Qass. 
 
 Book,.. C> <c>. 
 
■3'2-^Y> 
 
 A SHORT HANDBOOK- 
 
 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY 
 
 ENGLISH, ANGLO-SAXON, FRISIAN, FLEMISH OR DUTCH, 
 
 LOW OR PLATT DUTCH, HIGH DUTCH OR GERMAN, 
 
 DANISH, SWEDISH, ICELANDIC, LATIN, ITALIAN, FRENCH, SPANISH, 
 
 AND PORTUGUESE TONGUES. 
 
A SHORT HANDBOOK 
 
 COMPAEATIYE PHILOLOGY 
 
 ENGLISH, ANGLO-SAXON, FRISIAN, FLEMISH OR DUTCH, 
 
 LOW OR PLATT DUTCH, HIGH DUTCH OR GERMAN, 
 
 DANISH, SWEDISH, ICELANDIC, LATIN, ITALIAN, FRENCH, 
 
 SPANISH, AND PORTUGUESE TONGUES. 
 
 HYDE CLAEKE, D.C.L., 
 
 AUTHOR OF A NEW AtTD COMPKEHENSIVE DICTIONAET OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE; OF ANGLO- 
 SAXON HISTORY, ILLUSTRATED BY TOPOGRAPHICAL NOMENCLATDEE ; AND OF A 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE, SPOKEN AND WRITTEN. 
 
 tuhn: 
 
 JOHN WEALE, 59, HIGH HOLBOEK 
 
 MDCCCLIX. 
 
^ 
 
 (.'i> 
 
 t^ 
 
 PRINTED BY W. H. COX, 
 
 5. Great QrsEN Stkeet, Lincoln's Inn Fiel»s 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 's'many friends hav.e, wished that the Treatise on Gomparatlve '] 
 
 Philology, which begins my English Grammar, should be ij 
 
 printed in a separate form^ Mr. Weale has caused this ; 
 
 Edition to be published. Should this prove acceptable, I hope ! 
 
 to have the opportunity of extending the work. -\ 
 
 i 
 
 HYDE CLARKE, 
 
 August, 1858. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Classification of Indo-Germanic Languages, page 1. 
 
 Table of the Changes into English of Words from Anglo-Saxon ; Frisian ; 
 Flemish ; Low Dutch, Low German, or Flat Dutch ; High Dutch or 
 High German ; Danish ; Swedish and Icelandic, 8. 
 
 Table of the Changes of Letters from a Word of Latin Root into Italiar. 
 Spanish, Portuguese, and French, 16. 
 
 Changes of Italian Irregular Letters into Latin, French, Spanish, an^ 
 Portuguese, 19. 
 
 Changes of Spanish Irregular Letters into Latin, French, Portuguese, and 
 
 Italian, 20. 
 Changes of Portuguese Irregular Letters into Latin, French, Spanish 
 
 and Italian, 20. 
 Changes of French Words into English, 21. 
 Comparative Philology of Anglo-Saxon Roots, 23. 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLO&Y, 
 
 Speechknowledge, or Philology, is one of the branches of Folkknowledge, 
 or Ethnology. Folkknowledge shows ns the several stocks to which man- 
 kind belong; Speechknowledge, their several ways of speech and the laws 
 which these follow. These branches of learning have only lately sprung np, 
 and are still in their youth. It is, however, now well enough known that 
 all mankind belong to several great stocks or families of races, as the Indo- 
 European, the Chinese, the Syro-Arabian, the Americo-Indian ; and each of 
 these is again further divided. Thus, under the Indo-European come the 
 Germanic, the Slavonic, the Celtic, and other great families. The Germanic 
 stock again includes or brings together the English, High Dutch, and Scan- 
 dinavian. The Celtic stock includes the Welsh, Irish, Manx, and Breton. 
 
 Commonly, the classification for Speechknowledge is the same as for Folk- 
 knowledge ; but it does not follow that those who speak the same tongue 
 belong to the same stock. Thus, there are Welsh and Irish who speak 
 English, and Bretons who speak French. The groundwork of the classifi- 
 cation, however, being taken from the stock or race to which the tongue 
 belongs, it is needful to say something of Folkknowledge, so far as it throws 
 light upon the subject we have in hand. 
 The leading great stocks in Europe are the following :— 
 
 iNDO-EuaopEAN ; as English, Welsh, Irish, French, Russians, Gipseys. 
 Ugro-Tartarian or Finnish ; as Magyars, Fins, Laps, Basques. 
 TunKisH ; as Turks. 
 Stro- Arabian ; as Jews. 
 The Indo-European is the greatest of these, and the mightiest in the world, although 
 more souls belong to the Chinese stock. The Indo-Europeans reach from Burmah through 
 Western Asia, spreading over Europe and further throughout North and South America ; 
 and the European branches are thus divided : — 
 Germanic : Anglo-Suevian . . English, Americo-English, 
 
 Old Saxons, Burgundians, GotJis, Vandals, Jutes, 
 
 Longheards, Danes. 
 Frisians of Frieseland, Heligoland, and Jutland. 
 ' Netherlanders, Hollanders, and Flemings. 
 
 Low Dutch Low Dutch, or Germans. 
 
 High Dutch .... High Dutch, or Gennans. 
 
 German Swiss. 
 Scandinavians ..Danes and Noi*wegians. 
 Swedes. 
 Icelanders. 
 
 Celtic : Welsh Welsh of Wales. 
 
 Old Cornish. 
 Bretons of Brittany. 
 
 Irish Irish of Ireland. 
 
 Irish or Erse of the Scotch Highlands 
 Manx of the Isle of Man. 
 B 
 
^ GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUB. 
 
 Mixed Celto Roman : Italian Italians. 
 
 French French, Canadians. 
 
 French Swiss. 
 
 Savoyards. 
 Iherian Spaniards, Americo-Spaniards. 
 
 Portuguese, Brazilians. 
 
 Sicilians. 
 
 Sardinians. 
 
 WaUach Wallachians. 
 
 Heij,enic: Hellenic Greeks. 
 
 Albanian Albanians. 
 
 Armenian Armenians. ' 
 
 Slavonic : Chekh Chekhs or Bohemians. 
 
 Slovaks of Hungary. 
 
 Poles. 
 Russ Russians. 
 
 Slavonians. 
 
 Croats. 
 Lithuanic Lithuanians. 
 
 The leading Uving tongues belonging to the Germanic stock are the English, Frisian, 
 Netherlandish or Flemish (sometimes called Dutch), High Dutch (sometimes called Ger- 
 man), Danish, Swedish, and Icelandic. These again may be thus classified :— 
 Anglo-Suevian. .English 
 Frisian. 
 
 Low Dutch Flemish or Netherlandish. 
 
 Low Dutch or Piatt Dutch. 
 
 High Dutch High Dutch. 
 
 NorvSE , . Danish or Norwegian. 
 
 Swedish. 
 Icelandic. 
 
 These islands seem to have been first settled by the great Euskardian or Iberian stock, 
 belonging to the Ugro-Tartarian, and which once spread over Western Europe, and of which 
 aU that is left are the Basques in Spain, unless the Fins of several kinds are likewise to be 
 reckoned, and unless in the west of Ireland some Iberian blood still Ungers under the name 
 of Spanish, as the common belief there is. The Iberians were slaughtered or driven out of 
 Britain by the Celts ; but in the time of the Romans, the Silures, in South Wales, stUl iiad a 
 Spanish look, as Tacitus tells us. The Celts were yielding before inroads of the Belgians in 
 Britain and Ireland, when the Romans made themselves masters of the islands, and for atime 
 stayed the downfall of the Celts In the fifth century after Christ, however, the Roman 
 might tottered, the German! rushed on the Roman empire and swept all before them. In 
 these islands the Celts threw off the Roman yoke, but not long to hold the sway ; for the 
 Northern Gennani, of English kin, came over the North Sea and began to settle on the east- 
 em shore, slowly spreading themselves till aU the islands feU under their yoke. 
 
 In the Roman time the Saxons and Frisians who were on the west side of Jutland, made 
 their iirst mroads, and hence the Celts called aU the Germanic comers Saxons, as the WeM,- 
 Irish, and Highlanders do to this day. The Frisians, Saxons, and Jutes seem to have been 
 among the first who made good their landing, and set up the commonwealths of Kent, of the 
 Soutkrick or Sun-ey, of the East, Middle, South, and West Saxons, and of Wight. The 
 English, however, passing from their seat in the east of Jutland to the west, soon took the 
 leadership, and the names of the other Germani were lost in theirs, giving to the land, folk, 
 speech, and laws, the name of English. The English, Warings, and Frisians, were very 
 near akin, their speech much alike, and their laws the same, so that they readily mingled 
 together in these islands, as they did in Russia. The old or first Danes seem to have been 
 near akin to the English, as were the Jutes, Vandals, and Bructwara ; and all of these had 
 more or less shp.re in the first settlement. Under the name of English, aU England, to the 
 noith of the Thames, and up to the Highlands of Wales and Scotland, was filled by them, 
 the leading commonwealths being those of the North and South Folk of East English, of 
 Lindsey. of the Wiccii, of the Middle English or Mercians, of Bernicia and Deiri in North- 
 ■umberland, of Cumberland, and Lothian. 
 
 It seems very Ukely that English sea-kings were among the first who seated themselves on 
 the shores of South Wales, Anglesea, Scotland, and Ireland ; their settlements, like those in 
 England, being afterwards taken by the Northmen or Scandinavians. 
 
 Note.— The Frisians, who speak much lUce the West Somerseters, stUl hold themselves 
 as our kinsmen, and the likeness of the two tongues is well shown in their common saying : — 
 
 Good butter and good cheqse, 
 Is good English and good Freese. 
 
 Some of Shakspeare's plays have been put into Frisian almost word for word. 
 
PIIILOLOGV. 3 
 
 Mr. Halbertsma, in Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Wordbook, gives the following song of the 
 Countess of Blessington in English and in Land-Frisian :— 
 
 What art thou, life? Hwat bist dou, libben? 
 
 A weary strife len wirch stribjen 
 
 Of pain, care, and sorrow; Fen pine, noed (1) in soarch ; 
 
 Long hours of grief, Lange oeren fen smerte 
 
 And joys how brief! In nochten ho koart ! 
 
 That vanish the morrow. Det fordwine (2) de moarns, 
 
 Death, what are thou, Dead, hwat bist dou. 
 
 To whom all bow, Ta hwaem alien buwgje, 
 
 From sceptred Idng to slave ? Fen de scepterde kening ta de slawe ? 
 
 The last, best friend, De listste, bseste freon. 
 
 Our cares to end, Om uws soargen to einjen. 
 
 Thy empire's in the grave. Dyn gebiet (3) is yngt grajf. 
 
 When all have fled Wenneer se alien binne fled 
 
 Thou giv'st a bed, Jouwst do ien bsed. 
 
 Wherein we calmly sleep; Wser wy kalm yn sliepe; 
 
 The wounds all healed, De wotinen alle hele. 
 
 The dim eyes sealed, De digerige eagen segele, 
 
 That long did walie and weep ! Dy lang diene wekje in gepje. 
 
 (1) Need. (2) Dwindle. (3) From bid to command. 
 It is much to be wished the Frisian tongue were better known here. 
 Note.— The Anglo-Suevians were as much akin as the Southrons, Northumbrians, Low- 
 landers, Ulstermen, and New Englanders now are ; and the old settlements were made as 
 the new ones are. The leading folk, or the folk to which the leaders belonged, gave name 
 to the settlement. Thus, Kent is said to have been settled by the Jutes, though there is no 
 ground for believing that there were no other English and that Jutes only held Kent, inasmuch 
 as Hengist and Horsa are claimed as Frisians. Thus, Middlesex is named after the Saxons, 
 though there must have been as many other English as Saxons. Thus, Russia is named 
 after the Russians or Russian Warings, though Nestor witnesses that their brethren, the Old 
 English, were like sharers in the work. The Imperial Guard of the Emperors of Byzantium . 
 was called Waranghian or Baraggoi, though of later years the warriors were mostly Eng- 
 lish. Thus, Ulster is said to have been planted by the Scotch Lowlanders, and California, 
 by the Americans, Although we read of commonwealths in England, named after Jutes 
 Saxons, and Enghsh, we must not think that these differed in kindred, speech, or laws, ov' 
 that they are to be understood as anything else but English, any more than we are to think 
 that Belfast is peopled with Scotch Lowlanders only, San Francisco with New Englanders, 
 and Sydney with Enghsh, differing in nationality and in tongue. 
 
 Wherever the English settled, the British Celts were slaughtered, and English blood and 
 speech held the mastery, as they do indeed to this day. While, however, our forefathers 
 were making a new England here, a shadow came over Germania. The best of the Ger- 
 manic folk, the Enghsh, Warings, Franks, Vandals, Goths, Bm'gundians, and Longbeards, 
 had left their homes to fasten on the Roman empire ; in the south the lower tribes only were 
 left, from whom have sprung the High Dutch or Germans of this day ; on the east the Slavo- 
 nians rushed forward ; from the north the Scandinavians, who became known as Northmen 
 and Danes. Stopped on the shores of the Elbe by the hosts of the Frankish kings, the North- 
 men sent their ships over the North Sea to these shores, and the English, who bad sunk 
 imder the yoke of monkery, yielded before them, and thus for a long time the Northmen 
 held sway here. Hence it happens that among the East English, and to the north of Trent 
 as far as the Highlands and north-east shores of Scotland, Danish blood and English are 
 much mixed together, and the speech has likewise a mingling of Scandinavian. 
 
 In the year 1 066, William the Norman, having made good his claim to the kingdom, brought 
 in a great many Normans and Flemings, and likewise some French, and thus French words 
 and sayings were mingled Avith the English tongue ; but in time the Normans and Fi^ench 
 died off, so that it is hard now to find a man even of Nonnan name, and harder still one of 
 Norman blood, although French words stiU. have a great share in the English tongue. 
 
 It will be seen that the Enghsh, that is, those of that blood dwelling in England, the Lowlands 
 of Scotland and Ulster, and in their settlements in America or New England, and in New 
 Holland, are the offspring of the Enghsh kindred stocks, the Enghsh, Warings, Hunsings, 
 Fiisians, Flemings, Vandals, Jutes, Saxons, Bructwara, Old Danes, and Northmen, unmi'n- 
 gled either with British, Celtic, or French blood. Not so, however, their speech ; although 
 the root and groundwork of it are English ynth hardly a word of Welsh or Irish, yet it is 
 greatly overlaid with French and Latin ; and so far does this go, that often a Latin or French 
 word has driven out the Enghsh one. 
 
 On the new birth of learning, Latin and Greek were so much followed, that the home 
 tongues were lost sight of. Latin words were not only poured into French and Spanish, 
 but Into Enghsh, Flemish, Low Dutch, and High Dutch, to their great hann ; and eveiything 
 was tmsted and set to a Latin or Greek standard, utterly thoughtless how far such might 
 be right, and utterly careless whether English or Flemish had a standard of its owti. In 
 
4 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, Latinism had full sway 
 over the English tongue, nor has it wholly lost it in this. In the last century, the Hol- 
 landers and High Dutch freed their tongues from Latinisms by bringing back or making 
 words of home stock. Among ourselves our speech would have been utterly lost had it not 
 been that imder the Latin sway, as under the Norman sway, and imder the Danish sway, 
 the great body of the English, holding to their own speech, kept it alive against the men 
 of learning. 
 
 The history of the English tongue is to be looked at on two sides : on 
 one side we miist follow up English by itself; on the other, its foreign foes. 
 
 From the very birt^ of its learning, EngUsh had to struggle with the foreigner; for the 
 Roman and Celtic chix-ohmen and teachers wrote in Latin, and warped Enghsh to a Latin 
 mould. Already, , t(a:r, in those days High Dutch had begun to work evil, for English 
 churchmen going oyer to the Rhineland and to Paris, were led to imitate some of the 
 High Dutch biblical writings. The Danish kings, too, were followed by Norse scalds, who 
 wrought as much evil to Enghsh learning, as some time after did the French troubadours. 
 Much of what is called Anglo-Saxon is a medley of High Dutch, Scandinavian, and Latin, 
 and is no more to be looked upon as pure English than the -ivritings of the Anglo-Norman 
 time. We cannot, therefore, take written English-Saxon as a good standard, or as the only 
 standard. Another hindrance to it is, that many words spoken in the Anglo-Saxon times 
 still live in the Enghsh tongue, which were never written down. 
 
 What more than anything kept Enghsh ahve before the Anglo-Norman time, was the 
 many open meetings in which the common business was carried on. Each township was a 
 commonwealth in itself, made its own laws, and held in its hands hfe and death. In the 
 himdred motes the men of neighbouring townships met once a month ; and further, from 
 time to time, folkmotes of the shires and commonwealths were held. Our fathers had no 
 lawyers and no lawbooks; everything was done openly, and by word of mouth, until the 
 churchmen set down land sales in writing and in books, got grants of lands from the weak 
 monk-kings, and took seats in the hundred and shire-motes. 
 
 In the Anglo-Norman time, the day of the scalds was at an end, and that of the trou- 
 badours began. The courtiers spoke' French, and the learned Latin, while written Anglo- 
 Saxon, or more truly speaking Norse-Enghsh, died off. The folkmotes had been strangled 
 by the wiles of the Noraian chmxhmen and lawyers, but the towngmlds were still alive, 
 and after a time they had a great share in bringing Enghsh again into use as a written 
 tongue. Slowly English, which, for all that French knights and Italian monks had done, 
 had never died in the gi-eat towns, nor in the smaU hamlets, became the common tongue 
 in the new parliament, which was set up instead of the folkmotes, and in the juries and 
 law coui-ts, for which the townsliips and hundreds had to give way. While Anglo-Normanism 
 died away, sturdy English rose up. So, too, the might of the Roman bishop was shaken ; 
 monks began to preach in Enghsh, Wicklif and other priests to write. Thus, when printing 
 cam.e to give a new birth to learning, England had already shaken off the yoke of the 
 foreigner, and our mother-tongue once more held sway throughout the isle. 
 
