqve ju- 
 cundum, with an unaccented word in the middle. (On qvicunqve, qvilibet, 
 see §. 87, Obs. 2). 
 
 §. 204. The first part of the compound may be a noun (substan- 
 tive, adjective, or numeral), an adverb, a preposition, or one of 
 those particles which occur only in composition as prefixes. These 
 are the following : amb, round (round about), dis, on different sides 
 (from each other, in two), re {red), back (again), se, on one side, 
 which denote the local relations of the action, and are commonly 
 named praepositiones inseparables (e. g. ambedere, to eat round 
 about, discerpere, to tear in pieces, recedere, to retreat, secedere, to 
 go aside), and the negative particle in (in-, un-). Some verbs, 
 mostly intransitive, are found as the first member of a compound, 
 with facere (e. g. calefacio). 
 
 Obs. 1. Amb is altered into am in amplector, amputo, into an before c 
 (q), e. g. anceps, anqviro. (Anfractus, anhelo.) 
 
 Dis remains unaltered before c (q), p, t {discedo, disqviro, disputo, dis- 
 traho), and before s with a vowel following {dissolvo) ; before/" the s is 
 assimilated {differo, diffringd) ; before the other consonants it is changed 
 to di {dido, digero, dimitto, dinumero, diripio, discindo, disto, divello ; but 
 disjicio, properly disicio ; dijungo, and sometimes disjungd) ; this di is 
 long, but in dirimo from disemo the preposition is short. (Otherwise dis 
 is not used before vowels.) 
 
 JRe before vowels becomes red (redarguo, redeo, redigo, redoleo, redundo, 
 redhibeo). (So also seditio from se and eo ; in no other instance is reused 
 before a vowel.) He is short, but (in verse) is lengthened in recido, re- 
 ligio, reliqviae (rarely in reduco). In the perfect of reperio, repello, re- 
 fero, and retundo, the first consonant of the verb was pronounced (and in 
 older times also written) as double ; repperi, reppuli, rethdi, rettudi 
 (from the reduplicated pepuli, &c). 
 
 Obs. 2. The negative in is only compounded with adjectives and ad- 
 verbs, and with some few participles, which have assumed altogether the 
 character of adjectives, e. g. incultus, uncultivated, indoctus, unlearned, and 
 with substantives, in order to form negative adjectives or substantives, 
 e. g. informis, shapeless, ugly, from forma, infamis {famd), injuria, injury, 
 
 e Tmesis, a cutting, from t^u^w, to cut. 
 
205. Chap. V. — Composition of Words. 179 
 
 from jus. It is modified before consonants like the preposition in. (Some 
 compounds of participles with the negative in must be carefully distin- 
 guished from the participles which resemble them from verbs compounded 
 with the preposition in, e. g. infectus, undone (in and /actus), and infectus, 
 dyed (inficio), indictus, not said, and indictus, ordered, imposed (indlco). 
 In good style however the negative compound of the participle is rarely 
 used, when the verb is found compounded with in, so that e. g. immixtus 
 signifies only mixed (immisceo),infr -actus, broken (infringo), but unmixed, 
 unbroken, are expressed by non mixtus, nonfractus.) 
 
 Ohs. 3. Ve (of rare occurrence) has also a negative signification in ve- 
 cors, vegrandis, vesanus. In some compounds ne (nee) is made use of, 
 e. g. neqveo, riefas (necopinatus, negotium) f . 
 
 Ohs. 4. It is only in composition that we find sesqvi, one and a half, 
 e. g. sesqvipes (whence sesqvipedalis). Semi, from semis (gen. semissis) is 
 used in compounds to denote half. 
 
 §. 205. a. If the first member be a noun, the second is affixed 
 to its theme (omitting the terminations of inflection, and a and u 
 in the first, second, and fourth declension). If the second member 
 begins with a consonant, the connecting vowel i is often inserted, 
 e. g. causidicus, magnanimus, corniger, aedifico, lucifuga. (Nau- 
 fragus with a diphthong from navis, frango.) 
 
 Ohs. 1. In some words however the connecting vowel is not employed, 
 e. g. puerpera (puer,pario), muscipula (mus, capio). Hence the final con- 
 sonant of the first member has been dropped in the pronunciation of some 
 words, e. g. lapicida (lapis, lapid-is, and caedo), Jiomicida (liomin-is). 
 {Opifex from opus, f ado). 
 
 Ohs. 2. The connecting vowel o (u) is rare ; Anenobarbus, brazenbeard, 
 Trojugena. 
 
 Ohs. 3. For the adverbs formed from adjectives the theme of the ad- 
 jectives is used, except bene and male (svaviloqvus, but benejicus). 
 
 b. When the first member of a compound is a preposition or the 
 negative m, the vowels, a, e, ae in the radical syllable of the first 
 member are frequently, but not always, modified according to 
 §.5 c; see the examples in Chapters 17, 18, 19, 20,* inimicus 
 (amicus), inermus (arma). (A is altered to u before l } e.g. calco, 
 inculco.) 
 
 Ohs. Exceptions, like permaneo, contraho, perfremo, inhaereo, may be 
 seen elsewhere ; concdvus. 
 
 1 Nc is short in neqveo and vefas and the words allied to it (nefarius, nefandus, nefastus, 
 long in other words (neqvam, neqvitia, neqvaqvam, neqvicqvam, nedum.) Nee is short. 
 
 Aa 2 
 
180 Formation of Words. §. 205— 
 
 c. The same occurs (with a and ae) when the first member is a 
 substantive; tubicen (cano), opifex (facio) , stillicidium (stilla } cado), 
 lapicida. (Also triennium, &c.) 
 
 d. The compound word generally retains the grammatical form 
 of the last member, if it belongs to the same class of words, e. g. 
 inter-rex j dis-similis, per-ficio. Yet substantives and verbs some- 
 times vary, see f. 
 
 e. If the compound word belongs to a different class of words 
 from the last member, a suitable grammatical form is given to the 
 theme of the latter, e. g. maledicus from male and dico, opifex from 
 opus andfacio {fac) } with the nominative termination s. 
 
 Obs. Sometimes however the termination of a substantive is suitable to 
 the adjective compounded from it, as crassipes from crassus and pes ; dis- 
 color from dis and color. 
 
 f. Sometimes a particular derivative termination is affixed, cor- 
 responding to the signification of the new word, so that it is 
 formed at once by composition and derivation, e. g. exardesco from 
 ex and ardeo, with the inchoative form, latifundium from latus and 
 fundus, Transalpinus from trans Alpes. 
 
 §. 206. The compound words may be referred to various classes accord- 
 ing to the various ways in which the compound signification is deduced 
 from those of the simple words. These are : 
 
 a. Composite* deter minativa, in which the first word defines the meaning 
 of the last more exactly after the manner of an adjective or adverb. In 
 this way prepositions, prefixes, and adjectives are set before substantives, 
 as cognomen, interrecc, dedecus, injuria, nefas, viviradix (semiliora) ; more 
 frequently prepositions, prefixes, and adverbs are put before adjectives or 
 verbal themes, in order to form adjectives, e. g. permagnus, subabsurdus, 
 subrusticus (somewhat, rather absurd, clownish), consiniilis, tercentum, 
 beneficus, altisonus, recurvus, infamis. {JExinde, desuper.) A great class 
 of verbs in particular is thus compounded with prepositions (also with 
 amb, dis, re se) ; see Chapters 17, 18, 19, 20 ; rarely with adverbs (male- 
 dico, satisfacio). (Subirascor, subvereor, to become a little angry, to be a 
 little afraid). 
 
 Obs. 1. The composition of a verb already compounded with a new pre- 
 position (by which a vocab. decompositum is formed) is not common in 
 Latin, except with super, e. g. superimpendo. (Recondo, abscondo, assurgo, 
 consurgo, deperdo, dispereo, recognosco, since condo, surgo, perdo, pereo, and 
 cognosco are considered as simple verbs ; repercutio, repromitto, subinvideo, 
 to envy a little. A few others are found in inferior writers.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Some substantives of this class assume the termination turn, and 
 
'—206. Chap. V. — Composition of Words. 181 
 
 denote a collection, a part, e. g. latifundium (lati fundi), cavaedium, trien- 
 nium (biduum, triduum, qvatriduum from dies). From sexviri (seviri), the 
 sixmen (as a college), and similar words, is deduced the singular sexvir, 
 &c, of a member of such a fraternity. {Duumvir, triumvir, plur. duoviri, 
 tresviri, and duumviri, triumviri.) 
 
 b. Composita constructa, in which one member is considered as gram- 
 matically governed by the other : they are divided again into two classes. 
 
 1) The first member is a substantive or a word put for a substantive, 
 which may generally be conceived as an accusative (object), sometimes as 
 an ablative, governed by the second member, which is a verb. In this 
 way are formed especially substantives, mostly personal names (without 
 an ending affixed or with the nominative termination s, or in a, us), e. g. 
 signifer (signumfero), agricola, opifex, causidicus, nugigerulus (nugas gero, 
 with the diminutive termination), tiibtcen (tuba cano), tiblcen (for tibiicen), 
 
 funamhulus (in June ambulo), also neuters in ium, naufragium, and some 
 adjectives, e. g. magnijicus, with others in Jicus, letifer, and verbs, e. g. 
 lelligero, animadverto, tergiversor (with a frequentative form and as a de- 
 ponent), amplijico, aedijico, gratijicor, from facio. 
 
 Obs. 1. In stillieidium, gallicinium, the first member is to be considered 
 as a genitive governed by the notion of the verb (stillarum casus) . 
 
 Obs. 2. Compounds are formed in a similar way from an intransitive 
 verbal theme and facio, e. g. calefacio, to cause to be warm (caleo), to 
 warm, tremefacio, expergefacio, to awake (trans.), assvefacio, to accustom 
 to a things. (Condocefacio, commonejacio , perterrefacio, from transitive 
 verbs, only express the agency more emphatically.) 
 
 2) The first member is a preposition, the second a substantive or a word 
 put for a substantive, which is to be conceived as governed by the prepo- 
 sition. Thus are formed, 1. adjectives, e.g. intercus (aqva), particularly 
 by adding the terminations anus, inus, aneus, e. g. antesignanus, Transpa- 
 danus, suburbanus, Transtiberinus, circumjor aneus ; 2. verbs of the first, 
 more rarely, of the fourth conjugation, which denote, to bring into the 
 given relation, e. g. segregare (to bring away from the grex), insinuare (in 
 sinum), irretire (in rete), erudire (to bring out of rudeness). The verbs 
 however which are so formed with ex, often denote only, to make into 
 something, e. g. effeminare, explanare, efferare, the ex being added in a 
 determinative signification in deriving the verb from a substantive or ad- 
 jective (§.193. Obs. 1, §. 194. Obs. 1). 
 
 c. Composita possessiva, \fh.ic\v are adjectives compounded of an adjec- 
 tive (numeral, participle), a substantive, or a preposition ? for their first 
 
 £ For the sake of the versification the poets sometimes have tepefacio, liqvefit, &c, in- 
 stead of tepefacio, liqvefit, &c. 
 
182 Formation of Words. §.206. 
 
 member, and a substantive for their second, and denote in what way a 
 subject has the notion of the last word ; e. g. crassipes (one that has thick 
 feet, thickfoot, thickfooted), qyadripes, alipes (wingfooted), trimestris 
 (three-monthly, what has three months), concolor (of a like colour), con- 
 cors, affinis (that which has its boundary on something) ; — decolor (that 
 which has no colour, colourless), exsors (for which there is no lot), ex- 
 pers, enervis, informis (which is without form, shapeless, ugly), inermus, 
 unarmed. 
 
 Obs. 1. If the substantive belongs \<* the third declension, adjectives of 
 one termination are formed (concors, excors, &c, with a nominative termi- 
 nation ; bimaris, of two terminations) : from substantives of the first and 
 second declension are formed adjectives in us, as bifurcus, but frequently 
 also in is, if the preceding syllable be long by position ; elingvis, enervis, 
 {bicornis). In some the termination is variable, see §. 59. Obs. 3. 
 
 Obs. 2. In the numerals in decim the two members are added. 
 
SYNTAX' 
 
 Rules for the Construction of Words. 
 
 §.207. Syntax teaches how words are combined into a con- 
 nected discourse. The inflections of words are applied, partly to 
 shew their mutual relations and connection in a proposition (First 
 part of the Syntax), partly to define relations common to the whole 
 proposition, viz. the mode of the assertion, and the time of the fact 
 asserted (Second part). Besides the inflections, the succession and 
 order of the words and propositions also serve to give precision to 
 the discourse (Third part.) 
 
 Obs. In Latin, as in other languages, a departure is sometimes made 
 from the regular construction, in consequence of attention being paid 
 rather to the sense than to the words actually used, and their grammatical 
 form (construct™ ad sententiam, synesim). Sometimes too a convenient 
 rather than a strictly accurate way of expression is aimed at. The irre- 
 gularities hence arising, which in some cases have become established by 
 use, may generally be reduced to three kinds, either to an abbreviated 
 form of expression (ellipsis), where something is omitted which the mind 
 of the hearer (or reader) must supply, or to a superfluous expression 
 (pleonasmus)\ or to attraction (attractio), where the form of one word is 
 determined by another, though not standing in exactly the same relation. 
 Such peculiarities of expression are sometimes termed figures of speech, 
 jigurae orationis (figurae syntacticae, to distinguish them from rhetorical 
 figures of speech, which do not affect its grammatical form.) 
 
 h The Greek word crvvra^is denotes a joining or arranging together, 
 * "EAAeupis, deficiency, irMovaa/Jios, redundancy. 
 
PAET THE FIEST. 
 
 Of the Combination of Words in a Proposition, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Of the Parts of a Proposition. Of the agreement of the Subject and 
 Predicate, the Substantive and Adjective. 
 
 §. 208. a. Discourse consists of propositions. A proposition is 
 a combination of words, which asserts (or requires) something (an 
 action, condition, or quality) of another. A complete proposition 
 consists of two principal parts, the subject, or that of which some- 
 thing is asserted, and the predicate, or that which is asserted of the 
 subject k . Since in Latin it is in some cases unnecessary to desig- 
 nate the subject expressly by a word of its own, the proposition 
 may sometimes consist of a single word, e. g. eo, I go. 
 
 Obs. 1 . It may be asserted that an action takes place, without referring 
 it to a definite subject (impersonally) ; see §.218. 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes a proposition is not fully stated, because the words, 
 which are not expressed, may easily be supplied (understood) from the 
 context, as, for example, in answers. 
 
 b. The subject of a proposition is denoted by a substantive (or 
 several substantives combined), or another word used as a substan- 
 tive, viz. either a pronoun, e. g. ego, or an adjective, which names 
 persons or things according to some particular quality, e. g. boni, 
 the good, bona, good things, what is good, or by the infinitive of a 
 verb, e. g. vinci turpe est, or by any word whatever, which is only 
 used to denote its own sound and form, e. g. vides habet duas sylla- 
 bas, (the word) vides has two syllables. 
 
 Obs. 1. Something may also be asserted of the contents of a whole pro- 
 position, and it may therefore stana for the subject (having its predicate in 
 the neuter gender), e. g. qvod domum emisti, gratum milii est. 
 
 Obs. 2. If the subject be a personal pronoun, it is usually omitted, being 
 
 k Subjecium (subjicio), properly what is laid underneath, the foundation (the subject 
 of the discourse) ; praedicatum from praedicare, to assert. 
 
— 209. Chap. I. — Parts of the Proposition. 185 
 
 known from the termination of the verb, e. g. curro, curris ; in the same 
 way is, as the subject, is often omitted. (See §. 321, 482, and 484 a.) 
 
 Ohs. 3. In the imperative proposition in the second person the predicate 
 is not combined with the subject, but is addressed to the subject, the name 
 of which may be added in the vocative. 
 
 §. 209. a. The predicate consists either of a verb (whether active or 
 passive), which by itself denotes a definite action, condition, or cha- 
 racter, e. g. arbor crescit, arbor viret, arbor caeditur (simple predi- 
 cate), or of a verb which is not self-subsistent (which does not in 
 itself denote a definite action), with an adjective (participle) or 
 substantive annexed as a predicative noun, by which the subject is 
 defined and described, e. g. urbs est splendida ; deus est auctor 
 mundi (resolved predicate). 
 
 Obs. 1. The notion of a certain substantive or adjective as a predicative 
 noun may sometimes be conveyed by a demonstrative or relative pronoun 
 in the neuter, e. g. Nee tamen ille erat sapiens, qvis enim Tiocfuit? (Cic. 
 Fin. IV. 24.) Qvod ego fici ad Trasimenum, id tu hodie es (Liv. XXX. 
 30). The adverbs satis, abunde, nimis, parum, may be used as predi- 
 cative nouns. 
 
 Ohs. 2. On the understanding of the verb and its omission by ellipsis 
 see §. 479. 
 
 b. The verb, which is generally used in connection with a predi- 
 cative noun subjoined, is sum. A similar use is made of those 
 verbs which denote to become and to remain (fio, evado, maneo), 
 and the passive of many others, which signify to name, to make into 
 anything, to hold for anything, &c, to which the words which 
 denote what a thing is named, what it is made, and for what it is 
 held, are subjoined without any further addition, e. g. Caesar crea- 
 tus est consul; Aristides habitus est justissimus. (See §. 221, and 
 on the active of these verbs §. 227, where they are more particu- 
 larly specified.) 
 
 Ohs, 1. The verb sum denotes only an existence in the most general 
 way, which is defined by the word subjoined ; the other verbs denote also 
 an existence in a general way, either as commencing (fid), or continuing 
 {maneo), or an existence merely in name and estimation, to which its par- 
 ticular character is subjoined. To call sum the connective word {copula), 
 and the subjoined word alone the predicate, is a less correct mode of 
 speaking. 
 
 Ohs. 2. Instead of being joined to a predicative noun (in the nomina- 
 tive), esse mav be combined with some other expression which serves to 
 
 Bb 
 
186 Syntax.— Part I. §. 209— 
 
 describe or define it, as with a genitive ; esse alicujus, esse magni pretii, of 
 great value, pluris, or with a preposition and its case, or with an adverb 
 of place, to denote the place or relation in which a thing is ; esse in Gallia, 
 in magno timore, prope esse, ibi lugurtha erat. (Esse pro hoste, to be ac- 
 counted an enemy.) Sometimes also (in familiar language) sum is used 
 with an adverb which denotes way and manner (ita, sic, ut), instead of 
 an adjective, e.g. Ita sum, sic est vita hominum ( = talis). So also we 
 find the expressions, recte sunt omnia (all is well) ; more rarely, incep- 
 tumfrustra fait, impune fuit. The following are used impersonally : 
 ita est, sic est, so it is ; contra est, bene est, it is well ; melius est alieui, 
 some one is better off. Esse is used as a self-subsistent verb signifying to 
 exist ; est Deus. The other verbs above cited may also be used as self- 
 subsistent, e. g. Verres ab omnibus nominatur. {Ita appellor, so I am 
 called.) 
 
 Obs. 3. Some verbs frequently express nothing more than the direction 
 to an action (or suffering) , or a relation to it, which action is then denoted 
 by the addition of another verb (in the infinitive) by which the predicate 
 becomes more complex, e. g. cogito prqficisci ; cupio liaberi bonus ; videor 
 esse magnus (often, videor magnus). 
 
 §.210. a. The predicate may be more accurately defined by ad- 
 verbs and by substantives (or words used substantively) in certain 
 cases (and with prepositions), which denote the object of the action 
 asserted, and the circumstances attending it, e. g. Caesar Pompejum 
 magno praelio vicit K 
 
 b. A substantive may be connected in a certain relation with 
 another substantive in order to define it more accurately, e. g. pater 
 patriae. To every substantive also there may be added other sub- 
 stantives descriptive of the same person or thing, to define or cha- 
 racterize it more closely, e. g. Tarqvinius, rex Romanorum. The 
 subjoining of these is called appositio, and that which is subjoined 
 appositum. 
 
 Obs. Apposition is employed also in subjoining a more general appella- 
 tion to several individual persons or things, or a special notice of indi- 
 viduals after a more general description ; qvattuor liberos, tres Jilios et 
 filiam unam. 
 
 c. To every substantive may be added adjectives (participles), 
 which may be again defined by a substantive in a certain case, e. g. 
 vir utilis civitati svae, a man useful to his state. 
 
 Obs. An adjective, which is immediately connected with the substantive, 
 1 Objecium from objicio, that which is placed over against the action and exposed to it. 
 
. — 212. Chap. I. — Parts of the Proposition. 187 
 
 is called attributive (vir bonus), to distinguish it from that which is used 
 as a predicative noun with the verb sum ; vir est bonus. 
 
 §.211. a. The verb of the predicate is regulated in number and 
 person by the subject : Pater aegrotat ; ego valeo ; nos dolemus ; 
 vos gaudetis. 
 
 Obs. 1. "We must here remark of the first person, that in Latin a man 
 sometimes speaks of himself in the first person plural (see §. 483) ; and 
 of the second, that in certain kinds of propositions the second person 
 singular of the verb in the conjunctive is used of a subject only assumed 
 and supposed, in the same way as you is often employed in English (see 
 §. 370). (On the phrase uterqye nostrum veniet, see §. 284. Obs. 3.) 
 
 Obs. 2. The third person plural is sometimes used without a defined 
 subject to denote a common saying (ajunt, dicunt,ferunt, narrant, &c.) or 
 the general use of a term (appellant, vocant), or a general opinion (putant, 
 credunt), and also, when the adverb vulgo is introduced, to express what 
 persons in general do ; Vulgo ex oppidis gratulabantur Pompejo (Cic. Tusc. 
 I. 35). Saturnum maxime vulgo eolunt ad occidentem (Id. N. D. III. 17). 
 
 b. The adjective or participle of the predicate is regulated by 
 the subject in number, gender, and case ; in the same way every 
 adjective (partic.) is regulated by the substantive with which it is 
 connected : Feminae timidae sunt. Hujus hominis actiones malae 
 sunt, consilia pejora. A personal or reflective pronoun used as a 
 subject has the gender which belongs to the proper appellation of 
 the person or thing : Vos (you women) laetae estis. 
 
 Obs» 1. A predicative adjective in the neuter may be joined to a subject 
 of the masculine or feminine gender, to denote a being of a certain class in 
 general (substantively), e. g. varium et mutabile semper femina (Yirg. Aen. 
 IV. 569), woman is always a changeable and inconsistent being (varia et 
 mutabilis s.fem., woman is always changeable and inconsistent.) Turpi- 
 tudo pejus est (something worse) qyam dolor (Cic. Tusc. II. 13.) 
 
 Obs. 2. If the subject has for its predicate a personal name, which has 
 a distinct form for the masculine and feminine gender, that form is pre- 
 ferred which corresponds to the gender of the subject : Stilus est optimus 
 dicendi magister ; pJiilosopliia est magistra vitae. The same rule applies 
 to apposition, e. g. moderator cupiditatis pudor (Cic). Effectrix beatae 
 vitae sapientia (Cic). (But Qvid dicam de thesauro omnium rerum me- 
 moria ? Cicero de Or. I. 5.) 
 
 §.212. If two or more subjects of different persons are spoken 
 of at the same time, they are constructed with the first person 
 
 Bb2 
 
188 Syntax,— Part I. §. 212- 
 
 plural, if one of the subjects is of this person, and with the second, 
 if one of the subjects is of this and none of the first person : Ego 
 et uxor ambulavimus ; tu et uxor tua ambulavistis. Haec neqve ego 
 neqve tufecimus. (Ter. Ad. I. 2, 23.) 
 
 Obs. 1. If two subjects have the same verb, but predicated of each of 
 them separately, and with the addition of different circumstances, the pre- 
 dicate is put in the plural, where it is intended to give prominence to 
 what is common and similar in the two transactions : Ego te poetis 
 (=apud poe'tas), Messala antiqvariis criminabirnur (Dial, de Orat. 42) ; 
 but where a contrast is to be forcibly expressed, the predicate is usually 
 regulated by the nearest subject, e. g. Ego sententiam, tu verba defendis. 
 So also sometimes with et — et, e. g. et ego et Cicero meus flagitabit (Cicero 
 ad Att. IV. 17) ; and always so, when to a single denned individual there 
 is added a general designation of others, who are in no way related to 
 him : Et tu et omnes homines sciunt (Cicero ad Fam. XIII. 8.) 
 
 Obs. 2. When the predicate is placed with the first subject, and the 
 other (or others) follow, the first only is regarded, e.g. Et ego hoc video 
 et vos et illi. 
 
 §. 213. a. Two or more connected subjects of the third person 
 singular take the predicate, 1) in the plural, if importance be at- 
 tached to the number as well as to the connection, which is gene- 
 rally the case with living beings : Castor et Pollux ex eqvis pugnare 
 visi sunt (Cic. N. D. II. 2) ; pater et avus mortui sunt (both of 
 them). Also when persons and things are connected: Syphax 
 regnumqve ejus in potestate Romanorum erant (Liv. XXVIII. 18). 
 2) in the singular, when the subjects are considered collectively as 
 a whole, e. g. senatus populusqve Romanus intelligit (Cic. ad Fam. 
 V. 8) ; this is often the case with things and impersonal ideas, one 
 idea being expressed by several words, or several ideas which are 
 connected being considered as one, e. g. Tempus necessitasqve pos- 
 tulat (Cic. Off. I. 23). Religio et fides anteponatur amicitiae (Id. 
 Off. III. 11). Divitias gloria, imperium, potentia seqvebatur (Sail. 
 Cat. 12). But when the things and ideas are expressed as distinct 
 and opposed, the verb stands in the plural, e. g. Jus et injuria 
 natura dijudicantur (Cic. Legg. I. 16). Mare magnum et ignara 
 (=ignota) lingva commercia prohibebant (Sail. J. 18). 
 
 Obs. Sometimes the singular stands with personal names, because each 
 individual is thought of separately, and the verb referred to the nearest 
 subject, e.g. Etproavus L.Murenae et avus praetor fuit (Cic. proMur. 7) m . 
 
 m Et Q. Maximus et L. Paullus et M. Cato Us temporibus fueruni (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 6) 
 all lived at that time. 
 
— 214. Chap. I. — Parts of the Proposition. 189 
 
 Orgetorigis filia et unus e filiis captus est (Caes. B. G. I. 26), especially 
 when the verb precedes ; Dixit hoc apud vos Zosippus et Ismenias (Cic. 
 Verr. IV. 42) ; otherwise very rarely. 
 
 b. When subjects of the singular and plural (in the third person) 
 are connected, and the predicate stands nearest that in the sin- 
 gular, the verb may also be put in the singular, provided that this 
 subject is made more particularly prominent or considered sepa- 
 rately; otherwise the verb is in the plural, e. g. Ad corporum sana- 
 tionem multum ipsa corpora et natura valet (Cic. Tusc. III. 3). Hoc 
 mi hi et Peripatetici et vetus Academia concedit (Cic. Acad. II. 35). 
 Consulem prodigia atqve eorum procuratio Romae tenueruni (Liv. 
 XXXII. 9). 
 
 Obs. 1. If the subjects are connected by the disjunctive particle aut, 
 the predicate is sometimes regulated (both in gender and number) by the 
 nearest subject, sometimes it is put in the plural : Probarem hoc, si Socrates 
 aut Antistlienes diceret (Cic. Tusc. V. 9). Non, si qvid Socrates aut Ari- 
 stippus contra consvetudinem civilem fecerunt, idem ceteris licet (Id. Off. I. 
 41). But with aut — aut, vel — vel, neqve — neqve, the predicate is almost 
 always regulated by the nearest subject, e. g. In hominibus juvandis aut 
 mores spectari aut fortuna solet (Cic. Off. II. 20) ; Nihil mihi novi neqve 
 M. Crassus neqve Cn. Pompejics ad dicendum reliqvit (Cic. pro Balbo, 7) ; 
 the plural occurs very seldom : Nee justitia nee amicitia esse omnino 
 poterunt nisi ipsae per se expetantur (Cic. Fin. III. 21), except when the 
 subjects are of different person ; for then the plural is generally employed 
 (according to §. 212) : Haec neqve ego neqve tufecimus (Ter.). 
 
 Obs. 2. If the subjects are not connected by conjunctions, but the sen- 
 tence is divided into several clauses by the repetition of a word (anaphora), 
 the predicate is found both in the singular (as referring to the nearest 
 clause) and (more rarely) in the plural: Nihil libri, nihil litterae, nihil 
 doctrina prodest (Cic. ad Att. IX. 10). Qvid ista repentina affinitatis 
 conjunctio, qvid ager Campanus, qvid effusio pecuniae significant ? (Cic, 
 ad Att. II. 17). 
 
 §. 214. a. If the subjects connected are of different gender, the 
 adjective or participle of the predicate is regulated in gender, pro- 
 vided the singular be used (§.213 a, 2) by the nearest subject: 
 Animus et consilium et sententia civitatis posita est in legibus (Cic. 
 pro Cluent. 53). 
 
 b. If on the contrary the plural is employed, then the gender in 
 the case of living beings is masculine : Uxor mea et filius mortui sunt : 
 the neuter gender is used of things and impersonal ideas : Secundae 
 res, honores, imperia, victor iae for tuit a sunt (Cic. Off. II. 6). Tern- 
 
190 Syntax.— Part I. §.214— 
 
 pus et ratio belli administrandi libera praetori permissa sunt (Liv. 
 XXXV. 25). The gender may however be regulated by the nearest 
 subject, when this is itself in the plural (so that the plural of the 
 predicate may be referred to it alone) : Visae nocturno tempore faces 
 ardorqve caeli (Cic. in Cat. III. 8). Brachia modo atqve humeri 
 liberi ab aqva erant (Caes. B. G. VII. 56). 
 
 Ohs. In case of the combination of living beings (of the male sex) 
 with objects devoid of life, either the masculine is employed (when the 
 latter have at the same time some reference to living beings), Hex regia- 
 que classis una prof ecti (Liv. XXI. 50), or the neuter (so that the whole 
 is considered as a thing) : JRomani regem regnumqve Macedoniae sua 
 futura sciunt (Liv. XL. 10), their property. JVaturd inimica sunt libera 
 eivitas et rex (Liv. XLIV. 24), hostile beings. If the nearest subject be 
 itself in the plural, the gender may be determined by that alone : Patres 
 decrevere, legatos sortesqve oraculi Pytliici exspectandas (Liv. V. 15) ; and 
 this is always the case when the predicate stands first : Missae eo coJiortes 
 qvattuor et C. Annius praefectus (Sail. Jug. 77). 
 
 c. Even with connected subjects of the same gender, which are 
 not living beings, the predicate, when the plural is used, is often in 
 the neuter : Ira et avaritia imperio potentiora erant (Liv. XXXVII. 
 32). Nox atqve praeda hostes remorata sunt (Sail. Jug. 38). 
 
 d. An adjective which is annexed as an attribute to two or more 
 substantives, is regulated by the nearest, e. g. omnes agri et maria ; 
 agri et maria omnia (for the sake of perspicuity often expressed 
 thus : agri omnes omniaqve maria) . Caesaris omni et gratia et 
 opibus sic fruor ut meis (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9). 
 
 Ohs. 1. If adjectives are joined in apposition to define a subject more 
 distinctly, they are treated according to the rule under b, e. g. labor volup- 
 tasqve dissimillimd naturd, societate qvadam inter se juncta sunt (Liv. V. 
 4), things, which by nature are very different. (Otherwise very seldom ; 
 Gallis natura corpora animosqve magna magis qvam fir ma dedit ; Liv. V. 
 44). 
 
 Obs. 2. If several adjectives are attached to a substantive in such a way 
 as to suggest the notion of several different things of the same name, the 
 substantive is put either in the singular or plural, but if it be the subject, 
 it always takes the predicate in the plural : Legio llartia qvartaqve rem- 
 publicam defendunt (Cic. Phil. V. 17) ; prima et vicesima legiones (Tac. 
 Ann. I. 31 ). In the same way it is also said of two men with a common 
 name: Cn. et P, Scipiones (Cic. pro Balb. 15; more rarely Ti. et C. 
 Gracchus, Sail. J. 42 ; but Cn. Scipio et L. Scipio). 
 
 Obs. 3. (On §. 212 — 214). In some few instances it happens that 
 
-215, Chap. I. — Parts of the Proposition. 191 
 
 regard is paid, in the treatment of the predicate, only to the more remote 
 subject as the essential one, to which the nearer is only supplementary, 
 e. g. Ipse meiqve vescor (Hor. S. II. 6, 66). 
 
 §.215. The nature and character of the subject are sometimes more 
 regarded in the predicate than the grammatical form of the word em- 
 ployed. 
 
 a. To substantives in the singular, which denote a plurality (nomina 
 collectiva), and are used of living beings, some prose writers and the 
 poets occasionally annex the predicate in the plural and in the same 
 gender to which the individuals belong, but only with substantives which 
 denote an undefined number (a crowd, number, heap, part), as pars, vis, 
 multitudo: Desectam segetem magna vis hominum immissain agrumfudere 
 in Tiberim (Liv. II. 5). Pars pcrexigua, duce amisso, Pomam inermes 
 delati sunt (Liv. II. 14). In this way pars — pars (some — others), 
 uterqye, optimus qvisqve, are sometimes used with the plural, e. g. Titer- 
 qye eorum exercitum ex castris educunt (Caes. B. C. III. 30). Delecti 
 nobilissimus qyisqve (Liv. VII. 19). 
 
 Obs. With substantives, which denote a regulated whole {exercitus, 
 classis, &c), the plural of the predicate is only found by a negligence in 
 the expression, e. g. Cetera classis, praetoria nave amissa, qvantum qvaeqve 
 remis valuit, fugerunt (Liv. XXXV. 26). We must not confound with 
 this use of the predicate in the plural, the employment of the plural verb 
 in a subordinate proposition, with reference to the individuals which are 
 denoted in the leading proposition by a collective word : Hie uterqve me 
 intuehatur seseqve ad audiendum significabant paratos (Cic. Fin. II. 
 1). Idem humano generi evenit, qvod m terra collocati sunt (viz. homi- 
 nes) (Id. N. D. II. 6). 
 
 b. If male persons are denoted figuratively by feminine or neuter sub- 
 stantives, the predicate is notwithstanding sometimes added in the natural 
 gender : Capita conjurationis virgis caesi ae securi percussi sunt (Liv. X. 
 1); so also occasionally with millia : Millia triginta servilium capitum 
 dicuntur capti (Liv. XXVII. 16). 
 
 c. If the names of other persons, to which the predicate is also to be 
 referred, are connected with a subject in the singular by the preposition 
 cum, the predicate usually stands in the plural, as if there were several 
 subjects regularly connected : Ipse dux cum aliqvot principibus capiuntur 
 (Liv. XXL 60). If the gender be different, the rule §. 214 b is followed : 
 Mia cum Lauso de Nwnitore sati (Ov. Fast. IV. 54). The singular how- 
 ever may be used when the subjects are not precisely considered as act- 
 ing or suffering conjointly : Tu cum Sexto scire velim qvid cogites (Cic. 
 Att. VII. 14). 
 
192 Syntax.— Vault I. §. 216— 
 
 §.216. If the predicate consists of sum or one of those verbs 
 mentioned in §.209 b, and a substantive, the verb is usually regu- 
 lated in number and gender by this substantive, if it comes imme- 
 diately after it (or an adjective belonging to it) : Amantium irae 
 amoris integratio est (Ter. Andr. III. 3, 23). Hoc crimen nullum 
 est, nisi honos ignominia putanda est (Cic. pro Balb. 3). 
 
 Obs. But this is not always the case, especially where sum denotes to 
 make up, constitute, e. g. Captivi militum praeda fuerant (Liv. XXI. 15), 
 or where the number or gender of the subject is essential to the mean- 
 ing of the proposition, e. g. Semiramis puer esse credita est (Justin I. 2). 
 If the subject is an infinitive, the verb is always regulated according to 
 the substantive in the predicate : Contentum rebus suis esse maximaesunt 
 certissimaeqve divitiae (Cic. Parad. VI. 3). 
 
 §.217. When an apposition is added to the subject in another 
 gender or number, the predicate is regulated according to its 
 proper subject : Tullia, deliciae nostrae, munusculum tuum flagitat 
 (Cic. ad Att. I. 8). Only when the designation oppidum {urbs civitas) 
 is added to the names of towns in the plural, the predicate is commonly 
 regulated by the former: Corioli oppidivm captum est (Liv. II. 33). Vol- 
 sinii, oppidum Tuscorum opulentissimum, conerematum estfuhnine (Plin. 
 H. N. II. 53). Also when the proper name is put after a general or 
 figurative designation, the predicate is regulated by the former : Duoful- 
 mina nostri imperii subito in Hispania, Cn. et P. Scipiones exstincti occi- 
 derunt (Cic. pro Balb. 15). 
 
 Ols. 1. To a subject in the plural there is often added by apposition a 
 more special definition with the words alter — alter, alius — alius, and qvis- 
 qye, in the singular : Ambo exercitus, Vejens Tarqyiniensisqye, suas yvis- 
 qve abeunt domos (Liv. II. 7). Decemviri perturbati alius in aliam 
 partem castrorum discurrunt (Liv. III. 50). The general subject is often 
 left out, and must be inferred from what goes before : Cum alius alii sub- 
 sidium ferrent, audacius resistere coeperunt (Caes. B. G. II. 26), as they 
 helped one another. Pro se qyisqye dextram ejus amplexi grates habebant 
 (Curt. III. 16). Sometimes, however, the predicate is regulated according 
 to the apposition : Pictores et poetae suum qyisque opus a vulgo conside- 
 rari vult (Cic. Off. I. 41). His oratoribus duae res maximae altera alteri 
 defuit (Cic. Brut. 55) ; especially when a division and contrast are de- 
 noted by alter — alter, or the special names of the individual subjects : 
 Duo consules ejus anni, alter morbo, alter ferro periit (Liv. XLI. 22). 
 
 Obs. 2. When another substantive is joined to the subject by qvam 
 {tantwn, qyantum) or nisi (in a comparison of degree or in exceptions), 
 the predicate, if it follows the word so subjoined, is often regulated ac- 
 
•218. Chap. I. — Parts of the Proposition. 193 
 
 cordingly, e. g. magis pedes qvam arma Numidas tutata sunt (Sail. Jug. 74). 
 Me non tantum litterae qvantum longinqvitas temporis mitigavit (Cic. ad 
 Fam. VI. 4). Qvis ilium consulem nisi latrones putant (Id. Phil. IV. 4). 
 (This is unusual, if a resemblance only is denoted by a word subjoined 
 with ut or tanqvam.) 
 
 §.218. An impersonal proposition, by which the existence of an 
 action or relation is asserted, without being referred, as predicate, 
 to any noun for its subject, is formed in Latin as follows : 
 
 a) by the purely impersonal verbs (enumerated in §. 166). 
 
 Obs. 1. Those verbs which denote the weather, especially tonat, ful- 
 gurat,fulminat, are also predicated personally of the god (Jupiter), who 
 is conceived as the author of the tempest, as well as figuratively of others, 
 e. g. tonare, of orators. {.Dies illucescit.) 
 
 Obs. 2. With the verbs libet, licet, piget, pudet,poenitet, taedet, we some- 
 times find a neuter pronoun in the singular used as a subject, to point out 
 what produces the feeling expressed by the verb. e. g. sapientis est pro- 
 prium nihil, qyod poenitere possit, facere (Cic. Tusc. V. 28). Non, qyod 
 qvisqve potest, ei licet (Id. Phil. XIII. 6). (Occasionally even in the 
 plural : Non te haec pudent ? Ter. Ad. IV. 7, 36. In servum omnia licent. 
 Senec. de Clem. I. 18.) Otherwise what produces the feeling is expressed 
 by the addition of a case (the genitive, see §. 292), by the infinitive, the 
 accusative with the infinitive, or (with refert) by a dependent interrogative 
 proposition. Such an appendage supplies the place of a subject, but is 
 not the grammatical subject. 
 
 Obs. 3. On the way in which the person is expressed with miser et, &c, 
 see §. 226, with libet, licet, §. 244 a. The gerund of pudet and poenitet 
 is found occasionally used as if from a personal verb signifying I am 
 ashamed, I repent, e. g. Non pudendo, sed nonfaciendo id, qyod non decet, 
 impudentiae nomen fugere debemus (Cic. Or. I. 26). Voluptas saepius 
 relinqvit causam poenitendi qyam recordandi (Id. Fin. II. 32) ; but it 
 never governs a case. 
 
 b) by several verbs, which are used in this way in a certain sig- 
 nification, but are personal in others, e. g. accidit, evenit, contingit, 
 it happens, constat (inter omnes), it is agreed, appdret, it is evident, 
 &c. n (These verbs are followed by an infinitive or a subordinate propo- 
 sition, to which the assertion refers.) 
 
 Obs. In this class we may place est with an adverb, without a subject, 
 see §. 209 b. Obs. 2. 
 
 n Accedit, attinet, conducit, convenit, expedit,fallit (fugit, praeterit me), interest, liqvet, 
 patet, placet, praestat, restat, and a few others. 
 
 C C 
 
194 Syntax.— Part i. §. 218- 
 
 c) by the passive of intransitive verbs (or transitives, which are 
 used intransitively in a certain signification), by which it is simply 
 asserted that the action takes place : Sic bene dormitur. Disputa- 
 batur acriter. Ventum erat ad urbem. Invidetur potentibus (see 
 §. 244 b). Nunc est bibendum. Dubitari de fide tua audio, (Of 
 the participle and gerundive see §. 97). 
 
 Ols. This last form is usually expressed in English by they, employed 
 indefinitely, or resolved into a substantive with the verb to be, e. g. It is 
 good sleeping here ; there was a vehement dispute. Where the posture 
 of affairs is to be expressed in general, res is sometimes used for the sub- 
 ject : Haud procul seditione res erat (Liv, VI. 16) ; res ad helium specta- 
 bat, ad interregnum rediit (Liv. II. 56). 
 
 d) by the verb est with a neuter adjective, followed by an infini- 
 tive or a subordinate proposition, e. g. turpe est, divitias praeferri 
 virtuti. Incertum est, qvo tempore mors ventura sit. 
 
 Ols. 1. In this case the infinitive (especially if it stands alone) or the 
 subordinate sentence may be considered as the subject. 
 
 Obs. 2. An impersonal proposition is also formed by the third person of 
 the verbs possum, soleo, coepi, desino {coeptum est, desitum est), and the 
 infinitive of an impersonal verb or an infinitive passive (according to c) : 
 Solet Dionysium, qvum aliqvid furiose fecit, poenitere (Cic. ad Att. VIII. 
 5). Potest dubitari. Desitum est turbari (Liv. V. 17). 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Relations of Substantives in the Proposition, and the Cases ; 
 the Nominative and Accusative. 
 
 §. 219. The relation in which a substantive, or a word used as 
 a substantive (pronoun, adjective, participle), stands to the other 
 parts of a proposition, is denoted by its case (sometimes combined 
 with a preposition) . 
 
 If substantives stand in the same relation, they stand also in the 
 same case, viz. : 
 
 a. The word which has an apposition joined with it, and the 
 word placed in apposition : Hie liber est Titi, fratris tui ; Tito, 
 fratri tuo, viro optimo, librum dedi. 
 
 b. Words which are connected by conjunctions, enumeration, or 
 division and antithesis (e. g. Gajus laudis, Titus lucri cupidus est). 
 
—220. Chap. II.— Apposition. 19b 
 
 c. The word with which a question is put, and that with which 
 the answer is given (if this be done by merely giving the name of 
 the idea in question), e. g. Qvis hoc fecit ? Titus (viz. fecit). Cujus 
 haec domus est ? Titi et Gaji, fratrum meorum. Cui librum dedisti ? 
 Tito, fratri tuo. 
 
 Ohs. 1. If a word be subjoined to another word in the accusative, da- 
 tive, ablative, or genitive, in order to complete and define the idea con- 
 tained in it, we say that the former is governed by the latter (as its object). 
 Of a word which generally takes other words in a certain form (e. g. in 
 the dative) in order to define it, we say, that it is constructed with this 
 form (it governs this form). Since the construction is regulated by the 
 signification of the governing word, and this occasionally varies, a word 
 may be differently constructed according to its different significations. 
 
 Obs. 2. If a word in a certain signification may be constructed with two 
 different cases (e. g. similis rei alicujus et rei alicui), we sometimes, but 
 rarely, find such a word followed by two different cases united by a con- 
 junction, or in antithesis: Stoici plectri similem lingvam solent dicere y 
 chordarum denies, nares cornibus iis, qyae ad nervos resonant in can- 
 tibus (Cic. N. D. II. 59). (Adhihenda est qvaedam reverentia adversus 
 homines, et optimi cujusqve et reliqyorum. Cic. Off. I. 28). 
 
 Obs. 3. The form of the apposition is not altered by the addition of 
 dico, I mean : Qvam hesternus dies nobis, consularibus dico, turpis illuxit ! 
 (Cic. Phil. VIII. 7.) 
 
 Obs. 4. When words are cited simply as words {inaterialiter , no regard 
 being had to the idea which they express), they are notwithstanding, when 
 they admit of inflection, generally put in Latin in that case which the 
 governing verb requires, especially with the prepositions ab and pro : 
 JBurrwn semper JEnnius dicit, nunqvam Pgrrhmn (Cic. Or. 48). Navigare 
 ducitur a nam {amor ab amando, in the gerund). Pauperies dicitur pro 
 paupertate. Except when a direct reference is made to the nominative or 
 some other definite form, e. g. ab Terentius fit Terenti, from the nomina- 
 tive Terentius comes the vocative Terenti. 
 
 §.220. It is to be observed of apposition, that in Latin (espe- 
 cially with the subject or the object in the accusative), it often de- 
 notes not the character of the person or thing in general, but its 
 condition during the action predicated, and the quality in which it 
 appears on that occasion : Cicero praetor legem Maniliam suasit, 
 consul conjurationem Catilinae oppressit (as praetor, as consul, when 
 he was praetor, when he was consul). Cato senex scribere historiam 
 instituit (as an old man, in advanced life). Sic liber mihi puero 
 valde placuit (when I was a boy). Hunc qvemadmodum victorem 
 
 c c 2 
 
196 Syntax.— Part I. §. 220— 
 
 feremus, qvem ne victum qvidem ferre possumus (in case he should be 
 victorious) ? Asia Scipioni provincia obtigit. Adjutor tibi venio. 
 (Compare §. 227.) In this way it is said : ante Ciceronem consulem, 
 before Cicero as consul, before the consulship of Cicero. 
 
 Obs. 1. In this case numeral adverbs may be added, to denote a repe- 
 tition of the same relation, e. g. Po?npejus tertium consul judicia ordinavit 
 (when he was consul for the third time, in his third consulship). 
 
 Obs. 2. Apposition does not, like the English word as, denote a pro- 
 perty which is merely presumed (e. g. he was taken up as a thief), which 
 must be expressed by tanqvam, qvasi, or ut ; nor yet a comparison, which 
 is denoted by ut, sic — ut, tanqvam ; sic eos tractat, ut fures. Cicero ea, 
 qvae nunc usu veniunt, cecinit ut vates (Corn. Att. 16), like a prophet. 
 
 Obs. 3. Sometimes an apposition is subjoined to a single word (the 
 object of an active or the subject of a passive proposition), which in sense 
 belongs to the whole sentence, or to the predicate, e. g. Admoneor, ut ali- 
 qvid etiam de sepultura dicendum existimem ; rem non difficilem (Cic. 
 Tusc. I. 43), which is no difficult matter. 
 
 §.221. A word stands in the Nominative when it is the subject 
 of which a verb is predicated, or when it is the predicative noun 
 with swrij or fio, evado, maneo, or a passive verb which is not self- 
 subsistent. To the passives of those verbs which signify to name, 
 to make into something, to account as something (see §. 227), those 
 words are added in the nominative without any further addition, 
 which denote how a thing is named, what is made of it, what it is 
 accounted as : Caesar fuit magnus imperator. T. Albucius per- 
 fectus Epicureus evaserat (Cic. Brut. 35) °. Numa creatus est rex. 
 Aristides habitus est justissimus. 
 
 §. 222. The Accusative in itself only denotes that a word is not 
 the subject, but otherwise names it quite generally, without speci- 
 fying any particular relation. The Object of transitive verbs, or 
 the person or thing, on which the action of the subject works 
 immediately, is put in the accusative : Caesar vicit Pompejum ; 
 teneo librum. The object may be turned into the subject, and 
 the same verb predicated of it in the passive ; in which case the 
 agent (which in the active proposition was the subject) is sub- 
 joined with a or ab : Pompejus a Caesar e victus est; liber a me 
 tenetur. 
 
 Obs. 1. (On §. 221 and 222). What is predicated of the subject as an 
 Evado denotes a result which is produced or attained after a considerable time. 
 
"—223. Chap. II. — Accusative. 197 
 
 action, may be predicated of the object as suffering, so that this takes the 
 place of the subject. The accusative is originally the word without further 
 definition or distinction. In the masculine and feminine a peculiar form, 
 the nominative, has been devised, in order to denote the word as a subject 
 (or as the predicative noun), but in the neuter the accusative is also nomi- 
 native. The accusative therefore (as an indefinite case) is used in the 
 most simple way, in which a word is added, to define and complete the 
 predicate expressed in the verb. In the indefinite infinitive expression, 
 where the connection between the subject and predicate is not of itself as- 
 serted, the subject and the predicative noun stand in the accusative, e. g. 
 hominem currere, that a man runs ; esse dominum, to be lord. See §.394 
 and 388 b. 
 
 Ohs. 2. In the case of some verbs, to the active of which a definition 
 may be added by means of the preposition ah, e. g. postulare aliqyid ah 
 aliqvo, it may sometimes be doubtful in the passive whether ah has the 
 same signification as with the active verb, or whether it denotes the 
 agent, e. g. postulatur a me may signify either, others demand of me, 
 or I demand. 
 
 Ohs. 3. With reference to the use of the passive it is to be observed, 
 that it is often employed in Latin where in English an active transitive is 
 used, with the reflective pronoun expressed or understood, because the 
 action is conceived not so much as proceeding from the subject as some- 
 thing operated upon it, e. g. eommendari, to recommend oneself, congre- 
 gari, to assemble (themselves), contralii, to contract (itself), delectari, to 
 delight (oneself), effundi, to pour out, diffundi, to spread, lavari, to wash, 
 rnoveri, to move, mutari, to change, porrigi, to reach. But this depends 
 as much on the way in which the action is contemplated by the speaker, 
 as on any usage affecting the several verbs. Sometimes the passive in 
 Latin has a peculiar signification, which a mere literal translation would 
 not adequately express, as tondeor, to get shaved, cogor, to see oneself 
 obliged, &c. 
 
 Ohs. 4. Some few verbs occasionally lay aside their transitive character, 
 and are used in the active, with a reflective signification ; e. g. duro, in- 
 cline*, insinuo, rnuto, remitto, verto. In other instances an object is omitted, 
 which may easily be supplied from the context, and the verb used as in- 
 transitive in a special signification, e. g. solvere, appellere (navem), movere 
 (castra), ducere in hostem (exercitum). These and similar examples may 
 be found in the dictionary. 
 
 §. 223. a. "Whether a verb is transitive, depends on the signifi- 
 cation, and on the circumstance, whether an object is at the same 
 time conceived as immediately acted on. (Of those verbs, which in 
 Latin only suggest the idea of an action in reference to an object, which 
 
198 Syntax.— Vault I. §. 223- 
 
 in this case is subjoined in the dative, we shall speak when we treat of 
 that case.) 
 
 b. Many Latin verbs have fundamentally a distinct notion from 
 those by which they are commonly rendered in English, and are 
 therefore connected with substantives in a different way (differently 
 constructed), e.g.paro helium (I prepare for war; properly, I pre- 
 pare war), peto aliqvid ab aliqvo (I ask a person for something; 
 properly, I seek to get a thing from a person), qvaero ex {ab or de) 
 aliqvo, qvaero cans am (I ask some one, inquire after the reason), 
 consolor aliqvem, but also consolor alicujus dolorem (I console some 
 one in his distress), excuso tarditatem litterarum, I apologize for my 
 tardiness in writing (or me de tarditate litterarum), but also excuso 
 morbum, I plead illness as my excuse. 
 
 Ols. Many verbs have different significations, so that in one they are 
 transitive and govern the accusative, while in another they are differently 
 constructed, as consuh aliqvem, I consult some one, consulo alicui p, I have 
 a regard to some one's interest, consulo in aliqvem, I treat some one, e. g. 
 crudeliter ; animadverto aliqvid, I observe something, animadverto in ali- 
 qvem, I punish some one. 
 
 c. Many verbs that are properly intransitive sometimes assume 
 a transitive signification, e. g. several, which denote a state of mind, 
 or its expression as occasioned by something ; as doleo, I feel grief, 
 lugeo, I mourn, — doleo, lugeo aliqvid, I mourn on account of some- 
 thing, horreo, I tremble, shudder, horreo aliqvid, I am alarmed at 
 something, miror, qveror aliqvid, I wonder at, complain of something, 
 gemo, lacrimo, lamenior, fleo, ploro aliqvid, I weep for something, 
 rideo aliqvid, I laugh at something ; so likewise maneo (te triste 
 manet supplicium, awaits thee, Virg.) q , crepo (e. g. militiam, to be 
 always talking of), depereo aliqvem, to be in love with one, navigo 
 mare-, I navigate the sea, salto Turnum, I dance Turnus (represent 
 him by dancing), erumpo stomachum in aliqvem (pour out my bile). 
 These peculiarities of the several verbs must be learned by practice 
 and from the dictionary. The poets have used several verbs trans- 
 itively, which are never so used in prose 1 '. 
 
 Ols. 1 . The passive however is used in prose only of a few such verbs, 
 as have clearly assumed a transitive meaning. "We say rideor, I am 
 
 p Si qvi exire volunt, consulere sibi possunt (Cic. in Cat. II. 27). 
 
 q Manere however is also constructed with the dative ; to remain to a person, be re- 
 served for him. So likewise, res aliqvem latet, and less frequently alicui, 
 
 r Mediasqve fraudes 
 Palluit audax (Hor. Od. III. 27. 27). 
 
•224. Chap. II. — Accusative. 199 
 
 laughed at, but doleo, horreo, never have the passive, except horrendus, 
 horrible. 
 
 Obs. 2. We must particularly notice the accusative with olere, redolere, 
 to smell of a thing, sapere, resipere, to taste of a thing, e. g. olere vinum, 
 to smell of wine. In the same way it is said, sitire sangvinem, anhelare 
 scelus (to breathe out wickedness) ; spirare tribunatum (to have one's 
 mind full of the tribuneship) ; vox hominem sonat (sounds like that of a 
 man. Never in the passive). 
 
 Obs. 3. The poets often go very far in giving intransitive verbs a trans- 
 itive signification, e. g. in expressions like resonare lucos cantu (Virg.), to 
 make the groves re-echo with song ; instabant Marti currum (Virg.), they 
 laboured diligently at a car ; stillare rorem ex oculis (Hor.), manare poetica 
 mella (Id.), to drop, let flow. They also form a passive from such ex- 
 pressions, e. g. triumphatae gentes (Virg., in prose triumpliare de Jioste) ; 
 nox vigilata (Ov.) B . 
 
 Obs. 4. The accusative of a substantive of the same theme, or at least 
 of corresponding signification, may stand with verbs which are otherwise 
 not used transitively, usually with the addition of an adjective or pronoun, 
 e. g. vitam tutiorem vivere, justam servitutem servire, insanire similem er- 
 ror em (Hor.). JEgo patres vestros vivere arbitror et earn qyidem vitam,, 
 qvae est sola vita nominanda (Cic. Cat. M. 21). Hence in the passive, 
 hacpugna pugnata (Corn. Hann. 5), when this battle was fought. [Nunc 
 tertia vivitur aetas, Ov. Met. XII. 188.) 
 
 §. 224. It is particularly to be observed, that several verbs, 
 which denote a motion through space, when compounded with 
 prepositions, acquire a transitive signification, and are constructed 
 with the accusative. Such verbs are the following : 
 
 a. Those compounded with the prepositions circum, per, praeter, 
 trans super, subter, as circumeo, circicmvenio, circumvehor, percurro, per- 
 vagor, praetergredior, praetervehor, praetervolo, transeo, transilio, trcmsno, 
 super gredior, subterfugio, subterlabor, e. g. locum periculosum praetervehor. 
 
 Obs. 1. So also praecedo, praegredior, praefluo (flow by), praevenio 
 (praecurro, with the ace. and dat.) ; obeo (regione??i, negotia), with obami- 
 bulo, obeqvito, oberro, with the signification, to w T alk, ride, rove through 
 or over (but with the dative, signifying before or against, obequitare por- 
 tae) ; usually subeo {tectum, onontem, nomen exulis ; subire ad muros, to 
 draw near beneath the walls, poet, subire portae, subit animo, inilii, it 
 occurs to me). In the case of the others compounded with ob and sub 
 the reference to a thing is expressed by the dative; see §. 245. 
 
 Obs. 2. The accusative stands also with verbs compounded with circum, 
 
 3 Regnata Laconi rura Phalanto (Hor. Od. II. 612). 
 
200 Syntax.— Part I. §. 224— 
 
 which denote a voice or sound ; circumfremo, circumlatro, circumsono, cir- 
 
 cumstrqjo. 
 
 Obs. 3. Supervenio, to come upon, after, to, is constructed with the 
 dative. 
 
 b. Various verbs, which, from being compounded with ad, con, or 
 in, acquire an improper and altered meaning ; as, adeo, to visit, 
 apply to someone (colonias, deos, libros Sibyllinos) , aggredior, ado- 
 rior, to attack, convenio, to meet a person (in order to speak with 
 him), co'eo, to enter upon (societatem) , ineo, to enter, form, enter on, 
 tread (societatem, consilia, rationem, magistratum, fines) . Both these 
 and the verbs adduced under a. are used also in the passive as 
 complete transitives : Flumen transitur ; hostis circumventus ; societas 
 inita est. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Adeo ad aliqyem, I go to some one ; aecedo ad aliqyem. (Com- 
 pare §. 245 a. with Obs. 2.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Insider e locum, to take possession of a place, to settle there (in- 
 sidere locum, to keep possession of it) ; insidere in animo, to impress itself 
 on the mind ; insistere viam, iter, pursue, enter upon ; insistere loco (dat.) 
 and in loco, to stand in a place. Ingredior and invado are constructed 
 both with the simple accusative and with the preposition repeated (ingredi 
 urbem and in urbem ; ingredi iter, magistratum, to enter upon ; invader e in 
 hostem, Cic, hostis invaditur, Sail.) ; usually irrumpo in urbem, insilio in 
 eqvum, but also irrumjpo urbem, insilio eqvum (not in the passive). In- 
 cessit (from incedo ; see §. 138) timor patres and cur a patribus (dat.). 
 Other verbs with in (e. g. incido, incurro, involo, innatd) are used only 
 rarely and poetically with the accusative instead of with in or the dative. 
 
 c. Excedo, egredior, to overstep, e. g. fines. 
 
 Obs. In the signification to go out these verbs are mostly constructed 
 with ex, as also commonly elabor, evado, to slip from, come from. Of 
 excedo, egredior, with the simple ablative, see §. 262. (The passive of 
 excedo and evado is not used. JExeo with the accus., e. g. modum, is 
 poetical.) 
 
 d. Antevenio, to be beforehand with, antegredior, to go before. 
 The verbs antecedo, anteeo, antecello, praesto, to excel, are con- 
 structed both with the dative and the accusative, but most fre- 
 quently with the former (not in the passive). 
 
 Obs. JLxcello is used with the dative (excellere ceteris), or without a 
 case (inter omnes). 
 
 §. 225. Those verbs which denote presence in a place (jaceo, 
 sedeo, sto) govern the accusative when they are compounded with 
 
_227. Chap. II. — Accusative. 201 
 
 circum ; Multa me pericula circumstant. (On the compounds with 
 ad see §. 245, Ohs. 2.) 
 
 Ohs. We must separately notice obsideo (with its signification entirely 
 changed ; to besiege). Of other compound verbs, which convey no idea 
 of space and yet become transitive by composition, we may notice allatro, 
 alloqvor, impugno, oppngno, and expngno. {Attendo aligvid, e. g. versum, 
 and aliqvem, attendo animum ad aliqyid.) 
 
 §. 226. With the impersonal verbs piget, pudet, poenitet, taedet, 
 {pertaesum est), miser et, the name of the person whose mind is 
 affected stands as an object in the accusative (but that which 
 excites the emotion in the genitive), e. g. pudet regemfacti; miseret 
 nos hominis ; solet vos beneficiorum poenitere. In the same way 
 decet, it beseems, becomes, and dedecet, govern the accusative, e. g. 
 Or at or em irasci minime decet. 
 
 Ohs. Transitive verbs which are used impersonally (with an infinitive 
 or accusative with the infin. for their subject) retain the accusative, e. g. 
 non mefallit {fugit, praeterit), it does not escape my attention. 
 
 §. 227. Some verbs, which do not in themselves denote a com- 
 plete action, take besides the object itself the accusative of a sub- 
 stantive or adjective, which constitutes a predicate of the object, 
 and serves to complete the notion of the verb. (Strictly speaking, 
 this accusative forms an apposition to the object.) In the pas- 
 sive these verbs are used as incomplete with the predicative noun 
 in the nominative, according to §. 209. Such verbs are the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 a. Those verbs which denote to make (to choose, nominate), to 
 have or appoint (to give, take, assume, &c), asfacio, efficio, reddo, 
 creo, eligo, declaro, designo, renuntio, dico, &c., do, sumo, capio, in- 
 stituo, &c. That into which a thing is made, &c, is subjoined to 
 these verbs in the accusative : Avaritia homines caecos reddit t . 
 Mesopotamiam fertilem efficit Euphrates (Cic. N. D. II. 52). Scipio 
 P. Rupilium potuit consulem efficere (Id. Lael. 20). Populus Roma- 
 nus Numam regem creavit (jussit, Liv.). Ciceronem una voce uni- 
 versus populus Romanics consulem declaravit (Cic. de Leg. Agr. 
 II. 2). Appius Claudius libertinorum filios senator es legit. Cato 
 Valerium Flaccum in consulatu collegam habuit. Tiberius Druso 
 Sejanum dedit adjutorem. Augustus Tiberium filium et consortem 
 potestatis ascivit. 
 
 1 Reddo is especially used with adjectives ; but not in the passive, where fieri alone is 
 employed. 
 
 Dd 
 
202 Syntax.— Part I. §. 227- 
 
 Obs. This idiom is variously expressed in English, e. g. In him we have 
 an excellent leader ; Nunc egregium ducem habemus. 
 
 b. Those verbs which signify to shew oneself as something, to find 
 a thing of a certain character, e.g. Praesta te virum (Cic). Rex 
 se clement em praebe bit. Cognosces me tuae dignitatis fautorem (in 
 me you will find one who will promote your dignity). 
 
 c. Those verbs which signify to name and to look upon as anything 
 (to hold, reckon, declare), (appello, voco, nomino, dico, saluto, &c. 
 inscribOj to entitle; — habeo, duco, existimo, numero, judico, and 
 sometimes puto) : Summum consilium reipublicae Romani appella- 
 runt senatum. Cicero librum aliqvem Laelium inscripsit. Senatus 
 Antonium hostem judicavit. Te judicem aeqvum puto (Cic.) u . 
 
 Obs. 1. Habeo and existimo are used in this signification mostly in the 
 passive (Aristides habitus est justissimus ; nolo existimari impudens) . We 
 also find habere aliqvem pro hoste (to treat him as an enemy) ; pro nihilo 
 putare ; in hostium numero habere ; parentis loco {in loco) habere (ducere) 
 aliqvem. 
 
 Obs. 2. Puto, existimo, judico, duco, to thinlc, believe, hold (that a thing 
 is so and so), are followed by an infinitive proposition. Credor, used in 
 the way here mentioned (to be looked upon as something), is poetical : 
 credor sangvinis auctor (Ovid). 
 
 Obs. 3. If several objects, differing in gender or number, are combined 
 with one of these verbs, the predicative noun, if it be an adjective or parti- 
 ciple, is regulated according to the rules given in §.213 and 214. 
 
 Obs. 4. A predicative noun may also be subjoined to the passive parti- 
 ciple of these verbs, e. g. Marius hostis judicatus, Marius who was de- 
 clared an enemy ; and although rarely, in other cases besides the nom. and 
 accus., e. g. in the ablative : JFilio suo magistro eqvitum creato (Liv. IV. 
 46), when he had named his son mag. eqv. Consulibus certioribus factis 
 (Liv. XLV. 21, from certioremfacio, to apprize) ; and in the dative: Pe- 
 misit tamen Octavianus Antonio hostijudicato amicos omnes (Svet. Oct. 17). 
 
 §. 228. Some few verbs, all of which have for their object a 
 person (or something considered as a person), may take another 
 accusative, in order to denote a more remote object of the ac- 
 tion, viz. : 
 
 a. Doceo, to teach one a thing, edoceo, to inform, acquaint with, 
 dedoceo, to cause one to unlearn a thing (make one break off), celo, 
 to keep one in ignorance of a thing (conceal), e. g. docere aliqvem 
 
 u [A peculiar construction of astimo is met with in Csesar, B. G. III. 20 : Qvae pars 
 ex tertia parte Galliae est aeslimanda.'] 
 
—228. Chap. II. — Accusative. 203 
 
 litteras. Non celavi te sermonem hominum (Cic). But we find also 
 the construction, docere aliqvem de aliqva re, signifying, to acquaint 
 with something, and celare aliqvem de aliqva re. 
 
 Ols. In the passive the accusative may be retained with doceo {doceri 
 motus Ionicos, Hor. ; L. Marcius sub Cn. Scipione omnes militiae artes 
 edoctus fuerat, Liv.) , especially with the participle (doctus iter melius, 
 Hor. ; edoctus iter Jiostium, Tac.) ; but the more usual expression is discere 
 aliqvid (doceri de aliqva re, to be informed). (Also doctus Graecis Utteris, 
 skilled in Greek, Doceo aliqvem Graece loqvi ; Graece loqvi docendus.) 
 The accusative of a neuter pronoun may stand with celor (e. g. Hoc nos 
 celatos non oportuit, Ter. Hec. IV. 4, 23) ; otherwise it is expressed 
 celor de re aliqva x . 
 
 b. Posco (reposed), flagito, to demand, something from one, oro, to 
 pray for, rogo, to ask for, interrogo (percontor), to ask one about a 
 thing : Ver?*es parentes pretium pro sepultura liberum poscebat (Cic. 
 Verr. I. 3). Caesar frumentum Aeduos flagitabat (Caes. B.Gr. I. 16). 
 Achaei regem auxilia orabant (Liv. XXVIII. 5). Tribunus me 
 primum sententiam rogavit (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 1). Socrates pusionem 
 geometrica qvaedam interrogat (Cic. Tusc. I. 24). Hence in the 
 passive, interrogatus sententiam (and in the poets poscor aliqvid, some- 
 thing is desired of me). 
 
 Ols. 1. We may also say posco, flagito aliqvid ah aliqvo (as we always 
 find peto, postido aliqvid ab aliqvo). Bogo and oro are also put merely 
 with the name of the thing wished for : rogare auxilium, pacem orare. 
 These verbs have especially two accusatives, when the object desired is 
 expressed by the neuter of a pronoun (e. g. hoc te oro ; qvod me rogas), or 
 of a numeral adjective (unum, onulta te rogo). The same holds of rogo : 
 interrogo, to ask about ; they have a substantive as the accusative of the 
 thing only in the signification, to call upon a person to say something, 
 e. g. sententiam, testimonium ; otherwise interrogo de re aliqva. Per- 
 contor is rarely used in this way. (Si qvis meum te percontalitur aevum, 
 Hor. Ep. I. 20, 26), commonly percontor aliqvem, to examine a person, 
 or percontor aliqvid ex aliqvo. 
 
 Obs. 2. Here we may also notice the expression, velle aliqvem aliqvid, 
 to want a thing from a person, e. g. qvid me vis ? 
 
 c. Moneo, admoneo, hortor, if the admonition or encouragement 
 be denoted by a pronoun (or numeral adjective) in the neuter (com- 
 pare §. 229) : Discipulos id unum moneo, ut praeceptores non minus 
 
 x Docere aliqvem Latine, Graece (scire, nescire, oblivisci Lative, Graece) ; docere ali- 
 qvem fidibus (to teach one to play on a stringed instrument). With a simple accusative 
 of the thing in the signification to lecture on, trado (philosophiam trado) is used in prefer- 
 ence to doceo. 
 
 Dd2 
 
204 Syntax. — Part I. §. 228— jj- 
 
 qvam ipsa stndia anient (Quinct. II. 9, 1). Si tu, qvod te jamdudum 
 hortor, exieris, exhaurietur ex urbe tuorum comitum perniciosa sentina 
 reipublicae (Cic. Cat. I. 5). This accusative is retained in the pas- 
 sive : Non audimus ea, qvae ab natura monemur (Cic. Lael. 24). 
 (Otherwise admoneo aliqvem rei [see §. 291] or de re.) 
 
 Obs. So also with cogo : Qvid non mortalia pectora cogis, auri sacra 
 fames (Virg. Aen. III. 56). Si cogi aliqvid consules possunt (Liv. IV. 26). 
 
 §. 229. The accus. neuter of a pronoun {id, hoc, illud, idem, 
 qvod, qvid, aliud, alterum, aliqvid, qvidpiam, qvidqvam, nihil, utrum- 
 qve) or of a numeral adjective (unum, multa), is sometimes sub- 
 joined to intransitive verbs, to denote the compass and extent of 
 the action (in general). This is done — 
 
 a. In particular with several verbs, which denote a state of mind 
 and its expression, e. g. laetor, glorior, irascor, succenseo, assentior, 
 dubito, studeo. A more accurate definition is often annexed to the 
 pronoun by an additional clause. (The pronoun belongs properly 
 to the substantive notion contained in the verb itself, e. g. hoc glo- 
 rior =haec est gloriatio mea. If the object of the verb is to be ex- 
 pressed by the substantive, another case must be employed, e. g. 
 victoria glo? % ior.) Vellem idem posse gloriari, qvod Cyrus (Cic. Cat. 
 M. 10), strictly, to boast the same thing, i. e. of the same thing. 
 Utrumqve laetor, et sine dolore corporis te fuisse et animo valuisse 
 (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 1). Alterum fortasse dubitabunt, sitne tanta vis 
 in virtute, alterum non dubitabunt, qvin Stoici convenientia sibi di- 
 cant (Cic. Fam. V. 28). Illud vereor, ne tibi Dejotdrum succen- 
 sere aliqvid suspicere (Cic. pro Dej. 13), that he entertains some 
 grudge. Omnes mulieres eadem student (Ter. Hec. II. 1, 2), have 
 the same inclinations. 
 
 b. Likewise with other verbs, which may require to complete 
 their notion a similar definition of measure and extent : Qvid pro- 
 dest mentiri ? Hoc tamen profeci. Ea, qvae locuti sumus (different 
 from de qvibus locuti sumus). Si remittent qvidpiam dolor es (Ter. 
 Hec. III. 2, 14). Si qvid adolescens offenderit, sibi totum, tibi nihil 
 offenderit (Cic. ad Fam. II. 18), if he commits a fault, he will have 
 to bear the consequences, and not you. Callistratus in oratione 
 sua multa invectus est in Thebanos (Corn. Epam. 9), heaped many 
 reproaches on the Thebans. 
 
 Obs. 1. Hence in the passive, si qvid offensum est, instead of the purely 
 impersonal, si offensum est. {Hoc pugnatur [Cic. Rose. Am. 3], this is 
 the object of the contest.) 
 
r-230. Chap. II.— Accusative. 205 
 
 Obs, 2. Occasionally we find a similar way of designating the extent of 
 the action applied even to a transitive verb with the accusative : Nos ali- 
 qvid Rutulos juvimus (Virg. Aen. X. 84). Vulturcius multa de salute sua 
 Pomptinum obtestatus est (Sail. Cat. 45, with many words, many en- 
 treaties). 
 
 Obs. 3. "With the phrase auctor sum (I advise, assure), we sometimes 
 find a neuter pronoun in the singular as with a transitive verb, e. g. Con- 
 silium petis, qvid tibi sim auctor (Cic. ad Fam. VI. Otherwise cujus 
 rei). 
 
 §. 230. The accusative is employed with the prepositions ad- 
 duced in §. 172. II. With regard to those prepositions which, 
 according to the different relation they express, may be employed 
 with the accusative or the ablative, the following observations may 
 be useful. 
 
 In. a. In has the accusative when it denotes a motion to or 
 into, or a direction towards a thing, and in the improper signifi- 
 cations deduced from these (e. g. state of mind, action towards and 
 in reference to something, activity in a certain direction and with 
 a certain object) : in urbem ire ; proficisci in Graeciam, in career em 
 conjicere, in civitatem recipere ; advenire in provinciam, convenire, 
 congregari, concurrere, exercitum contrahere in locum aliqvem (and 
 hence congregari aliqvo, eo, not alicubi, ibi) ; tres pedes habere in lon- 
 gitudinem, in latitudinem ; dicer e in aliqvem, amor in pair i am, merita 
 in rempublicam ; accipere in bonam partem (in good part) ; in spe- 
 ciem (for appearance' sake) ;. mutari in saxum ; consistere in orbem 
 (into a circle, so as to make a circle) ; in majus celebrare (so as to 
 make it greater) ; grata lex in valgus (in its effect on the lower 
 classes) ; multa dixi in earn sententiam (according to these senti- 
 ments, so that these were my sentiments) ; in eas leges (on those 
 conditions, so that the conditions were such) ; in tres annos (for 
 three years) ; in omne tempus, in perpetuum ; in dies singulos crescere, 
 for every day, daily (in dies, day by day, in horas, hourly) ; divi- 
 der e (distribuere, &c.) in tres paries, into three parts y. 
 
 b. In has the ablative when it denotes the being or happening in 
 a thing or at a place, and in the significations deduced from these 
 (on, with a thing, among, during an action, &c.) ; in urbe esse, in 
 ripa sedere {considere) ; in flumine navigare, in campo currere ; vas 
 in mensa ponere ; in Socrate (in Socrates, in the person of So- 
 crates), in opere (in the workman's hands). 
 
 7 Tn spent futurae multitudinis urbem munire (Liv. I. 8), with reference to the hope, so 
 as to connect with it the hope. 
 
206 Syntax.— Part I. §. 230- 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes in stands with the ablative of the name of a person, 
 in order to distinguish it as the object on which something is practised, in 
 reference to which something takes place : Hoc f mere in eo liomine consve- 
 runt, cujus orationem approbant (Caes. B. G. VII. 21). Achilles non talis 
 in Jioste fuit Priamo (Virg. Aen. II. 540), did not conduct himself thus 
 toward (in reference to) him. Hoc diei in servo potest (of a slave). 
 (Poetically, ardere in aliqva, to be enamoured of a person.) 
 
 Obs. 2. In some few expressions in, joined to esse and habere, is occa- 
 sionally (but only by way of exception) followed by an accusative sing, in- 
 stead of an ablative, e. g. habere in potestatem ; in amicitiam dicionemqve 
 populi Bomani esse" 1 . 
 
 Obs. 3. Although pono, loco, colloco, statuo, constituo, have in with the 
 ablative (collocare aliqvid in mensd), yet we say imp on ere in currum, in 
 naves (in a carriage, to lade the ships), and sometimes exponere milites 
 in terrain (to land) ; but otherwise, imposuistis in cervicibus nostris domi- 
 nium ; imponere praesidium arci, dative, see §. 243). (Reponere pecimiam 
 in tliesauris and in thesauros, to put it in the treasury.) 
 
 Obs, 4. With certain verbs the usage varies in some cases between in 
 with the accusative, and in with the ablative, with some slight difference 
 in the idea. Thus we find includere aliqvem in career em, orationem in 
 epistolam (to bring into), and includere aliqyem in carcere (to shut up) ; 
 also simply includere carcere (see §. 254, Obs. 4) and includere aliqyid 
 orationi suae (see under the dative, §. 243) ; so also condere aliqyem in 
 carcerem {in vinculo), to throw into prison, but condere aliqvid in viscer- 
 ibus (Cic), incidere aliqvid in aes (to cut a thing in brass), in tabula (on 
 a tablet), and incidere nomen saxis (dat., see §. 243) ; imprimere, inscul- 
 pcre aliqvid in animis, in cera and cerae. We find abdere se in aliqvem 
 locum {in intimam Macedoniam, Cic), to go to a place for the purpose of 
 concealment (hence also abdere se domum, Arpinum, according to §. 232, 
 eo, aliqvo), but abdere milites in insidiis, abditus in tabernaculo. 
 
 Sub. a. Sub takes the accusative when it denotes motion and 
 direction, e. g. sub scalas se conjicere, venire sub oculos, cadere sub 
 sensum ; also of time, when it denotes towards, immediately after, 
 at about ; sub noctem, sub adventum Romanorum, sub dies festos (im- 
 mediately after the holidays) ; sub idem tempus*. 
 
 b. Sub has the ablative when it denotes the being under a thing : 
 sub mensa, esse sub oculis. (Rarely when applied to time : sub ipsa 
 prqfectione, during the very time of.) 
 
 z This originated in an inaccuracy of the pronunciation, where the distinction hetween 
 the accusative and ablative rested on the single letter m; on the other hand, we never find 
 such phrases as in imperium esse, or in vincla habere. 
 
 a [Extremae sub casum hiemis,jam vere sereno (Virg. Georg. I. 340).] 
 
-232. Chap. II. — Accusative. 207 
 
 Super has the ablative in prose, only when it signifies concerning : 
 Hac super re scribam ad te postea (Cic. ad Att. XVI. 6) ; otherwise 
 the accusative. (In the poets we also find, super foco, on the hearth, &c.) 
 
 Subter (under, on the under side of) has very rarely the ablative, 
 and that only in the poets, otherwise the accusative, e. g. subter 
 praecordia. 
 
 Obs. 1 . The compound adverbs pridie and postridie are also to a certain 
 extent used as prepositions with the accusative, but in good writers only 
 with the days of the month, and the names of festivals {pridie Idus, post- 
 ridie Nonas, postridie ludos Apollinares) ; with the genitive usually only 
 in the expression, pridie, postridie ejus diei. For a peculiar use of the 
 preposition ante (in ante, ex ante,) see the section on the Calendar, in the 
 Appendix. 
 
 Obs. 2. Not only is the adverb propius, proxime (according to §. 172, 
 Obs. 4) used like the preposition prope with the accusative (more rarely 
 with the dative), but even the adjective is sometimes constructed in this 
 way, e. g. propior montem (Sail.) , proximus mare (Caes.) ; but the dative 
 is here the most usual. (Proximus ab aliqvo, the next after a person, in 
 a series, like prope ab, not far from ; propius a terra wioveri ; proxime 
 alter ab altero habitant. In the signification near we find both accedo 
 •prope aliqvem and prope accedo ad aliqvem.) 
 
 §.231. With the following transitive verbs compounded with 
 trans, traduco, trajicio, transporto, we have not only the name of the 
 object, but also that of the place over which a thing is led or 
 transported, in the accusative (which belongs to the preposition) : 
 Hannibal copias Iberum tradaxit. Caesar milites navibus flumen 
 transportat. (Also traducere, trajicere homines trans Rhenum h .) 
 
 Obs. Of the same character is the expression adigo aliqvem arbitrum, to 
 bring a person before {ad) the judge, and adigo aliqvem jusjurandum (also 
 ad jusjurandum and adigo aliqvem jurejurando), to put one to his oath. 
 
 §. 232. The proper names of towns and smaller islands (each of 
 which may be considered as a town) stand in the accusative without 
 a preposition, when they are specified as the object of a motion : 
 Romam ire, Athenas prqficisci, Delum navigare [appellere classe Pu- 
 teolos, navis appellitur Syracusas, runs into the harbour of Syracuse). 
 Haec via Capaam ducit. Usqve Ennam profecti sunt (Cic. Verr. 
 IV. 49), as far as to. But ad is used when only the vicinity of the 
 town is meant : Adolescentidus miles ad Capuam profectus sum (Cic. 
 
 b Trajicere exercitum Pado, on the Po ; trajicere, transmiltere flumen, to cross the 
 river. Trajicere in Africam, without an object, to cross over to Africa. 
 
208 Syntax.— Part I. §. 232— 
 
 Cat. M. 4), to an encampment before Capua. Tres sunt viae ad 
 Mutinam (Cic. Phil. XII. 9; said of a journey to the army before 
 Modena) . 
 
 Obs. 1. Where no motion is indicated, hut only a space expressed, the 
 preposition is added : omnis ora a Salonis ad Oricum (Caes. P. C. III. 8). 
 
 Obs. 2. If urbs or oppidum be prefixed, the preposition is inserted: 
 Consul pervenit in oppidum Cirtam (Sail. Jug. 102), into Cirta; ad oppi- 
 dum Cirtam would mean, arrived at Cirta. So also usually, when urbs or 
 oppidum with an adjective is put after the proper name : Demaratus Co- 
 rinthius contulit se Targyinios in urbem Etruriae fiorentissimam (Cic. R. 
 P. II. 19). 
 
 Obs. 3. In is used with the names of countries and larger islands. 
 Sometimes however we find the names of larger islands constructed like 
 the names of towns : in Cyprum venit, and Cyprum missus est. 
 
 Obs. 4. In the poets the names of countries also are put as the object of 
 a motion without a preposition, e. g. Italiam venit (Virg.) (Occasionally 
 in prose the Greek names of countries in us, as Aegyptus, Epirus, Bos- 
 porus, e. g. Aegyptum proficisci (Corn. Dat. 4). The poets also use 
 national names, as well as common names in general, when considered 
 as the object of a motion, in the accusative without a preposition, e. g. 
 Xbimus Afros (Virg. Eel. I. 64). Tua one imago Tiaec limina tender e ade- 
 git (Id. Aen. VI. 696). Verba refers aures non pervenientia nostras 
 (Ovid. Met. III. 462) c . 
 
 §.233. The accusatives domum, home, and rus, to the country, 
 are constructed like the names of towns, e. g. domum reverti, rus 
 ire ; also domos of several different homes, e. g. ministerium restitu- 
 endorum domos obsidum (Liv. XXII. 22), the business of bringing 
 each of the hostages to his home. To domum may be added a pos- 
 sessive pronoun or a genitive, in order to shew whose house is 
 meant, e. g. domum meam, domum Pompeji venisti (domum alienam, 
 domum regiam— regis) ; domos suas discesserunt (Corn. Them. 4) ; 
 but we also find in domum suam, in domum Pompeji (and domum 
 ad Pompejum) . 
 
 Obs. 1. With other adjectives in must be inserted: in domum amplam 
 et magnificam venire. 
 
 Obs. 2. The accusative of the place is sometimes joined to a verbal sub- 
 stantive : domum reditio (Caes.), reditus inde Bomam (Cic.) d . 
 
 §. 234. a. When extent or motion is signified, the word which 
 
 c [ Tumulum antiqvae Cereris, sedemqve sacratam venimus (Virg. Aen. II. 742).] 
 d [Iter Italiam (Virg. Aen. III. 507). Hac iter elysium (Id. Aen. VI. 542).] 
 
■235. Chap. II. — Accusative. 209 
 
 expresses the measure is put in the accusative with verbs, or those 
 adjectives or adverbs which denote extension (longus, latus, alius, 
 crassus), e. g. Hast a sex pedes tonga ; fossa decern pedes alta ; terram 
 duos pedes alte infodere. Fines Helvetiorum patebant in longitudinem 
 ducenta qvadraginta millia passuum. Caesar tridui iter processit. 
 A recta conscientia transversum ungvem (a finger-breadth) non oportet 
 discedere (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 20). 
 
 b. When a distance is specified (abesse, distare), the measure 
 may stand either in the accusative or the ablative, e. g. abesse tridui 
 iter (Cic.) Teanum abest a Larino XVIII millia passuum (Cic. 
 pro Cluent. 9) . Aesculapii templum Vmillibus passuum ab Epidauro 
 distat (Liv. XLV. 28). In like manner both cases are used when 
 it is said at what distance a thing takes place, e. g. Ariovistus mil- 
 libus passuum sex a Caesaris castris consedit (Caes. B. G. I. 48). 
 Caesar millia passuum tria ab Helvetiorum castris castra ponit (Id. 
 ibid. 1.22). 
 
 Ohs. So also magnum spatium abesse (Caes, B. G. II. 17), and aeqvo 
 spatio a castris utrisqye abesse (Id. ibid. I. 43). But if spatium or inter- 
 vallum be used in defining the distance at which a thing happens, these 
 words always stand in the ablative, e. g. Bex Juba sex millium passuum 
 intervallo consedit (Caes. B. C. II. 38). Hannibal XV ferine millium 
 spatio castra ab Tarento posuit (Liv. XXV. 9). If the place from which 
 the distance is reckoned is not specified, the preposition ab only often 
 stands before the measure : A millibus passuum duobus castra posuerunt 
 (Caes. B. G. II. 7) e . 
 
 c. In the same way with the adjective na tus, (so and so) old, the 
 number of the years (the measure of the age) is put in the accusa- 
 tive : viginti annos natus. 
 
 Obs. Of the way of designating the measure with the comparative of 
 natus (major natus, more than — years old), and other adjectives of ex- 
 tension (e. g. longior, more [than — ells and the like], long, &c), see 
 §.306. 
 
 §.235. In specifying duration and extent of time {how long?) 
 the words which define the time are put in the accusative : Pericles 
 qvadraginta annos praefuit Athenis. Veji urbs decern aestates hiemes- 
 qve continuas circumsessa est (Liv. V. 22). Annum jam audis Cra- 
 tippum (Cic. Off. I. 1). Dies noctesqve fata nos cireumstant (Id. 
 Phil. X. 10) f . Ex eo die dies continuos qvinqve Caesar copias pro 
 
 e [Naves ex eo loco ab millibus passuum octo vento tenebantur (Caes. B. G. IY. 22).] 
 ' Not merely, by day and by nigbt, but all through the day and night. 
 
 e e 
 
210 Syntax.— Vault I. §. 235— 
 
 castris produxit (Caes. B. G. I. 48), did it once a day for five suc- 
 cessive days. Occasionally per is prefixed (as in English through) : 
 Ludi decern per dies facti sunt (Cic. in Cat. III. 8), through ten 
 whole days. 
 
 Obs. 1. The way in which time is expressed with ordinals should be 
 noticed : JKithridates annum jam tertium et vigesimum regnat (of the 
 current year). 
 
 Obs. 2. The accusative also stands with abhinc, ago, e.g. Qvaestor 
 fuisti abhinc annos qyattuordecim. 
 
 Obs. 3. The ablative to express duration of time is rare in the best 
 writers : Tota aestate Nilus Aegyptum obrutam oppletamqve tenet (Cic. 
 N. D. II. 52). Pugnatum est continenter Tioris qvinqve (Caes. B. C. I. 
 47). This construction occurs more frequently in later writers, e. g. 
 Octoginta annis viocit (Senec. Ep. 93). On the other hand, to express 
 the time which is applied to any purpose and in which it is completed, 
 the ablative is always employed, e. g. Tribus diebus opus perfici potest ; 
 see §. 276. 
 
 §. 236. In exclamations of astonishment or regret at the con- 
 dition or character of a person or thing, the name of the person or 
 thing stands in the accusative with or without an interjection : Heu 
 me miserum ! or Me miserum ! fallacem hominum spem fragilem- 
 qvefortunam (Cic. de Or. III. 2). Testes egregios ! (iron.) 
 
 Obs. 1. In the exclamation with the interjection pro the vocative is 
 employed : Pro, Di immortales ! Pro, sancte Juppiter ! except in the 
 phrase, Pro deum (Jiominum, deum atqye hominum) fidem I The vocative 
 may also be used with o : magna vis veritatis ! fortunate adolescens 
 qyi tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris ! (Cic. pro Arch. 10.) 
 
 Obs. 2. With the interjections hei and vae, which express lamentation, 
 the name of the person or thing lamented is put in the dative : Hei mihi I 
 Vae tergo meo ! 
 
 Obs. 3. "With en and ecce (which call the attention to something as pre- 
 sent) we often find the nominative (in Cicero always) : Ecce tuae litter ae 
 (behold, there came your letter). JEn memoria mortui sodalis. The ac- 
 cusative occurs less frequently. 
 
 §. 237. The poets use the accusative more freely in certain com- 
 binations, and in this some prose writers imitate them in a few in- 
 stances. 
 
 a. The passive of the verbs cingo, to gird, accingo, induo, to 
 clothe, exuo, to undress, induco, to draw over, is employed with a 
 new active signification, to clothe oneself with, to put on, exuor, to 
 
•237. Chap. II. — Accusative, 211 
 
 put off, and constructed with the accusative : Coroebus Androgei 
 galeam clipeiqve insigne decorum induitur (Virg. Aen. II. 392). 
 Priamus inutile ferrum cingitur (Id. ibid. II. 511). (Figuratively : 
 magicas accingi artes, id. ib. IV. 493, to put on magic [as armour], 
 to equip oneself with it.) Inducta cornibus aurum victima (Ov. 
 Met. VII. 161). Virgines longam indutae vestem (Liv. XXVII. 37). 
 (Otherwise in prose : induo aliqvem veste ; also induo vestem, to put 
 on a dress.) 
 
 Obs. In the same way it is said, Cyclopa moveri, to dance a Cyclops 
 (represent him in dancing) ; and in prose : censeri magnum agri modum, to 
 return a large quantity of land for assessment. 
 
 b. The participle perfect.of the passive (as in Greek the parti- 
 ciple perfect of the passive and middle) is used of a person who has 
 done something to himself, as an active verb, with an accusative : 
 Dido Sidoniam picto chlamydem circumdata limbo (Virg. Aen. IV. 
 137), who had on, qvae sibi circumdederat. Pueri laevo suspensi 
 loculos tabulamqve lacerto (Hor. Sat. I. 6, 74), who had — suspended. 
 Juno nondum antiqvum saturata dolorem (Virg. Aen. V. 608), who 
 had not yet satisfied her pique s. 
 
 Obs. But it is sometimes employed also to designate a person to whom 
 something is done (by others), e. g. per pedes trajectus lora tumentes 
 (Virg. Aen. II. 273), who has straps drawn through his feet. 
 
 c. The accusative is put with passive and intransitive verbs, and 
 with adjectives, to denote that part of the subject with reference to 
 which the verb or adjective is predicated of it : Nigr antes terga 
 juvenci (Virg. Aen. V. 97) ; lacer ova ; os humerosqve deo similis. 
 Eqvus micat auribus et tremit art us (Virg. G. III. 84). An accu- 
 sative is rarely found so used, denoting anything uncorporeal : Qvi 
 genus (estis) ? (Virg. Aen. VIII. 114). In this way passive verbs 
 acquire a reflective signification (as under b) : Capita Phrygio vela- 
 mur amictu (Virg. Aen. III. 545), we cover our heads. 
 
 Obs. 1. In prose the active is used for the reflective expression {velamus 
 capita), otherwise the ablative is always employed in this construction 
 [ore Jiumerisqrve deo similis) ; see §. 253. Only in speaking of wounds we 
 find the accusative with ictus, saucius, transverberatus, &c. Adversum 
 femur tragula ictus (Liv. XXI. 7). 
 
 Obs. 2. This use of the accusative, as well as that explained under a 
 and b, is common in Greek, and has originated in Latin (with a few ex- 
 ceptions, as with censeor) from an imitation of that language. 
 & [_Nodo sinus collecta fluentes (Virg. Aen. I. 320).] 
 
 e e 2 
 
212 Syntax,— Part I. §. 237- 
 
 Obs. 3. In a similar way (adverbially) are used in prose the expressions 
 magnam (maximam) partem, for the most part (e. g. Svevi maximam par- 
 tem lacte atqve pecore vivunt (Caes. B. G. IV. l) h , and vicem alicujus 
 (meant, vestram, &cc.), for any one, on account of (properly instead), parti- 
 cularly with intransitive verbs and adjectives, which denote an emotion 
 of the mind : tuam vicem saepe doleo, indignor ; nostram vicem irascuntur ; 
 sollicitus, anxius reipublicae vicem ; suam vicem (for his part) officio 
 functus. So likewise cetera, in other respects : vir cetera egregius (Liv.). 
 
 §. 238. In a few phrases the accusative stands for the more special 
 case, genitive or ablative, viz. id temporis for eo tempore (e. g. id temporis 
 eos venturos esse praedixeram, Cic. in Cat. I. 4) ; id (illud) aetatis for 
 ejus aetatis (e. g. homo id aetatis ; qyum esset illud aetatis), and id (hoc, 
 omne) genus, for ejus (hujus, omnis) generis (e. g. id genus alia, other 
 things of that kind). 
 
 Obs. Concerning the genitive in id temporis compare §. 285 b. On 
 virile muliebre secus, see §.55, 5. 
 
 §. 239. We must particularly notice the elliptical expression, Qvo mihi 
 (tibi) with an accusative, signifying, What am I (are you) to do with — ? 
 of what use is — to me (to you) ? e. g. Qvo mihi fortunam, si non conce- 
 ditur uti ? (Hor. Ep. I. 5, 12), and similarly : TJnde mihi (tibi) ; Where 
 can I get — ? e. g. unde mihi lapidem? (Id. Sat. II. 7, 116.) (Qvo tibi, 
 Pasiphae, pretiosas swnere vestes? (Ov. A. A. I. 303.) 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Dative. 
 
 §.240. The remaining cases, except the vocative, each of them 
 denote a particular relation, in which a person or thing stands 
 either to an action, but without being immediately the object acted 
 on (accusative), or to another person or thing. 
 
 Obs. The dative and the ablative primarily denoted the local relation of 
 a person or thing to an action, viz. the dative, the direction of the action 
 towards, or its taking place by, something external to itself ; the ablative, 
 the taking place of the action on or in something (and then at the same 
 time its proceeding from a place, from being in a place). Subsequently 
 these cases were used of other relations, in which the imagination disco- 
 vered a resemblance with the outward material relations. This now be- 
 came the proper leading signification of these cases, and the actual local 
 relations were for the most part defined more closely through the medium 
 of prepositions, sometimes with one of these special cases (the ablative), 
 sometimes with the accusative as the general form of the word. 
 h Ex aliqva, magna, majore parte, partially, for the most part. 
 
-241. Chap. III. — Dative. 213 
 
 §.241. The dative denotes in general, that what is asserted by 
 the predicate is done, or holds good, for and in reference to a certain 
 person or thing (the relation of interest) : Subsidium bellissimum 
 senectuti est otium (Cic. de Or. I. 60). Charondas et Zaleucus leges 
 civitatibus suis scripserunt (Id. Legg. II. 6). Domus pulchra dominis 
 aedificatur, non muribus (Id. N. D. III. 10). Foro nata eloqventia 
 est (Id. Brut. 82). Non scholae, sed vilae discimus (Sen. Ep. 106). 
 Sex. Roscius praedia coluit aliis, non sibi (Cic. Rose. Am. 17), for the 
 benefit of. Nihil loci est segnitiae neqve socordiae (Ter. Andr. I. 
 3, 1). Orabo nato uocorem (Id. ib. III. 2, 47), I will propose for her 
 for my son. Filius Blaesi militibus missionem petebat (Tac. Ann. I. 
 19), applied for dismissal for the soldiers. 
 
 Obs. 1. This dative, which is not (as in the following special rules) an- 
 nexed to a single word, but to the whole predicate, is commonly called 
 Dativus commodi et incommodi. 
 
 Obs. 2. The special signification in defence (of a person, of a thing) 
 never resides in the dative, but is expressed by pro : Dicere pro aliqvo, 
 pugnare pro nobilitate, pro patria mori. So also we find esse pro aliqvo, 
 in his favour : Hoc non contra me est, sed pro me. 
 
 Obs. 3. Sometimes a dative is annexed to the whole sentence, to shew 
 in reference to ivhat a thing is so and so, instead of annexing a definition 
 to a single substantive by means of a genitive or a preposition : Is finis 
 
 populationibus fait (Liv. II. 30. Also populationum) . Qvis liuic rei 
 testis est? (Cic. pro Quinct. 11). E bestiarum corporibus multa remedia 
 morbis et vulneribus eligimus (Cic. N. D. II. 64. Also contra onorbos or 
 remedia morborum). Neqve miJii ex cujusqvam amplitudine aut praesidia 
 
 periculis aut adjumenta fionoribus qvaero (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 24, in which 
 example the double dative should be remarked; I seek for myself no pro- 
 tection against (in reference to) future dangers : adversus pericida, prae- 
 sidia pericidorum). Aduatuci locum sibi domicilio delegerunt (Caes. B. 
 G. II. 29). The poets take greater liberties in this respect, e. g. Dissi- 
 mulant, qvae sit rebus causa novandis (Virg. Aen. IV. 290) ; otherwise 
 causa hujus rei novandae). {JLongo bello materia, Tac. H. I. 89.) 
 
 Obs. 4. We may particularly notice the use of the dative with the verb 
 sum with a predicative, where it is specified in what relation one person 
 stands to another : Murena legatus ImcuIIo fait (Cic. pro Mur. 9, legate 
 with Lucullus, of Lucullus). L. Mescinius Jieres est If. Mindio,fratri suo 
 (Id. ad Fam. XIII. 26). Ducem esse alicui, to be one's leader. 
 
 Obs. 5. Here we may also notice the dative vrithfacio (fo), with qvid, 
 idem, signifying to do with one (in relation to one), e. g. qvid fades Jiuic 
 conclusioni ? (Cic. Acad. II. 30). Qvid? Eupolemo non idem Verres fecit ? 
 
214 Syntax.— Part I. §• 211- 
 
 i 
 (Cic. Verr. IV. 22.) Qv id mild futurum est? On the ablative in this 
 signification (Jwc homine) see §. 267. 
 
 Obs. 6. The dative of a participle is occasionally used to denote when 
 (under what circumstances) a thing shews itself : Sita Anticyra est in Lo- 
 cride laeva parte sinum Corinthiacum intrantibus (Liv. XXVI. 26), on the 
 left to those who sail in,=on the left as you sail in. Duo milites neqva- 
 qyam visu ac specie aeslimanlibus pares (Liv. VII. 10). 
 
 §. 242. The dative is particularly joined to many verbs which 
 denote in themselves an acting in reference to something. Many 
 transitive verbs express an action, which, besides the object acted 
 on, concerns another person or thing with reference to which it is 
 performed, and therefore take two substantives, the proper object 
 (that which is acted on) in the accusative, and an object of reference, 
 to which the action is directed, in reference to which it is per- 
 formed, in the dative : Dedi puero librum ; trado provinciam succes- 
 sor! ; erranti viam monstro. The dative also stands with the pas- 
 sive of these verbs, the relation being the same : Liber puero datus 
 est ; provincia successori traditur ; erranti via monstratur. 
 
 Such verbs are, e. g. do, trado, tribuo, concedo, divido (to divide 
 amongst), fero, to bring, praebeo, praesto, polliceor, promitto, debeo, 
 (to be indebted), nego, adimo, monstro, dico, narro, mando, prae- 
 cipio, &c. (with which the object of reference is most frequently a 
 person). But besides this the dative stands with all expressions 
 formed of a verb and an accusative, which in combination denote 
 a similar relation to a person or thing, e. g. modum ponere irae ; 
 patefacere, praecludere aditum hosti ; fidem habere alicui or narra- 
 tioni alicvjus ; morem gerere alicui (to consent to a person's re- 
 quest) ; nullum locum relinqvere precibus, honestae morti ; dicere 
 (statuere) diem colloqvio (to fix a day for a conference) . 
 
 Ohs. 1 . In Latin a verb sometimes denotes a relation of this kind, and 
 is put with an object of . eference in consequence of its being understood 
 in an acceptation, which the English word that otherwise corresponds 
 most nearly with it, and by which it is commonly translated, does not en- 
 tirely express. In such cases therefore there is a difference in the con- 
 struction of the two languages. So we find probare alicui sententiam 
 suam, to make his opinion agreeable to some one (in the passive, Jiaec 
 sententia mihi probatur) ; conciliare Pompejum Caesari, to make Pompey a 
 friend to Caesar, gain him over to Caesar ; placare aliqvem alicui; espe- 
 cially should we notice minari (minitari) alicui malum, mortem, to threaten 
 one with a misfortune, with death (on the other hand minari alicui baculo, 
 abl. with the stick as an instrument). (The construction ' svadere alicui 
 
-243. Chap. III.— Dative. 215 
 
 aliqvid is generally found only when the object is a pronoun, as, faciam, 
 qvod mihi svades ; otherwise we most usually find simply svadere helium 
 (without a dative), or svadere alicui, ut [to advise one, to — ]. The same 
 holds of persvadeo [in the passive, persvasum mihi est, ut]). 
 
 Ohs. 2. In compound phrases the usage sometimes fluctuates (compare 
 
 §. 241, Ohs. 3) between the dative, referred to the whole phrase, and the 
 
 genitive annexed to that substantive which is the object, e. g. jinem facere 
 
 injuriis (to put an end to the injuries, to set bounds to them), hut jinem 
 
 facere scribendi (to leave off writing). 
 
 Ohs. 3. In English the referential relation is usually denoted by pre- 
 positions (for, to, &c). In Latin ad can only stand when an actual 
 motion to a place (or to a person in a place) is intended. "We find dare 
 alicui litteras (to give one a letter to take care of), but dare litteras ad 
 aliqvem, to write a letter to some one ; mittere alicui aliqvid, to send one 
 something (that he is to have) ; mittere legatos ad aliqvem, mittere litte- 
 ras alicui and ad aliqvem ; scrihere ad aliqvem, to write to some one, scri- 
 here alicui, to write something for one. Dicer e ad populum, to speak be- 
 fore the people (not to say). 
 
 §. 243. A reference to something distinct from the proper ob- 
 ject is often expressed by compounding the verb with one of the 
 prepositions ad, ante, circum (con), de, ex, in, inter, ob, post, prae, 
 sub. With these verbs (both in the active and the passive) the object 
 of reference, to which the preposition applies, is put in the dative. 
 But if an (actual or figurative) local relation (motion to or from 
 a place, a continuance or agency in a place) is evidently denoted 
 by those verbs which are compounded with ad, ex, in, sub, then (in 
 the best prose writers) the preposition is usually repeated and con- 
 structed with its proper case : a. Afferre reipublicae magnam utili- 
 tatem ; afferre alicui vim, manus ; consuli milites circumfundebantur ; 
 circumdare brachia collo (to put one's arms round a person's neck) ; 
 Caesar Ambiorigi auxilia Menapiorum et Germanorum detraxit; urbs 
 hostibus erepta est; inferre alicui injuriam; injicere hominibus 
 timorem ; imponere alicui negotium ; objicere aliqvem telis hostium ; 
 honest as praefertur utilitati ; omnia virtuti postponi debent ; homines 
 non libenter se alterius potestati subjiciunt ; supponere ova gallinis. 
 b. (manifest local relation) : Ad nos multi rumores afferuntur ; affi- 
 gere litteram ad caput alicujus (Cic. Eosc. Am. 20), to fasten it on 
 his head ; detrahere annulum de digito ; injicere se in hostes, into 
 the midst of the enemy ; inscribere aliqvid in tabula ; inferre signa 
 in hostem 1 ; imponere in cervicibus hominum sempiternum dominum 
 
 1 \_Inferretqve deos Latio (Virg. Aen. I. 6).] 
 
216 Syntax. — Part I. §. 243- 
 
 (a figurative, but manifest local relation) ; imprimere notionem in 
 animis; eripere aliqvem e periculo*. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the case of some verbs compounded with ad, the preposition 
 is repeated even in an improper signification in preference to employing 
 the dative, especially with addo, adjicio, adjungo, to add (but adjungo mihi 
 amicum, I gain myself a friend) ; applico me ad virtutem, ad philosophiam, 
 ad aliqvem doctorem (I attach myself to him) : adJiibeo ad aliqvid (to apply 
 to any purpose). Subjicio and subjungo occur in an improper signification 
 with both constructions : Mummius Achajae urbes multas sub imperium 
 populi Bomani subjunxit ; subjicio aliqvid oculis and sub oculos, to place 
 something (nnder) before one's eyes, sensibus and sub sensus. We read 
 extorqvere alicui gladium and peeuniam ab aliqvo ; impendere pecuniam, 
 operam in aliqvid, and (in later writers) alicui rei. 
 
 Obs. 2. The verbs compounded with cum usually repeat the preposi- 
 tion : confero, compare-, compono aliqvid cum aliqvo, conjungo eloqventiam 
 cum philosophia. Yet we find also the dative : Ennius eqvi fortis senec- 
 tuti comparat suam (Cic. Cat. M. 5) ; parva componere magnis. Tibi me 
 studia communia beneficiaqve tua jam ante conjunocerant (Cic. ad Fam. 
 XV. 11). We find always, communico aliqvid cum aliqvo. 
 
 Obs. The later writers (from Livy downwards) use the dative with 
 increasing frequency, even in an improper signification, like the poets, e. g. 
 incidere nomen saxis (Plin. Min. Incidere legem in aes ; foedus in columna 
 incisum^ Cic). Insculpere elogium tumulo (Svet.). 
 
 Obs. 4. The dative is also sometimes put with continuo (laborem noctur- 
 num diurno, cause it to follow immediately after), socio, jungo, on account 
 of their similarity in signification with these compound verbs. (Sapientia 
 juncta eloqventiae, Cic). So also aeqvare aliqvem alicui, to put one person 
 on a level with another ; aeqvare turrim muris, to make the tower equal 
 to the walls, i. e. to build it as high. 
 
 Obs. 5. For another construction with adspergo, circumdo, and some 
 other verbs, see §. 259 b. 
 
 §. 244. a. The dative is also put as the object of reference with 
 various intransitive verbs, which denote an action, state of mind, or 
 condition, in relation to a person or thing, but without conveying 
 (to a Latin) the idea of an immediate acting upon it (e. g. to 
 benefit, to injure, to please, &c.) : prodesse reipublicae et civibus ; 
 
 k The following verbs, as well as some others, belong to this class: affero, affigo, ad- 
 misceo, admoveo, circumdo, circumfundo, circumjicio, circumpono, detraho, decutio, deripio, 
 detero, eripio, extorqveo, impono, imprimo, infero, injicio, interpono, objicio, offcro, offundo, 
 oppono, praeficio, subdo, subjicio, subjungo, suppono, subtraho {superpono) ; and those which 
 denote a comparison : antefero, antepono, praefero, praepono, posthabeo, postpono ; to these 
 we may add aufero. 
 
-244. Chap. III. — Dative. 217 
 
 nocere hosti ; nemo omnibus placer e potest ; magnus animus victis 
 parcit. 
 
 The most important of these are : a. (those which signify, to 
 benefit; to injure) prosum, obsum, noceo, ineommodo, expedit, condu- 
 cit 1 ; b. (to be for or against, to yield), adversor, obtrecto, officio, 
 cedo, suffragor, refragor, intercede*, gratificor ; c. (to be well or ill af- 
 fected), cupio (alicui, to wish one well), faveo, studeo, ignosco, in- 
 dulgeo,invideo m , insidior ; d. (to assist, to take care for, to remedy, 
 to spare), auxilior, opitulor, patrocinor n , consulo, prospicio, rnedeor, 
 par co ; e. (to please, to displease) placeo, displiceo ; f. (to order, 
 obey, serve), impero , obedio, obseqvor, obtempero, pareo, servio, 
 famulor ; g. (to be friendly or unfriendly, or to speak as such), as- 
 sentior, blandior, irascor, succenseo, convicior, maledico, minor ; h. 
 (to trust, to distrust), credo, fido, confido, diffido?) ; i. desum [liber 
 mihi deest, I have not the book ; amicis, officio deesse, not to sup- 
 port one's friends, not to do one's duty ;) q nubo, to marry (used 
 only of a woman) r , propinqvo (appropinqvo) , to approach, supplico, 
 to make supplication s , videor, to seem; k. (to happen, to befall), 
 accidit, contingit, evenit ; 1. libet, licet. The same is the construc- 
 tion of the phrases obviam eo (obvius sum, fio), praesto sum, dicto 
 audiens sum [alicui), to obey a man at his word, supplex sum, auctor 
 sum (alicui, to advise one). (Svadeo, persvadeo ; see §.242. Obs. 1.) 
 
 b. This object of reference cannot, like the proper object, become 
 the subject with the passive, and such verbs (like those which are 
 intransitive) can only be used impersonally in the passive, in which 
 case the dative is subjoined without alteration : Invidetur (men 
 envy) praestanti florentiqve fortunae (Cic. de Or. 252). Non par- 
 cetur labori (Id. ad Att. II. 14). Nemini nocetur ; legibus paren- 
 dum est (one must obey). Obtrectatum est adhuc Gabinio (Id. pro 
 leg. Man. 19). Divitibus invideri sclet (men are accustomed to 
 envy). Mihi nunqvam persvaderi potuit , animos esse mortales (Cic. 
 Cat. M. 22), no man has ever been able to convince me. The be- 
 ginner must take particular care that he is not misled by the English 
 phrases, I am envied, maligned, &c, to use the verbs ineommodo, obtrecto, 
 invideo, parco, and maledico personally in the passive. 
 
 1 Laedo, to injure, offend, transitive, aliqvem or aliqvid. 
 
 m Invideo fortunae alicujus (to envy one his prosperity), ignosco feslinationi alicujus. 
 n Adjuvo aliqvem, to aid, further, transitive. 
 Jubeo aliqvid, aliqvem facere aliqvid, transitive. 
 P Fido and confido (rarely diffido) also govern the ablative. 
 
 i Careo, to be without, dispense with, re aliqva. Deficio, to fail, frequently with the 
 accusative (vox oratorem). 
 
 r Nupta alicui and cum aliqvo. 
 
 8 Precor, to entreat, deos, transitive. 
 
 Ff 
 
218 Syntax. — Part I. 
 
 Obs. 1. With some verbs the construction varies between the dative 
 and the accusative according to the meaning*. Metuo, timeo, caveo, sig- 
 nify with an accusative {aliqvem, aliqvid), to fear some one (something), 
 to beware of something (an evil, an enemy) ; with a dative, to be (from 
 a motive of kindness) anxious or apprehensive for something, e. g. timeo 
 libertati, caveo veteranis (poetically, mater pallet pueris) u . Prospicio and 
 provideo with a dative signify, to be prospectively anxious about a thing, 
 e. g. prospicere saluti, provider e vitae homimi/in, with an accusative, to 
 take care for the providing of something, e. g.frumentum. Tempero ali- 
 qyid, to order, to regulate (properly, to mix), e. g. rempullicam legibus, 
 nioderor aliqyid, to lead, arrange, e. g. consilia ; with a dative, to mode- 
 rate, e- g. tempero, moderor irae, laetitiae. . 
 
 Obs. 2. Some few verbs are used both with the accusative and the da- 
 tive without any perceptible difference in their signification : adillor 
 (generally the accusative), aemulor (almost always the accusative), comi- 
 tor, despero {salutem and saluti ; pace desperata, after the hope of peace 
 was given up), praestolor. 
 
 Obs. 3. Some few of these verbs have also such a transitive significa- 
 tion, that they may take (according to §. 242) both a proper object in the 
 accusative, and an object of reference, as credo alicui aliqvid, to trust a 
 thing to anyone {aliqvid creditur alicui); impero provinciae tributum x , 
 milites, to command a province, to pay tribute, to furnish troops {tributum 
 imperatur provinciae) minor alicui mortem (see §. 242 Obs. 1) ; prospicere, 
 providere exercitui frumentum. (Invideo alicui aliqyam rem [whence 
 res invidenda, a thing for which a person is to be envied], but more com- 
 monly aliqya re; see §. 260 b.) 
 
 Obs. 4. To make such a dative the subject, and to use the verb of it 
 personally in the passive, is a rare irregularity: Ego cur, acqyirere pauca 
 si possum, invideor? (Hor. A. P. 56). Vix eqvidem credor (Ov. Trist. 
 III. 10, 35). Medendis corporibus (Liv. VIII. 36), by the healing of the 
 bodies. 
 
 Obs. 5. It rarely happens that a substantive, which is derived from a 
 verb that governs the dative, and denotes the idea contained in it, is itself 
 constructed alone with the dative : Insidiae consuli non procedebant (Sail. 
 Cat. 32), the plots against the consul did not succeed. Obtemperatio 
 
 ibus (Cic. Legg. I. 15). 
 
 §. 245. a. The intransitive verbs compounded with the preposi- 
 tions ad, ante {con) , in, inter, ob, post, prae, re, sub, super, like the 
 transitive verbs similarly compounded (§. 243), take the dative to 
 
 1 [Consulere sibi and se (Cic. Cat. II. 27 ; see §. 223 b. Obs.)] 
 
 u Caveo {milri) ab aliqvo, ab aliqva re, to be on one's guard against a person or thing. 
 
 x [Eqvites imperat civitatibus (Caes. B. G. VI. 4.)] 
 
-245. Chap. III.— Dative. 219 
 
 express the relation to another object referred to by the prepo- 
 sition, if the compound verb has a secondary meaning, which sug- 
 gests no idea of any local relation, e. g. adesse amicis, antecellere 
 omnibus, instare victis et fugientibus, indormire causae (to sleep over 
 a cause) , intervenire, inter esse praelio, occurrere venientibus, praeesse 
 exercitui, resistere invadentibus, respondere exspectationi, subvenire 
 egentibus, succumbere dolori. The dative remains unaltered, if the 
 verb stands impersonally in the passive : Resistiiur audaciae homi- 
 num; egentibus subveniendum esty. 
 
 b. But if a local relation be clearly designed, though only figura- 
 tively, the preposition with its case is usually subjoined to the 
 verb : Adhaeret navis ad scopulum. Inhaeret sententia in animo. 
 Ajax incubuit in gladium. Severitas inest in vultu. Incurrere in 
 hostes ; invehi in aliqvem ; incurrere in reprehensionem ; incidere in 
 peric fiuifij in morbum (to fall) ; concurrere, congredi cum hoste ; co- 
 haerere cum aliqvo. Sometimes a different preposition is employed 
 to denote the local relation more accurately, e. g. obrepere in ani- 
 mum, obversari ante oculos. 
 
 Obs. 1= In individual verbs we must particularly notice the way in 
 which the idea is conceived ; so we have incumbo in or ad studium ali- 
 qvod, to apply oneself to a study ; acqviesco in aliqvo, to acquiesce in any 
 thing, to find composure in it. In general the older prose writers more 
 frequently repeat the preposition (e. g. always insum in) ; the poets and 
 later writers use the dative more (inesse rei), even where the verb has its 
 own proper signification, e. g. accidere genibus praetoris (Livy ; we find 
 in Cicero, ad pedes alicujus), congredi alicui, coliaerere alicui. 
 
 Ohs. 2. The preposition is never repeated with adjaceo, assideo, asto 
 {assidere alicui, not ad aliqvem) ; accedo on the other hand never has the 
 dative except in the signification to join, to go over to (an opinion, a party), 
 accedo Ciceroni, sententiae Ciceronis, or when it means to be added, other- 
 wise the construction is always accedo ad. In the poets and some few 
 prose writers (chiefly of a later age), the accusative is sometimes found 
 after the compounds ofjaceo, sedeo, and those verbs which denote motion, 
 with ad in its proper signification (i. e. applied to space), without the 
 preposition being repeated, e. g. assidere muros, adjacere JLtrwriam (Livy), 
 
 y Such verbs are adjaceo, alludo, annuo, arrepo, arrideo, aspiro, assentior, assideo, asto, 
 antecedo, anteeo, antecello (see §. 224 d), colludo, congruo, consentio, convenire (to be fit- 
 ting, suitable, convenire cum, to agree with ; pax, res convenit inter nos, we are agreed 
 about peace, the matter), consto (mihi), consono, incumbo (incubo), indormio, inhaereo, il- 
 ludo (aucloritati ; also transitive, praecepta), immorior, innascor, innitor, insto, insisto, 
 insulto {alicui in calamitate, also patientiam alicujus); interjaceo (rarely with an accusa- 
 tive, intervenio, occumbo {morti, but more frequently mortem or morte, in death), obrepo, 
 obsto, obstrepo, obtingo, obvenio, obversor, praesidio, repugno, resisto, succumbo, suptrsto, 
 with the compounds of sum. 
 
 Ff2 
 
220 Syntax.— Yah? I. §. 245- 
 
 allabi oras, accedere aliqyem (Sail.), advolvi genua. On the verbs com- 
 pounded with ante, and on praesto, see §. 224 d. 
 
 §. 246. The verb sum stands with the dative, to denote that 
 something exists for a person or thing, i. e. that the other possesses 
 it : Sex nobis filii sunt. Ilomini cum deo similitudo est (Cic. Legg. 
 I. 8). Jam Troicis temporibus erat honos eloqventiae (Cic. Brut. 10). 
 Controversia mihifuit cum avunculo tuo (Cic. Fin. III. 2). Rhodiis 
 cum populo Romano amicitia societasqve est (the Rhodians are friends 
 and allies of the Romans). 
 
 Obs. 1. This form of expression is commonly used only to denote what 
 belongs to a person or thing as a possession or given relation, not of what 
 appertains to it as a quality or as a constituent part. "We should there- 
 fore avoid such phrases as Ciceroni magna fait eloqventia (for in Cice- 
 rone), or Huic provinciae urbes sunt opulentissimae tres (for Haec provin- 
 cia urbes Jiabet, or In Jiac provincia sunt, &c). 
 
 Obs. 2. In the expression mihi (tibi, ei rei) est nomen, cognomen, I 
 have the name, am called {nomen mihi manet, I retain the name, datum, 
 inditum est) the name itself stands either in the nominative (in apposi- 
 tion to nomen) : Ei morbo nomen est avaritia (Cic. Tusc. IV. 11); or 
 (more frequently) in the dative (by attraction to mihi, &c.) : Scipio, cui 
 postea Africano cognomen fuit (Sail. Jug. 5). Leges decemvirales, qyibus 
 tabulis duodecim est nomen (Liv. III. 57), which are called the twelve 
 tables. Puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (Id. I. 34). Yet the name 
 may also stand in the genitive, governed by nomen, e. g. Q. Metello Ma- 
 cedonici nomen inditum est (Veil. I. 11). With active expressions such 
 as nomen do, dico alicui, the same constructions are found (the accusative 
 taking the place of the nominative) : Filius, cui Ascanium parentes dixere 
 nomen (Liv. I. 1) ; ei cognomen damus tardo (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 58) ; but the 
 dative is more generally employed. 
 
 Obs. 3. The following expression is imitated from the Greek : Aliqvid 
 (e. g. militia) mihi volenti est ; a thing is agreeable to my wish ; properly, 
 is related to me as wishing it (Sail. Jug. 84). 
 
 §. 247. a. The dative (according to its general signification, 
 §. 241) is put with adjectives, to denote that a thing has a certain 
 property for a person or thing, e. g. civis utilis reipublicae ; res tibi 
 facilis, ceteris difficilis ; onus grave ferentibus ; homo omnibus gratus 
 et carus; oratio plebi accepta {grata et accepta; invisa). 
 
 Obs. The adjectives proprius and dignus (which do not denote any 
 particular definite quality) are constructed otherwise ; see §. 290 f, and 
 268 a. 
 
-247. Chap. III.— Dative. 221 
 
 b. The dative is particularly put with certain adjectives, which 
 in themselves denote a reference to something else, as a friendly or 
 unfriendly feeling, a similarity, proximity (amicus, inimicus, aeqvus, 
 iniqvus, propitius, infensus, infestus, &c, with obnoocius, subject, par, 
 impar, dispar, similis, dissimilis, consent aneu°, contrarius, aegvalis, 
 of the same age, propinqvus, propior, proximus, vicinus, finitimus, 
 conterminus, affinis, cognatus), e. g. Siculi Verri inhnici infestiqve 
 sunt ; verbum Latinum par Graeco et qvod idem valeat (Cic. Fin. 
 II. 4) ; locus propinqvus urbi. Nihil est tarn cognatum mentibus 
 nostris qvam numeri (rhythm) atqve voces (Cic. de Or. III. 51). 
 
 Obs. 1. Some such adjectives are frequently used of persons (or what is 
 considered as a person) as substantives with the genitive, viz., amicus, 
 inimicus {arnica, inimica, also familiaris, a confidant), par (one's like or 
 equal), aeqvalis, cognatus, propinqvus (a relation, also necessarius), affinis, 
 vicinus. Amicus, inimicus, and. familiar is are so used even in the super- 
 lative : regis amicissimus ; inimicissimus illius ; familiarissimus meus. 
 (Also iniqvi mei, nostri, invidi nostri.) Thus too we generally find, su- 
 perstes omnium suorwn, one who has survived all his friends, less fre- 
 quently superstes alicui. 
 
 Obs. 2. Similis {consimilis, adsimilis) and dissimilis are put in the best 
 w 7 riters both with the genitive and the dative, and almost always with the 
 genitive of the names of living beings (especially gods and men) ; similis 
 igni and ignis, similis patris, similis mei, sui, nostri. 
 
 Obs. 3. The poets say not only dissimilis, but also diver sus alicui, in- 
 stead of ab aliqvo (different from), and use the verbs discrepo, differo, 
 disto, dissideo, with the dative instead of with ab : Qvid distant aera 
 lupinis? (Hor.) 
 
 Obs. 4. Affinis, signifying concerned in, governs both the dative and the 
 genitive : Affinis ei turpitudini ; affinis rei capitalis. 
 
 Obs. 5. JBropior and proximus are also put with the accusative ; see 
 §. 230. Obs. 2 (after subter). 
 
 Obs. 6. Those adjectives which denote an aptitude for anything (ap- 
 tus, hdbilis, idoneus, accommodatus, paratus), have more often ad than 
 the dative : orator ad nullam causam idoneus ; homo ad rem militarem 
 aptus. Idoneus arti cuilibet (Hor.). They govern the dative in the sig- 
 nification, suited, fitted ; oratores aptissimi concionibus ; histriones fabulas 
 sibi accommodatissimas eligunt. (Alienum nostrae digniiati, unsuited to 
 our dignity; see §. 268 b.) 
 
 Obs. 7. The dative is also put with the adverbs convenienter, congru- 
 enter, constanter, obseqventer, e. g. vivere convenienter naturae, dicere con' 
 stanter sibi. 
 
222 Syntax.— Part I. §. 247— 
 
 Ols. 8. The poets sometimes employ the dative after idem (in any case 
 but the nom.), instead of atqve with the nominative : Invitum qvi servat, 
 idemfacit occidenti (Hor. A. P. 467), the same as he who kills him. 
 
 §. 248. The datives mihi, nobis (sometimes tibi, vobis), are put 
 with expressions of surprise and reprehension, with demands or 
 with questions about a person, in order to denote a certain degree 
 of concern or sympathy : Qvid ait nobis Sannio ? (what does our 
 Sannio say ?) Qvid mihi Celsus agit ? (how is my Celsus ?) Sic mihi 
 qvisqvammisericordiam nominat ? (Sail. Cat. 52,) will any one here 
 speak to me of pity ? Ilaec vobis illorum per biduum militia fait 
 (Liv. XXII. 60). (Dativus Ethicus) 
 
 Obs. Qvid tibi vis ? what do you want ? what do you mean by that ? 
 Qcid sihi vult haec oratio ? What does this speech mean ? Qvid haec sibi 
 dona voluerunt ? 
 
 §. 249. The dative sometimes denotes the design and operation 
 of a thing (that to which it serves and tends). In this way the 
 dative is put with sum, with the verbs which signify to impute or 
 take, and in some other phrases with do, habeo, sumo, capio, pono 
 (to give, have, take, or place as something) ; so likewise the datives 
 praesidio, subsidio, auxilio 2 , with verbs which denote a movement 
 and position (in war). The verb has often another dative at the 
 same time, which denotes to whom a thing is serviceable for this 
 or that purpose : cui bono est ? (whom does it tend to benefit ?) 
 Incumbite in studium eloqventiae, ut et vobis honori, et amicis utili- 
 tati, et reipublicae emolumento esse possitis (Cic. de Or. I. 8). Esse 
 usui, impedimento, esse argumento, documento, testimonio a . Sum- 
 mam laudem S. Roscio vitio et culpae dedisti (Cic. Rose. Am. 16). 
 Neqve hoc ei qvisqvam tribuebat superbiae (Corn. Timol. 4). Laudi, 
 honori, probro vertere, ducere, habere aliqvid alicui, — Dare alicui 
 aliqvid muneri, dono (also donum, in apposition) : habere rempubli- 
 cam qvaestui (as a source of gain) ; habere aliqvid religioni (to make 
 a conscience of a thing) ; ludibrio, contemptui habere ; ponere ali- 
 qvid pignori ; locum capere castris ; Aduatici locum sibi, domicilio 
 delegerunt (Caes. B. G. II. 29). Vejentes Sabinis auoeilio eunt. 
 Caesar legiones duas castris praesidio relinqvit. ( Canere receptui, 
 to sound a retreat) b . 
 
 z \_Custodiae : Custodiae ex suis ac praesidio reliquerunt (Caes. B. G. II. 29).] 
 a Esse odio, to be hated; esse alicui magnae curae, to be a subject of great anxiety to 
 a person ; est alicui cordi, it pleases him, is agreeable to him. (We also meet with the 
 expression, maximum est argumentuvi, the strongest argument is — , but est argumentum, 
 documentum alone, with a dependent proposition, is unusual in the best writers.) 
 b \_Ilinc populum — venturum excidio Libyae (Virg. Aen. I. 22).] 
 
—253. Chap. IV.— Ablative. 223 
 
 Obs. In particular the dative of a substantive combined with a gerun- 
 dive is used (even after a substantive) in order to denote a purpose and 
 destination, e. g. decemviri legibus scribendis. See §. 415. 
 
 §. 250. a. With passive verbs the agent is sometimes put in the 
 dative instead of the ablative with ah ; in prose however with the 
 idea somewhat modified, since it denotes, either that the action is 
 done for the interest of the agent, or (in the perfect and pluperfect) 
 that it exists for him as completed : Sic dissimillimis bestiis commu- 
 niter cibus qvaeritur (Cic. N. D. II. 48). Haec omnibus perir aetata 
 esse possunt (Id. de Or. II. 34). Res mihi tofa provisa est (Id. Verr. 
 IV. 42). But in the poets even without this distinction : Carmina 
 qvae scribuntur aqvae potoribus (Hor. Ep. I. 19, 3). 
 
 b. On the other hand, the dative is regularly put with the gerun- 
 dive and gerund, in order to denote the person who has to do 
 something (whose duty a thing is) : Hoc mihi faciendum est ; haec 
 pueris legenda sunt (the boys must read this). See §. 420 and 421. 
 
 §. 251. The poets use the dative, in order to express the direction of a 
 motion (toivards) : It clamor caelo (Virg. Aen. V. 451). Spolia conji- 
 ciunt igni (i. q. in ignem, Id. ib. XI. 194). 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The Ablative. 
 
 §.252. The Ablative denotes in general, that a thing, though 
 not standing in the objective and referential relation indicated by 
 the accusative and dative, belongs to the predicate as serving to 
 complete and define it more accurately (that it stands with the 
 thing predicated in the relation of an appurtenance or circum- 
 stance). The ablative is used in this way sometimes with the pre- 
 positions adduced in §. 172, 1, sometimes alone, namely, in those 
 instances for which, the rules are here given. 
 
 Obs. Nearly everywhere, where the ablative stands in Latin, a prepo- 
 sition is used in English (as in, through, on, from, with, by), a distinction 
 which should be carefully noted by beginners. The several leading cases 
 to which the general use of the ablative may be reduced, sometimes ap- 
 proximate so nearly, that they cannot be rigidly separated. 
 
 §. 253. The ablative denotes that (the part of the subject, the 
 side of a person or thing or action,) with regard to which some- 
 thing is predicated of the subject : Aeger pedibus (in the feet) ; 
 
224 Syntax.— Part I. §. 253— 
 
 claudus alter o pede ; captus ocidis ; — eloqventia praestantior (in elo- 
 quence) ; nulla re inferior ; aetate et gloria antecellere ; — natione 
 Gallus (by nation) ; centum numero (in number) erant. Sunt qvi- 
 dam homines non re, sed nomine (not in reality, but in name). 
 Specie urbs libera est, re vera omnia ad nutum Romanorum fiunt. 
 (Liv. XXXV. 31). Non tu qvidem iota re, sed temporibus errasti 
 (Cic. Phil. II. 9). 
 
 Obs. With regard to is expressed with adjectives by ad, when mention 
 is made of something external to the subject, in reference to which the 
 judgment is expresssd : accusare multos qvum periculosum est turn sordi- 
 dum adfamam (Cic. Off. II. 14). Nulla est species (sight) pulclirior et 
 ad rationem sollertiamqve (in respect of their wise arrangement) praestan- 
 tior qyam solis lunaeqye cursuum (Cic, N. D. II. 62). On (this or -that) 
 side, where the position of a person or thing is spoken of, is also ex- 
 pressed by db : Caesar metuebat, ne a re frumentaria laboraret (Caes. 
 B. G. VII. 10), lest he should be embarrassed with respect to provisions ; 
 mediocriter a doctrina instructus. 
 
 §. 254. The ablative is used to denote the means and instrument, 
 by and with which a thing takes place or is done (ablativus instru- 
 ment^ : Manu gladium tenere ; capite onus sustinere ; securi aliqvem 
 per cuter e ; amor em forma et moribus conciliare ; servari cur a et opera 
 alicujus ; aliqvid animo (scientia, amore, numero), comprehendere, 
 vexare aliqvem injuriis et contumeliis ; veneno exstingvi. Britanni 
 lacte et came vivunt. Lycurgus leges suas auctoritate Apollinis 
 Delphici confirmavit. Lege Julia Laiini civitatem Romanam con- 
 secuti sunt. 
 
 Obs. 1 . The thing, which with passive verbs stands as the means, is in 
 active propositions often put in the nominative as the agent, e.g. in the 
 passive, Dei providentia niundus regitur ; in the active, Dei providentia 
 nmndum regit, but also, Deus providentia sua mundum regit. In the pas- 
 sive a thing is only represented as acting (by adding the preposition db 
 instead of the mere ablativus instrwmenti), when it is thought of as a 
 person, e. g. Non est consentaneum qvi metu non frangatur, ewm frangi 
 cupiditate, nee, qvi invictumse a labor e praestiterit,vinci a voluptate (Cic. 
 Off. I. 20), in the struggle with pleasure. Eo anatura ipsa ducimur ; but, 
 naturafit, ut liberi a parentibus amentur. (JPiget dicere, ut vobis animus 
 db ignavia atqve socordia corruptus sit, Sail. Jug. 31 ; the more usual con- 
 struction would be simply ignavia.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Some poets use db where the ablativus instrwmenti would 
 usually stand in prose, e. g. Turbinem celer assveta versat db arte puer 
 
■255. Chap. IY .—Ablative. 225 
 
 (Tib. I. 5, 4), by the help of his wonted art. Sidereo siccata ah aestu, 
 (Ov. Met. VI. 341) c . 
 
 Obs. 3. When it is intended to denote that a thing is effected by 
 the employment of a rational agent, the ablative is not used, but per : 
 Augustus per legatos suos helium administrahat (also opera legatorum). 
 But the ablative may stand when the person is named instead of the 
 thing implied by it, e. g. testihus for testium dictis, or when it is con- 
 sidered as a thing, e. g. bodies of troops : Jacent (they are convicted) suis 
 testihus (Cic. pro Mil. 18). Hostem sagittariis et funditoribus eminus ter- 
 rebat (Sail. Jug. 94). (On the contrary of animals : bubus arare, eqvo 
 veM, like curru.) 
 
 Obs. 4. The ablativus instrumenti is used in Latin in some construc- 
 tions, where the notion of a mean or instrument is not conveyed in the 
 English expression, which most nearly corresponds to them, e. g. extollere 
 aliqvem Jionorihus {by posts of distinction, instead of which we should say 
 in English, to posts of distinction) ; erudire aliqvem artibus- et disciplinis 
 (but also, erudire aliqvem in jure civili, of a particular department of in- 
 struction). In such expressions as florere {opihus et gratia) and valere 
 {T. Coruncanius plurimum ingenio valuit) we have at the same time the 
 idea of abundance ; see §. 259. (Sacrificatum est onajoribus hostiis, 
 greater victims were sacrificed ; faciam vituld pro frugibus.) 
 
