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PRINCIPLES 
 OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
PRINCIPLES 
 
 OF 
 
 FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 A MANUAL FOR STUDENTS OF 
 HOME ECONOMICS 
 
 BY 
 MARY D. CHAMBERS, B.S., A.M. 
 
 Formerly Instructor of Normal Classes in Domestic Science, Pratt 
 
 Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Professor of Domestic Economy and 
 
 Head of the Department, The James Millikin University, 
 
 Decatur, Illinois ; Professor of Chemistry and Home 
 
 Economics, and Head of the Departments, 
 
 Rockford College, Rockford, Illinois 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 BOSTON 
 THE BOSTON COOKING-SCHOOL MAGAZINE CO. 
 
 1914 
 
<v 
 
 
 Copyright, 1914 
 Bv The Boston Cooking School Magazine Company 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAilBRIDGE, U. S. A. 
 
 wilP2i iSi4 
 
 ©C1.A380452 
 
JL the beloved students in various schools 
 and colleges, who have endured the hardness 
 of recitation, laboratory, and quiz with me, and 
 who by their enthusiasm and interest have made 
 our class periods hours of joy to the instructor, 
 this book is lovingly dedicated 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 THE following lessons have grown out of an experience 
 of many years in teaching both high school and college 
 classes. In the practical study of each food I have tried 
 to give a sufficient variety of dishes to afford novelty and 
 give scope for individual choice, as well as to make the 
 work adaptable to students of varying degrees of ability 
 or preparation. I have thrown as much as possible on 
 the students themselves the responsibihty of organizing 
 the work in class, after the selection of recipes, experi- 
 ments, etc., has been made by the teacher.^ 
 
 The Exercises, involving original application of 
 knowledge, usually form a lesson by themselves, where 
 the students work quite independently. 
 
 Simple chemical tests and rough analyses of foods are 
 included in most of the chapters, suice in many of the 
 smaller high schools and colleges this work is in charge 
 of the teacher of Household Science. 
 
 The Topics for Study or Discussion — which include 
 correlation with tributary subjects — and the Questions, 
 are of course merely suggestive. 
 
 In the preparation of this book my thanks are due to 
 Dr. Jessie Y. Cann, now of the Department of Chemistry 
 in the University of Ilhnois, and to my former colleagues 
 in the science departments of Rockford College, who have 
 
 I In no case is it supposed that all of the dishes given to illustrate the principles 
 will be made during the class periods. A selection, including a sufficient variety 
 for purposes of illustration, should be made by the teacher. 
 
X PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 patiently answfered my questions, and have given me 
 references regarding newer theories and facts bearing on 
 the chemical and physiological aspects of food. I am 
 also indebted to my beloved former associate in the de- 
 partment of Home Economics, Miss Mildred Wood, who 
 has conducted the laboratory experiments for me. 
 
 I am further indebted to the Youth's Companion for 
 allowing me to use in modified form such parts of this 
 text as first appeared in the Companion under the titles: 
 *' Batters and Doughs," ''The Transformations of a White 
 Sauce," and "The Evolution of an Oyster Stew." The 
 Boston Cooking-School Magazine has done me the great 
 favor of placing at my disposal many of the illustrations 
 from its pages which now reappear in my text. 
 
FOREWORD TO THE STUDENT OF 
 HOME ECONOMICS 
 
 IN some schools the term Home Economics is applied 
 to such studies as are designed to fit women to cope 
 efficiently with the problems of the home. Inasmuch as 
 the object of these courses is, or should be, to develop in 
 the student a sense of values, the title Home Economics 
 is one of the fittest that could be given. For to-day, more 
 perhaps than at any other age of the world, it seems neces- 
 sary for women to realize that the great, permanent values 
 of life have always been controlled by them, have always 
 been in their hands — can hardly be wrested from them 
 unless they are wilHng to let them go. 
 
 The first of these great values is that factor so potent 
 for either evil or good, money. Woman is the great money- 
 spender of the world. Not only the weekly wage of the 
 artisan, the income or earnings of the man in business or 
 professional life, but even the wealth of the millionaire 
 is either disposed of or appreciably controlled by the 
 women of the families. It is not too much to say that of 
 the aggregate earnings of men, the larger part is spent by 
 women. Home Economics will help a woman to be a 
 wise money-spender. 
 
 The second great value in the hands of woman is the 
 provision of food. Ever since Eve gave Adam the apple, 
 woman has been giving food to man, to his help or to his 
 hurt. In the privacy of the family woman chooses and 
 provides the materials for nutrition; in the greater num- 
 
Xll PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 ber of public institutions the selection of the food is also 
 in the hands of women. And stretching farther out, the 
 woman in social service who has some knowledge of the 
 science of dietetics, of the economics of nutrition, of sani- 
 tation and hygiene, is the woman who will hold and keep 
 this great woman-function, that of the nourisher of the 
 race. Home Economics will fit a woman to be a wise food- 
 provider. 
 
 The third big thing in the hands of woman is the mak- 
 ing of the home. This great social institution, on which 
 all the others depend, is the creation of woman, and under 
 present social conditions the organization of the house- 
 hold and the creation of that subtle atmosphere which 
 makes the home the most important institution in the 
 nation demand, for the best efficiency in this work, a 
 fine and thorough training. Home Economics will help 
 to fit a woman to be a home-maker. 
 
 The greatest of all the values in the hands of woman is 
 the bearing, nurture, and training of the child. So essen- 
 tial, indeed, seems this function of motherhood to the 
 nature of woman that few are found who do not in some 
 fashion exercise it, either by the bearing, the nurture, the 
 teaching, or the love of a child. Home Economics will 
 help to fit a woman better to care for a child. 
 
 It is, then, to keep alive among the young women of 
 to-day the old-fashioned ideals that have been proved 
 true throughout the ages — while by no means excluding 
 new ideals and opportunities — that this subject has 
 now a place in the schools, either as a requirement or an 
 elective. 
 
 This Manual deals chiefly with the second of the great 
 values controlled by women, in that it treats of the modi- 
 
FOREWORD TO THE STUDENT OF HOME ECONOMICS xili 
 
 fication of food — physically, chemically, and physiologic- 
 ally — by the processes of combination, cooking, and serv- 
 ing. Every one of the other values, however, is included 
 to some extent in this subject. For one of the chief ex- 
 penditures of money is for food; one of the chief features 
 of the home is the social meal ; one of the most important 
 elements in the care of the child is its nutrition. It is 
 perhaps hardly going too far to say that the right choice 
 of food is basal to all physical, moral, and spiritual growth 
 and usefulness. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAOB 
 
 CHAPTER . 
 
 I. Effect op Heat on Food ^ 
 
 Sterilization of food — Development of flavor — Loss or 
 gain in weight — Softening or hardening of tissue — Im- 
 provement in appearance — Development of odor, etc. 
 
 II. Effect of Salt on Cellulose. Study of Potato, a 
 
 Typical Starchy Vegetable. Study of Rice . . 7 
 Conditions under which cellulose is toughened or changed 
 in color by common salt — Analysis of potato — condi- 
 tions under which potato loses salts during cooking proc- 
 esses — Effect of potassium salts on casein — Effect of 
 moist and of dry heat on starch — Relative conductivity 
 of dry and moist heat — Foods needing savory accom- 
 paniments. 
 
 III. Study of Green Vegetables in Cooking 15 
 
 Effect on the solvent properties of water of common salt 
 
 and of baking soda in moderately strong solution — 
 Classification of vegetables for cooking according to 
 result desired — Methods for lessening or enhancing the 
 flavor of vegetables. 
 
 IV. Effect of Sugar on Cellulose. The Preservation 
 
 OF THE Color of Fruits and Vegetables. The 
 Jellying Principle in Fruits and Vegetables . 24 
 
 Effect of sugar on cellulose — Antiseptic agents in cook- 
 ing processes — Effect on color of fruits and vegetables of 
 cooking while closely covered — Occurrence of jellying 
 principle in fruits and vegetables — Effect of heat on this 
 principle — Effect of the addition of sugar during cook- 
 ing — Effect of prolonged cooking on this principle. 
 
 Eggs 
 
 Specific gravity of stale vs. fresh eggs — Weight and vol- 
 ume of eggs, of the yolk and white of eggs — Effect, on 
 
 30 
 
XVI CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 yolk and white of egg, of water, of heat, of acid, of high and 
 low temperature. Relative solubility of yolk and white 
 of egg when cooked hard — Effect of manipulation on 
 yolk and white of egg — Effect of initial high tempera- 
 ture vs. gradually increasing heat — Difference in compo- 
 sition of yolk and white of egg. 
 
 VI. Gelatine 42 
 
 Effect on gelatine of water, of heat, of acid, of prolonged 
 cooking — Sources of gelatine — Study of different brands 
 of commercial gelatine — Effect of manipulation on gela- 
 tine — Comparison of gelatine and albumin — Action of 
 pineapple juice on gelatine and on albumin — Effect of 
 heat on the active principle in pineapple juice. 
 
 VII. Fish 53 
 
 Comparison of various methods of cooking, involving 
 the use of water, heat, and acid, on fish — Classification 
 of fish according to composition — Conditions under 
 which nutrients are lost during the cooking of fish — 
 Conditions under which flavor is developed during the 
 cooking of fish. 
 
 VIII. Oysters 62 
 
 Study of the effect of water, heat, and acid on oysters — 
 The principle of osmosis, and its application in the culti- 
 vation of oysters — The effect of oyster liquor on milk 
 — The effect of heat on the active principle in oyster 
 liquor. 
 
 IX. Meats 70 
 
 Study of steak in cooking — Physical and chemical 
 methods of softening connective tissue — Physical struc- 
 ture of meat — Analysis of the constituents of meat — 
 The soluble and insoluble proteids of meat — The sapid 
 extractives of meat — The effect of heat on these ex- 
 tractives. 
 
 X. Meats, continued 79 
 
 Study of larger joints of meat in cooking — Losses of nu- 
 trients, etc., by various methods of cooking meat — 
 Application of fat to meat — Causes of retention of color 
 in meat. 
 
CONTENTS XVll 
 
 :hapter paqe 
 
 XL Meats, continued 89 
 
 Cooking of meat by means of water — Methods involving 
 loss or retention of the juices of meat — The globulin of 
 meat, and the conditions which may result in a loss of 
 the same. 
 
 XII. Milk 101 
 
 Reaction of milk to heat and acid — Constituents of milk 
 
 — Action of rennin on milk — Conditions which modify 
 or inhibit this action — Review of effect of alkaline salts 
 on casein. 
 
 XIII. Fats IL") 
 
 Emulsification of fat — Effect of heat on fat — Effect of 
 acid on fat — Solvents for fat — Conditions involving 
 the decomposition of fat — Temperature for the use of 
 fat as a medium for cooking. 
 
 XIV. Cereals and Other Starchy Foods 130 
 
 Study of the double boiler in cooking — Effect of water, 
 heat, and acid on starchy foods — Effect of malt diastase 
 
 on starchy foods — Methods of cooking which induce 
 chemical change in starchy foods. 
 
 XV. Flour Mixtures and Leavens: Batters 140 
 
 Proportions for thin and thick batters — Essentials and 
 non-essentials in flour mixtures — Type forms of batters 
 and their derivatives — Air, steam, and carbon dioxide as 
 leavens — Complemental action of eggs and butter in a 
 flour mixture — Comparison of bread and pastry flour. 
 
 XVI. Flour Mixtures AND Leavens, confmwec?; Doughs. . 154 
 
 Proportions for soft and stiff doughs — Further examples 
 of air, steam, and carbon dioxide as leavens — Types of 
 doughs and their derivatives — Study of baking powders. 
 
 XVII. Quick-Process Bread 169 
 
 Study of two methods of bread making, sponge vs. 
 " straight dough " — Derivatives of quick-process bread 
 
 — Study of the action of yeast — Of conditions which 
 favor or inhibit its growth — Comparison of the action 
 of compressed vs. dried yeast — Bread score cards. 
 
XVlll CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 XVIII. Sugar 183 
 
 Effect of dry heat on sugar — Effect of water and heat — 
 Effect of water, heat, and acid — Comparison of cane 
 sugar and glucose — Cooking processes which bring about 
 inversion of sugar. 
 
 XIX. Beverages 191 
 
 Study of various methods of making coffee, tea, cocoa, and 
 chocolate — Presence of tannin in vegetable substances 
 — Effect of tannin on proteids. on the digestive secre- 
 tions. 
 
 XX. Cakes, Pies, and Puddings 201 
 
 Proportions and general rules for making cakes, pies, and 
 puddings. 
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 A. Charts of the Composition of Foods 217 
 
 B. Time Tables for Cooking 235 
 
 C. Principles of the Preparation of Food Illustrated in 
 
 THE Preceding Chapters 240 
 
 Index 243 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 A Class Dinner Frontispiece 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Dainty Service of Baked Potato 3 
 
 Spinach in Croustade 17 
 
 Bread Croustades, Croutons, etc 18 
 
 Eat Onions in May, and all the Year after Physicians may 
 
 Play 23 
 
 Apple Compote Garnished with Whipped Cream 25 
 
 Foamy Omelet 34 
 
 Foamy Omelet Garnished with Peas 35 
 
 Poached Eggs with Creamed Celery on Toast 39 
 
 Poached Egg above Creamed Onions in Croustade .... 40 
 Macedoine of Vegetables in Tomato Jelly, with Celery, 
 
 Lettuce and Mayonnaise 45 
 
 Tomato Jelly in Ring Mold Garnished with Celery and 
 
 Lettuce 51 
 
 Black Bass 53 
 
 Fish Trussed in Shape of Letter S 59 
 
 Pickerel 61 
 
 Oyster Soup Ready to Serve 64 
 
 Supreme of Oysters in Ramekins 67 
 
 Standing Rib Roast — as Purchased 80 
 
 Standing Rib Roast, Cooked and Ready to Serve .... 81 
 
 Green Peppers, Farci 86 
 
 Leg of Lamb, English or Loin Chops, Rib or French Chops 91 
 
 Analysis of 1 lb. of Milk 101 
 
 Salad of Cottage Cheese, Lettuce, and Tomato 113 
 
 Bowl of Green Salad 116 
 
 Analysis of 1 lb. of Flour 140 
 
 Popovers 145 
 
 How to Measure Dry Materials 153 
 
 Boston Brown Bread 164 
 
XX ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Milk Bread, French Bread, and Rye-Meal Biscuit .... 168 
 
 Quick-Process Bread 172,173 
 
 Raisin Bread 175 
 
 Whole-Wheat Bread 181 
 
 ACupofTea 194 
 
 Diagram of Cake Making 202 
 
 Cake Covered with Confectioner's Frosting, ready to 
 
 Ornament 212 
 
 Cake Decorated with Ornamental Frosting 213 
 
PRINCIPLES OF FOOD 
 PREPARATION 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD 
 
 To the Student. In the following Lessons the dishes to 
 be cooked, as well as the more formal experiments to be 
 made from time to time, have all been chosen to illustrate 
 some principle essential to the correct preparation of 
 food. The discovery of this principle is the most impor- 
 tant thing in the whole lesson! All the rest is subordinate 
 or tributary to this — for the Questions are planned to 
 test your grasp of the principles the lesson was designed 
 to teach, your ability to make from it a correct generaliza- 
 tion, and your power to express clearly what you have 
 learned; while the Exercises, wherever these are assigned, 
 call upon you to show, not only that you have gained 
 knowledge but that you can use it — since each exercise 
 is a demand for the original application of a principle 
 already learned. 
 
 Where several dishes are given in one lesson you may 
 select from them those that you prefer to make — sub- 
 ject, of course, to the approval of your teacher. Ability 
 to choose wisely is an excellent gift, and one that may be 
 cultivated. For instance, in Lesson I you would naturally 
 choose some one of the three animal foods, together with 
 one vegetable and one fruit. In this lesson it would be a 
 
 1 
 
2 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 good thing if you should form, with two other students, a 
 group of three who might distribute the nine dishes 
 among them and compare the results of one another's 
 work, thus being able to make a more comprehensive 
 inference — not to mention having a greater variety of 
 dishes to enjoy in the miniature meal. 
 
 Remember that the cooking of each dish in perfection 
 is always necessary in order to make the correct inference, 
 which is the object of the lesson. 
 
 Meat Balls 
 
 Take an ounce and a half of finely chopped lean meat, 
 season it lightly with salt and pepper, and form it into 
 three meat balls of equal size. Allow one of these to re- 
 main uncooked, for the sake of comparison, or for what 
 is known as a control test. Cook another by steaming 
 it for ten minutes. Pan-boil the third — roUing it on a 
 very hot pan until it is well browned on the outside. 
 The pan should be so hot that the meat will not stick 
 to it. 
 
 Compare the three meat balls: (1) as to size, weight, 
 appearance, and consistency; (2) as to flavor. 
 
 Oysters, Steamed and Broiled 
 
 Select three oysters of about equal size, and weigh 
 them in bulk. Allow one to remain uncooked, steam 
 another until the gills separate and crinkle, broil the 
 third over a clear fire or under a gas flame. Use a fine 
 wire broiler, which should be lightly greased. 
 
 Compare the three oysters: (1) as to size, weight, and 
 consistency; (2) as to flavor. 
 
EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD 3 
 
 Eggs, Soft-cooked and Baked 
 
 Weigh three eggs. Cook one by placing it in a sauce- 
 pan, pouring over it boiling water to cover, and then 
 allowing it to stand near the heat, but not close enough 
 to boil, for ten minutes. In the large end of the third egg 
 prick several holes with a pin, being careful merely to 
 penetrate the shell, then bake in a hot oven for 10 m. 
 
 Compare the three eggs: (1) as to weight and con- 
 sistency; (2) as to flavor. 
 
 DAINTY SERVICE OF BAKED POTATO 
 
 Potatoes, Boiled and Baked 
 
 Scrub two potatoes with a small brush, and weigh them. 
 Cook one by steaming or boiling for 30 m., cook the other 
 by baking on the grate of a hot oven for 45 m. 
 
 Ascertain whether each one has lost or gained in weight 
 as a result of cooking. Compare the flavor of the baked 
 and the boiled potato. Compare both the flavor and the 
 consistency of cooked and uncooked potatoes. 
 
 Beets, Baked and Steamed 
 
 Wash the beets, and trim off the ends to within about 
 an inch of the roots, but avoid cutting or bruising the 
 
4 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 skin, lest the color or sweetness of the vegetable be lost. 
 Cook one of the beets in boiling water for from one-half 
 to one hour for a young beet, for a much longer time 
 if old. Bake the other on the grate of a hot oven for one 
 hour, or until tender. 
 
 Compare the raw, steamed, and baked beets as to 
 weight, color, and consistency. 
 
 After removing the skin the cooked beets should be 
 sliced, quartered, and served hot with butter. 
 
 Tomatoes, Baked and Steamed 
 
 Wash two tomatoes, and weigh before cooking. Place 
 one on a small dish in the steamer, and cook for 20-30 m. 
 Place the other in a small agate pan, and bake in a hot 
 oven for 10-15 m. 
 
 Compare raw, baked, and steamed tomatoes as to 
 weight, color, flavor, and consistency. 
 
 Apples, Baked and Steamed 
 
 Wipe the apples, and core from the blossom end. Weigh 
 before cooking. Steam and bake the same as tomatoes, 
 allowing perhaps 5-10 m. longer for each cooking process. 
 
 Ascertain the loss or gain in weight after cooking. 
 Compare the flavor and consistency of raw, baked, and 
 steamed apples. 
 
 Peaches, Baked and Steamed 
 
 Weigh the peaches before cooking, and steam and bake 
 the same as tomatoes, allowing 5-10 m. less for each 
 process. 
 
 Compare raw, baked, and steamed peaches as to 
 weight, flavor, and consistency, 
 
EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD 5 
 
 , Bananas, Baked and Steamed 
 
 Remove the skin from bananas and weigh them. Steam 
 and bake the same as tomatoes, allowing 20 m. for the 
 first process, 15 m. for the second. 
 
 Compare raw, baked, and steamed bananas as to weight, 
 flavor, and consistency. 
 
 Note. The cooked fruit may be served with sugar and cream. 
 A little lemon juice added to the bananas will be an improvement. 
 
 Experiment to Aid or Corroborate Inference 
 
 In order fully to prove or demonstrate one of the very 
 important effects of heat on food, three petri dishes of 
 sterilized nutrient jelly, such as is used in bacteriological 
 studies, may be used if convenient. The jelly in one 
 dish should be touched with the exposed surface of at 
 least three of the uncooked foods — preferably one from 
 each class ^animal foods, fruits, vegetables. The jelly in 
 a second dish should be touched with the freshly cut 
 surface of each of the foods previously used. To the 
 jelly in the third dish a bit of the same foods, freshly 
 cooked, should be applied. 
 
 The dishes must be covered immediately, labeled, and 
 allowed to stand for a few days before they are examined. 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The approximate temperature of the cooking proc- 
 esses used in this lesson. 
 
 2. Other methods of applying heat to food, their ad- 
 vantages, etc. 
 
 3. Fuels used in cooking, their comparative cost, 
 cleanliness, and ease of regulation or control. 
 
 4. Definition of Food. 
 
 5. Classification of foods into Protein, Fats, Carbo- 
 
6 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 hydrates. Water, Minerals. Function, broadly speak- 
 ing, of each in the diet. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Name the general effects of heat on food which 
 are common in the case of both animal and vegetable 
 foods. 
 
 2. What are the effects of heat which are opposite in 
 the two cases? 
 
 3. How does the effect of dry heat differ from that of 
 moist? 
 
 4. How does the effect of high temperature differ 
 from that of low? 
 
 5. Why do potatoes take longer to bake than to boil, 
 though the temperature of the oven is higher than that 
 of boiling water? 
 
 6. How is it that you can hold your hand in a hot oven 
 for a few seconds, without being burned, and you can- 
 not hold it in boiling water? 
 
 7. In the case of the meat balls, what physical changes 
 were brought about by pan-broiling that were not pro- 
 duced by steaming? 
 
 8. Name the protein foods in today's lesson, the car- 
 bohydrates. What fats were present? 
 
 9. Discuss how a meal, planned on the basis of three 
 of the foods used in class today, could be cooked with 
 the greatest economy of time and labor, consistent 
 with the development of the most delicious flavor. 
 What would be the cost of such a meal for four persons? 
 (See charts. Appendix A.) 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. II. 
 Jordan. The- Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. XVI. 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chap. XXH. 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. H. 
 White. The Fuels of the Household. 
 Encyclopaedia articles on fuels, etc. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 EFFECT OF SALT ON CELLULOSE 
 
 STUDY OF POTATO, A TYPICAL STARCHY VEGETABLE 
 
 To the Student. The work in this and in most of the 
 succeeding chapters will probably occupy at least two 
 lesson periods. The Corroborative Experiment outlined 
 at the close of the practical work in cooking pota- 
 toes will throw light on much that you will observe in 
 making the various dishes. These experiments can be 
 omitted where the results are evident from the work 
 done, but when not actually performed they may be 
 profitably read over or studied. 
 
 In this chapter the Exercises are introduced for the 
 first time. These are not intended for the beginner in the 
 formal study of cookery, but will be assigned by your 
 instructor according as your proficiency warrants. They 
 are designed to develop initiative and originality, or to 
 give additional practice, or to afford opportunity to make 
 further application of the principles learned from the 
 work of each chapter. 
 
 EFFECT OF SALT ON CELLULOSE 
 
 Sweet Com, Boiled 
 
 Divide an ear of corn into two parts. Cook one part 
 in strongly salted boiling water for 20 m., cook the second 
 
 7 
 
8 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 part in soft, unsalted water for 20 m. If very soft water 
 is not at hand the second part may be steamed. 
 
 Compare the color and consistency of the two portions. 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Scrub and pare a potato, and divide it into two parts. 
 Cook one part in strongly salted boiling water for 30 m. ; 
 cook the other part in soft, unsalted water for 30 m. 
 
 Compare the color and consistency of the two portions. 
 Is the effect of the salt as marked as in the case of the 
 corn? Why? Is the cellulose of the potato as tough as 
 that of the corn? 
 
 STUDY OF POTATO, A TYPICAL STARCHY VEGETABLE 
 Mashed Potatoes 
 
 Take two potatoes; pare one before cooking, cook the 
 other in its jacket. Boil both for 30 m. Mash each one 
 separately, using a fork to bruise the potato until it is 
 free from lumps, then adding the right proportion of sea- 
 soning. This can be estimated from Ingredients for One 
 Pint of Mashed Potatoes (see below). The mixture 
 should then be beaten with a fork or a Dover beater until 
 it is light and white. 
 
 Compare the behavior of the two potatoes during the 
 making of this dish. Do you notice any difference in 
 color, flavor, or consistency? 
 
 Note. In preparing mashed potatoes all the utensils used should 
 be hot, the milk or cream added should also be hot, and the work should 
 be performed as expeditiously as possible, since the flavor depends on 
 the retention of the heat — the dish, if reheated, loses its delicacy. 
 
 Ingredients for One Pint of Mashed Potatoes. 
 
 3 or 4 medium-sized potatoes. }/s teaspoonful pepper. 
 
 2 tablespoonfuls butter. Milk or cream sufficient to 
 
 }4 teaspoonful salt. moisten, generally 1 cupful. 
 
STUDY OF POTATO 9 
 
 Potatoes with Cheese 
 
 This and the next dish are better illustrations of the 
 principle involved when they are made in the full quan- 
 tity given in the recipe. One or two students may be 
 allowed to make the dishes for the whole class, but every 
 student should have opportunity to compare the two. 
 
 Ingredients. Four medium-sized potatoes, freshly 
 boiled, and pared before boiling. Two cups of grated 
 cheese, two cups of medium white sauce (see recipe). 
 
 Method. Break the potatoes with a fork into good- 
 sized pieces, and arrange these in a layer to cover the bot- 
 tom of a baking-dish. Add a layer of grated cheese, then 
 cover with white sauce, and proceed in this way until all 
 the ingredients have been used. Cover with buttered 
 crumbs (see recipe), and bake until brown on top. 
 
 Medium White Sauce 
 
 Ingredients. 
 
 4 tablespoonfuls butter. 3^ teaspoonful pepper. 
 
 4 tablespoonfuls flour. 2 cups milk. 
 
 3^ teaspoonful salt. 
 
 Method. Put flour, salt, pepper, and butter into a 
 saucepan, and melt the butter over gentle heat until it is 
 soft enough to blend with the flour. The butter should 
 not be heated more than enough to soften it. (See Chap- 
 ter XIII, page 122.) Add the milk, which may or may 
 not have been previously scalded, about one-third at a 
 time, and let the whole boil for about a minute. 
 
 Buttered Crumbs 
 
 Dry out pieces of stale bread in a very slow oven until 
 they are crisp and brittle. Crush them with a rolling pin 
 
10 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 on a molding board, and sift through a flour sifter. Meas- 
 ure the amount needed, and mix with one-fourth the vol- 
 ume of melted butter. A half-cupful of crumbs should be 
 enough for one baking-dish of potatoes and cheese. 
 
 Note. Dry, sifted crumbs will keep indefinitely in a glass jar. This 
 is a good way to utilize pieces of stale bread. 
 
 Baked Potatoes with Cheese 
 
 Proceed as for Potatoes with Cheese, but use freshly 
 baked potatoes instead of boiled. 
 
 Compare the two dishes, noting especially: (1) the 
 consistency of the cheese; (2) the flavor of the dish as a 
 whole. 
 
 Baked Potatoes, Pared and Unpared 
 
 Choose two potatoes of similar size. Pare one, leave 
 the other unpared, and bake both on the grate of a hot 
 oven until soft. 
 
 Compare the two. Which potato was cooked the first? 
 