 It is noW; however, needful to speak of something else which, in the 
 meanwhile, had wrought greatly on the English tongue. In its old shape, 
 as spoken by our forefathers when they first came here, and which is com- 
 monly called English Saxon, it was not the same as now, for nouns and 
 verbs made their changes of meaning by changes of the endings of the words, 
 and not by prepositions or auxiliary or helping words; thus, eye, eye's — eyes, 
 eyes' — made in English Saxon eage, eagan; and in the plural, eagan (nomina- 
 tive), eag-um (dative), eag-ene (genitive). What was the beginning of the 
 great change, no one can tell, though it is one of the most wonderful within 
 the bounds of knowledge, for it has happened not only between Anglo-Saxon 
 and English, but between most old and new tongues, as Hellenic Greek 
 and Eomaic, Old Persian and New Persian, Old Frisian and New Frisian, 
 without any working of one on another, or indeed any common ground of 
 operation being as yet found out, though the end is alike to ail. 
 
 Hence we find the English tongue under these shapes: — 1. Old English 
 or English Saxon. 2. Danish English. 3. Norman English. 4. New Eng- 
 lish. The latter again is spoken in several ways, called dialects ; as South- 
 ern or London, nicknamed Cockney ; West Saxon or Somerset ; Exmoor; 
 Wilts ; East English or Norfolk ; Derbyshire ; Lancashire ; Cheshire ; 
 Northumbrian ; Yoi-kshire ; Craven ; Scotch of the West Lowlands, East 
 Lowlands, and Aberdeen ; Orkney ; Welsh ; Highland ; Irish ; American ; 
 Polynesian ; Negro ; Chinese. The Southern, Ainerican or New England, 
 
PHILOLOGY. 6 
 
 and "West Saxon dialects are the most English ; the Welsh, Highland, and 
 some of the Irish dialects have a Celtic leaning ; and many of the other 
 dialects named are mingled with Scandinavian. 
 
 The southern dialects having been long spoken by a great body of the Eng- 
 lish, from among whom the great English writers and thinkers have sprang, 
 have been those which have taken the lead, and from them has been made 
 the English tongue as written, and as commonly acknowledged. It is south 
 of Trent we find the birth-towns of Shakspeare, Spenser, Milton, Dryuen, 
 Pope, Byron, De Foe, Fielding, Bacon, Locke, and Newton ; it is in their 
 southern tongue the masterworks have been written, a-ad the great states- 
 men of the land have spoken. It is in this tongue we m ist seek the liviug 
 law of the English speech, the lex et norma loquendi. We cannot seek it 
 in Anglo-Saxon writings ; there we find foreign words, dead and long lost 
 shapes, seldom more than the seeds of the new tongue, with many words 
 wanting. We cannot seek it in Lowland or in Norihumbrian; for though 
 sometimes we may find English words elsewhere lost, yet we likewise find 
 that English words have given way to Danish. We cannot seek the living 
 law of English speech in the works of our "writers, however great, knowing, 
 as we do, that whatever the might of their thoughts, their words were often 
 sought from heathen springs, not always from "the well of English un- 
 defiled." 
 
 If, too, we bear in mind what has too commonly been forgotten, that 
 grammar is not only the law of writing,* but the law of speaking, and that 
 great as is the spell of our writers, and most in these days of newspapers, 
 greater is that of speakers m all times over the enlightened freemen of Eng- 
 land and the United States, we shall see that gramma,r should rather look 
 to the living for its models than to the dead. The shape of man keeps the 
 same for thousands of years ; the Negro, the Arab, or the Nubian, as drawn 
 on the pyramiids, is he of this day; but the speech of man is ever shifting; 
 and writers, however skilful, however great, however mighty, will be left 
 behind, while the swelling tide bears on. It has been shown how much 
 English has shifted from its Anglo-Saxon shape, but even in our day there 
 are those alive who have heard many ways of speaking among us ; and so 
 throughout Europe. Thus, in France there are those who have heard the 
 vowel a called by the old men aw, which is now made ah. To lay down a 
 settled law for speech is hard at any time, but it becomes still more so if we 
 look to written and not to living authorities. 
 
 If we are to take the written tongue as our model, we must then see by whom 
 it is written. In our list of writers we find Lowlanders, Scotchmen, Irish- 
 men, Hollanders, Dutchmen, Jews, and Parsees, some of whose works beam 
 with the brightest gifts of mind, but, however freely written, show some blot 
 which jars on our English ear. We can, indeed, hardly take up even a Lon- 
 don or New York newspaper without finding, side by side with thorough 
 English, writings in which that shibboleth of shall and will marks out to us 
 the handling of one to our speech unborn. If, indeed, our tongue could be . 
 taught in schools in a few months by books and masters, as well as from the 
 mother's lips and by the work of years, if ours were a tongue narrowed like 
 the French by set academic laws, or laid down by act of parliament or con- 
 gress, it would be easily learned, and we could as freely take every writer 
 as a sound master as we can take every man to be a working citizen. But 
 looking at English as it is, we must seek its laws among those to whom it 
 is a living birthright. 
 
 * The higher kinds of writing, the poena and the play, come rather nnder the law of the 
 spoken than of the written tongue, so that tlie spoken tongue is by far the weightier- 
 
b GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 It may be as •well to say a few words as to Lowland or Broad Scotch. The speech, Hkc 
 the men, had its beginning with those who took the best blood of England into the Lothians, 
 and heretofore it was as open to our northern brethren as to the Southrons, the Northum- 
 brians, the men of Kent, or the Somersetshire folk, to set up their speech as the standard 
 of English ; but now this is too late, Southern Enghsh has taken the lead, and the Lowlanders 
 must follow our standard, as we might have have had to follow theirs. In so far, Lowland 
 is no longer the language, but a dialect. 
 
 The NewEnglanders had an English beginning, and thereby fuE birthright in the English 
 tongaie ; but we can no longer look to them as having the same right to be taken as a 
 standard. In the last fifty years, millions of High Dutch and Irish have been poured into 
 the United States, and a great many Spaniards, French, and Netherlanders have likewise 
 been taken into citizenship, and thus a large foreign population, in a state of transition, is 
 mixed up -with the New Englanders. In England only can we, at this time, seek the heart 
 of the English race ; and while to the New Englanders the full meed must be given which 
 is owing to them, we cannot take from them a standard. On the other hand, we cannot 
 ask them to take eveiything which is om-s ; they have as good a right as we to keep old 
 words and to make new ones. Many, too, of these we have taken fi-om them, and they from 
 us ; but neither can set up the right of blotting out words which the other takes. We are 
 too ready to stamp words as Americanisms or Tanlceeisms, which are good Enghsh; they, 
 however, are as ready to forget, that words given to us by our fathers are not " obsolete " 
 from being no longer spoken on the other side of the wide sea. The great Webster has, in 
 his Dictionary, carried out a work for which aU Enghshmen must be beholden to him, and 
 those of New England the more so, inasmuch as he has most praiseworthily recorded every- 
 thing which a dweller in America has a right to look for ; yet even he, Avho twice crossed 
 the Atlantic to tliis island, and spent fifty years in his toil, has marked as "obsolete," or as 
 "not in use," numbers of words which have never gone out of use. This great man was 
 nevertheless very earnest in the endeavour to uphold our mother-tongue, and in no way to 
 weaken the old standards. 
 
 The new English takes several shapes as it becomes more or less mingled 
 with other tongues. It is well enough known that in speaking we bring in 
 other words from what we do in writing ; a working man will have a set of 
 words more English Saxon than the newspaper writer or set speaker, who 
 seeks more after French or Latin. Again, in writing there may be more or 
 less Latin or French, or even High Dutch; and of each of these, several kinds 
 or styles. 
 
 The styles may be thus set forth : — 1st. English, as of Eang Alfred, much 
 of the Bible, De Foe, Cobbett. 2nd. French English, as of Chaucer, Spen- 
 ser, Dryden, Pope. 3rd. Latin English, as of Ben Jonson, part of the 
 New Testament, Milton, Johnson. 4th. High Dutch English, as of Carlyle. 
 
 In this day, the leaning is less to Latin and more to Enghsh; and newspaper writing and 
 public speaking, being freer and less stilted, have done much to bring back the Enghsh 
 tongue to its old and common shape. Within the last hundred years it was thought grand 
 and fine to v.'oi'k up long Latin and French, or even Greek words, and %'Tilgar, as indeed 
 it was, to use common English words. With a better knowledge of the laws of speech, 
 T/ith the gro-wth indeed of this new kind of learning, a healthier feehng has arisen; and 
 although Germanism or High Dutch has had sway with some, and Scandinavianism with 
 others, yet it is becoming known that the Enghsh tongue has, like others, its own words, 
 its own framework, and its own laws, and can take its stand by itself, as Enghsh learning 
 and Enghsh glory can. 
 
 In this work, the spoken tongue is taken as the standard rather than the 
 written tongue, and, of the spoken tongue, that which is spoken by the 
 southern and midland English, and by the New Englanders. Further, it 
 has been thought right to look to the English or English- Saxon element 
 throughout, rather than to the Scandinavian, the High Dutch, the French, 
 the Latin, or the Greek. In settling what is English, those tongues which 
 are akin to English, as Frisian and Flemish, have been taken rather than 
 Scandinavian or High Dutch, which are foreign tongues, or even before 
 English Saxon or Gotkic, as moulded by the High Dutch writers. 
 
 Men of the greatest learning who have dealt with English grammar have 
 taken every other path than that here followed; the kindred tongues have 
 been shunned, for unhappily there is now little knowledge in England of 
 Frisian or Netherlandish, while the High Dutch have been taken as leaders 
 
PHILOLOGY. 
 
 7 
 
 on the asstunption tliat they are the Germani fiom whom we and all others 
 have sprung, or that as they have written much, so are they the most learned. 
 In this day it may be held as settled, that High Dutch is a stem by it- 
 self of the Germanic, as is Scandinavian ; and by the High Dutch and the 
 Scandinavians it is acknowledged that English does not belong to the stem 
 of either, but stands alone; and from this groundwork we must start. 
 
 COMPAEATIYE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 Comparative Philology is that branch of Speechknowledge or Philology 
 which considers the likeness or unlikeness of words in the several tongues, 
 as Comparative Anatomy does the anatomy of the several living beings. 
 
 The words of the English tongue, as already said, are mostly of Germanic 
 or of Latin root, and therefore give a groundwork by which an Englishman 
 may help himself in learning the European tongues of these stocks, with the 
 grammars of which this English Grammar makes part of a series. Yv^ater 
 is in Anglo-Saxon waster, in Flemish water, in High Dutch wasser, in 
 Danish vater, and in Swedish vaten; all these words being much alike. 
 Admiration is in Latin admiratio, in French admiration, in Italian admira- 
 zione, in Spanish admiracion, and in Portuguese admiragao. 
 
 By knowing the laws by which the changes of letters in these words are 
 made, we can make other words in these tongues from English words, or we 
 can turn those words into English. Thus : — 
 
 English. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 French. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 ., Spanish. 
 
 Portuguese. 
 
 admiration 
 
 admiratio 
 
 admiration 
 
 admirazione 
 
 admiracion 
 
 admira9ao 
 
 a,Tiimatioii 
 
 animatio 
 
 animation 
 
 animazione 
 
 animacion 
 
 anima^So 
 
 combination 
 
 combinatio 
 
 combination 
 
 combtnazione 
 
 combinacion 
 
 combinacSo 
 
 disposition 
 
 dispositio 
 
 disposition 
 
 disposizione 
 
 disposicion 
 
 dispoBi9So 
 
 revolution 
 
 revolutio 
 
 reyoltition 
 
 revoluzione 
 
 revolucion 
 
 reYolu9ao 
 
 consolation 
 
 consolatio 
 
 consolation 
 
 consolazione 
 
 consolacion 
 
 conaola9ao 
 
 condition 
 
 conditio 
 
 condition 
 
 condizione 
 
 condicion 
 
 condi9ao 
 
 resolution 
 
 resolutio 
 
 resolution 
 
 resoluzione 
 
 resolucion 
 
 re3olu9ao 
 
 Thus witli Higli Dutch or 
 
 German:— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 waier 
 
 wasser 
 
 
 
 
 
 fooi5 
 
 fuss 
 
 
 
 
 
 nu^ 
 
 nuss 
 
 
 
 
 
 whi^e 
 
 weiss ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 swee^ 
 
 suss 
 
 
 
 The kindred between the Indo-European tongues will be seen by the foWoynag:— Anglo- 
 Saxon, fether, mother, sunu, brother; English, father, mother, son, brother; Frisian, feder, 
 moder, sun ; Flemish, Netherlandish or Nether Dutch, vader, moeder, zoon, broeder ; Gothic, 
 arta, modur, sunus, brothar; Swedish and Danish, fader, moder, son, broder; Icelandic, 
 fader, mooder, sunr, broder; High Dutch or German, vater, mutter, sohn, bmder. [The 
 above are Germanic] Zend, paitar, matar, bratar; Persian, pader, mader, fersend, brader; 
 Bokharese, petar, mader, farsend, birader; Pehlvi, abider, amider, berur; Ossetinian, tider, 
 dade, mad, firt, arwad; Koordor Kurd, baw (father), brah (brother). [The foregoing are 
 Persian.] Sanskrit, pita, mata, suna, bhrater; Bengalee, pita, mata, shaleea, bhaee; Hin- 
 dostanee, pita, mader, furzund, biradur. [The foregoing are Indian. ] Arjnenian, hair, mair ; 
 Albanian or Skipetar, ba, mama; Old Greek, pater, meter; Romaic or Modern Greek, pateras, 
 matera; f.atin or Old Roman, pater, mater, frater; Italian, padre, madre, fratello ; Spanish, 
 padre, madre; Portuguese, pai, mai; French, -pere, mere, frere; WaUachian, tato, muma, 
 frate. [The foregoing are of the Helleno-Roman family.] Welsh, tad, ma.m, 'bm-wd; Corn- 
 ish, taz, mam, bredar; Breton, tat, mam, breur; Irish, athair, mathair, bhrathair; Erse or 
 Irish of the Scotch Highlands, athair, mathair, brathair; Manx, moir, braar. [These are 
 Celtic] Russian, Qshezy, mat, sunn, brat; Slavish, bat, mater, syn, brat; Polish, ojciec, 
 matka, syn, brat; Bohemian or Czech, otzie, sin; Lithuanian, moter, sunus. [These are 
 Slavonian.] 
 
 The minute changes in all these tongues are only of interest or import- 
 ance to philologists ; but in the Germanic and Latin tongues it is most 
 useful for the student to know them, and they are therefore here given. 
 
GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 
 
 ^ W 
 
 
 fel|)|> 
 
 5^ ^o- ^ 
 
 cS I &; cf f^ 1 1^ 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 •^ feS 
 
 ^B i ^ t i 
 
 ^t^^ 
 
 - -^ kJ"-^ 
 
 
 
 S ^ 
 
 
 SS3 
 
 ■i^^ 
 i;^ s 
 
 I ^' 
 
 
 
 SL 
 
 -.'»>'; 
 
 ^ 1 <!. 
 
 
 rij 'o 
 
 _2 ^ S ,« ^si^^^sS ^' 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 e. Cii 
 
 |feq.. 
 
 
 s « s 
 
 -§ -^ 
 
 i E 1 SS5^ -§ 
 
 Lt 
 
 cq 03" 
 
 A4 rl^rO 
 
 
 1 r'" ^ S fl 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ol^^-^l^f 
 
 "G o o o f^ 53 
 
 ^ <1 .', 
 
 
 
 5^ S 
 <3l ^W. 
 
 -S £ r=l 
 
 pq S Q^'Q.s2i^§Q|^ 
 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 ■3 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^1 
 
 ^ >> .r-! O 
 
 ^-§^ 
 
 
 g fSr§ 
 
 ■^ '^ ^ 
 
 Ci I ^"^ g q I § 
 
 I. 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 
 i^'^'^r'^tl 
 
 
 ^g f^ 
 
 ^ a a g) -i 
 
 
 ^•d 
 
 ^^-g s 
 
 o^ 
 
 (D JH O 
 
 ':^ i 
 
 
 
 
 a^ 1-^^", 
 
 '^^^^ 
 
 "O 00 03 
 
 .S'o S 
 
 <a -2 (D 
 
10 
 
 GRAMilAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 ;§ ft^ 
 
 ^nm 
 
 ^S% ^b'^^ 
 
 -^ fc,i: a,^ ^^;^'^^| 
 
 &;^i3' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m IS 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 -fe ^ ^ ^ ft 
 
 
 ? 03 
 
 " '5 ■ 
 
 -2 y -S 
 
 C3 
 
 ^ ft 
 
 
 ^H r-1 
 
 ^■^g..<sg> ^.> 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 1^ » 
 
 3 ^' 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 if^. 
 
 
 ^§,^^5 
 
 
 ;1 :« 
 
 gig 
 
 
 
 I ^ ^ ft S ^ ? S 
 
 ^■^^a- 
 
 1 
 
 ^8 
 
 I; « •- ^ 
 
 =-.:3 
 
 a) P fS Si »ri (D ; 
 
 
 
 '^ ^ rC kj "^ 
 
 
 41 
 
 o 8 . 
 
 ^11 
 
 fe^ f.gl ft, ^ 
 
 %^ 
 
 ^■g;^ ^ 
 
 u 
 
 
 m 
 
 tw 
 
 
 
 fT" 
 
 ■^^s 
 
 wi.. 
 