 Obs. 5. With those verbs which signify to value, to judge, to divide, &c, 
 the ablative denotes that by which the valuation is regulated (the means 
 and measure of the valuation) : Nbn numero Tiaec judicantur, sed ponder e. 
 Mdgnos homines virtute metimur, non fortuna (Corn. Eum. 1). Populus 
 Romanus descriptus erat censu, ordinibus, aetatibus (Cic. Legg. III. 19). 
 Amicitiae caritate et amore cernuntur (Id. Part. Or. 25). Hecato utilitate 
 officium dirigit magis qyam humanitate (Cic. Off. III. 23). 
 
 §. 255. The ablative denotes the motive (in the agent himself) 
 from which, or the influence through which [by virtue of which) } a 
 thing is done {ablativus causae moventis) : Incendi dolore, ira inci- 
 tarij ardere studio, cupiditate occaecari, caecus avaritia, exsultare 
 gaudio. Multi homines officia deserunt mollitia animi (Cic. Finn. I. 
 10). Qvod benevolentia fit, id odio factum criminaris (Id. Rose. 
 Am. 15). Qvidam morbo aliqvo et sensus stupore svavitatem cibi 
 non sentiunt (Id. Phil. II. 45). Servius Tullius regnare coepit non 
 jussu, sed voluntate atqve concessu civium (Id. It. P. II. 21.) (Con- 
 versely : injussu imperatoris de statione discedere) . Veni ad eum 
 ipsius rogatu arcessituqve (Cic. N. D. I. 6). (So permissu, coactu, 
 efflagitatu, hortatu alicujus facere aliqvid, kc, with verbal substan- 
 
 j c [Torrida ab igni (Virg. Georg. I. 234).] 
 
 G g 
 
226 Syntax. — Part I. §. 255— 
 
 tives, which are used only in the ablative, §. 55, 4) d . Romano more 
 filii puberes cum parentibus non lavantur (Id. Off. I. 35). Cimon 
 Atheniensium legibus emitti e vinculis non poterat, nisi pecuniam 
 solvisset (Corn. Cim. I.). 
 
 Obs. 1. The ablative of the motive is put most frequently with intran- 
 sitive and passive verbs, which denote the state of mind of the subject, 
 and more especially with their participles, which are added to the subject 
 of a proposition, when in English we often say only out of. (Adductus, 
 ardens, commolus, incitatus, incensus, impulsus ira, odio, haec feci, I did 
 this out of anger, hatred.) Livy says also : db ira, ab odio, ab insita 
 animis levitate, on account of (out of) anger, &c. (A preventing cause is 
 expressed by prae : prae moerore, prae lacrimis loqyi non possum, I cannot 
 speak for tears. Gens suarum rerum impotens prae domesticis discordiis, 
 Liv. IX. 14). (Per me licet, as far as I am concerned ; qvi per aetatem 
 poterant, by reason of age.) 
 
 Obs. 2. According to is more accurately expressed by ex : Coloniae ex 
 foedere milites dare debebant. 
 
 Obs. 3. We must also notice the expressions, mea {tua, &c.) sententia, 
 meo judicio, in my (your) opinion : Curio mea sententia vel eloqventissimus 
 temporibus illis fait (Cic. de Or. II. 23). Socrates omnium eruditorum 
 testimonio totiusqve judicio Graeciae qvum prudentia et acumine turn vero 
 eloqventia omnium fuit facile princeps (Id. ib. III. 16). (The ablative here 
 denotes that which induces a person to form or express an opinion.) 
 
 §. 256. The ablatives causa and gratia are put with (and usually 
 after) a genitive or possessive pronoun in the signification for the 
 sake of (some one, something) : Reipublicae causa accusare all- 
 qvem ; tua causa hoc facio : dolorum effugiendorum gratia volup- 
 tates omittere. 
 
 Obs. 1 . The form of this expression without a genitive or possessive 
 pronoun is ea de causa, or ea causa ; justis causis, ea gratia. 
 
 Obs. 2. Otherwise the cause (signifying tliat for the sake of which a 
 thing is done) is not expressed by the ablative, but by the prepositions ob 
 and propter (or by causa, gratia). Yet from a conciseness of expression 
 it may sometimes appear as if an ablative of the means denoted the cause, 
 e.g. Levitate armorum et qvotidiana exercitatione nihil hostibus noceri po- 
 terat (Caes. B. G. V. 34, i. q. efficiebatur, ut nihil noceri posset). The 
 distinction between the ablative of the motive (in the subject itself) and 
 the mode of expressing the cause may be seen from the following example: 
 Non tarn ob recentia ulla merita gvam originum memoria (Liv. XXXVIII. 
 39), remembering their origin. 
 
 d Injussu is used also as an adverb without a genitive (Liv.). 
 
-257. Chap. IV.— Ablative. 227 
 
 Obs. 3. Here we may notice the use of the ablative eo ana occasionally 
 hoc in the signification on tliat account (=ideo) : Homines suorum mortem 
 eo lugent, qvod eos orbatos vitae commodis arbitrantur (Cic. Tusc. I. 13). 
 (Millia frumenti tua triverit area centum, JSFon tuushoc capiet venter plus 
 ac meus. Hor. Sat. I. 1, 46.) 
 
 §.257. The ablative of a substantive in connection with an ad- 
 jective (participle) or pronoun denotes the way in which a thing 
 is done, the accompanying circumstances under which it is done 
 (ablativus modi). With those substantives which in themselves 
 denote a way or manner (modo, more, ratione, ritu, sometimes 
 consvetudine), a genitive may be put instead of the adjective. 
 Miltiades summa aeqvitate res Chersonesi constituit (Corn. Milt. 2), 
 with the greatest justice. Deos pura, integra, incorrupta et mente 
 et voce venerari debemus (Cic. N. D. II. 28). Summa vi insistere. 
 More Carnadeo disputare. Fieri nullo modo {pacto) potest. Apis 
 more modoqve carmina fingo (Hor. Od. IV. 2, 27). Voluptas pin- 
 gitur pulcherrimo vestitu et ornatu regali (in, or with, the most 
 beautiful vestments and royal magnificence) in solio sedens (Cic. 
 Finn. II. 21). Ire agmine qvadrato. Allobrogum legati pontem 
 Mulvium magno comitatu ingrediuntur (Id. in Cat. III. 2, with a 
 numerous suite). Obvius fit Miloni Clodius, expeditus, in eqvo, 
 nulla rheda, nullis impedimentis (Id. pro Mil. 10), without a carriage, 
 without baggage. So nullo ordine, nullo negotio, without difficulty, 
 &c. Saltus haud sine clade, majore tamen jumentorum qvam homi- 
 num pernicie, super atus est (Liv. XXI. 35). Nonum jam annum 
 velut in acie adversus optimates sto maximo privatim periculo, nullo 
 publice emolumento (Id. VI. 39) . Yet the preposition cum is often 
 added, when reference is made to something which accompanies 
 the action, or something externally connected with it, e. g. magno 
 studio aliqvem adjuvare, and cum magno studio adesse (Cic. pro Leg. 
 Man. 24) ; cum labor e operoso et molesto moliri aliqvid (Id. N. D. 
 II. 23) ; cum omni gravitate et jucunditate aliqvid explicare (Id. de 
 Or. I. 13) ; Bomani cum magno gaudio Horatium accipiunt (Liv. I. 
 25). Sedere cum (in) tunica pulla (Cic. Verr. IV. 24). 
 
 Obs. 1. On the other hand, cum can never be put with those substan- 
 tives which in themselves denote a way and manner {modo, &c), or a dis- 
 position and purpose Qiac mente, hoc consilio feci, aeqyo animo ferd), or a 
 condition {ea condicione, ea lege, on the condition), nor yet with the parts 
 of the body : nudo capite, promisso capillo incedere. 
 
 Obs. 2. If the name of that which accompanies the action and is mani- 
 
 Gg2 
 
228 Syntax.— Part I. §. 257- 
 
 fested in it stands without the addition of an adjective or pronoun, the 
 preposition cum is employed, e. g. cum cura scribere (not cur a alone), cum 
 fide exponere, cum virtute vivere. Multa facere impure atqye taetre, cum 
 temeritate et imprudentia (Cic. Div. I. 29). Some ablatives however are 
 excepted, which in certain combinations are used alone adverbially, as 
 or dine, ratione (rede atqve or dine facere, via et ratione disputare), more, 
 jure, injuria, clamor e, silentio (also cum clamor e, cum silentio), dolo,fraude, 
 vi, vitio (in the phrase vitio creatus). (Non proeliis neqve acie bellum 
 gerere, Sail. Jug. 54, of the way and means chosen. Versibus aliqyid 
 scribere.) The preposition per is sometimes used almost in the very same 
 sense, to denote in a certain way, e. g. per vim (multa dolo, pleraqve per 
 vim audebantur, (Liv. XXXIX. 8), per simulationem ; per scelus et latro- 
 cinium aliqvid auferre (Cic. Verr. I. 21) ; per litter as (in writing) ; per 
 causam exercendorum remigum (Caes. B. C. III. 24), under the pretext. 
 
 Obs. 3. Cum must always be put to express anything that a person has 
 with or on him (except his dress), even if an adjective be added: servus 
 compreliensus est cum gladio, and cum magno gladio. 
 
 Obs. 4. As in the example magno comitatu, the ablativus modi is often 
 used of the force with which anything is undertaken in war : exiguis co- 
 piis pugnare ; proficisci, venire, adesse omnibus copiis, expedito exercitu, 
 triginta navibus longis. But cum is also used : Caesar cum omnibus copiis 
 Helvetios seqvi coepit (Caes. B. G. I. 26). (When there is no adjective 
 or numeral cum is always used.) 
 
 Obs. 5. Here also we may notice the expressions, pace alicujus and 
 bona venia alicujus dicere aliqvid, with his permission ; periculo alicujus 
 aliqvid facere, at his risk ; further, alicujus auspiciis, imperio, ductu rem 
 gerere, under any one's command ; simulatione (specie) timoris cedere, 
 with assumed fear (Caes. B. C. II. 40) ; obsidum nomine, as hostages (Id. 
 B. G. III. 2) ; classis nomine pecuniam civitatibus imperare, to impose 
 taxes under the pretence of employing them for the equipment of a fleet 
 (Cic. pro Flacc. 12) ; alicujus verbis salutare aliqvem, in some one's name. 
 On the other hand cum sometimes serves to denote an (attendant) conse- 
 quence and effect (to) : Accidit, ut Verres illo itinere veniret Lampsacum 
 cum magna calamitate et prope pernicie civitatis (Cic. Verr. I. 24). 
 
 §. 258. The ablative serves to denote the price for which a thing 
 is bought, sold, made, or done (also with the verbs esse, stare, con- 
 stare, licere, signifying to cost, to be on sale for), and to express 
 the value at which a thing is estimated : Eriphyle auro viri vitam 
 vendidit. Praedium emitur (venit) centum millions nummum. Cae- 
 lius habitat triginta millibus (Cic. pro Cael. 7). Apollonius mercede 
 docebat. Victoria Poenis (dat.) multo sangvine stetit. Tritici mo- 
 dius in Sicilia erat (aestimatus est) ternis sestertiis (Cic. Verr. III. 
 81). Otium non gemmis venale. 
 
-259. Chap. IV. — Ablative. 229 
 
 Ols. 1. If the price is only indefinitely given (as being high or low), 
 the genitive of adjectives is sometimes used to express it (tanti, magni, 
 &c), see §. 294. 
 
 Ohs. 2. We find the expressions mutare, commutare, permutare aliqvid 
 aliqvo, to exchange a thing (part with it for something else), e. g.Jidem et 
 rellgionem pecunia mutare ; oves pretio mutare. Sometimes however they 
 denote, to obtain a thing in exchange for another. We also have com- 
 mutare aliqvid cum aliqvo, to acquire or part with a thing in the way of 
 exchange (usually the latter). 
 
 §.259. The ablative is put with various verbs, to distinguish 
 their meaning more accurately, by specifying in what and in refer- 
 ence to what the action or condition in question is manifested. 
 
 a. With those verbs which signify (intrans.) to have an abund- 
 ance and superfluity of anything, or (trans.) to provide with any- 
 thing, to treat any one (anything) in such a way, that he (it) ob- 
 tains something, the ablative is employed, to shew in what the 
 abundance consists, and ivith what a thing is provided (ablativus 
 copiae), e. g. abundare otio, affluere divitiis ; cutter manat cruore 
 (is dripping with blood) ; refercire libros fabulis ; augere aliqvem 
 scientia ; imbuere vas odore, animum honestis artibus ; afficere ali- 
 qvem beneficio, honore, incommodo, poena, ignominia ; dignari ali- 
 qvem honor e. 
 
 Such verbs are abundo, redundo, affluo, scateo, and others in 
 certain significations, e. g. pluit lapidibus (it rains stones) ; aures 
 vocibus circumsonant, personant e ; compleo, eocpleo, impleo, refer cio, 
 stipo, instruo, orno, onero, cumulo, satio, augeo, remuneror, officio, 
 imbuo, conspergo, respergo, dignor (in an active signification), and 
 some others. (Littora urbibus distincta, studded with cities.) 
 
 Obs. In the poets and a few prose writers impleo and compleo have the 
 genitive instead of the ablative, e. g. implere Jiostem fugae et formidinis 
 (Liv. X. 14). The same construction is occasionally found in the poets 
 with one or two of the other verbs, e. g. Satiata ferinae dextera caedis 
 erat (Ov. Met. VII. 808). 
 
 b. The signification of some verbs may be conceived in two ways, 
 so that they may either be constructed with the accusative and 
 ablative in the way above noticed (to furnish one with a thing), or 
 (in the signification, to give a person a thing, to do a thing for and 
 in reference to him), with the accusative and dative, e. g. donare 
 scribam suum anulo aureo, to present his secretary with a golden 
 
 e We find also clamor ftostes circumsonat, and hence circumsonor clamore. 
 
230 Syntax.— Part I. §.2)9— 
 
 ring, and donare adjutoribus suis multa, to make many presents to 
 his coadjutors. 
 
 Such verbs are the following : dono, circumdo {urbem muris and 
 muros urbi), adspergo (alicui labeculam, to affix [to spirt on him as 
 it were], aliqvem ignominia, to bespatter, to cover), induo (aliqvem 
 veste, particularly in the passive, indutus veste, and alicui vestem ( ), 
 inuro (alicui notam and aliqvem not a), misceo (commonly aqvam 
 nectare, rubor candore mixtus, more rarely fletum cruori, misceo 
 iram cum luctu), and admisceo, with some few others compounded 
 with ad and in (qfflo, illino, imprimo, inscribo, intexo) ; also cir- 
 cumfundo, especially in the passive; circumfundor and circumfun- 
 ditur mihi lux. 
 
 Obs. The following is a bold poetical expression (in Virg. Aen. VI. 
 229) : Ter socios pura circumtulit unda (went round and sprinkled them 
 with pure water). (Loca custodiis intermissa, Liv. VII. 36, i. q. ubi cus- 
 
 todiae inter missae sunt.)% 
 
 §. 260. a. The ablative is put with those verbs which (intrans- 
 itive) signify a deficiency in (a need of) something, and (trans- 
 itive) a deprivation of a thing, to denote that of which there 
 is a deficiency or of which a person is deprived (ablativus inopiae), 
 as with careo, egeo, indigeo, vaco, — orbo, privo, spolio h , fraudo, nudo, (to 
 strip of — ), e. g. carere sensu, egere auxilio, vacare culpa, spoliare 
 hominem fortunis, nudare turrim defensoribus. 
 
 Obs. Egeo and indigeo (indigeo especially very often) also govern the 
 genitive \ 
 
 b. In the same way we have invideo alicui aliqva re (laude sua), 
 and interdico alicui aliqva re, forbid a person the use of a thing and 
 access to it, e. g. aqva et igni, domos sua. (In the passive imper- 
 sonally : prodigis [dat.] solet bonis interdici.) 
 
 Obs. 1. These verbs are less frequently constructed with an accusative : 
 invidere alicui lo.udem (but often invidere laudi alicujus), and inter dicer e 
 feminis usum purpurae ; inter dicta voluptas. 
 
 Obs. 2. A double construction (as in §. 259. b.) is found with exuo (ali- 
 qvem veste and vestem mihi, or commonly only vestem) and abdico (me ma- 
 gistratu and abdico magistratum) . 
 
 f Also induo vestem, to put on a dress, and poet, induor : see §. 237 a. 
 
 8 [ Virgineum suffuderit ore cruorem (Virg. Georg. I. 430).] 
 
 h [Fol/is viduantur orni (Hor. Od. II. 9, 8).] 
 
 1 Vaco occurs also in the signification to be unoccupied, and then a dative may be sub- 
 joined, e. g. pJdlosophiae, have leisure to engage in it ; hence in later writers, vacare rei 
 alicui, to apply to a thing, spend one's time about it. 
 
-262. Chap. TV.— Ablative. 231 
 
 §. 261. Those verbs are also constructed with an ablative, which 
 denote (intransitive) to abstain from a thing, to renounce it, or (trans- 
 itive) to free, to keep away, to exclude from something, as abstineo, 
 desisto, libero, solvo, exsolvo, levo, exonero, arceo, prohibeo, excludo, 
 e. g. abstinere (or abstinere se) maledicto, scelere, liberare aliqvem 
 suspicione, levare aliqvem onere, arcere tyr annum reditu, prohibere 
 aliqvem cibo tectoqve ; prohibere Campaniam populationibus (to pro- 
 tect from plunder). But the verbs which signify to abstain, to 
 hinder, to exclude, are also used with the preposition ab, e. g. absti- 
 nere a vitiis ; prohibere hostem a pugna (cives a periculd) ; excludere 
 aliqvem a republican. Where a person is specified the preposition 
 is always employed : arcere aliqvid a sese. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Ah is rarely put with libero, and never with levo, exonero, ab- 
 solvo, but only the ablative. {Liberare aliqvem ex incommodis, out of.) 
 
 Ohs. 2. Intercludo has a double construction (viam, fugam alicui, to cut 
 off, and aliqvem commeatu, a castris, shut out from). 
 
 Obs. 3. Only the poets and some later prose writers use dbsterreo, de- 
 terreo, and occasionally also some verbs compounded with dis, as disto, 
 distingvo, together with secerno, separo, with the ablative without ah, e. g. 
 vero distingvere falsum, turpi secernere Tionestum (Hor.). 
 
 Obs. 4. The poets, in imitation of a Greek idiom, have put the genitive 
 with some few such verbs, e. g. abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. III. 27, 69), 
 desine qverelarum (id. Od. II. 9, 17), solutus operum (id.), freed from 
 work. 
 
 §. 262. Those verbs also which denote to remove a person or 
 thing (with violence) from or out of the place where it is, are some- 
 times put with the ablative alone, but usually with a preposition of 
 place {ab, ex, de),e. g. movere aliqvem vestigio, pellere, expellere, de- 
 pellere hostem loco (e loco ab urbe), deturbare aliqvem moenibus (de 
 moenibus) ; also in an improper signification deturbo, and especially 
 dejicio [aliqvem spe, prcetura, but also de sententia). In the same 
 way the simple ablative is often put with cedo, to go from, quit, de- 
 cedo, excedo (cedere loco, vita, and e loco, de vita ; decedere provin- 
 cia, Italia, and de provincia ; also cedere alicui possessione hortorum, 
 to give up possession to one) ; so also with abeo, used of resigning 
 an office [abeo magistratu, dictatura) . 
 
 Obs. The ablative alone is very rare with exeo, egredior, ejicio. On the 
 
 k [Tempero (to refrain) usually takes the preposition : e. g. Caesar homines temperatu- 
 ros ab injuria et waleficio existimabat (Caes. B. G. I. 7). Tempero is sometimes met with 
 in this construction with the addition of the reflective pronoun in the dative : Jam sibi 
 turn a curvis male temperat unde carinis (Virg. Georg. I. 360).] 
 
232 Syntax.— Part I. §. 262— 
 
 ablative of tlie names of towns in answer to the question whence? see 
 §. 275. 
 
 §. 263. Some verbs, which signify to shut up, to comprise, to receive 
 into something, sometimes have the place denoted by the simple ablative 
 instead of by the preposition in, as includere aliqvem carcere (in carcere, 
 usually in carcerem) versu aliqvid concludere, recipere aliqvem tecto, urbe 
 (usually, aliqvem in civitatem, in ordinem senatorium, aliqvem domum 
 recipere), tenere se castris (copias in castris continere), toller e aliqvem 
 rhedd. Contineri aliqva re is particularly used in the signification, to be 
 included in something, to rest on something : artes qvae conjectura con- 
 tinentur. 
 
 Obs. Consto, to consist, is usually constructed with ex (e. g. ex animo et 
 corpore), sometimes with in or the ablative alone. 
 
 §. 264. With the verbs gaudeo, laetor, glorior, doleo, moereo, and 
 with fido and confido, the ablative denotes that at which one re- 
 joices, &c, or that on which a man relies, e. g. gaudere aliorum in- 
 commode-, gloriari victoria sua, confidere natura loci. 
 
 Obs. Fido and confido also have the dative (diffido almost always), see 
 §. 244 ; doleo has also the accusative (meum casum illi doluerunt), see 
 §. 223 c. Glorior de and in aliqva re (in and of the possession of a thing). 
 Nitor auctoritate alicujus, support oneself on it (as a mean or instrument) ; 
 also, divinatio nititur in conjectura. We should also notice detector aliqva 
 re and aliqvo, to find pleasure in anything (or person) : Laelio valde de- 
 lector. 
 
 §. 265. The verbs utor (abut or), fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, have 
 the object in the ablative : uti victoria, frui otio, fungi munere, urbe 
 potiri, vesci came. (Utor aliqvo amico, to have him for a friend, 
 amico being in apposition : so likewise, Me usurus es aeqvo, you will 
 find me equitable.) 
 
 Obs. 1 . The use of the ablative is to be explained by the fact, that these 
 verbs had not originally a purely transitive signification. Potior is also 
 put with the genitive, though rarely in prose ; but always in the phrase 
 potiri rerum, to make oneself master of sovereign power (to possess it). 
 
 Obs. 2. In the older poets and some few prose writers these verbs are 
 occasionally found with the accusative. The gerundive is used like that 
 of a common transitive verb which governs the accusative, e. g. in munere 
 fungendo ; dare alicui vestem utendam ; spes potiundorum castrorum (Oaes. 
 B. G. III. 6,= castris potiendi). 
 
 §.266. The expression opus est stands as a predicate with the 
 nominative, without altering opus, e. g. Duos nobis (dat.) et auctor 
 opus est (Cic. ad Fam. II. 6), we need a leader and guide ; escempla 
 
■268.. Chap. IN.— Ablative. 233 
 
 permulta opus sunt (Id. de Invent. II. 19) ; or impersonally {there 
 is need, one wants) with the ablative : Praesidio opus est. Auctori- 
 tate tua mihi opus est. Qvid [nihil) opus est verbis ? (In the nega- 
 tive form or the interrogative with qvid almost without exception 
 impersonal.) In this last way usus est is also employed with the 
 same signification : Viginti usus est minis. (Si usus est, in case it 
 should be necessary.) 
 
 Obs. With opus est that which is necessary may also be expressed by 
 an infinitive, or an accusative with the infinitive, e. g. Qvid opus est matu- 
 rare? or, Opus est te abire, opus est Hirtium conveniri, that Hirtius 
 should be spoken to. Instead of this infinitive the ablative of a participle 
 or a substantive combined with a participle is often employed : Opus est 
 maturato (Liv. I. 58). Opusfuit Hirtio convento (Cic. ad Att. X. 4). 
 
 §. 267. We should particularly notice the ablative with assvesco and as- 
 svefacio, e. g. assvetus labore l (more rarely with the dative, assvetus mili- 
 tiae), and with sto, to persist, abide by (stare conditionibus, promissis, stare 
 suo judicio m ), and with facio andfio, when the question is, what is to be or 
 can be made or become of a thing : Qvid facies hoc homine ? Qvid fiet 
 nave ? (Qvid mefuturum est ?) 
 
 Obs. We find also with the dative, Qvid facies hide liomini (with) ? see 
 §. 241, Obs. 5. (Qvidjiet de onilitibus? What is to be done with respect 
 to the soldiers ? Consul refert, qvid de Us fieri placeat, qvi in custodiam 
 traditi erant. Sail. Cat. 50.) 
 
 §. 268. The ablative is put with various adjectives, which are 
 allied in signification with the verbs cited in §§. 259, 260, 261, and 
 264, in order to point out the object in reference to which the 
 quality denoted by the adjective is manifested. Such adjectives 
 are the following : 
 
 a. Those which denote a superfluity, an abundance of anything 
 (§. 259) : praeditus, onustus, plenus u , fertilis, dives, further dignus 
 and its opposite indignus, e. g. onustus praeda, dives agris, labor 
 Hercule dignus ; dignus poena. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Plenus, fertilis, dives, are also put with the genitive, which 
 is the usual construction of plenus in the best writers : Gallia plena civium 
 optimorum ; plenus rvmarum ; ager fertilis frugum. So also the partici- 
 ples refertus and completus (but only of men) : Gallia referta negotiato- 
 rum; career completus mercatorum. 
 
 1 \_Nullo officio aid disciplina adsuefacti (Caes. B. G. IV. 1).] 
 
 m Also stare in eo, qvod sit judication. 
 
 n \Loca /eta furentibus Justris (Virg. Aen. I. 51).] 
 
 Hh 
 
231 Syntax.— Part I. §.268- 
 
 Obs. 2. Conjundus, combined with anything (used of things) often has 
 the ablative : Mendicitas aviditate conjunct a (conjungere mendicitatem cum 
 aviditate) ; but, Talis simulatio conjuncta est aviditati, borders on vanity. 
 
 Obs. 3. The word made is used alone or with the imperative of sum 
 (made esto, este) in praises and congratulations, and takes the name of the 
 thing, on account of which a man is pronounced happy (generally virtute) 
 in the ablative : Made virtute diligentiaqve esto. {Juberem te made vir- 
 tute esse, Liv. II. 12, I would congratulate you on your bravery .) 
 
 b. Those which denote a want of something, an exemption from 
 something (§. 260 and 261) : inanis, nudus, orbus, vacuus, liber, im- 
 munis, purus, alienus (strange, unsuitable), and also extorris, e.g. 
 orbus rebus ommbus, liber cura animus ; ducere aliqvid alienum sua 
 maj estate ; extorris patria, regno. (On inops and pauper see §. 209, 
 e.) But these adjectives, with the exception of inanis, orbus, and 
 extorris, are also used with the preposition ab : oppidum vacuum 
 defensoribus and a defensoribus. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Liber always has ab with the names of persons {locus liber ab 
 arbitris), otherwise but seldom. Alienus has ab especially in the signifi- 
 cation disinclined {alienus a litteris), and always with the names of per- 
 sons : alienus a me. 
 
 Obs. 2. Inanis and immunis have also the genitive : liaec inanissima 
 prudentiae reperta sunt ; alienus rarely. The rest of these adjectives are 
 hardly found with the genitive, except in the poets : liber curarum, purus 
 sceleris, vacuus operum ; mons nudus arboris (Ov.). Alienus signifying 
 inconvenient, unfavourable, has also the dative. 
 
 c. Contentus, anxius, laetus, maestus, superbus, fretus (§. 264) : 
 Natura parvo cultu contenta est. Fretus conscientia officii v. 
 
 §. 269. Those participles which denote birth {natus, ortus, geni- 
 tus, satus, editus,) have the designation of parentage or rank sub- 
 joined in the ablative : Mercurius Jove et Maja natus erat ; natus 
 nobili genere ; eqvestri loco ortus. With the parents ex (de) is also 
 used : Ex fratre et sorore nati erant. 
 
 Obs. More remote ancestors are expressed by ortus ab ; Belgae orti 
 sunt a Germanis (Caes. B. G. II. 4). Cato Uticensis a Censorio ortus erat 
 (Cic. pro Mur. 31). 
 
 §. 270. The ablative sometimes denotes the measure of distance ; 
 see under the accusative, §.234. With comparatives the ablative 
 denotes how much a thing exceeds something else in the quality 
 
 This word is generally, but without good reason, considered as the vocative of an 
 adjective otherwise unused. 
 
 p Fretus also occurs in Livy with a dative (like fido). 
 
-271. Chap. IV.— Ablative. 235 
 
 mentioned (is greater or less, &c.) : Romani duobus millibus plures 
 erant qvam Sabini ; uno digit o plus habere (a finger more); multis 
 partibus (times) major ; dimidio minor ; alter o tanto longior (as 
 long again) ; qvinqvies tanto amplius (Cic. Yerr. III. 97) . Honestas 
 omni ponder e gravior habenda est qvam reliqva omnia (Id. Off. III. 
 8; infinitely more weighty, more important). In the same way 
 the ablative with ante and post, signifies how much earlier or later 
 a thing takes place : multis annis ante ; novem annis post helium 
 Punicum. 
 
 Obs. 1. The ablative of a neuter pronoun or adjective is accordingly 
 used with comparatives, as well as with ante and post, aliter and seats, to 
 denote the measure indefinitely, e. g. eo (so much), qvo (as), midto, tanto, 
 qvanto, paulo, niliilo ; midto major, pairflo post (rarely post paidlo) ; qyo 
 antiqvior, eo melior. {Hoc major gloria est, qvod solus vici, so much the 
 greater, because, i. q. so much the greater, as — .) But we also find ad- 
 jectives in the accusative (adverbs in on), as midtum, aliqvantum, in the 
 poets and later writers instead of the ablative, e. g. Aliqvantum iniqvior 
 (Ter. Heaut. I. 2, 27). (With the superlative, multo maxima pars, the 
 greatest part of all, the greatest part by far.) 
 
 Obs. 2. The ablative of those adjectives which denote number and 
 quantity is also found with the verbs malo, pvaesto, supero, and those 
 compounded with ante : Midto malo. Omnis sensus hominum multo ante- 
 cellit sensibus bestiarum (Cic. N. D. II. 57). But the accusative (except 
 with malo) is also used : Multum {tantum) praestat, it is much (so much) 
 better. 
 
 Obs. 3. Sometimes ante with the ablative refers to the present ; so long 
 ago, e.g. Catilina paucis ante diebics erupit ex urbe (Cic. in Cat. III. 1), 
 which is otherwise expressed by abhinc with the accusative (see §.235, 
 Obs. 2), or by ante with the accusative (see the following observation). 
 
 Obs. 4. The interval of time is also expressed by the accusative with 
 ante 2010! post instead of the ablative, so that decern diebus 'post {ante, or, 
 by altering the arrangement of the words, decern post diebus, rarely post 
 decern diebus) is the same as post {ante) decern dies {decern post dies), e. g. 
 Eodem etiam Bhodia classis post dies paucos venit (Liv. XXXVII. 13). 
 Aliqvot post menses homo occisus est (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 44) «i. Sometimes 
 ante centum annos is used to denote a hundred years ago (= centum ab- 
 hinc annos), and post tres dies, in three days. For the expression with an 
 ordinal number, ante diem decimum qvam, and the use of the ablative only 
 in the signification ago {his centum annis), see §. 276, Obs. 5 and 6. 
 
 §.271. With comparatives the second member of the com- 
 
 i For decern diebus antcqvam (postqvam), earlier (later) than, we find also (less fre- 
 quently) ante ( post) decern dies qvam. 
 
 H h2 
 
236 Syntax,— Part I. §.271 — 
 
 parison, which is otherwise subjoined with qvam (than), is often 
 expressed by the ablative, e. g. major Scipione=major qvam Scipio. 
 For further particulars on this head see under the comparative, 
 §. 304, &c. 
 
 Obs. The ablative seems properly to denote that the higher degree is 
 brought to light by the other, which is associated with it in the com- 
 parison. 
 
 §. 272. The ablative of a substantive combined with an adjective 
 (participle, pronoun) is subjoined to a substantive by way of de- 
 scription, either immediately or with the verb esse, to denote the 
 quality and character of a person or thing (ablativus qvalitatis, the 
 descriptive ablative) : Agesilaus statura fuit humili et corpore exiguo. 
 Herodotus tanta est eloqventia, ut me magnopere delectet (Cic. de Or. 
 II. 13). Summis ingeniis exqvisitaqve doctrina philosophi (Id. Fin. 
 I. 1). C. Valerius, swnma virtute et humanitate adolescens (Caes. 
 B. G-. I. 47). Erat inter Labienum et host em difficili transitu flumen 
 ripisqve praeruptis (Id. B. G. VI. 7). Apollonius affirmabat, servum 
 se illo nomine habere neminem (Cic. Verr. V. 7) . 
 
 Obs. 1 . For the distinction between the descriptive ablative and the de- 
 scriptive genitive see §. 287, Obs. 2. 
 
 Obs. 2. In the same way we have trulla aureo manubrio, a goblet with 
 a golden handle (of a constituent part of the vessel itself) ; but also cum 
 aureo manubrio Y . Sometimes the descriptive ablative is put with sum, 
 where we otherwise find in, to denote a situation : Esse magna gloria. 
 Nunqyam pari periculo Carthago fuerat (Corn. Hannib. 2). Esse meliore 
 condicione ; eodem statu esse, manere ; and in eodem statu. 
 
 Obs. 3. Instead of the adjective a genitive is sometimes added, when 
 reference is made to external form and magnitude, e. g. clavi ferrei 
 digiti pollicis crassitudine (Caes. B. G. III. 13), of the thickness of one's 
 thumb. Uri sunt specie etfigura et colore tauri (Id. B. G. VI. 28). 
 
 §.273. A local relation (residing or happening in a place, or 
 motion away from a place) is commonly expressed by prepositions 
 (in — ab, ex, de) ; in some cases however the preposition is left out 
 and the ablative used alone. 
 
 a. The residing or happening in a place is denoted by the abla- 
 tive alone of the names of towns and smaller islands (which may 
 be regarded as towns), if the names belong to the third declension, 
 or are of the plural number : Babylone habitare ; Athenis litteris 
 
 r Nuntiabant agnum cum duobus capitibus naium, et Sinuessae porcum hum an o ca- 
 pite (Liv. XXXII. 9).] 
 
—273. Chap. IV .—Ablative. 237 
 
 operam dare 8 . If on the other hand the name of the town (or 
 island) is of the singular of the first or second declension, the 
 genitive is employed; see §.296. 
 
 Obs. If urbs or oppidum precedes, in is inserted : in oppido Hispali. 
 So also in general, when an apposition is attached to the name, Gives 
 Romanos Neapoli, in celeberrimo oppido, saepe cum mitella vidimus (Cic. 
 pro Rab. Post. 10). 
 
 b. In like manner the preposition in is often omitted with the 
 word locus when accompanied by a pronoun or adjective : hoc loco ; 
 aeqvo loco pugnare ; castra opportunis locis posita erant; (but also in 
 altis locis, especially in speaking of what happens in all high places). 
 The following also stand without a preposition : ruri (more rarely 
 rure), in the country, dextra, laeva, on the right, on the left, terra 
 mariqve, by land and sea, and sometimes medio, in the middle ; 
 medio aedium, in the middle of the house, medio coeli terraeqve. 
 (Usually in mediis aedibus, medius inter coelum terramqve.) 
 
 Obs. 1. In an improper signification in is almost always omitted with 
 locus : secundo loco aliqvem numerare ; meliore loco res nostrae sunt. Yet 
 we find both parentis loco ducere (habere) aliqvem, filii loco esse, and in 
 parentis, in filii loco 1 . Loco and in loco (sico loco) denote in the right 
 place (in his own place). In is also sometimes omitted with par te, parti- 
 bus, signifying side. Reliqvis oppidi partibus sic est pugnatum, tit aeqvo 
 loco discederetur (Caes. B. C. III. 112). With libro in is usually omitted, 
 when the contents of the whole book are referred to : De amicitia alio 
 libro dictum est (Cic. Off. II. 9). Animo stands without a preposition 
 when emotions of the mind are spoken of: commoveri, angi animo, volvere 
 aliqvid animo. 
 
 Obs. 2. The poets often use other words also in the ablative without a 
 preposition, to express remaining in a place, when there is no fear of its 
 being confounded with other significations of the ablative : Lucis habi- 
 tamus opacis (Virg. Aen. VI. 673). Custodia vestibulo sedet (Id. ib. VI. 
 575). Silvisqve agrisave viisqve corpora foeda jacent (Ov. Met. VII. 547). 
 
 c. The ablative is also usually put without a preposition when 
 the adjective totus {omnis) is subjoined, to denote an extension over 
 something, e. g. Urbe tola gemitus Jit (through the whole city). 
 Caesar nuntios tota civitate Aeduorum dimittit (Caes. B. G. VII. 38), 
 Menippus, tota Asia illis temporibus disertissimus (Cic. Brut. 91), in 
 all Asia, if one were to search through all Asia. Qvis toto mari 
 
 s Carthagini, Tiburl, see §.42 d. 
 
 * Parentis numero esse, kaberi; but in numcro oratorum esse (haberi, duci), to be 
 reckoned amongst the orators. 
 
238 Syntax.— Part I. §. 273— 
 
 locus tutus fuit ? (Id. pro Leg. Man. 11), what place in the whole 
 sea? 
 
 Obs. In however may be inserted, e. g. Tanti terrae motus in Gallia 
 compluribusqye insulis totaqve in Italia facti sunt (Cic. de Div. I. 35). 
 Nego in tota Sicilia ullum argenteum vas fuisse, qyod Yerres non conqvi- 
 sierit (Id. in Verr. IV. 1). 
 
 §.274. The ablative is put without a preposition to signify in 
 what way or direction a movement takes place. Via Nomentana 
 (via breviore) proficisci ; porta Collina urbem intrare ; recta linea 
 deorswn ferri ; Pado frumentum subvehere (on the Po, up the Po) . 
 
 §. 275. A motion away from a place is expressed by the ablative 
 alone of the names of towns and smaller islands, and the words 
 domo, from home, rare, from the country, and sometimes humo, 
 from the ground: Roma proficisci, discedere Athenis, Delo Rhodum 
 navigare ; frumentum Rhodo advehere ; domo auxilium mittere ; rure 
 advenire : oculos toller e humo (also ab humo). 
 
 Obs. 1. Ab is however sometimes (by Livy usually) prefixed to the 
 names of towns, and always when a removal from the neighbourhood of a 
 town is indicated, e. g. Caesar a Gergovia discessit (Caes. B. G. VII. 59), 
 from Gergovia, which he had been besieging. The preposition is likewise 
 used when oppidum or urbs precedes the name : Uxpellitur ex oppido 
 Gergovia (Id. ib. VII. 4). {Genus Tusculo, ex clarissimo municipio, pro- 
 fectum, Cic. pio Font. 14.) 
 
 Obs. 2. The ablative of the names of towns (together with domo) is 
 used without a preposition to denote the place from which a letter is 
 written (e. g. Roma, a. d. IV Idus Octobres), and with abesse, to be ab- 
 sent, e. g. abesse Roma (but tria millia passuum a Roma abesse, of the 
 distance). 
 
 Obs. 3. To denote a person's home we sometimes find such expressions 
 as Gn. Magius Cremona (Caes. B. C. I. 24), Gn. Magius of Cremona; 
 more usually with an adjective: Gn. Magius Cremonensis ; (in Livy we 
 also find Turnus Herdonius ab Aricia, I. 50). In the same way is used 
 the ablative of the names of the Roman tribes : Servius Sulpicius JLemo- 
 nid (of the Lemonian tribe) . 
 
 Obs. 4. The poets use also the ablatives of other words to indicate the 
 place from which a motion proceeds, e. g. descendere caelo (Virg.)., labi 
 eqvo (Hor.). (Abesse virtute Messalae, to fall short of, Hor.) Of the 
 ablative with certain verbs in the signification out of away from, see 
 §. 262. 
 
 §. 276. The ablative of words which denote a space of time is 
 
—276. Chap. l\ .—Ablative. 239 
 
 used both to denote the time at which {when) a thing happens, and 
 the time within which it happens (the time which elapses in the 
 meanwhile) : a) Tertio anno urbs capta est. Hora sexta (vigilia 
 tertia) Caesar profectus est. Res patrum memoria [nostra aetate) 
 gestae. Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo versus facere desierat (Cic. 
 de Div. II. 56). Qva nocte natus Alexander est, eadem Dianae 
 Ephesiae templum deflagravit (Id. N. D. II. 27). Initio aestatis 
 consul in Graeciam trajecit. b) Roscius Romam multis annis non 
 venit (Cic. Rose. Am. 27). Nemo his viginti annis reipublicae fuit 
 hostis, qvi non bellum eodem tempore mihi qvoqveindixerit (Id. Phil. 
 II. 1). So also without an adjective, hieme (in the winter), aestate 
 die, nocte, luce (in broad day). Saturni stella triginta fere annis 
 cur sum suum conficit (Cic. N. D. II. 20). Agamemnon vix decern 
 annis urbemunam cepit (Corn. Epam. 5). 
 
 Obs. 1. To express the time when a thing happens, in is added in some 
 particular phrases. To denote a thing which always shews itself, we find 
 the expressions, in omni aetate, in omni aeternitate (through all eternity}, 
 in omni puncto temporis (at every period of time). In tempore, and 
 simply tempore, signifies at the right (suitable) time 11 . In tali tempore 
 (Sail. Cat. 48), under such circumstances ; auxilio alicui esse in gravissi- 
 r mis ejus temporibus. 
 
 Obs. 2. Some words too which do not in themselves denote time, but 
 an event, are used in the ablative without a preposition, in order to inti- 
 mate the time when a thing takes place, particularly adventu and discessu 
 with a genitive : Adventu Caesaris in Gallium Moritasgus regnum obti- 
 nebat (Caes. B. G. V. 54), at the time of Caesar's arrival ; with some 
 others, (occasu solis, at sunset), comitiis, ludis, gladiatoribus, at the time 
 of (during) the comitia, &c, sometimes also pace, in time of peace, bello, 
 tumuliu, at the time of the w r ar ; but in bello, in the w r ar). With the 
 addition of an adjective : Praelio Senensi consulludos vovit, and in praelio 
 Seaeusi ; bello Punico secundo (bello Antioclii), at the time of the second 
 Punic war, and in bello Alexandrino, in the Alexandrian war x . To ex- 
 press the different times of life in is inserted, e. g. in pueritia ; but it 
 may be omitted if a specific period of age is denoted by the addition 
 of an adjective, prima, extrema pueritia. We have initio, principio, in 
 the beginning, and in initio?. 
 
 Obs. 3. To express the time in (during) which a thing takes place, in 
 is sometimes inserted : Sulla sollertissimus omnium in paucis tempestati- 
 
 u Ad tempus, ad diem, at the right (appointed) time. 
 
 x In later writers also : dedicatione templi Veneris Gcnetricis, at the consecration, Plin. 
 Maj., publico epulo, at a public entertainment, iSvet., &c. 
 i Principio also signifies, firstly. 
 
240 Syntax.— Part I. §. 276— 
 
 bus f actus est (Sail. Jug. 90) ; particularly when a numeral is employed 
 to shew how often a thing happens, or how much is done in a certain time, 
 e. g. bis in die (a day) saturum fieri ; ter in anno nuntium audire. Lu- 
 cilius in hora saepe ducentos versus dictabat (Hor. Sat. I. 4, 9). (But 
 also septies die, seven times a clay.) 
 
 Obs. 4. In the same way in is often inserted to intimate, within what 
 ti me, reckoned from a certain point, a thing happens : Decrevit senatus, 
 ut legati Jugurthae in diebus proximis decern Italia decederent (Sail. Jug. 
 28) ; but also diebus decern (Id. ib. 38), qvatriduo eum exspecto (in four 
 days). Faucis diebus and in paucis diebus, in the course of a few days, a 
 few days afterwards ; or, in a few days : Faucis diebus Jugurtha legatos 
 Romam mittit (Sail. Jug. 13) ; paucis diebus ad te veniam. Here too we 
 should notice the expression in connection with a relative clause : paucis 
 (in paucis) diebus (annis), qyibus — , a few days after — , e. g. Diebus 
 circiter X.V, qyibus in hibema ventum est, defectio orta est (Caes. B. G. 
 V. 26). In paucis diebus, qyibus Jiaec acta sunt, Chrysis moritur (Ter. 
 And. I. 1, 77). Sex. Roscii mors qvatriduo, qvo is occisus est, Chrysogono 
 nuntiatur (Cic. Rose. Am. 37) ; properly, in the course of the same four 
 days, during which his assassination took place 2 . 
 
 Obs. 5. We must particularly remark the ablative of the time with the 
 addition of the pronouns hie or ille, to signify, in the lapse of so long a 
 time from now or then : His annis qvadringentis Romae rexfuit (Cic. R. 
 P. I. 37), it is not more than four hundred years since there was a king at 
 Rome ; four hundred years ago or less. Ante hos qvadringentos annos and 
 abhinc annos qvadringentos is a more exact description ; see §. 270, Obs, 
 4. Respondit, se paucis illis diebus argentum misisse Lilybaewm (Id. 
 Verr. IV. 18). Hanc urbem hoc biennio evertes (Id. Somn. Scip. 2), be- 
 fore two years are past ; more definitely, intra biennium\ 
 
 Obs. 6. For an ablative of the time with an ordinal followed by the ad- 
 verb ante or post (e. g. die decirno post or decimo post die), we find also 
 the preposition ante or post with the accusative : post diem decimum (deci- 
 mum post diem) as in §. 270, Obs. 4. (Post tertium diem moriendum mihi 
 est, Cic. Div. I. 25=tribus Ms diebus, post tres dies.) For decimo die 
 anteqvam or postqvam (e. g. undecimo die postqvam a te discesseram, Cic. 
 ad Att. XII. 1), we find also ante, post decimum diem, qvam, e. g. Post 
 diem qvintum, qvam iterum barbari male pugnaverant, legati a JSoccho 
 veniunt (Sail. Jug. 102). We even find (though this is a rare instance) 
 
 z \_Oppidum paucis diebus, qvibus eo ventum est, expugnatum (Caes. B. G. III. 13). Die- 
 bus X, qvibus materia coepta erat comportari (Id. ibid. IV. 18). ] 
 
 a Intra centum annos, in less than a hundred years, inter centum annos, in the course 
 of a hundred years, in a period of a hundred years, e. g. Inter tot annos unus innocens im- 
 perator inventus est (=tot annis). 
 
—277. Chap. IV.— Ablative. 241 
 
 post sextum cladis annum (Tac. Ann. I. 62), for sexto anno post cladem. 
 {Ante qvintum mensem divortii, Svet. Claud. 27) b . 
 
 Obs. 7. Of the ablative instead of the accusative in expressing the du- 
 ration of an action, see §. 235, Obs. 3. 
 
 §. 277. A substantive (or substantive pronoun) combined with, 
 an adjective or participle or another substantive in apposition, by 
 ■which it is expressed as being in a certain state (rege vivo, te vivo, 
 rege mortuo, rege duce), is added in the ablative to a proposition, in 
 order to shew that that which is therein asserted takes place during 
 this state of the person or thing mentioned {ablativi conseqventiae 
 or ablativi absoluti, also duo ablativi). This ablative denotes either 
 simply a particular time (e. g. factum est rege vivo, while the king 
 lived) or the way in which the action is performed, and the relation 
 to it of some person or thing (e. g. bellum gestum est rege duce, so 
 that the king was commander, i. q. under the king's command). 
 This relation (as an occasion, contrast, and the like) is expressed 
 in English by a great variety of phrases-: Augustus natus est Cicerone 
 et Antonio consulibus (in the consulate of Cicero and Antony) ; 
 iisdem consulibus Catilinae conjuratio erupit (under the same con- 
 suls), Pythagoras Tarqvinio Superbo regnant e in Italiam venit (in 
 the reign of Tarquin). Regibus ejectis consules creari coepti sunt 
 (after the expulsion of the kings). Antonius Caesare ignaro ma- 
 gister eqvitxim constitutus est (without Caesar's knowledge). Hoc 
 factum est me invito. Nihil de hac re agi potest salvis legibus (Cic. 
 ad Fam. I. 2), so that the laws should not be violated, i. q. without 
 violating the laws. Lex Cassia lata est Scipione auctore (Id. Legg. 
 III. 16), at the instigation, or by the advice of Scipio. Quo auctore 
 t ant am rem aggressus es ? Nonne simillimis formis saepe dispares 
 mores sunt et moribus simillimis figur a dissimilis est? (Id. N. D. I. 
 35), do we not often find different characters under the same ex- 
 terior ? (Aestu magno ducere agmen, Id. Tusc. II. 15, in very hot 
 weather. Tabulas in foro, summa hominum freqventia, exscribo, 
 Id. Verr. II. 77, in the midst of a great crowd; compare §. 257.) 
 A negative may also be attached to the adjective or participle; 
 factum hoc est me non invito. 
 
 Obs. 1. In this way the contents of a whole proposition with its acces- 
 sory ideas may be expressed by means of a participle as a circumstance 
 
 b For die (anno) decimo postqvam, we find (without the preposition) die (anno) decimo 
 qvam, e. g. Anno trecentesimo altero, qvam condita Roma est, itentm mutatur forma civ/ talis 
 (Liv. III. 33). (Postridie qvam, postero die qvam.) So likewise it is said : Intra qv'm- 
 tv.m, qvam affuerat, diem (Svet. Jul. 35), hefore the fifth day after. 
 
 I i i 
 
242 Syntax.— Part I. §. 277— 
 
 belonging to another, e. g. hoslibus post acre praellum a littore submotis, 
 Caesar castra posuit. See §. 428 and 429. 
 
 Obs. 2. A simple demonstrative pronoun may sometimes stand in place 
 of the adjective: Qvid hoc populo obtineri potest (Cic. Legg. III. 16), 
 what measure can be carried, so long as the people is such as it now is, 
 or, with the present people c ? 
 
 Obs. 3. In a few particular expressions an external circumstance is in- 
 timated still more briefly by the ablative of a single word, e. g. sereno 
 (Liv. XXXVII. 3), with a fair sky : austro (Cic. Div. II. 27), in a south 
 wind, when the wind is southerly. 
 
 §. 278. a.) Since the Latin ablative has such a variety of mean- 
 ings, several ablatives of different signification may be referred to 
 the same predicate, when the sense is sufficiently clear from other 
 considerations : Et legibus et institutis (§. 255) vacat senectus mune- 
 ribus Us (§. 260) qvae non possunt sine viribus sustineri (Cic. Cat. M. 
 11). Catilina scelerum exercitatione ( § . 254) assvef actus erat f rigor e 
 et fame et siti perferendis (§. 267). (Id. in Cat. II. 5). Menippus 
 meo judicio (§. 255, Obs. 3) tota Asia (§. 273 c) illis temporibus 
 (§. 276) disertissimus erat (Cic. Brut. 91). 
 
 b) An ablative, which denotes reference (§. 253), or the means 
 (§. 254), as well as an ablative of place (§. 273 a, 274, 275), or of 
 time (§. 276), is sometimes joined immediately to a verbal substan- 
 tive, and not to the predicate of the proposition, e. g. Harum ipsa- 
 rum rerum reapse, non oratione, perfectio (Cic. Rep. I. 2) ; exercitus 
 nostri interitus ferro, fame, frigore, pestilentia (Id. in Pis. 17) : 
 mansio Formiis (Id. ad Att. IX. 5) ; reditus Narbone (Id. Phil. II. 
 30) ; ilia universorum civium Romanorwn per tot urbes uno puncto 
 temporis miser a crudelisqve caedes (Id. pro Elacc. 25). [Bello civili 
 victor). This however is rare. (Compare §. 298.) 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Genitive. 
 
 §. 279. The genitive of a word denotes that another stands with 
 It in the relation of connection, and is in this way denned by it. 
 The genitive serves chiefly to shew the relation of the substantive 
 so used to some other substantive (or word put substantively), so 
 
 c \_Itaqve ego ilium exercitum, et Gallicanis legionibus, et hoc delectu, qvem in agro Pi- 
 ceno et Gallico Q Metellus habuit, et his copiis, qvae a nobis qvotidie comparantur, magno 
 opere contemno (Cic. in Cat. II. 3.)] 
 
—280. Chap. V. — Genitive. 243 
 
 that both substantives in combination express one idea ; it is, how- 
 ever, also combined with some adjectives and verbs. 
 
 Obs. The connection denoted by the genitive may be divided principally 
 into three kinds. It is either an immediate one between two substantive 
 ideas, of which one is conceived as belonging to the other and defined by 
 it (patria Jiominis, patria nostra), genitivus conjunctiva et possessivus, 
 or it is shewn in the direction of an energy or quality to some object, and 
 in a striving after or engaging in it {studium gloriae, studiosus gloriae, 
 oblivisci rei, studium nostri), genitivus objectivus, or it represents a thing 
 as subordinate to something else as its whole (pars rei, pars nostrum) , 
 genitivus totius, g. generis et partitivus. To these leading classes are to 
 be subjoined some more special applications. In some applications the 
 primary notion cannot be ascertained with certainty. 
 
 §. 280. The genitive with a substantive is used to distinguish 
 the name of a person or thing, to which something belongs (by 
 relationship, possession, origin, or mutual relation and position, 
 or as an action, quality, contents, and appurtenance), so that it 
 may be named or denoted by it (genitivus conjunctivus et posses- 
 sivus) ; filius Ciceronis, servus Titii, dominus Stichi ; horti Caesa- 
 ris ; tabula Apellis (a picture by Apelles) ; Cupido Praxitelis (the 
 Cupid — a statue— of Praxiteles) ; libri Ciceronis (the books of 
 Cicero, either as author or possessor) ; hostis Romanorum (an 
 enemy of the Romans) ; fuga Pompeji ; consvetudo nostri tempo- 
 ris : hominum genus (the race of men, the race which they consti- 
 tute) ; poena sceleris ; laus recte factcrum ; vasa abaci (the vessels 
 belonging to the side-board) ; frumentum triginta dierum (corn for 
 thirty days, as much as thirty days require) ; animus patris (the 
 disposition of the father or a father (i. q. a fatherly disposition) ; 
 comitia consulum (the assembly for the election of consuls, i. q. 
 that in which they are elected). 
 
 Obs. 1. The relation, which in Latin is denoted by the genitive, is usually 
 expressed in English by a preposition (especially of), or by a substantive 
 and adjective, e. g. ordo mercatorum, the mercantile class, bellum servorum, 
 the war with the slaves (also bellum sen 
 
 Obs. 2. The substantive which governs the genitive may be omitted, if 
 it precedes in a corresponding member of the sentence (especially if com- 
 bined with another genitive), and would have to be repeated either in the 
 same case or another easy to be determined (e. g. by a preposition affixed) ; 
 Meo judicio stare tnalo qvam omnium reliqyorum (Cic. ad Att. XII. 21). 
 Perspicuum est, benevolentiae vim esse magnam, metus imbecillam (Id. Off. 
 II. 8). Qvis potest sine maxima contumelia conferre vitam Trebonii cum 
 
 ii2 
 
24 i Syntax.— Part I. §. 28( 
 
 DoldbeUae? (Id. Phil. XI. 4.) Mehat pater defdii morte.de patris films 
 (Id. Verr. I. 30). (On the other hand: Nulla est celeritas, qvae possit 
 cum animi celeritate contendere, Id. Tusc. I. 19). A pronoun (hie or ille), 
 answering to the word understood, is rarely inserted before the genitive, 
 and only when direct reference is made to something already known or 
 mentioned shortly before : Nullam enim virtus aliam mercedem laborum 
 'periculorumqye desiderat praeterhanclaudis et gloriae (Cic. pro Arch. 11), 
 except this, of which I have already spoken. (Expressions like the fol- 
 lowing : Videtisne captivorum orationem cum perfugis convenire [Caes. B. 
 C. II. 39], instead of cum perfugarum [so. oratione] : or, Ingenia nostro- 
 rum liominum multum ceteris hominihus praestiterunt [Cic. de Or. I. 4], 
 instead of ceterorum hominum ingeniis, result from an inaccurate way of 
 thinking, the person or thing itself being put in the place of that which 
 belongs to it). 
 
 Ohs. 3. The word aedes or templum is often omitted (elliptically) after 
 the preposition ad (sometimes after ah) before the genitive of the name of 
 the divinity : Ventum erat ad Vestae. JPugnatum est ad Spei, 
 
 Ohs. 4. A man's wife or son (daughter) is in a few instances briefly ex- 
 pressed by the genitive alone : Verania Pisonis (Plin. Ep. II. 20), Piso's 
 Verania, i.q. Piso's wife Verania : Hasdruhal Oisgonis (Liv. XXV. 37), 
 Gisgo's Hasdrubal, i. q. Hasdrubal the son of Gisgo, in opposition to an- 
 other famous Hasdrubal, the son of Hamilcar. Of sons this way of ex- 
 pression is chiefly used with names which are not Roman. (So likewise, 
 J?laccus Claudii, Flaccus the slave, or freedman of Claudius.) 
 
 Ohs. 5. Since a thing may belong to a person in various ways, it follows 
 that one and the same genitivus possessivus, combined with the same word, 
 may admit of two meanings, e. g. lihri Ciceronis. So also injuriae prae- 
 toris, the unjust acts of the praetor (active), and injuriae civium, the wrongs 
 suffered by the citizens (passive). 
 
 Ohs. 6. We may notice especially the use of the indeclinable substantive 
 instar, which in common language is used only in combination with a 
 genitive, to signify, as much as, the same (in compass, weight, importance) 
 as, Plato milii est instar omnium (Cic. Prut. 51, as good as all together) ; 
 Tiaec navis urhis instar inter ceteras Jiahere videbatur (Id. Verr. V. 34, to 
 be as it were a city) ; montis instar eqvus (Virg. Aen. II. 15, apposition ; 
 a horse like a mountain). 
 
 Ohs. 7. Of the genitive of a personal name with hoc, illud (that saying 
 of—), see §. 485 c. Ohs. 
 
 §.281. Instead of being joined immediately to the governing 
 substantive, a possessive genitive may be combined with it by 
 means of the verb sum or fio, so as to declare ivhose a thing is, or 
 

 —282. Chap. V.— Genitive. 215 
 
 becomes, or to whom it belongs : Domus est patris. Ego totus 
 Pompeji sum (Cic. ad Fain. II. 13). Hie versus Plauti non est (Id. 
 ibid. IX. 16; is not by Plautus). Omnia, qvae mulieris fuerunt, 
 virifiunt (Id. Top. 4). Thebae populi Romani belli jure factae sunt 
 (Liv. XXIII. 13). In the same way facio expresses whose pro- 
 perty a thing is made, puto, habeo, eocistimo, whose it is supposed 
 to be, e. g. Neqve gloriam meam, laborem illorum faciam (Sail. Jug. 
 85), I will not take the glory to myself and leave the toil to them. 
 
 05s. From this use of sum with the genitive, signifying, to be some 
 one's, to belong to some one, is derived the expression, aliqvid est meiju- 
 dicii, is for me to decide, esse dicionis Cartliaginiensium, to be under the 
 jurisdiction of the Carthaginians (Liv. XXX. 9), and facere aliqyid suae 
 dicionis, potestatis, arbitrii, to bring a thing under one's own power, make 
 it dependent on one's own disposal : Romani imperio audi, ATbani dicionis 
 alienae facii erant (Liv. I. 25). Marcettus id nee juris nee potestatis suae 
 esse dixit (Id. XXV. 7, that he had neither the right nor the power). 
 
 §. 282. The genitive with the verb sum also denotes to whom or 
 what a thing belongs, as being suitable and appropriate : Non hujus 
 temporis ista oratio est (is not suited to). Petulantia magis est ado- 
 lescentium qvam senum (is more appropriate). In this way espe- 
 cially a genitive (or a possessive pronoun) is often combined by 
 sum with an infinitive for the subject, to express what is any one's 
 affair (task, duty, custom, &c), what is the nature (characteristic 
 sign) of a thing : Cujusvis hominis est errare, nullius, nisi insipientis 
 in err ore perseverare (Cic. Phil. XII. 2), to err is the lot of every 
 man, may happen to every man. Est boni judicis parvis ex rebus 
 conjectur am facere. Secundas res immoderate ferre levitatis est (be- 
 trays weakness of character) . Nihil est tarn angusti animi tamqve 
 parvi qvam amare divitias (Cic. Off. I. 20). [Tempori cedere semper 
 sapientis habitum est, Cic. ad Fam. IV. 9, has always been con- 
 sidered fitting for a wise man.) 
 
 Obs. 1. It is more definitely expressed thus: judicis officium {munus) 
 est ; sapientis est proprium, &c. Humanum est errare. Stidti est inan- 
 ibus rebus commoveri, it is peculiar to the fool, a distinguishing mark of 
 the fool : stultum est, it is foolish. With adjectives of one termination 
 the first form is almost always employed : Est prudentis sustinere impe- 
 tum benevolentiae (Cic. Lael. 17). We should hardly say, Est prudens 
 sust. imp. ben. 
 
 Obs. 2. The following construction is worthy of notice : JS r egavit moris 
 esse Graecorum, at in convivio virorum mulieres accumberent (Cic. Verr. 
 I. 26), that it was consistent with the manners of the Greeks d . 
 d [Est hoc Gallicae consuetudinis (Cacs. B. G. IV. 5).] 
 
216 Syntax.— Part I. §.2 
 
 §. 283. A genitive is put in Latin with substantives of transitive 
 signification (i. e. those which denote an idea referring to some- 
 thing else as its object), in order to express the object referred to 
 (genitivus objectivus). Such substantives are those which are de- 
 rived from transitive verbs, and express the notion of the verb, and 
 others, which denote an affection (antipathy), knowledge (igno- 
 rance), or a power, capacity, or influence, e. g. indagatio veri, accu- 
 satio sceleratorum, amor Dei (love to God, amare Deum), odium 
 hominum (misanthropy), timor hostium (fear entertained of the 
 enemy), spes sahttis, cura rerum alienarum, fuga laboris, studium 
 severitatis, studium Pompejanarum partium, cupiditas gloriae, fames 
 auri ; scientia juris, peritia belli, ignoratio veri; potestas {copia) rei 
 alicujus [facere alicui potestatem dicendi) ; signum erumpendi (for 
 breaking out) ; occasio et locus pugnae (pugnandi) ; materia joco- 
 rum ; libertas dicendi ; praecepta vivendi (rules for life). 
 
 Ols. 1. Amor Dei, timor hostium may also signify (as the genitivus pos- 
 sessivus according to §. 280) : God's love (to others), fear entertained by 
 the enemy. The context shews which signification is to be adopted. 
 
 01 s. 2. With those words which denote a feeling towards any one, the 
 prepositions in, erga, and adversus are also used, e. g. odium mulierum, 
 and odium in hominum universum genus (Cic. Tusc. IV. 11). Meum erga 
 te studium. Adliibenda est reverentia qvaedam adversus homines, et optimi 
 cujusqye et reliqyorum (Cic. Off. I. 28). The preposition is especially to 
 be used when the governing word itself stands in the genitive : Si qyid 
 amoris erga one in te residet (Id. ad Fam. V. 5). 
 
 Ohs. 3. This genitive therefore with verbal substantives has the same 
 meaning as the accusative with the verb (or the genitive with the verbs 
 adduced below, §. 291 and 292: memoria beneficiorum, taedium vitae) e . 
 Yet verbal substantives, whose verbs do not govern the accusative, are 
 sometimes put with the genitive, in order to indicate a more remote re- 
 ference to something to which the action is directed, and in which it shews 
 itself, and which forms a compound idea together with the verbal sub- 
 stantive, e. g. aditus laudis (an opportunity for glory) ; incitamentum 
 periculorum {incitare aliqyem ad pericula) ; amicitia est omnium divina- 
 rum humanarumqye rerum cum oenevolentia et caritate consensio (Cic. 
 Lael. 6), agreement in f : vacatio militiae ; jiducia virium ; victoria belli 
 civilis ; contentio lionorum (Cic. Off. I. 25), the struggle for offices : 
 magnam virtutis opinionem habere (Caes. B. G. VII. 5D), to have the re- 
 putation of great bravery. (But the genitive is never used to signify 
 concerning, de, when a speech or judgment about a thing is to be 
 
 e |~The same notion is often expressed by a substantive combined with the passi\e 
 participle, see §.426.] 
 
 1 [Citerarum rerum sapicntia (Cic. Cat. Maj. 2).] 
 
-284. Chap. V.— Genitive. 247 
 
 expressed). In the same way we find with the names of persons, dux 
 belli (the leader in the war), victor trium bellorum (Liv. VI. 4), magister 
 officii. (The objective genitive with a substantive corresponds but very 
 rarely with the dative with verbs, as obseqvium corporis, Gic. Leg. I. 23, 
 except in the instance of studiwn). 
 
 Obs. 4. An objective genitive may sometimes be connected with the 
 governing substantive by the verb sum, e. g. Ars est earum rerum, qvae 
 sciuntur (Cic. Or. II. 7, an art applies to those things that are known). 
 
 §. 284. The genitive is put with words which denote a part of a 
 thing, in order to designate the whole, which is divided (genitivus 
 partitivus). The words which express partition may be substantives, 
 numerals (cardinal and ordinal), and adjectives of number (multi, 
 pauci, &c), pronouns, adjectives of the superlative degree (or the 
 comparative for the superlative), and in the neuter used as sub- 
 stantives : Magna pars militum ; duo genera civium (two classes of 
 citizens) ; multi militum (many of the soldiers ; multi milites, many 
 soldiers) ; tertius regum Romanorum ; alter accusatorum ; nemo mor- 
 talium (nemo mortalis, no mortal) ; solus omnium ; illi Graecorum, 
 qvi (those of the Greeks, who) ; fortissimus Graecorum ; plerumqve 
 Europae (the greater part of Europe). Ager Appulus, qvod ejus 
 publicum populi Romani erat, divisus est (Liv. XXXI. 4, so much 
 of it as was state property). 
 
 Obs. 1. Instead of the genitive the prepositions ex, de, and in certain 
 combinations in or inter, among, are also used, e. g. inelior ex duobus, alter 
 de duobus, aliqvis de lieredibus, unus e tribus (one of three ; qyorum unus — ■ 
 alter, distributively) : Tliales sapientissimus in septemfuit (Cic. Legg. II. 
 11) : inter omnes unus excellit (Id. Or. 2). But a partitive substantive is 
 not readily combined by a preposition with another substantive (not pars 
 ex exercitu). Concerning the use of a distributive apposition (consules 
 alter — alter), instead of a proper division (consilium alter — alter), see 
 §.217, Obs. 1. 
 
 Obs. 2. A partitive genitive may also be governed by a substantive, 
 which does not in itself signify a part, if several persons or things are de- 
 signated by one name and then mentioned severally : Venio ad ipsas pro- 
 vincias, qvarum (of which) Macedonia, qvae erat antea munita et pacata, 
 graviter a barbaris vexatur (Cic. Prov. Cons. 2). On the other hand a 
 partitive genitive is rarely combined with the subject by sum without 
 a governing noun, as in the following instances : Ariminenses erant duo- 
 decim coloniarum (Cic. pro Caec. 35), were of, belonged to, the twelve 
 colonies. Fies nobilium tu qvoqye fontium (Hor. Od. III. 13, 13), one of 
 the famous fountains. 
 
248 Syntax.— Part I. §.284 
 
 Obs. 3. The word uterqve is always used with the genitive of pronouns 
 (uterqve eorum, both of them, uterqve nostrum, both of us) ; with substan- 
 tives, on the contrary, it is generally put as an adjective ; uterqve f rater 
 (rarely uterqve legatorum, Veil. II. 50). 
 
 Obs. 4. The adverb partim is used as a partitive adjective in the nomi- 
 native and accusative with the genitive or a preposition. Partim eorum 
 ficta aperte, partim effutita temere sunt (Cic. Div. II. 55). Fartim e nobis 
 timidi sunt, partim a republica aversi (Cic. Phil. VIII. 11). (The gender 
 is regulated by the leading idea.) 
 
 Obs. 5. The use of a neuter adjective in the singular or plural as a sub- 
 stantive with the genitive, to denote a part (or parts) of a thing, is rare 
 in the earlier writers (Cicero), with the exception of dimidium, half, e. g. 
 dimidium pecuniae (Cic. Q. Fr. II. 4), but common at a later period and 
 in the poets : medium (reliqvum) noctis ; extremum aestatis ; ad ultimum 
 inopiae (Liv. XXIII. 19), to the extremity of want : plana urbis ; ultima 
 Orientis, In the older writers it is media nox, extrema aestas ; ultimus 
 Oriens (see §. 311) : plana urbis loca. In the poets and later writers the 
 partitive idea often disappears, and only the quality of the thing is ex- 
 pressed, e. g. incerta belli, the uncertainty (accidents) of war : lubricum 
 pallidum, slippery marshy ground (Tac. Ann. I. 65) s. 
 
 Obs. 6. In some rare instances an adjective, that is neither an adjec- 
 tive of quantity, nor yet in the neuter gender, is used substantively with 
 a partitive genitive, e. g. expediti militum (Liv. XXX. 9), the light- 
 armed of the soldiers. 
 
 Obs. 7. Beginners must observe, that in English the numerals and the 
 adjectives, many, few, none, are often put with a genitive, where no par- 
 tition is intended, but an enumeration of the whole ; in such cases neither 
 a genitive nor a preposition which signifies division can be employed in 
 Latin : but it is expressed as follows : amici, qvos multos habet (of whom 
 he has many), and qvos video esse nonnullos (Cic. pro Balb. 27), of whom 
 I perceive there are some. Hominibus opus est eruditis, qvi adhuc, in hoe 
 qvidem genere, nostri nulli fuerunt (Cic. de Or. III. 24), of whom there 
 have been none with us. Veniamus ad vivos, qvi duo de consularium nu- 
 mero reliqvi sunt (Cic. Phil. II. 6). 
 
 Obs. 8. The partitive genitive may also be governed by an adverb in 
 the superlative, to shew of which among many the predicate holds good 
 in the highest degree : Sulpicius Gallus omnium nobilium maxime Qraecis 
 litteris studuit (Cic. Brut. 20). 
 
 Obs. 9. With the pronominal adverbs of place, which denote the extent 
 of a motion, we find a genitive signifying, up to a certain point (degree) 
 
 £ In poetical language also cuncta terrarum (Hor. Od. II. 1, 23), the whole of the 
 earth, and (according to Obs. 6) cuncti hominum. 
 
—285. Chap. V.— Genitive. 249 
 
 
 of something : Nescire videmini, qyo ameniiae progressi sitis (Liv. XXVIII. 
 27). Eo miseriarum venturus eram (Sail. Jug. 40). Of the same cha- 
 racter is the phrase, qvoad ejus facer e poteris, fieri poterit. 
 
 Obs. 10. The genitive loci is sometimes subjoined to the pronominal 
 adverbs of place to define them more exactly (antiquated) : ibidem loci 
 res erit (literally, the matter will be in the same point of place) ; but 
 especially locorum, terrarum, gentium, in order to strengthen the expres- 
 sion : Ubinam gentium sumus ? Ubicumqye terrarum et gentium violatum 
 jus civium Romanorum est, ad communem libertatis causam pertinet (Cic. 
 Verr. V. 55). Nusqyam gentium, nowhere in the world. {Longe gen- 
 tium.) Of the same kind are the idioms postea loci, afterwards (pro- 
 perly, at a later point of time), inter ea loci, in the mean time, adliuc lo- 
 corum, till now. 
 
 Obs. 11. It is further to be observed, that the ablatives, hoc, eo, eodem, 
 qyo, are sometimes put substantively with the genitive loci (eo loci), for 
 hoc loco, eo loco, &c. 
 
 §.285. a. The genitive is put with words which denote a number, 
 a measure, or a quantity, in order to denote the kind, the thing 
 measured or counted (genitivus generis) : Magnus numerus militum ; 
 magna vis argenti ; acervus frumenti ; modius tritici ; vini tres am- 
 phorae ; ala eqvitum. Auri navis (Cic. Fin. IV. 37), a ship-load 
 of gold; flumina lactis, rivers of milk (Ovid). Tria millia eqvitum ; 
 see §. 72. 
 
 Obs. So also sex dies spatii (Caes. B. C. I. 3, properly six days' term), 
 a term of six days (also spatium sex dierum) ; sestertii bini accessionis 
 (Cic. Verr. III. 49), two sesterces addition (accessio duorum sestertiorum, 
 an addition of two sesterces). Praedae hominum pecorumqve. Imber 
 sangvinis h . 
 
 b. This genitive is governed by the nom. or ace. sing, neutr. of 
 an adjective of quantity (multum, plurimum, amplius, minus, mini- 
 mum, tantum, qvantum, tantundem, nimium, sometimes eociguum'\ 
 or of a (demonstrative, relative, or indefinite) pronoun, and by 
 nihil, the neuter being placed as a substantive, in order to give 
 prominence to the idea of a certain measure, or a certain kind : 
 Multum temporis in aliqva re ponere ; minimum firmitatis habere ; 
 id negotii habeo ; hoc praemii ; hoc tantum laboris itinerisqve (Cic. 
 Verr. V. 49) ; nihil virium ; qvod roboris erat (what there was in 
 strength — the strength which there was). Qvidqvid habui militum, 
 misi. Quid mihi consilii datis ? Qvid tu hominis es ? (Ter. Heaut. 
 
 h [The two last, however, seem more properly to belong to the genitivus definitivus.'] 
 1 Not magnum or parvum. 
 
 Kk 
 
250 Syntax,— Part I. §. 285- 
 
 IV. 6, 7), what sort of man are you? Exiguum campi (Liv. XXVII. 
 27 k ). Where this idea is not put prominently forward, we find 
 simply tantum studium, tarda [tarn multd) opera; qvod consilium 
 mihi datis ? &c. (Plus operae=major opera, plus itself not being 
 used as an adjective.) 
 
 The above adjectives and pronouns may also have for their geni- 
 tive a neuter adjective of the second declension, which stands as a 
 substantive : aliqvid pulchri ; gviddam novi ; nihil boni ; tantum 
 mali ; hoc incommodi ; qvod pulchri erat, omne sublatum est (what- 
 ever beautiful things there were) ; but also, aliqvid pulchrum ; nihil 
 altum, nihil magnificum cogitare. (The adjectives of the third declen- 
 sion are not employed in this way ; we always find the form aliqvid me- 
 morabile. The adjectives of quantity are combined with another adjec- 
 tive only in the genitive in the singular : plurimum novi ; the other con- 
 struction occurs only in the plural : plurima nova, §. 301 b ; plura nova). 
 
 Obs. 1. Such an adjective or pronoun with a genitive cannot be go- 
 verned by a preposition ; we must say ad tantum studium, not ad tantum 
 studii. Yet we find ad multum diei (ad multum diem), till late in the day, 
 and ad id loci (locorum), up to that point, up to that time. 
 
 Ols. 2. The student should notice the expressions, nihil reliqvi facere 
 (literally, to make no residue, i. e. to leave nothing remaining, undone), 
 and nihil pensi habere (lit. to have nothing weighed, i. e. to care for no- 
 thing : nee qvicqvam Us pensi est, qvid faciant, Liv. XXXIV. 49). 
 
 c. In the same way the adverbs satis, abunde, affatim, nimis, and 
 parum, are used as substantives in the nominative and accusative 
 (but not after prepositions) with the genitive ; Satis copiarum 
 habes ; parum prudentiae (too little prudence). 
 
 §. 286. Sometimes a substantive containing a more general idea 
 is followed by another in the genitive, by which the former is de- 
 noted more specifically (genitivus definitivus) ; Vox voluptatis (the 
 word pleasure) ; nomen regis (the kingly name, the name of king 1 ) ; 
 verbum monendi (the word monere) ; numerus trecentorum (the num- 
 ber three hundred) : opus Academicorum, the treatise Academica; 
 familia Scipionum, the family Scipio ; consvetudo contra deos dispu- 
 tandi, the habit of disputing against the gods. (The genitive of the 
 gerund is often used in this way m .) (Arbor fici, arbor abietis, the 
 fig-tree, the fir-tree.) 
 
 k [Cur sui qvidqvam esse imperii aut potestatis trans PJienum postularet (Caes. 
 B. G. IV. 16).] 
 
 1 But also in a possessive signification ; the name of the king, e. g. Frederic, &c. 
 m [Injuriae retentorum equitum Romanorum (Caes. de Bell. Gall. III. 10).] 
 
—287, Chap. Y,— Genitive. 251 
 
 Obs. 1 . In Latin two substantives can never be connected immediately 
 (without apposition) in the same case, except when a person or a place is- 
 indicated at once by its generic and proper name {Rex Ttdlius, urbs 
 Roma, amnis RJienus, terra Italia). In geographical designations the 
 proper name is also put in some few instances (chiefly by the poets) in 
 the genitive : tellus Ausoniae (Virg. Aen, III. 477), the land of Ausonia: 
 celsa Butliroti urbs (Id. ib. III. 293) : promontoriicm Pacliyni (Liv. 
 XXIV. 35). 
 
 Obs. 2. In this way the genitive sometimes supplies the place of appo- 
 sition, when a general idea is followed by the special one which contains 
 it, e. g. Parvae causae vel falsae suspicionis vel repentini terroris (Caes. 
 B. C. III. 72), small causes, which consist in false suspicion or sudden 
 alarm 11 . Aliis virtutibus, continentiae, gravitatis, justitiae, fidei, te con- 
 sulatu dignum putavi (Cic. pro Mur. 10). Unum genus est infestum nobis 
 eorum, qyos P. Clodii furor rapinis pavit (Id. pro Mil. 2), the class which 
 consists of those persons. 
 
 Obs. 3. If by the aid of the verb sum a substantive is explained by an- 
 other, which might have been combined with it without a verb in the 
 genitive case to form a single idea, the genitive is often put with sum, and 
 not the nominative, the subject being understood as repeated after sum ; 
 Unum genus est eorum, qvi, &c. (Cic. in Cat. II. 8), one class is that of 
 those, consists of those. Captivorum numerus fuit septem millium ac du- 
 centorum (Liv. X. 36), the number of the prisoners was 7200 {numerus 
 septem millium .) Major pars Atlieniensium erat (Just. V. 10), the 
 greater part was of Athenians, consisted of Athenians ; but also Prae- 
 oiestini maxima pars fuere (Liv. XXIII. 19). 
 
 §. 287. The genitive of a substantive with an adjective (numeral, 
 participle, pronoun) is either put with a substantive immediately 
 by way of description, or is connected with a subject by the verb 
 sum, in order to shew its nature and properties, its requirements, 
 its size and kind (genitivus qvalitatis, the descriptive genitive), a. 
 Juvenis mitis ingenii ; vir et consilii magni et virtutis ; civitaies 
 magnae auctoritatis ; plurimarum palmarum vetus gladiator (Cic. 
 Rose. Am. 6), an old gladiator, who has obtained many victories. 
 Natura humana imbecilla atqve aevi brevis est (Sail. Jug. 1). b. res 
 magni laboris (which require much labour) : hospes multi cibi (Cic. 
 Earn. IX. 26). c. classis trecentarum navium ; fossa centum pedum ; 
 exsilium decern annorum ; homo infimi generis ; multi omnium gene- 
 rum, (Cic. de Or. II. 9), many men of every kind : vir ordinis sena- 
 torii ; omnes gravioris aetatis (Caes. B. G. III. 16), all men of ad- 
 
 n Otherwise causa suspicionis would denote ' the cause of the suspicion.' 
 [Humerus erat qvinqve millium (Caes. B. G. IV. 12). J 
 
 Kk2 
 
252 Syntax.— Part 1. § 287 
 
 vanccd age. Virtus tantarum virium non est (Cic. Tusc. V. 1). 
 Hoc non est tanti laboris, qvanti videtur. Classis fuit trecentarum 
 navium. (Also, Critognatus magnae auctoritatis in Arvernis habitus 
 est [Caes. B. G. VII. 77~], passed for an influential man. Caesar 
 diversarum partium habebatur [Svet. Jul. 1], it was supposed that 
 Caesar belonged to the opposite party. Di me finocerunt animi 
 pusilli [Hor. Sat. I. 4, 17], have created me pusillanimous.) 
 
 Obs. 1. We must particularly notice the descriptive compounds of the 
 genitive modi with a pronoun, which are used altogether as undeclinable 
 adjectives : hujusmodi, ejusmodi, illiusmodi, istiusmodi, ejusdemmodi, cujus- 
 modi (relat. and interrog.) cujuscunqyemodi, cuicuimodi, cijitsqvemodi, e. g. 
 ejusmodi causa, ejusmodi causae, &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. The descriptive genitive resembles the descriptive ablative 
 (§. 272) : but the genitive denotes more the general nature and kind of 
 the subject {of), while the ablative rather puts forward particular quali- 
 ties and circumstances belonging to it (with.) In many instances these 
 two forms of expression are either not at all or very slightly distinguished, 
 e. g. Neqve monere te audeo, praestanti prudentia virum, neqiie confirmare, 
 maximi animi liominem (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 8). In the older writers 
 (Cicero) the ablative is used of qualities in general more frequently than 
 the genitive. But to express the requisites for a thing, its size and kind, 
 the genitive alone (not the ablative) is employed (see the examples under 
 b and c). On the other hand the ablative only, and not the genitive, is 
 used to express its constitution with reference to its external parts : JBri- 
 tanni sunt capillo promisso atqpe omni parte corporis rasa praeter caput 
 et labrum superius (Caes. B. G. V. 14). We always say esse bono animo 
 to be of good courage), animo forti et erecto, ea mente ut, &c, of the 
 state of mind, but maximi animi homo, of the whole character. (A man 
 of genius, of character, homo ingeniosus, gravis). 
 
 Obs. 3. The descriptive genitive and ablative are both generally sub- 
 joined to an indefinite appellative noun (as we also say in English, " Han- 
 nibal, a general of great ability," not, " Hannibal, of great ability"). Yet 
 single exceptions are met with : Turn T. Manlius Torqyatus, priscae ac 
 nimis durae severitatis, ita locutus fertur (Liv. XXII. 60). Agesilaus, an- 
 novum octoginta, in Aegyptum pvofectus est (Corn. Ages. 8), as an old man 
 of eighty, at the age of eighty P. 
 
 §. 288. Since the genitive is combined with another substantive in 
 various significations, it may sometimes happen, if no ambiguity results 
 from it, that two genitives may be attached to the same substantive, each 
 with its own proper signification : Superiorum dierum Sabini cunctatio 
 
 p [Praestanti sapientia et nobilitate Pythagoras (Cic. Tusc. Disp. IV. 1). Iccius Re- 
 mus, summa nobilitate et gratia inter suos (Caes. B. G. II. 6).] 
 
-289. Chap. V. — Genitive. 253 
 
 (Caes. B. G. III. 18), the delay of Sabinus during the preceding days; 
 because we say, super iorum dierum cwictatio, the delay of the preceding 
 days'*. Scaevolae dicendi elegantia (Cic. Brut. 44). Labor est functio 
 qvaedam vel animi vel corporis gravioris operis et mtmeris (Id. Tusc. II. 
 15), the execution by the soul or body of a work or office somewhat diffi- 
 cult. One genitive may be governed by another, e. g. Haec fuit causa 
 intermissionis litterarum (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 13), Erat majestatis populi 
 Bomani prohibere injuriam (Sail. Jug. 14). Reminiscere incommodi populi 
 JRomani et pristinae civitatis Helvetiorum (Caes. B. G. I. 14) ; but such 
 combinations tend to make the style awkward or obscure r . 
 
 §. 289. The genitive is employed (as a genitivus objectivus) with 
 many adjectives which denote a quality that is directed to a certain 
 object (transitive adjectives). (Compare §. 283 on the objective 
 genitive with substantives.) Such adjectives are the following : 
 
 a. All participles in the present from transitive verbs, when they 
 stand as pure adjectives, i. e. when they are not used to signify a 
 relation or action at a particular time, but denote a quality in 
 general, and the adjectives in ax formed from transitive verbs : 
 amans reipublicae civis {amantior reipublicae, amantisshnus rei- 
 publicae ; see §. 62) ; negotii gerens (carrying on a business) ; inju- 
 riarum perferens (but if an adverb be subjoined the participle has 
 usually the construction of the verb : homo facile injur ias perferens) ; 
 patiens laboris atqve frig oris; appetens gloriae* ; tenax propositi vir ; 
 tempus edax rerum ; capacissimus cibi viniqve. 
 
 b. Those adjectives which denote a desire for a thing or expe- 
 rience in anything (knowledge), or the reverse (dislike, inexpe- 
 rience [ignorance], the being unaccustomed to a thing), as, avarus, 
 avidus, cupidus, studiosus (fastidiosus), conscius, inscius, nescius, gnarus, 
 ignarus, peritus, imperitus, prudens, rudis, insolens (insolitus), insvetus, 
 memor, immemor, and sometimes those which denote forethought or want 
 of forethought (providus, diligens, curiosus, incuriosus), e. g. cupidus 
 gloriae, studiosus litterarum, peritus belli, ignarus rerum omnium, 
 insvetus male audiendi, memor beneficii ; vir omnis officii diligentis- 
 simus (Cic. pro Gael. 30)*. 
 
 Obs. 1. Such is also the construction of consultus in jurisconsultus, 
 one acquainted with law (but also jureconsultus), and certus in the phrase, 
 
 1 [Jamne vides, qvae sit hominum qverela front is tuae ? (Cic. in Pis. I).] 
 
 r [The following is an instance of three genitives : Eorum dierum consuetudine itineris 
 nostri exercitus perspecta (Caes. B. G. II. 17).] 
 
 3 [Citharae sciens (Hor. Od. III. 9, 10).] 
 
 1 [Rudis agminum sponsus (Hor. Od. Ill, 2, 9). Tmbrium divina avis immincntum 
 (U. ibid. 27, 10).] 
 
254 Syntax.— -Part I. §. 28< 
 
 certiorem alia v em facer e, e. g. consilii, voluntatis (but as frequently with 
 de). The poets and later writers employ also some other adjectives of 
 cognate signification in this way, e. g. callidus, doctus (doctissima fandi, 
 
 Virg.) u . 
 
 Obs. 2. Consents is sometimes put according to this rule with the object 
 in the genitive, and a dative of the person with whom one is privy to a 
 thing (according to §. 243), e.g. conscius alicui caedis, mens sibi conscia 
 recti, conscius sibi tanti sceleris (Sail. Cat. 34) ; sometimes also with the 
 dative of the thing to which a person is privy : conscius facinori, conscius 
 mendacio dlicujus. 
 
 Obs. 3. Rudis and prudens are also used with in ; prudens in jure 
 civili. (Also rudis ad pedestre certamen, unpractised with respect to a 
 foot contest; insvetus ad onera portanda.) 
 
 §. 290. Further an objective genitive is put 
 
 c. With those adjectives which denote power over a thing and 
 the opposite, as compos, impos, potens, impotens, e. g. compos mentis, 
 impotens eqvi regendi. 
 
 d. Those which denote a participation, a gnilty concern in any- 
 thing, and the reverse, as particeps, expers, consors, exsors, — reus (ac- 
 cused of a thing), affinis, manifestos, insons, e. g. particeps consilii, ex- 
 pers periculorumj reus furti (reum furti faciei), insons probri, affinis 
 rei capitalis. 
 
 Obs. In later writers noxius, innoxius, and suspectus are also so used. 
 Affinis has also the dative, see §. 247 b. Obs. 4. Consors is also used as 
 a substantive ; consors alicajus (any one's partner) in lucris atqve furtis. 
 
 e. Those adjectives which denote richness and plenty or defi- 
 ciency in anything, are put both with the genitive and ablative 
 (§. 268) ; mops and (poet.) pauper have the genitive only : inops 
 auxilii, pauper argenti (Hor.) ; and plenus is most frequently so 
 constructed : plenus rimarum ; vita insidiarum et metus plena x . 
 
 Obs. 1. Egenus, indigus, and sterilis are usually found only with the 
 genitive. 
 
 Obs. 2. In the same way are constructed with the genitive, prodigus, 
 profusus, lavish of (prodigusaeris), liberalis, liberal of (liberalis pecuniae, 
 Sail. Cat. 7), parens, sparing {parcissimus somni). 
 
 Obs. 3. In the poets those adjectives and participles which denote an 
 
 u [But dulces docta modos (Hor. Od. III. 9, 10). See §. 228 Obs.'] 
 
 x \_Pleni omnes sunt libri, plenae sapientium voces, plena exemplorum vetustas (Cic. pro 
 
 Arch. 6). Fecunda culpae saecula (Hor. Od. III. 6. 17). Inane lymphae dolium (Id. 
 
 ibid. II. 26).] 
 
"~ 29L Chap. V.— Genitive. 255 
 
 exemption from anything, take also the genitive according to the Greek 
 idiom; see §. 268 b. Obs. 2. 
 
 f. Similis and dissimilis govern sometimes the genitive and 
 sometimes the dative (see §.247 b, Obs. 2). Proprius, belonging 
 to, has the genitive, e. g. vitium proprium senectutis (rarely the 
 dative). Communis often has the genitive, e. g. Memoria communis 
 est multarum artium. Hoc commune est potentiae cupidorum cum 
 otiosis (Cic. Off. I. 21) ; but also the dative : Omni aetati mors est 
 communis (Id. Cat. M. 19) . 
 
 Obs. With the personal and reflective pronouns communis must always 
 be constructed with the dative, as in the following, commune mihi (tibi, 
 sibi) cum aliqyo. 
 
 g. The poets and later prose writers (e. g. Tacitus) used many 
 other adjectives besides with the genitive, to denote a certain 
 reference to a thing, which is otherwise expressed by the ablative 
 (with respect to) or by prepositions (de, in), e. g. modicus voluptatis 
 (m voluptate), atrox odii 3 integer vitae (vita), maturus aevi, lassus 
 maris ac viae (with the idea of a certain fulness and satiety), velus 
 militiae, ambiguus futuri (defuturo, with the notion of ignorance), 
 dubiusviae, certus eundU. Animi in particular is often put in this 
 way with adjectives which denote a certain state of feeling : aeger, 
 anxius, laetus, ingens animi (compare §. 296 b. Obs. 3) z . 
 
 §. 291. Those verbs also take a genitive (genitivus objective) 
 which signify to remember and forget (memini, reminiscor, obliviscor 
 very rarely recorder), and those which denote to remind (a person) 
 o/a thing (admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio) : Semper hujus did 
 et loci meminero. Oblivisci decoris et officii. Catilina admonebat 
 ahum egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sail. Cat. 21). Omnes tui 
 sceleris et crudelitatis ex ilia oratione commonefiunt (Cic. Verr. 
 
 Obs. 1. The accusative is often put with those verbs which signify to 
 remember, and to forget, most frequently with memini, when they denote 
 to have a thing in tie memory (knowledge of a thing) or the reverse (but 
 not to think of* thing, or not to think of it) ; memini numeros, si verba 
 tenerem (Virg. B. IX. 45). Oblivisci causam (to forget the case, of an 
 advocate). Antipatrum Sidonium tu probe meministi (Cic. de Or. III. 
 
 rum \u P tL2°7 r 7^ 0r ' ^ ^ * ^ ^* ""* ^ Aen ' L 178 )« ***■ «P- 
 z [Also notus animi (Hor. Od. II. 2, 6) ] 
 
 totS£: wia £ ™' bs denotes that the mM !s " * » <»*«*> »i i. 
 
256 Syntax.— Part I. §. 29 
 
 50), you still remember him, you knew him well. Pecordor, to remem- 
 ber, think of, almost always governs the accusative ; we also find recordor 
 de aliqvo. (Mentionem facio rei and de re). 
 
 Obs. 2. With admoneo, &c, we also have instead of the genitive the 
 accusative neuter of a pronoun or numeral adjective (§. 228 c) ; and 
 likewise the preposition de : Unoqvoqve gradu de avaritia tua commone- 
 mur (Cic. Verr. I. 59). 
 
 Obs. 3. The impersonal expression, venit mihi in mentem, (an idea strikes 
 me), is put in the same way as those verbs with the genitive : Venit mihi 
 Platonis in mentem (I proceed to Plato). Bat it is also used personally, 
 that which strikes a person being put as the subject : Non venit in men- 
 tem pugna apud Pegillum lacum (Liv. VIII. 5.) ? Venit mihi in mentem 
 vereri. 
 
 §. 292. The verb miser eor (miser esco), to pity, and the imper- 
 sonal verbs miseret (miserescit, miseretur), piget, poenitet, pudet, 
 taedet, pertaesum est, have the object of the feeling (the person or 
 thing which one pities, is ashamed of, &c.) in the genitive. (The 
 person who is ashamed, &c, is expressed by the accusative (§. 226). 
 Miserere laborum ! Miseret me fratris. Poenitet me consilii. Suae 
 qvemqve fortunae poenitet (Cic), every one is dissatisfied with his 
 lot. Hos homines infamiae suae neqve pudet neqve taedet. The 
 genitive with pudet also denotes the person, before whom the shame 
 is felt : Pudet me deorum hominumqve (Liv. III. 19). 
 
 Obs. Instead of the genitive we find also an infinitive of the action 
 which is the object of repentance, shame, &c. Pudet me Jiaec fateri. 
 With piget, poenitet, pudet, we have sometimes a demonstrative or rela- 
 tive pronoun in the neuter as a subject ; see §. 218. Obs. 2. (Poeniten- 
 dus, pudendus ; see §. 167. Obs). Miseror, commiseror, to bewail, govern 
 the accusative. 
 
 §. 293. With those verbs which signify to accuse, impeach, con- 
 vict, condemn, acquit, the name of the crime of which a person is 
 accused, &c, is put in the genitive, as with accuse-, incuso, insimulo, 
 arcesso (to charge one before a court of justice), postulo, ago cum aliqvo 
 (to bring an action against a person for —), arguo, coarguo, convinco, 
 damno, condemno, absolvo, e. g. accusare aliqvem furti ; damnari repe- 
 tundarum; convincere aliqvem maleficii; absolvere aliqvem impro- 
 bitatis. 
 
 Obs. 1. Besides the verbs cited a few others are also so constructed in 
 certain legal formulas, e. g. interrogare aliqvem ambitus (Sail. Cat. 18), to 
 charge a man with obtaining office corruptly ; judicatus pecuniae, con- 
 demned in a case relating to money (Liv. IV. 14). We should likewise 
 
294. Chap. V.— Genitive. 257 
 
 notice the participle compertus, convicted (of a thing), e. g. nullius probri 
 compertm^. 
 
 Obs. 2. The following construction is also used : accusare, posture, 
 damnare aliqyem de veneficio, de vi (but not arguo). The ablative crimine 
 (ablat. instrum.) is likewise often put with these verbs : arcessere aligvem 
 crimine ambitus ; damnatus est crimine repetundarum, ceteris criminibus 
 absolutus (in what relates to the remaining counts and charges.) (Ac- 
 cusari, damnari, absolvi lege Cornelia, according to the Cornelian law : 
 absolvi suspicione sceleris, to be relieved from the suspicion of crime.) 
 {Accusare inertiam adolescentium, to complain of the indolence of young 
 men.) 
 
 Obs. 3. With damno and condemno, the punishment to which a person 
 is condemned (what he is to give by way of atonement), is put in the 
 genitive or ablative : damnari capitis, pecuniae, or capite c . Omnia mor- 
 talium opera mortalitate damnata sunt (Sen. Ep. 91). For a defined 
 penalty consisting of money or land the ablative is always employed ; 
 damnari decern millibus, tertia parte agri, as also with multo ; agro pecu- 
 niaqye liostes multare. {Damnari ad bestias, in metalla. Yoti damnari.) 
 
 §. 294. When the price for which a thing is bought, sold, or 
 made, is stated indefinitely (by an adjective of quantity or nihilum), 
 the price is expressed in the genitive with tanti, qvanti [tantidem, 
 qvantivis, qvanticunqve), pluris, minoris ; but in the ablative with 
 magno, plurimo, parvo, minimo, nihilo, nonnihilo d . With those 
 verbs which signify to estimate (duco, facio, habeo, pendo, puto, taxo, 
 together with sum signifying to be worth, have a certain price), the 
 genitive of all these words is employed ; aestimo alone having both 
 cases: Qvanti Chrysogonus docet? (Juven. VII. 176), On what 
 terms does Chrysogonus teach? Frumentum suum qvam plurimo 
 vendere. Qvanti oryza empta est? Parvo (Hor. Sat. II. 3, 156). 
 Voluptatem virtus minimi facit. Datames unus pluris apud regem 
 fiebat qvam omnes aulici (Corn. Dat. 5). Homines sua parvi pen- 
 dere, aliena cupere solent. Parvi sunt f oris arma, nisi est consilium 
 domi (Cic. Off. I. 22). Magni and magno aestimo virtutem*. 
 
 Obs. 1. The verbs which mean to estimate, take also (in common dis- 
 course) the genitives flocci, nauci, assis (unius assis), teruncii, with a 
 negative, signifying not to value in the least, to esteem not worth a far- 
 
 b In the Jurists teneri (furti). 
 
 c Damnatusqve longi 
 Sisyphus JEolides labor is (Hor. Od. II. 14, 19). 
 
 d The genitive of tantus, qvantus, and the comparatives, the ablative of nihilum, the 
 positives and superlatives (as also of the diminutive tantalum). 
 e This genitive is nearly allied to the descriptive genitive. 
 
 l! 
 
258 Syntax.— Part I. §. 294- 
 
 thing ; Judices rempublicam flocci non faciunt (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 5). 
 (Hujus nonfacio, I care not that much for it !) Putare, habere pro nihilo. 
 
 Obs. 2. Here we may also notice the idioms, aeqyi boniqve (or boni 
 alone) facio aliqyid, boni consulo, to take in good part. 
 
 Obs. 3. The expression tanti est first denotes simply something (some- 
 thing good) is worth so much, is of such importance, that one ought to do 
 or bear something for its sake : Tanti non fait Arsacem capere, ut earum 
 rerum, qyae hie gestae sunt, spectaculo careres (Cael. Cic. ad Fam. VIII. 
 14). After that we have without any denned subject; tanti est, it (the 
 thing spoken of) is worth the trouble, nihil est tanti, it is not worth the 
 trouble. Lastly, it is put of an evil which it is worth while to bear 
 (which one is ready to bear), usually with an infinitive for its subject: 
 JEst mihi tanti, Qvirites, hujus invidiae tempestatem subire, dummodo a 
 vobis belli p eric ulum depellatur (Cic. Cat. II. 7) ; but also with a substan- 
 tive : Aut si rescierit Juno, sunt, o, sunt jurgia tanti (Ov. Met. II. 424), 
 then I will bear her brawling. 
 
 §. 295. The impersonal verb interest, it is of importance, points 
 out the person or thing to whom a matter is of importance, by the 
 genitive or the possessive pronouns mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, 
 (abl. sing. fern.). Refert, in the same signification, has the same 
 construction with the pronouns, but rarely with the genitive f . 
 Caesar dicere solebat, non tarn sua qvam reipublicae interesse, ut 
 salvus esset (Svet. Jul. 86). Clodii intererat, Milonem perire (Cic. 
 pro Mil. 21). Quid tua id refert? (Ter. Phorm. IV. 5, 11). 
 {^Refert compositionis, Qvinct. IX. 4, 44, it is of importance for the right 
 arrangement of words.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Ad is generally employed to express that in reference to which 
 something is of importance : Magni ad honorem nostrum interest, me qyam 
 primum ad urbem venire (Cic. ad Fam. XVI. 1). 
 
 Obs. 2. The thing which is of importance may be designated by a 
 neuter pronoun (so that the verbs do not stand quite impersonally) : 
 Qvanti id refert ? Hoc vehementer interest reipublicae ; or by an infini- 
 tive ; Omnium interest recte facere, but it is most frequently expressed 
 by the addition of a clause with the accusative and infinitive, or with 
 ut (ne), or in an interrogative form. Of how much importance it is is 
 denoted either by adverbs (multum, plurimum, tantum, qvantum, nihil, 
 magnopere, vehementer), or by the genitive of the price (magni, parvi, 
 qvanti, &c.) 
 
 Obs. 3. The verbs impleo, compleo, egeo, and particularly indigeo, are 
 
 f The origin of this singular construction is unknown. Perhaps the pronoun has a 
 kind of adverbial signification ; in my direction (in relation to me). 
 
296. Chap. V .—Genitive. 259 
 
 sometimes used with the genitive instead of the ablative ; see under abla- 
 tive, §. 259 a. 0~bs. §. 260 a. Obs. Of the poetical genitive with verbs, 
 which signify, to desist, to refrain from, see §. 261, Obs. 4?. 
 
 §. 296. a. The names of towns and small islands of the first and 
 second declension singular are put in the genitive, to denote the 
 place where a thing is or occurs : Romae esse, Rhodi vivere, Corinthi 
 habitare. (Of other names the ablative is used ; see §. 273 a.) 
 
 Obs. 1 . Sometimes the genitive of larger (Greek) islands is also so used ; 
 Cretae considere (Virg. Aen. III. 162); Conon Cypri vixit (Corn. Chabr. 
 3), or (but rarely) of the Greek names of countries in us : Chersanesi do- 
 mum habere (Corn. Milt. 2). Compare §. 232, Obs. 3 and 4. 
 
 Obs. 2. Such a genitive rarely has an apposition subjoined, and then in 
 the ablative with in : Milites Albae constiterunt, in urbe opportuna, mu- 
 nita, propinqya (Cic. Phil. IV. 2), very rarely without in: Vespasianus 
 Corinthi, Achajae urbe, nuntios accepit de Galbae interitu (Tac. Hist. II. 
 l h ). If urbs or oppidum (insula) with in precedes, the name of the town 
 (or island) is subjoined in the ablative : Cimon in oppido Citio mortuus 
 est (Corn. Cim. 3) : in insula Samo (Svet. Oct. 26). (Likewise in ipsa 
 Alexandria, with a pronoun or adjective. We also find tota Tarracina, 
 Cic. de Or. II. 59, in all Tarracina, according to §. 273 c.) 
 
 Obs. 3. This idiom proceeds from the genitive singular of the first and 
 second declension (in i) having a different origin from the genitive of the 
 third declension, and having at first, in addition to its other meanings, 
 conveyed the notion of being in a place. 
 
 b. In the same way are used the genitives domi, at home, humi, 
 on the ground (to the ground), with belli and militiae in conjunction 
 with domi : Sedere domi. Parvi sunt /oris arma, nisi est consilium 
 domi (Cic. Off. I. 22). Humi jacere, prosternere aliqvem humi. 
 P. Crassi, L. Caesaris virtus fuerat domi militiaeqve cognita (Cic. 
 Tusc. V. 19). Saepe imperatorum sapientia constitutes est salus 
 civitatis aut belli aut domi (Cic. Brut. 73). (Otherwise in bello, in 
 militia.) 
 
 Obs. 1 . Domi in this signification may be combined with a genitive or 
 a possessive pronoun : Marcus Drusus occisus est domi suae. Clodius 
 deprehensus est cum veste muliebri domi Caesaris. (Domi alienae.) 
 Otherwise it is expressed in domo aliqva ; in domo casta ; in domo, in the 
 house (not at home). 
 
 b Of ergo with the genitive see §. 172. Obs. 5. 
 
 h \_Antiochiae, celebri qvondam urbe et copiosa, antecellere omnes ingenii gloria contigii 
 (Cic. pro Arch. poet. 3).] 
 
 l12 
 
260 Syntax.— Part I. §. 296- , 
 
 Obs. 2. For Jiumi the poets also say humo, in Jiumo. (Always in humo 
 nuda, with an adjective subjoined.) 
 
 Obs. 3. In the same way animi is employed in expressions which de- 
 note doubt and anxiety : Exspectando et desiderando pendemus animi. 
 Absurdefacis, qyi te angas animi (also animo). Tot populos inter spem 
 metumqve suspensos animi Tiabetis (Liv. YIII. 13). Confusus atqye in- 
 certus animi (Id. I. 7.) 1 
 
 §. 297. a. The same relation which is expressed by the genitive 
 is commonly expressed by the possessive pronouns (which represent 
 the genitive of the personal) : Pater metis ; libri mei ; ista domus 
 tua est ; comitia tua (which concern you) : med causa, for my sake 
 (§.256) : nulla tua epistola, no letter from you: unis litteris meis ; 
 cum magno meo dolore. Tuum est videre, qvid agatur. A genitive 
 may therefore stand in apposition to a possessive pronoun, e. g. 
 Tuum, hominis simplicis, pectus vidimus (Cic. Phil. II. 43). Cui 
 nomen meum absentis honori Juisset, ei meas praesentis preces non 
 putas profuisse ? (Id. pro Plane. 10.) Mea unius opera respublica 
 salva est (Cic. in Pis. 3), by my activity alone. Vestrd ipsorum 
 causa. Hi ad vestram omnium caedem Romae restiterunt (Cic. Cat 
 IV. 2). The genitives unius, ipsius (ipsorum), in particular, are 
 often so constructed. 
 
 Obs. The genitives nostrum and vestrum are often put with omnium for 
 noster and vester, always indeed when omnium precedes : Voluntati ves- 
 trum omnium par ui (Cic. de Or. III. 55), your unanimous wish {voluntati 
 vestrae.parui). Patria est communis omnium nostrum parens (Id. Cat. I. 
 7). Otherwise but rarely, e. g. splendor vestrum for vester (Id. ad Att. 
 VII. 13). 
 
 b. When a personal or reflective pronoun ought to be subjoined 
 to a word (a substantive, adjective, or verb) as an object in the 
 genitive (genitivus objectivus), the genitive neuter singular or the 
 corresponding possessive pronoun (mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri : pro- 
 perly, of my being, &c.) is used instead of the wanting genitive, 
 e. g. studium nostri, devotion to us. Rogo, ut rationem mei habeatis, 
 that you would have regard to me. Habetis ducem memorem 
 vestri, oblitum sui (Cic. Cat. IV. 9). Pudet me vestri. Grata mihi 
 vehementer est memoria nostri tua (Cic. ad Fam. XII. 17), your re- 
 membrance of me, that you think of me. Multa solet Veritas prae- 
 bere vestigia sui (Liv. XL. 54). 
 
 Obs. 1. With personal names, which contain the idea of an active verb, 
 1 [Notus infratres animi paterni (Hor. Od. II. 2, 6) compare §. 290 g.] 
 
•298. Chap. V.— - Genitive. 261 
 
 the subjoined genitive may merely denote with reference to whom a per- 
 son is so named ; it is then considered as a possessive genitive, and may 
 be represented by a possessive pronoun, e. g. accusator tuus (Ciceronis). 
 Nosti Calvum, ilium laudatorem meum (Cic. ad Att. I. 16). But it may 
 also be considered as an objective genitive, the idea of an action or opera- 
 tion, of which some one is the object, being put prominently forward, e. g. 
 frater meus misit filium ad Caesarem, non solum sui deprecatorem, sed 
 etiam accusatorem mei (Cic. ad Att. XI. 8), to entreat for himself — to com- 
 plain of me. Omnis natura est servatrix sui (Id. Fin. V. 9), strives to 
 preserve itself. With a few other words too the genitive may be diffe- 
 rently understood, and therefore represented by pronouns in different 
 ways, e. g. imago mea, my picture, and imago mei, a picture of me (which 
 represents me). On the other hand a possessive pronoun is rarely sub- 
 stituted for a clearly objective genitive, e. g. meo desiderio for desiderio 
 mei, from a longing for me ; tudjiducia iovfiducia tui (Cic. Verr. V. 68). 
 Habere rationem suam (Id. Off. I. 39=sui). 
 
 Obs. 2. The genitives mei, tui, &c. may also be used instead of a pos- 
 sessive pronoun, to mark something emphatically as belonging to the 
 nature of a thing : Pressa est tellus gravitate sui (Ov. Met. I. 30), by its 
 weight (the weight peculiar to it). Later writers sometimes carry this 
 still further. 
 
 c. The partitive genitive of nos, vos, is represented (when a 
 number is divided) by nostrum vestrum : Magna pars nostrum ; 
 multi vestrum ; uterqve nostrum ; qvis vestrum — ? But if a di- 
 vision of human nature is spoken of, the genitives mei, tui, sui, 
 nostri, vestri, are employed, e. g. Nostri melior pars animus est 
 (Senec. Qv. Nat. I., praef.). 
 
 Obs. Nostrum and vestrum are rarely used objectively for nostri and 
 vestri : Cupidus vestrum (Cic. Yerr. III. 96). Custos urbis et vestrum 
 (Id. Cat. III. 12), of the town and you, each individual of you. To ex- 
 press partition (of a number) with the reflective pronoun we must use ex 
 se or suorum (of his or their people). 
 
 §. 298. Appendix to Chapter 5. a. In such special relations as cannot be 
 expressed by the genitive, a substantive may be combined by a preposition 
 with another substantive in order to define it : judicium de Volscis ; vo- 
 luntas totius provinciae erga Caesarem. But the beginner must beware 
 of using such constructions, where the preposition in English only con- 
 nects one idea with the other in a general way, which in Latin is ex- 
 pressed by a possessive or objective genitive, e. g. not Livius in proemio 
 ad bellum Punicum, but in proemio belli Punici. 
 
 b. The referring of a preposition with its case to a single substantive 
 may sometimes be obscure in Latin, in consequence of the want of a defi- 
 
2G.2 Syntax,— Part I. §. 298- 
 
 nite article and the free position of the words, because the definition may- 
 be also referred to the verb and the M'hole predicate, or it may give a 
 clumsy character to the sentence, and then such a construction is avoided. 
 In the following cases no ambiguity arises, and this construction is most 
 frequently employed : 
 
 1) "When the substantive to which the words refer has already a geni- 
 tive or an adjective (pronoun) with it, so that the preposition with its 
 case may be attached to the first definition as a second and more accurate 
 one, being usually put between the principal substantive and the genitive 
 or adjective : Caesaris in Hispania res secundae (Caes. B. C. II. 37) ; 
 sextus liber de officiis Hecatonis (Cic. Off. III. 23) ; caedes in pace Fide- 
 natium colonorum (Liv. IY. 32) ; omnes ante Socratem philosophi (Cic. 
 Acad. I. 4). Ista mihi fuit perjucunda a proposita oratione digressio 
 (Id. Brut. 85). 
 
 2) Where the substantive and the definition annexed by the preposition 
 may from their signification be naturally and easily combined into one 
 idea, as verbal substantives with prepositions which belong to the signi- 
 fication of the verb contained in the substantive, substantives which de- 
 note a temper of mind and way of acting, with in, erga, adversus, names 
 of persons and things with de, ex (in certain combinations a), to denote 
 their origin, class, home, place of starting (with de and ex also in a parti- 
 tive signification), or with cum and sine to denote their appurtenances 
 and accompaniments or the contrary, names of external objects with local 
 definitions by ad and in, and in some other cases, especially where from 
 the arrangement of the words the preposition points more to the substan- 
 tive than the verb : Discessio ah omnibus Us, qyae sunt bona in vita (Cic. 
 Tusc. I. 34) ; reditus in urbem ; aditus ad me {iter ex Hispania, in Ma- 
 cedonian) ; totius provinciae voluntas erga Caesarem ; crudelitas in cives ; 
 contumeliae et injuriae in magistratum Milesium (Cic. Verr. I. 34) ; auxi- 
 lium adversus inimicos ; — homo de plebe Romana, de schola ; civis Roma- 
 nics a conventu Panormitano ; caduceator ab Antiocho (Liv. XXXVII. 
 45); litter ae a Qadibus ; aliqvis de nostris hominibus (Cic. pro Flacco 
 4); morbus cum imbecillitate ; simulacrum Cereris cum facibus (Cic. 
 Verr. IV. 49) ; sine ratione animi elatio ; lectionem sine delectatione ne- 
 gligo (Id. Tusc. II. 3) ; homo sine re, sine fide ; sine spe (Id. pro Cael. 32) ; 
 — omnia trans Iberum, Antiochia ad Sipylum ; insulam in lacu Prelio 
 vendere (Cic. pro Mil. 27) ; — metus insidiarum a meis (Id. Somn. Scip. 3, 
 treachery on the part of my friends) ; omnis metus a vi atqye ira deorum 
 sublatus est (Id. IS. D. I. 17, all fear in respect to, of — ). Canulejus 
 victoria de patribus (over the patricians) et favor e plebis ingens erat 
 (Liv. IV. 6). 
 
 Obs. 1 . To avoid ambiguity a suitable participle may be introduced, 
 e. g. judicium de Volscis factum ; litterae Gadibus allatae ; insula in lacu 
 
■299. Chap. VI.— Vocative. 263 
 
 JPrelio sita ; lectio delectatione carens ; sometimes too a periphrasis with 
 a relative may be employed, e. g. libri, qvi sunt de natura deorum, or, libri, 
 ({vos Cicero de natura deorum scripsit. In other cases an adjective is put 
 instead of a preposition with its case; see §. 800, Obs. 3. 
 
 Obs. 2. Two connected definitions (a principal and a subordinate defi- 
 nition) cannot in Latin be joined to a substantive by prepositions ; we 
 therefore cannot say, simulacrum Cereris cum facibus in manibus, but, 
 faces manibus tenens. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Vocative. 
 
 §. 299. a. The Vocative is used when a person is called or 
 spoken to, and is inserted in the sentence without any connection 
 with the rest of the proposition : Vos, o Calliope, precor, aspirate 
 canenti ! (Virg. Aen. IX. 525), Assist me, Calliope, thou and thy 
 sisters ! The interjection o is not inserted in prose in customary 
 addresses, or in calling to a person ( Credo ego vos, judices, mirari 
 (Cic.) Vine er e scis, Hannibal ; victoria uti nescis. Adeste, amicil), 
 but only in exclamations of surprise, of joy, or of anger : dii boni, 
 qvid est in hominis vita diu (Cic. Cat. Maj. 19). O tenebrae, o lutum, 
 o sordes, o paterni generis oblite I (Id. in Pis. 26). Compare §. 236, 
 Obs. 1. 
 
 Obs. In the poets o is often prefixed to the vocative without any par- 
 ticular emphasis. 
 
 b. Definitions may be added to the word which stands in the 
 vocative according to the common rules : Prima dicte mihi, summa 
 dicende Camena, Maecenas ! (Hor. Ep. 1. 1), thou, Maecenas ! sung 
 (i. e. whom I have sung) in my first song, and shall sing in my 
 last. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the poets and in antiquated style the nominative is some- 
 times found instead of the vocative, e. g. Almaefilius Majae ! (Hor. Od. I. 
 2, 43). Vacuas aures onihi, Memmius, adhibe (Lucr. I. 45). Vos, o Pom- 
 pilius sangvis (Hor. A. P. 292). Audi tu, populus ATbanus (Liv. I. 24). 
 
 Obs. 2. In some rare instances an apposition in the nominative is added 
 to the vocative, e. g. Hoc tic (audes), succinctly patria qyondam, Crispine, 
 papyro ? (Juven. IV. 24). Conversely we sometimes meet with the vo- 
 cative of a participle or adjective, which would be more correctly in the 
 nominative to agree with the subject of the verb : Heu ! terra ignota ca- 
 nibus date praeda Latinis alitibusqye jaces (Virg. Aen. IX. 485). 
 
264 Syntax.— Part I. §. 299- 
 
 Obs. 3. In prose addresses the vocative is usually put after some other 
 words in the proposition : Credo ego vos, judices, mirari — . Qvousqve 
 tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia nostra. Yet it may be prefixed with a 
 kind of solemn dignity: Rex BoccJie ! Magna nobis laetitia est— (Sail. 
 Jug. 102), as also in vehement expressions of feeling : mi Attice, vereor 
 — (Cic. ad Att. XIV. 12). 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Of the Use of the Adjectives [Adverbs), and particularly of their 
 Degrees of Comparison. 
 
 §. 300. a. An Adjective is either put with a substantive simply 
 as an attribute or predicate, to denote a quality in general (vir 
 bonus, vir est bonus), or it stands in apposition, and denotes, with 
 reference to the verb, the state of the substantive during the action, 
 e. g. Multi eos, qvos vivos coluerunt, mortuos contumelia afficiunt (in 
 their life-time — after their death). Natura ipsa de immortalitate 
 animorum tacita judical (Cic. Tusc. I. 14). Legati inanes (empty- 
 handed) ad regem revertuntur (Id. Verr. IV. 28). Hannibal occultus 
 subsistebat (Liv. XXII. 12), secretly halted. With a collective sub- 
 stantive such an apposition is regulated according to the verb : Cuneus 
 hostium, ut labentem ex eqvo Scipionem vidit, alacres g audio per totam 
 aciem diseurrunt (Liv. XXV. 34). 
 
 b. Those adjectives, more especially, which denote order and 
 succession, are used in apposition in Latin, where in English we 
 should use an adverb (belonging to the verb) or a periphrasis with 
 a relative clause. Hispania postrema omnium provinciarum perdo- 
 mita est (Liv. XXVIII. 12), Spain was reduced to obedience last 
 of all the provinces ; or, Of all the provinces Spain was the last 
 that was reduced to obedience. Omnium exterarum nationum prin- 
 ceps Sicilia se ad amicitiam populi Romani applicuit (Cic. Verr. II. 
 1). Dubito, qvid primum, qvid medium, qvid extremam ponam. 
 Gajus qvintus advenit. Medius ibam (in the middle). 
 
 c. In the same way are used totus, solus, — diver sus (different ways), 
 sublimis (on high), freqvens, proximus, — as also prudens (knowingly), 
 sciens, imprudens, invitus : JPMlosopTiiae nos penitus totosqve tradimus 
 (Cic. Tusc. V. 2). Soli hoc contingit sapienti (only to the wise man). 
 Aqvila sublimis abiit. Roscius erat Romae freqvens (Cic. Rose. Am. 6). 
 Consules in provincias diversi abiere. Manlius assedit proximus Laelio. 
 
0. Chap. VII. — Use of the Adjectives. 265 
 
 Plus Jiodie honifeci vmprudens quam sciens ante hunc diem unqvam (Ter. 
 Hec. V. 2, 40). Invitus discedo. {Dare alicui pecuniam mutuam.)^- 
 
 Ohs. 1 . So likewise the relation between the direction of a movement, 
 and the place where it occurs, is expressed by the adjectives adversus, se- 
 cundus, ohliqvus, in connection with the name of a place : in adversum 
 collem suhire (up the hill) ; secundo flumine navigare ; ohliqyo monte de- 
 currere (Liv. VII. 15, obliquely down the mountain). 
 
 Ohs. 2. Other adjectives also which denote relations of time and place, 
 are used by the poets in apposition instead of adverbs : Aeneas se matu- 
 tinus agebat (Virg. Aen. VIII. 465). Gnavus mane forum, vespertinus 
 pete tectum (Hor. Ep. I. 6, 20). Domesticus otior (Id. Sat. I. 6, 128= 
 domi. 
 
 Ohs. 3. It is to be observed that in not a few cases, where in English a 
 substantive is denned by another substantive with a preposition, the defi- 
 nition is expressed in Latin by a derivative adjective, which denotes some- 
 thing that stands in a certain relation, consists of a certain material, be- 
 longs to something, &c, e. g.jilius herilis, tumultus servilis (the rising of 
 the slaves), helium sociale, iter maritimum, pedestre, metus regius (Liv. 
 II. 1), awe (entertained) of the king (objective). Hector JVaevianus (the 
 Hector of the poet Naevius), Hercules Xenophonteus, and so frequently 
 with proper names. Those adjectives should be particularly noticed which 
 express the home and place of residence : Bio Syracusanus (of Syracuse), 
 Hermodorus Ephesius, &c. (far less frequently, Cn. Magius Cremona, Tur- 
 nus Herdonius ah Aricia [Liv. I. 50], and others) ; also the place where 
 a thing has happened : clades Alliensis, pugna Cannensis. In some cases 
 both forms are used in Latin : poculum aureum and ex auro ; pugna 
 Leuctrica and pugna Lacedaemoniorum in Leuctris (Cic. Div. II. 25). 
 Helium servile and helium servorum. (Conversely a genitive is sometimes 
 found in Latin, where an adjective would be used in English, as domi- 
 cilia Jiominum, human dwellings). 
 
 Ohs. 4. It is rarely that any other adjectives are added to the proper 
 name in Latin (in prose) than those which serve to discriminate several of 
 the same name (e. g. Africanus major, minor, Piso Frugi, as a surname, 
 magnus Alexander, Liv. VIII. 3), or express the native place or residence : 
 other adjectives can only stand with an appellative noun put in apposition, 
 e. g. Plato, homo sapientissimus, the wise Plato ; Capua, urhs opulentissima, 
 the wealthy Capua. We find also, Ilia severa Lacedaemon (Cic. Legg. 
 II. 15), with the addition of a pronoun. (The poets on the other hand 
 
 k [In the following instance major would appear to be used for magis : 
 
 Tibi praeda cedat 
 Major, an Mi (Hor. Od. III. 20, 7). 
 
 We may also notice the expression major natus (see §. 306, Obs. 1).] 
 
 m m 
 
266 Syntax,— Part I. §. 30(| 
 
 allow themselves such expressions as docti verba Catonis, doctae Athenae, 
 and the like). It is also nnusual in Latin prose to put with appellative 
 nouns adjectives which are to characterize the whole class, not one or 
 more individuals. Such adjectives are generally put with a more com- 
 prehensive generic term, e. g. columba, animal timidissimum, the timid 
 dove (of the dove in general) . 
 
 Obs. 5. When a substantive in combination with an adjective denotes 
 a particular kind and class of any thing (e. g. navis oneraria) an additional 
 characteristic may be added by means of a new adjective, e. g. navis one- 
 raria maxima (Cic. Verr. V. 52), statuae eqyestres inauratae (Id. ibid. II. 
 61), corona aurea eccigua. (Instead of multae graves causae, multa magna 
 incommoda, we must say multae et graves c, multa et magna inc., and so 
 in general, when multus is followed by an adjective in the positive that 
 denotes a good or bad quality, or a certain degree of importance. But 
 multi fortissimi atqve optimi viri, Cic. Earn. V. 17.) 
 
 §. 301. Adjectives are sometimes used as substantives in order 
 to designate persons or things distinguished by a particular quality. 
 With respect to this we may observe : 
 
 a. The plural of adjectives is often used to designate men of a 
 particular class and kind, e. g. docti, the learned, boni, the good, 
 omnes boni, all good men (also homines docti, and in certain combi- 
 nations viri, as viri fortes, viri boni) : the singular on the contrary 
 is rarely so used, and only when the context excludes all ambi- 
 guity, e. g. assentatio non modo amico, sed ne libero qvidem digna est 
 (Cic. Lael. 24). Est prudentis, sustinere impetum benevolentiae (Id. 
 ib. 17; compare §.282 and Obs. 1, annexed to it). Plurimum in 
 faciendo interest inter doctum et rudem, non multum in judicando (Id. 
 Or. III. 51). The nominative and accusative are very rarely so 
 employed. 
 
 Obs. In the philosophical style however sapiens (the wise man) is often 
 used substantively. Sometimes another adjective is subjoined to an ad- 
 jective used substantively, e. g. nihil insipiente fortunato intolerabilius 
 Jieri potest (Cic. Lael. 15), a fool favoured by fortune. Nobilis indoctus 
 ( Juven. VIII. 49), an unlearned noble. (JSTo man of learning, any learned 
 man, are expressed by nemo doctus, qvisqvam doctus, with the substantives 
 nemo and qvisqvam, in the same way as nemo AtJieniensis, qvisqvam Ro- 
 manus ; a man of great learning, homo doctissimus ; a true philosopher, 
 homo vere sapiens, and thus always when the degree and character of a 
 quality are to be specified.) 
 
 b. The whole class of objects of a certain character is expressed 
 in Latin by the neuter plural : bona, what is good (good things), 
 
301, Chap. VII. — Use of the Adjectives. 267 
 
 mala, what is bad {bonum, a good, something good; malum, an 
 evil, something bad) ; omnia pulchra, every thing beautiful, mult a 
 memorabilia, much that is remarkable ; ubi plurima nitent, where 
 the greater part is beautiful; omnia nostra, all that belongs to 
 us. (Omne pulchrum, every individual thing that is beautiful, e. g. 
 Omne supervacuum pleno de pectore manat, Hor. A. P. 337, but 
 never multum memorabile.) (Compare what is said of the pronouns 
 §. 312 b.) The singular on the contrary is made use of when an 
 idea is general, and not a whole class of several objects is to be 
 understood., e. g. verum, the truth, verum fateri, verum audire, in- 
 vestigate veri (but vera nuntiare, to bring true intelligence ; Veritas, 
 the quality of being true); natura, justi et aeqvi mater, the mother 
 of justice and equity; multum, plurimum, tribuo huic homini. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Often too the periphrasis with res is made use of ; res bonae et 
 lionestae. With adjectives ambiguity may result in those cases in which 
 the neuter is not distinguished from the other genders. The adjectives of 
 the third declension are not often used in the way last mentioned (in the 
 singular), except in the nominative or accusative. {Mater justi but not 
 utilis. Yet Livy says [XLIT. 47], Potior utilis qyam honesti cur a.) 
 
 Ohs. 2. Concerning the neuter singular or plural of adjectives, with a 
 genitive, to denote the parts of a thing which have a certain quality, see 
 §.284, Obs. 5. 
 
 Ohs, 3. The neuter of adjectives is sometimes combined with prepo- 
 sitions into particular phrases and adverbial expressions, e. g. esse in in- 
 tegro (to be undecided, to have one's hands still free), de {ex) improviso, 
 unexpectedly, de integro, afresh ; sine dubio, without doubt (doubt, subst. 
 dubitatio) ; particularly with ex, but mostly in later writers, e. g. ex facili 
 (=facile), ex affluenti (=affluenter). 
 
 c. Certain adjectives have entirely assumed the force of inde- 
 pendent substantives, their masculine and feminine suggesting in 
 general only the idea of a person, the neuter that of a thing, with 
 a given quality, e. g. amicus, inimicus, adversarius, arnica (§. 247 b, 
 Obs. 1) bonum, malum, ludicrum, a play, simile, a likeness, inane, 
 empty space. With others on the contrary a particular substan- 
 tive was originally understood, which was left out by ellipsis, until 
 the adjective gradually came to be used quite independently, e. g. 
 patria (civitas, urbs, terra), f era (bestia). 
 
 Obs. 1. Some adjectives were so frequently used in combination with a 
 particular substantive, that the adjective was in course of time used alone 
 for the whole idea, but in such a way that the omitted substantive was 
 clearly kept in view ; especially in certain combinations and with cer- 
 
 M m 2 
 
268 Syntax.— ¥ hkt I. §. 301 
 
 tain verbs which pointed to the substantive, e. g. cani (capilli) ; frigidam, 
 calidam (aqvam) potare ; primas, secundas {partes) agere, actor prima- 
 mm ; tertiana, qvartana (febris) ; ferina (came) vesci ; dextra, sinistra 
 (manus) ; hibema, stativa (castra) ; praetexta (toga). Such expressions 
 are to be learned by attentive reading and from the dictionary 
 
 Obs. 2. (On the whole paragraph). We should notice as a license 
 (chiefly poetical), that in some few instances a substantive personal name 
 is put in apposition almost with the meaning of an adjective, and conse- 
 quently with an adverb affixed to it : Minime largitor dux (Liv. VI. 2). 
 Populus late rex (Virg. Aen. I. 21). (Concerning iterum, tertium consul, 
 see §. 220, Obs. 1.) In other cases, where it appears that an adverb is 
 combined w r ith a substantive, it is merely a conciseness of expression 
 which may easily be explained, e. g. Omnes circa populi (Liv. XXIV. 3). 
 —omnes, gyi circa sunt ; nullo publice ernolumento (Liv. VI. 39),= qvod 
 ad rempublicam attinet, sine ullo ernolumento. 
 
 §. 302. In the poets adjectives in the neuter (accusative), sometimes in 
 the plural, are not unfrequently put for adverbs, especially with verbs 
 which denote an intransitive and external, sensible action, e. g. altum dor- 
 mire, torvum clamare, perfidum ridere, insveta rudens, acerba tuens ; tur- 
 bidum laetari ; nefandum furens. Victor eqvus pede terram crebra ferit 
 (Virg. G. III. 499). (In prose sonare, olere peregrinum, to have a strange 
 sound, smell ; §.223 c. Obs. 2.) 
 
 §. 303. a. When two words (ideas) are compared by means of an 
 adjective or adverb, the last word (the second member of the compa- 
 rison) is combined with the first (the first member of the comparison) 
 by a particle of comparison (qvam, ac, than, as), and it is put in the 
 same case if the verb or governing word is common to both mem- 
 bers. Qvam is used with comparatives (ac only in antiquated and 
 poetical style) : Ignoratio fulurorum malorum melior est qvam sci- 
 entia. Nemini plura beneficia tribuisti qvam mihi. Haec res laetitiae 
 plus habet qvam molestiae. Hoc est hominis gloriae qvam scientiae 
 studiosioris. Cui potius credam, qvam tibi ? Donum specie qvam re 
 majus. (No?i Apollinis magis verum atqve hoc responsum est, Ter. 
 Andr. IV. 2, 14). Titius non tarn acutus qvam Sejus est. Titium 
 alia poena affecisti atqve Sejum. 
 
 Obs. 1. Concerning the use of ac see §. 444 b. The members are put 
 in the same case, even if the sentence be an accusative with an infinitive : 
 Decet nobis cariorem esse patriam qvam nosmetipsos (Cic. Fin. III. 19. 
 P atria nobis carior est qvam nosmetipsi). 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes the word qvam with the second member of the com- 
 parison is inserted before the comparative in juxtaposition with the first 
 
304. Chap. VII. — Degrees of Comparison. 269 
 
 in order to make the contrast the more striking : Ex hoe judicari potest, 
 virtutis esse, qvam aetatis, cursum celeriorem (Cic. Phil. V. 1 7) . Maris 
 subita tempestas qvam ante proviso- ferret navigantes vehementius (Id. 
 Tusc. III. 22). 
 
 b. If the first member is governed by an idea which does not 
 also belong to the second member of the comparison, a new propo- 
 sition must be formed, with a verb of its own (sum) : Haec verba 
 sunt Varronis, hominis doctioris, qvam fuit Claudius (Gell. X. 1). 
 Verves avgentum reddidit L. Covdio, homini non gratiosiovi, qvam 
 Cn. Calidius est (Cic. Verr. IV. 20) . Hoc est Titii, hominis non 
 tarn acuti, qvam Sejus est. If however the first member is an ac- 
 cusative, this case is often retained, although the governing idea 
 cannot be repeated (attraction) : Ego hominem callidiovem vidi ne- 
 minem qvam Phormionem (Ter. Phorm. IV. 2, l),=qvam Phormio 
 est. Patvem, qvumfevvet maxime } tarn placidum veddo qvam ovem 
 (Ter. Ad. IV. 1, 18) } =qvam ovis est. Tibi, multi majovi, qvam 
 Afvic anus fuit, me } non multo minovem qvam Laelium, et in ve- 
 publica et in amicitia adjunctum esse pat eve (Cic. ad Fam. V. 7), 
 =qvam Laelius fuit. 
 
 Ohs. 1 . The examples under a. shew that we may always use the same 
 case when either the first member of the comparison is the subject, or the 
 adjective (the adverb in combination with an adjective or participle, e. g. 
 splendidius ornatus) does not belong as an attribute or predicate to the 
 first member itself, but to another word. If on the contrary the adjec- 
 tive or adverb belongs (either alone, or as part of a description, e. g. 
 majoris pretii, splendidius ornatus) to the first member of the comparison, 
 and this is not the subject, the governing idea can very seldom be re- 
 peated, e. g. Propemodum justioribus utimur illis, qvi omnino avocant a 
 philosophic*, qvam his (viz. utimwr), qvi rebus infinitis modum constituunt 
 (Cic. Finn. I. 1). 
 
 Obs. 2. Even if both the members of the comparison are subjects, a new 
 proposition is formed with a verb of its own, if a difference of time is to 
 be expressed : Pompejus munitior ad custodiendam vitam suam erit, qvam 
 Afric anus fuit (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 3). But such a difference of time is not 
 always distinctly expressed. 
 