 Experiments designed to Aid or Corroborate Inferences 
 
 I 
 Analysis of Potato 
 
 1. Cut a thin cross-section from a raw potato, and hold 
 it to the light to observe its structure. Make a diagram of 
 what you see. 
 
 2. Pare the remainder of the potato, and grate it 
 through cheesecloth into a bowl or beaker. Squeeze out 
 the liquid, and examine the residue in the cloth. 
 
 3. Decant or filter the liquid. Examine the precipi- 
 tate. Test this with iodine. Add to the precipitate four 
 or five times its volume of water and boil the mixture. 
 
STUDY OF RICE IN COOKING 11 
 
 What was the precipitate? What are its characteristic 
 properties? 
 
 4. Filter the hquid from 3 through finely pulverized 
 bone black. (Why?) Add to the clear filtrate one drop 
 of a solution of platinic chloride. In the presence of 
 potassium salts a yellow precipitate will be formed. 
 
 5. Apply a piece of red htmus paper to the residue from 
 2, to the liquid from 4. 
 
 6. Wash the residue from 2 as thoroughly as possible 
 by allowing water to run through it on the cheesecloth. 
 What is this substance? Try it on the effect of water, 
 heat, and acid. What are its characteristic properties? 
 
 II 
 
 The Effect of Potassium Salts on Cheese 
 
 1. Melt a small portion of grated cheese, and divide it 
 into two parts, A and B. Add to A a pinch of potassium 
 chloride. Let it stand for a little while, and compare it 
 with B. Relate your inference to the difference observed 
 in the cheese dishes made today. 
 
 STUDY OF RICE IN COOKING 
 Boiled Rice 
 
 Wash the rice until when it is rubbed between the hands 
 in clear water no further cloudiness appears. Cook it 
 in abundance of violently boiling water — six quarts to 
 one cup of rice will not be too much. Sprinkle in the rice 
 a little at a time, and cook it for 15-20 m., or longer, 
 according to the age of the rice. Old rice takes a longer 
 time to soften. The boiling should be so violent as to keep 
 the rice agitated and the grains well separated from one 
 another. 
 
12 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Test it by pressing a grain between thumb and finger, 
 and when it is found to be soft all through drain the rice 
 through a colander, and set it in a hot oven for a moment 
 to dry it a little. While in the oven the rice may be 
 lightly lifted or tossed with a fork, to let the steam escape. 
 
 Rice cooked in this way may be served as a vegetable, 
 or with cream and cooked fruit as a breakfast cereal. 
 
 Steamed Rice 
 
 Wash the rice as before, and stir it into boiling salted 
 water, one cup of rice to one quart of water. Let it boil 
 for 5 m., stirring gently with a fork to keep the rice 
 lifted from the bottom, then cover and cook in a double 
 boiler until the rice is soft. 
 
 Compare the boiled and the steamed rice. 
 
 Baked Rice 
 
 A thin layer of rice should be spread on a pie plate or 
 a shallow pan, and baked in a moderate oven until it is 
 lightly and evenly browned. The rice kernels should be 
 shaken or stirred so that the grains may be a uniform 
 color. The rice is then cooked as in Steamed Rice, but 
 only half the amount of water, or a pint of water to one 
 cup of rice, need be used. 
 
 Compare the steamed rice with the rice cooked accord- 
 ing to this method. 
 
 Fig Marmalade to Serve with Rice 
 
 Press steamed figs through a colander, moisten slightly 
 with water, and add sugar or lemon juice if desired. 
 
TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 13 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Tubers, their nature and structure. Tubers other 
 than potatoes which are used as food. 
 
 2. Loss of salts and other substances in cooking potatoes. 
 
 3. Theories regarding the structure of starch. Diagrams 
 of the starch granules of rice and potato. 
 
 4. Protein sparers. 
 
 5. Cellulose, its function in the body. 
 
 6. The solanaceae and solanin. 
 
 7. The growth and manufacture of rice; unpolished 
 rice. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Name and describe the different substances isolated 
 in your analysis of potato. 
 
 2. Compare the cross-section of the potato to the cross- 
 section of a branch. 
 
 3. Under what conditions might it be better to cook 
 potatoes in their jackets? Why? When might it be better 
 to pare potatoes before cooking? Why? 
 
 4. Account for the fact that the pared potato took 
 longer to bake than the unpared. 
 
 5. Could the water in which potatoes have been boiled 
 be used for stock? For any household purpose? Explain. 
 
 6. If two average-sized potatoes, boiled after paring, 
 lose, as is estimated, 17 per cent of their mineral matter, 
 how many grams (of minerals) will remain? Potatoes 
 contain about 1 per cent of salts. 
 
 7. Trace the connection between the experiments and 
 the practical work in cooking potatoes. 
 
 8. Why must rice be thoroughly washed if the grains 
 are to be kept distinct in cooking? 
 
 9. Why was less water needed in the process of steam- 
 ing the baked rice? 
 
 10. Can you frame two general rules for the cooking of 
 starchy vegetables? 
 
 11. What foods should be combined with these vege- 
 tables to make an appetizing and well-balanced meal? 
 
14 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 12. Formulate the principles of food preparation gained 
 from the work of this chapter. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make a dish to show what should be combined with 
 potatoes to supply their deficiencies. 
 
 2. Select at least two vegetables other than those used 
 in class, and devise some method of cooking them in an 
 acceptable and appetizing form, which yet shall illustrate 
 the effect of salt on cellulose. 
 
 3. Show how the water in which rice was boiled may be 
 made use of for any household purpose with economy and 
 profit. Do the same with the water used in boiling pota- 
 toes; (a) in their jackets; (6) after paring. 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XI. 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. XII, XIII, and XXII. 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. XVI. 
 Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lect. IV, last paragraph. 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, see Index. 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index, and Plates Vand VI, oppo- 
 site pp. 155 and 158. 
 
 Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Parts V and VI. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 STUDY OF GREEN VEGETABLES IN COOKING 
 
 To the Student. You have already learned that one of 
 the effects of heat on food is the development of flavor. 
 Whether in all cases the food is more appetizing when the 
 flavor is developed to the utmost, is very largely a matter 
 of individual preference. The work in the lesson that 
 follows is planned rather to show how the flavor of cer- 
 tain vegetables may be either modified or developed, 
 than to prescribe specific rules for the cooking of any of 
 the vegetables you will deal with. 
 
 To Boil Cabbage 
 
 Place the cabbage head down in a large pan of cold, 
 salted water for some hours before cooking. This will 
 freshen the cabbage in winter; in summer it will serve to 
 remove worms. 
 
 Cut the cabbage into quarters; remove the core and 
 the outside leaves if these are wilted. Separate the sec- 
 tions into leaves, cut away the larger and harder mid- 
 ribs, and wash thoroughly. 
 
 Divide the portion of cabbage given you into two parts. 
 Cook one in salted water, the other in water to which 
 baking soda has been added in the proportion of one 
 teaspoonful to a quart of water. The water in each case 
 must be rapidly boiling, and generous in quantity. Allow 
 
 15 
 
16 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 the cabbage to boil for 20-25 m. It may then be drained, 
 seasoned, and served. 
 
 Compare the flavor resulting from the two methods. 
 Do you observe a difference in consistency? 
 
 Escalloped Cabbage with Tomato 
 
 Arrange alternate layers of cooked and well-seasoned 
 cabbage and tomato sauce (see recipe) in a baking dish. 
 Cover with buttered crumbs (see page 9), and bake 
 until crumbs are brown. 
 
 Tomato Sauce 
 Ingredients. 
 
 1 to 4 tablespoonfuls butter. 3^ teaspoonful pepper. 
 
 4 tablespoonfuls flour 2 cups sifted tomato pulp. 
 
 -^ teaspoonful salt. 
 
 Method. Proceed as for Medium White Sauce, page 9. 
 
 Note. Sifted tomato pulp is the pulp of tomatoes, either canned 
 or fresh, which has been freed from skin and seeds by pressing through 
 a colander with a wooden pestle, or the old-fashioned wooden potato 
 masher. Care should be taken that none of the soft pulp is rejected, 
 only the skin and seeds. 
 
 Escalloped Cabbage with Cheese 
 
 Proceed as for Escalloped Cabbage with Tomato, using 
 grated cheese instead of tomato sauce for the alternate 
 layers. 
 
 Compare the cabbage in the two dishes. Which had 
 the tenderer fiber? 
 
 Buttered Onions 
 
 Peel small onions under water (to avoid any effect on 
 the eyes), cook one or two in a small quantity of boiling 
 
STUDY OF GREEN VEGETABLES IN COOKING 17 
 
 water until tender, cook the rest in a large amount of 
 water, and change the water twice during the cooking 
 process. When done, coat the onions with melted butter, 
 roll in fine crumbs, place on serving dish, and set in the 
 oven for a moment to brown the crumbs. 
 
 Compare the degree of flavor that resulted from the 
 two methods of cooking. 
 
 Mashed Turnips 
 
 Wash and pare two turnips. Cut one into thin slices, 
 cut the other into quarters. Boil both until tender. 
 Drain and mash each one separately, season with salt 
 and pepper, and serve very hot. 
 
 Compare the flavor resulting from the two methods. 
 
 SPINACH IN CROUSTADE 
 
 spinach in Croustades 
 
 Wash the spinach leaf by leaf in abundance of water, 
 removing thoroughly every trace of grit. Cook it, 
 closely covered, in the water that clings to the leaves, 
 turning it over once in a while to prevent its burning. 
 During the latter part of the cooking process the lid may 
 be removed, to encourage evaporation, and the spinach 
 
18 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 cooked down until the water is practically absorbed. 
 Chop, season with salt and pepper, and serve in crou- 
 stades, mixed with chopped, hard-boiled egg, and gar- 
 nished with slices of the white and a little sifted yolk. 
 
 Cook another portion of spinach in a generous quan- 
 tity of water, softened with baking soda, as in Boiled 
 Cabbage. 
 
 Compare the flavor of the spinach cooked in both ways. 
 
 To Make Croustades. Remove the crust from a stale, 
 brick-shaped loaf, and cut the crumb into eight cubes. 
 (In making the dish for a family the crust may be removed 
 and the loaf used entire.) 
 
 Dip five sides of each cube into melted butter, and 
 brown delicately on a hot pan. Remove the crumb, 
 leaving a box-shaped receptacle to be filled with the 
 spinach and then garnished. 
 
 BREAD CROUSTADES, CROUTONS, ETC. 
 
 Creamed Carrots 
 
 Wash and scrape the carrots, and cut them into small 
 cubes. Cook until tender in a small quantity of water. 
 Drain, mix the water in which the carrots were cooked 
 with a little milk or cream, and use this hquid to make a 
 
STUDY OF GREEN VEGETABLES IN COOKING 19 
 
 sauce in which the carrot cubes are to be served. Follow 
 method for making Medium White Sauce, page 9. 
 
 Another portion of the cooked carrot cubes may be 
 served in a sauce made of milk alone. 
 
 Compare the flavor of the two dishes. 
 
 Boiled Squash 
 
 A young summer squash needs merely to be washed, 
 pared, and cut into small pieces. Winter squash, if the 
 shell is soft enough, must be peeled, and the seeds must 
 be removed. Divide your portion of the vegetable into 
 two parts, cook one part in boiling salted water, the other 
 in unsalted water, until tender. Drain, mash, squeeze 
 out the excess of water, and season with butter, salt, and 
 pepper. 
 
 Compare the flavor of the squash boiled in salted with 
 that boiled in unsalted water. 
 
 Boiled Parsnips 
 
 Take two parsnips, wash one of them, and cook it whole 
 in boiling water until tender, when the peel can be easily 
 removed. Scrape or pare the other, cut it into thin 
 slices, and cook until tender in boiling water. Serve with 
 butter. Compare the flavor of the two parsnips. 
 
 Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 
 
 I 
 
 Efifect of Certain Salts on the Solvent Properties of Water 
 
 1. Take three small beakers — A, B, and C. Half fill A 
 with a solution of bicarbonate of soda, in the proportion 
 
20 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 of one-half teaspoon of soda to one pint of water. Half 
 fill B with a solution of common salt, in the proportion 
 of one tablespoonful of salt to one pint of water. Use C 
 for a control test. To each beaker add a pinch (tV tea- 
 spoon) of ground coffee, sprinkling it lightly on the water. 
 Note results carefully as to taste and color of solution. 
 
 2. Repeat, using in each case a pinch of finely chopped 
 parsley. 
 
 3. Repeat, using scraped onion or turnip. If definite 
 results are not observed in the cold the solutions may be 
 heated. 
 
 II 
 
 The Effect of Acid on Cellulose 
 
 1. Take two portions, A and B, of cotton wool, filter 
 paper, or fiber from some fresh vegetable. Treat A with 
 ordinary water, B with vinegar or acetic acid. Heat if 
 necessary. Note results carefully. 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The function of green vegetables in the diet. 
 
 2. Foods which promote energy directly, by com- 
 bustion in the body, e. g., the organic compounds of 
 carbon. Foods which promote energy indirectly, e. g., 
 those whose salts affect osmotic pressure, or promote 
 alkalinity of the blood, or stimulate by chemical or 
 mechanical means the vegetative functions of the body. 
 
 3. The value of organic vs. inorganic salts in the diet. 
 
 4. Plants as the source of the world's food supply. 
 
 5. The brassica, or brassicacese family. The char- 
 acteristic of this group which is of most importance to 
 the student of foodstuffs. 
 
 6. Varieties of cabbage: the popular distinction 
 between kale and cabbage. Digestibility of raw cab- 
 bage as compared with that of cooked cabbage. 
 
QUESTIONS 21 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Classify the vegetables used in the class work as: 
 (1) Sweet-juiced, or possessing agreeable flavor, which 
 the object in cooking should be to enhance or preserve; 
 and (2) strong-juiced, or having a coarser flavor, which 
 the object of cooking should be to modify or lessen. 
 Make this classification according to your own prefer- 
 ences regarding the flavor of the vegetables. 
 
 2. State three methods of cooking strong-juiced 
 vegetables, and name as many vegetables as you can 
 which may be cooked with most advantage by each of 
 the three methods. 
 
 3. State three methods of cooking sweet-juiced vege- 
 tables, and name as many vegetables as you can which 
 may best be cooked by each of these three methods. 
 
 4. Name six vegetables with which you are familiar, 
 preferably others than those which you have studied 
 in class, and give, in tabular form, their characteristics, 
 the object in cooking them, and how this object is at- 
 tained. Consult instructor before framing your table. 
 
 5. Have you discovered any new principle of food 
 preparation in your work with green vegetables? State 
 this principle. Cite as many instances as you can of the 
 application of this principle in the preparation of food. 
 
 6. Trace the relation of the experiments to the 
 practical work in the cooking of the vegetables you have 
 just dealt with. 
 
 7. Classify all the foods you have dealt with from 
 the first lesson in this course into: (a) nutritious; (6) 
 healthful, and (c) those which are both nutritious and 
 healthful. (See charts, pages 217-34, for the protein con- 
 tent and calorific value of the foods used.) 
 
 8. Define the terms wholesome, cheap, economical as 
 applied to foods. Which food used in class do you con- 
 sider wholesomest? cheapest? most economical? 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Cook a red cabbage in water softened by baking 
 soda. Devise some means of restoring the color. 
 
22 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 2. What two other methods of cooking sweet-juiced 
 vegetables, fitted to retain or develop their flavor, could 
 be made use of? Demonstrate their expediency by em- 
 ploying these methods in cooking two vegetables. 
 
 3. Make a puree of any vegetable in season, using 
 two methods, one to develop the flavor of the vege- 
 table, the other to reduce it. 
 
 4. Devise two methods of making creamed celery, 
 one which shall utilize every particle of the flavor of 
 the celery, another which shall reduce the flavor as 
 much as possible. 
 
 5. Cook cauliflower in two ways, one with the object of 
 developing, the other of reducing its flavor. From your 
 results decide whether you consider cauliflower a sweet- 
 juiced or a strong-juiced vegetable. 
 
 6. Make a parsnip stew in two ways, in the first, re- 
 taining the flavor in the parsnips; in the second, draw- 
 ing out the flavor into the liquid of the stew. Neither 
 salt nor soda is to be used. 
 
 7. Make any dish which shall illustrate the softening 
 of cellulose by the use of an appropriate reagent. 
 
 8. Cook three vegetables not previously used, em- 
 ploying for each some one of the three methods of re- 
 ducing the flavor, or some one of the three methods of 
 retaining it, discovered by your previous work. 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XVI. 
 
 Church. Foods, Part II. 
 
 Conn. Bacteria, Yeast, and Molds in the Home, see Index. 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. XIV and XVI. 
 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. XVI. 
 
 Knight. Food and Its Functions, Lesson 34, and page 60, Combe's 
 
 tables on the digestibility of foods. 
 Parioa. Home Economics, see Index. 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, page 256 //. (Ed. 
 
 1911.) 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. III. 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 
 Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Part VI. 
 Bulletin 245, U. S. ^Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Experiment 
 
 Stations, 
 
23 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE EFFECT OF SUGAR ON CELLULOSE 
 
 THE PRESERVATION OF THE COLOR OF FRUITS AND 
 
 VEGETABLES 
 
 THE JELLYING PRINCIPLE IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 
 
 Apple Compote 
 
 Boil together for 10-15 m. one cup of granulated sugar 
 and one cup of water. If a scum arises this should be 
 skimmed off. Cook in this syrup until tender one or more 
 tart apples, previously cored and pared. A few cloves, 
 or a bit of stick cinnamon may be cooked in the syrup to 
 give flavor. Remove the apples when tender, fill the 
 cavities w4th some bright jelly, and cook down the syrup 
 until somewhat thick, pour over the apples, and serve 
 with whipped cream (see recipe). 
 
 Make a second dish of apples cooked in water alone, 
 adding the sugar to the liquid in the saucepan after the 
 apples have been removed. Soft or distilled water 
 should be used. 
 
 Compare the appearance, consistency, and flavor of 
 the apples cooked in both ways. Save a portion of the 
 first dish for examination later. 
 
 To Whip Heavy Cream. Beat the cream in a large bowl 
 with a Dover beater until it is thick. If the cream is very 
 heavy the bowl should be chilled by standing it in ice 
 water, and the beating should not be too vigorous, lest 
 the cream turn to butter. Sweeten and flavor to taste 
 
 24 
 
EFFECT OF SUGAR ON CELLULOSE 25 
 
 just before the whipping is completed. One-fourth as 
 much of sugar as the volume of cream before whipping 
 is sufficient to sweeten. A half-pint of cream will be 
 enough to garnish thirty or more apples. 
 
 APPLE COMPOTE GARNISHED WITH WHIPPED CREAM 
 
 Ginger Pears 
 
 Ingredients. Pears, sugar, water, ground ginger. 
 
 Proportions. Equal quantities (by weight) of pears, 
 sugar, and water. The pears should be weighed after 
 being cored and pared. A pint of water is estimated to 
 weigh a pound; a pound of granulated sugar measures 
 practically a pint. Allow a tablespoonful of ground 
 ginger to every cup of sugar. 
 
 Method. Boil water, sugar, and ginger together for 
 15-20 m. Add the pears, and cook until they are trans- 
 parent. 
 
 Note. The thin, yellow rind of one lemon, if boiled with the. syrup, 
 improves the flavor of this dish. The juice of the lemon may be added 
 when the whole is cooked. Ginger pears may be used as an accompani- 
 ment to meat, as a substitute for sweet pickle. 
 
 Repeat this dish, adding the sugar after the pears are 
 cooked. 
 
 Compare the results in the finished products. Save a 
 
26 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 portion of the first dish for comparison with the apple 
 compote after the lapse of a few days; 
 
 Cranberry Sauce 
 
 Measure the cranberries. Measure half as much sugar 
 as cranberries, and half as much water as sugar. 
 
 Method I. Boil cranberries, water, and sugar together, 
 and keep closely covered during the cooking. 
 
 Method II. Cook cranberries and water together until 
 the berries are tender. Remove from the fire and add 
 sugar. 
 
 Which sauce is the sweetest? Which is the brightest 
 in color? In which are the berries the tenderer? What 
 parallel results have you found in making the apple com- 
 potes? the ginger pears? 
 
 Green Peas 
 
 Put on in boihng, slightly salted water, and cook, un- 
 covered, until tender. Drain, season with butter, salt, 
 and pepper, and serve hot. 
 
 Cook another portion of peas in a similar fashion, but 
 keep them closely covered during cooking. 
 
 Compare both dishes of peas. What similar results 
 have you found in the cooking of another dish in this 
 lesson? 
 
 Note. Bright cubes of carrot, young beets, or any of the green- 
 leaved vegetables may be substituted for the peas, if these are not 
 available. 
 
 Apple Jelly 
 
 Wash a sound apple, and cut it into quarters or eighths 
 without paring or removing the core. Cook it in 
 barely enough water to cover, until tender. Then mash 
 
TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 27 
 
 it, and strain the juice through a jelly-bag. Boil the 
 juice with an equal quantity of sugar, until when a 
 little is dropped on a plate it '' jells." It may take 
 from 20-30 m. Pour into glasses at once. 
 
 Proceed as before, omitting the use of sugar. 
 
 Compare the two. What is the effect of the sugar? 
 Let stand for a few days and note any further differences. 
 
 EFFECT OF PROLONGED COOKING OF FRUIT JELLY 
 
 Choose a large, sound apple, and proceed as in Apple 
 Jelly. As soon as jelly is formed pour off about half into 
 a glass to ''set," and continue to boil the remainder for 
 from 30-60 m. longer. 
 
 Compare the consistency of the two portions. 
 
 Jelly from Apple Parings vs. Jelly from Apple Flesh 
 
 Make two portions of jelly, one from the parings alone 
 of one or more apples, the other from the flesh of the same 
 apples. 
 
 Compare the two as to color, consistency, taste. 
 
 Note. A more correct basis for comparison will be found if an 
 equal weight of parings and flesh be used for the two jellies. 
 
 Jelly from Turnips or Carrots 
 
 Proceed as for Apple Jelly, omitting the use of sugar. 
 <^ompare the result with the jelly made from fruit. 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The function of fruit in the diet. Two groups: 
 the flavor fruits and the food fruits; examples of each. 
 
 2. The main differences between '^ fruits" and ''vege- 
 tables," as the terms are generally used. 
 
 3. Fruitarian diet. The raw food diet. 
 
 4. The pectin bodies. 
 
28 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 5. Levulose: how formed; its sweetening property iis 
 compared with that of cane sugar. 
 
 6. The manufacture of fruit jeUies; the canning and 
 preserving industries. The Pure Food laws in their 
 bearing on these. 
 
 7. Preserving fruits and vegetables in the home. In 
 what circumstances this is advisable, and under what 
 conditions it may be an unwise expenditure of time and 
 energy. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Enumerate the principles of food preparation which 
 you have so far gained from your work. 
 
 2. What fresh fruit yields the largest number of 
 calories per pound? (See charts, Appendix A.) 
 
 3. Account for the fact that a pound of strawberries 
 contains more water than a pound of milk, yet milk 
 is a liquid and strawberries are not. What other fruits 
 or succulent vegetables contain more water than milk? 
 (See charts.) 
 
 4. Considering the cost in relation to the calorific 
 value of fruits and green vegetables, what justifies their 
 use in the diet? 
 
 5. Why may unripe fruits better be used for jelly- 
 making than over-ripe fruits? 
 
 6. If three pounds of sugar were needed to sweeten 
 a kettle of cranberry sauce made by Method II, how 
 much would be needed to obtain the same degree of 
 sweetness if the sauce were made by Method I? 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Demonstrate by two methods of cooking some vege- 
 table substance the effect of sugar on cellulose. 
 
 2. Makea dish which shall show the effect of cooking 
 sugar with an acid. 
 
 3. Show, by the cooking of some bright-colored veget- 
 able, the effect of keeping the vegetable closely covered 
 during cooking. 
 
 4. Proceed as in 3, using some bright-colored fruit. 
 
EXERCISES 29 
 
 5. Try the effect on the color of fruit of cooking it 
 in: (1) a sugar solution; (2) ordinary water; (3) dis- 
 tilled water. 
 
 6. Make candied yams, or candied sweet potatoes. 
 What principle is illustrated in this dish? 
 
 7. Make a sweet pickle of any suitable fruit. What 
 principle is illustrated here? 
 
 8. Using some other fruit, make a dish similar to Ginger 
 Pears, and devise some method of testing whether the 
 ginger exercised an antiseptic action. 
 
 9. Ask your instructor for a sample of fruit preserved 
 by the addition of some harmful or deleterious substance, 
 and apply the tests for the discovery of this substance. 
 
 10. Using one kind of fruit, apply to several samples 
 of it as many as possible of the methods of home preser- 
 vation, and set the results away for later examination. 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XVII. 
 
 Chittenden. The Nutrition of Man, p. 290-1. (Ed. 1907.) 
 
 Church. Foods, Part II. 
 
 Conn. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home, see Index. 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chap. XIV. 
 
 Knight. Food and its Functions, Lesson 8. 
 
 Lusk. The Science of Nutrition, see Index. 
 
 Parloa. Home Economics, see Index. 
 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, p. 256//'. (Ed. 1911.) 
 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. IV. 
 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 
 
 Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Part VI. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins 203, 293, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, and Bul- 
 letins 107 and 132,,Offi,ce of Experiment Stations, U. S. Dept. of Agri- 
 culture. * , 
 
CHAPTER V 
 EGGS 
 
 Test for Freshness. Place perfectly fresh eggs (under 
 24 hours old if possible), ordinarily fresh eggs (perhaps 
 a week old) , rather stale (2-3 weeks) , and very stale eggs 
 (a month old or more) in a large bowl or a battery jar 
 containing a saturated solution of common salt. 
 
 Remove them to a vessel containing a 10 per cent salt 
 solution. 
 
 Remove them to a vessel containing faucet water. 
 
 Remove them to a vessel containing pure (distilled) 
 water. 
 
 Observe in which of the solutions the eggs sank most 
 readily. 
 
 Weight and Volume of Eggs. Ascertain by weighing 
 
 (a) the number of eggs of average size in one pound; 
 
 (b) the weight of a single egg of average size; (c) the 
 weight of the shell; (d) the volume of one egg; (e) the 
 volume, respectively, of the yolk and the white of one 
 egg. 
 
 STUDY OF EGGS IN COOKING 
 
 Soft and Hard-cooked Eggs 
 
 Select five eggs of equal size. Place No. 1 in one pint 
 of boiling water in a saucepan. Remove from fire, cover, 
 and let stand in a warm place 20 m. 
 
 30 
 
EGGS 31 
 
 Place No. 2 in a quart bowl, pour over it one pint of 
 boiling water, cover, and let stand for 8-10 m. 
 
 Place No. 3 in one pint of boiling water, and let it boil 
 rapidly for 3 m. 
 
 Place No. 4 in one pint of cold water, and let it come 
 to a boil. 
 
 Place No. 5 in one pint of boiling water, and let it boil 
 rapidly for 20 m. 
 
 Cut the eggs open with a knife, and compare the result 
 of the different methods of cooking on the yolk and on 
 the white. 
 
 Note. This work can be divided among five students, and planned 
 so that the eggs may be ready for comparison at the same time, e.g., 
 No. 2 should be started 12 m. after No. 1, No. 3 started 5 m. after 
 No. 2, etc. 
 
 After comparison the eggs may be seasoned and eaten on toast, either 
 ^vith or without the addition of a cream sauce. 
 
 Creamed Egg on Toast 
 
 Make a half-cupful of medium white sauce (see page 9), 
 and chop into it the hard-boiled egg from No. 5. The 
 mixture can then be served on a freshly made piece of 
 toast. 
 