 ^'•S'S 
 
 §1 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 r— " ^-'2 O 53 fT tM -+0 
 
 
 c ^ ^a 
 
 g .2 g 
 
 •° a fl-^ 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 11 
 
 KJ S 
 
 
 
 N .S. S "Sb 
 
 '■^ ^^ ^^1^^ tq 
 
 fcD 
 
 el 
 
 I I 
 
 -3 "S 
 
 ^.^^S 
 
 
 
 
 , S5j cs « :o3 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 1^1 
 
 1^1 I ^i 
 
 s .a.. 
 
 
 o3 o c« r; •Cob 
 
 
 ^ •^, 
 
 S:a § 
 
 i ;3 fi j^- S J 
 
 ^1 
 
 ^a 
 
 2 a 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 
 f^ § -^ ^. -< ^ 
 
 
 'B ^ 
 
 
 S tu si s 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 faD 
 
 ^ n. -M S 
 
 
 
 
 
 S^ K^l, 
 
 
 
 ^s 
 
 o 
 
 p. 
 
 Si" S^i 
 
 o --? 
 
 ^ -3 
 
 ^.. 
 
 
 ^1^^^ 
 
 ^g 
 
 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 
 I-^CU- 
 
 
 
 1 ^ r-T 
 
 "ti .1—1' 
 
 
 I^ rt"« 
 
 
12 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 ^.^.^I^ll^l^ ^U^ l^r^i 1^ 
 
 ^r^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 -2° gg- _2^ -a § 2 •§ 3 
 
 
 
 ^o to 
 
 a ^m3M.G.2.<n"2mi2 ftoatS 
 
 as^ss-s^.2.s<s-s s '35' 
 
 1 , . .^ii^ii 
 
 fciO 
 
 w ^tg ^fcC § tfi ,= M -2 Ph p. m < 
 
 cS 
 
 I 6 «2, II ll ^1 I 111 
 
 aga'gsl5?,ilsgSi.S'i& 
 
I 
 
 I 
 
 ■S^ 
 
 
 
 COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 § 
 
 s 
 
 ft? &s 
 
 a ^ 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 CD to «0 
 
 € I Si? 
 
 ^^ 52fe 
 
 -g ^ 
 
 13 
 
 6Q CQ 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 pi. pi. B ^ 
 
 
 § ^£ 
 
 ^r1! 
 
 % 
 
 ^1 
 
 ^i 
 
 •3 <« 
 
 
 •a si) 
 
 ^ 
 
 <a 
 
 
 fe rt 
 
 §5 
 
 
 
 iV^c^, Rh 
 dunckel, mar 
 
 Rh,Rg 
 serge, mark 
 morgen 
 
 § 
 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 gg 
 
 Cq o 
 
 a« 
 
 E 
 
 hemd, sc 
 
 -Sche 
 flasche 
 
 ^1 
 
 S3 &C 
 
 Rh 
 erk 
 
 Rh 
 
 rg, murk 
 orgen 
 
 i 
 
 11 
 
 a . 
 
 hulder 
 
 Sh, Sch 
 
 ken, flesch 
 
 «| 
 
 ^ « 5Q § 
 
 a ga 
 
 g 
 
 !§ 
 
 g § 
 
 
 g Sb 
 
 
 rij a ?^s| 
 
 a 2Q 
 
 III Etif^l^i-^^^ 
 
 •s & 
 
 
 bt> P^ 
 
 aa 
 
 ^ 
 
 53 
 
 'S &2 
 
 
 fall 
 
 t^^^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 a :gg j?^ 
 
 ^ raw OQ GO 
 
 H 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 "I 
 
 3^2 
 
 «^ 
 
 t ll 
 
 G? 
 
 1« 
 
 
 I 11 -is 
 
 o^-s-S 
 
 ^ &CC 
 
14 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE, 
 
 I 
 
 Jig 
 
 
 ^ L 
 
 ^-^s-^ 
 
 ,la 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 ^ CQ p- 5v| -^ -T 
 
 S •? :^- 1 
 
 
 •II 
 
 
 -t3 
 
 CM c 
 
 
 2QiS 
 
 ^^ J§.S" 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 ^^ be 
 
 
 1=! 
 
 m m ts N 
 
 Js 2 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 a .a -S -a N a 
 
 O q 
 
 
 
 
 ^StrS 
 
 I 
 
 
 1 ^^8 ■ 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 ^ ^ ^ ^ .s" ^ 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 !- ff> 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 II a.2. 
 
 
 
 ^s ^ 
 
 
 
 :^ o 
 
 15 § 
 
 ^53 =5: 
 
 a <5C 53 
 
 feq ^ 
 
 
 H-5 
 
 cj o 
 
 oa -4J ■ 
 
 oa c3^ ."t; =i_2 ts2 S? ^ 1^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^.1. 
 
 ^lll= 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 15 
 
 mo 
 
 n hBcS 
 
 fe.^"- 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 . 
 
 ^? 
 
 ^1 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 
 is 
 
 B 
 
 
 -d c3:o 
 
 SQ'. 
 
 ^1 
 
 ■d o C 
 .So C 
 
 tej-s 
 
 o^ o 
 
 ._3 
 
 s^^a^in^?>.^;- ^ 
 
 b^^, ^ 
 
 123 
 
 fe: 
 
 a s s" 
 
 ^1 1 
 
 
 ^ k 
 
 bogen, 
 
 w 
 
 weiss, 
 
 "^11 ""iSl 
 
 "ill 
 
 051 
 
 
 1^1 I I 
 
 
 s H -^ . 
 
 
 ^11! 
 pi i> d 
 
 bq^ ^^ig ^ 
 
 w o p 
 
 a -3 
 
 
 g^ 
 
 "a P o 
 
 N 1 
 
 ti<^% 
 
 83 o ^ 
 
 H 1> o3 
 bCO Pt 
 
 
 ^^fe 
 
16 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 Table of the Changes of Letters from a Word of Latin Eoot 
 INTO Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Portuguese. 
 
 French. 
 
 An 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 causa, Cauda 
 
 cosa, coda 
 
 cosa, cola 
 
 cosa 
 
 chose 
 
 auricula 
 
 oreccMo 
 
 oreja 
 
 
 oreille 
 
 B 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 B 
 
 V 
 
 habere 
 
 awere 
 
 
 haver 
 
 avoir 
 
 mirabile 
 
 maraviglia 
 
 maravilla 
 
 
 merveUle 
 
 Bl 
 
 Bi 
 
 Bl 
 
 Br 
 
 Bl 
 
 
 bianco 
 
 
 branco 
 
 Wane 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 Mute 
 
 dico, locus 
 
 loco 
 
 digo, lugar 
 
 digo, lugar 
 
 dis, Ueu 
 
 amicus, macer 
 
 amico 
 
 amigo, magro 
 
 amigo 
 
 ami, maigre 
 
 acer, vessica 
 
 vessica 
 
 bexiga 
 
 bexiga 
 
 aigre, vessie 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 Qu 
 
 
 Ch 
 
 causa, carus 
 
 cosa, caro 
 
 querido 
 
 
 chose, cher 
 
 C hetween ) 
 two vowels \ 
 
 
 Mute 
 
 Mute 
 
 Mute 
 
 oculus, focus 
 
 occMo 
 
 ojo 
 
 olho 
 
 Z 
 
 fazer, plazer 
 
 ceil, feu 
 
 facere, placere 
 
 
 
 faire, plaire 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 S 
 
 vicinus, vices 
 
 vicino 
 
 vezino, vezes 
 
 
 voisin 
 
 Ch 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 Ch 
 
 chirurgicus 
 
 
 cirujano 
 
 
 chirurgien 
 
 
 C, G 
 
 a 
 
 G 
 
 c 
 
 stomachus 
 
 stomaco 
 
 cstomago 
 
 estomago 
 
 estomac 
 
 lachryma 
 
 lagrima 
 
 lagryma 
 
 Qu 
 
 lagryma 
 
 
 Merarchia 
 
 
 gerarquia 
 
 
 
 CI 
 
 CM 
 
 LI 
 
 Ch 
 
 CI 
 
 clavis, clamare 
 
 chiave, chiamare 
 
 llave, Uamar 
 
 chave, chamar 
 
 clef 
 
 
 
 Gl 
 
 Gr 
 
 Gl 
 
 ecclesia, ecloga 
 
 cMesa 
 
 iglesia, egloga 
 
 igreja 
 Cr 
 
 egUse 
 
 clavis 
 
 
 
 crave 
 
 
 Cr 
 
 
 Gr 
 
 
 Cr 
 
 crier 
 
 Ct 
 
 tt 
 
 Ch 
 
 T 
 
 It 
 
 factus, doctus 
 
 fatto, dotto 
 
 heclio 
 
 feito, douto 
 
 fait 
 
 noctes, pectus 
 
 notte, petto 
 
 noches, pecho 
 
 noites, peito 
 
 nuits, poitrine 
 
 octo, strictus 
 
 otto 
 
 echo, estrecho 
 
 oito 
 
 huit, etroit 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 L 
 
 L 
 
 D 
 
 odor, Cauda 
 
 odore, coda 
 
 olor, cola 
 
 
 odeur 
 
 judicare 
 
 giudicare 
 
 
 julgar 
 
 
 
 
 Mute 
 
 Mute 
 
 Mute 
 
 judex, radix 
 
 giudice, radice 
 
 juiz, raiz 
 
 juez 
 
 juge 
 
 audire, laudabilia 
 
 
 oir, loable 
 
 z 
 
 juzgar 
 
 
 ouir, louable 
 
 judicare 
 
 giudicare 
 
 
 juger 
 
 E 
 
 E 
 
 le 
 
 
 E 
 
 ventus, centum 
 equa 
 
 vento, cento 
 
 viento, ciento 
 
 Ye 
 
 yegua 
 
 
 vent, cent 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 17 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Portuguese. 
 
 French. 
 
 F 
 
 F 
 
 H 
 
 F 
 
 F 
 
 filius, facere 
 
 figlio, facere 
 
 hijo, hacer 
 
 fiUio. fazer 
 
 fils, faire 
 
 fendere 
 
 
 hender 
 
 
 fendre 
 
 Fl 
 
 Fi 
 
 LI 
 
 Fl 
 
 Fl 
 
 flamma 
 
 fiamma 
 
 llamado 
 
 Lh 
 
 flamme 
 
 G- 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 G 
 
 cMnirgicus 
 
 
 cirujano 
 H 
 
 Mute 
 
 chirurgien 
 
 gelare, germanua 
 
 helar, herman 
 
 irmao 
 
 
 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 gelo 
 
 
 yelo 
 
 
 gele 
 
 Gl 
 
 Gh 
 
 
 Gr 
 
 
 glandus 
 
 ghiando 
 
 
 
 gland 
 
 Gn 
 
 Gn 
 
 N 
 
 Nh 
 
 Gn 
 
 lignum 
 
 ligno 
 
 leQo 
 Yn 
 
 
 
 regnum 
 
 regno 
 
 reyno 
 
 reinho 
 
 regue 
 
 H 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 H 
 
 Merarchia 
 
 Mute 
 
 gerarquia 
 
 
 hierarchie 
 
 homo 
 
 uomo 
 
 Y 
 
 
 homme 
 
 hedra, herba 
 
 erba 
 
 yedra, yerba 
 
 
 herbe 
 
 J 
 
 Gi 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 juyenis 
 
 giovaue 
 Mute 
 
 joven 
 G 
 
 
 
 majestas 
 
 maesta 
 
 magestad 
 
 
 majeste 
 
 
 Ggi 
 
 Y 
 
 
 G 
 
 jugulare, ilajor 
 
 maggiore 
 
 yugular, mayor 
 
 
 
 jacens 
 
 
 yacente 
 
 
 gisant 
 
 L between 
 
 Gl 
 
 J 
 
 Lh 
 
 11 
 
 two votvels 
 
 
 
 
 
 'filius, allium 
 
 figlio, aglio 
 
 nijo, ajo, aguja 
 
 fiUio, aUio, aguUia fils, an, aiguille 
 
 
 
 LI 
 
 Lh 
 
 L 
 
 humlliare 
 
 umigliare 
 
 humillar 
 G 
 
 humiHiar 
 
 humilier 
 
 mulier, alienus 
 
 mogliere 
 
 muger, ageno 
 
 molher 
 
 I 
 aguia 
 
 
 aquUa 
 
 aquila 
 
 aguila 
 
 aigle 
 
 
 
 R 
 
 E, 
 
 
 nobilis, cigala 
 
 cicala 
 
 cigarra 
 
 nobre 
 
 noble, cigale 
 
 Lt 
 
 Lt 
 
 Ch 
 
 It 
 
 Ut 
 
 multus, culteUum molto, colteUo 
 
 mucho, cuchiUo 
 
 muito 
 
 couteau 
 
 auscultare 
 
 
 escuchar 
 
 
 ecouter 
 
 L before a 
 
 
 
 
 TJ 
 
 consonant 
 
 
 
 
 
 palpebra 
 
 palpebra 
 
 palpebra 
 
 
 paupiere, coutean 
 
 culteUum 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 Mbr 
 
 M 
 
 Mm 
 
 homo, nomen 
 
 uomo, nome 
 
 hombre, nombre 
 
 homem 
 
 homme 
 
 femina 
 
 
 hembre 
 
 
 femme 
 
 
 
 Mb- 
 
 -Mb- 
 
 -Mb- 
 
 cumulare 
 
 
 comblar 
 
 comblar 
 
 combler 
 
 numerus 
 
 
 
 nombre 
 
 nombre ' 
 
 iff 
 
18 
 
 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH TONGUE, 
 
 Latin, 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Portuguese. 
 
 French. 
 
 Mm 
 
 
 Mn, Nm 
 
 
 Mm 
 
 lemma 
 
 
 lemna, Inmense 
 
 
 lemme, immense 
 
 Mph 
 
 m 
 
 Nf 
 
 
 
 lympha, nymplia 
 
 
 iinfa, ninfa 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 N 
 
 N 
 
 M 
 
 
 bonus, mius, bene buono, uno 
 
 bueno, uno 
 
 bom, bum, bem 
 
 bon, un, bien 
 
 -N- 
 
 
 
 Ac, Id 
 
 In 
 
 panis, rnsTius 
 
 pane, mano 
 
 pan, mano 
 
 pao, mao 
 
 pain, main 
 
 planus 
 
 pieno 
 L 
 
 lleno 
 
 cheio 
 
 plein 
 
 Tenenum 
 
 veleno 
 
 veneno 
 
 
 
 Ng 
 
 
 
 
 Nd 
 
 pingere, fingere 
 
 
 
 
 peindre, ceindre 
 
 3migere 
 
 
 
 
 joindre 
 
 
 
 Uo 
 
 Ue 
 
 
 
 Eu 
 
 bonns, novus 
 
 buono, nuoYO 
 
 bueno, nuevo 
 
 bom, noTO 
 
 neuf, seul 
 
 solus, populua 
 
 
 suelo, pueblo 
 
 POTO 
 
 peuple 
 
 
 
 TJ 
 
 U 
 
 leu 
 
 locus 
 
 
 lugar 
 Hue 
 
 lugar 
 
 lieu 
 Hm 
 
 ovum, 03, osU'aia 
 
 osso 
 
 huevo, liueso 
 
 
 hujtre 
 
 oleum 
 
 oglio 
 
 
 
 buile 
 
 (E 
 
 E 
 
 le 
 
 
 le 
 
 ccBlum 
 
 
 cielo 
 
 
 del 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 P 
 
 lupus, opus 
 
 opera 
 V 
 
 lobo, obra 
 
 lobo 
 
 loup 
 V 
 
 recipere, sapere 
 
 ricevere 
 
 recebir, saber 
 
 receber, saber 
 
 recevoir, oenvre 
 
 apertus 
 
 
 ifibierto 
 Y 
 
 
 savolr, ouvert 
 
 sapor, populua 
 
 
 savor 
 
 povo 
 
 saveur 
 
 P] 
 
 Pi 
 
 LI 
 
 Ch 
 
 PI 
 
 plenus, plumbum pieno, piombo 
 
 , lleno, llomo 
 
 cbeio, cbumbo 
 
 plein, plomb 
 
 
 
 
 Pr 
 
 
 
 
 Plata 
 
 prata 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 F 
 
 F 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 phalanx 
 
 falange 
 
 falange 
 
 
 phalange 
 
 Q 
 
 Ch 
 
 c 
 
 Q 
 
 Q , 
 
 quis, qualitas 
 
 cbe 
 
 calidad 
 
 z 
 
 quem, qualidad 
 
 qui, qualite 
 
 iaqueus 
 
 
 lazo 
 
 
 
 
 Cq 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 Mvte 
 
 aqua, sequere 
 
 acqua 
 
 agua, siguii 
 
 agoa 
 
 eau 
 
 G 
 
 aigle 
 
 aquila 
 
 
 aguila 
 
 aguia 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 sequere 
 
 
 
 
 suivre 
 
 E 
 
 L 
 
 L 
 
 L 
 
 L 
 
 periculum 
 
 
 peligro 
 
 
 
 cerebrum 
 
 
 celebro 
 
 
 
 peregrinus 
 
 pellegrino 
 
 
 
 pelerin 
 
 marmor 
 
 
 marmo^ 
 
 
 
 papyrum 
 sinceritas, practica 
 
 papel 
 platica 
 
 slncdeia 
 
 
 career 
 
 
 carcel 
 
 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 Id 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish, 
 
 Portuguese. 
 
 French. 
 