 §. 304. If in a sentence with the comparative (of an adjective 
 or adverb) the first member of the comparison is a nominative or 
 accusative, the particle of comparison may be omitted and the 
 second member put in the ablative (§. 271) : Turpis fuga mortis 
 omni est morte pejus (Cic. Phil. VIII. 10). Tullus Eostilius fero- 
 dor Romulo fuit (Liv. I. 22). Nihil est laudabilius placabilitate et 
 
270 Syntax,— Part I. § 304 
 
 aeqvitate. Quid nobis duobus laboriosius est ? (Cic. pro Mil. 2,= 
 qvis — laboriosior ? Nihil Mo homine foedius.) Lacrima nihil citius 
 arescit (Rhet. ad Her. II. 31).— Qvem auctorem locupletiorem Platone 
 laudare possumus? (Cic. It. P. I. 10). Cur Sybaris olivum san- 
 gvine viperino cautius vitat ? (Hor. Od. I. 8, 9),=qvam sangvinem 
 viperinum. But qvam is not omitted when the comparative as an 
 adjective does not belong to the members of the comparison, but 
 to another word : Tu splendidiorem habes villain qvam ego. 
 
 Obs. 1. The omission of qvam after the comparative of an adverb is 
 rare in prose. After the comparatives of adjectives the ablative is more 
 frequently put in good prose for the nominative and for the subjective 
 accusative (the accusative with the infinitive) than for the objective accu- 
 sative. Yet the use of the ablative instead of an objective accusative is 
 also not unfrequent, and particularly usual with pronouns : Hoc nihil 
 onihi gratius facer e poteris. It should be especially noticed, that the re- 
 lative pronoun is frequently put in the ablative, governed by a compara- 
 tive following, and accompanied by a negative, when we should employ 
 in English a superlative in apposition : PJiidiae simulacra, qvibus nihil in 
 illo genere perfectius videmus (Cic. Orat. 8), than which we see nothing 
 more perfect, i. q. the most perfect we see. JPunicum bellum, qvo nullum 
 majus Bomani gessere (Liv. XXXVIII. 53), the greatest the Romans have 
 ever prosecuted. Qvam is never used in this construction with the rela- 
 tive. (Pleonastic : Qvid hoc tota Sicilia est clarius qvam omnes Segestac 
 matronas et virgines convenisse, qvum Diana exportaretur ex oppido ? 
 (Cic. Verr. IV. 35). 
 
 Obs. 2. It is a rare license to put the ablative after the comparative 
 when the latter stands in any other case than the nominative and accu- 
 sative: Pane egeo, jam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. I. 10, 11,= 
 qvam niellitae placentae sunt) 1 . 
 
 Obs. 3. The poets use this ablative also with alius : JSTe putes alium sa- 
 piente bonoqve beatum (Hor. Ep. I. 16, 20). 
 
 Obs. 4. In order to express that something exceeds what is supposed or 
 required, or does not correspond to it, the Latins employ the ablatives 
 spe, exspectatione, opinione, justo, solito, aeqvo, necessario before a compa- 
 rative, either of an adjective or adverb, e. g. Opinione omnium majorem 
 animo cepi dolor em (Cic. Brut. 1). Caesar opinione celerius venturus esse 
 dicitur (Cic. ad Fam. XIV. 23), than had been expected. Amnis solito 
 citatior (Liv. XXIII. 19). 
 
 §. 305. If a magnitude, which is expressed either by a numeral 
 
 1 The ablative after a comparative, which belongs to a third substantive, is a very 
 rare exception: C. Caesar majorem senatu animum habuit (Veil. Paterc. II. 61),= 
 qvam senatus.) 
 
305. Chap. VII. — Degrees of Comparison. 271 
 
 or by a substantive which denotes a measure (e. g. annus, a year, 
 pars dimidia, half, digitus transversus, a finger-breadth, &c), is in- 
 creased by plus or amplius (more than), or diminished by minus 
 (less than), plus, amplius or minus, with or without qvam, is added 
 to the name of the magnitude, without any influence on its case, 
 which remains the same which the context would require without 
 these comparatives [plus qvam triginta milites, plus triginta milites, 
 cum militibus plus qvam triginta, cum militibus plus triginta). But 
 if this case be the nominative or accusative (intersunt sex millia, 
 habeo decern milites), plus, amplius, or minus may be put as the 
 nominative or accusative, and take the name of the magnitude in 
 the ablative (interest amplius sex millibus, habeo plus decern militi- 
 bus). E. g. a. Caeduntur Hispani nee plus qvam qvattuor millia 
 effugerunt (Liv. XXXIX. 31). Zeuxis et Polygnotus non sunt usi 
 plus qvam qvattuor coloribus (Cic. Brut. 18). Caesar legem tulit, 
 ne praetoriae provinciae plus qvam annum neque plus qvam biennium 
 consular es obtinerentur (Cic. Phil. I. 8). — b. Plus septingenti capti 
 sunt (Liv. XLI. 12). Plus pars dimidia ex qvinqvaginta millibus 
 hominum caesa est (Id. XXXVI. 40), Apes nunqvam plus unum 
 regem patiuntur (Sen. de Clem. I. 19). Spatium est non amplius 
 pedum sexcentorum (Caes. B. G. I. 38). Plus dimidiati mensis 
 cibaria (Cic. Tusc. II. 16). Tribunum plebis plus viginti vulneribus 
 acceptis jacentem moribundumqve vidistis (Id. pro Sest. 39). Qvinc- 
 tius tecum plus annum vixit (Id. pro Quinct. 12). (With the order 
 transposed : Decern haud amplius dierum frumentum, Tac. H. IV. 
 52. Cum decern haud plus millibus militum, Liv. XXVIII. 1). — 
 c. Catilina initio non amplius duobus millibus militum habuit (Sail. 
 Cat. 56). Roscius nunqvam plus triduo Romaefuit (Cic. Rose. Am. 
 27). Inter hostium agmen et nostrum non amplius senis millibus 
 passuum intererat (Caes. B. G. I. 15). 
 
 Ols. 1. When amplius, plus, or minus with a plural stands for the sub- 
 ject with or without qvam, the verb is always put in the plural : Amplius 
 sunt sex menses. 
 
 Ols. 2. Plus and magis both signify more, but the former (like amplius) 
 relates to the quantity, the latter to the degree, the former corresponds to 
 the comparative of much, the latter to that of very ; magis is consequently 
 used as an adverb of comparison with verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 
 With verbs however plus is also used as an adverb (properly, to a greater 
 extent, in a greater measure), e. g. Vitiosi principes plus exemplo qvam 
 peccato nocent (Cic. Legg. III. 14). Fieri non potest, ut qvisqvam plus 
 alterum diligat qvam se (Id. Tusc. III. 29). (In the positive we rarely 
 
272 Syntax. — Part I. §. 305- 
 
 find such an expression as multum "bonus with an adjective, but more fre- 
 quently multum utor aliqyo have much intercourse with a person ; mul- 
 tum me litterae consolantur, Cic. ad Att. XIV. 13). To shew that a word 
 does not exhaust the idea, plus is always employed : Animus plus qvam 
 fraternus. ConfUebor eos plus qvam sicarios esse (Cic. Phil. II. 13). On 
 the other hand magis (potius) timeo qvam spero. (JSfon magis, non plus 
 signifies as little [when both members of the comparison are negatived] : 
 Scutum, gladium, galeam in onere nostri milites non plus numerant qvam 
 liumeros, lacertos, manus [Cic. Tusc. II. 16]. Non nascitur ex malo 
 bonum, non magis qvam ficus ex olea [Sen. Ep. 87]; but it also denotes, 
 in no higher degree ; i. e. the other as much [when both are affirmed] : 
 Jus bonumqve apud veteres non legibus magis qvam natura valebat [Sail. 
 Cat. 9] ; in the latter case however the word expressing the antithesis is 
 often interposed between them.) 
 
 Obs. 3. We find (with the measure of the difference in the ablative ac- 
 cording to §. 270) both JJno plus Etruscorum cecidit (Liv. II. 7), one 
 more fell on the side of the Etruscans ; and Una plures tribus legem anti- 
 qvarunt (Id. V. 30), a majority of one tribe. 
 
 §. 306. With adjectives and adverbs, which denote a measure, 
 and take an accusative (according to §. 234 a), the simplest way of 
 enhancing or diminishing the given measure is by the addition of 
 plus, amplius, or minus, with or without qvam according to the pre- 
 ceding paragraph : Umbra non amplius qvattuor pedes longa (Plia. 
 Hist. Nat. VI. 39). Nix minus qvattuor pedes alta jacuit (Liv. 
 XXI. 61). Minus qvinqve et viginti millibus longe ah Utica copiae 
 aberant (Caes. B. C. II. 37). But we may also use the comparative 
 of the adjective or adverb [longer than four feet, instead of more than 
 four feet long), and subjoin the size of the measure, either, as with 
 the positive, in the accusative without qvam, or in the ablative, if 
 the adjective stands in the nominative or accusative : Digitum non 
 altior unum (Lucr. IV. 415). Gallorum copiae non longius millia 
 passuum octo aberant (Caes. B. G. V. 53). Palus non latior pedi- 
 bus qvinqvaginta (Id. ib. VII. 19). (Qvinqvaginta pedibus latior 
 might also signify, fifty feet longer than something else, according 
 to §. 270.) 
 
 Obs. 1. With natus (so many years) old, we say either (according to 
 the first form), natus plus, amplius, minus {qvam) triginta annos (rarely 
 in the ablative, plus triginta annis), or (according to the second form), 
 major (minor) qvam triginta annos natus (Liv. XLV. 32), or (omitting 
 qvam), major triginta annos natus (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 14), or simply 
 major (minor) triginta annis (without natus, Cic. pro Rose. Am. 35) m . 
 
 m The following forms are of less frequent occurrence ; major triginta annis natus ; 
 major triginta annis natu ; major triginta annorum, with the descriptive genitive and 
 the omission of qvam. 
 
-309. Chap. VII. — Degrees of Comparison. 273 
 
 (Distinct from major [minor] natu, older (younger) than another, and 
 from grandis natu, onaximus natu.) 
 
 Obs. 2. On the way in which the amount of difference is expressed by 
 the ablative, with a comparative, see §. 270 with Obs. 1. 
 
 §. 307. A comparison of two qualities, which are found in the 
 same subject or action in an unequal degree, is denoted either by 
 the positive with magis, or by two comparatives, e. g. magis au- 
 dacter qvam prudenter ; consilium magis honestum qvam utile ; — L. 
 Aemilii contio fait verior qvam gratior populo (Liv. XXII. 38). 
 Non timeo, ne libentius haec in Clodium evomere videar qvam verius 
 (Cic. pro Mil. 29). Bella fortius qvam felicius gerere (Liv. V. 43). 
 
 §. 308. The comparative also serves to denote that the quality 
 referred to exists in a considerable or too high a degree : Senectus 
 est natura loqvacior (Cic. Cat. M. 16), rather talkative, somewhat 
 talkative. Voluptas, qvum major atqve longior est, omne animi 
 lumen exstingvit (Id. ib. 12). Themistocles minus parentibus pro- 
 babatur, qvod liberius vivebat et rem familiarem negligebat (Corn. 
 Them. 1.) {Aliqvanto, paulo liberius. More definitely nimis lon- 
 gus, libere.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Too great in proportion to something (greater than one could 
 expect according to something), is expressed by major qvam pro re 
 aliqva ; Proelium atrocius qvam pro numero pugnantium (Liv. XXI. 29). 
 Too great (and not suitable) for something is sometimes expressed by the 
 comparative with the ablative (not qvam) ; Ampliores Jiumano fastigio 
 honores (Svet. Jul. 76 ; otherwise honores Tiumanum fastigium excedentes, 
 ultra hum. fastigium exaggerati, and the like 11 .) Too great (greater) for, 
 is expressed by major qvam ut or major qvam qvi, e. g. major qvam cui tu 
 nocere possis, too great for you to hurt. 
 
 Obs. 2. Isolated irregularities in the use of the comparative form are 
 met with here and there in certain writers (Sallust, Livy, and especially 
 Tacitus), e. g. the omission of magis oxpotius before qvam (Veteres Romani 
 in pace beneficiis qvam metu imperium agitabant, Sail. Cat. 9), or the ad- 
 dition of a superfluous magis or potius with a comparative [Themistocli 
 optabilius videbatur oblivisci posse potius, qvod meminisse nollet, qvam, 
 qvod semel audisset vidisseive, meminisse, Cic. de Or. II. 74. Siculi se 
 ah omnibus desertos potius qvam obs te defensos esse malunt, Id. Dio. in 
 Caec. 6), or the combination of a comparative and a positive ; qyanto 
 inopina, tanto major a (Tac. Ann. I. 68). 
 
 §. 309. The comparative is used in Latin of the highest degree 
 
 n [Qvid aeternis minorem consiliis animiimf aligns ? (Hor. Od. II. 11, 11).] 
 
 n n 
 
274 Syntax.— Part I. §. 309- 
 
 when two only are mentioned: Qvaeritur, ex duo bus uter dignior 
 sit, ex pluribus, qvis dignissimus (Quinct. VII. 4, 21). Similiter 
 faciunt, qvi inter se contendunt,uter poiius rempublicam administret, 
 ut si nautae certent, qvis eorum potissimum gubernet (Cic. Off. I. 
 25, of two rivals). Major fratrum melius pugnavit, the eldest of the 
 (two) brothers fought the best. 
 
 §.310. The superlative often denotes not that degree which is 
 exclusively the highest (in comparison with all others of a certain 
 class), but only a very high degree (the highest in combination 
 with others : Es tu qvidem mihi carissimus, sed multo eris carior } si 
 bonis praeceptis laetabere (Cic. Off. III. 33) °. Vir fortissimus et 
 clarissimus L. Sulla. Optime valeo. The exclusive signification is 
 known either from the context or from the addition of a partitive 
 genitive or a preposition (optimus omnium, ex omnibus). 
 
 Obs. 1 . If the partitive genitive is of a different gender from the sub- 
 ject, the gender of the superlative should properly be always regulated by 
 that of the genitive (because it denotes a single object of that class) : 
 Servitus omnium malorum postremum est (Cic. Phil. II. 44) ; but it is 
 notwithstanding often regulated by that of the subject : Indus est om- 
 nium fluminum maximus (Cic. N. D. II. 52). Dulcissime return I (Hor. 
 Sat. I. 9, 4). 
 
 Obs. 2. The exclusive signification of the superlative is expressed more 
 strongly by the addition of unus or unus omnium, e. g. P. Scaevolam unum 
 nostrae civitaiis et ingenio et justitia praestantissimum audeo dicere (Cic. 
 Lael. 1). Res una omnium difficillima. Miltiades et antiqvitate generis 
 et gloria majorum unus omnium maxime jloreb at (Corn. Milt. 1). The 
 superlative (even when not exclusive) is increased in force by longe, 
 multo (which is the measure of the difference between it and others) ; 
 multo formosissimus. Concerning the superlative with qvisqve see the 
 Appendix on the pronouns, §. 495. 
 
 Obs. 3. In order to express the highest possible degree, either qvam 
 maximus (optimus, &c), qvantus maximus, with adverbs qvam maxime, 
 qvantum maxime, ut maxime, are combined with possum, or we have only 
 (less definitely) qvam maximus, qvam maxime ; Jugurtlia qvam maximas 
 potest {qvam potest maximas) copias armat (Sail. Jug. 48), as many troops 
 as he can. Hannibal, qvantam maximam vastitatem potest, caedibus in- 
 cendiisqve efficit (Liv. XXII. 3), the greatest devastation he can. Tanta 
 est inter eos, qvanta maxima potest esse, morum studiorumqve distantia 
 (Cic. Lael. 20). Caesari te commendavi, ut diligentissime potui (Id. ad 
 
 [Qvum ilia certissima sunt visa argumenta atqve indicia sceleris, iabellae,signa, ma- 
 ntis, deniqve icviuscujusqve confessio, turn multo ilia certiora, color, oculi, vultus, taciturni- 
 ias (Cic. in Cat. III. 5).] 
 
312, Chap. VII. — Degrees of Comparison, 275 
 
 Fam. VII. 17). — Dicam qvam hrevissime. Milii nihil fait optalilius, 
 qvam ut qvam gratissimus erga te esse cognoscerer (Cic. ad Fam. I. 5). 
 Vendere aliqvid qvam plurimo. 
 
 Obs. 4. "We should also notice the way in which comparison is ex- 
 pressed with the relative : Tarn sum mitis qvam qvi lenissimus (viz. est ; 
 Cic. pro Sull. 31). Tarn sum amicus reipublicae qvam qvi maxi/me (Id. 
 ad Fam. V. 2). Te semper sic colam et tuebor ut qvem diligentissime (viz. 
 colam; Id. ib. XIII. 62). 
 
 §.311. The superlatives which denote an order and sequence 
 according to time and place [primus, postremus, ultimus, novissimus, 
 siimmus, infimus, imus, intimus, extremus), as well as the adjective 
 medius, are often combined with a substantive, in order to denote 
 t\i&t part of the thing which the adjective specifies, e. g. vere primo, 
 at the beginning of spring : extremo anno ; ad summam aqvam ap- 
 propinqvare (the surface of the water) ; summits mons a Labieno 
 tenebatur (the summit of the mountain) ; ex intima philosophia 
 (from the innermost part of philosophy) ; in media urbe, per medium 
 mare, in the middle of the town, through the middle of the sea. 
 (Particularly in expressing time and place in the ablative or with prepo- 
 sitions. Also reliqva, cetera Graecia, the rest of Greece.) 
 
 Obs, Medius is also used (like a superlative) with a partitive genitive : 
 Locum medium regionum earum delegerant, qvas Svevi obtinent (Caes. B. 
 G. IV. 19). (Poetically, locus medius juguli et lacerti, instead of inter 
 jugulum et lacertum, Ov. Met. VI. 409). 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Peculiarities in the Construction of the Demonstrative and Relative 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 §. 312. a. If a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, but refers 
 to a substantive going before, its gender and number, as in the 
 case of an adjective, are regulated accordingly. If it refers to 
 several connected substantives, the gender is determined according 
 to the rule laid down in §. 214 b and c. {Mater et pater — ii ; ho- 
 nor es et imperia — ea ; ira et avaritia—eae or ea. Bonus et fortis 
 civis ita justitiae honestatiqve adhaerescet, ut, dum ea conservet, 
 qvamvis graviter offendat, Cic. Off. I. 25, these virtues.) If a 
 demonstrative pronoun designates something not previously named, 
 an object of a defined character and name being understood, the 
 
 n n 2 
 
276 Syntax.— Part I. §. 312- 
 
 gender of the pronoun is regulated accordingly ; Hie (eqvus) cele- 
 rior est ; haec (avis) pulchriores colores habet. If the thing be under- 
 stood indefinitely and without any particular name, the neuter is 
 employed ; Hoc, qvod tu manu tenes, cupio scire, qvid sit. 
 
 b. If a demonstrative pronoun, which does not refer to any indi- 
 vidual substantive, denotes something that comprehends a plurality 
 (e. g. the contents of a speech, a series of circumstances), it is put 
 in the neuter plural (like the adjectives §. 301 b) ; Ea, qvae pater 
 tuns dicit, vera sunt. Haec omnia scio. Postqvam haec rex animad- 
 vertit, constituit abire. Qvae narras, mihi non placent (i. q. ea, qvae 
 narras). (Hoc, this one circumstance.) The same holds of the 
 relative pronoun, where it is used (copulatively) instead of the 
 demonstrative : Qvae qvwn ita sint, — since then this is so (since 
 the circumstances are so). (But of a single thing: Qvod qvum 
 ita sit.) 
 
 §. 313. If a demonstrative pronoun is first put indefinitely as a 
 subject or object (that, this), and then connected with a substan- 
 tive by sum, or a verb that signifies to name or esteem, the pro- 
 noun takes the gender and number of the substantive (attraction) : 
 Romae fanum Dianae populi Latini cum populo Romano fecerunt. 
 Ea erat confessio, caput rerum Romam esse (Liv. I. 45). Haec mea 
 est patria (Cic. Legg. II. 2). Eas divitias, earn bonam famam 
 magnamqve nobilitatem putabant (Sail. Cat. 7). Cum ducibus ipsis, 
 non cum comitatu confligant. Ill am enim fortasse virtutem non- 
 nulli putabunt, hanc vero iniqvitatem omnes (Cic. pro Balb. 27). 
 (Non amicitiae tales, sed conjurationes putandae sunt, Id. Off. III. 10, 
 a thing of that kind \_sucli a thing] is not to be regarded, &c. Null am 
 virtutem nisi malitiam putant, Id. Legg. I. 18, they consider nothing 
 to be virtue. 
 
 OIjs. The deviations from this are rare, and are generally the result of 
 a particular effort, either to express a thing entirely indefinite (in the 
 neuter : Nee sopor illud erat, Virg. Aen. III. 173), or to give prominence 
 to the idea of a person, which is afterwards characterised in the neuter : 
 Haec (Jilia tua) est solatium, qvo rejiciare (Sen. ad Helv. 17). 
 
 §. 314. It may also be noticed, that Latin writers sometimes annex 
 to substantives, and especially those which denote an emotion of the 
 mind, a mere reference by means of a demonstrative pronoun (or a rela- 
 tive instead of the demonstrative) in the same case, instead of expressing 
 the relation to another idea by means of the genitive, e. g. hie dolor, this 
 pain, instead of dolor hujus rei, pain on account of this thing. Cassivel- 
 launus essedarios ex silvis emittebat et magno cum periculo nostrorum 
 
315, Chap. VIII.— Construction of the Pronouns. 277 
 
 eqvitwm cum Us confligehat, atqve hoc metu (by the alarm thus occasioned) 
 latins vagari prohibehat (Caes. B. G. V. 19). Sed ~ha.ec qvidem est per fa- 
 cilis et perexpedita defensio (Gic. de Einn. III. 11, i. q. hujus rei). (Saec 
 similitude*, something like this.) 
 
 Ohs. Concerning the employment of a superfluous demonstrative pro- 
 noun after parenthetical sentences, and with the particle qvidem, see 
 §.489. 
 
 §.315. a. The relative pronoun corresponds in gender and 
 number to the substantive (or word used substantively) to which it 
 refers. If it refers to several words, it is put in the plural, al- 
 though each of them may be in the singular; if the words are of 
 different gender, the rule in §. 214 b. is followed. E. g. Grandes 
 natu matres etparvuli liberty qvorum uirorumqve aetas misericordiam 
 nostrum reqvirit (Cic. Verr. V. 49). Otium atqve divitiae, qvae 
 prima mortales pntant (Sail. Cat. 36). Fae fruges atqve fructus, 
 qvos terra gignit (Cic. N. D. II. 14; qvos being referred to the 
 nearest word). In conformity also with §. 214 c, a neuter relative 
 may be subjoined to the names of several inanimate objects of 
 the same gender (masc. or fern.) : Fortunam nemo ab inconstantia 
 et temeritate sejunget, qvae (which qualities) digna certe non sunt 
 deo (Cic. N. D. III. 24). (Summa et do ct oris auctoritas est et ur- 
 bis, qvorum alter te scientia auger e potest, altera exemplis, Id. Off. I. 1, 
 according to §. 214 b. Ohs.) 
 
 Ohs. 1. If an appellative and a proper name of different genders are 
 combined, e. g. flumen Bhenus, the relative may be regulated according to 
 either : flumen Rhenus, qvi agrum Felvetiorum a Oermanis dividit (Caes. 
 B. G. I. 2). Ad flumen Scaldem, qvod influit in Mosam (Id. ib. VI. 33). 
 
 Ols. 2. The substantive to which a relative pronoun refers is sometimes 
 repeated for the sake of perspicuity or emphasis, or even quite superflu- 
 ously : Frant omnino itinera duo, qvibus itinerihus domo exire poterant 
 (Caes. B. G. I. 6). Tantum helium, tam diutumum, tarn longe lateqvc 
 dispersum, qvo hello omnes gentes ac nationes premehantur (Cic. pro Leg. 
 Man. 12) p. {lllius temporis mihi venit in mentem, qvo die, citato reo, 
 milii dicendum sit, Id Div. in Caec. 13.) i 
 
 b. A relative which refers, not to a single word, but to the whole 
 predicate or the entire contents of a proposition, is put in the 
 
 p [Omnibus his rebus confectis, qvarum rerum causa exercitum transducere conslituerat 
 (Caes. B. G. IV. 19).] 
 
 i [In the following example of this kind the relative precedes the demonstrative 
 clause : Ut, qvae religio C. Mario, clarissimo viro, non fuerat, qvo minus C. Glauciam, de 
 qvo nihil nominatim erat decretum, praetorem occideret, ea nos reiigione in private P. Len- 
 tulo puniendo liberaremur (Cic. in Cat. III. 6).] 
 
278 Syntax,— Part I. §.315- 
 
 neuter : Sapientes soli, qvod est proprium divitiarum, contenti sunt 
 rebus suis (Cic. Par. VI. 3). In this case id qvod is often used for 
 qvod : Si a vobis, id qvod non spero, deserar, tamen animo non defi- 
 ciam (Id. Rose. Am. 4) r . The relative proposition is usually in- 
 serted before the predicate to which it refers. 
 
 c. The attraction spoken of in §. 313, between a demonstrative em- 
 ployed indefinitely, and the substantive following, holds good also with 
 the relative: Qvae apud alios iracundia dicitur, ea in imperio superbia 
 atqve crudelitas appellatur (Sail. Cat. 51, what among others — ). 
 
 §. 316. If a relative which refers to a substantive going before 
 has another substantive connected with it by means of the verb 
 sum, or one of the verbs which signify to name, to hold for some- 
 thing, the number and gender of the relative may be accommodated 
 either to the substantive which precedes, or that which follows : 
 Darius ad eum locum, qvem Amanicas Pylas vacant, pervenit 
 (Curt. III. 20). Thebae ipsae, qvod Boeotiae caput est, in magno 
 tumultu erant (Liv. XLII. 44) s . The last is done when an observa- 
 tion is appended to an idea already defined (a defined person or thing) : 
 Cn. Pompejo, qvod imperii popidi JRomani lumen fuit, exstincto, interfec- 
 tus est patris simillimus filius (Cic. Phil. V. 14). Justa gloria, qvi est 
 fructus verae virtutis Tionestissimus (Id. in Pis. 24). If on the contrary 
 the idea is only defined by the relative clause, the relative is for the most 
 part regulated according to the preceding word : Flumen, qvod appellatur 
 Tamesis (Caes. B. G. V. 11), a river, the river. 
 
 Oos. In some few instances the relative even in the last case is regu- 
 lated according to the following word, e. g. Animal hoc providum, acutum, 
 plenum rationis et consilii, qvem vocamus Jwminem (Cic. Legg. I. 7). {Ex 
 perturbationibus morbi conjiciuntur, qvae vocant illi voa^ara, Id. Tusc. 
 IV. 10, and, Alterum est cohibere motus animi turbatos, qvos Graeci ndOrj 
 nominant, Id. Off. II. 5). 
 
 §.317. A pronoun sometimes refers less accurately to a foregoing 
 word, regard being had to the sense more than to the grammatical form 
 of that which precedes. 
 
 a. A relative often corresponds to the personal pronoun involved in the 
 possessive (the latter being considered equivalent to the genitive of the 
 former) : Vestra, qvi cum summa integritate vixistis, hoc onaxime interest 
 (Cic. pro Sail. 28). Vestra consilia accusantur, qvi mihi summum hono- 
 rem et maximum negotium imposuistis (Sail. Jug. 85). 
 
 r [Magna, id qvod necesse erat accidere, per htrhatio facta est (Caes. B. G. IV. 29).] 
 s [Ea, qvae secuta est, hieme, qvi fuit annus Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso Coss. (Caes. B. G-. 
 
•318. Chap. VIII. — Construction of the Pronouns. 279 
 
 b. Sometimes a pronoun in the plural follows a substantive in the sin- 
 gular, the idea being transferred to a number of individual objects : Con- 
 stituerant, ut eo signo cetera multitudo conjurationis suum qvisqve ne- 
 gotium exseqveretwr. Ea (viz. negotid) divisa hoc modo dicebantur, &cc. 
 (Sail. Cat. 43). L. Cantilius, scriba pontijicis, qvos (viz. scribas pon- 
 tificum) nunc minores pontifices appellant (Liv. XXII. 57). 
 
 c. After collective substantives in the singular the relative sometimes 
 follows in the plural as referred to the several individuals : Caesar eqvi- 
 tatum omnem, qvem ex omni provincia coactum liabebat, praemittii, qvi 
 videant, qvas in partes liostes iter faciant (Caes. B. G. I. 15). (But not 
 in an explanatory parenthesis). Ex eo genere and ex eo numero are often 
 followed by the relative in the plural, and in the gender of the individual 
 persons or things mentioned: TJnus ex eo numero, qvi ad caedem parati 
 erant (Sail. Jug. 35). Amicitia est ex eo genere, qvae prosunt (Cic. Finn. 
 III. 21). 
 
 d. To a figurative appellation of a man, in which the natural gender is 
 departed from, the relative is often added in the natural gender when the 
 comparison is dropped : Duo importuna prodigia, qvos improbitas tribuno 
 plebis constrictos addixerat (Cic. pro Sest. 17). 
 
 Obs. 1. Other deviations from the general rule are only inaccuracies 
 of language, e. g. Vejens helium ortum est, qvibus Sabini arma conjunx- 
 erant (Liv. II. 53), as if he had said helium cum Yejentibus. 
 
 Obs. 2. Here it may also be observed, that after a demonstrative or in- 
 definite pronoun unde may be put instead of a qvo (qva) and a qvibus, 
 and qvo instead of ad qvem (qvam, qvod), and ad qvos (qvas, qvae), e. g. is, 
 unde petit ur, the person from whom a thing is (judicially) demanded, the 
 defendant. Erat nemo, unde discerem (Cic. Cat. M. 4). Homo et domi 
 nobilis et apud eos, qvo se contulit, gratiosus (Id. Verr. IV. 18). So like- 
 wise qva sometimes stands for per qvae, qvos, e. g. ex his oppidis, qva duce- 
 hantur (Id. Verr. V. 26), and ubi for in qvo. 
 
 §.318. The relative pronoun may stand in the proposition 
 formed with it in any relation, and in the case by which such re- 
 lation is distin guished, as subject, object, &c. 
 
 The relative pronoun represents all three persons, and if it is the 
 subject, the verb must be regulated according to that person to 
 which the relative belongs : Vos, qvi affuistis, testes esse poteritis 
 (you, who were present. On the other hand ii nostrum, or ii 
 vestrum, qvi affuerunt, testes esse possunt). After is also as a pre- 
 dicative noun referred to a subject of the first or second person, 
 the relative takes the same person : Non is sum, qvi glorier (one 
 who boasts). 
 
280 Syntax.— Part I. §311 
 
 §. 319. The indefinite substantive, which is defined by the 
 relative proposition, is sometimes drawn (in the same case with 
 the relative) into the relative proposition, so that this precedes the 
 demonstrative : Qvae cupiditates a natura proficiscuntur, facile ex- 
 plentur sine ulla injuria (Cic. Finn. I. 16), i. q. eae cupiditates, 
 qvae. Ad Caesarem qvam misi epistolam, ejus exemplum fugit me 
 tibi mittere (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 51, i. q. ejus epistolae, qvam). In 
 qvem primum Heneti Trojaniqve egressi sunt locum, Troja vacatur 
 (Liv. I. 1) K 
 
 Obs. The poets do this also where the relative proposition follows the 
 demonstrative, or at any rate the demonstrative pronoun : Poeta id sibi 
 negoti credidit solum dari, Populo ut placer ent, qvas fecisset fabulas 
 (Ter. Andr. prol. 3). Illi, scripta qvibus comoedia prisca viris est, hoc 
 stabant, hoc sunt imitandi (Hor. Sat. I. 10, 16). Qvis non malarum, qvas 
 amor curas habet, Haec inter obliviscitur (Id. Ep. 2, 37, i. q. malarum 
 cur arum, qvas — ). (It is a still greater irregularity, when a substantive, 
 that should stand in the nominative, takes the case of the relative, and yet 
 retains its place before it : Urbem, qvam statuo, vestra est [Virg. Aen. I. 
 573], for urbs, qvam.) 
 
 §. 320. The substantive, to which the relative refers, is almost 
 always drawn into the relative proposition, when it is a new idea 
 and a new appellation, which is subjoined (in English by appo- 
 sition) to that which precedes, either to a single word or to the 
 whole proposition : Peregrinum frumentum, qvae sola alimenta ex 
 insperato fortuna dedit, ab ore rapitur (Liv. II. 35), the only nou- 
 rishment which. Santones non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, 
 qvae civitas est in provincia (Caes. B. G. 1. 10). Firmi et constantes 
 amici eligendi sunt, cujus generis est magna penuria (Cic. Lael. 17), 
 a class which is very rare. (We rarely find a construction like the fol- 
 lowing : Dictator dictus est Q. Servilius Priscus, vir, cujus providentiam 
 in republica multis aliis tempestatibus ante experta civitas erat, Liv. 
 IV. 46). 
 
 Obs. If a relative proposition is annexed to a superlative, to define 
 with what limitation the superlative must be understood, the adjective is 
 placed in Latin in the relative proposition : Themistocles noctu de servis 
 suis, qvem liabuit jldelissimum, ad Xerxem misit (Corn. Them. 4), the 
 most faithful whom he had. Agamemnon Dianae devoverat, qvod in suo 
 regno pulcherrimum natum esset illo anno (Cic. Off. III. 25), the most 
 beautiful thing that should be born. M. Popillius in tumulo, qvem prox- 
 imum castris Qallorum caper e potuit, vallum ducere coepit (Liv. VII. 23). 
 
 1 [Qvam superior e aestate ad Veneticum helium fecer at classem. jubet convenire (Caes. 
 B. G. IV. 21).] 
 
322, Chap. VIII. — Construction of the Pronouns, 281 
 
 Qvanta maxima potest celeritate, with the greatest speed he can, §.310, 
 Obs. 3. At other times too, when a relative proposition has a special 
 reference to the adjective connected with a substantive, the former may 
 be drawn into the relative proposition : P. Scipioni ex multis diehus, qvos 
 in vita celeberrimos laetissimosqve vidit, ille dies clarissimus fait (Cic. 
 Lael. 3). (Where we employ the superlative in apposition in English, 
 the comparative with a negation is used in Latin, according to §. 304, 
 Obs. 1.) 
 
 §.321. If the relative pronoun refers to a demonstrative which 
 stands alone, the latter is often put after the relative proposition : 
 Male se res habet, qvitm, qvod virtute effici debet, id tentatur pecunia 
 (Cic. Off. II. 6). It is often entirely omitted when no emphasis is 
 laid upon it, mostly as a nominative or accusative, especially when 
 the relative stands in the same case in which the demonstrative 
 would have stood : Maximum ornamentum amicitiae tollit, qvi ex ea 
 tollit verecundiam (Cic. Lael. 22). Atilium sua manu spargentem 
 semen, qvi missi erant, convenerunt (Id. Rose. Am. 18). Quern neqve 
 gloria neqve pericula excitant, frustr a hortere (Sail. Cat. 58 ; it were 
 in vain to urge him) . Inter omnes pliilosoplios constat, qvi imam Tiabeat, 
 omnes habere virtutes (Cic. Off. II. 10 ; eum as the subject being omitted). 
 Minime miror, qvi insanire occipiunt ex injuria (Ter. Ad. II. 1, 43, eos 
 omitted). Hand facile emergunt, qvorum virtutibus obstat res angusta 
 domi (Juv. III. 164). 
 
 Obs. The same omission of the demonstrative pronoun takes place 
 where the substantive is drawn into the relative proposition according to 
 §.319; see there the first and third example. Qvae prima innocentis 
 mihi defensio oblata est, suscepi (Cic. pro Sull. 33). In the other cases, 
 which are not so easily supplied from the context, the demonstrative is 
 sometimes left out, when it would have to stand in the same case as the 
 relative : Qvibus bestiis erat is cibus, ut alius generis bestiis vescerentur, 
 aut vires natura dedit aut celeritatem (Cic. N. D. II. 48) ; Piso parum 
 erat, a qvibus debucrat, adjutus (Id. Phil. I. 4, i. q. ab iis, a qvibus) ; 
 otherwise but seldom, e. g. in the dative in certain legal expressions 
 (Ejus pecuniae, qvi volet, petitio esto=ei, qvi volet), or where qvi ap- 
 proaches to the signification of siqvis : X.erxes praemium proposuit, qvi 
 novum voluptatem invenisset (Cic. Tusc. V. 7). If the demonstrative is 
 put emphatically (to give prominence to a particular person, thing, or 
 class) it can never be omitted : A one ii contenderunt, qvi apud me et 
 amicitia et dignitate plurimum possunt (Cic. Rose. Am. 1). 
 
 §. 322. The nominative or accusative of an indefinite pronoun 
 (one, some one, something) is left out in Latin before the relative, 
 if it is only intended to express in general that there is or is not 
 
 o o 
 
282 Syntax.— V art I. §. 322- 
 
 sorae one of a particular kind or with a particular destination, e. g. 
 sunt, qvi ita dicant. Non est facile reperire, qvi haec credant. Habeo, 
 qvod dicam (something to say). Misi, qvi viderent (some, to see). 
 (But sunt qvidam, qvi; there are certain persons who (compare 
 §. 363 and 365). 
 
 §. 323. a. If two relative propositions are combined and referred to the 
 same word, and if the relative which they contain is to be put in different 
 cases (qvem rex delegerat et qvi populo grains erat), the second relative is 
 sometimes omitted and supplied from the first, but only in the nomina- 
 tive and accusative : JSamne rationem seqvare, qva tecum ipse et cum tuis 
 utare, prqfteri autem et in medium prqferre non audeas ? (Cic. Finn. II. 
 23), but which you do not venture. — Socchus cum peditibus, qvos Volux, 
 filius ejus, adduxerat, neqve in priore pugna affuerant (i. q. et qvi in pr. 
 p. non affuerant) , postremam Momanorum aciem invadunt (Sail. Jug. 101). 
 
 b. Sometimes, if the relative ought to stand first in the nominative and 
 then in some other case, the demonstrative is is used the second time in- 
 stead of the relative : Omnes turn fere, qvi nee extra hanc urbem vixerant, 
 nee eos aliqva barbaries domestica infuscaverat, reete loqvebantur (Cic. 
 Brut. 74). 
 
 Obs. 1 . If the demonstrative and relative are governed by the same 
 preposition, and the same verb is understood in the relative proposition 
 which is expressed in the demonstrative, the preposition may be omitted 
 before the relative : In eadem causa (position) sumus qva vos. Me tuae 
 litterae nunqvam in tantam spem induxerunt, qvantam aliorum (Cic. ad 
 Att. III. 19). 
 
 Obs. 2. If a relative, which refers to a demonstrative pronoun (without 
 a substantive), ought properly to be governed by an infinitive understood 
 from the verb in the leading proposition, and put in the accusative, it is 
 sometimes (by attraction) put in the case of the demonstrative, e. g. Hap- 
 tim, qvibus qvisqve poterat, elatis, penates tectaqve relvnqventes exibant 
 (Liv. I. 29), i. q. elatis Us, qvae qvisqve poterat efferre. 
 
 §. 324. a. Talis, tantus, and tot, are followed in comparisons by the 
 corresponding relative adjectives qvalis, qvantus, qvot, which (qvalis, 
 qvantus) are regulated in their gender and number by the same substan- 
 tive : Nemo ab dis immortalibus tot et tantas res tacitus optare ausus est, 
 quot et qvantas di immortales ad JPompejum detulerunt (Cic. pro Leg. 
 Man. 16) ; or by another, the character or magnitude of which is com- 
 pared with that of the first : Non habet tantam pecuniam, qvantos sumptus 
 facit. Amicum habere talem volunt, qvales ipsi esse non possunt (Cic. 
 Lael. 22). (Tantundem, qvantum : Voluntatem municipii tantidem, qvanti 
 /idem suam fecit ; Id. Rose. Am. 39). 
 
 b. Qvi corresponds to the demonstrative idem, and is put in the same 
 
324. Chap. VIII. — Construction of the Pronouns. 283 
 
 gender and number, but in the same or a different case according to the 
 relation in which it stands in the relative proposition : Iidem abeunt, qvi 
 venerant (Cic. Finn. IV. 3), they go away just as they came. Eandem 
 Bomani causam belli cum Bocclw liabent qvam cum Jugurtlia (Sail. Jug. 
 81). Pisander eodem, qyo Alcibiades, sensu erat (Corn. Ale. 5). In eadem 
 sum sententia, qvae tibi placet {qvam tibi semper placuisse scio). If qvi 
 would have to stand in the same case as idem, and the same verb to be 
 repeated or understood, ac may be substituted for qvi : Est animus erga 
 te idem acfait (Ter. Heaut. II. 2, 24:),=qvifuit. Ex iisdem rebus argu- 
 ments sumpsi, ac tic (=ex qvibus tu). 
 
 o o2 
 
PAET THE SECOND. 
 
 On the Mode of distinguishing the Character of the Assertion, 
 and the Time of the Fact asserted. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Of the Kinds of Propositions, and the Moods in general. 
 
 §. 325. A Proposition is either an independent and leading pro- 
 position, which is asserted simply by itself, e. g. Titius currit, or a 
 subordinate proposition, which is not asserted by itself, but appended 
 to another proposition, in order to complete and define the whole 
 of it or some particular word in it : Titius currit, ut sudet. The 
 leading proposition is sometimes incomplete without the addition 
 of the subordinate, e. g. Sunt, qvi haec dicant. Non sum tarn im- 
 prudens qvam tuputas. 
 
 A leading proposition may have several which are subordinate, 
 e. g. Qvum hostes appropinqvarent, imperator pontem interscindi 
 iussit, ut eos transitu prohiberet. A subordinate proposition may 
 again have another subordinate to it, e. g. Laborandum est injuven- 
 tute, ut, qvum senectus advenerit, honeste otio frui possimus. 
 
 A main proposition with its subordinate proposition (or propo- 
 sitions) forms a compound proposition, which, like a leading pro- 
 position standing alone, has a complete sense, at which the speech 
 can break off. 
 
 §. 326. Subordinate propositions are connected with the leading 
 proposition, either by a conjunction {conjunctional propositions), 
 e. g. Haec scio, qvia adfui, or by a relative pronoun or adverb 
 [relative propositions), e. g. Omnes, qvi adfuerunt, haec sciunt, or by 
 an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, or particle), {dependent 
 interrogative propositions), e. g. Qvaero, unde haec scias, or in a pe- 
 
-327. Chap. I. — Kinds of Propositions. 285 
 
 culiar form with the verb in the infinitive {infinitive propositions, the 
 accusative with the infinitive), e. g. intelligis, me haec scire. 
 
 Obs. 1. The relative subordinate propositions add an explanation or 
 definition to an idea of the leading proposition, but may themselves also 
 express the same idea (by a periphrasis). The other subordinate propo- 
 sitions represent either the subject of the leading proposition (subjective 
 propositions), e. g. Qvod domum emisti, gratum milii est, or the object of 
 the verb, or of some other word in the leading proposition (objective pro- 
 positions), e. g. Video te currere ; operam dabo, ut res perficiatur, or they 
 denote different circumstances connected with it, so that they stand in 
 relations similar to those which are expressed by the ablative of a substan- 
 tive or by prepositions. But the difference of the grammatical form cor- 
 responds ouly in part to this division. The infinitive propositions repre- 
 sent either a subject or an object (§. 394 — 398 a), the dependent interroga- 
 tive propositions an object ; in other cases an object is represented by a 
 conjunctional proposition (§. 371 — 376). One kind of conjunctional pro- 
 positions (with qvod to denote an existing relation, §. 398 b) may either 
 represent a subject or object, or be used in pointing out a circumstance 
 (in eo qvod, in that). The rest of the conjunctional subordinate propo- 
 sitions, which express circumstances, are divided according to the different 
 ideas, in relation to which they define the leading proposition, into final 
 (denoting a purpose), consecutive (denoting a consequence), causal, con- 
 ditional, concessive, temporal and modal (propositions of time and mood), 
 and comparative propositions, which are denoted by particular conjunc- 
 tions. In so far as the temporal and modal conjunctions are relative 
 adverbs of time and mood (qvam, of degree), the temporal and modal pro- 
 positions have an affinity to the relative. 
 
 Obs. 2. When the subordinate proposition must be first thought of, and 
 begins with a conjunction which denotes a time, a reason, a contrast 
 (although), or a condition, it is then called the protasis, and the main pro- 
 position is denominated the apodusis. 
 
 Obs. 3. Many propositions refer by means of (demonstrative) adverbs 
 to other propositions, of which they express the reason, consequence, &c, 
 but are stated entirely by themselves as leading propositions, e. g. propo- 
 sitions with nam, itaqve, Sec. 
 
 §. 327. The relative proposition often contains not merely a 
 periphrasis or a remark simply subjoined, but stands in a relation 
 to the leading proposition, which is otherwise expressed by con- 
 junctions, denoting the design (who was to, i. q. that he), the 
 reason (who, i. q. since he), &c. This is expressed by the mood of 
 the verb ; see §. 363 and the following. 
 
286 Syntax.— Part II. §. 227 
 
 Obs. On the use of the relative in Latin instead of the demonstrative to 
 connect the proposition with that which precedes it, see in the chapter 
 on the combination of propositions, § 448. On the transposition of the 
 relative into a subordinate proposition, and the peculiar relative con- 
 struction resulting from it, see §. 445. 
 
 §.328. Several propositions may be arranged one after the 
 other, without standing in the relation of leading and subordinate 
 propositions, by the aid of copulative, disjunctive, or antithetical 
 conjunctions, and sometimes. even without a conjunction [coordinate 
 propositions) : Et mihi consilium tuum placet et pater id vehementer 
 probat. Mihi consilium tuum placet, sed pater id improbat. (Ego 
 consilium probo, pater improbat.) Neqve cur tu hoc consilium tarn 
 vehementer probes, neqve cur pater tantopere improbet, intelligo. The 
 coordinate propositions are therefore either all leading propositions, 
 or all subordinate propositions of one leading proposition. 
 
 §. 329. The proposition is conceived and expressed by the 
 speaker in different ways with reference to the actual existence of 
 the thing stated. Its contents are either stated as something that 
 actually is or takes place, e. g. Titius currit, or as the will of the 
 speaker, e. g. curre, Titi, or only as a supposition, e. g. Titius 
 currit, ut sudet. (It is not said that Titius perspires, but the design is 
 expressed by the supposition of his perspiring.) 
 
 The different ways in which a proposition is conceived, and be- 
 sides this the relation of the subordinate to the leading proposition, 
 are denoted in Latin by the three personal and definite moods, the 
 Indicative, Imperative, and Conjunctive, in which the verb is 
 referred to a defined subject (oratio finita). The relation of the 
 subordinate proposition may also in some cases be expressed in 
 Latin by not using a definite (personal) mood, but putting the verb 
 in the indefinite form, the infinitive (oratio hvfinita). 
 
 Obs. By the participle, the predicate of a subordinate proposition is 
 expressed as the property of a subject connected with the leading pro- 
 position. 
 
 §. 330. Subordinate propositions, when coordinate with each 
 other, stand in the same relation to the leading proposition, and 
 have the same mood (but not always the same tense). 
 
 Obs. 1. In one single case however two subordinate propositions in 
 combination have different moods, because their contents are differently 
 conceived (non qyod — sed qyia ;) see §. 357 b. 
 
332. Chap. II. — The Indicative and its Tenses. 287 
 
 Ohs. 2. Of two leading propositions which are combined, the one may 
 sometimes be asserted unconditionally (in the indicative), the other doubt- 
 ingly and hypothetically or by way of concession (in the conjunctive), e. g. 
 neqye nego neqve affirmare ausim. Neqye divelli a Catilina possunt et 
 pereant sane, qvoniam sunt ita multi, ut eos career capere non possit 
 (Cic. in Cat, II. 10). 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Indicative and its Tenses. 
 
 §.331. The Indicative mood is that in which a thing is simply 
 asserted (affirmatively or negatively) or a question simply asked. 
 It is therefore used in all propositions, both leading and sub- 
 ordinate, where no particular rules require another mood : Pater 
 venit. Pater non venit. Num pater veniet ? Qvando venies ? Haec 
 etsi nota sunt, commemorari tamen dehent, qvod ad summam rei perti- 
 nent. Qvod domum emisti, gratum mihi est. Qvoniam tibi placet, 
 desist am. 
 
 Ohs. An independent (direct) interrogation is one which stands alone 
 as a leading proposition. It expresses a wish that the whole proposition 
 thus interrogatively expressed should either be confirmed (as a matter of 
 fact) or denied (Venit ne pater ?), or that a single idea expressed by an 
 interrogative pronoun or adverb should be defined. (Concerning the par- 
 ticles, by which a question is expressed, which relates to whole proposi- 
 tions, see §. 450 — 453). Quite distinct from this is the indirect or de- 
 pendent interrogation, which is appended as a subordinate proposition, in 
 order to denote the object of a proposition or idea, e. g. gvaesivi, num 
 pater venisset ; see on this §. 356. 
 
 §. 332. It is to be particularly noticed, that in expressing a con- 
 dition both propositions (both the leading proposition which is 
 qualified, and the subordinate which expresses the qualification) 
 are put in the indicative, if the conditional relation (that a thing is 
 or is not, in case another thing is or is not) is expressed simply 
 without any further accessory meaning : Si Deus mundum creavit, 
 conservat etiam. Nisi hoc ita est,frustra labor amus. Si nullum jam 
 ante consilium de morte Sex. Roscii inieras, hie nuntius ad te minime 
 omnium pertinebat (Cic. Rose. Am. 34). Si nihil aliud fecerunt, 
 satis praemii habent. 
 
 Obs. This however denotes no more, than that such is the relation 
 which obtains between the two propositions ; but nothing is stated of the 
 
•388 Syntax,— "Part II. §- 33< 
 
 actual truth of their contents when taken singly. The indicative is also 
 retained when it is said that a thing holds equally good under different 
 conditions, which is exjDressed by sive — sive : Mala consvetudo est contra 
 deos dispatandi, sive ex animo id Jit sive simulate (Cic. N. D. II. 67). 
 Hoc loco libentissime utor, sive qvid mecum ipse cogito, sive aliqyid scribo 
 aut lego (Cic. Legg. II. 1). 
 
 §. 333. The thing asserted is either simply referred to one of the 
 three leading tenses, the present, past, or future (praesens, praete- 
 ritum, futurum), or stated (mediately, relatively) with reference to 
 a certain past or future point of time, as being at that time present 
 (contemporary with it), past, or future [praesens in praeterito, prae- 
 teritum in praeterito, futurum in praeterito ; praesens in futuro, 
 praeteritum in futuro, futurum in futuro). These relations of time 
 are expressed in Latin partly by the simple tenses of the verbs 
 (and by the passive compounds which correspond to the simple 
 active forms), partly by a periphrasis by means of the future par- 
 ticiple and sum, as follows : 
 
 PRAESENS. PRAETERITUM. FUTURUM. 
 
 Scribo Scripsi Scribam 
 
 In Praeterito. Scribebam, Scripseram, I Scripturus,erara(fui),I 
 
 I was writing (at that had written. was (at that time) on 
 
 time). the point of writing. 
 
 In Futuro. Scribam, I Scripsero, I Scripturus ero, I shall 
 
 shall (then) shall have (then) be on the point 
 
 write. written. of writing. 
 
 Besides these a future thing is designated as now at hand (and 
 referred to the present) in a particular way, by the periphrasis 
 scripturus sum. 
 
 §. 334. The Present declares that which now is, comprising also 
 what happens and exists at every time, e. g. Deus mundum con- 
 servat, and what is thought of as present, such as opinions and ex- 
 pressions in books, which are still extant, e. g. Zeno aliter judicat. 
 Praeclare hunc locum Cicero tractat in libris de natura deorum. 
 Sometimes the present is used instead of the perfect in narrations ; 
 see §. 336. 
 
 Obs. The present is often used of that which has endured for some 
 time and still continues : Tertium jam annum hie sumus. Annum jam 
 audis Cratippum (Cic. Off. I. 1) ; especially with jamdiu and jam dud urn : 
 Jamdiu ignoro, qvid agas (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 9). In bonis hominibus ea, 
 
»35. Chap. II. — TJie Indicative and its Tenses. 289 
 
 qvam jamdudum tractamus, stabilitas amicitiae confirmari potest (Id, 
 Lael. 22). 
 
 §. 335. a. The Perfect is used in Latin in relating and giving 
 information of past occurrences (where the imperfect is used in 
 English) both in continuous history and isolated notices of events 
 (the historical perfect) : Caesar Galliam subegit. Mo anno duae res 
 memorabiles acciderunt. Hostes qvum Romanorum trepidationem 
 animadvertissent, subito procurrerunt et or dines perturbarunt. L. 
 Lucullus multos annos Asiae provinciae praefuit (Cic. Acad. II. 1). 
 Qvum (at the time when) hoc proelium factum est } Caesar aberat a . 
 
 b. The perfect is also used to express a thing as done and com- 
 pleted in contradistinction to the present (the perfect absolute), e. g. 
 Pater jam venit (is already come). Haec urbs ante multa saecula 
 condita est. Is mos usqve ad hoc tempus permansit. Fuimus Troes, 
 fuit Ilium (Virg. Aen. II. 325). Ilium has been, i. q. is no more b . 
 [Peril ! it is all over with me.) 
 
 Obs. 1. If a thing be spoken of that is repeatedly or customarily done, 
 the perfect is used in subordinate propositions, which express time, con- 
 dition, or place (after qvum, qvoties, simulac, si, uhi, and indefinite relative 
 expressions), if the action of the subordinate is to be supposed as antece- 
 dent to that of the leading proposition. (In English the present is gene- 
 rally used.) Qvum ad villam veni, hoc ipsum, nihil agere, me delectat 
 (Cic. de Or. II. 16); in English, when I come. Qvum for tuna reflavit, 
 affligimur (Id. Off. II. 6). Si ad luxuriam etiam libidinwm intemperantia 
 accessit, duplex malum est (Id. ib. I. 34). Qvocunqve aspexisti, utfuriae, 
 sic tuae tibi occurrunt injuriae (Id. par. 2) c . (If the leading proposition 
 is in the perfect [imperfect], the subordinate is put in the pluperfect ; 
 see §.338 a. Obs.) 
 
 Ohs. 2. Of the perfect after postqvam and similar particles see §. 
 338 b. 
 
 Obs. 3. The perfect is sometimes found in the poets (in imitation of 
 the Greek aorist) instead of the present, to express a thing that is cus- 
 tomarily done (and has already often taken place) : JRege incolumi mens 
 omnibus una est ; amisso rupere fidem constructaqve mella diripuere 
 ipsae (Virg. Georg. IV. 212), of the bees d . 
 
 Obs. 4. On the use of the perfects odi, memini, novi, in the signification 
 
 a In Greek the aorist is used in this signification. 
 
 b The perfect is here used in Greek. 
 
 c In the editions the fut. exact, is sometimes incorrectly given, e. g. accesserit for ac- 
 cessit. 
 
 d [Terra tremit, fugere ferae (Virg. Georg. I. 330). Illius immensae ruperunt 
 horrea messes (Id. ibid. I. 49).] 
 
 P P 
 
290 Syntax,— Part II. §. 33 
 
 of the present, see the Rules for the inflection of words, §. 161 and §. 142. 
 (Svevi, consvevi, I am accustomed). 
 
 §. 336. In lively, connected narrative, past events are often 
 spoken of as present, the present tense being employed instead of 
 the perfect (the historical present) : Ubi id Verres audivit, Diodo- 
 rum ad se vocavit ac pocula poposcit. Me respondet, se Lily- 
 baei non habere, Melitae religvisse. Turn iste continuo mittit ho- 
 mines certos Melitam ; s crib it ad qvosdam MelitenseSj ut ea vasa 
 perqvirant (Cic. Verr. IV. 18). Exspectabant omnes, qvo tandem 
 Verres progressurus esset, qvum repente proripi hominem ac deligari 
 jubet (Id. ib. V. 62). 
 
 Obs. 1. The poets sometimes use the historical present somewhat 
 strangely in noticing a single event and in relative propositions : Tu 
 prima fur entem his, germana, mails oneras atqve ohjicis hosti (Virg. Aen. 
 II. 548), for onerasti and objecisti. Gratera antiqvum (tibi dalo), qvem 
 dat Sidonia Juno (Id. ib. IX. 266), for dedit. 
 
 Obs. 2. "When the particle dum denotes what happens, while something 
 else happens (consequently contemporary), and especially what happens, 
 because something else happens (occasioned by it), it is usually constructed 
 with the present, although the action be past and the perfect (sometimes 
 the pluperfect) used in the leading proposition : Dum haec in colloqvio 
 geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est, eqvites Ariovisti propius accedere (Caes. 
 B. G. I. 46). Dum obseqvor adolescentibus, me senem esse oblitus sum 
 (Cic. de Or. II. 4). Ita mulier dum pauca mancipia retinere vult, for- 
 tunas omnes perdidit (Id. Div. in Caec. 17). (Dum elephanti trajiciuntur, 
 interim Hannibal equites qvingentos ad castra Homana miserat speculaium 
 (Liv. XXI. 29). Yet the perfect may also be used (of an action), or the 
 imperfect (of a condition ; see §.337) : Dum Aristo et Pyrrho in una 
 virtute sic omnia esse voluerunt, ut earn rerum selectione exspoliarent, vir- 
 tutem ipsam sustulerunt (Cic. Finn. II. 13). Dum Sulla in aliis rebus 
 erat occupatus, erant interea, qvi suis vulneribus mederentur (Id. Rose. 
 Am. 32). When dum signifies as long as, it never has the present, ex- 
 cept of actually present time : Hoc feci, dum licuit (Cic. Phil. III. 13). 
 
 §.337. The Imperfect (praesens in praeterito) is used when we 
 transfer ourselves in idea into a past time, and describe what was 
 then present. It is therefore employed of circumstances at a parti- 
 cular time, or actions, which were taking place at a given time (which 
 still went on and were not yet completed), or of that which was 
 customary at a certain time (with a certain person or thing), or was 
 often repeated. (On the other hand, it is not used of isolated oc- 
 currences or in general historical statements of what formerly took 
 
537- Chap. II. — The Indicative and its Tenses. 291 
 
 place, or was in a certain state, even in speaking of a tiling that 
 continued for a long time). Qvo tempore Philippus Graeciam evertit 
 (an occurrence), etiam turn Athenae gloria Utter arum et artium 
 florebant (condition at the time specified; but Athenae multa se~ 
 cula litter arum et artium gloria fioruerunt, notice of a fact). 
 Caesar consilium mutavit (relation of a fact) ; videbat enim y nihil 
 tarn exiguis copiis conflci posse (description of his views at the time ; 
 vidit enim would signify, for he came to the conclusion). Regulus 
 Carthaginem rediit neqve eum caritas patriae retinuit (notice of 
 what did and did not happen). Neqve ignorabat se ad eocqvisita 
 supplicia proficisci, sed jusjurandum conservandum putabat (Cic. 
 Off. III. 27). Qvum Verres ad aliqvod oppidum venerat, eadem 
 lectica usqve in cubiculum defer ebatur (Cic. Verr. V. 11). Romae 
 qvotannis bini consules creabantur (custom ; but qvamdiu Roma 
 libera fuit j semper bini consules fuerunt, notice of a fact). Archy- 
 tas nullam capitaliorem pestem qvam voluptatem corporis dicebat a 
 natura datam (Cic. Cat. M. 12; also dicer e solebat ; on the con- 
 trary, dicere solitus est, had a habit of saying) e . In Graecia musici 
 fioruerunt, discebantqve id omnes (Id. Tusc. I. 2), and it was the 
 custom that all learned music. Die el at melius qvam scripsit Horten- 
 sius (Id. Or. 38), H. spoke better, i. q. was accustomed to speak better, 
 than he has written, than he shews himself iu his written speeches. On 
 the other hand, qvam scribebat, than he was accustomed to write. Janua 
 fieri tres horas patuit, but Heri, qvum praeterii, janua patebat. Putavi, 
 I have thought, or I took up the opinion ; putabam, I was of opinion. 
 
 Obs. 1 . An action that was on the point of happening at a certain time 
 {futwi"um in praeterito) is sometimes represented in Latin by the imper- 
 fect as already begun and proceeding : Hujus deditionis ipse, qvi dedeba- 
 tur, svasor et auctor fuit (Cic. Off. III. 30), who was thereby delivered 
 up, i. q. was to be delivered up. The Latin imperfect, when applied to 
 a thing that is spoken of as happening in time past, and not completely 
 finished, may sometimes be rendered in English by began to : Constitit 
 utrumqve agmen et proelio sese expediebant (Liv. XXI. 46). TJiemistocli 
 qvidam pollicitus est, se artem ei memoriae, qvae turn primum profereba- 
 tur, traditurum (Cic. Acad. II. 1). 
 
 Obs. 2. Connected examples of the usage and alternate employment of 
 the perfect, the historical present, the imperfect, and the historical infini- 
 tive (according to §. 392) in narrative and description may be seen in 
 Cicero Verr. IV. 18, and in Livy III. 36—38. 
 
 e [The beginner will do well to notice, that the imperfect indicative in this sense is 
 sometimes expressed in English by the auxiliar} r would, which is never to be translated 
 by the conjunctive in Latin : Socrates would say, Socrates dicebat, or dicere solebat.] 
 
 r p 2 
 
292 Syntax,— V art II. §. 33! 
 
 §. 338. a. The Plusqvamperfectum (praeteritum in praeterito) is 
 used of that which had already happened at a certain time past, or 
 at the time when a certain action now past took place. Dioeerat 
 hoc Me, qvum puer nuntiavit, venire ad eum Laelium (Cic. R. P. I. 
 12). Qvum ego ilium vidi,jam consilium mutaverat. 
 
 Obs. With leading propositions in the imperfect of a thing which cus- 
 tomarily happened and was repeated, those subordinate propositions are 
 put in the pluperfect which are in the perfect when the leading proposi- 
 tion is in the present, according to §. 335 b, Obs. 1 : Qvum ver esse coepe- 
 rat, Verves ddbat se labori atqve itineribus (Cic. Yerr. V. 10). Alcihiades, 
 simul ac se remiserat, luxuriosus, libidinosus, intemperans reperiebatur 
 (Corn. Ale. 1). Si a perseqvendo hosies deterrere neqviverant, disjectos ab 
 tergo circumveniebant (Sail. Jug. 50). (Compare §.359 on the conjunc- 
 tive in such subordinate propositions.) 
 
 b. When it is stated that two actions immediately followed each 
 other, the perfect is used after the conjunctions posteaqvam or 
 postqvam, ut, simul atqve (or simply simul), ut primum, qvam pri- 
 mum, as soon as, inasmuch as we merely designate both actions 
 as past, without expressing their mutual relation by the verb : 
 Posteaqvam victoria constituta est ab armisqve recessimus, erat 
 Roscius Romae freqvens (Cic. Rose. Am. 6). Pompejus, ut eqvi- 
 tatum suum pulsum vidit i acie excessit (Caes. B. C. III. 94). Si- 
 mulac primum Verri occasio visa est, consulem deserait (Cic. Verr. 
 I. 13). 
 
 Obs. 1. Postqvam is put with the pluperfect when it is intended to 
 denote not something that ensued immediately, but a transaction that 
 occurred after the lapse of some time, e. g. P. Africanus, posteaqvam bis 
 consul et censor fuerat, L. Cottam in judicium vocavit (Cic. Div. inCaec. 
 21) ; especially when a defined interval is specified, e. g. Hannibal anno 
 tertio postqvam domo profugerat, in Africam venit (Corn. Hann. 8). Post 
 diem qvintum, qvam (§.276, Obs. 6) barbari iterum male pugnaverant, 
 legati a Boccho veniunt (Sail. Jug. 102). Otherwise postqvam is rarely 
 put with the pluperfect (very rarely with the pluperfect conj.) f . 
 
 Obs. 2. Postqvam is often put with the imperfect, in order to shew 
 a state of things that had come on : Postqvam Eros e scena non modo si- 
 bilis, sed etiam convicio explodebatur, confugit in Roscii domum et disci- 
 plinam (Cic. Rose. Com. 11. He was hissed off as often as he came on 
 the stage). Postqvam id difficilius visum est neqve facultas perficiendi 
 dabatur, ad Pompejum transierunt (Caes. B. C. III. 60), they found it 
 difficult (a single fact), and there was no opportunity (state of things). 
 
 ' The pluperfect indie, occurs Sail. Jug. 44 ; the conjunctive, Cic. pro leg. Man. 4. 
 
339. Chap. II. — The Indicative and its Tenses. 293 
 
 Ohs. 3. "When ubi and simulac are used of a repeated action, they take 
 the pluperfect ; see the Ohs. on a. 
 
 Obs. 4. After the particles mentioned in paragraph b, the historical 
 present (§. 336) may also be employed, if the action can be prolonged 
 during the occurrence of the other action, and is conceived as doing so : 
 JBostqyam perfugae murum arietibus feriri vident, aurum atqye argentum 
 domum regiam comportant (Sail. «Tug. 76). 
 
 Ols. 5. The particles anteqvam and priusqvam, before, and dum, donee, 
 until, are put in the indicative with the perfect, not with the pluperfect : 
 Anteqvam tuas legi litteras, liominem ire cupiebam (Cic. ad Att. II. 7) ; 
 often expressed in English, before I had read your letter. Hispala non 
 ante adolescentem dimisit, qyamfidem dedit, ab Ms sacris se temperaturum 
 (Liv. XXXIX. 10). De comitiis, donee rediit Marcellus, silentium fuit 
 (Liv. XXIII. 31) s. (Concerning the Conjunctive with these particles see 
 the following chapter, §. 360.) 
 
 Obs. 6. The pluperfect fueram sometimes stands in the poets and in a 
 few instances in other writers instead of the imperfect eram : Nee satis id 
 fuerat ; stultus qyoqve carmina feci (Ov. ex Pont. III. 3, 37). In some 
 other verbs it may appear from some peculiarity in the signification that 
 the pluperfect is used instead of the imperfect, e. g. super fueram, I had 
 remained over ; consveveram, I had accustomed myself. 
 
 §. 339. The Euturum simplex denotes both a future action in 
 general, and also that which will take place at a certain time 
 to come [praesens infuturo): Veniet pater. Illo tempore respublica 
 florebii. (The distinction therefore which exists between the per- 
 fect and imperfect as to the past, is not made with reference to the 
 future.) 
 
 Obs. 1. The beginner must notice, that in English the expression of the 
 future is commonly omitted in subordinate propositions, if it is found in 
 the leading proposition ; but this omission may not take place in Latin : 
 Naturam si seqvemur ducem, nungvam aberrabimus (Cic. Off. I. 28) ; in 
 English, If we follow. — Profecto beati erimus, qvum, corporibus relictis, 
 cupiditatum erimus expertes (Id. Tusc. I. 19). Hoc, dum erimus in ter- 
 ris, erit caelesti vitae simile (Id. ib. I. 31). {Qvi adipisci veram gloriam 
 volet, justitiae fungatur officiis [Id. Off. II. 13] ; where the futurity is 
 indicated in the leading proposition by the exhortation) h . In English too 
 
 S [(Petilini non ante expugnati sunt qvam vires ad ferenda anna deerant, Liv. XXIII, 
 30, of a state of things which had come on).] 
 
 h [This rule, however, is not adhered to by the poets, where the present is met with 
 in such combinations, especially after ubijam, quumjam: 
 
 {Libra ubi) medium luci atqve urnbris jam dividit orbem, 
 Exercete, viri, tauros (Virg. G. I. 210J. 
 
291 Syntax.— Part II. , §. 339- 
 
 the present is often used instead of the future in assurances and conjec- 
 tures (e. g. he is coming immediately), a mode of speaking which is not 
 usual in Latin, except where an action is referred to that is already par- 
 tially commenced : Tuemini castra et defendite diligenter, si qvid durius 
 acciderit ; ego reliqvas portas circumeo et castrorum praesidia conjirmo 
 (Caes. B. C. III. 94). 
 
 Ohs. 2. Yet the present is used in Latin in some cases where we might 
 expect the future : 
 
 a. When one asks oneself what one must do or think (on the instant) : 
 Qvid ago ? Imusne sessum ? (Cic. de Or. III. 5). Stantes plaudebant in 
 rejicta; qvid arbitramur in vera facturos fuisse ? (Id. Lael. 7). 
 
 b. With dum, until, when a waiting (waiting for) is expressed : Jfte- 
 specto, dum ille venit (Ter. Eun. I. 2, 126). JEgo in Arcano opperior, 
 dum ista cognoseo (Cic. ad Att. X. 3). 
 
 c. Usually with anteqvam and priusqvam, when it is said that some- 
 thing will happen before something else : Anteqvam pro L. Murena di- 
 cer e instittto, pro me ipso pauca dicam (Cic. pro Mur. 1). Sine (permit), 
 priusqyam amplexum accipio, sciam, ad hostem an adjilium venerim (Liv. 
 II. 40). But also, Anteqvam de republica dicam ea, qvae dicenda hoc 
 tempore arbitror, exponam breviter consilium profectionis meae (Cic. Phil. 
 LI). {Before something has happened, is expressed by the futurum 
 exactum.) 
 
 §.340. By the Futurum exactum (praeteritum in futuro) a 
 future action is designated as already completed at a given future 
 time : Qvum tu haec leges, ego ilium fortasse convener o (Cic. ad Att. 
 IX. 15) j I shall perhaps have spoken with him. Hie prius se in- 
 dicant, gvam ego argentum confecero (Ter. Heaut. III. 3, 23), will 
 have betrayed himself, before I have procured the money. Si 
 [ubi) istuc venero, rem tibi exponam. Melius morati erimus, qvum 
 didicerimus, qvid natura desideret (Cic. Fin. I. 19). De Carthagine 
 vereri non ante desinam, qvam illam excisam esse cognovero (Id. Cat. 
 M. 6). Si plane occidimus, ego omnibus meis exitio fuero (Id. ad Q. 
 Fr. I. 4), I shall have been ; of the future result of what is past. 
 
 Obs. 1. The beginner must notice, that in English it is often not 
 specially expressed in the subordinate propositions, that one action pre- 
 cedes another, and that the present is therefore frequently used where 
 
 Hoc etiam emenso quumjam dec edit Olympo, 
 Profuerit meminisse magis (Id. ibid. 450). 
 
 Ipsa ego te, medios cum Sol accenderit aestus, 
 Cum sitiunt herbae, et pecori jam gratior umbra est, 
 In secreta senis ducam (Id. G. IV. 401).] 
 
541. Chap. II. — The Indicative and its Tenses. 295 
 
 the futurum exactum must be employed in Latin, e. g. When I come to 
 you, I will — . In Latin the present may stand in a conditional proposi- 
 tion where the leading proposition has the future, if an action that takes 
 place precisely at the present moment is pointed out as the condition of a 
 future result, e. g. Perficietur helium, si urgemus dbsessos (Liv. V. 4). 
 Moriere virgis, nisi signwn traditur (Cic. Terr. IV. 39). (If the action 
 of the subordinate proposition is contemporary with that of the leading 
 proposition, the simple future is made use of; sec §. 339, Obs. I.) 
 
 Obs. 2. If the futur. exact, stands both in the leading and subordinate 
 propositions, it is intended to indicate that one action will be completed 
 at the same time with the other : Qvi Antonium oppresserit, is helium 
 confecerit (Cic. ad Fam. X. 19). Vicerit enim Caesar ; si consul faetus 
 erit (Id. ad Att. VII. 15). Pergratum mihifeceris, si de amicitia dispu- 
 taris (Id. Lael. 4). (Tolle lianc opinionem ; luctum sustuleris, Id. Tusc. 
 I. 13). By the use of the perfect in the leading proposition, that which 
 is certain and secure is represented as if it had already taken place : Si 
 Brutus conservatus erit, vicimus (Cic. ad Fam. XII. 6.) 
 
 Obs. 3. In order to indicate more forcibly that the will (the power) 
 precedes the action, si voluero (potuero, licuerit, placuerit) is sometimes 
 put, when si volam (potero, &c.) might also be employed, e. g. Plato, si 
 mo do interpretari potuero, Ms fere verbis utitur (Cic. Legg. II. 18). 
 
 Ohs. 4. In some few instances the meaning of the futurum exactum 
 approaches that of the futurum simplex, e. g. in specifying a future result 
 (what will have happened) : Multum ad ea, qvae qvaerimus, tua ista ex- 
 plicatio profecerit (Cic. Finn. III. 4) ; or in signifying what will happen, 
 while something else takes place, or what will soon he done : Tu invita 
 mulieres ; ego accivero pueros (Cic. ad Att. V. 1). Clamor et primus im- 
 petus castra ceperit (Liv. XXV. 38). (The comic writers, especially 
 Plautus, carry this still further.) We should particularly notice the use 
 of videro {videris, &c.) of a thing which is postponed to another time, or 
 left to another's consideration : Qvaefuerit causa, mox videro (Cic. Finn. 
 I. 10). Pecte secusne, alias viderimus (Id. Ac. II. 44). Sed de hoc tu ipse 
 videris (Id. de Or. I. 58), you yourself may look to this. Sitne malum 
 dolor necne, Stoici viderint (Id. Tusc. II. 18). (Of odero and meminero 
 see §. 161.) 
 
 §.341. In order to express what is future with reference to a 
 given time, the Latin writers employ (in the active) the future 
 participle, which denotes the subject as on the point of doing 
 something, in connection with the tenses of the verb sum, accord- 
 ing to the signification intended (conjugatio periphrastica ; §. 116). 
 
 This participle with the present sum [futurum in praesenti) is 
 distinguished from the simple future by pointing out the future 
 
£96 Syntax.— Part II. §. 3- 
 
 action as something which the subject is just on the point of doing, 
 or now already resolved to do : Qvum apes jam evolaturae sunt, con- 
 sonant vehementer (Varr. R. R. III. 16). Bellum scripturus sum, 
 qvod populus Romanus cum Jugurtha gessit (Sail. Jug. 5). Qvid 
 timeam, si aut non miser post mortem aut etiam beatus futurus sum 
 (Cic. Cat. M. 19). Sin una est interiturus animus cum corpore, vos 
 tamen memoriam nostri pie inviolateqve servabitis (Id. ib. 22). Fa- 
 cite, qvod vobis licet; daturus non sum amplius (Id. Verr. II. 29). 
 
 Obs. This form is always used in specifying the condition of an action 
 which is to take place : Me igitur ipsum ames oportet, si veri amici futuri 
 sumus (Cic. Finn. II. 26) ; if we are to be true friends. Respersas onanus 
 sangvine paterno judices videant oportet, si tantum f acinus ( parricidium) 
 credituri sunt (Id. pro Rose. Am. 24). 
 
 §. 342. a. The part. fut. with fui (futurum in praeterito absolu- 
 tum) denotes that something was future (contemplated) at a time 
 past : Vos cum Mandonio et Indibili consilia communicastis et arma 
 consociaturi fuistis (Liv. XXVIII. 28), were on the point of. Si 
 ■illo die P. Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri ? (Cic. pro 
 Sest. 38), were you prepared to? 
 
 b. The part. fut. with eram ( futurum in praeterito) signifies what 
 was future and contemplated at a certain definite time, and by this 
 means points out a circumstance, disposition, destination, &c, as it 
 was at that time : Profecturus eram ad te, qvum ad me frater tuus 
 venit. Sicut Campani Capuam, Tuscis ademptam, sic Jubellius et 
 ejus milites Rhegium habituri perpetuam sedem erant (Liv. XXVIII. 
 28), thought of retaining. Ibi rex mansurus erat, si ire perrexisset 
 (Cic. Div. I. 15). 
 
 Obs. The participle with fueram may denote what was in contemplation 
 before a certain time : Aemilius Paulus Delphis inchoatas in vestibulo co- 
 lumnas, qvibus iniposituri statuas regis Persei fuerant, suis statuis victor 
 destinavit (Liv. XLV. 27) ; but it is used by the poets precisely in the 
 same sense as with eram. 
 
 §. 343. The participle with ero {futurum infuturo) denotes that 
 something will be in contemplation at a certain future time : 
 Orator eorum, apud qvos aliqvid aget (at a certain time is already 
 speaking), aut acturus erit (is on the point of speaking), mentes 
 sensusqve degustet oportet (Cic. de Or. I. 52). Attentos faciemus 
 auditor es, si demonstrahimus, ea, qvae dicturi erimus (what we shall 
 be on the point of saying), magna, nova, incredibilia esse (Id. de 
 Inv. I. 16). 
 
Chap. II. — The Indicative and its Tenses. 297 
 
 Ols. In the passive, which has no participle with a future signification, 
 we must express those relations of time which in the active are denoted 
 by the part, fut., with sum, by giving a different turn to the sentence, e. g. 
 by the impersonal est in eo, ut. Erect in eo, ut whs caperetur. 
 
 §. 344. The combination of the perf. part, with sum, which 
 forms the perfect passive, may sometimes denote the condition in 
 which a thing now is in consequence of a previous action, e. g. 
 Haec navis egregie armata est (present of the condition effectuated). 
 The corresponding form for the imperfect is the same which 
 otherwise denotes the pluperfect: Naves Hannibalis egregie ar- 
 matae erant. With fui & perfect is formed, which denotes that a 
 thing has been (for some time) in a certain condition : Bis deinde 
 post Numae regnum Janus clausus fuit (Liv. I. 19), has been shut, 
 not, was shut, which would be expressed by clausus est. Leges, 
 qvum qvae latae sunt, turn vero gvae promulgatae fuerunt (Cic. pro 
 Sest. 25), both those which were brought forward, and those which 
 remained (for some time) posted up for public inspection. It 
 is incorrect to use this form for the customary perfect (of an 
 action) 1 . 
 
 Ohs. I. The part. perf. with fueram properly denotes (corresponding 
 with the combination with, fui) the pluperfect of a condition, e. g. Arma, 
 qvaefixa in parietibus fuerant, hwmi inventa sunt (Cic. Div. I. 34) ; but 
 it is also used instead of the usual pluperfect of the action, e. g. Locrenses 
 qvidam circumventi Rhegiumqve abstracti fuerant (Liv. XXIX. 6). In 
 the same way amatus ero tmdfuero are used in thefuturum exactum with 
 the same meaning, but the first is to be preferred. 
 
 Ols. 2. The beginner must beware of using the Latin perf. pass, of a 
 thing that is still taking place and going forward, although in English the 
 verb to be is used with the participle as an adjective. The Icing is loved 
 is expressed by rex amatur. 
 
 §. 345. The epistolary style in Latin has this peculiarity, that 
 the writer often has in his eye the time when the letter will be 
 read, and therefore instead of the present and perfect uses the im- 
 perfect and pluperfect, where the receiver would use these tenses, 
 viz. of that which is said with reference to the time of writing : 
 Nihil habebam, qvod scriberem ; neqve enim novi qvidqvam audieram 
 
 1 [In many such passages/?«7 may be considered as a verb denoting existence, ratber 
 tban the logical copula: Literni monumentum monumentoque statua superimposita fuit, 
 qvam statuam tempestate dijectam nuper vidimus ipsi (Liv. XXXVIII. 56). There was 
 at Liternum a monument and a statue placed upon it, &c. The distinction is expressed 
 in German by the two auxiliaries warden and seyn, but cannot always be clearly marked 
 in English.] 
 
 Q q 
 
298 Syntax.— Part II. §. 345- 
 
 et ad tuas omnes epistolas rescripseram pridie ; erat tamen rumor, 
 comitia dilatum iri (Cic. ad Att. IX. 10. The receiver of the letter 
 would repeat this as follows : Turn, qvum Cicero hanc epistolam 
 scripsit, nihil habebat, qvod scriberet ; neqve enim novi qvidqvam 
 audierat et ad omnes meas epistolas rescripserat pridie ; erat tamen 
 rumor, &c.) On the contrary, every thing which is said in general 
 terms, and without particular reference to the time of composing 
 the letter, must be put in the usual tense : Ego te maximi et feci 
 semper et facio. Pridie Idas Februarias haec scripsi ante lucem 
 (simply of the letter written thus far, which was afterwards con- 
 tinued ; the receiver would say : Haec Cicero scripsit ante lucem) ; 
 eo die eram coenaturus apud Pomponium (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 3). 
 The other form too is frequently not used when it might have 
 been adopted. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The Conjunctive. 
 
 §. 346. In the Conjunctive a thing is asserted simply as an idea 
 conceived in the mind, so that the speaker does not at the same time 
 declare it as actually existing, e. g. curro, ut sudem. In some kinds 
 of subordinate propositions the conjunctive is also used of a thing 
 which the speaker asserts as existing, in order to shew that it is 
 not considered by itself, but as a subordinate member of another 
 leading idea, e. g. ita cucurri, ut vehementer sudarem k . In the 
 leading proposition the conjunctive may be referred to two prin- 
 cipal kinds, the hypothetical, by which a thing not actually existing 
 is asserted by way of assumption, and the optative, by which a 
 thing is expressed as our wish or will. 
 
 Ohs. In English we often use the auxiliary verbs may, can, must, would, 
 should, to express that which in Latin is denoted by the conjunctive. In 
 such cases therefore the beginner must beware of using possum, licet, 
 debeo, oportet, volo, which are only employed when a power, a permission, 
 a duty, a will, is actually intended (rogavi, ut abiret, that he would go 
 away, to go away). He must also avoid using the future (or the futurum 
 
 k This last use of the conjunctive originated from the first and proper use, in conse- 
 quence of the form heing transferred from such subordinate propositions as express a 
 simple conception (e. g. final propositions) to others which assert something actually ex- 
 isting (e. g. consecutive propositions), because they agreed with the first in being con- 
 ceived as depending on the leading proposition, and necessary to complete its significa- 
 tion. But while the conjunctive was so transferred and applied in some cases, in others 
 on the contrary it was not so. 
 
347. Chap. III.— The Conjunctive. 299 
 
 in praeterito) contrary to the Latin form (see on this subject §. 378 b in 
 the following chapter). 
 
 §. 847. a. The conjunctive is used in speaking conditionally of a 
 thing which is noticed as not actual fact, both in the leading propo- 
 sition (the proposition limited by the condition) of that which does 
 not hold good, but would hold good on a certain supposition, and 
 in the subordinate (that in which the condition is contained) with 
 si, nisi, ni, si, non, etiamsi, of the supposition which, is assumed in 
 the statement, but declared not actually to hold good. (Compare 
 §. 332.) 
 
 b. That which would take place now or at a future time, or (con- 
 trary to the actual fact) is supposed as taking place, is expressed 
 by the imperfect ; what would have taken place at a previous time, 
 or of which it is assumed that it has taken place, by the pluperfect : 
 Sapieniia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret. Si scirem, dicerem. Si 
 scissem, in qvo periculo esses, statim ad te advolassem. Si Metelli 
 fidei diffisus essem, judicem eum non retinuissem (Cic. Verr. A. I. 
 10). Nunqvam Hercules ad deos abisset, nisi earn sibi mam vir- 
 tute munivisset (Id. Tusc. I. 14) . Si Roscius has inimicitias cavere 
 jjotuisset, viveret (Cic. Rose. Am. 6), he would be still living. Ne- 
 cassem jam te verberibus, nisi iratus essem (Id. R. P. I. 38), if I had 
 not been angry. 
 
 The present conjunctive is employed when a condition that is 
 still possible is assumed as occurring now or at some future time, 
 while it is at the same time intimated, that it will not actually 
 occur : Me dies, vox, latera deficiant, si hoc nunc vociferari velim 
 (Cic. Verr. II. 21), which I can, but do not intend. Ego, si Sci~ 
 pionis desiderio me moveri negem, mentiar (Id. Lael. 3) . (In English 
 the imperfect is often used in this case. If I were to deny it, I should 
 speak an untruth.) 
 
 Ois. 1. The present is also often used instead of the imperfect of a 
 thing which is no longer possible, and where there is no reference to the 
 future, by a turn of rhetoric, where a thing is represented as if it might 
 still take place : Tu si hie sis, aliier sentias (Ter. Andr. II. 1, 10), put 
 yourself a moment in my situation ; you will then think otherwise. Haec 
 si patria tecum loqyatur, nonne impetrare deb eat ? (Cic. Cat. I. 8). (The 
 present must in this case be used both in the leading and subordinate pro- 
 positions.) 
 
 Obs. 2. In the same way the imperfect is sometimes put instead of the 
 pluperfect either in both propositions, or in the subordinate proposition, 
 or (most rarely of all) in the leading proposition alone : Cur igitur et 
 
 Qq2 
 
300 Syntax.— Part II. §. 34' 
 
 Camillus doleret, si liaec post trecentos fere et qvinqvaginta annos eventura 
 putaret, et ego doleam, si ad decern millia annorum gentem aliqyam uroe 
 nostra potitur am putem? (Cic. Tusc. I. 37). Num tu igitur Opimium, si 
 turn esses (suppose you had lived at that time) temerarium civem aut cru- 
 delem putares ? (Id. Phil. VIII. 4). Non tarn facile opes Carthaginis 
 concidissent, nisi Mud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Id. Verr. II. 
 1). Persas, Indos, aliasqve si Alexander adjunxissel gentes, impedimen- 
 tum majus qvam auxilium tralieret (Liv. IX. 19). Such an imperfect 
 however can only be put in the subordinate proposition (but is by no 
 means always employed) when the action denoted by it is not considered 
 as one that has happened and been completed before the other, but as ac- 
 companying it and continuing along with it, or sometimes as occurring 
 repeatedly : Saec si reipublicae causa faceres, in vendendis decumis es- 
 sent pronuntiata, qvia tua causa faciebas, imprudentia praeterrnissum erat 
 (Cic. Verr. III. 20). The imperfect is found in the leading proposition or 
 in both propositions (but not always), when one may imagine a repetition 
 of the thing asserted (e. g. in attempts), or a continuing state (but not of 
 a single event, which would have happened or not happened). 
 
 Obs. 3. The poets sometimes use the present conjunctive even instead 
 of the pluperfect of a thing that would have happened at a previous time : 
 Spatia si plura supersint, transeat (Diores) elapsus prior (Virg. Aen. V. 
 325). 
 
 Obs. 4. On the periphrasis casurus fuerim for cecidissem in the con- 
 ditional proposition, see §. 381. 
 
 c. Sometimes the supposition, which does not actually hold 
 good, but on which the assertion is made, is not expressly indi- 
 cated by a conditional clause, but pointed out in another way, or 
 supplied from the context : Illo tempore aliter sensisses. Qvod mea 
 causa faceres, idem rogo, tit amici met causa facias. Neqve agricuU 
 tura neqve frugum fructuumqve reliqvorum perceptio et conservatio 
 sine hominum opera ulla esse potuisset (Cic. Off. II. 3), if human 
 labour had not been applied. Magnitudo animi, remota a communi- 
 tate conjunctioneqve humana, feritas sit qvaedam et immanitas (Id. 
 ib. I. 44)., separated, sc. in case it were separated. Ludificari enim 
 aperte et calumniari sciens non videatur (Id. Rose. Am. 20), for he 
 would (in the case mentioned, which is only assumed) not appear, 
 &c. Si unqvam visus tibi sum in republica fortis, certe me in ilia 
 causa admiratus esses (Id. ad Att. I. 16), viz. si affuisses. 
 
 §. 348. Sometimes however a proposition limited by a condition 
 is put in the indicative, although it is shewn by the conjunctive in 
 the proposition containing the condition, that the latter is not 
 
348, Chap. III.— The Conjunctive. 301 
 
 actually fulfilled. This is done when the leading proposition may 
 be in a manner conceived as independent of the condition and valid 
 in itself, either from brevity in the expression of the idea (ellipsis), 
 or rhetorical liveliness in the diction. Such turns of speech are the 
 following : 
 
 a. By a periphrasis with the part. fut. and fui or eram (futurum in 
 praeterito ; see §. 342), it is shewn what a person was actually ready to 
 do in a certain case (that did not occur) : Si tribuni me triumphare pro- 
 hiberent, Furium et Aemilium testes citaturus fui rerum a me gestarum 
 (Liv. XXXVIII. 47). Illi ipsi aratores, qvi remanserant, relicturi omnes 
 agros erant, nisi ad eos Metellus Roma litteras misisset (Cic. Verr. III. 
 52). Here the indicative is always employed. 
 
 b. The indicative is sometimes put to express that part of an action of 
 which it may be said, that it actually has taken place (or is taking place), 
 while the condition applies to the completion and effect of the whole : 
 Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset (Liv. II. 
 10 ; compare Obs. 2). Multa me dehortantur a vobis, ni studium rei- 
 publicae superet (Sail. Jug. 31). So the imperf. indie, is put of a thing 
 which was on the point of happening, and on a certain condition would 
 have been completely effected : Si per L. Metellum licitum esset, matres 
 itterum, uxores, sorores veniebant (Cic. Verr. V. 49). Sometimes also of 
 a thing which has partly occurred already in the present time : Admone- 
 bat me res, ut hoc qyoqye loco inter itum eloqventiae deplorarem, ni vererer i 
 ne de me ipso aliqyid viderer qyeri (Cic. Off. II. 19). 
 
 c. A thing which might have occurred on a certain condition is repre- 
 sented, by a rhetorical emphasis of expression, as if it had already oc- 
 curred, in order to shew how near it was : Terierat imperium, si Fabius 
 tantum ausus esset, qvantum ira svadebat (Sen. de Ir. I. 11) ; particularly 
 in the poets : Me truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat, nisi Faunus ictum 
 levasset (Hor. Od. II. 17, 27). 
 
 Obs. By the poets and some later prose writers (e. g. Tacitus) eram is 
 sometimes used in a qualified proposition entirely in the sense of essem : 
 Solus eram, si non saevus adesset Amor (Ov. Am. I. 6, 34). - 
 
 d. Sometimes that which would happen in a possible assumed case (at 
 variance with the real fact) is simply stated as something that will happen 
 (fut. ind. for pres. conj.) : Dies defciet, si velim paupertatis causam de- 
 
 fendere (Cic. Tusc. V. 35). 
 
 e. The imperfect indicative is often used of a thing, which in a certain 
 case, which does not actually hold, would be right and proper, or possible, 
 at the present time (debebam, decebat, oportebat, poteram, or eram with a 
 gerundive or neuter adjective), as if to shew the duty and obligation or 
 possibility more unconditionally (especially when the idea of a thing, 
 
302 Syntax.— Vart II. §. 34 
 
 which is otherwise and generally right, is applied to a particular case) : 
 Contumeliis eum onerasti, qvem patris loco, si ulla in te pietas esset, colere 
 debebas (Cic. Phil. II. 38). Si victoria, praeda, laus dubia essent, tamen 
 omnes bonos reipublicae subvenire decebat (Sail. Jug. 85). Si Pomae Cn. 
 Pompejus privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad tantam bellum is erat deli- 
 gendus (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 17). Si mihi nee stipendia omnia emerita 
 essent necdum aetas vacationem daret, tamen aeqvum erat me dimitti (Liv. 
 XLII. 34). Si tales nos natura genuisset, ut earn ipsam intueri et per- 
 spicere possemus, Jiaud erat sane, qvod qvisqvam rationem ac doctrinam 
 reqvireret (Cic. Tusc. III. 1). Poterat utrumqve praeclare {fieri), si 
 esset fides, si gravitas in liominibus consularibus (Cic. ad Fam. I. 7). 
 (But also : Haec si diceret, tamen ignosci non oporteret, Cic. Verr. I. 27, 
 especially in opposition to something unconditional : Cluentio ignoscere 
 debebitis, qvod liaec a me did patiatur ; mihi ignoscere non deberetis, si 
 tacerem, Cic. pro Cluent. 6.) In the same way the perfect indicative is 
 used of past time instead of the pluperfect conjunctive : Debuisti, Vatini, 
 etiamsi falso venisses in suspicionem P. Sestio, tamen mihi ignoscere (Cic. 
 in Vat. 1). Si ita Milo put asset, optabilius ei fuit dare jugulum P. Clodio 
 qvam jugulari a vobis (Id. pro Mil. 11). Deleri totus exercitus potuit, si 
 fugientes persecuti victores essent (Liv. XXXII. 12). {Qvid facere potu- 
 issem, nisi turn consul fuissem ? Consul autem esse qvi potui, nisi eum 
 vitae cursum tenuissem a pueritia, per qvem pervenirem ad honorem am- 
 plissimum ? (Cic. R. P. I. 6.) 
 
 Obs. 1. When it is declared without a condition, what might or ought 
 to happen (have happened), but does not happen (with possum, debeo, 
 oportet, decet, convenit, licet, or sum with a gerundive or adjective, e. g. 
 aeqvum, melius, utilius, par, satis, satius est, &c), the indicative is com- 
 monly made use of in Latin, of present time in the imperfect (in order to 
 describe that which does not happen), but of the past both in the perfect 
 and pluperfect : Perturb ationes animorum poteram morbos appellare ; sed 
 non conveniret ad omnia (Cic. Finn. III. 10). Ne ad rempublicam qvidem 
 accedunt nisi coacti ; aeqvius autem erat id voluntate fieri (Id. Oif. I. 9). 
 Oculorum fallacissimo sensu Chaldaei judicant ea, quaeratione atqve anwio 
 videre debebant (Id. Div. II. 43) : . — Aut non suscipi bellum oportuit, aut 
 geri pro dignitate populi Romani oportet (Liv. V. 4). Illud potius prae- 
 cipiendumfuit, ut diligentiam adJiiberemus in amicitiis comparandis (Cic. 
 Lael. 16). Prohiberi melius fuit impediriqve, ne Cinna tot summos viros 
 interficeret, qvam ipsum aliqvando poenas dare (Id. N. D. III. 33). — 
 Qvanto melius fuerat, promissum patris non esse servatum (Id. Off. III. 
 25). Catilina erupit e senatu triumplians gaudio, qvem omnino vivum 
 illinc exire non oportuerat (Id. pro Mur. 25). [Non modo unius patrimo- 
 nium, sed urbes et regna celeriter tanta neqvitia devorare potuisset, Id. 
 
 1 In tlie editions debeam is sometimes put incorrectly instead of debebam. 
 
48. Chap. III.-— The Conjunctive. 303 
 
 Phil. II. 27, with the accessory signification ; supposing it had had towns 
 and kingdoms.) So likewise that which might yet happen, and its cha- 
 racter, are expressed by the present indie. : Possum per seqyi multa oblec- 
 tamenta rerum rusticarum ; sed ea ipsa, qyae dixi, sentio fuisse longiora 
 .(Cic. Cat. M. 16). Longum est enumerare, dicere, &c, it would be 
 tedious. {Possim, si velim ; §. 347 b.) 
 
 ^Obs. 2. What might almost have happened, is expressed in Latin by 
 the perf. indie, with prope or paene (as a thing that has been very near 
 happening) : Prope oblitus sum, gvod maxime fuit scribendum (Gael. ap, 
 Cic. adFam. VIII. 14). 
 
 Obs. 3. Sometimes a conditional proposition belongs immediately to an 
 infinitive governed by the verb of the leading proposition, and is for that 
 reason alone put in the conjunctive (according to §. 369), without any in- 
 fluence on the leading proposition, which stands unconditionally in the 
 indicative : Sapiens non dubitat, si ita melius sit, migrare de vita (Cic. 
 Finn. I. 19). In this way nisi and si non with the conjunctive are often 
 subjoined to non possum with the infinitive, e. g. nee bonitas nee libe- 
 ralitas nee comitas esse potest, si haee non per se expetantur (Cic. Off. III. 
 33). Caesar munitiones prohibere non poterat, nisi praelio decertare 
 vellet (Caes. B. C. III. 44). The same holds of other conditional pro- 
 positions, which do not contain a condition applying to the leading pro- 
 position, but complete an idea contained in it, which has the force of an 
 infinitive or otherwise dependent proposition, so that the conditional 
 clause belongs to the oratio obliqysa (§, 369), e. g. Metellus Centuripinis, 
 nisi statuas Verris restituissent, graviter minatur (Cic. Verr. II. 67= 
 minatur, se Us malum daturum, nisi — . Minatur is stated absolutely 
 without any condition). Jugurtlia iram senaius timebat, ni paruisset 
 legatis (Sail. Jug. 25=ne senatus irasceretur). Nulla major occurrebat 
 res, qvam si optimarum artium vias traderem meis civibus (Cic. de Div. 
 II. 1 ; i. q. nullam rem put ab am majorem esse). 
 
 Obs. 4. When we have a conditional proposition in the indicative, ex- 
 pressing the conditional relation simply and without any accessary signi- 
 fication, the leading proposition may stand in the conjunctive for some 
 other reason, e. g. because it contains a wish, or a demand, or a negative 
 interrogation concerning what is to happen (§. 353), or because it is a 
 dependent interrogative proposition (§. 356) : Si stare non possunt, cor- 
 ruant (Cic. Cat. II. 10). Si P. Lentulus swum nomen fatale ad perni- 
 ciem reipublicae fore putavit, cur ego non laeter, meum consulatum ad 
 salutem reipublicae prope fatalem exstitisse (id. ib.IV. 1). Non intelligo, 
 qiiamobrem, si vivere honeste non possunt, perire turpiter velint (id. ib. II. 
 10). We should particularly remark the use of an indicative conditional 
 proposition in connection with a wish or curse in assurances and oaths : 
 Nevivam, si scio (Cic. ad Att. IV. 16). Per earn, te nisi momentis video 
 
304 Syntax.— Part II. §. 3 
 
 paene omnibus absens (Ov. ex Pont. III. 5, 47). (It a me dii anient, ut 
 ego nunc non tam mea causa laetor qyam illius, Ter. Heaut. IV. 3, 8, as 
 truly as I — ). 
 
 §. 349. The conjunctive is used in all prepositions annexed by- 
 particles of comparison, in which something is stated that does not 
 actually exist, but is only assumed for the sake of comparison (as 
 if; hypothetical propositions of comparison) : Sed qvid ego his tes- 
 tibus utor, qvasi res dubia aut obscura sit ? (Cic. Div. in Caec. 4). 
 Mejuvat, vefut si ipse in parte laboris ac periculi fuerim, ad finem 
 belti Punici pervenisse (Liv. XXXI. 1). Parvi primo ortu sicjacent, 
 tanqvam omnino sine animo sint (Cic. Finn. V. 15). (Of the par- 
 ticles used in such propositions see §. 444 a. Obs. 1 and b.) 
 
 Obs. In English the imperfect and pluperfect are employed in such 
 propositions, in order to express what is merely assumed ; but in Latin 
 the subordinate is regulated by the leading proposition, and has the im- 
 perfect or pluperfect, only when the leading proposition belongs to past 
 time. But the imperfect is also used in expressing comparison with a 
 thing which would hold good in another case, not actually occurring : 
 At accusal C. Cornelii films, idemque valere debet, ac si pater indicaret 
 (Cic. pro Sull. 18). 
 
 §. 350. a. The conjunctive is used of a thing, which does not 
 actually take place, but which might do so, with an indefinite sub- 
 ject only assumed for the occasion, and would do so if the attempt 
 were made (conjunctivus potentialis) . Such a subject is designated 
 by an indefinite or interrogative pronoun, or by a periphrasis with 
 a relative (also in the conjunctive) : Credat qvispiam (one might 
 believe). Dicat (dixerit) atiqvis (some one might here say). Hoc 
 postutatum ridiculum videatur ei, qvi rem sententiamqve non perspi- 
 ciat (Cic. Verr. II. 60). Qvis credat ? Qvis eum ditigat, qvem me- 
 tuat ? (Who could love a person whom he hated? Qvis diligit, 
 who loves ?) Qvis neget, cum Mo actum esse praecfare ? (Cic. Lael. 
 8. Quis negabit ; who will deny?) Qvi videret, urbem captam 
 dicer et (id. Verr. IV. 23), would have said. Poterat Sextilius im- 
 pune negare ; qvis enim redargueret? (id. Fin. II. 17), who could 
 have refuted him ? Of a thing, which is now possible, the present 
 or futurum exactum (as a hypothetical future, without its proper 
 signification; see §.380), is used in this way; of past time, the 
 imperfect. 
 
 Obs. Of the second person of the verb (one) in propositions of this kind 
 see §. 370. 
 
[51. Chap. III. — The Conjunctive. 305 
 
 b. With definite subjects also, a thing which easily can and will 
 happen on a given occasion, is modestly and cautiously expressed 
 in the conjunctive, most frequently in the first person, to denote 
 that to which one is inclined. In the active the futurum exactum 
 is here generally used (without its usual signification) : Haud facile 
 dixerim, utrum sit melius. Hoc sine ulla dubitatione confirmaverim 
 (I might affirm, if the occasion should arise), eloqventiam esse rem 
 unam omnium difficillimam (Cic. Brut. 6). At non historia cesse- 
 rim Graecis, nee opponere Thucydidi Sallustium verear (Quinct. 
 X. 1, 101). Themistocles nihil dixerit, in qvo Areopagum adjuverit 
 (Cic. Off. I. 22), will not easily be able to adduce any thing. 
 
 Obs. 1. We should particularly notice the following conjunctives of 
 this class, velim, nolim, malim, by which a wish is modestly expressed (I 
 could wish, could wish not, vjould rather), e. g. velim dicas ; velim ex te 
 scire ; nolim te discedere. A wish, which one would entertain under 
 other circumstances, but which cannot now be fulfilled, is expressed by 
 vellem, nollem, mallem, e. g. Vellem adesse posset Panaetius (Cic. Tusc. I. 
 33). Nollem factum. 
 
 Obs. 2. Such a conjunctive may also be employed in a subordinate pro- 
 position, with a conjunction which is otherwise constructed with the in- 
 dicative : JEtsi eum, qvi prqfiteri ausus sit, perscripturum se res omnes 
 Bomanas, in partibus singulis fatigari minime conveniat (would be highly 
 unbecoming), tamen provideo animo, qvicqvid progredior, in vastiorem me 
 altitudinem invehi (Liv. XXXI. 1). Camillas, qyamqyam exercitum, as- 
 svetum imperio, qyi in Volscis erat, mallet, nihil recusavit (Liv. VI. 9. 
 The simple antithesis would have to be expressed by etsi and qyamqyam 
 with the indicative ; §.361, Obs. 2). 
 
 Obs. 3. A suspicion concerning a thing which is actually the fact is not 
 expressed by the conjunctive, except with the particle forsitan, which is 
 almost always put with the conjunctive in the best writers in the signifi- 
 cation, it may be, that, e. Concedo ; forsitan aliqvis aliqvando ejusmodi 
 qvippiam fecerit (Cic. Verr. II. 32). 
 
 §. 351. a. The conjunctive is used to express a wish, and (in the 
 first person plural) mutual encouragement (modus optativus) : Va- 
 leant cives mei, sint incolumes, sint beati (Cic. pro Mil. 34). Inte- 
 ream, si valeo stare. Ne vivam, si tibi concedo, ut ejus rei cupidior 
 sis, qvam ego sum (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 23). Vivas et originis hujus 
 gaudia longa feras ( Juv. VIII. 46) . Imitemur majores nostros ! 
 Meminerimus, etiam adversus inflmos justitiam esse servandam (Cic. 
 Off. I. 13). 
 
 b. The conjunctive is sometimes used instead of the imperative 
 
 r r 
 
306 Syntax,— Tart II. §. 351- 
 
 in directions and prohibitions ; see what is noticed on this subject 
 in treating of the imperative, Chapter V. 
 
 Obs. 1. With the conjunctive thus used the negation is expressed by 
 ne, not non ; see §. 456. Wishes are expressed still more strongly by the 
 addition of the particle utinam (utinam ne), e. g. TJtinam ego tertius vobis 
 amicus adscriberer (Cic. Tusc. V. 22 ; the imperfect being used of a thing 
 which cannot happen). Utinam ne Phormioni id svadere in nientem in- 
 cidisset (Ter. Phorm. I. 3, 5). Utinam is in some rare instances em- 
 ployed with a non following, which is closely annexed to the verb : Saec 
 ad te die natali nieo scripsi, qvo utinam susceptus non essem (Cic. ad Att. 
 XI. 9). The expression o. si (with the conjunctive) is elliptical : mihi 
 praeteritos refer at si Jvppiter annos (Virg. Aen. VIII. 560). 
 
 Obs. 2. By the particles dum, dummodo, or niodo alone (niodo ut), if 
 only, provided that, (dum ne, dummodo ne, niodo ne), a wish or demand 
 is annexed to a proposition by way of condition or limitation : Oderint, 
 dum metuant. Gallia aeqyo animo omnes belli patitur injurias, dummodo 
 repellat periculum servitutis (Cic. Phil. XII. 4). Omnia postposui, dum- 
 modo praeceptis patris parerem (Cic. Fil. ad Fam. XVI. 21). Celeriter 
 ad comitia tibi veniendum censeo, dummodo ne qvid Jiaec festinatio immi- 
 nuat ejus gloriae, qyam consecuti sumus (Cic. ad Fam. X. 25). Manent 
 ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (id. Cat. M. 7). 
 Concede, ut Verres impune Jiaec emerit, niodo ut bona ratione emerit (Cic. 
 Veer. IV. 5). 
 
 Obs. 3. The beginner may observe that an exhortation is often ex- 
 pressed in Latin by a question with qvin, why not? Qvin imus? Qvin 
 faces ? Qvin tu urges occasionem istam ? (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 8). {Qvin 
 with an interrogative signification is used only in this sense.) 
 
 Obs. 4. In the mperfect and pluperfect the conjunctive is used (to ex- 
 press advice or command, imperatively) of a thing which ought to have 
 been done (in opposit On to a previous intimation of what actually was 
 done) : Curio causam Transpadanorum aeqyam esse dicebat ; semper autem 
 addebat, Vincat utilitas reipublicae ! Potius diceret (he should rather have 
 said), non esse aeqvam, qyia non esset utilis reipublicae, qyam, qyuni non 
 utilem, diceret, esse aeqvam fateretur (Cic. Off. III. 22). Saltern aliqvid 
 de ponder e detraxisset (id. Finn. IV. 20), he should at least have de- 
 ducted — . Frumentum ne emisses (id. Verr. III. 84), you should not 
 have bought any wheat. 
 
 Obs. 5. Concerning the conjunctive in the continued oratio obliqva, 
 when the person, whose speech is reported, has himself used the impera- 
 tive, see §. 404. 
 
 §.352. A permission, and an assumption or admission of a thing 
 that is not actually so, or which one leaves undecided and will not 
 
-354. Chap. III.— The Conjunctive. 307 
 
 contend about, are expressed by the conjunctive : Fruatur sane 
 Gabinius hoc solatio (Cic. Prow. Cons. 7), let Gabinius keep this 
 comfort if he will. Vendat aedes vir bonus propter aliqva vitia, 
 qvae ceteri ignorent ; pestilentes sint et habeantur salubres ; male ma- 
 teriatae sint, ruinosae ; sed hocpraeter dominum nemo sciat ; qvaero, 
 si haec emptoribus non dixerit, num injuste fecerit (Cic. Off. III. 
 13). Haec sint falsa sane ; invidiosa certe non sunt (id. Ac. II. 32). 
 Makes civis, improbus consul, seditiosus homo Car bo fuit. Fuerit 
 aliis (suppose he has been so to others) ; tibi qvando esse coepit ? 
 (id. Verr. I. 14). Ne sint in senectute vires (id. Cat. M. 11), let us 
 assume that age has no powers. 
 
 §. 353. The conjunctive is used in inquiries as to what is (or 
 was) to be done, when it is intended to indicate that something 
 will not be done (has not been done) : Qviclfaciam ? (What am I 
 to do ? i. q. I can do nothing.) Qvid hoc homine faciatis ? aut ad 
 qvam spem tarn importunum animal reservetis? (Cic. Verr. I. 16). 
 Qvid facer et aliudf (Cic. de Or. III. 23), what else was he to do? 
 Haec qvum viderem, qvid agerem, judices ? Contenderem contra tri- 
 bunum plebis privatus armis? (Cic. pro Sest. 19). Qvid enumerem 
 artium multitudinem, sine qvibus vita omnino nulla esse potest ? (Id. 
 Off. II. 4<)=non enumerabo. Cur plura commemorem? (But, Cur 
 haec commemoro ? of a thing which one is actually doing at the 
 time.) Qvid loqvar de poetis ? Qvidni meminerim ? (Cic. de Or. II. 
 67), why should I not remember ? (negation of non memini). Also 
 in questions expressive of disapprobation, by which a thing is de- 
 scribed as not to be thought of : Qvaeso, qvid istuc consilii est ? 
 lllius stultitid victd ex urbe rus tu habitatum migres? (Ter. Hec. 
 IV. 2, 13), should you — ? Ego te videre noluerim ? (Cic. ad Q. 
 Er. I. 3), Can you suppose that I was unwilling to see you ? 
 
 Ohs. In questions relating to something that is not to be thought of 
 an elliptical expression with ut is also used : Fgone ut te interpellem ? 
 (Cic. Tusc. II. l8)=Fierine potest, ut, &c. Qvanqyam, qvid loqvor ? 
 Te ut ulla res f rang at ? Tu ut unqyam te corrigas ? (Id. Cat. I. 9.) 
 
 §.354. The conjunctive is employed in all propositions that 
 denote the object of a preceding verb or expression {objective pro- 
 positions), and are connected with it by the particles ut, that, ne, 
 ut ne, ut non, qvin, qvominus, that not : Sol efficit ut omnia flo- 
 reant. Verres rogat et orat Dolabellam, ut ad Neronem proficis- 
 catur (Cic. Verr. I. 29). Precor, ne me deseras. Vix me contineo, 
 qvin involem in ilium (Ter. Eun. V. 2, 20). Ceteris naturis multa 
 
 Rr 2 
 
308 Syntax.— Part II. §• 354- 
 
 externa, qvominus perficiantur, possunt obsistere; universam natu- 
 ram nulla res potest impedire (Cic, N. D. II. 13). Mos est hominum, 
 ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere (id. Brut. 21). 
 
 Obs. When and with what particle such propositions are to be formed, 
 is shown in the appendix to this chapter. In some particular cases the 
 particle may be omitted, see §. 372 b. Obs. 4, §. 373 Obs. 1, §.375 a. 
 Obs. 1. 
 
 §. 355. The conjunctive is used in all subordinate propositions, 
 which are subjoined to another proposition, to express a purpose 
 (final propositions) or a consequence (consecutive propositions), and 
 are connected with it by the particles ut } in order that, ne (ut ne), 
 that not, qvo } that so much, ut, so that, ut non, so that not, qvin, 
 that not (without). The conjunctive is likewise put after ut (ut 
 non) in the signification although (even suppose that), and nedum, 
 much less. E. g. Legum omnes servi sumus, ut liberi esse possimus. 
 Ilaec ideo ad te scribo, ne me oblitum esse mandatorum tuorum putes. 
 Ager non semel aratur, sed novatur et iteratur, quo meliores fetus 
 possit et grandiores edere (Cic. de Or. II. 30). Talis est ordo 
 actionum adhibendus, ut in vita omnia sint apta in se et convenientia 
 (id. Off. I. 40). Verres Siciliam ita vexavit et perdidit, ut restitui 
 in antiqvum statum nullo modo possit (id. Verr. A. I. 4). In vir- 
 tute multi sunt ads census ; ut (so that) is gloria maxime excellat, 
 qvi virtute plurimum praestet (id. pro Plane. 25). Nunqvam accedo, 
 qvin abs te abeam doctior (Ter. Eun. IV. 7, 21). Ut desint vires, 
 tamen est laudanda voluntas (Ov. ex Pont. III. 4, 79). Vix in ip- 
 sis tectis frigus vitatur, nedum in mari sit facile abesse ab injuria 
 temporis (of the season; Cic. ad Fam. XVI. 8). 
 
 Obs. Concerning some peculiarities in the combination of these propo- 
 sitions, and in the use of the conjunctions, see Chap. IX. §. 440 ; con- 
 cerning ne and ut ne, §. 456 with Obs. 3. 
 
 §. 356. In the conjunctive are put all dependent interrogative 
 propositions, i. e. all propositions, which are connected with an- 
 other proposition by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, or by an 
 interrogative particle, in order to designate the object of a verb, of 
 a phrase, or of a single adjective or substantive : Qvaero, qvidfactu- 
 rus sis ; qvaeswi, qvid facer et, ubi fuisset. Incertum est, qvid qvae- 
 qve nox aut dies ferat. Difficile dictu est, utrum hostes magis Pom- 
 peji virtutem pugnantes timuerint an mansvetudinem victi dilexerint 
 (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 14). Doleam, necne doleam, nihil interest (id. 
 Tusc. II. 12). Tides, ut (how) alia stet nive candidum Soracte 
 
— 357- Chap. III. — The Conjunctive. 309 
 
 (Hor. Od. I. 9, 1). Valetudo sustentatur notitia sui corporis et ob- 
 servation qvae res prodesse soleant aut obesse (Cic. Off. II. 24) . 
 
 Obs. 1. Concerning the interrogative particles see §. 451 — 453. The 
 beginner must avoid confounding the dependent interrogative sentences 
 with those relative clauses, which in English begin with what ( = that, 
 which), e. g. I give what I have, do, qvae hdbeo ; I said what I knew (re- 
 peated all I knew), dixi, qvae sciebam. Dico, qvod sentio, I say what I 
 think, i. e. what I say is my real opinion ; dicam, qvid sentiam, I shall 
 say what I think, i. e. I shall state what is my opinion. 
 
 Obs. 2. In dependent questions about a thing which is to happen, the 
 notion is to is frequently not expressed by a separate word : Vos hoc tem- 
 pore earn potestatem habetis, ut statuatis, utrwm nos semper miseri lu- 
 geamus (are to mourn), an aliqvando per vestram virtutem sapientiamqve 
 recreernur (Cic. pro Mil. 2). Non satis constabat, qvid agerent (Caes. 
 B. G. III. 14), they did not rightly know what they were to do. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the oldest poets (Plautus and Terence) a dependent interro- 
 gative proposition sometimes stands in the indicative, e. g. si nunc memo- 
 rare velim, qvam Jideli animo et benigno in illam fui, vere possum (Ter. 
 Hec. III. 5, 21) ; in the later poets (Horace, Virgil), this i,s raxe, in prose 
 quite inadmissible. Sometimes a direct question is put after die or 
 qvaero, where an indirect one might have been employed : Die, qvaeso : 
 Num te ilia terrent, triceps Cerberus, Cocyti fremitus, travectio Ache- 
 rontis? (Cic. Tusc. I. 5). Here it may also be observed, that the expres- 
 sion nescio qvis (iiescio qvomodo, nescio qvo pacto, nescio unde, &c.) is 
 often inserted in a proposition that is not interrogative, by way of paren- 
 thesis, or as a remark exclusively applying to a single word : Minime 
 assentior Us, qvi istam nescio qvam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Cic. 
 Tusc. III. 6), that — how shall I term it ? — insensibility to pain. Licuit 
 esse otioso Themistocli, licuit JSpaminondae, licuit etiam mihi ; sed, ne- 
 scio qvomodo, inhaeret in mentibus qvasi seculorum quoddam augurium 
 futurorum (id. Tusc. I. 15). 
 
 Obs. 4. Concerning the mood of the interrogative propositions in the 
 oratio obliqva see §. 405. 
 
 §.357. a. Subordinate propositions, which specify a cause and a 
 reason (by means of the particles qvod and qvia, because), or an 
 occasion (by means of the particles qvoniam, qvando since) y are 
 usually put in the indicative (if the speaker adduces the actual 
 reason, the actual occasion, according to his own views) ; but in 
 the conjunctive, if the reason (or occasion) is given according to 
 the views of another party, who is represented as the agent in 
 the main proposition : Aristides nonne ob earn causam expulsus est 
 patria, qvod praeter mo dum Justus esset? (Cic. Tusc. V. 36), be- 
 
310 Syntax. — Part II. §.357- 
 
 cause lie was too just in the opinion of his fellow-citizens 111 ? Bene 
 majores accubitionem epularem amicorum, qvia vitae conjunctionem 
 haberet, convivium nominaverunt (id. Cat. M. 13) ; in this passage the 
 imperfect too shews, that the reason alleged is agreeable to the view 
 taken by the ancestors. Sometimes such a conjunctive is employed 
 where the indicative might also have been made use of, because 
 the reason assigned is assumed by the speaker himself also as the 
 real one : Romani tamen, qvia consules ad id locorum (hitherto) 
 prosper e rem gererent y minus his cladibus commovebantur (Liv. XXV. 
 22), because they saw that the consuls were successful. (But, 
 Non ob ea solum incommoda, qvae eveniunt improbis, fugiendam im- 
 probitatem putamus, sed multo etiam magis, qvod cujus in animo 
 versatur, nunqvam sinit eitm acqviescere. Cic. Fin. I. 16.) 
 
 On this account qvod (but not qvia) is put with verbs, which 
 signify praise, blame, complaint, surprise, with a conjunctive fol- 
 lowing, where we state both the reason and the assertion by an- 
 other party that the fact is so : Laudat Panaetius Africanum, qvod 
 fuerit abstinens (Cic, Off, II. 22) . Socrates accusatus est, qvod cor- 
 rumperet juventutem et novas super stitiones introduceret (Quinct. 
 IV. 4, 5) . But if the speaker himself designates something, that 
 is an actual fact, as the ground of the complaint, &c, the indica- 
 tive is employed : Qvod spiratis, qvod vocem mittitis, qvod formam 
 hominum habetis, indignantur (Liv. IV. 3). 
 
 Obs. 1. The speaker may also express the reason of his own actions in 
 the conjunctive as if according to the views of another party, if he states 
 how the matter formerly appeared to him, without expressly confirming 
 this view now : Mihi semper Academiae consvetudo de omnibus rebus in con- 
 trarias partes disserendi non ob earn causam solum placuit, qvod aliter non 
 posset, qvid in qvaqve re verisimile esset, inveniri, sed etiam qvod esset ea 
 maxima dicendi exercitatio (Cic. Tusc. II. 3) n . 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes qvod is put with the conjunctive of a verb, which 
 signifies to say or think, although it is not the circumstance that some 
 one said or thought a thing, but the purport of what is said or thought, 
 which conveys the reason, and the views of another party : Qvum Han- 
 nibalis permissu exisset e castris, rediit paullo post, qvod se oblitum nescio 
 qvid diceret (Cic. Off. I. 13), because, as he said, he had forgotten some- 
 thing. Multi praetores qvaestores et legatos suos de provincia decedere 
 
 m [Ennius sanctos appellat poetas, quod qvasi Deorum aliqvo dono atque munere commen- 
 dati nobis esse videantur (Cic. pro Arch. 8).] 
 
 n [Hoc mihi Latinis litteris illustrandum putavi : non quia philosophia Graecis Utteris 
 per dpi non posset (Cic. Tusc. I. 1).] 
 
58. Chap. III. — The Conjunctive. 311 
 
 jusserunt, qvod eorum culpa se minus commode audire arbitrarentur (Id. 
 Verr. III. 58)°. 
 
 b. The conjunctive is employed, where it is intended to denote 
 that the reason alleged is not the real and actual one : Nemo ora- 
 torem admiraius est, qvod Latine loqveretur (Cic. de Or. III. 14). 
 In this way particularly non qvod {noil ideo qvod, non eo qvod) or 
 non qvia is put with the conjunctive, followed by sed qvod (qvia), 
 with an intimation of the true motive : Pugiles in jactandis caesti- 
 bus ingemiscunt, non qvod doleant animove succumbant, sed qvia pro- 
 fundenda voce omne corpus intenditur venitqve plaga vehementior 
 (Cic. Tusc. II. 23). (Jactatum in condicionibus neqvicqvam de Tarqvi- 
 niis in regnum restitnendis, magis qvia id negare Porsena neqviverat Tar- 
 qviniis, qvam qvod negatum iri sibi ab Romanis ignoraret, Liv. II. 13= 
 non qvod — ignoraret, sed qvia — neqviverat.) 
 
 Obs. For non qvod {non qvia), non qvo, not that, is also employed : De 
 tonsilio meo ad te, non qvo celandus esses, nihil scripsi antea, sed qvia 
 communicatio consilii qvasi quaedam videtur esse efflagitatio ad coeundam 
 societatem vel periculi vel laboris (Cic. adFarti. V. 19). (Also non qvo — , 
 
 I ut or sed ne). For non qvod (qvo) non we find also non qvin, e. g. 
 non tarn ut prosim causis, elaborare soleo, qvam ne qvid ohsvm ; non qvin 
 enitendum sit in utroqve, sed tamen mirito est turpius oratori nocuisse vi- 
 deri causae qvam non profuisse (Cic. de Or. II. 72). 
 
 §. 358. The conjunctive is put after the particle qvum, when it 
 denotes the occasion (since, qvum causale) or (with imperfects and 
 pluperfects) the succession and order of events in historical narra- 
 tion (when) : Qvum vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus plena sit, 
 ratio ipsa monet amicitias comparare (Cic. Finn. I. 20). Dionysius 
 qvum in communibus suggestis consistere non auderet, contionari ex 
 turri alia solebat (Id. Tusc. V. 20). Epaminondas qvum vicisset 
 Lacedaemonios apud Mantineam atqve ipse gravi vulnere exanimari 
 se videret, qvaesivit, salvusne esset clipeus (id. Finn. II. 30). If on 
 the other hand an action is only referred to a certain time, so that 
 qvum signifies at the time when, the indicative is employed, though 
 in speaking of past time the imperf. conj. is likewise admissible : 
 Qvi injuriam non propulsat, qvum potest, injuste facit (Cic. Off. III. 
 18). Qvum inimici nostri venire dicentur, turn in Epirum ibo (Id. 
 ad Fam. XIV. 3). Res, qvum haec scribebam } erat in extremum ad- 
 ducta discrimen (Id. ib. XII. 6). Dionysius ea, qvae concupierat, 
 ne turn qvidem, qvum omnia se posse censebat, conseqvebatur (Id. Tusc. 
 
 [Contendit, id in Gallia rclinqveretur ; partim, qvod insvetus navigandi, mare timeret, 
 partim, qvod religionibus sese diceret impediri (Caes. B. G. V. 6).] 
 
312 Syntax.— Part II. §. 358 
 
 V. 20) . Qvum Caesar in Galliam venit, alterius Gallorum factionis 
 principes erant Aedui, alterius Seqvani (Caes. B. G. VI. 12). — Zeno- 
 nem, qvum Athenis essem, audiebam freqventer (Cic. N. D. I. 21), 
 C. Caesar turn, qvum maxime furor arderet Antonii, firmissimum 
 exercihcm comparavit (Id. Phil. III. 2). Qvanto facilius abire fuit 
 hosti, qvum pro cut abessemus, qvam nunc, qvum in cervicibus sumus 
 (Liv. XLIV. 39). With the other conjunctions of time, which denote 
 the succession of actions, the indicative is made use of; see §. 338 b. 
 
 Ols. 1. The indicative is also used, when qvum (qvum interim) connects 
 an event or relation with a time and circumstances previously mentioned : 
 Jam ver appetebat, qvum Hannibal ex Mbernis movet (Liv. XXII. 1). Jam 
 scalis egressi milites prope summa ceperant, qvum oppidani concurrunt, 
 lapides, ignem, alia praeterea tela ingerunt (Sail. Jug. 60). Piso ultimas 
 Hadriani maris oras petivit, qvum interim DyrracTiii milites domum, in 
 qva eum esse arbitrabantur, obsidere coeperunt (Cic. in Pis. 38). (So 
 likewise, Nondum centum et decern anni sunt, qvum de pecuniis repetundis 
 a L.Pisone lata lex est [Id. Off. II. 21], it is not yet 110 years, since 
 a law — .) 
 
 Obs. 2. Qvum signifying inasmuch as (by or in with a participle) stands 
 with the indicative : Concedo tibi, ut ea praetereas, qvae, qvum faces, nulla 
 esse concedis (Cic. Rose. Am. 19), inasmuch as you are silent, by being 
 silent. Praeclare facis, qvum Caepionis et Luculli memoriam tenes (Id. 
 Finn. III. 2). (But where it introduces a more detailed account of the 
 nature of the action, it has the verb in the conjunctive : Munatius Plan- 
 cus qvotidie meam potentiam criminabatur, qvum diceret, senatum, qvod 
 ego vellem, decernere ; Cic. pro Mil. 5). After laudo, gratulor, gratias 
 ago, gratia est, qvum is found with the indicative in the same sense as 
 qvod, that, because, e. g. Gratulor tibi, qvum tantum vales apud Dola- 
 bellam (Cic. ad Fam. IX. 14). 
 
 Obs. 3. Qvum has the conjunctive, when it expresses a kind of compa- 
 rison between the contents of the leading proposition and the subordinate, 
 especially a contrast (while on the other hand, whereas, although) : Hoc 
 ipso tempore, qvum omnia gymnasia philosophi teneant, tamen eorum audi- 
 tores discum audire qvam philosophum malunt (Cic, de Or. II. 5)P. Hence 
 also with qvum — turn, as well — as, when each member has its own verb, 
 the first is often put in the conjunctive, to express a kind of comparison 
 (between the general and the particular case, the earlier and the later, 
 &.c), e. g. Qvum multae res in philosophia neqvaqvam satis adhuc explica- 
 tae sint, turn perdifficilis et perobscura qvaestio est de natura deorum (Cic. 
 N. D. I. 1). Sex. Moscius qvum omni tempore nobilitatis fautor fuisset, 
 
 p [ Qvum apud Graecos antiquissimum e doctis genus sit poetarum, serius nos poeticam 
 uccepimus (Cic. Tusc. I. 1).] 
 
360. Chap. III.— Tlie Conjunctive. 313 
 
 turn hoc tiimultu proximo praeter ceteros in ea vicinitate earn partem cau~ 
 samqve defendit (Id. Rose. Am. 6). If only the connection between the 
 two is to be expressed, the indicative is used : Qvum ipsam cognitionem 
 juris augurii conseqvi cupio, turn mehercule tuis incredibiliter studiis de- 
 lector (Cic. ad Fam. III. 9). 
 
 Ohs. 4. The following is expressed always in the conjunctive : Audivi 
 (auditum est) ex eo, qvum diceret, I have heard him say. So also the 
 conjunctive is almost always found after the phrase : Fail (erit) tempus 
 (Mud tempus, dies), qvum, there was once a time, there will come a time, 
 when (such a time that) : also simply Fuit, qvum. Illucescet aJiqvando 
 ille dies, qvum tu fortissimi viri magnitudinem animi desideres (Cic. pro 
 Mil. 26). Fuit, qvum mild qvoqve initium reqviescendi fore justum arbi- 
 trarer (Id. de Or. I. 1). 
 
 §. 359. When an action that is often repeated (every time that, as often 
 as) is expressed by qvum or other conjunctions (ubi, postqvam, qvoties, si) 
 or by indefinite relative words (qvicunqve, ubicunqve, qvocunqve, in qvam- 
 eunqve partem, ut qvisqve, according as each), with the verb in the imper- 
 fect or (more frequently, according to §. 33S a. Ohs.) in the pluperfect* 
 the older writers (Cicero, Caesar, Sallust) commonly use the indicative, 
 others again give the preference to the conjunctive : Qvum ver esse coepe- 
 rat, Verves dabai se labori atqve itineribus (Cic. Veer. V. 10). Qvamcun- 
 qve in partem eqvites irnpetum fecerant, Jwstes loco cedere cogebantwr 
 (Caes. B. C. II. 41). JStumidae si a perseqvendo Jwstes deterrere neqvi- 
 verant, disjectos a tergo ant lateribus circumveniebant ; sin opportunior 
 fugae collis qvam campi fuerant, Numidarum eqvi facile evadebant (Sail. 
 Jug. 50). — Qvemcunqve lictor jussu consulis preliendisset, tribunus mitti 
 jubebat (Liv. III. 11). Qvum (every time that) in jus duci debitorem vi- 
 dissent, convolabant (Id. II. 27). Idfecialis ubi dixisset, hastam in fines' 
 eorum mittebat (Liv. I. 32). 
 
 §. 360. The conjunctions dum, donee, and qvoad, signifying until j 
 with priusqvam and anteqvam, are (according to the most regular 
 usage) constructed with the indicative, when an action is simply- 
 expressed that has actually commenced or is commencing (a), but 
 with the conjunctive, if a design is at the same time intimated 
 (until something can be done) or an action which has not actually 
 commenced (before something can be done, i. e. so that it is not 
 done) (b) . Yet the imperfect and pluperfect conjunctive are also employed 
 in simply indicating a period of time and an action which has really takeii 
 place (especially with anteqvam, priusqvam, in the historical style) (c) :• 
 the conjunctive is also found with anteqvam and priusqvam, in speakinsf 
 of a thing which usually happens, before something els^e happens (d).- 
 a. De comitiis, donee rediit Marcellus, silentium fuit (Liv. XXIIL 
 
 s s 
 
314 Syntax.— Part II. §. 360 
 
 31). Hand desinam, donee perfecero (Ter. Phorm. II. 2, 72). Milo 
 in senatu fuit eo die, qvoad senatus dimissus est (Cic. pro Mil. 10), 
 Mecum deserta qverebar, dum me jucundis lapsam sopor impulit alls 
 (Prop. I. 3, 43) q . Non in hac re sola fuit ejusmodi, sed, anteqvam 
 ego in Siciliam veni, in maximis rebus ac plurimis (Cic. Verr. II. 
 47). Non defatigabor anteqvam illorum ancipites vias rationesqve 
 percepero (Id. de Or. III. 36). Epaminondas non prius bellare de- 
 stitit, qvam urbem Lacedaemoniorum obsidione clausit (Corn. Epam. 
 8). — b. Iratis subtrahendi sunt ii, in qvos impetum conantur facer e, 
 dum se ipsi colligant (Cic. Tusc. IV. 36), until they (that they may) 
 compose themselves r . Numidae, priusqvam ex castris subveniretur 
 in proximos colles discedunt (Sail. Jug. 54). Anteqvam homines ne- 
 farii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedonians perrexi (Cic. 
 pro Plane. 41). c. Trepidationis aliqvantum elephanti edebant, donee 
 qvietem ipse timor fecisset (Liv. XXI. 28). Faucis ante diebus, qvam 
 Syracusae caper entur, Otacilius in Africam transmisit (Id. XXV. 31). — 
 d. Tragoedi qvotidie, anteqvam pronuncient, vocem cubantes sensim exci- 
 tant (Cic. de Or. I. 59). Tempestas minatur anteqvam surgat (Sen. Ep. 
 103). 
 
 Obs. 1. On exspecto dum, opperior dum, with a present, see §. 339, 
 Obs. 2. Exspectare dum with the conjunctive answers nearly to the 
 English, to expect, that (with the indicative, to wait, until) : JExspectas 
 fortasse, dum dicat, Patietur, perferet (Cic. Tusc. II. 7). Nolite exspec- 
 tare, dum omnes obeam oratione mea civitates (Id. Verr. II. 51). (Also 
 exspecto, ut : Nisi forte exspectatis, ut ilia diluam, qvae JErucius de rebus 
 commenticiis objecit Id. Kosc. Am. 29.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Dum and donee may also be constructed with the conjunctive 
 in the signification so long as, when a design is expressed (so long, while 
 — i. e. that something may be done in the mean time) : Die inseqventi 
 qvievere milites, dum praefectus urbis vires inspiceret. (Otherwise they 
 always take the indicative : Ti. Gracchus, P. F., tamdiu laudabitur, dum 
 memoria rerum Romanarum manebit Cic. Off. II. 12.) 
 
 Obs. 3. On anteqvam and priusqvam with the present see §. 339, Obs. 2. 
 The present indicative is put with these conjunctions even to express a 
 thing that one wishes to avoid, that is not to happen : Dabo operam, ut 
 istuc veniam anteqvam ex animo tuo effluo (Cic, ad Fam. VII. 14). 
 