 Compare the solubility of the hard-boiled white and 
 yolk as they were stirred into the sauce. 
 
 Egg Lemonade 
 Ingredients. 
 
 1 egg. 2 tablespoonfuls sugar. 
 
 Juice half a lemon. 1 cup milk or water, either hot 
 
 or cold. 
 
 Method. Beat the egg, stir in the lemon juice (note 
 the effect), then beat with a fork until thin. Add the 
 
32 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 sugar, then the milk or other Hquid, beat all together, 
 and pour over chopped ice in a tall glass, if it is to be 
 used cold. If a warm drink is preferred the milk or water 
 can be heated, and the sugar dissolved in the hot liquid 
 before it is added to the egg. 
 
 Note the effect of the lemon juice on the egg; note also 
 the effect of beating after the lemon juice was added. 
 
 Soft Custard 
 
 Ingredients. The essential ingredients are eggs, milk, 
 water, sugar, salt. Optional: liquid flavoring extract, 
 dry coffee, cinnamon, cloves, caramel, etc. 
 
 Proportions. Four to six whole eggs, or six to eight 
 yolks, to one quart of milk. One-half teaspoonful of 
 salt, and three-quarters of a cup of sugar to the same 
 quantity. One or two tablespoonfuls of water to each 
 egg. 
 
 Method. Beat the eggs with the water, add the sugar, 
 then the milk, mixing well. Cook at a low temperature, 
 or in a double boiler, until the custard is creamy. It must 
 be stirred constantly while cooking. 
 
 Note. 1. If soft custard curdles it can be beaten smooth with a 
 Dover beater, provided this is done immediately. 
 
 2. Dry flavors can be cooked with the custard, or boiled in the 
 milk and then strained off. Liquid extracts may best be added to a 
 soft custard after cooking. 
 
 3. A delicious variety is obtained by pouring the soft custard over 
 sliced oranges, or mixing it with crushed and sifted macaroons. 
 
 Individual custards may be made by each student on 
 the basis of one-half or three-quarters of a cup of milk. 
 Some should be made with hot, and some with cold milk, 
 and the flavor and texture compared. 
 
EGGS 33 
 
 Baked Custard 
 
 The ingredients, proportions, and methods of mixing are 
 the same as for Soft Custard. The baked custard is 
 cooked by means of oven poaching. 
 
 To Poach in Oven. Set the baking dish in a pan of hot 
 water in the oven, the water to reach as high as the level 
 of the mixture in the dish. For a very delicate custard 
 the water in the pan should not be allowed to boil. 
 
 What principle of cooking is here applied? 
 
 To Test when Cooked. A knife-blade thrust into the 
 center of the custard comes out clean. 
 
 Individual custards may be made by each student on 
 the basis of one-half cup of milk. These custards should 
 be made in three ways, namely, with the yolk alone, 
 with the white alone, and with the whole egg. The same 
 volume of each should be used, and the results compared 
 as to flavor, consistency, and time occupied in cooking. 
 
 Meringue for Custards 
 
 Ingredients. White of egg, powdered or fine granu- 
 lated sugar, salt, flavoring. 
 
 Proportions. A pinch (tV teaspoonful) of salt, and two 
 tablespoonfuls of sugar to each egg. Flavoring to taste. 
 
 Method. Sprinkle salt on the white, and beat it stiff. 
 Add the sugar gradually, beating it well in. Add the 
 flavoring, and beat until smooth. 
 
 The meringue can be piled on the top of the soft cus- 
 tards when cold (why?), and the baked custards when 
 cooked. In the latter case the custard may be returned 
 to the oven for a few moments to brown the meringue. 
 
34 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Molded Eggs 
 
 Beat one egg, season with salt and pepper, and mix 
 with twice its volume of milk. Divide the mixture into 
 two parts, A and B. Pour A into a well-greased baking 
 cup, set this into a saucepan of cold water, and cook until 
 egg is firm. Proceed in the same manner with B, only 
 in this case set the baking cup into directly boiling water, 
 and cook until egg is firm. Unmold each on a lettuce 
 leaf, and serve with broiled or baked tomatoes, or tomato 
 sauce (see page 16). 
 
 Compare the flavor of the dish cooked at initial high 
 temperature with that cooked by gradually increasing 
 heat. What other comparisons on this basis can you make 
 from the work of this lesson? 
 
 FOAMY OMELET 
 
 Foamy Omelet 
 
 Ingredients. Eggs, milk or water, seasoning, butter or 
 oil to grease pan. 
 
 Proportions. One tablespoonful of milk or water to each 
 egg; seasoning to taste; one teaspoonful, or less, of butter. 
 
 Method. Beat the yolk until thick, add the milk, and 
 mix well. Season with pepper. Beat the white until stiff; 
 add the salt while beating. Place the pan over the fire 
 
EGGS 35 
 
 to melt the butter, cut or fold the white into the yolk, 
 pour the mixture into the pan, and cook until just " set." 
 The pan may be placed in the oven for a moment to dry 
 the upper surface of the omelet. While still in the pan 
 one-half of the omelet is turned over the other half by 
 slipping a broad knife under the section farthest from the 
 handle and turning it over on the other section. The omelet 
 is then inverted on a hot platter and served at once. 
 
 Note. Variations on the simple omelet may be made by such 
 savory additions as mushrooms, oysters, chopped meat, fish or fowl, 
 grated cheese, herbs, etc. Or such sweet additions as jelly, fresh or 
 preserved fruits, sugar, honey, nuts, etc., may be used. These various 
 additions are usually spread on the surface of the omelet before one- 
 half is turned over the other. Or they may be cut or folded into the 
 beaten white, or mixed with the yolk, or used as a garnish. 
 
 Make a second omelet, using water instead of milk. 
 Compare both as to flavor and consistency. 
 
 
 
 
 X:^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 *^-L_^* ■ 
 
 
 
 
 '•* ' » _- ^ ^^^^0,^^ 
 
 
 
 FOAMY OMELET GARNISHED WITH PEAS 
 
 Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 
 
 I 
 
 Behavior of Yolk and White of Egg toward Reagents 
 
 used in Cooking 
 
 1. Take two test tubes, A and B, half filled with pure 
 water. To A add 4-5 cc. white of egg; to B add 4-5 cc. of 
 
36 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPAllATION 
 
 the yolk. Shake well. Filter into clean test tubes. Heat 
 filtrate. 
 
 2. Place enough white of egg in a test tube to cover 
 the bulb of a thermometer when this is inserted. Hold 
 the test tube in a beaker of cold water over the Bunsen 
 flame, and as the water heats take the thermometer 
 reading at the following points:^ 
 
 (a) At the first cloudy appearance. 
 
 (b) At the formation of a tender jelly. 
 
 (c) At the formation of a solid mass. 
 
 Treat the yolk of egg in a similar manner, testing at 
 (a) for the first coagulated flecks, and at (6) and (c) for 
 the same condition produced in the white. 
 
 3. Treat a little white of egg on a watch glass with a 
 drop of hydrochloric or acetic acid. Treat a little of the 
 
 •yolk in the same manner. 
 
 II 
 Difference in Composition of Yolk and White of Egg 
 
 1. Into two test tubes place, respectively, small por- 
 tions of the white and the yolk of egg. Add to each about 
 twice its volume of ether or chloroform. Shake vigorously. 
 Pour filtrate on absorbent paper. Have you found some 
 substance in one which is not perceptibly present in the 
 other? What is this substance? 
 
 Ill 
 Effect of Manipulation on Yolk and White of Egg 
 
 1. Vigorously shake small quantities of the white and 
 yolk of egg in test tubes to see which will form a froth. 
 A few drops of water may be added. 
 
 1 The temperature of the water will approximately correspond to that of the 
 scalding, simmering, and boiling points which it is assumed have been studied in 
 ftn elementary course. 
 
TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION — QUESTIONS 37 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The so-called '' perfect" foods, v/hy they are thus 
 named, in what respects they are deficient. 
 
 2. Comparison of the function of the yolk and the 
 white of the egg. The relation of this function to their 
 use in the diet. 
 
 3. The proteins in egg, the fats, the salts. 
 
 4. Effect of cooking on the digestibility of eggs. The 
 digestibility of raw vs. lightly-cooked eggs. The three 
 phases of digestibility, i. e., time, ease, and complete- 
 ness. Further consideration of the digestibility of eggs 
 under these headings. 
 
 5. Iron and other minerals in organic vs. inorganic form. 
 
 6. The different combinations of sulphur in the yolk 
 and in the white of the egg. Their bearing on the use 
 of eggs in the diet, particularly in diet for the sick. 
 
 7. The specific gravity of a fresh egg. The causes of 
 the putrefaction of eggs. Results of this putrefaction. 
 
 8. The cold storage of eggs: legislation affecting this. 
 
 9. Various methods of preserving eggs. 
 
 10. The eggs of other birds which are used as food. 
 Structure of the egg. 
 
 11. Poultry farms, breeds for laying, etc. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Why did the stale eggs float? Discuss fully. 
 
 2. How many eggs would be needed to furnish a cup- 
 ful of whites? a cupful of yolks? 
 
 3. In which of the eggs in your first study (Soft and 
 Hard-cooked Eggs) was the yolk the harder? In which 
 the white? Account for this, What new principle in 
 the preparation of food may be inferred? Has this 
 principle held good in the case of vegetable foods? Cite 
 instances. 
 
 4. Name the chief reagents used in cooking^. 
 
 5. Compare the effect of water, heat, acid, and manipu- 
 lation on the yolk and the white of the egg. 
 
 6. What properties of the egg were exemplified alike in 
 
38 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 making omelet and in making custard? In making egg 
 lemonade and soft custard? 
 
 7. Why is a little water used in making custard? 
 Compare the use of water and milk in making omelets 
 and custards. 
 
 8. Can you infer any reason why the white of egg can 
 be beaten to a froth and the yolk can not? Compare the 
 effect of stirring, beating, and cutting or folding in the 
 dishes made in this lesson. 
 
 9. What new principle in the preparation of food have 
 you learned from the recipe for Molded Eggs? 
 
 10. Trace the relation of the Experiments to the 
 practical work. 
 
 11. In Experiment I, why had the filtrate to be heated 
 to determine whether it held any substance in solution? 
 Have you had a case when this could be inferred without 
 heating the filtrate? 
 
 12. At the present market price, what would be the 
 cost of the day's energy if yielded by eggs alone? What 
 would be the cost of the day's protein? 
 
 13. Suggest suitable combinations of eggs with other 
 foods, considering proportion of nutrients, palatability, 
 cost. 
 
 14. Compare the following methods of preserving eggs: 
 oiling or varnishing, packing in salt, immersing in lime 
 water, immersing in ''water glass." 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Procure six new-laid eggs. Coat the shell of one 
 with oil, pack another in salt, immerse a third in lime 
 water, immerse the fourth in "water glass," keep the 
 fifth in the refrigerator. The sixth may be kept at ordi- 
 nary temperature for purposes of comparison. Test 
 each in salt solutions at intervals of one week until you 
 determine the best method of preservation. 
 
 2. Using some food of vegetable origin, make two 
 dishes which shall show the results, respectively, of 
 the employment of an initial high temperature and 
 of gradually increasing heat. 
 
39 
 
40 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 3. Show the results, on some food of animal origin, of 
 cooking at an initial high temperature and by means of 
 gradually increasing heat. 
 
 4. Make a dish to demonstrate that the yolk of egg 
 coagulates at a lower temperature than the white. 
 
 POACHED EGG ABOVE CREAMED ONIONS IN CROUSTADE 
 
 5. Demonstrate in the making of some dish the effect 
 of acid on albumin. 
 
 6. Scoop out a portion of the pulp from a fresh tomato, 
 break a raw egg into the cavity, and bake in a hot oven. 
 What principle of the preparation of food is illustrated 
 here? 
 
 7. Construct a dish in which as many as possible of 
 the characteristic differences between the yolk and the 
 white of the egg shall be illustrated. 
 
 8. Make a dish which shall show the greater solubility 
 of the cooked yolk than of the cooked white of egg. 
 
 9. By making two cakes, or other dishes, show the 
 capacity of the white of egg to hold the air when beaten, 
 and the lack of this property in the yolk. 
 
 10. Show, respectively, the effect of using milk and 
 water in making some dish composed in large part of 
 eggs. 
 
 11. Combine eggs with any one or more foods already 
 studied so as to make a well-balanced ration and an 
 easily digested meal. Pay especial attention to a de- 
 
EXERCISES 41 
 
 licioiis combination of flavors and to appetizing methods 
 of cocking. Economy of time and money should also be 
 taken into consideration. (Consult charts, Appendix A.) 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XX. 
 Church. Foods, Part III. 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. VII and IX. 
 Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lesson III. 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chap. IX. 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, Eggs, see Index. 
 Bulletin 28, Office of Experiment Stations, Department of Agricul- 
 ture; F'armers' Bulletin 103, Department of Agriculture, etc. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 GELATINE 
 STUDY OF GELATINE IN COOKING 
 
 Lemon and Coffee Jellies 
 
 Measure two teaspoonfuls of granulated gelatine. Add 
 two tablespoonfuls of cold water. Mix, and allow to 
 stand five minutes. 
 
 Observe result. Has the gelatine dissolved? 
 
 Add to above one-half cup of boiling water in which 
 two tablespoonfuls of sugar have been dissolved. Stir 
 until the mixture is liquified. Divide this mixture into 
 two parts, A and B. To A add two tablespoonfuls of 
 coffee extract; to B, two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice. 
 Strain both portions into glasses and set away to cool. 
 
 Note which stiffened the first. Compare the consistency 
 of the two. 
 
 Strawberry Whip 
 
 One teaspoonful of gelatine and one tablespoonful of 
 cold water. Let this stand five minutes, then add two 
 tablespoonfuls of boiling water. Mix as before. Add 
 one tablespoonful of strawberry jam or preserve. Set 
 the mixture away to cool, and when thoroughly chilled, 
 and beginning to '' set " a little round the edge, beat it 
 with a Dover beater until frothy and thick. Place half 
 of this whip for a garnish on each of the glasses of jelly 
 
 42 
 
GELATINE 43 
 
 already prepared. Or it may be molded and eaten by 
 itself. 
 
 Note. In the above recipes more gelatine than is really needed 
 to stiifen a mold was used, on account of the time limit in class work. 
 More coffee and lemon juice than necessary was also used, to empha- 
 size the effect of each. 
 
 To make Coffee Extract for Flavoring 
 
 Beat one egg in one cup of cold water. Add one cup of 
 rather finely ground coffee, and mix. Add mixture to 
 four cups of boiling water, allow to boil 20 m., and strain 
 the liquid through cheesecloth, or let it drip through a 
 jelly-bag. 
 
 Pineapple Jelly 
 
 Proceed as for Strawberry Whip, using a tablespoonful 
 of fresh, grated pineapple, or pineapple juice. Use from 
 one-half to one tablespoonful of sugar to sweeten. 
 
 Make a second pineapple jelly, using in this twice, or 
 even three times the quantity of gelatine. 
 
 Make a third jelly, using canned pineapple instead of 
 fresh, or cooking the fresh pineapple before adding it to 
 the dissolved gelatine. 
 
 Compare the three and try to account for the differ- 
 ences. 
 
 Chicken Jelly, or Calves* Foot Jelly 
 
 The bones alone from either a cooked or an uncooked 
 chicken may be used, or lacking these a portion of raw 
 chicken, preferably from a bony part. Crush thoroughly 
 with a mallet, place in a stew pan, and barely cover with 
 cold water. Bi'ing slowly to a boil, keeping stew pan 
 closely covered, and allow to boil during the class period, 
 
44 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 perhaps longer, keeping up the quantity of water. 
 Strain off Hquid, season to taste, and set in refrigerator 
 until next day. A single calf's foot, skinned and cleaned, 
 may be substituted for the chicken. 
 
 Beef Jelly 
 
 Cut into small pieces a portion of tendonous beef — 
 preferably from the lower part of the shin or shank, 
 where there is much gristle. From one-quarter to one- 
 half pound will be sufficient. Proceed as for Chicken 
 Jelly, except that this will probably need longer boiling. 
 
 EFFECT OF PROLONGED COOKING ON GELATINE 
 
 Hydrate and dissolve a quarter-box of gelatine, ac- 
 cording to the directions on the box. Divide into two 
 parts, A and B. With A proceed to add flavoring, etc., 
 according to instructions. Put on B to boil, keeping 
 up the quantity of liquid for at least an hour (if possible 
 longer) before completing the recipe. Allow both por- 
 tions to stand in a cool place until A has solidified. 
 
 Compare the two. Let both stand until next day. 
 Compare again as to flavor and consistency. 
 
 GENERAL RULES FOR MAKING GELATINE JELLIES 
 
 1. Hydrate the dry gelatine in from four to six times 
 its volume of cold water. 
 
 2. Dissolve it over hot water, or by adding an equal 
 volume of boiling water to the hydrated gelatine, or by 
 adding any hot liquid such as coffee or milk. 
 
 3. Sweeten with one-fourth as much sugar as the 
 volume of jelly to be made, e. g., sl cup of sugar for a 
 quart of jelly, etc. Exception, omit sugar wholly or in 
 
46 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 part when canned or preserved fruits are to be used, 
 since these are already sweetened. Also in making a 
 milk jelly, or a coffee jelly, most persons prefer to use 
 only half the quantity of sugar given above. 
 
 4. Flavor with one-fourth to one-half as much liquid, 
 e. g., fruit juice, cider, wine, etc., as the volume of jelly 
 desired. Exception, lemon; of this one-half as much as 
 of the other flavors will be found sufficient. 
 
 Note. The rules given above are scarcely more than suggestions 
 to inexperienced workers. They can be modified or adapted to indi- 
 vidual taste, as experience directs. 
 
 COMPARISON OF COMMERCIAL GELATINE 
 
 To the Student. In this work the class should be organ- 
 ized into as many groups as there are brands of commercial 
 gelatine to be studied. The groups may consist of two or 
 more students. A table should be framed by each group, 
 and filled out under the following heads after its particu- 
 lar brand of gelatine has been studied: (1) Name, of 
 commercial variety. (2) Description — color, light or 
 darker; texture, whether finely or coarsely granulated, 
 shredded, in sheets, etc. (3) Price per box. (4) Volume 
 in box. (5) Yield in jelly. (6) General Characteristics, 
 e. g., easy or difficult of hydration, easily or difficultly 
 soluble, yielding a clear or a dull jelly, possessing or not 
 possessing an acid reaction, having or not having a strong 
 odor or flavor, and being easily affected by acid. 
 
 In order to test the gelatine four kinds of jelly 
 should be made from each box, namely, milk, lemon, 
 orange, and coffee. At the close of the lesson the work 
 of all the groups should be compared, and a complete 
 table framed. (See table on page 47.) 
 
GELATINE 
 
 47 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 GO 
 
 2 
 u 
 
 H 
 O 
 
 •< 
 K 
 < 
 
 m 
 o 
 >j 
 •< 
 » 
 
 ;? 
 w 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '.'.'.'. \ : 
 
 
 
 
 ^ (N CO -^ lO O 
 
 ^ (M 00 ■* lO o 
 
 r-( (M CO r}< lO CO 
 
 --H (M CO rt< lO O 
 
 H '-5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 0- 
 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 DS 
 
 o 
 go 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
48 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 
 
 I 
 Comparison of Gelatine and Albumin 
 
 1. Compare the appearance of commercial gelatine 
 with that of dried egg albumin. Of thoroughly hydrated 
 gelatine with that of fresh white of egg. 
 
 2. Treat about 4 grams of hydrated gelatine and of 
 fresh white of egg with 15-20 cc. cold water in test tubes, 
 and allow to stand 10-15 m. Note solubility in each 
 case. 
 
 3. Apply heat (water bath) to test tubes from 2. Note 
 result. 
 
 4. Divide the gelatine from 3 into two equal parts, 
 A and B. To A add enough cold water to bring up the 
 total volume of water used to 56 cc. To B add a similar 
 volume of a mixture of water and vinegar in equal parts. 
 Stand both A and B in a cool place until no further change 
 takes place. 
 
 5. Recall the effect of acid on albumin (see page 36). 
 
 6. Recall the effect of beating on both albumin (page 
 36) and gelatine (page 42). 
 
 7. Arrange in tabular form the effects of water, heat, 
 acid, and manipulation on albumin and gelatine re- 
 spectively. Consult instructor before framing your 
 table. 
 
 II 
 
 Chemical Tests for Protein 
 
 1. Make a solution of egg albumin, by vigorously 
 shaking a few cc. of white of egg in 15-20 times its volume 
 of water. Divide into four parts — A, B, C, and D. 
 
GELATINE 49 
 
 To A add concentrated nitric acid. Note precipitate, 
 and its color. Boil; note change in color. After cooling 
 add ammonia water; note further color change. 
 
 Note. This is known as the xanthoproteic test for albumin and 
 other "simple proteins," and its characteristic color reactions indicate 
 the presence of these bodies. 
 
 2. To B add a few drops of Millons reagent. Note 
 precipitate, and its color change when boiled. 
 
 Note. This is the most delicate test for protein, and will indicate 
 the presence of even a trace of this substance by the characteristic 
 color reaction, though no precipitate will be formed when only a mi- 
 nute quantity of protein is present. 
 
 3. To C add a saturated solution of magnesium sul- 
 phate. 
 
 4. To D add tannic acid or a solution of tannin. 
 Repeat this series of tests, applying them to solutions 
 
 of gelatine of equal strength. Carefully compare the 
 results with the results obtained in the case of albumin. 
 What inference may be drawn from this series of experi- 
 ments as a whole? 
 
 Ill 
 Action of Pineapple Juice on Gelatine and Albumin 
 
 1. Place in two test tubes 8 cc. each of gelatine and 
 albumin prepared as in Experiment I, 2, page 48. Add 
 to each test tube an equal volume of fresh pineapple juice, 
 mix well, and let stand 30 m. Divide the contents of 
 each test tube into four equal parts. Apply to each of 
 these four portions of gelatine and albumin, respectively, 
 the following reagents: 
 
 (a) The xanthoproteic test. 
 
 (6) A solution of magnesium sulphate (see II, 3). 
 
 (c) Acetic acid. 
 
 id) Heat. 
 
50 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Compare the results in the present instance with the 
 characteristic reactions of gelatine and albumin to the 
 same reagents. Should you say that the pineapple juice 
 brought about a chemical change? Is the resulting prod- 
 uct the same in the case of the two food substances? 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Sources of commercial gelatine; the various ani- 
 mal tissues which yield gelatine; gelatine from fish. 
 
 2. Manufacture of commercial gelatine; cause of the 
 acidity of certain brands. 
 
 3. Digestibility of gelatine, its ''acid-fixing" proper- 
 ties, its absorbability. 
 
 4. The function of gelatine in the body. Is it a ''pro- 
 tein sparer"? Is it a source of energy? Is it a tissue 
 builder? 
 
 5. "Fixed" or "tissue" (organized) albumin of body, 
 compared with the "circulating" albumin. 
 
 G. Bromelin and other ferments. 
 
 7. Peptones and other products of digestion. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Under what circumstances may an extra quantity 
 of gelatine be used for a mold? When may less than the 
 average amount be used? 
 
 2. Account for the difference in the consistency of 
 the coffee jelly as compared with the other jellies made 
 on the same basis. 
 
 3. Name four possible causes for the persistent lique- 
 faction of a gelatine jelly. How may each be treated? 
 
 4. What may be done to avoid the "curdling" of a 
 milk jelly? 
 
 5. Estimate from your work with gelatine what is the 
 smallest percentage of this substance that can be used 
 to stiffen a mold. 
 
 6. What percentage of albumin is the minimum needed 
 to stiffen a mold? (Review work with eggs.) 
 
QUESTIONS 
 
 51 
 
 7. Compare gelatine and albumin as to source, com- 
 position, behavior in cooking, and function in the body. 
 
 8. Similarly compare gelatine and pectin. 
 
 9. With what foods may gelatine best be combined? 
 When is a gelatine dessert most appropriate for dinner? 
 
 10. Suggest some dietetic uses of fresh pineapple. 
 
 11. Which of the brands of commercial gelatine studied 
 would you choose for use in the home? Which for class 
 work? Why? 
 
 12. What are the characteristics of a well-made dish 
 of gelatine jelly? 
 
 TOMATO JELLY IN RING MOLD. GARNISHED WITH CELERY AND 
 
 LETTUCE 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make tomato jelly in a ring; fill the center with 
 blanched and curled celery. Improvise a ring mold. 
 
 2. Mold fruits, nuts, etc., in a given design in a clear 
 gelatine jelly. 
 
 3. Make a ribbon jelly, using milk for one layer, yolk 
 of egg, coffee, or strawberry preserve for the others. 
 The milk and yolk of egg should be flavored with fruit 
 juice. 
 
 4. Make a milk jelly flavored with lemon juice. 
 
 5. Bavarian cream is composed of gelatine jelly, 
 flavored, sweetened, and beaten to a froth, mixed with 
 whipped cream. Make a peach, chocolate, or lemon 
 Bavarian cream. 
 
 6. Combine eggs and gelatine in some dish which shall 
 
52 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 illustrate any one or more opposite properties of albumin 
 and gelatine. 
 
 7. Make a dish which shall illustrate the hardening of 
 albumin by heat and the hardening of gelatine by cold. 
 The gelatine and albumin must be used in the same dish. 
 
 8. Using both eggs and gelatine in the same dish, il- 
 lustrate the effect on both albumin and gelatine of beat- 
 ing or whipping. 
 
 9. Combine eggs and gelatine in the same dish in such 
 a way that some characteristic property of the yolk will 
 be counteracted by the use of gelatine. 
 
 10. Make some dish which shall show the solubiUty 
 of albumin, the hardening of gelatine by cold, and its 
 capacity of being beaten to a froth. 
 
 11. Substitute gelatine for albumin in the making of 
 some dish where a similarity between the two renders 
 such substitution possible. 
 
 12. Use eggs and gelatine in one dish in such a way as 
 to show the effect of water, heat, and acid on both food 
 substances. 
 
 13. Devise in the making of some dish a method of 
 demonstrating the effect of fresh pineapple juice on the 
 albumin of egg. 
 
 14. Combine with gelatine some other food substance, 
 and a single condimental ingredient, so that the right pro- 
 portion of protein and energy for one-fourth day's ration 
 shall be furnished by the cqmbination. 
 
 References 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. V and XVI. 
 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chaps. Ill and IX, 
 
 Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lesson HI. 
 
 Lusk. The Science of Nutrition, Chap. II. 
 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chap. XI. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 FISH 
 
 To the Student. Since fish contains both albumin and 
 gelatine, and since — as you have recently learned ■^- 
 these two food substances make an entirely different re- 
 sponse to the chief reagents used in cooking, the prepara- 
 tion of fish for the table offers an interesting problem. 
 
 BLACK BASS 
 
 Two classes of fish are to be studied in this lesson. 
 Catfish (sometimes called '' bullhead ")> eels, or salmon, 
 may be used as an example of one class; codfish, had- 
 dock, or flounder as an example of the other class. Five 
 methods of cooking each kind of fish should be employed, 
 and their results compared. The Variations may be 
 worked on by a special group of students, or assigned for 
 another lesson, or required for home work. Consult in- 
 structor as to the omission or assignment of this work, 
 
 53 
 
54 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 STUDY OF FISH IN COOKING 
 To Boil Fish 
 
 Lower the fish gently into sufficient boiUng water to 
 cover, and allow the water merely to bubble gently 
 until fish is cooked. 
 
 Variation. Acidulate the water with vinegar, a table- 
 spoonful to a pint of water, or season it further by the 
 addition of carrot, onion, bay leaf, thyme, etc. 
 