 S 
 scribere, status 
 
 s 
 
 scrivere 
 
 Es 
 escribir, estado 
 
 Es 
 escrever 
 
 E 
 
 6cx-ire, etat 
 
 Sc 
 scutum, scribere 
 
 Sc 
 scudo, scrivere 
 
 Esc 
 escudo, escribir 
 
 Esc 
 
 Ec 
 
 6cu, ecrire 
 
 Sp 
 sperare 
 
 Ss 
 vessica 
 
 Ss 
 vessica 
 
 X 
 
 bexiga 
 
 X 
 
 bexiga 
 
 Esp 
 
 fesperer 
 
 Ss 
 vessie 
 
 St 
 bestia, status 
 
 St 
 stato 
 
 Est 
 estado 
 
 Est 
 estado 
 
 T, Et 
 bete, etat 
 
 T 
 
 mutus 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 mudo 
 
 D 
 
 mudo 
 
 T 
 
 muet 
 
 pater, mater 
 frater 
 
 padre, madre 
 
 padre 
 
 Mute 
 pai, mai 
 
 Mute 
 p^e.m.re 
 
 T between ) 
 two vowels ) 
 sacerdotium 
 
 z 
 
 sacerdozio 
 
 c 
 
 sacerdocio 
 
 c 
 
 sacerdocio 
 
 G 
 
 sacerdoce 
 
 portio 
 
 porzione 
 
 porcion 
 
 C 
 
 por9ao 
 
 portion 
 
 ratio 
 
 razione 
 
 racion 
 
 Z 
 
 razgo 
 
 raison 
 
 u 
 
 lucrum, aqua 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 logro 
 
 
 
 agoa 
 
 
 viduus 
 
 Y 
 
 viuvo 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 veuf 
 
 unus 
 
 
 
 Hu 
 
 hum 
 
 un 
 
 V 
 vessica, ^iduus 
 
 V 
 
 vessica 
 
 B 
 
 bexiga, biudo 
 
 B 
 
 bexiga 
 
 V 
 
 vessie, veuf 
 
 vices, novus 
 
 
 vezes, novo 
 
 
 F 
 
 fois, neuf 
 
 X 
 
 lux, pax, crux 
 
 Ce 
 luce, pace, cruce 
 
 Z 
 
 luz, paz, cruz 
 
 Z 
 
 luz, paz, cruz 
 
 X 
 
 paix, croix 
 
 maximus 
 exercltatus 
 
 Ss 
 massimo 
 esercitato 
 
 Ch 
 
 
 
 phalanx 
 
 Ge 
 
 falange 
 
 Ge 
 
 falange 
 
 
 Ge 
 
 phalange 
 
 Changes op Italian Irregular 1 betters into Latin, French, Spanish, 
 AND Portuguese. 
 
 Ital 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Port 
 
 Ital 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 Span. 
 
 Port 
 
 Bi 
 
 Bl 
 
 Bl 
 
 Bl 
 
 Br 
 
 Gl 
 
 L 
 
 L 
 
 J 
 
 Lh 
 
 Ce 
 
 X 
 
 
 Z 
 
 Z 
 
 L 
 
 B 
 
 Lr 
 
 L,R 
 
 L,R 
 
 Ch 
 
 C,Qu 
 
 Qu 
 
 c 
 
 C,Qu 
 
 Nf 
 
 Mph 
 
 Mph 
 
 W 
 
 
 Chi 
 
 a 
 
 CI 
 
 LI 
 
 Ch 
 
 
 
 Au, U, Ho 
 
 Au 
 
 
 _ 
 
 Cq 
 
 Q 
 
 — 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 Pi 
 
 PI 
 
 PI 
 
 LI 
 
 Ch 
 
 D 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 Ss,S 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 P 
 
 Ph 
 
 Ph 
 
 F 
 
 Ph 
 
 Tt 
 
 ct 
 
 it 
 
 ch 
 
 U 
 
 Fi 
 
 Fl 
 
 Fl 
 
 LI 
 
 Fl 
 
 Uo 
 
 0,Eo 
 
 Ho 
 
 Ve, Hw 
 
 Ge 
 
 X 
 
 Ge 
 
 Ge 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 P 
 
 V 
 
 B 
 
 B 
 
 Ghi 
 
 Gl 
 
 Gl 
 
 Gl 
 
 Gl,Gr 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 B 
 
 Gi 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 z 
 
 T 
 
 C,T 
 
 c 
 
 C,C,Z 
 
20 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 Changes op Spanish Irregular Letters into Latin, French, Portu- 
 guese, AND Italian. 
 
 i"" 
 
 . Latin. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Port, 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Span 
 
 . Latin. Fr. 
 
 Port. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 B 
 
 F 
 
 
 Fl Fl 
 
 Fl 
 
 Fi 
 
 c 
 
 T, Qu, Ch 
 
 T, Qu, Ch Qu 
 
 Ch 
 
 
 PI PI 
 
 Ch 
 
 Pi 
 
 Ch 
 
 ct, X, It 
 
 it 
 
 it 
 
 tt, ce 
 
 Mhr 
 
 M Mm 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 D 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 D 
 
 Mn 
 
 Mm Mm 
 
 Mm 
 
 Mm 
 
 Es 
 
 S 
 
 E,E 
 
 Es 
 
 S 
 
 N,yn 
 
 Gn Gn 
 
 Nh 
 
 Gn 
 
 F 
 
 Ph 
 
 Ph 
 
 Ph 
 
 F 
 
 Nf 
 
 Mph Mph 
 
 
 
 Nf 
 
 G 
 
 C,L,H, ChCQ 
 
 G,Lh,nC,Gl,n 
 
 Nm 
 
 Mm Mm 
 
 Mm 
 
 Mm 
 
 
 /, Qm 
 
 — 
 
 G 
 
 cq 
 
 
 
 Au 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gl 
 
 CI 
 
 CI, Gl 
 
 Gr 
 
 Gh 
 
 Q 
 
 C Ch 
 
 Q 
 
 C 
 
 Gr 
 
 Cr 
 
 Cr 
 
 Gr 
 
 Gr 
 
 R 
 
 L L 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 H 
 
 F, G 
 
 F, G 
 
 F 
 
 F 
 
 U,Ue 
 
 
 
 
 
 TJo, U 
 
 Hue 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 B,P B 
 
 Y 
 
 B 
 
 le 
 
 (E,E 
 
 E 
 
 E 
 
 E 
 
 X 
 
 Ss — 
 
 Ss 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 L, Ch, 
 
 L 
 
 Lh 
 
 Gl, Ch, C 
 
 Y 
 
 G,J G,J 
 
 
 Gi 
 
 L 
 
 D,R 
 
 D,L 
 
 D,L 
 
 D,L 
 
 Ye 
 
 H,E H 
 
 H 
 
 E 
 
 LI 
 
 CI 
 
 CI 
 
 Ch 
 
 Chi 
 
 Z 
 
 X, Qu, C,DX,S 
 
 Z 
 
 Ce 
 
 Changes of Portuguese Irregular Letters into Latin, French, 
 Spanish, and Italian. 
 
 Port. Latin. 
 
 Fr. Span. 
 
 Ital. 
 
 Port. 
 
 Latin. Fr. 
 
 Span. ItaL 
 
 A N 
 
 N N 
 
 
 N 
 
 L 
 
 R,L 
 
 R,D 
 
 L 
 
 R,D 
 
 B V 
 
 V B 
 
 
 V 
 
 Lh 
 
 L 
 
 L 
 
 J 
 
 Gl 
 
 Br Bl 
 
 Bl Bl 
 
 
 Bi 
 
 
 
 
 LI 
 
 Fi 
 
 Ch CI 
 
 CI LI 
 
 
 Chi 
 
 Nh 
 
 Gn 
 
 Gn 
 
 N 
 
 Gn 
 
 PI 
 
 PI LI 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 U,Au U,AuO 
 
 
 
 Cr CI 
 
 CI LI 
 
 
 Chi 
 
 Pr 
 
 PI 
 
 PI 
 
 LI 
 
 Pi 
 
 D T 
 
 T B 
 
 
 T 
 
 R 
 
 L 
 
 L 
 
 R, 
 
 L I 
 
 Es S 
 
 E,E Es 
 
 
 S 
 
 T 
 
 X,ct 
 
 it 
 
 Ch 
 
 Ce,lt 
 
 G Q, Ch 
 
 C C 
 
 
 Cq 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 C 
 
 — G 
 
 
 C 
 
 X 
 
 Ss 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 S 
 
 Gr CI, Gl 
 
 CI, Gl LI 
 
 
 GM 
 
 z 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 C 
 
 c 
 
 Cr 
 
 Cr Cr 
 
 
 Gr 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 z 
 
 Ce 
 
 Hu U 
 
 U Ou 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Changes 
 
 OF 
 
 Teeming 
 
 .TioNs OF Nouns, 
 
 
 
 Latin. 
 
 English. 
 
 French. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 
 Portuguese. 
 
 Prud-entia 
 Clem-entia 
 
 Prud-ence ) 
 Clem-ency ) 
 
 -ence 
 
 -enza 
 
 
 -encia 
 
 
 -encia 
 
 Liber-tas 
 
 Liher-ty 
 
 -te 
 
 
 -ta 
 
 { 
 
 -tad) 
 -dadj 
 
 
 -dade 
 
 Geolog-ia 
 
 Geolog-y 
 
 -ie 
 
 
 -ia 
 
 
 -ia ^ 
 
 
 -ia 
 
 CoUeg-ia 
 
 Colleg-e 
 
 -e 
 
 
 -ia 
 
 
 -ia 
 
 
 -ia 
 
 Val-or 
 
 Val-our 
 
 -em 
 
 
 -ore 
 
 
 -or 
 
 
 -or 
 
 Un-io 
 
 Un-ion 
 
 -ion 
 
 
 -ione 
 
 
 -ion 
 
 
 -iSo 
 
 Admira-tio 
 
 Admira-tion 
 
 -tion 
 
 -zione 
 
 
 -cion 
 
 
 -9^0 
 
 Forti-tudo 
 
 Fortitu-de 
 
 -tude 
 
 -tudine 
 
 
 -dumbre 
 
 
 -dSo 
 
 Dur-itia 
 
 Dur-ess 
 
 -esse 
 
 -ezza 
 
 
 -eza 
 
 
 
 Vir-tus 
 
 Vir-tue 
 
 -tu 
 
 
 -tu 
 
 
 -tud 
 
 
 -tud 
 
 Cor-pus 
 
 Cor-ps 
 
 -ps 
 
 
 -PO 
 
 
 -po 
 
 
 -po 
 
 Dat-um 
 
 Dat-e 
 
 -e 
 
 
 _o 
 
 
 -o 
 
 
 -0 
 
 Ima-go 
 Mar-go 
 
 Ima-ge ) 
 Mar-gin \ 
 
 -ge 
 
 
 -gine 
 
 
 -gen 
 
 
 -gem 
 
 
 Pass-age 
 
 -age 
 
 -aggio 
 
 
 -aje 
 
 
 -agem 
 
 Oma-mentum 
 
 Oma-ment 
 
 -ment 
 
 -mente 
 
 
 -miento 
 
 
 -mento 
 
 Glo-ria 
 
 Glo-ry 
 
 -ire 
 
 
 -ria 
 
 
 -ria 
 
 
 -ria 
 
 Mus-ica 
 
 Mus-ic 
 
 -ique 
 
 -ica 
 
 
 -ica 
 
 
 -ica 
 
 Changes of Terminations of 
 
 Adjectives 
 
 AND Adverbs. 
 
 Admira-bilis 
 
 Admira-ble 
 
 -We 
 
 
 -bile 
 
 
 -bel 
 
 
 -vel 
 
 Vigila-ns 
 
 Vigila-nt \ 
 
 -nt 
 
 
 -nte 
 
 
 -nte 
 
 
 -nte 
 
 Prude-ns 
 
 Pnide-nt ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rigor-osus 
 
 Rigor-ous 
 
 -eux 
 
 -oso 
 
 
 -oso 
 
 
 -oso 
 
 Simi-laris 
 
 Simi-lar 
 
 -lier 
 
 -lare 
 
 
 -lar 
 
 
 -lar 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 21 
 
 Latin. 
 
 English. French. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Spanish. Portuguese 
 
 Sincer-us 
 
 Sincer-e -e 
 
 -0 
 
 -0 
 
 -0 
 
 Nati-vus 
 
 Nati 
 
 -re -f 
 
 -vo 
 
 -vo 
 
 -vo 
 
 
 Radical-ly -ment 
 
 -mente 
 
 -mente -mente 
 
 Sacerdota-lis 
 
 Sacerdota-1 -1 
 
 -le 
 
 -1 
 
 -1 
 
 Academi-cus 
 
 Academi-c -que 
 
 -co 
 
 -co 
 
 -co 
 
 
 
 Changes of Terminations of Verbs. 
 
 Condu-cere 
 
 Condu-ce -ire 
 
 -cere 
 
 -Izer -izer 
 
 
 Changes of French Words into English. 
 
 French. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 French. 
 
 
 English. 
 
 A prefix 
 
 
 Ad 
 
 E 
 
 
 I,Ie 
 
 avancer, avocat 
 
 
 advance, advocate 
 
 chef; ach^ver, encre 
 
 chie^ achieve, ink 
 
 
 
 En 
 
 E prefix 
 
 
 En 
 
 attrapper, affaibUr 
 
 entrap, enfeeble 
 
 eir 
 
 
 enlarge 
 
 A 
 
 
 Au 
 
 E 
 
 
 At, Ot 
 
 vanter, chanter 
 
 
 vaunt, chaunt 
 
 pere, mere 
 
 
 father, mother 
 
 tante 
 
 
 aunt 
 
 frere 
 
 
 brother 
 
 A 
 
 
 As 
 
 E prefix 
 
 
 Mute 
 
 mat, pate, pate 
 
 
 mast, paste, pasty- 
 
 gpingle, epreuve. 
 
 etain 
 
 pin, proof, tin 
 
 platre, hater 
 
 
 plaster, hasten 
 
 E final 
 
 
 T 
 
 Ant final 
 
 
 -Ing 
 
 liberte, gaietg 
 
 
 liberty, gaiety 
 
 degoutant 
 
 
 disgusting 
 
 E, E 
 
 
 S 
 
 Ai 
 
 
 Ea, Ee 
 
 epargner, epeler 
 
 
 spare, spell 
 
 aise, plaire, paix 
 
 ease, please, peace 
 
 epouse, etoUe, fete 
 
 spouse, star, feast 
 
 pair, clair, maigre 
 
 peer, clear, meagre 
 
 bete 
 
 
 beast 
 
 faible 
 
 
 feeble 
 
 Eau 
 
 
 El, Eal 
 
 Au, Ou 
 
 
 Aul, El, Al, 01 
 
 pinceau, ciseau, veau 
 
 pencU, chisel, veal 
 
 faute, faux, veau 
 
 fault, false, veal 
 
 vaisseau 
 
 
 vessel 
 
 ciseau, satimon 
 ichafaud 
 
 
 chisel, salmon 
 scaffold 
 
 Ec, Ecli 
 
 
 Esc, Sc 
 
 
 
 
 echapper, echeUe 
 
 escape, scale 
 
 B 
 
 
 P 
 
 echafaud 
 
 
 scaffold 
 
 abricot 
 
 
 apricot 
 
 . Eg 
 egratigner 
 
 
 Sc 
 
 c 
 
 
 Ch 
 
 
 scratch 
 
 cerise, ciseau 
 
 
 cherry, chisel 
 
 --EWb final 
 
 
 ■Le 
 
 
 
 
 
 bouteiUe, chandelle 
 
 bottle, candle 
 
 croitre, Sucre 
 
 
 grow, sugar 
 
 En prefix 
 
 
 Ee, En, In 
 
 Ch 
 
 
 C, K, Ch 
 
 
 
 
 chapon, chat 
 
 
 capon, cat 
 
 
 
 
 chandelle 
 
 
 candle 
 
 Entre 
 
 
 Enter, Inter 
 
 
 
 S, Csoft 
 
 entretenir 
 
 
 entertain 
 
 
 
 entremediaire 
 
 
 intermediar;.' 
 
 chercher, chi^fre 
 
 search, cipher 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sh 
 
 Ep 
 
 
 Sp 
 
 fraiche 
 
 
 fresh 
 
 eperon 
 
 
 spur 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 reflect 
 
 -'Et final 
 
 
 Mute 
 
 reflechir 
 
 
 vanter, hanter 
 
 
 vaunt, haunt 
 
 
 
 Tch 
 
 butcher 
 
 Et 
 
 
 Est, St 
 
 boucher 
 
 
 etat. etroit 
 
 
 state, estate, strait 
 
 c 
 
 
 S,Sh 
 
 Ev 
 
 
 Sw 
 
 ma(?on, fa9on 
 
 
 mason, fashion 
 
 evanouir 
 
 
 awoon 
 
 D 
 
 
 T 
 
 Eu 
 
 
 Ou 
 
 deux, dix, dent 
 
 
 two, ten, tooth 
 
 heure, fleui 
 
 
 hour, flower, flour 
 
 -D 
 
 
 -St 
 
 F 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 Hid 
 
 
 nest 
 
 faisan, chiffre 
 
 
 pheasant, cipher 
 
22 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 French. English 
 G, Gu, prefix W 
 gater, guichet, guerre waste, wicket, war 
 guepe wasp 
 