 Obs. 4. When ante, citius, or prius qvam is used, to denote what is im- 
 possible, or what is to be guarded against at any cost, it is followed by 
 the conjunctive (since the action is considered as not taking place) : Ante 
 
 i Dum is but rarely used in this signification ; (usqve ad eum finem, dum — Cic. Verr. 
 Act. I. 6). 
 
 * Here dum is employed, not donee. 
 
■361. Chap, III. — The Conjunctive. 315 
 
 leves pascentur in aethere cervi, qvam nostro illius labatur pectore vultus 
 (Virg. B. I. 59). CZeno Ifagnetas dixit in corpora sva citius per furorem 
 saevituros, qvam ut Romanam amicitiam violarent ; Liv. XXXY. 31). So 
 likewise after potius qvam : Privabo potius Lucullum debito testimonio 
 qvam id cum mea laude communicem (Cic. Acad. II. 1). Zeno Eleates 
 jperpessus est omnia potius, qvam conscios delendae tyrannidis indicaret 
 (Cic. Tusc. II. 22). 
 
 §. 361. The conjunctive is annexed to the concessory particle 
 qvamvis, though ever so much (how much soever), and to licet , 
 although (properly the verb licet, with an ellipsis of ut) : Qvod turpe 
 est, id, qvamvis occultetur, tamen honestum fieri nullo modo potest 
 (Cic. Off. III. 19). Improbitas, licet adversario molesta sit, judici 
 ihvisa est (Quinct. VI. 4, 15). 
 
 Obs. 1. Qvamvis properly signifies Jwivever much you will, and the con- 
 junctive by itself expresses the concession : Let it be concealed (§ 352). 
 
 Qvantumvis is used in the same way : Ista, qvantumvis exigua sint, in 
 majus excedunt (Sen. Ep. 85). Licet is rarely used by good writers quite 
 as a conjunction, but commonly as a verb with a permissive signification 
 {may): Fremont omnes, licet; dicam, qvod sentio (Cic. de Or. I. 44), 
 
 they may all exclaim against it, yet I will, &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. The contrast between what is asserted and something else, 
 that actually does (or did) take place, is expressed by qvanqvam or etsi 
 (more strongly, tametsi) with the indicative : Bomani qvanqvam itinere 
 et proelio fessi erant, tamen MetelJo instructi obviam procedunt (Sallust. 
 Jug. 53). Caesar, etsi nondum ecrum consilia cognoverat, tamen fere id, 
 qvod accidit, suspicabatur (Caes. B. G. IV. 31). Tametsi vicisse debeo, 
 tamen de meo jure decedam (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 27) ; (they take the con- 
 junctive only, when there is some other special ground for it, e. g. accord- 
 ing to §. 350 b, or according to § 369 and 370). By etsi and (more 
 frequently) eiiamsi as conditional particles it is expressed, that a thing 
 takes place even in a certain case and under a certain condition. The in- 
 dicative is employed (according to §. 332), when the condition is simply 
 expressed (without being negatived) : Viri boni multa ob earn causom fa- 
 ciwnt, qvod decet, etsi nullum consecuturum emolumentum vident (Cic. 
 Finn. II. 14). Qvod crebro aliqvis videt, non miratur, etiamsi, cur fiat, 
 nescit (Cic. Div. II. 22) ; the conjunctive, when it is intimated that the 
 condition does not obtain : Etiamsi mors oppetenda esset, domi atqve in 
 patHa mallem, qvam in externis atqve alienis locis (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 7). 
 Cur Siculi te defensorem habere nolint, etiamsi taceant, satis dicunt ; ve- 
 rum non tacent (Cic. Div. in Caec. 6. Dicunt in the indicative according 
 to § 348 : they declare it by their way of acting, suppose even that they 
 were silent. 
 
 ss2 
 
316 Syntax. — Part II. §. 361- 
 
 Obs. 3. The poets and later writers use qvamvis with the indicative for 
 qvamqvam, although (of a thing which actually does take place), or etiamsi, 
 even if: Pollio amat nostram, qvamvis est rustica, Musam (Virg. B. III. 
 84), which is very rare in the older prose writers. Conversely they use 
 qvanqvam with the conjunctive instead of the indicative : Nee vero Al- 
 cidem me sum laetatus euntem aecepisse lacu, nee TJiesea Pirithoumqve t 
 dis qvanqvam geniti essent (Virg. Aen. VI. 394). Qvinctius, qvamqvam 
 moveretur his vocibus, manu tamen abnuit, qvicqvam opis in se esse (Liv. 
 XXXVI. 34). 
 
 §. 362. a. Relative propositions (with the relative pronoun or a 
 relative adverb) stand in the indicative, when by their means the 
 speaker either connects a more precise definition, in accordance 
 with the actual fact, with an idea of the leading proposition, or 
 (by a periphrasis) describes and specifies an idea, concerning 
 which some statement is made, so that the relative proposition 
 supplies the place of a simple name, e. g. Num alii oratores pro- 
 bantur a multitudine, alii ab Us, qvi intelligunt ? (Cic. Brut. 49), 
 by connoisseurs. 
 
 The indicative is also employed in propositions which begin with 
 an indefinite relative pronoun (§. 87) or adverb, by which an idea 
 is described (by periphrasis), but left indefinite with relation to the 
 individual person or thing, or to the extent of its acceptation : 
 Qvoscungve de te qveri audivi, qvacunqve potui ratione, placavi (Cic. 
 ad Q. Fr. I. 2) . P. Lentulus, qvidqvid habuit (whatever ability he 
 possessed), qvantumcunqve fuit, id totum habuit e discipline/, (Id. 
 Brut. 77). Patria est, ubicunqve est bene (Id. Tusc. V. 37). Sed 
 qvoqvo modo Mud se habet, haec qverela vestra nihil valet (Id. pro 
 Lig. 7) . Perfectus orator, ut cunqve animum audientis moveri volet, 
 jta cerium vocis admovebit sonum (Id. Or. 17). Utrum (whichever 
 of the two, it is indifferent whether it be one or the other) osten* 
 dere potest, vincat necesse est (Id. pro Tull. §. 28). 
 
 Obs. We must notice as an exception to this rule, that certain writers 
 use the conjunctive after undefined relatives, in order to express a re- 
 peated action; see §. 359. 
 
 b. But in various cases the relative proposition is stated in 
 the conjunctive, in order to denote either a mere conception of 
 the mind (a thing not actually existing), or a particular relation 
 between the contents of the relative proposition and the lead- 
 ing proposition. (Hence a relative with the conjunctive often 
 has the same signification, which is expressed more definitely by 
 ft conjunction.) 
 
-364. Chap. III.— The Conjunctive. 317 
 
 §. 363. The conjunctive is employed, when the relative proposi- 
 tion expresses a design connected with the action mentioned in the 
 leading proposition (who is to=that he, qvi=ut is) or a destination 
 which a thing has (something that may, something to — ) : Clusini 
 legatos Romam, qvi auxilium a senatu peterent , misere (Liv. V. 35). 
 Misi ad Antonium, qvi hoc ei dicer et (Cic. Phil. I. 5), one who was 
 to — . Ho mini natura rationem dedit, qva regerentur animi appe- 
 titus (Id. N. D. II. 12). Sunt multi, qvi eripiunt aliis, qvod aliis 
 largiantur (Id. Off. I. 14), who take from one to give to another. 
 Germani neqve Druides habent, qvi rebus divinis praesint, neqve 
 sacrificiis student (Caes. B. G. VI. 21). Nihil habebam {nihil erat), 
 qvod scriberem (nothing to write). Haec habui, de amicitia qvae 
 dicer em (Cic. Lael. 27), this was what I had to say. Habes, qvod 
 agas et qvo te oblectes (something to do and amuse yourself with). 
 Non habet, unde solvat (he has not the means of paying) . Dedi 
 ei, ubi habitaret (a place to live in) . 
 
 It should be particularly remarked, that the relative with the 
 conjunctive is put after the adjectives dignus, indignus, idoneus, 
 and sometimes after aptus, to express that of which a person is 
 worthy, or for which he is qualified : Digna res est, qvam diu mul- 
 tumqve consideremus (qvae diu multumqve consider etur). Homines 
 scelerati indigni mihi videbantur, qvorum causam agerem. Gajus 
 non satis idoneus visus est, cui tantum negotium committer etur. 
 Nulla mihi videbatur aptior persona, qvae de senectute loqveretur, 
 qvam Catonis (Cic. Lael. 1). 
 
 Obs. 1. The poets and later prose writers construct these adjectives also 
 with the infinitive (of the active or passive voice, as the context may re- 
 quire) : Lyricorum Hor alius fere solus legi dignus est (Quinct. X. 1, 96), 
 =qvi legatur. Fons rivo dare nomen idoneus (Hor. Ep. I. 16, 12),== 
 qvi det. 
 
 Obs. 2. From non {nihil) habeo (nihil est, non est) qvod (I have nothing 
 to — , there is nothing to — ) we must distinguish the expression non 
 habeo, I do not know, with a dependent interrogative proposition : De 
 pueris qvid again, non habeo (Cic. ad Att. VII. 19). 
 
 Obs. 3. Here we may also notice the conjunctive, w T hich is employed 
 after the particles cur, qvamohrem, qvare, when causa, ratio, argumentum, 
 or a phrase of similar import precedes (the reason for which one is to — *- 
 reason to — ). See §. 372 b, Obs, 6. 
 
 §. 364. The conjunctive is employed in relative propositions, 
 which complete the idea of a certain quality and express the way 
 
318 Syntax,— Part II. §. 364- 
 
 in which it operates, so that qvi conveys the signification of (talis) 
 ut (some one who i. q. such a one that) : Innocentia est affectio talis 
 animi, qvae noceat nemini (Cic. Tusc. III. 8). Nulla acies humani 
 ingenii tarda est, qvae penetrare in coelum possit (Id. Ac. II. 39). 
 Qvis potest esse tarn aversus a vero, qvi neget, liaec omnia, qvae 
 videmus, deorum immortalium potestate administrari (Id. Cat. III. 
 9) . Ego is sum, qvi nihil unqvam mea potius qvam meorum civium 
 causa fecerim (Id. ad Fam. V. 21). Won is es, qvi gloriere. (Also : 
 Non is es, Catilina, ut te unqvam aut pudor a turpitudine aut metus 
 a periculo revocarit, Cic. Cat. I. 9) . L. Pinarius erat vir acer et 
 qvi nihil in fide Siculorum reponeret (Liv. XXIV. 37) . Syracusani, 
 homines periti, qvi etiam occulta suspicari possent, habehant rationem 
 qvotidie piratarum, qvi securi ferirentur (Cic. Verr. V. 28). Nunc 
 dicis aliqvid, qvod ad rem pertineat (Cic. Rose. Am. 18), something 
 of such a nature, that it — . Pad, qvae nihil habitura sit insidia- 
 rum, semper est consulendum Id. Off. I. 11). Num qvidqvam potest 
 eximium esse in ea natura, qvae nihil nee actura sit unqvam neqve 
 agat neqve egerit ? (Id. N. D. I. 41), a being, that — , a being of 
 such a kind, that — . In enodandis nominihus vos Stoici, qvod 
 miserandum sit, laboratis (Id. ib. III. 24), to a pitiable degree. 
 (So also after a comparative : Campani major a deliqverant, qvam qvibus 
 ignosci posset ; see §.308, Obs. 1;. 
 
 Obs. 1. Such a relative proposition is connected either with a demon- 
 strative word, which denotes a quality (e. g. talis [tantus, ejusmodi, is'], 
 qvi, &c), or with an undefined substantive notion (e. g. a peace, which, or 
 aliqvid, qvod), or is subjoined by way of more precise definition to an 
 adjective characteristic. This conjunctive is sometimes also used in rela- 
 tive propositions which do not complete a previous conception, but them- 
 selves contain a description (by periphrasis), when we wish to express 
 a general idea of a person or thing of a particular character, and at 
 the same time to draw attention to this character with reference to the 
 statement in the main proposition : Hoc non erat ejus, qvi innumerabiles 
 mundos niente peragravisset (Cic. Finn. II. 31), was not becoming for a 
 man, who — . Qvi ex ipso audissent, qvum palam multis audientibus 
 loqveretur, nefaria qvaedam ad <me pertulerunt (Cic. ad Att. XI. 8), per- 
 sons who — . Qvi audiverant would mean, those who — . At ille nescio 
 qvi, qvi in scholis nominari solet, mille et octoginta stadia qvod abesset, 
 videbat (Cic. Ac. II. 25), things, which were distant. Qvod aberat 
 would signify, some particular thing which was distant. 
 
 Obs. 2. In a similar way the conjunctive is used in relative propositions, 
 which limit something that is stated in general terms to a certain defined 
 
365. Chap. III. — The Conjunctive. 319 
 
 class ; particularly with qvi qvidem (at least, who) and qvi modo (who 
 only=if he only) : Ex oratoribus Atticis antiqvissimi sunt, qvorum qvi- 
 dem scripta constent (are ascertained), Pericles et Alcibiades (Cic. de Or. 
 II. 22) s . Xenocrates units, qvi deos esse diceret, divinationem funditus 
 sustulit (Id. de Div. I. 3). Servus est nemo, qvi modo tolerabili condi- 
 cione sit servitutis, qvi non audaciam civium perhor reseat (Id. Cat. IV. 8). 
 Qvod sciam, qvod meminerim, so far as I know, remember ;=qvantum 
 scio. Pergratum mild feceris, si eum, qvod sine molestia tuafiat,juveris 
 (Id. ad Fam. XIII. 23), so far as it can be done without inconvenience 
 to yourself. (But we also find with the same signification, Qvae tibi 
 mandavi, velim cures, qvod sine tua molestia facere poteris, Id. ad Att. 
 1.5.) 
 
 §. 365. To the general assertion, that there is or is not some- 
 thing, of which a certain relative proposition may be asserted 
 (something of such a kind, that the latter may be asserted of it) , 
 the relative proposition is appended in the conjunctive; thus the 
 conjunctive stands after the expressions, est, qvi : sunt, reperiuntur, 
 non desunt, qvi; exstitit, exstiterunt, exortus est, qvi {exortus est 
 philosophus, qvi) ; habeo, qvi (one who) ; est, ubi (there are places 
 where) ; nemo est, qvi ; nihil est, qvod (qvis est, qvi — ?) &c. 
 E. g. Sunt, qvi discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem (Cic. 
 Tusc. I. 9). Fuere, qvi crederent, M. Crassum non ignarum Cati- 
 linae consilii fuisse (Sail. Cat. 17). In omnibus seculis pauciores 
 viri reperti sunt, qvi suas cupiditates, qvam qvi hostium copias vince- 
 rent (Cic. ad Fam. XV. 4). Nemo est orator, qvi se Demosthenis 
 similem esse nolit (Id. de Opt. Gen. Or. 2). Qvod ex majore parte 
 unamqvemqve rem appellari dicunt, est, ubi id valeat (Id. Tusc. V. 8), 
 there are cases, in which — . Est qvatenus amicitiae dari venia 
 possit (Id. Lael. 17, there is a point up to which — ). Nidlas 
 accipio litteras, qvas non statim ad te mittam. 
 
 Obs. 1 . The poets frequently use the indicative after such of these ex- 
 pressions as are affirinative, e. g. est {sunt), qvi (not after the negative, 
 such as nemo est, qvi) : Sunt, qvos curriculo pulverem Olympium collegisse 
 juvat (Hor. Od. I. 1, 3). Interdum rectum vulgus videt ; est, ubi peccat 
 (Id. Ep. II. 1, 63). In good prose writers such examples are rar3 {Sunt, 
 qvi ita dicunt, imperia Pisonis superba barbaros neqvivisse pati, Sail. Cat. 
 19), except where a definitive pronoun or adjective of number is appended 
 to the affirmative clause, as sunt multi {sunt multi homines) &c. ; for in 
 this case the indicative is used as well as the conjunctive: Sunt multi, 
 qvi eripiunt aliis, qvod aliis largiantur (Cic. Oft 1 . I. 14). Nonnulli sunt 
 in hoc ordine, qvi aut ea, qvae imminent, non videant, aut ea, qvae vident, 
 
 8 [Quae quidem digna statuissent, in quibus elaborarent (Cic. Tusc. I. 1).] 
 
320 Syntax.— Part II. §. 365- 
 
 dissimulent (Id. in Cat. I. 12). Duo tempora inciderunt, qvibus aliqvid 
 contra Caesarem Pompejo svaserim (Id. Phil. II. 10). 
 
 Obs. 2. If a relative proposition belongs to a negative idea, of which 
 something definite is predicated (as, nothing is a good), it may stand in 
 the indicative, as being subjoined merely for the sake of denning the idea, 
 e.g. Nihil bonum est, qvod non eum, qvi id possidet, meliorem facit (Cic. 
 Par. I. 4, nothing, that does not make its possessor better, is a good), or 
 it may be appended in the conjunctive in the manner above mentioned i 
 Nihil bonum est, qvod non eum, qvi id possideat, meliorem faciat (nothing 
 is a good, there is no good, which would not make its possessor better). 
 Nemo rex Persarum potest esse, qvi non ante majorum disciplinam perce* 
 perit (Cic. de Div. I. 41). 
 
 Obs. 3. For nemo est, qvi non, nihil est, qvod noil, the expression 
 with qvin (is, id) may likewise be employed (§. 440, Obs. 3). Where a 
 definite case must necessarily be expressed (as it nearly always musty 
 where the relative would have been in the accusative), either is must be 
 inserted, or (which is to be preferred) the relative retained (qvem non y 
 qvod non). 
 
 §. 366. Relative propositions are put in the conjunctive, when 
 they are intended to express the reason of the leading proposition, 
 so that qvi approaches to the signification of qvum is. (You are to 
 do it, as he who can do it ; i. q. since you can do it.) Caninius 
 fuit mirifica vigilantia, qvi suo toto consulatu somnum non viderit 
 (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 30) . Miser et tui me, qvi hune tantum hominem 
 facias inimicum tibi (Ter. Eun. IV. 7, 32). Ut cubitum discessimus 
 (when we were gone to bed) me, qvi ad multam noctem vigilassem,- 
 artior, qvam solebat, somnus complexus est (Cic. Somn. Scip. 1). 
 O fortunate adolescens, qvi tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inve* 
 neris (Id. pro Arch. 10)*. 
 
 Obs. 1. In many cases the choice rests with the speaker, whether he 
 will expressly shew by the use of the conjunctive, that the relative propo- 
 sition contains the reason, or whether he will simply add it in the indica- 
 tive as an explanation. Thus it may be said : Habeo senectuti magnam 
 gratiam, qvae mihi sermonis aviditatem auceit, potionis et cibi sustulit 
 (Cic. Cat. M. 14) ; but it might also be expressed auxerit-^sustulerit 
 (since it has, because it has). 
 
 Obs. 2. The assigning of the reason is strengthened by the expres- 
 sions, utpote qvi, ut qvi (as being one who) or praesertim qvi u (especially 
 as one who i. q. especially as he), which are constructed with the con- 
 
 1 [Tarquinio quid impudentius, qui helium gereret cum iis, qui ejus non tulerant 
 mperbiam? (Cic. Tusc. III. 12).] 
 
 u \Praesertim qui nos non pugnando, sed tacendo superare potuerunt (Cic. in Cat. 
 III. 9).] 
 
68. Chap. III.— The Conjunctive. 321 
 
 junctive. Qvippe qvi (properly signifying, certainly, as one who — , 
 certainly, since he — ) is constructed both with the conjunctive, and in 
 some writers (Sallust, Livy) with the indicative : Solis candor illustrior 
 est qvam ullius ignis, qvippe qyi immenso mundo tarn longe lateqve collw- 
 ceat (Cic. N. D. II. 15). Animus fortuna non eget, qvippe qvae probita- 
 tem, industriam, aliasqve artes bonas neqye dare neqye eripere cuiqvam 
 potest (Sail. Jug. 1). 
 
 Obs. 3. The conjunctive is likewise employed in relative propositions, 
 which contain an antithesis to the leading proposition (compare what is 
 said of qvum, §.358, Obs. 3) : Ego, qvi sero ac leviter Graecas litter as 
 attigissem, tamen, qvum in Ciliciam prqflciscens Atlienas venissem, com- 
 plures ibi dies sum commoratus (Cic. de Or. I. 18). Nosmetipsi, qvi Ly- 
 curgei (strict as Lycurgus) a principio fuissemus, qvotidie demitigamur 
 (id. ad Att. I. 13). 
 
 §.367. A relative proposition constituting a periphrasis, may be put in 
 the conjunctive with an hypothetical declaration of what will happen, in 
 case the existence of such a person or thing as that indicated in the 
 periphrasis should be assumed, e. g. Haec et innwmerabilia ex eodem ge- 
 nere qvi videat, nonne cogatur confiteri deos esse (Cic. N. D. II. 4), if any 
 one sees this, will he not be compelled ? Qvi — videt, nonne cogitur — ? 
 is not he who sees this, compelled ? See §. 350 a. 
 
 §. 368. Relative propositions stand in the conjunctive, when 
 they form constituent parts of an expression (of a thought, resolu- 
 tion, &c), which is mentioned in the leading proposition as the 
 expression of another party, and do not contain an idea, which the 
 speaker himself declares as his own : Socrates exsecrari eum sole- 
 bat, qvi primus utilitatem a jure sejunxisset (Cic. Legg. I. 12 ; 
 whoever it might be, that had — ; whom Socrates imagined to 
 himself, without thinking of any definite individual, as the author 
 of this separation). Nemo extulit eum verbis, qvi ita dixisset, ut 
 qvi adessent, intelligerent, qvid diceret (Id. de Or. III. 14), him, 
 who (i. q. any one, because he), according to his view, had so 
 spoken — . Paetus omnes libros, qvos frater suus reliqvisset, mihi 
 donavit (Id. ad Att. II. 1, which his brother might have left ; 
 which his brother, as he believed, had left. Otherwise it would 
 be expressed: qvos frater ejus reliqvit, which his brother left). 
 In Hispaniis prorogatum veteribus praetoribus imperium, cum exer- 
 citibus, qvos haberent (Liv. XL. 18 ; expressed as a part of the 
 senatusconsultum.) 
 
 Obs. The idea mentioned in the leading proposition may be the speaker's 
 own, if it be specified as one that he entertained at some other time : 
 
 t t 
 
322 Syntax,— Part II. §. 36 
 
 Occurrebant (I called to mind) eolles campiqve et Tiberis et hoc coelwn, 
 sub qvo natus educatusqve essem (Liv. V. 54). Sometimes the distinction 
 is only slight, whether a relative proposition is expressed as part of ano- 
 ther person's idea (in the conjunctive) or as the speaker's own (in the 
 indicative), e. g. Major es natu nil rectum putant, nisi qvod sibi placuerit 
 or nisi qvod ipsis placuit. (The conjunctive shews that they are conscious 
 of the manner in which their judgment is influenced. Compare §. 490 c, 
 Obs. 3, respecting sui and suus.) x 
 
 §. 369. As in relative propositions (§. 368), the conjunctive is 
 also employed in other subordinate propositions, which are asserted 
 as parts of the idea mentioned in the leading proposition, e. g. in 
 conditional propositions : Rex praemium proposuit (praemium pro- 
 positum est) si qvis hostem occidisset (§. 348, Obs. 3. Compare what 
 is said of the causal propositions §.357 a.). The conjunctive is 
 consequently employed in all subordinate propositions (whether 
 relative or connected by conjunctions), which are added to com- 
 plete an idea expressed by an infinitive, or a proposition standing 
 in the conjunctive, or in the accusative with the infinitive, the con- 
 tents of which subordinate proposition are asserted by the speaker 
 not simply as an actual fact, but only as a constituent part of the 
 idea stated in the infinitive or conjunctive (oratio obliqva, indirect 
 language). If on the other hand a remark or explanation by the 
 speaker himself (which may be omitted without prejudice to the 
 leading idea) or a description of something that actually exists 
 independently of the contents of the main proposition, is inserted 
 in a conjunctive or infinitive proposition, the indicative is employed, 
 a. Potentis est facere qvod vetit. {Homo potens facit qvod vult.) 
 Non dubitavi id a te petere, qvod mihi esset omnium maximum maxi- 
 meqve necessarium (Cic. ad Earn, II. 6. Id a te peto, qvod mihi est 
 maximum). Qvod me admones, ut me integrum, qvoad possim, servem, 
 gratum est (Id. ad Att. VII. 26. Serva te integrum, qvoad poteris) . 
 Rogavit, ut, qvoniam sibi vivo non subvenisset, mortem suam ne in- 
 ultam esse pateretur (Id. Div. I. 27. Qvoniam mihi vivo non subve- 
 nisti, mortem meam ne inultam esse passus sis). In Hortensio me- 
 moriafuit tanta, ut, qvae secum commentatus esset, ea sine scripto 
 verbis eisdem redderet, qvibus cogitavisset (Id. Brut. 88. Horten- 
 sius, qvae secum erat commentatus, ea verbis eisdem reddebat, qvibus 
 cogitaverat). Mos est Athenis, laudari in condone eos, qvi sint in 
 
 x Alius alia causa allata, qvam sibi ad proficiscendum necessariam esse diceret, petebat, 
 ut sibi Caesaris voluntate discedere liceret (Caes. B. G. I. 39). Diceret stands in the 
 conjunctive instead of qvae — necessaria esset (the reason which, as he said, compelled 
 him). See §. 357 a, Obs. 2. 
 
r 369. Chap. III.— The Conjunctive. 323 
 
 proeliis interfecti (Id. Or. 44). Multum et nobismetipsis el nostris 
 profuturi videbamur, si superstitionem funditus sustulissemus (Cic. de 
 Div. II. 72. Multum proderimus, si superstitionem sustulerimus) . 
 Si luce qvoqve canes latrent, qvum deos salutatum aliqvi venerint, 
 crura Us suffringantur, qvod acres sint etiam turn, qvum suspicio 
 nulla sit (Cic. Rose. Am. 20. Of a tiling which actually happened 
 it would be thus expressed : canes latrant, qvum deos salutatum 
 aliqvi venerunt, and, crura Us suffringantur, qvod acres sunt etiam 
 turn, qvum suspicio nulla est). Et earum rerum, qvibus abundaremus, 
 eocportatio, et earum, qvibus egeremus, invectio nulla esset, nisi his 
 muneribus homines fungerentur (Id. Off. II. 3. Earum rerum, qvibus 
 abundamus, exportatio nulla est. The excess and deficiency also 
 form a part of the hypothesis : Even if we had a superabundance 
 of any thing, it could not be exported — ). b. Apud Hypanim 
 fluvium, qvi ab Europae parte in Pontum influit (observation of the 
 speaker himself), Aristoteles ait, bestiolas qvasdam nasci, qvae unum 
 diem vivant (part of the assertion of Aristotle (Id. Tusc. I. 39). 
 Qvis potest esse tarn aversus a vero, qvi neget, haec omnia, qvae vi- 
 demus (the whole of this visible universe), deorum immorialium 
 potestate administrari (Cic. in Cat. III. 9). 
 
 Obs. 1. In many cases a relative periphrasis may apply either to an 
 independent idea, an existing class of persons or things, or simply to a 
 part of an idea which has been mentioned : Eloqvendi vis efficit, ut ea, 
 qvae ignoramus, diseere, et ea, qvae scimus, alios docere possimus (Cic. N. 
 D. II. 59). Here ea, qvae ignoramus and ea, quae scimus are designated 
 as two existing classes of objects ; but it might also have been expressed ; 
 ut ea, quae ignoremus, diseere, et ea, qvae sciamus, alios docere possimus 
 (what may be unknown [known] to us). Sometimes such an indicative 
 is used in a very singular way : Tertia est sententia, ut, qvanti qvisqve se 
 ipsefacit, tanti fiat ab amicis (Cic. Lael. 16). If, when the leading pro- 
 position is in the perfect, a general idea is expressed in such a subordinate 
 proposition not in the present, but in the imperfect, it is thereby shewn 
 to be a dependent member of the leading idea : Bex parari eajussit, qvae 
 ad helium necessaria essent ; but, rex arma, tela, macliinas, ceteraqve, qvae 
 in hello necessaria sunt, parari jussit. 
 
 Ohs. 2. The historians not unfrequently use the indicative irregularly 
 in relative circumlocutions and definitions, which are yet naturally or 
 necessarily to be understood as parts of the idea quoted as held by an- 
 other, e. g. Scaptius infit, annum se tertium et ociogesimum agere, et in eo 
 agro, de qvo agitur, militasse (Liv. III. 71. In eo agro, de qvo agitur, 
 militavi). C. Mario magna atqve mirabilia portendi haruspex dixerat ; 
 
 T t 2 
 
324 Syntax.— Part II. §. 369- 
 
 prainde, qvae animo agitabat, fretus dis ageret (Sail. Jug. 63. Proinde, 
 qvae animo agitas, fretus dis age /). 
 
 Ols. 3. It may be especially noticed, that the particle dum is often put 
 by the poets and later writers with the historical present (§. 336, Ols. 2) 
 in the indicative, though the proposition is a part of an idea attributed 
 to another, which is expressed in the infinitive : Die, hospes, Spartae, nos 
 te hie vidisse jacentes, dum Sanctis patriae legibus obseqvimur (Cic. poet. 
 Tusc. I. 42). (More accurately : Video, dum breviter voluerim dicere, 
 dictum esse a me paullo obscurius, Cic. de Or. I. 41.) 
 
 §. 370. Besides the rules which have been hitherto given for the 
 use of the conjunctive in general, it is particularly to be noticed, 
 that the second person of the conjunctive is used of a person whose 
 existence is only assumed, to express by that means a single un- 
 defined subject, which we imagine to ourselves, in order to state a 
 thing in general terms, (some one, one). (The conjunctive shews, 
 that the whole statement rests on this assumption.) This form 
 is found in conditional discourse, in hypothetical statements, 
 and questions concerning that which can and will happen (§. 350 
 and 353), in subordinate propositions with conjunctions and in 
 relative propositions (with qvi or an indefinite relative), and in 
 commands and prohibitions (see on the imperative, chap. V.) : 
 Aeqvabilitatem conservare non possis, si aliorum naturam imitans 
 omittas taam (Cic. Off. I. 31. Of an actually existing subject it 
 would be, conservare non possumus, si omittimus). Si scieris aspi- 
 dem occulte latere uspiam, et velle aliqvem imprudentem super earn 
 assidere, improbe feceris, nisi admonueris, ne assidat (Cic. Finn. II. 
 18. Si sciemus — improbe faciemus). Dicas (credas, putes) adduc- 
 tum propius frondere Tarentum (Hor. Ep. 1. 16, ll,=dicat aliqvis). 
 Qvem neqve gloria neqve pericula excitant, neqvicqvam hortere (Sail. 
 Cat. 58). Crederes victos esse (Liv. II. 43), one might have sup- 
 posed they were conquered. Canes venaticos diceres (Cic. Verr. 
 IV. 13), one would have said they were hounds. (Concerning the 
 imperfect see §. 350 a.) Tanto amore possessiones suas amplexi 
 tenebant, ut ab Us membra divelli citius posse diceres (Cic. pro Sull. 
 20). Ut sunt, qvi urbanis rebus bellicas anteponant, sic reperias 
 multos, qvibus periculosa consilia qvietis splendidiora videantur 
 (Id. Off. I. 24). Ubi istum invenias, qvi honor em amici anteponat 
 suo? (Id. Lael. 17. Of an actual subject : Ubi eos inveniemus, qvi 
 opes amicitiae non anteponant ? Id. ibid.). Qvum animum ab istis 
 imaginibus ad veritatem traduxeris, nihil relinqvitur (Id. Tusc. V. 
 h,=qvum traduximus). Bonus segnior fit, ubi negligas (Sail. Jug. 
 
-371. App. to Chap. III. — Objective Propositions. 325 
 
 31. If not in the second person it would be expressed,, ubi negli- 
 gitur). Qvum aetas extrema advenit, turn illud, qvod praeteriit, 
 effluxit ; tantum remdnet, qvod virtute et recte factis consecutus sis 
 (Cic. Cat. M. 19 ,=co?i$ecuti sumus, consecutus aliqvis est). Confor- 
 matio sententiarum permanet, qvibuscunqve verbis uti velis (Id. de 
 Or. III. 52,=utimur). 
 
 Ols. 1. A conditional proposition of this kind in the conjunctive does 
 not require the conjunctive in the leading proposition : Mens qvoqve et 
 animus, nisi tanqvam lumini oleum instilles, exstinguuntur senectute (Cic. 
 Cat. M. 11). In excitando et in acuendo plurimimi valet, si laudes eum, 
 qvem cohortere (Id. ad Earn. XV. 21), except when the conditional pro- 
 position contains only an imaginary case, in which something would 
 occur : Si constitueris te cuipiam advocatum in rem praesentem esse ven- 
 turum atqve interim graviter aegrotare filius coeperit, non sit contra offi- 
 cium -non facer e, qvod dixeris (Cic. Off. I. 10), assuming that some one 
 had — , it would then — . 
 
 Ols, 2. Tu is very seldom inserted when the second person is employed 
 in this way (e. g. Virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, con- 
 seqvitur ; Cic. Tusc. I. 38) ; on the other hand te, tui, tili, tuus may be 
 referred to such a subject. Te is put in this way with the infinitive, to 
 denote an indefinite and assumed individual subject (in the accusative 
 with the infinitive, as only the assumed object of a judgment ; see §. 398 
 a.), e. g. Nullum est testimonium victoriae certius, qvam, qvos saepe one- 
 tueris, eos te vinctos ad supplicium duci videre (Cic. Verr. V. 26). 
 
 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER III. 
 
 Of the Formation of Objective Propositions in the Conjunctive, and 
 of the Particles employed in them, 
 
 §. 371. Since the idea of an action as the object of a verb or 
 phrase may be expressed not only by a proposition in the conjunc- 
 tive, but also by the infinitive (accusative with the infinitive), and 
 the conjunctive propositions of this class are formed with various 
 particles according to the nature of the predicate in the leading 
 proposition, rules will here be given for the application of these 
 propositions, and the use of the particles proper to each. (Those 
 cases in which the object is expressed by an accusative with the in- 
 finitive or an infinitive alone will be treated of in the 6th chapter.) 
 Generally speaking, the object is expressed by a proposition in the 
 conjunctive after all verbs and phrases which signify an exertion 
 
326 Syntax,— Part II. §.371- 
 
 or action directed to a particular end, or indicate that something 
 happens. 
 
 Obs. The conjunctive clause (after verbs of the first class) is frequently 
 expressed in English by a simple infinitive. 
 
 §. 372. a. A proposition with ut is subjoined to all those verbs 
 or phrases, which signify in one way or another, to bring about an 
 occurrence, or, to labour ', to contribute, to interest oneself to effect it, 
 as a) facio, efficio, perjlcio, conseqvor, asseqvor, adipiscor, impetro, per- 
 vinco ; consvetudo, naturafert; — b) oro, rogo, peto,precor, 6bsecro,flagito, 
 postulo, — euro, video (look to it, that), provideo, prospicioj — svadeo, per- 
 svadeo, censeo (to judge), hortor, adhortor, moneo, admoneo, permoveo, ad- 
 duco, incito, impello, cogo, — impero, mando, praecipio, dico (to say to a 
 person, that he is to — , scribo, mitto, to write to any one, send to any one, 
 that he is to), edico, concedo, permitto {sino), — statuo (to determine, that 
 some one is to), consiituo, decerno, — volo (to wish, that some one — ), 
 nolo, malo, opto (that some one — ), studeo (to exert oneself, endeavour, 
 that some one — ), nit or, contendo, elaboro, pugno, — id ago, operam do, 
 legem fero, lex est, senatus consultum Jit, auctor sum, consiliwn do, magna 
 cupiditas est (a vehement longing that something should take place), &c. 
 Sol efficit, ut omnia floreant. Dolabella ad me scripsit, ut qvam pri- 
 mum in Italiam venirem (Cic. ad Att. VII. 1). Elaborandum est, 
 ut nosmet ipsi nobis mederi possimus (Id. Tusc. III. 13). Multi 
 turn qvum maxime fallunt , id agunt, ut boni viri esse videantur (Id. 
 Off. I. 13). Cur a j ut valeas. Rogavi, ut proficiscerentur. 
 
 Obs. It may be observed of the particle ut (uti), that it has its root in 
 the same interrogative and relative pronominal theme, from which titer, 
 ubi, &c. are derived, and therefore originally signifies how, or (relatively) 
 as (§. 201, 5). From how is deduced the signification that, as applied to 
 express a purpose and the object of the verb, (to exert oneself, how one 
 may attain a thing), and from the relative usage partly the signification 
 as soon as {ut veni, abiit), partly that of so that ( just as the pronoun qyi 
 acquires the signification of so that he). Then the original signification 
 is still further lost, so that the word only marks out a proposition inde- 
 finitely and generally as the object or complement of another (with verbs 
 of happening) . 
 
 b. If the object is expressed negatively (to bring it about, to 
 exert oneself, that a thing may not happen), the particle ne is used 
 instead of ut (also ut — ne) . Peto, non ut aliqvid novi decernatur, 
 sed ne qvid novi decernatur (Cic. ad Fam. II. 7). Vos adepti estis, 
 ne qvem civem melueretis (Id. pro Mil. 13). After the verbs which 
 
■372. App. to Chap. III. — Objective Propositions. 827 
 
 signify to bring about, to effect, ut non is also made use of. See 
 on this §.456 with Obs. 3. 
 
 Obs. 1. We should remark the expression videre, ne, to look to it, that 
 not, whether perhaps not. Vide, ne mea conjectura sit verior (Cic. pro 
 Cluent. 35). Hence vide ne has sometimes nearly the signification of 
 I fear. 
 
 Obs. 2. Those verbs which signify, to wish that a thing may happen 
 (vo y o, kc, placet, it is resolved, sometimes studeo, postulo), govern also an 
 accusative with the infinitive ; Volo te hoc scire. See §. 396. Volo (nolo, 
 rnalo) is commonly used only with the conjunctive without ut in short and 
 unambiguous expressions (see Obs. 4), otherwise with the accusative and 
 infinitive : Qvid vis faciam ? (Ter. Eun. V. 9, 24). Vis ergo experia?nur ? 
 (Virg. B. III. 28). Tu ad one de rebus omnibus scribas velim (Cic. ad Fam. 
 VII. 13). (More rarely : Volo,ut mihi respondeas, Cic. in Vat. 6). Sino, 
 to let, permit, is employed in the same w r ay, e. g. sine, vivam (rarely, ut 
 vivam) ; otherwise in the infinitive (§. 390) or the accusative with the 
 infinitive (§. 396). 
 
 Obs. 3. With some of those verbs which signify " to exercise an in- 
 fluence over others, to induce them to do something," the action is some- 
 times expressed by the infinitive alone, as after moneo and particularly 
 cogo. See §. 390. Some may be followed by ad with the gerund: Ini- 
 pello aliqyem ad faciendum aliqyid. 
 
 Obs. 4. After those verbs, which denote a wish combined with an in- 
 fluence over others (particularly to advise, to beg, to persuade), and after 
 fac o.\\difaxo (but otherwise not after facio and the others which signify 
 to effectuate, to obtain) ut may be omitted and the conjunctive alone em- 
 ployed, if the construction is evident, especially if the conjunctive stands 
 not long before or after the governing verb : Die veniat. Fac cogites, 
 qyi sis. Sine te exorem (Ter. Andr. V. 3, 30). Caesar Labieno mandat, 
 Memos reliqyosqye Belgas adeat atqye in officio contineat (Caes. B. G. III. 
 11). Albinus Massivae persvadet, qyoniam ex stirpe Masinissae sit, reg- 
 num Numidiae ab senatu petat (Sail. Jug. 35). Jugurtha oppidanos hor- 
 tatur, moenia defendant (Id. ibid. 56). 
 
 Obs. 5. Some of the verbs and phrases here mentioned have at the 
 same time another signification, in which they denote an opinion or the 
 eliciting of an opinion ; and then they govern an accusative with the in- 
 finitive, as statuo, to assume, decerno, to determine, judge, volo, to main- 
 tain (of philosophical dicta), contendo, to maintain, concedo, to grant, per- 
 svadeo, to make a person believe, moneo, to remind one (that so and so is), 
 efficio (confcio), to conclude, prove, cogo, to conclude, make good, addu- 
 cor, to be induced to believe, auctor sum, to assure ; e. g. concedo, non 
 esse miseros, qyi mortui sunt (Cic. Tusc. I. 7). Dicaearchus vult efficere, 
 
328 Syntax,— Part II. §. S'ti 
 
 animos esse mortales (Id. ib. I. 31). Yet concedo, contendo, efficio, addu- 
 cor, and a few similar expressions are, in consequence of their original 
 signification, also used with ut ; Ex qvo efficitur, ut, qvod sit honestum, 
 id sit solum bonum (Cic. Tusc. V. 15; but also Ex qvo efficitur, hones- 
 tate una vitam contineri beata.n, Id. ibid.). Facio signifying "to repre- 
 sent a person as doing a thing," has an accusative with the infinitive or 
 the present participle in apposition to the object (as induco aliqvem lo' 
 qventem) ; Isocratem Plato admirabiliter in Phaedro laudari fecit (Cic. 
 de Opt. Gen. Or. 6). Xenophon Socratem disputantem facit,formam del 
 qvaeri non oportere (Id. N. D. I. 12). Polyphemum Homerus cum ariete 
 colloqventem facit ejusqve laudare fortunas, qvod, qva vellet, ingredi posset, 
 el, qvae vellet, attingeret (Id. Tusc. V. 39). Fac, imagine, assume, always 
 has the accusative with the infinitive, e. g. Fac, qvaeso, qvi ego sim, esse 
 te (Cic. Fam. VII. 23). {Facio with an accusative with the infinitive in 
 the signification to cause, is poetical : Nati one coram cernere letum fe- 
 cisti ; Virg. Aen. II. 538.) 
 
 Obs. 6. After the words causa, ratio, and argumentum, and phrases of a 
 similar signification, the object is expressed by a proposition with one of 
 the particles qvare, qvamobrem, cur (reason, why, i. e. reason to). We 
 have also simply est (nihil est, qvid est) cur [qvamobrem, qvare, qvod), one 
 has reason (no reason) : Multae sunt causae, qvamobrem hunc hominem 
 cupiam abducere (Ter. Eun. I. 2, 65). Qvid fuit causae, cur in Africam 
 Caesarem non seqverere ? (Cic. Phil. II. 29). Nihil affert Zeno, qvare 
 miindum ratione uti putemus (Id. N. D. III. 9 ; no reason why we should 
 believe. Qvid est, cur tit, in isto loco sedeas ? (Id. pro Cluent. 53). Non 
 est, qvod invideas istis, qvos magnos felicesqve populus vocat (Senec. Ep. 
 94). (Very rarely, causa est, ut 1 ). 
 
 §. 373. "With verbs and phrases, which denote in general that a 
 thing happens or is going on, a proposition with ut is used, to signify 
 what happens, &c. ; thus with fit, futurum est, accidit, contingit, evenit, 
 usu venit, est (it is the case, that) seqvitur, restat, reliqvum est, relinqvitur, 
 super est, proximum est (the next action, the next thing is), extremum est, 
 prope est, longe abest, tantum abest. (In negative propositions ut non, and 
 not ne, is employed : see §. 456.) Accidit, ut Mo tempore in urbe essem. 
 Saepefit, ut ii, qvi debeant (owe us money), non respondeant adtempus 
 (Cic. ad Att. XVI. 2) . Si haec enuntiatio vera non est, seqvitur, ut 
 falsa sit (Id. de Fat. 12). Restat, ut doceam, omnia, qvae sint in 
 hoc mundo, hominum causa facta esse (Id. N. D. II. 61). Proxi- 
 mum est, ut doceam, deorum providentia mundum administrari (Id. 
 ib. II. 29). Propius nihil est factum qvam ut Cato occideretur 
 
 z Magna causa absolulionis Fonteji est, ne qva insignis huic imperio ignominia susci- 
 piatur (Cic. pro Font. 12). A great reason for acquitting Fonteius is, tliat no (the wish 
 to avoid) — . Proposition expressing a purpose. 
 
-374. App. to Chap. III. — Objective Propositions. 329 
 
 (Id. ad Qv. Fr. I. 2, 5). (So also : Servilius ad id, qvod de pecunia 
 creditajus non dixerat, adjiciebat [(added this proceeding)], ut ne 
 delectum qvidem militum haberet ; Liv. II. 27) . 
 
 Ols. 1. Here we should also notice the expressions necesse est and 
 oportet, it is necessary, which are constructed sometimes with the con- 
 junctive without ut (necesse est, ut is rare) sometimes with the ac- 
 cusative and infinitive : Leuctrica pugna immortalis sit, necesse est 
 (Corn. Epam. 10). Corpus mortale interire necesse est. Ex rerum cog- 
 nitione efflorescat oportet oratio. (Cic. de Or. I. 6). {Oportet, used to 
 signify duty, always has the accusative with the infinitive. Without a 
 definite subject it is expressed thus : necesse est ire, oportet ire.) (Con- 
 cerning licet with the conjunctive see §. 389, Ols. 5.) 
 
 Obs. 2. When seqyitur denotes a logical conclusion, it may have the 
 accusative with the infinitive, but is generally constructed with ut. Con- 
 tingit (mihi) signifying I succeed, and restat (it remains) are also, by the 
 poets and later writers, constructed with the simple infinitive : Non cuivis 
 Jiomini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. I. 17, 36). (The following is 
 the more usual construction : Thrasybulo contigit, ut patriam liberaret, 
 Corn. Thras. 1.) 
 
 Obs. 3. The verb accedit, " to this is to be added" (by which the 
 hearer is referred to some circumstance yet remaining), is either simi- 
 larly constructed with ut, or it is asserted of an indicative proposition 
 with qvod, which states the circumstance (compare §. 398 b) : Ad Appii 
 Claudii senectutem accedebat etiam, ut caecus esset (Cic. Cat. M. 6). Ac- 
 cedit, qvod patrem plus etiam, qvam tu sets, amo (Id. ad Att. XIII. 21). 
 (If a circumstance is stated, not as actually existing, but only as condi- 
 tional and assumed, qvod cannot stand, but only ut, e. g. Si vero illud 
 qvoqve accedet, ut dives sit reus, difficillima causa erit. On the contrary 
 we find no variation in the phrase adde qvod, add the circumstance, 
 that — ). (On exspecto, ut, see §.36), Os. 1.) 
 
 §. 374. A proposition with ut is subjoined to substantives and 
 pronouns in connection with sum, which intimate that a thing hap- 
 pens or is to happen, in order to express that to which the pre- 
 ceding idea refers, and in which it manifests itself : Est hoc com- 
 mune vitium in magnis liberisqve civitatibus, ut invidia gloriae comes 
 sit (Corn. Chabr. 3). Mos est hominum, ut nolint eundem pluribus 
 rebus eoccellere (Cic. Brut. 21). Cultus deorum est optimus, ut (con- 
 sists in this, that) eos semper pur a, integra, incorrupta mente vene- 
 remur (Id. N. D. II. 28). Altera est res (the second thing required 
 is) ut res geras magnas et arduas plenasqve laborum (Id. Off. I. 20). 
 Fuit hoc in M. Crasso, ut existimari vellet nostrorum hominum pru- 
 dentiam Graecis anteferre (Id. de Or. II. 1). Adhuc in hac sum 
 
 u u 
 
330 Sijntax.— Tart II. §. 374- 
 
 sententia, nihil ut faciamus, nisi qvod Caesar velle videatur (Id. ad 
 Fam. IV. 4). In eo est, ut proficiscar. 
 
 Obs. 1. Such expressions as mos est, cultus est optwius (without a pro- 
 noun) are sometimes also completed by a simple infinitive: Virginibus 
 Tyriis mos est gestare pharetram (Virg. Aen. I. 336). 
 
 Obs. 2. If a judgment is pronounced concerning the character of an 
 action that is only supposed (i;ot declared as of actual occurrence) by 
 means of an adjective with sum or some equivalent phrase (aeqvum est, 
 optimum est, &c. — magna laus est, qvi probari potest ? qvam habet aeqvi- 
 tatem ?), the subject is expressed either by an infinitive alone or an accu- 
 sative with the infinitive (§. 398 a). Yet such propositions are also found 
 with ut, when it is intended to denote at the same time the reality or 
 falsity, possibility or impossibility of the action, e. g. Hoc vero optimum 
 est (ironical) ut is, qvi finem rerum expetendarum voluptatem esse dical, 
 id ipsum nltimum bonorum qvid et qvale sit, nesciat {should not know ; 
 Cic. Finn. II. 3). Non est verisimile, ut Chrysogonus liorum servorum 
 litter as adamarit aut Tiumanitatem (Id. Rose. Am. 41). Qvid tarn in- 
 auditum qvam eqvitem Romanum trimnphare ? Qvid tarn inusitatum qvam 
 ut, qvum duo consules fortissimi essent, eqves Romanus ad bellum maxi- 
 mum pro consule mitteretur ? (Id. pro Leg. Man. 21). Magnificum illud 
 etiam Romanisqve gloriosum, ut Graecis de philosophia litteris non egeant 
 (Id. Div. II. 2). 
 
 §. 375. a. A proposition with ne is put after those verbs, which 
 in themselves express a power of hindering and resisting (an agency 
 employed to prevent a thing from happening), as impedio, prohibeo, 
 deterreo, obsisto, obsto, officio, repugno, intercedo, interdieo, teneo (to with- 
 hold, teneo me, contineo), temper o, recuso, caveo (to avoid doing a thing, to 
 take measures, that so and so may not — ), &c. Impedior dolor e animi, 
 ne de hujus miseria plura dicam (Cic. pro Sull. 33). Pythagoreis in- 
 ter dictum erat, nefaba vescerentur (Id. Div. I. 30). Histiaeus Mile- 
 sius obstitit, ne res conficeretur (Corn. Milt. 3). Regulus } ne senten- 
 tiam diceret, recusavit (Cic. Off. III. 27). Cavebam, ne cut suspi- 
 cionem darem (Id. ad Fam. III. 12). 
 
 Obs. 1 . Cave is often put with the omission of ne : Cave putes, cave 
 facias. (Sometimes recuso, to refuse, and caveo, to avoid, take the infini- 
 tive : Cave id petere a populo Romano, qvod jure tibi negabitur, Sail. Jug. 
 64.) {Caveo, ut — , to take care that, make arrangements that — .) 
 
 Obs. 2. Impedio and proliibeo often have the infinitive (§. 390) : Me et 
 Sulpicium imp edit pudor a Grasso hoc exqvirere (Cic. de Or. I. 35). Num 
 igitur ignobilitas sapientem beatum esse prohibet ? ("When on the other 
 hand these verbs are constructed with ne the accusative is seldom re- 
 
375. App. to Chap. III. — Objective Propositions. 331 
 
 tained. We find pudor impedit, ne exqviram, but not pudor me impedit, 
 ne exqviram,) 
 
 b. To those verbs and phrases, which signify to hinder and to be 
 a hindrance {impedio, prohibeo, officio, obsto, obsisto, deterreo, teneo, 
 and per me fit, per me stat, the hindrance rests with me, moror, in 
 mora sum, &c), the objective proposition with qvominus (literally, 
 that — so much the less) may be subjoined : Hiemem credo adhuc 
 prohibuisse, qvominus de te certum haberemus (Cic. ad Fam. XII. 
 5). Caesar cognovit, per Afranium stare, qvominus dimicaretur 
 (Caes. B. C. I. 41). Hanc ego causam, qvominus novum consilium 
 capiamus, imprimis magnam puto (Sail. Cat. 51, of a reason against 
 a thing). Qvominus is put in the same way after other verbs, 
 which either by themselves denote a resisting and negative agency, 
 or acquire such a meaning by the force of the context (e. g. pugno, 
 to contend that — not), if the negative idea is set aside by the addi- 
 tion of a negative {non, vix) or by the interrogative form, e. g. Non 
 recusabo, qvominus omnes mea scripta leg ant (Cic. Finn. I. 3). Hoc 
 fecisti, ne pupillo tutores consulerent, qvominus fortunis omnibus 
 everteretur (Id. Verr. III. 7). 
 
 c. After verbs and phrases, which signify to hinder and oppose, 
 or to omit (praetermitto, and expressions which acquire this mean- 
 ing from the context, especially facio and causa est), to delay, as 
 cunctor, exspecto, as well as after abest and dubito, dubium est, qvin, 
 that not, is used to designate the object, ivhen the negative force of 
 the idea is destroyed by the addition of a negative or by the interro- 
 gative form : Fix me contineo, qvin involem in ilium (Ter. Eun. V. 
 2, 20). Non possumus, qvin alii a nobis dissentiant, recusare (Cic. 
 Ac. II. 3). Facer e non potui, qvin tibi et sententiam et voluntatem 
 declararem meam (Id. ad Fam. VI. 13). Non cunctandum existi- 
 mavit, qvin pugna decertaret (Caes. B. G. III. 23). Clamabant, 
 exspectari diutius non oportere, qvin ad castra iretur (Caes. B. G. 
 III. 24). Haud multum abfuit, qvin Ismenias interficeretur (Liv. 
 XLII . 44) . Qvid est causae, qvin decemviri coloniam in Janiculum 
 possint deducere (Cic. de Leg. Agr. II. 27). Agamemno non dubi- 
 tat, qvin brevi sit Troja peritura (Id. Cat. M. 10). Non erat du- 
 bium, qvin Helvetii plurimum possent (Caes. B. G. I. 3). Dubitare 
 qvisqv am potest, qvin hoc multo sit honestius ? 
 
 Ols, 1 . If therefore a negation precedes, qvominus and qvin are often 
 used after the same verbs (e. g. non recuso, qvominus and qvin), but qvin 
 often stands where qvominus would be inadmissible. (On the other hand 
 
 u u2 
 
33.2 Syntax,— ¥ art II. §. 375 
 
 impedio, proliibeo, intercedo and interdico, even when accompanied by a 
 negation, scarcely ever have qvin, but qvominus). Qvin alone is sometimes 
 found without a negation preceding, when a word expressing limitation 
 (paullum, perpauci, aegre) stands in the place of the latter, e. g. Paullum 
 abfuit, qvin Fabius Varum interficeret (Caes. B. C. II. 35). (So also 
 Dubita, si potes, qvin, i. q. dubitare non potes, qvin). Instead of facere 
 non possum, qvin, I cannot refrain from {fieri non potest, qvin), we may 
 also say ut — non (§. 372 b. and 373) : Non possum ullo modo facere, ut, 
 qvum me intelligam universi populi Romani judicio consulem ita factum, 
 ut nobilissimis hominibus praeponerer, non et in hoc magistratu et in omni 
 vita sim popularis (Cic. de leg. Agrar. II. 3). 
 
 Obs. 2. Of the verb dubiio it is to be observed, that when used affirma- 
 tively it is always put with a dependent interrogative proposition : (dubito 
 an, dubito an non, see §. 453). After non dubito (dubium non est) we find 
 also in some writers (Cornelius, Livy) an accusative with the infinitive 
 instead of qvin. (Non dubitabant, deletis exercitibus, liostem ad oppugnan- 
 dam urbem venturam, Liv. XXII. 55.) Non dubito (qvis dubiiat ?) with 
 an infinitive {non dubito facere, dicere, &c.) signifies, I have no scruple. 
 Yet in this signification too it is sometimes put with qvin, e. g. Nolite 
 dubitare, qvin uni Pompejo credatis omnia (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 23). 
 
 Obs. 3. Qvin is rarely found with negative verbs, which express an 
 opinion and explanation (non nego, qvis ignorat) instead of the accusative 
 with the infinitive : Qvis ignorat, qvin tria Graecorum genera sint (Cic. 
 pro Flacc. 27, instead of tria Graecorum genera esse). 
 
 Obs. 4. Qvin has originated from the old relative and interrogative 
 ablative qvi with the negative, and consequently its primitive significa- 
 tion is how not (so that not). Hence arises the signification why not ? 
 {qvinimus? §.351, Obs. 3), and from this again the signification, yes 
 
 even (why not too ?). 
 
 §. 376. After verbs and phrases, which denote an apprehension, 
 the thing apprehended (that, which is not wished) is distinguished 
 by ne (in English that) and the thing wished for (of which an 
 apprehension is entertained that it will not happen) by ut (in 
 English that not) or ne (that) non (ne nullus &c.) : Vereor, ne pater 
 veniat (I fear that my father will come) ; vereor, ut pater veniat 
 (that he will not come) ; vereor, ne pater non veniat. Pavor ceperat 
 milites, ne mortiferum esset vulnus Scipionis (Liv. XXIV. 42). 
 Omnes labores te excipere video ; timeo, ut sustineas (Cic. ad Pam. 
 XIV. 2). Vereor, ne consolatio nulla possit vera reperiri (Id. ibid. 
 VI. 1). Non vereor, ne tua virtus opinioni hominum non respondeat 
 (Id. ibid. II. 5). In the same way ne or ne non stands after 
 periculum (danger that, that not) : Periculum est, ne ille te verbis 
 
'8. Chap. IV.— The Tenses of the Conjunctive. 333 
 
 obruat (Cic. Div. in Caec. 14). Nullum periculum est, ne locum non 
 invenias. 
 
 Ohs. Metuo, timeo, vereor facere, to be afraid, shun (not have the cou- 
 rage) to do a thing. But in good prose only vereor is so used : Vereor 
 te laudare praesentem (Cic. N. D. I. 21). {Timeo and metuo are rarely 
 found with the accusative and infinitive, with the signification, to expect 
 with apprehension that something will happen.) 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Tenses of the Conjunctive. 
 
 §. 377. The tenses are in general distinguished and expressed in 
 the conjunctive in the same way as in the indicative, both by the 
 simple forms and by those compounded with participles (amatus 
 sim, &c), so that we shall here only notice what is peculiar to the 
 way of expressing time in the conjunctive. {Pater aberat. Qvum 
 [since, because] pater abesset, eram in timore. Pater rediit. Qvum 
 pater redierit, nihil timeo. Pater profecturus erat. Qvum pater 
 profecturus esset (was on the point of departing), valde occupatus 
 eram. Paene cecidi. Vides, qvam paene ceciderim. Audivit ali- 
 qvid. Audiverit aliqvid, legerit (Cic. de Or. II. 20 ; He must have 
 heard and. read something.) Qvis put are potest, plus egisse Diony- 
 sium turn, qvum eripuerit civibus suis libertatem, qvam Archirnedem, 
 qvum sphaeram effecerit (Id. U. P. I. 17=Nihilo plus egit Diony- 
 sius turn, qvum eripuit c. s. I., qvam Archimedes, qvum sphaeram 
 effecit) . 
 
 Ohs. 1. The same remark applies to the distinction between amatus sim 
 and amatus fuerim as to that between amatus sum and amatus fui ; §. 344. 
 Amatus fuiss em is also put for amatus essem as amatus fueram for amatus 
 eram. 
 
 Obs. 2. The imperfect forem (§. 108, Obs. 3) is employed in the same 
 signification as essem especially in conditional language (would be) and 
 in propositions expressive of a purpose (ut foret, ne foret, qvi foret). In 
 the compound tenses {amatus forem, amaturus forem) many writers 
 (Sallust, Livy, the poets) use forem exactly like essem, e. g. Gaudebat 
 consul, qva parte copiarum alter consul victus foret, se vicisse (Liv. XXI. 
 53). (Cicero does not use it at all in the compound tenses, and other- 
 wise very rarely.) 
 
 §. 378. a. The present conjunctive is in many instances em- 
 ployed, when the thing represented is properly future, partly be- 
 
33 i Syntax. — Part II. §. 3* 
 
 cause the relation of time is sufficiently evident from the nature 
 and construction of the proposition so expressed, partly because 
 we do not in idea accurately distinguish between the present and 
 the future (as in assumptions, wishes, &c). Hence the conjunc- 
 tive has no simple form of the future in the active, and no future 
 at all in the passive. 
 
 1) Thus the present is so used in leading propositions which are 
 expressed in the conjunctive, namely in propositions limited by a 
 condition (§. 347 b), in potential propositions relating to a thing 
 which can or is to be done (§. 350 and 353), and in wishes (§. 351). 
 For examples see the paragraphs referred to. But in potential 
 propositions the futurum exactum is sometimes employed as a 
 hypothetical future; see §. 350 and §. 380. 
 
 2) Propositions which denote a design and object are also ex- 
 pressed with the present (the result being considered as contempo- 
 raneous with the action). See the examples in §.354 and 355, 
 with 371 and the following. 
 
 Consequently, if past time be spoken of, the imperfect is used 
 (and not the futurum in praeterito) ; Rogabat frater, ut eras venires 
 (not venturas esses) . See the examples elsewhere. 
 
 Obs. After non dubito qvin, and those phrases which denote the exist- 
 ence of a relation in the most general way (est, seqvitur, accidit) the 
 future is employed to express what will happen at a future time : If on 
 est dubium, qvin legiones venturae non sint (Cic. ad Fam. II. 17). (But 
 in familiar language the present is also made use of : Hoc Timed dubium 
 est, qvin Chremes tibi non det gnatam, Ter. Andr. II. 3, 17.) 
 
 3) Dependent interrogative propositions, hypothetical proposi- 
 tions of comparison (qvasi, &c), and consecutive propositions, are 
 put in the present, as in English, when the leading proposition is 
 in the future and the subordinate proposition contemporaneous 
 (when it does not belong to a still more distant future) ; Qvum ad 
 ilium venerOj videbo, qvid effici possit. Sic in Asiam proficiscar, ut 
 Athenas non at ting am. 
 
 4) Wherever in the oratio obliqva a leading proposition in the 
 future is accompanied by a subordinate in the conjunctive, which 
 in the oratio recta would stand in the future indicative (§. 339, 
 Obs. 1) the latter is put in the present : Negat Cicero, si naturam 
 seqvamur ducem, unqvam nos aberraturos. (=Si naturam seqvemur 
 ducem, nunqvam aberrabimus. With the imperfect it would be 
 expressed thus : Negabat Cicero, si naturam seqveremur ducem, 
 unqvam nos aberraturos.) 
 
80. Chap. TV.— The Tenses of the Conjunctive. 335 
 
 b. In the other kinds of subordinate propositions (in which the 
 construction itself does not shew that the subordinate proposition 
 refers to time future), the periphrasis by means of the future par- 
 ticiple, which has here precisely the sense of a simple future, is 
 made use of in the active : Qvando pater tuus veniet ? Qvaero, 
 qvando frater tuus venturus sit. In earn rationem vitae nos fortuna 
 deduxit, ut sempiternus sermo hominum de nobis futurus sit (Cic. ad 
 Q. Fr. I. i. c. 13). Non intelligo, cur Eullus qvemqvam tribunum 
 inter cessur urn putet, qvum intercessio stultitiam intercessoris signifi- 
 catura sit, non rem impeditura (Id. de Leg. Agr. II. 12). In the 
 passive another turn must be given to the expression, e. g. Qvaero, 
 v qvando portam apertum iri putes. It a cecidit, ut nunqvam erigi 
 possit (that he will never rise) 
 
 §. 379. The futurum exactum of the conjunctive is in the active 
 like the perfect, and is expressed in the passive (in subordinate 
 propositions) by the perf. conj. (so that the past only is noticed in 
 the action, while its futurity is ascertained from the leading pro- 
 position) : Adnitar, ne frustra vos hanc spem de me conceperitis 
 (Liv. XLIV. 22), that you shall not have conceived this hope in 
 vain. Roscius facile egestatem suam se laturum putat, si hac in- 
 digna suspicione liber atus sit (Cic, Rose. Am. 44-; independently 
 expressed; facile feram, si — liber atus ero). Caesar magnopere 
 se confidere dicit, si colloqvendi cum Pompejo potestas facta sit, fore, 
 ut aeqvis condicionibus ab armis discedatur (Caes. B. C. I. 26; si 
 potestas facta erit, discedetur). 
 
 If past time be spoken of (after a leading proposition in the 
 preterite), the pluperfect is used in the same way, to denote an 
 action which was to be completed before another : Promisi me, 
 qvum librum perlegissem, sententiam rneam dicturum esse (when I 
 had read=when I should have read). Divico cum Caesare agit, 
 Helvetios in earn partem ituros atqve ibi futuros, ubi eos Caesar con- 
 stituisset atqve esse voluisset (Caes. B. G. I. 13). Dicebam, qvoad 
 metueres, omnia le permissurum, simulac timere desisses, similem 
 te futurum tui (Cic. Phil. II. 35). (In English the imperfect alone 
 is often employed; where Caesar settled them, should settle them 
 &c, the completion of the action before the other being not so 
 accurately noted.) 
 
 §.380. The futurum exactum conj. in the active voice is em- 
 ployed in hypothetical and modest language of that which is pos- 
 sible, divested of its proper signification, merely as a hypothetical 
 
336 Syntax.— Part II. §. 38( 
 
 future or present (to which the present corresponds in the passive 
 and the deponents). See §. 350 and with respect to the use of 
 the second person (one) §. 370. It stands likewise in prohibi- 
 tions as a simple future or present ; ne dixeris, do not say ; 
 see chap. V. 
 
 Obs. In conditions however, expressed in the second person (one), 
 this future signifies more distinctly than the present, that a case is re- 
 ferred to, which is now for the first time to be imagined. This future is 
 found in a few phrases only instead of the present conjunctive after ut or 
 ne (that not), e. g. ut sic dixerim, and that never in the best writers 
 (Qvinct. I. 6, 1). 
 
 §. 381. The periphrasis by means of the future participle and 
 fuerim (futurum in praeterito) is used in a limited proposition in- 
 stead of the pluperfect conjunctive, if the proposition is a subordi- 
 nate one, which on another account would have had the conjunc- 
 tive, e. g. after ut, after qvum (causale), or as a dependent interro- 
 gative proposition. (Its hypothetical character is then shewn by 
 the periphrasis, on the point of — compare what is said under the 
 indicative in §. 342 and 348 a.) Qvum haec reprehendis, ostendis, 
 qvatis tu, si ita forte accidisset, fueris illo tempore consul futurus 
 (Cic. in Pis. 7). (As an independent question: Qvalis tu, si ita 
 forte accidisset, consul illo tempore fuisses ?) Virgines eo cursu se 
 ex sacrario proripuerunt , ut, si effugium patuisset, impleturae urbem 
 tumultu fuerint (Liv. XXIV. 26). If the leading proposition be in 
 the preterite, the pluperfect is employed in a dependent interroga- 
 tive proposition : Apparuit, qvantam excitatura molem vera fuisset 
 clades, qvum vanus rumor tantas procellas excivisset (Liv. XXVIII. 
 24). In the passive, where this form is not found, other modes of 
 expression are made use of; for it rarely happens that the con- 
 junctive of the simple pluperfect stands both hypothetically and 
 also for some other reason. 
 
 Obs. In those cases where the perfect indicative is used in an inde- 
 pendent sentence according to §. 348 b and c, and Obs. 1 and 2, the per- 
 fect is retained in the conjunctive : Tanta negligentia castra custodiebantur, 
 ut capi potuerint, si liostes aggredi ausi essent (==capi castra potuerunt). 
 
 §. 382. The time of a conjunctive subordinate proposition is 
 determined by referring to the time of the leading proposition 8 . 
 The past time is therefore expressed in the subordinate proposition 
 
 * This rule, with the inferences drawn from it, is commonly termed the rule for the 
 sequence of the tenses (consecuiio iemporum). 
 
82. Chap. IV. — The Tenses of the Conjunctive. 337 
 
 by the perfect, when the leading proposition appertains to the 
 present or the future ; but if the latter itself belongs to past time, 
 the imperfect (praesens in praeterito) or pluperfect (praeteritum in 
 praeterito) is employed in the subordinate proposition: Video 
 (videbo), qvid feceris. Vidi (videbam, videram), qvid facer es. Vide- 
 bam (vidi, videram) qvantum jam effecisset. Nemo est, qvi hoc ne- 
 sciat ; nemo erat (futurus erat), qvi nesciret ; nemo futurus est, qvi 
 nesciat. Eo fit, ut milites animos demittant. Eo factum est, ut 
 milites animos demitterent. If the nearest leading proposition be 
 an accusative with an infinitive, notice must be taken whether it is 
 dependent on a verb in the preterite (so that the present infinitive 
 is the praesens in praeterito, and the future infinitive the futurum 
 in praeterito) : Indignum te esse judico, qvi haec patiaris. Indig- 
 num te esse judicavi, qvi haec pater ere. Negavi me unqvam commis- 
 surum esse, ut jure reprehenderer. 
 
 Obs. 1. After ut, signifying so that (not in order to), qvin, qvi non (in 
 consecutive propositions) the perfect is sometimes used (instead of the 
 imperfect), although the leading proposition belongs to past time, if 
 the statement in the subordinate proposition is conceived and expressed 
 generally as a distinct historical fact, not merely with reference to the 
 main transaction or to a certain particular point of time : Aemilius 
 Taullus tantum in aerarium pecuniae invexit, ut unius iinperatoris praeda 
 -finem attulerit tributorum (Cic. Off. II. 22), that the booty has put an 
 end to imposts (for all time following, up to the present moment) ; 
 afferret would signify, that it put an end to imposts (immediately at that 
 time). Verres in itineribus eo usqve se praebebat patientem atqve impi- 
 grum, ut eum nemo unqvam in eqvo sedentem viderit (Cic. Verr. V. 10), 
 that no one has seen him even on a single occasion ; videret would sig- 
 nify, that no one ever then saw him = was accustomed to see him. 
 Tliorius erat ita non timidius ad mortem, ut in acie sit ob remjpublicam 
 interfectus (Cic. Finn. II. 20), was so little afraid of death, that he (as 
 we know) fell. This construction is often found, when a single historical 
 fact is represented as the consequence of some general quality which has 
 been described. Some historians occasionally use this perfect, even in 
 cases where the imperfect would be more usual (especially Cornelius). 
 
 Obs. 2. Other solitary deviations from the rule result from an inaccu- 
 racy of expression, e. g. Video igitur multas esse causas, qvae istum impel- 
 lerent (Cic. Rose. Am. 33 ; fuisse being at the same time in the speaker's 
 mind). Verisimile non est, ut homo tarn locuples religioni suae pecuniam 
 anteponeret (Id. Verr. IV. 6 -,==fieri vice pot uit). 
 
 Obs. 3. We should here notice, that the historical present is conceived 
 and treated, in reference to the propositions depending on it (or on a pre- 
 
 X X 
 
338 Syntax.— V art II. §. 3 
 
 sent infinitive which belongs to it), sometimes as an actual present, some- 
 times (according to the signification) as a perfect : Turn demum Liscus 
 proponit, esse nonnullos, qvorum auctoritas apud plebem plurinium valeat ; 
 qvi privati plus possint, qvam ipsi rnagistratus (Caes. B. G. I. 17). Caesar, 
 ne graviori hello occurreret, maturius, qyam consverat, ad eocercitum profi- 
 ciscitur (Id. ib. IV. 6). Bubrius ad Verrem defert, Philodamum esse qven- 
 dam, genere, honore, eocistirnatione facile principem Zampsacenorum, ejus 
 esse jiliam, qvae cum patre habitaret, propterea qvod virum. non Jiaberet 
 (Cic. Verr. I. 25). Sometimes (less accurately) both constructions are 
 intermixed : Helvetii legatos ad Caesar em mittunt, qvi dicer ent, sibi esse 
 in animo iter per provinciamfacere, propterea qvod aliud iter nullum ha- 
 berent ; rogare, ut ejus voluntate id sibi facer e liceat (Caes. B. G. I. 7). 
 (Concerning the transition to the present after the preterite in a long 
 oratio obliqva, see §. 403 b.) 
 
 Obs. 4. "Where the assertions and opinions of older writers or schools 
 are mentioned in the present, the sentence is sometimes continued in such 
 a way, as if the preterite had been made us of, e. g. Chrysippus disputat, 
 aethera esse eum, qvem homines Jovem appellarent (Cic. N. D. I. 15; in- 
 stead of appellent) . But this is chiefly done in propositions, which are 
 separated from the leading proposition in a continuous oratio obliqva 
 (§.403b). 
 
 Obs. 5. The beginner must take care not to put the imperfect con- 
 junctive in dependent interrogative propositions after a present, because 
 the imperfect indicative would be used in the independent question or 
 assertion. In magno honore apud Graecos musica erat (qvanto in ho- 
 nore ■ — f) must be turned into Qvis nescit, qvanto in honore musica apud 
 Graecos fuerit (not esset). ■ 
 
 §. 383. After a leading proposition in a past tense (as well as 
 after the imperfect and pluperfect conjunctive in a hypothetical 
 signification) dependent interrogative propositions, final propo- 
 sitions {ut, ne, qvi for ut is), and objective propositions are in 
 Latin regularly referred to the time mentioned, and are expressed 
 in the imperfect, although their import may hold good also at the 
 present or at all times (in which case the present is often used in 
 English) : Turn subito Catilina scelere demens, qvanta conscientiae 
 vis esset, ostendit (Cic. Cat. III. 5), how great the power of con- 
 science is. Qvemadmodum officia ducerentur ab honestate, satis 
 ewplicatum arbitror libro superiore (Id. Off. II. 1), how duties 
 are derived. Haec Epicurus certe non dicer et, si, bis bina qvot 
 essent, didicisset (Id. N. D. II. 18), how much twice two is, Haec 
 non, ut vos ecccitarem, locutus sum, sed ut mea vox officio functa con- 
 sulari videretur (Id. Cat. IV. 9). Vos adepti estis, ne qvem civem 
 
3. Chap. IV. — The Tenses of the Conjunctive. 339 
 
 metueretis (Id. pro Mil. 13), that you have not to fear. Sic mihi 
 perspicere videor, ita natos esse nos, ut inter omnes esset societas 
 qvaeclam (Id. Lael. 5). (On the other hand: Multos annos in causis 
 publicis ita sum versatus, ut defenderim multos, laeserim neminem (Id. 
 Div. in Caec. 1), of the whole conduct, as it now appears. Of a conse- 
 quence applying to the present alone the present tense is necessarily em- 
 ployed : Siciliam Verres ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in anti- 
 avum statum nullo modo possit Cic. Verr. Act. I. 4.) 
 
 Obs. 1. So also with qyum the reason is often expressed in the imper- 
 fect as one that existed at that time (in that case), although it may also 
 bold good now : Hoc scribere, praesertim qyum de pliilosopliia scriberem, 
 non auderem, nisi idem placer et Panaetio (Cic. Off. II. 14), especially as I 
 am writing about philosophy, especially in a philosophical work. 
 
 Obs. 2. Yet a dependent interrogative proposition, a final proposition 
 or objective proposition sometimes stands in the present after a perfect 
 (not after an imperfect), when this perfect represents rather the present 
 state of affairs, and a condition which has commenced, than the nature 
 and character of the previous action (as expressed in English by the 
 auxiliary am or have) : Etiamne ad subsellia cum ferro atqve telis venistis, 
 ut hie eum aat juguletis aut condemnetis ? (Cic. Rose. Am. 11). Are you 
 come here into court — ? Generi animantium omni est a natura tributum, 
 ut se, vitam, corpusqve tueatur (Id. Off. I. 4). Tueretur would denote 
 the design of nature, when she created living beings. {Exploratum est 
 omnibus, qvo loco causa tua sit, Cic. Verr. V. 63. Here esset could not 
 stand, since exploratum est mihi has only a present signification, I know. 
 Qvales viros creare vos consules deceat, satis est dictum, Liv. XXIV. 8. 
 Here too the present alone is admissible, because the action referred to 
 is yet to come.) 
 
 Obs. 3. When the perfect (according to §. 335 b. Obs. 1) denotes only 
 the action that takes place on each several occasion, it is followed by the 
 present in a final proposition : Qvum misimus qvi afferat agnum, qvem im- 
 molemus, num is mihi agnus affertur, qvi habet exta rebus accommodata ? 
 (Cic. Div. II. 17). 
 
 Obs. 4. Sometimes the tense of a dependent proposition is regulated, 
 less accurately, not by the leading proposition, but by a remark in another 
 tense which is inserted between the leading and subordinate propositions, 
 e. g. Idem a te nunc peto, qvod superioribus litteris (viz. petivi), ut, si 
 qvid in perditis rebus dispiceres, qvod mihi putares faciendum, me moneres 
 (Cic. ad Att. XI. 16). Curavitqve Servius Tullius, qvod semper in re- 
 publica tenendum est, ne plurimum valeant plurimi (Id. R. P. II. 22). 
 
 x x2 
 
340 Syntax,— Part II. §. 38 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Imperative. 
 
 §. 384. The Imperative expresses a request, a command, a rule, 
 or an exhortation. The present imperative is employed, when the 
 request, the command, &c. is stated with reference to the present 
 time or without reference to a definite time or condition ; the 
 future (which has also the third person) when the request or com- 
 mand is stated with express reference to the time following or some 
 particular case that may occur : it is consequently employed in 
 laws and where the style of laws is imitated : Vale, O Jupiter, serva, 
 obsecro, haec nobis bona (Ter. Eun. V. 9, 18). Patres conscripti, 
 subvenite miser o mihi } ite obviam injuriae (Sail. Jug. 14). Fac 
 venias. Facite, judices, ut recordemini, qvae sit temeritas multitu- 
 dinis (Cic. pro Flacc. 24). Cur a, ut valeas. — Rem vobis proponam ; 
 vos earn suo, non nominis ponder e penditote (Cic. Verr. IV. 1), esti- 
 mate it then. Qvum valetudine tuae consulueris, turn consulito navi- 
 gationi (Id. ad Earn. XVI. 4). Regio imperio duo sunto Have con- 
 sules appellantor (Id. Legg. III. 3). Servus mens Stichus liber esto 
 (in wills). Non satis est, pulchra esse poemata ; dulcia sunto, et, 
 gvocunqve volent, animum auditoris agunto (Hor. A. P. 99). Esto 
 (Beit so!). 
 
 Ols. The second person of the future indicative is sometimes used for 
 the second person of the imperative, in order to express a firm conviction, 
 that the command or direction will be complied with, especially in familiar 
 language : Si qvid acciderit novi, fades, ut sciam (Cic. ad Fam. XIV. 8), 
 I expect that you will write to me. 
 
 §. 385. A counsel, command, requisition, exhortation, or re- 
 quest, is often (except in legal language) expressed in the third 
 person by the conjunctive. So also in the second person, of a 
 subject which is only assumed (one) : Aut bibat aut abeat ! (Cic. 
 Tusc. V. 41). Status, incessus, vultus, oculi teneant decorum (Id. 
 Off. I. 35). Injurias fortunae, qvas ferre neqveas, defugiendo relin- 
 qvas (Id. Tusc. V. 41), one must escape by flight. 
 
 Obs. The conjunctive is rarely so used of a defined second person 
 (mostly only in the poets) : Si sciens fallo, turn me, Juppiter optime 
 wiaxime, pessimo leto afficias (Liv. XXII. 53), then mayest thou — . 
 Scetani dissimilis sis (Hor. Sat. I. 4, 112). Si certum est facere, facias ; 
 venom ne post conferas culpam in me (Ter. Eun. II. 3, 97). 
 
i87. Chap. V. — The Imperative. 341 
 
 §. 386. In legal phraseology a prohibition is expressed by the 
 future imperative with ne [neve = et ne, vel ne) . With this ex- 
 ception, the conjunctive is employed in prose in prohibitions and 
 requests of a negative form (ne, nemo, nihil), in the third person 
 the present (or the fut. exactum), in the second person in the 
 active voice the fut. exactum and in the passive the perfect is 
 preferred (rarely the present) : Nocturna sacrificia ne sunto (Cic. 
 Legg. II. 9). Borea flante, ne arato, semen nejacito (second per- 
 son; Plin. H. N. XVIII. s. 77). Puer telum ne habeat. (Capes- 
 site rempublicam, neqve qvemqvam ex aliorum calamitate metus ce- 
 perit, Sail. Jug. 85.) — Hoc facito, hoc ne feceris (Cic. Div. II. 61). 
 Nihil ignoveris, nihil gratiae causa feceris, misericordia commotus 
 ne sis (Id. pro Mur. 31). Ilium jocum ne sis aspernatus (Id. ad Q. 
 Fr. II. 12). Ne transieris Iberum ; ne qvid rei tibi sit cum 
 Saguntinis (Liv. XXI. 44). (Scribere ne pigrere, be not negligent 
 in writing, Cic. ad Att. XIV. 1.) The poets use also the present 
 imperative : Ne saevi (Virg. Aen. VI. 544). 
 
 Obs. 1. The second person of the present conjunctive is found in pro- 
 hibitions, which are directed only to an assumed subject (one) : Isto bono 
 utare, dum adsit ; qvum absit, ne reqviras (Cic. Cat. M. 10) : otherwise 
 but rarely and only in the oldest poets ( Verwm ne post conferas culpam in 
 me, Ter. Eun. II. 3, 97). 
 
 Obs. 2. A prohibition is also often expressed by the imperative noli or 
 nolito, e. g. Noli putare, Brute, qvenqvam uberiorem ad dicendum fuisse, 
 qvam C. Gracchum (Cic. Brut. 33). Si insidias fieri libertati vestrae 
 intelligetis, nolitote dubitare earn consule adjutore defender e (Id. de Leg. 
 Agr. II. 6). (Cave facias.) 
 
 CHAPTEIl VI. 
 
 The Infinitive and its Tenses. 
 
 §. 387. The Infinitive expresses the idea of a verb in general (in 
 the different tenses, dicere, dixisse, &c), but it does not distinguish 
 it as asserted of a definite subject, with which it might form a pro- 
 position. 
 
 Obs. In that kind of subordinate propositions, which is called the ac- 
 cusative with the infinitive, the infinitive is indeed combined with a de- 
 finite subject, and so far forms a proposition with it, but is not dis- 
 tinguished either according to the person or (as far as concerns the 
 simple infinitive) the number or gender of the subject. (In the infini- 
 
342 Syntax.— Part IT. §. 387 
 
 tive the action is regarded in general as the predicate of some subject ; 
 by a verbal substantive, such as actio, the action is distinguished by 
 itself as an independent idea.) 
 
 §. 388. a. The infinitive stands as a subject, when an action is 
 characterized in general, and something asserted of it, or as a pre- 
 dicate with the verb sum, in order to explain an idea : Bene sentire 
 recteqve facere satis est ad bene beateqve vivendum (Cic. adFam. VI. 
 1). Apud Persas summa laus est fortiter venari (Corn. Ale. 11). 
 Invidere non cadit in sapientem (Cic. Tusc. III. 10). Nihil aliud 
 est bene et beate vivere nisi recte et honeste vivere (Cic. Par. I. 3 ; 
 nihil aliud put o esse bene vivere nisi recte et honeste vivere), (Vivere 
 ipsum turpe est nobis, Cic. ad Att. XIII. 28. Qvibusdam totum 
 hoc displicet philosophari, Id. Finn. I. 1.) 
 
 Obs. It is however unusual to put the infinitive for a subject (quite 
 like a substantive) with any other verb than sum, or those which (like 
 cadit, displicet) approximate to the impersonal verbs. (Hos omnes eadem 
 cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere in unwn coegit, Sail. Jug. 31 ; better, 
 eaedem cupiditates, eadem odia, iidem metus in unum coegerunt.) 
 
 b. An adjective or substantive, which is combined as a predi- 
 cative word or by way of apposition with an infinitive used thus 
 generally (without a subject), is always put in the accusative, 
 (§. 222, Obs. 1), and so also the participle, when the infinitive itself 
 is compounded : Consulem fieri magnificum est. Magna laus est, 
 tmitas res solum gessisse. Ad virtutem non est satis vivere obe- 
 dientem legibus populorum. Praestat honeste vivere qvam honeste 
 natum esse. 
 
 Obs. 1. The infinitive is not subjoined in apposition to an undefined 
 substantive in order to define it ; the construction employed is labor le- 
 gendi ; see §.286 and 417. (An infinitive however may be added in 
 apposition to a substantive which is defined by an adjective : Demus 
 nobis acerbam necessitudinem, pariter te errantem et ilium sceleratissimum 
 perseqvi [Sail. Jug. 102], a hard necessity, namely — ; but this too is 
 rare, and by far the more common construction is acerbam necessitudinem 
 
 ■) 
 
 Obs. 2. To such an infinitive a subordinate proposition may be sub- 
 joined in the 3d person singular of the active voice without a defined 
 subject ; the same subject being understood, to which the infinitive 
 might be referred (in English, one) : Neqye mihi praestabilius qyidqvam 
 videtur qvam posse dicendo hominum voluntates impellere, qvo velit, unde 
 autem velit, deducere (Cic. de Or. I. 8), whither one will. Nulla vox 
 
89. Chap. YI.— The Infinitive. 343 
 
 inimicior amicitiae reperiri potuit qvam ejus, qvi dixit, ita amare oportere, 
 ut si aliqvando esset osurus (Id. Lael. 16). 
 
 §. 389. The infinitive is put with verbs which involve a reference 
 to another action (of the same subject), in order to complete the 
 idea and specify the action. Such verbs are those, which desig- 
 nate a will, a power, a duty, custom, inclination, a purpose, begin- 
 ning, continuation, cessation, neglect, &c, as volo, nolo, malo, cupio, 
 studeo, conor, nitor, contendo (tento, poet, amo, qvaero), possum, qyeo, ne- 
 qyeo (poet, valeo), audeo (poet, sustineo), vereor (poet, metuo, timed), non 
 dubito, scio, nescio, disco, debeo, soleo, adsvesco, consvesco, statuo, constituo, 
 decerno, cogito, paro, meditor, instituo, coepi, incipio, aggredior, pergo, 
 persevero, desino, intermitto, maturo (to hasten), recordor, memini, oblivis- 
 cor, negligo, omitto, super sedeo,non euro (I do not like, poet, parco, fugio), 
 further the (wholly or partially) impersonal verbs libet, licet, oportet, de- 
 cet, placet, visum est (it seemed good to me, I resolved), fugit {me, I neg- 
 lect), pudet, poenitet, piget, taedet, and the expressions, necesse est, opus est. 
 The infinitive is likewise put after some phrases, which have the 
 signification of such a verb, e. g. habeo in animo, in animo est, con- 
 silium est (cepi), certum est, animum induco, to submit, prevail upon 
 oneself (also in animum induco, to find in one's heart). Vincere 
 scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis (Liv. XXII. SI). Antium me 
 recipere cogito. Oblitus sum tibi hoc dicere. Visum est mihi de 
 senectute aliqvid ad te scribere (Cic. Cat. M. 1). Pudet (me) haec 
 fateri. Certum est (mihi) deliberatumqve omnia audacter libereqve 
 dicere (Cic. Hose. Am. 11). Tu animum poteris inducere contra 
 haec dicere ? (Id. Div. I. 13). Nemo alteri concedere in animum 
 inducebat (Liv. I. 17). 
 
 Obs. 1. Those verbs, which denote a resolution, are found also with 
 ut : Atlienienses statuerunt, ut urbe relicta naves conscenderent (Cic. Off. 
 III. 11). In like manner w 7 e find both animum induco facer e and ut 
 faciam. So also with opto : Phaeton optavit, ut in currum patris tolle- 
 retur (Cic. Off. III. 25), and Opt at arare caballus (Hor. Ep. I. 4, 43). 
 (Merui, ut honor arer, and honor ari.) Concerning the infinitive or the 
 genitive of the gerund in some phrases formed from a substantive and 
 sum, see §.417, Obs. 2. 
 
 Obs. 2. By the poets even those verbs are constructed with the in- 
 finitive, which otherwise contain a complete idea in themselves, and are 
 followed by ut or a preposition, or those which figuratively denote an in- 
 clination, an effort, or the like : Hoc acrius omnes (apes) incumbent gene- 
 ris lapsi sarcire ruinas (Virg. G. IV. 248). Otherwise, ad ruinas sar- 
 ciendas, ut ruinas sarciant. Ardet abire fugci (id. Aen. IV. 281). In- 
 
344 Sijntax.— Part II. §. 38S 
 
 sulated expressions of this kind are found here and there in prose, e. g. 
 Conjuravere nobilissitni cives patriam incendere (Sail. Cat. 52). 
 
 Obs. 3. The infinitive may be subjoined to the participle paratus, 
 ready : paratus frumentum dare (ad frumentum dandum) ; so likewise 
 (chiefly in the poets and in the style of a later period) to contentus, sve- 
 tus, assvetus. 
 
 Obs. 4. With volo, nolo, malo, cupio, opto, and studeo, an accusative (of 
 the pronoun) with the infinitive is sometimes employed instead of the sim- 
 ple infinitive (as in stating what one wishes that another should do ; see 
 §. 396), the whole circumstance, which is the object of the will and desire, 
 being conceived rather as a distinct thing in itself (most frequently with 
 esse or some suitable infinitive), e. g. Sapientem civem one et esse et nwne- 
 rari volo (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9). Cupio me esse clementem; cupio in tantis 
 reipublicae periculis me non dissolution videri (id. Cat. I. 2). A similar 
 construction is found with postulo : Ego qvoqve a meis me amari postulo 
 (Ter. Ad. V. 4, 25). {Patior appellari sapiens, for patior me appellari 
 sapient em, according to the rule given in §. 396, is poetical.) 
 
 Obs. 5. Licet too (though the instances are rare) is found constructed 
 with the accusative and infinitive (according to §. 398 a) : Non Meet me 
 isto tanto bono uti (Cic. Verr. V. 59). (In familiar language and that 
 style in which it is imitated, licet and licebit are also used with the con- 
 junctive, ut being omitted ; §.361, Obs. 1.). 
 
 §. 390. The infinitive is subjoined to the verbs doceo,jubeo, veto, 
 sino, arguo, insimulo, to denote what one teaches/ orders, forbids, 
 or allows a person to do, or accuses him of doing ; it may likewise 
 be subjoined to the verbs cogo, moneo h } hortor (dehortor), impedio 
 and prohibeo, which otherwise have an objective proposition in the 
 conjunctive with ut, &c. (§. 372, and 375). The infinitive is also 
 added to the passive of these verbs (and to deterreor, to be deterred). 
 Docebo Rullum posthac tacere (Cic. Leg. Agr. III. 2). Num sum 
 etiamnum vel Graece loqvi vel Latine docendus? (id. Finn. II. 5). 
 Herus me jussit Pamphilum observare. Consules jubentur (receive 
 orders, jussi sunt, received orders) exercitum scribere. Caesar lega- 
 tos ab opere discedere vetuerat. Nolani muros portasque adire ve- 
 titi sunt (Liv. XXIII. 16). Improbitas nunqvam respirare eum 
 sinit (Cic. Finn. I. 16). Accusare non sum situs (id. pro Sest. 44). 
 Insimulant hominem fraudandi causa discessisse (id. Verr. II. 24). 
 Roscius arguitur patrem occidisse. Num te emere venditor co'e'git ? 
 Qvum vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet 
 
 b [Non ilia qvisqvam me node per altum 
 Ire, neqve ab terra moneat convellere funem (Virg. Georg. I. 456).] 
 
)0. Chap. VI.— The Infinitive. 345 
 
 amicitias comparare (Cic. Finn. I. 20) . Qvid me impedit haec pro- 
 bare? Prohibiti estis pedem in provincia ponere (Cic. pro Lig. 8). 
 
 Obs. 1 . With the active of these verbs the infinitive stands in the same 
 relation as the second accusative with doceo (doceo te legere— doceo te 
 litteras), and the object of the verb (te) is the subject as regards the in- 
 finitive (legere ; jubeo te salvum, salvam, vos salvos, salvas esse ; hence 
 in the passive, jubeor salvus esse). 
 
 Obs. 2. Jubeo with ut or with the conjunctive without ut is rare in the 
 signification to order : Magoni nuntiatum ab Carthagine est, senatum ju- 
 bere, ut classem in Italiam trajiceret (Liv. XXVIII. 36). So also veto 
 ne, or qyominus is rarely met with c . (Jubeo alicui, ut faciat, or alicui, 
 faciat, is found only in later writers.) 
 
 Obs. 3. If, with jubeo and veto, the person to whom a thing is com- 
 manded or forbidden is not specified, a simple infinitive may follow : 
 Hesiodus eadem mensura reddere jubet, qya acceperis, aut etiam cumu- 
 lation, si possis (Cic. Brut. 4). Desperatis etiam Hippocrates vetat ad- 
 hibere medicinam (id. ad Att. XVI. 15). But it is more usual, when the 
 infinitive has an object, to express the purport of the command or pro- 
 hibition in the passive as an accusative with the infinitive ; see §. 396. 
 Sino is also used with ut, or the conjunctive without ut : Sine vivat 
 (§. 372. b. Obs. 2). 
 
 Obs. 4. The poets and later writers sometimes use other verbs, which 
 express an influence over others, and govern the accusative, with the 
 infinitive instead of ut : Quid dolens (from what provocation) regina 
 deum insignem pietate virum tot adire labor es impulit ? (Virg. Aen. I. 9). 
 Sollicitor nullos esse putare deos, (Ov. Am. III. 9, 36 ; I am tempted — ). 
 JFuere, qyos pavor nando etiam capessere fugam impulerit ; Liv. XXII. 6. 
 Amici Neronem orabant caver e insidias ; (Tac. Ann. XIII. 13). 
 
 Obs. 5. The infinitive is occasionally used instead of ut (chiefly in the 
 poets or later writers), with some verbs which govern the dative and 
 denote an influence over others to induce them to an action ; e. g. with 
 svadeo, concedo, permitto, impero : Imperavi egomet mihi omnia assentari 
 (Ter. Eun. II. 2, 21). Servis qvoque pueros hujus aetatis verberare conce- 
 dimus (Curt. VIII. 26). Hence in the passive: De republica, nisi per 
 consilium, loqyi non conceditur (Caes. B. G. VI. 20). 
 
 Obs. 6. The poets use do and reddo with the infinitive in the significa- 
 tion, to give to a person to, i. q. give a person the power to — : Grajis dedit 
 ore rotundo Musa loqvi (Hor. A. P. 323). Hence in the passive (in the 
 later prose writers also) : Quantum mihi cernere datur, so far as it is 
 given me to see, so far as I can see (Plin. Ep. I. 10). (Advmam cantare 
 sevens, Hor. Ep. I, 19, 9.) 
 
 c [Vetabo sub is dew. sit trabibus (Hor. Od. III. 2, 26).] 
 
 Y 7 
 
316 Syntax.— Part II. §.3« 
 
 §.391. In the poets (and in some cases in the later prose writers) the 
 simple infinitive is found instead of a case of the gerund after adjectives, 
 and instead of the supine, both of the active and passive voice. See §.419, 
 §. 411, Obs. 2, and §. 412, Obs. 3. 
 
 Obs. The infinitive stands after a preposition in the phrase interest 
 inter, e. g. Aristo et Pyrrho inter optime valere et gravissime aegrotare 
 nihil prorsus dicebant interesse (Cic. Finn. II. 13). {Nihil praeter plo- 
 rare, Hor. Sat. II. 5, 69, nothing but — .) 
 
 §. 392. The present infinitive is often used in a peculiar way in 
 the narrative style instead of the imperfect indicative, in passing 
 from the relation of events to the description of a state of things 
 that has suddenly come on and just commenced, and of actions and 
 emotions that follow in rapid succession ; (infinitivus historicus. 
 The proposition remains otherwise unaltered, precisely as if the 
 indicative had been employed. Usually several such infinitives are 
 found in succession.) Circumspectare turn patriciorum vultus ple- 
 beji (then the plebeians began to reconnoitre) et inde libertatis cap- 
 tare auram, unde servitutem timuerant. Primores patrum odisse 
 (hated) decemviros, odisse plebem ; nee probare, qvae fierent, et cre- 
 dere haud indignis accidere (Liv. III. 37). (Odisse has a present 
 signification). Hoc ubi Verves audivit, usqve eo commotus est, ut 
 sine ulla dubitatione insanire omnibus videretur. Qvia non potuerat 
 eripere argentum, ipse a Diodoro erepta sibi vasa optime facta dice- 
 bat; minitari absenti Diodoro, vociferari palam, lacrimas inter- 
 dum vix tenere (Cic. Verr. IY. 18). (This construction is even found 
 after qvum, qvum interim, qvum tamen, when the time at which a parti- 
 cular state of things suddenly came on or became evident has been pre- 
 viously specified : Fusis Auruncis, victor tot intra paucos dies bellis Ro- 
 manus promissa consulis jidemqve senatus expectabat, qvum Appius, et in- 
 sita superbia animo et ut collegae vanam facer et fidem, qvam asp er rime 
 poterat, jus de creditis pecuniis dicer e, Liv. II. 27, when Appius suddenly 
 began — .) Jamqve dies consumptus erat, qvum tamen barbari nihil re- 
 mittere, atqve, uti reges praeceperant, acrius instare, (Sail. Jug. 98.) 
 
 Obs. In this way of expression the picture of a series of actions rapidly 
 following each other or of a transient state of things is put before the 
 hearer or reader, without the actions being conceived singly and referred 
 to a particular period of time. 
 
 §. 393. If a substantive or adjective is added as a predicative 
 noun or in apposition to an infinitive, which refers to a preceding 
 word as its subject, its case is regulated by that of the subject. 
 
 a. If therefore the infinitive (being put with one of the verbs 
 
4. Chap. VI.— The Infinitive. 347 
 
 enumerated in §. 389) refers to a subject in the nominative, the 
 subjoined substantive or adjective is put in the nominative : Cupio 
 esse clemens. Bibulus studet fieri consul. Habeo in animo solus 
 proficisci. (Sustinuit conjux exsulis esse viri, Ov. Trist. IV. 10, 74; 
 she endured to be.) 
 
 b. If the infinitive belongs to an accusative (after the verbs 
 mentioned in §. 390, and after an impersonal verb with the accu- 
 sative), the word subjoined is put in the accusative : Coegerunt eum 
 nudum saltare. Pudet me victum discedere. 
 
 c. If the infinitive belongs to a dative, the word subjoined is also 
 put in the dative : Hannibal nihil jam majus precatur deos, qvam ut 
 incolumi cedere atqve abire ex hostium terra liceat (Liv. XXVI. 
 41). In republica mihi negligenti esse non licet (Cic. ad Att. I. 17). 
 Qvo tibij Tilli, sumere depositum clavum fieriqve tribuno ? (Hor. 
 Sat. I. 6, 25 ; compare §. 239.) Nee fortibus illic profuit armentis 
 nee eqvis velocibus esse (Ov. Met. VIII. 553). (Mediocribus esse 
 poetis non homines, non di concessere ; Hor. A. P. 372; see §.390, 
 
 Obs. 5.) 
 
 Obs. 1. An infinitive with the accusative is however occasionally found 
 after licet with the dative (as if the infinitive had no definite subject, 
 §. 388 b), e. g. Civi Romano licet esse Gaditanum (Cic. pro Balb. 12). 
 The accusative must be employed, when the dative is not actually ex- 
 pressed, although it may be understood : Medios esse (to be neutral) jam 
 non licebit (Cic. ad Att. X. 8). 
 
 Obs. 2. The accusative must necessarily be subjoined to an infinitive 
 after licet, when the expression is used generally, without reference to a 
 defined object (one can) : Haec praescripta servantem (if one observes), 
 licet magnifice, graviter, animoseqve vivere (Cic. Off. I. 26). 
 
 §. 394. In Latin a subject stands in the accusative with an in- 
 finitive as its predicate, in order to mark out the proposition so 
 expressed as an idea, which is the object of an assertion or judg- 
 ment, e. g. Hominem ire, that the man goes : Caesarem vicisse, that 
 Caesar has conquered. This construction (which in English is ex- 
 pressed by that) is called the accusative with the infinitive. Such 
 a proposition is in other respects completed like an indicative pro- 
 position, by an object and other accessory words. If the subject 
 and object might be confounded (both being in the accusative), 
 this must be avoided, e. g. by making the proposition passive, as, 
 Ajo hostes a te vinci posse ; rather than ajo te hostes vincere posse ; 
 but the sense and connection (together with the position of the 
 words) usually obviate any ambiguity. 
 
 Y y2 
 
348 Syntax.— Part II. §. 39 
 
 An accusative with the infinitive may be dependent on (governed 
 by) another proposition of the same form : Milonis inimici dicunt, 
 caedem, in qva P. Clodius occisus est, senatum judicasse, contra rem- 
 publicam esse fact am (Cic. pro Mil. 5). 
 
 §. 395. An accusative with the infinitive is put after verbs and 
 phrases, which denote a knowledge and opinion that a thing is or 
 takes place, or a declaration that a thing is or takes place (verba 
 sentiendi and declarandi), and expresses what is thought or said ; 
 thus after video, audio, sentio, animadverto, scio, nescio, &c, intelligo, per- 
 spicio, comperio, suspicor, &c, disco, doceo (to inform one that — ),per- 
 svadeo (convince one that — ), memini, &c, credo, arbitror, &c, judico, 
 censeo, duco ; spero, despero, colligo, concludo (infer), — dico, affirmo, nego, 
 fateor, narro, trado, scribo, nuntio, ostendo, demonstro, significo, polliceor, 
 promitto, minor, simulo, dissimulo, &c, — appdret, elucet, constat, convenit 
 (it is agreed that — ), perspicuum, certum, credibile est, &c, — communis 
 opinio est, fama est, spes est, auctor sum (to assure), testis sum, certiorem ali- 
 qvemfacio (to inform a person that — ), &c. E. g. Sentit animus se sua vi, 
 non aliena moveri. Platonem Cicero scribit Tarentum ad Archytam 
 venisse. Ex multis rebus intelligi potest (concluditur), mundum pro- 
 videntia divina administrari. Dejotarus tuum hostem esse duxit 
 suum (Cic. pro Dej. 5). Spero me propediem istuc venturum esse. 
 Caesar pollicetur, se Us auxilio futurum. Fama est, Gallos adven- 
 tare. Qvem putas tibi fidem kabiturum ? Qvando haec acta esse 
 dicis ? In like manner such a proposition is put in apposition to a 
 substantive, which denotes an opinion, a judgment, &c, e. g. Hunc 
 sermonem mandavi litteris, ut ilia opinio, qvae semper fuisset, tolle- 
 retur, Crassum non doctissimum, Antonium plane indoctum fuisse 
 (Cic. de Or. II. 2). Atqve etiam subjiciunt se homines imperio alte- 
 rius de causis pluribus ; ducuntur enim aut benevolentia aut benefi- 
 ciorum magnitudine aut spe, sibi id utile futurum (Id. Off. II. 6). 
 
 Obs. 1. So likewise an accusative with the infinitive may be added as 
 an apposition to a pronoun, which from the context refers to an opinion, 
 a judgment, &c, e. g. Posicfonius graviter et copiose de hoc ipso, nihil esse 
 bonum, nisi qyod honestum esset, disputavit (Cic. Tusc. II. 25). 
 
 Obs. 2. Some few verbs, which otherwise do not denote an opinion or 
 declaration, sometimes acquire such a meaning in certain combinations, 
 e. g. mitto, to apprise any one by a messenger (Fabius ad collegam misit, 
 exercitu opus esse, qvi Campaniae opponeretur, Liv. XXIV. 19), defendo, 
 to allege. (Stoicis placet, omnia peccata paria esse, the Stoics assume — .) 
 Concerning concedo, &c. with the accusative and infinitive, or ut, see 
 §. 372, Obs. 5. Concerning dubito, non dubito, §. 375 c, Obs. 2. 
 
)5> Chap. Ml.— The Infinitive. 349 
 
 Obs. 3. One difference the beginner must notice between the English 
 and Latin construction, viz. that verbs, which signify to hope, to promise, 
 to threaten, are commonly used in English with a simple present infin., 
 when the leading verb and that which is dependent on it have the same 
 subject, e. g. he promised to come, I hope to see him, I threatened to go 
 away ; which must be rendered in Latin by the accusative with the infi- 
 nitive : promittebat, se venturum ; spero, me eum visurum ; minabar, me 
 abiturum. The verbs spero and polliceor are found sometimes (but rarely) 
 with the infinitive alone instead of the accusative with the infinitive, e. g. 
 Magnitudine poenae reliqyos deterrere sperans (Caes. B. C. III. 8) ; for 
 se deterriturum d . (Spero nostram amieitiam non egere testibus, said of 
 a thing present.) 
 
 Obs. 4. Concerning duco, existimo, judico, puto, with two accusatives 
 without an infinitive, see §. 227 c. 
 
 Obs. 5. Audio te contumeliose de me loqvi, I hear (learn) that you 
 speak contemptuously of me ; audivi te ipsum dicere, I heard you say, 
 was witness that you said (Cic. Verr. IV. 49) ; (also, audivi quum diceres, 
 I heard the assertion from you) ; audivi te dicentem, I heard you speak 
 (make a speech). 
 
 Obs. 6. The contents of the infinitive proposition are sometimes briefly 
 pointed to beforehand by a neuter pronoun, e. g. Illud negare potes, te de 
 re judicata judicasse ? (Cic. Verr. II. 33) ; or by ita or sic, e. g. Sic enim 
 a majoribus nostris accepimus, praetor em qvaestori suo parentis loco esse 
 oportere (Cic. Div. in Caec. 19.) (Zeno ita definit, perturbationem esse 
 aversum a ratione animi motum, gives the definition, that passion — : 
 Zeno ita definit, ut perturbatio sit aversa a ratione animi commotio, de- 
 fines passion in such a way, that it is, according to this definition — , 
 Cic. Tusc. IV. 21, compared with Off. I. 27.) 
 
 Obs. 7. In Latin it is not usual to put the preposition de in the leading 
 proposition, together with the idea, of which something is declared in the 
 accusative with the infinitive following, but the sentence is so compressed, 
 that the idea occurs only in the infinitive proposition. Therefore we 
 should not say, De Medea narrant, earn sic fugisse — , but, Medeam nar- 
 rant sic fugisse — ; not, de Crasso scribit Cicero, nihil eo laetius fuisse, 
 but Crasso Cicero scribit nihil laetius fuisse ; not, Cornelius de qvo nar- 
 rasti, eum Athenas profectum esse (of whom you related, that he was — ), 
 but qyem narrasti Athenas profectum esse. Yet the second form is also 
 found, where such a compression would not be easy, e. g. De hoc Verri 
 dicitur, habere eum perbona toreumata (Cic. Verr. IV. 18, because the 
 passive dicor is only used personally in the signification it is said (gene- 
 
 d [Ad eum legati veniunt, qvi polliceantur obsides dare, atqve imperio populi Romani ob~ 
 temperare (Caes. B. G. IV. 21). Ad eum legati venerunl, qvi se ea qvae imperasset fac- 
 turos pollicerentur (id. IV. 22).] 
 
350 Syntax.— Part II. §. 39^ 
 
 rally) of me, and does not admit of a dative) ; or where the attention is 
 first drawn generally to the thing to be mentioned, e. g. De Antonio, jam 
 ante tibi scripsi, non esse eum a me conventwm (Cic. ad Att. XV. 1, as to 
 what relates to A. — ) We must also notice such expressions as the fol- 
 lowing in interrogations : Quid censes {censetis, putamus) Jiunc ipsum S. 
 Poscium? qvo studio et qya intelligentia esse in rusticis rebus (Cic. Rose. 
 Am. 1 7 ; also, qyid censes S. Roscium, nonne summo studio esse et summa 
 intelligentia — ?), where the accusative already points to the infinitive 
 construction. 
 
 Obs. 8. It is less customary in Latin than in English to insert a verb 
 indicating a declaration or opinion, with ut, "as," as a subordinate pro- 
 position, and it is preferable to make such a verb the leading proposition 
 with an accusative with the infinitive depending upon it. (Verrem war- 
 rant — , rather than Verres, ut narrant ; Socratem Plato scribit — , rather 
 than Socrates, ut Plato scribit.) Yet we frequently find ut opinor, or 
 simply opinor, credo, ut audio, employed parenthetically. 
 
 §. 396. An accusative with the infinitive is put after those verbs 
 which denote a wish, that something should happen, or the endur- 
 ing or allowing it {verba voluntatis), namely, volo, nolo, malo, cupio, 
 opto, studeo, postulo, placet, sino, patior, with jubeo, impero e , prohibeo, 
 veto (to command, forbid, that something should be done), e. g. Majores 
 corpora juvenum Jirmari labor e voluerunt (Cic. Tusc. II. 15). Tibi 
 favemus, te tua virtute frui cupimus (Id. Brut. 97). Senatui placet, 
 Crassum Syriam obtinere (Id. Phil. XI. 12). Nullos honores mihi 
 decerni sino (Id. ad Att. V. 21). Verres hominem corripi jussit. 
 Caesar castra vallo muniri vetuit. Belectum haberi prohibebo (Liv. 
 IV. 2). Non hunc in vincula duci imperabis ? (Cic. Cat. I. 11). 
 
 Obs. 1. These verbs also take after them a proposition with ut {prohibeo 
 with ne or qyominus, veto with ne), but jubeo (§. 390. Obs. 2), patior, and 
 veto very rarely. (Sometimes writers pass from the accusative with the 
 infinitive to the other construction : Placuit creari decemviros sine provo- 
 cation, et ne qyis eo anno alius magistratus esset ; Liv. III. 32.) Con- 
 cerning cupio me clementem esse for cupio esse clemens see §. 389, Obs. 4. 
 Later writers put also an accusative with the infinitive (passive) after 
 verbs which denote a permission, request, direction, &c, and which in 
 the best writers always have ut, e. g. permitto, praecipio, mando, interdico, 
 oro, precor : Otho corpora cremari permisit (Tac. H. I. 47). Caligula 
 praecepit, triremes itinere terrestri Pomam devehi (Svet. Cal. 47). 
 
 Obs. 2. After volo (nolo, malo, cupio) an accusative with the infinitive of 
 
 ' [Impero, with the accusative, signifying to make requisition for, order to be sup- 
 plied, may be considered as an elliptical expression, where dare, or some such infinitive 
 is understood.] 
 
98. Chap. VI. — The Infinitive. 351 
 
 the perf. pass, is often used in the signification, will have a thing done 
 =will, that something should be done, e. g. Sociis maxime lex consultum 
 esse vult (Cic. Div. in Caec. 6). (Often simply consultum vult, without 
 esse : Legati Sullam orant, ut Sex. Roscii famam etfilii innocentis fortu- 
 nas conservatas velit, Cic. pro Rose. Am. 9.) 
 
 Obs. 3. Jubeo, sino, veto, prohibeo, and impero take only a passive ac- 
 cusative with the infinitive ; since we otherwise find jubeo (veto) aliqyem 
 facere, with a simple infinitive (§. 390), and impero alicui utfaciat (e. g. 
 Nonne lictoribus tuis imperabis, ut hunc in vinculo, ducant ?). From jubeo, 
 veto, prohibeo, impero Tiunc occidi, a new phrase may be formed in the 
 passive, when the person who commands or forbids is not specified (nom. 
 with the infin. ; see §. 400) : Hie occidi jubetur, vetatur, prohibetur, im- 
 peratur, e. g. Jussus es renuntiari consul (Cic. Phil. II. 32), it was 
 ordered that you should be proclaimed consul. In lautumias Syracusa- 
 nas, si qyi publice custodiendi sunt, etiam ex ceteris oppidis Siciliae deduci 
 imperantur (Id. Verr. V. 27). Ad opera circumdari prohibenda (Liv. 
 III. 28). (Such expressions are distinct from jubeor, prohibeor, facere, 
 §.390.) 
 
 Obs. 4. The verb censeo, to think, vote for, advise, has various construc- 
 tions, which may be here noticed : Censeo Carthaginem esse delendam (I 
 think that Carthage must — i. e. vote for it). Censeo bona reddi (vote, 
 will, that the property should be restored, as with, jubeo) . Antenor censet 
 belli praecidere causam (Hor. Ep. I. 2, 9), votes for cutting off; in the 
 poetical and later style for praecidendam esse or praecidi. Censeo, ut per- 
 rumpas, I advise you to break through [censeo, per rump as). 
 
 §. 397. An accusative with the infinitive is put with those verbs 
 which denote satisfaction, dissatisfaction, or surprise at the exist- 
 ence of a thing {verba affectuum), such as gaudeo, laetor, glorior, doleo, 
 angor, sollicitor, indignor, qveror, miror, admiror,fero (to be resigned to a 
 thing), aegre, moleste fero. Yet qvod (with the indicative or conjunc- 
 tive according to §.357) may also be employed with these verbs, in 
 order to denote more the reason of the feeling : Gaudeo id te mild 
 svadere, qvod ego mea sponte feceram (Cic. ad Att. XV. 27). Nihil 
 me magis sollicitabat, qvam non me, si qvae ridenda essent, ridere 
 tecum (Id. ad Fam. II. 12). Miror, te ad me nihil scribere (Id. ad 
 Att. VIII. 12). Varus promissa non servari qverebatur. (Laetor, 
 qvod Petilius incolumis vivit in urbe, Hor. Sat. I. 4, 98. Scipio 
 qverebatur, qvod omnibus in rebus homines diligentiores essent qvam 
 in amicitiis comparandis, Cic. Lael. 17). 
 
 §. 398. a. If a judgment is expressed in general on the contents 
 of a proposition, so that it is only conceived and pointed out as the 
 object of the judgment, without its being said that it is actually 
 
352 Syntax,— Part II. §.39! 
 
 true, such a proposition is annexed in the accusative with the in- 
 finitive. (The judgment is either expressed by est, e. g. utile est, 
 par est, fas est, magna laus est, in which case the accusative with 
 the infinitive is the subject, or by an impersonal verb [oportet, de- 
 cet, convenit, expedit, pudet, &c] or some equivalent phrase.) Ac- 
 cusatores multos esse in civitate, utile est, ut metu contineatur auda- 
 cia (Cic. Rose. Am. 20). Omnibus bonis expedit, salvam esse rem- 
 publicam (Id. Phil. XIII. 8). Tempus est, nos de ilia perpetua jam, 
 non de hac exigua vita cogitare (Id. ad Att. X. 8). Facinus est, 
 civem Romanum vinciri (Id. Verr. V. 66). Qvos ferro trucidari 
 oportebat, eos nondum voce vulnero (Id. Cat. I. 4). Uaec benignitas 
 etiam reipublicae utilis est (=utile est), redimi e servitute captos, 
 locupletari tenuiores (Id. Off. II. 18). 
 
 Obs. 1. Concerning the use of ut in propositions which are the object 
 of a judgment, see §.374, Obs. 2. 
 
 1 Obs. 2. Oportet, it is necessary, and necesse est are also constructed 
 with a conjunctive, without ut ; §. 373, Obs. 1. If it is not said who 
 has to do a thing, the infinitive alone is employed (§. 388 : ex malis eli- 
 gere minima oportet, Cic. Off. III. 1) ; but the proposition is often altered 
 into an accusative with the infin. pass. : Hoc fieri et oportet et opus est 
 (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 25). 
 
 Obs. 3. By an inaccuracy of expression, a simple infinitive (active) and 
 an accusative with the infinitive (passive) are sometimes combined in one 
 judgment : Proponi oportet, qvid afferas, et id qvare ita sit, ostendere 
 (Cic. de Or. II. 41). 
 
 b. If on the other hand it is intended to shew that a thing (a 
 circumstance,, a relation) actually holds, and a judgment is at the 
 same time passed concerning it, the thing spoken of is expressed 
 by a proposition with qvod {that, the circumstance that ; with the 
 indicative, if the mood of the leading proposition does not, accord- 
 ing to §. 369, require the conjunctive). Such a proposition with 
 qvod (of a real fact) is often connected with a pronoun (hoc, illud, 
 id, ea res, &c.) which points to it ; sometimes too with a substan- 
 tive in the way of apposition (to explain it). Eumeni inter Mace- 
 dones viventi multum detraxit, qvod alienae erat civitatis (Corn. 
 Eum. 1). Multa sunt infabrica mundi admirabilia, sed nihil majus 
 qvam qvod ita stabilis est atqve ita cohaeret ad permanendum, ut 
 nihil ne excogitari qvidem possit aptius (Cic. N. D. II. 45). Non 
 ea res me deterruit, qvominus ad te litteras mitterem, qvod tu ad me 
 nullas miseras (Id. ad Fam. VI. 22). Per commode factum est (cadit), 
 qvod de morte et de dolore primo et proximo die disputatum est (Id. 
 
i8. Chap. VI.— The Infinitive. 353 
 
 Tusc. IV. 30). Non pigritia facio, qvod non meet manu scribo (Id. 
 ad Att. XVI. 15), that I do not write with my own hand does not 
 proceed from laziness ; but, pigritia factum est, ut ad te non scri- 
 berem, my laziness caused me not to write to you; §. 373. Mitto 
 (praetereo), qvod provincias Piso et Gabinius scelere partas habent 
 (Id. de Prov. Cons. 2). Hoc uno praestamus vel maxime feris, qvod 
 exprimere dicendo sensa possumus (Id. de Or. I. 8). Aristoteles 
 laudandus est in eo, qvod omnia, qvae moventur, aut natura moveri 
 censet aut vi aut voluntate (Id. N. D. II. 16). Pro magnitudine 
 injuriae proqve eo, qvod summa respublica in hujus periculo tentatur 
 (Id. Rose. Am. 51), in proportion to the circumstance, that. Me 
 una consolatio sustentat, qvod tibi nullum a me amoris, nullum pieta- 
 tis officium defuit (Id. pro Mil. 36), one consolation, namely, that. 
 (So also accedit, qvod ; see §. 373, Obs. 3. Praeterqvam qvod, ex- 
 cept that.) 
 
 Obs. 1. In saying, Utile est, Gajum adesse, we only express an opinion 
 in general, that the presence of Gaius is (will be) useful, but we do not 
 say that the circumstance actually holds good. If we say on the other 
 hand : Ad multas res magnae utilitati erit, qvod Gajus adest, we make it 
 known that Gaius is present, and judge of the consequences of this fact. 
 By the first form however (the accus.) the presence of Gaius is not de- 
 nied : it may therefore be sometimes employed for the other, especially 
 when a feeling produced by some particular circumstance is at the same 
 time to be indicated (compare §. 397) : JS/onne hoc indignissimum est, vos 
 idoneos habitos, per qvorum sententias id asseqvantur, qvod antea ipsi 
 scelere asseqvi consverunt ? (Cic. Rose. Am. 3). Te hilari animo esse et 
 prompto ad jocandum, valde me juvat (Id. ad Q,. Fr. II. 13. Juvat me, 
 qvod vigent studia, Plin. Ep. I. 13). 
 
 Obs. 2, The leading proposition often contains not a direct judgment or 
 assertion concerning that which stands in the proposition with qvod, but 
 an observation which is occasioned by and refers to it, so that qvod signi- 
 fies, in that, as to what relates to, e. g. Qvod aut em me Agamemnonem 
 aemulari putas, falleris (Corn. Epam. 5). Qvod scribis, te, si velim, ad 
 me venturum, ego vero te istic esse volo (Cic. ad Fam. XIV. 3). 
 
 Obs. 3. Of qvod (with the conjunctive) instead of the accusative with 
 the infinitive after verba sentiendi and declarandi only solitary examples 
 are found, and those in the later writers. 
 
 Obs. 4. Instead of a judgment expressed in a distinct proposition by an 
 adjective and sum, followed by the accusative and infinitive, or a propo- 
 sition with qvod, an adverb alone is occasionally made use of: TJtrum 
 impudentius Verres hanc pecuniam a sociis abstulit an turpius meretrici 
 
 z z 
 
354 Syntax.— Part II. §. 39* 
 
 dedit an improbius populo Romano ademit ? (Cic. Verr. III. 36). Uti- 
 lius starent etiam nunc rnoenia Rhoebi (Ov. Her. I. 67=utilius erat 
 stare &c). 
 
 §. 399. An accusative with the infinitive sometimes stands with- 
 out a governing proposition, in order to express surprise and com- 
 plaint, that a thing happens or may happen, mostly with the 
 interrogative particle ne (to denote inquiry and doubt). Me mise- 
 rum ! Te, ista virtute, fide, pr obit ate, in t ant as aerumnas propter me 
 incidisse ! (Cic. ad Fam. XIV. 1). Adeone hominem esse infelicem 
 qvemqvam, ut ego sum ! (Ter. Andr. I. 5, 10). That a man can be 
 so unfortunate as I am ! Mene incept o desist ere victam ? (Yirg. 
 Aen. I. 37) f . 
 
 Ols. (on §. 395-399). The beginner should accurately compare and 
 distinguish the different ways, in which the propositions, which in Eng- 
 lish are distinguished by the word that, are expressed in Latin, and, after 
 putting aside those, in which that denotes a design or a consequence (in 
 order that, so that), he must observe, that the object of an effort or action 
 is expressed by objective propositions with the conjunctive (see the ap- 
 pendix to chapter III.), the object of an opinion, knowledge, declaration, 
 or feeling on the other hand by the accusative with the infinitive, and a 
 relation, concerning which a judgment is expressed, by the accusative 
 with the infinitive, when a judgment is stated in general, or by a pro- 
 position with qvod, when the relation is denoted as actually existing. 
 
 §. 400. a. If the passive of a verb, that denotes to say (to relate, 
 give information of), or to think (to believe, find), or to command 
 and forbid (see §.396, Obs. 3), or the verb videtur (it seems, ap- 
 pears), would have to stand impersonally with an accusative with 
 the infinitive following (e. g. dicitur, patrem venisse), another mode 
 of expression is used, the subject of the infinitive proposition being 
 made the subject (in the nominative) of the passive verb, and the 
 infinitive subjoined to complete the idea and the proposition g . (In 
 this case every word, which is annexed to the infinitive, becomes 
 nominative according to §. 393) : Lectitavisse Platonem studiose 
 Demosthenes dicitur (Cic. Brut. 31). Aristides unus omnium jus- 
 tissimus fuisse traditur (narratur, fertur, creditur). Oppugnata 
 (viz. esse) domus Caesaris per muttas noctis horas nuntiabatur (Cic. 
 pro Mil. 24). Luna solis lumine collustrari putatur (Id. Div. II. 
 43). Regnante Tarqvinio Superbo in Italiam Pythagoras venisse 
 reperitur (Id. It. P. II. 15). Malum mihi videtur esse mors. Vide- 
 
 f In the following exclamation we have the infinitive only : Tantum laborem capere 
 ob talemfilium! (Ter. Andr. V. 2, 27.) 
 
 * This form is usually, but improperly, styled, the nominative with the infinitive. 
 
>0. Chap. VI.— The Infinitive. 355 
 
 ris mihi (it appears to me that you) satis bene attendere. Videor 
 mihi (or simply videor) Graece luculenter scire (it seems to me, 
 that I — , I believe — ). Visas sum mihi animos auditorum 
 commovere. 
 
 Obs. Even in an observation inserted parenthetically with ut (as it 
 seems), videor is almost always referred personally to the subject spoken 
 of : Ego tibi, qyod satis esset, paucis verbis, ut mihi videbar, responderam 
 (Cic. Tusc. I. 46). Philargyrus tuus omnia fidelissimo animo, ut mihi 
 Qvidem visas est, narravit (Id. ad Fam. VI. 1). 
 
 b. With those verbs however, which signify to say or think (but 
 not with jubeor, vetor, prohibeor or videor), the impersonal form of 
 expression is more usual in the tenses compounded with the perf. 
 part. : Traditum est, Homerum caecum fuisse (Cic. Tusc. V. 39) ; 
 and with the gerundive with sum it is almost always used : Ubi 
 tyrannus est, ibi dicendum est, plane nullam esse rempublicam (Id. 
 R. P. III. 31). {Julius Sdbinus voluntaria morte interisse creditus est, 
 Tac. Hist. IY. 67.) 
 
 Obs. In the simple tenses, dicitur, traditur, eccistimatur, &c. are rarely 
 used impersonally with an accusative with the infinitive, e. g. Earn gentem 
 traditur fama Alpes transisse (Liv. Y. 33) ; but nuntiatur and dicitur are 
 so employed, when followed by a dative : Non dubie mihi nuntiabatur, 
 Parthos transisse Euphratem (Cic. ad Fam. XV. 1) ; nuntiatur is also 
 used without : Ecce autem repente nuntiatur, piratarum naves esse in 
 porta Odysseae (Id. Verr. V. 34). With videtur the accus. with the in- 
 fin. is employed very rarely (with juhetur, &c, never). 
 
 c. The personal form of expression is also sometimes used in- 
 stead of the impersonal in the passive of other verbs, which do not 
 signify to speak or to think in general, but denote a more peculiar 
 and special kind of declaration, or knowledge, as scribor, demon- 
 stror, audior, intelligor &c, e. g. Bibulus nondum audiebatur esse in 
 Syria (Cic. ad Att. V. 18), as yet nothing was heard of B.'s being 
 in Syria. Scutorum gladiorumqve multitudo deprehendi posse indi- 
 cabatur (Id. pro Mil. 24). Ex hoc dii beati esse intelliguntur (Id. 
 N. D. I. 38). Pompejus perspectus est a me toto animo de te cogi- 
 tare (Id. ad Fam. I. 7). But in these cases the impersonal form 
 is the more usual. 
 
 Obs. The poets and later writers extend this usage farther than the 
 older prose writers, e. g. Colligor placuisse for colligitur (it is inferred) 
 one placuisse (Ov. Am. II. 6, 61). Suspectus fecisse (Sail.), compertus 
 fecisse (Liv.). {Hi fr aires in suspicionem venerant suis civibus fanum 
 expilasse Apollinis, i. e. putabantur, Cic. Verr. IV. 13. Liberatur Milo 
 
 z z 2 
 
556 Syntax. — Part II. §. 40< 
 
 non eo consilio profectus esse, ut insidiaretur Clodio ; i. e, demonstratur f 
 Id. pro Mil. 18.) 
 
 d. When a notice of the speech or opinion of another is commenced in 
 this way, and then continued through several infinitive propositions (§. 
 403 b), the latter take the accusative with the infinitive: Ad Themisto- 
 clem qvidam doctus homo accessisse dicitur eiqve artem memoriae 
 pollicitus esse se traditurum ; qvum ille qvaesisset, qvidnam ilia ars efficere 
 posset, diocisse ilium doctorem, ut omnia meminisset (Cic. de Or. II. 74). 
 
 §.401. If the subject in an accusative with the infinitive is a personal 
 or reflective pronoun, w T hich corresponds to the subject of the leading verb 
 (dico, me esse ; dicit, se esse), this pronoun (particularly me, te, se, more 
 rarely nos, vos) is sometimes left out with verba declarandi and putandi ; 
 but this must be looked on as an irregularity : Confitere, ea spe hue ve- 
 nisse, qvod putares hie latrocinium, non judicium futurum (Cic. Rose. Am. 
 22),=te venisse. Qvum id nescire Mago diceret, nihil facilius scitu est, 
 inqvit Hanno (Liv. XXIII. 13),=se id nescire. This is done more espe- 
 cially when an accusative with the infinitive is dependent on another 
 with the same subject : Licet me existimes desperare ista posse per discere 
 (Cic. de Or. III. 36),=me ista posse perdiscere. With the fut. infin. act. 
 this omission occurs very frequently in the historians, in which case esse 
 is also generally omitted : Alcon, precious aliqvid moturum ratus, transiit 
 ad Hannibalem (Liv. XXI. 12),=se moturum. Ne node qvidem turba 
 ex eo loco dilabebatur, refracturosqve carcerem minabantur (Id. VI. 17). 
 (On the contrary it is hardly ever found with the perf. infin. pass.) 
 
 Obs. 1. When in a continued oratio obliqva (§. 403 b) several accusa- 
 tives with the infinitive have se for their subject, it is often omitted. 
 
 Obs. 2. It is important to discriminate between this and the occasional 
 omission before the infinitive of a personal or demonstrative pronoun 
 which does not refer to the subject of the leading proposition, when it 
 may be easily ascertained from the connection and from what has been 
 previously stated : Petam a vobis, ut ea, qvae dicam, non de memet ipso, 
 sed de oratore dicere putetis (Cic. Or. III. 20). Valerius dictatura se 
 abdicavit. Apparuit causa plebi, suam (i. e. plebis) vicem indignantem 
 magistratu abisse (Liv. II. 31). 
 
 Obs. 3. The poets in some few instances put a simple infinitive (with 
 the nominative, as in Greek) instead of the accusative with the infinitive, 
 when it has the same subject as the main proposition : Vir bonus et 
 sapiens dignis ait esse paratus (=se paratum esse ; Hor. Ep. I. 7, 22). 
 {Sensit medios delapsus in hostes=se delapsum esse, Virg. Aen. II, 377.) 
 
 §. 402. a. The subordinate propositions annexed to one with the accu- 
 sative and infinitive retain the customary form of the oratio Jinita. Yet 
 the accusative with the infinitive is used in relative propositions^ which 
 
03. Chap. VI. — The Infinitive. 357 
 
 belong to one that has the accusative with the infinitive, if the relative 
 only annexes a continuation of the opinion already expressed, so that it 
 might be changed to a demonstrative with or without et : Postea autem 
 G alius dicebat ab Eudoxo Cnidio sphaeram (a celestial globe) astris coelo 
 inhaerentibus esse descriptam, cujus omnem ornatum et descriptionem 
 sumptam ab Eudoxo, Aratum extulisse versibics (Cic. R. P. I. 14). It 
 might also be expressed, esse descriptam ; ejus omnem ornatum, &c. 
 Marcellus, qvum Syracusas cepisset, reqvisivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, 
 qvem qyum audisset interfectum, permoleste tulisse (Cic. Verr. IV. 58), 
 =et, qvum audisset interfectum, permoleste tulisse. (So also, Jacere tarn 
 diu irritas sanctiones, qvae de suis commodis ferrentur, qvum interim de 
 sangvine et supplicio suo latam legem confestim exerceri, for et interim ; 
 Liv. IV. 51. But such examples with relative conjunctions are very 
 unusual h .) 
 
 b. If a subject is compared with another subject (by qvam, atqve, or 
 idem qvi, tantus qvantus, and similar expressions), so that the same verb 
 is understood (e. g. lisdem rebus commoveris, qvibus ego, viz. commoveor), 
 and the leading proposition is an accusative with the infinitive, the se- 
 cond subject is also put in the accusative, although the verb should be 
 strictly speaking understood with it in a finite mood, because the govern- 
 ing verb (on which the accus. with the infin. depends) cannot also be 
 predicated of this member of the proposition : Suspicor, te eisdem rebus, 
 qvibus me ipsum, commoveri (Cic. Cat. M. 1) ; properly, qvibus ipse com- 
 moveor. Antonius ajebat, se tantidem frumentum aestimasse, quanti Sa- 
 cerdotem (Id. Verr. III. 92) ; properly, qvanti Sacerdos aestimasset (At- 
 traction. Compare §. 303 b.) 
 
 c. If two propositions, each of which has its own verb, are compared 
 by a comparative with qvam, and the leading proposition passes over into 
 the accusative with the infinitive, the subordinate proposition sometimes 
 takes the same form : Num putatis dixisse Antonium minacius qvamfac- 
 turum fuisse? (Cic. Phil. V. 8.) Affirmavi qvidvis me potius perpessu- 
 rum qvam ex Italia exiturum (Id. ad Fam. II. 16). Consilium dicebant 
 specie prima melius fuisse qvam usu appariturum (Liv. IV. 60). This 
 however is rare, especially when (as in the last example) the conjunctive 
 should stand in the oratio recta after qvam (according to §. 360, Obs. 4), 
 which mood is then commonly retained : Certum habeo, majores qvoqve 
 qvamlibet dimicationem subituros fuisse potius qvam eas leges sibi imponi 
 pater entur (Liv. IV. 2). 
 
 §. 403. a. An accusative with the infinitive is often put without 
 being governed directly by a verbum sentiendi or declarandi, where 
 
 h Porsena prae se ferebat, qvemadmodum, si non dedatur obses, pro rupto se foedus 
 habiturum, sed deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum ; Liv. II. 13, =prae se fere- 
 bat, se, si non dedatur obses, — habiturum, sed deditam, &c. 
 