 Note. The time allowance for boiling fish is usually from six to ten 
 or more minutes for each pound. (See time table, Appendix B.) But 
 since the time depends greatly on the shape and size of the fish — or 
 the cut — the following test will be found much more reliable: Insert 
 a fork between the bone and the flesh of the fish at the thickest part, 
 and if the flesh can be lifted or separated readily from the bone the 
 fish is cooked. To prolong the cooking further mil spoil both texture 
 and flavor. 
 
 See note following To Steam Fish. 
 
 To Steam Fish 
 
 Place the fish on a plate in a steamer, and allow it to 
 cook for 8-10 m. to a pound, or until done. For the 
 small quantity often used in class work, a steamer may 
 be improvised by placing the piece of fish in a covered 
 strainer suspended over a saucepan of boiling water. 
 
 Variation. Season the fish with salt and pepper before 
 placing it in the steamer, or cover it with very thin strips 
 of salt pork. 
 
 Note. Fish for either boiling or steaming should be placed on a 
 plate, or in a wire basket, and this tied in a piece of netting or cheese- 
 cloth, so that the fish can be removed without being broken. 
 
 To Bake Fish 
 
 Dredge the fish with flour which has been seasoned 
 with salt and pepper. Place it, for convenience in lifting 
 
FISH 56 
 
 out, on strips of netting or cheeseclotli on a greased rack 
 in a baking pan. Bake from 10 to 12 m. to a pound, or 
 until cooked, basting frequently with melted butter to 
 which has been added a very little water. Or strips of 
 fat salt pork may be placed on the fish, which in melting 
 will furnish liquid for basting. 
 
 Variation. Add to the basting liquid for a fish of 
 ordinary size the juice of one lemon and one teaspoonful 
 of onion juice. 
 
 To Broil Fish 
 
 Wipe the fish dry, and brush it lightly with oil or 
 melted butter. Place it in a double wire broiler, and 
 broil over a clear fire, turning every other minute until 
 both sides are a light, even brown. Remove it carefully 
 from the broiler, using a sharp knife, if necessary, to free 
 it from adhesions. 
 
 Variation. Add to the oil or butter with which the 
 fish is greased a little lemon juice, vinegar, or onion juice. 
 
 Note. Only small fish, or larger when these are cut into fillets, 
 cutlets, or steaks, are suitable for broiling in class work. 
 
 To Fry Fish 
 
 Wipe the fish dry, and season with salt and pepper. 
 Roll in fine, sifted crumbs (see page 10), then dip in a 
 mixture of beaten egg and water, two tablespoonfuls of 
 water to one egg, roll again lightly in the crumbs, and fry 
 from three to six minutes in deep fat. (See page 121.) 
 
 Variation. Place the fish for half an hour or more be- 
 fore frying it in a marinade composed of three parts of 
 vinegar to one part of oil. (See page 117.) ' 
 
 Note. Only small ^sh, or larger when cut into fillets, or steaks, are 
 suitable for frying. 
 
56 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 SAUCES FOR FISH 
 HoUandaise Sauce 
 
 Ingredients and Proportions. Equal parts of un- 
 beaten egg, butter, and boiling water. One-eighth as 
 much vinegar or lemon juice as butter. Salt to taste, and 
 cayenne or paprika. 
 
 Method. Cream the butter, add the egg and the other 
 ingredients, and cook over hot water, beating all the 
 time with a Dover beater until the sauce is thick. 
 
 Drawn Butter Sauce 
 
 Ingredients and Proportions. To each cupful of thin 
 cream add one tablespoonful of butter and one-half table- 
 spoonful of flour rubbed together. Seasoning in the 
 proportion for Medium White Sauce. (See page 9.) 
 
 Method. The whole may be cooked together until the 
 mixture comes to a boil, or the method used in making 
 Medium White Sauce may be employed. 
 
 Piquante Sauce 
 
 Proceed as for Medium White Sauce, only instead of 
 milk use a brown stock made ])y dissolving one or two 
 bouillon cubes in as many cups of water. Add to sauce 
 chopped onions, capers, pickles, in the proportions of one 
 tablespoonful of each to a cup of the sauce. Add further 
 about two tablespoonfuls of vinegar to one cup of sauce, 
 and boil until the pickles are hot through. 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Tests for the freshness of fish, danger from the use 
 of stale fish, conditions under which ptomaines may be 
 developed in fish. 
 
QUESTIONS 57 
 
 2. Methods of preserving fish:' cold storage, canning, 
 salting, drying, etc. Commercial industries based on 
 these methods. 
 
 3. Fish oils, fish roe, caviare, anchovy paste, and 
 other preparations. 
 
 4. Fish considered as a "brain food." The grounds 
 from which this fallacy arose. Nutritive value and 
 digestibility of fish. 
 
 5. Classification of various fish on the basis of their 
 composition. (See charts, Appendix A.) 
 
 6. Pure Food laws as they relate to fish. 
 
 7. The economics of fish culture, general legislation 
 regarding fish and fisheries, international relations on 
 this subject, etc. 
 
 8. The great fisheries of the United States, the great 
 fisheries of the world, the work of the Fish Commission 
 of the United States. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Compare fish with eggs and gelatine as regards its 
 behavior during cooking. 
 
 2. What was the nature of the scum that was formed 
 during the boiling of fish? Was this formed during any 
 of the other processes of cooking fish? 
 
 3. Compare the effect of the five methods of cooking 
 on the types of fish used. Which class of fish do you 
 consider the best adapted to frying, to baking, etc.? 
 Why? 
 
 4. Which sauce would you choose to accompany cod- 
 fish, haddock, or any fish of this class? Which to ac- 
 company salmon, mackerel, or any richer fish? Name 
 some other sauces appropriate to be served with fish. 
 
 5. What classes of foods should be combined with fish 
 in order to make a well-balanced meal? 
 
 6. Discuss the place of fish in the diet, as regards econ- 
 omy, digestibility, and ease of preparation. 
 
 7. Give three reasons why fish culture is important 
 from the standpoint of economics. 
 
58 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 8. What fish is said to yield the ''largest amount of 
 nutriment for a given sum of any animal food"? 
 
 9. Why is the water content of dried codfish higher 
 than that of fresh? (See charts, Appendix A.) 
 
 10. Considering the amount of water and of refuse in 
 dried and in fresh codfish, which is the more economical 
 purchase? (See charts, Appendix A.) 
 
 11. When perch is ten cents a pound and halibut is 
 twenty cents which is the most economical purchase? 
 State your reasons fully. 
 
 12. Taking all factors into consideration, which is the 
 most expensive fish to purchase for food? Justify your 
 answer. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make a fish chowder using milk, a fish chowder using 
 tomato. Why is this dish called chowder? 
 
 2. Utilize left-over fish in making a fish souffle, a kedje- 
 ree, a chartreuse, or a fish casserole. What is the origin 
 of these different terms? 
 
 3. Ask your instructor for an illustration of fish baked 
 in an upright position, and using a fish weighing from 
 four to six pounds, cook this in the same manner, so 
 that your dish may seem an exact reproduction of the 
 illustration. Or copy the illustration on page 59. 
 
 4. Make a turban of flounder, proceeding as in 3 with 
 regard to the copying of an illustration. 
 
 5. Make a planked fish, proceeding as in 3 or 4. 
 
 6. Plan and carry out a simple dinner, sufficient for 
 one person, consisting of fish, a sauce, two vegetables, 
 bread and butter, and a simple dessert. The cost should 
 not exceed twenty or twenty-five cents, and the ration 
 should be balanced. 
 
 7. Plan and carry out a luncheon for four persons 
 having codfish balls for the main dish. The total cost 
 should not exceed fifty cents, and the meal should be 
 balanced. 
 
 8. Make a dish of finnan haddie, which, with an ap- 
 propriate sauce and one vegetable, shall furnish a suffi- 
 
59 
 
60 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 cieiit and w(41-l)Hlaii('(Ml nuvil. The cost should not 
 exceed ten cents. 
 
 Notes. When fisli are to be cooked whole, the head and tail are 
 usually left on, but the fins should be removed. 
 
 Scales can be scraped from fish by holding the knife with the blade 
 nearly perpendicular to the skin of the fish, but slanting slightly out- 
 ward, and scraping from head to tail. 
 
 Fresh-water fish are often improved by soaking them in salted water 
 for 30 m. before cooking. 
 
 A fish platter may be effectively garnished with cress or parsley, 
 olives or radishes, slices of cucumber or slices of lemon. 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XTX. 
 
 Church. Foods, Part III. 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chajx V. 
 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. VHI. 
 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, Fish. 
 
 Wiley. Foods and Their Adulteration, Part HI. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletin 85, Fish as Food, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 

 I'ICKEREL 
 
 61 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 OYSTERS 
 
 To the Student. Before beginning to cook the oysters 
 it is well to identify roughly four distinct parts whose 
 peculiarities have an important bearing on the correct 
 preparation of this shellfish. These are: (1) the liver, 
 which is situated in the soft body or fleshy part of the 
 oyster. (2) The muscle, which holds the oyster to the 
 shell. (3) The " mantle." (4) The gills. These last, 
 situated inside of the '^ mantle," furnish a test when the 
 oyster is cooked. When they separate from one another 
 — somewhat like the partly opened leaves of a book — 
 and become frilled or puckered a little at the edges, the 
 oyster is cooked, and if the application of heat is pro- 
 longed much beyond this stage there is injury to flavor 
 and consistency. 
 
 From six to ten small oysters should be used in this 
 lesson by each student. One is to be immersed in vinegar 
 and allowed to stand until the close of the lesson. One 
 is to be saved uncooked for comparison. Two or more 
 of the various cooking processes may be applied to the 
 rest of the oysters — arranging the work so that all of 
 the recipes may be tried by as many groups of students 
 as possible — and the effect of the different methods 
 should be compared as to flavor and consistency. 
 
 62 
 
OYSTERS 63 
 
 STUDY OF OYSTERS IN COOKING 
 Oyster Stew 
 
 1 pint oysters. 2 tablespoonfuls butter. 
 
 1 pint milk. Seasoning to taste. 
 
 Strain the oysters, and heat the oyster Uquor until it 
 boils. Add the milk, previously heated. Lastly add the 
 oysters, the seasoning, and the butter, and cook until 
 the gills separate and " frill." 
 
 Repeat this process, using cold milk, and heating the 
 mixture until the oysters are cooked. Compare the flavor 
 of the two dishes. What parallel result have you found 
 in any of your previous exercises in cooking? 
 
 Repeat the process, first heating the milk, adding to 
 it the cold oyster liquor, etc., and heating the mixture 
 until the oysters are cooked. Compare with the first 
 method used as to the consistency of the two dishes. 
 
 Note. The amount given above will serve four persons. Proportion- 
 ate quantities may be used for individual experiments. 
 
 Oyster Soup 
 
 Use the same ingredients as for stew, with the addition 
 of two tablespoonfuls of flour. Melt the butter, blend 
 into it the flour and seasoning, add the oyster liquor, and 
 stir until the mixture boils. Add the milk and the oysters, 
 and cook until the oysters are done. 
 
 A little onion juice or scraped onion, or a blade or two 
 of mace, may be cooked with the soup if the flavor is 
 desired. 
 
 Repeat the process, adding the milk to the melted 
 butter and flour, cooking as before, and adding the 
 oyster liquor after the first mixture has boiled. Compare 
 
64 
 
OYSTERS 65 
 
 the results in this case with those obtained in the similar 
 process of making oyster stew. 
 
 Note. The above amount will serve four persons. 
 
 Creamed Oysters 
 
 Use the same ingredients as for oyster soup, but double 
 the amount of flour. Proceed as in the last recipe, using 
 the process which gave the most satisfactory results. 
 Celery salt may be added for an extra flavoring. The 
 creamed oysters may be served on toast, or in croustades. 
 
 Note. The amount given will be sufficient for eight slices of toast. 
 
 Curry of Oysters 
 
 Add to the amount of flour used in making the creamed 
 oysters one-half teaspoonful of curry powder, or more, 
 according to taste. Or the curry powder may be stirred 
 in the last thing. 
 
 Oysters with Cheese 
 
 Add a couple of tablespoonfuls of grated cheese to the 
 creamed oysters. Set in the oven in a baking dish until 
 brown on top. 
 
 Oysters a la Poulette 
 
 Substitute for the grated cheese in the last recipe two 
 whole eggs, or the yolks of four, well beaten, and stir 
 these into the mixture just before it is removed from the 
 fire. Additional seasoning should be used to flavor the 
 efegs. 
 
 Note. Creamed oysters and their derivatives may be served for va- 
 riety in small baking cups, lightly covered wath buttered crumbs, 
 browned in the oven, and sprinkled with chopped parsley. 
 
66 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Supreme of Oysters 
 
 Substitute chicken or veal stock for the milk in creamed 
 oysters, and add just before serving a couple of table- 
 spoonfuls of chopped mushrooms, a chopped, hard-boiled 
 egg, and a tablespoonful or two of lemon juice. In addi- 
 tion to these a tablespoonful of scraped onion, or chopped 
 carrot, or a mixture of the two, will add to the novelty 
 and deliciousness of the flavor. Serve in a casserole, or 
 in individual ramekins, garnished with buttered crumbs 
 and parsley. 
 
 Further Experiments with Oysters 
 
 1. Take two large, plump, " floated " oysters. Cook 
 one in distilled water, the other in a strong salt solution, 
 until the gills separate and become frilled. 
 
 2. Take two oysters and use any preferred medium 
 for cooking. Cook one until properly done, cook the 
 other for five minutes longer. Compare the two. 
 
 3. Take four freshly opened oysters. Bruise the soft 
 part of one, and set it away in a moderately warm place 
 for from one-half to one hour. Cook the second until 
 done, then bruise and set away as before. Place the 
 third, without bruising, in a moderately warm place with 
 the other two. Do not allow the oysters to touch one 
 another. Set the third in the refrigerator. Compare the 
 flavor, etc., of the four. 
 
 Note. If you should not be able to make a satisfactory Inference 
 from the first experiment, or from your cooking of oysters, the follow- 
 ing experiment may be performed. 
 
 Half fill a gold-beater's bag with a strong salt solution, 
 and suspend it in a vessel of pure water for one or two 
 
67 
 
 02 
 
 a: 
 
 >^ 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 CZi 
 
68 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 hours. Measure the volume of water in the bag before 
 and after suspension. The water in the vessel, and the 
 solution in the bag, should be tested for chlorides be- 
 fore and after the experiment. The membrane lining 
 an egg-shell may be used instead of the gold-beater's 
 bag. 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The cultivation of oysters, and the location of the 
 largest oyster beds in the country. 
 
 2. The best age for the marketing of oysters; how the 
 age of this fish can be told from an examination of the 
 shell. 
 
 3. Varieties of oysters in this and other countries. 
 
 4. The ''soaking" or ''floating" of oysters. The 
 effect of this process on the healthfulness, the nutritive 
 value, the keeping qualities, etc., of the oyster. 
 
 5. Approved methods for the shipment of oysters. 
 
 6. Harmful preservatives and other adulterations. 
 
 7. Other shellfish and crustacese used as food. 
 
 8. The cost of oysters as compared with their nutritive 
 value. 
 
 9. The 100-calorie portion. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Compare the effect of water, heat, and acid on eggs, 
 fish, and oysters. 
 
 2. Compare raw and cooked oysters as to flavor, 
 digestibility, and wholesomeness. 
 
 3. What form of carbohydrate should you expect to 
 find in oysters? In what part of the oyster is it 
 found? 
 
 4. What is the economic value of floated oysters 
 compared with that of unfloated? What evidence 
 have you that the oysters used today were either floated 
 or unfloated? 
 
 5. When may salt be used in a recipe for cooking 
 oysters? When may it be omitted? 
 
QUESTIONS 69 
 
 6. Account for the expression, ''An oyster digests 
 itself." What is the least digestible part of the oyster? 
 
 7. Compare as to nutritive value ten cents' worth 
 of the following foods: oysters, milk, round steak, eggs. 
 (See charts.) 
 
 8. Arrange in tabular form the cost, protein content, 
 and calorific value of a pint of milk and a pint of oysters. 
 (See charts.) Why do we pay so much more for one 
 food than for the other? What justification is there for 
 the excess in price? What relation can you trace between 
 the comparative cost of the two foods and the recipes 
 chosen for today's lesson? 
 
 9. What new principles in the preparation of food have 
 you gained from the work with oysters? 
 
 10. Trace the relation between the experiments and 
 the cooking of the various dishes made. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make panned oysters with lemon butter. 
 
 2. Saute bacon and oysters together. 
 
 3. Make "Huitres au Lit," or "Pigs in Blankets." 
 
 4. Using the 100-calorie portion, combine oysters with 
 one or more foods already studied so as to furnish a 
 1000-calorie meal for from seven to ten cents. 
 
 5. Proceed as in 4, balancing the meal according to 
 the standard nutrient ratio. 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XIX. 
 
 Church. Foods, Part III. 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chap. V. 
 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. XVII. 
 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. VIII. 
 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, Oysters. 
 
 Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Part III. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletin 85, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 MEATS 
 
 To the Student. The cooking of meat is a difficult 
 subject to present in class, first, because in order to gain 
 efficiency each student should use quite large joints; 
 second, because in order to gain experience much 
 practice is necessary. In these lessons, therefore, as 
 much of this practical work as possible will be given, 
 and this should be supplemented by home work in the 
 cooking of different cuts and the use of different 
 methods. Meat is such a costly food that the wasteful- 
 ness involved in improper methods of cooking should 
 not be tolerated. 
 
 You will perhaps question why no instructions are 
 given regarding the seasoning of the steaks. This was 
 omitted for two reasons: first, because the work assigned 
 in class is largely experimental, usually designed to illus- 
 trate some principle, such as how best to cook meat 
 evenly, to render tough meat tender, to develop flavor, 
 etc. In testing the meat for the last you will be able to 
 arrive at a correct conclusion much more easily if the 
 meat is not seasoned before it is tasted. The second 
 reason is that seasoning is so largely a matter of individual 
 taste that scope for this individuality may well be afforded 
 you now. Hence specified amounts of seasoning will 
 seldom be given in the formal recipes printed in this text 
 for the future. 
 
 70 
 
MEATS 71 
 
 Experiments in the Broiling of Steak 
 Tender Steak 
 
 Method I. Trim off the exposed edges of the steak, 
 and remove the superfluous fat. Heat a meat broiler, 
 and grease it Hghtly with a piece of fat on a fork. Place 
 the steak on the broiler with the skin edge toward the 
 handle. (Why?) Hold it over clear, red coals, or under 
 gas, and turn the broiler every ten seconds. The meat 
 should be held so close to the flame that it will be immedi- 
 ately seared and quickly browned on both sides. When 
 half the time for cooking has passed, reduce the tempera- 
 ture (why?) by holding the broiler farther from the heat, 
 and turn it not quite so frequently. Or the steak, if 
 thoroughly browned, may be placed on a hot platter in 
 the warming oven until the cooking is complete. 
 
 Time for Broiling Steak. See Time Table for Cooking, 
 Appendix B. 
 
 Note. The thicker the steak the shorter proportionately should 
 be the time allowed at the initial high temperature. 
 
 A properly cooked steak should, when cut, be of a uniform tint 
 throughout its entire thickness. 
 
 The cooking of even a well-done steak should never be prolonged 
 so far that the steak loses its "puffiness." 
 
 Method 2. Pan-broiling. Heat a clean, smooth pan 
 " blue " hot, or so hot that the meat will not stick to it. 
 Put on the steak, and keep turning it constantly during 
 the first part of the time allowed for cooking. During the 
 latter part reduce the temperature by extinguishing the 
 gas, putting on the stove lid, or drawing the pan to the 
 side of the range and covering it with a plate, so that 
 the meat may be cooked by the retained heat. 
 
 Note. In pan-broiling, about one-third more time should be allowed 
 than in broiling over the open fire. 
 
72 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Method 3. Broil or pan-broil a steak, omitting the 
 frequent turning, that is, cooking it for half the time on 
 one side and for half on the other. 
 
 Method 4. Broil or pan-broil a steak without reducing 
 the temperature during the latter part of the cooking. 
 
 Carefully compare the four steaks as to juiciness, degree 
 of cooking (whether more or less well done), whether or 
 not evenly cooked throughout, etc. 
 
 Tough Steak 
 
 Method I. Broil or pan-broil as in Tender Steak. 
 
 Method 2. First freeze the meat until quite stiff. 
 This can be done by placing the meat in a shallow, closely 
 covered kettle, applying a layer of butter or lard round 
 the joining of the lid (to make it water-tight), and packing 
 the kettle in a mixture of equal parts of ice and salt 
 (coarse) for an hour. On removing the meat allow it to 
 thaw out; then broil or pan-broil as before. 
 
 Method 3. Marinate a tough steak by immersing it 
 in a mixture of one part of oil to three parts of vinegar 
 (see page 117). The steak should remain in the marinade 
 for several hours, or overnight. Broil or pan-broil as 
 before. 
 
 Method 4. Pound a tough steak with a wooden pestle 
 or mallet. Broil as before. 
 
 Compare, fully and carefully, the four steaks. 
 
 Hamburg Steak 
 
 Put a piece of tough steak through the food chopper, 
 add seasoning, and if desired, chopped onion or onion 
 juice. Form into cakes an inch or an inch and a half 
 thick, and pan-broil as in Method 2, for tender steak. 
 
MEATS 73 
 
 Salisbury Steak 
 
 Scrape the pulp from raw meat with the edge of a knife, 
 discarding the fiber. Season as for Hamburg Steak, form 
 into cakes, and pan-broil in the same manner. 
 
 Which was the better done after cooking for the same 
 length of time, the Hamburg steak or the Salisbury? 
 Did the Hamburg steak take a longer or a shorter time 
 to cook than an ordinary steak of the same thickness? 
 
 ACCOMPANIMENTS TO STEAK 
 
 Maitre d'Hotel Butter. Cream the butter, and add to 
 it one-fourth its volume of lemon juice and the same ' 
 amount of finely chopped parsley. Form into balls, and 
 place on the hot steak just before serving. 
 
 To Chop Parsley. Twist a sprig of parsley into a tight 
 little ball, hold this firmly on the table between the 
 fingers of the left hand, and shave it with a sharp knife, 
 as finely as possible. 
 
 Horseradish Sauce. Mix equal parts of grated horse- 
 radish and fine bread crumbs. Season the mixture 
 slightly with salt and pepper, moisten it with cream, and 
 heat it through on a hot pan. If heated on the pan used 
 for cooking the steak the flavor will be improved, though 
 the sauce will not look so white as if heated in an agate 
 or enameled saucepan. 
 
 Broiled Bananas. Peel the bananas, and cut them into 
 quarters, cutting first across, then lengthwise. Broil in 
 an oyster broiler, or saute in butter until soft. 
 
 A spoonful of the horseradish sauce on a SaUsbury 
 steak, with a broiled banana on the top, makes a deUcious 
 combination. 
 
74 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Rolled Skirt Steak 
 
 Trim a skirt steak, spread it with a well-seasoned 
 stuffing, roll up like a jelly-roll, and skewer. Lay one or 
 two thin slices of fat pork on the top, place on the rack 
 of a baking pan, and bake, without the addition of any 
 water for basting, for 45 m. 
 
 Prepare a second skirt steak similarly to the first, 
 steam it for 25 m., then bake for 20 m., or until the 
 whole time of cooking shall have occupied 45 m. 
 
 Compare the two steaks. Is there any difference in the 
 flavor? in the consistency? Which is the more evenly 
 cooked throughout? 
 
 Stuffing for Skirt Steak 
 Ingredients. 
 
 2 cups bread crumbs. M to 1 tablespoonful chopped onion 
 
 3>^ to J^ cup butter. or onion juice. 
 
 1 egg, well beaten. Seasoning of salt, pepper, chopped 
 
 parsley, thyme, etc. 
 
 Method. Moisten the bread crumbs with the beaten 
 egg and the melted butter — if the bread is very dry it 
 may need to be squeezed out of hot water before adding 
 the butter; in this case the butter need not be melted. 
 The seasoning may be added last, and the whole thing 
 well mixed. 
 
 This recipe can be used for a fish stuffing by adding 
 chopped pickles or capers, or a mixture of the two. It can 
 be used for fowl with or without the addition of oysters 
 — one cupful or more. 
 
MEATS 75 
 
 Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 
 
 1. Examine a long section, and if possible a cross- 
 section of meat under the microscope, noting the struc- 
 ture of voluntary muscle. 
 
 2. Test meat with litmus paper for acidity or alkalin- 
 ity. Use dry litmus paper, neutral, and highly glazed. 
 Apply it to the meat for a short time, then wash off the 
 paper in distilled water and observe the color of the stain. 
 
 3. Scrape 8-10 grams of the pulp from a piece of lean 
 meat with the edge of a knife, place it in a beaker, and 
 mix it well with about 50 cc. of distilled water. Note 
 which substances in meat are soluble and which are 
 insoluble. 
 
 4. Place a portion of the clear, fibrous substance left 
 from 3 in an evaporating dish, and add concentrated 
 hj^drochloric acid to cover. Allow to stand for 30 m. 
 Note any changes that have taken place in appearance, 
 in texture. 
 
 5. Strain the liquid from 3 through cheesecloth, and 
 squeeze the pulp as dry as possible. Taste both the pulp 
 and the liquid. Has either one a flavor of meat? 
 
 6. Heat the liquid very slowly in a beaker, without 
 stirring, until no further change takes place. Do you 
 find that some of the portion soluble in water is 
 coagulated by heat? What other changes were brought 
 about by heating? Filter or decant the liquid. Does it 
 still hold something in solution? Boil the liquid until it 
 is reduced to one-half its volume, or less. Taste the 
 residue on the filter paper. Taste the liquid after boiling 
 down. Has either one a flavor of meat? 
 
 7. Wash thoroughly the pulp from 5, then heat it and 
 
76 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 taste it. Has it a flavor of meat? Is there any change 
 in the flavor after heating? 
 
 8. Heat very quickly and at a high temperature a 
 cubic inch of lean meat until it puffs up a little. Then 
 express the juice from it by means of a meat press, and 
 divide this liquid into two parts. Add acid to one part, 
 apply heat to the other. Compare the result of each. 
 What substance already dealt with reacted similarly to 
 heat and acid? 
 
 9. Test the various substances isolated for protein, 
 using both the xanthoproteic test and Millon's reagent. 
 
 10. Shake up together in a test tube a little scraped 
 lean meat with twice its volume of ether. Let it stand 
 for a moment to settle, then decant the liquid on to a 
 piece of filter paper. Does lean meat contain some fat? 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The names and location of the various steaks in 
 the beef animal. 
 
 2. How to choose good beef. Sources of the best beef. 
 
 3. Effects of the ''hanging" of meat. Rigor inortis. 
 
 4. The effect of feeding, care, etc., on the flavor of 
 meat. 
 
 5. The physical structure of meat. 
 
 6. The nutrients and non-nutrients contained in 
 meat. The characteristics of the protein of meat. 
 
 7. Various animals used for food. Cost of production 
 of beef. Imports and exports of meat. Cause of in- 
 creased cost of meat. 
 
 8. Appropriate accompaniments to beef — vegetables, 
 sauces, desserts, beverages. 
 
 9. Vegetarianism vs. mixed diet from the standpoint 
 of economy. 
 
 10. How the protein content of foods is estimated; 
 discussion of various methods. 
 
 11. Dangers of excessive meat eating. Results, in 
 
QUESTIONS 77 
 
 different physical conditions, of a total exclusion of meat 
 from the diet. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Compare the structure of meat with that of an 
 orange. In what points are they alike? in what points 
 do they differ? 
 