 French. 
 Oi 
 
 proie, etroit, poire 
 
 voile 
 
 English. 
 Ai, Ey, Ea 
 prey, straight, pear 
 veil 
 
 G 
 
 ahre'ger 
 
 abridge 
 
 On 
 
 coupable, voute, fou 
 
 Ul, Ool 
 culpable, vault, fool 
 
 Ger, Gir 
 
 aMger, negliger 
 exiger, agir 
 
 a 
 
 afflict, neglect 
 exact, act 
 
 OH 
 
 moutarde, coutume 
 
 P 
 
 Us 
 
 mustard, custom 
 
 F 
 
 Hui 
 
 Oi, Oy 
 
 pere, pied, poisson 
 
 father, foot, fish 
 
 huile, huitre 
 
 I 
 
 vide 
 
 1 
 
 maitre 
 
 In 
 
 ingrat 
 
 -It final 
 
 banriir, finir 
 
 oU, oyster 
 
 01 
 void 
 
 A 
 
 master 
 
 Un 
 ungrateful 
 
 -Ish 
 
 vanish, finish 
 
 craquer, coq, epoque 
 
 -Re final 
 ordi-e, lettre, tendre 
 
 Oh, 0, Ch 
 crack, cock, epoch 
 
 -Er 
 
 order, letter, tender 
 
 encre, pretre, battre 
 
 S 
 chaise 
 
 Sou- 
 soumettre 
 
 Mute 
 ink, priest, beat 
 
 R 
 
 chair 
 
 Sub- 
 submit 
 
 -Ire final 
 produire, plaire 
 
 -Ce, -Se 
 produce, please 
 
 Ss 
 buisson, pousser 
 
 Sh 
 bush, push 
 
 It final 
 fait, nuit, huit 
 
 it 
 
 -a, GU 
 fact, night, eight 
 
 St 
 
 T 
 
 produit, ceiature 
 nuit, huit 
 
 a, GU 
 
 product, cincture 
 
 night, eight 
 
 maitre, huitre 
 paitre 
 
 master, oyster 
 pasture 
 
 T 
 trente, trois 
 
 Th 
 tliiity, three 
 
 J 
 
 joues 
 
 Ch 
 cheeks 
 
 u 
 
 croute 
 
 Us 
 crust 
 
 jardin 
 
 G 
 
 garden 
 
 Ue 
 
 attribuer, nouer 
 
 Ut, T 
 
 attribute, knot 
 
 joug, jeune, jaune 
 
 T 
 
 yoke, young, yellow 
 
 V 
 
 Fevrier 
 
 B 
 
 February 
 
 L 
 
 matelas, etoile 
 
 R 
 
 mattress, star 
 
 AvTil, cuivre 
 
 P 
 
 April, copper 
 
 combler 
 nomhreux 
 
 M between two 
 
 vowels 
 accumulate 
 numerous 
 
 fin, ver, vent 
 \-iugt, neuve, volonte 
 pouToir 
 
 W 
 
 •^Tine. worm, wind 
 twenty, new, will 
 pov>'er 
 
 Mp 
 
 temps 
 
 Mpt 
 compter 
 
 m 
 
 vent 
 
 
 M 
 times 
 
 Nt 
 count 
 
 Nd, Th 
 
 wind 
 
 Ea 
 
 -X 
 
 prix, paix, voix 
 croix, poix 
 
 capricieux, vicieux 
 
 A 
 
 gout, gater, croiite 
 Aout, coute, maitre 
 
 -Ce, Ch, Ss 
 price, peace, voice 
 cro&s, pitch 
 
 -ous 
 capricious, vicious 
 
 gw-t. waste, crust 
 Aug-ust, cost, master 
 
 oreille 
 
 ear 
 
 Mvie 
 
 S 
 
 
 Ou 
 
 neige 
 
 snow 
 
 annoncer 
 coche, approcher 
 
 announce 
 
 Oa 
 coach, approach 
 
 Mute, before a ] 
 vowel \ 
 avoir 
 
 H 
 
 have 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 23 
 
 The gi-oundwork of the English tongue is the Old English, sometimes 
 called Anglo-Saxon. It includes many names substantive common to the 
 Indo-European tongues ; but the verbs are worked out on a distinct plan, 
 peculiar to the English tongue. 
 
 The Indo-Eiu-opean words are the names of several remarkable objects, 
 as the sun, moon, star ; of the limbs of the body, mouth, eye, chin, tooth, 
 heart, hair, nose, hand ; of kindred, as mother, father, son ; of numbers ; 
 and of animals. 
 
 Although the substantiyes in the several tongues are much alike, with a few only of the 
 letters changed ; yet, in the verhs, and the words made from them, there is little likeness, 
 inasmuch as the consonants and vowels have not the same power. Thus the Latin, being 
 a mixed tongue, uses, for the EngUsh w, several letters. 
 
 English. 
 
 w 
 
 win, wind, whirl, wench 
 
 Latin. 
 V 
 
 vincore, ventus, volvo, virgo 
 
 Greek. 
 H, K 
 
 heilo, kore 
 
 wave, whence 
 
 u 
 
 unda, unde 
 
 
 work, wealth, weight, whether 
 
 P 
 
 opus, opes, pondus 
 
 P 
 
 poteros 
 
 M'et, world 
 
 M 
 
 madidus, mundus 
 
 
 wear, wall 
 
 T 
 
 tero 
 
 T 
 teichos 
 
 T 
 
 tongue, tie, tear 
 
 L 
 
 lingua, ligo, laclirj-ma 
 
 dakrua 
 
 thiet 
 
 F 
 
 fur 
 
 
 both, tide, shadow 
 
 Mb 
 
 ambo, tempus, umbra 
 
 
 Th 
 
 thou, three 
 
 T 
 
 tu, tres 
 
 s 
 
 su 
 
 H 
 
 hound, head 
 
 c 
 
 canes, caput 
 
 K 
 
 kuon, kephale 
 
 hundred 
 
 centum 
 
 H 
 
 hekaton 
 
 hand, honey 
 
 M 
 
 manus, mel 
 
 Ch 
 cheir 
 
 N 
 many, honey, sun, son 
 
 L 
 
 multus, mel, sol, Alius 
 
 L 
 
 poUos, helios 
 
 Many words in English are made by putting s, which mostly has the effect 
 of continuing and extending the action, as to steep from to dip ; sweat from 
 to wet ; to shout from to hoot ; shallow from hollow ; shaft, a long handle, 
 from haft ; snout, a long nose ; steep from deep ; to starve, to die lingeringly; 
 to slacken from to lag ; to smash from to mash ; still from dull ; sheaf from 
 
 Note.— We say to melt lead for bullets; Tnelt sUver, melt iron but when the process is long, 
 as in the case of the ores of the metals, which are several days in the furnace, we say smelt, 
 as to smelt lead ore. to smelt silver ore, to smelt iron ore. We speak of the short haft of a 
 knife, the long shaft of a spear. 
 
 In some cases the S seems to be privative, and to give an opposite meaning, as Several 
 from every; Scatter from gather; Stilt from tilt; Spill from flU; Scold from cold; Slip froia 
 leap. 
 
24 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUB. 
 
 Words with S continuous:- 
 
 Scratch 
 
 from crack 
 
 Snout 
 
 firtm nose 
 
 Scar 
 
 carve 
 
 Snub 
 
 knob 
 
 Scowl 
 
 cow 
 
 Spatter 
 
 patter 
 
 Scraggy 
 
 craggy, rocky 
 
 Spigot 
 
 peg 
 
 Scramble 
 
 ramble 
 
 Spread 
 
 broad, breed 
 
 Scrunch 
 
 crunch 
 
 Sprightly 
 
 bright 
 
 Scrape 
 
 rub 
 
 Squash, Squeeze 
 
 quash 
 
 Screak 
 
 creak 
 
 Squat 
 
 fat 
 
 Scrawl 
 
 crawl 
 
 Squelch 
 
 km 
 
 Scream ) 
 Screech j 
 
 
 Starve 
 
 die 
 
 cry- 
 
 Stave 
 
 - heave 
 
 Scud 
 
 cut 
 
 Steam 
 
 damp 
 
 Shaft 
 
 haft 
 
 Steep 
 
 deep 
 
 Shallow 
 
 hoUow 
 
 Steep 
 
 dip 
 
 Shave 
 
 hew 
 
 Stem 
 
 dam 
 
 Skip 
 
 hop 
 
 Stick 
 
 tag, tack 
 
 Sheaf 
 
 heap 
 
 Stiff 
 
 deaf 
 
 Shoal 
 
 hole 
 
 stm 
 
 duU 
 
 Shoot 
 
 hit 
 
 Stoop 
 
 dip 
 
 Shove 
 
 heave 
 
 Straddle 
 
 tread 
 
 Shout 
 
 hoot 
 
 Strain 
 
 drain 
 
 Shred 
 
 read 
 
 Stretch 
 
 reach 
 
 Shrivel 
 
 rive 
 
 Strew 
 
 throw 
 
 Slacken 
 
 lag 
 
 Stride 
 
 tread 
 
 Sickle 
 
 hackle 
 
 Strip 
 
 drip 
 
 Slash 
 
 lash 
 
 Stroll 
 
 troll, rol 
 
 Shght 
 
 light 
 
 Stumble 
 
 tumble 
 
 Slim 
 
 lean 
 
 Stump 
 
 dump 
 
 Slime 
 
 lime, loam 
 
 Stun 
 
 thump 
 
 sunk 
 
 lag 
 
 Swag 
 
 wag 
 
 Slaver 
 
 lap 
 
 Swagger 
 
 waggle 
 
 Sloop 
 
 e-lope 
 
 SwaUow 
 
 waUow 
 
 Sloth 
 
 loath 
 
 Sway 
 
 way 
 
 Slow 
 
 low 
 
 Sweat 
 
 wet 
 
 Slubber 
 
 lubber 
 
 Sweep 
 
 whip, whiff 
 
 Slug 
 
 lug 
 
 SweU 
 
 well 
 
 Smash 
 
 mash 
 
 Swelter 
 
 welter 
 
 Smear 
 
 mire or mar 
 
 Swerve 
 
 warp 
 
 Smelt 
 
 melt 
 
 Swing 
 
 wing 
 
 Smooth 
 
 mow 
 
 Swoop 
 
 whip 
 
 Snack 
 
 knack 
 
 Sword 
 
 ward 
 
 Snag 
 
 knag 
 
 Sag 
 
 hang 
 
 Snarl 
 
 gnarl 
 
 Saunter 
 
 haunt 
 
 Snatch 
 
 knock 
 
 Saw 
 
 hew 
 
 Sneap 
 
 neap 
 
 Seam 
 
 hem 
 
 Snap 
 
 knap 
 
 Seethe 
 
 heat 
 
 Sneeze 
 
 nose 
 
 Sodden 
 
 hot 
 
 Sniggle 
 
 niggle 
 
 Sift , 
 
 heave 
 
 Snip 
 
 nip 
 
 Since 
 
 hence 
 
 The following are other words in which the S is a prefix : Snow, Shoulder, Shirt, Short, 
 Skull, Salt, Swine, Skulk, Shriek, Shower, Shrink, Shudder, Shufde, Snivel, Sorrow, Strike 
 Swift, Single. 
 
 The plural S, and the S of the second and third person singular in She loves, Thou lovest. 
 He loves, have the same power of extension of meaning as in the prefix S. 
 
 T, H, and W enter into composition at the beginning of words almost as 
 freely as S, as in the following words : — 
 
 Tackle Hackle Shackle 
 
 Take Shake Shake 
 
 Thread Shred 
 
 ThriU ShriU 
 
 Thence Hence Whence Since 
 
 Hammer Stammer 
 
 Tag, Tack Hang Wag Swag, Swing 
 
 Tangle Wrangle Strangle 
 
 Tear Shear Wear Shear 
 
 Throw Strow 
 
 Truckle Wriggle Struggle 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 25 
 
 W and Wh seem to give to verbs a meaning of moving or going, as in the 
 following words : — 
 
 I 
 
 W-ane 
 
 
 drain 
 
 rain 
 
 
 pain 
 
 
 W-end 
 
 bend 
 
 tend 
 
 rend 
 
 send 
 
 end 
 
 spend 
 
 W-ind 
 
 bind 
 
 
 grind 
 
 
 
 find 
 
 W-ear 
 
 bear 
 
 tear 
 
 
 
 shear 
 
 
 W-ink 
 
 bUnk 
 
 
 
 
 sink 
 
 
 Wh-irl 
 
 
 twirl 
 
 
 
 
 hurl 
 
 Wh-et 
 
 bite 
 
 twit 
 
 
 
 set 
 
 hit 
 
 mend 
 
 fori 
 smite 
 So in Waft, Wink, Twinkle, Weld. Wield, Wing, Wreck, Wander, Wasp, Wave, Waste. 
 
 The relation of T to S will be seen by the following words, chiefly verbs, 
 as in the other examples : — 
 
 Tear 
 
 Shear, Share 
 
 1 Thrill 
 
 Shrill 
 
 Tatter 
 
 Shatter 
 
 1 Tackle 
 
 Shackle 
 
 Thread 
 
 Shred 
 
 i Twig 
 
 Switch 
 
 Take 
 
 Shake 
 
 Tap 
 
 Sap 
 
 Tame 
 
 Shame 
 
 1 Twinge 
 
 Swinge 
 
 D seems to have a heavier effect than simple T ; as in Drip, Trip ; Drain, 
 Strain; Drowse, Rouse; Drub, Rub; Doom, Tame; Dam, Stem; Draw, 
 Throw. 
 
 When D takes S before it, it makes St ; as Deep, Steep ; Damp, Steam ; Draw, Strain ; Dull, 
 Still. When it takes T it makes Th, as Dew, Thaw; Deck, Thatch; Drove, Throve; Drive, 
 Thrive; Drill, Thrill; Dring, Thring, Throng; Drub, Throb; Dump, Thump; Dunder, 
 Thunder. 
 
 The letter R at the beginning of words has a rough, rolling, or running 
 effect, as in the following : — 
 
 To Kap, sap, tap, whap, dip 
 
 Rend, send, tend, wend, bend 
 Rake, shake, take, wake, quake 
 Rip, sip, tip, whip, chip 
 Rumble, tumble, jumble 
 
 Rough, soft, tough, gruff 
 
 To Wriggle, tickle, giggle, boggle 
 Rub, scrub, grub 
 Ram, cram, jam, dam 
 Wrangle, tangle, jangle, mangle 
 Wrack, crack, smack 
 
 Sh is found in the ending of verbs, giving a meaning of quickness of action, as in Clash, 
 Crash, Dash, Plash, Splash, Flush (from flow). Gnash (from gnaw). Rush (from run). Quash 
 from queU), Push (from put). Crush (from crack). Hash, Lash, Mash, Wash, Flash (from fly 
 or flare). Trash, Slush, Thrash (from throw). Brush, Gush (from go). Most of these are 
 active intransitive verbs. 
 
 Sh at the beginning of words has an expression of division, as in Shake, Shire, Shear, 
 Share, Shatter, Shred. 
 
 Ch at the end of verbs seems to be a sign of active transitive verbs in most cases. This 
 
 ending is found in Scratch, Pitch, Latch, Stretch, Blotch, Notch, Reach, Teach, Patch, 
 
 Match, Watch, Snatch, Catch, Clutch, Stitch, Botch, Bleach, Quelch, T^'itch, Flinch, Pinch, 
 
 Clinch, Drench, Stench, Blench, Staunch, Punch, Crunch. 
 
 1 Ck has the same effect ; as Hack, Smack, Wrack, Whack. Lack, Lick, Lock, Peck, Pick, 
 
 . ■■ Kick, Knock, Knick, Shock, Stick, Suck, Tuck, Chuck. 
 
 G is sometimes found at the end of active intransitive verbs, as Lag, Sag, Flag, Brag, 
 Cling, Swag ; but sometimes of active transitive verbs. 
 
 The letters K, C, G, and Qu, at the beginning of words, often represent 
 ^' the particle Ge, and have the power of collecting together, or making more 
 frequent ; Clump, to lump together ; Cram, to ram together ; Crop, all 
 that is reaped ; Grumble from rumble. 
 
 C-lash 
 
 from 
 
 lash 
 
 C-lumsy 
 
 from lumpish; 
 
 C-rib 
 
 from rob 
 
 C-linch 
 
 
 link 
 
 C-lutch 
 
 lock 
 
 C-rumble 
 
 a nibbing 
 
 C-loom 
 
 
 loam 
 
 C-oop 
 
 heap 
 
 C-rumb 
 
 rub 
 
 C-lover 
 
 
 leaves 
 
 C-rack 
 
 wrack 
 
 C-runch 
 
 rub 
 
 C-log 
 
 
 lock 
 
 C-radle 
 
 riddle 
 
 C-rawl 
 
 roU 
 
 C-lown 
 
 
 lout 
 
 C-rag 
 
 rock 
 
 C-reak 
 
 Tick 
 
 C-lump 
 
 \ 
 
 lump 
 
 C-raggy 
 
 rocky 
 
 C-rowd 
 
 rush 
 
 C-lub 
 
 C-ram 
 
 ram 
 
 C-rinkle 
 
 wrinkle 
 
 C-lout 
 
 lot 
 
 C-rash 
 
 rash 
 
 C-rop 
 
 reap 
 
 k 
 
26 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 C-nunple from mmple 
 
 G-lose from leese, lie G-ramble from mmWe 
 
 C-rush 
 
 rush 
 
 G-lue 
 
 loam, hme 
 
 K-nit 
 
 net 
 
 C-oal 
 
 holt {wooct) 
 
 G-rapple 
 
 rap 
 
 K-nife 
 
 nipper 
 
 C-oarse 
 
 hoai-se 
 
 G-rare 
 
 rive 
 
 Q-uag 
 
 wag 
 
 C-oop 
 
 heap 
 
 G-reedy 
 
 ready 
 
 Q-uaff 
 
 
 C-ot 
 
 hut 
 
 G-rim 
 
 rough 
 
 Q-uake 
 
 shake 
 
 G-lad 
 
 lithe 
 
 G-rind 
 
 rub 
 
 Q-uaver 
 
 ■waver 
 
 G-lare 
 
 light 
 
 G-nih 
 
 rub 
 
 Queasy 
 
 wheesy 
 
 G-litter 
 
 light 
 
 G-roff 
 
 rough 
 
 
 
 This compound is likewise found ia Knee, Knuckle. 
 
 iV, in composition of words, seems to have relation to a bent joint, as in ^eck, Kreee, 
 Kwuckle, Ancle., Fiwger, Hand, Loiw, Kidney, Kwit, 'Knot, Jfet, ^Ying, "Wirak, Crinkle, 
 
 Wrinkle. 
 