358 Syntax.— Part II. §. 403 
 
 a person is mentioned immediately before in snch a way, that a 
 speech, an opinion, or a resolution is ascribed to him, and the pur- 
 port of his speech or opinion, or the reasoning on which he acts, is 
 now alleged, so that one may supply in one's mind, he says (said), 
 he thinks (thought), or some equivalent expression: Regulus in 
 senatum venit, mandata exposuit ; sententiam ne diceret, recusavit ; 
 qvamdiu jurejurando hostium teneretur, non esse se senatorem (Cic. 
 Off. III. 27), for, he thought and said, so long as he was bound 
 by the oath exacted from him by the enemy, he was no senator. 
 Romulus legatos circa vicinas gentes misit, qvi societatem connubium- 
 qve novo populo peterent ; Urbes qvoqve, ut cetera, ex infimo nasci ; 
 deinde, qvas sua virtus ac dii juvent, magnas opes sibi magnumqve 
 nomenfacere, &c. (Liv. I. 9. This is the language which Romulus 
 desired the ambassadors to hold). This use of the accusative with 
 the infinitive, in which the speaker (or writer) adduces not his own 
 expressions and thoughts, but those of others, is specially called 
 oratio obliqva, in opposition to oratio directa. 
 
 Ohs. 1. Sometimes the name oratio obliqva is used of every grammatical 
 way of expressing the thought of a third party, see §. 369. 
 
 Ohs. 2. Sometimes the transition to this accusative with the infinitive 
 takes place very abruptly, no indication being given by any single defined 
 word, that the expressions or ideas of another person are introduced, e. g. 
 Conticuit adolescens : Jiaud dubie videre aliqva impedimenta pugnae con- 
 sirfem, qvae sibi non apparerent (Liv. XLIV. 36). Sometimes a negative 
 verb precedes, from which an affirmative idea (says, thinks) is to be sup- 
 plied : Regulus reddi captivos negavit esse utile ; illos enim adoleseentes 
 esse et bonos duces, se jam confectum senectute (Cic. Off. III. 27). 
 
 b. In the same way the contents of whole speeches and reason- 
 ings of others are often cited in a series of accusatives with the in- 
 finitive, the first of which is either directly governed by a verb, or 
 put in the way above mentioned under a. (a continuous oratio 
 obliqva). With reference to this it is to be noticed, that a speech 
 or reasoning belonging to past time, which is connected with a 
 verb in the preterite, should regularly be continued as depending 
 on the preterite, so that the subordinate propositions employed 
 will have to stand in the imperfect or pluperfect. Yet a transition 
 to the present may take place, the leading verb understood being 
 thought of as if it were the historical present [he says, &c). If 
 the oratio obliqva begins with a historical present, it is continued 
 in the present, but may also (according to §. 382, Obs. 3) be 
 changed to the preterite. Examples of such a continuous oratio 
 
>5. Chap. MI.— The Infinitive. 359 
 
 obliqva (partly exhibiting the variations above noticed in the tenses 
 of the subordinate propositions) may be found in Caesar in the 
 first book of the Gallic War, chap. 13, 14, 17, 18, 20, 31, 35, 36, 44, 
 45, and in Livy in the first book chap. 50, 53, in the second book 
 chap. 6, &c. 
 
 §. 404. That which in the original oratio directa was expressed in the 
 imperative or in the conjunctive with the force of a command or pro- 
 hibition, is expressed in the oratio obliqva by the conjunctive ; in such 
 a way that (when a speech or reasoning is reproduced) the present is 
 changed for the imperfect {they should, he said=you shall ; they were not 
 to believe=you are not to believe) : Sin bello perseqvi perseveraret, re- 
 minisceretur pristinae virtutis Melvetioncm. Qvare ne committer et, ut is 
 locus ex calamitate populi Romani nomen caper et (Caes. B. G. I. 13=si 
 bello perseveras, reminiscitor pristinae virtutis Helvetiorum. Qvare ne 
 commiseris, ut — ). Burr us praetorianos nihil ad versus progeniem Ger- 
 manici ausuros respondit ; perpetraret Anicetus promissa (Tac. Ann. XIV. 
 7,=perpetret Anic). The present may however be retained, if the first 
 governing verb is the historical present, or if the narrative is changed to 
 the historical present : Vercingetorix perfacile esse factu dicit frumenta- 
 tiordbus JRomanos prohibere ; aeqyo modo animo sua ipsi frumenta corrum- 
 pant aedificiaqve incendant (Caes. B. G. VII. 64,=aeqvo modo animo ves- 
 tra ipsi frumenta corrumpite). 
 
 §. 405. a. The questions which occur in the oratio directa in the indi- 
 cative are expressed in the oratio obliqva by the accusative with the infi- 
 nitive, if the first or third person was employed in the direct style, but in 
 the conjunctive, if the second person was made use of, in which case the 
 present or perfect of the direct style is regularly changed in the relation 
 to the imperfect and pluperfect. (Yet the present may be retained here 
 also according to §. 403.) In the first person the speaker (whose speech 
 or reasoning is cited) is commonly expressed by se ; but this may be 
 omitted (especially if the same subject is found also in the preceding pro- 
 positions), so that the first and third persons are only distinguished by 
 the context (as in English all three are expressed by he, they) : Qvid se 
 vivere, qvid in parte civium censeri, si, qvod duorum hominum virtute par- 
 turn sit, id obtinere universi non possint? (Liv. VII. lS,=qvid vivimus, 
 qvid in parte civium censemur ?) Si veteris contumeliae oblivisci vellet, 
 num etiam recentium injuriarum memoriam deponere posse ? (Caes. B. G. 
 I. 14; with the omission of se,=si — volo, num — possum?) An qvicqvam 
 superbius esse qvam ludificari sic omne nomen Latinum ? (Liv. I. 50,=«^ 
 qvicqvam superbius est ?) Scaptione haec assignaturos putarent finitimos 
 populos? (Liv. III. 72,=putatis ?) Qvid de praeda faciendum censerent ? 
 (Liv. V. 20, =censetis ?) 
 
 Obs. Exceptions to this, where questions of the first and third person 
 
360 Syntax.— Part II. §. 40* 
 
 are put in the conjunctive, or questions of the second person in the in- 
 finitive, are rare. 
 
 b. Questions which in the direct style are put in the conjunctive 
 (§. 350 a. and 353) retain the conjunctive (usually with an alteration 
 of the tense) : Qvis sibi hoc persuaderet ? (Caes. B. G. V. 29=qvis sibi 
 hoc persvadeat ?) Cur fortunam periclitaretur ? (Id. B. C. I. 72=cur 
 fortunam pericliter ?) 
 
 §. 406. In the infinitive the three leading tenses are distinguished 
 as in the indicative : Dico eum venire, venisse, venturum esse ; dico 
 eum decipi, deceptum esse, deceptum iri. In the tenses compounded 
 with esse this word (in the accusative or nominative with the in- 
 finitive) is often omitted : Victum me video. Facturum se dixit. 
 
 §. 407. The perfect infinitive designates the action as finished and com- 
 plete : Poteras dixisse (Hor. A. P. 328), you might have already said. 
 Bellum ante hiemem perfecisse possumus (Liv. XXXVII. 19), we may 
 have finished the war; but little differing from perficere poterimus. In 
 this signification the perf. infin. occasionally stands in Latin with satis 
 est, satis habeo, contentus sum, where the present is used in English, and 
 particularly with the expressions poenitebit, pudebit, pigebit, juvabit, me- 
 lius erit, to signify what will follow the completion of the action ex- 
 pressed by the infinitive : JProinde qyiesse erit melius (Liv. III. 48). 
 
 Obs. 1. With oportuit, decuit, convenit, debueram, oportuerat, &c, when 
 said of a thing which ought to have been done (§. 348, Obs. 1), the perf. 
 infin. is often employed in the active and commonly in the passive, gene- 
 rally with the omission of esse : Tunc decuit flesse (Liv. XXX. 44). Ego 
 id, qvod jampridem factum esse oportuit, certa de causa nondumfacio (Cic. 
 Cat. I. 2). Adolescenti morem gestum oportuit (Ter. Ad. II. 2, 6). 
 
 Obs. 2. In the poets the perf. infin. act. is sometimes used (like the 
 Greek aorist) for the pres. infin., but only as a simple infinitive after a 
 verb (especially after verba voluntatis et potestatis), not as a subject (§. 
 388 a.) nor in the accusative with the infinitive : Fr aires tendentes opaco 
 Pelion imposuisse Olynvpo (Hor. Od. III. 4, 52). Immanis in antro bac- 
 chatur vates, magnum si pectore possit excussisse deum (Virg. Aen. VI. 77). 
 (In the older style volo is constructed in prohibitions with the perf. in- 
 fin., e. g. consules edixerunt, ne qvis qvid fugae causa vendidisse vellet, 
 Liv. XXXIX. 17). 
 
 §. 408. a. The imperfect is not particularly distinguished in the 
 infinitive (so that after a leading verb in the present or future the 
 imperfect indicative is always turned into the perfect infinitive : 
 Narrant ilium, gvoties filium conspexisset, inge?nuisse=ingemiscebat, 
 qvoties filium conspexerat) ; nor the pluperfect in the active voice. 
 
09. Chap. VI.— The Infinitive. 361 
 
 In the passive the perf. part, is used with fuisse as in the indica- 
 tive with fui or eram to express a condition (imperfect of the con- 
 dition), e. g. Dico Luculli adventu maocimas Mithridatis copias om- 
 nibus rebus ornatas atqve instructas fuisse urbemqve Cyzicenorum 
 obsessam esse ab ipso rege et oppugnatam vehementissime (Cic. pro 
 Leg. Man. 8),=copiae ornatae atqve instructae erant urbsqve obsi- 
 debatur. In this way too the pluperfect of an action may some- 
 times be expressed, e. g. nego litteras jam turn scriptas fuisse, 
 (But it is never used for the conditional pluperfect in the conjunc- 
 tive; see §.409.) 
 
 b. In the accusative with the infinitive after a governing verb in 
 the past time (as well as after the historical present), the present, 
 perfect, and future infinitive are used of a thing which at the time 
 indicated in the leading proposition was present, past, or future, 
 consequently as the imperfect, pluperfect, and futurum in praete- 
 rito ; Dicebat, dixit, dixerat, se timer e (that he feared, was afraid), 
 se timuisse, deceptum esse (that he had feared, had been deceived), 
 se venturum esse, deceptum iri (that he would come, should be de- 
 ceived), 
 
 Obs. 1. The perf. infin. must always stand after a perfect, when some- 
 thing is designated that was past at the time of the leading proposition, 
 though the pluperfect may be not used in English, e. g. Multi scriptores 
 tradiderunt, regem in praelio adfuisse (have related, that the king ivas 
 present). 
 
 Obs. 2. The perfect memini, which has the signification of a present, is 
 used of a past transaction, of which one has been oneself a witness, and 
 which one calls to memory, usually with the present infinitive (as if the 
 signification were, I remarked, when the transaction took place, that — ) : 
 Memini Catonem anno ante, qvam est mortuus, mecum et cam Scipione 
 disserere (Cic. Lael. 3). L. Metellum memini puer (I remember from my 
 boyish years) ita bonis esse viribus extremo tempore aetatis, ut adolescen- 
 tiam non reqyireret (Id. Cat. M. 9). On the other hand the perfect is 
 always used of a thing of which one has not been oneself a witness : 
 Memineram C. Marium, qvum vim armorum profugisset, senile corpus 
 paludibus occultasse (Cic. pro Sest. 22) ; and the perfect may also stand 
 in the first case, if the object be merely to contrast the thing remembered 
 with the present and to avoid ambiguity : Merninistis me ita initio dis- 
 tribuisse causam (Cic. Rose. Am. 42 ; this might also have been expressed 
 by distribuere). 
 
 §. 409. To represent the conditional pluperf. conj., the part, 
 fut. with fuisse is employed in the infinitive of the active voice 
 
 3a 
 
362 Syntax.— Part II. §. 409 
 
 (facturus fuisse, corresponding to facturus fid; §. 342; compare 
 §. 348 a. and §. 381) : Num Gn. Pompejum censes tribus suis con- 
 sulatibus, tribus triumplds laetaturum fuisse, si sciret se in solitudine 
 Aegyptiorum trucidatum iri? (Cic. Div. II. 9). In the passive 
 the periphrasis futurum fuisse, ut (it would have happened, that) 
 is made use of: Theophrastus moriens accusasse naturam dicitur, 
 qvod hominibus tarn exiguam vitam dedisset ; nam si potuisset esse 
 longinqvior, futurum fuisse, ut omnes artes perficerentur (Cic. Tusc. 
 III. 28). (Platonem existimo, si genus dicendi for ense tractare voluisset, 
 gravissime et copiosissime potuisse dicere ; Cic. Off. I. 1, because it would 
 be expressed in the oratio directa, Plato potuit, according to §. 348 e.) 
 
 Obs. The conditional imperf. conj. may be expressed after a preterite 
 by the fut. infin. as the futurum in praeterito (in the passive by futurum 
 esse or fore, ut) : Titurius clamabat, si Caesar adesset, neqve Carnutes in- 
 terjiciendi Tasgetii consilium fuisse capturos (==cepissent), neqve Eburones 
 tanta cum contemptione nostri ad castra venturos esse (—venirent ; Caes. 
 B. G. V. 29). But the transition to the oratio obliqva after a preterite 
 usually involves the change of the imperfect into the pluperfect, e. g. Si 
 ditior essem,plus darem— dixit se, si ditior esset, plus daturum fuisse. 
 
 §. 410. For the fut. infin., both in the active and passive voice, 
 a periphrasis with fore (sometimes futurum esse), ut (amem or amer, 
 that it will happen, that — ) is often made use of, e. g. Clamabant 
 homines, fore, ut ipsi sese dii immortales ulciscerentur (Cic. Verr. IV. 
 40) ; especially in verbs, which want the supine and the future 
 participle : Video te velle in coelum migrare ; spero fore, ut contin- 
 gat id nobis (Cic. Tusc. I. 34). 
 
 Obs. 1. The infinitive p osse. is also usually employed, where one might 
 have expected the future (will be able), especially after spero : Poscio dam- 
 nato, sperat Chrysogonus se posse, qvod adeptus est per scelus, id per luxu- 
 riant effundere (Cic. Rose. Am. 2). 
 
 Obs. 2. Fore with the part. perf. corresponds to the futurum exactum 
 (in the passive and deponent verbs) : Carthaginienses debellatum mox fore 
 rebantur (Liv. XXIII. 13), that they would soon have terminated the 
 war. Hoc dico, me satis adeptum fore, si ex tanto in omnes mortales 
 beneficio nullum in me periculum redundarit (Cic. pro Sull. 9). 
 
:12. Chap. VII.— The Supine and Gerund. 363 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Of the Supine, Gerund, and Gerundive. 
 
 §.411. The first (active) Supine in urn is used after verbs which 
 signify motion (e. g. eo, venio, aliqvem mitto), in order to express 
 the design with which the motion takes place, and is constructed 
 with the case of its verb : Legati in castra Aeqvorum venerunt qve- 
 stum injurias (Liv. III. 25). Fabius Pictor Delphos ad oraculum 
 missus est sciscitatum, qvibus precibus deos possent placare (Id. 
 XXII. 57). Lacedaemonii senem sessum receperunt (Cic. Cat. M. 
 18), to sit among them. 
 
 Ohs. 1 . We also read : Dare alicui aliqvam nuptum (to give in mar- 
 riage to any one) . JEo perditum, eo ultum have almost the same meaning 
 as per do, ulciscor (I go to destroy). 
 
 Ohs. 2. That which is expressed by the supine may also be indicated 
 by ut, ad, causa (qverendi causa), or by the participle future (§. 424, 
 Ohs. 5). The poets sometimes use the simple infinitive instead of this 
 supine : Proteus pecus egit altos visere monies (Hor. Od. I. 2, 7). 
 
 §. 412. The second supine in u is employed with adjectives, to 
 denote that the quality they express is attributed to the subject in 
 reference to a certain action, performed upon it (consequently in a 
 passive signification) : Hoc dictu qvam re facilius est. Honestum, 
 turpe factu (to do, if one does it). Uva peracerba gusiatu (to taste). 
 Qvid est tarn jucundum cognitu atqve auditu qvam sapientibus sen- 
 tentiis gravibusqve verbis ornata oratio? (Cic. de Or. I. 8). 
 
 Obs. 1. Some few adjectives, especially facile, difficile, and proclive, 
 stand in the neuter with a supine, even when they properly refer to an 
 active infinitive as their subject, and are followed by a proposition which 
 ought to depend on this infinitive : Difficile dictu est, qyanto opere con- 
 ciliet homines comitas affabilitasqye sermonis (Cic. Off. II. \^),-=^dicere. 
 Ad calamitatum societates non est facile inventu (==-invenire), qvi descen- 
 dant (Id. Lael. 17). In the same way fas and nefas are also used : Nefas 
 est dictu, miseram fuisse Fahii Maximi senectutem (Cic. Cat. M. 5). 
 
 Ohs. 2. The supine rarely stands with dignus, indignus, e. g. Nihil 
 dictu dignum (Liv. IX. 43)=nihil dignum, qvod dicatur. 
 
 Ohs. 3. Ad (with regard to) with the gerund is often used in the same 
 signification as the second supine, particularly after facilis, difficilis, ju- 
 cundus, e. g. Res facilis ad intelligendum, easy to understand. Verha ad 
 audiendum jucunda (Cic. de Or. I. 49). In the poets and later writers 
 
 3 a2 
 
364 Syntax.— Part II. §. 41: 
 
 we find these words with the infinitive : facilis legi, easy to read. Cereus 
 in vitium flecti (Hor. A. P. 161). 
 
 §.413. The Gerund (which has only the casus obliqvi), is used 
 to express the meaning of the pres. infin. act. (of the verb in gene- 
 ral), when the infinitive ought to stand in some particular case 
 (not the nominative), e. g. studium obtemperandi legibus (see the 
 following §§.). If the verb governs the accusative, then in place 
 of the gerund and the accusative governed by it (e. g. consilium 
 capiendi urbem ; perseqvendo hostes, by pursuing the enemy) the 
 word so governed may be put in the case of the gerund with the 
 gerundive for its adjective; consilium urbis capiendae ; perseqvendis 
 hostibus, so that the substantive and gerundive together represent the 
 action as taking place in reference to this person or thing. In English 
 the gerund is generally rendered by the (so-called) participle present (in 
 this and similar constructions really a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon in- 
 finitive, which ended in an), with the sign of the case, to, for, &c. prefixed. 
 If the gerund would have to be governed by a preposition, the ex- 
 pression with the gerundive is used always with the accusative, 
 and almost always with the ablative; thus, ad placandos deos 
 (not ad placandum deos), in victor e laudando (not in laudando vie- 
 torem) 1 . The dative also of the gerund with an accusative (esse 
 onus ferendo, for oneri ferendo) is very unusual. 
 
 Obs. 1 . In all other cases the choice between the gerund with an accu- 
 sative and the gerundive is determined by euphony and perspicuity, or 
 the mere pleasure of the writer. Some writers therefore retain the gerund 
 far more frequently than others, who (as Cicero and Caesar) prefer using 
 the gerundive. Yet the gerund is mostly retained when the object is a 
 neuter adjective or pronoun, e. g. studium aliqvid agendi, falsum fatendo 
 (by confessing something that is false), cupiditas plura Tiabendi, except 
 where the neuter singular denotes an abstract idea ; studium veri in- 
 veniendi (of discovering the truth). 
 
 Obs. 2. In the older writers we occasionally meet with a remarkable 
 irregularity ; the accusative plural, which should be governed by a ge- 
 rund in the genitive (e. g. facultas agros latronibus condonandi), being 
 turned into the genitive, as if the gerundive were to be employed (agro- 
 rum condonandorum), but the gerund still retained unaltered : Agitur, 
 utrum M. Antonio facultas detur opprimendae reipublieae, caedis faciendae 
 bonorum, diripiendae urbis, agrorum suis latronibus condonandi (Cic. 
 Phil. V. 3). 
 
 1 Tn the editions such expressions as ad levandum fortunam, and the like, are innaccu- 
 racics of the press. 
 
5. Chap. VII. — The Supine and Gerund. 365 
 
 §. 414. The infinitive, partly from its own nature, and partly 
 from the Latin idiom, cannot occur in all those relations to other 
 ■words, in which an actual substantive would be placed. Hence 
 the cases of the gerund (and of the gerundive used for it) are not 
 found in all those circumstances in which the same cases of a sub- 
 stantive would be employed, but in some of them only. 
 
 The accusative of the gerund (or the gerundive if combined with 
 a substantive) occurs only after a preposition, very frequently after 
 ad, more frequently after inter in the signification during (an 
 action), and ob : Breve tempus aetatis satis longum est ad bene 
 honesteqve vivendum (Cic. Cat. M. 19). Natura animum omavit 
 sensibus ad res percipiendas idoneis (Id. Finn. V. 21). Tuxs libris 
 nosmet ipsi ad veterum rerum memoriam comprehendendam impulsi 
 sumus (Id. Brut. 5). (Facilis ad intelligendum ; see §.412, Obs. 
 3). Cicero inter agendum nunqvam est destitutus scientia juris 
 (Quinct. XII. 3, 10). T, Herminius inter spoliandum corpus hostis 
 veruto percussus est (Liv. II. 20) . Flagitiosum est ob rem judican- 
 dam pecuniam accipere (Cic. Verr. II. 32). 
 
 Ohs. It is only in a few unusual constructions that the gerund (or ge- 
 rundive) stands after ante, in, circa, e. g. Qvae ante conditam conden- 
 damve urbem traduntur (Liv. praef.), what is handed down from the 
 times before the city was built or in building. 
 
 §.415. The dative of the gerund or gerundive (which latter is 
 almost always made use of when an accusative should follow, 
 §.413) is employed after verbs and phrases, which may have for 
 their object of relation an action that is being performed (as prae- 
 esse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere, to fix a time, a place, 
 for the action), and after adjectives, which denote a fitness and 
 adaptation for a certain action or destination : Praeesse agro colendo 
 (Cic. Rose. Am. 18). Meum laborem hominum periculis sublevandis 
 impertio (Id. pro Mur. 4). (Consul placandis dis dat operam (Liv. 
 XXII. 2). Ver ostendit fructus futuros ; reliqva tempora demetendis 
 fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt (Cic. Cat. M. 19). Genus 
 armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. XXXII. 10). Areafirma 
 templis porticibusqve sustinendis (Id. II. 5), firm enough to — . 
 Animis natum inventumqve poema juvandis (Hor. A. P. 377). (But 
 after such adjectives ad with the accusative of the gerund is more fre- 
 quently employed.) The dative of the gerund also expresses a des- 
 tination in official appellations (especially with compounds of vir), 
 e. g. decemviri legibus scribendis ; curator muris reficiendis ; and 
 
366 Syntax.— -V Aim II. §. 4 
 
 after comitia ; Valerius consul comitia collegae subrogando habuit 
 (Liv. II. 8). 
 
 Obs. 1. We should especially notice esse with the dative of the gerund 
 (esse solvendo) or gerundive, signifying to be in a condition to — capable 
 of — (particularly of payments and pecuniary imposts) : Tributo plebes 
 liber ata est, ut divites conferrent, qvi oneri ferendo essent (Liv. II. 9). 
 Experiunda res est, sitne aliqyi plebejus ferendo magno honori(I&. IV. 35). 
 (The same construction occurs with sufficere.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Some writers occasionally employ the dative of a substantive 
 with the gerundive after other expressions also, to denote a destination 
 and purpose, e. g. His avertendis terroribus in triduum feriae indictae 
 (Liv. III. 5). Germanicus Caecinam cum qyadraginta cohortibus distra- 
 hendo liosti adfumen Amisiam misit (Tac. Ann. I. 60). 
 
 §.416. The ablative of the gerund or gerundive stands some- 
 times as an ablative of the mean and instrument, sometimes after 
 the prepositions in, ab, de, ex. Homines ad deos nulla re propius 
 accedunt qvam salutem hominibus dando (Cic. pro Lig. 12). Volscus 
 stando et vigiliis fessus erat (Liv. II. 65). Omnis loqvendi elegantia 
 augetur legendis oratoribus et poetis (Cic. de Or. III. 10). In vo- 
 luptate spernenda virtus vel maxime cernitur, (Id. Legg. I. 19). 
 Aristotelem non deterruit a scribendo amplitudo Platonis (Id. Or. I). 
 Primus liber Tusculanarum disputationum est de contemnenda morte 
 (Id. Div. II. 1). Summa voluptas ex discendo capitur (Id. Finn. 
 Y. 18). 
 
 Oos. 1. Sometimes the ablative of the gerundive and gerund denotes 
 rather the way and manner (while, so that something takes place at the 
 same time) : Qvis est enim, qvi nullis officii praeceptis tradendis philo- 
 sophum se audeat dicer e? (Cic. Off. I. 2). L. Cornelius, complexus Ap- 
 pium, non, cui simulabat, consulendo, diremit certamen (Liv. III. 41), 
 not consulting the interests of the person, whose interests he pretended 
 to consult. 
 
 Obs. 2. The ablative of the gerund (or gerundive) is very rarely go- 
 verned by an adjective or the preposition pro : Contentus possidendis 
 agris (Liv. VI. 14), content with possessing the lands ; usually, possessione 
 agrorum. Hannibal pr o ope ferenda sociis per git ipse ire ad urbem oppug- 
 nandam (Id. XXIII. 28), usually, omisso opis sociis ferendae consilio, or 
 the like. (Nullum officium referenda gratia magis est necessarium, Cic. 
 Off. I. 15, as the ablative after the comparative.) 
 
 Obs. 3. Since the preposition sine is never used with the gerund, the 
 beginner may here notice the different ways in which without (doing a 
 thing) is rendered in Latin. That which does not happen, when spoken 
 
7. Chap. VII. — The Supine and Gerund. 367 
 
 of as something contemporaneous, is expressed by the participle present 
 either in apposition to the subject or the object, or in the form of the 
 ablativus conseqventiae ; what does not happen or has not happened pre- 
 iously, by the participle perfect : Miserum est nihil prqficientem angi 
 (Cic. N. D. III. 6). Nihil adversi accidit non praedicente me (Id. ad 
 Earn. VI. 6). Momani non rogati Graecis auxilium offerunt (Liv. XXXIV. 
 23). Consul, non exspectato auxilio collegae, pugnam committit. Natura 
 dedit usuram vitae tanqvam pecuniae, nulla praestituta die (Cic. Tusc. I. 
 39). A preliminary condition is expressed by nisi : Saec dijudicari non 
 possunt, nisi ante causam cognoverimus (sometimes, Haec dijudicare non 
 poterimus nisi melius de causa edocti, or, nisi causa ante cognita ; see 
 §.424, Obs. 4, §. 428, Obs. 2). To express a necessary consequence or 
 a necessarily accompanying circumstance, ut non or qvin must be em- 
 ployed according to §. 440 a. Obs. 3. In some cases a clause connected 
 by a copulative conjunction may convey the same meaning : Fieri potest, 
 ut recte qvis sentiat, et id, qvod sentit, polite eloqyi non possit (Cic. Tusc, 
 without being able to express his ideas with elegance). 
 
 §.417. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive stands after 
 substantives and adjectives as a genitivus objectivus (283 and 289) ; 
 so likewise as a genitivus infinitivus (§. 286) after substantives, in 
 order to define a general idea by another, in which it shews itself: 
 Cum spe vincendi abjecisti etiam pugnandi cupiditatem (Cic. ad Fam. 
 IV. 7). Parsimonia est scientia vitandi sumptus supervacuos aut ars 
 refamiliari moderate utendi (Sen. de Benef. II. 34). Ita natifac- 
 tiqve sumus, ut et agendi aliqvid et diligendi aliqvos et referendae 
 gratiae principia in nobis contineremus (Cic. Finn. V. 15). Germanis 
 neqve consilii habendi neqve arma capiendi spatium datum est (Caes. 
 B. G. IV. 14). Potestas mihi data est augendae dignitatis tuae (Cic. 
 ad Fam. X. 13). Vestis frigoris depellendi causa reperta primo est 
 (Id. de Or. III. 38). Sp. Maelius in suspicionem incidit regni appe- 
 tendi (Id. pro Mil. 27, suspicion of aiming at — ; regni appetiti, of 
 having aimed at — ). Cicero auctor nonfuit Caesaris interficiendi 
 (Id. ad Fam. XII. 2). Principes civitatis non tarn sui conservandi 
 qvam tuorum consiliorum reprimendorum causa Roma profugerunt 
 (Id. Cat. I. 3. For se conservandi, the genitive sui is put in the 
 neuter according to §. 297 b, if the gerundive is used, and that 
 whether se be the singular or the plural). Maxima illecebra est pec- 
 candi impunitatis spes (Id. pro Mil. 1 6 ; the genitive with illecebra accord- 
 ing to §. 283, Obs. 3.) — Peritus nandi. Valde sum cupidus in longiore 
 te ac perpetua disputatione audiendi (Cic. de Or. II. 4). Neuter sui 
 protegendi corporis memor erat (Liv. II. 6). — Triste est nomen ipsum 
 carendi (Cic. Tusc. I. 36), the word " to want." Galli diu retinu- 
 
368 Syntax,— Part II. §. 41 
 
 erunt immanent consvetudinem hominum immolandorum (Cic. pro 
 Font. 10), [Duo sunt genera liber alitatis, unum dandi benejicii, alterum 
 reddendi; Id, Off. I. 15; compare §. 286, Obs. 2.) 
 
 Obs. 1. The genitive of the gerund is not governed by verbs {recordor 
 facere, pudet me facer e). 
 
 Obs. 2. Some few substantives, which may be constructed with the 
 genitive of the gerund, may acquire in conjunction with est the force of 
 an impersonal expression (of a will, an inclination, &c.) after which the 
 infinitive is employed (§. 389). Thus we find, Tempus est abire (but 
 tempus committendi praelii, a favourable time for giving battle) : nulla 
 ratio est ejusmodi occasionem amittere (Cic. pro Caec. 5) ; consilium est 
 (my plan is, — decrevi) exitum exspectare. (The following is more unusual : 
 li, qvibus in otio vel magnifice vel molliter vivere copia erat, Sail. Cat. 17, 
 =licebat.) In the same way consilium capio usually stands with the in- 
 finitive, e. g. Galli consilium ceperunt ex oppido profugere (Caes. B. G. 
 VII. 26), sometimes also consilium ineo. (The following is the more 
 usual construction : M. Lepidus interficiendi Caesaris consilia inierat, 
 Veil. II. 88, and in the passive it is exclusively employed : Inita sunt 
 consilia urbis delendae, Cic. pro Mur. 37.) Sometimes also the meaning 
 of such a phrase gives occasion to the addition of a proposition with ut, 
 e. g. Subito consilium cepi, ut, antequam luceret, exirem (Cic. ad Att. VII. 
 10 ; compare §. 373 and §. 389, Obs. 1). Concerning the free use of the 
 infinitive instead of the genitive of the gerund by the poets, see §. 419. 
 
 Obs. 3. Ad is rarely employed after some phrases (e. g. facultatem 
 dare, afferre, locum, signum dare, aliqya or nulla est ratio), instead of the 
 genitive of the gerund governed by the substantive, e. g. Oppidum mag- 
 nam ad ducendum bellum dabat facultatem (Caes. B. G. I. 38) ; the more 
 usual construction would be ducendi belli. Si Cleomenes non tanto ante 
 fugisset, aliqya tamen ad resistendum ratio fuisset (Cic. Verr. V. 34). 
 JVe haec qvidem satis veliemens causa ad objurgandum fuit (Ter. Andr. 
 I. 1, 123). 
 
 Obs. 4. The genitive of a substantive and a gerund is sometimes sub- 
 joined to the verb sum, to denote the purpose which a thing serves (or 
 that to which it belongs, agreeably to the use of the genitive explained in 
 §. 282) : Regium imperium initio conservandae libertatis atqve augendae 
 reipublicae fuerat (Sail. Cat. 6). Tribuni plebis concordiamordinum timent, 
 qvam dissolvendae maxime tribuniciae potestatis rentur esse (Liv. V. 3). 
 
 Obs. 5. In a few writers (especially those of a later period) causa is 
 sometimes omitted after the genitive of a gerund or a substantive and ge- 
 rundive, e. g. Germanicus in Aegyptum proficiscitur cognoscendae antiqvi- 
 tatis (Tac. A. II. 59). Perhaps this idiom has originated in a genitive, 
 which was added to a substantive in order to define it, e. g. Marsi mise- 
 runt Bomam oratores pads petendae (Liv. IX. 45.) 
 
50. Chap. VII.— The Supine and Gerund. 369 
 
 §. 418. Sometimes the gerund is employed less accurately, so as to 
 have the appearance of a passive signification, inasmuch as it either 
 (especially in the genitive) merely designates the action of the verb in 
 general, and so takes the place of a substantive (e. g. movendi for motus), 
 or is referred in idea to some other agent than the grammatical subject 
 of the proposition : Multa vera videntur neqye tamen liabeni insignem et 
 propriam percipiendi notam (Cic. Acad. II. 31), mark by which they can 
 be known. Antonius, Tiostis judicatus, Italia cesserat ; spes restituendi 
 nulla erat (Corn. Att. 9),=restitutionis or fore, ut restitueretur. Jugur- 
 tha ad imperandum Tisidium vocabatur (Sail. Jug. 62), that he might re- 
 ceive orders. Annulus in digito subtertenuatur Jiabendo (Lucr. I. 313), 
 by our wearing it. {Facilis ad intelligendum ; see §.412, Obs. 3.) 
 
 §.419. The poets often use the simple infinitive after substantives (with 
 est), adjectives, and (more rarely) verbs, when the prose usage would 
 require the gerund in the genitive, or governed by ad or in : Si tanta 
 cupido est bis Stggios innare lacus, bis nigra videre Tartara (Virg. Aen. 
 VI. lS4),=innandi — videndi. Summa eludendi occasio est mihi nunc 
 senes et Phaedriae curam adimere argentariam (Ter. Phorm. V. 6, 3). 
 Pelides cedere nescius (Hor. Od. I. 6, 6),=cedendi. Avidus committere 
 pugnam (Ov. Met. V. 75). Audax omnia per peti gens humana (Hor. Od. 
 I. 3, 25),=ad omnia perpetienda. JVos numerus sumus et fruges consu- 
 mere nati (Id. Ep. I. 2, 27). Fingit eqyum magister ire, viam qya mon- 
 stret eqves (Id. ib. 65). JSfon mihi sunt vires inimicos pellere tectis (Ov. 
 Her. I. 109),=ad inimicos pellendos. Durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. 
 I. 4, 8),=in versibus componendis. (Eqvus, qvem Candida Dido esse sui 
 dederat monumentum et pignus amoris, i. q. ut esset, Virg. Aen. V. 572). 
 
 §.420. The gerundive (of transitive verbs) denotes something 
 that must be done (is to be done) : Vir minime contemnendus (virum 
 minime contemnendum } viro minime contemnendo, &c., through all 
 the cases) : Vires haud spernendae. Cognoscite aliud genus impera- 
 torum, sane dilig enter retinendum et conservandum (Cic. Verr. V. 10). 
 In combination with the verb sum (in all the simple tenses of the 
 indicative, conjunctive, and infinitive) the gerundive denotes that 
 a certain action is to be done (must be done, is proper and neces- 
 sary). If a definite subject be spoken of, to whom the action is a 
 duty (who has to do it), this subject is put in the dative (§. 250 b) : 
 Ager colendus est, ut fruges ferat. Fortes et magnanimi sunt ha- 
 bendi, non qvi faciunt, sed qvi propulsant injuriam (Cic. Off. I. 19). 
 Tria videnda sunt oratori, qvid dicat et gvo qvidqve loco et qvomodo 
 (Cic. Or. 14), Qvi civium rationem dicunt habendam (viz. esse), 
 externorum negant, dirimunt communem humani generis societatem 
 (Id. Off. III. 6). Video, rem omittendam esse {fore), Qvaero, si 
 
 3b 
 
370 Syntax. — Part II. §. 42 
 
 hostis supervenisset, qvid mihi faciendum fuerit (corresponding to 
 faciendum fuit in the indicative, §. 348 e). Credo, rem aliter insti- 
 tuendam fuisse (ought to have been planned otherwise) . 
 
 Obs. After a negation, and particularly after vix, the gerund or gerun- 
 dive sometimes takes the modified signification of that which may be 
 done: Vix ferendus dolor (Cic. Finn. IV. 19). Vix credendum erat 
 (Caes. B. G. V. 28), it was hardly credible (impersonally; see §. 421). 
 In the poets and later writers videndus is sometimes found even without 
 a negation, signifying visible (to be seen), and the like. 
 
 §.421. a. From intransitive verbs (which otherwise have no ge- 
 rundive) the neuter of the gerundive is used with est [sit, &c.) as 
 an impersonal phrase (like venitur, ventum est ; §. 218 c. compare 
 §. 97), to signify that the action must be done. The subject which 
 has to do something is expressed by the dative, as with the ordi- 
 nary gerundive, and the impersonal phrase governs the same case 
 as the verb (dative, ablative, or genitive) : Nunc est bibendum. 
 Proficiscendum mihi erat Mo ipso die. Obtemperandum est legibus. 
 Utendum erit viribus. Obliviscendum tibi injuriarum esse censeo. 
 
 Ohs. 1 . If the verb governs the dative, two datives may come together, 
 e. g. Aliqvando isti principes et sibi et ceteris populi Romani universi 
 auctoritati parendum esse fateantur (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 22). But this 
 is better avoided. The agent is very rarely distinguished by ab instead 
 of by the dative, e. g. Aguntur bona multorum civium, qvibus est a vobis 
 consulendum (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 2). 
 
 Ohs. 2. The verbs utor,fruor,fungor, potior, have the proper gerun- 
 dive, although they govern the ablative, e. g. Rei utendae causa. JVon 
 paranda solum sapientia sed fruenda etiam est (Cic. Finn. I. 1) ; but in 
 this construction with the verb sum the impersonal form is more usual 
 {utendum est viribus). 
 
 b. The oldest writers sometimes form such an impersonal phrase from 
 transitive verbs, and let an accusative follow, e. g. Mihi Jiac nocte agitan- 
 dum est vigilias (Plaut. Trin. IV. 2, 27), instead of mihi hac nocte agi- 
 tandae sunt vigiliae. Aeternas poenas in morte timendum est (Lucr. I. 
 112). In good prose writers this is very unusual. 
 
 §. 422. The gerundive is subjoined to the object or in the passive 
 to the subject of certain verbs, which signify to give, to transfer, to 
 make over, to take, to obtain, (do, mando, trado, impono, relinqvo, pro- 
 pono, accipio, suscipio, &c), in order to specify it as the design and 
 purpose of the action, that something should be done to the object 
 or subject (to give a person a thing to keep, i. q. that it may be 
 kept) : Antigonus Eumenem mortuum propinqvis sepeliendum tra- 
 
} A. Chap. VIII.— The Participles. 371 
 
 didit (Corn. Eum. 13). Demits nos philosophiae excolendos (Cic. 
 Tusc. IV. 38). Laudem gloriamqve P. Africani tuendam conser- 
 vandamqve suscepi (Id. Verr. IV. 38). Loco (conduco) opus faci- 
 endum, vectigal fruendum, to let (contract for) the execution of 
 a work, to lease out a tax. So also with the verb euro, to get 
 a thing done : Caesar pontem in Arari faciendum curat (Caes. 
 B. G. I. 13). Conon muros Athenarum reficiendos curavit (Corn. 
 Con. 4). 
 
 Obs. 1. The poets here use the present infin. act. (as is often the case 
 in English), e. g. Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Creticum 
 portare ventis (Hor. Od. I. 26, 1). In prose we find, Do (ministro) alicui 
 bibere, give one to drink (without an accusative). Jussit ei bibere dare. 
 
 Obs. 2. Though it is allowable to say, habeo aedem tuendam, the keep- 
 ing up of the temple is entrusted to me, yet habeo statuendum, dicendum, 
 &c, I have to decide, must decide (for statuendum mihi est), is a later 
 idiom. (We must also notice habeo with the infin. of dico and similar 
 verbs, as seribo, polliceor, in the signification, I can : Haec fere dicere 
 habui de natura deorum (Cic. N. D. III. 39), this is what I had to say, 
 could say. De republica nihil habui ad te scribere, Id. ad Att. II. 22). 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Of the Participles, 
 
 §.423. The Participle (allied in signification to the adjective) 
 points out a person or thing as the subject of a certain action or 
 suffering, or as circumstanced in a certain way, either now, or at 
 some past or future time. The active participles, which express 
 the person or thing as acting, govern the case of their verb, and 
 the action (the suffering, the state), which is expressed by the 
 participle, may be further defined, as in the case of the predicate 
 of an independent proposition : Venit Gajus ad me qverens valde 
 miser abiliter de injuria sibi afratre suo illata. 
 
 §. 424. By means of the participles the description of a contem- 
 porary, past, or future action, connected with the main action, is 
 added in the way of apposition to a substantive (or equivalent 
 word) of the leading proposition, so that they serve to define not 
 only the relation of time as connected with the main action, but 
 also its manner and circumstances, as the motive, occasion, con- 
 trast, condition (design). Such relations and circumstances are 
 
 3b2 
 
372 Syntax.— Part II. §. 4< 
 
 often expressed in English by subordinate propositions with con- 
 junctions (while, during, when, after, since, because, although), or 
 by phrases with prepositions. The participles are therefore well 
 adapted to impart smoothness and brevity to the style, especially 
 as they may be annexed not only to the subject of the leading 
 proposition (which is most usual), but also to the object, or object 
 of relation, or to a genitive : A'er effluens hue et illuc ventos efficit 
 (Cic. N. D. II. 39). Omne malum nascens facile opprimitur ; in- 
 veteratum fit plerumqve robustius (Id. Phil. V. 11), in its birth — 
 when it has grown older. M\ Curio ad focum sedenti Samnites 
 magnum auri pondus attulerunt (Id. Cat. M. 16). Mendaci homini 
 ne verum qvidem dicenti credere solemus (Id. de Div. II. 71). Valet 
 apud nos clarorum hominum memoria etiam mortuorum (Id. pro 
 Sest. 9). Valerium hostes acerrime pugnantem occidunt (while 
 fighting). Miserum est nihil proficient em angi (Cic. N. D. III. 6), 
 without doing any good. Dionysius tyr annus cultros metuens ton- 
 sorios candenti carbone sibi adurebat capillum (Id. Off. II. 7), for 
 fear of. Bisus saepe ita repente erumpit, ut eum cupientes tenere 
 neqveamus (Id. de Or. II. 38), although we wish it. Dionysius 
 tyrannus Syracusis expulsus Corinthi pueros docebat (Id. Tusc. III. 
 12), after he had been expelled, after his expulsion. Claudius 
 audendum aliqvid improvisum rebatur, qvod coeptum non minorem 
 apud cives qvam hostes terrorem faceret, perpetratum in magnam 
 laetitiam ex magno metu verteret (Liv. XXVII. 43). Romani non 
 rogati Graecis ultro adversus Nabin auxilium offerunt (Id. XXXIV. 
 23). Qvis hoc non intelligit, Verrem absolutum tamen ex manibus 
 populi Romani eripi nullo modo posse ? (Cic. Verr. I. 4), even if he 
 should be acquitted. Magna pars hominum est, qvae navigatura 
 de tempestate non cogitat (Sen. de Tranq. An. 11), when they are 
 to sail k . 
 
 Ols. 1 . It should here be observed, that in Latin the past time has no 
 active participle (except in deponents and half-deponents), and that the 
 present and future have no passive participle. 
 
 Obs. 2. Two actions which are contemporaneous or following in close 
 succession, one of which, as a circumstance accompanying the other, is 
 expressed in Latin by the participle, are often connected in English by 
 and : Caesar celeriter aggressus Pompejanos ex vallo deturhavit (Caes. B. 
 
 k Est apud Platonem Socrates, qvum esset in custodia publica, dicens Critoni suofami- 
 liari, sibi post tertium diem esse moriendum (Cic. de Div. I. 25, Socrates is introduced in 
 Plato (we read in Plato of Socrates), as saying to his friend Crito. (Dicens denoting 
 the manner, not est dicens for dicit.) 
 
4. Chap. VIII.— The Participles. 3/3 
 
 C. III. 67). T. Manlius Torqvatus Galium, cum qvo provocatus manum 
 conseruit, in conspectu duorum exercituum caesum torqve spoliavit (Liv. 
 VI. 42) ,=cecidit et spoliavit. Patrimonium Sex. Roscii domestici prae- 
 dones vi ereptum possident (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 6). (We should notice 
 also the repetition of the preceding verb in the participle : Romani qvum 
 urbem vi cepissent captamqve diripuissent, Carthaginem petunt, Liv. 
 XXII. 20 ; when they had conquered the town and then plundered it. 
 Bomulics Caeninensium exercitwn fundit fugatqve, fusum perseqvitur ; 
 Id. I. 10). 
 
 Obs. 3. In Latin a relative or interrogative proposition may also be ex- 
 pressed in a participial form ; a participle which governs a relative or 
 interrogative pronoun or is defined by it, being added to the subject or 
 object of a proposition (but rarely to another word) : Insidebat in mente 
 Phidiae species pulchritudinis eximia qvaedam, qvam intuens ad illius 
 similitudinem artem et manum dirigebat (Cic. Or. 2), looking to which he 
 — i. q. to which he looked and — . Cogitate, qyantis laborious fundatum 
 imperium, qvanta virtute stabilitam libertatem una nox paene delerit (Id. 
 Cat. IV. 9). 
 
 Obs. 4. Instead of a complete subordinate proposition, a participle is 
 sometimes connected by the participle nisi, when a negation precedes, in 
 order to express an exception or a negative condition : JVon mehercule 
 mihi nisi admonito venisset in mentem (Cic. de Or. II. 42),=nisi admoni- 
 tus essem. In the same way a participle is sometimes connected (but 
 not in the older writers, as Cicero) by qvanqvam, qvamvis, or qyasi, tan- 
 qvam, velut, or non ante (priiis) qyam, to denote a contrast or comparison 
 or a defined period of time, which is otherwise expressed by a subordinate 
 proposition introduced for the purpose : Caesar em milites, qvamvis recu- 
 santem, ultro in Africam sunt secuti (Svet. Jul. 70). Caesar non ante 
 gubernatorem cedere adversae tempestati passus est qvam paene fluctibus 
 obrutus (Id. ib. 5S),=qvani paene fluctibus obrutus est. (On the other 
 hand the combination of a participle with the preposition sine in phrases 
 like the following, "without a corresponding benefit," is not admissible 
 in Latin. On the proper mode of expressing this see §. 416, Obs. 3.) 1 
 
 Obs. 5. The participle future commonly stands in the older writers 
 (Cicero, Caesar, Sallust) only in combination with the verb sum, to ex- 
 press certain relations of time connected with the action {futurus also as 
 a pure adjective). In the later writers it serves, like the other participles, 
 to denote circumstances and relations, sometimes in the signification ^for 
 when, sometimes (more frequently), to signify a design or a view to some- 
 thing : Perseus, unde profectus erat, rediit, belli eastern de integro tenta- 
 
 1 [In such expressions as, he ran without stopping, he went away without taking leave, 
 the words ' stopping' and ' taking' are to be considered as verbal substantives, or the 
 ancient infinitive. See p. 358.] 
 
374 Syntax,— Part II. §. 4 
 
 turns (Liv. XLII. 62). Horatius Codes ausus est rem plus famae Jiabi- 
 turam ad posteros qyamfidei (Id. II. 10). Neqye Mis judicium aut Veritas 
 (erat), qvippe eodem die diver sa pari certamine postulaturis (Tac. H. I. 
 32). It is also employed by the same writers as a concise mode of ex- 
 pressing a whole conditional proposition, which should have been sub- 
 joined to the preceding : Martialis dedit mihi qyantum potuit, daturus 
 amplius, si potuisset (Plin. Ep. III. 21),=e£ dedisset amplius. 
 
 §.425. a) A participle (generally only the present and perfect) 
 may also be employed as an adjective to define a substantive, with 
 the signification of a relative periphrasis, without pointing to any 
 particular circumstance in relation to the main proposition ; carbo 
 ardens ; legati a rege missi. Or do est recta qvaedam collocatio, pri- 
 oribus seqventia annectens (Qvintil. VII. 1, 1). A participle may 
 likewise be used substantively in place of the periphrasis with the 
 relative ; dormiens=is, qvi dormit. But this is done only where 
 no ambiguity can result from it (where there is no inducement to 
 understand the participle as designating a circumstance), less fre- 
 quently in the singular, and very rarely in the nominative or accu- 
 sative singular (compare §. 301 a). A further definition (by cases, 
 adverbs, prepositions, &c.) is not often subjoined to a participle 
 that stands substantively, in any case only a very short and per- 
 spicuous one: Jacet corpus dormientis ut mortui (Cic. Div. I. 30), 
 Nihil difficile amanti puto (Id. Or. 10). Uno et eodem temporis 
 puncto nati (persons who are born) dissimiles et naturas et vitas 
 habent (Id. Div. II. 45). Romulus vetere consilio condentium urbes 
 asylum aperit (Liv. I. 8=eorum, qvi urbes condunt or condiderunt) . 
 Male parta male dilabuntur (Cic. Phil. II. 27). Imperaturus omni- 
 bus eligi debet ex omnibus (Plin. Paneg. 7). 
 
 b) The participle present and perfect are often used to express 
 not only or chiefly, that the substantive is note doing something or 
 that something has been done to it before, but a certain quality 
 and a certain state in general, so that the participle acquires pre- 
 cisely the nature of an adjective, e. g. carbo ardens, domus ornata, 
 vir bene de republica meritus. Animalia alia rationis expertia sunt, 
 alia ratione utentia (Cic. Off. II. 3), rational. Consequently many 
 participles admit of degrees of comparison (see §. 62), and in this 
 case the present participle of transitive verbs generally has the 
 genitive instead of the accusative (§. 289 a). 
 
 Obs. The future participle cannot be used in a purely adjectival signifi- 
 cation, except in the particular instance when a relation of time is con- 
 ceived as a general property of a thing, asfuturus, future, anni venturi. 
 
I Chap. VIII.— The Participles. 375 
 
 c) The participle perfect of many verbs has assumed in the 
 neuter gender precisely the signification of a substantive, and is 
 treated as such, e. g. peccatum, pactum, votum. Some participles, 
 particularly dictum, factum, and responsum, are used in a substan- 
 tive signification sometimes precisely as substantives (praeclarum 
 factum, fortia facta, ex alterius improbo facto) and sometimes as 
 participles combined with adverbs, e. g. recte facta, facete dic- 
 tum, especially if there is also an adjective or possessive pro- 
 noun: Multa Catonis et in senatu et in foro vel provisa pru- 
 denter vel acta constanter vel responsa acute ferebantur 
 (Cic. Lael.2). 
 
 §. 426. Sometimes a substantive is used with the perfect parti- 
 ciple in such a way, that we have to think not so much of the 
 person or thing itself in a certain state, as of the action performed 
 on the subject considered in itself substantively, e. g. rex interfectus, 
 the (perpetrated) murder of the king. (Like the gerundive, especially 
 n the genitive, with this difference, that the latter does not designate the 
 iction as completed.) L. Tarqvinius missum se dicebat, qvi Catilinae 
 nuntiaret, ne eum Lentulus et Cethegus deprehensi terr event (Sail. 
 Cat. 48), that the arrest of L. and C. should not alarm him m . 
 Pudor non lati auxilii patres cepit (Liv. XXI. 16). Sibi gvisqve 
 caesi regis expetebat decus (Curt. IV. 58). Regnatum est Romae 
 ub condita urbe ad liberatam annos ducentos qvadraginta qvattuor 
 (Liv. I. 60), from the foundation of the city to its liberation. Ante 
 Capitolium incensum (Id. VI. 4). Major ex civibus amissis dolor 
 fvam laetitia fusis hostibus fuit (Liv. IV. 17), at the loss of citizens. 
 Tiberius militem ob surreptum e viridario pavonem capite puniit 
 (Svet. Tib. 60). (This form is particularly employed, in order to 
 obtain a concise mode of expression, when the corresponding verbal 
 substantive is not in use, e. g. from condere, interficere, nasci.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Livy uses in this way even the participle of an intransitive verb 
 standing by itself in the neuter with an impersonal signification : Tarqvi- 
 nius Superbus bellica arte aeqvasset superior es reges, nisi degeneratum 
 in aliis liuic qvoqve laudi offecisset (Liv. I. 53), the circumstance, that 
 he had degenerated in other respects, his other degeneracy". 
 
 Obs. 2. Concerning the part. perf. in the ablative with opus est, see 
 §. 266, Obs. 
 
 §.427. The verb Tiabeo forms with a participle perfect (usually only 
 from verbs which denote an insight or a resolution) in apposition to the 
 
 m [Angebant virum Sicilia Sardiniaqve amissae (Liv. XXI. 1).] 
 
 n Notum, furens qvidfemina possit (Virg. Aen. V. 6 ; the knowledge what — ). 
 
376 Syntax.— Part II. §. 4 
 
 object, or with such a participle alone in the neuter, a kind of periphrasis 
 for the perfect active, by which the present condition is at the same time 
 pointed out ; habeo aliqvid perspectum having not merely the force of per- 
 spexi, but signifying that I now have this insight into a thing, and that it 
 stands before me clearly investigated : Si Curium nondum satis hdbes cog- 
 nitum, valde tibi eum commendo (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 7). Siculi Jidem 
 oneam spectatam jam et diu cognitam Tiabent (Id. Div. in Caec. IY). Tu 
 si habes jam statutum, qvid tibi agendum putes, supersedeto hoc labore 
 itineris (Id. ad Fam. IV. 2). Verres deorum templis helium semper habuit 
 indictum (Id. Verr. V. 72), was always at open war with the temples. 
 
 Obs. The periphrasis factum (rem factam) dabo for faciam is anti- 
 quated. 
 
 §.428. A participle combined with a subject and put in the 
 ablative is annexed to another proposition in the way described in 
 §. 277 as an ablativus conseqventiae, to shew that the main action 
 takes place at the same time with the action expressed in the par- 
 ticiple (present), or after it (perfect), or while it is to take place 
 (future), and by these means to indicate the time of the main 
 action, the occasion of it, the way in which it is performed, a con- 
 trast, a condition, &c. To the participle in the ablativus conse- 
 qventiae may be added definitions (cases, prepositions, adverbs), in 
 the same manner in which they might stand in the proposition, 
 in the place of which this ablative is employed : Homerus fuit et 
 Hesiodus ante Bomam conditam, Archilochus regnante Bomulo (Cic. 
 Tusc. I. 1). Qvaeritur, utrum mundus (the firmament) terra stante 
 circumeat, an mundo stante terra vertatur (Sen. Q. N. VII. 2). Per- 
 ditis rebus omnibus, tamen ipsa virtus se sustentare potest (Cic. ad 
 Earn. VI. 1). Caesar homines inimico animo, data facultate per pro- 
 vinciam itineris faciendi, non temper aturos ab injuria existimabat 
 (Caes. B. G. I. 7), if (in case that) the permission should be given 
 them — . Id habes a natura ingenium ; qvo exculto summa omnia 
 facile asseqvi possis (by the cultivation of which, see §.445, Obs.) 
 Qva freqventia omnium generum proseqvente creditis nos Capua pro- 
 fectos ? (Liv. VII. 30 ; ablativi conseqventiae in an interrogative 
 form.) Parumper silentium et qvies fuit, nee Etruscis, nisi cogeren- 
 tur, pugnam inituris et dictatore arcem Romanam respectante (Liv. 
 IV. 18). 
 
 Obs. 1. Ablativi conseqventiae are not commonly used, when the idea 
 (the person or thing), which should form their subject, occurs in the main 
 proposition as the subject or object (or object of relation), the participle 
 being then added in the same case : Manlius caesum Galium torqve 
 
8. Chap. VIII.— The Participles. 377 
 
 spoliavit, not, Mcmlius, caeso Gallo, eum torqve spoliavit ; still less, Man- 
 lius Galium, caeso eo, t. sp.) Sometimes however ablativi conseq. are 
 found in such cases, in order to draw a more marked distinction between 
 the contents of the participial and those of the leading proposition, and 
 to indicate more prominently the order of events or the relation they 
 bear to each other : Vercingetorix, convocatis suis clientibus, facile incendit 
 (eos) (Caes. B. G. VII. 4). Nemo erit, qvi credat, te invito, provinciam 
 tibi esse decretam (Cic. Phil. XL 10). (Sejudice nemo nocens absolvitur, 
 Juv. XIII. 3, before his own judgment-seat.) For the same reason the 
 ablativus conseqyentiae is generally made use of, where the subject of the 
 participle stands in the genitive in the leading proposition : M. JPorcius 
 Cato vivo qvoqve Scipione allatrare ejus magnitudinem solitus erat (Liv. 
 XXXVIII. 54). Jugurtha fratre nieo interfecto regnum ejus sceleris sui 
 praedam fecit (Sail. Jug. 14 ; had it been expressed fratris mei interfecti 
 regnum, it would not be clear that Jugurtha himself had killed him). 
 
 Obs. 2. Ablativi conseqyentiae, like a simple participle (see §. 424, 
 Obs. 4) may sometimes be subjoined with nisi, when a negative precedes, 
 to point out an exception : Nihil praecepta atqve artes valent nisi adju- 
 vante natura (Qvinct. Prooem. §. 26),==nisi qvum adjuvat natura. Me- 
 qina apum non procedit foras nisi migraturo agmine (Plin. H. N. XI. 17), 
 
 ■.nisi qvum agmen migraturum est. So likewise ablativi conseqyentiae 
 may be connected (though examples are not found in the older writers) 
 by qvanqvam, qvamvis, or qvasi, tanqvam, velut, or non ante {prius) 
 qvam ; Caesar, qvanqvam obsidione Massiliae summaqve frumentariae rei 
 penuria retardante, brevi tamen omnia subegit (Svet. Jul. 34). Albania 
 velut diis qvoqve simul cum patria relictis, sacra oblivioni dederant 
 (Liv. I. 31). 
 
 Obs. 3. Ablativi conseqventiae of the partic. fut. are rare, and not met 
 with in the older writers (compare §. 424, Obs. 5). 
 
 Obs. 4. Ablativi conseqventiae in the passive, with a leading proposition 
 in the active, usually denote an action proceeding from the subject of the 
 leading proposition, if the name of an agent is not introduced with ab : 
 e. g. Cognito Caesaris adventu, Ariovistus legatos ad eum mittit. In this 
 case the leading subject may sometimes stand between the two ablatives, 
 e.g. Sis Caesar cognitis milites aggerem comportare jubet (Caes. B. C. 
 III. 62). {C. Sempronius causa ipse pro se dicta damnatur, Liv. IV. 44; 
 i. q. qvum ipse causampro se diocisset). Sometimes the ablativi conseqv. 
 express something that has happened with reference to the leading sub- 
 ject : Hannibal, spe potiundae Nolae adempta, Acerras recessit (Liv. 
 XXIII. 17). Aedui Caesar em certiorem faciunt, sese, depopulatis agris, 
 non facile ab oppidis vim hostium prohibere (Caes. B. G. I. 11 ; after 
 their fields had been already plundered). {His a te dictis, nihil praeter 
 
 3c 
 
378 Syntax.— Part II. §. 4$ 
 
 sententiam dicerem, nisi P. Servilio respondendum putarem, Cic. Phil. 
 IX. 1). 
 
 Obs. 5. To the participle in the ablativi conseqventiae it is not usual to 
 add other ablatives, which might lead to a sacrifice of euphony or per- 
 spicuity ; indeed long and complicated propositions in general are] not 
 often expressed in this way. Ablat. conseq. are also unusual, when an- 
 other participle is added as an adjective, e. g. Defosso cadaver e domi apud 
 T. Sestium invento, C. Julius Sestio diem dixit (Liv. III. 33). Writers 
 generally endeavour to avoid such a concurrence of two participles. 
 {JEumene paeatiore invento, Liv. XXXVII. 45 ; see §. 227, Obs. 4.) 
 
 Obs. 6. Occasionally turn {turn vero, turn deniqve) is subjoined after 
 dblativi conseqventiae in order emphatically to mark out the action as of 
 previous occurrence, and as the supposition on which the leading action 
 is founded : Hoc constituto, turn licebit otiose ista qvaerere (Cic. ad Earn. 
 IV. 13). Sed confecto proelio, turn vero cerneres, qvanta animi visfuisset 
 in exercitu Gatilinae (Sail. Cat. 64). 
 
 §. 429. Sometimes the ablative of a part. perf. stands alone imperson- 
 ally in the same way as the ablative of a substantive and participle in 
 combination, followed by a dependent proposition (accus. with the inf., 
 interrogative proposition, or ut). (So in particular audito, cognito, com- 
 perto, intellecto, nuntiato, edicto, permisso, and sometimes a few others.) 
 Alexander, audito, Darium movisse ab Ecbatanis (had set out from Ecba- 
 tana),fugiente?n inseqvi per git (Curt. V. 35). Consul, statione eqvitum ad 
 portam posita, edictoqve, ut, qvicunqve ad vallum tenderet, pro noste habe- 
 retur, fugientibus obstitit (Liv. X. 36) °. 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes a participle even stands singly, without anything 
 depending on it : Tribuni militum, non loco castris ante capto, non prae- 
 munito vallo, nee auspicato, nee litato, instruunt aciem (Liv. V. 38). 
 (Compare the adverbs auspicato, consulto, &c. §. 198 a, Obs. 2.) 
 
 Obs. 2. In ablativi conseqventiae the subject may be left out and under- 
 stood, if it is an indefinite or demonstrative pronoun," which has a relative 
 corresponding to it : Additur dolus, missis, qvi magnam vim lignorum 
 ardentem in flumen conjicerent (Liv. I. 37). (Caralitani, simul ad se 
 Valerium mitti audierunt, nondum profecto ex Italia, sua sponte ex op- 
 pido Cottam ejiciunt ; Caes. B. C. I. 30; where eo has to be supplied 
 from the context.) 
 
 §. 430. Since in Latin an action may be designated in various ways as 
 a circumstance connected with the leading proposition (by a subordinate 
 proposition with a conjunction, by a participle, that corresponds to some 
 word in the proposition, and by ablativi conseqventiae), it is usual, when 
 a continued series of several circumstances is to be brought forward, 
 
 ° Incerto is found as an equivalent expression for qvum incertum esset in Livy 
 XXVIII. 36. 
 
il. Chap. VIII.— The Participles. 379 
 
 to vary the use of these constructions, so that the participial constructions 
 are either subjoined to the subordinate proposition (the protasis) and 
 explain and define it, or enter into the leading proposition : Consul, nun- 
 tio, circumventi fratris conversus ad pugnam, dum se teinere onagis qvam 
 caute in mediam dimicationem infert, vulnere accepto, aegre ab circiom- 
 stantibus ereptus, et suorum animos turbavit et ferociores hostes fecit 
 (Liv. III. 5). Yet a series of ablativi aonseq. is occasionally employed to 
 express circumstances which follow in succession (e. g. Caes. B. G. III. 
 1). This depends on the greater or less care which the writer has be- 
 stowed on variety and precision of expression. 
 
 §. 431. a. The participle denotes the time with reference to the 
 leading verb of the proposition, so that, if this be in the preterite, 
 the participle present has the signification of the imperfect (prae- 
 setts in praeterito), the participle perfect that of the pluperfect 
 (praeteritum in praeterito) , and the participle future that of the 
 futurum in praeterito, and this must also be borne in mind in speci- 
 fying time in subordinate propositions depending on a participle. 
 {Haec omnia Tithes pridem mutavit one probante signifies therefore, with 
 my approbation at the time, not which I now approve.) 
 
 b. The participle perfect of deponents or half- deponents is not 
 unfrequently joined to the subject instead of the part. pres. (im- 
 perf.) to indicate the motive, occasion, or manner of the main 
 action (since) : Fatebor me in adolescentia, diffisum ingenio meo, 
 qvaesisse adjumenta doctrinae (Cic. pro Mur. 30). Caesar, iisdem 
 ducibus usus, qvi nuntii venerant, Numidas et Cretas sagittarios sub- 
 sidio oppidanis mitt it (Caes. B. G. II. 7). Ego copia et facultate 
 causae confisus, vide, qvo progrediar (Cic. pro Rose. Com. 1). Yet 
 this occurs chiefly in the historical style, where the leading propo- 
 sition is in the perfect or historical present, or in those cases where 
 the present participle is not in use (ratus, solitus). 
 
 Obs. 1. Otherwise there are but few instances of the participle perfect 
 inaccurately used as an attribute with the force of a present : Melior 
 tutiorqve est certa pax qyam sperata victoria (Liv. XXX. 30=qvae spe- 
 ratur. So called is never expressed in Latin by ita diet us, but by qvi 
 dicitur, qvi vocatur, qvem vocant. 
 
 Obs. 2. In some writers (Livy and those of a later period) we occa- 
 sionally find ablativi conseqventiae formed with the participle perfect to 
 express a circumstance which does not precede, but accompanies or fol- 
 lows the main action : Volsci inermes oppressi dederunt poenas, viae nun- 
 tiis caedis relictis (Liv. IV. 10 ; so that scarcely — ). Hannibal totis 
 viribus aggressus urbem momento cepit, signo dato, ut omnes puberes inter- 
 Jicerent (Id. XXI. 14). 
 
 3c 2 
 
380 Syntax.- Part II. §. 43 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Combination of coordinate and subordinate Propositions, and the 
 Use of the Conjunctions for this purpose. The interrogative and 
 negative Particles. • 
 
 §. 432. The Coordination of Propositions (§. 328) is denoted by 
 conjunctions which simply express connection, separation, or con- 
 trast (conjundiones copulativae, disjundivae, adversativae) . 
 
 Ols. Words (adverbs), which though referring to the preceding pro- 
 position, and indicating a relation between the contents of the two pro- 
 positions, express no grammatical relation between them (as, for example, 
 nam, enim, ideo, ergo, igitur, itaqve, enimvero, tamen), are less accurately 
 named conjunctions. So likewise etiam, qvoqve, simul. 
 
 §. 433. The Copulative Conjunctions are et, qve (which is 
 affixed to the end of a word), ac {atqve), and (combined with a 
 negation) nee, neqve, and not. Et simply connects two coordinate 
 words or propositions, without any additional signification what- 
 ever ; while qve rather marks the second member as a supplement 
 to the first, and as a continuation or enlargement of it, e. g. solis 
 et lunae reliqvorumqve siderum ortus ; de ilia civitate totaqve pro- 
 vincia. Pro salute hujus imperii et pro vita civium proqve universa re- 
 publica (Cic. pro Arch. 11). Prima seqventem honestum est in secundis 
 tertiisqve consistere. Tu omnium divinarum Tiumanarumqve rerum no- 
 mina, genera, causas aperuisti, plurimumqve poetis nostris, omninoqve 
 Latinis et litteris luminis et verbis attulisti (Cic. Acad. I. 3). Mihi 
 vero nihil unqvam populare placuit, eamqve optimam republicam esse 
 duco, qvam liic consul constituit (Id. Legg. III. 17) p. It is therefore 
 often employed to connect two notions which are to be con- 
 sidered as a connected whole (senatus populusqve Romanus, but 
 Caesare et Bibulo consulibus, of the two consuls considered as 
 equal), or with two words, which express only one leading idea 
 (jus potestatemqve habere). (In many cases no distinction is 
 made : nodes et dies, nodes diesqve. Rerum divinarum et huma- 
 narum scientia; Cic. Off. I. 43; omnium divinarum humanarumqve 
 rerum consensio ; Id. Lael. 6) . Ac (which only stands before 
 consonants) or atqve (before consonants and vowels) puts for- 
 ward the second member somewhat more forcibly in corapa- 
 
 p Examples of a series of such additions and continm tions may be seen in Cicero, 
 Legg. I. 23, and Phil. IX. 7. 
 
4. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. 381 
 
 rison with the first as distinct from it and equally important 
 {omnia, honesta atqve inhonesta, the unbecoming no less than the 
 becoming : omnium rerum, divinarum atqve humanarum, vim, natu- 
 ram, causasque nosse ; Cic. de Or. I. 49). Yet this accessory sig- 
 nification is often not to be recognized, especially with the shorter 
 form ac, which is used for variety with et, if one of the two con- 
 nected members is again subdivided : Magnified vox et magno viro 
 dc sapiente digna (Cic. Off. III. 1). Concerning neqve see §. 458. 
 
 Obs. 1. JEt is sometimes employed as an adverb for etiam, also, but 
 in the older writers it for the most part occurs only in certain combina- 
 tions, e. g. simul et, et nunc (sed et), &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. If a negative proposition is followed by an affirmative, in which 
 the same thought is expressed or continued, qve, et, or ac is employed in 
 Latin, where in English we use but : Socrates nee patronum qvaesivit ad 
 judicium capitis nee judicibus supplex fuit, adhibuitqve liberam contuma- 
 ciam, a magnitudine animi ductam (Cic. Tusc. I. 29). Tamen animo non 
 deficiam, et id, qvod suscepi, qvoad potero, perferam (Id. pro Rose. Am. 
 4). Nostrorum militum impetum liostes ferre non potuerunt ac terga 
 verterunt (Caes. B. G. IV. 35). 
 
 §. 434. The omission of the copulative conjunctions (Asyndeton) <i, 
 occurs in Latin in quick and animated discourse not only where 
 there are three or more members, but even with two r : Aderant 
 amici, propinqvi (Cic. Verr. I. 48). Adsunt, qveruntur Sicuti uni- 
 versi (Id. Div. in Caec. IV). So occasionally in speaking of col- 
 leagues in office : Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus ; in examples : 
 In feris inesse fortitudinem saepe dicimus, ut in eqvis, in leonibus (Id. 
 Off. I. 16) ; in contrasts, which embrace a whole class of subjects : 
 prima, postrema ; fanda, nefanda ; aedificia omnia, publica, privata ; 
 ultro, citro ; and in certain expressions of judicial language and 
 public notifications, when two words are put together to mark 
 them more accurately ; qvicqvid dare facere oportet ; aeqvum bo- 
 num, right and good. 
 
 Ohs. 1. In an enumeration of three or more perfectly coordinate words 
 we may either connect each of them with the preceding by a conjunction, 
 if we wish to give a certain prominence to each (Polysyndeton) s , or omit 
 the conjunction entirely : summajide, const antia, justitia ; monebo, 'prae- 
 dicam, denuntiabo, testabor 1 , or omit it between the first members and 
 
 i aavv^Tos, unconnected. 
 
 r [Opibus viribus (Cic. Tusc. D. III. 3).] 
 
 s TToAvo-vvBeros, connected in many ways. 
 
 1 As in the above example, four words thus united without conjunctions are often 
 made up of two pair of words which are either nearly connected or mutually con- 
 trasted. 
 
382 Syntax.— -Part II. §. 4£ 
 
 annex qve to the last ; summa fide, constantia, justitiaqve (but we must 
 avoid in this case using et, ac, or atqye ; unless with a desire to mark the 
 last member as distinct from the rest). So also alii, ceteri, reliqvi, stand 
 at the end of an enumeration without a conjunction {honor es, divitiae, 
 cetera) or with qve, rarely with et ; and we always find postremo, deniqve, 
 not et postremo, et deniqve. {Sibi liberisqve et genti JSTumidarum, where 
 the two first ideas are more nearly connected.) 
 
 Obs. 2. The place of a copulative conjunction may be supplied in ani- 
 mated discourse, by repeating in each member of the sentence a word 
 common to all (anaphora) : Si recte Cato judicavit, non recte frumenta- 
 rius Hie, non recte aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit (Cic. Off. III. 16). 
 Nos deorum immortalium templa, nos muros, nos domicilia sedesqye populi 
 Romani, aras,focos, sepulcra majorum, nos leges, judicia, libertatem, con- 
 juges, lib eros, pair iam defendimus (Id. Phil. VIII. 3). Another conjunc- 
 tion may be repeated in the same way : Si loca, si f ana, si campum, si 
 canes, si eqyos consvetudine adamare solemus, qvantum id in hominum 
 consvetudine facilius fieri poterit ? (Cic. Finn. I. 20). Nee tamen omnes 
 possunt esse Scipiones aut Maximi, ut urbium expugnationes, ut pedestres 
 navalesqye pugnas, ut bella a se gesta, at triumphos recordentur (Id. Cat. 
 M. 5). Promisit, sed difficulter, sed subductis super ciliis, sed malignis 
 verbis (Sen. de Benef. I. 1). 
 
 Obs. 3. We cannot in Latin subjoin an adverb, that denotes an in- 
 ference, to a copulative particle (as in English, and therefore, and con- 
 sequently) ; we must therefore say propter qve earn causam and the like. 
 
 §.435. a. Both members of a combination are rendered promi- 
 nent by et — et, both — and, for which qve — et and qve — qve are 
 occasionally employed in some writers. 
 
 Obs. 1. Qve — et connect only single words, not propositions, e. g. Le- 
 gatiqve et tribuni (Liv. XXIX. 22), seqve et ducem (and that not in all 
 writers, e. g. in Cicero) ; qve — qve (also not found in all writers) are used 
 with a double relative proposition : Qviqve JRomae qviqve in exercitu 
 erant (Liv. XXII. 26),=e£ qvi — et qvi ; but otherwise they rarely occur 
 in prose, and only to connect single words, the first of which is a pronoun : 
 Meqve regnumqve meum (Sail. Jug. 10). Et — qve are only found as a 
 loose way of connecting two propositions : Qvis est, qvin intelligat, et 
 eos, qvi haec fecerint, dignitatis splendore ductos immemores fuisse utilita- 
 tum suarum, nosqve, qvum ea laudemus, nulla alia re nisi honestate duci ? 
 (Cic. Finn. V. 22.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Concerning neqve — et, et — neqve, see §. 458 c. 
 
 Obs. 3. Qvum — turn, both — and (concerning the mood, when qvum 
 forms a subordinate proposition, see §.358, Obs. 3. Turn — turn always 
 signifies at one time — at another time, as also modo—modo, nunc — nunc, 
 
Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. < 383 
 
 more rarely in iprose jam — jam. With these and similar partitive phrases 
 a copulative particle is never used.) Less usual expressions are qva — qva 
 (of two single words), e. g. qya consules, qya exercitum liostes increpabant, 
 and simul — simul, which last approaches in signification to partim—par- 
 tim, e. g. increpare simul tumultum, simul ignaviam militum. 
 
 Obs. 4. It may here be observed, that when a general description is 
 followed by a more special notice, no such particle as the English namely 
 is used in Latin: Veteres pliilosophi in qvattuor virtutes omnem honesta- 
 tem dividebant, prudentiam, justitiam, fortitudinem, modestiam (namely, 
 prudence, justice, &c). If an explanation is added in a new proposition, 
 nam and en im are made use of, e. g. tres enim sunt causae, there are 
 namely three causes. The word nempe signifies surely (is it not so ?), 
 and expresses our conviction that what we say will not be denied. 
 
 §. 436. The Disjunctive Conjunctions are aut, vel (ve, attached 
 to a word), sive. Two ideas which are essentially different are 
 separated by aut : Officio, omnia aut pleraqve servantem vivere (Cic. 
 Tin. IV. 6) . The simple aut is therefore particularly used in ques- 
 tions which imply an objection or a negative, or in expressing 
 sentiments of disapprobation, when we wish to separate the ideas, 
 and to keep them distinct : Ubi sunt ii } qvos miseros dicis, aut 
 qvem locum incolunt ? (Cic. Tusc. I. 6) . Qvid est majus aut diffi- 
 cilius qvam severitatem cum misericordia conjungere ? Homines 
 locupletes et honor ati patrocinio se usos aut client es appellari mortis 
 instar putant (Cic. Off. III. 20). (Concerning aut after a negative 
 see §.458 c, Obs. 2.) Vel denotes a distinction, which is of no im- 
 portance, or relates only to the choice of an expression, e. g. A vir- 
 tute profectum vel in ipsa virtute positum (Cic. Tusc. II. 20) ; in the 
 older writers especially, when a more suitable expression is added 
 (also, vel potius ; vel dicam ; vel } ut verius die am ; vel etiam) u . An 
 unimportant distinction or one of name only is likewise expressed 
 by ve ; either with subordinate accessory ideas of the leading pro- 
 position, or (which is more usual) in subordinate propositions : 
 Post hanc contionem duabus tribusve horis optatissimi nuntii vene- 
 runt (Cic. Phil. XIV. 6). Timet , ne qvid plus minusve qvam sit ne- 
 cesse dicat (Cic. pro Flacco 5 ; si plus minusve dixero) . Non satis 
 est judicare, qvid faciendum non faciendumve sit (Id. Finn. I. 14). 
 Aut — aut repeated denotes an opposition, in which the members 
 exclude one another, or at least are considered as distinct and 
 separate : Omne enuntiatum aut verum aut falsum est ; aut omnino 
 aut magna ex parte ; aut inimicitias aut laboy % es aut sumptus susci- 
 
 a Aut eloqventiae nomen relinqvendum est (Cic. de Or. II. 2), or even — ; vel concidat 
 omne caelum, omnisqve natura consistat necesse est (Id.. Tusc. I. 23.) 
 
384 Syntax.— Vault II. §. 41 
 
 pere nolunt (Cic, Off. I. 9) ; vel — vel denotes a distinction, in which 
 however both members may be connected {partly — partly) , or with 
 which it is indifferent (with reference to what is asserted), which 
 member is chosen, or which properly relates only to a difference of 
 expression : Postea, vel qvod tanta res erat, vel qvod nondum audie- 
 ramus Bibulum in Syriam venisse, vel qvia administratio hujus belli 
 mihi cum Bibulo paene est communis, qvae ad me delata essent, scri- 
 benda ad vos putavi (Cic. ad Fam. XV. 1). Nihil est tarn conve- 
 niens ad res vel secundas vel adversas qvam amicitia (Id. Lael. 5). 
 Una atqve altera aestas vel metu vel spe vel poena vel proemiis vel 
 armis vel legibus potest totam Galliam sempiternis vinculis adstrin- 
 gere (Cic. Prov. Cons. 14). {Ve — ve has the same signification in the 
 poets). 
 
 Obs. Vel stands also with the signification even, especially with superla- 
 tives, e. g. vel optime ; fructus vel maximus. Per me vel stertas licet 
 (Cic. Acad. II. 29). It is used also in citing examples (to mention no 
 more than) : Paras tuas qvidem sed svaves accipio litter as ; vel, qvas 
 proxime acceperam, qvam prudentes ! (Cic. ad Fam. II. 13). Qvam sis 
 morosus, vel ex hoc intelligi potest, qvod — . 
 
 Sive {seu) stands not only in the signification of vel si, or if, as a con- 
 ditional conjunction (§. 442 b), but also as a mere disjunctive conjunction, 
 when it denotes a distinction which is not essential or of importance. 
 Nihil perturbatius hoc ab urbe discessu sive {seu) potius turpissima fuga 
 (Cic. ad Att. YIII. 3). Ascanius florentem urbem matri seu novercae re- 
 liqvit. (Liv. I. 3). (In the best writers it is generally found with potius, 
 in correction of what has been previously said.) With sive — sive (by 
 which however only nouns and adverbs, and not verbs can be connected 
 with this signification) it is left undecided which member is the right 
 one, as a thing that is indifferent with reference to what is said : Ita 
 sive casu sive consilio deorum immortalium, qvae pars civitatis Helvetiae 
 insignem calamitatem popido Pomano intulerat, ea princeps poenas per- 
 solvit (Caes. B. G. I. 12). 
 
 §. 437. The Adversative Conjunctions are sed, autem, verum 
 {vero, ceterum), at. Yet it is to be remarked that these words 
 often serve to introduce a new independent proposition without 
 any grammatical connection, properly so called. 
 
 Obs. Autem and vero do not stand at the beginning of a proposition, 
 but after a word, or two words which are intimately connected, as a 
 preposition with its case {de republica vero) ; autem even after several, 
 which cannot be well disjoined. 
 
 a. Sed denotes something which alters, limits, or sets aside the 
 
7. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. 385 
 
 preceding (and corresponds on the whole most nearly to the English 
 but) : Ingeniosus homo, sed in omni vita inconstans. Non contentio 
 animi qvaeritur, sed relaocatio. Saepe ab amico tuo dissensi, sed 
 sine ulla ira. (Non gvod — , sed qvia ; non modo — sed, &c.) In 
 transitions of the discourse it is employed where one leaves a sub- 
 ject and does not mention it further: Sed liaec parva sunt ; veni- 
 amas ad major a. Ego a Qvinto nostro non dissentio ; sed ea, qvae 
 restant, audiamus (Cic. Legg. III. 11). 
 
 b. With autem on the contrary we only add something that is 
 different from the preceding; and it denotes an opposition which 
 does not set aside what goes before, or simply an observation or 
 continuation of the discourse : Gyges a nullo videbatur ; ipse autem 
 omnia videbat (Cic. Off. III. 9). Mens mundi providet, primum ut 
 mundus qvam aptissimus sit ad permanendum, delude ut nulla re 
 eg eat, maxime autem, ut in eo eximia pulchritudo sit (Id. N. D. II. 
 22). Orationes Caesaris mihi vehement er probantur ; legi autem 
 complures (Id. Brut. 75). Nunc, gvod agitur, agamus ; agitur autem, 
 Jiberine vivamus an mortem obeamus (Id. Phil. XI. 10), Est igitur 
 homini cum deo rationis societas ; inter qvos autem ratio, inter eos 
 etiam recta ratio communis est (Id. Legg. I. 7). Qvod autem mihi 
 de magistratu gratularis, agnosco humanitatem tuam. 
 
 c. At emphatically calls the attention to something different 
 and opposed (on the other hand), and connects a sentence with the 
 foregoing rather as an independent proposition : Magnae divitiae, 
 vis corporis, alia omnia hujusmodi brevi dilabuntur ; at ingenii egre- 
 gia facinora immortalia sunt (Sail. Jug. 2). Midae Phrygi, qvum 
 puer esset, dormienti formicae in os tritici grana congesserunt. 
 Divitissimum fore praedictum est, qvod evenit. At Platoni qvum 
 in cunis dormienti apes in labellis consedissent, responsum est, singu- 
 lari ilium svavitate orationis fore (Cic. Div. I. 36). At is frequently 
 employed to introduce in a new proposition an objection started by oneself 
 or another, or the obviating an objection (yes, but) : At memoria nxinuitur 
 (Cic. Cat. M. 7), certainly, but it is said that the memory is impaired. 
 Nisi forte ego vohis cessare nunc videor, qvod bella non gero. At senatui, 
 qvae sint gerenda, praescrilo, et qvomodo (Id. ib. 6). (This signification 
 is strengthened in at enim. at vero). At often stands too in the signifi- 
 cation yet, however (at least, after conditional propositions) : Si se ipsos 
 illi nostri liberatores e consnectu nostro abstulerunt, at exemplum reliqve- 
 runt (Cic. Phil. II. 44). Res, si non splendidae, at tolerabiles (at tolera- 
 liles tamen, attamen tolerahiles). At is also to be noticed in interrogative 
 exclamations subjoined to a sentence : Una mater Cluentium oppugnat. 
 
 3d 
 
38G Syntax.— Part II. §. 4c 
 
 At qvae mater! (Cic. pro Cluent. 70.) Si istuc venissem, Jiabuisses non 
 hospitem, sed contubernaJem. At qvem virum ! (Id. ad Fam. IX. 20.) 
 AescJiines in DemostJienem inveliitur. At qvam rhetorice ! qvam copiose ! 
 (Id. Tusc. III. 26.) And in prayers and wishes that break out suddenly : 
 At te di deaeqve perduint ! (Ter. Hec. I. 2, 59.) 
 
 Obs. Atqvi denotes an objection and assurance (pretty much the same 
 as yes, hut indeed) ; in conclusions it signifies but now [further) : Qvod 
 si virtutes sunt pares, paria etiam vitia esse necesse est. Atqvi pares esse 
 virtutes facillime perspici potest (Cic. Par. III. 1. Autem is likewise 
 sometimes used in this sense). 
 
 d. Verum has nearly the same signification as sed (e. g. sed etiam 
 and verum etiam, and in transitions : Verum de his satis dictum 
 est), but expresses the correction of the preceding somewhat more 
 strongly. Ceterum is used by some writers (Sallust, Livy) instead 
 of sed, verum, or autem in many, but not in all combinations (e. g. 
 not ceterum etiam). Vero contains properly an assurance and con- 
 firmation (certainly), but stands as a conjunction, when that which 
 is subjoined is asserted and maintained still more strongly than 
 the preceding ; in which case a particular emphasis falls on the 
 word before vero : Musica Romanis moribus abest a principis per- 
 sona, saltare vero etiam in vitio ponitur (Corn. Epam. 1) ; or, sal- 
 tare vero multo etiam magis, or saltare vero ne libero qvidem dignum 
 judicatur. Turn vero furere Appius (historical infinitive), but then 
 Appius became completely raving. In the same way we find neqve 
 vero, and (but) also not, and that not : Est igitur causa omnisin opinione, 
 nee vero aegritudinis solum, sed etiam reliqvarum omnium perturb ationum 
 (Cic. Tusc. III. 11). Vero may likewise be added to qvum — turn, to ex- 
 press a confident assurance : Pompejus qvum semper tuae laudi favere 
 mini visus est, turn vero, lectis tuis litteris, perspectus est a me toto animo 
 de te ac de tuis commodis cogitare (Cic. ad Fam. I. 7). 
 
 Obs. An adversative conjunction is often omitted, when opposite asser- 
 tions are made concerning different subjects, or such as have different 
 definitions accompanying them, even between two coordinate propositions, 
 when their relation to each other is otherwise sufficiently obvious : Opi- 
 nionum commenta delet dies, naturae judicia conjirmat (Cic. N. D. II. 2). 
 Opifices in artificiis suis utuntur vocabulis nobis incognitis, usitatis sibi 
 (Id. Finn. III. 2). Qvum primo Galli tantum avidi certaminis fuissent, 
 deinde JRomanus miles ruendo in dimicationem aliqvantum Gallicam fero- 
 ciam vinceret, dictatori neutiqvam placebat fortunae se committere adver- 
 sus liostem Us animis corporibusqve, qvorum omnis in impetu vis esset, 
 parvd eddem langvesceret mora (Liv. YII. 12). 
 
 §. 438. Sometimes two propositions are connected as coordinate either 
 
9. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. 387 
 
 without a conjunction or by means of autem and vero, in such a way that 
 the assertion does not apply to the contents of each taken separately, but 
 to the two combined. The sense might therefore be expressed (and often 
 is expressed in English) by attaching one proposition to the other by a 
 conjunction as a subordinate proposition. This form is made use of, when, 
 in order to prove something, we seek to draw T attention to the agreement 
 or difference, compatibility or incompatibility, of two propositions, and 
 the combined propositions are either expressed interrogatively (rarely in 
 the negative), or attached to a leading proposition which points to the 
 combination of the two as perverse or absurd. Qvid igitur? Hoc pueri 
 possunt, viri non poterunt ? (Cic. Tusc. II. 14). Cur igitur jus civile 
 docere semper pulchrum fu it, ad dicendum si qvis acuat aut adjuvat in eo 
 juventutem vituperetur ? (Id. Or. 41 ; if therefore it was always a credit- 
 able thing — , why should any one be censured — ?) list prof ecto divina 
 vis, neqve in his corporibus atqve in liac imbecillitate nostra inest qviddam, 
 qvod vigeat et sentiat, et non inest in hoc tanto naturae tarn praeclaro 
 nxotu (Id. pro Mil. 31 ; and if there is something in our bodies that lives 
 and feels, it cannot be supposed that there is not &c). Qvid causae est, 
 cur Cassandra fur ens futur a prospiciat, JBriamus sapiens idem facer e non 
 qveat ? (Id. Div. I. 39.) Neminem oportet esse tarn stulte arrogantem, 
 ut in se rationem et nientem putet inesse, in caelo mundoqve non putet (Id. 
 Legg. II. 7). A double question of this kind is often connected with the 
 preceding by an (or — : §. 453) : An ex hostium urbibus Somam ad nos 
 transferri sacra religiosum fuit, hinc sine piaculo in hostium urbem Vejos 
 transferemus ? (Liv. Y. 52.) 
 
 §.439. (Subordinate Combination.) Concerning the conjunctions 
 with which objective propositions are formed in the conjunctive, see the 
 Appendix to chap. III. of this part (§. 371 and the following) ; concern- 
 ing propositions with qvod to denote a relation actually subsisting, see 
 §.398 b. 
 
 Obs. 1. In objective propositions with conjunctions, or in dependent 
 interrogative propositions, we sometimes find the irregularity, that a sub- 
 stantive (or pronoun), that ought to be the subject in the objective pro- 
 position, is drawn into the leading proposition, either as the object of the 
 verb or as the subject, in case the verb would otherwise stand imperson- 
 ally (as intransitive or in the passive voice). In good prose however 
 this Attraction is very rare, and is found after an active verb only where 
 the writer at first contemplated another turn of the discourse, and after- 
 wards added the subordinate proposition : Istuc, qvidqvid est, fac me, ut 
 sciam (Ter. Heaut. I. 1, 32). Simul vereor Pamphilum, ne orata nostra 
 neqveat diutius celare (Id. Hec. IV. 1, 6*0=ft<? ramphilus). Qvae time- 
 batis, ea ne accidere possent, consitio meo ac ratione provisa sunt (Cic. de 
 Leg. Agr. II. 37, instead of provisum est). Nam sangvinem, bilem, pitui- 
 
 3 d 2 
 
388 Syntax.— Part II. §. 4£ 
 
 tarn, ossa, nervos, venas, omnem deniqye membrorum et totius corporis 
 figuram videor posse dicere, undo concreta et qvomodo facta sint (Id. Tusc. 
 I. 24). JVosti Marcellum, qyam tardus et parum efficax sit (Gael. Cic. 
 ad Fam. VIII. 10). 
 
 Obs. 2. Where by the pronouns hie and particularly ille a relation is 
 pointed out, a notice of which is to follow, this notice is often subjoined 
 in an independent proposition with enim or nam instead of a proposition 
 with qyod : Atqve etiam ilia concitatio declarat vim in animis esse divi- 
 nam. Negant enim sine furore qvemqvam poetam magnum esse posse 
 (Cic. de Div. I. 37). Sed ilia sunt lumina duo, qyae maxime causam 
 istam continent. Primum enim negatis fieri posse &c. (Id. Acad. II. 33.) 
 
 §. 440. a. A consecutive proposition may either be connected with a 
 demonstrative word preceding, which signifies a measure or degree (sic, 
 ita, adeo, tarn, tantus, is &c.) or be annexed without any such previous 
 reference. We should notice the use of qyam ut after a comparative, sig- 
 nifying (greater) than that (Joo great to). (Also qyam qvi, §. 364.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Tantum abest, ut — ut (not, ut potius) : Tantum abest ut ami- 
 citiae 'propter indigentiam colantur, ut ii, qvi propter virlutem minime 
 alterius indigeant, liberalissimi sint atqve beneficentissimi (Gic. Lael. 14). 
 Sometimes, after tantum abest, ut, the second proposition is put inde- 
 pendently, instead of being connected by ut as a consecutive proposition : 
 Tantum abfuit, ut inflammares nostros animos ; vix somnum tenebamus 
 (Cic. Brut. 80). 
 
 Obs. 2. An objective proposition with ut and a consecutive proposition 
 may sometimes stand with the same leading proposition : At ceteris for- 
 sitan ita petitum sit, ut dicerent, ut utrumvis salvo officio facere se posse 
 arbitrarentur (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 1). 
 
 Obs. 3. Ut non (in such a way, that — not) is used after a negative pro- 
 position to denote a necessary and inevitable consequence {not — without), 
 e. g. Ruere ilia non possunt, ut haec non eodem labefacta motu concidant 
 (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 7). The same meaning is expressed by qvin, e. g. 
 Nunqvam accedo, qvin abs te abeam doctior (Ter. Eun. IV. 7, 21). Qvin, 
 that not (see §. 375 c. Obs. 4), is generally employed after negative asser- 
 tions {nemo, nihil est, &c), and after questions which have a negative 
 force (qvis est, &c), to express what holds universally without any excep- 
 tion : Nihil est, qvin male narrando possit depravari (Ter. Phorm. IV. 4, 
 lQ=qvod non). Nullus est cibus tarn gravis, qvin is die et node conco- 
 qvatur (Cic. N. D. II. 9=qvi non). Hortensius nullum patiebatur esse 
 diem, qvin aut in for o diceret aut meditaretur extra forum (Id. Brut. 88). 
 Nunqvam tarn male est Siculis, qvin aliqvid facete et commode dicant 
 (Id. Verr. IV. 43). 
 
 Obs. 4l. Ut takes the signification of although, even suppose that, from 
 
[2. Chap. IK.— Use of the Conjunctions. 389 
 
 first signifying, 'even if we suppose the case that'' ; the proposition is 
 therefore a consecutive proposition, and is expressed negatively with ut 
 non : Ut qvaeras omnia, qvomodo Graeci ineptum appellent, non reveries 
 (Cic. de Or. II. 4). Verum ut hoc non sit, tamen praeclarum spectaculum 
 mihi propono (Id. ad Att. II. 15). 
 
 b. A proposition denoting a design is sometimes employed, from a con- 
 ciseness of expression, not to indicate the design of the action mentioned 
 in the leading proposition, but the design with which the statement is 
 made : Senectus est natura loqyacior ; ne ab omnibus earn vitiis videar 
 vindicate (Cic. Cat. Maj. 16), which I mention, that I may not &c. 
 
 Obs. 1. Quo, that so much (=ut eo), is used when a comparative fol- 
 lows. It rarely stands simply for ut or in the signification, ' in order by 
 those means,' e. g. Deos Jiominesqve testamur, nos arma neqve contra 
 patriam cepisse neqve qvo pericula aliis facer emus (Sail. Jug. 33) x . Qvare 
 also is sometimes employed to signify either, ' that by those means,' or, 
 '(so) that on that account:' Permulta sunt, qvae did possunt, qvare in- 
 telligatur, summam tibi fuisse facultatem maleficii suscipiendi (Cic. pro 
 Rose. Am. 33). 
 
 Obs. 2. Concerning ut ne {ne) for ut non see §. 456, Obs. 4. Concern- 
 ing the use of a relative proposition with the signification of a final or 
 consecutive proposition, see §. 363 and §. 364. 
 
 §. 441. Concerning the causal conjunctions (which indicate either the 
 cause strictly so called, or simply the occasion and some general relation 
 which constitutes the motive for the action ; qvod, qvia, qvum, qvoniam, 
 more forcibly expressed qvoniam qvidem, qvando, qvandoqvidem), nothing 
 further is to be observed in a grammatical point of view (with reference 
 to the form of the proposition) than what has been laid down above in 
 chap. Ill, concerning the mood of propositions so connected. On the 
 conjunctions of time, and the form of the propositions which they con- 
 nect, see also chapters II. and III. (We may also notice ut in the sig- 
 nification of since : Ut illos libidos edidisti, nihil a te postea accepimus, 
 Cic. Brut. 5 ; also Annus est, qvum {ex qvo) ilium vidi.) 
 
 §. 442. a. Of the Conditional Conjunctions [conjunctiones condi- 
 cionales) it is to be observed, that si in descriptions and narratives 
 sometimes designates rather each repeated occasion (as often as, 
 every time that), than a condition (§. 359). The signification of si 
 is more precisely defined in the expressions si modo, si qvidem, if indeed 
 (sometimes nearly causal, since), si maxime, if ever so much, si forte, if 
 by chance, si jam, if now ; it a si, under the condition, in case that. 
 Sometimes a proposition has two conditions annexed to it, the one more 
 
 x [Mercato7-ibus est ad eos aditus, magis eo, ut, quae hello ceperint, qitihus vendant, ha- 
 beant, quam quo ullam rem ad se importari desiderent (Caes. B. G. IV. 2).] 
 
390 Syntax,— Part II. §.44 
 
 general (more remote), and the other more special (proximate) : Si qvis 
 istorum dixisset, qvos videtis adesse, in qyibus summa auctoritas est, si 
 verbum de republica fecisset, multo plura dixisse, qvam dixisset, putaretur 
 (Cic. Rose. Am. 1). (For the arrangement compare §.476 b, and con- 
 cerning si as an interrogative particle see below §.451 d.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Turn, or (more forcibly) turn vero (yes, then), is sometimes used 
 in the apodosis, where a circumstance is to be marked emphatically or 
 contrasted with others : Si id actum est, fateor ine errasse, qvi hoc malu- 
 erim ; sin autem victoria nobilium omamento atqve emolumento reipublicae 
 debet esse, turn vero ojptimo et nobilissimo cuiqve meam orationem gratissi- 
 inam esse oportet (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 49). Ilaec si et ages et senties, turn 
 eris non modo consul, sed magnus etiam consul (Id. ad Fam. X. 6). 
 
 Obs. 2. In animated discourse, instead of a conditional proposition with 
 si, the condition is sometimes enuntiated in an independent proposition, 
 which is followed by the statement to which it refers, also in a distinct 
 proposition. The indicative is employed (as in the actual conditional pro- 
 position with si), when a thing is spoken of, which actually holds good 
 now and then, or perhaps will hold good, and the real existence of which 
 is here neither affirmed or denied (sometimes also in an interrogative 
 form), otherwise the conjunctive, as relating to an imaginary assumption 
 (§. 352) : De paupertate agitur, niulti patientes pauper es commemorantur ; 
 de contemnendo honore, multi inhonorati proferuntur (Cic. Tusc. III. 24). 
 Rides, majore cachinno concutitur ; jlet, si lacrimas conspexit amid (Juv. 
 III. 100). Roges me (suppose you were to ask me), qyalem deorum natu- 
 ram esse ducam, nihil fortasse respondeam ; qyaeras, putemne talem esse, 
 qvalis modo a te sit exposita, nihil dicam mihi videri minus (Cic. N. D. I. 
 21). Dares hanc vim M. Crasso, ut digitorum percussione heres posset 
 scriptus esse, qvi re vera non esset heres, in foro, mihi crede, saltaret (Id. 
 Off. III. 19). In an actual conditional proposition, on the contrary, si 
 is only omitted by the poets in some few passages, where the context and 
 the form of the verb make the relation sufficiently obvious : Tu qvoqve 
 magnam partem opere in tanto, sineret dolor, Icare f haberes (Virg. Aen. 
 YI. 30). 
 
 Obs. 3. In order to shew that a certain consequence does not follow 
 from a particular condition or relation, the negative is prefixed to the 
 conditional proposition : Non, si Opimium defendisti, Carbo, idcirco te 
 isti bonum civem putabunt (Cic. deOr. II. 40). (Non, si — , idcirco non, 
 it does not follow, that — not — §. 460.) 
 
 b. Sin (as well as sin autem) stands for si to signify, 'but if/ 
 ' if on the other hand/ either after another conditional proposition 
 with si, or without any such preceding it. Si plane a nobis deficis, 
 moleste fero ; sin Pansae assentari commodum est, ignosco (Cic. ad 
 
?. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. . 391 
 
 Fam. VII. 12). Luxuria qvum omni aetati turpis, turn senectuti foe- 
 dissima est ; sin autem etiam libidinum intemperantia accessit, duplex 
 malum est (Id. Off. I. 34). Sive stands for vel si, ' or if/ e. g. Pos- 
 ta/o, sive aeqvum est, oro (Ter. Andr. I. 2, 19), =?;<?/, si aeqvum est, 
 oro, as it may also be expressed. Sive — sive repeated, with a com- 
 mon apodosis, signifies ' whether — or' (§.332, Obs. ). But sive — 
 sive may stand in such a way, that each sive forms the protasis to 
 a distinct apodosis, when two cases are put, and the consequence 
 assigned to each (a dilemma) : Sive enim ad sapientiam perveniri 
 votest, non paranda solum ea, sed fruenda etiam est ; sive hoc diffi- 
 cile est, tamen nullus est modus investigandi veri (Cic. Finn. I. 1). 
 (In English this can only be distinguished by a periphrasis from si — sin: 
 For one can either attain wisdom or not ; in the first case, &c.) 
 
 Obs. For sive voh, sive nolo, the expression velim, nolim (suppose I 
 were willing, suppose I were unwilling=whether I wish it or not) is 
 also used in familiar language. 
 
 c. A negative condition is expressed by nisi, if not (unless, ex- 
 cept if), in such a way as to exclude the case in which an asser- 
 tion does not hold good, while otherwise it does or would do so. 
 (Ni is antiquated, but occurs in certain expressions of legal phraseology 
 and of daily life, and in some few other instances, e. g. ita ; ni ita 
 est. For nisi we sometimes find nisi si, except if, except in case that.) 
 Si non, with an emphasis on the negation, is used only where non 
 is united with the following verb so as to form one negative idea 
 (not to do, not to be), which is put forward in opposition to the 
 affirmative notion, so that the case in which a thing holds or will 
 hold, is negatively expressed : Glebam commosset in agro decumano 
 Siciliae nemo, si Metellus banc epistolam non misisset (Cic. Verr. 
 III. 18), if Metellus had omitted to send this letter. Fuit apertum, 
 si Conon non fuisset (if it had not been for Conon), Agesilaum 
 Asiam Tauro tenus regi erepturum fuisse (Corn. Con. 2) . Aeqvitas 
 toliitur omnis, si habere suum cuiqve non licet (Cic. Off. II. 22), if 
 hindrances are laid in the way of every man's keeping his own. 
 In most cases nisi may also be here used, with a slight difference : 
 e. g. Nisi Conon fuisset ; yet not always, e. g. Si feceris id, qvod 
 ostendis, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non feceris, ignoscam (Cic. 
 ad Fam. V. 19). In the signification, though not (yet) we never have 
 nisi, but si non (also si minus, chiefly where there is no separate verb at- 
 tached), e. g. Si milii rep Mica bona frui non licuerit, at carebo mala 
 (Cic. pro Mil. 34). Cum spe, si non bona, at aliqva tamen vivere. Hoc 
 si minus verbis, re conf.teri coqitur (Cic. de Fat. 10). If not, without a 
 
392 Syntax.— Part II. §.4 
 
 verb, in opposition to something going before, is expressed by si (sin) 
 minus, more, rarely si non : Si id assecutus sum, gaudeo ; sin mimes, hoc 
 me tamen consolor, qvod posthac nos vises (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 1). Si 
 qvid novisti rectius istis, candidus imperii ; si non, his utere mecum 
 (Hor. Ep. I. 6, 67). 
 
 Obs. 1. Nisi forte, unless perchance, except on the supposition that, 
 connects a limitation and exception with the foregoing : Nemo fere salt at 
 sobrius, nisi forte insanit (Cic. pro Mur. 6). An ironical or taunting sus- 
 picion is often added in this way : Non possum reperire, qvamobrem te in 
 istam amentiam incidisse arbitrer, nisi forte id egisti, ut hominibus ne ob- 
 livisci qvidem rerum tuarum male gestarum liceret (Cic. Verr. III. 80). 
 {Nisi vero is always ironical.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Nisi is subjoined to negatives and interrogatives with a negative 
 sense with the signification of but or except : Qvod adhicc nemo nisi im- 
 probissimus fecit, posthac nemo nisi stultissimus non faciei (Cic. Verr. III. 
 94). Qvem unqvam senatus civem nisi me (=praeter me) nationibus ex- 
 teris commendavit ? (Id. pro Sest. 60). Nunqyam vidi animam rationis 
 participem in ulla alia nisi humana fgura (Id. N. D. I. 31). In this way 
 non and nisi often belong to one phrase (not — except, only), but in the 
 best writers they are usually separated by position : Primum hoc sentio, 
 nisi in bonis viris amicitiam esse non posse (Cic. Lael. 5). 
 
 Obs. 3. After a negative proposition (or one which has a negative 
 force) nisi introduces an exception (only, only so much, yet) : De re nihil 
 possum judicare ; nisi illud mihi persvadeo, te, talem virum, nihil temere 
 fecisse (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 73). Plura de Jugurtha scribere dehortatur 
 me fortuna mea, et jam antea expertus sum, parum Jidei miseris esse. 
 Nisi tamen intelligo, ilium supra, qvam ego sum, petere (Sail. Jag. 24). 
 (Nisi qvod, except in so far as, occurs also after affirmative propositions : 
 Tusculanum et Pompejanum valde me delectant ; nisi qvod me aere alieno 
 obruerunt, Cic. ad Att. II. 1.) 
 
 §. 443. Concessive Conjunctions (conjunctiones concessivae) are 
 those which imply the existence of some objection, which notwith- 
 standing does not invalidate the trnth of the leading proposition; 
 and may signify, either simply that we allow such an objection to 
 be assumed, or that we actually assert it as a fact : qvamvis, licet, 
 qvanqvam, etsi, tametsi (tamenetsi), etiamsi, which are usually em- 
 ployed when the concessive proposition comes first, with tamen 
 following; see §.361, with the Observations. (Ut, suppose even, 
 even if, see §. 440 a, Obs. 4. Qvum, whereas, while on the other 
 hand, see §.358, Obs. 3). Of these, qvanqvam, etsi, and tametsi 
 (most frequently qvamqvam) are also so used, that they do not in- 
 dicate a subordinate proposition, but annex a remark by which the 
 
Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. £93 
 
 preceding statement is limited and corrected, in an independent 
 form as a leading proposition (however, and yet, certainly, al- 
 though) : Qvanqvam non sumus ignari, multos studiose contra esse 
 dicturos. Qvanqvam qvid loqvor ? Qvanqvam te qvidem qvid hoc 
 doceam ? Qvanqvam qvis ignorat, tria Graecorum esse genera ? 
 (This is often done when the preceding train of thought is broken 
 off as useless or superfluous.) Etsi persapienter et qvodam modo 
 tacite dat ipsa lex potestatem defendendi (Cic. pro Mil. 4) ; Yet it 
 is superfluous to argue that the law must sometimes give way to 
 higher considerations, for the law itself — . Mihi etiam qvi optime 
 dicunt, tamen y nisi timide ad dicendum accedunt, et in exordienda 
 oratione perturbantur, paene impudentes videntur. Tametsi id acci- 
 dere non potest (Cic. de Or. I. 26). 
 
 Ohs. Later writers combine concessive particles without a verb of their 
 own, not only with participles (see §. 424, Ohs. 4, §. 428, Obs. 2), but 
 also with adjectives and other words us m! to assist in defining a propo- 
 sition, e. g. Cicero immanitatem parricidii, qvanqvam per se manifest 'am , 
 tamen etiam vi orationis exaggerat (Quint. IX. 2, 53, for qvanqvam per 
 se manifesta est). In the older writers qvamvis only is found with an 
 adjective in the signification, tliougli ever so, e. g. Si hoc onere carerem, 
 qvamvis parvis Italiae latebris contentus essem (Cic. ad Fain. II. 16). 
 
 §. 444. The Comparative Conjunctions are of two kinds. 
 
 a. A resemblance (as, in the same way as) is expressed by the 
 particles ut, uti (ut — ita, item ; which also signify, as for example), 
 sicut, velut (also signifying, for example), ceu (in the poets and 
 later prose writers), tanqvam (also signifying, as if; see Obs. 1), 
 qvasi (as if; see the same Obs.) ; also qvemadmodum in the compa- 
 rison of two propositions (rarely qvomodo). (Prout, in proportion 
 as; pro eo, ut — , pro eo, qvantum — .) 
 
 Obs. 1. Tanqvam rarely (and qvasi still more rarely) denotes a com- 
 parison of two things, both of which are stated as actual facts {Artifex 
 partium in republica tanqvam in scena optimarum, Cic. pro Sest. 56 ; an 
 actor who plays the best part in the state as well as on the stage. Tan- 
 qvam poetaeboni solent, sic tuin extrema parte muneris tui diligentissimus 
 esse debes, Id. ad Q. Fr. I. i. c. 16). In this case the idea is generally 
 expressed by ut, sicut, qvemadmodum, — ita. A hypothetical proposition 
 which is only assumed for the sake of comparison (as if ) is expressed by 
 tanqvam or tanqvam si, velut si {ut si, rarely velut alone) and qvasi. 
 Qvasi {qvasi vero) is particularly used, when by way of jest or to correct 
 an erroneous supposition, we state what is not the case : Qvasi ego id 
 curem ! As if I cared for that ! Qvasi vero liaec similia sint {non niultum 
 
 3 E 
 
394 Syntax.— V art II. §. 4-1 
 
 intersit) ! {Perinde or proinde qvasi, perinde tanqvam, in the same way 
 as if, perinde ac si) y. 
 
 Obs. 2. Qvasi stands before a word, to signify that it is used to express 
 a thing figuratively and by way of approximation, e. g. Servis respublica 
 qvaedam et qvasi civitas domus est (Plin. Ep. VIII. 16). {Qvasi morbus 
 qvidam, qvasi qvoddam vinculum.) 
 
 Obs. 3. A comparison by means of ut — ita (sic) is often made use of, 
 in order to draw attention to a difference, and to limit the first member 
 by the second, with the signification certainly — but (on the other hand) : 
 Ut errare potuisti (qvis enim id effugerit ?) sic decipi te non potuisse, qvis 
 non videt ? (Cic. ad Earn. X. 20.) Consul ut fortasse vere, sic parum 
 utiliter in praesens certamen respondit (Liv. IV. 6). On the use of ut — 
 ita with qvisqve see §. 495. Ita (with a wish) — ut is used in oaths (as 
 truly as) : Ita me dii ament, ut ego nunc non tarn mea causa laetor qvam 
 illius (Ter. Heaut. IV. 1, 8) ; the wish may also be inserted alone in the 
 assurance without ut, as a parenthesis : Saepe, ita me diijuvent, te aucto- 
 rem consiliorum meorum desideravi (Id. ad Att. I. 16). (Compare per- 
 eam, si — §.348, Obs. 4.) 
 
 Obs. 4. Instead of subjoining ut est {sum, erat, &c.) to an adjective in 
 the form of a comparison, the latter is generally introduced into the pro- 
 position : Ajunt hominem, ut erat furiosus, respondisse, &c. (Cic. pro 
 Rose. Am. 12, raging as he wa.s,=qvo erat furore). 
 
 Obs. 5. "Where an example is added to confirm what precedes, this is 
 :not put, as in English, in a demonstrative form {so, for example, your 
 father lately told me), but in a relative form with ut {velut) : Ut nuper 
 pater tuus mihi narravit . 
 
 b. Qvam and ac (atqve) are used as conjunctions which merely 
 connect the members of a comparison, without themselves express- 
 ing similarity (or equality). Qvam stands after tarn (so — as), after 
 comparatives and words with a comparative signification, as ante, 
 post, supra, malo, praestat. (Dimidius, multiplex qvam.) Ac, which 
 is also a simple copulative conjunction, stands in the signification 
 as, than, &c, with adjectives and adverbs which denote similarity 
 or dissimilarity (equality or inequality), namely, similis, dissimilis, 
 similiter, par, pariter, aeqve, juxta, perinde or proinde, contrarius, 
 contra, alius, aliter, secus, pro eo (in proportion as), and some- 
 times after idem, talis, totidem, for qvi, qvalis, qvot (§. 328 b) ; also 
 in combination with si (perinde, similis, similiter, pariter, juxta, 
 idem ac si, as if) : Amicos aeqve ac semetipsos diligere oportet. 
 Date operam, ne simili utamur for tuna atqve antea usi sumus (Ter. 
 
 y Perinde ac instead of perinde ac si, and sicut instead of velut si, are rare expressions. 
 
5. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. 395 
 
 Phorm. Prol. 38). Similiter fads, ac si me roges, cur te duobus 
 contuear oculis (Cic. N. D. III. 3) . Aliter, atqve ostenderam, facio 
 (Id. ad Fam. II. 3). Longe alia nobis, ac tu scripseras, narrantur 
 (Id. ad Att. XI. 10). Non dixi secus, ac sentiebam (Id. de Or. II. 
 6). Philosophia non proinde, ac de hominum vita merita est, lauda- 
 tur (Id. Tusc. V. 2). Cornelii filius Sullam accusat, idemgve valere 
 debet, ac si pater indicaret (Id. pro Sull. 18) z . 
 
 Obs. 1. Aeqve, juxta, proinde, contra, and secus are also (but less fre- 
 quently) constructed with qvam. Alius, aliter, may stand with qvam, if 
 the proposition in which they occur is negative, or interrogative with a 
 negative sense, and sometimes under other circumstances in the later 
 writers (from Livy downwards) : Virtus nihil aliud est, qvam in se per- 
 fecta et ad summum perducta natura (Cic. Legg. I. 8). Cavebo, ne aliter 
 Hortensius, qvam ego velim, nieum laudet ingenium (Id. Verr. I. 9). Jovis 
 epulum num alibi qvam in Capitolio fieri potest ? (Liv. V. 52). Te alia 
 omnia, qvam qvae velis, agere, moleste fero (Plin. Ep. VII. 15). Instead 
 of nihil {qvid) aliud qvam we often find nihil {qvid) aliud nisi, e. g. Bel- 
 lum ita suscipi debet, ut nihil aliud nisi pax qvaesita videatur (Cic. Off. I. 
 23). (See §. 442 c, Obs. 2.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Instead of similis, similiter, proinde ac si, we also find similis, 
 similiter, proinde ut si, tanqvam si, qvasi. 
 
 Obs. 3. A copulative clause may occasionally supply the place of a 
 comparative, e. g. Haec eodem tempore Caesari mandata referebantur et 
 legati ab Aeduis et a Treviris veniebant (Caes. B. G. I. 37). At one and 
 
 the same time Caesar received these orders and ambassadors came . 
 
 Et is very rarely found after alius and other words, where it cannot be 
 understood as purely copulative. 
 
 Obs. 4. In the poets and later writers the word expressing comparison 
 is sometimes repeated without a conjunction : Aeqve pauperibus prodest, 
 locupletibus aeqve (Hor. Ep. I. 1, 25). 
 
 §. 445. The use of the relative propositions in Latin has some 
 peculiarities. 
 
 A relative proposition may again have a subordinate proposition 
 appended to it, to which it stands in the relation of a leading pro- 
 position, e. g. Ut ignava animalia, qvae jacent torpentqve, si cibum 
 lis suggeras. If then the idea expressed by the relative belongs 
 also to the subordinate proposition as a demonstrative (like iis in 
 the above example), the relative may in Latin be incorporated in 
 
 z [Longe alia ratione, ac reliqui Galli, bellura facere instituerunt (Caes. B. G. III. 28). 
 Debes sperare, omnes deos, qvi huic urbi president, pro eo mihi, ac mereor, relaturos gra- 
 tiam esse (Cic. in Cat. IV. 2).] 
 
 3 e 2 
 
£98 Syntax. -Part II. §.4 
 
 the subordinate proposition, which is then put first, and have its 
 case determined accordingly (so that in the leading proposition a 
 demonstrative is to be supplied from the subordinate) : Ut ignava 
 animalia, qvibus si cibum suggeras, jacent torpentqve (Tac. Hist. III. 
 36 ; just as one may say, Ignavis animalibus si cibum suggeras, 
 jacent torpentqve). Is enim fueram, cui qvum liceret major es ex otio 
 fructus capere qvam ceteris, non dubitaverim me gravissimis tern- 
 pestatibus obviam ferre (Cic. R. P. I. 4),= qvi. qvum mihi liceret—, 
 non dubitaverim. In the next place a connection may be formed 
 in Latin by a relative pronoun between a leading and subordinate 
 proposition (a protasis and apodosis), in which the relative pronoun 
 belongs exclusively to the subordinate proposition (without being 
 at the same time understood as a demonstrative in the leading 
 proposition). Propositions thus connected are expressed in Eng- 
 lish either by resolving the relative into a demonstrative (which 
 belongs to the subordinate proposition) and a conjunction (belong- 
 ing to the leading proposition), or by the use of a circumlocution; 
 sometimes the subordinate proposition may be rendered by an infi- 
 nitive or a substantive with a preposition : Ea svasi Pompejo, qvibus 
 ille si paruisset, Caesar tantas opes, qvantas nunc habet, non haberet 
 (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 6,=ut, si ille Us paruisset, Caesar tantas opes 
 habiturus nonfuerit, &c). Noli adversus eos me velle ducere, cum 
 qvibus ne contra te arma ferrem, Italiam reliqvi (Corn. Att. IV.= 
 against those with whom I would not bear arms against you, and 
 left Italy for that very reason). Ea mihi dedisti, qvae ut conse- 
 qverer, qvemvis laborem suscepturus fui (the very thing for the at- 
 tainment of which I, &c). Populus Romanus turn ducem habuit, 
 qvalis si qvi nunc esset, tibi idem, qvod illis accidit, contigisset ; 
 Cic. Phil. II. 7). In this way two relatives sometimes come toge- 
 ther in Latin in the same proposition (in different cases), when the 
 subordinate proposition is already relative for some other reason : 
 Epicurus non satis politus est Us artibus, qvas qvi tenent, eruditi 
 appellantur (Cic. Finn. I. 7 ; the possessors of which are called 
 learned, or, the possession of which procures one the appellation 
 of learned). Infima est condicio et fortuna servorum, qvibus non 
 male praecipiunt, qvi itajubent uti ut mercenariis (Id. Off. I. 13). 
 
 Ohs. The subordinate proposition, to which the relative belongs, may 
 also have the participial form of an ahlativus conseqventiae : Ea mihi 
 eripere adversarii conantur, qvibus ademptis nulla dignitatis meae conser- 
 vandae spes relinqvitur. 
 
 §. 446. A relative proposition is inserted in another or prefixed 
 
8. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. 397 
 
 to it in a peculiar way, in order to denote that the assertion agrees 
 with the character and some particular quality of the person or 
 thing spoken of, the name of the quality (according to §.319) 
 being drawn into the relative proposition, and the relative con- 
 nected with it in the sense of as, of what kind (qvae tua prudentia 
 est, as your prudence is,=according to the nature of your pru- 
 dence, agreeably to your prudence). Usually the name of the 
 quality stands as a subject with sum, sometimes it is combined 
 with the relative as a descriptive ablative or genitive referring to 
 the subject of the leading proposition: Si mihi negotium permi- 
 sisses, qvi meus amor in te est, confecissem (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 2). 
 Spero, qvae tua prudentia et temperantia est, te jam, ut volumus, 
 vivere (Id. ad Att. VI. 9). Qva es prudentia, nihil te fugiet (Id. 
 ad Fam. XI. 3). Ajax, qvo animo traditur (sc. fuisse), millies 
 oppetere mortem qvam ilia perpeti maluisset (Id. Off. I. 3J). (The 
 same sense may be expressed by pro : Tit pro tua prudentia, quid optimum 
 factu sit, videbis. Cic. Fam. X. 27). 
 
 Obs. Qvantus is sometimes used in the same way : Qvanta ingenia in 
 nostris hominibus esse video, non despero fore aliqvem aliqvando, qvi exis- 
 tat talis orator, qvalem qvaerimus (Cic. de Or. I. 21), considering the 
 great abilites which — . 
 
 §. 447. The beginner should take notice, that where in English a sub- 
 ject is first characterised by the verb ' to be,' with a predicative noun 
 (a superlative, an ordinal, or a substantive with an adjective), and the 
 action, with reference to which it is so characterised, then given in a 
 relative proposition, in Latin a simple leading proposition alone is used, 
 the characteristic being expressed by an apposition : Primum omnium 
 Sejum vidimus, the first man we saw was Sejus. Hoc firmisshno utimur 
 argumento (or ex argumentis, qvibus utimur, Jirmissimum hoc est, with 
 the relative proposition referring to the whole class, not, argumentum 
 jirmissimum, qvo utimur, hoc est). Caesar explorat, qvo commodissimo 
 itinere vallem transire possit (Caes. B. G. V. 49). Non contemnendus hie 
 hostis advenit (it is no contemptibleenemy that is coming here) a . 
 
 §. 448. The Latins often use the relative pronoun, not to con- 
 nect a subordinate proposition, but as a demonstrative, in order to 
 continue the discourse in a new proposition, so that qvi stands for 
 is, while it at the same time connects the proposition with the pre- 
 ceding, almost like et is. (Consequently never where et or some 
 
 a Charilaus fuit, qvi ad Publium Pldlonem venit et tradere se ait moenia statuisse (Liv. 
 VIII. 25), i. e. there was a certain Charilaus there : he came — j not, It was Charilaus, 
 who [Charilaus ad Philonem venit). 
 
398 Syntax.— Part II. §. 4 
 
 other particle of transition is actually made use of.) But this can 
 only be done when no emphasis rests on the pronoun (on account 
 of an antithesis or the like). Qvi may also be used in this way in 
 a protasis, and combined with such conjunctions as distinguish it, 
 e. g. qvi qvum (=et qvum is). In the same way are employed the 
 relative particles qvare, qvamobrem, qvapropter, qvocirca (and there- 
 fore) : Caesar eqvitatum omnem mittit, qvi videant, qvas in partes 
 hostes iter faciant. Qvi, cupidius novissimum agmen insecuti, alieno 
 loco cum eqvitatu Helvetiorum proelium committunt (Caes. B. G. I. 
 15). Postremo insidias vitae hujusce Sex. Roscii par are coeperunt 
 neqve arbitrabantur se posse diutius alienam pecuniam domino inco- 
 lumi obtinere. Qvod hie simulatqve sensit, de amicorum cognato- 
 rumqve sententia Romam confugit (Cic. pro Hose. Am. 9 ; as soon 
 as he observed this). Qvae qvum ita sint, nihil censeo mutandum 
 (this being the state of the case). 
 
 Obs. In Latin neither an adversative conjunction (autem, vero) nor one 
 that expresses a conclusion (igitur, ideo) can be attached to the relative. 
 Yet sed qvi is used in opposition to a preceding adjective : Vir bonus, sed 
 qvi omnia negligenter agat. But if a compound proposition begins with a 
 relative clause, the conjunction which belongs to the leading proposition 
 is drawn into it : Qvae autem cupiditates a natura prqfciscuntur, facile 
 explentur=Eae autem cupiditates, qvae, &c. {Qvi tamen=et tamen is.) 
 
 §. 449. Qvod (properly the neuter of the relative pronoun) some- 
 times stands before a conjunction belonging to a subordinate pro- 
 position which begins a period, to denote the connection of the 
 thought with the preceding, especially before si and nisi (qvod si, 
 now if, and if, but if, qvod nisi), but also before etsi, qvia, qvoniam, 
 and utinam : Qvod si corporis gravioribus morbis vitae jucunditas 
 impeditur, qvanto magis animi morbis impediri necesse est? (Cic. 
 Finn. 1. 18), and if — . Coluntur tyranni duntaxat ad tempus. Qvod 
 si forte ceciderunt, turn intelligitur, qvam fuerint inopes amicorum 
 (Id. Lael. 15), but if they fall — . Qvodsi illinc inanis profugisses, 
 tamen ista tua fuga nef aria, pro ditio consulis tui scelerata judicare- 
 tur (Id. Verr. I. 14), but even if — . Qvod nisi Metellus hoc tarn 
 graviter egisset atqve illam rem imperio prohibuisset, vestigium sta- 
 tuarum Verris in tota Sicilia nullum esset relictum (Id. ib. II. 66). 
 Qvod etsi ingeniis magnis praediti qvidam dicendi copiam sine ratione 
 conseqvuntur , ars tamen est dux certior qvam natura (Id. Finn. IV. 
 4), and even if — . Qvod qvia nullo modo sine amicitia firmam et 
 perpetuam jucunditatem vitae tenere possumus, idcirco amicitia cum 
 voluptate connectitur (Id. ib. I. 20). In other cases, when qvod stands 
 
1. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. 399 
 
 before qvum and ubi, it has its original signification as a relative pronoun 
 (in the place of the demonstrative) in such a way that that which is briefly 
 indicated by the pronoun is afterwards expressed more definitely by an 
 accusative with the infinitive (according to §. 395, Obs. 6), by which means 
 the pronoun becomes superfluous, e. g. Criminabatur etiam 31. Pomponius 
 L. Manlium, qvod Titum Jilium, qvi postea est Torqyatus appellatus, ab 
 Tiominibus relegasset et ruri habitare jussisset. Qvod qvum audisset ado- 
 lescens filius, negotium exhiberi patri, accurrisse JRomam dicitur (Cic. Off. 
 III. 31), when the son observed this, that — . 
 
 §. 450. A direct Interrogative Proposition, in which the 
 question is not expressed by an interrogative pronoun, pronominal 
 adjective, or adverb, may be put without any distinguishing par- 
 ticle, when we ask with an expression of doubt and surprise ; a 
 question expressed affirmatively implying that the answer is ex- 
 pected in the negative, and vice versa : Tanti maleficii crimen pro- 
 bare te, Ertici, censes posse talibus viris } si ne cansam qvidem male- 
 Hcii protuleris ? (Cic. Rose. Am. 26) . Ut omittam vim et naturam 
 deorum, ne homines qvidem censetis, nisi imbecilli essent, futuros 
 beneficos et benignos fuisse? (Id. N. D. I. 44). Clodius insidias 
 fecit Miloni? (Id. pro Mil. 22). Rogas? (Id. ib. 22), Can you 
 ask? Infelix est Fabricius, qvod rus suum fodit ? (Sen. de Prov. 3). 
 Senatus haec intelligit, consul videt ; hie (Catilina) tamen vivit. 
 Vivit ? Immo vero etiam in senatum venit (Cic. Cat. I. 1, question 
 used to correct a previous statement) . Qvid ? non sciunt ipsi 
 viam, domum qva redeant ? (Ter. Hec. III. 2, 25). Non pudet 
 philosophum in eo gloriari, qvod haec non timeat ? (Cic. Tusc. I. 21). 
 Haec te vox non perculit, non perturbavit ? (Id. Yerr. III. 57). A 
 single dependent interrogative proposition (not disjunctive) must 
 always be distinguished by an interrogative particle 5 . 
 
 §.451. The particles which serve to designate a single interro- 
 gation are ne (attached to the end of a word), num {numne, num- 
 nam, numqvid, ecqvid), with a negative nonne (si, whether). (Con- 
 cerning an and utrum see under the head of the disjunctive inter- 
 rogation.) 
 
 a. Ne, when affixed to the verb, denotes a question in general, without 
 any accessory signification (affirmative or negative) : Venitne pater ? 
 Yet it sometimes implies (in direct questions) an affirmation, so that it 
 has nearly the same force as nonne : Videmusne (videsne), ut piceri ne ver- 
 
 b The following is a direct question: Die mihi : Lysippus eodem aere, eadem tempe- 
 ratione ceteris omnibus centum Alexandros ejuademmodi facere non posset (Cic. Acad. II. 
 26) : Tell me ; could not Lysippus — ? 
 
400 Syntax.— Part II. g. .45 
 
 beribus qvidem a contemplandis rebus perqvirendisqve deterreantur ? (Cic. 
 Finn. V. 18). Estne Sthenius is, qvi omnes honores domi suae magnifi- 
 centissime gessit ? (Id. Verr. II. 46). If on the other hand ne is attached 
 to another word than the verb, it often marks out the word in such a 
 way as to express surprise, sometimes a doubt : Apollinemne tu Delium 
 spoliare ausus es ? Illine tu templo torn sancto onanus impias offer re co- 
 natus es? (Cic. Yerr. I. 18). (It rarely has this force with a verb: Po- 
 testne, Crasse, virtus servire ? Id. de Or. I. 52.) In dependent interroga- 
 tive propositions this accessory signification is lost sight of, and it is ren- 
 dered in English by whether : Qvoero de Regillo, Lepidi filio, rectene 
 nieminerim, patre vivo mortuum, Cic. ad Att. XII. 24 c . 
 
 b. Num in direct questions almost always implies that a negative reply 
 is expected, in dependent propositions it only expresses the question 
 generally {whether*). The doubt is expressed somewhat more strongly by 
 numne (with the addition of the enclitic ne) : Num negare audes ? (Cic. 
 in Cat. I. 4). Num facti Pamphilum piget ? Num ejus color pudoris 
 signum usqvom indicate (Ter. Andr. V. 3, 6). Numne, si Coriolanus 
 habuit amicos,ferre contra potriom arma illi cum Coriolano debuerunt ? 
 Num Viscellinum amici regnum appetentem debuerunt adjuvare ? (Cic. 
 Lael. 11). {Num qvid vis ? Have you any commands? without a nega- 
 tive signification.) Legati speculari jussi sunt, num sollicitati animi so- 
 ciorum a rege Perseo essent (Liv. XLII. 19). The simply interrogative 
 phrase is strengthened by the addition of qvid (in the accus. according 
 to §. 229 b) : Numqvid duas habetis patrias ? (Cic. Legg. II. 2). Scire 
 velim, numqvid necesse sit esse Bomae (Id. ad Att. XII. 8). The same 
 is expressed in familiar language by numnam (as in qvisnam, num- 
 
 Obs. JEcqvid also stands as a mere interrogative particle, when we 
 draw a person's attention to something : Qvid est, Catilina ? Ecqvid 
 attendis? Ecqvid animadvertis horum silentium? (Cic. in Cat. I. 8). 
 {Qvid venis ? Why do you come ?) 
 
 c. Nonne expresses a question to which an affirmative answer is ex- 
 pected, an appeal being made to that which the person addressed must 
 admit and acknowledge : Qvid? canis nonne similis lupo ? (Cic. N. D. I. 
 35). Si qvi rex, si qva natio fecisset aliqvid in civem Romanum ejusmodi, 
 nonne publice vindicaremus ? non bello perseqveremur ? (Id. Yerr. V. 58). 
 (In this way nonne often stands only in the first clause in repetitions). 
 Qvaesitum ex Socrate est, Archelaum, Perdiccae filium, nonne beatum 
 putaret (Cic. Tusc. V. 12). 
 
 Obs. By a question with nonne a certainty is expressed, that a thing is 
 so, by a question with non (see above) surprise, that a thing is not so 
 (does not take place) and a doubt of the possibility of its being denied : 
 c Ain' tu ? AirC vero ? Do you say so ? What do you say ? 
 
Chap. IX.— Use of the Conjunctions. 401 
 
 Nonne meministi, qvid paullo ante dixerim ? (Do you not remember ? 
 You remember surely, — .) Tu hoe non vides? (Do you really not see 
 this ?) Yet nonne is sometimes found, where we should expect simply 
 non. 
 
 d. Si sometimes stands in dependent interrogative propositions in the 
 signification ivhether : Visum, si domi est (Ter. Heaut. I. 1,118; with the 
 indicative instead of the conjunctive). Pliilopoemen qvaesivit, si Lycortas 
 incolumis evasisset (Liv. XXXIX. 50). Yet this is rare in prose, except 
 with exspecio and with verbs which designate an attempt {experior, tento, 
 conor), after which it is the conjunction commonly used : Ser. Sulpicius 
 norirecusavit, qyominus vel extremo spiritu, si qvam opem reipublicae ferre 
 posset, experiretur (Cic. Phil. IX. 1). Tentata res est, si prinio impetu 
 capi Ardea posset (Liv. I. 57). On this account too, even where no such 
 verb has been expressly introduced, si is put with the conjunctive of pos- 
 sum {volo) following, in order to express a design and an attempt (whether 
 perhaps ; to try, whether perhaps) : Hostes circwmfunduntur ex omnibus 
 partibus, si qvem aditum reperire possint (Caes. B. G. VI. 37). Hannibal 
 etiam de industriu Fabium irritat, si forte accensum tot cludibus sociorum 
 detrdhere ad aeqvum certamen possit (Liv. XXII. 13). 
 
 §. 452. In a disjunctive interrogation, by which we ask which, 
 of two (or more) opposed members is affirmed or denied, the first 
 member is distinguished by utrum or ne ; yet this distinction may 
 be omitted (especially where the antithesis is short and obvious), 
 and the question expressed solely by the accentuation. The second 
 (and remaining) members are distinguished by an (anne), or (espe- 
 cially in dependent questions, the first member of which has no 
 distinguishing particle) by ne. {Ne — ne is rare, and found chiefly in 
 the poets; utrum — ne very rare.) Or not is expressed by annon or 
 necne. Utrum nescis, qvam alte ascenderis, an id pro nihilo habes ? 
 (Cic. ad Fam. X. 26). Utrum Milonis corporis an Pythagorae tibi 
 malis vires ingenii dart? (Id. Cat. M. 10). Permultum interest, 
 utrum perturbatione aliqva animi an consulto fiat injuria (Id. Off. I. 
 8). Utrum hoc tu parum meministi, an ego non satis intellexi, an 
 mutasti sententiam ? (Id. ad Att. IX. 2). Qvid Aristoteles ? ipsene 
 errat an alios vult errare ? (Id. de Div. I. 25) . Vosne L. Domitium 
 an vos L. Domitius deseruit ? (Caes. B. C. II. 32). Qvaeritur, virtus 
 suamne propter dignitatem an propter fructus aliqvos expetatur (Cic. 
 de Or. III. 29). Sortietur an non? (Id. Prov. Cons. 15). Delibe- 
 rabatur de Avarico, incendi placer et an defendi (Caes. B. Gr. VII. 
 15). Refert, qvi audiant orationem, senatus an populus an judices 
 (Cic. de Or. III. 55). In incerto erat, vicissent victine essent (Liv. 
 V. 28). Nihil inter esse put ant, valeamus aegrine simus (Cic. Finn. 
 