 2. Why are steaks cut across the direction of the 
 muscle fibers? What steaks are not so cut? Describe 
 these, and suggest ways to serve them. 
 
 3. So far as you are able, name and describe the differ- 
 ent substances you have found in meat. In which of 
 these does the flavor of meat reside? 
 
 4. Which of the constituents of meat is most affected 
 by acid? by water? by heat? In each case, what is the 
 reaction? 
 
 5. Account for the ''puffiness" observed during the 
 cooking of steak. Account for the effects of freezing. 
 
 6. Discuss the causes of toughness in meat. From what 
 parts of the animal should you expect the tenderest cuts? 
 
 7. Compare the probable effect on meat of (1) violent 
 exercise, or hunting, of the animal before slaughtering; 
 (2) prolonged hanging of the meat before its sale; (3) 
 the application of a marinade by the housekeeper before 
 cooking. (See Chapter XIII, page 117.) 
 
 8. Trace the relation between the experiments in analy- 
 sis of meat and the cooking of meat in today's lesson. 
 
 9. What new principles in the preparation of food have 
 you gained from the work of this lesson? 
 
 10. What agents have you recognized so far as serv- 
 ing for non-conductors of heat in the preparation of 
 food? 
 
 11. What are the possible errors in the estimation of 
 protein by factor? In what foods is this method most 
 likely to be erroneous? 
 
 12. Account for the fact that the protein content of 
 veal is greater than the protein content of beef. (See 
 charts.) 
 
78 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make a diagram of the beef animal, indicating the 
 different cuts by numbers. Make a key to this diagram, 
 giving the names of the cuts, their cost at retail, and the 
 various purposes for which they may be used. 
 
 2. Make drawings of the different steaks from both the 
 hind quarter and the fore quarter. Name the location, 
 the average weight, and the cost per pound of each steak. 
 
 References 
 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chaps. Ill and XVI, 
 and pp. 349, /. 
 
 Crichton-Browne. Parsimony in Nutrition. 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. IV and X. 
 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. III. 
 
 Kellogg. Shall We Slay to Eat? 
 
 Parloa. Home Economics, Chap. IX. 
 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Foods and Nutrition, Chap. I. 
 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. VIII. 
 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, Meat. 
 
 Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Part I. 
 
 Woods-Hutchinson. Instinct and Health, Chaps. II and III. 
 
 Bulletin 141, Losses in Cooking Meat, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture; 
 Farmers' Bulletin 34, Meats: Composition and Cooking; also Bulle- 
 tins 102, 162, 193, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Experiment 
 Stations. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 MEATS — continued 
 
 To the Student. All of the cooking processes described 
 in this chapter can be completed, for the weight of meat 
 assigned in each case, during the ordinary double period 
 devoted to the laboratory work of this course. Different 
 groups of students can be formed for the preparation of 
 each joint, etc., but each group should observe not only 
 the work of its own, but that of every other group in the 
 class. 
 
 The vegetable dishes given may be used as accompani- 
 ments to the meats, and can be prepared in " chinks " 
 of time while the meats are in process of cooking. 
 
 Attention should be paid to the serving, garnishing, 
 and carving of the meats. 
 
 The meat used must in every case be weighed both 
 before and after cooking. 
 
 Standing Rib Roast 
 
 Select a cut from the first two ribs, the weight not to 
 exceed four pounds. The roast should be prepared by 
 sawing off two or three inches from the thin ends of the 
 rib Bones, and the saw should be slanted well in under 
 the meat to avoid unsightly exposure of the bone from 
 shrinkage of the meat during cooking. 
 
 Place the meat on the rack in a roasting pan, and 
 dredge it lightly with flour, seasoned with salt and pepper. 
 Set it into a very hot oven for 10-15 m., to sear the 
 
 79 
 
80 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 surface. Then baste well with hot water, mingled with 
 the fat in the pan; (if the beef is lean some dripping 
 or suet should be added to the pan to make fat for the 
 basting). The basting should be repeated every 10 or 
 15m., until the joint is cooked. While there should be a 
 
 STANDING RIB ROAST — AS PURCHASED 
 
 sufficiency of liquid for basting, there should not be so 
 much as to generate an excess of steam, since this would 
 prevent the browning of the meat, as well as hinder the 
 development of flavor. (Why?) When the joint is cooked 
 (see time table, Appendix B), pull out the small pieces 
 of bone from the thick end of the roast (if the meat is 
 done these can be removed easily) , place it on a " hot 
 platter, garnish, and set before the carver with the thick 
 end to the left. 
 
 Note. The meat from the cut-off ends of the ribs can be used 
 with the "left-overs" in making croquettes, shepherd's pie, or any of 
 the various forms of re-serving. Or they can be cooked as "short- 
 ribs" if desired. But the joint looks sightlier, and is easier to carve, 
 when the unnecessary length of rib bone is removed. 
 
MEATS 
 
 81 
 
 STANDING RIB ROAST, COOKED AND READY TO SERVE 
 
 Braised Beef 
 
 A piece from the bottom round, weighing about two 
 pounds, may be used for the class work. If very lean, 
 fat will have to be added by one of the approved methods. 
 (See Methods of Applying Fat to IVIeat.) 
 
 Sear the whole surface of the meat in a very hot pan 
 until it is well browned. Place it on the rack in a braising 
 pan, pour in hot water just to reach to the rack, and 
 cook in a slow oven for from one-half to one hour to every 
 pound, keeping the pan closely covered. 
 
 Onion, carrot, turnip, celery, cut in dice, one cupful or 
 more of each, according to the amount of meat to be 
 braised, may be piled around the joint in the pan, and 
 afterwards served with it. Seasoning and herbs may 
 also be added. When the meat is cooked the liquid should 
 be strained, thickened with flour (see To Thicken and 
 Season Stew, page 90), and served as a sauce. The vege- 
 tables may be arranged around the meat on the platter. 
 
82 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Vegetables are not essential to the braising process, but 
 will give added flavor to the meat. When they are used 
 this dish is sometimes called '' braised meat a la jardiniere," 
 or " a la printaniere." 
 
 Pot Roast 
 
 This method of cooking meat is similar to braising, and 
 is employed in the absence of a regular braising pan. 
 The meat, previously seared, is placed on a bed of vege- 
 tables in an ordinary kettle; a very little water is added 
 — just enough to keep the vegetables from burning — 
 and the whole is cooked, closely covered, on the top of the 
 stove. 
 
 Note. Since the braised meat is cooked by a combination of roast- 
 ing and steaming it is not necessary to baste it, and the braising pan 
 should remain covered during the whole time of cooking. The slower 
 the cooking process is the tenderer and better flavored will be the 
 meat. The class exercise in braising has to be completed in too short 
 a time to give the best results. 
 
 Methods of Applying Fat to Meat 
 
 Meat which is dry and lean, especially if subjected to 
 prolonged cooking, is much improved by the addition 
 of pork fat. This may be added in three different ways. 
 
 1. Barding. This is the simplest method, and it con- 
 sists in placing thin slices of pork fat on the upper sur- 
 face of the meat. They may or may not be fastened with 
 skewers. The fat in melting serves to baste the meat, 
 will prevent evaporation of the juices, and will enrich the 
 flavor. 
 
 2. Daubing. Strips of pork fat about a half-inch thick 
 are pushed into the meat through cuts made here and 
 there with a sharp, thin-bladed knife. The strips of pork, 
 
MEATS 83 
 
 which are called lardoons, should extend through the en- 
 tire thickness of the meat. 
 
 3. Larding. Long, slender strips of pork fat, about 
 one-quarter of an inch thick, are drawn through the sur- 
 face of the meat by inserting one end of the strip into the 
 end of a larding needle, and then, with the point of the 
 needle, taking a stitch through the surface of the meat. 
 The stitch should be about an inch long, and almost a 
 half-inch deep, and the lardoon should project on both 
 sides. Regular rows of these stitches should be made all 
 over the surface to be larded, and the ends of the lardoons 
 should be cut an equal length. 
 
 Pork fat for larding or daubing should be cut as close 
 to the rind as possible, and lengthwise with the rind, 
 since the fat here is firmer, and will not be so apt to break. 
 
 Either fresh or salt-pork fat may be used, and for the 
 class exercise both kinds should be tried, and the result 
 compared and accounted for — since the salt-pork fat 
 has an interesting effect on the muscular tissue of the 
 meat where it comes in contact with it. 
 
 Beef a la Mode 
 
 This resembles Pot Roast, except that more water is 
 used in the cooking, the water being allowed to reach 
 to half the height of the meat in the pot. The searing, in 
 beef a la mode, may be done simply by pouring boil- 
 ing water over the surface of the meat. The round of 
 beef is generally used, and it is liberally daubed with fat. 
 
 Veal Birds 
 
 Take cutlets of veal from the upper part of the leg, 
 cut half an inch thick. Pound these with a wooden mallet 
 
84 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 until reduced one-half in thickness. Cut the meat into 
 strips about four inches long and two wide, spread each 
 strip with stuffing (see Chapter IX, page 74) to which has 
 been added the trimmings of the veal, finely chopped, 
 with a little ham or bacon. Roll each strip up like a jelly- 
 roll, fasten with wooden toothpicks, and bake, or cook in 
 a hot, slightly greased pan. 
 
 VEGETABLE DISHES 
 
 Deviled Tomatoes 
 
 Cut fresh tomatoes into thick slices, dredge them with 
 flour, salt, and pepper, and cook in hot butter on a pan 
 until thoroughly heated. Serve on a hot dish with One 
 tablespoonful of the following mixture on each slice. 
 
 1 tablespoonful butter. Yolk of one hard-boiled egg. 
 
 1 teaspoonful powdered sugar. Salt, and a dash of paprika, or 
 
 2 teaspoonfuls dry mustard. a few grains cayenne. 
 
 Mix the above ingredients to a cream, then add: 
 
 2 tablespoonfuls chopped green pepper. 
 2 tablespoonfuls scraped onion. 
 2 tablespoonfuls finely shaved parsley. 
 Vinegar to moisten. 
 
 Slightly warm the whole in a pan, then place on the 
 sliced tomatoes. 
 
 Mushrooms and Tomatoes 
 
 Sift canned tomatoes, and make into a sauce (see page 
 16). Add half the volume of chopped mushrooms, and 
 cook until hot. Add fine, sifted crumbs until the mixture 
 is of the consistency of a thick paste. 
 
VEGETABLE DISHES 85 
 
 Tomato Curry 
 
 Cook one tablespoonful of scraped onion in two table- 
 spoonfuls of butter until it turns yellow. Add one sour 
 apple, chopped, and cook until apple is soft. Add two 
 cups of sifted tomato, one to two teaspoonfuls of curry 
 powder, and seasoning of salt and pepper. Allow the 
 mixture to boil, then add one cup of boiled rice, cook five 
 minutes longer, and serve. 
 
 Mississippi Steamboat Potatoes 
 
 Pare raw potatoes, and cut into one-inch cubes. Boil 
 in strongly salted water until j.ust soft enough to pierce. 
 For one pint of potato cubes use: ' 
 
 2 tablespoonfuls butter. 1 egg, well beaten. 
 
 1 tablespoonful scraped onion. Seasoning of salt and pepper. 
 
 1 tablespoonful vinegar, tarragon if convenient. 
 
 Cook the onion in the butter until yellow. Add the 
 potato cubes and toss them lightly with a fork until well 
 coated with butter. Add the vinegar and seasoning. 
 Add the beaten egg, and cook for a moment until the egg 
 is set. The heat of the potatoes may be sufficient to do 
 this. Serve at once, sprinkling over the dish a Uttle very 
 finely chopped parsley. 
 
 This dish, to be perfect, should have the potato cubes 
 retain their shape after cooking, and each cube should 
 be covered with a creamy coating of the egg. 
 
 Hot Slaw 
 
 Prepare one pint of very finely shredded cabbage. 
 Make the following dressing: 
 
 2 tablespoonfuls butter. }/i teaspoonful dry mustard. 
 
 2 tablespoonfuls flour. Salt, a speck cayenne, or a little 
 
 2 teaspoonfuls sugar, paprika. 
 
 ^ cup cream. 
 
86 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Cook as for white sauce. Add slowly one-quarter cup 
 of vinegar, stirring constantly. When the mixture boils, 
 stir in rapidly one well-beaten egg, and when the egg 
 thickens add the shredded cabbage, incorporate this well 
 with the dressing, and serve immediately. 
 
 Note. "Slaw" means a salad, usually of shredded leaves, such 
 as cabbage or lettuce leaves. " Cole slaw " means simply a cabbage 
 slaw, or a cabbage salad, the word "cole" being equivalent to "cale" 
 or "kale." "Cold Slaw" is the term usually applied to a cabbage salad 
 that is served with a cold dressing — but there is really a hot cole slaw 
 as well as a cold cole slaw. 
 
 GREEN PEPPERS, FARCI 
 
 Green Peppers, Farci 
 
 Cut the tops from green peppers, scoop out the inside, 
 and boil for five minutes. Fill cavities with a spoonful 
 of the following mixture. 
 
 Yi cupful each cold cooked veal 
 
 and cold ham, both minced. 
 \^ cup bread crumbs. 
 ^ cup of cream. 
 
 1 tablespoonful butter. 
 Seasoning salt, onion 
 minced parsley. 
 
 juice, 
 
 Set the pepper cups in the oven and bake for half an 
 hour, basting with water and butter, one tablespoonful 
 of butter to one cup of water, 
 
QUESTIONS 87 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The names and location of the prime roasting pieces 
 in the beef animal, of the fancy cuts, e. g., the fillet. The 
 names and location of pieces suitable for braising, for 
 corning, etc. 
 
 2. Methods of preserving meat, smoking, drying, corn- 
 ing, canning, cold storage, etc. Ptomaines and bacilli in 
 meat. Meat inspection and other food laws concerning 
 meat. 
 
 3. Nomenclature of proteins according to the classifi- 
 cation by the committee on nomenclature representing 
 the Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment 
 Stations. 
 
 4. Nomenclature of proteins according to the recom- 
 mendations of the joint committee of ttie American 
 Physiological Society and the American Society of Bio- 
 logical Chemists. 
 
 5. By-products of the digestion of proteids. 
 
 6. Nucleo-protein vs. nucleo-albumin. 
 
 7. Vegetarianism vs. mixed diet from the physiological 
 standpoint. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Account for the loss of weight in cooking meat. 
 In which kind of meat, tough or tender, was the loss the 
 greater? Why? 
 
 2. Why do we cook tender meat? Why do we cook 
 tough meat? 
 
 3. Why is meat dredged with flour before roasting? 
 Has any similar process been performed by you in a 
 previous lesson? 
 
 4. Which needs the hotter oven and the more frequent 
 basting, a small joint or a large one? Why? 
 
 5. Account for the red color of corned beef, for the 
 red color of the daubed or larded meat where it came in 
 contact with the salt-pork fat. 
 
 6. Compare the corning of beef with the floating of 
 oysters. 
 
88 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 7. Why should meat always be carved across the grain? 
 
 8. Compare the difference, with regard to time and 
 temperature, in the cooking of tough and tender meats. 
 
 9. What principle is involved in the common practice 
 of applying vinegar, salt, or soda to meat which has 
 become slightly tainted on the surface? 
 
 10. In bacon and pork, meats with a small water content, 
 what other food principle is in inverse proportion? In 
 what other instances does such a proportion hold good? 
 (See charts.) 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Utilize the left-over meat in some acceptable modes 
 of reserving. 
 
 2. Make a^ diagram of the pork animal. Proceed as 
 in the diagram of the beef animal. 
 
 3. Make drawings of the first, second, and third cut 
 of the ribs; of the chuck ribs; of the porterhouse cuts; 
 of the top and bottom round. 
 
 References 
 
 See references for Chapter IX, with the addition of the following: 
 Jordan. Principles of Human Nutrition, Chaps. Ill and XIII. 
 Parloa. Kitchen Companion, Larding, etc. 
 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chap. I from p. 23 on 
 and Chap. IV. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 MEATS — continued 
 
 To the Student. The cooking of meat by means of 
 boiling, or the use of water as a medium for conveying heat, 
 will be studied in this chapter. Meat stews in particular 
 will be the object of a series of experiments. It takes at 
 least three hours to make a good stew from uncooked 
 meat; hence, if possible, the student should start the work 
 at least an hour before the opening of the class period. 
 Small individual stews of not more than from two to four 
 ounces of meat may be made, and the results compared. 
 Both veal and beef will be used in equal parts in making 
 the stews, preferably from the shin or shank of beef and 
 the leg of veal. If pieces of the bone are also used this 
 will improve the flavor. 
 
 Before beginning the work in stews and soups, a joint 
 of meat may be cooked whole, by boiling. 
 
 Boiled Leg of Lamb 
 
 Choose a small leg, weighing about six pounds. Wipe, 
 and put on to cook in boiling salted water, just sufficient 
 in amount barely to cover the meat. Allow to boil for 
 ten minutes, then simmer (180-185° F.) until cooked. 
 (See time table, Appendix B, page 235.) 
 
 Remember to weigh the meat before and after cooking. 
 
 89 
 
90 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Caper Sauce 
 
 Proceed as for White Sauce (see Chapter II, page 9). 
 When sauce is cooked, add a generous tablespoonful of 
 capers to every cup of sauce. A portion of the water in 
 which the lamb was cooked may be substituted for milk 
 in making this sauce. 
 
 STEWS 
 Plain Meat Stew with Dumplings 
 
 Cut the meat into half-ounce pieces, put on in cold 
 water, allow it to come rapidly to a boil, then reduce the 
 temperature and simmer for two hours. Add vegetables, 
 potatoes, turnips, cut in pieces as large as the meat, 
 carrots in quarter-inch slices, onions sliced or finely 
 minced, and bring the whole again to a boil. After 
 this allow the stew to simmer for thirty minutes, then 
 add the seasoning and thickening, and allow to boil for a 
 minute or two. Lastly place the dumplings on the top 
 of the meat and vegetables, and cook the stew, closely 
 covered, for ten minutes longer. 
 
 Stew can be served in a large, deep platter, with a 
 border of small dumplings, and garnished with cress. Or 
 a piled-up border of well-done, dry, flaky rice may be 
 effectively used, or a border of well-seasoned mashed 
 potato. If potato is used the platter may be set for a 
 moment in the broiling oven of a gas range to brown the . 
 border. 
 
 To Thicken and Season Stew. Allow two tablespoon- 
 fuls of flour for every pint of water used in making the 
 stew. Add to this one-half teaspoon of salt and one-fourth 
 to one-half teaspoon of pepper. "Blend all with cold water 
 to a thin paste, stir into this paste an equal volume of 
 
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 91 
 
92 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 the hot hquid from the stew, then pour the mixture into 
 the stew pot, and stir until it boils. 
 
 Dumplings 
 
 Ingredients. Flour, water, shortening, baking powder, 
 salt. 
 
 Proportions. Three times as much flour as water. 
 One-eighth as much shortening as flour, or less. One- 
 quarter teaspoonful of salt to each cup of flour. Two 
 teaspoonfuls of baking powder (where a cream of tartar 
 baking powder is used) to one cup of flour. 
 
 Method. Mix dry ingredients. Chop the shortening 
 into the dry mixture, using the back of a fork. Stir in 
 the liquid to the dry things, and mix very lightly to a soft 
 dough. This should be spongy and full of holes. 
 
 Note. One-quarter cup of flour will make two or three small 
 dumplings. 
 
 Dumplings are less apt to be soggy if they are cooked separately 
 from the stew on a greased plate in a steamer. 
 
 Brown Stew 
 
 About one-half of the meat should be well browned on 
 a hot pan before making the stew. The same process as 
 for the plain meat stew is then followed. 
 
 Variations on Methods. Using the same ingredients as 
 before, make both kinds of stew by putting the meat 
 directly into boiling water, and then reducing the tem- 
 perature as already directed. 
 
 Make a stew, using meat alone, allowing it to boil hard 
 during the whole time of cooking. The water lost by 
 evaporation must be replaced from time to time. 
 
 Make stews, using meat alone, in soft (distilled) water 
 and in hard water, proceeding as for plain meat stew. 
 
 Compare flavor and consistency in each case. 
 
MEATS 93 
 
 Frame, as a result of your work, some general rules for 
 the making of stew. 
 
 OTHER VARIETIES OF STEW 
 
 Brunswick Stew. A brown stew containing pieces of 
 chicken as well as one or two other kinds of meat. 
 
 Chowder. A stew of fish or shellfish. 
 
 Fricassee. A stew of meat that has been browned 
 either before or after making the stew. 
 
 Haggis. A stew made of sheep's hazlet, thickened 
 with oatmeal, flavored highly with onion, and cooked in a 
 bag, usually the stomach of the sheep. 
 
 Haricot. A stew of any kind of meat, cut into pieces 
 the size of a haricot bean. 
 
 Irish Stew. A stew made of minced mutton and po- 
 tatoes, flavored with onion and seasoned very highly, 
 cooked down to about the consistency of hash. 
 
 Kolcannon. A stew of cabbage and potatoes, with the 
 addition of a small amount of fat salt pork and a gener- 
 ous amount of seasoning. 
 
 Ragout. A stew to which wine or vinegar has been 
 added in the process of cooking. 
 
 Salmi. A stew of game. 
 
 To Boil Corned Beef 
 
 Put the corned beef on in cold water, let it come slowly 
 to a boil, and then simmer (180° F.) for half an hour to 
 every pound. If the meat is to be used cold it will be 
 juicier and tenderer if it is allowed to cool in the water in 
 which it was cooked. Home corned beef, or meat not 
 quite so strongly salted as is that usually purchased from 
 the butcher, may be put on in boiling water, have the 
 
94 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 temperature then reduced, and simmered as before until 
 cooked. 
 
 MAKING AND CLEARING SOUP STOCK 
 
 The term " soup stock " is defined by one of the stand- 
 ard dictionaries as " the Hquor or broth prepared bj^ 
 boiling meat with or without vegetables, etc., so as to 
 extract the nutritious properties, and used as a foundation 
 for different kinds of soup." 
 
 Soup Stock 
 
 Ingredients. ^leat, one or more kinds, with bone. 
 Vegetables, such as onion, carrot, turnip, celery. Herbs, 
 marjoram, thyme, savory, etc. Seasoning of allspice, 
 cloves, whole pepper, bay leaf, etc. One sour apple, or 
 an ounce of chopped ham to every two quarts of stock, 
 helps to give a good flavor. 
 
 Proportions. For a light stock, one quart of water to 
 each pound of meat. For a rich stock, one pint of water 
 to one pound of meat. About one-fourth as much bone 
 as meat, by weight. One-half to one cup of each vege- 
 table, cut in cubes, to every two quarts of stock. One- 
 half to one teaspoonful of each herb (dried), one-half to 
 one teaspoonful of the spices, mixed, and one bay leaf 
 to ever}^ tAvo quarts of stock. 
 
 Method. Wipe the meat and cut it into small pieces. 
 Place it in the required quantity of cold water, and let it 
 stand for half an hour. Then apply gentle heat, and allow 
 it to come very slowly to a boil. It should take at least 
 an hour for a stock pot containing six quarts of water to 
 reach the boiling point. The vegetables may then be 
 added, together with the herbs and seasoning. These last 
 
MEATS 95 
 
 should be tied loosely in cheesecloth, and the whole 
 allowed to simmer for six hours. The stock should then 
 be strained and cooled. 
 
 TO CLEAR SOUP STOCK 
 
 Method I. To Clear Stock with White of Egg. Re- 
 move the fat from the cold stock by skimming it care- 
 fully. If the stock is jelhed, the surface of it should be 
 wiped after skimming off the fat with a soft cloth wrung 
 out of boiling water, so as to remove every particle of 
 grease. Allow the white of one egg, shghtly beaten, to 
 every quart of stock. The crushed shell of the egg, for 
 the sake of the albumin that clings to it, may also be 
 added. The egg is mixed well with the cold stock, and 
 the whole is heated slowly, with occasional stirring, to 
 incorporate the egg, until the albumin begins to coagu- 
 late. It may then be allowed to boil for five minutes, and 
 to stand, after removing from fire, for about ten minutes, 
 so as to allow the egg to rise to the surface. It may then 
 be strained through a piece of double damask, or through 
 several thicknesses of cheesecloth, placed over a fine 
 strainer. The stock is then ready for use. 
 
 Method 2. To Clear Stock with Chopped Beef . Finely 
 chopped lean meat, one-fourth to one-half pound to each 
 quart of stock, is used similarly to the white of egg. This 
 method adds to the flavor of the stock, and the residue 
 of meat, left after the stock is strained, may be used in 
 hash, croquettes, or some other form of rechauffe. 
 
 Method 3. To Clear Stock by Skimming. In this 
 method constant watchfulness and care must be employed 
 during the time the stock is coming to a boil, and the 
 scum that rises to the surface must be skimmed off as it 
 rises. Even with very great care, some of this scum will 
 
96 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 be broken into brown flakes through the stock, and these 
 will have to be removed in the end by repeated strainings 
 through Canton flannel. 
 
 DERIVATIVES OF STOCK 
 
 Clear Soup. Stock is seasoned with salt, flavored with 
 lemon juice or rind, if this is relished, and served as a 
 soup. Such a clear soup is often called consomme, or 
 bouillon. 
 
 Bouillon. This term is apphed more strictly to a clear 
 soup made from a stock in which beef alone was used in 
 the making. 
 
 Consomme. In its most restricted meaning this term 
 is applied to a stock of '' consummate " richness, made 
 from beef, veal, and fowl, in which ordinary stock, or 
 bouillon, is substituted for water in the making. 
 
 Court Bouillon. This is a stock made from highly 
 flavored vegetables, which may be cooked in a mixture 
 of three parts of water to one of vinegar. About a pound 
 of the vegetables is allowed to every quart of the liquid. 
 The stock is highly seasoned — salt, peppercorns, cloves, 
 and any desired spices being used. Fish is sometimes 
 boiled in a court bouillon in order to enhance the flavor. 
 It may be used several times as a medium for the cook- 
 ing of fish, improves with use, and does not readily spoil. 
 
 Glaze. This is a stock which has been boiled down to 
 one-fourth of its volume. It is used to color and flavor 
 gravies, to brush over the outside of meats to improve 
 their appearance, etc. 
 
MEATS 97 
 
 Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 
 
 I 
 Solubility of the Globulin of Meat 
 
 1. Digest a portion of finely minced or chopped raw 
 meat in ordinary faucet water. Filter, and add filtrate, 
 drop by drop, to a beaker of pure water. 
 
 2. Proceed as in 1, using a 10 per cent salt solution. 
 
 3. Proceed as in 1, using a saturated salt solution. 
 
 4. Where insoluble particles have been formed on 
 dropping the filtrate from the meat into distilled water, 
 test this substance for protein. This protein belongs 
 to a class called globulins. What are some of their 
 characteristics? 
 
 II 
 
 Preparation of Kreatin 
 
 1. Mince finely some lean beef, and steep it in water 
 until all the soluble matter has been dissolved out. 
 
 2. Decant or filter the liquid, and heat it to boiling. 
 Filter again after scum has formed. 
 
 3. Cautiously add a saturated solution of lead acetate, 
 drop by drop, to the filtrate from 2, until there is no longer 
 any precipitation. If any precipitation has taken place 
 it should be removed by filtration. 
 
 4. Pass sulphuretted hydrogen through the liquid 
 from 3. This will remove excess of the lead. If a slight 
 pellicle should form on the surface during this process 
 the liquid will have to be refiltered to remove it. 
 
 5. Evaporate the liquid from 4 over a water bath until 
 it is of a syrupy consistency. Then set it aside in a cool 
 
98 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 place until crystals form. These will be crystals of 
 kreatin. 
 