 In the common English names for the parts of the body, the words are formed with N, L, 
 H, R, and T, piincipahy. With J!f (nasal, referring to a twisted joint), as in iVeck, Kwee. 
 Il7;rLckle, Wi«g, Ha?2d. Loi?;, Towgue; H (referring to a principal member), as in ^ead, 
 Hand. ^eart. -5'ip, ^eel; T (pointing to a distinct member), as in ^ootli, Tongue, Toe, 
 yhumb, Hear^, Toot. Tear ; R (in the middle of the words meaning motion, or the result oi 
 motion), as Wrist, Throat, Arm, Ear, Heart. *S is an appended letter, as in <Skta, Skv.^l 
 /Shoulder, /Shin; J/ is found in ^l/aiTow, J/ilk, J/ilr. and l/"outh; £ is found in several 
 words, as BeUy, i?reast, ^osom, 5eard, A'ain, iJlood; L is found in several worJ-;, 
 either at the beginning or elsewhere, but does not seem to have any special meaning iu 
 Enghsh. 
 
 A fancifol speculator might define Hand, a piincipal member, standing free, and haviiig 
 the power of bending ; Heart, a principal member, working free or. alone, and havinp: n, 
 motion ; Tongue, a single member, having the power of moving ; and so throughout th e - 
 series. 
 
 The letters in common natural objects suggest some speculations a-s to their classification. 
 We have Sea, Sand; Lea, Land; Hill, Heaven, Sky, Hail; Rain, Rill, Tree, Rock; Groimd, 
 
 s 
 
 L 
 
 H 
 
 G 
 
 T, D 
 
 R X 
 
 M 
 
 .lea 
 
 Lea 
 
 Sky 
 
 Groimd 
 
 Tree 
 
 Rain Sun 
 
 Mother 
 
 Sand 
 
 Land 
 
 Heaven 
 
 Grass 
 
 Star 
 
 Rill Moon 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Salt 
 
 Light 
 
 High 
 
 Grow 
 
 Tliunder 
 
 Brook, Creek Thunder 
 
 :Man 
 
 Sky 
 
 Low 
 
 Hill 
 
 Green 
 
 Root 
 
 Stream Snow 
 
 Moon 
 
 Star 
 
 
 Head 
 Hail 
 
 
 Day 
 
 Rock, Crag Xight 
 
 Rough 
 
 Root 
 
 Frost 
 
 
 The names of many of the common animals end in English with the sound of .R ; G 
 CK; D, T; and begin with A T; H; B, F, P, 31; C.K. Tlius we have Deer, Hare, Bear' 
 Hog, Dog, Buck; Hound, Hart, Kid: again. Deer, Steer; Dog, Stag; and a series, as Deei^ 
 dog. toad ; Hare, hog, hound ; Bear, buck. 
 
 Xames in E, or with the affix ^,— Hare. Hog, Sow, Hind, Hart, Hotmd, Sheep, Horse, 
 Hen; in Z> or T— Deer, Steer (Taurus), Dog, Stag, Duck, Drake, Doe. Toad: in 5 -Bear. 
 Boar, Pig, Fox, Buck, Brock, Bug, Frog, Fly, BuU ; in J/— Mare, Midge ; in C, K—Co^ , 
 Cock, Chick Colt, Cat, Goat, Kid, Grander, Goose ; and many less common names might be 
 brought fonvard. 
 
 In words from tlie same root, several shades of meanmg are given ly 
 shifting the endings or vowels, and likewise by putting other letters before ; 
 
 Blow ( blur, blurt, blot, splutter 
 
 } blase, blast, bluster, bhght, blind 
 ( bloom, blush 
 Bang, bend, bind 
 Break, brash, burst 
 Brew, breed, brood, spread 
 Clap r clash, clatter, clutter 
 
 J clam,cloom,cleave, clamp, clump, clash 
 J clog, clot, cloud, cluster, cloy, clutch 
 Clip (cling, cltib, climb, clamber, clinch 
 Cleave, chp, clave 
 £oop, keep 
 Creep, ciinge, crawl, crouch, crook 
 
 Dip ( dab, dive, steep, dew 
 
 "I dab, daub, dabble, dash 
 Do, deal, dash 
 Drip, drop, droop, dribble, strip 
 
 ( Drag, di-aw, dredge, drive, drift, struggle 
 
 ( Drench, dilnk, drown 
 
 Flee ("fleet, flit, flag 
 
 3 flirt, flutter, fleet, flicker, flaunt 
 
 Fly 
 
 \ flash, flare 
 
 Flow l^ flush, flood, float, fleet, flurry 
 Flap, flop, flounce, flounder 
 FUng, flinch 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 27 
 
 Flay, flick, flaw, fleer, splay, split 
 
 FeU, fall, fold, foul 
 
 Gripe, grip, grapple 
 
 Gmt), grave, grovel 
 
 Gnaw, gnash 
 
 Glare j glitter, glow, glimmer 
 
 ( glisten, gloom, gloat, gloar 
 Go, gush 
 
 Hit, hitch, hurt, shoot 
 Heave, heap, sliove, shift 
 Haul, hale, heel, halt, hold 
 Jag, jar 
 Kill, quell, quail, quench, quash, squeeze, 
 
 squash, squeal 
 Knick, knacli, knock, snick 
 Knip, knit), knoh, snip 
 Lay j lie, lag, linger, lean 
 
 (lade, load, lump 
 Lap, lick 
 
 Let, lose, loose, leak, leave 
 Lean, lend, loan 
 Lift, lug 
 
 Leap, lope (elope), slip 
 Mash, maul, smack, smash 
 Mow, mope, mourn 
 Meet C mate, match 
 •< mix, mingle 
 
 (smite, mash, smash, smack 
 Put j push, punch 
 Pull ( pluck 
 Pain, pine, piach 
 Eun, rush, roll, reel, rustle, stroU 
 Rap ^ram, scrape 
 Rip < rive, strip, strap, string 
 Rub (gruh, scrub 
 Raise, rise, rouse 
 Set, sit, seat, settle 
 Shake, shy, shudder, shii-k, skulk, shock, 
 
 shatter 
 Scour, scrub, scratch, scrawl 
 Shoot, shed, shut, shy, shower, sheet 
 Shove, shift, shovel, shuffle 
 
 Shear, shave, shred 
 
 Slide, slit, sledge, sling 
 
 Slap, shp, slop, stuff, slive, slush 
 
 Smite, smack, smart, smash 
 
 Sip, sop, sup 
 
 Spit j spirt, spew, spill, spawn 
 
 (spot, spatter, sputter 
 Split, splash, splice, sphnter, splutter 
 Spray, spread, sprinkle, sparkle 
 
 spring, sprawl, sprain 
 Squeeze, squash, squeal 
 Stay j stop, stem, stand, stopple, staunch, st<ave 
 
 ( stick 
 Step, stamp 
 
 Strew, stray, stroll, straggle 
 Stride, stretch, strain, straddle 
 Streak, strike, stroke, struggle 
 Strip, stripe, strap, string 
 Sway ( sweep, swoop, swamp, swim 
 
 (swing, switch, swag, sag, swerve 
 Sweal j swell, swelter, sweat 
 
 (swig, swlU 
 Tap, tip, top, topple, stab 
 Take, tag, tug, tackle 
 Throw, thrust, thresh, thrustle, strow, stroll, 
 
 straggle 
 Throb, thrill 
 Tread, tramp, trample, stride, stretch, strain, 
 
 straddle 
 Twit, twang, twitch, twinge, twinkle 
 Twine, twist, f-wdrl 
 Ware, ward, warn, war, worry 
 Wear, waste 
 Wave ( wag, waggle, waft, sway, swing, swag 
 
 ( waver, weave, warp, swerve, wash 
 Wend, wind, wander 
 Weep, whoop 
 Whip, whap, whiff, sweep 
 Wrack ("work 
 
 J wring, wrench, wreak, wrinkle, 
 
 j wi-iggle 
 
 (.vnithe, wrest, wrestle 
 
 A likeness of formation may be seen in the following roots, variously 
 modified by the beginning letter : — 
 
 Blow 
 Blurt 
 Blast 
 
 Blush 
 Bloom 
 
 Bluster 
 
 Flee, fly, flow, flare 
 
 Clap 
 
 Glare, glow 
 
 Fhrt 
 
 
 
 Fleet, flit, float 
 
 Clot 
 
 Gloat 
 
 Flag 
 
 Clog 
 
 
 Flash, flush, flinch 
 
 Clash, clinch 
 
 
 
 Clam, doom 
 
 Gloom 
 
 Fling 
 
 CUng 
 
 
 Fhtter, flutter, flicker 
 
 Clatter, clutter 
 
 Glitter 
 
28 
 
 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 S 
 
 I i ! 1 1 
 
 X I r« 
 
 S I 
 
 
 
 I I I 
 I i I 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 «-§ I I I 
 
 ri \ \ \ 
 
 E-i ft 
 
 
 "oS 'o qa 
 
 » p, & ft g 
 •T i "2 ? "2 i 
 
 ft-7 
 -co 
 
 
 II <*!. ft 
 
 &/='§'?&'§ 
 
 &ft 
 
 III 
 
 
 
 
 III 
 
 i.? 
 
 s ? pi 
 
 
 la 
 
 « at 
 
 m 
 
 
 2?& 
 
 ft ft 03 
 
COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 
 
 29 
 
 ^ 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 t3 <D 
 
 lal II li 
 
 ,q3 
 
 
 i-^ on ^<-B 
 
 III? 
 
 -I II43 
 
 EQ Oi la 
 
 P,l 
 
 J4 M 
 
 1^ C3 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 ^ c3 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 5s f- 
 
 *-i Ph t, 
 
 ^-V 45 
 
 p fe _^ f-l ^H 4> 
 
 
30 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH TONGUE. 
 
 The English tongue as now spoken is made up of above one hundre<l 
 thousand words. 
 
 First : Old English words, which form the framework of the tongue. To 
 these belong many of the so-called Anglo-Saxon words, and many which, 
 not being found in Anglo-Saxon waitings, are thought to be Norse, Dutch, 
 Eoman, French, and Italian, but which are of Gei-manic root and English 
 kind, and were, by the French, Italians, and Spaniards, had from the Franks, 
 Longbeards, and Goths. Some of these words have in later times become 
 mixed with Latin and French forms. 
 
 Most of the names of Englishmen and of townships are Old English. 
 
 The English verbs are given very fully further on. 
 
 To this Old English stock, words, which to some extent form another 
 tongue, have been added. 
 
 Second ; Some Scandinavian words, Danish, Swedish, or Icelandic, 
 brought in by the Danes and Normans. It must, however, be borne in 
 mind, that some of the so-called Danish words were had, by the later Danes, 
 from the old Danes, who were of Suevian stock, and are therefore to be 
 foimd in Frisian, Flemish, and Low Dutch. Scandinavian words are spoken 
 north of Trent, and are found in the names of places. 
 
 Third : A few words from the Latin ; as Chester, Street, and the church 
 words brought in before the Norman time. 
 
 Fourth : Many words from the Flemish, Netherlandish, and Low Dutch ; 
 the Flemings, but, above all, the Hollanders, having been our masters in i 
 many handicrafts. Such are words of husbandry, gardening, handicrafts, 
 and seamanship. 
 
 Fifth : A great body of Latin words, in French" form, brought in before 
 the time of the Tudors, in the Tudor time, and since. 
 
 Sixth : A number of old and new Greek words, which have been brought 
 in mostly within the last hundred years, and of which many new ones are 
 being yearly made by chemists, naturahsts, and other men of learning, fol- 
 lowing the French way. The Spanish, Italians, and Portuguese take the 
 same words ; but the High Dutch and other Germanic tongues form words 
 of their own, so that nothing is, in the end, got by us in the endeavour to 
 have one set of words for men of learning of all tongues. 
 
 Seventh : Some words of each tongue in the world, as French, Pro- 
 vengal, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, High Dutch, Persian, Hindostanee, 
 Bengalee, Gipsey (cant words), "Welsh (mostly names of rivers), Irish, 
 Euskardian (names of rivers), Turkish, Hebrew (mostly names of men and 
 church words), Chaldee, Arabic, Malay, Maori, Hawaian, and Chinese. 
 
CATALOGUE 
 
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 WORKS 
 
 COLLEGES, HIGH AND ORDINARY SCHOOLS, 
 
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MR. WEALE'S 
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 MATHEMATICS 
 
 FOR 
 
 PRACTICAL MEN 
 
 A COMMON-PLACE BOOK 
 
 PURE AND MIXED MATHEMATICS, 
 
 DESIGNED CHIEFLY FOB, THE USE OF 
 
 CrVIL ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, AND SURVEYORS, 
 
 BY OLINTHUS GREGORY, LL.D., F.R.A.S. 
 
 THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
 BY HENRY LAW, 
 
 CIVIL ENQINEEB. 
 
MATHEMATICS FOE PEACTICAIi MEN 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I.—PUEE MATHEMATICS. 
 
 CHAPTES I.— Arithmbjio. 
 Skct. 
 
 1. Definitions and Notation, 
 
 2. Addition of Whole Numbers. 
 
 3. Subtraction of Whole Numbers. 
 
 4. Multiplication of Whole Numbers. 
 
 5. Division of Whole Numbers. — Proof of 
 
 the first Four Eules of Arithmetic. 
 
 6. "^ulgar Fractions.— Reduction of Vul- 
 
 var Fractions, — Addition and Sub- 
 traction of Vulgax Fractions. — Mul- 
 tiplication and Division of Vulgar 
 Fractions. 
 
 7. Decimal Fractions, — Reduction of 
 
 Decimals. — Addition and Subtrac- 
 tion of Decimals, — Multiplication 
 and Division of Decimals, 
 
 8. Complex Fractions used in the Arts 
 
 and Commerce, — Reduction, — Addi- 
 tion. — Subtraction and Multiplica- 
 tion. — Division. — Duodecimaia. 
 
 9. Po-wers and Roots. — Evolution. 
 
 10. Proportion.— Rule of Three.— Deter- 
 
 mination of Ptatioa. 
 
 11. Logarithmic Arithmetic. — Use of the 
 
 Tables. — Multiplication and Division 
 by Logarithms. — Proportion, or the 
 Rule of Three, by Logarithms. — 
 Evolution and Involution by Log- 
 arithms, 
 
 12. Properties of Numbers. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— ALGEB.nA. 
 
 1. Definitions and Notation. 
 
 2. Addition and Subtraction. 
 
 3. Multiplication. 
 
 4. Division. 
 
 i,>. Involution. "^ 
 0. Evolution. 
 
 7. Surds. — Reduction. — Addition, Sub- 
 
 traction, and Multiplication. — Di- 
 vision, Involution, and Evolution. 
 
 8. Simple Equations. — Extermination. — 
 
 Solutjo", oi General Problems. 
 
 9. Quadratic Equations. 
 1 10. Equations in General. 
 
 11. Progression. — Arithmetical Progres 
 
 sion. — Geometrical Progression. 
 
 12. Fractional and NegatJTe Exponents. 
 
 13. Logarithms. 
 
 14. Computation of Formulae. 
 
 CHAPTER III.— Geometey. 
 
 1. Definitions. 
 
 2. Of Angles, and Right Lines, and thair 
 
 Rectangles. 
 
 3. Of Triangles. 
 
 4. Of Quadrilaterals and Polygons. 
 
 5. Of the Circle, and Inscribed and Cir- 
 
 cumscribed Figures, 
 
 6. Of Planes and Solids. 
 
 7. Practical Geometry, 
 
 CHAPTER IV,— Mensubation. 
 
 1, "Weights and Measures,- 1. Measures 
 
 of Length. — 2. Measures of Surface, 
 ■ — 3. Measures of Solidity and Ca- 
 pacity. — L Measures of Weight. — 
 5. Angular Measure. — 6. Measure of 
 Time. — Comparison of English and 
 French Weights and Measures. 
 
 2, Mensuration of Superficies. 
 
 3, Mensuration of Solids, 
 
 CHAPTER v.— Trigonohetrt. 
 
 1. Definitions and Trigonometrical For 
 
 mulas, 
 
 2. Trigonometrical Tables, 
 
 3. General Propositions. 
 
 4. Solution of the Cases of Plane Trian- 
 
 gles. — Right-angled Plane Triangles. 
 
 5. On the application of Trigonometry 
 
 to Measuring Heights and Distances. 
 — Determination of Heights and 
 Distances by Approximate Mechani 
 cal Methods. 
 
i^THEMATICS FOB PBACTICAL MEN. 
 
 GHAPTEE YI.— Goin;c Sections. ] 
 
 1. 
 
 Definitions. 
 
 Properties of the Ellipse.— Problems 
 relating to tlie Ellipse. 
 
 Properties of tlie Hyperbola, — Pro- 
 blems relating to the Hyperbola, 
 
 properties of the Prjabola. — Problems 
 relating to the Parabola. 
 
 CEAPTEPw YII, — Pp.o?BBTiss of 
 
 CUSTES. 
 
 SSCT. 
 
 1. Definitions. 
 
 2. The Conchoid. 
 The Cissoid, 
 
 The Cycloid and Epicycloid. 
 The Quadratris. 
 The Catenary.— Tables cf Relation 
 
 of Catenarian Curves. 
 