 3f 
 
402 Syntax.— P 'art II. §. 45 
 
 IV. 25). {Nihil interest, ipsosne interficiant impedimentisne exuant, 
 Caes. B. G. VII. 14. Qvi teneant oras, hominesne feraene, qvaerere con- 
 stituit, Virg. Aen. I. 308.) Dicamne huic, an non dicam ? (Ter. Eun. 
 
 V. 4, 46) . Qvaeritur, Corinthiis bellum indicamus an non (Cic. 
 Inv. I. 12). Sunt haec tua verba necne? (Id. Tusc. III. 18). 
 Utrum vultis patri Flacco licuisse istam pecuniam capere necne ? 
 (Id. pro Place. 25). Dii utrum sint, necne sint, qvaeritur (Id. N. 
 D. III. 7). Demus beneficium, necne, in nostra est potestate (Id. 
 Off. I. 15). 
 
 Ohs. 1 . Utrum (from uter, which of two) immediately indicates the di- 
 vision (but is also used when there are several members). It is strength- 
 ened by affixing ne to the next word on which an emphasis is laid in the 
 question : Est etiam ilia distinctio, utrum illudne non videatur aegre feren- 
 dum, ex qyo suscepta sit aegritudo, an omnium rerum tollenda omnino 
 aegritudo (Cic. Tusc. IV. 27). In the poets we also find utrumne in 
 one word. 
 
 Ohs. 2. From this we must distinguish utrum as a pronoun with two 
 members following in apposition with ne — an : Aeqvum Scipio dicebat 
 esse Siculos cogitare, utrum esset illis utilius, suisne servire, an populo 
 Momano obtemperare (Cic. Verr. IV. 33). (Utrum employed in a simple 
 question instead of num is a very rare irregularity.) 
 
 §. 453. An stands not only in the second member of disjunctive 
 interrogations, but also in simple questions of a supplementary 
 kind, which are subjoined to the preceding discourse, when an in- 
 quiry is made, what must be the case otherwise (in case there is 
 some objection to be made to the foregoing) or then (in case some 
 idea proposed in it is confirmed), or when the speaker himself 
 appends an answer to the question or some suspicion relating to it 
 under the form of a new question (in which case an sometimes 
 assumes the signification of nonne) : Epicurus voluptatem sensus 
 titillantem nimis etiam novit, qvippe qvi testificetur, ne intelligere 
 qvidem se posse, ubi sit aut qvod sit ullum bonum praeter illud, qvod 
 sensibus et corpore capiatur. An haec ab eo non dicuntur? (Cic. 
 Finn. II. 3), Or does he not say this ? Qvasi non necesse sit, qvod 
 isto modo pronunties, id aut esse aut non esse. An tu dialecticis ne 
 imbutus qvidem es ? (Id. Tusc. I. 7), Or have you not learned even 
 the first principles of dialectics ? Sed ad haec, nisi molestum est, 
 habeo, qvae velim. An me, inqvam, nisi te audire vellem, censes haec 
 dicturum fuisse? (Id. Finn. I. 8), Do you then believe that — ? 
 Qvid ais? an venit Pamphilus ? (Ter. Hec. III. 2, 11), What say 
 you ? is Pamphilus come ? Qvid dicis ? an bello fugitivorum Sici- 
 
13. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions» 403 
 
 liamvirtute tua liber atam? (Cic. Verr. V. 2). Qvando autem ista 
 vis evanuit ? an postqvam homines minus creduli esse coeperunt ? 
 (was it not from the time when? Id. Div. II. 57). The significa- 
 tion or ? is strengthened by vero : An vero dubitamus, qvo ore Ver- 
 res ceteros homines inferior e loco solitus sit appellare, qvi ob jus du 
 cendum M. Octavium poscere pecuniam non dubitarit ? (Cic. Verr. 
 I. 48), Or can we doubt — ? A double question, which involves an 
 inference, §. 438, is often so connected by an or an vero. In other 
 simple questions an is not used, except in the later writers and the 
 poets in dependent interrogations, e. g. Reges dicuntur torqvere 
 mero, qvem perspexisse labor ant, an sit amicitia dignus (Hor. A. P. 
 436) d . Qvaeritur, an providentia mundus regatur (Qvinct. III. 5, 
 6). From this, however, we must except the usage of an in the 
 signification whether not {whether not perhaps, inclining to an 
 affirmation) after haud scio, nescio, dubito, dubium, incertum est, 
 and sometimes after other expressions which denote uncertainty 
 (delibero, haesito) : Qvae fuit unqvam in ullo homine tanta con- 
 stantia ? Constantiam dico ? Nescio an melius patientiam possim 
 dicer e (Cic. pro Lig. 9). Aristotelem eoccepto Platone haud scio an 
 recte dixerim principem philosophorum (Id. Finn. V. 3). Est id 
 qvidem magnum atqve haud scio an maximum (Id. ad Fam. IX. 15). 
 Dubito an Venusiam tendam et ibi exspectem de legionib us (Id. ad 
 Att. XVI. 5). Moriendum certe est, et id incertum, an hoc ipso die 
 (Id. Cat. M. 20). The expressions haud scio an, nescio an, acquire 
 therefore the signification perhaps, and denote a suspicion that a 
 thing is. A doubt, whether a thing is, is expressed by the addi- 
 tion of negatives : Contigit tibi, qvod haud scio an nemini (Cic. ad 
 Fam. IX. 14). Hoc dijudicari nescio an nunqvam, sed hoc sermone 
 certo non potest (Id. Legg. I. 21). Atqve haud sciam an ne opus 
 qvidem sit, nihil unqvam deesse amicis (Id. Lael. 14), whether it is 
 in general even to be wished e . Anne (with the enclitic ne) is not 
 often used, and only in the second member of the interrogation : 
 Interrogatur, tria pauca sint, anne multa (Cic. Acad. II. 29). 
 
 Ohs. 1 . An is sometimes used without an express question, to denote an 
 uncertainty and wavering between two conceptions (or perhaps, it is un- 
 certain whether — or) : Themistocles, qvum ei Simonides an qvis alius 
 artem memoriae polliceretur, Oblivionis, inqvit, mallem (Cic. Finn. II. 32). 
 
 d The poets occasionally employ even an — an in a disjunctive interrogation, Virg. 
 Aen. X. 680. Ov. Met. X. 254. 
 
 e Nescio an is used in later writers, without thus approximating to an assertion : 
 Nescio an noris hominem, qvamqvam nosse debes (Plin. Ep. VI. 21). 
 
 3f2 
 
404 Syntax.— ¥ art IX. §. 45! 
 
 Fa suspicio, vitio orationis an rei, liaud sane purgata est (Liv. XXVIII. 
 4S)=-incertum 9 vitio orationis an rei. 
 
 Obs. 2. From disjunctive interrogations we must carefully distinguish, 
 questions concerning two (or more) different but not opposed members, 
 connected by aut, to both (or all) of which an answer in the negative is 
 anticipated : Qvid ergo ? solem dicam aut lunam aut coelum deum ? (Cic. 
 N. D. I. 30). Num me igitur fefellit? aut num Antonius diutius sui 
 potuit esse dissimilis ? (Id. Phil. II. 36). 
 
 §. 454. An answer is expressed affirmatively by etiam, ita, yes, 
 or (in the way of assurance) by vero (rarely verum), yes, certainly, 
 sane {sane qvidem), yes indeed, yes willingly, or by merely repeat- 
 ing the verb, with which the question is expressed. We may also 
 combine the verb with vero or vero and a pronoun, which denotes 
 the subject in the question. A negative answer is expressed by 
 non } minime (in assurances minime vero). An answer conveying 
 a correction (no, on the other hand ; much rather) is indicated by 
 imo (imo vero) : Aut etiam aut non respondere (Cic. Acad. II. 32). 
 Bices, habeo hie, qvos legam, non minus disertos. Etiam; sed le- 
 gendi semper occasio est, audiendi non semper (Plin. Ep. II. 3). — 
 Qvidnam ? inqvit Catulus ; an laudationes ? Ita, inqvit Antonius 
 (Cic. de Or. II. 10. Ita vero ; ita est ; ita prorsus) . — Fuisti saepe, 
 credo, qvum Athenis esses, in scholis philosophorum. Vero, ac liben- 
 ter qvidem (Id. Tusc. II. 11). Fades? Verum, Ter. Heaut. V. 3, 
 11). Visne locum mutemus et in insula ista sermoni reliqvo demus 
 operam sedentes ? Sane qvidem (Cic. Legg. II. 1). — Fierine po- 
 test? Potest. Qvaesivi, fierine posset. Ille posse respondit. — 
 Dasne, aut manere animos post mortem aut morte ipsa interire ? 
 Do vero (Cic. Tusc. I. 11). Verum hoc idem saepe faciamus. Nos 
 vero ! (Id. Finn. IV. 28). Qvaero, si haec emptoribus venditor non 
 dixerit aedesqve vendiderit pluris multo, qvam se venditurum putarit, 
 num injuste fecerit ? Ille vero, inqvit Antipater (Id. Off. III. 13). 
 — Cognatus aliqvis fuit aut propinqvus? Non. (Id. Verr. II. 43. 
 Non fuit. ) Num igitur peceamus ? Minime vos qvidem (Cic. ad 
 Att. VIII. 9). An tu haec non credis (Do you then not believe 
 this) ? Minime vero (Id. Tusc. I. 6). (Nonfaciam, no, that I will 
 not do.) — Causa igitur non bona est? Imo optima (Id. ad Att. 
 IX. 7) . Qvid ? si patriam prodere conabitur pater, silebitne filius ? 
 Imo vero obsecrabit patrem, ne id faciat (Id. Off. III. 23). An 
 censes non necesse esse optimae reipublicae leges dare consentaneas ? 
 Imo prorsus ita censeo (Id. Legg. II. 10). Vivit? Imo vero etiam 
 in senatum venit (Id. in Cat. I. 1). 
 
55. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. 405 
 
 Obs. 1 . Since vero only expresses an assurance, it may also be employed 
 in propositions, which assure us of the negative of a thing that has been 
 doubted, where it may be translated by no : Ego vero tibi non irascor, mi 
 f rater (no, I am not angry with you). 
 
 Obs. 2. Where the motive or explanation of an affirmation or denial is 
 immediately subjoined by enim, the affirmation or denial is often not ex- 
 pressed by any specific word : Turn Antonius, Heri enim, inqvit, hoe mihi 
 proposueram, ut Tios abs te discipulos abducerem (Cic. de Or. II. 10), Yes, 
 for — . (Siqvidem — , yes, if — .) 
 
 §.455. (Negative Particles). The usual word, by which a 
 thing is stated negatively, is non, not. Hand, not, originally sig- 
 nifies a negation somewhat less definite ; yet there is often no 
 distinction to be observed in the meaning; but in good prose 
 haud is commonly not used with verbs (except in the expression 
 haud scio an), but only with adjectives and adverbs (e. g. haud 
 mediocris, haud spernendus, haud procul, haud sane, haud dubie, 
 certainly, doubtless), and in some of the best writers (Cicero, 
 Caesar) it is rarely met with even in this combination, in other 
 authors it occurs more frequently. Scarcely, almost not, is ex- 
 pressed by vice. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Where the negation is opposed to an affirmation, haud is not 
 used even with adverbs ; we can only say, non tarn — qvam, non modo — 
 sed, non qyo — sed. 
 
 Obs. 2. Neutiqvam, in no wise (rare in prose) ; haudqvaqvam, by no 
 means (homo prudens et gravis, haudqyaqyam eloqvens, Cic. de Or. I. 9). 
 
 Obs. 3. Non in connection with a verb often signifies, to omit to. 
 Hence comes the expression non possum with non and an infinitive ; I 
 cannot omit to, I cannot do otherwise than ( =facere non possum qyin) : 
 Non potui non dare litter as ad Caesar em (Cic. ad Att. VIII. 2). Non 
 poteram in illius patriae eustodis tanta suspicione non metu exanimari 
 (Id. pro Mil. 24). Tuum consilium nemo potest non maxime laudare 
 (Id. ad Fam. IV. 7). 
 
 Obs. 4. Nihil (nothing), in no respect, in no wise (§. 229 b), is some- 
 times put with verbs in the place of non : Ea species nihil terruit eqvos 
 (Liv. IV. 33), struck no terror into the horses. De vita beata nihil re- 
 pugno (Cic. N. D. I. 24). Nihil istac opus est arte (Ter. Andr. I. 1, 5). 
 Nihil necesse est ad omnes tuas litteras rescribere (Cic. ad Att. VII. 2). 
 It is rarely used with adjectives : Plebs Ardeatium, nihil Bomanae plebi 
 similis, in agros optimatium excursiones facit (Liv. IV. 9). (Nonnihil 
 molest a haec sunt mihi, Ter. Ad. I. 2, 62.) 
 
 Obs. 5. In familiar speaking and writing and imitations of that style 
 
406 Syntax,— Part II. §. 455 
 
 nullus sometimes stands in apposition to the subject instead of non, occa- 
 sionally with an intensive signification (not at all) : Sextus ab armis 
 nullus discedit (Cic. ad Att. XV. 22). Haec bona in tabulas publicas 
 nulla redierunt (Cic. Hose. Am. 44), were not entered at all. Multa 
 jpossunt videri esse, qvae omnino nulla sunt (Id. Acad. II. 15), do not 
 exist at all. (On the other hand we have always industria non medio- 
 cris, no small industry, if the negation applies to the adjective, but 
 nemo magnus homo, nulla magna virtus invidiam effugit. Mel non habe- 
 bant, they had no honey ; where the whole only is considered, and not 
 the details.) 
 
 §. 456. A negation which denotes a will, wish, or design, is ex- 
 pressed by ne. Ne is consequently used in wishes (with the con- 
 junctive, §.351), in exhortations to assume a thing as granted 
 (§.352), in prohibitions and warnings (in the imperative or con- 
 junctive, §. 386), in objective propositions after verbs which denote 
 a working or an effort and wish (§. 372 b, and 375), and in propo- 
 sitions denoting a purpose (§. 355) (while on the contrary ut non is 
 employed in consecutive propositions and in those objective propo- 
 sitions which are treated of in §.373 and 374). In objective pro- 
 positions after verbs denoting a wish and effort (§. 372, but not 
 after such as denote an agency employed in hindering a thing, 
 §. 375) and in propositions denoting a purpose, ut — ne is often em- 
 ployed instead of ne, by which is expressed first of all the object or 
 design in general, and afterwards the negation : Trebatio mandavi, 
 ut si tu eum velles ad me mittere, ne recusaret (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 1). 
 Sed ut hie, qvi intervenit, ne ignoret, qvae res agatur, de natura 
 agebatur deorum (Id. N. D. I. 7). When the negation in a final 
 or objective proposition is expressed in English by a negative pro- 
 noun or pronominal adverb (that none, &c.) the negation is ex- 
 pressed in Latin by the particle, which is followed by an affirma- 
 tive pronoun (ne gvis, qvid, ullus, necubi, neqvando) : Edictum est, 
 ne qvis injussu consulis castris egrederetur. 
 
 Obs. 1. Ne is the shortest form of the negative particle, which is seen 
 also in ne—qvidem, in neqve, and in the compounds (nescio). 
 
 Obs. 2. In some passages, chiefly in the poets, non is found instead of 
 ne with the conjunctive to express a prohibition (or with a command in 
 a negative form), e. g. Non sint sine lege capilli (Ov. A. A. III. 133). 
 
 Obs. 3. In objective propositions after verbs which signify ' to bring to 
 pass,' ' to effect, 5 especially after facio and efficio, ut non is also made use of 
 (ut nemo, nihil, nusqvam, &c). Ex hoc efficitur, non ut voluntas ne sit 
 voluntas, sed ut voluntas non sit summum bonum (Cic. Finn. II. 8). 
 
58. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions» 407 
 
 Ohs. 4. Ut ne (occasionally ne) is used when a precaution or restriction 
 is to be indicated, especially with ita preceding : Minucius sciebat, ita se 
 rem augere oportere, ut ne avid de libertate deperderet (Cic. Verr. II. 30). 
 Danda opera est, ut etiam singulis consulatur, sed ita, ut ea res aut prosit 
 aut certe ne obsit reipublicae (Id. Off. II. 21). {Ita admissi sunt in urbem, 
 ne tamen Us senatus daretur : Liv. XXII. 61.) 
 
 §.457. Ne — qvidem (separated by the word which has the em- 
 phasis and forms the antithesis) signifies also not (as little as the 
 preceding or as something else) : Postero die Curio milites in acie 
 collocat. Ne Varus qvidem dubitat copias producer e (Caes. B. C. 
 II. 33). Si non sunt (in case they do not exist), nihil possunt esse ; 
 ita ne miseri qvidem sunt (Cic. Tusc. I. 6). It most frequently 
 gives prominence to the object of the negation, and signifies not 
 even : Ne matri qvidem dixi. Ne cum Caesare qvidem egi. (The 
 preposition and its case are always inserted together.) Ac ne 
 illud qvidem vobis negligendum puto, qvod mihi ego extremum pro- 
 posueram (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 7; also et ne — qvidem). A short 
 subordinate proposition, or a conjunction and the most important 
 word of the subordinate proposition, often stand between ne and 
 qvidem: Ne qvantum possumus qvidem cogimur (Cic. Cat. M. 11). 
 Neqve contra rempublicam neqve contra jusjurandum ac fidem amici 
 causa vir bonus faciei, ne si judex qvidem erit de ipso amico (Id. 
 Off. III. 10). 
 
 Obs. The later writers (from Livy and Ovid downwards) put nee in the 
 same signification as ne — qvidem : Non inutilem puto Jianc cognitionem ; 
 alioqvi nee tradidissem (Qvinct. Y. 10, 119). Esse aliqvid manes et sub- 
 terranea regna, nee pueri credunt (Juv. II. 152). 
 
 §. 458. a. A negation connected with a copulative particle 
 not) is usually expressed in Latin by neqve, nee (which is therefore 
 a negative conjunction, not a mere adverb) : Caesar substitit neqve 
 hostes lacessivit. De Qvinto fratre nuntii trisies nobis nee varii 
 venerant (Cic. ad Att. III. 17). Where a negative pronoun or 
 pronominal adverb follows a copulative particle in English (and 
 none, and no where, and never), it is expressed in Latin by neqve 
 with an affirmative pronoun or adverb (neqve qvisqvam, qvidqvam, 
 ullus, usqvam, unqvam) . Horae cedunt et dies et menses et anni, nee 
 praeteritum tempus unqvam revertitur (Cic. Cat. M. 19) . 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes however et non is employed, when the negation is 
 blended as it were into one idea with some particular word following, 
 and the whole treated as coordinate with what goes before : Patior, 
 
408 - Syntax.— Part II. §. 45! 
 
 judices, et non moleste fero (Cic. Verr. I. 1 ; here non belongs imme- 
 diately to moleste, and the whole expression of satisfaction, non moleste 
 fero, is annexed to patior). Demetrius Syrus, vetus et non ignobilis di- 
 cendi magister (Id. Brut. 91). Habebit igitur lingvam deus et non loqve- 
 tur (Id. N. D. I. 33), and will yet be dumb. In the same way et nemo, 
 et nullus, &c, nullusqve, &c, are also used : Domus temere et nullo con- 
 silio administratur (Cic. Inv. I. 34). Nihil hominem, nisi qyod Jionestum 
 decorumqye est, aut admirari aut optare oportet, nulliqve neqve homini 
 neqve fortunae succumbere (Id. Off. I. 20). Ac non, et non, are particu- 
 larly employed in the signification and not much rather (when a correc- 
 tion is subjoined to a conditional, interrogative, or ironical expression) : 
 Nam si qyam Rubrius injuriam suo nomine ac non impulsu tuo fecisset, 
 de tui comitis injuria qvestum ad te venissent (Cic. Verr. I. 31). Qvasi 
 vero isti, qvos commemoras, propterea magistratus ceperint, qyod trium- 
 pharant, et non, qyia commissi sunt Us magistratus, re bene gesta trium- 
 pharint (Id. pro Plane.- 25). C. Antonius, tanqvam extruderetur a se- 
 natu in Macedoniam ac non contra prohiberetur prqficisci, cucurrit (Id. 
 Phil. X. 5). (Where on the contrary the truth is first stated, and an 
 erroneous opinion then negatived, it is usual to employ non, not et non 
 or sed non : JIaec morum vitia sunt, non senectutis, Cic. Cat. M. 18). 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes even the copulative particle, which connects a new 
 leading proposition, is combined with a negation, which belongs properly 
 to its subordinate (protasis) : Consules in Hernicos exercitum duxerunt, 
 neqve inventis in agro hostibus, IPerentinum, urbem eorum, vi ceperunt 
 (Liv. VII. 9—et, qvum hostes in agro non invenissent, urbem — . Hostes 
 deustos pluteos turrium videbant, nee facile adire apertos ad auxiliandum 
 animadvertebant (Caes. B. G. VII. 25)=et animadvertebant, non facile — . 
 (The poets even allow the et which belongs to ait or inqvit to coalesce 
 with a negative belonging to the speech cited, Neqve, ait, sine numine 
 vincit, Ov. Met. XI. 263 ;=et ait, Non sine n. v.) 
 
 b. Neqve is made use of, when a negative proposition is con- 
 nected by enim, tamen, vero {neqve enim, for not, neqve tamen, yet 
 not, and yet not, neqve vero, but not, and not, also not). Yet we 
 sometimes find non enim, rarely non tamen, by which the negation 
 acquires greater emphasis. {Nam — non only when the negative is inti- 
 mately connected with a word following. Neqve enim — neqve, and nam 
 neqve — neqve.) 
 
 c. The combination of two or more negative members into one 
 unity is denoted by neqve — neqve {nee — nee, neqve nee, nee — neqve), 
 neither — nor, e. g. neqve bonus neqve malus ; neqve consilium mihi 
 placet neqve auctor probatur. The second member may be made 
 more prominent by the addition of vero : Secundum genus cupidi- 
 
i8. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. 409 
 
 tatum Epicurus nee ad potiendum difficile esse censet nee vero ad 
 carendum (Cic. Tusc. V. 33). The combination of an affirmative 
 and negative member is denoted by et — neqve, both. — and not, ne- 
 qve—et, both not — and (less frequently neqve— qve) : Intelligitis, 
 Pompejo et animum praesto fuisse neqve consilium defuisse (Cic. Phil. 
 XIII. 6). Patebat via et certa nee longa (Id. ib. XI. 2). Volup- 
 tates agricolarum nee ulla impediuntur senectute et mihi ad sapientis 
 vitam proxime videntur accedere (Id. Cat. M. 15). Homo nee meo 
 judicio stultus et suo valde prudens (Id. de Or. I. 39). (Ex qvo 
 intelligitur, nee intemperantiam propter se esse fugiendam temper an- 
 tiamqve expetendam, non qvia voluptates fugiat, sed qvia majores 
 conseqvatur, Id. Finn. I. 14.) 
 
 Ohs. 1. Instead of et — neqve we may employ et — et non, when the 
 negation in et non (according to a. Ohs. 1) is intimately combined with a 
 word following, so as to form one idea : Manlius et semper me coluit dili- 
 gentissime et a nostris studiis non ablwrret (Cic. ad Fain. XIII. 22). As- 
 sentior tihi, et multum facetias in dicendo prodesse saepe et eas arte mcllo 
 modo posse tradi (Id. de Or. II. 56). 
 
 Ohs. 2. If a negation (non, neqve, ' and not,' or a negative pronoun, 
 also nego, nolo) belongs to two connected ideas, these are often themselves 
 negatively connected, so that the negative is repeated : Non enim solum 
 acuenda nohis neqve procudenda lingva est, sed complendum pectus maxi- 
 marum rerum copia et varietate (Cic. de Or. III. 30), in English, we must 
 not only whet and sharpen the tongue. Minora dii negligunt nee agellos 
 singulorum nee viticulas perseqvuntur (Id. N. D. III. 35), and do not 
 mind the fields and vines of individuals. Agrum in his regionibus melio- 
 rem neqve pretii majoris nemo liahet (Ter. Heaut. I. 1, 12). In prose the 
 affirmative combination is used only when the ideas are completely 
 blended into one : Nulla res tanta ac tarn difficilis est, qvam Q. Catulus 
 non consilio regere pos'sit (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 20). Nee tantum moero- 
 rem ac luctum senatui mors P. Clodii afferehat, ut nova qvaestio constitue- 
 retur (Id. pro Mil. 5) . (The poets use greater liberty in this respect ; 
 yet it is very unusual for a new proposition, to which the negation 
 should also apply, to be connected by et or qve). On the other hand 
 the second member may be connected by aut or ve : Neqve enim mari 
 veniurum aut ea parte virium dimicaturum hostem credehant (Liv. XXI. 
 17). Non recito uhivis coramve qvihuslibet (Hor. Sat. I. 4, 73). (Also 
 nee — nee — aut . Eqvites hostihus neqve sui colligendi neqve consistendi 
 aut ex essedis desiliendi facultatem dederunt, Caes. B. G. V. 17.) But 
 the connection of a new proposition, which is also negative, by a simple 
 aut, is rare and poetical : Nee te Mnc comitem asportare Creusam fas 
 (est) aut ille sinit superi regnator Olympi (Yirg. Aen. II. 778). Aut 
 — aut also follows after a negation : Ante id tempus nemo aut miles 
 
 3 G 
 
410 Syntax.— Part II. §.45* 
 
 aut eqves a Caesare ad Pompejum transierat (Caes. B. C. III. 61). Con- 
 sciorum nemo aut latuit aut fugit (Liv. XXIV. 5). Nondum aut pulsus 
 remorum strepitusqve alius nauticus exaudiebatur aut promontoria classem 
 aperiebant (Id. XXII. 19). 
 
 §. 459. For et ne (or aut following ne) neve and neu are made 
 use of : Hominem mortuum in urbe neve sepelito neve urito (Cic. 
 Legg. II. 23) . Opera dabatur, ne gvod Us colloqvium inter se neve 
 quae communicatio consilii esset (Liv. XXIII. 34). Caesar milites 
 cohortatus est, uti suae pristinae virtutis memoriam retinerent neu 
 perturb arentur animo (Caes. B. G. II. 21) f . Neve — neve repeated 
 (like neqve — neqve) is used in prohibitions (it is, however, of rare 
 occurrence : Neve tibi ad solem vergant vineta cadentem neve inter 
 vites corulum sere, Yirg. G. II. 298) and in dependent propositions 
 with ut preceding [ut neve— neve) : Peto a te, ut id neve in hoc reo 
 neve in aliis reqviras (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9). 
 
 Obs. We find, however, solitary examples of nee instead of neve : 
 Teneamus eum cursum, qvi semper fuit optimi cujusqve, neqve ea signa 
 audiamus, qvae receptui canunt (Cic. R. P. I. 2). Nee hoc pertimueris 
 (Cic). Haec igitur lex in amicitia sanciatur, ut neqve rogemus res 
 turpes neqve faciamus rogati (Id. Lael. 12). In the poets neve is also 
 used instead of et ne, in such a way that the et belongs to another 
 proposition (as with neqve §.458 a. Obs. 2) : Neve for et terris securior 
 arduus aether, affectasse ferunt regnum caeleste Gigantas (Ov. Met. 
 I. 151). 
 
 §. 460. Two negatives coming together do away with the nega- 
 tive signification. If the negative particle be placed immediately 
 before a negative word, the universal negation alone is set aside, 
 and there results an indefinite affirmation ; thus nonnemo, not no one 
 —some one, some few, nonnullus, nonnihil, nonnunqvam, sometimes. 
 If on the other hand non belongs to a predicate, and this (nega- 
 tive) predicate is asserted of a negative idea, there results a univer- 
 sal affirmation; no one does it not (omits to do it) =all without 
 exception do it : so nemo non, nullus non, all, nihil non, every thing, 
 numqvam non, always, nusqvam non, every where. Nemo Arpinas 
 non Plancio studuit (Cic. pro Plane. 9), Nulli non ad nocendum 
 satis virium est (Sen. Ep. 105). Achilles nihil non arroget armis 
 (Hor. A. P. 122; let Achilles claim every thing). (Concerning non 
 possum non, see §. 455, Obs. 3). 
 
 f Decernitur ne domos pantomimorum senator introiret, ne egredientes in publicum eqvites 
 Romani cingerent, aut alibi qvam in theatris spectarentur (Tac. Ann. I. 77). 
 
1. Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. 411 
 
 Obs. 1. Nee 7ion do not stand together in good prose simply as a 
 substitute for et, nor as a way of connecting two single words, but they 
 are used to carry on the idea, by adding, that a certain other thing can- 
 not (can also not) be denied : Nee lioc Zeno non vidit, sed verborum 
 magnificentia est delect atus (Cic. Finn. IV. 22), and this also did not 
 escape the observation of Zeno, but — . Neqve vero non omni supplicio 
 digni P. Claudius, L. Junius consules, qvi contra auspicia navigarunt 
 (Cic. Div. II. 33), and therefore the consuls P. C. and L. J. cannot but 
 be deserving of the severest punishment. Nee enim is, qyi in te adliuc 
 injustior, qvam tua dignitas postulabat, fuit, non magna signa dedit animi 
 erga te mitigati (Id. ad Fam. VI. 1). Inferior writers and the poets use nee 
 non also in immediate juxtaposition {Nee non et Tyrii — convenere, Virg. 
 Aen. I. 707) and for the connection of two single ideas {and also). 
 
 Obs. 2. Two negatives do not destroy one another, if either (a) a pro- 
 position begins with a general negation and a single idea is then brought 
 prominently forward by ne — qvidem, or if (b) a general negation precedes 
 and is then repeated distributively with the single terms : Non enim 
 praetereundum est ne id qvidem (Cic. Verr. I. 60). Epicurus, qvid praeter 
 voluptatem sit bonum, negat se posse ne suspicari qvidem (Id. Fin. II. 10). 
 Sic habeas, nihil mehercule te mini nee carius esse nee svavius (Id. ad Att. 
 V. 1 ; this might also have been expressed according to §. 458 c. Obs. 2, 
 aut carius aut svavius). Nemo unqvam neqve poeta neqve orator fuit, qvi 
 qvenqvam meliorem qvam se putaret (Id. ib. XIV. 20). Non me car minibus 
 vincet nee Thracius Orpheus nee Linus (Virg. B. IV. 55). {Ea nescie- 
 bant, nee ubi, nee qvalia essent, (Cic. Tusc. III. 2?.) 
 
 §. 461. a. An ascending to something higher is designated by 
 non modo, non tantum (not only), non solum (not alone) — sed etiam, 
 verum etiam. 
 
 Obs. Modo properly denotes rather the degree, solum the extent, but 
 no marked distinction is observed. Non tantum is not often used, except 
 when the subject or the predicate is common to both clauses. Instead of 
 sed etiam we find also simply sed, by which a more comprehensive idea, 
 which at the same time comprises the preceding, is substituted in its 
 place : Pollio omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum, sed praefuit (Cic. ad 
 Fam. I. 6) ; but it is also used without this accessory signification. We 
 rarely meet with sed — qvoqve, which denotes merely an addition, not an 
 ascending. The first member may also be a negative : non modo {non 
 solum) non — sed etiam {sed potius, sed) : Non modo non oppugnator, sed 
 etiam defensor (Cic. pro Plane. 31). Hoe non modo non pro me est, sed 
 contra me est potius (Id. de Or. III. 20). Callicrates non modo non deter- 
 ritus, sed ad maturandum concitatus est (Corn. Dion. 8). 
 
 % The comic writers in some few instances use neqve hand in place of the simple 
 neqve. 
 
 3 g 2 
 
413 Syntax.— Part II. §.461 
 
 b. In order to denote an ascending to a negative idea (that even 
 something which is more probable, and of less moment, does not 
 take place), non modo or non solum is combined with sed ne — qvi- 
 dem, sed vix : Vobis inter vos non modo voluntas conjunct a fuit ', sed 
 ne praeda qvidem adhuc divisa est (Cic. Div. in Caec. 11). In this 
 case non modo or non solum has usually another negative either 
 after it, so that non modo, non solum is asserted of the negative 
 idea [not only not, not only no one, &c), or before it, where the 
 negation is common to both clauses [nemo non modo, nihil non 
 modo, &c. No one, I will not say), so that, properly speaking, the 
 negative is repeated in ne — qvidem : (a) Ego non modo tibi non 
 irascor, sed ne reprehendo qvidem factum tuum (Cic. pro Sull. 18). 
 Non modo nihil acqvisiverunt, sed ne relictum qvidem et traditum et 
 suum cons erv aver unt (Id. de Or. III. 32). Non modo re prohibere 
 non licet, sed ne verba qvidem reprehendere (Id. Rose. Am. 47). 
 Obscoenitas non solum non foro digna, sed vix convivio liberorum 
 (Id. de Or. II. 62). (b) Nihil its Verves non modo de fructu, sed 
 ne de bonis qvidem suis reliqvi fecit (Id. Verr. III. 48). Nullum 
 non modo illustre, sed ne notum qvidem factum (Id. in Pis. 1) . Id 
 ne unqvam posthac non modo confici, sed ne cogitari qvidem possit a 
 civibus, hodierno die providendum est (Id. in Cat. IV. 9). If both 
 clauses have a common predicate, to which the negative belongs, 
 and the predicate stands in the last clause, the negation which lies 
 in ne — qvidem [vix) may be referred to the whole, so that instead of 
 non modo non (non solum non) we have in the first clause only non 
 modo (non solum) : Assentaiio non modo amico, sed ne libero qvidem 
 digna est (Cic. Lael. 24). Senatui non solum juvare rempublicam, 
 sed ne lugere qvidem licuit (Id. in Pis. 10). Non modo manus tanti 
 exercitus, sed ne vestigium qvidem cuiqvam privaio nocuit (Id. pro 
 Leg. Man. 13). (In the complete form: Nemini privato non modo 
 manus t. e., sed ne vestigium qvidem nocuit.) Advena non modo 
 civicae, sed ne Ilalicae qvidem stirpis (Liv. I. 40 ;—qvi non modo — 
 stirpis esset). Haec genera virtutum non solum in moribus nostris, 
 sed vix jam in libris reperiuntur (Cic. pro Gael. 17). But the com- 
 plete form is also made use of: Hoc non modo non laudari, sed ne 
 concedi qvidem protest (Cic. pro Mur. 3). Sthenius id potuit, qvod 
 non modo Siculis nemo, sed ne Sicilia qvidem tot a potuisset (Id. 
 Verr. II. 46). 
 
 Ohs. 1 . In the same way it is said : Hoc non modo recte fieri, sed 
 omnino fieri non potest (Cic. Acad. II. 19). If each clause has its dis- 
 tinct predicate, non modo, sed ne — qvidem, instead of non modo non, is a 
 very rare irregularity. 
 
V2, 
 
 Chap. IX. — Use of the Conjunctions. 413 
 
 Obs. 2. No'i modo (not non solum) also stands with sed (sed etiam, 
 verum, verum etiam) following, in the signification ; I will not say {non 
 dico), when it is intended to shew that the first clause comprises too 
 much, and that we must abide by the second and more limited one : 
 Quae civitas est in Asia, qvae non modo imperatoris aut legati, sed unius 
 tribuni militum animos etc spiritus capere possit ? (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 22). 
 Sine ulla non modo reliqione, verum etiam dissimulatione (Id. Verr. V. 1). 
 Quid liabes, qvod possis clicere, qvamobrem non modo mihi, sed cuiqvam 
 anteponare ? (Id. Div. in Caec. 18). (Num exploratum cuiqvam esse 
 potest, qyomodo sese habiturum sit corpus, non dico ad annum, sed ad ves- 
 perum ? Cic. Fin. II. 28. We find also non dicam, in the future.) 
 
 Obs. 3. Non modo {non solum) may also be put after the leading clause, 
 in order to indicate that of which the assertion naturally holds first and 
 most of all : Secundas etiam res nostras, non modo adversas, pertimesce- 
 bam (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 14), 'and not only.' If the leading assertion be 
 negative {non, ne — qvidem), non modo expresses what is denied still more 
 strongly (much less, to say nothing of) : Nullum meum minimum dictum, 
 non modo factum (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9). Apollinis oracula nunqvam ne me- 
 diocri qvidem cuiqvam, non modo prudenti, probata sunt (Cic. Div. II. 55). 
 (Nedum, not to mention that — ; then also without a verb as an adverb ; 
 not to say=much less ; from Livy downwards it occurs also without a 
 negative preceding ; not to say = much more.) 
 
 §. 462. a. Of other particular negative expressions we may notice 
 the following : non ita, not so very (non ita magnus, hand ita mag- 
 nus) ; non item, not in the same way=not on the other hand (or 
 simply not, in antitheses with the foregoing predicate understood : 
 Corporum offensiones sine culpa accidere possunt, animorum non 
 item, Cic. Tusc. IV. 14) ; nondum, not yet [neqvedum, and not yet, 
 sometimes for nondum ; nullusdum, nihildum, vixdum ; also nondum 
 etiam) h ; non jam, no more, no longer; tantum non, modo non, 
 almost (strictly, only this nor, so that this one thing is wanting : 
 tantum non ad port as et muros helium est, Liv. XXV. 15) ; nihil ad- 
 modum (admodum nihil), as good as nothing. 
 
 b. The words nemo and ne, with some verbs which contain a 
 negation in themselves (nolo, nescio, and particularly nego), are by 
 an inaccuracy of expression sometimes put in such a way, that 
 in a subjoined (antithetical) clause only the affirmative idea con- 
 tained in the words is understood (omnes, ut, volo, scio, dico) : 
 
 h Not nemo dum, but adhue nemo. Adhuc non, and adhuc nihil are also used, when 
 the negation is closely connected with another idea : Adhuc de isto periculo nihil audivi 
 (Cic. ad Fam. IX. 17), hitherto I have heard nothing of it. 
 
414 Syntax.— Part II. §.4 
 
 Nemo extulit eum verbis, gvi ita dixisset, ut, gvi adessent, intellige- 
 rent, qvid diceret, sed contempsit eum, gvi minus id facere potuisset 
 (Cic. de Or. III. 14). Appius collegis in castra scribit, ne Virginio 
 commeatum dent atqve etiam in custodia habeant (Liv. III. 46). 
 Plerigve negant Caesarem in custodia mansurum postulataqve haec 
 ab eo interposita esse, qvominus, qvod opus esset ad bellum a nobis 
 pararetur (Cic. ad Att. VII. 15)=say that Caesar will not keep 
 his engagement, but — . 
 
PAET THE THIED. 
 
 Order and Position of the Words and Proposition- 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Of the Order of the Words in the Proposition. 
 
 §.463. Since in Latin the connection and construction of the 
 words may easily be known from their inflection, their position is 
 not determined by such strict and definite rules as is usually the 
 case in English and other modern languages, but is regulated in 
 a great measure by the emphasis which is laid on the individual, 
 words according to the sense of the passage, and sometimes also 
 by a regard to euphony. 
 
 Ols, The position of the words is therefore to be distinguished from 
 the grammatical order, founded on their mutual relations. This order is 
 sometimes called the Construction, and the giving it is called construing 
 the sentence. 
 
 §. 464. The most simple arrangement of the words is this ; that 
 the subject, with what belongs to it, stands first, and the predicate 
 follows afterwards in such a way, that the verb usually stands last, 
 in order to combine the whole proposition, while the object and 
 the object of relation, or the predicative noun, with the other defi- 
 nitions of the verb (ablative, prepositions with cases, adverbs) are 
 placed in the middle. Generally speaking the word which is go- 
 verned by another and helps to define it (with the exception of the 
 genitive when depending on a substantive) is placed before the 
 word which governs or is defined by it (gloriae cupidus, hostes per- 
 seqvi). Of those words which are used to define the predicate that 
 part stands first, which according to the sense and design of the 
 passage is of the greatest importance, and the first thought of: 
 Romani Jovi templum in Capitolio condiderunt. Romani templum 
 in Capitolio Jovi, Junoni, Minervae condiderunt. Numa Pompi- 
 Hits omnium consensu rex creatus est. But usually the object is put 
 
416 Syntax. — Part II. ( §. 46^ 
 
 before the other words which help to define the verb, so that these 
 stand as near as possible to it {hostem eqvitatu terrere). Interro- 
 gative propositions begin with the interrogative word and what 
 belongs to it, subordinate propositions with the conjunction or the 
 relative pronoun. 
 
 §. 465. a. The simple arrangement of the words is so far de- 
 parted from for the sake of emphasis, that the word on which a 
 particular stress is laid, as forming an antithesis to some other 
 idea, either expressed or floating in the mind, is put before the 
 less important word, which would otherwise precede it, e. g. the 
 governing word before that which it governs, or the word which 
 helps to define the verb before the object : Caesar eqvitatu terrere 
 hostem qvam cominus pugnare maluit. If for the sake of antithesis 
 or for some other reason a word is to be put prominently forward 
 as the most important with reference to the contents of the whole 
 proposition (e. g. when the predicate is asserted as something re- 
 markable or surprising of a subject that is well known and readily- 
 anticipated), this word is put at the beginning without reference to 
 its grammatical class or construction : Movit me oratio tua. Sua 
 vitia insipientes et suam culpam in senectutem conferant (Cic. Cat. 
 M. 5). Honesta magis qvam prudens oratio visa est. A malis 
 mors abducit, non a bonis (Cic. Tusc. I. 34). An idea, to which 
 the proposition points from the beginning, and which completes 
 the sense in realizing the anticipation held out, or on which the 
 thought dwells, as it were, for a time, may be placed with em- 
 phasis at the end of the proposition : Seqvemur igitur hoc tempore 
 et in hac occasione potissimum Stoicos (Cic. Off. I. 2). Helvetii 
 dicebant, sibi esse in animo iter per provinciam facere } propterea 
 qvod aliud iter haberent nullum (Caes. B. G. I. 17). Attici vita 
 et oratio consecuta mini videtur difficillimam illam societatem 
 gravitatis cum humanitate (Cic. Legg. III. 1). 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes the verb is put first only to avoid separating the 
 other connected words, or to give prominence to one of them, and at 
 the same time to form the transition: LJrant ei veteres inimicitiae cum 
 duolus Rosciis Amerinis (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 6). 
 
 Obs. 2. When the verb stands before the object, some emphasis, 
 though it may be but slight, usually falls on the notion contained in the 
 verb. In the arrangement, Liber tuns exspectationem wieam vicit, the 
 expectation entertained of the book is first thought of, and then the fact, 
 that it has been surpassed ; in the arrangement, Liber tuus vicit exspec- 
 tationem meam, the effect of the book is put prominently forward. But 
 
»6. Chap. I. — Order of the Words. 417 
 
 where there is no motive for giving prominence to either idea, the first 
 arrangement is preferred. It constitutes an exception to this rule when 
 an important object consisting of a union of several words is emphatically 
 placed at the close of the proposition. 
 
 Obs. 3. The verb sum is often put without any emphasis before the 
 predicative noun, particularly in definitions, or when the description con- 
 sists of several emphatic words : Virtus est absolutio naturae. Svevorum 
 gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima Germanorum omnium (Caes. B. 
 G. IV. 1). 
 
 Obs. 4. The participle of a passive verb formed with est (sum) is not 
 unfrequently separated from its auxiliary. Especially it may be observed, 
 that sometimes the participle stands first, then the subject, or something 
 that helps to define the proposition, and last of all est : Omne argentum 
 ablatum ex Sicilia est (Cic. Verr. IV. 16), Tecum milii instituenda oratio 
 est (Id. Fin. V. 29) ; sometimes est (sit) stands unaccented somewhere 
 in the middle of the proposition, and the participle is put last : gyi in 
 fortunae periculis sunt ac varietate versati (Cic. Verr. V. 50 ; compare 
 §• 472 b). 
 
 b. Relative words, which refer back to what precedes, can never 
 (in prose) be dislodged from the first place. Relatives, on the con- 
 trary, which refer to a demonstrative proposition following, as well 
 as interrogative pronouns, may stand after a very emphatic word : 
 Romam qvae asportata sunt, ad aedem Honoris et Virtutis videmus 
 (Cic. Verr. IV. 54; in opposition to what remained in Syracuse). 
 Tarentum vero qva vigilantia, qvo consilio (Fahius) recepit? (Id. 
 Cat. M. 4). So likewise, when a conjunctional subordinate propo- 
 sition precedes the leading proposition, the conjunction may stand 
 after one or several words which have a particular emphasis, fre- 
 quently after pronouns, which refer to something preceding. Haec 
 tu, Eruci, si tot et tanta nactus esses in reo, qvamdiu diceres ? (Cic. 
 Rose. Am. 32). Romam ut nuntiatum est, Vejos captos, velut ex 
 insperato immensum gaudium fait (Liv. V. 32) . In prose the verb 
 is never put before the relative or the conjunction. 
 
 Obs. Ut and ne, even where the leading proposition comes first, have 
 sometimes one or several words before them : tempore et loco constitutor 
 in colloquium uti de pace veniretur (Sail. Jug. 113). Catilina postulabat, 
 patres conscripti ne qvid de se temere crederent (Id. Cat. 31). In parti- 
 cular a negative word often stands before ut, signifying so that (vice ut, 
 nemo ut, nihil ut, nullus ut ; also prope ut, paene ut). 
 
 §. 466. a. An adjective, which belongs to a substantive as its 
 attribute, or a genitive, which is governed by a substantive, usually 
 
 3 H 
 
418 Syntax.— Part III §. 46( 
 
 stands after the substantive, but may stand before it, where we 
 wish to give particular prominence to the definition contained in 
 the adjective or genitive (for the sake of antithesis or any other 
 reason) : Ex rerum copia verba nascuntur. Filiorum laudibus etiam 
 patres cohonestantur. Tuscus ager Romano adjacet (Liv. II. 49). 
 
 Ohs. 1. In titles, names, and customary appellations, the adjective or 
 genitive often has a fixed and definite place after the substantive: Civis 
 Romanus, populus Romanus, res familiaris, aes alienum, jus civile, via 
 Appia, magister eqyitum, tribunus militum. In this case the arrangement 
 is very seldom altered on account of some unusual emphasis laid on this 
 part of the appellation. 
 
 Obs. 2. Demonstrative pronouns stand before the substantive, if no 
 particular emphasis is to be laid on the latter : Incendium curiae ; oppug- 
 nationem aedium M. Lepidi, caedem hanc ipsam contra rempublicam 
 senatus factum esse decrevit (Cic. pro Mil. 5). 
 
 b. Between a substantive and its adjective there may stand defi- 
 nitions belonging to the substantive or to the adjective : Summum 
 eloqventiae studium ; in summa bonorum ac fortium virorum copia ; 
 nocturnus in urbem adventus ; nostra in amicos benevolentia ; in 
 summis, qvae nos urgent, difficult atibus. (But it may also be ex- 
 pressed, in summa copia bonorum ac fortium virorum, and, if the 
 emphasis is to be placed on the genitive, in bonorum ac fortium viro- 
 rum summa copia.) Homo omnibus virtutibus ornatus (ornatus omni- 
 bus virtutibus homo, but also, omnibus virtutibus ornatus homo, ac- 
 cording to the different emphasis that may be laid on the words.) 
 (Homo summo ingenio, summo ingenio homo, summo homo ingenio) 1 . So 
 likewise a preposition which belongs to the governing substantive 
 may be inserted with its case between it and the genitive, some- 
 times too a relative clause : Ex illo caelesti Epicuri de regula et 
 judicio volumine (Cic. N. D. I. 16). Cato inimicitias multas gessit 
 propter Hispanorum, apud qvos consul fuerat, injurias (Id. Div. in 
 Caec. 20). 
 
 §. 467. Sometimes, especially in the oratorical style, the defini- 
 tions which belong to a substantive are separated from it, so as to 
 fix the attention on them more particularly, while the words which 
 are inserted between them are less prominent ; but nothing must 
 be interposed which would make the construction ambiguous or 
 uncertain. Thus one may separate — 
 
 5 Permagnum optimi pondas argenti (Cic. Phil. II. 27), so placed to give a prominence 
 to both adjectives, and at the same time to bring argenti, which forms an antithesis with 
 other words, to the last place. 
 
9. Chap. I— Order of the Words. 419 
 
 a. The adjective (pronoun) from the substantive, so that the adjective 
 is put more forward or further back : Qvatridui sermonem superioribus 
 ad te perscriptum libris misimus (Cic. Tusc. V. 4). Sine ulla rerum 
 ecespectatione meliorum (Id. ib. IV. 8). Magna nobis pueris, Q. f rater, 
 si memoria tenes, opinio fuit, L. Crassum, &c. (Id. de Or. II. 1). Some- 
 times only a single unaccented word (e. g. a pronoun as the subject or 
 object, an adverb, &c.) is inserted: Hie me dolor angit ; hoc ego perifulo 
 moveor. Magna nuper laetitia affectus sum. 
 
 b. The name and the apposition : Gravissimus auctor in originibus 
 dixit Cato, morem apud majores nunc fuisse, Sec. (Cic. Tusc. IV. 2). 
 
 c. The genitive and the governing word, so that this or the genitive 
 stands first: Peto igitur a te, qvoniam id nobis, Antoni, hominibus id 
 aetatis oner is at horum adolescentium studiis imponitur, ut exponas, &c. 
 (Cic. de Or. I. 47). Stoicorum, non ignoras, qyam sit subtile, vel spino- 
 sum potius disserendi genus (Id. Finn. III. 1). 
 
 §. 468. Adverbs, which belong to a verb, usually stand next to 
 it (before it, if it concludes the proposition) ; but they may either 
 be placed for the sake of emphasis at the beginning or end of the 
 sentence, or be inserted without emphasis between the more pro- 
 minent words, e. g. Magna 7iuper, M. Tulli, laetitia affectus sum. 
 Bellum civile opinione plerumqve et fama gubernatur (Cic. Phil. V. 
 10; compare §. 472 b). Adverbs, which belong to an adjective or 
 another adverb, almost invariably stand before it, and adverbs of 
 degree always k . Sometimes the adverb of degree may stand em- 
 phatically at the commencement, and the adjective be put further 
 back: Hoc si Sulpicius noster facer et, multo ejus oratio esset pres- 
 sior (Cic. de Or. II. 23). The negative particles always stand 
 before the word to which they belong, and therefore before the 
 verb, when they apply to the whole proposition. 
 
 Obs. The interrogative qvam is often separated from the adjective by 
 the unaccented sum : Earum causarum qvanta qvamqve sit just a unaqvae- 
 qve videamus (Cic. Cat. M. 5). [Tarn in bona causa is a rare form of ex- 
 pression for in tarn bona causa.) 
 
 §. 469. The prepositions (those of one syllable especially) are some- 
 times inserted between an adjective which has the emphasis (numeral, 
 adjective of multitude, superlative), or a pronoun, and the substantive : 
 tribus de rebus; multis de causis ; paucos post menses ; magna ex parte ; 
 
 k Jam nunc, now already, in opposition to the future ; nunc jam, now, in opposition to 
 the past, with an intimation of some recent change. 
 
 3 h 2 
 
420 Syntax.— Part III. §. 46< 
 
 summa cum cura ; qva de causa ; ea de causa; qya in urbe ; multos ante 
 annos. It is not usual in good prose to put the preposition between the 
 genitive and the substantive : deorum in rnente (except when the genitive 
 is a relative or demonstrative pronoun : qvorum de virtutibus). 
 
 Obs. 1. Some prepositions of two syllables (ante, circa, 'penes, ultra, 
 but especially contra, inter, propter) are sometimes put after a relative 
 pronoun (without a substantive), e. g. ii, gyos inter erat ; is, qyem contra 
 venerat. (So likewise we find fundus, negotium, qvo de agitur ; and 
 rarely, qvos ad, Tiunc post, Jiunc juxta, nunc adversus). A few later 
 writers (as Tacitus), imitating the freedom of the poets, go still further in 
 the transposing (anastrophe) of the prepositions 1 . 
 
 Ohs. 2. A preposition may be separated from its case ; a. by a genitive 
 belonging to the latter, and that even with a subordinate proposition at- 
 tached to it : propter Hispanorum, apud qyos consul fuerat, injurias (Cic. 
 Div. in Caec. 20) ; b. by an adverb belonging to the word governed by 
 the preposition : ad bene beateqve vivendum ; c. (rarely) by an object of 
 the word governed, if this is a participle or adjective : in bella gerentibus 
 (Cic. Brut. 12 ; the ordinary construction would be, in iis, qvi bella ge- 
 runt) ; adversus Jiostilia ausos (Liv. I. 59) ; d. (rarely) by a copulative 
 adverb, or one that expresses assurance : post enim Chrysippum (Cic. Fin. 
 II. 13; usually, post Chrysippum enim) ; contra meJiercule meum judicium 
 (Id. at Att. XI. 7). The unaccented particles qve, ne, ve, are also some- 
 times appended to a preposition of one syllable (e. g. eocqve iis, deve colo- 
 niis, postve ea, inqve re eo meliore, qvo major est ; cumqve libellis) ; but 
 they are more usually annexed to the substantive governed by the prepo- 
 sition : de consilio destitit, in patriamqve 
 
 §. 470. The prepositions are repeated with substantives that 
 follow each other, when we wish to mark the ideas distinctly, 
 and not to allow them to be blended into one (a te et a tuis), 
 consequently always with et — et (et in hello et in pace), nee — 
 nee, usually with aut — aut, and vel — vel, and after nisi (in nulla 
 re nisi in virtute), and after a comparative (in nulla re melius 
 qvam in virtute) ; on the contrary, not with words which are con- 
 nected by qve. 
 
 Obs. 1. With et—et and aut — aut the preposition may sometimes 
 be put before the conjunction : cum et noctumo et diurno metu (Cic. 
 Tusc. V. 23). 
 
 Obs. 2. Some prepositions of one syllable are often repeated without 
 any particular reason. Inter is frequently repeated after interest (interest 
 inter argumentum conclusionemqve rationis et inter mediocrem animadver- 
 
 1 Faesulas inter Arretiumqve ,• Liv. XXII. 3. 
 
'1. Chap. I.— Order of the Words. 421 
 
 sionem, Cic. Finn. I. 9), and occasionally also at other times, particu- 
 larly in the poets (Nestor componere lites inter Peliden festinat et inter 
 Atriden, Hor. Ep. I. 2, 12). 
 
 Ohs. 3. A substantive cannot in Latin be referred to two prepositions ; 
 we must say, ante aciem postve earn (not ante postve aciem). 
 
 §.471. The following observations apply to the position of cer- 
 tain particles which connect the discourse. Enim, for, always 
 stands after one word, seldom after two. (Nam always at the be- 
 ginning, and so also namqve in the best prose.) Ergo, therefore, 
 stands either at the beginning, or after another emphatic word 
 (Hunc ergo, qvid ergo, &c.) ; when it denotes not a conclusion, 
 but only a transition in the discourse, it is almost always put after 
 a word. It is usual to put igitur after one or two words (Qvid 
 habes igitur, qvod mutatum veils ?), or even last, after several words 
 that are closely connected (Ejus bono fruendum est igitur, Cic. 
 Tusc. V. 23). Yet it is also put first in some writers (e. g. Sallust) 
 more frequently than others. (Itaqve, therefore, consequently, 
 very rarely stands after a word in good prose.) Tamen stands at 
 the beginning, except where a single word is made emphatic by 
 antithesis. Etiam, also, even, stands generally before the indivi- 
 dual word to which, it belongs, but it is also put after it, especially 
 if the word is made more emphatic by being removed to the be- 
 ginning of the sentence. Qvoqve, also (in good writers), always 
 stands after the word to which it belongs, and which contains the 
 new idea that is added : Me qvoqve haec ars decepit ; tud qvoqve 
 causa. So likewise qvidem is always put after the word, which is 
 thus made prominent and opposed to others : Nostrum qvidem 
 studium vides, qvam tibi sit paratum. Id nos fortasse non perfecimus ; 
 conati qvidem saepissime sumus (Oic. Or. 62, at least). L. qvidem, Phi- 
 lippus ghriari solebat, &c. (Id. Off. II. 15; where qvidem is put after 
 the praenomen, although the emphasis rests on the whole name, and this 
 order is always observed where two words are intimately connected). 
 Ac Metellum qvidem eximia ejus virtus defendet. The same holds 
 good of demum. (Nunc demum ; sexto demum anno.) 
 
 Obs. 1 . If enim, autem, or igitur comes together with est or sunt, the 
 verb is usually put (unaccented) in the second place, if the proposition 
 begins with the word on which the emphasis is laid, e. g. Qvis est enim ; 
 nemo est autem. Sapientia est enim una, qvae maestitiam pellat ex animis 
 (Cic. Finn. I. 43). Magna est enim vis humanitatis (Id. Rose. Am. 22). 
 On the other hand, the verb is put in the third place if the emphasis 
 
422 Syntax.— Part III. §. 47j 
 
 falls more on the following words, e. g. Cupiditates enim sunt insatiabiles 
 (Id. Finn. I. 13). 
 
 Obs. 2. Concerning some other words, which always have a definite 
 place in the proposition, all that is necessary to be said is noticed else- 
 where, as on inqvit, §. 162 b, Obs., on autem and vero, §. 437 Obs., on 
 qvisqve, §.495. 
 
 §. 472. a. Words which belong at the same time to several con- 
 nected words, are regularly put either before or after all of them : 
 Hostes victoriae non omen modo, sed gratulationem praeceperunt. 
 Amicitiam nee usu nee ratione habent cognitam. Yet the common 
 word is sometimes inserted in the first member of the sentence, 
 while the second member follows, in order to give a greater promi- 
 nence to each : Ante Laelii aetatem et Scipionis (Cic. Tusc. IV. 3). 
 Qvae populari gloria decor ari in Lucullo debuerunt, ea fere sunt et 
 Graecis litteris celebrata et Latinis (Id. Acad. II. 2). 
 
 b. In other cases also, particularly in the rhetorical style, another 
 word that is less accented is inserted between two connected words 
 (e. g, the object, the subject, the verb of the proposition, &c), by which 
 means the mind is induced to dwell more on each, or the last is added 
 as a supplement: Ipse Sulla ab se hominem atqve ab exercitu suo 
 removit (Cic. Verr. I. 15). Haee voce, Civis Romanus sum, saepe multis 
 in ultimis terris op em inter barbaros et salutem tulit (Id. ib. V. 57). 
 Oppida, in qvibus consistere praetores et conventus agere solent 
 (Id. ib. V. 11). Aqyila ilia, qyam tibi ae tuis omnibus pemiciosam 
 esse confido, et funestam futuram (Id. in Cat. I. 9). 
 
 §. 473. a. Words, by which cognate or opposite ideas are pro- 
 minently set forth in relation to each other, are put close toge- 
 ther: Qvaedam falsa veri speciem habent. Seqvere, qvo tua te 
 virtus ducet. 
 
 b. If two coordinate propositions or two series of connected 
 words form an antithesis, in which the separate words correspond, 
 the second proposition or series is sometimes inverted, instead of 
 repeating the same arrangement, in order to make the antithesis 
 more striking ; so that the word which stands at the beginning 
 of the first member finds its counterpart at the end of the last 
 (Chiasmus) m : Cum summa testificatione tuorum in se qfficiorum et 
 amoris erga te sui (Cic. ad Fam. I. 1). Ratio nostra consentit, re- 
 pugnat or alio (Id. Fin. III. 3). Clariorem inter Romanos deditio 
 
 m Xiaa-fxbs from x i && lv > to place crosswise. 
 
14. Chap. I. — Order of the Words. 423 
 
 Postumium gvam Pontium incruenta victoria inter Samnites fecit 
 (Liv. IX. 12). 
 
 §. 474. The poetical arrangement of words is distinguished from that 
 followed in prose by a much greater freedom, and also by the circum- 
 stance that it is regulated not only by the sense and emphasis, but often 
 by the necessity of the verse. The freedom is shewn in the circumstance, 
 that words which are connected together in meaning, and in prose would 
 stand together, are often separated, and words, which in prose have a 
 definite place assigaed to tnem, are transposed to another part of the 
 sentence. Care, however, must be taken, that the construction be not 
 thereby rendered doubtful or ambiguous. The following are the cases 
 most frequently met with : — 
 
 a. Adverbs and prepositions with their cases (ablatives without a pre- 
 position) are separated from the verbs or participles, to which they be- 
 long : Hie, datis vadibus qvi rure extractus in urbem est, solos felices 
 viventes clamat in urhe (Hor. Sat. I. 1, 12). 
 
 b. Adjectives and genitives are arbitrarily separated by other words 
 from the substantive to which they belong : Saevae memorem Junonis oh 
 iram (Virg. Aen. I. 4). Ipse deum tibi me claro demittit Olympo regnator 
 (Id. ib. IV. 268). In particular it frequently happens that a substantive 
 and its adjective or participle are put separately in the two divisions of a 
 hexameter or pentameter : Egressi optata potiuntur Troes arena (Id. ib. 
 I. 172). Ponitur ad patrios barbara praeda deos (Ov. Her. I. 26). 
 
 c. Prepositions are not only put arbitrarily between an adjective or a 
 genitive and its substantive {Trojano ah sangvine ; qyibus orbis ah oris), 
 but also stand after the substantive with the adjective {puppi deturbat ah 
 altd), or even with the genitive (ora sub Augusti). They are also put 
 (but rarely, and generally only the dissyllables) altogether after their case : 
 maria omnia circum ; acres inter numeretur (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 53). 
 
 Obs. Sometimes another word, unconnected with the substantive, is in- 
 serted between the preposition and its case : Vulneraqye ilia gerens, qyae 
 circum plurima muros accepit patrios (Virg. Aen. II. 278) : Ultor ad 
 ipse suos caelo descendit lionores (Ov. Fast. V. 551) ; and even where 
 the case precedes the preposition by which it is governed : Vitiis nemo 
 sine nascitur (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 69). A preposition, which belongs to two 
 substantives, is sometimes attached only to the last: Foedera vel Gahiis 
 vel cum rigidis aeqyata Sabinis (Hor. Ep. II. 1, 25). 
 
 d. The conjunctions et, nee (rarely aut, vel) and sed (sed enim) are 
 sometimes put after a word in the second member of the sentence : Qvo 
 gemitu conversi animi, compulsus et omnis impetus (Virg. Aen. II. 73). 
 Progeniem sed enim Trojano ab sangvine duci audierat (Id. ib. I. 19). 
 The same is done with the relative pronoun (which sometimes stands 
 
424 Syntax.— Part III. §. 474 
 
 after several words) : Arma virumqve cano, Trojae qvi primus ah oris — ■ 
 venit. Tu numina ponti Victa domas, ipsumqve, regit qvi numina ponti 
 (Ov. Met. V. 370). The same holds of nam and namqye. Conjunctions, 
 which connect subordinate propositions, are often removed from the be- 
 ginning of the proposition. 
 
 e. Copulative and disjunctive conjunctions (et, ac, atqve, neqve, neve — 
 aut, vel) are not always followed immediately by the second member ac- 
 cording to the construction, but one or more words, which relate to both 
 members in common, are interposed: Invidia atqve vigent ubi crimina 
 (Hor. Sat. I. 3, 61). Qvum lectulus aut me porticus excepit (Id. ib. 
 I. 4, 133). Caestus ipsius et Herculis arma (Virg. Aen. V. 410). 
 Nee dulces amores sperne puer neqve tu choreas (Hor. Od. I. 9, 15). 
 
 f. The particles qve, ne, ve, are sometimes removed from the word, to 
 which they properly belong, to some word, common to both members of 
 the sentence, usually the verb : Hie jacet immiti consumptus morte Ti- 
 bullus, Messalam terra dum seqviturqve mari (Tib. I. 3, 55). Non 
 Pylademferro violare aususve sororem (Hor. Sat. II. 3, 139). (Pads 
 eras mediusqve belli, Id. Od. II. 19, 28.) 
 
 Ohs. Sometimes qve is removed from the first word of a new proposi- 
 tion to the second or third : (Furor hie) semper in obtutu mentem vetat 
 esse malorum, Praesentis casus immemoremqve facit (Ov. Tr. IV. 1, 39). 
 (Brachia sustulerat, Diqve o communiter omnes, dixerat, parcite [Ov. 
 Met. YI. 262] instead of dixer atqve, Di, &c.) 
 
 g. A substantive common to two connected propositions is sometimes 
 not introduced till the second clause, or an adjective and its substantive 
 are put each in a separate clause : Transmittunt cursu campos atqve 
 agmina cervi pulverulentd fugd glomerant (Virg. Aen. IV. 154). An sit 
 mihi gratior ulla, qvove magis optem fessas demittere naves, qvam qvae 
 Dardanium tellus mihi servat Acesten (Id. ib. V. 28). Qvid pater 
 Ismario, qvid mater profuit Orpheo? (Ov. Am. III. 9, 21). 
 
 h. Words belonging to a short leading proposition, especially its verb, 
 are sometimes inserted in the subordinate proposition belonging to it : 
 Sedulus hospes paene, macros, arsit, turdos dum versat in igni (Hor. 
 Sat. I. 5, 72). Qvicqvid erat medicae, vicerat, artis, amor (Tib. II. 
 3, 14). 
 
 Obs. The arrangement of the words is not equally free in all poets and 
 in every species of poetry. Thus the comic poets avoid bold transposi- 
 tions, which would be too much at variance with the usual expressions of 
 every-day life. 
 
—476. Chap. II. — Arrangement of the Propositions. 425 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Arrangement of the Propositions. 
 
 §. 475. When the parts of a compound proposition (§. 325) are 
 so arranged, that we cannot break off before the last clause has 
 been enuntiated, and yet retain a correct and perfect grammatical 
 form, it has the name of a period [periodus). A period is formed 
 therefore, by putting the subordinate before the leading proposi- 
 tion, or by inserting in the leading proposition itself one or more 
 subordinate propositions, which contain definitions relating to it ; 
 and this last form (when the leading proposition is broken by in- 
 tervening propositions) sometimes receives the name of period by 
 way of distinction (period in a narrower sense). It may often 
 happen, that the protasis and apodosis are each divided by inter- 
 vening propositions, and have consequently a periodical structure. 
 The way in which the individual propositions are arranged in 
 periods and connected with each other, is called the Structure of 
 the period. This gives greater coherence to the language, since in 
 this way all the parts of a leading conception come forward and 
 are connected together in the natural order, in which they present 
 themselves to the mind (the cause before the effect, &c). 
 
 §. 476. The Latin language is particularly well adapted for the 
 formation of a variety of intricate periods, since it admits, more 
 freely than many, of the insertion of one proposition in another, 
 and the placing of the subordinate before the leading proposition. 
 With respect to this liberty the following observations may be 
 made. 
 
 a. All subordinate propositions, which may be placed before the 
 leading proposition to which they belong, at the commencement of 
 a period (that is to say, all subordinate propositions with the ex- 
 ception of such as are consecutive), may also be inserted in the 
 proposition already commenced, and that without its being neces- 
 sary that any definite grammatical constituent of the proposition 
 in which it is inserted (with the exception of the copulative par- 
 ticles and pronouns), should precede the insertion : L. Manlio, 
 qvum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius, tribunus plebis, diem dixit 
 (Cic. Off. III. 31). Antea, ubi esses, ignorabam. 
 
 Ols. 1. A period is often formed in Latin, when the leading proposi- 
 tion is broken off, by placing first a word of the leading proposition 
 
 3i 
 
426 Syntax.— Part III §.476 — 
 
 which belongs at the same time to the subordinate (e. g. as a common 
 subject or object), and which points with emphasis to the person or thing 
 to be mentioned, and the subordinate proposition immediately after it : 
 Stultitia, etsi adepta est, qvod concupivit, nunqyam se tamen satis consecu- 
 tam putat (Cic. Tusc. V. 18). Pompejus Cretensibus, qvum ad eum usqve 
 in Pampligliam legatos deprecatoresqve misissent, spem deditionis non ade- 
 mit (Id. pro Leg. Man. 12). 
 
 Obs. 2. The beginner should take particular notice, that the relative 
 proposition, and the temporal and modal proposition which is distin- 
 guished by a relative pronominal adverb, may not only stand in Latin 
 before the demonstrative, when the whole period begins with the relative 
 proposition, but may also be inserted after one or several words connected 
 with the demonstrative proposition, before the demonstrative word and 
 the remaining part. By such a position the propositions are more closely 
 united, and an antithesis often expressed more forcibly : Invidi, qvibus 
 ipsi uti neqveunt, eorum tamen fructu alios prohibent. — Primum vigi- 
 let adolescens necesse est in deligendo (qvem imitetur), deinde, qvem 
 probavit, in eo, qvae maxime excellent, ea diligentissime perscqvatur 
 (Cic. de Or. II. 22). Ceteris in rebus, qvum venit calamitas, turn detri- 
 mentum accipitur (Id. pro Leg. Man. 6). Si Verres, qvam audax est ad 
 conandum, tarn esset obscurus in agendo, fort asse aliqva in re nos aliqvando 
 fefellisset (Id. Act. I. in Verr. 2). (The relative clause may also be pre- 
 fixed, where two individual nouns or adverbs are compared : Orationem 
 habuit ut honestam, it a parum utilem. Insignem earn pestilentiam mors 
 qvam matura tarn acerba M. Furii fecit, Liv. VII. 1.) 
 
 b. Between a subordinate proposition at the commencement of 
 a period and the leading proposition which it introduces, there 
 may be inserted a second subordinate proposition, which is more 
 intimately connected with, the latter, or contains some special ob- 
 servation or definition applying to it. Et qvoniam studium meae 
 defensionis ab accusatoribus atqve etiam ipsa susceptio causae repre- 
 hensa est, ante qvam pro L. Murena dicer e instituo, pro me ipso 
 pauca dicam (Cic. pro Mur. 1). Qvum hostium copiae non longe 
 absunt, etiam si irruptio nulla facta est, tamen pecua relinqvuntur, 
 agricultura deseritur (Id. pro Leg. Man. 6). Fugatis hostibus, 
 qvanqvam flumen transire tuto licebat, tamen reliqvum exercitum 
 opperiri placuit. (Here the subordinate proposition is inserted 
 between the participial and leading propositions ; though, after 
 the defeat of the enemy, the river might have been crossed with 
 safety.) Si qvis istorum dixisset, in qvibus summa auctoritas est, 
 si verbum de republica fecisset, multo plura dixisse, qvam dixisset, 
 pularetur (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 1; compare §.442 a). Hvjus rei 
 
■476. Chap. II. — Arrangement of the Propositions. 427 
 
 qvae consvetudo sit, qyoniam apud homines peritissimos dico, pluribus 
 verbis do cere non debeo (Id. pro Cluent. 41 ; where the subordinate 
 proposition is inserted between a dependent interrogation and the 
 governing proposition). Qvoniam, qvid feceris, video, qvid cogitaris, 
 non qvaero. Macedonia qvum se consilio et manu Fonteji conserva- 
 tam dicat, ut ilia per hunc a Thracum depopulatione defensa est, sic 
 ah hujus nunc capite Gallorum impetus depellet (Cic. pro Font. 16. 
 In this example the relative proposition, after a protasis, precedes 
 the leading demonstrative proposition). 
 
 c. A subordinate proposition, which belongs to another (usually 
 a conjunctional one) of the same class, is sometimes prefixed (be- 
 fore the conjunction), instead of being inserted in or put after it. 
 (In this way a particular prominence is given to the statement 
 contained in the proposition so prefixed) : Qvod usu non veniebat, 
 de eo si qvis legem aut judicium constltueret, non tarn prohibere vide- 
 retur qvam admonere (Cic. pro Tull. 4). Qvid autem agatur, qvum 
 aperuero, facile erit statuere, qvam sententiam dicatis (Id. Phil. V. 
 2). Rogavi, qvoniam cetera concessissent, ne hoc unum negarent. 
 {Caesar, ah exploratoribus certior factus, hostes sub ononte consedisse, 
 qvalis esset natura loci, qvi cognoscerent, misit, Caes. B. G. I. 21.) 
 
 Obs. The different forms given under a (Obs. 2), b, and c, maybe com- 
 bined, e. g. Philosopliandi scientiam concedens multis, qvod est oratoris 
 proprium, apte, distincte, ornate dicere, qvoniam in eo studio aetatem 
 consumpsi, si id inihi assumo, video id meo jure qvodam modo vindicare 
 (Cic. Off. I. 4. After the participle the relative proposition qvod est, &c. 
 takes the first place ; then, in order the better to establish the demon- 
 strative proposition, the clause commencing with qvoniam, &c. is inserted 
 [b], and lastly the demonstrative itself is changed to a subordinate pro- 
 position, retaining, however, according to c, its own subordinate proposi- 
 tions before it). 
 
 d. If a dependent proposition (especially one which is interro- 
 gative), is drawn to the beginning of the period by a pronoun which 
 refers to something that precedes, or with a view to emphasis and 
 antithesis, we may insert either the whole governing proposition 
 (if it be short), or some words of it, in the dependent proposition, 
 between the emphatic words which come first and the interrogative 
 word or conjunction : Qvae, breviter, qvalia sint in Cn. Pompejo, 
 consideremus (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 13). Stoicorum autem,, non 
 ignoras, qvam sit subtile vet spinosum potius disserendi genus (Id. 
 Finn. III. 1). Ecd qvibus, alienissimis hominibus, it a par at us 
 venis, ut tibi hospes aliqvis recipiendus sit (Id. Div. in Caec. 15). 
 
 3 i 2 
 
428 Syntax.— Part III. §. 476— 
 
 Infima est conditio et fortuna servorum, qvibus, non male praecipiunt, 
 qvi itajubent uti ut mercenariis (Id. Off. I. 13; compare §. 445). 
 
 Obs. The accusative with the infinitive is not considered absolutely as 
 a distinct proposition, but as intimately combined with the leading propo- 
 sition (in which it may be inserted according to a : Omnes Caesarem ap- 
 propinqvare narrabant). Not only therefore may we insert a short pro- 
 position (which again may itself be a subordinate proposition), or one or 
 several words of it, in an accus. with the inf. in the manner pointed out 
 under d {Platonem Cicero scribit Tarentum venisse ; earn causam qvum ego 
 one suscepturum profiterer, repudiatus sum), hut even where the leading 
 proposition comes first, its verb often stands after the subject of the infi- 
 nitive (particularly a pronoun), sometimes also after another very empha- 
 tic word : Caesar sese negat eo die proelio decertaturum. 
 
 §. 447. Care should be taken in the structure of periods, that 
 each subordinate proposition is inserted in the exact place, where 
 there is occasion to think of its contents, or where it is called for 
 by some word of the leading proposition. In the historical style 
 the chronological arrangement of the several parts of the leading 
 proposition and the circumstances to which it refers is particularly 
 to be attended to. It is also necessary, where there are several 
 subordinate propositions, to avoid too great a uniformity in their 
 structure, unless it should happen that several circumstances which 
 stand in the same relation to the leading proposition, are expressed 
 in coordinate propositions. We must especially avoid inserting 
 one proposition in another in such a way that several terminations 
 of a precisely similar form come together at last, especially a 
 number of verbs, each of which belongs to a particular member 
 of the proposition, although such periods are occasionally found 
 in the old writers (e. g. Constiterunt, nuntios in castra remissos, qvi, 
 qvid sibiy qvando praeter spem hostis occurrisset, faciendum 
 essety consulerent, qvieti opperientes, Liv. XXXIII, 6) n . In a 
 good period there must be a certain symmetry of the parts, par- 
 ticularly between those inserted and the conclusion of the lead- 
 ing proposition, so that this may not be too short and abrupt, 
 unless this very brevity is intended to produce a certain effect. 
 The two following may serve as examples of carefully constructed periods : 
 Ut saepe homines aegri onorbo gravi, qvum aestu febriqve jactantur, si 
 aqvam gelidam biberunt, primo relevari videntur, deinde multo gravius 
 vehemeftHusqve afftictantur, sic Mc morbus, qvi est in republica, relevatus 
 
 n On the other hand there is no objection to several verbs coming together, one of 
 which is governed by the other in the infinitive, e. g. Foedus sanciri posse dicebant. 
 
-478. Special Irregularities. 429 
 
 istius poena, vehementius, vivis reliqvis, ingravescet (Cic. in Cat. I. 13). 
 Numitor, inter primum tumidtum, hostes invasisse urbem atqve adortos 
 regiam dictitans, qvum pubem Albanam in arcem praesidio armisqve obti- 
 nendam avocasset, postqvam juvenes, perpetrata caede pergere ad se gra- 
 tulantes vidit, extemplo advocato consilio, scelera in se fratris, originem 
 nepotum, ut geniti, ut educati, ut cogniti essent, caedem deinceps tyranni 
 seqve ejus auctorem ostendit (Liv. I. 6). 
 
 FIKST APPENDIX TO THE SYNTAX. 
 
 Of some special Irregularities in the Construction of Words. 
 
 §. 478. (The Verb understood.) In coordinate propositions 
 the verb is often understood and to be supplied in one from the 
 other, in the same or a different person and number, in Latin not- 
 only (as in English) in the following from the preceding, but also 
 in the preceding from the following (because in Latin the proposi- 
 tion usually concludes with the verb) : Beate vivere alii in alio, vos 
 in voluptate ponitis (Cic. Finn. II. 37). In Us, in qvibus sapientia 
 perfecta non est, ipsum illud perfectum honestum nullo modo (sc. esse 
 potest), similitudines honesti esse possunt (Id. Off. III. 3). L. Lit- 
 culli virtutem qvis? at qvam multi villarum magnificentiam sunt 
 imitati? (Id. ib. 1.39). Nee Graeci terra nee Romanus mari 
 bellator erat (Liv. VII. 26). (The referring a verb to two subjects, 
 differing in person, number or gender, is called Syllepsis, comprising 
 in one.) 
 
 Obs. 1. The verb may also be understood in a different tense, if the 
 other words indicate a distinction of time : Juguriha dicit, turn sese, 
 paullo ante Carthaginienses, post, ut qvisqve opulentissimus videatur, ita 
 JRomanis hostem fore (Sail. Jug. 81). 
 
 Obs. 2. In a subordinate proposition the verb may be supplied from a 
 preceding subordinate proposition of the same character : Haec si ego 
 diarero, incredibilia videbuntur, si vos, facile fidem invenient. Ea magis 
 percipimus atqve sentimus, qvae nobis ipsis prospera aut eversa eveniunt, 
 qvam ilia, qvae ceteris (Cic. Off. I. 9) ; rarely from a subordinate propo- 
 sition of a different kind : Certe nihil (intelligit honestum) nisi qvod pos- 
 sit ipsum propter se laudari. Nam si propter voluptatem (sc. laudatur), 
 qvae est ista laus, qvae possit e onacello peti? (Id. Fin. II. 15). In short 
 subordinate propositions the verb may sometimes be supplied from the 
 leading proposition if referring to the same subject : Sapienter haec re- 
 liqvisti, si consilio, feliciter, si casu (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 28). In relative 
 
430 Syntax. — Appendix I. §• 478— 
 
 expressions of comparison the verb is omitted as in coordinate proposi- 
 tions : Non eodem modo vos in urbe Jiaec agitis, qvo ille rure. Adeptus 
 es> qvod non multi homines novi (Cic. Fam. V. 18. On the subject of 
 attraction, by which the leading proposition is changed to the accusative 
 with the infinitive, see § 402 b). The verb is rarely supplied in the 
 leading proposition from one that is subordinate, e. g. Si te municipiorum 
 non pudebat, ne veterani quid-em exercitus ? (Cic. Phil. II. 25) ; this occurs 
 most frequently in comparisons : Ut enim cupiditatibus principum et 
 vitiis injici solet iota civitas, ita emendari et corrigi continentia (Cic. 
 Legg. III. 13). Olim, qvum regnare existimabamur, non tarn ah ullis, 
 qvam hoc tempore observor a familiarissimis Caesaris (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 
 24; in this example the verb is understood in another tense — observabar). 
 
 Obs. 3. From a verb in a definite mood, the infinitive is often under- 
 stood in a subordinate proposition, e. g. Rogat Rubrium, ut, qvos com- 
 onodum ei sit, invitet (Cic. Verr. I. 26). Si notes sanus, curves hydropicus 
 (Hor. Ep. I. 2, 34). Dam licet, vive beatus. Otherwise a verb is very 
 rarely understood in a different mood or tense, as, for example, when the 
 whole sense is expressed by a single word in opposition to one going be- 
 fore, as, Si per alios Roscium hoc fecisse dicis, qvaero, servosne an liberos 
 (Cic. Rose. Am. 27)=per servosne an per liberos hoc eum fecisse dicas ? 
 
 Obs. 4. Sometimes (but mostly in writers who are accustomed to a 
 harshness of construction) one verb is used as common to two antithetical 
 propositions (or objects), that is only suitable to the nearest, so that some 
 cognate signification, comprised under the same more general idea, must 
 be supplied with the other : e. g. Oermanicus, qvod arduum, sibi, cetera 
 legatis permisit (Tac. Ann. II. 20 ; from permisit we must supply with 
 sibi, he reserved tor himself, he imposed on himself). (This kind of ex- 
 pression is called zeugma.) 
 
 §. 479. (Ellipsis of the Verb.) Sometimes the verb is omitted, 
 though it cannot be supplied from a preceding or subsequent pro- 
 position, so that we only see from the context what verb is to be 
 understood. This Ellipsis of the verb is met with only in animated 
 discourse, in short and simple propositions, chiefly leading propo- 
 sitions in the indicative. On this point we must make the follow- 
 ing remarks : — 
 
 a. Est and sunt are often omitted in short and pithy general 
 judgments and sentences, or in quick and passionate transitions of 
 the discourse, sometimes also in rapid descriptions, which consist 
 of short opposed members, and with the perfect participle in pro- 
 positions which form single members of a continuous narrative : 
 
 Scd utilitatis specie in republica saepissime peccatur ut in Oorinthi disturb atione nostri 
 (Cic. Off. III. 11, sc. peccarunt). 
 
-479- Special Irregularities. 431 
 
 Omnia praeclara vara (Cic. Lael. 21). Jucundi acti labores (Id. 
 Finn. II. 32). Qvot homines, tot sententiae (Ter. Phorm. II. 4, 14). 
 Sed haec Vetera ; Mud vero recens, Caesarem meo consilio inter- 
 fectam (Id. Phil. II. 11). Ecgvis est, qvi Mud aut fieri noluerit out 
 factum improbarit ? Omnes ergo in culpa (Id. ib. II. 12). Africa 
 fines habet ab occidente /return nostri maris et Oceani, ab ortu solis 
 declivem latitudinem, qvem locum Catabathmon incolae appellant. 
 Mare saevum, importuosum, ager frugum fertilis, bonus pecori, ar- 
 bore infecundus ; caelo terraqve penuria aqvarum (Sail. Jug. 1?). 
 Nondum dedicata erat in Capitolio Jovis aedes ; Valerius Horatius- 
 qve consules sortiti, uter dedicaret ; Horatio sorte evenit ; Publi- 
 cola ad Vejentium bellum profectus. Aegrius, qvam dignum erat 
 tulere Valerii necessarii, dedicationem tarn incliti templi Horatio 
 dari (Liv. II. 8). Erat and fuit (erant and fuerunt) are less fre- 
 quently omitted, and only where the past time is sufficiently in- 
 dicated by the context : Polycratem Samium felicem appellabant. 
 Nihil acciderat ei, qvod nollet, nisi qvod anulum, qvo delect ab at ur, 
 in mari abjecerat. Ergo infelix una molestid, felix rursus, qvum is 
 ipse anulus in praecordiis piscis inventus est? (Cic. Finn. Y. 30; . 
 
 Obs. In the poets est is often left out in a more striking manner, 
 e. g. in relative propositions : Pol me occidistis amid, cui sic extorta vo- 
 luptas (Hor. Ep. II. 2, 138). The conjunctive of sum is very rarely 
 omitted, especially in prose : Potest incidere contentio et comparatio, de 
 duobus lionestis utrum lionestius (Cic. Off. I. 43). Esse in an accusative 
 with the infinitive is rarely omitted (except with participles, on which 
 see §. 406, and gerundives), e. g. in the expression volo (nolo, malo) 
 me pliysicum, me patris similem, me audacem, I wish to be and to 
 pass for — . 
 
 b. Inqvit is sometimes omitted in a brief notice of the change of 
 persons in a dialogue : Turn Crassus cet. Hide ego, Nolo te mirari 
 cet. Praeclare qvidem dicis, Laelins (sc. inqvit) ; etenim video cet. 
 (Cic. R. P. III. 32). This occurs in the poets, even where inqvit should 
 form an apodosis : Ut vidit socios, " Tempics desistere pugnae (sc. inqvit) ; 
 solus ego in Pcdlantaferor" (Virg. Aen. X. 441). 
 
 c. Dico and facio may be omitted in leading propositions, when 
 an assertion or action is briefly characterised by an adverb of 
 praise or dispraise : Bene igitur idem Chrysippus, qvi omnia in per- 
 fectis et rmUuris docet esse meliora (Cic. N. D. II. 14). Scite enim 
 
 Chrgsippus, ut clipei causa involucrum, vaginam gladii, sic praeter 
 mundum cetera omnia aliorum causa esse generata (Id. ib. II. 14). 
 Qvanto haec melius vulgus imperitorum i qvi non membra solum ho- 
 
432 Syntax.— Appendix I. §. 479- 
 
 minis deo tribuant, sed usum etiam membrorum ? (Id. ib. I. 46), how 
 much better does the common man do this=does he treat this 
 subject ? 
 
 Obs. So also occasionally in quoting an example : Alia subito ex tem- 
 pore conjecture! explicantur, ut apud Homerum Calchas, qvi ex passerum 
 
 numero belli Trojani annos auguratus est (Cic. Div. I. 33). Facio and 
 fi.o are also sometimes omitted after ne : De evertendis diripiendisqve 
 
 urbibus valde considerandum est, ne qvid temere, ne qvid crudeliter (Cic. 
 
 Off. I. 24). Cave, turpe qvidqvam (Id. Tusc. II. 22). 
 
 d. The verb may in general be omitted in familiar and every- 
 day discourse or imitations of it, in those leading propositions, in 
 'which the addition of the accusative or some other definitions ap- 
 pertaining to the verb sufficiently point it out, and in which it is 
 desired to attain the greatest brevity, and to compress, as it were, 
 the whole proposition into the accusative or some other definition, 
 e. g. an adverb : Crassus verbum nullum contra gratiam (Cic. ad 
 Att. I. 18). Ubi enim aut Xenocratem Antiochus seqvitur aut 
 Aristotelem? A Chrysippo pedem nunqvam (Id. Acad. II. 46). 
 Qvae qvum dixisset, finem ille (Id. Finn. IV. 1). A me Caesar 
 pecuniam? (sc. postulat ; Id. Phil. II. 29). Ille ex me, nihilne 
 audissem novi ; ego negare (Id. ad Att. II. 12). Sed qvid ego 
 alios (sc. commemoro) ? ad me ipsumjam revertar (Id. Cat. M. 13). 
 Sed ad ista alias (sc. respondebo) ; nunc Lucilium audiamus (Id. N. 
 D. II. 1). Cicero Attico salutem (occurs often in the superscrip- 
 tions of letters). Di meliora ! {dent). 
 
 Obs. 1. In certain expressions such an ellipsis has become a general 
 usage, e. g. in the phrases, nihil ad ?ne, ad te, &c. (sc. pertinet, it does not 
 concern me) : quid mihi {nobis, &c.) cum Jiac re ? what have I to do with 
 it ? Quorsum haec t Especially in certain transitions of the discourse with 
 qvid, how ; qvid, qvod — (how is it that — ? what shall we say to this, 
 that — ?) qvid, si — (how, if — ) ; qvid ergo ? qvid enim ? qvid turn ? 
 (what then?) qvid postea P Qvid multa ? (sc. dica??t,= in short ; also, we 
 multa.) So likewise in some proverbial expressions, as, Fortuna fortes 
 (sc. adjuvat). Minima de malis {eligenda sunt.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes a nominative is thus placed in a rapid description 
 of events, with the omission of a verb, which signifies to happen, to come 
 on, &c. to denote briefly a new point, a new member of the narrative : 
 Clamor inde concursusqve mirantium, qvid rei esset (Liv. I. 41). Italiae 
 rursus concursatio eadem comite mima ; in oppida militum crudelis et mi- 
 sera deductio (Cic. Phil. II. 25), after that followed again, &c. The same 
 occurs also in emphatic statements of a general kind : Qvid Pompejus de 
 
:0. Special Irregularities. 433 
 
 me senserit, sciunt, qyi eum Paphum secuti sunt. Nusqvam ab eo mentio 
 de me nisi honorifica (Id. ib. II. 15). 
 
 Obs. 3. Such omissions are less frequent in the subordinate proposition : 
 Itaqve exspecto, qvid ad ista (sc. dicturus sis ; Cic. Tusc. IV. 20). 
 
 Obs. 4. Sometimes we find the infinitives dicere, commemorare, and the 
 like, left out in this manner : Sed non necesse est nunc omnia (Cic. Tusc. 
 III. 18). 
 
 Obs. 5. "We may particularly notice the expression nihil aliud qvam (in 
 Livy and the following writers), in which originally the verb facio ap- 
 pears to have been omitted, e. g. Venter in medio qvietus nihil aliud qvam 
 datis voluptatibus fruitur (Liv. II. 32), but which now stands quite ad- 
 verbially in the sense of merely, only, with a verb, e. g. Hostes, nihil aliud 
 qvam perfusis vano timore Romanis, citato agmine abeunt (Liv. II. 63), 
 after they had only — . {Nero philosophum, a qyo convicio laesus erat, 
 nihil amplius qvam urbe Italiaqye summovit, Svet. Ner. 39). In the 
 same way si nihil aliud (even if nothing else is attained) stands with the 
 signification at least (even if from no other motive) : Venit in judicium 
 P. Junius, si nihil aliud, saltern ut eum, cujus opera ipse multos annos est 
 in sordibus, paullo tandem obsoletius vestitum videret (Cic. Verr. I. 58). 
 
 Obs. 6. Quite distinct from Ellipsis is the sudden breaking off of a pro- 
 position which has been commenced, and which we do not choose to com- 
 plete (Aposiopesis), e. g. Qvos ego — sed motos praestat componere fluctus 
 (Virg. Aen. I. 135). 
 
 §. 480. (Anacoluthia.) Sometimes writers indulge in the same 
 inaccuracy, which occurs in oral discourse, viz. that a proposition 
 which has been commenced is so broken off either by long and 
 complicated subordinate propositions or by remarks interposed 
 (parentheses) under the form of independent propositions (e. g. 
 with nam, enim), that it cannot easily, if at all, be continued and 
 concluded agreeably with the commencement, the connection 
 being forgotten or no longer obvious. In order to shew in this 
 case, that the writer returns to the commencement which had 
 been broken off, it is usual to employ one of the particles verum, 
 sed, verum tamen, sed tamen (but, as I wished to say; also, sed 
 haec omitto, and similar expressions), or igitur, ergo, inqvam (' I 
 say/ with a repetition of the leading idea), or only a pronoun, 
 which refers back to the leading idea, after which the interrupted 
 proposition is repeated and concluded, often in a form somewhat 
 modified, so that the original commencement of the proposition 
 remains without a corresponding conclusion. Sometimes too the 
 continuation of the discourse is thus modified, without its being 
 
 3k 
 
434 Syntax. — Appendix I. §.480 
 
 expressed by any indication of this kind. This want of strict 
 grammatical coherence is called Anacoluthia, and such a propo- 
 sition an Anacoluthonv. Some particular kinds of it are found in 
 rhetorical compositions, others of a freer character in such as imi- 
 tate the style of oral communications, e. g. in dialogues : Qvi 
 potuerunt ista ipsa lege, qvae de proscriptions est (sive Valeria est 
 sive Cornelia ; neqve enim novi nee scio), verum ista ipsa lege bona 
 Sex. Roscii venire qvi potuerunt? (Cic. Rose. Am. 43). Saepe ego 
 doctos homines — qvid dico ? saepe ? immo, nonnunqvam ; saepe enim 
 qvi pohd, qvi puer in forum venerim neqve inde unqvam diutius qvam 
 qvaestor abfuerim? — sed tamen audivi, et Athenis qvum essem, 
 doctissimos vivos et in Asia Scepsium Metrodorum, qvum de Ms 
 ipsis rebus disputavet (Id. de Or. II. 90). Scvipsi etiam — nam me 
 jam ab ovationibus disjungo feve referoqve ad mansvetiores Musas, 
 qvae me maxime jam a prima adolescentia delect arunt, — scvipsi 
 igituv Avistotelis move tves libidos de ovatove (Id. ad Fam, I. 9). 
 Octavio Mamilio Tusculano (is longe pvinceps Latini nominis evat, 
 si famae credimus, ab Ulixe deaqve Civce oviundus) ei Mamilio 
 filiam nuptum dat (Liv. I. 49). Te alio qvodam modo, non solum 
 natuva et moribus, vevum etiam studio et doctvina esse sapientem, 
 nee sicut vulgus, sed ut eruditi solent appellave sapientem, qvalem in 
 Gvaecia neminem {nam qvi septem appellantuv, eos qvi ista subtilius 
 qvaevunt, in numero sapientium non habent), Athenis unum accepimus, 
 et eum qvidem etiam Apollinis ovaculo sapientissimum judicatum, — 
 hanc esse in te sapientiam existimant, ut omnia tua in te posita esse 
 ducas humanosqve casus vivtute infevioves putes (Cic. Lael. 2). Nam 
 nos omnes, qvibus est alicunde aliqvis objectus labos, omne, qvod est 
 intevea tempus, pviusgvam id vescitum est, lucvo est (Ter. Hec. III. 
 1, 6 ; the sentence is not continued in the way it should have been 
 after the nominative nos omnes) . 
 
 Obs. 1 . A particular kind of anacoluthia consists in leading the reader 
 to expect a combination of two coordinate members (e. g. by et — et, neqve 
 ■ — neqve; duae causae, altera — altera; primum qvia, deinde qvod), but 
 then dwelling so long on the first member, that the connection of the 
 sentence is lost and the second member of the idea subjoined by itself in 
 another way. Multos oratores videmus, qvi neminem imitentur, et suapte 
 natura, qvod velint, sine cujusqvam similitudine conseqvantur, qvod et in 
 vobis animadverti recte potest, Caesar et Cotta, qvorum alter inusitatum 
 nostris qvidem oratoribus leporem qvendam et salem, alter acutissimum 
 
 p 'AvaKoXovB'ia is compounded of the negative a and axoXovQeoo, to follow. A protasis, 
 which wants the regularly corresponding apodosis, has the special name of Anantapo- 
 doton (uvavTairoSorov). 
 
»1. Special Irregularities. 435 
 
 et subtilissimwn dicendi genus est consecutus. Neqve vero vester aeqva- 
 lis Curio qvenqvam mild mag no opere videtur imitari (Cic. de Or. II. 23. 
 He had at first intended to say, Qvod et in vobis animadverti potest et in 
 aeqvali vestro Curione). 
 
 Obs. 2. If particles which connect subordinate propositions are far re- 
 moved from the proposition which depends upon them, they are some- 
 times repeated, especially ut : Verves Archagatho negotium dedit, ut, qvie- 
 qvid Haluntii esset argenti coelati aut si qvid etiam vasorum Corinthiorum, 
 ut omne statim ad mare ex oppido deportaretur (Cic. Verr. IV. 23). 
 
 §. 481. a. From the grammatical irregularities which have been 
 here discussed (according to which the construction of the words 
 and sentences varies from the general rules) we must distinguish 
 those peculiarities of expression, which are connected with the way 
 in which the several ideas themselves are conceived and expressed, 
 but do not alter the grammatical construction of the words or the 
 use of the forms, and are consequently only rhetorical peculiarities 
 of style. They are particularly found in oratorical language and 
 still more frequently in the poets, who by these means sometimes 
 give their language more force and animation, and at other times 
 attain greater freedom and facility in the structure of their verse. 
 Among these peculiarities we may here notice that way of expres- 
 sion, which is called Hendiadys (ev Sea Svolv, one by two), by which 
 an idea, which should be annexed by way of definition to another 
 substantive (as an adjective or in the genitive), is connected with 
 it as a coordinate idea, e. g. Pateris libamus et auro (Virg. Georg. 
 II. 192)=patei % is aureis, or, Molem et monies insuper altos imposuit 
 (Id. Aen. I. 6V)=i?iolem altorum montium, 
 
 Gbs. 1. We may refer to the same class the custom (even more strik- 
 ing in Latin than in English) of saying that a person does a thing himself, 
 which he causes to be done by others (curat faciendum, fieri jubet), e. g. 
 Piso anulum sibi facer e volebat (Cic. Verr. IV. 25). Virgis qyam multos 
 Verres ceciderit, qyid ego commemorem? (Id. ib. V. 53). 
 
 Obs. 2. Another irregularity in the poets consists in this, that, in con- 
 sequence of the freedom with which the imagination can transfer a quality 
 from one idea to another (e. g. from the person to the action and the 
 effect produced by it) the adjective is occasionally referred to a different 
 subject from that, to which, strictly considered, it appears to belong : 
 Capitolio regina dementes ruinas parabat (Hor. Od. I. 37, 6). Sometimes 
 by means of an adjective or participle a quality is attributed to a person 
 or thing, which it does not already possess, but only acquires by the 
 action mentioned : e. g. premit placida aeqvora pontus (Virg. Aen. X. 103), 
 
 3 K 2 
 
436 Syntax. — Appendix II. §. 48: 
 
 i. e. premit ita, ut placida flant, premendo placida flant. This last idiom 
 is called prolepsis adjectivi, the anticipation of the adjective. 
 
 b. Certain discrepancies between the Latin and other languages 
 (as for example, English) are owing to the fact that in particular 
 cases one of the languages describes an action in a more circum- 
 stantial way than the other, either by using a circumlocution in 
 the place of the simple verb, by which the action is as it were 
 resolved into two, or by repeating the same idea (by a pleonasm) 
 twice. As an example of such phraseological peculiarities of Latin 
 (which are in general to be learned by practice and from the 
 dictionary) we may notice the use of facio in periphrases : Facile, 
 ut non solum mores ejus et arrogantiam, sed etiam vultum atqve amic- 
 tmn recordemini (Cic. pro Cluent. 40). Faciendum mihi putavi, ut 
 tuts litteris brev'i responderem (Id. ad Fam. III. 8). Invitus feci, ut 
 L. Flaminium e senatu ejicerem (Id. Cat. M. 12). In dependent 
 interrogative propositions after a verb that denotes judgment and 
 consideration, the idea to think is often repeated pleonastically : 
 Itinera, qvae per hosce annos in Italia nostri imperatores fecerunt, 
 recordamini ; turn facilius statuetis, qvid apud exteras nationes fieri 
 existimetis (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 13), what you are to believe hap- 
 pens ; instead of, what happens. In a similar way it is said, per- 
 mitto, concedo ( permit titur), ut liceat, e. g. Lex permittit, ut furem 
 noctu liceat occidere (Cic. pro Tull. 47). 
 
 SECOND APPENDIX TO THE SYNTAX. 
 
 Of the Signification and Use of the Pronouns. 
 
 §. 482. The personal pronoun, as a subject, is usually omitted, 
 when the person is not emphatically put forward (in opposition to 
 others, or with reference to its own character, or by referring seve- 
 ral actions to the same subject) : Tu nidum servas, ego laudo ruris 
 amoeni rivos (Hor. Ep. I. 10, 6). Et tu apud patres conscriptos 
 contra me dicere ausus es? (Cic. Phil. II. 21). Tu a civitatibus 
 pecunias classis nomine coegisti, tu pretio remiges dimisisti, tu archi- 
 piratam ab oculis omnium removisti (Id. Verr. V. 52). (A word 
 may be put in apposition to the pronoun omitted : Hoc tibi Romana ju- 
 venilis indicimus helium, Liv. II. 12 ; we, the Roman youth.) 
 
84. Use of the Pronouns. 437 
 
 Ohs. Concerning tu as an indefinite and only assumed subject, see 
 §. 370 with Ohs. 2. 
 
 §. 483. In Latin an individual not unfrequently speaks of him- 
 self in the first person plural, when he thinks more of his affairs 
 and the position of a thing in general, than of himself personally 
 in opposition to others : Reliqvum est, ut de felicitate Pompeji plura 
 dicamus (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 16). Qvaerenti mihi } qvanam re pos- 
 sem prodesse qvam plurimis, nulla major occurrebat, qvam si optima- 
 rum artium vias traderem meis civibus, qvod compluribus jam libris 
 me arbitror consecutum. Nam et cohortati sumus, ut maocime potui- 
 mus, ad philosophiae studium in eo libro, qvi inscriptus est Horten- 
 sius, et, qvod genus philosophandi maxime et constans et elegans 
 arbitraremur, qvattuor Academicis libris ostendimus (Id. Div. II. 1). 
 Noster is used in the same way instead of meus. 
 
 Ohs. Concerning the redundant personal pronoun with qvidem, see 
 below on the demonstratives §. 489 b. 
 
 §.484. a. The pronoun is (the indirect demonstrative) is omitted 
 as a nominative, when we continue to speak of the same person as 
 before, except when after a short preliminary notice of the person, 
 of whom we are about to speak, we come to the fact itself: P. 
 Annius Asellus mortuus est C. Sacerdote praetore. Is qvum haberet 
 unicam filiam, earn bonis suis heredem instituit (Cic. Verr. I. 41). 
 So likewise the accusative or dative of this pronoun is often omit- 
 ted, when the discourse is continued concerning the same object 
 or object of relation, especially when a short antithesis is emphati- 
 cally subjoined to what goes before : Fratrem tuum ceteris in rebus 
 laudo, in hac una reprehendere cogor. Non obsistam fratris tui 
 voluntati, qvoad honestas patietur ; favere non potero. Under these 
 circumstances the accusative is also sometimes omitted, where that 
 which is referred to by the pronoun precedes in a different case : 
 Libri, de qvibus scribis, mei non sunt ; sumpsi a fratre meo. 
 (Concerning the omission of is before qvi see §. 324.) 
 
 b. Is is sometimes followed, not by qvi, but by qvicunqve, e. g. Qvid 
 habeo, qvod faciam, nisi ut earn fortimam, qvaecicnqve erit tua, ducam meam 
 (Cic. pro Mil. 36), or si qvis (is, si qvis=is, qvi, siqvis), e. g. Ipse Allienus 
 ex ea facilitate, si qvam hahet, aliqvantum detraliet (Cic. Div. in Caec. 15). 
 
 c. A more precise definition of an idea is connected emphatically 
 by et is [atqve is, et is qvidem), ' and that/ nee is, ' and that not :' 
 Habet homo primum memoriam et earn infinitam rerum innumerable 
 Hum (Cic. Tusc. I. 24). Uno atqve eo facili proelio caesi ad Antium 
 
438 Syntax. — Appendix II. §. 48- 
 
 hostes (Liv. IV. 57). Epicurus una in domo et ea qvidem angusta 
 qvam magnos qvantaqve amoris conspiratione consentientes tenuit 
 amicorum greges ! (Cic. Finn. I. 20). Erant in Romana juvenfute 
 adolescentes aliqvot, nee it 'tenui loco orti, qvorum in regno libido 
 solutior fuerat (Liv. II. 3) . (If that which is added belongs to the 
 predicate and to the assertion in general, the neuter is employed, et id, 
 e. g. Apollonium doctum Jiominem cognovi et studiis optimis deditum, 
 idqve a puero, Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 16). In the same way we find sed 
 is : Severitatem in senectute probo, sed earn, sicut alia, modicam (Cic. 
 Cat. M. 18)1. 
 
 §. 485. a. Hie, c this/ is used to denote what is nearest to the 
 speaker in place, time, or idea : Turn primum philosophia, non ilia 
 de natura, qvae fuerit antiqvior, sed haec, in qva de bonis et malis 
 deqve hominum vita disputatur, inventa dicitur (Cic. Brut. 8) . Opus 
 vel in hac magnificentia urbis conspiciendum (Liv. VI. 4), that of the 
 present day, of our time. Qvi haec vituperare volunt, Chrysogonum 
 tantum posse qveruntur (Cic. pro Rose. Am. 48), the present state 
 of things. Sex. Stola, judex hie noster (Id. pro Flacco), who sits 
 here as judge. Ille, ' that/ refers to something more distant (vete- 
 res Mi, qvi — ), but often designates what is important or well 
 known : Ex suo regno sic Mithridates profugit, ut ex eodem Ponto 
 Medea ilia qvondam profugisse dicitur (Cic. pro Leg. Man. 9). 
 (Concerning hie and ille in notices of time see §. 276, Obs. 5). If 
 two persons or things that have beeD previously named be spoken 
 of, hie is generally referred to the last mentioned, ille to the more 
 remote, e. g. Caesar beneficiis atqve munificentia magnus habebatur, 
 integritate vitae Cato. Ille mansvetudine et misericordia clarus 
 /actus, huic severitas dignitatem addiderat (Sail. Cat. 54). But hie 
 is not infrequently referred not to the last named, but to that 
 which is nearer in idea and in the nature of the thing : Melior 
 tutiorqve est cert a pax, qvam sperata victoria, haec (pax) in tua, 
 ilia in deorum potestate est (Liv. XXX. 30) r . 
 
 Obs. What is expressed in the oratio directa by Tiic is designated in 
 the oratio obliqva by ille ; yet Me may sometimes be retained with em- 
 phasis from the oratio directa. Tu (vos) of the oratio directa is expressed 
 in repeating the speech of another chiefly by ille, but also by is : Caveat, 
 ne illo cunctante Numidae sibi consulant (Sail. Jug. 62)=cave, ne te cunc- 
 
 i Hostis et is hostis, qvi — , tribunus et Curio tribunus — , homines ignoti atqve ita 
 ignoti, ut — (without qvidem, when the preceding word is repeated with an emphatic 
 addition). 
 
 r Hoc socios audire ? hoc hostes? Qvo cum dolore hos? qvo cum gaudio illos? (Liv. 
 III. 72). 
 
36. Use of the Pronouns . 439 
 
 tante — . Tamen, si dbsides ab Us sibi dentur, sese cum Us pacem esse 
 facturum (Caes. B. G. I. 14)=tamen, si dbsides a vobis dantur — . 
 
 b. Sic and We (the latter more especially) also refer to the 
 following part of the discourse (so that hie designates what is pre- 
 sent, Me something new or well known) : Nonne qvum multa alia 
 mirabilia, turn illud imprimis ? (Cic. cle Div. I. 10 ; ' the following 
 circumstance especially') . (On the addition of a proposition referring 
 to hie or ille with enim or nam see §. 439, Obs. 2.) 
 
 c. Sic is used in relative circumlocutions instead of is (kic, qvi), when 
 the thing so described is designated as something near (e. g. haec, qvae 
 a nobis hoc qvatriduo disputata sunt ; Cic. Tusc. IV. 38), but especially 
 when we wish to give a marked prominence to the contents of the rela- 
 tive circumlocution, so as to contrast them with the leading proposition 
 which follows : Qvos ego campos antea nitidissimos viridissimosqve vidis- 
 sem, hos vastatos nunc atqve desertos videbam (Cic. Verr. III. 18); other- 
 wise but seldom. 
 
 Obs. We must also notice hie et hie, hie et ille, this and that, this or 
 that; ille et ille, one or two. {Soc Thrasybuli, illud Pherecydis, the 
 following expression of Thrasybulus, that well-known saying of Phere- 
 eydes.) 3 
 
 §. 486. Iste is used of that which is referred to the person ad- 
 dressed (of a thing which is in his neighbourhood, relates to him, 
 proceeds from him, is mentioned by him, &c.) ; hence iste tuus [iste 
 vester) are often found combined, or iste has the same signification 
 as tuus {vester) : Ista oratio, that speech (which you make). Qvae- 
 vis mallem causa fuisset qvam ista, gvam dicis (Cic. de Or. II. 4). 
 De istis rebus exspecto tuas litter as (Id. ad Att. II. 5), concerning 
 what happens where you are. Age, nunc isti doceant (those philo- 
 sophers whom you follow), qvonam modo efficiatur, ut honeste vivere 
 summum bonum sit (Id. Finn. IV. 11). Yet iste is also used of 
 a thing which is near or present to the speaker, but which he (con- 
 temptuously) motions from him (as, e. g. by the complainant of the 
 defendant in a court of justice), or of a thing which we have our- 
 selves recently named or mentioned (and think of as more remote), 
 e. g. Fructum istum laudis, qvi ex perpetua oratione percipi potuit, 
 
 s "With participles and adjectives referring to a subject (accompanied by its verb) in 
 another clause of the sentence, the poets sometimes use ille by a pleonasm, much in the 
 sense of the Homeric '6ye : as — 
 
 Multum ille et terris jactatus et alto (Virg. Aen. I. 3). 
 Agmina cursu 
 Prima petit, non ilia virum, von ilia pericli 
 Telorumqve memor (Id. ib. IX. 478). 
 
440 Syntax. — Appendix II. §. 486 
 
 in alia tempora reservemus (Cic. Yerr. A.I. 11). TJtinam tibi istam 
 mentem dii immortales duint (Id. in Cat. I. 9), Would that the 
 gods would give you such a disposition. Si qvid novisti rectius 
 istis, candidus imperii; si non, his utere mecum (Hor. Ep. I. 
 6, 67). 
 
 Ohs. What is said of the distinction in meaning between Mc, ille, and 
 iste, applies also to the adverbs derived from them. 
 
 §.487. Ipse stands alone (without the addition of is) where the 
 emphasis falls in English on self (selves) ; because it designates 
 an antithesis to something out of or instead of the person or thing 
 itself : Accipio, qvod dant ; mihi enim satis est ; ipsis non satis (Cic. 
 Finn. II. 26). Qvaeram ex ipsa (Id. pro Cael. 14). Parvi de eo, 
 qvod ipsis superat, gratificari aliis volunt (Id. Finn. V. 15). (Ipsi, 
 qvi scripserunt, the authors themselves. But is ipse, even he 3 even 
 that, that very.) 
 
 Ohs. 1 . Ipse is to be noticed in the signification of exactly, precisely : 
 Crassus triennio ipso minor erat qvam Antonius (Cic. Brut. 43). {Nunc 
 ipsum, just now ; turn ipsum, qvum, precisely at the moment when). 
 
 Obs. 2. Et ipse stands in the signification also, likewise, when the same 
 is predicated of a new subject, which had been previously asserted of 
 others : Delude Crassus, ut intellig ere posset Brutus, qvem Tiominem laces- 
 sisset, tres et ipse excitavit recitatores (Cic. pro Cluent. 51), after that 
 Crassus, as his opponent had done, likewise — . 
 
 b. In reflective assertions (expressing an action of the subject on 
 itself) ipse stands in the same case with the subject (in the nomi- 
 native), when it is intended to express what the subject itself does 
 (in opposition to what others do and what is performed by the aid 
 of others) ; on the other hand, it stands in the same case with the 
 personal or reflective pronoun, when it is designed to show that 
 the action refers to that subject, and not to others : Non egeo 
 medicina ; me ipse consolor (Cic. Lael. 3). Valvae clausae repagulis 
 subito se ipsae aperuerunt (Cic. Divin. 1. 34). Cato se ipse interemit 
 (was not killed by others). Junius necem sibi ipse conscivit (Id. 
 N. D. II. 3). Non potest exercitum is continere imperator, qvi se 
 ipse non coniinet (Id. pro Leg. Man. 13), who does not himself 
 keep himself under control. Se ipsi omnes natura diligunt (Id. 
 Finn. III. 18). — Tu qvoniam rempublicam nosqve conservas, fac, ut 
 diligentissime te ipsum, mi Dolabella, custodias (Id. ad Fam. IX. 
 14). Ea gessimus, ut omnibus potius qvam ipsis nobis consuluerimus 
 (Id. Finn. II. 19). Sensim tardeve potius nosmetipsos cognoscimus 
 
39. Use of the Pronouns. 441 
 
 (Id. Finn. V. 15). Facile, gvod cvjusqve ternporis officium sit, po- 
 terimus, nisi nosmetipsos valde amabimus, judicare (Id. Off. I. 9). 
 Yet the Latins sometimes put the nominative of ipse, when the 
 antithesis might lead us to expect another case (in order to mark 
 more emphatically the relation of a person or thing to itself, as at 
 once subject and object) : Verves sic erat humilis atqve demissus, ut 
 non modo populo Romano, sed etiam sibi ipse condemnatus vide- 
 retur (Cic. Yerr. I. 6). Ipse sibi inimicus est (Id. Finn. V. 10). 
 (Ipse is often so used before se and sibi). Secum ipsi loqvuntur 
 (Id. H. P. I. 17). (Crassus et Antonius ex scriptis cognosci ipsi suis 
 non potuerunt, Cic. de Or. II. 2 ; from their own writings. Ipse per 
 se, per se ipse, in and by himself.) 
 
 §. 488. Idem is often employed where something new is said of 
 a person or thing already mentioned, to denote either similarity 
 (likeiuise, also, at the same time) or an opposition (yet, on the other 
 hand) : Thorius utebatur eo cibo, qvi et svavissimus esset et idem fa- 
 cillimus ad concoqvendum (Cic. Finn. II. 20). Nihil utile, qvod non 
 idem honestum (Id. Off. III. 7). P. Africanus eloqventia cumulavit 
 bellicam laudem, qvod idem fecit Timotheus, Cononis filius (Id. Off. 
 I. 32). Etiam patriae hoc munus debere videris, ut ea, qvae salva 
 per te est, per te eundem sit ornata (Id. Legg. I. 2). Inventi multi 
 sunt, qvi vitam profundere pro patria parati essent, iidem (but on 
 the other hand) gloriae jacturam ne minlmam qvidem facer e vellent 
 (Id. ib. I. 24). Epicurus, qvum (while) optimam et praestantissimam 
 naturam dei dicat esse, negat idem esse in deo gratiam (Id. N. D. 
 I. 43). 
 
 §. 489. A demonstrative pronoun is used redundantly in certain 
 combinations : — 
 
 a. "When a substantive or a pronoun has been separated from its 
 predicate or governing verb by an intervening proposition (espe- 
 cially if relative), it is sometimes emphatically recalled to mind 
 by the pronoun is (rarely hie, where an antithesis is to be made 
 very prominent) : Plebem et infimam midtitudinem, qvae P. Clodio 
 duce fortunis vestris imminebat, earn Milo, qvo tutior esset vestra 
 vita, tribus suis patrimoniis delenivit (Cic. pro Mil. 35). Haec ipsa, 
 qvae nunc ad me delegare vis, ea semper in te eximia et praestantia 
 fuerunt (Id. de Or. II. 28). Agrum Campanum, qvi qvum de vecti- 
 galibus eximebatur, ut militibus daretur, tamen infligi magnum rei- 
 publicae vulnus putabamus, hunc tu compransoribus tuis et collusori- 
 
 3l 
 
443 Syntax. — Appendix II. §. 489 
 
 bus dividebas (Id. Phil. II. 39). (This idiom involves a kind of ana- 
 coluthia, see §. 449.) 
 
 Obs. 1. In a similar way hie and ille are inserted in comparisons: 
 Ingeniosi, ut aes Corinthium in aeruginem, sic illi in morbum incidunt 
 tardiics (Cic. Tusc. IV. 14). 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes a subject, without being separated from its predi- 
 cate, is emphatically distinguished from others by the addition of is (or is 
 vero) : Ista animi tranqvillitas ea est ipsa beata vita (Cic. Fin. V. 8). 
 Sed urbana plebs ea vero praeceps ierat multis de causis (Sail. Cat. 37). 
 
 b. When the particle qvidem stands with a concessive signifi- 
 cation (indeed, certainly) with a predicate (verb or adjective), with 
 sed following, it is in the best writers not connected immediately 
 with the verb or adjective, but a pronoun is inserted before qvidem, 
 which corresponds to the word of which the predicate is conceded, 
 namely eqvidem (forego qvidem), nos qvidem, tu qvidem, vos qvidem, 
 ille (more rarely is) qvidem : Reliqvanon eqvidem contemno, sed plus 
 tamen habent spei qvam timoris (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 16), the rest I do 
 not indeed despise, but — . Oratorias exercitationes non tu qvidem 
 reliqvisti, sed certe philosophiam illis anteposuisti (Id. de Fat. 2). 
 P. Scipio non multum ille qvidem nee saepe dicebat, sed omnes sale 
 facetiisqve super abat (Id. Brut. 34). Ludo autem et joco uti illo 
 qvidem licet, sed turn, qvum gravibus seriisqve rebus satisfecerimus 
 (Id. Off. L 29). Sapientiae studium vetus id qvidem in nostris, sed 
 tamen ante Laelii aetatem et Scipionis non reperio, qvos appellare 
 possim nomination (Id. Tusc. IV. 3). Libri scripti inconsiderate ab 
 optimis illis qvidem viris, sed non satis eruditis (Id. ib. I. 3), by 
 men, who were certainly — . Cyri vitam et disciplinam legunt, prae- 
 claram illam qvidem, sed non tarn aptam rebus nostris (Id. Brut. 29)*. 
 (Less usually : Proposuit qvidem legem, sed minutissimis litteris et an- 
 gustissimo loco (Svet. Cal. 41). 
 
 §. 490. a. The Reflective pronoun and the possessive suus de- 
 rived from it refer back to the subject, like the word self. Ipse se 
 qvisqve diligit (Cic. Lael. 21). Bestiis homines uti pos sunt ad suam 
 utilitatem (Id. Finn. III. 20). Fabius a me diligitur propter sum- 
 mam suam humanitatem et observantiam (Id. ad Fam. XV. 14). 
 (Liter se, mutually, one with another, may refer also to the object or ob- 
 ject of relation : JEtiam /eras inter se partus et educatio conciliat, Cic. 
 Rose. Am. 22. So likewise ipsum per se, ipsi per se.) 
 
 b. Suus may also refer to another substantive in the proposition 
 (mostly the object or object of relation, and sometimes also to other 
 
 * \_Humanum id qvidem, qvod ita existimas sed est natura, cet. (Cic. Tusc. ITI. 6).] 
 
)0. Use of the Pronouns. 443 
 
 eases), where it may be expressed by his (her, their) own (so that a 
 mutual relation is indicated in the transaction between the two 
 ideas) : Hannibalem sui cives e civitate ejecerunt (Cic. pro Sest. 68). 
 Catilina admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sail. 
 Cat. 21). Suis flammis delete Fidenas (Liv. IV. 33). Si ceteris 
 recte facta sua prosunt, mihi mea ne qvando obsint, providete (Cic. 
 in Cat. III. 12). Desinant insidiari domi suae consuli (Id. ib. I. 
 13). Sua cujusqve animantis natura est (Id. Finn. V. 9). Dicae- 
 archum cum Aristoxeno, aeqvali et condiscipulo suo, doctos sane 
 homines, omittamus (Id. Tusc. I. 18), with his fellow-pupil, so that 
 he may take his fellow-pupil with him. (But, Omitto Isocratem dis- 
 cipulosqve ejus, Fphorum et Naucratem [Cic. Or. 51]. Pisonem nostrum 
 merito ejus a mo plurimum [Id. ad Fam. XIV. 2]. Verri cle eadem re 
 litterae complures a mult is ejus amicis ajferuntur [Id. Verr. II. 39]. Deum 
 agnoscis ex operibus ejus [Id. Tusc. I. 28]. So likewise sui as the geni- 
 tive of se may be referred to the object or object of relation : Cui 
 proposita est conservatio sui, necesse est huic qvoqve partes sui caras 
 esse (Id. Finn. V. 13). 
 
 Obs. Suits, his (her, their) own, may even be referred to the person or 
 thing generally treated of in the discourse, though it be not expressly 
 named in the same proposition : Mater qvod svasit sua, adolescens mulier 
 fecit (Ter. Hec. IV. 4, 38). Is annus omnem C?*assi spem atqve omnia 
 vitae consilia morte pervertit. Fuit hoc luctuosum suis (to his friends), 
 acerb um patriae, grave bonis omnibus (Cic. de Or. III. 2). 
 
 c. Se and suus in subordinate propositions refer not only to the 
 subject in the same proposition, but also to the subject of the lead- 
 ing proposition, when the dependent proposition is stated as the 
 sentiment of the subject. This is always the case with accusatives 
 with the infinitive, with propositions which denote the object of an 
 exertion and effort (§.372 and 375), with final propositions and 
 dependent interrogative propositions, and with such relative and 
 other subordinate propositions as are designated by the conjunc- 
 tive as the sentiments of another party (§. 368 and 369) : Sentit 
 animus se vi sua, non aliena moveri (Cic. Tusc. I. 23). Negant, ad 
 suam utilitatem hoc pertinere. (After a general infinitive : Haec 
 est una omnis sapieniia, non arbitrari sese scire, qvod nesciat, not 
 to think that one knows (Cic. Acad. I. 4). Oravit me pater, ut ad 
 se venirem. Id ea de causa Caesar fecit, ne se hostes occupatum 
 opprimerent. Exposuit, cur ea res parum sibi placeret. Accusat 
 amicos, qvod se non adjuverint. Ariovistus respondet, si qvid Caesar 
 se velit, ilium ad se venire oportere (Caes. B. G. I. 34), Leyati 
 
 3 l2 
 
444 Syntax. — Appendix II. §.49: 
 
 Caerites Deos rogaverunt, ut Romanos florentes ea sui (viz. Caeri- 
 tum) misericordia caperet, qvae se rebus affectis qvondam populi 
 Romard cepisset (Lit. VII. 20). Paetus omnes libros, qvos fraier 
 suus reliqvisset, mihi donavit (Cic. ad Att. II. 1). Turn ei dormienti 
 idem Me vims est rogare, ut, gvoniam sibi vivo non subvenisset, mor- 
 tem suam ne inultam esse pater etur (Id. Div. I. 27). 
 
 Obs. 1 . Se and suus are also referred to the person in the leading pro- 
 position, whose language or sentiments are expressed in the subordinate, 
 even when this person is not the grammatical subject of the former : Jam 
 inde ah initio Faustulo spes fuerat, regiam stirpem apicd se educari (Liv. 
 I. 5). A Caesare valde liberaliter invitor, sibi ut sim legatus (Cic. ad 
 Att. II. 18). 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes the context alone can shew whether se (suus) refers 
 to the subject of the leading proposition or that of the subordinate, e. g. 
 Uortensius ex Verre qvaesivit, cur suos (i. e. Hortensii) familiarissimos 
 rejici passus esset (Cic. Verr. I. 7). Se and suus are even found in the 
 same proposition so used, that one refers to the nearest subject, while the 
 other refers to the subject of the leading proposition : Livius Salinator 
 Q. Fabium Maximum rogavit, ut meminisset, opera sua (sc. IAvii) se (sc. 
 Fabiuni) Tarentum recepisse (Cic. de Or. II. 67). Romani legatos in 
 Bithyniam miserunt, qvi a Prusia rege peterent, ne inimicissimum suum 
 (sc. Romanorum) apud se haberet (Corn. Hann. 12). 
 
 Obs. 3. "We find however in the Latin authors some passages less care- 
 fully written, where the subordinate proposition either necessarily ex- 
 presses an idea conceived by the leading subject (as for example, objective 
 propositions), or is shewn to be such by the use of the conjunctive, and 
 where, notwithstanding, is, ejus is used instead of se, suus, of the person 
 which is the subject of the leading proposition. (This never occurs in an 
 accusative with the infinitive which is immediately connected with the 
 leading proposition.) On the other hand, there are also found some few 
 passages where se and suus are employed, though there is no conjunctive 
 to indicate that the sentiments expressed are those of another. Uelvetii 
 persvadent Rauracis et Tulingis, uti, eodem usi consilio, oppidis suis vicis- 
 qve exustis, una cum Us prqficisca?itur (Caes. B. G. I. 5). Audistis nuper 
 dicere legatos Tyndaritanos, Mercurium, qvi sacris anniversariis apud eos 
 coleretur, Verris imperio esse sublatum (Cic. Verr. IV. 39). — Chrysogonus 
 hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum, qvi se diesqve noctesqve stimulat ac pun- 
 git, ut evellatis, postulat (Cic. Rose. Am. 2). Metellus in Us urbibus, 
 qvae ad se defecerant, praesidia imponit (Sail. Jug. 61). Patres nil rec- 
 tum, nisi qvod placuit sibi, ducunt (Hor. Ep. II. 1, 83). Thus we find 
 both qvantum in se est, erat (so far as it rests, rested, with him), and 
 (more correctly) qvantum in ipso est, erat. 
 
)2. Use of the Pronouns. 445 
 
 Ohs. 4. Ipse for se ipsum, sibi ipsi, &c. (in a subordinate proposition, of 
 the subject of the leading proposition) is found in the best writers in a 
 few passages, where the word self is to be made prominent: Sunt qvi se 
 recusare negent, qvominus, ipsis mortuis, terrarum omnium defiogratio 
 conseqvatur (Cic. Finn. III. 19). 
 
 Ohs. 5. Se and suus sometimes stand in universal assertions, without 
 being referred to a definite subject preceding, in the signification oneself: 
 Negligere, qvid de se (of one) qvisqve sentiat, non solum arrogantis est, sed 
 etiam omnino dissoluti (Cic. Off. I. 28). 
 
 Ohs. 6. Instead of se (sibi) inter se, mutually — one another, it is usual 
 to say only inter se, omitting the object : Veri amici non solum colent inter 
 se ac diligent, sed etiam verebuntur (Cic. Lael. 22). {Inter nos=nos or 
 nobis inter nos ; inter vos.) 
 
 §.491. The possessive pronouns (pronominal adjectives) may be 
 omitted in Latin, when the relation, which they would express, is 
 easily ascertained from the context (especially therefore, where 
 they serve to refer a thing to the subject, but sometimes also, 
 where they would point to the object or object of relation), and 
 when no kind of emphasis rests on the possessive definition : Pa- 
 trem amisi, gvum qvartum annum agebam, matrem, qvum sextum 
 (amisit — agebat). Roga parentes (viz.tuos). Manus lava et coena ! 
 Prater mens amatur ab omnibus propter summam morum svavitatem. 
 Patris animum mihi reconciliasti (viz. met). Yet suus is also not 
 unfrequently used, where it might have been omitted. 
 
 Ohs. 1. The possessive pronoun designates in certain combinations (e. g. 
 with tempus, locus, deus, numen) that which is suitable, correct, or favour- 
 able, for a person or thing. Suo loco, suo tempore. Loco aeqvo, tempore 
 tno pugnasti (Liv. XXXVIII. 45). Vadimus non numine nostro (Virg. 
 Aen. II. 396). 
 
 Ohs. 2. Concerning nulla tua epistola (from you), mea unius opera, see 
 §. 297 a. 
 
 §. 492. On the Interrogative Pronouns the following observa- 
 tions may be made. 
 
 a. The Latins can combine two interrogative pronouns in one 
 proposition in such a way, that the inquiry is directed both to the 
 subject and the object : Considera, qvis qvem fraudasse dicatur (Cic. 
 pro Rose. Com. 7), who is said to have defrauded, and whom he is 
 said to have defrauded. Nihil jam aliud qvaerere judices debetis, 
 nisi, uter utri insidias fecerit (Id. pro Mil. 9), which of these two 
 acted treacherously to the other. 
 
 Ohs. Concerning the interrogative with a participle see §. 424, Obs. 3. 
 
446 Syntax.— Appendix II. §.492 
 
 b. An interrogative exclamation of surprise (at the greatness of 
 a thing, &c.) is expressed affirmatively: Qvum multos scriptores 
 rerum suarum magnus Me Alexander secum habuisse dicitur ! (Cic. 
 pro Arch. 10). Hie vero adolescens qvum eqvitaret cum suis delectis 
 eqvitibuSj qvos concursus facere solebat ! qvam se jactare ! (Id. pro 
 Dej. 10). (If non is introduced, the surprise or the question applies 
 to the negative idea : Qvam id te, di boni, non decebat ! How ill it 
 became you ! Cic. Phil. II. 8). 
 
 Obs. 1 . Concerning the usage of dependent interrogative propositions 
 with a pronoun, it may here also be observed, that in English the object 
 of a communication or question is sometimes expressed by a substantive 
 with a relative proposition attached to it, a construction which is not usual 
 in Latin, where an interrogative proposition is employed ; e. g. I told him 
 of the progress which the boy had made, narravi ei, qvos progressus puer 
 fecisset. Writers are not agreed as to the motives, which induced Tibe- 
 rius to take this step, qvae Tiberium causae impulerint, scriptores non con- 
 sentiunt. (Non paenitet, qvantum profecerim, I am not dissatisfied with 
 the progress which I have made.) 
 
 Ohs. 2. A direct inquiry respecting the reason or motive of an action is 
 expressed by the pronominal adverb cur ; qvare is used only in depend- 
 ent propositions, and usually after expressions which indicate a motive 
 (§. 372 b. Obs. 6, compare 440 b. Obs. 1). Qvidni is used only with the 
 conjunctive, to signify ' why should not?' (§. 353). 
 
 §. 493. a. Of the Indefinite Pronouns aliqvis denotes in the 
 most general way some one, some thing, a single undefined person 
 or thing : Fecit hoc aliqvis tui similis. Si mihi esset obtemperatum, 
 si non optimam, at aliqvam rempublicam, qvae nunc nulla est, habe- 
 remus (Cic. Off. I. 11). Ut tarda aliqva et langvida pecus (Id. Fin. 
 II. 13). Declamabam saepe cum M. Pisone et cum Q. Pompejo aut 
 cum aliqvo qvotidie (Id. Brut. 90), or some other person (nearly 
 equivalent to alius aliqvis, though the word itself does not bear 
 this signification). (Est aliqvid, it is yet something, not so abso- 
 lutely nothing). Qvis has the same signification (dicat qvis, dicat 
 aliqvis, one might say), but is used where an indefinite subject or 
 object is to be designated very slightly and without emphasis (one), 
 e. g. Fieri potest, ut recte qvis sentiat, et id, qvod sentit, polite eloqvi 
 non possit (Cic. Tusc. I. 3) ; especially in relative propositions 
 (what one, &c.) after qvum (when one), and usually after si, nisi, 
 ne, num : Qvo qvis versutior et callidior est, hoc invisior et suspec- 
 tior, detracta opinione probitatis (Cic. Off. II. 9) . litis promissis 
 standum non est, qvae coactus qvis metu, qvae deceptus dolo promisit 
 
4. Use of the Pronouns . 417 
 
 (Id. ib. I. 10). Si qvam repperero causam, indicabo. Galli legibus 
 sanctum habent, ut si qvis qvid de republica a finitimis rumore ac 
 fama acceperit, uti ad magistratum defer at (Caes. B. G. VI. 20). 
 Vereor, ne qvid sub sit doli. (Sicubi accidit ; ne qvando fiat, &c.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Yet we find aliqvis and the words derived from it not unfre- 
 quently after si and sometimes after ne, especially if some emphasis rests 
 on the pronoun {somewhat, a certain measure, in opposition to much, little, 
 all) : Si aliqvid de sumina gravitate Pomp ejus, si niultum de cupiditate 
 Caesar remisisset, pacem stabilem nobis habere licuisset (Cic. Phil. XIII. 1). 
 Timelat Pompejus omnia, ne vos aliqvid timeretis (Id. pro Mil. 24). Si 
 ali qvando (on a single occasion) tacent omnes, turn sortito coguntur dicer e 
 (Id. Verr. IV. 64). 
 