 Note. One of the commercial extracts of meat may be used instead 
 of chopped beef and steps 1 and 2 omitted. 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1 . The names and location of the various cuts of mutton 
 and lamb. How these may be used. The fancy joints, 
 e.g., the crown of lamb, the saddle of mutton, etc. 
 
 2. Lamb vs. '^ yearling." Ewe vs. wether mutton. 
 The best breeds of mutton. How to choose good lamb 
 and mutton. 
 
 3. The names and location of the various cuts of veal. 
 The feeding of prime veal, and the age at which it is 
 used for food. How to choose good veal. 
 
 4. The causes of the toughness of meat. 
 
 5. The sapid extractives of meat and their function. 
 
 6. Vegetables, sauces, and desserts appropriate to 
 serve with lamb, mutton, veal, with particular attention 
 to vegetables and other foods rich in iron to supply 
 the lack of this mineral in veal. 
 
 7. Minerals in food in organic vs. inorganic form. 
 
 8. Vegetarianism vs. mixed diet from the ethical stand- 
 point; from the standpoint of experience of the race. 
 
 9. The inspection of meats at the slaughterhouses; 
 the food laws relating to meat. 
 
 10. Exports and imports of meat; trade with other 
 countries. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. What parts of the animals are best to use for stew? 
 Discuss the relation between exercise and tenderness. 
 
 2. Discuss the relation between the amount of extrac- 
 tives, or flavoring substances, in different kinds and cuts 
 of meat and the methods usually employed in cooking 
 the same. 
 
 3. Why does meat lose weight in boiling? What cook- 
 ing process involves the greatest loss in weight? What is 
 the proportionate loss of weight in tough and tender 
 cuts? Account for this. 
 
QUESTIONS 99 
 
 4. In browning a portion of the meat for stew, which 
 kind would you select, the tough or the tender portion? 
 Why? 
 
 5. What kind of meat would be appropriate for a 
 ragout? Could this method of making stew be used 
 to abridge the time needed for cooking? 
 
 6. Should a stew be skimmed? Should the stew pot 
 be left uncovered? Give your reasons. 
 
 7. Criticise the definition of stock quoted from one of 
 the standard dictionaries. 
 
 8. Compare the making of gelatine jelly with the 
 making of soup stock. 
 
 9. What principle is involved in the first two methods 
 given for clearing soup stock? 
 
 10. When would you add the salt in making .soup stock? 
 Why? (See page 97.) 
 
 11. In what processes of food preparation might a loss 
 of globulin be expected? 
 
 12. Cite the possible causes for failure in the work of 
 clearing soup stock. 
 
 13. Compare the nutritive value of a pint of soup with 
 the nutritive value of the left-over meat. 
 
 14. Formulate two general rules for the cooking of meat, 
 applicable in every case where flavor is to be developed 
 and nutritive value retained. 
 
 15. Enumerate the examples of solubility, under differ- 
 ent conditions; of insolubility; of change in flavor in- 
 duced by heat — that have been apparent to you in 
 your cooking of animal foods. 
 
 16. Why are fewer calories yielded by lamb than by 
 mutton? by veal than by beef? by dried beef than by 
 corned beef? (See charts. Appendix A.) 
 
 17. Trace the relation between the experiments and 
 the practical work of this chapter. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Make diagrams of the veal and mutton animals, 
 making the key to the diagrams, etc., as in the case of 
 the beef animal. 
 
100 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 2. Make a tabular list, in parallel columns, of the 
 substances found, respectively, in (1) raw beef; '(2) broiled 
 steak; (3) boiled corned beef; (4) soup stock before 
 clearing; (5) soup stock after clearing; (6) meat left 
 after making stock. Indicate in each case where any 
 substance was lost, in part or wholly, during the process 
 of preparation. 
 
 3. A fritadella is a dish made from highly seasoned 
 minced meat, mixed with an equal amount of mashed 
 potato, and sauted on a hot pan. Or it may be pressed 
 into a mold, and steamed or baked. Make a fritadella 
 from the meat left over from the stock, using appropriate 
 seasoning to make up for the loss of the extractives. 
 
 4. On what principle would you combine gelatine with 
 meat? Illustrate by using both in the making of some 
 dish. 
 
 5. What constituents of beef are lacking in veal? 
 Cook veal in two ways, showing (1) how you may compen- 
 sate for the lack ; (2) how you can utilize to the utmost the 
 traces of the constituents which are present. 
 
 6. The flavor of meat is developed in proportion to 
 the degree of heat employed in cooking it. Show the 
 degrees of this development of flavor in three methods 
 of cooking meat. 
 
 7. Show, in the making of a palatable dish, that the 
 connective tissue of meat can be converted into gelatine. 
 
 References 
 
 See references for Chap. IX, with the addition of the following: 
 
 Leach. Food Inspection and Analysis. 
 
 Parloa. Kitchen Companion, for accompaniments to meats, fancy 
 joints, etc. 
 
 Bulletin 18, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Div. of Veg. Phys. and Path. : 
 The Physiological Role of the Mineral Nutrients. Bulletin 19, U. S. Dept. 
 of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry: The Inspection of Meats 
 for Animal Parasites. Bulletin 66, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of 
 Experiment Stations: the Physiological Effect of Creatin and Creatinin. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 MILK 
 
 Analysis by M. D. Chambers. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF 1 LB. OF MILK 
 
 1. 1 lb. (1 pint) of milk. 
 
 2. 14 oz. water in 1 lb. milk. 
 
 3. .5 oz. proteid in 1 lb. milk. 
 
 4. .65 oz. fat in 1 lb. milk. 
 
 5. .85 oz. carbohydrates in 1 lb. 
 
 milk. 
 
 6. 1 oz. mineral salts in 1 lb. 
 
 milk. 
 
 To the Student. Milk is said to be a perfect food, be- 
 cause it contains all that is necessary to sustain life. 
 The young of all mammals live on it, and develop muscle 
 and bone, teeth and skin and hair and hoof, and energy 
 and intelligence, on this food alone. Human grown-ups, 
 in certain physical conditions, are confined to merely 
 this food for periods of perhaps months, and have en- 
 joyed life and liberty, and pursued happiness — as well 
 as their customary avocations — while restricted to this 
 
 diet. 
 
 Milk contains all the food principles — protein, fat, car- 
 bohydrate, water, and minerals — in the right proportion 
 
 101 
 
102 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 to nourish the young. Its bulk, in proportion to its 
 nutritive value, makes it less suitable to adults in ordi- 
 nary life than it is to children, but its usefulness and 
 wholesomeness should insure it a place in every dietary. 
 
 In the study of milk assigned in this chapter you should 
 try to discover the characteristics of its chief constituents, 
 and if there is time and opportunity, to make a rough 
 analysis of this important food, isolating its component 
 parts and even making a rough quantitative estimate of 
 the proportion of each that is present. 
 
 Rennet Custard, or Junket 
 
 Ingredients. Junket tablets, milk, water, sugar, 
 flavoring. 
 
 Proportions. One junket tablet to one quart of milk. 
 Water enough to dissolve the tablet, about one table- 
 spoonful or less, sugar and flavoring to taste — a half- 
 cup of sugar to a quart of milk is a good proportion. 
 
 Method. For class work, or if it should at any time 
 be desired to abbreviate the process, a double quantity 
 of junket tablets may be used. Hence in this recipe 
 half of one tablet can be allowed to one cup of milk. 
 
 Dissolve the tablet in a very little water. Heat the 
 milk until just blood-warm, dissolve the sugar in the 
 warm milk, then stir in the dissolved junket tablet, add 
 the flavoring, stir well, and pour the mixture into the 
 dishes in which it is to be served. Let it stand in a warm 
 place until it is set — it should be of the consistency of 
 jelly — then place it on ice or in the refrigerator until 
 chilled. 
 
 Serve with a spoonful of strawberry or other preserve on 
 top, and pile whipped cream over this, 
 
MILK 103 
 
 Make a second junket, using milk which has first been 
 boiled and then allowed to cool to blood-warm. 
 
 Make a third junket, using freshly boiling milk. 
 
 Compare results. Does boiling the milk prevent the 
 action of the rennet? Is the action of the rennet retarded 
 or weakened by boiling the milk? What effect has a 
 boihng temperature applied directly to the rennet? 
 
 Note. One-half cupful of milk, or less, may be allowed for each of 
 the methods given above. 
 
 Cottage Cheese 
 
 Method I. Proceed as for junket, omitting the sugar 
 and flavoring. When the milk is set or jellied, break up 
 the clot with a fork, and strain off the liquid through a 
 jelly-bag, or a piece of cheesecloth placed over a wire 
 strainer. Squeeze the cloth gently to get rid of the 
 hquid, season the curd with a little salt, blend it well 
 with a spoon, and serve with or without cream. 
 
 Save the liquid, or whey, which was strained off from 
 the curd. 
 
 Method 2. Use sour milk; it is best when just nicely 
 clabbered. Heat it very slowly and gently until the curd 
 has separated. Strain as before, season, and serve. Pre- 
 serve the liquid as in Method 1. 
 
 Compare both kinds of cottage cheese as to consistency 
 and flavor. Compare the whey resulting from the two 
 methods. Preserve the whey for future use. 
 
 Butter 
 
 Beat an ounce of thick cream with a Dover beater in a 
 bowl until butter is formed. Separate the butter from 
 the buttermilk, wash it thoroughly in cold water, and 
 
104 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 form it into a little ball. Compare this with the ordinary 
 creamery butter. What weight of butter was yielded by 
 one ounce of cream? 
 
 Constituents of Butter. Melt the butter just made over 
 very gentle heat, and decant the fat. Put the precipitate 
 into a test tube, aild shake it up with an equal volume of 
 ether, to remove the remaining fat. Examine the residue. 
 Does it resemble any substance formed from milk today? 
 Test it for protein. 
 
 Boil the decanted butter fat. Is water present? (Froth 
 and " sputtering " indicate the presence of water.) 
 
 Constituents of Whey. Boil down the whey from the 
 first method of making cottage cheese, or evaporate it over 
 a water bath. If flecks of a coagulated substance should 
 form during the boiling they must be removed by filtra- 
 tion and preserved. When the liquid is nearly all evapo- 
 rated set aside the remainder to evaporate at ordinary 
 temperature. Hard crystals of impure milk sugar should 
 be formed. Taste it, and compare with cane sugar. 
 
 Examine the substance on the filter paper. Test it for 
 protein. What kind of protein is soluble in water and 
 coagulated by heat? 
 
 Test another portion of the whey for the presence of 
 lime salts by adding a solution of ammonium oxalate. A 
 white precipitate indicates the presence of lime. 
 
 Note. If no coagulated flakes appear during the evaporation of the 
 whey, the second protein in milk may be tested for by heating a portion 
 of ordinary milk gently until a scum forms on the surface. 
 
 MILK SOUPS 
 
 Milk soups, called by courtesy cream soups, are usu- 
 ally made on the basis of a thin white sauce. This is the 
 
MILK 105 
 
 same, as to ingredients and method of making, as the 
 medium white sauce given in Chapter II, (page 9), except 
 that only one tablespoonful of butter and one of flour are 
 used for every cup of milk or other liquid. 
 
 There are two classes of these soups, one in which 
 small pieces of the vegetable, already cooked, are added 
 to the required amount of white sauce, as in cream of 
 asparagus soup, or celery soup; the other in which 
 sifted vegetable pulp is used, as in corn soup or potato 
 soup. The distinction, however, is more or less arbitrary, 
 since asparagus soup is sometimes made of the sifted 
 pulp, and corn of the canned corn without being sifted. 
 
 The general rule for milk soups is to add to the white 
 sauce — which must have extra seasoning — the desired 
 amount of the vegetable or vegetable pulp, and cook the 
 two together until the mixture boils. From one-half to an 
 equal amount of vegetable is the proportion usually added 
 to the sauce, this being one of the cases where there is 
 wide scope for individual taste. Much will depend, of 
 course, on the flavor of the vegetable — whether or not 
 this is pronounced. 
 
 A cream tomato soup, on account of the tendency of the 
 tomato acid to curdle the milk, is often made after adding 
 a little baking soda, about one-quarter teaspoon to each 
 cup, to the sifted tomato pulp. Since the flavor of the 
 tomato is altered by the addition of the soda, and since 
 the soda is not always desirable from the standpoint of 
 digestion, the following method of making this soup may 
 be used, and if carefully followed there will be no danger 
 of curdling. 
 
106 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Cream Tomato Soup; sometimes called Mock Bisque 
 
 Soup 
 Ingredients 
 
 2 tablespoonfuls flour. 2 cups sifted tomato pulp. 
 
 2 tablespoonfuls butter. 2 cups milk. 
 
 Seasoning, salt and pepper. 
 
 Method. Melt the butter and blend with it the flour 
 and seasoning. Add the tomato pulp, and stir until the 
 mixture has boiled for one minute. Add the milk, keep 
 stirring until the mixture ceases to be ^' ropy," let it 
 come to a boil, and serve. 
 
 Milk Toast 
 
 Bread for toast should be cut neither too thin not too 
 thick; a half -inch thick is a good proportion. An ordinary 
 brick-shaped loaf should yield sixteen slices. 
 
 The slices can be toasted on the rack of the broiling 
 oven of the gas range, or in any other preferred way. 
 They should not be approached too closely to the source 
 of heat at first, so that they may be sufficiently dried out 
 by evaporation to insure the right amount of crispness 
 
 — good judgment must be exercised here, for this dish, 
 though very simple, is only in perfection when made in 
 just the right way. The toast when finished should be 
 crisp, but not too brittle, and should be a uniform golden 
 brown on both sides. Each slice should be then dipped 
 
 — for an instant merely — into very hot salted water, 
 just " off " the boil. The process of dipping must be so 
 rapid, and the toast must be at so exactly the right stage 
 of crispness, that the slices will not be soggy. They are 
 then placed on a hot platter, and while still fresh and 
 steaming a thin white sauce is poured over them. The 
 
MILK 107 
 
 pepper should be omitted from the seasoning of this 
 sauce. 
 
 The sauce should be prepared before the slices are 
 toasted, since the success of the dish depends so largely 
 on the quickness of the last steps, the toast being 
 dipped before the fresh, '' crispy " odor has vanished, and 
 the sauce being poured over the slices while the first of 
 the steam is rising. Only one or two slices should be pre- 
 pared by a begimier. A half-cupful of sauce will be suffi- 
 cient for two slices. 
 
 VARIATIONS ON MILK TOAST 
 
 Egg Toast. This is made by adding to every cup of the 
 white sauce for a plain milk toast one chopped, hard- 
 boiled egg. 
 
 Fruit Toasts. Peach, apple, strawberry, and other toasts 
 are made by substituting hot, stewed fruit for the white 
 sauce used in the ordinary milk toast. These form very 
 acceptable luncheon dishes. 
 
 Tomato Toast. This is made similarly to the fruit 
 toast, and can be served as a vegetable or as an entree. 
 A little cheese, grated over the top, adds to its savoriness. 
 
 MILK PUDDINGS 
 
 Bread and Butter Pudding 
 Ingredients. 
 
 ^ of 1 stale loaf. 1 to 2 eggs. 
 
 2 to 3 cupfuls rich milk. Butter, from H to 34 pound. 
 
 Y2 cupful sugar. Raisins, preserves, or jelly. 
 
 Method. Cut the bread in one-half inch slices, and 
 spread each slice liberally with butter. Fit the slices 
 
108 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 into a baking dish with the buttered side down, and scatter 
 raisins between the layers. 
 
 Dissolve the sugar in the milk, which may or may not 
 be heated, and stir into the mixture the well-beaten yolks 
 of the eggs. Pour this over the bread in the baking dish, 
 cover, and bake for 20 m. 
 
 Take off the cover and allow the bread to brown. Then 
 spread a layer of jelly or preserve on the top — quince 
 is the best — pile over this a meringue made from the 
 whites of the eggs (see Chapter V, page 33), and replace 
 in the oven until the meringue is firm and very delicately 
 browned. 
 
 Chocolate Bread Pudding 
 
 The ingredients and quantities are practically the same 
 as for Bread and Butter Pudding, except that the butter 
 is omitted and two ounces of grated chocolate are dis- 
 solved and added to the milk. The bread, instead of 
 being sliced, is grated, and if very stale an extra cup of 
 milk may be needed. 
 
 In both of these puddings the fruit and jelly may be 
 omitted if a plainer pudding is desired. 
 
 Note. According to the results of investigations by the Wash- 
 ington Department of Nutrition, Bulletin 53, Office of Experiment 
 Stations, bread and milk, when taken in combination, are more com- 
 pletely digested than when either one is eaten by itself. The foregoing 
 recipes for milk toast and puddings suggest pleasing combinations of 
 these foods. 
 
 STUDY OF THE PHYSICAL AND OTHER PROPERTIES 
 
 OF MILK 
 
 1. Mount a drop of milk on a slide under a cover glass, 
 and examine it under the microscope (625 diameters). 
 
 2. Ascertain the weight of a given quantity of milk as 
 compared with the weight of a similar quantity of water. 
 
MILK 109 
 
 3. Test the reaction of milk to litmus, using strips of 
 both red and blue litmus paper. It would be well, if 
 possible, to test two samples of milk, one freshly drawn, 
 one several hours old. 
 
 4. Ascertain the boiling point of milk. 
 
 5. Test whole*milk with the lactometer; test skimmed 
 milk; test cream. Compare the specific gravity of these 
 with that of water. 
 
 6. Apply Babcock's fat test to milk, if the apparatus 
 is available. 
 
 STUDY OF CHEESE IN COOKING 
 Welsh Rabbit 
 
 Ingredients. Cheese, sliced or grated; milk, seasoning 
 of salt and pepper, mustard, paprika, onion juice, etc. 
 Egg and butter are sometimes used. 
 
 Proportions. One-eighth as much milk as grated cheese, 
 or one-fourth as much milk may be used if egg is added. 
 Not more than one teaspoon of butter to a cup of cheese. 
 Seasoning to taste, about twice as much mustard as salt 
 will be sufficient, unless the flavor of mustard is greatly 
 liked. 
 
 Method. Melt the butter in the saucepan. Add the 
 milk and the grated cheese, and stir until the cheese is 
 just melted. Add the seasoning, and the beaten egg, if 
 this is used, and stir the mixture until it is slightly thick- 
 ened, but not stringy. Pour at once on toasted crackers 
 or pieces of toast and serve immediately. 
 
 Make a second Welsh rabbit, using the same propor- 
 tions and ingredients as for the first, but adding with the 
 seasoning one-eighth of a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of 
 soda or potash. 
 
 Compare the two as to consistency. 
 
110 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 A simple form of Welsh rabbit, and one that will not 
 readily curdle or string, is made on the basis of a thick 
 white sauce, as follows. The thick white sauce is made 
 similarly to the medium white sauce (see Chapter II, 
 page 9), except that the proportions call for four table- 
 spoonfuls of flour and four of butter to on? cupful of liquid. 
 Any extra seasoning that may be desired for the rabbit is 
 added, and when the sauce is cooked, from three to four 
 times its volume of grated or thinly sliced cheese is stirred 
 in, and the whole is cooked until it is of the proper 
 consistency. 
 
 VARIATIONS ON THE SIMPLER FORMS OF WELSH 
 
 RABBIT 
 
 Olive Rabbit. Chopped olives or pimolas may be 
 stirred in the last thing. In this case the brine from the 
 olives should be substituted for milk in making the rabbit. 
 
 Oyster Rabbit. Parboiled oysters are added to the 
 rabbit when it is nearly ready to be removed from the 
 fire. Oyster liquor is substituted for the milk. 
 
 Yorkshire Rabbit. This has toasted bacon, cut in 
 little bits, added to the rabbit the last thing. Or a strip 
 of the bacon may be placed on the rabbit just before 
 serving. 
 
 Golden Buck. This is a rabbit with a poached egg 
 placed on the top. 
 
 Scotch Woodcock. The toast or crackers on which the 
 rabbit is served are first spread with anchovy paste, and 
 chopped, hard-boiled eggs are stirred into the rabbit be- 
 fore it is poured on these. 
 
 Note. An under-ripe cheese will not make a good rabbit, for it 
 will separate and oil. This will also happen if a filled cheese is 
 used. 
 
QUESTIONS 111 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Methods of preserving milk; condensed and evapo- 
 rated milk, dessicated milk, and milk powders. 
 
 2. Derivatives of milk, malted milk, etc. The souring 
 of milk. The theory of Metchnikoff. 
 
 3. The market prices of milk and cream of different 
 quaUty. Food laws relating to milk, butter, cream, 
 and cheese. Certified milk. The use of viscogen in 
 cream. 
 
 4. The best dairy breeds of cattle for yield of milk, for 
 cream, for cheese-making. 
 
 5. Varieties of butter, pasteurized, unsalted, creamery, 
 dairy, etc. Renovated or process butter. Butter vs. 
 butter fat. Oleomargarine. 
 
 6. The different classes of cheese, skim-milk, whole 
 milk, milk and cream, cream. 
 
 7. Comparison of the various kinds of cheese, e.g., 
 Edam, Gouda, Gruyere, Parmesan, Cheddar, Gor- 
 gonzola, Roquefort, Stilton, etc. 
 
 8. American cheese and its manufacture. 
 
 9. Food laws relating to milk, butter, cream, and 
 cheese. Oleomargarine, and the laws relating to its 
 manufacture and sale. 
 
 10. Milk from other animals than the cow. 
 
 11. Diseases conveyed by milk. Sterilization and pas- 
 teurization of milk. 
 
 12. Milk as a food for the young; as a food for adults. 
 The constituents of milk considered in detail.. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Compare the composition of cream and milk (see 
 charts). Compare the proportions here with the pro- 
 portions you discovered to hold good in the case of some 
 other food. (See Question 10, Chapter X, page 88.) 
 
 2. What constituents in milk were isolated in the 
 work of this chapter? 
 
 3. Compare the whipping of cream with the frothing 
 of milk when it boils. 
 
112 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 4. Compare two methods of making Welsh rabbit 
 with the two methods of making the dish where potatoes 
 are combined with cheese in Chapter II, pages 9 and 10. 
 
 5. Compare the making of the cream tomato soup with 
 the making of another soup made on a milk basis, given 
 in a preceding lesson. 
 
 6. Should the scale of the lactometer read up or down? 
 Why? Show why milk that has been skimmed and 
 then has water added might respond to the standard spe- 
 cific gravity test with the lactometer. 
 
 7. Discuss butter fat vs. butter as estimated by 
 Babcock's test. 
 
 8. Account for the relative cost of cream and of butter. 
 
 9. What is the nutritive ratio of milk? What bearing 
 has this on the suitability of milk as a food for the 
 young? 
 
 10. Discuss the changes brought about by the boiling 
 of milk. 
 
 11. Is milk to be considered as a beverage or as a solid 
 food? What bearing has this on our use of milk as a 
 beverage, whether it should be sipped slowly or swallowed 
 at a draught? What bearing has it on our combination 
 of milk with other foods? 
 
 12. Compare the three white sauces, and make a list 
 of the dishes which are based on each. Keep this list 
 on a separate page, so that you may add to it from time 
 to time 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Devise a method of pasteurizing milk. Consult 
 your instructor as to its practicality, and then carry out 
 your process, verifying its results by a comparison of the 
 behavior of raw milk with your pasteurized milk when 
 both are applied to some culture medium. 
 
 2. Show how a thin cream may be stiffened with gela- 
 tine and beaten to a froth. 
 
 3. Combine milk with sago, arrowroot, or some other 
 farinaceous food, with appropriate flavoring, and addition 
 of other substances so as to make a dish which shall have 
 an approximately correct nutrient ratio. 
 
113 
 
114 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 4. Make a cheese souffle on the basis of one-half cupful 
 of a thick white sauce and an equal quantity of cheese. 
 
 5. Devise attractive modes of serving cheese in com- 
 bination with green vegetables such as lettuce, cress, etc., 
 which are rich in potash salts. 
 
 6. Make a coffee, cocoa, or chocolate junket. 
 
 7. Mocha icing for cakes, etc., is made of butter, thor- 
 oughly washed in cold water until it is of a waxy consist- 
 ency, and then mixed with powdered sugar and flavored 
 with very strong coffee. It should be a rich brown color, 
 and have a strong flavor of coffee. Make a portion on 
 the basis of one-quarter cupful of butter. 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XXI. 
 
 Church. Foods, Part III. 
 
 Conn. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home, see Index. 
 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap. XVII. 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. VII, VIII, and IX. 
 
 Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lecture III and IV. 
 
 Lusk. Science of Nutrition, Chaps. IX and X. 
 
 Russell. Dairy Bacteriology. 
 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. VII. 
 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, Milk. 
 
 Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, Part JY. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: No. 9, The Fermen- 
 tations of Milk; 29, The Souring of Milk; 42, Facts About Milk; 63, 
 Care of Milk on the Farm; 74, Milk as Food, and 363, The Use of 
 Milk as Food. 
 
 Also, Farmers' Bulletin L31: Household Tests for the Detection of 
 Oleomargarine and Renovated Butter; and Bulletin 61, U. S. Dept. of 
 Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry: The Relation of Bacteria to 
 the Flavor of Cheddar Cheese. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 FATS 
 
 To the Student. The fats most commonly used in the 
 diet are cream, butter, and oHve oil. Fatty foods which 
 are so rich in this substance as almost to come under the 
 heading of pure fats are bacon, pork, many varieties of 
 nuts, some of the rich cream cheeses, the yolks of eggs, 
 chocolate, etc. Then there are the fats which are used 
 as a medium for conveying heat, as in deep fat frying, and 
 the fats which are used as shortening. 
 
 Since fat when overcooked is chemically changed to 
 such an extent as to become very unwholesome — even 
 poisonous — it is quite essential to know how to use fat 
 so that we may gain rather than lose in health and vigor 
 from employing it freely in our daily meals. 
 
 STUDY OF FAT IN COOKING SALAD DRESSINGS, ETC. 
 
 French Dressing 
 
 Ingredients and Proportions. One part of vinegar to 
 three of oil; about one-half teaspoonful of salt and one- 
 quarter teaspoonful of pepper to every three tablespoon- 
 fuls of oil. 
 
 Method. Mix the seasoning with the oil, then add the 
 vinegar slowly, stirring it well in, so that the dressing, 
 when finished, shall have the appearance of a grayish, 
 
 115 
 
116 
 
FATS 117 
 
 slightly thickened emulsion. In a well-made dressing 
 the taste of both the oil and the vinegar should be lost in 
 the blending of both. 
 
 This dressing is appropriate for all green salads. 
 
 Variations. The flavored vinegars, such as tarragon or 
 chervil, may be used if desired. Lemon juice may be sub- 
 stituted for vinegar, and this is by some considered whole- 
 somer. A dash of paprika, even a few grains of cayenne, 
 or a spoonful of onion juice, will be relished by many 
 persons. 
 
 Marinade ^ 
 
 This is a mixture in which the proportions of oil and 
 vinegar for a French dressing are reversed, so that one 
 part of oil to three of vinegar are used. A flavored marin- 
 ade has added to it the seasonings used in the regular 
 dressing. This is used to prepare either over-dry or flavor- 
 less substances for a salad. For instance, fish, potatoes, 
 the white meat of chicken, etc., are cut up and allowed 
 to stand in the marinade for a couple of hours before 
 making the salad, and a certain piquancy of flavor is 
 thus gained. Only a small amount of marinade should 
 be used for this purpose — not more than will be absorbed 
 by the food to be marinated. Such a salad is usually 
 served with a mayonnaise dressing. 
 