 PART n.— MIXED MATHE]MATICS. 
 
 CHAPTER I.— Mechanics in Geitekal. 
 
 CHAPTER II.— Statics. 
 
 1. Statical Equilibrium. 
 
 '2. Center of Grayity, 
 
 3. General application of the Principlea 
 of Statics to the EqiKlibrium of 
 Structures. — Equilibrium of Piers 
 or Abutments. — Pressure of Earth 
 against Walls. — Thickness of Walls. 
 — Equilibrium of Polygons. — Sta- 
 bility of Arches. — Equiiibriura cf 
 Suspension Bridges. 
 
 CHAPTER III.— Dtkahics. 
 
 1. General Definitions. 
 
 i, On the General Laws cf Uniform and 
 Variable Motion. — Motion uniformly 
 Accelerated. — Motion of Eodies xm- 
 der the Action of Gravity — Motion 
 over a fixed Pulley. — Motion on 
 Inclined Planes. 
 , notions about a fixed Center, or Axis. 
 — Centers cf Osculation and Per- 
 cussion. — Simple and Compound 
 Pendulums. — Center of Gyration, 
 and the Principles of Rotation. — 
 Central Forces, — Inquiries connected 
 -with Rotation End Central Forces. 
 . Percussion or Collision of Bodies in 
 Motion. 
 
 i'. On the Mechanical Powers. — Levers. 
 — Wheel and Axle. — Pulley. — In- 
 clined Plane. — Wedge and Screw. 
 
 CHAPTER I v.— Hydrostatics. 
 
 1. General Definitions. 
 
 2. Pressure and Equilibrium of Nos- 
 
 ekstic Fluids. 
 
 3. Floating Bodies. 
 
 4. Specific Gravities. 
 
 5. On Capillary Attraction, 
 
 CHAPTER Y.— ErDKODrKAJiicSv 
 
 1. Motion and Effluence of Liquids. 
 
 2. Motion of Water in Conduit Pipes 
 
 and Open Canals, over Weirs, o:c. — 
 Yeiocities of Rivers. 
 
 3. Contrirances to Measure the Velocity 
 
 of Running Waters. 
 
 CHAPTER YI.— Pketjmatics. 
 
 1. Weight and Equilibrium of Air and 
 
 Elastic Fluids. 
 
 2. Machines for Raising Water by the 
 
 Pressure of the Atmosphere. 
 
 3. Force of the Wind. 
 
 CHAPTER YII.— Mechanical Agents. 
 
 1. Water as a Mechanical Agent. 
 
 2. Air as a Mechanical Agent. — Cou- 
 
 lomb's Experiments, 
 
 3. Mechanical Agents depending upon 
 
 Heat. The Steam Engine.— Table 
 of Pressure and Temperature of 
 Steam, — General Description of the 
 Mode of Action of the Steam Engine. 
 — Theory of the Steam Engine, — •' 
 Description of the Tarioua kinds of 
 
MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN, 
 
 Engines, and the Formulge for calcu- j 
 
 lating their Power. — Practical appli- j 
 
 cation of the foregoing Formulas. j 
 
 4. Animal Strength as a Mechanical Agent, I 
 
 CHAPTER VIII.— Stkekgth op 
 Materials, 
 
 1. Eesults of Experiments, and Principles 
 
 upon which they should be practically 
 applied, 
 
 2. Strength of Materials to Resist Tensile 
 
 and Crushing Strains. — Strength of 
 Columns. 
 
 Sect. 
 
 3. Elasticity and Elongation of Bodies 
 
 subjected to a Crushing or Tensile 
 Strain. 
 
 4, On the Strength of Materials subjecte 
 
 to a Transverse Strain. — Longi 
 tudinal form of Beam of uniform 
 Strength. — Transverse Strength of 
 other Materials than Cast Iron.^ — 
 The Strength of Beams according to 
 the manner in which the Load is 
 distributed. 
 
 5. Elasticity of Bodies subjected te a 
 
 Transverse Strain, 
 
 6, Strength of Materials to resist Torsioii. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 I. Table of Logarithmic Differences, 
 II. Table of Logarithms of Numbers, from 1 to 100. 
 
 III. Table of Logarithms of Numbers, from 100 to 10,000. 
 
 IV. Table of Logarithmic Sines, Tangents, Secants, &c. 
 
 V. Table of Useful Factors, extending to several places of Decimals. 
 VI. Table of various Useful Numbers, with their Logarithms. 
 
 VII. A Table of the Diameters, Areas, and Circumferences of Circles and also the 
 sides of Equal Squares. 
 VIII, Table of the Relations of the Arc, Abscissa, Ordinate and Subnormal, in the 
 Catenary. 
 IX. Tables of the Lengths and Vibrations of Pendulums. 
 X. Table of Specific Gravities. 
 
 XL Table of Weight of Materials frequently employed in Construction, 
 XII. Principles of Chronometers. 
 ZIII. Select Mechanical Expedients. 
 
 XIV, Observations on the Effect of Old London Bridge on the Tides, &c. 
 XV. Professor Parish on Isometrical Perspective. 
 
 In 18mo., in boards, comprising 390 pages, price 5s. 
 
 A SYNOPSIS OF PEACTICAL PHILOSOPHY, 
 
 alphabetically arranged, containing a gi-eat variety of Theorems, Formulae, 
 and Tables, from the most accurate and recent authorities in varioTJS brancl'JSS 
 of ilatberaatics and Natural Philosophy : with Tables of Logarithms, 
 
 Sy the Rev, JOHN CARR, M,A,, late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 
 John Weale's Catalogue of his Publications of Works on Architecture , 
 Civil, Mechanical, Military, and Naval Engineering, gratis ; if by post, Id. 
 
HINTS 
 
 YOUNG ARCHITECTS; 
 
 COHPRISINQ 
 
 ADVICE TO THOSE WHO, WHILE YET AT SCHOOL AEE DESTINED 
 TO THE PEOFESSION; 
 
 SUCH AS, HAYING PASSED THEIR PUPILAGE, AEE ABOUT TO TRAVEL 
 
 AND TO THOSE WHO, HAYING COMPLETED THEIR EDUCATION, 
 ARE ABOUT TO PRACTISE: 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 A MODEL SPECIFICATION: 
 
 INVOLVING A GREAT VARIETY OF INSTRUCTIVE AND SUGGESTIVE MATTER 
 CALCULATED TO FACILITATE THEIR PRACTICAL OPERATIONS; 
 
 AND TO DIRECT THEM IN THEIR CONDUCT, AS THE RESPONSIBLE 
 AGENTS OP THEIR EMPLOYERS, 
 
 AND AS THE RIGHTFUL JUDGES OF A CONTRACTOR'S DUTY. 
 
 By GEOEaE WiaHTWICK, Architect. 
 
 
 CONTEXTS : — 
 
 Pi-eliminary Hints to Young Archi- 
 tects on the Knowledge of 
 
 Model Specification : 
 Stone-cutting. 
 
 Drawing. 
 On Serving his Time. 
 On TraveUing. 
 
 
 ■ , Grecian or Italian only. 
 
 , Gothic only. 
 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 His Plate on the Door. 
 Orders, Plaa-drawing. 
 
 
 Slating. 
 Tilmg. 
 
 On his Taste, Study of Interiors. 
 
 Plaster and Cement- work. 
 
 Interior Ari-angemeuts. 
 Warming and Ventilating. 
 
 
 Carpenters' Work. 
 Joiners' Work. 
 
 House Building, Stabling. 
 
 
 Iron and ]\Ietal-work. 
 
 Cottages and Villas. 
 Model Specification : — 
 
 General Clauses. 
 
 Foundations. 
 
 Well. 
 
 Artificial Foundations. 
 
 
 Plumbers' Work. 
 
 Drainage. 
 
 Well-digging. 
 
 Artificial Levels, Concrete, 
 Foundations, Piling and 
 Planking, Paving, Vaulting. 
 
 Brickwork. 
 
 Rubble Masonry with 
 Mingled. 
 
 Brick 
 
 Bell-hanging, Plumbing, auJ 
 Building generally. 
 
hx One Large Volume Octavo, Eleven Hundred Pages, with numerous 
 Engravings, price II. 8s., 
 
 H. 
 
 GENERAL TEXT BOOK, 
 
 CONSTANT USE AND REFERENCE OP 
 
 MCHITECTS, ENGINEEES. SUHYEYORS, SOLICITORS, 
 AUCTIOIsHERS, LAND AGENTS, AND STEWARDS, 
 
 W ALL THSIR SEVERAL AI?3 TARIED PSOnSSIOITAL OCCUPATIONS; 
 
 AMD FOR THE 
 
 ASSISTANCE AND GUIDANCE OF 
 COUNTRY GENTLEMEM AND OTHERS 
 
 EKGAGED IN THE 
 
 TEANSFEE, MANAGEMENT, OE IMPEOVEMENT OF 
 LANDED PEOPEETY: 
 
 CONTAININa 
 
 THECREIVIS, FORMULyE, RULES, AND TABLES 
 
 a OBOMETRT, MENSURATION, AND TRIGONOIIETRT ; LAND MEASURING, SURVETING, 
 A ND LEVELLING ; RAILWAY AND HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING ; TIMBER MEASUR- 
 ING; THE VALUATION 0¥ ARTIFICERS' 'WORK, ESTATES, LEASEHOLDS, LIFEHOLDS, 
 ANNUITIES, TILLAGES, FARMING STOCK, AND TENANT RIGHT ; THE ASSESSMENT 
 OF PARISHES, RAILWAYS, GAS AND WATER WORKS; THE LAW OF DILAPIDA- 
 TIONS AND NUISANCES, APPRAISEMENTS AND AUCTIONS, LANDLORD AK» 
 TSNANT, AGREEMENTS AND LEASES. 
 
 TOGETHER WITH EXAMPLES OP VILLAS AND COUNTRY HOUSES. 
 
 BY EDV/ARD RYDE, 
 
 Civil Engineer and Land Surveyor, Author of several Professional Worite. 
 
 TO WHICH ARE ADDED SEVERAL CHAPTERS ON 
 
 AGEICULTUEE AND LANDED PEOPEETY. 
 
 BY PROFESSOR DONALDSON, 
 
 Author of S€vcifil "Works on Agriculture. 
 
WORKS PUBLISHED BY WR. WEALE. 19 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter I.— Arithmetic, 1. Notation — 2. Proof of the Fix^st Pour 
 Bules — 3. Vulgar Fractions — 4. Decimals — 5. Duodecimals — 6. Powers 
 and Roots — 7. Properties of Numbers — 8. Logarithms and Mathe- 
 matical Tables. 
 
 IL — Plane and Solid Geometry, 1, Definitions— 2. Of Angles 
 and Right Lines, and their Rectangles— 8, Of Triangles — L Of Quad- 
 rilaterals and Polygons — 5. Of the Circle, and Inscribed and Circum- 
 scribing Figures — 6. Of Planes and Solids — 7. Practical Geometry. 
 
 III. — Mensuration, 1, Comparison of English and French Weights 
 and Measures — 2. Mensuration of Superficies — 3. Mensuration of Solids. 
 
 IV. — Teigongmetrt, 1. Definitions and Trigonometrical Formulse — 
 2. General Propositions — 3, Solution of the Cases of Plane Triangles. 
 
 V, — Conic Sections. 
 
 VI. — Land Measuring. Including Table of Decimals of an Acre — 
 Table of Land Measure, by dimensions taken in yards. 
 
 VII. — Land Surveying, 1. Parish and Estate Surveying — 2, Trigo- 
 nometrical Surveying — 3, Traverse Surveying— 4. Field Instruments, 
 the Prismatic Compass ; the Box Sextant ; the Theodolite. 
 
 VIII. — .Levelling, Levelling Instruments, the Spirit Level ; the Y 
 IiBvel; Troughton's Level; Mr. Gravatt's Level; Levelling Staves — 
 Examples in Levelling, 
 
 IX. — Plotting, Embracing the Circular Protractor — ^The T Square 
 and Semicircular Protractor — Plotting Sections, 
 
 X. — Computation op Areas. The Pediometer — The Computing 
 Scale — Computing Tables. 
 
 XL — Copying Maps, Including a description of the Pentagrapli. 
 
 XII. — Railway Surveying. 1. Exploration and Trial Levels; 
 Standing Orders. — 2. Proceedings subsequent to the Passing of the Act; 
 Tables for Setting out Curves ; Tables for Setting out Slopes ; Tables of 
 Pvclative Gradients ; Specification of Works to be executed in the con- 
 struction of a Railway ; Form of Tender. 
 
 XIII, — Colonial Surveying. 
 
 XIV. — Hydraulics in connection with Drainage, Sewerage, 
 and Water Supply, — With Synopsis of Ryde's Hydraulic Tables — > 
 r^pecifications, Iron Pipes and Castings ; Stone- Ware Drain Pipes ; Pipe 
 Liaying; Reservoir. 
 
 _ XV, — Timber Measuring. Including Timber Tables, Solid Measure, 
 unequal Sided Timber ; Superficial Measure, 
 
 XVI. — ^Artificers' Work, 1, Bricklayers' and Excavators' — 2. 
 Slaters' — 3. Carpenters' and Joiners' — 4, Sawyers' — 5, Stonemasons'— 
 6^ Plasterers' — 7. Ironmongers'— -8, Painters' — 9, Glaziers' — 10, Paper 
 Hangers'. 
 
 XVII. — Valuation of Estates. With Tables for the Purchasing of 
 Freehold, Copyhold, or Leasehold Estates, Annmties, and Advowsons, 
 and for Renewing Leases for Terms of Years certain and for Lives. 
 
 XVIII, — Valuation or Tillages and Tenant Right. Witb 
 Tables for Measuring and Valuing Hay Ricks. 
 
''{J WORKS PUBLISHED B\' MR. WE ALE. 
 
 CONTENTS (continued) :— 
 
 XIX. — Validation of Parisees. 
 
 XX. — Builders' Prices. 1. Carpenters' and Joiners' — 2. Masons* — 
 3. Bricklayers' — i. Plasterers' — 6. Ironmongers' — 6. Drainers' — 7. 
 Plambers' — 8. Painters' — 9. Paper Hangers' and Decorators' — 10, 
 Glaziers' — 11. Zinc Workers' — 12. Coppersmiths' — 13. Wireworkers'. 
 
 XXI. — Dilapidations and Xuisances. 1. General Definitions — 2. 
 Dilapidations by Tenants for Life and Years — 3. Ditto by Mortgagee or 
 Mortgagor — 4. Ditto of Party Walls and Fences — 5. Ditto of Highways 
 and Bridges — G. K'uisances. 
 
 XXII. — The Law relating to Appraisers and Auctioneers. 1, 
 The Law relating to Appraisements — 2. The Law of Auction. 
 
 XXIIL — Landlord and Tenant. 1. Agreements and Leases — 2. 
 Notice to Quit — 3. Distress — 4. Recovery of Possession. 
 
 XXIV. — Tables. Of Natural Sines and Cosines — For Reducing 
 Links into Feet — Decimals of a Pound Sterling. 
 
 XXV. — Stamp Laws. — Stamp Duties — Customs* Duties. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF VILLAS AND COUNTRY HOUSES. 
 
 01^ LANDED PEOPEETY, By Peofessoe Donaldson. 
 
 L — Landlord and Tenant — their Position and Connefctions. 
 
 II. — Lease of Land, Conditions, and Restrictions; Choice of Tenant 
 and Assignation of the Deed. 
 
 III. — Cultivation of Land, and Rotation of Crops. 
 
 IV. — Buildings necessary on Cultivated Lands — Dwelling Houses, 
 Farmeries, and Cottages for Labourers. 
 
 V. — Laying-out Farms, Roads, Fences, and Gates. 
 
 VI. — Plantations — Young and old Timber. 
 
 VII. — Meadows and Embankments, Beds of Rivers, Water Courses, 
 and Flooded Grounds. 
 
 VIII. — Land Draining, Open and. Covered, — Plan, Execution, and 
 zli-rangement between Landlord and Tenant. 
 
 IX. — Minerals — Working and Value. 
 
 X. — Expenses of an Estate — Regulations of Disbursements— and 
 Relation of the appropriate Expenditures. 
 
 XL — Valuation of Landed Property ; of the Soil, ofHouses, of Woods, 
 of Minerals, of Manorial Rights, of Royalties, and of Fee Fann Rents. 
 
 XII. — Land Steward and Farm Bailiff : Qualifications and Duties. 
 
 XIII. — Manor Bailiff, Woodreve, Gardener, and Gamekeeper — their 
 Position and Duties. 
 
 XIV.— Fixed days of Audit— Half- Yearly Payments of Rents — Form 
 of iSTotices, Receipts, and of Cash Books, General Map of Estates, and of 
 fcaoii separate Farm — Concluding Observations. 
 
STONE, TIMBER, AND IRON BRIDGES. 
 
 21 
 
 BRIDGES. 
 
 45. 
 
 In 4 vols, royal 8vo, illustrated by 138 engravings and 92 wood-cuts, bound 
 in 3 vols, half-morocco, price £ 4. 10*. 
 
 THE THEORY, PRACTICE, AND ARCHITECTURE 
 
 OF 
 
 BRIDGES OF STONE, IRON, TIMBER, AND WIRE; 
 
 WITH EXAMPLES ON THE PRINCIPLE OF SUSPENSION. 
 
 DIVISIONS or THE WOKK. 
 
 Theory of Bridges. By James Hann, King's College, London. 
 
 General Principles of ' Construction, &c. Translated from Gauthey. 
 
 Theory of the Arch, &c. By Professor Moseley. 
 
 Papers on Foundations. By T. Hughes, C.E. 
 