 Obs. 2. The plural of aliqvis is aliqvi ; aliqvot is used only when a 
 certain number is thought of. 
 
 b. Qvispiam is also employed like qvis, to denote a single per- 
 son or thing which is quite indefinite {dicat qvispiam), but not so 
 absolutely without emphasis : Forsitan aliqvis aliqvando ejusmodi 
 qvidpiam fecerit (Cic. Verr. II. 32). Communi consvetudine ser- 
 monis abutimur, qvum ita dicimus, velle aliqvid qvempiam aut nolle 
 sine causa (Id. de Fat. 11). 
 
 c. Qvidam is a certain one (a defined person or thing, of which, 
 however, a more precise notice is unnecessary) : Qvidam ex advo- 
 catis, homo summa virtute praeditus, intelligere se dixit, non id agi, 
 ut verum inveniretur (Cic. pro Cluent. 63). Habitant hie qvaedam 
 mulierculae (Ter. Ad. IV. 5, 13). Hoc nonfacio, ut fortasse qvibus- 
 dam videor, simulatione (Cic. ad Faro. I. 8). (On its employment 
 in conjunction with qvasi, when an appellation is made use of that 
 is not strictly appropriate, see §. 444 a. Obs. 2.) (Certus qvidam, a 
 certain definite individual.) 
 
 Obs. By nonnemo, one or two, some (few) defined, but unnamed persons 
 are always indicated : Video de istis, qvi se popular es haberi volunt, abesse 
 nonneminem. Is cet. (Cic. in Cat. IV. 5 ; the discourse is continued with 
 is, because nonnemo, grammatically considered, is in the singular). Non- 
 nihil, somewhat (most frequently as an adverb : Nonnihil timeo, nonnihil 
 miror, &c). Nonnullus (adj.), not exactly none, some, a part. 
 
 §. 494. a. The substantive qvisqvam and the adjective ullus 
 (which sometimes stands as a substantive [see §. 90, Obs.'], and in 
 the plural is both a substantive and adjective) denote any one 
 whatever, any at all, even if it were only a single individual, who- 
 ever or whatever it may be, and express an affirmative idea in the 
 
448 Syntax. — Appendix II. §. 494 
 
 most general way, without conveying the notion of a distinct per- 
 son or thing. Qvisqvam and ullus stand therefore (first) in nega- 
 tive propositions and questions with the force of a negative, where 
 the negation is universal and relates to the whole proposition, and 
 after the preposition sine : Sine sociis nemo qvidqvam tale conatur 
 (Cic. Lael. 12). Justitia nunqvam nocet cuiqvam, qvi earn habet 
 (Id. Finn. I. 16). Sine virtute neqve amicitiam neqve ullarn rem 
 expetendam conseqvi possumus (Id. Lael. 22). (The negative word 
 must always precede.) Sine ullo auxilio (without any help whatever, 
 destitute of all aid) u . Tu me existimas ab ullo malle mea legi pro- 
 bariqve qvam a te ? (Cic. ad Att. IV. 5). Qvid est, qvod qvisqvam 
 dignum Pompejo afferre possit? (Id. pro Leg. Man. 11). Qvis- 
 qvamne istuc negat ? (Id. N. D. III. 28). So likewise, Qvasi vero 
 qvisqvam vir excellenti animo in rempublicam, ingressus optabilius 
 qvidqvam arbitretur qvam se a suis civibus reipublicae causa diligi 
 (Cic. in Vat. S=nemo arbitratur) . Desitum est videri qvidqvam in 
 socios iniqvum, qvum exstitisset in cives tanta crudelitas (Id. Off. II. 
 8=Nihiljam iniqvum videbatur) . 
 
 Obs. 1. If on the other hand the sense only requires the negation of a 
 special affirmative idea, aliqvis or qvispiam is made use of : Non 6b ipsius 
 aliqvod delictum (Cic. pro Balb. 28), not on account of this or that crime 
 committed by himself. Vidi,fore, ut aliqvando non Torqvatus neqve Tor- 
 qvati qvispiam similis, sed aliqvis bonorum hostis aliter indicata haec esse 
 diceret (Id. pro Sull. 14). In the same way ne qvis, ne qvid, &c. are com- 
 monly employed. (Ne qvis unqvam. Ne qvisqvam, that no one, whoever 
 it may be : Metellus edixit, ne qvisqvam in castris panem aut qvem alium 
 coctum cibum venderet, Sail. Jug. 45.) Qvisqvam (ullus) is also not used, 
 when the negation applies not to the whole proposition, but to a single 
 word, with which it is combined so as to form one negative idea (Qvum 
 aliqvid non habeas, when one has not this or that thing, Cic. Tusc. I. 36), 
 or when two negations cancel each other : Nemo ulla de re potest conten- 
 dere neqve asseverare sine aliqva ejus rei, qvam sibi qvis qve placer e dicit, 
 certa et propria nota (Cic. Acad. II. 11). Non sine aliqvo incommodo. 
 Hi philosophi mancamfore putaverunt sine aliqva accessione virtutem (Cic. 
 Finn. III. 9=nisi adjungeretur aliqva accessid). (Ne illi qvidem, qvi 
 maleficio et scelere pascuntur, possunt sine ulla particula justitiae vivere, 
 without any particle whatever, Cic. Off. II. 11.) 
 
 Obs. 2. In a negative proposition with qvisqvam, the predicate may be 
 completed with an unaccented aliqvis or qvispiam : Ne suspicari qvidem 
 possumus, qvenqvam horum ab amico qvidpiam contendisse, qvod contra 
 rempublicam esset (Cic. Lael. 11). 
 
 u Si omni timore (Ter. Andr. II. 3, 17), is a very unusual form of expression. (Ne 
 sine omni qvidem sapientia, Cic. de Or. II. 1, without the whole compass of philosophy.) 
 
H. Use of the Pronouns, 449 
 
 b. Further qvisqvam [ullus) is used -with emphasis in other pro- 
 positions to signify any one whatever, any one in general, as well as 
 after comparatives (in the latter case it is invariably employed, e. g. 
 taetrior tyr annus qvam qvisqvam superior uni), in conditional and 
 relative propositions, where it is intended to express the condition 
 or relative definition in the most general and comprehensive man- 
 ner possible, and in universal expressions of disapprobation : Aut 
 enim nemo, qvod qvidem magis credo, aut si qvisqvam, ille sapiens 
 fuit (Cic. Lael. 2). Si tempus est ullumjure hominis necandi, certe 
 illud est non modo justum, verum etiam necessarium, qvum vi vis 
 illata defenditur (Id. pro Mil. 4), if there be any time ivhatever x . 
 Qvamdiu qvisqvam erit, qvi te defendere audeat, vives (Id. in Cat. I. 
 2), so long as there is any one, whoever it may be. Dum praesidia 
 ulla fuerunt, Roscius in Sullae praesidiis fuit (Id. Rose. Am. 43). 
 Cuivis potest accidere, qvod cuiqvam potest (Sen. de Tranq. An. 11). 
 Laberis, qvod qvidqvam stabile in regno putas (Cic. Phil. VIII. 4). 
 Nihil est exitiosius civitatibus, qvam qvidqvam agi per vim (Id. Legg. 
 III. 18). Indignor, qvidqvam reprehendi, non qvia crasse compositum 
 illepideve putetur, sed qvia nuper (Hor. Ep. II. 1, 76). 
 
 Obs. 1. All that has been said of qvisqvam, holds also of the correspond- 
 ing adverbs (imqvam, usqvam, in opposition to alicubi, aliqvo, uspiam) : 
 Bellum maxime memordbile omnium, qvae unqvam gestasunt (Liv. XXI. 1). 
 
 Obs. 2. In some cases it rests with the speaker, whether he chooses to 
 give this emphasis to what he says and to express the universal notion, 
 w T hich is denoted by qvisqvam, or rather to make use of aliqvis : Si qva 
 me res Romam adduxerit, enitar, si qvo modo potero (if I can do it in one 
 way or another), ut praeter te nemo dolorem meum sentiat, si ullo modo 
 poterit (if it is at all possible), tie tu qvidem (Cic. ad Att. XII. 23). Por- 
 tentum atqve monstrwn certissimum est, esse aliqvem humana figura, qvi 
 eos, propter qvos hanc lucem aspexerit, luce privarit (Cic. Rose. Am. 22 ; 
 it might also be expressed, esse qvenqvam — ). 
 
 Obs. 3. With respect to nidlus (w T hich corresponds to ullus) it is to be 
 observed that nullius and nullo sometimes (but rarely, and never in the 
 best prose writers) serve as a substitute for the genitive and ablative of 
 nihil : Graeci praeter laudem nullius avari (Hor. A. P. 324). Deus 
 nullo magis hominem separavit a ceteris animalibus qvam dicendi facultate 
 (Qvinct. II. 16, 12). Usually nullius rei, nulla re. NiMH is only used as 
 a genitive of the price (§. 294), nihilo only as an ablative of the price, 
 with comparatives (§. 270 ; nihilo melior, n. magis, n. minus') and with 
 the prepositions de, ex, pro, in order to designate ' nothing' generally and 
 in the abstract {ex nihilo, de nihilo nasci, but ex nulla re melius intelli- 
 x [Qvae nee potest ulla esse, nee debet (Cic. Tusc. III. 6).] 
 3 M 
 
450 Syntax. — Appendix II. §. 494 
 
 gitur, from no single thing). In like manner nihilwm is used with ad and 
 in {ad nihilum redigere, but ad nullam rem utilis). Non ullus, non un~ 
 qvam, instead of melius, nunqvam, is rare in prose. 
 
 Ohs. 4. An indefinite pronoun, referred to by a relative, is sometimes 
 omitted; see §. 322. 
 
 §. 495. Qvisqve signifies, each in particular, by himself (distribu- 
 tively) : Suus cuiqve honos habetur. Suae qvemqve fortunae maxime 
 poenitet (Cic. ad Earn. VI. 1). Sibi qvisqve maxime consulit. (Se 
 and suus stand first in prose y .) When a relative and demonstra- 
 tive proposition are combined, qvisqve always stands in the relative 
 proposition, commonly (without accent) immediately after the rela- 
 tive, so that even se and suus stand after qvisqve: Qvam qvisqve 
 norit artem, in hac se exerceat (Cic. Tusc. I. 18 ; not, qvisqve exer- 
 ceat se in ea arte, qvam norit) . Qvanti qvisqve se ipse facit, tanti 
 fiat ab amicis (Id. Lael. 76). (Sometimes qvisqve is repeated, as: 
 Qvod cuiqve obtigit, id qvisqve teneat ; Cic. Off. I. 7). This pro- 
 noun is also used, in order to denote a general relation and propor- 
 tion applicable to each individual person or thing (to each case) in 
 particular, where we employ in English the words any one, a man, 
 a thing : Qvo qvisqve est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet iracun- 
 dius et laboriosius (Cic. pro Rose. Com. 11). Ut qvisqve maxime ad 
 suum commodum refert, qvaecunqve agit, ita minime est vir bonus 
 (Cic. Legg. I. 18. It very often stands in this way with the super- 
 lative and ui — ita). Ut qvisqve me viderat, narrabat, as often as 
 any one saw me — z . In this signification (of a universal relation, 
 which manifests itself in each individual) it is frequently combined 
 with a superlative, which always precedes it : Maximae cuiqve for- 
 tunae minime credendum est (Liv. XXX. 30), the highest fortune is 
 always the least to be trusted ; literally, Each fortune is to be 
 least trusted in proportion as it is the highest. Optimum qvidqve 
 rarissimum est (Cic. Finn. II. 25). Ex philosophis optimus et gra- 
 vissimus qvisqve confitetur multa se ignorare (Id. Tusc. III. 28), all 
 good philosophers. (In the older and good writers the singular 
 is chiefly used in this way, but the plural also in the neuter.) 
 {Decimus qvisqve, §. 74, Ohs. 2. Primus qvisqve, strictly, that which 
 is on each occasion first, first ; i. e. one after the other : Primum qvidqve 
 consider emus : Cic. N. D. I. 27.) 
 
 Ohs. 1. On the other hand qvisqve never signifies every one taken col- 
 
 7 Such an example as the following is rare : Transfugas Hannibal in civitates qvemque 
 mas dimisit (Liv. XXI. 48), where instead of suas the substantive is put first for the 
 sake of emphasis. 
 
 z The later writers a 1 so say ut qvis. 
 
6. Use of the Pronouns. 451 
 
 lectively ; this is expressed by omnes or nemo non, or by qvivis signifying, 
 every one, whoever it may be. (Yet we find the expression cujusqvemodi, 
 of every kind you please). Unusqvisqve, every one, is used like the cor- 
 responding phrase in English. (The older writers have sometimes used 
 qvidqvid for qvidqve, e. g. ut qvidqvid objectum est, Cic. Tusc. V. 34.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Each of two by himself (herself, itself) may be expressed by 
 uterqve, e. g. Natura hominis dividitur in animum et corpus. Qvum eorum 
 utrumqye per se expetendum sit, virtutes qvoqve utriusqve 'per se expeten- 
 dae sunt (Cic. Finn. IV. 7). Qvisqve, however, is used in combination 
 with suus : Duas civitates ex unafactas ; suos cuiqve parti magistrates, 
 suas leges esse (Liv. II. 44). Concerning uterqve nostrum (veniet), uter- 
 qve frater, see §. 284, Obs. 3 ; concerning uterqve sometimes used as a 
 collective with the plural, §. 215 a. It may here be observed, that the 
 plural utriqve (which otherwise denotes two pluralities; §.84, Obs.) is 
 sometimes used irregularly of two individual persons or things, hi utriqve 
 being in this case used for horum uterqve : Duae fuerunt Ariovisti uxores, 
 utraeqve in ea fuga perierunt (Caes. B. G. I. 53). Agitabatur animus 
 ferox Catilinae inopia rei familiar is et conscientia scelerum, qvae utraqve 
 (==qvorum utrumqve) his artibus, qvas supra memoravi, auxerat (Sail. 
 Cat. 5). Utraqve cornua (Liv. XXX. 8). Utrumqve, both (without 
 reference to the gender of the single words). 
 
 §. 496. Of alius and alter it is to be observed, that the Latins 
 use alter, where one more is mentioned besides one that has been 
 spoken of (in opposition to that alone and by itself), where in 
 English we use the word l another :' e. g. Solus, aut cum altero 
 (Cic. ad Att. XL 15; also, unus aut summum alter; unus, alter, 
 plures). Ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. Sat. I. 1, 40). Nulla vitae 
 pars, neqve si tecum agas qvid } neqve si cum altero ccntrahas, vacare 
 officio potest (Cic. Off. I. 2). In this way alter is often used as 
 equivalent to neighbour, one's fellow-man. Fontejus Antonii, non 
 ut magis alter, amicus erat (Hor. Sat. I. 5, 33). (But we also 
 find: ut non magis qvisqvam alius, Id. Sat. II. 8, 49). Alter Nero, 
 another Nero, a second (the second) Nero. (On the other hand 
 alter can never have the signification of difference, which is expressed 
 by alius.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Alius when repeated signifies, one — another [aliud ex alio ma- 
 turn; aliud hie homo loqvitur, aliud sentit ; alii Bomam versus, alii in 
 Campaniam, alii in Etruriam proficiscebantur) ; in the same way alter — 
 alter is used of two, the one — the other. But the repetition of alius, or 
 alius with an adverb derived from it, denotes also, that the predicate is 
 differently defined for the different persons spoken of : Discedebant alius 
 in aliam partem {alius alio), they separated, one to one side, the other to 
 
 3 3i 2 
 
452 Syntax.— Appendix II. §. 496 
 
 another. Aliter cum aliis loqveris. Haec aliter ah aliis definiuntur. 
 (In this sense it is also used of two, because alter does not imply differ- 
 ence : Duo demceps reges alius alia via civitatem auxerunt ; Liv. I. 21). 
 
 Ohs. 2. Ceteri, the others, the rest in general ; reliqvi the rest, which 
 remain after some have been deducted : hence we find ceteris antecellere, 
 praestare, and praeter ceteros, but sex reliqvi ; in many other cases with- 
 out a distinction. 
 
 The most important Rules of Latin Metre [Versification). 
 
 §.497. The structure of Verse is founded in Latin (and Greek) 
 on the different quantity (the length and shortness) of the syllables. 
 (In English, on the contrary, and other modern languages, the structure of 
 verse is founded on the accentuation or non-accentuation of the syllable.) 
 A verse {versus, properly signifying only, a line) consists in Latin 
 of a series of long and short syllables, which (in shorter divisions, 
 feet) alternate with each other according to a fixed rule, which is 
 the measure of the verse (metrum) . 
 
 Ohs. 1. The word metrum (perpov, measure) is also used of a definite 
 combination of several verses ; see §. 509. 
 
 Ohs. 2. A verse is in general a series of words, which in the delivery 
 (in the recitation) is uninterruptedly connected and somewhat separated 
 from what follows, that the order and alternation of syllables which is 
 contained in it may be compared with other series. With this view it is 
 required that the verse should only have a certain length and that the 
 alternation of the syllables should be easily caught and retained by 
 the ear. 
 
 §. 498. The feet of the verse (pedes), i. e. the separate combina- 
 tions of syllables, of which a verse consists, are formed of long and 
 short syllables in opposition to one another. The long syllable has 
 twice the duration (mora) of the short. Combinations of syllables 
 
 of the same kind (e. g. oruwu) are not proper (metrical) feet, 
 
 from which a kind of verse may be composed, but yet they may 
 often stand in the place of feet of the same length, so that a long 
 syllable is represented by two short ones or two short ones by a 
 
 long one (e. g. for — \j w), and it may even be a characteristic 
 
 of a peculiar metre, that such feet are used in certain places (Spu- 
 rious Feet). The place which the long and consequently more im- 
 
99. Metre. 453 
 
 portant syllable assumes in the genuine feet, is called arsis (rais- 
 ing), that occupied by the short one, thesis (sinking). (When 
 therefore the spurious foot wuuis put instead of — w, the two first 
 
 syllables make up the arsis ; when stands for — w w, the first 
 
 syllable is in the arsis, but the last, if it stands for w w — .) The 
 arsis may precede the thesis (so that the movement as it were 
 goes downwards), or follow it (so that the movement goes up- 
 wards) a . 
 
 Obs. The measuring and recitation of a verse, according to its feet, is 
 called scanning (scansio). 
 
 §. 499, The following are the different kinds of feet : — 
 
 a. Those whose arsis and thesis are of equal duration (together 
 four morae) are 
 
 — w w, dactylus, 
 
 w w — , anapaestus. 
 
 b. Those whose arsis is twice as long as the thesis (together 
 three morae), 
 
 — w, trochaeus or choreus, 
 w — , iambus. 
 
 c. Those in which one part of the foot is half as long again as 
 the other (together five morae), 
 
 — w — , creticus (with a double arsis), 
 
 — www, paeon primus, 
 www—, paeon qvartus. 
 
 a In. speaking however of the Arsis and Thesis (in Greek and Latin verse) we must 
 not think, as is usually done, of an elevation and depression of the voice, since the names 
 are borrowed from Music and taken from the movement of the stick used in beating 
 time, on which account too they had with the ancients a signification opposite to that 
 which (by a misunderstanding) they have since acquired; the ancients named the im- 
 portant part Thesis, the other Arsis. We should also guard against the opinion which 
 is generally current, viz. that the ancients accentuated the long syllable (in the arsis) 
 and distinguished in this way the movement of the verse (by a so-called versual accent, 
 ictus metricus), and consequently often accentuated the words in verse quite otherwise 
 than in prose (e. g. Arma virumque cano Trojde qvi primus ab oris Italidm fato profugus 
 Lavinaqve venit Littora), which is impossible ; for the verse depends on a certain order 
 and form of movement being distinguishable, when the words are correctly pronounced. 
 In our verses we do not accentuate the syllables for the sake of the verse, but the syllables 
 which are perceptibly distinguished by the accentuation in prose are adapted to form 
 verse by this variation. In Latin (where even in the prose pronunciation the accent was 
 quite subordinate and is never named in speaking of rhetorical euphony, while on the 
 other hand the difference of quantity was distinctly and strongly marked) the verse was 
 audibly distinguished by this very alternation of the long and short syllables. But as it 
 is not possible for us either in prose or verse, to pronounce the words according to the 
 quantity in such a way as the ancients did, we cannot recite their poetry correctly, but 
 are forced in the delivery to lay a certain accent on the Arsis, and thus to give their 
 verses a certain resemblance to ours. It should however be understood that the relation 
 between accent and quantity was different with the ancients themselves (until the later 
 centuries, when the pronunciation itself underwent modifications). 
 
454 Metre. §. 499- 
 
 Obs. The paeons may be considered as resolutions of the creticus, which 
 is also called amphimacer, 
 
 d. Spurious feet ; 
 
 , spondeus (instead of the dactyl or anapaest) ; 
 
 w w, tribrachys (instead of the trochee or iambus ; was often 
 also called trochaeus). 
 To these we may add the compound foot choriambus (— ww— ), 
 consisting of a trochee and an iambus. 
 
 Ohs. 1 . In verses consisting of anapaests, trochees, and iambi, two feet 
 are reckoned together to a dipodia (double foot) b . 
 
 Ohs. 2. The spondee and the tribrach, as combinations of syllables of 
 precisely equal prosodial value, are peculiar to Greek and Latin verse. 
 
 §. 500. A verse is formed either by repeating the same foot 
 several times (simple verse) or by combining and mixing different 
 feet (compound verse). A certain form of verse, notwithstanding 
 particular variations and changes of the feet, may be easy of recog- 
 nition, and make on the whole the same impression on the ear, 
 especially long and simple verses, which are repeated without an 
 admixture of others. (See below on the different kinds of verse.) 
 The last syllable of Latin verses is always indifferently long or 
 short (anceps), since an accurate comparison is here prevented 
 by the pause (but for this reason too it can never be resolved, 
 — into \jJ). A verse often concludes in such a way, that the last 
 foot is incomplete, and is then called versus catalecticus. 
 
 Obs. A distinction is made between versus catalectici in syllabam, where 
 a single syllable follows the last complete foot, and catalectici in dissylla- 
 bum, where two syllables follow a foot of three syllables ; but these two 
 syllables may be considered as a distinct dissyllabic foot. 
 
 §. 501. Caesura (cutting) is the name given to the division of 
 certain longer verses into two parts, by causing a word in a certain 
 given position to end in the middle of a foot. This gives rise to a 
 pause, which however does not interfere with the continuity of the 
 verse, since the incomplete foot draws the attention to the re- 
 mainder. In some other verses of a longer description such a 
 break is found at the end of a foot (diaeresis) ; but then the close 
 
 b The names of the feet are all borrowed from the Greek. Several other kinds are 
 
 usually enumerated (Pyrrhichius w \y, Proceleusmaticus w w w w, Molossus , 
 
 Bacchius w , Antibacchius w, Amphibrachys w— v_/, the second and third 
 
 Paeon w — w v_/, w ^j— ^j } four Epitrites w &c, together with the Ionicus a majore 
 
 v_/ v^, and a minore w kj . But these combinations of syllables are not elemen- 
 tary parts of verse, and are only looked upon as feet in consequence of an erroneous way 
 of representing and dividing the verse. 
 
02. Metre. 455 
 
 of the verse often has a different (catalectic) form, so that the at- 
 tention is by these means directed to the end. 
 
 Obs. 1. The term Caesura is sometimes applied to a division of the 
 words at the termination of each foot (so that each part of the word be- 
 longs to its own foot). In simple verses of some length euphony is im- 
 proved by this division and the seeming contest between the words and 
 the verse, as in this hexameter : — 
 
 III I I 
 
 Una salus victis null am sperare salutem ; 
 
 whereas by a general or too frequent coincidence between the several 
 words and the terminations of the feet the verse is as it were broken up, 
 as in the following hexameter : — 
 
 Sparsis nastis longis campus splendet et liorret, 
 which is also in other respects not well constructed (see Obs. 2). 
 
 Obs. 2. The name of verbal feet is given to the entire words in a verse, 
 when they are considered as prosodial combinations of syllables, e. g. tern- 
 
 pora as a dactyl, anna as a trochee, pelluntur as w (spondee and ^, 
 
 or — and trochee). Simple verses of some length lose in variety and 
 euphony, when the verbal feet which follow in succession are too uniform, 
 as, e. g. in this hexameter : — 
 
 Sole caclente juvencus aratra relinqvit in arvo, 
 where four words in succession have the form w — w. 
 
 §. 502. a. The correctness of the verse (considered as to prosody) 
 depends on all the syllables being used according to their just pro- 
 nunciation and quantity, with respect to which however it is to be 
 noticed, that certain freedoms in the pronunciation of individual 
 words and forms were looked upon as allowed in poetry (see on the 
 alteration of i and u into j and v, diaeresis and synizesis, §. 5 a, 
 Obs. 4 ; §.6, Obs. 1 ; on illius, unius, §. 37, Obs. 2 ; on steterunt, 
 §. 114a; on religio, reliqviae for religio, reliqviae, §. 204 a, Obs. 1), 
 especially in the case of words (especially proper names), which 
 otherwise could not be nsed at all in a particular kind of verse 
 (e. g. alterius and Priamides in the hexameter, on which account 
 they are pronounced alterius, Priamides ; for pueritia Horace 
 says puertia). In the arsis of dactylic verses (hexameters), the 
 short final syllable of polysyllables, if ending in a consonant, is 
 sometimes nsed as long ; so also qve occasionally in the second 
 arsis of the hexameter : — 
 
 Desine plura puer, et qvod nunc instat, agamus (Virg. B. IX. 66). 
 Pectoribus inhians spirantia consulit exta (Id. Aen. IV. 64). 
 
456 Metre. §. 502 
 
 Turn Thetis humanos non despexit hymenaeos (Catull. 64, 20). 
 Sideraqve ventiqve nocent avidaeqve votucres (Ov. Met. V. 484). 
 
 (Angulus ridet, ubi non Ilymetto, Hor. Od. II. 6, 14, in a Sapphic verse.) c 
 
 Obs. 1. The shortening of a syllable that is usually long is called systole 
 (contraction), the lengthening of a short one diastole (extension). 
 
 Oos. 2. The old comic poets (Plautus and Terence) in many cases used 
 syllables as short, which are long by position (§. 22, Ohs. 5). So likewise 
 they deviated not unfrequently (Plautus especially) by contraction and 
 the rejection of syllables (syncope) from the usual pronunciation of the 
 words. Besides this, they treated the metres themselves (with reference 
 to the feet, which may be used, &c.) with great freedom, so that the me- 
 trical reading and explanation of their verses is often very difficult, the 
 more so, since in many passages, particularly in Plautus, they are in- 
 correctly written. They must consequently be almost entirely passed 
 over here. 
 
 b. Further, it is necessary to avoid the hiatus which is produced 
 where a final vowel (or m) comes into contact with an initial vowel 
 (§. 6) in the same verse, it being at the same time requisite to 
 pronounce the former (in order to make the verse complete), in- 
 stead of dropping it by elision (ecthlipsis). (The concurrence of 
 vowels at the end and at the beginning of two verses causes no 
 harshness, since a pause falls between them.) Yet the poets have 
 sometimes allowed themselves a hiatus in longer dactylic verses, in cases 
 where it was less objectionable, namely, a) with a long final vowel or 
 diphthong (ae) in the arsis : Orchades et radii et amara pausia bacca 
 (Virg. G. II. 86). Qvid struit ? aut qva spe inimica in gente moratur ? 
 (Id. Aen. IV. 235) mostly at the caesura ; b) with a long final vowel 
 (diphthong) in the thesis, so that the vowel becomes short in the pronun- 
 ciation : Credimus ? an, qvi dwiant, ipsi sibi somnia fingunt ? (Virg. B. 
 VIII. 108). Insulae Ionio in magno (Id. Aen. III. 211). Torva leaena 
 lupum seqvitur, lupus ipse capellam, te Corydon, o Alexil (Id. B. II. 65); 
 c) with a short final vowel (in the thesis) where there is at the same a 
 completion of the sense, a caesura, or a repetition of the same word : Et 
 vera incessu patuit dea. Ille ubi vnatrem (Virg. Aen. I. 405). In a sylla- 
 ble ending in m (which is always short) the hiatus is extremely rare. 
 
 Obs. Interjections, which consist only of a vowel, cannot be elided ; ae 
 
 c The so-called lengthening by the arsis, which is commonly falsehy explained by the 
 assumed versual accent, rests, as a tolerated license, on the circumstance, that in defined 
 places in certain verses the reader expects and requires a long syllable, and hence if the 
 poet, within certain limits, allows himself to use a short one, is not misled by it, but 
 modifies the pronunciation of the syllable in respect of the quantity in such a way, that 
 the requirements of the verse are in a manner satisfied. This license therefore corre- 
 sponds to the occasional accentuation of unaccented syllables in modern verse. 
 
103. Metre. 457 
 
 at the end of a word is very seldom elided before a short vowel. Here 
 therefore the hiatus must be avoided in another way, except so far as it 
 may be tolerated (as in the following example, ubi campi, Virg. Georg. 
 II. 486, according to a). 
 
 §. 503. Of the simple dactylic verses the most important, and 
 the only one which is nsed by itself, without admixture with 
 others, is the Hexameter, versus hexameter (from metrum, taken 
 in the signification of foot). It consists of five dactyls and a tro- 
 chee (or of six dactyls, the last of which is catalectic in dissyllabum). 
 Each of the four first dactyls may be exchanged with a spondee. 
 A spondee is very rarely substituted for the fifth dactyl by such 
 poets as are most careful in the structure of the verse, because in 
 this way its dactylic form becomes less conspicuous. If a spondee 
 stands as the fifth foot (a spondaic verse), the fourth foot is gene- 
 rally a dactyl. The hexameter has regularly a caesura in the third 
 foot, either after the arsis (masculine caesura) d , or after the first 
 short syllable of the dactyl (feminine caesura) e : — 
 
 Arma virumqve cano, \ Trojae qvi primus ab oris. 
 
 Vi superum, saevae \ memorem Junonis ob iram. 
 
 Id metuens veterisqve | memor Saturnia belli. 
 
 Sometimes the caesura is not in the third foot, but after the arsis 
 of the fourth f : — 
 
 Illi se praedae accingunt \ dapibusqve futuris (Virg. Aen. I. 210). 
 Even when a word ends in the third foot, the caesura in the fourth 
 sometimes makes a more suitable division in the verse : — 
 
 Jamqve faces et saxa volant, | furor arma ministrai. (Virg. Aen. 1. 150) . 
 Posthabita coluisse Samo ; | hie illius arma (Id. ib. I. 16; hiatus). 
 
 The hexameter is the verse best adapted to a uniformly progressive 
 exhibition of events, and is therefore used in narrative (epic) poems 
 (versus heroicus, verse of heroic poetry), and in didactic poems, 
 satires, and poetical epistles. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Qve at the end of a hexameter is in some few instances elided 
 before a vowel at the beginning of the following verse. 
 
 Obs. 2. With respect to the relation between the combination of the 
 propositions and the structure of the verse, it may be observed, that in a 
 carefully constructed hexameter a proposition which is grammatically quite 
 distinct from the foregoing does not begin with or in the last foot. 
 
 d Caesura penthemimeres {ir^vQ-r]p.ifi^pr]s), after the fifth half- foot. 
 e Caesura Kara rpirov rpo\ouov, after the trochee of the third foot. 
 f Caesura hephthemimeres (ecpdyjfxifxeprjs), after the seventh half-foot. 
 
 3 N 
 
458 Metre. §. 504- 
 
 §.504. a. The following dactylic verses are used (by Horace) in 
 combination with other verses : — 
 
 — \j w — ^ {versus Adonius), e. g. 
 
 Fusee, pharetra. 
 
 — v w — \j w ^ (versus Archilochius minor) ; 
 
 Pulvis et umbra sumus. 
 
 — ^w — ww-ww-^ (v. dactylicus tetrameter catalecticus) ; 
 
 (-) 
 
 Carmine perpetuo celebrare. 
 fortes pejoraqve passi, 
 Ossibus et capiti inhumato. 
 
 b. A dactylic verse of a peculiar form is the so-called penta- 
 meter, which consists of two parts, always separated by the caesura, 
 each of which has two dactyls and a syllable of an incomplete foot 
 (in the first division always a long syllable). Spondees may also 
 be used instead of the two first dactyls. The pentameter is never 
 used alone, but a hexameter and pentameter are combined to form 
 a distich (double verse), and this combination is continually re- 
 peated : — 
 
 Tempora cum causis Latium digesta per annum, 
 Lapsaqve sub terras \ ortaqve signa canam. 
 
 Obs. This form is applied particularly to elegies (versus elegiacus) and 
 epigrams (by Ovid it is employed also in didactic poetry). 
 
 §. 505. The ordinary anapaestic verse is versus anapaestus dimeter 
 (metrum being understood of the dipodia), which consists of four ana- 
 paests, with a caesura between the second and third. The anapaests may 
 be changed for spondees, and these again for dactyls. (Seneca does not 
 use the dactyl in the last foot.) Yet each line is not considered com- 
 pletely as a verse by itself, but a whole series of verses (a system) is so 
 combined, that (in Greek without an exception) the hiatus is excluded, 
 and the last syllable is not anceps, and the final and initial consonant 
 make a position, till the system ends by the sense being completed, some- 
 times with a versus monometer of two anapaests (in Greek with a cata- 
 lectic termination). These anapaests are used in the choral songs (in 
 Latin only in tragedies, of which Seneca's alone are preserved), e. g. 
 
 Qvanti casus humana rotant I 
 Minor in parvis Fortunafurit, 
 Leviusqve ferit leviora deus ; 
 
507. Metre. 459 
 
 Servat placidos obscura qyies, 
 
 JBraebetqve senes casa securos. 
 
 (Sen. Hippol. 1124 sqq.) 
 
 §. 506. Trochaic verses are divided into dipodias (§. 499 d. Obs. 1), 
 and in longer verses the second foot of the dipodia may be changed for a 
 spondee without disturbing the trochaic movement. The most usual tro- 
 chaic verse (in lively scenes in tragedies and comedies) is the catalectic 
 tetrameter (versus tetrameter trochaicus catalecticus, also v. trocTiaicus 
 septenarius, in accordance with the number of the perfect feet). It con- 
 sists of seven trochees and a syllable, and has the diaeresis (§.501) after 
 the fourth foot. A tribrach may stand everywhere instead of the trochee, 
 and in the even places (2, 4, 6, the last in the dipodias) a spondee. 
 
 Nulla vox liumana constat \ absqye septem litteris, 
 
 Mite vocavit vocales, j qvas magistra Oraecia (Terent. Maur.). 
 
 In the comic poets the diaeresis is not always observed ; they often use 
 spondees in all places except in the seventh foot, and also substitute a 
 dactyl or anapaest instead of the spondee, so that the form of the verse is 
 very variable. 
 
 Of other trochaic verses the following is found in Horace — w — v^ — u — 
 (versus trocli. dimeter cataleeticus) : — 
 Truditur dies die. 
 
 §. 507. a. Iambic verses are measured by dipodias, and in longer 
 verses the first foot of every dipodia may be changed for a spondee, 
 without disturbing the iambic movement. The most usual iambic 
 verse is that with six feet, versus iambicus trimeter (from the three 
 dipodias) or senarius (from the feet), which is used in some smaller 
 compositions, alone, or with other iambic verses, and is also the 
 usual verse in dramatic dialogue. In the most careful writers (as 
 Horace) a spondee may stand in the uneven places (1, 3, 5) instead 
 of the iambus, and (but more rarely) a tribrach instead of every 
 iambus, except the last. (The spondee is very rarely changed again 
 in the first and third foot for a dactyl, or in the first for an anapaest.) 
 This verse has usually a caesura after the thesis of the third foot, 
 or if wanting there, after the thesis of the fourth. The form ia 
 therefore as follows (Hor. Ep. 17) : — 
 
 UUUUUUU V_/ KJ ^ KJ \J >U \J <U 
 
 The comie poets allow themselves greater irregularities, since they also 
 
 3n2 
 
460 Metre. §. 507- 
 
 put a spondee in the even places (2, 4), only not in the sixth foot, and use 
 a dactyl and an anapaest here and there in each of the first five feet. 
 
 Poeta cum primwn animum ad scribendum adpulit, 
 Id sibi negoti credidit solum dari, 
 Populo ut placer ent, qvas fecisset fabulas. 
 Vencm aliter evenire multo intelligit. 
 
 - It w 
 
 Nam in prologis scribundis operam abutitur. 
 
 (Ter. Andr. pro!, init.) 
 
 Obs. The comic poets also use iambic tetrameters, sometimes complete 
 ones of eight feet (pctonarii), sometimes catalectics (s&ptenarii) of seven 
 feet and a syllable, usually with a diaeresis after the fourth foot, and with 
 great freedom in the change of the feet. 
 
 b. Of other iambic verses the following are found in Horace : — 
 ^ _ ^ _ ^ _ u^ [versus iamb, dimeter) ; 
 
 Imbres nivesqve comparat. 
 ^_ w _^_ w _ w _^ {versus iamb, trimeter catalecticus) ; 
 
 Trahuntqve siccas machinae carinas. 
 
 ^ — l w — I | ^ _ | _ ( v . Alcaicus enneasyllabus) ; 
 
 Et scindat haerentem coronam. 
 
 Obs. 1. Choliambus (v. scazon, limping iambus) is the name given to a 
 verse, which is produced by changing the last iambus of an iambic trime- 
 ter for a trochee or spondee. 
 
 Obs. 2. Cretic and paeonic verses occur only in the comic poets, and 
 are here passed over. The choriambus is produced when a dactylic move- 
 ment in the arsis is interrupted by a new arsis. In the verses which are 
 called choriambic, the choriambus occurs once or oftener in the middle of 
 a compound verse ; see the next paragraph. In one ode only (III. 12) 
 Horace has imitated a Greek form, which consists of a choriambic move- 
 ment, introduced by an anapaest (^^ wv_> ww— ), continued un- 
 broken to the conclusion (or properly in divisions, each of which con- 
 tains the combination of syllables ^ ^ , called Ionicus a minor e, re- 
 peated ten times). 
 
 §. 508. Compound verses contain a more artificial movement, 
 but even here a certain rhythmical proportion may be distinguished 
 as predominating, either in the verse itself, or, if this be short, in 
 the verses with which it is combined. If a dactylic movement 
 
W W 
 
 09. Metre. 461 
 
 passes into trochees, the form of verse is called logaoedic^. Some- 
 times an introductory foot of two syllables (the Basis) is put before 
 a dactylic or logaoedic series. In other verses the choriambic form 
 is seen in the middle, and the conclusion is logaoedic. The com- 
 pound verses make a more lively impression, and belong to the 
 character of lyric poetry. The most important forms (especially 
 those used by Horace) are the following : — 
 
 — w w — w - ^ (v. Aristophanicus) ; 
 
 Lydia die, per omnes. 
 
 — ww — ww — w — ^ (v. Alcaicus decasyllabus) ; 
 
 Nee virides metuunt colubras. 
 
 — ww — Kjy — ww — ^ w _ w _ w _^ ( u§ Archilochius major) ; 
 
 Solvitur acris hyems grata vice veris et Favoni. 
 w w — ^ (v. Pherecrateus) ; 
 
 Vis for mo sa videri. 
 w w — w ^- (v. Glyconicus) ; 
 
 Nil mortalibus arduum est. 
 [— — — ww — w — w — ^ (v. Phalaecius, not in Horace) ; 
 
 Vivamus, mea Lesbia, atqve amemus. 
 
 — I ww— I w ^ (v. Alcaicus hendecasyllabus) ; 
 Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. 
 _ ^ | | _ | w ^ | _ w | —^ (v. Sapphicus) ; 
 
 Integer vitae scelerisqve purus. 
 
 Obs. The caesura may also sometimes stand after the first short syllable 
 of the dactyl. 
 
 [— w | | _ W w— I — ww I — w — ^ {v. Sapphicus major) ; 
 
 Cur timet jlavum Tiber im tangere ? cur olivum ?~] 
 
 I — ww— | — ww I — w I — (v. Asclepiadeus minor) ; 
 
 Crescentem seqvitur cura pecuniam. 
 — I — ww— |— ww-|— ww I — w ! ^ (v. Asclepiadeus major) ; 
 Qvis post vina gravem militiam aut pauperiem crepat ? 
 
 Obs. The so-called versus asynarteti, which consist of two divisions so 
 loosely connected, that a hiatus may be allowed between them and the 
 final syllable of the first part is anceps, are (at least in Horace) best con- 
 sidered as two verses. As such may be adduced — 
 
 — ww — w w ^ | - — w — ^ — w^ (JElegiambus) and 
 
 ^ — w — ^ — w^ I — ww — ww^ {lambelequs). 
 
 §. 509. In lyrical poems it is most customary to employ not a 
 
 e From \6yos, speech, and 001877, song. 
 
462 Metre. %. 509- 
 
 succession of the same verses, but either a combination of two of 
 different kinds (simple or compound), which is repeated (combina- 
 tion of distichs), or a combination of several lines, which is called 
 a strophe 11 . Every such combination is often called a metre. The 
 strophes used by Horace (besides those combinations which have 
 the form of a distich) are the following : — 
 
 I. The Sapphic strophe; three Sapphic verses (§.508) and a 
 versus Adonius (§. 504). See for an example the second ode of 
 the first book. 
 
 Obs. In this strophe we find a few instances of a syllable elided at the 
 end of a line before a vowel in the next line, and of a word divided be- 
 tween the third Sapphic verse and the v. Adonius. 
 
 II. The first Asclepiadean strophe ; three smaller Asclepia- 
 dean verses and a Glyconic (§. 508). For an example see the sixth 
 ode of the first book. 
 
 III. The second Asclepiadean strophe ; two smaller Asclepia- 
 dean verses, a Pherecratian (§. 508), and a Glyconic. See the 
 fourteenth ode of the first book. 
 
 IV. The Alcaic strophe; two Alcaic hendecasyllables {Alcaici 
 hendecasyllabi ; §. 508), an Alcaic enneasyllable {Ale. enneasyllabus ; 
 §. 507 b), and an Alcaic decasyllable {Ale. decasyllabus ; §. 508). 
 See for example the ninth ode of the first book. 
 
 Ohs. 1. These strophes are named after the Greek poetess Sappho and 
 the poets Asclepiades and Alcaeus. 
 
 Ohs. 2. Those combinations by distichs which occur in Horace may 
 here be adduced with the names usually assigned to them : — 
 
 1. The second Asclepiadean metre ; a Glyconic verse and the smaller 
 Asclepiadean (§. 508). (Book I. Ode 3.) 
 
 2. The greater Sapphic metre ; an Aristophanic and a greater Sapphic 
 verse (§. 508). (Book I. Ode 8.) 
 
 3. The first Archilochian metre ; a dactylic hexameter and a smaller 
 Archilochian verse (§. 504 a). (Book IV. Ode 7.) 
 
 4. The second Archilochian metre ; a hexameter and a versus iambele- 
 gus (§.508, Obs.). If the iambelegus is considered as two verses, this 
 metre becomes a strophe of three lines. (Epod. 13.) 
 
 5. The third Archilochian metre ; an iambic trimeter (§.507) and a 
 versus elegiambus (§. 508, Obs.) ; it may also be considered as a strophe of 
 three lines. (Epod. 11.) 
 
 6. The fourth Archilochian metre ; a greater Archilochian verse (§. 508) 
 and a catalectic iambic trimeter (§. 507 b). (Book I. Ode 4.) 
 
 h 'Zrp'xpi), a turn. 
 
109. Metre. 463 
 
 7. The Alcmanic metre ; a hexameter, and a dactylic catalectic tetra- 
 meter (§. 504 a). (Book I. Ode 7.) 
 
 8. The second iambic metre ; an iambic trimeter and an iambic di- 
 meter. (Epod. 1.) 
 
 9. The first pythiambic metre ; a hexameter and an iambic dimeter. 
 (Epod. 14.) 
 
 10. The second pythiambic metre ; a hexameter and an iambic trimeter. 
 (Epod. 16). 
 
 11. The trochaic metre ; a catalectic trochaic dimeter (§.506) and a 
 catalectic iambic trimeter. (Book II. Ode 18.) 
 
 A continuous employment of the smaller Asclepiadean verse (§. 508) is 
 designated the first Asclepiadean metre (Book I. Ode ] ), and the conti- 
 nuous use of the iambic trimeter as the first iambic. (Epod. 17.) 
 
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GEAMMAE. 
 
 I. Of the Roman way of expressing the Date. 
 
 The division of time into weeks of seven days with distinct 
 names was not used by the ancient Romans (before the introduc- 
 tion of Christianity). The months were distinguished by the names 
 adopted by us from the Romans. These were adjectives, with 
 which mensis was understood and might be also expressed (mense 
 Aprili). Julius and Augustus had the names of Qvinctilis and 
 Sextilis down to the time of the emperor Augustus. The days of 
 the month were computed from three leading days in each, which 
 were called Calendae (KaL), Nome, and Idus (Iduum), and to 
 which the name of the month was appended as an adjective: 
 Calendae Januariae, Nonis Decembribus, &c. (Less correctly Ca- 
 lendae Januarii.) The Calendae was the first day of the month, 
 the Nonae and Idus the fifth and the thirteenth, but in the months 
 of March, May, July, and October the seventh and the fifteenth. 
 From these days they counted backwards, so that in the beginning 
 of the month they stated how many days it wanted to the Nones, 
 and afterwards to the Ides, but after the Ides, how many days to 
 the Calends of the month following. The day before the Nones 
 (Ides, Calends) was expressed by the adverb pridie with the accu- 
 sative: pridie Nonas Januarias, pridie Calendas Februarias (the 
 31 st of January). The day but one before was called the third 
 day before the Nones (Ides, Calends), since the Nones (Ides, Ca- 
 lends) were themselves included in the computation, and so on 
 with the preceding days, the fourth, &c. This however is expressed 
 in a way that is peculiar and striking in a grammatical point of 
 view, inasmuch as diem tertium, diem qvartum, &c, was inserted in 
 the accusative between the preposition ante and Nonas [Idus, Ca- 
 lendas) : ante diem tertium Nonas Januarias 1 , ante diem qvartum 
 Calendas Februarias (written a. d. Ill Non. Jan., a. d. IV KaL 
 Febr. &c). This expression is considered as one word, before 
 which in and ex may stand, e. g. ex ante diem III Nonas Junias 
 usqve ad pridie Calendas Septembres ; differre aliqvid in ante diem 
 XV Calendas Novembres. (It often happens that nothing more is 
 
 » The expression appears properly to signify, before (on the third day) the nor.es, &c. 
 We find also the same construction with the names of festivals, a. d. V. Terminalia. 
 
Roman Money and Fractions, 465 
 
 written than III Non., which is usually read tertio [die] Nonas, but 
 {,-hich ought perhaps to be read as a. d. Ill Non.) We may therefore 
 ascertain the days of the month when stated in the Roman manner, 
 \>y subtracting the number given with the Nones from 6 (8), and 
 that with the Ides from 14 (16), because the Nones and the Ides 
 themselves are included in the reckoning, and with the Calends, 
 by adding 2 to the number of days in the preceding month and 
 subtracting from the amount the number specified (because the 
 computation is made not from the last day of the month itself, but 
 from the first of the following, and this is reckoned inclusively). 
 A. D. Ill Non. Jan.=3 il January, a. d. VIII Id. Jan.=:6 ]l Jan., 
 a. d. XVII Kal Febr.=16 th Jan., a. d. XIV Kal. Mart.=\W Fe- 
 bruary, a. d. V Id. Mart.=ll th March. (In leap-year the inter- 
 calated day was counted between a. d. VI Kal. Mart, and a. d. VII 
 Kal. Mart., and denominated a. d. bissextum Kal. Mart., so that 
 a. d. VII K., a. d. VIII &c. (computing backwards), answers, as in 
 the ordinary February, to the 23 d , the 22 d , &c.) 
 
 II. Computation of Money, and mode of expressing Fractions. 
 
 A. Sums of money were generally computed amongst the Romans 
 (except in the earliest period and under the later emperors) by 
 the sestertius {nummus sestertius, sometimes only nummus), a silver 
 coin, which at first was equal to 2], subsequently to 4 asses, about 
 2d. *5 farth. These are counted regularly, e. g. trecenti sestertii, 
 duo millia sestertiorum (or sestertium §. 37, Obs. 4). But to express 
 several thousand sestertii the substantive sestertia, sestertiorum (not 
 used in the sing.) is also made us,e of; hence, duo, septem sestertia, 
 =duo, septem millia sestertiorum ; and in the older writers this is 
 the usual way of expressing a round number of thousands under 
 a million. 
 
 A million of sesterces [sestertii) is regularly expressed by decies 
 centena {centum) millia sestertiorum [sestertium), sometimes only 
 decies centena, millia sestertium being understood (Hor.). But 
 instead of this we commonly find the abbreviated expression decies 
 sestertium (generally reversed sestertium decies), and so on for 
 larger numbers : undecies sestertium, 1100000 sesterces, duodecies, 
 vicies, ter et vicies (2300000). In such expressions sestertium is 
 treated and declined as a neuter substantive in the singular, e. g. 
 
 3o 
 
466 Supplement II. 
 
 (Nom.) sestertium qvadragies relinqvitur ; (ace.) sestertium qvadra- 
 gies accept ; (abl.) sestertio decies fundum emi, in sestertio vicies 
 egere (to be poor in possession of 2000000 sesterces). Sometimes, 
 •when the connection is obvious, the adverb alone is put without 
 sestertium. Greater and smaller numbers are combined in this 
 way: Accept vicies ducenta triginta gvinqve millia qvadringentos 
 decern et septem nummos (Cic. Verr. Lib. I. 14), 2235417 sesterces. 
 Sestertius is often denoted by the sign HS (properly IlSemis, %\, 
 viz. as), which sign is also used for sestertia and sestertium. Hence 
 arises some ambiguity, where the numbers are not declined (by 
 which HS tres and HS tria may be distinguished), and where both 
 the numeral adjective and the numeral adverb are expressed by 
 signs (e. g. decern and decies both of them by X). This ambiguity 
 can only be removed by considering what sum will be most agree- 
 able to the context k . 
 
 B. 1. A fraction is expressed in Latin, as in English, by the 
 ordinal withers, e.g. pars tertia (the third part, a third), qvarta, 
 qvinta, vicesima, &c. | is expressed by pars dimidia. Pars is 
 often omitted, only tertia, qvarta, &c. being used. (Dimidia how- 
 ever is not used without pars, but dimidium, half, and dimidia hora, 
 dimidius modius &c.) For sexta we have also dimidia tertia, for 
 octava — dimidia qvarta. The numerators are stated as in English, 
 e. g. duae tertiae, |, tres septimae, |, qvintae partes horae tres, § of 
 an hour. But sometimes the fraction was divided into two smaller 
 ones with the numerator 1, e.g. heres eoo parte dimidia et tertia est 
 Capito (Cicero ad Fam. XIII. 29), | + -5=1; horae qvattuordecim 
 atqve dimidia cum trigesima parte unius horae (Plin. H. N. VI. s. 39), 
 14| -f r =l4'3-J : Europa totius terrae tertia est pars et octava paulo 
 amplius (Plin. H. N. VI. s. 38), rather more than i+|=J|. 
 
 Ohs. Duae partes agri, tres partes, &c, where the denominator is not 
 specified, signify §•, §. 
 
 2. The as (a Roman copper coin) and the pound (libra) were 
 divided into twelve ounces, unciae, and for every number of ounces 
 or twelfths under twelve there were so many distinct names. These 
 names also served, especially in matters of inheritance, in land- 
 measure, and measures of length, and in the calculation of interest, 
 to denote the twelfths of the whole, of the inheritance (which is 
 also called as), of the unit of measure (jugerum or pes), and the 
 
 k In printed books we sometimes find a thousand expressed by a stroke over the num- 
 ber, so that HSX stands for decern millia sestertium or decern sestertia. 
 
Abbreviations. 
 
 467 
 
 unit of interest (one per cent.), and were sometimes also used of 
 twelfths of other objects. The names (besides uncia) are sextans i 
 \ ( x - 2 ), qvadrans, - (^), triens, | (±), qvincunx, x - 2 , semis (gen. semis- 
 sis), \ (,4), septunx i ?i> besj I (&)> dodrans, | (£), dextans, | (J-J), 
 deunx, £}. Librae tres cum semisse (3 J- pounds). Heres ex asse, heir 
 of the whole estate, e# dodrante, of f , ea? triente, ex parte dimidia 
 et sextante. Triumviri viritim diviserunt terna jugera et septunces 
 (Liv. V. 24), 3p 2 acres to each. Fenus ex triente factum erat bessi- 
 bus (Cic. ad Att. IV. 15), had risen from |- p. c. per month to f . 
 Obeliscus centum viginti qvinqve pedum et dodrantis (Plin. H. N. 
 XXX. s. 14, 5), 125| ft. — Frater aedificii reliqvum dodrantem emit 
 (Cic. ad Att. I. 14). 
 
 Obs. Semis is also sometimes subjoined (in second-rate authors) as an 
 indeclinable word, as foramina longa pedes tres semis {et semis), Z\ feet 
 long. 
 
 III. Abbreviations which frequently occur 
 the Latin Classics. 
 
 the Editions of 
 
 a. First Names. 
 
 A. Aulus 
 
 App, Appius 
 
 D. Decimus 
 
 G. or C. Gajus (the more cor- 
 rect) or Cajus 
 
 Gn. or Cn. Gnaeus or (less cor- 
 rectly) Cnejus 
 
 K. Kaeso 
 
 L. Lucius 
 
 M. Marcus 
 
 M\ Manius 
 
 Mam. Mamercus 
 
 N. or Num. Numerius 
 
 P. Publius 
 
 Q. Qvintus 
 
 S. or Sex. Sextus 
 
 Ser, Servius 
 
 Sp. Spurius 
 
 T. Titus 
 
 Ti. Tiberius 
 
 Cat. Kal. Calendae 
 Cos. Consul 
 Coss. Consules 
 D. Divus (D. Caesar) 
 Des. Designatus 
 
 Other Words. 
 
 F. Filius 
 Id. Idus 
 Imp. Imperator 
 
 N. Nepos [P. Mucins R F. Q. N. 
 =Publii filius j Qvinli nepos) 
 3o2 
 
408 
 
 Supplement III. 
 
 O. M. Optimus Maximus (sur- 
 name of Jupiter) 
 
 P. C. Patres Conscripti 
 
 P. R. Populus Romanus 
 
 Pont. Max. Pontifex Maximus 
 
 Q.F.F.Q.S. Qvod felix faus- 
 turnqve sit 
 
 Q. B. F. F. Q. 8. Qvod honum felix 
 faustumqve sit 
 
 Qvir. Qvirites 
 
 Resp. Respublica 
 
 S. P. Q. R. Senatus populusqve 
 
 Romanus 
 S. C. Senatus consultum 
 S. Salutem (in letters) 
 S. D. P. Salutem dicit plurimam 
 S.V.B.E.E.V. Si vales bene 
 
 est; ego valeo (introductory 
 
 formula in letters) 
 Tr. PI. Tribunus plebis 
 
 In other works composed in Latin many additional abbreviations 
 are employed. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A is changed into e, t, or e, 5 c. 
 
 a for as in Greek proper names, 35, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 a for e in Greek words of the first de- 
 clension, 35, obs. 1. 
 
 a and es (ia and ies) used indiscrimi- 
 nately in the nominative, 56, 3. 
 
 a rarely used instead of the Greek 
 nominative es, 35, obs. 3. 
 
 a as a substantive termination, 177 a. 
 
 Ab (a) millibus passuum duobus, 234 b, 
 obs. Ab or the abl. alone with pas- 
 sive verbs, 254, obs. 1. Instead of 
 the abl. lustrum., 254, obs. 2. Ab, 
 on the side of, with respect to, 253, 
 obs. Has an ambiguous significa- 
 tion with certain verbs, 222, obs. 2. 
 "With the names of towns, 275, obs. 1. 
 
 Abdere in aliqvem locum and in aliqvo 
 loco, 230 (in) obs. 4. 
 
 Abesse Roma, 275, obs. 2. 
 
 Abest (tantum), 440 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Abhinc, 235, obs. 2. 
 
 Ablative in abus, 34, obs. 4. in is for 
 ibus, 44, 3. in ubus for ibus, 46, obs. 
 4. Signification, 252 (240, obs.). 
 Signifying, with regard to, 253. In- 
 stmmentalis, 254. (of personal names, 
 254, obs. 3 ; where other construc- 
 tions are made use of in English, 254, 
 obs. 4). Of the measure, 254, obs. 5. 
 Of the efficient cause, 255, and obs. 
 1. (Does not otherwise signify the 
 cause, 256, obs. 2 ; signifying, ac- 
 cording to ; mea sententia, 255, obs. 
 3.) Abl. modi, 257. The ablative of 
 certain words used adverbially, 257, 
 obs. 2. Of military forces, 257, obs. 
 4. Of the price, 258 (294). As a 
 definition with verbs, 259 seq. (With 
 verbs of abundance, 259. of deficiency, 
 260. varied by another construction 
 [dat. and accus.], 259 b. and obs. ; 
 with verbs which have the signification 
 of releasing, 261. of removing, 262. 
 
 of shutting up and comprising, 263 ; 
 with verba gaudendi and dolendi, 264 ; 
 with utor, &c, 265.) with other 
 phrases, 266, 267. With adjectives 
 and participles, 268, 269. Of the dis- 
 tance, 270. Of difference, with com- 
 paratives, 270. Ablative of the second 
 member of the comparison, 271, 304. 
 (the ablatives spe, opinione, &c, 304, 
 obs. 4). Descriptive ablative, 272, 
 287, obs. 2 ; (esse with the ablative 
 instead of in, 272, obs. 2). Ablative 
 of the names of towns answering to the 
 question where, 273 a. to the question 
 whence, 275. (of a person's home, 275, 
 obs. 3) ; of other words answering to 
 the question where, 273 b, c. (in the 
 poets, obs. 2), to the question whence, 
 275. (in the poets, obs. 4), to denote 
 the direction of a motion, 274. Abla- 
 tive of time answering to the questions 
 when, and in how long a time, 276. 
 (rarely answering to the question how 
 long, 235, obs. 3), to the question how 
 long ago (his centum annis), 276, obs. 
 5. Ablative of the punishment with 
 damno, 293, obs. 3. Ablativi conse- 
 qventiae, 277 ; of participles, 428. 
 (where not to be employed, obs. 1 ; 
 with qvanqvam and nisi, obs. 2 ; their 
 relation to the subject of the leading 
 proposition, obs. 4). Abl. conseqv. of 
 a participle without a substantive, 
 429. with obs. 1 ; with the omission 
 of the pronominal subject, 429, obs. 2 ; 
 abl. of the gerund, 416. Several ab- 
 latives in a different signification with 
 the same predicate, 278 ; the ablative 
 joined immediately to a substantive, 
 278 b. 
 
 Abundantia, 56. 
 
 abus (termination) for is, 34, obs. 4. 
 
 Ac, atqve, 433 ; ac non, 458, obs. 1. 
 As a particle of comparison, 303 a, 
 444 b. Ac si, ib. 
 
 The numbers refer to the paragraphs and observations. 
 
470 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Accedit qvod and ut, 373, obs. 3. Ac- 
 cedo with ad and with the dative, 
 245 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Accent, 14, 23. 498, note. 
 
 Accusare inertiam adolescentium, 293, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 Accusative in im, 42, 1 ; Greek ace. in 
 a, 45, 2. in im and in, 45, 2 b. ym, 45, 
 2 c. &s, 45, 6 ; in era and em in Greek 
 proper names, 45, 2 d. Signification, 
 222. With oleo, sapio, sono, 223, obs. 
 2. Of a subst. of the same theme, 
 with intrans. verbs, 223 c, obs. 4. 
 With verbs which acquire a transitive 
 signification by being compounded 
 with a preposition, 224, 225. Two 
 accusatives with verbs signifying to 
 make into anything, to name, &c, 227. 
 with doceo and other verbs, 228. Ac- 
 cus. of a pronoun with verbs which do 
 not govern a substantive in the accus., 
 228 c, 229. Accus. of the names of 
 towns answering to the question whi- 
 ther, 232. (in the poets of names of 
 , countries and common nouns, obs. 4). 
 Accus. of extension and of distance, 
 234 a, b. Of time, 235. In excla- 
 mations, 236. Poetical usage of the 
 accus. with passive verbs, which as- 
 sume a new active signification, 237 a. 
 with a part, perf., 237 b. of the part 
 affected, 237 c. (with ictus, saucius, 
 obs. 1). Adverbial accus., 237 c, 
 obs. 3. Accusative of the second 
 member of a comparison instead of a 
 distinct proposition, 303 b. Accus. 
 of the gerund, 414. Accus. with an 
 infinitive (as a predicate and in appo- 
 sition), 388 b. Accus. with the inf., 
 222, obs. 1 ; see Infinitive. 
 
 Achillei, genitive, 38, 3. 
 
 Acqviesco in, 245, obs. 1. 
 
 Ad with numerals, * about,' 172, obs. 2. 
 With names of towns, 232, and obs. 1. 
 ' With regard to,' 253, obs. (refert ad, 
 295). Distinguished from the dative 
 {litter as dare alicui and ad aliqvem), 
 
 242, obs. 3. With the gerund instead 
 of the second supine, 412, obs. 3. In- 
 stead of the genitive of the gerund, 
 417, obs. 3. Verbs compounded with 
 it which take the accusative, 224 b. 
 245, obs. 2 ; with the repetition of ad, 
 
 243, obs. 1, 245 b, with obs. 2. Aptus 
 ad rem and aptus rei, 247 b, obs. 6. 
 Ad Vestae, 280, obs. 3. Ad multum 
 diet, ad id locorum, 285 b, obs. 1, 
 
 Adde, qvod, 373, obs. 3. 
 
 Adhibeo ad, 243, obs. 1. 
 
 Adigo aliqvem jusjurandum, 231, obs. 
 
 Adjective, its signification, 24, 2. In- 
 flection, 58 seq. Adjectives of one 
 termination, 60 b. Neuter plural of 
 these adjectives, 60 c. Adjectiva de- 
 /ectiva, 61 (58, obs. 3). Varying be- 
 
 tween different terminations, 59, obs. 
 
 3, 60, obs. 1. Derivation, 185 seq. 
 (from proper names of persons, 189. 
 of towns, 190). In the neuter as an 
 adverb, 198 c. in the poets, 302. Ad- 
 jectives in the neuter with a partitive 
 genitive, 284, obs. 5. Adjectives in 
 apposition, particularly those denoting 
 order and succession, 300 a, b ; solus, 
 totus, &c, ib. c. (adversus, secundus, 
 obs. 1). Adjectives of time and place 
 instead of adverbs in the poets, 300, 
 obs. 2. Adjectives in Latin, where 
 substantives with prepositions are made 
 use of in English, 300, obs. 3. Ad- 
 jectives with proper names, 300, obs. 
 
 4. Employed as substantives in the 
 masculine and neuter sing, and plur., 
 301, 247 b. obs. 1, (amicus, &c.) 
 Adjectives in the neuter with preposi- 
 tions (de integro), 301 b, obs. 3. Po- 
 sition of the adjectives, 466 a, b. 467 
 
 a. (in the poets, 474 b). The poets use 
 greater freedom in combining them 
 with substantives, 481, obs. 2. Pro- 
 lepsis adjectivi, ib. Two adjectives 
 referred to one substantive, to denote 
 different persons or things, 215 d, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 Admoneo with a genitive or the preposi- 
 tion de, 291, obs. 2. 
 
 Adolescens, adolescentior, 68 b. 
 
 Adventu (Caesaris), on (Caesar's) arrival, 
 276, obs. 2. 
 
 Adverb, 24, 4. (compare 432, obs.) 
 Pronominal correlative adverbs, 201. 
 Comparison of adverbs, 169 seq. Ad- 
 verbs used as prepositions, 172, obs. 3. 
 Derivation, 198 seq. ; forms in e, ter, 
 o, 198. Numeral adverbs, 199. Ad- 
 verbs in o and um with comparatives, 
 270, obs. 1, 2. Adverbs apparently 
 combined with a substantive, 301 c, 
 obs. 2. Position, 468. Some which 
 are always put after other words, 471. 
 An adverb instead of a judgment 
 expressed in a distinct proposition, 
 398 b, obs. 4. 
 
 Adversative conjunctions, 437. Omitted, 
 437 d, obs. Not attached to the rela- 
 tive pronoun, 448, obs. 
 
 Adversus, in adversum collem, 300, obs. 1. 
 
 ae diphthong, 5 b, obs. 1. ae, oe, e, 5 b, 
 obs. 3. 
 
 Aedes, (aedem) omitted, 280, obs. 3. 
 
 Aeqvare aliqvem alicui, 243, obs. 4. 
 
 Aeqve ac, 444 b, and obs. 1 ; aeqve— 
 aeqve, ib. obs. 4. 
 
 Aeqvi boniqve facio, 294, obs. 2. 
 
 Affinis with a genitive and dative, 247 
 
 b, obs. 4. 
 
 Affirmative idea (omnes, ut, dico) un- 
 derstood from one that is negative, 
 462 b. 
 
 Age, Agite, 132, {ago). 
 
INDEX. 
 
 471 
 
 cm, an old termination of the genitive, 
 34, obs. 1. 
 
 Alienus, its construction, 268 b, obs. 1, 
 2. 247 b, obs. 6. 
 
 Aliqvis and qvis, 493 a. and qvisqvam, 
 494 a, obs. 1 ; aliqvi and aliqvot, 493 
 a, obs. 2. Adverbs from aliqvis and 
 gws, 201, 2, obs. 1. Aliqvid pulchri 
 and pulchrum, memorabile, 285 b. 
 
 ^/ws, a pronoun, its declension, 37, obs. 
 2, 84. -4^ws sapiente, 304, obs. 3. 
 .^fo'ws ac, nihil aliud qvam, nihil aliud 
 nisi, 444 b, obs. 1. Alius — alius, alius 
 aliter, alia via, 496, obs. 1. 
 
 Alter, 84, and obs. ; where the idea of 
 two is not immediately brought for- 
 ward, 496. Alteri, 84, obs. Alter ms, 
 37, obs. 2. Alter — alter in appo- 
 sition, 217, obs. 1. 
 
 Alterni, every other, 74, obs. 2. 
 
 Amb, 204. 
 
 Ambo, 71. 
 
 Amicus alicui and alicujus, 247 b, and 
 obs. 1. Amicissimus, inimicissimus 
 alicujus, ib. 
 
 Amplius with and without qvam, 305. 
 
 An in disjunctive interrogations, 452. in 
 those of a supplementary kind, 453. 
 in the poets and later writers in simple 
 dependent interrogations, ib. After 
 nescio, dubito, ib. Denoting uncer- 
 tainty, ib. obs. 1. An vera, 453. 
 
 Anacoluthia, 480. 
 
 Analogy, 26, obs. 2. 
 
 Anapaest, 499. Anapaestic verses, 505. 
 
 Anaphora instead of the copulative con- 
 junction, 434, obs. 2. Number of the 
 predicate where there is anaphora of 
 the subject, 213 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Anastrophe of the preposition, 469, 
 obs. 1. 
 
 Ancipites vocales et syllabae, 15. 
 
 Animals, names of, their gender, 30. 
 Twofold form according to the sex, 
 30 c, obs. 
 
 Animans, its gender, 41 (p. 39). 
 
 Animi (=animo) with adjectives, 290 g. 
 with verbs, 296 b, obs. 3. 
 
 Animo without in, 273 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Animum induco, induco in animum, 389. 
 
 Anne, 452. 
 
 Annon, 452. 
 
 Anomaly, 26, obs. 2. 
 
 Answer, affirmative and negative, 454. 
 
 Ante paucos dies, paucis ante diebus, 270, 
 obs. 4 ; ante decern dies qvam, ib. ante 
 diem decimum qvam, 276, obs. 6. Ante 
 diem in noticing the day of the month, 
 p. 455. Verbs compounded with ante 
 with the accusative, 224 d. 
 
 Anteqvam (postqvam) with the perfect, 
 338, obs. 5 ; with the present indie, 
 instead of the future, 339, obs. 2, c. 
 360, obs. 3. With the indie, or conj., 
 360 (and obs. 4). 
 
 Apage, 164. 
 
 Apodosis, 326, obs. 2. 
 
 Aposiopesis, 479, obs. 6. 
 
 Applicare se ad aliqvid, 243, obs. 1. 
 
 Apposition, 210 b. Its use and mean- 
 ing, 220. Of alius, alter, qvisqve, with- 
 out any influence on the predicate, 
 217, obs. 1. Apposition to the whole 
 proposition, 220, obs. 3. Apposition 
 of the adjective, 300. Apposition se- 
 parated from the word to which it be- 
 longs, 467 b. 
 
 Aptus with the dative or ad, 247 b, obs. 
 6. Aptus qvi, 363. 
 
 Arbor fici, 286. 
 
 Ardeo in aliqva, 230, (i?i) obs. 1. 
 
 Argos and Argi, 56, 7, obs. 
 
 Arsis and Thesis, 498. Lengthening of 
 a syllable by Arsis, 502 a, with the 
 note. 
 
 as, an old termination of the genitive, 
 34, obs. 2. 
 
 as and is, Greek words with these ter- 
 minations, employed as adjectives, 60, 
 obs. 5. 
 
 As (the) and its parts, Supplement II. 
 B. 2. 
 
 Aspiration, 9. 
 
 Assvetus with the ablative, 267. 
 
 Asyndeton with two members, 434. 
 
 At, 437 c. (at qvi vir). 
 
 Atqve, see ac. 
 
 Atqvi, 437 c, obs. 
 
 Attendo aliqvid and ad aliqvid, 225, obs. 
 
 Attraction, 207, obs. With the second 
 member of a comparison, 303 b. With 
 the demonstrative pronoun, 313. with 
 the relative, 315 c. 316. with a case of 
 the relative, 325 b, obs. 2. with a rela- 
 tive subordinate proposition belonging 
 to an accus. with the infinitive, 402 b. 
 Attraction of the subject of a sub- 
 ordinate proposition to the leading 
 prop., 439, obs. 1. 
 
 Attribute, 210, obs. 
 
 Auctor sum with a pronominal accu- 
 sative, 229 b, obs. 3. 
 
 Aud/vi eum dicere, dicentem, ex eo, qvurn 
 dicer et, 395, obs. 5. 
 
 Ave, 164. 
 
 Ausim, 115 f. 
 
 Auspicio alicujus rem gerere, 257, obs. 5. 
 
 Aut, aut — aut, 436. Aut continuing a 
 negation, 458 c, obs. 2. aut — aut after 
 a negation, ib. Number of the predi- 
 cate with subjects which are connected 
 by aut or aut — aut, 213 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Autem, 437 b. 
 
 Barbarous names, how declined, 54, 
 
 obs. 4. 
 Basis in verse, 508. 
 Belli, 296 b. 
 Bona venia, alicujus, 257, obs. 5. 
 
472 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 bundus, a participial termination, 115 g. 
 
 C, its pronunciation, 8. Relation to qv, 
 ib. 
 
 Caesura, 501. Of the hexameter, 503. 
 
 Culendae, Suppl. I. 
 
 Calendar (Roman), ib. 
 
 Canere receptui, 249. 
 
 Cardinal numbers, 70. 
 
 Cases, recti and obliqvi, 32. Their ter- 
 minations, 33. Imperfect inflection 
 of, 55. Different cases with the same 
 governing word, 219, obs. 2. Signifi- 
 cation of the casus obliqvi in general, 
 240. 
 
 Catalectic verse, 500, and obs. 
 
 Causa terroris, a cause consisting in 
 terror, 286, obs. 2. Causa (ratio) cur 
 (qvamobrein), 372 b, obs. 6 ; causa, 
 qvominus, nulla causa qvin, 375 b, 
 and c. 
 
 Causa with the genitive, 256. Omitted 
 with the genitive of the gerund, 417, 
 obs. 5. 
 
 Cave facere and cave facias, 375 a, and 
 obs. 1. 
 
 Caveo, its construction, 244 b, obs. 1. 
 
 ce, a demonstrative termination, 81, obs. 
 82, obs. 2 (hicine, sicine). 
 
 Cedo, cette, 164. 
 
 Cedere with the abl., 262. 
 
 Celare, its construction, 228 a, and obs. 
 
 Censere faciendum, aliqvid fieri, facere, 
 (ut) facias, 396, obs. 4. Censeri with 
 an accus., 237 a, obs. 
 
 Certiorem facere rei and de re, 289 b, 
 obs. 1. 
 
 Ceteri and reliqvi, 496, obs. 2. Ceteri 
 at the end of an enumeration, not et 
 ceteri, 434, obs. 1. Cetera employed 
 adverbially, 237 c, obs. 3. 
 
 Chiasmus, 473 b. 
 
 Choliambus (scazon), 507 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Chorens, 499. 
 
 Choriambus, 499. Choriambic verses, 
 507 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Cingor with an accus., 237 a. 
 
 Circum. Verbs compounded with it 
 take the accus., 224 a, and obs. 2. 
 225. 
 
 Clam, 172, obs. 3. 
 
 co, con, see cum. 
 
 Coepi and coeptus sum, 161. 
 
 Cogo with two accusatives, cogor ali- 
 qvid, 228 c, obs. 
 
 Collectives with the predicate in the 
 plural, 215 a. The relative referred 
 to them in the plural, 317 c. 
 
 Communia, 29. Names of animals as 
 communia, 30 b. 
 
 Communis, its construction, 290 f. 
 
 Compacto, ex, 150 (paciscor). 
 
 Comparare (componere, conjuvgere) with 
 cum and with the dative, 243, obs. 2. 
 
 Comparison, 62. Irregular, 65. De- 
 fective, 66 and 67. 
 
 Comparative, its formation, 63 ; formed 
 from prepositional themes, 66. Di- 
 minutives of it, 63, obs. With qvam 
 (ac), 303 a ; with a whole proposition, 
 303 b ; with the abl., 304, with obs. 
 1 (spe, opinione, aeqvo &c, obs. 4). 
 Compar. of adjectives of measure, how 
 constructed, 306. Two comparatives 
 connected by qvam, 307. Compar. of 
 a considerable degree, 308. Instead 
 of the superlative when only two are 
 mentioned, 309. Irregular construc- 
 tions of the compar., 308, obs. 2. 
 
 Comparative particles, 444. 
 
 Compertus probri, 293, obs. 1. Compertus 
 fecisse, 400 c, obs. 
 
 Complures, 65, 2, obs. 
 
 Composita, 203 ; determinativa, 206 a. 
 constructa, b. possess iva, c. 
 
 Composition, 203 seq. (spurious, 53). 
 Form, 203 seq. Signification of the 
 forms, 206. 
 
 Compound verbs with a transitive sig- 
 nification, 224 ; with a dat. or the 
 prep, repeated, 243, 245. 
 
 Concessive conjunctions, what mood 
 they take, 361, with the obss.; an- 
 nexing a remark which limits the 
 preceding statement, in an indepen- 
 dent form, 443 ; with participles and 
 adjectives, ib. obs. 
 
 Conciliare aliqvem alicui, 242, obs. 1. 
 
 Conclusive particles not connected with 
 the relative pronouns, 448, obs. ; nor 
 with the copul. conjunction, 431, obs. 3. 
 
 Conditional conjunctions, 442. 
 
 Conditional propositions in the indie, 
 332; in the conjunctive, 347. The 
 condition not expressed in the form 
 of a proposition, 347 c. The prop, 
 limited by a condition in the indie., 
 though that which expresses the con- 
 dition is in the conjunctive, 348 (370, 
 obs. 1). Condit. prop, in the con- 
 junctive, as belonging to an infinitive, 
 348 e, obs. 3. The condition expressed 
 by an independent proposition, 442 a, 
 obs. 2. Two condit. propositions an- 
 nexed to a leading proposition, 442 a. 
 
 Confieri, 143 (facio). 
 
 Conjugation (p. 87, n). How the four 
 conjugations are related to each 
 other, 101. 
 
 Conjugatio periphrastica, 116. Use of 
 it in the indie, 341 seq. in the con- 
 junct., 381. in the infin., 409. 
 
 Conjunction, 24, 6 ; classes of, 432 ; see 
 Adversative, Copulative, &c. Position 
 of the conjunctions, 465 b. Conjunc- 
 tions transposed in the poets, 474 d ; 
 the copulative and disjunctive some- 
 times separated from the second mem- 
 ber, 474 e. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 473 
 
 Conjunctive, its signification, 340. In 
 hypothetical propositions, 347. in hy- 
 pothetical propositions of comparison, 
 349. JPotentialis, 350 ; in a modest 
 affirmation, 350 b (in subordinate pro- 
 positions, with conjunctions which 
 otherwise take the indicative, ib. obs. 
 1). As an optative in wishes, 351; 
 as an imperative and in prohibitions, 
 385, 386 ; in the imperf. and pluperf. 
 of a thing which ought to have been 
 done, 351 b, obs. 4, in concessions and 
 assumptions, 352; in questions as to 
 what is to or may be done, 353. In 
 objective propositions after ut, &c, 
 354. In propositions which express 
 a design or a consequence, 355. In 
 dependent interrogative propositions, 
 356. Conjunctive and indicative with 
 qvod, qvia, 357 ; with qvum causale, 
 and in the imperf. and pluperf. with 
 qvum temporale, 358. Conjunctive 
 and indicative of repeated actions re- 
 lating to past time, 359. With ante- 
 qvam, priusqvam, dum, donee, qvoad, 
 360 (citius, potius, qvam, obs. 4). With 
 qvamvis, licet, 361. In relative pro- 
 positions, 362 b, seq., to express a de- 
 sign or destination (dignus, idoneus), 
 363, with cur, qvamobrem, 363, obs. 3. 
 with the signification of talis ut, 364 
 (persons who, obs. 1). with the force 
 of a limitation (qvi qvidem, qvod sciam, 
 qvod fieri possit), 364, obs, 2. after a 
 universal affirmation or negation (con- 
 junctive and indicative proposition be- 
 longing to a negative idea, 365, obs. 
 2) ; in a causal signification, 366 
 (qvippe qvi, ut qvi, obs. 2 ; to express 
 a contrast, obs. 3) ; to designate a hy- 
 pothetical subject, 367; to point out 
 the thought of another, 368. Con- 
 junctive in other subordinate propo- 
 sitions to designate the idea of another 
 party, 369. Conjunctive in the second 
 person, of an indefinite, assumed sub- 
 ject, 370. Conjunctive in questions 
 in a continuous oratio obliqva, 405 a. 
 
 Conjunctus with the abl., dat., and cum, 
 268 a, obs. 2. 
 
 Connecting vowel, 176 c, 205 a. 
 
 Conscius, 289 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Consecutio temporum, 382. 
 
 Consilium capio facere and faciendi, 417, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 Consolari dolorem alicujus, 223 b. 
 
 Consonants doubled, 10. Modification 
 of the consonants when they come to- 
 gether, ib. when dropt, ib. 11, obs. 
 Combinations of the consonants at the 
 beginning of words, 13, obs. 1. 
 
 Constare ex, in, constare re, 263, obs. 
 
 Contentus with the infinitive, 389, obs. 3. 
 
 Contingit ut, and with the infinitive, 373, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 3 
 
 Contineri aliqva re, 263. 
 
 Continuare aliqvid aliqui, 243, obs. 3. 
 
 Contraction, 6, obs. 1. With the re- 
 jection of x, 182, obs. 3. 
 
 Contrarius ac, 414 b. 
 
 Conventa pax, 110, obs. 3. 
 
 Coordinate propositions in place of the 
 combination of a leading and subor- 
 dinate prop., 438. 
 
 Copula, 209 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Copulative conjunctions, 433. Inserted 
 or omitted where several words are 
 connected, 434, obs. 1. Not added to 
 conclusive particles, ib. obs. 3. For 
 adversative, 433, obs. 2. 
 
 Correlative pronouns, 93 ; adverbs, 201. 
 
 Cor riper e syllabam, 15, obs, 2. 
 
 Cotidie (orthography), 8. 
 
 Countries, names of, 192 ; treated as the 
 names of towns, 232, obs. 4; some 
 ending in us, fern. 39 b. 
 
 Crassitudine (digiti), ' of the thickness,' 
 272, obs. 3. 
 
 Credor auctor, 227 c, obs. 2 ; for creditur 
 milii, 244, obs. 4. 
 
 Creticus, 499. 
 
 Crimine, 293, obs. 2. 
 
 Cujus, a, urn, and cujas, 92, obs. 2. 
 
 Cum, conjunction, see qvum. 
 
 Cum, preposition, how modified in com- 
 position, 173; put after its case (me- 
 cum), 172 obs. Qvid mihi (tibi) cum 
 aliqvo ? 479 d, obs. 1 ; cum magna 
 studio, and simply magno studio, cum 
 cura, 257, and obs. 1, 2; cum om- 
 nibus copiis, and simply omnibus 
 copiis, 257, obs. 4 ; cum magna ca- 
 lamitate civitatis (to), 257, obs. 5. 
 Subjects connected by cum with the 
 predicate in the plural, 215 c. Verbs 
 compounded with cum which take the 
 accus., 224 b ; with a repetition of the 
 preposition, more rarely with the da- 
 tive, 243, obs. 2. 
 
 Cupio esse, and me esse, 389, obs. 4. 
 
 Cur. Est, nihil est, cur, 372 b, obs. 6. 
 Cur, qvare, qvidni, 492 b, obs. 6. 
 
 Curo faciendum, often expressed by facio, 
 481 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Dactyl, 499. Dactylic verses, 503, 504. 
 
 Damnare, construction, 293, obs. 2, 3. 
 
 Dative, irregular forms in the plural, 
 see ablative; Greek in si, 45, 8. Sig- 
 nification of the dative, 241 (240 obs.). 
 Dativus commodi et incommodi, 241. 
 Dative annexed to the whole phrase, 
 instead of the genitive with a substan- 
 tive, 241, obs. 3 and 4 (legatum esse 
 alicui), and 242, obs. 2 (causa rebus 
 novandis, 241, obs. 3). Dative with 
 facio, fit, 241, obs. 5 ; dative of a par- 
 ticiple signifying ' when one,' ib. obs. 
 6. Dative as object of reference with 
 
474 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 verbs, 242. Dative with compound 
 transitive verbs, or the preposition re- 
 peated, 243 (and obs. 3). With in- 
 transitive verbs, 244 ; with a verbal 
 substantive, 244, obs. 5. With com- 
 pound intransitive verbs or the prepo- 
 sition repeated, 245. With sum, 246. 
 Double dative with nomen est (do), 
 246, obs. 2. With adjectives, 247. 
 With diversus, discrepo, disto, 247 b, 
 obs. 3. Dative or ad with aptus, &c, 
 247 b, obs. 6. With some adverbs 
 (convenienter, &e), 247 b, obs. 7. 
 With idem, 247 b, obs. 8. Datims 
 ethicus, 248. Dative denoting the de- 
 sign and operation, 249, especially the 
 dative of the gerundive, 249, obs. 415. 
 Dative of the agent instead of ab with 
 passives, 250 a. Dative of the di- 
 rection towards, 251. Dative of the 
 gerund and gerundive, 415. Dative 
 with an infinitive (licet mihi esse bealo), 
 393 c. Dative of the agent with the 
 gerundive, 420, 421 a, and obs. 1. 
 
 De partitive, 284, obs. 1. Be improviso, 
 301 b, obs. 3. De with an accus. 
 with the infin. following (de hoc dici- 
 tur Verri, eum — ), 395, obs. 7. Verbs 
 compounded with de with an object of 
 reference, 243. 
 
 Debebam, debui, of a thing which would 
 be obligatory in an assumed case, 
 348 e. of a thing which should have 
 been done, 348 e, obs. 
 
 Decet, decent, 166, b, obs. 
 
 Declinatio, p. 19, note. 
 
 Declensions, their number and mutual 
 relation, 33, obs. 1. 
 
 Decomposita, 206 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Deest, deeram, pronounced dest, deram, 
 108, obs. 2. 
 
 Defectiva numero, 50 and 51. casibus, 
 55. 
 
 Defendo = defendendi causa dico, 395, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 Deniqve, not et deniqve, 434, obs. 1. 
 
 Deponents, 110; with irregular supines, 
 146 seq. ; varying between this and 
 the active form, 147 ;•. passive of the 
 last named used in a passive signifi- 
 cation, 152 ; other deponents in a 
 passive signification, especially the 
 part, perf., 153. Deponents of the 
 first conjug. derived from substan- 
 tives, 193 b. 
 
 Derivata, 175 a. 
 
 Derivation, 175. Derivative termina- 
 tions how affixed to the theme, 176. 
 
 Desiderativa without perfect and supine, 
 145. Their formation, 197, 4. 
 
 Desitus sum, 136, 161 (coepi). 
 
 Dexterior, dextimus, 67 d, obs. 2. 
 
 Diaeresis, 5 a, obs. 4. in a metrical sig- 
 nification, 501. 
 
 Diastole, 502 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Dico, * I mean,' without influence on the 
 case, 219, obs. 3. Dico, to say to a 
 person, that he is to — , 372. Dico 
 omitted, 479 c. dicere, 479 d, obs. 4. 
 
 Differre alicui, 247 b, obs. 3. 
 
 Digitus qvi, 363. digitus legi, 363, obs. 
 L digmim dictu, 412, obs. 2. 
 
 Dimidius qvam, 444 b. 
 
 Diminutives, their formation, 182; of 
 adjectives, 188, 15, obs. 2. from com- 
 paratives, 63 obs. ; verba deminutiva, 
 197, 5. 
 
 Dipodia, 499, obs. 1. 
 
 Diphthongs, 5, 6. 
 
 dis, 204 (obs. 1). Adjectives and verbs 
 compounded with it, which take a da- 
 tive (in the poets), 247 b, obs. 3. 
 
 Discessu (Caesaris), at (Caesar's) de- 
 parture, 276, obs. 2. 
 
 Disjunctive conjunctions, 436. 
 
 Distich, 504. Combinations in this 
 form, 509, obs. 2. 
 
 Distinctus, 'studded,' 259 a. 
 
 Distributive numbers, 69, 75. when 
 employed, 76. In the sing, (in the 
 poets), 76 d, obs. Genitive plural, 37, 
 obs. 4. Adjectives derived from them, 
 187, 10. 
 
 Diversus alicui (in the poets), 247 b, 
 obs. 3. 
 
 Dives, dis, 60 c, obs. 1. 
 
 Do (ministro) bibere, 422, obs. 1 ; do 
 (reddo) loqvi, 390, obs. 6 ; datur mihi 
 cernere, ib. 
 
 Docere, doceri, its construction, 228 a. 
 Docere aliqvem Graece (scire, oblivisci 
 Graece), 228 a, obs. 
 
 Domus, declension, 46. Domi (domui), 
 296 b. Domum, 233. Domo, 275. 
 (Domum suam, Pompeji, domum ad 
 Pomp., 233.) 
 
 Donee, dum, with the perf. indie, 338 b, 
 obs. 5 ; with the indie, and the conj., 
 360, obs. 2. 
 
 Dubito, non dubito, qvin ; non dubito with 
 an accus. with the infin. ; non dubito 
 facere, 375 c (obs. 1 and 2). Dubito 
 an, 453. 
 
 Duim, 115 d. 
 
 Dum, see donee. Dum, while, with the 
 pres., 336, obs. 2, and (in the poets 
 and later writers) with the indie, where 
 the conj. might have been expected, 
 369, obs. 3. Dum, donee, with the 
 perf., 338, obs. 5. Exspecto, opperior t 
 dum, 339, obs. 2 b, 360, obs. 1, Dum, 
 dummodo, dum ne, 351 b, obs. 2. With 
 negations (nondum, Sic), 462 a. 
 
 E and i permuted, 5 c. 
 
 e and a in the nom. of Greek words, 35, 
 
 obs. 1. e and i in the abl. of the third 
 
 declension, 42, 3. 
 Ecce, en, 236, obs. 3. 
 Eccum, eccam, 83, obs. 2. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 475 
 
 Ecqvid as an interrog. particle, 451 b, 
 obs. 
 
 Ecthlipsis, 8. 
 
 Edim, 115 d. 
 
 Egeo, indigeo with the abl. and gen., 
 260 a, obs. 295, obs. 3. 
 
 Egenus, egentior, 65, 1, obs. 
 
 ej expressed in Latin by e and i, 5, b, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 Ellipsis, 207, obs. ; of the verb, 479. 
 in every-daj r , familiar discourse, 
 479 d. 
 
 Elision, 6. 
 
 Ellum, ellam, 83, obs. 2. 
 
 En, 236, obs. 3. 
 
 Enim, for ' namely,' 435, obs. 4 ; re- 
 ferring to ille, hie, 439, obs. 2. In 
 answers, yes (no), for, 454, obs. 2. 
 
 Ens, 108, obs. 1. 
 
 Eo (hoc) — qvo, 270, obs. 1. 
 
 Eo (hoc), on that account, 256, obs. 3. 
 
 Eo (hue) dementiae, 284, obs. 9 ; eo loci, 
 284, obs. 11. 
 
 Epicoena, 30 a. 
 
 Epistolary style, tenses used in, 345. 
 
 Eqvidem, 489 b. 
 
 er, Latin termination for the Greek pos, 
 38, 1, obs. Adjectives in er which 
 follow the third decl., 59. 
 
 Eram in conditional language instead of 
 essem, 348 c, obs., and d. 
 
 Ergo, as a preposition with the genitive, 
 172, obs. 5. 
 
 Ergo, an adverb, its position, 471. In 
 resuming a discourse which has been 
 interrupted, 480. 
 
 es, Greek nouns in, 35, obs. 3. Greek 
 proper names in es declined, 35, obs. 
 4., 45, 2 d. es, Greek nom. plur. 
 45,5. 
 
 es and is used indifferently in the nom. 
 of some words, 41 (p. 36). 
 
 Escit, esit, 108, obs. 4. 
 
 Esse, to exist, to be, 209 b, obs. 2. With 
 an adverb instead of the predicative 
 noun (sic sum), ib. Esse pro hoste, ib. 
 "With the dative, 246. Est mild vo- 
 lenti, ib. obs. 3. Esse odio, curae, &c, 
 249. Esse solvendo, oneriferendo, 415, 
 obs. 1. Esse conservandae libertatis, 
 417, obs. 4. Esse, manere, with the 
 abl. without in, 272, obs. 2. Est meum 
 (alicujus) facere, 282. Est in eo, ut 
 faciam, 343 obs. Est cur, qvamobrem, 
 qvare, 372 b, obs. 6. Est qvi, 365. 
 
 Po.idon of the verb sum, 465 a, obs. 3 ; 
 separated from the participle, obs. 4. 
 Position of est, sunt, with enim, &c, 
 471, obs. 1. Est and sunt omitted, 
 479 a. Esse omitted, 396, obs. 2 (volo 
 consultant), and 406 (401). 
 
 Et and qve, 433. Et for etiam, ib. obs. 1 ; 
 for a comparative conjunction, 444 b, 
 obs. 3. Et— et broken off, 480, obs. 1. 
 Et — qve, 435, obs. 1. Et — neqve, ne- 
 
 qve — et, 458 c. Et non, et nemo (used 
 rarely for neqve, neqve qvisqvam), 458 
 a, obs. 1 ; et non, ' and not much 
 rather,' ib. Et harshly made to coa- 
 lesce with non, 458 a, obs. 2. Et — et 
 non, 458 c, obs. 1. Et is, 'and that/ 
 484 c. Et ipse, 'likewise,' 487 a, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 Etiam, 'yes,' 454; its position in the 
 sentence, 471. 
 
 Etiamsi, 361, obs. 2. 
 
 Etsi, 361, obs. 2. Etsi, tametsi, used to 
 annex a remark, 443. 
 
 Etymology, 175, obs. 3. 
 
 Ex facili= facile, 301 b, obs. 3. 
 
 Ex partitive, 284, obs. 1 ; ex eo genere, 
 qvi (plur.), ex eo numero, qvi (plur.), 
 317 c. 
 
 eu diphthong, 5 b. 
 
 Evado, 221, note. 
 
 eus, Greek termination, 38, 3. 
 
 Excusare morbum, 223 b ; aliqvid and se 
 de aliqva re, ib. 
 
 Exosus, 161, obs. 
 
 Exspecto, dum, 339, obs. 2., 360, obs. 1 ; 
 exspecto, ut, ib. 
 
 Facere, its compounds, 143. Accentua-. 
 tion of its compounds, 23, obs. 1. Fa- 
 cere as the last part of the compound,' 
 204, 206 b. 1, obs. 2. Qvid fades 
 hide? hoc? de hoc? 241, obs. 5., 267, 
 and obs. Facere with a gen. of the 
 price, 294, and obs. 1. Facere aliqvid 
 alicujus, 281 ; aliqvid suae dicionis, 
 sui arbitrii, ib. obs. Facio aliqvem 
 loqventem and loqvi, facio te videre, 
 372 b, obs. 5. Facere non possum, 
 375 c. Facio omitted, 479 c. Facere 
 ut, periphrastic, 481 b. Fac cogites, 
 372 b, obs. 4. Fac, 'suppose,' ib. 
 obs. 5. 
 
 FaciUs ad legendum for lectu, 412, obs. 
 3 (in the poets, facilis legi). , 
 
 Familias, old genitive, 34, obs. 2. 
 
 Familiaris, familiarissimus, alicui and 
 alicujus, 247 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Fas, nefas dictu, 412, obs. 1. 
 
 Faxo, faxim, 1 1 5 f. 
 
 Feet, see Verbal, Verse. 
 
 Feriatus, 146, 2, obs. 1. 
 
 Fidere, confidere, diffidere, their construc- 
 tion, 244, 264 obs. 
 
 Fieri. Qvidfiel huic? hoc? de hoc? 241, 
 obs. 5, 267. Fieri alicujus, 281. 
 
 Figurae orationis, 207 obs. 
 
 Films omitted, 280, obs. 4. 
 
 Fore, for em, 108, obs. 3. Forcm, 377, 
 obs. 2. Fore, ut, 410. Fore with the 
 part, perf., 410, obs. 2. 
 
 Forsitan with the conj., 350 b, obs. 3. 
 
 Fractions, mode of expressing, Suppl. 
 II. B. 
 
 Freqvenlativa, of two kinds, 195. 
 
 Fretus, 268 c, and note. 
 
476 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Frustra esse, 209 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Fuam, 108, obs. 4. 
 
 Fuit aeqvum, ulilius, Sic, 348 e, obs. 
 
 Fueram for eram, 338, obs. 6., 342 obs., 
 344, obs. 1. 
 
 Future, old, in so, 115 f. 
 
 Futurum simplex in the indie, 339; in 
 subord. prop., ib. obs. 1 (compare 340, 
 obs. 1). Fut. simplex and exactum, 
 340, obs. 1. Fut. in praesenti (fac- 
 turus sum), 341; in praeterito, 342; 
 in futuro, 343. Fut. indie, of the 
 second person instead of the imper., 
 384 obs. Fut. conj. often not ex- 
 pressed, 378 a., periphrastically, 378 
 b. Fut. in praet. in the conj., 381. 
 
 Futurum exactum, 340 (obs. 1); in the 
 leading and subordinate proposition at 
 the same time, ib. obs. 2; approaching 
 in signification to the fut. simplex, ib. 
 obs. 4 (odero, meminero, 161). Fut. 
 exact, in the conj., 379 ; as a dubita- 
 tive and hypothetical future, 380 
 (obs.), in prohibitions with we, 386. 
 
 Futurum esse, ut, 410; futurum fuisse, 
 ut, 409. 
 
 Gender, 27 ; different in the sing, and 
 plur., 57. Gender of the predicate 
 where there are several subjects, 214. 
 
 Genitive in i in proper names of the 
 third declension, 42, 2 ; is wanting in 
 the plur. of some words of the third 
 declension, 44 c, obs. 2 and e, obs. ; 
 gen. plur. in urn instead of arum, orum, 
 34, obs. 3, 37, obs. 4. in orum for um, 
 44, 2; Greek gen. in os, 45, 3 ; in us 
 from words in o, ib ; in on in the plur., 
 38 and 45, 7 ; in i in the fourth de- 
 clension, 46, obs. 2. Signification of 
 the genitive case, 279, and obs. Gen. 
 possessivus et conjunctivus, 280 ; with 
 the force of an adjective, 280, obs. 1 ; 
 with the omission of the governing 
 substantive, to be supplied from a pre- 
 ceding clause of the sentence, obs. 2. 
 irregularities thence arising, ib. ; with 
 the omission of uxor, films, obs. 4. 
 ambiguous, injuria sociorum, obs. 5 ; 
 genitivus possessivus with sum,fio,facio, 
 281 ; with sum in the signification, 'to 
 be suitable, proper,' 282; gen. objec- 
 tivus with substantives, 283 (used for 
 the adverbs in, erga, adversus), ib. 
 obs. 2 ; not merely used instead of 
 the accus. with verbs, ib. obs. 3 ; con- 
 nected with the governing substantive 
 by sum, ib. obs. 4. Partitivus, 284 
 (after adjectives in the neuter, obs. 5 ; 
 not to be employed in certain cases, 
 obs. 7; with pronominal adverbs of 
 place, hue dementiae, obs. 9 ; the geni- 
 tives loci, locorum, terrarum, obs. 10). 
 Genitivus generis, 285 a (sestertii bini 
 accessionis, obs.). with adjectives of 
 
 quantity and neuter pronouns, 285 b. 
 with satis, abunde, &c, 285 c. Ge- 
 nitivus definitivus, 286 (instead of 
 an apposition, obss. 1, 2; with sum, 
 for the nom. of a predicative noun, 
 obs. 3). Descriptive, 287 (distin- 
 guished from the descriptive abla- 
 tive, obs. 2; with a proper name, 
 obs. 3). Several genitives dependent 
 on one substantive, 288. Gen. objec- 
 tivus with adjectives, 289, 290 (signi- 
 fying 'with respect to,' 290 g). Gen. 
 obj. with verbs, 291 — 3. Of the price, 
 294. Genitive with interest and re- 
 fert, 295 ; with impleo, egeo, ib. obs. 3. 
 Of the names of towns of the first and 
 second declension in answer to the 
 question where, 296 a. Genitive in 
 apposition to a possessive pronoun, 
 297 a. Genitive of the gerund, 417. 
 Gen. according to the Greek idiom 
 instead of the abb, 261, obs. 4. Posi- 
 tion of the genitive, 466 ; gen. sepa- 
 rated from the governing noun, 467 c. 
 
 Gentilicia nomina, 190. 
 
 Gentium, 284, obs. 10. 
 
 Genus, see Gender. 
 
 Gerund and gerundive, 97. The gerund 
 as a case of the infinitive, 413. Used 
 indifferently in the place of the ge- 
 rundive (of transitive verbs), ib., and 
 obs. 1. Gerund retained in the gen. 
 with a subst. in the gen. plural (agro- 
 rum condonandi), 413, obs. 2. Accu- 
 sative of the gerund (or gerundive), 
 414 (with ad instead of the second su- 
 pine, 412, obs. 3) ; dative, 415 (to 
 signify a purpose, obs. 2) ; abb, 416 
 (of the way and manner, obs. 1 ; with 
 what prepositions not to be employed, 
 obs. 2 and 3); gen., 417 (used indis- 
 criminately with the simple infinitive, 
 obs. 2. with the omission of the word 
 causa, obs. 5). Gerund (in the abl. 
 and gen.) apparently passive, 418. 
 
 Gerundive for the gerund, 413. With 
 sum and alone to signify a thing that 
 is to be done, 420 (with a negation to 
 denote what is practicable, obs.). Ger. 
 of intransitive verbs used impers. in 
 the neuter, 421 a. in the older writers 
 occasionally that of trans, verbs also 
 with the accus., ib. b. Gerundive of 
 utor, fruor, ib. a, obs. 2. Gerundive 
 with the object of certain verbs (do, 
 suscipio, aliqvid faciendum), 422 ; with 
 habeo, ib. obs. 2. 
 
 Gratia, 256. 
 
 Greek nouns with Greek forms retained 
 in Latin, 33, obs. 3, and under the 
 several declensions. 
 
 H, its pronunciation, 9. 
 Habere, with a word in apposition to the 
 object (mostly in the passive, habeor 
 
INDEX. 
 
 477 
 
 Justus), 227 c, obs. 1. pro lioste, in 
 hostium namero, parentis loco, in pa- 
 rentis loco, ib. Habere, non (nihil) 
 habere, qvod (ubi), 363. Non habere, 
 qvid, 363, obs. 2. Habere perspectum, 
 427. Habere aedem tuendam, 422, obs. 
 2. Habeo dicere, ib. 
 
 Half- deponents, 110, obs. 2. 
 
 Haud, 455. Haud scio an, 453. 
 
 Hei mihi, 236, obs. 2. 
 
 Hendiadys, 481 a. 
 
 Heteroclita, hetorogenea, 56 obs. 
 
 Hexameter, 503. 
 
 Hiatus, 6; where tolerated, 502 b. 
 
 ffic, 485 (hie, qvi, ib. c ; hie et hie, hie 
 et ille, obs.). In notices of time, 276, 
 obs. 5. Hoc Thrasybuli, 485 c, obs. 
 Hoc praemii, 285 b. Hujus nonfacio, 
 294, obs. 1. jHoc populo, 'with such 
 a people,' 277, obs. 2. 
 
 Hispavus, Hispaniensis, 192. 
 
 .Hoe, ' on this account,' 256, obs. 3. 
 
 Hospes as an adjective, hospita, 60, obs. 2. 
 
 Humo, ab humo, 275. fatn», 296 b. 
 
 Hypothetical propositions, see Condi- 
 tional. 
 
 I, where a consonant (j), 5 a, obs. 2 ; 
 changed to a consonant (abjes), 5 a, 
 obs. 4. I and e interchanged, 5 c. 
 i" a connecting vowel, 176 c, 205 a. 
 
 Iambus, 499. Iambic verses, 507. 
 
 Jamdiu, jamdudum with the present, 334, 
 
 Obs. 
 
 ibam in the imperf. for iebam, ibo in the 
 future for iam, 115 c. 
 
 Ictus femur, 237 c, obs. 1. 
 
 Ictus metricus an erroneous idea, 498, 
 note. 
 
 Id aetatis, temporis, id generis for ejus 
 generis, 238. Id qvod, 315 b. 
 
 Idem qvi, idem ac, 324 b. Idem with 
 the dative, 247 b, obs. 8. Idem, like- 
 wise (on the other hand), 488. 
 
 Idoneus qvi, 363 ; idoneus dare, ib. obs. 1. 
 
 Idus, Suppl. I. p. 455. 
 
 ier, old termination of the infinitive, 
 1 15 a. 
 
 Igitur, its position, 471. On resuming 
 a discourse which has been broken 
 off, 480. 
 
 Ignoscere festinationi alicujus, 244 a. 
 
 Ille and hie, 485. In notices of time, 
 276, obs. 5. Referring to what fol- 
 lows, 485 b. Ille et ille, illud Phere- 
 cydis, 476 c, obs. 
 
 im, a personal termination of verbs, 
 115 d. 
 
 /mo, imo vero, 454. 
 
 Impedio, its construction, 375 a (obs. 2) 
 and b. 
 
 Imperative, old in mino, 115 e. Pres. 
 and fut., 384. Expressed by a con- 
 junctive, 385. How expressed in the 
 oralio obliqva, 404. 
 
 Imperfect, 337. Of a thing which was 
 on the point of happening, 337 obs. 
 348 b. Imperf. and pluperf. conjunc- 
 tive, 379. Imperf. conj. irregularly 
 employed after a present in the lead- 
 ing proposition, 382, obs. 2 ; not to 
 be used in dependent questions after 
 a present, ib. obs. 5. Imperf. conj. in 
 subordinate propositions, where the 
 present is made use of in English, 
 383. Imperf. and pluperf. conj. in- 
 terchanged in conditional propositions, 
 
 347 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Impero hoc fieri, imperor duel in carce- 
 rem, 396, and obs. 3. 
 
 Impersonal verbs, 165 seq.: compare 
 218 b. Employed personally, 218 a, 
 obs. 1. Intransitive verbs used im- 
 personally in the passive, 95 obs., 218 
 c, 244 b. Impersonal construction, 
 218. 
 
 Implere, comple re, with the gen. and abl., 
 259 a, obs., 295, obs. 3. 
 
 in a negative particle in compound words, 
 204, obs. 2. 
 
 In a preposition with the accus. and abl., 
 230, and obss. With an ablative of 
 time, 276, obs. 1 and 3 ('within,' obs. 
 4). In diebus (or simply diebus) de- 
 cern, qvibus, 276, obs. 4. In die, ' a 
 day,' (bis in die), 276, obs. 3. In 
 partitive, 284, obs. 1. Verbs com- 
 pounded with it with the accus. or the 
 prep, repeated, 224 b, obs. 2 ; with 
 the dat. or the prep, (incidere in aes 
 and aeri, inesse in, inesse rei), 243, and 
 obs. 3, 245. 
 
 Incessit timor, 138 (incesso). 
 
 Iiichoativa, 141, 196. 
 
 Indeclinabilia, 54. 
 
 Indicative, 331. In hypothetical pro- 
 positions for the conjunctive, 348 ; 
 of a thing which would be a duty, 
 which ought to have been done, 348 e, 
 and obs. With si and ut'm assurances, 
 
 348 e, obs. 4. With indefinite rela- 
 tives, 362. Used by way of exception 
 and where the conjunctive might have 
 been expected, 356, obs. 3 (in depen- 
 dent interrogative propositions), 360, 
 obs. 3 (anteqvam), 368, obs., 369, obs. 
 1, 2, and 3 (in subordinate proposi- 
 tions, which express the idea of a third 
 party). 
 
 Induor with the accus., 237 a. 
 
 Infinitive, its signification, 387. As a 
 subject, 388 a, with the obs. (rarely in 
 apposition to a substantive, 388 b, 
 obs. 1). After verbs and phrases, 
 389 (used indifferently with ut, obs, 1. 
 with paratus and the like, obs. 3. 
 employed indiscriminately with the 
 accus. with the infin., obs. 4). After 
 doceo, jubeo, prohibeo, &c. (after jubeor, 
 &c), 390. in the poets after various 
 
478 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 verbs, obs. 4 (after verbs which govern 
 the dative, svadeo, &c, obs. 5). With 
 interest, inter, 391, obs. Jnfinitivus 
 historicus, 392. Simple infin. (nom. 
 with the infin.) with verba declarandi 
 and sent/endi in the passive, with 
 jubeor, videor, &c, 400 (in suspicio- 
 nem venio fecisse, ib. c, obs.); changed 
 to the accus. with the infin., 400 d. 
 Simple infin. for the accus. with the 
 infin. in the poets, 401, obs. 3. In- 
 finitive instead of the supine, or in- 
 stead of the gerund in the genitive or 
 with ad, 411, obs. 2, 412, obs. 3, 417, 
 obs. 2, 419. instead of the gerundive 
 with do, &c, 422, obs. 1. Cases with 
 the infinitive, 388 b, 393. The infi- 
 nitive understood from a verb of an- 
 other form, 478, obs. 3. 
 
 Infinitive, accusative with the. Its sig- 
 nification, 394 (222, obs. 1, 387, obs.) 
 
 . "With verba declarandi and sentiendi, 
 after phrases and substantives, 395 
 (372, obs. 5) ; in apposition to a pro- 
 noun, 395, obs. 1 ; after mitto, &c, 
 obs. 2 ; with spero, promitto, obs. 3 ; 
 previously pointed to by a pronoun, or 
 sic, ita, 395, obs. 6. With verba vo- 
 luntatis, 396 (372 b, obs. 2, 389, obs. 
 4 ; with licet, 389, obs. 5 ; in the later 
 writers with permitto, oro, &c, 396, 
 obs. 1). With verba affectaum, 397 
 (used indifferently with qvod). In 
 universal judgments concerning a re- 
 lation, 398 a (3/3, obs. 2). How dis- 
 tinguished from a proposition with 
 qvod, 398 b, and obs. 1. In exclama- 
 tions, 399. Accus. with the infin., or 
 simple infin. (nom. with the infin.) 
 with the passive of verba declarandi 
 and sentiendi, 400. Accus. with the 
 infin. in relative propositions, 402 a, 
 b. in propositions with qvam, 402 c. 
 Accus. with the infin. after a general 
 intimation of the purport of a speech 
 or argument, 403. In questions in 
 the orat. obliq., 405. With the omission 
 of the reflective pronoun as a subject, 
 401 (of a pronoun that is not reflective, 
 obs. 2). Accus. with the infin. pas- 
 sive and a simple infin. combined, 
 398 a, obs. 3. Position of the accus. 
 with the infin. and combination with 
 the leading proposition, 476 d. 
 
 Infinitive, its tenses, 406. 
 
 Inflection, 25, with the obs. 
 
 Iniqvi met, 247 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Inqvam on returning to the subject of 
 the discourse, 480. Inqvit, omitted, 
 479 b. 
 
 Infit, 162 c. 
 
 Instar with the genitive, 280, obs. 6. 
 
 Inter partitive, 284, obs. ] ; repeated, 
 470, obs. 2. Inter with the gerund, 
 414. Inter tot annos, 276, obs. 5, 
 
 note. Inter se = se, sibi inter se, 490 
 c, obs. 6. 
 
 Interdico, 260 b. 
 
 Interest, 295. 
 
 Interjection, 24, 7. 
 
 Interrogare aliqvem ambitus, 293, obs. 1. 
 Interrogare, with two accusatives, 228 
 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Intervallo (spatio), 234 b, obs. 
 
 Intransitive verbs assume a transitive 
 signification, 223 c, (obs. 3) ; with an 
 accus. of the same theme, ib. obs. 4 ; 
 become transitive by being compound- 
 ed with prepositions, 224. 
 
 Invidere alicui aliqvid or aliqva re, in- 
 videre fortunae alicujus, 224, obs. 3, 
 260 b, and obs. 1. Invideor, 244, 
 obs. 4. 
 
 io, verbs in, which follow the third con- 
 jugation, 100 c, obs., 102, obs. 2. 
 
 Ipse without is, 487 a; ipse, signifying 
 'exactly,' ib. obs. 1. Et ipse, ib. a, 
 obs. 2. Ipse drawn to the subject or 
 to some other case, ib. b; suis ipsi 
 libris, ib. Ipse foi se ipsum, 490 c, 
 obs. 4. Nunc ipsum, turn ipsum, 487 
 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Ire ultum, perditum, 411, obs. 1. 
 
 Is omitted and inserted, 484 a. Et is 
 (atqve is), et is qvidem, 484 c. Is, qvi- 
 cunqve, and is, si qvis, ib. b. Is, ejus, 
 instead of se, suus, 490 c, obs. 3. 
 
 Islands, the names of larger islands 
 sometimes constructed like the names 
 of towns, 232, obs. 3, 296 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Iste, 486. 
 
 Ita and sic, 201, 5 ; ita sum, 209 b, obs. 
 2. Ita, si, 442 a. Ita ut, 444 a, obs. 3 
 (itame diament, ut). Ita, 'yes,' 454. 
 
 Iter urn, 78, obs. 2. 
 
 Jubeo te facer e {ut facias) 390, and obs. 
 
 2 ; jubeo facer e (without a person), ib. 
 obs. 3 ; jubeo hoc fieri, ib. obs. 3, and 
 396 (obs. 3). Jubeor creari, ib. obs. 
 
 3 ; jubeo and euro often omitted (facio 
 for jubeo fieri), 481 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Judicatus pecuniae, 293, obs. 1. 
 Junctus with the dative, 243, obs. 4. 
 ius, a termination of the genitive, 37, 
 
 obs. 2. 
 Juvenis as an adjective, 60, obs. 4. 
 
 K, 8. 
 
 L and r interchanged, 179, 8, obs. 1 
 {plum, crum ; bulum, brum), 180, 5 
 (al, ar), 187, 6 (alis, cm). 
 
 Laborare ex, and with the simple abla- 
 tive, 254, obs. 4. 
 
 Leading proposition, 325 ; entirely or 
 partially introduced into the subor- 
 dinate proposition, 476 d. 
 
 Letters, their division, 4 seq. Gender 
 of their names, 31 ; their names in- 
 declinable, 54, obs. 1. 
 
 Libens, 167, obs. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 479 
 
 Libro and in libro, 273 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Licet mihi esse civi (rarely civem), 393, 
 and obs. 1 ; licet esse civem, ib. ; licet 
 me esse civem, 389, obs. 5. Licet as a 
 conjunction, 361, and obs. 1. 
 
 Licent, licens, 218 a, obs. 2. 
 
 Liquids, 7. 
 
 Zod, locorum, with adverbs of place, 284, 
 obs. 10. Interea, postea loci, adhuc 
 locorum, ib. Eo loci for eo loco, ib. 
 obs. 11. 
 
 Loco, 273 b, and obs. 1. 
 
 Logaoedic verses, 508. 
 
 M, its pronunciation, 8. 
 
 Made, 268 a, obs. 3. 
 
 Magis omitted or redundant, 308, obs. 2. 
 
 Magis and plus, 305, obs. 2. jVcm 
 
 magis (non — magis) qvam, ib. 
 Major, minor, natus, bow constructed, 
 
 306, obs. (distinct from major natit). 
 Malim, mallem, 350 b, obs. 1. 
 Mane, 54. 
 Manere witb the accus. and the dat., 223 
 
 c, and note. 
 Materia, materies, 56, 3. 
 Materialiter, words so employed, 31 j 
 
 wben inflected, 219 c, obs. 4. 
 Medius, medio, in media urbe, 273 b, 311. 
 
 Medius witb a partitive genitive, ib. 
 
 obs. Medius eo, 300 b. 
 Mei, tui, sui, as objective genitives, 297 
 
 a. as partitive, 297 c. 
 
 Memini with the gen. and the accus., 291, 
 
 and obs. 1. With the pres. of the 
 
 infin. (memini puer), 408 b, obs. 2. 
 Mereo, mereor, 148, obs., and note. Mereo 
 
 fieri and ut fiam, 389, obs. 1. 
 met an affix, 79, obs. 2, 85, obs., 92, obs. 1. 
 Metrum, 497, 509. 
 Militia;, 296 b. 
 Mille, millia, 72. 
 
 Million, how expressed in Latin, 73. 
 Minari alicui mortem, alicui baculo, 242, 
 
 obs. 1. 
 Minor natus, 306, obs. 
 Minus with and without qvam, 305. 
 Miseret, misereor, miseror, 166. 
 Mitto ad aliqvem, ut — , mitto ad aliqvem, 
 
 opus esse, 372 a, 395, obs. 2. 
 Mobilia substantia, 181. 
 Moderari with the accus. and the dat., 
 
 244, obs. 1. 
 Modi, 96, 329. 
 modi, compounds of (ejusmodi, &c), 287, 
 
 obs. 1. 
 Modo (dummodo), modo ut, modo ne, 351 
 
 b, obs. 2. Modo non, 462 a. 
 Money, computation of, Suppl. II. 
 Monoptota, diptota, &c, 55. 
 
 Months, names of, 28 a. in er, 59, obs. 2 
 
 (compare Suppl. I.). 
 Moods, see Modi. 
 Moris est, 282, obs. 2. 
 
 i Moveri Cyclopa, 237 a, obs. 
 
 | Mountains, names of, as plur. tantum, 
 
 51 g. 
 Multiplication expressed by distributives, 
 
 76 b. 
 Multus (multa tabella), 65, 2, obs. Multi 
 
 et graves for multi graves, 300, obs. 5. 
 Multum utor, 305, obs. 2. Multo with 
 
 the superlative, 310, obs. 2. 
 Mid are, commutare, permidare aliqvid 
 
 aliqvo (cum aliqvo), 258, obs. 2. 
 
 'Namely' not expressed, 435, obs. 4. 
 
 Names of ships and dramatic compo- 
 sitions used as feminines, 31, obs. 
 Proper name, one that is common to 
 two or more in the plural, those which 
 are not common being in the singular, 
 214 d, obs. 2. Proper names not to 
 be combined with all adjectives, 300, 
 obs. 4. Plur. of proper names, 50, 
 obs. 4. 
 
 National names, 190, 191. Used as 
 adjectives, 191. For the names of 
 countries, 192, obs. 2. 
 
 Natu, 55, 4 ; (grandis), major, 306, obs. 
 
 Natus (annos), 234 c. Compared, 306, 
 obs. 
 
 Ne as a negative in compound words, 
 204, obs. 3. 
 
 Ne, a negative particle, 456 (Ne qvis, 
 that no one, ib. ut ne, ib. ne tamen, 
 obs. 4). In wishes, 351 b, obs. 1. in 
 prohibitions, 386. Ne and ut ne in 
 objective propositions (354), 372 b, 
 
 375 a (omitted, cave putes, obs. 1), 
 
 376 (with verba timendi). Ne non, ib. 
 Ut understood from it, 462 b. Ne — ■ 
 qvidem, 457 ; after a negation, 460, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 — ne, enclitic interrogative particle, ab- 
 breviated (viden'), 6, obs. 2. How 
 used, 451 a ; in disjunctive interro- 
 gations, 452. 
 
 Necesse est with the conjunctive (with or 
 without ut) or the infin., 373, obs. 1. 
 
 Necne, 452. 
 
 Nedum, 355, 461, obs. 3. 
 
 Negare, dicere to be understood from it 
 in the second clause, 462 b (compare 
 403 a, obs. 2). 
 
 Negation, particles of, 455 seq. Nega- 
 tion continued by aid or ve, 458 c, obs. 
 2. Two negations constitute an af- 
 firmation, 460 ; in what cases this does 
 not hold good, obs. 2. Position of the 
 negative, 468. 
 
 Negative answers, 454. 
 
 Nemo, without a gen. in use (abl.), 91. 
 Nemo scriptor, Gallus, doctus, ib. obs. 
 301 a, obs. Nemo non, 460. An af- 
 firmative subject understood from nemo, 
 462 b. 
 
 Nempe, 435 a, obs. 4. 
 
 Neqve (nee), 458 (neqve qvisqvam, &c), 
 
480 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 put instead of et and non, not belong- 
 ing to the copula, ib. a, obs. 2 ; with 
 enim, tamen, vero, ib. b; where 'and' 
 is made use of in English, ib. c, obs. 
 2 ; instead of ne — qvidem, 457, obs. 
 neu, 459, obs. Neqve — neqve broken 
 off, 480, obs. Neqve — et, 458 c. Ne- 
 qve— aut, ib. obs. 2. Number of the 
 predicate with subjects which are con- 
 nected by neqve — neqve, 213 b, obs. 1. 
 Nee non, 460, obs. 1. (Neqve haud, 
 ib. obs. 2, note.) 
 
 Nescio an, 453. Nescio neqve — neqve, 
 460, obs. 2. Nescio qvis, nescio qvo- 
 modo, &c, 356, obs. 3. 
 
 Neve, neu, 459. 
 
 Neuter plural, not formed from all ad- 
 jectives, 60 c. Neuter of the predicate 
 with a different gender of the subject, 
 211 b, obs. 1 ; with several subjects of 
 different gender, 214 b ; of the same 
 gender, ib. c. 
 
 Ni, 442 c. 
 
 Nihil for non, 455, obs. 4. Nihil aliud 
 qvam, 479, obs. 5 ; si nihil aliud, ib. 
 Nihil ad me, ib. d, obs. 1. Nihil non, 
 460. Nihil admodum, 462 a. NiMH, 
 nihilo, how used, 494 b, obs 3. 
 
 Nisi and si non, 442 c. Nisi forte, nisi 
 vero, ib. obs. 1 ; nisi after negatives 
 (nemo nisi), obs. 2 ; introducing an 
 exception, obs. 3 ; nisi qvod, ib. Nihil 
 (qvid) aliud nisi, 444 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Noli, nolito in prohibitions, 386, obs. 2. 
 
 Nomen mihi est Mercurio, Mercurius, 
 Mercurii, 246, obs. 2. Obsidum no- 
 mine, 257, obs. 5. 
 
 Nominal forms of the verb, 97. 
 
 Nominative instead of the vocative, 299, 
 obs. 1 ; in apposition to the vocative, 
 obs. 2. Nom. with the infin., 400 
 (401, obs. 3); a nom. without a verb, 
 479 d, obs. 2. 
 
 Non instead of ne, 456, obs. 2. Non 
 possum non, 455, obs. 3. Non modo, 
 non tantum, non solum, 461 a; non 
 modo, non solum — sed ne — qvidem (sed 
 vix), non modo non — sed ne — qvidem, 
 ib. b ; non modo — sed ne — qvidem for 
 non modo non, ib. (non modo, sed om- 
 nino non, obs. 1) ; non modo = non 
 dico, ib. obs. 2 ; non modo, ' much 
 less/ ib. obs. 3. Non ita, non item, 
 nondum necdum, 462 a. Non qvo and 
 non qvin, 357 b, obs. Non, si — idcirco, 
 442 a, obs. 3. 
 
 Nonne, 451 c. 
 
 Nonnemo, 493 c, obs. 
 
 Nonae, Suppl. I. 
 
 Nos, noster, for ego, meus, 483. 
 
 Nostrum, vestrum, as partitive genitives, 
 297 c ; as possessive genitives with 
 omnium, ib. a, obs. ; as objective, ib. 
 c, obs. 
 
 Nudiustertius, nudiusqvartus, 202, obs. 
 
 Nullus in the gen. and abl. for nemo, 91. 
 Nullius, nulla (rarely) for nullius rei, 
 nulla re, 494 b, obs. 3. Nullus for 
 non, 455, obs. 5 ; nulla rheda, 'without 
 a carriage,' 257. 
 
 Num, numne, numqvid, 451 b. 
 
 Number of the predicate with several 
 subjects, 213. 
 
 Numeral forms, their peculiarities, 50. 
 See Singular, Plural. 
 
 Numeral adverbs, 199 ; in um and o, ib. 
 obs. 2. With sestertium, Suppl. II. 
 
 Numeral signs, 70, and obs. 2. 
 
 Numerals, 24, 2, obs. Their classifica- 
 tion, 69. 
 
 Nuptum dare, 411, obs. 1. 
 
 O and u related, 5 c ; o instead of u 
 after v, 5 a, obs. 3. 
 
 interjection with the accus. or voc, 
 236, obs. 1. 0,si— , 351 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Obeqvitare with the accus. or dat., 224 a, 
 obs. 1 . 
 
 Object, 214 a, 222, and obs. 1. 
 
 Objective propositions with ut and other 
 particles, 371 seq. 
 
 Oceanus, mare Oceanum, 191, obs. 1. 
 
 oe, for the Greek nom. termination oi, 
 38, 1. 
 
 Oleo with the accus., 223, obs. 2. 
 
 Ollus, 82, obs. 1. 
 
 on, a Greek termination of the genitive, 
 38, 1,45, 7. 
 
 on, nominative termination of Greek pro- 
 per names, and o, 45, 1. 
 
 Operatus, 146, obs. 2. 
 
 Oportet with the conj. (with or without 
 ut) or the infin., 373, obs. 1 ; oportet 
 hoc fieri, 398 a, obs. 2. Oportebat, 
 oportuit, oportuerat, of a thing which 
 would have been proper in a certain 
 case, or which should have been done, 
 348 c, and obs. Oportuit factum, 407, 
 obs. 1. 
 
 Opto, utfiam and fieri, 389, obs. 1. 
 
 Opus est, 266 (Hirtium convenire, Hir- 
 tium conveniri, Hirtio convento, obs.). 
 
 Orntio obliqva, 369, 403 ; continuous, 
 403 b. 
 
 Ordinal numbers, 69, 74 ; with qvisqve, 
 74, obs. 2. Adjectives formed from 
 them, 187, 9. 
 
 Oriundus, 151 (orior). 
 
 Orthography, Roman, unsettled, 12. 
 
 Ortus aliqvo and ab aliqvo, 269, obs. 
 
 orum, termination of the genitive, for um, 
 
 44, 2. 
 
 os and or in the nom. of some words, 41 
 
 (p. 35). 
 os, a Greek termination of the genitive, 
 
 45, 3. 
 
 os, Greek nom. of the second declension, 
 
 38,2. 
 Ovans, 164, obs. 
 
 Pace alicujus, 257, obs. 5. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 481 
 
 Paene, prope, "with tlie pevf. indie, 348 e, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 Paeon, 499. 
 
 Par, adject, and subst. in tbe masc. and 
 neuter, 41 ; ablat., 42 b, obs. Par 
 alicui and alicujus, 247 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Para/us with tbe infin., 389, obs. 3. 
 
 Parisyllaba in es and is, 40 c, obs. 1. 
 
 Pars — pars with the plur. of the predi- 
 cate, 215 a. Partem (magnam partem), 
 237 c, obs. 3. Partibus without in, 
 273 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Participles, 97. compared, 62. in bun- 
 dus, 115 g. Formed from some im- 
 personal verbs, 167; obs. How used, 
 
 423, 424 (to denote a circumstance). 
 Participle governing a relative or in- 
 terrogative pronoun, 424, obs. 3 ; with 
 nisi, qvaxqvam, &c. instead of a whole 
 proposition, ib. obs. 4 (428, obs. 2). 
 A participle used as a substantive, 
 425 a. as an adjective, 425 b. Parti- 
 ciples in ablalivi conseqventiae, 428. 
 Ablativi censeq. of a participle alone, 
 
 429. Participles used together with 
 other ways of denoting circumstances, 
 
 430. Participles with a predicative 
 noun (judicatus hostis), 227 c, obs. 4. 
 Relation of the participle to the lead- 
 ing verb in respect of time, 431 a. 
 
 Participle fut. irregularly formed in some 
 verbs, 106, obs. 2. Not used as an 
 adjective, 425 b, obs. Limited em- 
 ployment of it by the older writers, 
 
 424, obs. 5, 425 ; rare in abl. conseq., 
 428, obs. 3. With sum, 341. fui, 
 eram, 342, 348 a. ero, 343. fuerim, 
 381. fuisse, 409. 
 
 Participle perf. of some intrans. verbs; 
 
 110, obs. 3; of deponents with a pas- 
 sive signification, 153. With an accus. 
 (in the poets), 237 b. With fui as a 
 perfect to express a condition, 344. In 
 the neuter as a substantive (bonum fac- 
 tum, bene factum), 425 c. With a sub- 
 stantive {rex interfectus) denotes sub- 
 stantively the action performed (caedes 
 regis), 426. A neuter part, put alone 
 in this signification, 426, obs. 1. With 
 habeo, 427. Part. perf. of deponents 
 with the signification of a present, 431 
 b. That of other verbs rarely so used, 
 ib. obs. Part. perf. in abl. conseq. of a 
 circumstance that accompanies or fol- 
 lows the action, ib. obs. 2. 
 
 Participle present as an adjective with the 
 
 genitive, 289 a. 
 Particles, 24, 6, obs. 
 JPartim with the gen., 284; obs. 4. 
 Pascens, particle of pasco and of pascor, 
 
 111, obs. 
 
 Passive, not formed from all verbs which 
 may have an accus., 223 c, obs. 1, 
 224 c, obs. Rare from verbs which 
 govern the dative, 244, obs. 4. In 
 
 some verbs with a new active signifi- 
 cation, 237 a. Used with a reflective 
 signification, 222, obs. 3. Passive of 
 some verbs followed by an infin. pas- 
 sive (qvitus sum, neqvilur), 159, obs. 2 ; 
 see coeptus sum. 
 
 Paterfamilias, 34, obs. 2. 
 
 Patronymics, 183. 
 
 Pensi nihil habere, 285 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Pentameter, 504 b. 
 
 per prefixed to adjectives with an inten- 
 sive signification, 68 c, obs. (Tmesis, 
 203 obs.) 
 
 Per, preposition, to express the duration 
 of time, 235. Per vim, simulaiionem, 
 per causam remigum exercendorum, 257 ', 
 obs. 2. Per me licet, potes, 255, obs. 1. 
 
 Perdo, in the passive usually pereo (ex- 
 cept perditu s), 133 (do). 
 
 Perfect, its formation, 103. Syncope 
 and contraction, 113 a. Irregular with 
 respect to the present, 117 seq. His- 
 torical, 335 a. absolute, ib. b. Of 
 actions which are repeated, with qvum, 
 &c, ib. b, obs. 1. Used in the poets 
 of a thing which usually happens, ib. 
 obs. 3. With postqvam, &c, 338 b. 
 with anteqvam, &c, ib. obs. 5. Per- 
 fect of a condition in tbe passive with 
 fui, 344. Perf. conj. sometimes used 
 instead of the imperf. with ut, qvin, 
 382, obs. 1. In subordinate propo- 
 sitions with an accus. with the infin., 
 382. Perf. conj. in the passive in pro- 
 hibitions with ne, 386. Perf. inf. of a 
 completed action (poteras dixisse) with 
 satis est, poenitebit, &c, 407 (with 
 oportuit, &c, obs. 1); as a plur erf. 
 after a preterite, 408 b ; instead of the 
 present in the poets, 407, obs. 2 ; 
 formed with fuisse in the passive, 4( 8 
 a. Present and perfect infin. with 
 memini, 408 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Periculo alicujus, at anyone's peril, 257, 
 obs. 5. 
 
 Perinde and proinde qvasi ; perinde ac 
 (si), 444 a. obs. and b. 
 
 Period, structure of periods, 475 — 477. 
 
 Periphrastic conjugation, see Conjugatio. 
 
 Perosus, 161, obs. 
 
 Perseus, declension of, 38, 3. 
 
 Person of the predicate where there are 
 several subjects, 212. Person, tbe 
 second, of an assumed subject, 370. 
 The third person singular without a 
 defined subject in subordinate propo- 
 sitions with the infinitive, 388 b, obs. 
 2 ; the third person plural without a 
 defined subject, 211 a, obs. 2. 
 
 Personal forms, 99. 
 
 Phraseological peculiarities of the Latin 
 language, 481 b. 
 
 Place, adverbs of, 201, 1. 
 
 Plenus with the gen. and abl., 268 a» 
 obs. 1, 290 e. 
 
 3 Q 
 
482 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Pleonasmus, 207, obs., 481 b. 
 
 Pluperfect, see Plusqvamperfectum. 
 
 Plural formed from words which com- 
 monly want it, 50, and obs. 1. Plural 
 formed in Latin from the names of 
 general ideas, ib. obs. 3. Plural of 
 adjectives used substantively, 301. 
 of pronouns, 312. 
 
 Pluralia tantum, of two kinds, 51 ; with 
 distributives, 76 c. 
 
 Plus with and without qvam, 305. For 
 magis, ib. obs. 2 {animus plus qvam 
 fraternus). Uno plus and plures, ib. 
 obs. 3. 
 
 Plusqvamperfectum, 338 ; with qvum, &c, 
 of repeated actions, where the imperf. 
 is used in English, ib. a, obs. Plu- 
 perf. conj., 379 ; not used in conditional 
 propositions which on another account 
 would have had the conjunctive, 381. 
 Changed with the imperf. in condit. 
 prop., 347 b, obs. 2. Represented in 
 the infin. by the part. fut. with fuisse, 
 409. 
 
 Poenitet hoc, 218 a, obs. 2. Poenitendo, 
 ad poenitendum, ib. obs. 3. 
 
 Pondo, 54, obs. 3. 
 
 Position, 15, 22; weak, 22. 
 
 Posse as a future, 410, obs. 1. 
 
 Postqvam, posteaqvam with the perf., 338 
 b. with the plup., obs. 1. with the 
 imperf., obs. 2. Post diem decimum 
 qvam, 276, obs. 6 ; post decern dies 
 qvam, 270, obs. 4. 
 
 Postridie, 230, obs. 1. Suppl. I. 
 
 Potiri rerum, 265, obs. 1. 
 
 Potius omitted and redundant, 308, obs. 
 2. Potius (citius) qvam (qvam ut) 
 with the conjunctive, 360, obs. 4. 
 
 Potui in the indie, in conditional lan- 
 guage, 348 b,e, obs. 1. 
 
 Prae lacrimis, 255, obs. 1. 
 
 Prae with an intensive signification pre- 
 fixed to adjectives, 68 c, obs. 
 
 Praestare alicui and aliqvem, 224< d. 
 