 An unflavored marinade is composed of vinegar and oil 
 without other seasoning. A tough steak may be immersed 
 in this for several hours, or overnight, to make it tender, 
 then drained, wiped, and broiled. Such a marinade 
 can be made in large quantity, and used over and 
 over again. 
 
 1 Note that the noun is marinade, while the verb is marinate, so that you could 
 say, " I will make a marinade to marinate the fish," 
 
118 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Mayonnaise 
 Ingredients and Proportions. 
 
 Yolk 1 egg. 3^ to 1 teaspoonful salt. 
 
 From 1 to 2 cupfuls oil. A dash cayenne. 
 
 1 to 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar, A teaspoonful each powdered 
 
 or half this quantity lemon sugar and dry mustard are 
 
 juice. optional. 
 
 Method. The oil and the egg yolk should be chilled be- 
 fore beginning the work, or if the weather is very warm 
 the mixing dish should be stood in a bowl of cracked ice. 
 Stir the seasoning into the egg yolk with a fork, then add 
 one drop of oil, and stir until this is thoroughly incorpo- 
 rated before adding another drop. Proceed to add the 
 oil, a drop at a time, until about a teaspoonful has been 
 used; then it may be added in larger quantity, or a thin 
 stream may be continuously poured from a utensil con- 
 structed for this purpose. When the dressing grows too 
 thick to be worked it should be carefully thinned out by 
 the addition of a few drops of the vinegar, and the oil and 
 vinegar should be thus alternated until the desired amount 
 of oil has been added. The yolk of one egg can be made to 
 take up a pint of oil, though only one-half this quantity 
 is generally allowed. 
 
 The mayonnaise, Avhen completed, should be smooth 
 and glossy in appearance, and in consistency it should 
 hang from the fork but not drop. 
 
 An expert can use many liberties in making this dress- 
 ing, but in inexperienced hands, even when great care is 
 used, the mixture will often separate slightly or curdle. 
 The best remedy is then to begin all over, using the curdled 
 dressing instead of oil to add to another egg yolk. 
 
 This dressing is appropriate for the heavier salads, such 
 as those of meat, fish, the more fleshy vegetables, etc. 
 
FATS 
 
 119 
 
 Variations. The yolk of one hard-boiled egg can be 
 blended with the yolk of one raw egg as a foundation for 
 the oil, and the danger of curdling will be minimized by 
 this method. 
 
 For a fruit salad enough of powdered sugar is used to 
 sweeten the mixture to taste, from one to two tablespoon- 
 fuls to a cupful of oil. 
 
 A red mayomiaise can be made with beet vinegar, or 
 pounded lobster coral can be added to the dressing when 
 finished. 
 
 For a green mayonnaise the juice from pounded raw 
 spinach should be heated very slightly until green flecks 
 can be separated; these are added to the dressing. If the 
 spinach juice is overheated the color will be changed. 
 
 A white mayomiaise has for its foundation a light- 
 colored yolk of egg, and lemon juice, which has a bleach- 
 ing effect, is substituted for vinegar. Or whipped cream, 
 or stiffly beaten white of egg, can be added to an ordinary 
 mayonnaise just before serving. 
 
 A mayonnaise tartare, sometimes called sauce tart are, 
 
 is a plain mayonnaise with chopped pickles of any desired 
 
 varieties added at serving time. 
 
 Note. A well-made mayonnaise wall keep good for several weeks 
 if poured into small jars or glasses, covered, and stored in the refriger- 
 ator. 
 
 Mock Mayonnaise No. i 
 Ingredients and Proportions. 
 
 3 eggs. 1 teaspoonful butter to each egg. 
 
 Yl tabiespoonful lemon juice Seasoning, salt, pepper, celery 
 
 to each egg. seed, paprika, or mustard 
 
 and sugar if desired. 
 
 Method. Beat the eggs very stiff. Add seasoning and 
 lemon juice, and beat again. Cook over hot water or in a 
 double boiler, beating or stirring until the mixture has 
 
120 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 thickened. Remove from fire, pour into a dish set in cold 
 water, add the butter, and stir until the dressing is cool. 
 
 Mock Mayonnaise No. 2, or Cooked Dressing. See 
 Dressing for Hot Slaw, Chapter X, page 85. 
 
 Cream Dressing 
 
 Ingredients and Proportions. Thick cream, and one- 
 fourth as much vinegar as cream. Seasoning of salt and 
 pepper, also paprika, celery salt, sugar, or other condi- 
 ments if desired. 
 
 Method. Whip the cream until stiff, add the season- 
 ing, lastly the vinegar, a little at a time, beating it well in. 
 
 Sour Cream Dressing 
 
 Ingredients and Proportions. Thick cream, slightly 
 soured, and one-eighth as much vinegar as cream. Season- 
 ing as for cream dressing. One or two hard-boiled yolks 
 of eggs, put through a ricer, may be added to each cupful 
 of the cream. 
 
 Method. Proceed as for cream dressing. 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR PREPARING SALADS 
 
 Green vegetables, that is, fresh, uncooked vegetables 
 such as celery, cress, lettuce, tomato, etc., must be cool 
 and crisp. To bring about this condition they should be 
 thoroughly washed, allowed to stand in fresh, cold water 
 until all signs of wilting or softening have disappeared, then 
 wrapped in a damp towel and placed in the refrigerator un- 
 til needed. The leaf vegetables in particular, such as let- 
 tuce, cabbage, romaine, or endive, seem to retain their crisp- 
 ness better if wrapped in a damp towel than if allowed to 
 stand in water, or if placed on a dish in the refrigerator. 
 
 Fruits, such as apples and oranges, should be chilled, 
 
FATS 121 
 
 but not pared or sliced until the last thing. Grapes, 
 cherries, etc., should be seeded or pitted. 
 
 Cooked foods, such as potatoes, beets, chicken, fish, 
 etc., may be sliced or cut in cubes and set away until 
 serving time. 
 
 The dressing, with the exception of a marinade, should 
 not be mixed with any green salad until just before it is 
 brought to the table, since the vinegar will cause fresh 
 vegetables to wilt. 
 
 In the combination of the various vegetables, fruits, 
 nuts, with one another or with meats or fish, there is un- 
 bounded scope for individual taste, as there is also in the 
 tasteful arrangement and decoration of every salad. The 
 illustrations on pages 113 and 116 will be perhaps sug- 
 gestive of new methods of combination or arrangement, 
 but everyone should be able to express her own tastes 
 and her own sense of the artistic in the construction 
 of some novel salad which shall be '' good for food, and 
 pleasant to the eyes." 
 
 DEEP FAT FRYING 
 
 Frying is a method of cooking food by immersing it in 
 very hot fat. Properly fried food should not be unwhole- 
 some for ordinarily healthy persons. The overheating 
 of the fat, to the point when chemical decomposition 
 takes place, and when the irritating or poisonous sub- 
 stances are formed which were mentioned at the beginning 
 of this chapter, is the most important thing to avoid in 
 this method of cooking. The beginning of this decomposi- 
 tion is usually indicated by the appearance of a delicate 
 blue smoke or vapor, which rises first from the sides of the 
 kettle, later from the whole surface of the fat. If the 
 articles to be fried are plunged into the fat at the first 
 
122 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 appearance of this vapor the temperature will be immedi- 
 ately lowered by the introduction of the cold food, and no 
 great harm will be done. This is why the best cookery 
 books direct that the food shall be immersed in the fat 
 when it first begins slightly to smoke at the sides of the 
 kettle. This test, however, is not the best for a novice to 
 depend on. A more excellent way is to use a thermometer 
 to test the temperature of the fat, first at its decomposi- 
 tion point, indicated by the blue vapor, next at the temper- 
 ature proper for frying. If the decomposition point of 
 the fat should be lower than 350-400° F., which is the 
 temperature commonly employed in frying, such a fat is 
 unfit to use for a cooking medium. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS IN HEATING FAT 
 
 In very small agate saucepans, or any other convenient 
 utensils, melt and gradually heat to smokingpoint sufficient 
 quantities of butter, lard, beef suet, olive oil or refined 
 cottonseed oil, and one or two of the commercial com- 
 pound shortenings, so that the bulb of a thermometer 
 registering about 600° F. or its equivalent on the Centi- 
 grade or other scale may be inserted in the fat as it heats. 
 
 Note in each case: (1) the color of a one-inch cube of 
 bread when dropped into the fat on its reaching a tempera- 
 ture of 350° F. and allowed to remain in it for exactly 
 1 m. (2) The color of a similar cube of bread when cooked 
 for forty seconds when the fat has reached 400° F. (3) The 
 temperature of each fat when the warning blue vapor ap- 
 pears at the sides of the saucepan. 
 
 Since the correct temperature for frying a cooked mix- 
 ture is 400° F., and that for an uncooked mixture is 350° F., 
 you will now be able to judge which kind of fat is the best 
 to use as a cooking medium. 
 
FATS 123 
 
 FRYING OF A COOKED MIXTURE 
 Croquettes 
 
 Make one-half cupful of thick white sauce (see Chapter 
 XII, page 110) . Mix with this twice its volume of chopped 
 meat or fish, chill (for convenience in handling), and form 
 into cylinders. Roll these lightly in finely sifted crumbs 
 (this is for the purpose of absorbing any moisture on the 
 outside), then dip into a mixture of beaten egg and water, 
 (one tablespoonful of water to each egg), and roll once 
 more in the sifted crumbs. The water is added to the egg 
 to keep it from forming a strong froth, and care should be 
 taken, for the same reason, not to beat the egg too much, 
 since the froth-bubbles prevent the formation of a uni- 
 form coating or envelope of the albumen, and this coat- 
 ing, hardening immediately as it does in the hot fat, keeps 
 the croquettes from being greasy. 
 
 Loose crumbs should be gently shaken off, and the 
 croquettes placed in a frying basket and lowered into the 
 fat. They should be cooked in 1 m. 
 
 Drain on absorbent paper, and keep hot until ready to 
 serve. 
 
 FRYING OF AN UNCOOKED MIXTURE 
 Banana Fritters 
 
 Sift one-half cupful of flour with a small pinch (one- 
 eighth teaspoonful) of salt and one teaspoonful of baking 
 powder. Stir this mixture into one-quarter cupful of 
 liquid, composed of equal parts of milk and beaten egg. 
 (One beaten egg mixed with one-quarter cupful of milk 
 will be sufficient for two students.) 
 
 Into the batter thus made stir from once to twice 
 its volume of pared and sliced bananas, and drop 
 
124 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 by tablespoonfuls into hot fat at the right temper- 
 ature for uncooked mixtures. Cook for 3 m., or 
 until the fritters rise to the surface, turn over, and 
 are nicely browned. 
 
 Lift out with a skimmer, drain, dust over with powdered 
 sugar, and serve with or without a simple sauce. 
 
 LEMON SAUCE 
 
 To Serve with Banana Fritters 
 
 Ingredients. Lemon juice, cornstarch, sugar, water, 
 butter. 
 
 Proportions. Four times as much sugar as lemon 
 juice; four times as much water as sugar. One tablespoon- 
 ful of cornstarch and one tablespoonful of butter to every 
 cup of water. 
 
 Method. Heat the water. Mix the sugar thoroughly 
 with the cornstarch, and stir into the hot or boiling water. 
 If the mixing of the sugar and cornstarch has been 
 thorough, and if the water is kept stirred while these are 
 being added, there will be no danger of lumping. Allow 
 to boil for a minute or less, stirring all the time, then re- 
 move from the fire, stir in the butter, let cool a little, and 
 add the lemon juice. 
 
 Make another portion of this sauce by cooking the 
 lemon juice in with the other ingredients, and see what 
 will happen. 
 
 Almond Butter 
 
 Pour boiling water over shelled almonds, and let them 
 stand in this for two or three minutes. Drain, put into 
 cold water for an instant, and then rub off the skins. 
 Stand the blanched nuts in a warm place until dry, grind 
 them finely in a food chopper, season very slightly with 
 
FATS 125 
 
 salt, and use as you would peanut butter for sandwiches, 
 etc. 
 
 (See charts for richness of almonds in fat. This fat is said to be 
 easier digested than the fat of any other nuts, with the exception of 
 the fat of pecans.) 
 
 Broiled Bacon 
 
 Method I. Cut off the rind, and cut the bacon into 
 very thin, delicate slices. Cook these in a hot pan, turn- 
 ing when the slices become transparent, and removing as 
 soon as well curled. Drain off the fat immediately, place 
 the cooked bacon slices on absorbent paper, and serve 
 either as a breakfast dish or as a garnish for omelet, 
 steak, etc. 
 
 Method 2. Place the bacon slices in an oyster broiler 
 over a dripping pan in a very hot oven, and cook until 
 transparent and beginning to brown at the edges. Serve 
 as before. 
 
 Compare the flavor of the two. Which of the principles 
 of cooking is illustrated here? 
 
 Deviled Marrow Bones 
 
 Bones from the shin (the fore leg), or the shank (the 
 hind leg), of beef should be cut into pieces from one to 
 three inches long and scraped clean. Seal the ends with 
 a paste made of flour and water in the proportion of four 
 to one, tie securely in cheesecloth, and boil for 15 m. for 
 the shorter, 25-30 m. for the longer bones. Remove the 
 paste, season with salt and cayenne, and serve the smaller 
 pieces on toast, the larger neatly wrapped in small 
 folded doihes, and garnished with parsley or cress. 
 
 Note. Marrow is a very easily digested and wholesome form of 
 fat, and served in this way is often greatly relished as a supper dish. 
 The marrow from the shank is thought to be firmer and less oily than 
 that from the shin. 
 
126 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 
 
 I 
 Emulsification of Fat 
 
 1. Shake up a small amount of olive or cod-liver oil or 
 cottonseed oil in a test tube with a few drops of a solu- 
 tion of sodium hydroxide or carbonate of soda. Does the 
 whitish substance which results remind you of a food you 
 have recently studied? Examine a drop of this whitish 
 mass under the microscope. 
 
 2. Shake up as before a small amount of oil with a little 
 egg albumin dissolved in water. Examine under the 
 microscope as before. 
 
 II 
 
 Solubility of Fat 
 
 1. Shake up small portions of fat in a test tube with the 
 following, respectively: Water, alcohol (both cold and 
 hot), turpentine, ether. Determine which are solvents 
 of fat, and to what extent. 
 
 Ill 
 Decomposition of Fat 
 
 1. Heat a little oil or other fat in a test tube until it 
 turns brown and dense brown fumes are given off. Note 
 the irritating effect of these fumes. Continue heating 
 until no further change takes place. 
 
 2. Heat a little glycerine until similar dense brown 
 fumes are given off. 
 
 Note. Only exceedingly small portions of above should be used in 
 the last experiments, to avoid excess of the disagreeable fumes. 
 
QUESTIONS 127 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The physical structure of fatty or adipose tissue. 
 
 2. The chemical composition of fat. The principal 
 fatty acids and how their predominance in the common 
 fatty foods affects the solidity, the melting point, etc., of 
 these foods. 
 
 3. The value of fat as food, its digestion and assimila- 
 tion. The amount required in health. Its use in disease. 
 
 4. Fat as a protein sparer; how it compares with the 
 carbohydrates, with gelatine, as a proteid sparer. Nations 
 and races that make abundant use of fat in the diet. 
 
 5. The difference between the fats and the hydrocar- 
 bons. The difference between the fixed and the volatile 
 oils. 
 
 6. Industries which deal with fats; the lard-making 
 and fat-rendering industry; the soap manufactories; the 
 manufacture of olive oil, of cottonseed oil, etc. 
 
 7. Food laws which relate to various fats. 
 
 8. The value of salads in the diet. The elements in 
 salads that are nutritious, or tissue building ; the elements 
 that are wholesome, appetizing, purifying to the system 
 by the action of vegetable acids or salts, etc. 
 
 9. National customs with regard to the use of salads. 
 
 10. Conditions under which aconitic and acrylic acids 
 are formed during cooking processes. 
 
 Note. Much that is new, and that has an important bearing on the 
 fats, is now being brought out by organic chemistry. Advanced students 
 will be interested to study the later theories of em ulsifi cation, colloidal 
 solution, hydrolysis, and saponification if they are qualified by previous 
 training to pursue the subject. Very important problems will be found 
 to be involved in trying to understand what kind of change is brought 
 about in the mixing of even such a simple thing as a French dressing 
 — not to speak of a mayonnaise. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Discuss the costliness of some of the fatty foods. 
 Name some of the less expensive fats, and suggest methods 
 of making them palatable. 
 
 2. What foods are especially deficient in fats? 
 
128 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 3. Name some foods rich in both fat and protein. 
 
 4. Name some foods rich in fat and carbohydrate. 
 
 5. In what diseases is fat thought to be especially bene- 
 ficial? In what cases should it be sparingly used? 
 
 6. When, broadly speaking, may fat be preferable to 
 carbohydrate, and when may carbohydrate be preferable 
 to fat, as a source of energy? Consider, in this answer, 
 various occupations, factory workers, sempstresses, farm- 
 ers, lumbermen, tailors, etc. 
 
 7. Which fatty foods are rich in stearin? which in 
 olein? What is peculiar about butter as a fatty food? 
 What happens when butter or other fats become rancid? 
 
 8. Why, in making a white sauce, should you be very 
 careful merely to soften the butter, and not to overcook 
 it, preparatory to blending with it the other ingredients? 
 
 9. Discuss oleomargarine vs. butter for table use; for 
 use in cooking. 
 
 10. Ammonia is found to be a by-product of the lard- 
 rendering works. Try to account for its formation under 
 the conditions of the manufacture of lard. 
 
 11. Similarly account for the production of glycerine as 
 a by-product of the soap factory. 
 
 12. Trace, so far as you can, the relation between the 
 experiments and the practical work outlined in this chapter. 
 
 13. If you dropped grease on your apron or dress, how 
 might you best remove it? Name some other practical 
 applications in the work of the home of your knowledge 
 regarding the solvents of fat. 
 
 14. Enumerate the principles of the preparation of fats 
 for food that you have learned in using the recipes in this 
 chapter. 
 
 15. What principle has been reviewed in this chapter? 
 What new principle has been learned in the making of the 
 lemon sauce? 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Nutted cream is a rich dessert made of thick cream, 
 sweetened, flavored, mixed with chopped almonds or 
 pecans, then chilled, molded, sprinkled with very finely 
 
EXERCISES 129 
 
 chopped nuts on being turned out of the mold, and served 
 with a fruit sauce. A small amount of gelatine will be 
 needed to stiffen the mold. Make a nutted cream on the 
 basis of one cupful of cream. 
 
 2. A suet pudding is made of equal parts of finely 
 chopped suet, molasses, and milk, with three times as 
 much flour as suet. Salt, one-fourth teaspoonful to each 
 cupful of flour, and baking powder, from one to two tea- 
 spoonfuls to a cupful of flour, are added. Either nutmeg, 
 or other ground spice, and dried fruit make a very wel- 
 come addition. Make a suet pudding on the basis of one- 
 half cupful of flour. The pudding may be steamed in a 
 well-greased mold, or tied in a floured cloth and cooked in 
 boiling water. 
 
 3. '^ Scrapple " is a dish made of corn-meal mush, with 
 salt pork, previously cooked and chopped, stirred into 
 it. The mixture may be molded in bread tins, and when 
 cold can be sliced and fried. Make a small mold of 
 scrapple. 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XVIII. 
 
 Chittenden. Physiological Economy in Nutrition, Chaps. I, II, III. 
 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chaps. IV, V, VII. 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, see Index. 
 
 Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lectures IV and IX. 
 
 Lusk. The Science of Nutrition, Chap. VII. 
 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chap. I; also see Index. 
 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. I. 
 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 
 
 Wiley. Foods and Food Adulterants, see Index. 
 
 Any text on Organic Chemistry for aconitic and acrylic acids. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 CEREALS AND OTHER STARCHY FOODS 
 
 To the Student. From the work of the preceding 
 chapters you have learned that some foods are made very 
 much more appetizing by cooking, from the development 
 of flavor; that some foods are rendered more and some are 
 rendered less digestible by cooking processes, so that 
 we often sacrifice wholesomeness for the sake of delicious- 
 ness; and that all foods are sterilized by the application 
 of heat. In cooking the cereals it is safe to assume that 
 only the best results may be expected, for the flavor of the 
 grains, though slight, will be developed, the digestibility 
 will be increased, and sterilization will be insured. But 
 of these three results of cooking the most essential as 
 regards the cereals, that is, the digestibility, is almost 
 wholly dependent on the cooking processes. Hence in the 
 preparation of these grains we shall aim at this result 
 alone, and the other two will be found to take care of 
 themselves. 
 
 Since a double boiler, or its equivalent in some other 
 form of utensil, is commonly used in the cooking of cereals 
 and other foods, it would be interesting for you to devise 
 a means of ascertaining the temperature of the water that 
 is in the inside part of a double boiler when the water in 
 the outside part is boiling. One or more girls in the class 
 
 130 
 
CEREALS AND OTHER STARCHY FOODS 131 
 
 might demonstrate this experiment to the others. Differ- 
 ent styles of double boilers should be used, holding differ- 
 ent amounts of water in the outside compartment; double 
 boilers having kettles of different material, agateware, 
 aluminum, etc., should be experimented with, and the 
 effect of prolonged cooking on the temperature of the con- 
 tents of the inner kettle should also be ascertained. 
 
 GENERAL RULES FOR THE COOKERY OF CEREALS 
 
 Ingredients. Water, salt, cereal. 
 
 Proportions. From one-half to one teaspoonful of salt 
 for every cup of water used is a good proportion of this 
 ingredient. 
 
 The proportions of cereal to water vary according to 
 the kind of cereal used, the method of manufacture, and 
 the consistency preferred by the cook. The somewhat ar- 
 bitrary terms ''gruel," ''mush," and "porridge" have been 
 applied to varying degrees of thickness, the gruel being a 
 watery, almost fluid mixture, the mush a much thicker 
 preparation, and the porridge the stiffest of the three. 
 Four times as much water, by weight, as cereal is a good 
 working proportion, but one that must be modified by 
 the conditions just mentioned, particularly by that of the 
 taste of the individual. 
 
 Method. Add the salt to the water, and boil the mixture 
 in the inside part of a double boiler. Add the dry cereal 
 slowly to the boiling water, stirring meanwhile to increase 
 the agitation of the water. Let it boil for from three to 
 five minutes, stirring only occasionally, for prolonged 
 stirring during the cooking process is apt to make the 
 cereal waxy. Put on the cover, and place the kettle in 
 the outside part of the double boiler, which should be 
 filled one-third full with boiling water. Cook, closely 
 
132 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 covered, for the length of time required, and keep up the 
 quantity of water in the outside boiler if this should boil 
 away. 
 
 Cereal cooked in a fireless cooker will, of course, need no 
 further attention after the compartment is covered. 
 
 Note. Corn meal, and perhaps one or two other cereals of simi- 
 lar texture, should be mixed with an equal volume of cold water before 
 being stirred into the boiling water, to avoid lumping. The volume of 
 cold water used should be allowed for in measuring the proportion of 
 water to cereal. 
 
 STUDY OF CEREAL IN COOKING 
 
 Method I. To one cupful of rapidly boiling salted 
 water add two ounces of any of the quick-cooking break- 
 fast cereals. Boil for 3 m., cover, place in double boiler, 
 and cook for one hour. 
 
 Method 2. Put on the cereal in cold, salted water, let 
 it come to a boil, allow to boil for 3 m., and proceed as 
 before. 
 
 Method 3. Cook the same amount of cereal in the 
 manner and for the time prescribed in the directions on 
 the box. 
 
 Compare the three, as to taste and consistency, and 
 frame, as a result of your experiments, the rule regarding 
 the proportion of water to cereal that you think most ap- 
 propriate for this particular variety. Remember, how- 
 ever, that great exactness is impossible, since the com- 
 position of the same cereal will vary from year to year, 
 according to soil, season, and other factors. 
 
 Method 4. Cook for from six to ten hours a similar 
 proportion of cereal and water to the proportion used in 
 Methods 1 and 2, but a much larger quantity should 
 be prepared, lest the small amount should dry out too 
 much during the prolonged cooking process. The cereal 
 in this case might be cooked at home by some member 
 
CEREALS AND OTHER STARCHY FOODS 133 
 
 of the class, or the process started earlier in the day by 
 some student who has time. 
 
 Method 5. Divide the cereal cooked by the first, 
 second, or third method into three parts — A, B, and C. 
 To A, previously cooled to from 100° to 150° F., add one 
 teaspoonful of dry malt flour. Mix, and allow to stand 
 for 5 m. Keep B at boiling point, and add to it a similar 
 quantity of the malt flour, cooking the mixture for 5 m. 
 Let C remain for a control test. Compare all three as to 
 taste and consistency. 
 
 Note. Malt flour can be obtained at any of the manufactories 
 of malted breakfast foods, or it may be made by grinding up some 
 barley or other grain that has been allowed to sprout in a shallow 
 dish of water until the young shoots are about as long as the grain. 
 
 ACCOMPANIMENTS TO CEREALS 
 
 Dates, or any other dried fruit, chopped and lightly 
 stirred in a few minutes before removing the cereal from 
 the fire, make a pleasing variety. Or the cooked cereal 
 may be served with baked apple or apple sauce. Or a 
 spoonful of fig marmalade, made by pressing steamed figs 
 through a colander, tastes good with rice, or cereals of 
 undecided flavor. 
 
 Cream is a logical accompaniment to the breakfast 
 cereal, since it supplies the fat in which most of the grains 
 are deficient. 
 
 Boiled Macaroni 
 
 Break some sticks of macaroni into one-inch pieces until 
 you have from one-quarter to one-half a cupful. Cook in 
 a large quantity of boiling, salted water until done. The 
 time for cooking depends on both the method of manufac- 
 ture and the age of the macaroni, and varies from 20 to 
 40 m. When done, the strips, if cut across, should not 
 show a thin line of uncooked paste in the center. 
 
134 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 The macaroni should be drained when cooked, and 
 some persons like to hold the colander for a moment 
 under a stream of cold water from the faucet, so as to 
 prevent the strips from clinging to one another. 
 
 The boiled macaroni may be served with a white sauce, 
 or may be combined with tomato like cabbage (see 
 Chapter III, page 16), or with cheese like potato (see 
 Chapter II, page 9), or it may be mixed with apple sauce. 
 
 SPONGE PUDDINGS 
 Lemon Sponge 
 
 Ingredients. One cup of water, a pinch (one-eighth 
 teaspoonful) of salt, four tablespoonfuls of sugar, two of 
 lemon juice, and one and one-half of cornstarch. The 
 whites of one or two eggs, stiffly beaten. 
 
 Method. Boil the water, add the salt, then the corn- 
 starch, either blended with sugar or rubbed to a smooth 
 paste with a little cold water. Cook in a double boiler 
 for 30 m., or for 15 m. if cooked directly over the fire. In 
 the latter case the mixture should be constantly stirred to 
 avoid burning. Remove from the heat, and while still 
 in the saucepan beat in the stiffly beaten whites of eggs. 
 Add the lemon juice, beating this in also. Mold and chill. 
 
 Repeat this pudding, using the following method. Add 
 the lemon juice, sugar, and cornstarch at the same time, 
 and cook them together for 15 to 30 m.; then proceed as 
 before. 
 
 Compare the flavor and consistency of the two puddings. 
 
 Orange Sponge 
 
 Omit the lemon juice, and substitute orange juice for 
 part or all of the water. A good proportion is half and 
 half, orange juice and water. Cook the cornstarch in this 
 
CEREALS AND OTHER STARCHY FOODS 135 
 
 mixture for half the time allowed for the lemon sponge, ' 
 add the sugar, then the beaten whites of eggs. Mold, etc., 
 as before. 
 