 Account of Hutcheson Bridge, Glasgow, with Specification. By 
 
 the late Robert Stevenson, C.E. 
 Mathematical Principles of Dredge's Suspension Bridge. 
 Essay and Treatises on the Practice and Architecture of Bridges. 
 
 By William Hosking, F.S.A., Arch*, and C.E. 
 Specification of Chester Dee Bridge. 
 Practical Description of the Timber Bp^idges, &c., on the Utica and 
 
 Syracuse Railroad, U. S. By B. F. Isherwood, C. E., New York. 
 Description of the Plates. — General Index, &c., &c., &c. 
 
 list of plates. 
 
 1. Centering of Ballater bridge across the 
 
 river Dee, Aberdeenshire. 
 
 2. Town's American timber bridge. 
 
 3. Do., sections. 
 
 4. Do. do. 
 
 5. Ladykirk and Norham timber bridge 
 
 over the Tweed, by J. Blackmore. 
 
 6. Timber bridge over the Clyde at Glas- 
 
 gow, by Robert Stevenson. 
 
 7. Elevation of arch of do. 
 
 8. Transverse section of do. 
 
 9. Section of foot-path on do., &c. 
 
 10. Occupation bridge over the Calder and 
 
 Hebble Na-sagation, by W. Bull. 
 
 11. Newcastle, North Shields, and Tyne- 
 
 mouth railway viaduct across Wil- 
 lington Dean, plans and elevations. 
 
 12. Do., do. 
 
 13. Do., sections. 
 
 14. Ditto across Ouse Burn Dean, plan and 
 
 elevation. 
 
 15. Do., do. 
 
 l(j, Isometrical view of the upper wooden 
 bridge at Elysville over the Patapsco, 
 on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. 
 
 17. Elevation and plan of do. 
 
 18. Sections of do. 
 
 19. Longitudinal section under the central 
 
 archway of Old London bridge, show- 
 ing the sunk weir recommended by 
 Mr. Smeaton to liold the water up for 
 
 the benefit of the water-works, &c., in 
 1763 ; sections of the same. 
 
 20. Plan and elevation of timber bridge for 
 
 Westminster, as designed by Wes- 
 ley. 
 
 21. Half- elevation of ditto for Westminster, 
 
 as designed by James King. 
 
 22. Westminster timber bridge adapted to 
 
 the stone piers, by C. Labelye. 
 
 23. One of the river ribs of the centre on 
 
 which the middle arch of Westminster 
 bridge was turned, extending 76 feet, 
 designed and executed by JamesKing. 
 
 24. Long elevation and plan of Westminster 
 
 bridge. 
 
 25. Elevation of the foot bridge over the 
 
 Whitadder, at Abbey St. Bathen's. 
 
 26. Weymouth bridge, elevation and plan. 
 
 27. Very long elevation of Hutcheson bridge, 
 
 Glasgow, by Robert Stevenson. 
 
 28. Longitudinal section of ditto, showing 
 
 the progress of the works in 1832. 
 
 29. Cross section of do., showing the build- 
 
 ing ajinaratus and centre frames. 
 SO. Cross section of Hutcheson bridge. 
 
 31. Plan of southern abutment of do. 
 
 32. Section of abutments of do. 
 
 33. Toil-houses of do. 
 
 34. Bridge of the Schuylkill at Market 
 
 Street, Philadelphia." 
 
 35. Details of do. 
 
IRON, STONE, TIMBER, AND SUSPENSION BRIDGES. 
 
 52a 
 53. 
 
 64a, 
 65. 
 
 67. 
 
 Plan of the wood- work in the starling of 
 the small piers of Chepstow bridge. 
 
 Longitudinal section through one of the 
 large piers. 
 
 Details of Chepstow bridge. 
 
 Plan, elevation, and sections of the 
 central arch of London bridge. 
 
 London and Croydon railway bridge 
 on road from Croydon to Sydenham, 
 plans, elevations, and sections. 
 
 London and Croydon railway bridge on 
 road from Norwood to Bromley, do. 
 
 London and Croydon railway bridge at 
 Sydenham, do. 
 
 Elevation of the Victoria bridge over 
 the valley of the river Wear, on the 
 Durham junction railway. 
 
 Elevation of Chepstow bridge. 
 
 Piling and timber foundations of one 
 of the large piers of Chepstow bridge. 
 
 Plan of pier, elevation of do. 
 
 Enlarged section of one of the piers. 
 
 Newcastle and Carlisle railway bridge, 
 
 , over the river Tyne at Scotswood, by 
 John Blackmore, plan and elevation. 
 
 50. Sections and details of do. 
 
 Elevation and plan of bridge over the 
 Eden at Carlisle, by Sir R. Smirke. 
 
 Elevation of one of the arches, with a 
 pier, and the north abutment. 
 
 . The centering used for the arches of do. 
 
 Plan and elevation of the bridge erected 
 over the Thames at Staines. 
 
 Elevation and plans of the Wellesley 
 bridge at Limerick. 
 
 Elevation of pier and half- arch, with 
 longitudinal section, plan and section 
 of baluster, transverse section through 
 the crown and spandril. 
 
 Bridge of Jena, plan and elevation. 
 
 Do., elevation of one of the land arches, 
 with section of towing-path and re- 
 taining wall, transverse section of the 
 bridge at the springing of an arch, 
 plan of do., transverse section of the 
 bridge through the centre of one of 
 the land arches, plan of the abutments, 
 retaining walls, &c. 
 
 Elevation of the Devil's bridge over 
 the Serchio, near Lucca, Italy ; plan, 
 elevation, and cross section. 
 
 Bridge across the river Forth at Stirling, 
 by R. Stevenson, elevation. 
 
 Longitudinal section of the same. 
 
 Timber bridge on the Utica and Syra- 
 cuse Railway, United States, spans of 
 40 and 30 feet. 
 
 Do., span of 60 feet. 
 
 Do., elevation, plan and cross section, 
 span of 88 feet. 
 
 . Do., isometrical projection. 
 
 Do., plan, elevation, and cross section, 
 span of 84 feet. 
 
 , Timber bridge, span of 82 feet. 
 
 Abutment for a bridge of 82 feet span 
 over the Oneida Creek. 
 
 Trestle bridge, Oneida Creek Valley, 
 span of 29 feet. 
 
 Bo., elevation of span of 100 feet. 
 
 67a. Do., isometrical projection of truss, 
 connection of floor beams, and cross 
 section. 
 
 6S. Trestle bridge, Onondago Creek Vallev^ 
 span of 29 feet. 
 
 6g. A great variety of details of joinery. 
 
 69a. Pile-driving machine. 
 
 70. Isometrical projections. 
 
 70a. Isometrical projections of iron plate. 
 
 706. Do. 
 
 70c. Do. 
 
 70^:. Do. 
 
 70e. Do. 
 
 70/. Do., culverts. 
 
 70g'. Viaduct under Erie canal. 
 
 71. Remains of the bridge over the Adda, 
 
 at Trezzo, the Milanese. 
 
 72. Ely iron bridge, near cathedral. 
 
 73. Details of do. 
 
 74. Do. 
 
 75. Do. 
 
 76. Haddlesey bridge, over the Aire, YorL- 
 
 shire, details of the iron- work. 
 
 77. Do. 
 
 78. Do. 
 
 79. Do. 
 
 80. Do., sections of structure. 
 
 81. Do., plan, iron balustrades &c. 
 
 82. Do., details. 
 83. 
 84. 
 
 Do., elevation. 
 
 London and Blackwall Railway brid{:3 
 over the Lea, elevation and plan. 
 
 85. Do., sections and details. 
 
 86. Do., sections, enlarged view of railing. 
 
 87. Isometrical projection of the suspensica 
 
 bridge at Balloch ferry, constructed oi7 
 Mr. Dredge's principle. 
 
 88. Perronet's design for the bridge over the 
 
 Seine at Melun, sections, &c. 
 83. Brighton chain pier, portions of con- 
 structive detail. 
 
 90. Wreck of do. in Oct. 1833. 
 
 91. Do. 
 
 92. Longitudinal and transverse sections 
 
 cast-iron swing bridge. 
 
 93. Longitudinal section and transverse d; 
 
 plan of turning-plate, roller frame, ar. . 
 
 bed-plate of cast-iron swing bridge. 
 Elevation and plan of cast-iron svpi^^ 
 
 bridge, Plymouth. 
 Gerrard's Hostel bridge, Cambridge, 
 
 erected by the Butterley Company, (W. 
 
 C. Mylne,) elevation and plan. 
 Do., sections and details of do. 
 Do., transverse section of do. 
 Fribourg suspension bridge, general 
 
 elevation, with a section of the valley 
 
 of the Sarine and of the mooring 
 
 shafts, &c. ; general plan, ends of 
 
 main piers, with approaches enlarged, 
 
 &c. 
 99. Do., sections and details of do. 
 
 100. 100a. Do. do. 
 
 101. Professor Moseley's diagrams of the 
 
 arch. 
 
 102. Do. 
 
 103. Do. 
 
 104. Robert Stevenson's elevation of a chain 
 
 bridge upon the catenarian principle. 
 
 94. 
 
 97. 
 
JOHN WEALE'S NEW LIST OF WOEKS 
 
 In 1 vol. 4to., with 74 plates, extra cloth boards and lettered, price 2l3., 
 
 THE CAEPENTEE^S NEW" GUIDE : 
 
 OR, 
 
 THE EOOK OP LINES EOS CAEPENTEES, 
 
 GEOMETEICALLT EXPLAINED ; 
 
 C0MPRISIj!T(3 all THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES ESSENTIAL FOR AOQ.TJIMK<J A 
 
 SNOWLEDGE OF THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 A NEW EDITION, 
 
 FOUNDED ON THAT OF THE LATE PETEK NICHOLSON'S STANDABD WORK; 
 
 REVISED BY 
 
 ARTHUR ASHPITEL, Architect, F.S.A., F.LB.A. 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 PExiCTICAL EULES ON DEAWING, 
 
 By GEORGE PYNE, of Oxford, Artist. 
 The Work is divided in Three Divisions, with Seventy-four Illustrative Plates, as follows 
 Division A. — Practical Geometry, and of 
 Carpentry, explaining the principles in 
 
 all its t)arts, by the late Peter Nicholson. 
 (Pages' 1 to SO— Plates 1 to 60.) 
 Division B.— Practical MathematicSjMensu 
 
 ration, &c., by Arthur Ashpitel, Arclii- 
 tect. (Pages 1 to S2.) 
 Division C. — Practical Rules on Drawing, 
 for the Operative Builder and Touug 
 Student in Architecture. (Pages i to 80 
 —Plates 1 to 14.) 
 
 With 72 Engi-avingg, new, improved, and extended edition, price 21 12s. 6d., 
 extra large 4to, extra cloth boards and lettered, 
 
 THE PEACTICAL EAILWAY ENGINEEE : 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE MECHANICAL AND ENGINEBRINa OPERATIONS AND STRUOIUBES 
 COMBINED IN THE MAKING OF A RAILWAY. 
 
 -Curves, gradients, gauge, and 
 
 Section I 
 slopes. 
 
 Section II. — Survey and levels for a railway 
 — ^Parliamentary plan and section— Limits 
 of deviation — Setting out the line — Work- 
 ing plans and sections — Computing quan- 
 tities — Opening the ground. 
 
 Section III. — Eartliworks, cuttings, em- 
 bankments, and drains. 
 
 By G. D. DEMPSEY, C.B. 
 
 contents. 
 
 -Retaining walls, bridges, tun- 
 
 1. Cuttings. 
 
 2, 3, 4. Earthworks, excavating. 
 6. Ditto, embanking. 
 
 6. Ditto, waggons. 
 
 7. Drains under bridges. 
 
 8. Brick and. stone culverts. 
 
 9. Paved crossings. 
 
 10. Railway bridges, diagram. 
 
 11, 12, 13, 14. Bridges, brick and stone. 
 15, 16. Ditto, iron. 
 17, 18, 19, 20, 21. Ditto, timber. 
 
 22. Centers for bridges. 
 
 23, 24, 25, 26, 27. *' Pont de Montlouis." 
 
 28. " Pont du Cher." 
 
 29. Suspension bridge. 
 :30. Box-girder bridge. 
 
 31. Trestle bridge and Chepstow bridge. 
 
 32. Details of Chepstow bridge. 
 
 33. Creosoting, screw-piUng, &c. 
 i:34. Permanent way and rails. 
 35. Ditto, chaii-3. 
 56. Ditto, tish-joints, &c. 
 J7. Ditto, fish-joint chairs. 
 58, 39, Ditto, cast-iron sleepers, &o. 
 10, Ditto, Stephenson's, Bnmers.Hemans'g, 
 
 Macneill's, and Dockray'a. 
 H. Ditto, crossings. 
 
 Section IV.' 
 nels, &c. 
 
 Section V.— Permanent way and construc- 
 tion. 
 
 Section VI. — Stations, &c. 
 
 Section VII. — Rolling stock — Carriages, 
 trucks, wheels, and axles — Brakes, and 
 details — Locomotive engines and tenders. 
 
 SectionVIII. — Signalsand electric telegraph. 
 
 LIST OF plates. 
 
 42. Ditto ditto, details. 
 
 43. Ditto, spring-crossings, &c. 
 
 44. Ditto, turn-table. 
 
 45. 46. Terminal station. 
 47, 4S, 49. Stations. 
 
 50. Goods stations. 
 
 51. Polygonal engine-house. 
 
 52. Engine-house. 
 63. Watering apparatus. — (A). Tanks. 
 
 54. Ditto, (B.) Details of pumps. 
 
 55. Ditto, (C.) Details of engines. 
 
 56. Ditto, (D.) Cranes. 
 
 57. Hoisting machineiy. 
 
 58. Ditto, details. 
 
 59. Traversing platform. 
 
 60. Ditto, details. 
 
 61. Station-roof at King's Grose. 
 
 62. Ditto, Liverpool. 
 
 63. Ditto, Birmingham. 
 
 64. 65. Railway carriages. 
 
 66. Ditto, details. 
 
 67, 68. Railwa / trucks and wheeliS. 
 
 69. Iron and < covered waggons. 
 
 70. Details of brakes. 
 
 71. Wheels and details. 
 
 72. Portrait. 
 
24 
 
 JOHN WEALE'S NEW LIST OF WORKS, ^y^ / ^ 
 
 ^ I 
 
 lu 1 Vol. 4to, extra clotb, boards and lettered, 67 Engravings, 21*., 
 
 DESIGNS AND EXAMPLES OF COTTAGES, 
 VILLAS, AND COUNTRY HOUSES ; I 
 
 BEING THE STUDIES OP SE\T:RAL EMINENT ARCHITECTS AND BUILDERS 
 
 COiJSISTING OF PLANS, ELEVATIONS, ANn PERSPECTIVE VIEWS, WITH 
 APPKOXIMATE ESTIilATES OF THE COST OF EACH. 
 
 In imperial 8vo., "witli 13 large folding Plates, extra cloth, boards, price 12s., 
 
 A PHACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESSAY 
 ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES. 
 
 By GEORGE WATSON BUCK, M.Iust. C.E. 
 
 TOGETHER TYIIU A 
 
 DESCRIPTION TO DIAGRAMS FOR FACILI- 
 TATING THE CONSTRUCTION OP 
 OBLIQUE BRIDGES. 
 
 By W. H. barlow, C.E., 
 Second Edition, corrected and improved. 
 
 In 1 vol. 4to., 50 plates, -with, dimensions, extra cloth boards, price 21s., 
 
 EXAMPLES EOS 
 BUILDERS, CARPENTERS, AND JOINERS; 
 
 EillNG ■WELL-SELECTED ILLUSTRATIONS OF EECEXT MODERN ART AND CONSTRUCIIO 
 
 1. Geometrical Scaircase. 
 
 Construction of the Wooden Columns 
 
 in King's College. 
 Details of do. 
 Plan and Elevation of the Athenaeum 
 
 Club House. 
 Do. do. Arthur's Club, St. James' 
 
 Street. 
 Do. do. details. 
 Do. do. 
 
 Design for Verandah. 
 Details of do. 
 Design for Verandah. 
 Details of do. 
 Design for Verandah. 
 Details of do. 
 
 Elevation of a Group of New Houses. 
 Joinery of Doors. 
 Base, Surbase, and Dado. 
 Plan and Elevation of Doors. 
 Sections do. do. 
 
 Section of the framing or frontispiece 
 
 of an entablature of a Shop li-oni. 
 Roof at Charter House. 
 
 Gierke nwell Church. 
 
 OF PLATES. 
 
 26. Elizabethan terminations of a Sh 
 
 front entablature. 
 
 27. Joineiy at Windsor Castle. 
 2S. 
 
 30. „ 
 31. 
 
 32. Gate at the town entrance to i 
 
 Royal Mews, Windsor. 
 
 33. Joinery at the Duke of Sutherland's 
 
 Lilleshall. 
 
 34. Muliions of Windows, do. 
 
 35. Plan and Elevation of a Public-hou/ 
 
 36. Exeter Hall roof. 
 o7. Country mansion. 
 3S. Italian Designs. 
 
 40. ," 
 
 ■il. Longitudinal Section, do. 
 
 42. Windows, Doors, &c. do. 
 I 43. Windows, &c. do. 
 
 ! 44. Grand Staircase, do. 
 
 I 45. An Elegant Italian fa$ade. 
 
 46. Penton Meusey Church, Bdl Turre 
 1 47. Plan and South Elevation of do. 
 : 4S. West Elevation of do. 
 
 49. Elevations, with h.orizontal and vci 
 
 sections of the Bell Turret, clu. 
 
 50. Transvei-se section of do. jf 
 
 'b/lp'3? 
 
 J