 Praeter as an adverb, 172, III. obs. 2. 
 
 Praeverto, praevertor, 139 (verto). 
 
 Predicate, 208 a. Simple, resolved, pre- 
 dicative noun, 209 a. The predicative 
 noun represented by a pronoun, 209 a. 
 obs. 1. Relation of the predicate where 
 there are several subjects, as to per- 
 son, 212. number, 213. gender, 214. 
 Referred to the more remote subject, 
 ib. d, obs. 3. Defined by the natural 
 character of the subject, 215. The 
 verb regulated according to the pre- 
 dicative noun, 216. With a subject 
 which has an apposition differing from 
 it in gender or number, 217. Re- 
 ferred to a noun appended by qvam or 
 nisi, 217, obs. 2. 
 
 Prefixes, 204. 
 
 Prepositions, 24, 5. Enumerated, 172. 
 Used as adverbs, ib. obs. 2. Modified 
 
 in composition, 173. Prepositions 
 with their case immediately attached 
 to a substantive, 298 (sometimes by 
 means of a participle, ib. obs. 1). 
 Position of the prepositions, 469, with 
 obss. 1 and 2 ; the prep, repeated, 470. 
 Position less restricted in the poets, 
 474 c. The prep, omitted with the 
 relative, 323 b, obs. 1. Praepositiones 
 inseparabiles, 204. 
 
 Present of verbs sometimes has the theme 
 modified, 118. Present of a thing 
 which still continues, 334, obs. His- 
 torical, 336 (in the poets, obs. 1); 
 treated as a present and as a perfect, 
 382, obs. 3. With dum, * while,' 336, 
 obs. 2. For the future, 339, obss. 1 and 
 2. Present conj. supplying the place 
 of the future, 378 a; in conditional 
 propositions, 347 b. (obss. 1 and 3). 
 In hypothetical propositions of com- 
 parison, 349, obs. ; of the conjunctivus 
 potentialis, 356. 
 
 Pridie, postridie, 230, obs. 1 (p. 206). 
 
 Primitiva, 174. 
 
 Primum, primo, 199, obs. 2. 
 
 Princeps, 60, obs. 4. 
 
 Priusqvam, see Anteqvam. 
 
 pro shortened in some compounds, 173, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 Pro tua prudentia, 446. 
 
 Pro, interjection (pro deum fidem), 236, 
 obs. 1. 
 
 Probare alicui sententiam, 242, obs. 1. 
 
 Procul a mari and procul mari, 172, obs. 3. 
 
 Producere syllabam, 15, obs. 2. 
 
 Prohibere Campaniampopulationibus, cives 
 a periculo, 261. Prohibeo with ne, 
 qvominus, infin., accus. with the infin., 
 375 a (obs. 2), b, 390, 396; opera 
 prohibenter fieri, 396, obs. 3. 
 
 Promitto me facturum, 395, obs. 3. 
 
 Pronoun, 24, 2, with the obs. Classi- 
 fication of the pronouns, 78. Personal 
 pronouns inserted and omitted, 482. 
 Gen. plur., 297 a, obs. The objective 
 gen. supplied by met, tut, &c, ib. b. 
 Partitive gen., ib. c. 
 
 Pronoun (demonstrative) referring to 
 several substantives, 312 a ; in the 
 neuter plur., ib. b. Referred to the 
 following substantive, 313 ; connected 
 with a substantive instead of being put 
 in the genitive, 314. Referred less 
 accurately to the preceding noun, 
 317. Put after the relative, 321. 
 Omitted before the relative, ib., with 
 the obs. Redundant after a noun sepa- 
 rated by an intervening proposition, 
 489 a ; with qvidem, ib. b ; see also 
 hie, is, ille, iste. 
 
 Pronoun (relative) referred to several 
 substantives, 315 a ; the substantive 
 repeated with it, ib. a, obs. 2. Re- 
 ferred to the following substantive, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 483 
 
 316. Referred less accurately to trie 
 preceding noun (in several ways), 317 
 (to the person indicated by a possessive 
 pronoun, ib. a). Draws the substan- 
 tive to it, 319, 320. Draws a super- 
 lative to it from the leading proposi- 
 tion, 320 ; precedes the demonstrative, 
 321. Omitted in the second member 
 of the sentence or replaced by a de- 
 monstrative, 323. Put by attraction 
 in the case of the demonstrative, ib. 
 obs. 2. Relative after idem, 324 b. 
 The relative drawn into a subordinate 
 proposition belonging to the relative 
 proposition, 445; forming a peri- 
 phrasis for ^rw, 446; used copulatively 
 in the place of a demonstrative, 448 ; 
 not put with adversative or conclusive 
 particles, ib. obs. Relative correla- 
 tives, 324 a. Position of relative 
 words, 465 b ; of the relative prop, 
 before the demonstrative, 476, obs. 2. 
 Conjunctive in relative propositions, 
 see Conjunctive. 
 
 Pronoun (indefinite relative), 87, some- 
 times employed as an indefinite uni- 
 versal, 87, obs. 1, 93, obs. 1, 201, 
 2, obs. 2. With the indicative, 362. 
 
 Pronoun (interrogative), 88. Belonging 
 to a participle, 424, obs. 3. Two com- 
 bined, 492 a. 
 
 Pronoun (indefinite), 89, 493 (see qvis, 
 aliqvis, &c). Omitted before the re- 
 lative, 322. 
 
 Pronoun (possessive), 92. Combined 
 with a genitive, 297 a. Used for the 
 objective genitive {met, &c), ib. b, 
 obs. 1. Omitted, 491. Denotes what 
 is suitable and advantageous, ib. 
 obs. 1. 
 
 Pronoun (reflective), 85. Sui as an ob- 
 jective genitive, 297 b (sui conservandi 
 causa for the plural, 417). Se omitted 
 as the subject of an infinitive propo- 
 sition, 401. Se and suus not referred 
 to the subject, 490 b ; in the sub- 
 ordinate prop, referred to the subject 
 of the leading prop., ib. c (obs. 1). 
 Confounded with is, ib. obs. 3. Se, 
 suus, in the signification one (one's), 
 ib. obs. 5. 
 
 Pronominal adverbs, 201. 
 
 Pronunciation according to quantity and 
 accent, 14, 498, note. 
 
 Prope, prope ab, 172, obs. 4. Propius, 
 proxime, with the accus. (rarely with 
 the dat), ib. Propius ab, 230, obs. 2 
 (p. 207). 
 
 Propior, proximus, with the dat. and (less 
 frequently) the accus., 230, obs. 2 (p. 
 207), 247 b ; proximus ab, 230, obs. 2. 
 
 Propositions, their kinds, 325. Compound 
 proposition, ib. Co-ordinate proposi- 
 tions, 328. Two co-ordinate proposi- 
 tions combined so as to form one 
 
 3d 
 
 assertion, 438. Sequence of the pro- 
 positions, 475, 476. Leading and sub- 
 ordinate proposition intimately com- 
 bined, 476 d. in the poets, 474 h. 
 
 Proprius with the gen., more rarely with 
 the dat, 290 f. 
 
 Prosody, 14. 
 
 Protasis, 326, obs. 2. 
 
 Providus, providentior, 65, obs. 
 
 Prudens with in, and with the gen., 289 
 b, obs. 3. 
 
 -pte, 92, obs. 1. 
 
 Pudet, hoc pudet, 218 a, obs. 2. Pudendi, 
 pudendo, ib. obs. 3. Pudet me ali- 
 cujus, 292. 
 
 Pugno, compounds of it which govern the 
 accus., 225 obs. 
 
 Pur gar e se alicui, 242, obs. 1. 
 
 Qva, qvae in the nom. sing. fem. and 
 plur. neuter, 90. 
 
 Qva — qva, 435, obs. 3. 
 
 Qvaero ex, 223 b. 
 
 Qvaeso, qvaesumus, 137 (qvaero). 
 
 Qvaliscunqve, qvantuscunqve, 93, and obs. 
 1. 
 
 Qvam with the comparative, 303 a ; in- 
 serted or omitted with plus, amplius, 
 minus, 305. Qvam and ac, 444 b. 
 Qvam pro, 308, obs. 1. (Major) qvam 
 ui, qvam qvi, ib. obs. 1, 364, 440 a. 
 Qvam maximus, qvam possum maximus, 
 310, obs. 3. Qvam for postquam, 276, 
 obs. 6, note. Qvam with the second 
 member of a comparison inserted be- 
 fore the comparative, 303 a, obs. 2. 
 Qvam separated from its adjective, 468 
 obs. 
 
 Qvamobrem, qvare (est, nihil est, qv.), 372 
 b, obs. 6. 
 
 Qvamqvam, 361, obs. 2, with the con- 
 junctive for qvamvis, ib. obs. 3. Intro- 
 ducing an observation, 443. 
 
 Qvamvis (qvantumvis), 361 (obs. 1) ; with 
 the indie, for qvamqvam, obs. 3 ; with 
 adjectives, 443 obs. 
 
 Quantity, 14. Of the final vowel of 
 verbal themes in inflection and deri- 
 vation, 102 obs. 1, 176 d. 
 
 Qvantus potest maximus, 310, obs. 3. 
 
 Qvaqva, ablat. of a later period, 87. 
 
 Qvare, (est, qvare), 372 b, obs. 6 ; ' that, 
 by those means,' ' so that, on that ac- 
 count,' 440 b. obs. 1. 
 
 Qvasi, 444 a, obss. 1 and 2 : what tense it 
 takes, 349, obs. 
 
 -qve, its signification, 433; after nega- 
 tions for sed, ib. obs. 2. qve — et, qve — 
 qve, 435 a. obs. 1. Qve (ve, ne) with 
 prepositions, 470, obs. 1. transposed in 
 the poets, 474 f (obs.). Lengthened in 
 the arsis, 502 a ; elided at the end of 
 an hexameter, 503, obs. 1. 
 
 2 
 
484 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Qvco occurs mostly in negative proposi- 
 tions, 159, ols. 1. Qvitus sum, ib. 
 obs. 2. 
 
 Questions, direct and dependent, 331 ; 
 dependent in the conjunctive, 356 (ex- 
 ception, ib. obs. 3); in the conj., when 
 an inquiry is made what is to be done, 
 353 j elliptical question with ut, ib. 
 obs. Questions without a particle, 
 450. Interrogative particles, 451. with 
 disjunctive questions, 452. Questions 
 connected by aut not disjunctive, 453, 
 obs. 2. Questions in the oratio ob- 
 liqva, 405. Interrogative exclamation 
 of surprise, expressed affirmatively, 
 492 b. 
 
 Qvi, ablative, 88, obs. 2. interrogative 
 adverb, 88, obs. 2. 
 
 Qvi qvidem, qvi modo, 384, obs. 2. 
 
 Qvi non and qvi//, 410, obs. 3, 365, 
 obs. 3. 
 
 Qvia, what mood it takes, 357. 
 
 Qvicunqve (qvaliscunqve, qvilibet), divided 
 by tmesis, 87, obs. 2. Without a rela- 
 tive signification, ib. obs. 1. Qvicunqve 
 and the particles derived from it, with 
 the perf. and the pluperf. indie, 335 b, 
 obs. 1, 338 a, obs. With the indie, or 
 the conj. of the pluperf., 359. 
 
 Qvid hominis es ? 285 b. 
 
 Qvid, elliptical expressions with it, 479 
 d, obs. 1. 
 
 Qvid (Dionysium) censes, nonne — ? 395, 
 obs. 7. 
 
 Qvidam, 493 c. 
 
 Qvidem, its position, 471 ; with a pronoun 
 prefixed, 489 b. 
 
 Qvin, its signification, 375, obs. 4. After 
 verba praetermittendi, dubitandi, &e, 
 where their negative force is destroyed, 
 ib. c (obs. 1) : qvis ignorat, qvin, obs. 
 
 2. Qvinimus? qvin faces? 351 b. obs. 
 
 3. Qvin, 'but that,' 440 a, obs. 3. 
 For qvi non, 365, obs. 3. Non qvin 
 (= non qvia non), 357 b, obs. 
 
 Qvippe qvi, 366, obs. 2. 
 
 Qvis and qvi, interrog. pronoun, 88, 1 ; 
 indefinite, 90, 1. Qvis, indef. pronoun, 
 how used, 493 a ; adverbs derived from 
 it, 201, 2, obs. 1. 
 
 Qvispiam, 493 b. 
 
 Qvisqvam and ullus, 90, 3, 494 (in nega- 
 tive and other propositions). Used 
 indifferently with aliqvis, 494 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Qvisque, its signification (distributive) and 
 position, 495. With the superlative, 
 ib. With qvotus and ordinal numbers, 
 74, obs. 2. Oplimus qvisqve with the 
 verb in the plur., 215 a. Qvisqve in 
 apposition to a subject in the plural, 
 217, obs. 1. Not used for omnes, nemo 
 non, 495, obs. 1. 
 
 Qvisqvis, usual forms, 87. Qvicqvid, an- 
 tiquated for qvidqve, 495, obs. 1. 
 
 Quo=ad quein, ad qvos, 317, obs. 2. Qvo 
 
 mild with the accus. or with an infin., 
 239. Qvo=ut eo, 440 b, obs. 1. Non 
 qvo, 357 b, obs. Qvo minus, 375 b 
 (obs. 1). 
 
 Quoad ejus, 284, obs. 9. 
 
 Qvod a causal particle with the indie, or 
 conj., 357 ; qvod dicer et, ib. a, obs. 2 ; 
 after the verba affectuum, 397. Shews 
 a fact as the object of a judgment, 398 
 b (obs. 1). Qvod, ' as to the circum- 
 stance, that,' ib. obs. 2. Before other 
 conjunctions (qvod si, &c.), 419. (Pro- 
 noun qvod pointing to an accus. with 
 the infin. following, ib.) Qvod sciam, 
 364, obs. 2. Nihil est, qvod, there is 
 no reason why — , 372 b, obs. 6. 
 
 Qvominus, see Qvo. 
 
 Qvoqve, its position, 471. Non modo—' 
 sed quoqve for sed etiam, 461 obs. 
 
 Qvoqvo modo, 87, obs. 1. 
 
 Qvoties with the perf. indie., 335 b, obs. 
 1. with the pluperf. in the indie, or 
 conj., 359. 
 
 Qvotus qvisqve, 74, obs. 2. 
 
 Qvum with the perf. and pluperf. indie., 
 335 b, obs. 1, 338 a, obs. Qvum cau- 
 sale with the conj., 358. Qvum tem- 
 porale with the indie, and conj. of the 
 imperf. and pluperf., ib. ; qvum (qvum 
 interim) introducing the notice of an 
 event, ib. obs. 1 ; qvum, since, ib. ; 
 qvum, while, with the indie, obs. 2 ; 
 qvum, although, with the conj., obs. 3. 
 Qvum with the indie, or the conj. to 
 designate repeated actions, 359. Qvum 
 — turn, 358, obs. 3 (distinct from turn- 
 turn, 435 a, obs. 3). Auditum est ex eo, 
 qvum diceret, 358, obs. 4, Qvum with 
 the historical infin., 392. 
 
 R put for s, 8; r and I interchanged, 
 see I. 
 
 Radix, see Root. 
 
 Ratio nulla est with the infin., 417, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 re and ris, personal termination, 114 b. 
 
 re a particle used in composition, 204 
 (its quantity, obs. 1). 
 
 Reapse, 82, 4. 
 
 Reddo not used in the passive forfio, 227 
 a, note. 
 
 Reduplication, 103, and obs. (In rettuli, 
 &c, 204, obs. 1). 
 
 Refert, 166 c, 295. 
 
 Refertus, 268 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Reflective verbs expressed by the pas- 
 sive, 222, obs. 3. 
 
 Relative indefinite pronouns and par- 
 ticles employed in designating repeated 
 actions with the perf. indie, 335 b, 
 obs. 1 . with the pluperf., 338 a, obs., 
 with the conj., 359. 
 
 Relative propositions to denote an ob- 
 ject and motive, 327 ; in the conj., 
 
INDEX. 
 
 485 
 
 363 seq. In what cases they are not 
 
 to be formed, 447. See besides Pro- 
 noun (relative). 
 Reliqvi nihil facer e, 285 b, obs. 2. 
 Reliqvum est, relinqvitur, restat ut, 373. 
 Repetundarum, repetundis, 55, 5. 
 Res used periphrastically, 301 b, obs. 1 ; 
 
 instead of an impersonal expression, 
 
 218 c, obs. 
 Rhenumflumen for Rhenus, 191, obs. 1. 
 Rivers (names of), their gender, 28 a. 
 Root, 26, obs. 1, 174; enlarged in the 
 
 present of verbs, 118. 
 pos (with a consonant preceding), a 
 
 Greek termination, corresponding to 
 
 the Latin in er, 38 obs. 
 Rudis rei and in re, 289 b, obs. 3. 
 Rus, to the country, 233 ; rure, ruri, in 
 
 the country, 273 b; rure, from the 
 
 country, 275. 
 
 S, at the end of words had anciently 
 a weaker pronunciation, 22, obs. 4. 
 Between two vowels has been changed 
 to r, 8 (40, 2, obs., 41, p. 38, 
 note '). 
 
 Saltare Turnum, 223 c. 
 
 Salve, solvere, 164. 
 
 Sapere with the accus., 223 c, obs. 2. 
 
 Satis with the genitive, 285 c. 
 
 sco a verbal termination, 140 — 142. 
 
 Se, sibi, see Reflective Pronoun. 
 
 se, a particle in compound words, 204. 
 
 Secundo, 199, obs. 2. 
 
 Secundo flumine, 300, obs. 1. 
 
 Secus virile, muliebre, 55, 5. 
 
 Sed, 437. On resuming a discourse, 480 
 (sed tamen). 
 
 Semis, Suppl. II. B, 2 obs. ; semi, 204, 
 obs. 4. 
 
 Senex as an adjective (in the poets), 60 
 c, obs. 4. 
 
 Sententid med, 155, obs. 3» 
 
 Seqvior, secius, 66 b, obs. 
 
 Seqvitur, ut (less frequently the accus. 
 with the infin.), 373, obs. 2. 
 
 Sesqvi, 204, obs. 4. 
 
 Sestertius, sestertia, sestertium decies, 
 Suppl. II. A. 
 
 Sexcenti, denoting a great number, p. 
 70, note. 
 
 Si with the conj., 347. Omitted, 442 a, 
 obs. 2. Si forte, si modo, si jam, si 
 maxime, si qvidem, si more accurately 
 defined by another si, ita, si, 442 a. ; 
 si non, distinct from nisi, 442 c. : si 
 (sin) minus, ib. Si nihil aliud, 479, 
 obs. 5. Sin (sin autem), 442 b. Si 
 as an interrogative particle (whether), 
 451 d. 
 
 Sic sum, 209 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Signification of substantives, different in 
 the plur. and in the sing., 52. 
 
 Similis with the dat. and the gen., 247 b, 
 obs. 2. 219, obs. 2. 
 
 Simul Ids for cum his, 172, obs. 3. Simul 
 — simul, 435, obs. 3. 
 
 Sine ullo auxilio (not sine omni), 494 a 
 (non sine aliqvo, obs. 1). Never used 
 with the gerund, 416, obs. 3. 
 
 Singular of certain substantives used col- 
 lectively (eqves, pedes), 50, obs. 5. 
 
 Singuli, 76 a; in si?igulos terni or tres, 
 ib. obs. 
 
 Sinisterior, 67 d, obs. 2. 
 
 Sino (lit) vivat, sino eum vivere, hoc fieri, 
 372 b, obs. 2, 390 (obs. 3), 396. Ac- 
 cusare non sum situs, 390. 
 
 Sirim, 136, obs. (sino). 
 
 Sive, seu, 436 ;=vel si, 442 b ; sive — she, 
 ib. ; with the indie, 332, obs. 
 
 'So called,' 431 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Sociare aliqvid alicui, 243, obs. 3. 
 
 Sonare hominem, 223, obs. 2. 
 
 Spero facere for me facturum is rare, 
 395, obs. 3 ; spero me posse, 410, 
 obs. 1. 
 
 Spondee, 499. 
 
 Sponte, 55, 4. 
 
 Stare with the ablative, 267. Stat per 
 aliqvem, qvominus, 375 b. 
 
 Strophe, 509. 
 
 Svadere, its construction, 242, obs. 1. 
 
 Sub with the accus. and the abl., 230. 
 Verbs compounded with it, 243, 245, 
 (subjicio, subjungo sub, 243, obs. 1). 
 In some compounds sus, 173. with a 
 diminutive signification, 206 a. 
 
 Subiremontem (in the poets portae, animo), 
 224 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Subject, 208 a ; omitted, ib. b, obs. 2, 
 3 ; in a subordinate proposition sub- 
 joined to an infinitive, 388 b, obs. 2 ; 
 the reflective pronoun as a subject 
 omitted in an infinitive proposition, 
 401 ; also one that is not reflective, ib. 
 obs. 2. Several subjects varying in 
 their grammatical character, 212 seq. 
 
 Subordinate propositions, 325. of dif- 
 ferent kinds, 326, with obs. 1 ; their 
 position, and insertion in the leading 
 proposition, 476. 
 
 Substantives, their derivation, 177 seq. 
 Substantia mobilia, 181. Substantives 
 put as adjectives, 60, obs. 2, 3, 4 ; 301 
 c, obs. 2. 
 
 Subter, 230. 
 
 Svemus, 142 (svesco). 
 
 Svetus with the infin., 389, obs. 3^ 
 
 Suffix, 175. 
 
 Sui, suus, see Reflective pronoun. 
 
 Sum, see Esse. 
 
 Sunt, qvi, 365, and obs. 1. 
 
 Super with the accus. and the abl., 230. 
 
 Superi (superus), 66. 
 
 Superlative, wanting, 67, 68 b. In a 
 signification which is not absolute, 310. 
 With unus, unus omnium, ib. obs. 2 ; 
 strengthened in other ways, obs. 3. 
 Differing in gender from the partitive 
 
486 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 genitive, ib. obs. 1. Denoting a part 
 of a thing {summus mons), 311. Drawn 
 into the relative proposition, 320, obs. 
 
 Superstes alicujus, 247, obs. 1. 
 
 Supine, 97. How formed, 105. Supines 
 with t where the perfect has ivi, 105, 
 obs. 3. Not in use from all verbs, 
 118, obs. (128 a). Usage of the first, 
 411. of the second, 412. 
 
 Suspectus fecisse,A0O c, obs. 
 
 Syllables, division of the, 13 (obs. 2). 
 Measure of, as to quantity, 14 seq. 
 Freedoms which the poets allow them- 
 selves in this respect, 502. the comic 
 poets, ib. obs. 2. 
 
 Syllepsis, 478. 
 
 Synaeresis, synizesis, 6, obs. 1. 
 
 Synaloephe, 6. 
 
 Syncope, 11 ; in the perfects in si (xi), 
 113, obs. 3. 
 
 Synesis in respect of the gender, 31, obs., 
 41 (termination e), 46 (termination us). 
 Constructio ad synesim, 207, obs. 
 
 Systole, 502 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Talis, tantus — qvalis, qvantus, 324 a. 
 
 Tarn — qvam qvi, 310, obs. 4. Tarn in 
 bona causa=i?i tarn bona causa, 468 
 obs. 
 
 Tanqvam, 444 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Tanti est, 294, obs. 3. 
 
 Tantum abest, 440 a, obs. 1. Tantum 
 non, 462 a. 
 
 Tempero aliqvid and alicui, 244, obs. 1. 
 
 Tempus est ire, 417, obs. 2. 
 
 Teneri (farti), 293, obs. 2, note. 
 
 Tenses of the indicative, 333 seq. (abso- 
 lute and relative) ; in the epistolary 
 style, 345. Of the conjunctive, 377 
 seq. (in hypothetical and potential 
 discourse, 347, 349, obs., 350). Of 
 the infinitive, 406 seq. Tense of the 
 subordinate proposition denned by a 
 remark inserted, 383, obs. 4. 
 
 ter, pronouns ending in, their significa- 
 tion in the plural, 84, obs. 
 
 Terra mariqve, 273 b. Terrarum with 
 adverbs of place, 284, obs. 10. 
 
 ' Than,' not expressed with amplius, plus, 
 and minus, 305. 
 
 'That,' how to be expressed in Latin, 
 399, obs. 
 
 Theme, 26, 40. Theme of verbs modi- 
 fied in the present, 118. 
 
 Thesis, 498. 
 
 ti, its pronunciation, 8. 
 
 Timeo aliqvem and alicui, 244, obs. 1. 
 Timeo ut, timeo ne, or ut non, 376. 
 
 Tmesis, 203, obs., 87, obs. 2. 
 
 * Too great to,' 308, obs. 1. 
 
 tor, substantives in, used as adjectives, 
 60, obs. 2. 
 
 Tota urbe, Asia, Terracina, 273 c (296 a, 
 obs. 2). 
 
 t'owns, names of, in us, 39 b. in o, 41, (p. 
 
 34), on, ib. (p. 41). In the accusative 
 answering to the question whither, 232 
 (obs.). In the ablative answering to 
 the question where, 273 a. to the ques- 
 tion whence, 275 (obs. 1). Genitive 
 (of those of the first and second de- 
 clension) answering to the question 
 where, 296 a. 
 
 Trajicio, its construction, 231, and note. 
 
 Trans. Verbs compounded with it which 
 take a double accus., 231. 
 
 Transitive and intransitive verbs, 94 
 (obs.). Transitive signification as- 
 sumed, 223 c. laid aside, 222, obs. 4. 
 
 trix, substantives in, used as adjectives, 
 60, obs. 2. 
 
 Trochee, 499. Trochaic verses, 506. 
 
 Tu. Te of a subject which is only 
 assumed, 370, obs. 2. 
 
 Turn — turn, 435, obs. 3. Turn ipsum, 487 
 a, obs. 1. Turn {turn vero, turn deniqve) 
 added after an ablat. conseq., 428, obs. 
 6 ; turn {turn vero) in the apodosis,442 
 
 a, obs. 1. 
 
 U, v, 4, 5 a, obs. 3. V pronounced for u, 
 5 a, obs. 4. U for i (optumus,) ib. obs. 
 5. Its affinity to 1,5 c, U and o, ib. 
 Words in u, 46, 1 ; those used only in 
 the ablative, 55, 4. U as a substantive 
 termination, 197, obs. V rejected in 
 the perfect, 113 a. in derivatives, 
 176 c. 
 
 Vacare rei, 260 a, note. 
 
 Vae with the dat., 236, obs. 2. 
 
 Ve, 436 ; after a negative, 458 c, obs. 2 ; 
 appended to prepositions, 469, obs. 2 ; 
 transposed, 474 f, and obs. 
 
 Ve in compound words, 204, obs. 3. 
 
 Vel vel — vel, 436 ('even/ obs.). 
 
 Vehens from veho and vehor, 1 1 1 obs.' 
 
 Velle aliqvem aliqvid, 228 b, obs. 2. 
 Qvid tibi vis ? 248, obs. Volenti mihi 
 est, 246, obs. 3. Velim, vellem, 350 b, 
 obs. 1. Volo (ut) facias, te facere, hoo 
 fieri, hoc factum, me esse clementem, 372 
 
 b, obs. 2, 389, obs. 4, 396 (obs. 2). 
 Velim, nolim, 442 b, obs. 
 
 Velum, vexillum, 182, obs. 3. 
 
 Vendo, veneo (not vendor), 133 (do), 
 
 Venit mihi in mentem, 291, obs. 3. 
 
 Verb, 24, 3. 94. Transitive and intran- 
 sitive verbs, 94, obs., 222, 223. Verba 
 pur a and impura, 101 (122, obs. 174, 
 obs. 3). Derivation of the verbs, 193 
 — 197. The verb defined by the pre- 
 dicative noun, 216 ; position of the 
 verb, 465 a, with the obss. The verb 
 understood, 478. omitted by ellipsis, 
 479. Verba inchoativa, &c., see Inchoa» 
 tiva, &c. 
 
 Verbal feet, 501, obs. 2. 
 
 Verbis alicujus, 257, obs. 5. 
 
 Vereor facere, 376, obs. 
 
 Vero (verum), 437 d. In answers, 454. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 487 
 
 Versans from verso and versor, 111, obs. 
 
 Verse, 497, obs. 2; simple, compound, 
 500. Feet in, 498, 499 (genuine, spu- 
 rious, unnecessary feet assumed). 
 Measure of verse, 497. 
 
 Versus Adonius, 504. Archilochius major 
 and minor, ib. Alcaicus enneasyllabus, 
 507. Names of the compound species 
 of verse, 508. Versus asynarteti, 508, 
 obs. 
 
 Versus, prep, (ad, in — versus), 172, III. 
 obs. 4. 
 
 Verum, 437 d. Verum, verum tamen in 
 resuming the discourse, 480. 
 
 Veto te facere, vetofacere, veto hoc fieri, 
 vetor hoc facere, vetor creari, 390 (obs. 
 3), 396 (obs. 3). 
 
 ui diphthong, 5 b. 
 
 Vicem alicujus, 237 c, obs. 3. 
 
 Videre, ut, 372 a. Videre, ne, 372 b, obs. 
 1. Videro, viderit, 340, obs. 4. Vide or 
 (not videtur), 400 a, with the obs., and 
 b, with the obs. 
 
 Vir, its compounds, 206 a, obs. 2. 
 
 Ulixei, 38,3. Ulixi, 42, 2. 
 
 Ullus, 90, 3, obs. 494. Ullius, ullo, and 
 occasionally ulli as substantives, 90, 3, 
 obs. 
 
 Ultimum hoc, illud, 199, obs. 2. 
 
 urn, genitive termination for arum, 34, 
 obs. 3. for orum, 37, obs. 4. 
 
 Uncia and its compounds, Suppl. II. 
 B. 2. 
 
 Unde=a qvo, aqvibus, 317, obs. 2. Unde 
 mihi with the accus., 239. 
 
 Unus, uni, 71 ; uni with pluralia tantum, 
 76 c, obs. 
 
 I7«tts, «n»5 omnium with superlatives, 
 310, obs. 2. 
 
 Vocative, 32. of Greek words in es, 35, 
 obs. 3. of words in ius, 37, obs. 3. of 
 Greek words in s of the third declen- 
 sion, 45, 4. How employed (with or 
 without o), 299 ; in the predicate in- 
 stead of the nom., 299, obs. 2. Its po- 
 sition, ib. obs. 3. 
 
 Vowels, modification of, 5 c ; in com- 
 position, 205 b. 
 
 Usqve as a preposition, 172, obs. 3, 
 
 Usus est=opus est, 266. 
 
 Ut, 201, 5; origin and connection of its 
 different significations, 372 a, obs. How 
 employed in objective propositions, 
 372, 373, 374 (obs. 2). After verba 
 timendi, 376. Used indifferently with 
 the infin. or the accus. with the infin., 
 372 b, obss. 2 and 5, 373, obs. 2, 374, 
 obs. 2 (verisimile non est, ut), 389, 
 obs. 1. Ut omitted, 372, obss. 2 and 
 4, 373, obs. 1. Ut in questions (egone 
 ut, tu ut), 353, obs. 1. Ut, 'although,' 
 440 a, obs. 4. Ut (ne), ' which I men- 
 tion, that/ ib. b. Ut ne, and ut non, 
 372 b, 456, with obs. 3 ; ut ne (ne) 
 signifying ' so that,' obs. 4. Ut non, 
 1 without/ 440 a, obs. 3. Ut qvi, ittpote 
 qvi with the conjunctive, 366, obs. 2. 
 Ut, ' since/ 441. Ut si, 444 b, obs. 2. 
 Ut repeated, 480, obs. 2. Ut—ita, 
 ' certainly — but/ 444 a, obs. 3 ; ut 
 qvisqve — ita, 495. Ut erat iratus, 444 
 a, obs. 4. Ut, ' so for example/ ib. a, 
 obs. 5. Ut put after one or more 
 words, 465 b, obs. 
 
 Uterqve with the plur., 215 a. Uterqve 
 frater, uterqve eorum, 284, obs. 3. 
 Utriqve hi for horum uterqve, utraqve 
 cornua for utrumqve cornu, 495, obs. 2, 
 Uterqve and qvisqve, ib. 
 
 Uti aliqvo amico, 265. With the accus. 
 ib. obs. 2. Utendus, ib. 
 
 Utinam, utinam ne, utinam — non, 351 b, 
 obs. 1. 
 
 Utrum, 452 (utrum — ne, with a word in- 
 terposed, obs. 1 ; utrum as a pronoun, 
 followed by ne — an, obs. 2). 
 
 Without, how expressed, 416, obs. 3. 
 
 Words, position of, very free in Latin, 
 463; the most simple, 464 ; modified 
 according to the emphasis, 465 seq. 
 472, 473. In the poets, 474. 
 
 X rejected in some words (tela, velum) 
 182, obs. 3. 
 
 Zeugma, 478, obs. 4. 
 
INDEX 
 
 TO QUOTATIONS AND REFERENCES. 
 
 The nev: quotations in this Edition are distinguished by an asterisk. 
 
 C^SAR. 
 
 CAESAR. 
 
 CESAR. 
 
 Bell. Civ. 
 
 Bell. Gall. 
 
 Bell. Gall. 
 
 i. 3. § 285 a, obs. 
 
 i. 16. § 228 b. 
 
 foot-note, *§ 316, 
 
 24. § 275, obs. 3. 
 
 17. § 382, obs. 3, § 403 b, 
 
 foot-note. 
 
 26. § 379. 
 
 § 465 a. 
 
 iv. 2. *§ 440, obs. 1. 
 
 30. § 429, obs. 2. 
 
 18. § 403 b. 
 
 5. *§ 282, obs. 2, foot- 
 
 41. § 375 b. 
 
 20. § 403 b. 
 
 note. 
 
 47. § 235, obs. 3. 
 
 21. § 476 c. 
 
 6. § 382, obs. 3. 
 
 72. § 405 b. 
 
 22. § 234 b. 
 
 12. *§ 286, obs. 3, foot- 
 
 ii. 32. § 452. 
 
 26. § 213 a, obs. § 257, 
 
 note. 
 
 33. § 457. 
 
 obs. 4. 
 
 14. §417. 
 
 35. § 375 c, obs. 1. 
 
 31. § 403 b. 
 
 16. *§ 285 b, foot-note. 
 
 37. § 298 b 1, § 306. 
 
 34. § 490 c. 
 
 18. *§ 476, 065. 4, foot- 
 
 38. § 234 b, obs. 
 
 35. § 403 b. 
 
 note. 
 
 39. § 280, obs. 2. 
 
 36. § 403 b. 
 
 19. §311, obs., *§ 315, 
 
 40. § 257, obs. 5. 
 
 37. § 414 b, obs. 3. 
 
 obs. 2, foot-note. 
 
 41. § 359. 
 
 38. § 305, § 417, obs. 3. 
 
 21. *§ 319, foot-note, *§ 
 
 iii. 8. § 232, obs. 1, § 395, 
 
 43. § 234 b, obs. 
 
 395, obs. 3, foot- 
 
 obs. 3. 
 
 44. § 403 b. 
 
 note. 
 
 24. § 257, obs. 2. 
 
 45. § 403 b. 
 
 22. *§ 234, obs. t foot- 
 
 30. § 215 a. 
 
 46. § 336, obs. 2. 
 
 note. *§ 395, obs. 
 
 44. § 348 e, obs. 3. 
 
 47. § 272. 
 
 3, foot-note. 
 
 60. § 338 b, obs. 2. 
 
 48. § 234 b, § 235. 
 
 29. *§ 315 e, foot-note. 
 
 61. § 458 c, obs. 2. 
 
 53. § 495, obs. 2. 
 
 31. § 361, obs. 2. 
 
 62. § 428, obs. 4. 
 
 ii. 4. § 269, obs. 
 
 35. § 433, obs. 2. 
 
 67. § 424, obs. 2. 
 
 7. § 234 b, obs. § 431 b. 
 
 38. *§ 50, obs. 3, foot-note. 
 
 72. § 286, obs. 2. 
 
 17. § 234 b, obs. *§ 288, 
 
 v. 6. *§ 357, obs. 2, foot- 
 
 94. § 338 b, §339, obs. 1. 
 
 foot-note. 
 
 note. 
 
 112. § 273, obs. 1. 
 
 21. § 459. 
 
 11. § 316. 
 
 
 26. § 217, obs. 1. 
 
 14. § 287, obs. 2. 
 
 Bell. Gall. 
 
 29. § 241, obs. 3, § 249, 
 
 17. § 458 c, obs. 2. 
 
 *§ 249, foot-note. 
 
 19. § 314. 
 
 i. 2. § 315 a, obs. 1. 
 
 iii. 1. § 430. 
 
 26. § 276, obs. 4. 
 
 3. § 375 c. 
 
 2. § 237, obs. 5. 
 
 28. § 420, obs. 
 
 5. § 490 c, obs. 3. 
 
 10. *§ 286, foot-note. 
 
 29. § 405 b, § 409, obs. 
 
 6. § 315 a, obs. 2, 
 
 11. § 372 b, obs. 4. 
 
 34. § 256, obs. 2. 
 
 7. *§ 261, foot-note. § 
 
 13. § 272, obs. 3, *§276, 
 
 49. § 447. 
 
 382, obs. 3, § 428. 
 
 obs. 4, foot-note. 
 
 53. § 306. 
 
 10. § 320. 
 
 14. § 356, obs. 2. 
 
 54. § 276, obs. 2. 
 
 11. § 428, obs. 4. 
 
 16. § 287. 
 
 vi. 4. *§ 244, obs. 3, foot- 
 
 12. § 436, obs. 
 
 18. § 288. 
 
 note. 
 
 13. § 379, § 403 b, § 
 
 20. *§ 227 b, foot-note. 
 
 7. § 272. 
 
 404, § 422. 
 
 24. § 375 c. 
 
 12. § 358. 
 
 14. § 288, § 403 b, §405 
 
 28. *§ 444 b, foot-note. 
 
 20. § 390, obs. 5, § 493 a. 
 
 a, § 485 a, obs. 
 
 iv. 1. § 237 c, obs. 3, § 465 
 
 21. § 363. 
 
 15. § 305, §317 c, §448. 
 
 a, obs. 3, *§ 267, 
 
 28. § 272, obs. 3. 
 
INDEX TO QUOTATIONS AND REFERENCES. 
 
 489 
 
 CAESAR. 
 Bell. Gall. 
 
 vi. 33. § 315 a, obs. 1. 
 
 37. § 451 d. 
 
 vii. 4. § 275, obs. 1, § 428, 
 obs, 1. 
 10. § 253, obs. 
 
 14. § 452. 
 
 15. § 452. 
 19. § 306. 
 
 21. § 230 b, obs. 1. 
 
 25. § 458 a, obs. 2. 
 
 26. §417, obs. 2. 
 
 38. § 273 c. 
 56. §214b. 
 
 59. § 275, obs. 1, § 283, 
 
 obs. 3. 
 64. § 72 b, obs. 1, § 404. 
 77. § 287. 
 
 Catullus. 
 lxiv.20. §502 a. 
 
 CICERO. 
 Op. Rhet. et Phil. 
 
 Academica. 
 
 i. 3. 
 
 4. 
 ii. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 11. 
 15. 
 
 19. 
 25. 
 26. 
 29. 
 30. 
 31. 
 32. 
 33. 
 35. 
 39. 
 44. 
 46. 
 
 § 433. 
 
 § 298 b, 1, § 490 c. 
 
 § 335 a, §337, obs. 1, 
 
 § 360, obs. 4. 
 § 472 a. 
 § 375 c. 
 § 494 a, obs. 1. 
 § 455, obs. 5. 
 §461 b, obs. 1. 
 § 364, obs. 1. 
 § 450, foot-note. 
 § 436, obs. § 453. 
 § 241, obs. 5. 
 § 418. 
 
 § 352, § 454. 
 § 439, obs. 2. 
 § 213 b. 
 § 364. 
 
 § 340, obs. 4. 
 § 479 d. 
 
 Brutus. 
 
 1. § 304, obs. 4. 
 
 4. § 390, obs. 3. 
 
 5. § 414, § 411. 
 
 6. § 350 b. 
 8. § 485 a. 
 
 10. § 246. 
 
 12. § 469, obs. 2. 
 
 18. § 305. 
 
 20. § 284, obs. 8. 
 
 21. § 354, § 374. 
 29. §489 b. 
 
 31. § 400 a. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 Op. Rhet. et Phil. 
 
 Brutus. 
 
 33. § 386, obs. 2. 
 
 34. § 489 b. 
 
 35. § 221. 
 
 43. § 487, obs. 1. 
 
 44. § 288. 
 49. § 362 a. 
 
 51. § 2S0, obs. 6. 
 55. § 217, obs. 1. 
 
 73. § 296 b. 
 
 74. § 323 b. 
 
 75. § 437 b. 
 77. § 362 a. 
 
 80. § 440 a, obs. 1. 
 
 82. § 241. 
 
 85. § 298 b 1. 
 
 88. § 369, §440 a, 0&5.3. 
 
 90. § 493 a. 
 
 91. § 273 c, § 278 a, § 
 
 458, a, obs. 1. 
 97. § 396. 
 
 Cato Major. 
 
 1. § 389, § 402 b. 
 2. * § 283, obs. 3, foot- 
 note. 
 
 4. § 232, § 317 d, obs. 
 
 2, § 465 b. 
 
 5. § 243, obs. 2, § 412, 
 
 obs. 1, § 434, obs. 
 2, § 465 a, § 468, 
 obs. 
 
 6. § 340, § 373, obs. 3, 
 
 § 437 c 
 
 7. § 351 b, obs. 2, § 
 
 437 c 
 9. § 408 b, obs. 2. 
 
 10. § 229 a, § 375 c, § 
 
 386, obs. 1, § 452. 
 
 11. § 278 a, § 352, § 
 
 370, 06s. 1, § 457. 
 
 12. § 308, § 337, § 481b. 
 
 13. § 357 a, § 479 d. 
 14 § 366, obs. 1. 
 
 15. § 458 c. 
 
 16. §308, § 348 e,obs.l, 
 
 § 424, § 440 b. 
 
 18. §411, § 458 a,oos.l, 
 
 § 484 c. 
 
 19. § 290 f, § 299 a, § 
 
 341, § 370, § 414, 
 § 415, § 458 a. 
 
 20. § 453. 
 
 21. § 223 c, obs. 4. 
 
 22. § 244 b, § 341. 
 
 De Divinatione. 
 
 i. 3. § 364, obs. 2. 
 10. § 485 b. 
 13. § 389. 
 
 3 R 
 
 CICERO. 
 Op. Rhet. et Phil. 
 De Divinatione. 
 i. 15. § 342 b. 
 
 25. § 276, obs. 6, § 424, 
 
 foot-note, § 452. 
 27. § 369, § 490 c. 
 
 29. § 257, obs. 2. 
 
 30. § 375 a, § 425 a. 
 
 33. § 479 c, obs. 
 
 34. § 344, obs. 1, § 487 b 
 
 35. § 273 c, obs. 
 
 36. § 437 c. 
 
 37. § 439, obs. 2. 
 39. § 438. 
 
 41. § 365, obs. 2. 
 ii. 1. § 348 e, obs. 3, §416, 
 § 483. 
 2. § 374, obs. 2. 
 9. § 409. 
 
 17. § 383, obs. 3. 
 22. § 361, obs. 2. 
 25. § 300 c, obs. 3. 
 27. § 277, obs. 3. 
 33. § 460, obs. 1. 
 
 43. § 348 e, obs. 1, § 
 
 400 a. 
 45. § 425 a. 
 
 55. § 284, obs. 4, §46 lb, 
 
 obs. 3. 
 
 56. § 276. 
 
 57. § 453. 
 61. § 386. 
 
 71. § 424, 
 
 72. § 369. 
 
 De Fato. 
 
 2. § 489 b. 
 
 10. § 442 c. 
 
 11. § 493 b. 
 
 12. § 373. 
 
 De Finibus. 
 
 i. 1. § 272, § 303 b, obs. 1, 
 § 388 a, § 421 a, 
 obs. 2, § 442 b. 
 
 3. § 375 b. 
 
 7. § 445. 
 
 8. § 453. 
 
 9. § 470, obs. 2. 
 
 10. § 255, § 340, obs. 4. 
 
 13. § 471, obs. 1. 
 
 14. § 436, § 458 c. 
 
 16. § 319, §357 a, §390, 
 § 494 a. 
 
 18. § 449. 
 
 19. § 340, § 348 e,obs.S. 
 
 20. § 358, § 390, § 434, 
 
 obs. 2, § 449, § 484 c. 
 43. § 471, obs. 1. 
 ii. 1. § 215 a, obs. 
 
 3. § 374, obs. 2, § 453. 
 
 4. § 247 b. 
 
490 
 
 INDEX TO QUOTATIONS 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 Op. Rhet. et Phil. 
 
 Op. Rhet. et Phil. 
 
 Op. Rhet. et Phil. 
 
 Be Finibus. 
 
 Ad Herennium. 
 
 De Legibus. 
 
 ii. 5. § 390. 
 
 ii. 31. § 304. 
 
 ii. 9. § 386. 
 
 8. § 456, obs. 3. 
 
 
 10. § 454. 
 
 10. § 460, obs. 2. 
 
 De Inventione. 
 
 11. § 284, obs. 1. 
 
 13. § 336, obs. 2, § 391, 
 
 
 15. § 300 c, obs. 4. 
 
 obs., § 469, obs. 2, 
 
 i. 12. § 452. 
 
 18. § 340, obs. 3. 
 
 § 493 a. 
 
 16. § 343. 
 
 23. § 459. 
 
 14. § 361, obs. 2. 
 
 34. § 458 a, obs. 1. 
 
 iii. 1. § 465 a. 
 
 15. § 478, obs. 2. 
 
 ii. 19. § 266. 
 
 3. § 384. 
 
 17. § 350 a. 
 
 
 11. § 437 a. 
 
 18. § 370. 
 
 
 13. § 478, 06s. 2. 
 
 19. § 487 b. 
 
 XjcbHus» 
 
 14. § 305, obs. 2. 
 
 20. § 382, obs. 1, § 488. 
 
 
 16. § 277, § 277, obs. 2. 
 
 21. § 257. 
 
 1. § 310, o&s. 2, § 363. 
 
 17. § 433. 
 
 23. § 323 a. 
 
 2. § 425 c, § 480, § 
 
 18. § 494 b. 
 
 25. § 495. 
 
 494 b. 
 
 19. § 254, obs. 5. 
 
 26. § 341, 065., § 487. 
 
 3. § 320, 065., § 347 b, 
 
 
 28. § 461 b, 06*. 2. 
 30. § 358. 
 
 § 350 a, § 408 b, 
 obs. 2, § 487 b. 
 
 De Nat. Deor. 
 
 31. § 364, obs. 1. 
 
 4. § 340, oft*. 2. 
 
 i. 1. § 358, obs. 3. 
 
 32. § 218, obs. 3, § 453, 
 
 5. § 383, § 436, § 442 
 
 6. § 255. 
 
 obs. 1, § 479 a. 
 
 c, 065. 2. 
 
 7. § 456. 
 
 37. § 478. 
 
 6. § 283, ofo. 3, § 433. 
 
 12. § 372, obs. 5. 
 
 iii. 1. § 467 c, § 476 d. 
 
 7. § 339, obs. 2 a. 
 
 15. § 382, obs. 4. 
 
 2. § 246, § 358, obs. 2, 
 
 11. § 451 b, § 494 a, 
 
 16. § 466 b. 
 
 § 437 d, obs. 
 
 obs. 2. 
 
 17. § 298 b 2. 
 
 3. § 473 b. 
 
 12. § 459, obs., § 494 a. 
 
 21. § 358, § 376, obs., § 
 
 4. § 340, obs. 4. 
 
 14. § 440 a, o&s. 1,§453. 
 
 442 a, obs. 2. 
 
 9. § 494 a, obs. 1. 
 
 15. § 301 a, ofa., §449. 
 
 24. § 455, obs. 4. 
 
 10. § 348 e, obs. 1. 
 
 16. § 369, obs. 1, 848 e, 
 
 27. § 495. 
 
 11. § 314. 
 
 06*. l.§ 388 b, 06*. 2. 
 
 30. § 453, obs. 2. 
 
 18. § 487 b. 
 
 17. § 282, 065. 1, §301 a, 
 
 31. § 442 c, obs. 2. 
 
 19. § 303 a, obs. 1, § 490 
 
 § 320, § 365, § 370 
 
 33. § 458 a, 06s. 1. 
 
 c, obs. 4. 
 
 Ms, § 397, § 412, 
 
 35. § 277, § 451 c. 
 
 20. § 490 a. 
 
 obs. 1. 
 
 36. § 479 c. 
 
 21. § 213b, o5s. l,§317c. 
 
 20. § 227 a, §310, obs. 3. 
 
 38. § 400 c. 
 
 iv. 1. § 479 d. 
 
 21. § 479 a, § 490 a. 
 
 41. § 364. 
 
 3. § 324 b. 
 
 22. § 321, § 324 a, § 334, 
 
 43. § 488. 
 
 4. § 449. 
 
 o&s., § 490 c, obs. 
 
 44. § 450. 
 
 6. § 436. 
 
 6, § 494 a. 
 
 ii. 1. §479d. 
 
 7. § 495, obs. 2. 
 
 24. § 228 c, § 301 a, § 
 
 2. § 213 a, § 437 d, obs. 
 
 11. §486. 
 
 461 b. 
 
 3. § 487 b. 
 
 19. § 420, ofo. 
 
 27. § 363. 
 
 4. § 367. 
 
 20. § 351 b, obs. 4. 
 
 
 6. § 215 a, obs. 
 
 22. § 460, obs. 1. 
 
 De Levibus. 
 
 9. § 440 a, obs. 3. 
 
 24. § 209 a, ofo. 1. 
 
 
 12. § 363. 
 
 25. § 452. 
 
 i. 2. § 488. 
 
 13. § 354. 
 
 28. § 454. 
 
 7. § 316, obs.,% 437 b. 
 
 14. § 315 a, § 479 c, bis. 
 
 37. § 285 a. 
 
 8. § 246, § 444b,o&5.1. 
 
 15. § 366, obs. 2. 
 
 V. 3. § 453. 
 
 12. § 368. 
 
 16. § 398 b. 
 
 8. § 489 a, 065. 2. 
 
 15. § 244 b, obs. 5. 
 
 18. § 383. 
 
 9. § 297 b, obs. 1, § 
 
 16. § 213 a. 
 
 20. § 276. 
 
 490 b. 
 
 18. §313, §495. 
 
 22. § 437 b. 
 
 10. § 487 b. 
 
 19. § 416. 
 
 23. § 257. 
 
 13. § 490 b. 
 
 21. §453. 
 
 27. § 276. 
 
 15. § 349, § 417, § 487, 
 
 23. § 283, obs. 3, § 433, 
 
 28. § 257, § 374. 
 
 § 487 b. 
 
 foot-note. 
 
 29. § 373. 
 
 18. § 416, § 451 a. 
 
 24. § 488. 
 
 39. § 424. 
 
 21. § 414. 
 
 ii. 1. § 332, obs., § 454. 
 
 45. § 398 b. 
 
 22. § 435 a, obs. 1. 
 
 2. § 313, § 451 b. 
 
 48. § 250 a, § 321. 
 
 29. § 465 a, obs. 4. 
 
 6. §241. 
 
 62. § 227 a, §235, ofo.3, 
 
 30. § 479 a. 
 
 7. § 438. 
 
 § 310, obs. 1. 
 
AND REFERENCES. 
 
 491 
 
 ' CICERO. 
 Op. Rhet. et Phil. 
 Be Nat. Deor. 
 
 ii. 57. § 270, obs. 2. 
 
 59. § 219 c, obs. 2, §369, 
 o6s. 1. 
 
 61. § 373. 
 
 62. § 253, obs. 
 64. § 241, obs. 3. 
 67. § 332, obs. 
 
 iii. 3. § 444 b. 
 
 6. § 416, obs. 3, § 424, 
 
 7. § 452. 
 
 9. § 372 b, obs. 6. 
 10. § 241. 
 17. § 211 a, obs. 2. 
 24. § 315 a, § 364. 
 28. § 494 a. 
 33. § 348 e, obs. 1. 
 35. § 458 c, o&s. 2. 
 39. § 422, obs. 2. 
 
 i. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 4. 
 
 7. 
 8. 
 9. 
 
 Be Officiis. 
 
 § 235, § 315 a, § 334, 
 
 obs., § 409. 
 § 416, obs. 1, § 465 a, 
 §496. 
 § 383, obs. 2. § 476 c, 
 
 obs. 
 § 495. 
 §452. 
 § 348 e, obs. 1, § 436, 
 
 § 478, obs. 2, § 
 
 487 b. 
 § 370, obs. l,§493a. 
 § 364, § 493 a. 
 § 351 a, § 357 a, obs. 
 
 2, § 372 a, § 445, 
 
 § 476 d. 
 § 363, § 365, obs. 1. 
 § 416, obs. 2, § 417, 
 
 § 452. 
 § 434. 
 §420. 
 § 254, obs. 1, § 282, 
 
 § 374, § 458a, obs.l. 
 § 290 f. 
 §294, § 296 b, § 
 
 350 b. 
 §213 a, §444b,ofo.l. 
 § 370, § 479 c, obs. 
 § 283, obs. 3, § 309, 
 
 § 312 a. 
 § 393 c, obs. 2. 
 § 395, obs. 6. 
 § 219 c, obs. 2, §283, 
 
 obs. 2, § 339, obs. 1, 
 
 § 490 e, obs. 5. 
 § 489 b. 
 § 370, § 446. 
 §488. 
 
 § 335, obs. 1, § 442 b. 
 § 255, § 385. 
 
 Op, 
 
 i. 39. 
 40. 
 41. 
 
 43. 
 
 44. 
 
 ii. 1, 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 
 15. 
 
 18. 
 19, 
 20. 
 21. 
 
 22. 
 
 24. 
 
 48. 
 
 iii. 1. 
 
 3. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 CICERO. 
 Rhet. et Phil. 
 Be Officiis. 
 § 297 b, obs. 1, § 478. 
 § 355. 
 §213b, obs. 1, §217, 
 
 obs. 1. 
 § 433, § 479 a, obs. 
 § 347 c 
 §383. 
 § 347 c, § 369, § 
 
 425 b. 
 § 353. 
 §316, obs. 
 § 214 b, § 321, § 335 
 
 b, obs. 1, § 395. 
 § 424. 
 
 § 280, 065. 2, § 494 a. 
 § 273 b,o&s.l,§ 493a. 
 §321. 
 
 § 494 a, obs. 1. 
 § 360, obs. 2. 
 § 339, obs. 1. 
 § 253, obs., § 383, 
 
 obs. 1, § 412, obs. 1. 
 §471. 
 § 398 a. 
 § 348 b. 
 § 213 b, obs. 1. 
 § 358, obs. 1, § 456, 
 
 obs. 4. 
 § 357 a, § 382, obs. 1, 
 
 § 442 c. 
 §356. 
 §321. 
 
 § 398 a, obs. 2, § 433. 
 §478. 
 §420. 
 §488. 
 §270. 
 § 437 b. 
 § 313, § 457. 
 § 213 a, § 389, obs. 1, 
 
 § 478, obs. 3, foot- 
 note. 
 § 352, § 454. 
 § 434, 065. 2. 
 § 358. 
 
 § 361, § 442 a, obs. 2. 
 §436. 
 
 § 351 b, 0&5. 4. 
 § 254, obs. 5, § 298 
 
 b 1, § 454. 
 § 320, obs., § 348 e, 
 
 obs. 1, § 389, obs. 1. 
 § 337, § 375 a, § 403 
 
 a, 0&5. 2. 
 § 337, obs. 1. 
 § 449, § 476 a. 
 §310, §348 e, 06s. 3. 
 
 Be Opt. Gen. Or at. 
 
 2. § 365. 
 
 6. § 372 b, obs. 5. 
 
 3 r2 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 Op. R-het. et Phil. 
 
 Orator. 
 
 1. §416. 
 
 2. § 284, obs. 1, § 424, 
 
 o&s. 3. 
 
 8. § 304, obs. 1. 
 
 9. § 50, obs. 2. 
 10. § 425 a. 
 14. § 420. 
 
 17. § 362 a. 
 
 38. § 337. 
 
 41. § 438. 
 
 44. § 369. 
 
 48. § 219 c, obs. 4. 
 
 51. § 490 b. 
 
 62. § 471. 
 
 Be Oratore. 
 
 i. 1. § 358, obs. 4. 
 
 4. § 280, obs. 2. 
 
 5. § 211 b, cbs. 2. 
 
 6. § 373, obs. 1. 
 
 8. § 249, § 388 b, obs. 2, 
 
 § 398 b, § 412. 
 
 9. § 455, obs. 2. 
 
 13. § 256, obs. 3, § 257. 
 18. § 366, obs. 3. 
 
 21. § 446, obs. 
 
 26. § 218, obs. 3, § 443. 
 35. § 375 a, 065. 1. 
 
 39. § 458 c. 
 
 41. § 369, obs. 3. 
 44. § 361, obs. 1. 
 47. § 467 c 
 
 49. § 412, obs. 3, § 433. 
 52. § 343, § 451 a. 
 
 58. § 340, obs. 4. 
 
 59. § 360. 
 
 60. § 241. 
 
 ii. 1. § 374, § 467 a. 
 
 2. § 395, § 436, foot- 
 note, § 487 b. 
 
 4. § 336, obs. 2, § 417, 
 
 § 440 a, obs. 4, § 
 486. 
 
 5. § 358, 065. 3. 
 
 6. § 444 b. 
 
 7. § 283, obs. 4. 
 9. § 287. 
 
 10. § 454, § 454, ofo. 2. 
 13. § 272. 
 16. § 335 b, obs. 1. 
 20. § 377. 
 
 22. § 364, obs. 2, § 476 a, 
 
 o&s. 2. 
 
 23. § 255, 06s. 3, § 468, 
 
 § 480, obs. 1. 
 28. § 489 a. 
 30. § 355. 
 34. § 250 a. 
 38. § 424. 
 
 40. § 442 a, obs. 3. 
 
492 
 
 INDEX TO QUOTATIONS 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 Op. Rhet. et Phil. 
 
 De Oratore. 
 
 ii. 41. § 398 a, obs. 2. 
 42. § 424, obs. 5. 
 52. § 244 b. 
 56. § 458 c, obs. 1. 
 59. § 269, obs. 2. 
 62. § 461 b. 
 
 67. § 353, § 490c,o6s.2. 
 72. § 357 b, obs. 
 74. § 308, obs. 2, § 400 d. 
 90. § 480. 
 Hi. 2. § 236, § 490 b, obs. 
 5. § 339, obs. 2 a. 
 10. § 416. 
 14. § 357 b, § 368, § 
 
 462 b. 
 16. § 255, obs. 3. 
 20. § 401, obs. 2, § 461 
 
 a, obs. 
 
 23. § 353. 
 
 24. § 284, obs. 7. 
 27. § 403 a. 
 
 29. § 452. 
 
 30. § 458 c, obs. 2. 
 32. § 461 b. 
 
 36. § 360, § 401. 
 38. § 417. 
 
 50. § 291, obs. V 
 
 51. § 247 b, § 301 a. 
 
 52. § 370. 
 
 55. § 297 a, obs., § 452. 
 
 Paradoxa. 
 i. 3. § 388 a. 
 
 4. § 365, obs. 2. 
 ii. § 335 b, obs. i. 
 
 iii. 1 . § 437 c, obs. 
 vi. 3. § 216, obs., § 315 b. 
 
 Part. Orat. 
 
 25. § 254, obs. 5. 
 
 
 De Republica. 
 
 i. 2 
 
 § 278 b, § 459, obs. 
 
 4 
 
 § 445. 
 
 6. 
 
 § 348 e. 
 
 10 
 
 § 304. 
 
 12. 
 
 § 338 a. 
 
 14. 
 
 § 402 a. 
 
 17. 
 
 § 377, § 487 b. 
 
 23. 
 
 § 436, foot-note. 
 
 37. 
 
 § 276. obs. 5. 
 
 38. 
 
 § 347 b. 
 
 ii. 15. 
 
 § 400 a. 
 
 19. 
 
 § 232, obs. 2. 
 
 21. 
 
 § 255. 
 
 22. 
 
 § 383, obs. 4. 
 
 iii. 31 
 
 § 400 b. 
 
 32. 
 
 § 479 b. 
 
 
 Topica. 
 
 4. 
 
 §281. 
 
 CICERO. 
 Op. Rhet. et Phil. 
 
 Tusc. Qucest. 
 
 i. 1. *§ 357, obs. 1, foot- 
 note, *§ 358, obs. 3, 
 foot-note,*§364,ofo. 
 2, foot-note, § 428. 
 
 2. § 337. 
 
 3. § 489 b, § 493 a. 
 
 5. § 356, obs. 3. 
 
 6. § 436, § 454, § 457. 
 
 7. § 372, obs. 5, § 453. 
 9. § 365. 
 
 11. § 454. 
 
 13. § 256, obs. 3, § 340, 
 
 obs. 2. 
 
 14. § 300 a, § 347 b. 
 
 15. § 356, obs. 3. 
 
 18. § 490 b, § 495. 
 
 19. § 280, obs. 2, § 339, 
 
 obs. 1. 
 
 21. § 450. 
 
 23. § 490 c. 
 
 24. § 228 b, § 439, obs. 1, 
 
 § 484 c. 
 
 28. § 490 b. 
 
 29. § 433, obs. 2. 
 
 31. § 339, obs. l,§372b, 
 obs. 5. 
 
 33. § 350 b, obs. 1. 
 
 34. § 298 b 2, § 410, 
 
 § 465 a. 
 
 35. § 211 a, obs. 2. 
 
 36. § 417, §494 a, obs. 1. 
 
 37. § 347 b, obs. 2. 
 
 38. § 370, obs. 2. 
 
 39. § 369, § 416, obs. 3. 
 
 42. § 369, o&s. 3. 
 
 43. § 220, obs. 3. 
 46. § 400 a, obs. 
 
 ii. 3. § 298 b 2, § 357 a, 
 obs. 1. 
 
 7. § 360, obs. 1. 
 
 11. § 454. 
 
 12. § 356. 
 
 13. §211 b, obs. 1. 
 
 14. § 438. 
 
 15. § 277, § 288, § 396. 
 
 16. § 305, § 305, obs. 2. 
 18. § 340, obs. 4, § 353, 
 
 obs. § 479 d, obs. 4. 
 
 20. § 436. 
 
 22. § 360, 065. 4, § 479 c, 
 
 065. 
 
 23. § 357 b. 
 
 25. § 395, cbs. 1. 
 iii. 1. § 348 e. 
 
 2. § 460, obs. 2. 
 
 3. § 213 b, *§ 434, 
 
 foot-note. 
 6. § 356, ofo. 3, *§ 489 
 b, foot-note, § 494 b, 
 foot-note. 
 
 8. § 364. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 Op. Rhet. et Phil. 
 
 Tusc. Qucest. 
 
 iii. 10. § 388 a. 
 
 11. § 437 d. 
 
 12. *§ 366, foot-note, § 
 
 424. 
 
 13. § 372 a. 
 
 18. § 452, § 479 d, obs. 4. 
 22. § 303 a, obs. 2. 
 24. § 442 a, 065. 2. 
 
 26. § 437 c. 
 
 28. § 409, § 495. 
 
 29. § 305, obs. 2. 
 
 iv. 1. *§ 287, obs. 3, foot- 
 note. 
 
 2. § 467 b. 
 
 3. § 472 a, § 489 b. 
 8. § 467 a. 
 
 10. § 316, obs. 
 
 11. § 246, obs. 2, § 283, 
 
 obs. 2. 
 
 14. §462M489a,ofo.l. 
 
 20. § 479 d, obs. 3. 
 
 21. § 395, obs. 6. 
 
 27. § 452, obs. I. 
 
 30. § 398 b. 
 36. § 360. 
 
 38. § 422, § 485 c. 
 v. 1. § 287. 
 
 2. § 300 c, § 414 b. 
 
 4. § 467 a. 
 
 5. § 370. 
 
 7. § 321. 
 
 8. § 365. 
 
 9. § 213 b, obs. 1. 
 
 12. § 451 c. 
 
 15. § 372 b, obs. 5. 
 
 18. § 476 a, obs. 1. 
 
 19. § 296 b. 
 
 20. § 358, bis. 
 
 22. § 351 b, obs. 1. 
 
 23. § 470, obs. 1, § 471. 
 
 27. § 452, obs. 1. 
 
 28. § 218 a, obs. 2. 
 
 33. § 458 c. 
 
 34. § 495, obs. 1. 
 
 35. § 348 d. 
 
 36. § 357 a. 
 
 37. § 362 a. 
 
 39. §372b,ofo.5,§400b. 
 41. § 385, bis. 
 
 EPISTOLiE. 
 
 Ad Atticum. 
 
 5. § 364, obs. 2. 
 8. § 217. 
 
 13. § 366, obs. 3. 
 
 14. Supp. ii. B 2. 
 
 16. §297b,ofo.l,§347c, 
 
 § 444 a, obs. 3. 
 
 17. § 393 c. 
 
AND HEEERENCES. 
 
 493 
 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 
 EpiSTOLiE. 
 
 
 EpISTOLjE. 
 
 
 Epistol^e. 
 
 
 Ad Atticum. 
 
 
 Ad Atticum. 
 
 
 Ad Fam. sive Div. 
 
 i. 
 
 18. § 479 d. 
 
 xiii. 
 
 28. § 388 a. 
 
 vi 
 
 . 8. § 229 b, obs. 3. 
 
 ii. 
 
 1. § 368, § 442 c, obs. I, 
 
 
 51. § 319. 
 
 
 13. § 375 c. 
 
 
 § 490 c. 
 
 xiv. 
 
 1. § 386. 
 
 
 22. § 398 b. 
 
 
 5. § 486. 
 
 
 12. § 299 b, obs. 3. 
 
 vii 
 
 1. § 229 a, § 442 c. 
 
 
 7. § 338 b, obs. 5. 
 
 
 13. § 305, obs. 2. 
 
 
 2. § 446. 
 
 
 12. § 479 d. 
 
 
 20. § 460, obs. 2. 
 
 
 8. § 351 b, obs. 3. 
 
 
 14. § 244 b. 
 
 XV. 
 
 1. § 395, obs. 7. 
 
 
 9. § 334, obs. 
 
 
 15. § 440 a, obs. 4. 
 
 
 22. § 455, obs. 5. 
 
 
 12. § 442 b. 
 
 
 17. § 213 b, obs. 2. 
 
 
 27. § 397. 
 
 
 13. § 288, § 372 b, obs. 2. 
 
 
 18. § 490 c, obs. 1. 
 
 xvi. 
 
 2. § 373. 
 
 
 14. § 360, obs. 3. 
 
 
 22. § 422, obs. 2. 
 
 
 5. § 453. 
 
 
 17. § 310, obs. 3. 
 
 iii. 
 
 17. § 458 a. 
 
 
 6. § 230, obs. 4. 
 
 
 23. § 351 a, § 372 b, 
 
 
 19. § 323 b, obs. 1. 
 
 
 15. § 390, obs. 3, § 398 b. 
 
 
 obs. 5, 
 
 
 20. § 234 a. 
 
 
 
 
 24. § 478, obs. 2. 
 
 iv. 
 
 5. § 494 a. 
 
 
 Ad Fam. sive Div. 
 
 
 28. § 478, obs. 2. 
 
 
 15. Supp. ii. B 2. 
 
 i. 
 
 1. § 473 b. 
 
 
 30. § 366. 
 
 
 16. § 348 e, obs. 4. 
 
 
 2. § 277. 
 
 viii 
 
 . 10. § 439, obs. 1. 
 
 
 79. § 212, obs. 1. 
 
 
 5. § 310, obs. 3. 
 
 
 14. § 294, obs. 3, § 348 e, 
 
 v. 
 
 1. § 340, obs. 4, § 460, 
 
 
 6. § 461 a, o&s. 
 
 
 065. 2. 
 
 
 obs. 2. 
 
 
 7. § 348 e, § 400 c, 
 
 ix. 
 
 14. § 358, obs. 2, § 453, 
 
 
 18. § 400 c. 
 
 
 487 d. 
 
 
 § 487 b. 
 
 
 21. § 396. 
 
 
 8. § 493 c. 
 
 
 15. § 453. 
 
 vi. 
 
 9. § 446. 
 
 
 9. § 214 d, § 389, obs. 
 
 
 16. § 281. 
 
 vii. 
 
 1. § 372 a. 
 
 
 4, § 459, § 461 b, 
 
 
 17. § 462 a, note. 
 
 
 2. § 455, 065. 4. 
 
 
 obs. 3, § 480. 
 
 
 20. § 437 c. 
 
 
 10. § 417, obs. 2. 
 
 ii. 
 
 3. § 444 b. 
 
 
 26. § 287. 
 
 
 13. § 297 a, obs. 
 
 
 5. § 376. 
 
 X. 
 
 6. § 442 a, obs. 1. 
 
 
 14. § 215 c. 
 
 
 6. § 266, § 369. 
 
 
 13. § 417. 
 
 
 15. § 340, obs. 2, § 462 b. 
 
 
 7. § 372 b. 
 
 
 19. § 340, obs. 2. 
 
 
 19. § 363, obs. 2. 
 
 
 12. § 397. 
 
 
 20. § 444 a, 065. 3. 
 
 
 26. § 369. 
 
 
 13. § 281, § 436, obs. 
 
 
 25. § 351 b, obs. 2. 
 
 viii. 
 
 2. § 455, obs. 3. 
 
 
 16. § 402 c, § 443, obs. 
 
 
 26. § 452. 
 
 
 3. § 436, obs. 
 
 
 17. § 378 a 2, obs. 
 
 
 27. § 446. 
 
 
 5. § 218 d, 06s. 2. 
 
 
 18. § 229 b. 
 
 xi. 
 
 3. § 446. 
 
 
 9. § 454. 
 
 iii. 
 
 8. § 481 b. 
 
 xii. 
 
 2. §417. 
 
 
 12. § 397. 
 
 
 9. § 358, obs. 3. 
 
 
 5. § 375 b. 
 
 ix. 
 
 2. § 452. 
 
 
 12. § 375 a. 
 
 
 6. § 340, obs. 2, § 358. 
 
 
 5. § 278 b. 
 
 iv. 
 
 1. § 456. 
 
 
 17. § 297 b. 
 
 
 7. § 454. 
 
 
 2. § 427. 
 
 xiii 
 
 7. § 427. 
 
 
 10. § 213 b, 06s. 2, §345. 
 
 
 4. § 374. 
 
 
 8. § 212, obs. 1. 
 
 
 15. § 340. 
 
 
 5. § 294, obs. 1. 
 
 
 16. § 484 c. 
 
 
 17. § 462 b. 
 
 
 7. § 361, obs. 2, § 417, 
 
 
 22. § 458 c, obs. 1. 
 
 X. 
 
 2. § 339, obs. 2 b. 
 
 
 § 455, obs. 3. 
 
 
 23. § 364, obs. 2. 
 
 
 4. § 266, obs. 
 
 
 8. § 287, obs. 2. 
 
 
 26. § 241, obs. 4. 
 
 
 8. § 393 c, obs. 1, § 
 
 
 9. § 282. 
 
 
 29. Supp. ii. B 1. 
 
 
 398 a. 
 
 
 13. § 428, obs. 6. 
 
 
 62. § 310, obs. 4. 
 
 xi 
 
 . 7. § 469, obs. 2. 
 
 
 14. § 461 b, obs. 3. 
 
 
 73. § 442 c, obs. 3. 
 
 
 8. § 297 b, obs. 1, § 364, 
 
 v. 
 
 2. § 310, obs. 4. 
 
 xiv 
 
 1. § 399. 
 
 
 obs. 1. 
 
 
 5. § 283, obs. 2. 
 
 
 2. § 376, § 490 b. 
 
 
 9. § 351 b, obs. 1. 
 
 
 7. § 303 b. 
 
 
 3. § 358, §398b,ofo. 2. 
 
 
 10. § 444 b. 
 
 
 8. § 213 a. 
 
 
 8. § 384, obs. 
 
 
 15. § 496. 
 
 
 17. § 300 c, o&s. 5. 
 
 
 23. § 304, obs. 4. 
 
 
 16. § 383, o&s. 4. 
 
 
 18. § 478, o&s. 2. 
 
 XV. 
 
 1. § 400 b, obs., § 436. 
 
 xii 
 
 . 1. § 276, obs. 6. 
 
 
 19. § 357 b, obs., § 442 c. 
 
 
 4. § 365. 
 
 
 8. § 451 b. 
 
 
 21. § 364. 
 
 
 11. § 243, obs. 2. 
 
 
 21. § 280, 06s. 2. 
 
 
 28. § 229 a. 
 
 
 14. § 490 a. 
 
 
 23. § 494 b, obs. 2. 
 
 vi. 
 
 1. § 376, § 388 a, § 
 
 
 21. § 370, obs. 1. 
 
 
 24. § 451 a. 
 
 
 400 a, obs. § 428, § 
 
 xvi 
 
 1. § 295, obs. 1. 
 
 xiii 
 
 . 20. § 234 a. 
 
 
 460, obs. 1, § 495. 
 
 
 4. § 384. 
 
 
 21. § 373, o&s. 3. 
 
 
 4. § 217, obs. 2. 
 
 
 8. § 355. 
 
 
 25. § 398 a, obs. 2. 
 
 
 6. § 416, o&s. 3, § 445. 
 
 
 21. § 351 b, obs. 2. 
 
494 
 
 INDEX TO QUOTATIONS 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 EpiSTOLiE. 
 
 Ad Q. Fratrem. 
 i. 1. § 378 b, § 444 a, 
 obs. 1. 
 
 2. § 362 a, § 373. 
 
 3. § 353. 
 
 4. § 340. 
 ii. 1. § 228 b. 
 
 3. § 303 b, obs. 2, § 345. 
 
 4. § 284, obs. 5. 
 
 12. § 386. 
 
 13. § 398 b, obs. 1. 
 16. § 489 b. 
 
 Orationes. 
 Pro Archia. 
 3. *§ 296, obs. 2, foot- 
 note. 
 
 6. *§ 290 e, foot-note. 
 8. *§ 357 a, foot-note. 
 
 10. § 236, obs. 1, § 366, 
 
 § 492 b. 
 
 11. § 280, obs. 2, § 433. 
 
 Pro Balbo. 
 3. § 216. 
 
 7. § 213 b, obs. 1. 
 
 12. § 393 c, obs. 1. 
 
 15. §214d, oos.2,§2l7. 
 
 27. § 284, obs. 7, §313. 
 
 28. § 494 a, obs. I. 
 
 Jw Catilinam. 
 i. I. § 450, § 454. 
 
 2. § 389, o&5. 4, § 407, 
 
 o&s. 1, § 494, b. 
 
 3. § 417. 
 
 4. § 238, § 398 a, § 
 
 451 b. 
 
 5. § 228 c. 
 
 7. § 297 a, obs. 
 
 8. § 347b,oos., 1, §451 
 
 b, obs. 
 
 9. § 353, obs. § 364, § 
 
 472 b, § 486. 
 
 10. § 330, obs. 2. 
 
 11. § 396. 
 
 12. § 365, obs. 1. 
 
 13. § 476, § 490 b. 
 
 ii. 3. *§ 277, obs. 2, foot- 
 note. 
 5. § 278 a. 
 
 7. § 294, o&s. 3. 
 
 8. § 286, obs. 3. 
 
 10. § 330, o&5. 2, § 348 e, 
 
 o&s. 4, o«s. 
 27. *§ 244, obs. 1, foot- 
 note. 
 iii. 1. § 270, obs. 3. 
 2. § 257. 
 
 5. *§ 310, foot-note, § 
 383. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 Orationes. 
 In Catilinam. 
 iii. 6. *§ 315 a, o&s. 2, foot- 
 note. 
 
 8. § 214 b, § 235. 
 
 9. § 364, § 369. 
 
 *§ 366, obs. 2, foot- 
 note. 
 
 12. § 297 c, obs. §490b. 
 iv. 1. § 348 e, obs. 4. 
 
 2. §297 a, *§ 444b, foot- 
 note. 
 5. § 493 c, obs. 
 
 8. § 364, obs. 2. 
 
 9. § 297 b, §383, §424, 
 
 obs. 3, § 461 b. 
 
 Pro Ccecina. 
 
 5. § 417, obs. 2. 
 35. § 284, obs. 2. 
 
 In Q. Ceecilium Divin. 
 1. § 383. 
 
 4. § 349, § 427, § 434. 
 
 6. § 308, obs. 2, § 361, 
 
 o&s. 2, § 396, ooa\ 2. 
 11. § 461 b. 
 
 13. § 315, obs. 2. 
 
 14. § 376. 
 
 15. § 476 d, § 484 b. 
 
 16. § 88, obs. 1. 
 
 17. § 336, obs. 2. 
 
 18. § 461 b, obs. 2. 
 
 19. § 395, obs. 6. 
 
 20. § 466 b, § 469, obs. 2. 
 
 21. § 338 b, obs. 1. 
 
 Pro Ccelio. 
 
 7. § 258. 
 14. § 487. 
 17. § 461 b. 
 32. § 298 b 2. 
 
 Pro Cluentio. 
 6. § 348 e. 
 9. § 234 b. 
 35. § 372b,o&s. 1. 
 
 40. § 481 b. 
 
 41. § 476 b. 
 
 51. § 487, obs. 2. 
 
 53. § 214 a, § 372 b, 
 
 obs. 6. 
 63. § 493 c. 
 70. § 437 c 
 
 Pro Deiotaro. 
 
 5. § 395. 
 10. § 492 b. 
 13. § 229 a. 
 
 Pro Flacco. 
 
 4. § 298 b 2. 
 
 5. § 436. 
 
 CICERO. 
 Orationes. 
 Pro Flacco. 
 
 12. § 257, o&s. 5. 
 
 24. § 384. 
 
 25. § 278 b, §. 452. 
 
 26. § 71. 
 
 27. § 375 c, obs. 3. 
 
 Pro Fonteio. 
 
 10. § 417. 
 
 14. § 275, obs. 1. 
 16. § 476 b. 
 
 De Lege Agraria. 
 ii. 2. § 227 a. 
 
 3. § 375 c, obs. 1. 
 
 6. § 386, 065. 2. 
 12. § 378 b. 
 
 27. § 375 c. 
 37. § 489, obs. 1. 
 iii. 2. § 390. 
 
 Pro Ligario. 
 
 7. § 362 a. 
 
 8. § 390. 
 
 9. § 453. 
 12. § 416. 
 
 Pro Lege Manilla. 
 2. § 52, § 421 a, obs. 
 
 4. § 338 b, 065. 1, foot- 
 
 note. 
 
 6. § 476 a, obs. 2, § 
 
 476 b. 
 
 7. § 440 a, 065. 3, § 457. 
 
 8. § 408 a. 
 
 9. § 485 a. 
 
 11. § 273 c, § 494 a. 
 
 12. § 315 a, obs. 2, § 476 
 
 a, 065. 1. 
 
 13. § 461 b, § 476 d, § 
 
 481 b, § 487 b. 
 
 14. § 356. 
 
 16. § 324 a, § 483. 
 
 17. § 348 e. 
 
 19. § 243 b. 
 
 20. § 458 c, 065. 2. 
 
 21. § 374,oo5.2. 
 
 22. § 421 a, obs. 1, § 461 
 
 b, 06s. 2. 
 
 23. § 375 c, obs. 2. 
 
 24. § 241, obs. 3, § 257. 
 
 Pro Milone. 
 2. § 286, obs. 2, § 304, 
 § 356, obs. 2. 
 
 4. § 443, § 494 b. 
 
 5. § 358, 065. 2, § 394, 
 
 § 458 c, 065. 2, § 
 466 a, 065. 2. 
 9. § 492 a. 
 
 10. § 257, § 360. 
 
 11. § 348 e. 
 
AND REFERENCES. 
 
 495 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 Orationes. 
 
 Orationes. 
 
 Orationes. 
 
 Pro Milone. 
 
 
 Pro Quinctio. 
 
 13. § 372 b, § 383. 
 16. § 417. 
 
 Philippics. 
 ii. 45. § 255. 
 
 11. § 241, obs. 3. 
 
 12. § 305. 
 
 18. § 254, obs. 3, § 400 c, 
 
 iii. 2. § 358. 
 
 ohs. 
 
 13. § 336, obs. 2. 
 
 
 21. § 295. 
 
 iv. 2. § 296 a, obs. 2. 
 
 Pro Rabirio Post. 
 
 22. § 450, bis. 
 
 4. § 217, obs. 2. 
 
 10. § 273 a, 06s. 
 
 24. § 400 a, § 400 c, § 
 
 v. 2. § 476 c. 
 
 
 455, obs. 3, § 493 a, 
 o&s. 1. 
 
 3. § 413, obs. 2. 
 8. § 402 c. 
 
 Pro Roscio Amerino. 
 
 26. § 358, obs. 4. 
 
 10. § 468. 
 
 1. § 321, §440 a, obs. 2, 
 
 27. § 298 b 2, § 417. 
 
 11. § 424. 
 
 § 442 a, § 476 b. 
 
 29. § 307. 
 
 14. § 316. 
 
 2. § 410, obs. 1, § 490 c, 
 
 31. §438. 
 
 17. § 214 d, obs. 2, §303 
 
 obs. 3. 
 
 34. § 351 a, § 442 c. 
 
 a, obs. 2. 
 
 3. § 229 b, obs. 1, § 398 
 
 35. § 489 a. 
 
 viii. 3. § 434, o&s. 2. 
 
 b, obs. 1. 
 
 36. § 398 b, § 484 b. 
 
 4. § 347 b, obs. 2, § 
 
 4. §315 b, §433,o65. 2. 
 
 
 494 b. 
 
 6. § 287, § 300 c, § 338 
 
 Pro Murena. 
 
 7. §219c, 0&5. 3. 
 
 b, § 347 b, § 358, 
 
 2. § 339, obs. 2 c, § 
 
 10. § 304. 
 
 obs. 3, § 424, obs. 2, 
 
 476 b. 
 
 11. § 284, obs. 4. 
 
 § 465 a, obs. 1. 
 
 3. § 461 b. 
 
 ix. 1. § 428, 005. 4, §451 d. 
 
 9. § 396, obs. 2, § 448. 
 
 4. § 415. 
 
 7. § 433, foot-note. 
 
 11. § 383, obs. 2, § 389. 
 
 6. § 442 c, obs. 1. 
 
 x. 5. § 458 a, obs. 1. 
 
 12. § 444 a, obs. 4. 
 
 7. § 213 a, obs. 
 
 10. § 235. 
 
 14. § 306, 065. 1. 
 
 9. § 241, obs. 4. 
 
 xi. 2. § 458 c. 
 
 15. § 255. 
 
 10. § 286, obs. 2. 
 
 4. § 280, 065. 2. 
 
 16. § 157, obs. § 249. 
 
 25. § 348 e, obs. 1. 
 
 10. §428, obs. 1, § 437 b. 
 
 17. § 241, § 395, obs. 7. 
 
 30. § 431 b. 
 
 12. § 396. 
 
 18. § 321, § 364, § 415. 
 
 31. § 269, obs. § 386. 
 
 xii. 2. § 282. 
 
 19. § 358, 065. 2. 
 
 37. § 417, obs. 2. 
 
 4. § 351 b, o&s. 2. 
 
 20. § 243, § 347 c, § 369, 
 
 
 9. § 232. 
 
 § 398 a. 
 
 PJiilippicce. 
 
 xiii. 1. §493 a, 06*. 1. 
 
 22. § 401, § 471, obs. 1, 
 
 i. 1. § 339, obs. 2 c. 
 
 6. § 218 a, 06s. 2, § 
 
 § 490 a, § 494 b, 
 
 4. § 321. 
 
 458 c. 
 
 obs. 2. 
 
 5. § 363. 
 
 8. § 398 a. 
 
 24. § 341, 0&5. 
 
 8. § 305. 
 
 xiv. 6. § 436. 
 
 26. § 450. 
 
 ii. 1. § 276. 
 
 
 27. § 276, § 305, § 361, 
 
 6. § 284, o6s. 7. 
 
 In Pisonem. 
 
 065. 2, § 478, 065. 3. 
 
 7. § 445. 
 
 8. § 492 b. 
 
 l.*§ 288, foot-note, § 
 461 b. 
 
 3. § 297 a. 
 
 7. § 381. 
 10. § 461 b. 
 17. § 278 b. 
 24. § 316. 
 26. § 299 a. 
 38. § 358, 065. 1. 
 
 29. § 360, 065. 1. 
 
 32. § 336, obs. 2, § 465 b. 
 
 9. § 253. 
 
 33. § 382, 065. 2, § 440 b, 
 
 10. § 365, 065. 1. 
 
 11. § 479 a. 
 
 12. § 479 a. 
 
 13. § 305, obs. 2. 
 
 obs. 1. 
 
 34. § 332. 
 
 35. § 306, obs. 1. 
 37. § 276, obs. 4. 
 
 15. § 479 d, obs. 2. 
 
 39. § 324 a. 
 
 21. § 482. 
 
 25. § 478, obs. 2, § 479 
 
 41. § 374, 065. 2. 
 
 42. § 408 b, obs. 2. 
 
 d, obs. 2. 
 
 Pro Plancio. 
 
 43. § 480, § 494 b. 
 
 27. § 348 e s obs. 1, § 425 
 
 44. § 270, obs. 4, § 379, 
 
 a, § 466 b, foot-note. 
 
 9. § 460. 
 
 § 455, 065. 5. 
 
 29. § 372 b, obs. 6, § 
 479 d. 
 
 10. § 297 a. 
 
 47. § 461 b. 
 
 25. § 355, §458 a, 005. 1. 
 
 48. § 485 a. 
 
 30. § 278 b. 
 
 31. § 461 a, obs. 
 
 49. § 442 a, 065. 1. 
 
 32. § 396, obs. 3. 
 
 41. § 360. 
 
 51. § 398 b. 
 
 35. § 379. 
 
 
 
 36. § 453, obs. 2. 
 
 Be Prov. Cons. 
 
 Pro Roscio Com. 
 
 38. § 348 e. 
 
 39. § 489 a. 
 
 43. § 297 a. 
 
 44. § 310, obs. 1, § 437 c. 
 
 2. § 284, obs. 2, § 398 b. 
 7. § 352. 
 
 14. § 436. 
 
 15. § 452. 
 
 1. § 431 b. 
 
 7. § 492 a. 
 11. § 338b,o&5.2,§495. 
 48. § 485 a. 
 
496 
 
 INDEX TO QUOTATIONS 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 Orationes. 
 
 Orationes. 
 
 Orationes. 
 
 Pro Sestio. 
 
 In Verrem. 
 
 In Verrem. 
 
 9. § 424. 
 
 ii. 1. § 300 b, § 347 b, 
 
 iv. 64. § 493 a, 065. 1. 
 
 17. §317 d. 
 
 obs. 2. 
 
 v. 1. § 461 b, obs. 2. 
 
 19. § 353. 
 
 21. § 347 b. 
 
 2. § 453. 
 
 22. § 408 b, obs. 2. 
 
 24. § 390. 
 
 7. § 272. 
 
 25. § 344. 
 
 29. § 341. 
 
 10. § 338 a, § 359, §382, 
 
 38. § 342 a. 
 
 30. § 456, obs. 4. 
 
 obs. 1, § 420. 
 
 39. § 305. 
 
 32. § 350 b, obs. 3, § 
 
 11. § 337, §472b. 
 
 44. § 390. 
 
 414, § 493 b. 
 
 26. § 317 d, 065.2, § 370, 
 
 56. § 444 a, obs. 1. 
 
 33. § 395, obs. 6 
 
 06s. 2. 
 
 60. § 442 c, obs. 2. 
 
 39. § 490 b. 
 
 27. § 396, 065. 3. 
 
 68. § 490 b. 
 
 43. § 454. 
 
 28. § 364. 
 
 
 46. § 451 a, § 461 b. 
 
 34. § 280, obs. 6, § 400 b, 
 
 Pro Sulla. 
 
 47. § 360. 
 
 o 7 os., § 417, 06s. 3. 
 
 
 51. § 360, obs. 1. 
 
 43. § 291. 
 
 9. § 410, obs. 2. 
 
 60. § 350 a. 
 
 49. § 285 b, § 315 d, § 
 
 14. § 494 a, obs. 1. 
 
 61. § 300 c, obs. 5. 
 
 348 b. 
 
 18. § 349, obs. } § 444 b, 
 
 66. § 449. 
 
 50. § 465 a, 06s. 4. 
 
 § 461 b. 
 20. § 370. 
 
 67. § 348 e, obs. 3. 
 
 52. § 300 c, 065. 5, §482. 
 
 77. § 277. 
 
 53. § 481 a, obs. 1. 
 
 28. § 317 a. 
 
 iii. 7. § 375 b. 
 
 55. § 284, obs. 10. 
 
 31. § 310, obs. 4. 
 
 18. § 442 c, § 485 c, obs. 
 
 57. § 472 b. 
 
 33. § 321, obs. § 375 a. 
 
 20. § 347 b, obs. 2. 
 
 58. § 451 c. 
 
 
 36. § 398 b, obs. 4. 
 
 59. § 389, obs. 5. 
 
 Pro Tullio. 
 
 48. § 461 b. 
 
 62. § 336. 
 
 4. § 476 c. 
 
 49. § 285 a, obs. 
 
 63. § 383, obs. 2. 
 
 28. § 362 a. 
 
 52. § 348 a. 
 
 66. § 398 a. 
 
 47. § 481 b. 
 
 57. § 450. 
 
 68. § 297 b, obs. 1. 
 
 
 58. § 357 a, 065. 2. 
 
 72. § 427. 
 
 In Vatinium. 
 
 80. § 442 c, obs. 1. 
 
 
 
 81. § 76 a, § 258. 
 
 Act. 1. 
 
 1. § 348 e. 
 
 84. § 351 b, obs. 4. 
 
 
 3. § 494 a. 
 
 92. § 401 b. 
 
 i. 2. § 476 a, 065. 2. 
 
 6. § 372 b, obs. 2. 
 
 In Verrem. 
 1. § 458 a, obs. 1. 
 
 94. § 442 c, obs. 2. 
 
 96. § 297 c, obs. 1. 
 
 97. § 270. 
 
 iv. 1. § 273 c, obs., § 384. 
 
 4. § 355, § 383. 
 6. § 360, foot-note. 
 
 10. § 347 b. 
 
 11. §486. 
 
 3. § 228 b. 
 
 5. § 351 b, obs. 2. 
 
 
 4. § 424. 
 
 6. § 382, obs. 2. 
 
 Somnium Scipionis. 
 
 6. § 487 b. 
 
 13. § 370, § 400 c, obs. 
 
 1. § 366. 
 
 7. § 490 c, obs. 2. 
 
 16. § 465 a, 005. 4. 
 
 2. § 276, 06s. 5. 
 
 9. § 444 b, obs. 1. 
 
 18. § 276, obs. 5, § 317 
 
 3. § 298 b, 2. 
 
 13. § 338 b. 
 
 d, 0&5. 2, § 336, § 
 
 
 14. § 352, § 449. 
 
 337, obs. 2, § 392, 
 
 CORNELIUS. 
 
 15. §472b. 
 
 § 395, obs. 7. 
 
 
 16. § 353. 
 
 20. § 303 b. 
 
 Agesilaus. 
 
 18. § 451 a. 
 
 22. § 241, obs. 5. 
 
 8. § 287, 065. 3. 
 
 21. § 257, obs. 2. 
 
 23. § 350 a, §480,o&5.2. 
 
 
 24. § 257, obs. 5. 
 
 24. § 257. 
 
 dlcihi &$>€$• 
 
 25. § 382, obs. 3. 
 
 25. § 481 a, obs. 1. 
 
 
 26. § 282, obs. 2, § 478, 
 
 28. § 300 a. 
 
 1. § 338 a. 
 
 obs. 3. 
 
 33. § 452, obs. 2. 
 
 5. § 324 b. 
 
 27. § 348 e. 
 
 35. § 304, obs. 1. 
 
 11. § 388 a. 
 
 29. § 354. 
 
 38. § 422. 
 
 
 30. § 280, obs. 2. 
 
 39. § 340,o5 5 . 1, § 490 c, 
 
 Atticus. 
 
 31. § 458 a, ols. 1. 
 
 06s. 3. 
 
 4. § 445. 
 9. § 418. 
 16. § 220, 06s. 2. 
 
 34. § 298 b 2. 
 
 40. § 395, obs. 5, § 410. 
 
 41. § 484 a. 
 48. § 434, § 453. 
 
 42. § 213, obs., § 250 a. 
 
 43. § 440 a, obs. 3. 
 
 58. § 479 d, obs. 5. 
 
 49. § 232, § 298 b 2. 
 
 Chabrias. 
 
 59. § 291, obs. 2. 
 
 54. § 465 b. 
 
 60. § 460, obs. 2. 
 
 58. § 402 a. 
 
 3. § 296 a, 0&5. 1, § 374. 
 
AND REFERENCES. 
 
 497 
 
 CORNELIUS. 
 
 Cl 717071. 
 
 1. § 255. 
 
 3. § 296 a, obs. 2. 
 
 Conon. 
 
 2. § 442 c. 
 4. § 422. 
 
 Datames. 
 
 4. § 232, obs. 4. 
 
 5. § 294. 
 
 Dion. 
 8. § 461 a, obs. 
 
 Epaminondas. 
 
 1. § 437 d. 
 
 5. § 276, § 39S b, cbs.2. 
 
 8. § 360. 
 
 9. § 229 b. 
 
 10. § 373, 065. 1. 
 
 Eitmenes. 
 
 1. § 254, obs. 5. 
 13. § 422. 
 
 Hannibal. 
 
 2. § 272, obs. 2. 
 5. § 223 c, obs. 4. 
 8. § 338 b, obs. 1. 
 
 12. § 490 c, obs. 2. 
 
 Mtltiades. 
 
 1. § 310, obs. 2. 
 
 2. § 257, § 296 a, ofa.3. 
 
 3. § 375 a. 
 5. § 72 a. 
 
 Themistocles. 
 
 1. § 308. 
 
 4. § 320, 065. 
 
 Thrasibulus. 
 1. § 373, 00s. 2. 
 
 I7»2o7eow. 
 4. § 249. 
 
 CURTIUS. 
 
 iii. 16. § 217, obs. 1. 
 
 20. § 316. 
 iv. 58. § 426. 
 v. 35. § 429. 
 viii. 26. § 390, obs. 5. 
 
 GELLIUS. 
 x. 1. § 303 b. 
 
 HORACE. 
 Ars Poet. 
 
 56. § 244, obs. 4. 
 
 99. § 384. 
 122. § 460. 
 161. § 412, obs. 3. 
 292. § 299 b, obs. 1. 
 
 323. § 390, obs. 6. 
 
 324. § 494 b, obs. 3. 
 328. § 407. 
 
 337. § 301 b. 
 372. § 393 c. 
 377. § 415. 
 436. § 453. 
 467. § 247, obs. 8. 
 
 i. 1. 1. 
 
 25. 
 2. 9. 
 12. 
 27. 
 34. 
 65. 
 
 4. 43. 
 
 5. 12. 
 6.20. 
 
 67. 
 
 7. 22. 
 
 10. 6. 
 
 11. 
 
 16. 11. 
 12. 
 20. 
 55. 
 
 17. 36, 
 19. 3. 
 
 9. 
 
 20. 26. 
 
 ii. 1. 25. 
 
 63. 
 
 76. 
 
 83. 
 
 2. 138, 
 
 Epist. 
 
 § 299 b. 
 
 § 444 b, obs. 4. 
 
 § 396, obs. 4. 
 
 § 470, obs. 2. 
 
 §419. 
 
 § 478, obs. 3. 
 
 §419. 
 
 § 389, obs. 1. 
 
 § 239. 
 
 § 300 c, obs. 2. 
 
 § 442 c, § 486. 
 
 § 401, obs. 3. 
 
 § 482. , 
 
 § 304, obs. 2. 
 
 §370. 
 
 § 363, obs. 1. 
 
 § 304, obs. 3. 
 
 § 50, obs. 2. 
 
 § 373, obs. 2. 
 
 §250. 
 
 § 390, obs. 6. 
 
 § 228 b, 06.?. 1. 
 
 § 474 c, obs. 
 
 § 365, obs. 1. 
 
 § 494 b. 
 
 § 490 c, obs. 3. 
 
 § 479 a, obs. 
 
 JSpod. 
 
 1. pass. § 509, 4, obs. 2, 8. 
 
 2. 37. § 319, obs. 
 
 11. pass. § 509, 4, obs. 2, 5. 
 
 13. . . § 509, 4, 005. 2, 4. 
 
 14. . . § 509, 4, 0&5. 2, 9. 
 
 16. . . § 509,4, obs. 2, 10. 
 
 17. . . § 507 a, § 509, 4, 
 
 065. 2, 11. 
 
 i. 1. pass. § 509, 4, 00.9. 2, 11, 
 3. § 365, obs. 1. 
 2. 7. § 411, 06s. 2. 
 43. § 299 b, obs. 1. 
 
 3 s 
 
 HORACE. 
 Odes. 
 
 i. 3 
 
 . 25. 
 
 § 419 
 
 
 
 pass 
 
 . § 509, 
 
 4, obs. 2, 1. 
 
 4. 
 
 pass 
 
 . § 509 
 
 4, obs. 2, 6. 
 
 6. 
 
 6 
 
 §419 
 
 
 7. 
 
 pass 
 
 . § 509 
 
 4, obs. 2, 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 pass. § 509 
 
 4, obs. 2, 2. 
 
 
 9. 
 
 § 304 
 
 
 9. 
 
 1. 
 
 § 356 
 
 
 
 15. 
 
 § 474 
 
 e. 
 
 26. 
 
 1. 
 
 §422 
 
 065. 1. 
 
 37. 
 
 6. 
 
 §481 
 
 a, obs. 2. 
 
 ii. 2. 
 
 6. 
 
 *§ 290 
 
 2, foot-note, 
 
 
 
 § 296 b, obs. 3, 
 
 
 
 foot- 
 
 note. 
 
 6. 
 
 14. 
 
 § 502 
 
 a. 
 
 9. 
 
 8. 
 
 *§ 260 
 
 a, foot-note. 
 
 
 17. 
 
 §261, 
 
 obs. 4. 
 
 17. 
 
 27. 
 
 § 348 
 
 c. 
 
 18. 
 
 pass 
 
 • § 509, 
 
 4,o6.9. 2, 11. 
 
 19. 
 
 28. 
 
 § 474 f. 
 
 iii. 2. 
 
 9. 
 
 *§ 289 b, foot-note. 
 
 
 26. 
 
 *§ 390, 
 note. 
 
 obs. 2, foot- 
 
 4. 
 
 52. 
 
 §407, 
 
 obs. 2. 
 
 
 79. 
 
 *§ 70, foot-note. 
 
 5. 
 
 42. 
 
 *§ 290 
 
 g, foot-note. 
 
 6. 
 
 17. 
 
 *§ 290 
 
 e, foot-note. 
 
 7. 
 
 4. 
 
 *§48, 
 note. 
 
 obs. 1, foot- 
 
 9. 
 
 10. 
 
 *§289a 
 
 , foot-note, *§ 
 
 
 289, obs. 
 
 1, foot-note. 
 
 11. 
 
 26. 
 
 *§ 290 
 
 e, foot-note. 
 
 12. 
 
 pass 
 
 . § 507 
 
 a, obs. 2. 
 
 13. 
 
 13. 
 
 §284, 
 
 o&s. 2. 
 
 16. 
 
 14. 
 
 *-§ 42, 
 
 2, foot-note. 
 
 18. 
 
 7. 
 
 *§ 56, obs. foot-note. 
 
 20 
 
 IT 
 
 1 . 
 
 *§ 300 
 
 c, foot-note. 
 
 27. 
 
 69. 
 
 *§ 261, 
 
 obs. 4. 
 
 iv. 2. 
 
 27. 
 
 §257. 
 
 
 7. 
 
 pass 
 
 ». §509, 
 
 4, 005. 2, 3. 
 
 Satires. 
 
 i. 1. 
 
 4. 8. 
 
 12. § 474 a. 
 40. § 496. 
 46. § 356, obs. 3. 
 53. § 474 c. 
 58. § 246,o65. 2. 
 61. § 474 e. 
 69. § 474 c, obs. 
 419. 
 9. § 276, 005. 3. 
 17. § 2X7. 
 
 73. § 458 c, obs. 2. 
 98. § 397. 
 
 112. § 385, obs, 
 133. § 474 e. 
 
 5. 33. § 496. 
 72. § 474 h. 
 
 6. 25. § 393 c 
 
 74. § 237 b. 
 
 128. § 300 c, obs. 2. 
 9. 4. § 310, obs. 1. 
 
498 
 
 INDEX TO QUOTATIONS 
 
 HORACE. 
 
 LIVY. 
 
 LIVY. 
 
 Satires. 
 
 ii. 6. § 403 b, § 417. 
 
 v. 4. § 214 d, ohs. 1, § 340. 
 
 5.10. 16. § 319, ois. . 
 
 7. § 217, obs. 1, § 305, 
 
 obs. 1, § 348 e 
 
 ii. 3. 139. § 474 f. 
 156. § 294. 
 
 5. 69. § 391, ohs. 
 
 6. 66. § 214 d, ohs. 3. 
 
 7. 116. §239. 
 
 8. 49. § 496. 
 
 obs. 3. 
 
 obs. 1. 
 
 8. § 415, § 479 a. 
 
 15. § 214 b, obs. 
 
 9. § 415, obs. 1. 
 
 17. § 218 d, obs. 2. 
 
 10. § 348 b, §424, 065.5. 
 
 20. § 405 a. 
 
 12. § 268 a, ohs. 3, § 482. 
 
 22. § 235. 
 
 13. § 357 b, §402 a, foot- 
 
 24. Supp. ii. B. 2. 
 
 
 note. 
 
 28. § 452. 
 
 JUSTIN. 
 
 14. § 215 a. 
 
 32. § 465 b. 
 
 
 20. § 414. 
 
 33. § 305, 06*. 3, § 400 
 
 L 2. §216, ohs. 
 
 27. § 359, § 373, § 392. 
 
 b, obs. 
 
 v. 10. § 286, ohs. 3. 
 
 30. § 241, oft*. 3. 
 
 35. § 363. 
 
 
 31. §401, ohs. 2. 
 
 38. § 429, obs. 1. 
 
 JUVENAL. 
 
 32. § 479 (1, obs. 5. 
 
 43. § 308. 
 
 ii. 152. § 457. 
 iii, 100. § 442 a, ohs. 2. 
 
 164. § 321. 
 iv. 24. § 299 b, ohs. 2. 
 v. 10. § 286, ohs. 3. 
 vii. 176. § 294. 
 viii. 46. § 351 a. 
 
 49. § 301 a, ohs. 
 aiii. 3. § 428, ohs. 1. 
 
 33. § 217. 
 35. § 320. 
 40. § 339, obs. 2, c. 
 
 43. § 370. 
 
 44. § 495, obs. 2. 
 49. § 466 a. 
 
 44. § 214 d, obs. 1. 
 
 52. § 438, § 444 b 
 
 obs. 1. 
 54. § 368, obs. 
 vi. 2. § 301 c, 06s. 2. 
 
 4. § 283, ohs. 3, § 426, 
 
 53. § 317 d, obs. 1. 
 
 § 485 a. 
 
 56.^ 218 c, obs. 
 
 9. § 350 b, obs. 2. 
 
 63. § 479 d, obs. 5. 
 65. § 416. 
 
 14. § 416, ohs. 2. 
 16. § 218 c, 065. 
 
 LIVY. 
 
 iii. 5. § 415, obs. 2, § 430. 
 
 17. § 401. 
 
 11. ^359. 
 
 39. § 257, § 301 c, obs. 2. 
 
 Praef. § 414, ohs. 
 
 19. § 292. 
 
 42. § 424, obs. 2. 
 
 i. 1. § 246, obs. 2, § 319. 
 
 25. § 411. 
 
 vii. 1. § 476 a, obs. 2. 
 
 3. § 436, obs. 
 
 28. § 396, obs. 3. 
 
 9. § 458 a, obs. 2. 
 
 5. § 490 c, obs. 1. 
 
 32. § 396, obs. 1. 
 
 10. § 241, 065. 6. 
 
 6. § 476. 
 
 33. § 276, 06*. 6, footnote, 
 
 12. § 437 d, obs. 
 
 7. § 296 b, obs. 3. 
 
 § 428, obs. 5. 
 
 15. § 300 c, obs. 1. 
 
 8. § 230 a, foot-note, § 
 
 36. § 337, obs. 2. 
 
 18. § 405 a. 
 
 425 a. 
 
 37. § 337, obs. 2, § 392. 
 
 19. § 215 a. 
 
 9. § 403 a. 
 
 38. § 337, obs. 2. 
 
 20. § 490 c. 
 
 10. § 424, obs. 2. 
 
 41. § 416, obs. 1. 
 
 23. § 320, obs. 
 
 17. § 389. 
 
 46. § 462 b. 
 
 26. § 478. 
 
 19. § 344. 
 
 48. § 407. 
 
 30. § 428. 
 
 21. §496, obs. 1. 
 
 50. § 217, obs. 1. 
 
 36. § 259 b, obs. 
 
 22. § 304. 
 
 57. § 246, obs. 2. 
 
 viii. 3. § 300 c, obs. 4. 
 
 24. § 299 b, obs. 1. 
 
 71. § 369, obs. 2. 
 
 5. § 291, obs. 3. 
 
 25. § 257, § 281, ols. 
 
 72. § 405 a. 
 
 13. § 296 b, obs. 3. 
 
 29. § 323 b, obs. 2. 
 
 iv. 2. § 396, § 402 c. 
 
 25. § 199, 06*. 2, § 447, 
 
 31. § 428, obs. 2. 
 
 3. § 357 a. 
 
 foot-note. 
 
 32. § 359. 
 
 6. § 298 b, 2, § 444 a, 
 
 36. § 244 b, obs. 4. 
 
 34. § 246, obs. 2. 
 
 06*. 3. 
 
 ix. 12. § 473 b. 
 
 37. § 429, obs. 2. 
 
 9. § 455, obs. 4. 
 
 14. § 255, obs. 1. 
 
 .40. § 461 b. 
 
 10. § 431 b, obs. 2. 
 
 19. § 347 b, 06s. 2. 
 
 41. § 479 d, obs. 2. 
 
 14. § 293, 06*. 1. 
 
 43. § 412, obs. 2. 
 
 45. § 313. 
 
 17. § 426. 
 
 45. § 417, obs. 5. 
 
 49. § 480. 
 
 18. § 428. 
 
 x. 1. § 215 b. 
 
 50. § 275, obs. 3, § 300 c, 
 
 26. § 228 c, obs. 
 
 14. § 258 a, 06*. 
 
 obs. 3, § 403 b,«§ 
 
 32. § 298 b, 1. 
 
 36. § 286, 06*. 3, § 429. 
 
 405 a. 
 
 33. §455, 06*. 4, § 490 b. 
 
 xxi. 1. *§ 426, foot-note, § 
 
 53. § 403 b, § 426, oft*. 1. 
 
 35. §415, obs. 1. 
 
 494 b, obs. 1. 
 
 57. § 451 d. 
 
 44. § 428, 06*. 4. 
 
 7. § 237 c, obs. 1. 
 
 58. § 266, obs. 
 
 46. §227 c, 06*. 4, §320. 
 
 12. § 401. 
 
 69. § 469, obs. 2. 
 
 51. § 401 a. 
 
 14. § 431 b, 06*. 2. 
 
 60. § 426. 
 
 57. § 484 c. 
 
 15. § 216, obs. 
 
 ii. 1. § 300 c, obs. 3. 
 
 59. § 173, oft*. 2. 
 
 16. § 426. 
 
 3. § 484 c. 
 
 60. § 402 c. 
 
 17. § 458 c, obs. 2. 
 
 5. § 215 a, § 415. 
 
 V. 3. § 417, cbs. 4. 
 
 28. § 360. 
 
AND REFERENCES. 
 
 LIVY. 
 
 xxi. 29. § 
 
 336, 
 
 35. 
 
 44. 
 
 46. 
 
 48. 
 
 50. 
 
 53. 
 
 60. 
 
 61. 
 
 xxii. 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 12. 
 13. 
 19. 
 20. 
 26. 
 38. 
 51. 
 53. 
 55. 
 51. 
 60. 
 61. 
 xxiii. 13 
 
 16. 
 17. 
 19. 
 
 28. 
 31. 
 34. 
 44. 
 xxiv. 3. 
 
 306. 
 
 469, 
 
 19. 
 
 26. 
 
 35. 
 
 37. 
 
 42. 
 
 xxv. 7. 
 
 9. 
 
 13. 
 
 15. 
 
 22. 
 
 81. 
 
 34. 
 
 37. 
 
 38. 
 xxvi.26. 
 
 41. 
 xxvii.16 
 
 27. 
 
 37. 
 
 43. 
 xxviii.l. 
 
 5. 
 
 308, obs. 1, § 
 
 obs. 2. 
 §257. 
 § 386. 
 
 § 337, obs. 1. 
 § 495, foot-note. 
 § 214 b, obs. 
 § 377, obs. 2. 
 § 215 c. 
 § 72 a, obs. % 
 § 358, obs. 1. 
 §415. 
 § 310, 065. 3 
 
 obs. 1, foot-note. 
 § 375 c, obs. 2. 
 § 390, obs. 4. 
 § 300 a. 
 § 451 d. 
 § 458 c, obs. 2. 
 § 424, obs. 2. 
 § 435 a, obs. 1. 
 §307. 
 § 389. 
 § 385, obs. 
 § 375 c, o&s. 2. 
 § 317 b, §411. 
 § 248, § 287, obs. 3. 
 § 456, obs. 4. 
 .§ 281, § 401, § 410, 
 
 obs. 2. 
 § 390. 
 
 § 428, 065. 4. 
 § 284, oft*. 5, § 286, 
 
 oft*. 3, § 304, obs. 4. 
 § 416, 065. 2. 
 § 338 b, obs. 5, 
 §459. 
 
 § 72 a, obs. 1. 
 § 301 c, ofts. 2. 
 § 458 c, ofts. 2. 
 § 3S3, oft*. 2. 
 § 595, ofts. 2. 
 §381. 
 
 § 286, 06s. 1. 
 § 364 
 §376. 
 § 281, obs. 
 § 231 b, obs. 
 § 1 15 g, obs. 
 § 462 a. 
 § 557 a. 
 § 360. 
 § 300 a. 
 § 280, ofts. 4 
 § 340, obs 
 § 241, 06s 
 § 393 c. 
 § 215 b. 
 § 285 b. 
 § 237 a. 
 §424. 
 § 305. 
 § 228 b. 
 
 360. 
 
 4. 
 
 LIVY. 
 
 xxviii.12. § 300 b. 
 
 18. § 213 a. 
 24. § 381. 
 
 27. § 284, obs. 9. 
 
 28. § 342 a, § 342 b. 
 36. § 390, 06s. 2. 
 
 43. § 453, 06s. 1. 
 
 56. *§ 334, foot-note. 
 xxix. 6. § 344, obs. 1. 
 
 22. § 435 a, obs. 1. 
 xxx. 8. § 495, obs. 3. 
 
 9. § 281, obs., § 284, 
 obs. 6. 
 
 30. § 209 a, obs. 1, § 431 
 
 b, 06s. 1, § 485 a, § 
 495. 
 
 44. § 407, 06s. 1. 
 
 xxxi. 1, § 349, § 350 b,ofts.2. 
 
 4. § 284. 
 xxxii.9. § 213 b. 
 10. § 415. 
 
 12. § 348 e. 
 xxxiii.6. § 477. 
 
 xxxiv.23. § 416, 06s. 3, §424. 
 
 49. § 285 b, 06s. 2. 
 xxxv. 25. § 214 b. 
 
 26. § 215 a, 00s. 
 
 31. § 253, § 360, obs. 4. 
 xxxvi. 34. § 361, 06s. 3. 
 
 40. § 305. 
 xxxvii.3.§ 277, obs. 3. 
 
 13. § 270, ofts. 4. 
 
 19. §407. 
 
 32. § 214 c. 
 
 45. § 298 b, 2, § 428, 
 
 obs. 5. 
 xxxviii. 36. § 429, foot-note. 
 39. § 256, obs. 2. 
 45. §491, ofts. 1. 
 47. § 348 a. 
 
 53. § 304, obs. 1. 
 
 54. § 428, obs. 1. 
 xxxix. 10. § 338 b, obs. 5. 
 
 17. § 407, ofts. 2. 
 
 18. § 257, ofts. 2. 
 31. § 305. 
 
 49. § 285 b, obs. 2. 
 
 50. § 451 d. 
 
 xl. 10. § 214 b, obs. 
 
 18. § 368. 
 
 54. § 297 b. 
 xli. 12. §305. 
 
 22. §217, obs. 1. 
 xlii. 19. §451 b. 
 
 34. § 348 e. 
 
 44. § 316, § 375 c. 
 
 47. §301 b, obs 1. 
 
 62. § 424, obs. 5. 
 xliv.22. § 379. 
 
 24. § 214 b, ofts. 
 
 36. § 403 a, obs. 2. 
 
 39. § 358. 
 si v. 21. §227 c, obs. 4. 
 
 LIVY. 
 
 xlv. 27. § 342 b, obs. 
 28. § 234 b. 
 32. § 306, obs. 1. 
 
 LUCRETIUS. 
 
 i. 45. § 299 b, obs. 1. 
 112. § 421 b. 
 313. § 418. 
 iv. 415. § 306. 
 
 OVID. 
 
 Amores. 
 
 i. 6. 34. § 348, obs. 
 ii. 6. 61. § 400 c, obs. 
 iii. 9. 21. § 474 g. 
 
 36. § 390, obs. 4 
 
 Ars Amoris. 
 
 i. 303. § 239. 
 iii. 133. § 456, obs. 2. 
 
 Epist. Heroid. 
 i. 26. § 474 b. 
 
 67. 
 102. 
 
 398 b, obs. 4. 
 419. 
 
 Epist. ex Ponto. 
 
 . 3. 37. § 338 b, obs. 6. 
 
 4. 79. § 355. 
 
 5. 47. § 348 e, obs. 4. 
 
 Fasti. 
 
 iv. 54. § 215 c. 
 551. § 474 c, obs. 
 
 i. 30 
 
 151, 
 
 ii. 424 
 
 iii. 462 
 
 v. 75 
 
 370 
 
 484 
 
 vi. 262 
 
 341 
 
 409 
 
 vii. 161 
 
 547 
 
 808 
 
 viii. 553 
 
 x. 254, 
 
 xi. 263. 
 
 xii. 188. 
 
 xiii. 607. 
 
 Metamorph. 
 . § 297 b, obs. 2 
 , § 459, obs. 
 . § 294, obs. 3. 
 , § 232, obs. 4. 
 . § 419. 
 . § 474 d. 
 . § 502 a. 
 . § 474 f, obs. 
 . § 254, obs. 2. 
 . § 311, obs. 
 . § 237 a. 
 . § 273 b, obs 
 . § 259 a. obs. 
 . § 393 c. 
 , § 453, foot-note, 
 
 § 458 a, obs. 2. 
 
 § 223 c, obs. 4. 
 
 § 22. 
 
 2. 
 
 Tristia. 
 iii. 10.35. § 244 b, obs. 4. 
 iv. 1. 39. § 474 f, obs. 
 10. 74. § 393 a. 
 
500 
 
 INDEX TO QUOTATIONS 
 
 PLAUTUS. 
 
 SALLUST. 
 
 SALLUST. 
 
 Trin. 
 
 Catilina. 
 
 Jugurtha. 
 
 iv. 2. 27. § 421 b. 
 
 32. § 244 b, obs. 5. 
 
 102. § 232, obs. 2, § 276, 
 
 
 34. § 289 b, obs. 2. 
 
 obs. 6, § 299 b, obs. 
 
 PLINY. 
 
 Epist. 
 i. 10. § 390, obs. 6. 
 13. § 398 b, obs. 1. 
 
 36. § 172, obs. 2, §315 a. 
 
 37. § 489 a, obs. 2. 
 43. § 317 b. 
 
 45. § 229 b, obs. 2. 
 48. § 276, obs. 1. 
 
 3, § 338 b, obs. 1, § 
 388 b, obs. 1. 
 113. § 465 b, obs. 
 
 SENECA. 
 
 ii. 3. § 454. 
 
 50. § 267, obs. 
 
 De Beneficiis. 
 
 20. § 280, obs. 4. 
 iii. 21. §424, obs. 5. 
 vi. 21. § 453, foot-note, 
 vii. 15. § 444 b, obs. 1. 
 viii. 16. § 444 a, obs. 2. 
 
 51. § 315 c, § 375 b. 
 
 52. § 248, § 389, obs. 2. 
 54. § 485 a. 
 
 56. § 305. 
 
 58. §321, §370. 
 
 64. § 428, obs. 6. 
 
 i. 1. § 434, obs. 2. 
 ii. 34. § 417. 
 
 De Clementia. 
 i. 18. § 218 a, obs. 2. 
 
 Nat. Hist. 
 
 
 19. § 305. 
 
 ii. 53. § 217. 
 
 vi. 21. §453, foot-note. 
 
 Jugurtha. 
 
 De Ira. 
 
 38. Supp. ii. B. 1. 
 
 l.§ 287, §366, obs. 2. 
 
 i. 11. § 348 c. 
 
 39. § 306 — Supp. ii. 
 
 2. § 437 c. 
 
 
 B. 1. 
 
 5. § 246, obs. 2, § 341. 
 
 De Providentia. 
 
 xi. 17. § 428, obs. 2. 
 
 10. § 435 a, obs. 1. 
 
 3. § 450. 
 
 xviii. 77. § 386. 
 
 13. § 276, obs. 4. 
 
 
 xxx. 14. Supp. ii. B. 2. 
 
 14. § 288, § 384, § 428, 
 
 De Tranquillitate. \ 
 
 Paneg. 
 
 obs. 1. 
 17. § 479 a. 
 
 11. § 424, § 494 b. 
 
 7. § 425 a. 
 
 18. § 213 a. 
 
 
 
 24. § 442 c, obs. 3. 
 
 Epist. 
 
 PROPERTIUS. 
 
 25. § 348 e, obs. 3. 
 
 85. § 361, 065. 1. | 
 
 i. 3.43. §360. 
 
 28. § 276, obs. 4. 
 
 87. § 305, 06s. 2. i 
 
 
 31. § 254, 065. 1, § 348 
 
 91. § 293, obs. 3. 1 
 
 QUINCTJLIAN. 
 
 b, § 370, § 388 a. 
 33. § 440 b, obs. 1. 
 
 93. § 235, 065. 3. 
 
 94. § 372 b, obs. 6. 
 
 Prooem. 26. § 428, obs. 2. 
 
 35. § 317 c, § 372 b, 
 
 103. § 360. 
 
 i. 6. 1. § 380, obs. 
 
 obs. 4. 
 
 105. § 460. 
 
 ii. 9. l.§228c. 
 
 38. § 214 c, § 276, obs. 4. 
 
 106. § 241. 
 
 16. 12. §494b,ofo. 3. 
 iii. 3. 10. § 414. 
 
 40. § 284, obs. 9. 
 42. § 214 d, obs. 2. 
 
 Ad Helvidium, 
 
 5. 6. § 453. 
 
 44. § 338 b, obs. 1, foot- 
 
 17. §313, obs. 
 
 iv. 4. 15. § 357 a. 
 
 note. 
 
 
 v. 10. 119. § 457, obs. 
 
 45. § 494 a, obs. 1. 
 
 Hippolytus. 
 
 vi. 4. 15. § 361. 
 
 48. § 310, obs. 3. 
 
 1124. §505. 
 
 vii. 1. 1. § 425 a. 
 
 50. § 338 a, § 359. 
 
 
 4. 21. § 309. 
 
 53. § 361, obs. 2. 
 
 Qucest. Nat, 
 
 ix. 2. 53. § 443, obs. 
 
 54. § 257, obs. 2, § 360. 
 
 
 4. 44. § 295. 
 
 56. § 372 b, obs. 4. 
 
 i. Praef. § 297 c 
 
 x. 1. 96. § 363, obs. 1. 
 
 60. § 358, 06s. 1. 
 
 vii. 2. § 428. 
 
 101. § 350 b. 
 
 61. § 490 c, obs. 3. 
 
 
 
 62. § 418, § 485 a, o&s. 
 
 SUETONIUS. 
 
 ! SALLUST. 
 
 63. § 369, obs. 2. 
 
 
 
 64. § 375 a, o6i-. 1. 
 
 Caligula. 
 
 Catilina. 
 
 74. § 161, obs. foot-note, 
 
 41. § 489 b. 
 
 5. § 495, obs. 2. 
 
 § 217, obs. 2. 
 
 47. § 396, obs. 1. 
 
 6. §417, obs. 4. 
 
 76. § 338 b, obs. 4. 
 
 
 7. § 313. 
 
 77. § 214 b, obs. 
 
 Claudius, 
 
 9. § 305, obs. 2, § 308, 
 obs. 2. 
 
 81. § 324 b, § 478, obs. 1. 
 84. § 246, obs. 3. 
 
 27. § 276, obs. 6. 
 
 12. § 213 a. 
 
 85. § 281, § 317 a, § 348 
 
 
 17. § 365, § 417, obs. 2. 
 
 e, § 386. 
 
 Julius. 
 
 18. § 293, obs. 1. 
 
 94. § 254, obs. 3. 
 
 1. § 287. 
 
 19. § 365, obs. 1. 
 
 96. § 276, o&s. 3. 
 
 34. § 428, obs. 2. 
 
 21. § 291, § 490 b. 
 
 98. § 392. 
 
 35. § 276, obs. 6, foot- 
 
 31. § 465 b, obs. 
 
 101. § 323 a. 
 
 note. 
 
AND REFERENCES. 
 
 501 
 
 SUETONIUS. 
 Julius. 
 58. § 424, obs. 4. 
 70. § 424, obs. 4. 
 76. § 308, obs. 1. 
 86. § 295. 
 
 Nero. 
 39. § 479 d, obs. 5. 
 
 Octavius. 
 17. § 227 c, obs. 4. 
 26. § 296 a, obs. 2. 
 
 Tiberius. 
 60. § 426. 
 
 TACITUS. 
 Annals. 
 i. 19. § 241. 
 
 31. § 214 d, o&s. 2. 
 60. § 415, obs. 2. 
 62. § 276, obs. 6. 
 65. § 284, obs. 5. 
 68 § 308, obs. 2. 
 77. § 459, footnote. 
 ii. 20. § 478, obs. 4. 
 59. § 417, obs. 5. 
 xiii. 13. § 390, 065. 4. 
 xiv. 7. § 404. 
 
 Histories. 
 i. 32. § 424, 0&5. 5. 
 47. § 396, obs. 1. 
 89. § 241, obs. 3. 
 ii. 1. § 296 a, obs. 2. 
 iii. 36. § 445. 
 iv. 52. § 305. 
 67. § 400 b. 
 
 .De Oratoribus. 
 42. § 212, 06s. 1. 
 
 TERENCE. 
 Adelphi. 
 i. 2. 23. § 212. 
 
 62. § 455, o&s. 4. 
 ii. 1. 43. § 321. 
 
 2. 6. § 407, obs. 1. 
 iv. 1. 18. § 303 b. 
 
 6. 13. § 493 c. 
 
 7. 36. § 218 a, obs. 2. 
 v. 4. 25. § 389, obs. 4. 
 
 Andrea. 
 
 Prol. 1. § 507 a. 
 
 3. § 319, obs. 
 i. 1. 5. § 455, o&s. 4. 
 77. § 276, 06s. 4. 
 123. § 417, 00s. 3. 
 
 2. 19. §442b„ 
 
 3. 1. § 241. 
 5. 10. § 390. 
 
 TERENCE. 
 
 Andrea. 
 
 ii. 1. 10. § 317 b, obs. 1. 
 
 3. 17. § 378 a, 2, o&s. 
 
 iii. 2. 47. § 241. 
 
 3. 23. § 216. 
 
 iv. 2. 14. § 303 a. 
 
 v. 3. 6. § 451 b. 
 
 30. § 372 b, obs. 4. 
 
 Eunuchus. 
 i. 2. 65. § 372 b, obs. 6. 
 126. § 339, obs. 2, b. 
 ii. 2. 21. § 390, 065. 5. 
 
 3. 97. § 385, 06a., § 386, 
 
 obs. 1. 
 iv. 7. 21. § 355, § 440 a, 
 obs. 3. 
 7. 32. § 366. 
 v. 2. 20. § 351, § 375 c. 
 
 4. 46. § 452. 
 9. 18. § 384. 
 
 21. § 372 b, obs. 2. 
 
 Heautontimorumenos. 
 
 i. 1. 12. § 458 c, obs. 2. 
 32. § 439, obs. 1. 
 118. § 451 d. 
 
 2. 27. § 270, obs. 1. 
 ii. 2. 24. § 324 b. 
 
 iii. 3. 23. § 340. 
 
 iv. 1. 8. § 444 a, obs. 3. 
 
 3. 8. § 348 e, obs. 4. 
 6. 7. § 285 b. 
 
 v. 3. 11. § 454. 
 
 Hecyra. 
 i. 2. 59. § 437 c. 
 ii. 1. 2. § 229 a. 
 iii. 1. 6. § 480. 
 2. 11. §453. 
 14. § 229 b. 
 25. § 450. 
 
 5. 21. § 356, obs. 3. 
 iv. 1. 60. § 439, obs. 1. 
 
 2. 13. § 353. 
 
 4. 23. § 228 a, 06s. 
 38. § 490 b, 065. 
 
 v. 2, 40. § 300 c. 
 
 Phormio. 
 Prol. 38. § 444 b. 
 i. 3. 5. § 315 b, obs. 1. 
 ii. 2. 72. § 360. 
 
 4. 14. § 479 a. 
 iv. 2. 1. § 303 b. 
 
 4. 16. § 410 a, o&s. 3. 
 
 5. 11. § 295. 
 v. 6. 3. § 419. 
 
 TERENTIANUS 
 MAURUS. 
 § 506. 
 
 TIBULLUS. 
 
 i. 3. 55. § 474 f. 
 
 5. 4. § 254, obs. 2. 
 ii. 3. 14. § 474 h. 
 
 VARRO. 
 Be Re Rustica. 
 iii. 16. § 341. 
 
 VELLEIUS, 
 i. 11. § 246, obs. 2. 
 ii. 50. § 284, obs. 3. 
 
 61. § 304, obs. 2, foot- 
 
 note. 
 88. § 417, obs. 2. 
 
 VIRGIL. 
 JEneis. 
 i. 4. § 474 b. 
 
 6. *§ 243, foot-note. 
 9. § 390, obs. 4. 
 
 16. § 503. 
 19. § 474 d. 
 
 21. § 301 c, obs. 2. 
 
 22. *§ 249, foot-note. 
 37. § 399. 
 
 51. *§ 268 a, foot-note. 
 
 61. § 481 a. 
 135. § 479 d, obs. 6. 
 150. § 503. 
 
 172. § 474 b. 
 
 178. *§ 290 g, foot-note. 
 
 210. §503. 
 
 308. § 452. 
 
 320. *§ 237 b, foot-note. 
 
 336. § 374, obs. 1. 
 
 405. § 502 b. 
 
 573. § 319, obs. 
 
 707. § 460, obs. 1. 
 i. 15. § 280, obs. 6. 
 73. § 474 d. 
 
 273. § 237 b, obs. 
 
 278. § 474 c, obs. 
 
 325. § 335 b. 
 
 377. § 401,o65.3. 
 
 392, § 237 a. 
 
 396. § 491, obs. 1. 
 
 511. §237 a. 
 
 538. § 372 b, obs. 5. 
 
 540. § 230 b, 065. 1. 
 
 548. § 336, obs. 1. 
 
 663. § 22. 
 
 778. § 548 c, 06s. 2. 
 . 56. § 228 c, obs. 
 
 162. § 296 a, obs. 1. 
 
 173. § 313, obs. 
 ill. § 502 b. 
 293. § 286, 0&5. 1. 
 477. § 286, obs. 1. 
 545. § 237 c. 
 
 \ 64. § 502 a. 
 137. § 237 b. 
 
502 
 
 INDEX TO QUOTATIONS AND REFERENCES. 
 
 
 VIRGIL. 
 
 
 JEneis. 
 
 iv. 15* 
 
 § 474 g. 
 
 235. 
 
 § 502 b. 
 
 26S. 
 
 § 474 b. 
 
 281. 
 
 § 389, obs. 2. 
 
 290. 
 
 § 241, obs. 3. 
 
 493. 
 
 § 237 a. 
 
 569 
 
 § 211 b, obs. 1. 
 
 v. 6. 
 
 § 426, obs. 1, foot 
 
 
 note. 
 
 28. 
 
 § 474 g. 
 
 97. 
 
 § 237 c 
 
 S25. 
 
 § 347 b, obs. 3. 
 
 410. 
 
 § 474 e. 
 
 451. 
 
 §251. 
 
 572. 
 
 §419. 
 
 608. 
 
 § 237 b. 
 
 vi. 30. 
 
 § 4*2 a, obs. 2. 
 
 77. 
 
 § 407, obs. 2. 
 
 34 
 
 §419. 
 
 29. 
 
 § 259 b, obs. 
 
 vi. 394. 
 
 § 361, obs. 3. 
 
 544. 
 
 § 386. 
 
 575. 
 
 § 273 b, obs. 2. 
 
 673. 
 
 § 273 b, obs. 2. 
 
 696. 
 
 § 232, obs. 4. 
 
 Hi. 113. 
 
 § 237 c. 
 
 465. 
 
 § 300 c, obs. 2. 
 
 560. 
 
 § 351 b, obs. 1. 
 
 
 VIRGIL. 
 
 VIRGIL. 
 
 
 JEneis. 
 
 Georg. 
 
 ix. 
 
 266. § 336, obs. 1. 
 485. § 299 b, obs. 2. 
 
 i. 49. *§ 335, obs. 3, foot- 
 note. 
 234. *§ 254, ofo. 2, foot- 
 
 X. 
 
 525. § 299 a. 
 84. § 229 b, obs. 2. 
 
 xi. 
 
 103. § 481 a, obs. 2. 
 441. § 479 b. 
 680. § 453, foot-note. 
 194. § 251. 
 
 277. *§ 290 g, foot-note 
 330. *§ 335, obs. 3, foot- 
 
 note. 
 340. *§ 230, Sub. a, foot- 
 
 note. 
 
 
 Bucol. 
 
 360. *§ 261, foot-note. 
 
 i. 
 
 59. § 360, obs. 4. 
 
 430. *§ 259, obs., foot- 
 
 ii. 
 
 65. § 502 b. 
 
 note. 
 
 iii. 
 
 28. § 372 b, obs. 2. 
 
 456. *§ 390, foot-note. 
 
 
 84. § 361, obs. 3. 
 
 ii. 86. § 502 b. 
 
 iv. 
 
 55. § 460, obs. 2. 
 
 192. § 481 a. 
 
 viii. 
 
 108. § 502 b. 
 
 298. § 459. 
 
 ix. 
 
 45. § 291, obs. 1. 
 
 486. § 502 b, obs. 
 
 
 66. § 502 a. 
 
 742. *§ 232, obs. 4, foot 
 note, 
 iii. 84. § 237 c. 
 
 
 Eclog. 
 
 499. § 302. 
 
 i. 
 
 64. § 232, ofo. 4. 
 
 iv. 212. § 335, obs. 3. 
 248. § 389, obs. 2. 
 vi. 542. *§ 233, obs. 2, foot 
 
 
 Geo?*g. 
 
 note. 
 
 i. 
 
 208, *§ 48, obs. 1, foot- 
 note. 
 
 
 PEINTEB BT MESSES. PAEKEE, COEN-MAEKET, OXFOED, 
 
 ' 1*0 06 
 
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