 Compare the flavor and consistency of this pudding 
 with that of the lemon pudding made by the first method. 
 
 Note. The lemon and orange sponge puddings were chosen for 
 the purpose of illustrating a principle in the cooking of starch and a 
 principle in the cooking of lemon juice. Other delicious sponge pud- 
 dings may be made by using grape juice, huckleberry juice, the juice 
 from canned or preserved fruit — that from canned cherries being 
 particularly good — or indeed almost any fruit juice or fruit pulp. 
 
 Experiments to Illustrate Methods of Inducing 
 Chemical Change in Starch 
 
 Prepare a starch paste by boiling for a few seconds five 
 grams of pure potato starch with 500 cc. of distilled water. 
 The starch should be rubbed to a paste in a little of the 
 water before it is boiled, and this portion stirred into the 
 remainder of the water as it boils. 
 
 Prepare a solution of iodine by dissolving two grams 
 of potassium iodide in 100 cc. of water. Add to this one 
 gram of pure iodine, and shake the whole well together. 
 This solution may be stored for future experimentation, 
 but should be diluted to a strength of 23^ per cent, or 5 cc. 
 of the solution to 200 cc. of water, before use. 
 
 1. To 15 cc. of the starch paste in a test tube add two 
 drops of a 20 per cent solution of sulphuric acid. Boil 
 for some minutes, testing from time to time by taking out 
 a drop on the end of a glass rod, dropping it on a dish, and 
 adding to it one drop of the diluted iodine solution. 
 
 2. To 15 cc. of the starch paste in a test tube add a 
 little malt flour. Heat gently to blood- warm, and main- 
 tain at this temperature in a water bath for several 
 minutes. Test from time to time as before. 
 
136 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 3. In two test tubes, A and B, collect small quantities 
 of saliva. To A add an equal volume of lemon juice, 
 vinegar, or any acid used in the preparation of food. 
 Let the mixture stand for a few minutes, then add to tubes 
 A and B a volume of the starch paste equal to the con- 
 tents of each tube. Keep the two in a water bath at about 
 blood-warm temperature and test their contents from 
 time to time with iodine until no color change occurs 
 in B. 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The structure of the cereal grains in general. Dia- 
 grams of the starch grains of the cereals. 
 
 2. The composition of the cereal grains in general. 
 The particular grains which are richest in protein, in fat, 
 in carbohydrate, in minerals. How methods of manu- 
 facture of various cereal preparations affect or modify 
 their original composition. 
 
 3. Comparison of the cost and nutritive value of the 
 ready-prepared cereals, such as shredded wheat biscuit, 
 puffed rice, or corn flakes, with that of two or more of the 
 grains which need cooking before being served. The basis 
 of this comparison might be the 100-calorie portion. 
 (See charts, page 218.) 
 
 4. National customs with regard to the use of cereal 
 grains in the diet. 
 
 5. The structure of starch grains in general. 
 
 6. A comparison of the differences in the structure of the 
 starch grains of different cereals, of potato, arrowroot, etc. 
 
 7. The starch-digesting ferments in the grains; in the 
 human digestive secretions. Conditions which inhibit 
 the action of these enzymes. Some steps in the digestion 
 or hydrolysis of starch. 
 
 8. The cycle of carbon in nature. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Reviewing the work of your course so far, name as 
 many foods as you can which have the flavor decidedly 
 
QUESTIONS 137 
 
 developed by cooking ; which are rendered more digest- 
 ible by cooking; which are rendered less digestible by 
 cooking. 
 
 2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the 
 double boiler as a cooking utensil. 
 
 3. What cereal is the most nutritious, that is, yields the 
 largest amount of protein and calories for the smallest 
 cost? (See charts, page 218.) 
 
 4. Which of the cereal preparations, considering its 
 nutritive value, is the most expensive? What justifies the 
 purchase of the more expensive preparations? In what 
 cases might the saving of time, labor, and fuel be more 
 than equivalent to the extra cost of an expensive, ready- 
 prepared cereal? In what cases might the housewife more 
 profitably utilize her own time and energy in the prepara- 
 tion of the breakfast cereal? 
 
 5. Why did the cereal cooked by Method 5-A become 
 thinner or more liquid in consistency than the other two 
 parts of the same cereal experimented with in this step 
 of the lesson? 
 
 6. Account for the alteration in the flavor of the lemon 
 juice brought about by the second method of cooking the 
 lemon sponge pudding. What rule regarding the method 
 of using lemon juice in cooking can you frame from this 
 experience? 
 
 7. Account for the difference in consistency of the 
 orange sponge as compared with that of the lemon sponge 
 made by the first method. 
 
 8. Why is it especially important that a breakfast mush 
 or porridge should be thoroughly cooked? Can you infer 
 from any of the steps in your formal experiments why a 
 cereal that is so prepared as to be readilj^ swallowed needs 
 more thorough cooking than a dry-cereal preparation? 
 
 9. Discuss fully the effect of acid on starch; of acid on 
 the action of saliva. Frame, on this basis, some rules for 
 the correct preparation of starchy foods; for correct com- 
 binations of starchy foods with fruits, etc. 
 
 10. Trace the relation of your experiments to the 
 practical work of this chapter. 
 
138 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Devise a method for raising the temperature of the 
 contents of the inside part of a double boiler. Consult 
 your instructor before demonstrating your method. 
 
 2. Demonstrate three acceptable methods of utilizing 
 left-over cereal. 
 
 3. Using three different starchy materials — flour, corn- 
 starch, and arrowroot — make three small molds, using 
 equal quantities of liquid, so as to estimate the proportion 
 of each starchy substance which is needed to stiffen a 
 mold. Begin with one tablespoonful of arrowroot to a 
 cup of liquid. Recall the experience you have already 
 had with flour and cornstarch as a means of determin- 
 ing what initial amount of each you shall use in this 
 experiment. 
 
 4. Combine cornstarch, lemon juice, gelatine, and white 
 of egg, together with sugar, in some dish, showing how you 
 have dealt with each of the first four substances so as to 
 make it contribute as effectively as possible to the suc- 
 cess of the dish. 
 
 5. By means of two simple dishes, show the effect of 
 water and heat, and water, heat, and acid, on the same 
 quantity of any starchy food so as to illustrate in each 
 case the degree of solubility (or hydrolysis) brought about 
 by the reagents used. 
 
 6. Make a chocolate sponge pudding. 
 
 7. Make a Turkish pilaff, using such a proportion of 
 rice, chicken (or veal), etc., as to make a good nutrient 
 ratio. 
 
 8. Using the 100-calorie portion, plan and carry out a 
 combination of foods, including one of the cereals, in one 
 or more dishes which shall furnish a balanced ration for 
 a breakfast for one or more persons. 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chaps. XI and XIII. 
 Chittenden. Physiological Economy in Nutrition, Chap. I. 
 Church. Foods, Part II. 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chaps. II and V. 
 
EXERCISES 139 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. X and XI. 
 
 Parloa. Home Economics, see Index. 
 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, Chap. II. 
 
 bmith. What to Eat and Why, p. 47. (Ed. 1911.) 
 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 
 
 Wiley. Foods and their Adulteration, Part V. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS 
 
 Analysis by Students. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF 1 LB. OF FLOUR 
 
 1. 1 lb. (3 cups) flour. 
 
 2. 14 oz. carbohydrates in 1 
 
 flour. 
 
 3. L7 oz. protein in 1 lb. flour. 
 
 4. .2 oz. fat in 1 lb. flour, 
 lb. 5. 1.8 oz. water in 1 lb. flour. 
 6. .1 oz. minerals in 1 lb. flour. 
 
 PART L BATTERS 
 
 To the Student. As soon as you have a good working 
 knowledge of the scientific principles which underhe many 
 cooking processes, and have gained some amount of skill 
 in the simple technique of everyday dishes, you should be 
 able to use the art of cooking, like any other art, as a 
 means of self-expression. The art of cooking is chiefly 
 the art of making things taste good, of developing, modify- 
 ing, or enhancing flavor, of making delicious combina- 
 tions of different substances in one dish. As you gain 
 more and more freedom in the use of this art your cook- 
 ing will become more and more individual, so that if 
 
 140 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS! BATTERS 141 
 
 you really have the gift your cooking will finally be as 
 distinctive as your handwriting, and your friends will 
 enjoy things to eat in your house that they cannot get 
 anywhere else. 
 
 In the work in Flour Mixtures you will find a great deal 
 of scope for originality and invention. You will learn 
 from the selected recipes that certain things are essential 
 in every batter or dough. These have to be carefully 
 measured, and their proportions correctly observed. But 
 there are many more things which are non-essential, and 
 it is chiefly on these that the flavor of the dish depends. 
 On your ability to use the non-essentials, or the condi- 
 ments, with judgment, as well as on your ability to ma- 
 nipulate skillfully where manipulation affects flavor, will 
 depend your success in originating delicious combina- 
 tions as soon as your experience warrants your attempt- 
 ing new departures. 
 
 THE THIN BATTER 
 
 A thin batter is one that has the consistency of heavy 
 cream, or molasses, or such a fluid as will be so thick as 
 barely to find its level immediately on pouring from one 
 vessel to another. This mixture usually calls for equal 
 parts of flour and wetting. No exact proportion of either 
 of these ingredients can be given, since many liquids, 
 such as milk, contain solids in suspension ui varying 
 degree, and the thickening property of different brands 
 of flour varies even more. Judgment has to be used in 
 adding the dry materials to the wetting, so as to make a 
 batter of the proper consistency; but fortunately a very 
 little experience is sufficient to give a fair working knowl- 
 edge. 
 
142 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE THIN BATTER 
 
 Griddle Cakes or Pancakes 
 Ingredients. 
 
 2 cups flour. 1 teaspoonful baking soda. 
 
 }/2 teaspoonful salt. 2 cups sour milk, just clabbered. 
 
 Method. Mix and sift together the dry ingredients, 
 being careful to sift the soda free from lumps. Add the 
 dry ingredients to the liquid, stir to a smooth batter, beat 
 until bubbling, and cook by pouring a measured quantity 
 at a time on a hot, slightly greased griddle. This recipe 
 will make sixteen cakes. 
 
 For your individual experimentation it will be better to 
 use one-eighth of the quantity; that is, to work on the 
 basis of one-quarter of a cup of flour. This will make two 
 small cakes, and if you cook one of these on a greased 
 griddle, and the other on a soapstone — if one is available 
 — and compare the appearance, flavor, and tenderness of 
 the two, you will learn something interesting. 
 
 Sweet Milk Griddle Cakes, or Pancakes 
 
 Substitute sweet for sour milk, and baking powder for 
 soda. Two teaspoonfuls of baking powder may be allowed 
 to one cup of flour. 
 
 Compare the thickness of the batter in each case, and 
 the lightness and flavor of the cakes. 
 
 Note. The foregoing are the simplest forms of the pancake batter, 
 or, one may say, the elementary forms of this mixture. From working 
 with this minimum of ingredients at first (and remember, a good cook 
 can obtain excellent results under these conditions) you will be much 
 better able to appreciate the efi^ect of adding other substances to your 
 batters. The addition of these substances may be studied in the fol- 
 lowing. 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: BATTERS 143 
 
 VARIATIONS ON THE PANCAKE BATTER 
 
 To Improve the Lightness of the Batter. Stiffly beaten 
 egg, added to either of the pancake mixtures, will make 
 them lighter, and this effect will be more pronounced if 
 the yolks and whites are beaten separately, and the stiffly 
 beaten whites added the last thing. One egg to every 
 cup of flour is an ample allowance, and since an egg is in 
 large part a liquid, from one-eighth to one-quarter of a 
 cup of the milk may be subtracted for every egg used. 
 Judgment and experience, however, will enable you to 
 form rules for yourself in this matter. In the case of the 
 sour-milk cakes, additional lightness may be produced by 
 using baking powder in addition to the soda, part for 
 part; that is, one teaspoonful of baking powder for every 
 teaspoonful of soda called for by the recipe. 
 
 To Improve the Consistency of the Cakes. The addi- 
 tion of butter, or some form of shortening, to the batter 
 will make the cakes tender. This shortening may be 
 melted and stirred the last thing into the batter. From 
 one to two tablespoonfuls to one cup of flour is an ample 
 proportion. 
 
 To Improve the Flavor of the Cakes. A small amount 
 of sugar, from one teaspoonful to one tablespoonful for 
 each cup of flour, will give a mellow flavor, taking off the 
 rough edges, as it were, and imparting what may be 
 called a '' finish " to the taste of the dish. A little molasses 
 is sometimes used, but in either case you should be very 
 careful not to use the sweetening in excess, or so that the 
 sweet taste can be observed. The sugar should be flavor- 
 ing but not sweetening. 
 
144 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 DERIVATIVES OF THE PANCAKE BATTER 
 
 Cooked rice, or other cooked cereal, stirred into the 
 batter cup for cup, or less, will make delicious cakes. 
 
 Fine, sifted bread crumbs may be substituted either 
 wholly or in part for the flour. In this case much more 
 liquid will be needed, the amount depending on the stale- 
 ness of the crumbs. 
 
 Berry griddle cakes have huckleberries, blueberries, or 
 any suitable berry stirred into the batter the last thing. 
 Chopped apples could also be used, or dried fruit. 
 
 Mashed potato, about half as much potato as pancake 
 batter, makes delicious cakes, and squash used in the same 
 way will be relished as a variety. 
 
 Graham, buckwheat, and other kinds of flour will yield 
 pancakes after their kind, so that a great variety of break- 
 fast cakes may be constructed on the original, fundamental 
 recipe. 
 
 Fritter Batter i . This is a pancake batter made wit*h 
 sweet milk, eggs — one or two to a cup of flour — only 
 one teaspoonful of baking powder to a cup of flour, and 
 only a trace of butter, one teaspoonful or less, to a cup of 
 flour, to give smoothness. An excess of fat will cause the 
 fritter to fly to pieces if fried in deep fat. This thin fritter 
 batter may be used for corn fritters, or any fritter which 
 is cooked in a shallow pan by the method known as saute- 
 ing, or for oyster fritters, sliced apple fritters, or others 
 which are merely coated with batter and where the shape 
 of the food so coated is meant to be preserved. 
 
 Waffles. This is the sweet milk batter, enriched by 
 eggs, and with a tablespoonful of butter, or more, allowed 
 to each cup of flour. 
 
 French Pancakes. These are just common pancakes, 
 
PLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: BATTERS 
 
 145 
 
 with or without eggs or butter, as you prefer, but made very 
 thin, and glorified by being spread with jelly, rolled like 
 a jelly-roll, and served with a sifting of powdered sugar. 
 
 Popovers. This is a thin batter made of one cup of 
 flour, one-quarter of a teaspoonful of salt, one cup of milk, 
 and one egg. The first three ingredients are mixed to a 
 smooth batter, then the unbeaten egg is dropped into 
 the bowl and the whole is beaten vigorously with a Dover 
 beater for 5 m. The batter is then poured into well- 
 greased popover cups, and baked until big, inflated 
 bubbles swell up over the cups. 
 
 POPOVERS 
 
 Popovers may be served hot and fresh from the oven, 
 with butter, for breakfast; or they can be filled with 
 apple sauce, through a hole punched in the top, and 
 served for a luncheon dessert. 
 
 Chopped raisins or currants may be added to the pop- 
 over batter for variety. 
 
 Note. A skillful cook can make popovers or "puffs" without the 
 
 use of egg, which is added merely to give more tenacity to the batter. 
 
 Popovers can be baked with gradually increasing heat, when they 
 
146 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 will puff up better and retain their shape better. Or they can be put 
 at once into a very hot oven, when a crust will immediately form, 
 and later will probably be ruptured, the mixture "popping" out at 
 the sides. When baked by this method they will very likely be soft 
 in the inside. (Why?) From one-half to three-quarters of an hour will be 
 needed for the baking, and the oven door must not be opened for the 
 first fifteen minutes — and then only enough to take a little peek, to see 
 that everything is going right. 
 
 THE THICK BATTER 
 
 A thick batter is one that will not immediately find its 
 level when poured into the baking pan, but will require 
 perhaps a minute, or even more, to settle. This mixture 
 usually calls for twice as much flour as wetting, though, 
 as in the case of the thin batter, much will depend on the 
 kind of flour used. The given proportions in any of these 
 rules will have to be modified by judgment and experience. 
 
 The thick batter is also called the drop batter, or the 
 muffin batter. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE THICK BATTER 
 Muffins (Standard Recipe for) 
 
 Ingredients. Two cups of flour, one-half teaspoonful 
 of salt, four teaspoonfuls of baking powder, two to four 
 tablespoonfuls of butter or other shortening, one cup of 
 liquid, which may be three-quarters of a cup of milk or 
 water, and one egg. 
 
 Method. Sift the dry ingredients, and rub the shorten- 
 ing into the mixture with the tips of the fingers; or it may 
 be melted and added as in pancakes. Beat the egg, add 
 the milk, then stir the dry materials into the liquid until 
 a smooth batter, of the right consistency, is formed. 
 
 This is poured or dropped by spoonfuls into greased 
 muffin pans and baked in a hot oven for about 20 m., or 
 until the muffins are well browned, firm to the touch of 
 
FLOITR MIXTUKES AND LEAVENS: BATTERS 147 
 
 the finger, and have shrunken shghtly from the sides of 
 the pans. 
 
 The quantity given will make eight large muffins. 
 
 Variations. Cold boiled rice, or any left-over break- 
 fast cereal, may be added to the muffin batter in equal 
 parts, or less, as in the case of pancakes. For good muffins, 
 however, extra leaven in the shape of either eggs or bak- 
 ing powder should be added to overcome the heaviness 
 apt to result from the addition of the cereal. 
 
 Graham, whole wheat, or other kinds of flour or meal 
 may be used, as in pancakes, singly or in combination 
 with the wheat flour. 
 
 Berries or fruit can be added, too, or chopped nuts. 
 
 Fritter Batter 2. This is a muffin batter made similarly 
 to the fritter batter based on the pancake mixture; that 
 is, one enriched by eggs, but with only a very little butter. 
 This thicker fritter batter is appropriate to use where 
 fritters of chopped fruit, meat, or fish are dropped by 
 spoonfuls into deep fat, and irregular, " lumpy " shapes 
 result. Banana fritters made in this way are particularly 
 good. (See Chapter XIII, page 123.) 
 
 Steamed Puddings. A muffin batter, sweetened with 
 about half as much sugar as flour, made as plain 
 or as rich as you please, and spiced, if you like it, 
 with nutmeg or clove, one teaspoonful to a cup of flour, 
 makes an excellent steamed pudding. Chopped apples, 
 peaches, figs, raisins, or fresh berries may be added if 
 desired. 
 
 Quick Cakes. The steamed pudding mixture described 
 above will, if baked, yield an astonishing variety of quick 
 cakes, cakes that are made quickly and are meant to be 
 eaten quickly — while hot from the oven, if you wish. 
 
148 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS, ETC., 
 IN FLOUR MIXTURES 
 
 The following studies may profitably be made, if time 
 allows, either in school or at home. 
 
 Effect of Egg in a Flour Mixture 
 
 1. Make a thick batter, on the basis of one cup of flour. 
 Omit the butter, but add sugar and fruit as directed for 
 a steamed pudding. Steam for one hour in a greased mold. 
 
 2. Make a similar batter, but add, just before the fruit 
 is put in, one well-beaten egg. Steam as before. 
 
 3. Make a third batter, to which an egg is added in the 
 following manner: Separate the yolk and white. Beat 
 the yolk, and add it to the milk; beat the white stiffly, and 
 cut or fold it into the batter the last thing. Steam as 
 before. 
 
 Compare. Which pudding rose the highest? Which the 
 next highest? How much baking powder could be de- 
 ducted when beaten egg is used? How much when the 
 yolk and white are beaten separately? 
 
 Which batter was the softest? (Note in which the 
 fruit sank the most.) How much flour could be added to 
 make up for the '^ wetting " effect of the egg? (This 
 might be the basis of a new experiment.) 
 
 Butter and Egg Complemental in a Flour Mixture 
 
 1. Make a thick batter, using flour, salt, baking powder, 
 sugar, with milk and egg in equal parts for wetting. Mix 
 as usual, and bake in greased gem pans. 
 
 2. Make a thick batter, using the same dry ingredients 
 as before, but omitting the egg and using milk alone for 
 the wetting. Add to the batter melted butter in the pro- 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: BATTERS 149 
 
 portion of two tablespoonfuls for every cup of flour used, 
 stir the mixture well, and bake as before. 
 
 3. Make a batter similar to 1, but stir into this for 
 the last thing melted butter in the same proportion 
 used in 2. Bake as before. 
 
 Compare. Which muffin was the tenderest? Which 
 the toughest? Which rose the highest? Which rose the 
 least? What ingredient contributed to the toughening 
 of the mixture? What ingredient counteracted this 
 effect? Which of the ingredients helped the mixture to 
 rise? Which seemed to retard the rising? 
 
 Can you estimate what proportion of butter is com- 
 plemental in its effects to the effect of one egg in an ordi- 
 nary flour mixture? 
 
 Experiments in the Use of Bread Flour and 
 Pastry Flour 
 
 1. Using one of the " strong " bread flours, make one 
 or two plain muffins, pancakes, or other simple mixture 
 where there is not too great a variety of ingredients to 
 obscure the results. 
 
 2. Using a fine pastry flour, repeat the mixture made 
 in 1, being careful to maintain the exact proportions of 
 wetting, leaven, etc., used in the first case. 
 
 Compare. Which flour made the thicker batter? Which 
 made the finer-grained and tenderer muffin? Which 
 muffin had the more decided flavor? 
 
 3. Using exactly equal quantities of bread flour and 
 milk, with the usual proportion of salt, make a thin bat- 
 ter, beat with a Dover beater for 5 m., pour into hot iron 
 gem pans, and bake as for popovers. This is one of the 
 standard recipes for wheat puffs. 
 
 4. Repeat, using whole-wheat flour. 
 
150 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 5. Repeat, using pastry flour. Note particularly that 
 the proportion of flour and liquid in each case is to be 
 equal, irrespective of the thickness of the batter. 
 
 Compare. Which flour made the lighter puffs? Which 
 the tenderer? Which formed the larger-sized and fewer, 
 and which the smaller-sized and more numerous holes in 
 the process of baking? What could be added to the flour 
 which yielded the poorest results in this experiment to 
 supply the property it lacks? 
 
 Experiments to Aid or Corroborate Inferences 
 
 1. Compare flour from spring and winter wheat, i. e., 
 bread and pastry flour, as to 
 
 Color — whiter or yellower. 
 
 Texture — fine and smooth, or slightly gritty. 
 
 Cohesion — (by squeezing a handful in the hand and noting whether 
 
 it retains shape produced by pressure) . 
 Weight vs. Volume. 
 Thickening property. 
 
 To test the thickening property, mix a given quantity 
 (two tablespoonfuls will do) , of each kind of flour with an 
 equal volume of water in separate small bowls. Note 
 which kind makes the thicker batter. Add to the thinner 
 batter sufficient flour to make it equal the other in thick- 
 ness, adding only a carefully measured one-quarter tea- 
 spoonful at a time. Determine from your experiment 
 what proportion of the weaker flour has to be used as 
 compared with the stronger. 
 
 2. Tie one tablespoonful of each kind of flour in a five- 
 inch square of cheesecloth. The mouth of these improvised 
 bags should be tied tightly, but ample room must be al- 
 lowed to manipulate the contents of each. Place each 
 bag in about a cupful of water in a bowl, and knead the 
 flour with the fingers until everything that will come 
 through the cheesecloth has been worked out, and the 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS! BATTERS 151 
 
 mass left in the bag feels " rubbery." Open the bags, 
 and compare the residues from the two kinds of flour. 
 Which is the tougher? the yellower? the larger in 
 quantity? Test this substance for protein. 
 
 3. Allow the Hquid to settle, and decant it carefully. 
 What is the residue? Set this aside to dry, and compare 
 the weight of each portion. 
 
 4. Test a portion of the decanted liquid for lime. 
 (What test will you use? See Chapter XII, page 104.) 
 
 5. Test another portion for potassium. (What test 
 will you use for this? See Chapter II, page 11.) 
 
 6. Filter another portion until quite clear; then apply 
 heat. What do you observe? What is your inference? 
 
 7. Shake up a small amount of flour with twice its 
 volume of ether in a test tube. Does the ether seem to 
 dissolve any substance in the flour? Decant the liquid 
 on to a piece of filter paper and let this stand until the 
 ether evaporates. What is the nature of the stain on the 
 filter paper? 
 
 8. Treat two tablespoonfuls of flour with four or five 
 times its volume of a 10 per cent salt solution, placing 
 the mixture in a flask and shaking it from time to time. 
 Filter, and drop some of the clear filtrate into a large 
 beaker of pure water. A cloudiness, or a very slight 
 milky precipitate, indicates the presence of a class of 
 proteins caUed globulins. (See Chapter XI, page 97.) 
 Probably only a trace of this substance wifl be discerned. 
 Better results may be obtained by allowing the flour to 
 remain in the salt solution for several hours, or overnight. 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The structure of the wheat grain in detail. 
 
 2. The average composition of wheat. 
 
152 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 3. Varieties of wheat and their characteristics. 
 
 4. The cultivation of wheat; the effect of time of sowing, 
 of soil, climate, and other conditions. 
 
 5. The manufacture of flour; how the composition of 
 the product is affected by the process used. Various 
 grades of flour; different varieties of flour, such as Gra- 
 ham, whole wheat, etc. 
 
 6. Gliadin, glutenin, and gluten. 
 
 7. The globulins; where found in animal and vegetable 
 foods. 
 
 8. Forms other than flour into which wheat is manu- 
 factured. 
 
 9. Cereals other than wheat used in the manufacture of 
 flour. 
 
 10. The great wheat-growing regions of this and other 
 countries. Imports and exports of wheat. 
 
 11. Some great national crises in which this grain 
 played an important part. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Why were the sour-milk griddle cakes thicker, 
 tenderer, and better risen than those made from sweet 
 milk? 
 
 2. Name the four essential ingredients in flour mix- 
 tures such as those studied in this chapter. Name the 
 non-essentials. 
 
 3. State the general proportions of salt, baking powder, 
 and liquid that might be used with one cup of flour to 
 make a thin batter; to make a thick batter. 
 
 4. Trace the relation of the experiments to the practical 
 work of this chapter. What constituent of flour, isolated 
 in your formal experiments, is most important as affecting 
 the other ingredients in a batter? 
 
 5. Enumerate in order, and illustrate by examples, the 
 principles of proportion, combination of ingredients, and 
 methods of mixing, gained from the whole of the work out- 
 lined in this chapter. 
 
 6. Compare flour and milk, considered as perfect foods. 
 
EXERCISES 
 
 153 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 The exercises on this subject may be chosen from the 
 various derivatives of the thin and the thick batter. 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XII. 
 Church. Foods, Part II. 
 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, p. 52. 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chaps. XI and XII. 
 Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lecture IV. 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, see Index, 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. X. 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 
 Wiley. Foods and their Adulterations, Part V. 
 
 Wheat." 
 
 HOW TO MEASURE DRY MATERIALS 
 The cup at the right can be used either for liquids or dry materials 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVEJ^S — continued 
 
 PART II. DOUGHS 
 
 THE SOFT DOUGH 
 
 A soft dough is a mixture which is sufficiently firm to 
 stand without support at the sides. It is thus distin- 
 guished from a batter by possessing in a greater degree 
 what the texts on physics tell us are the properties of a 
 solid rather than the properties of a fluid. It does not, 
 however, fulfill all the requirements of a solid as enu- 
 merated in the physics texts, for not only will it not " sus- 
 tain pressure without being supported laterally," but it 
 will even spread a little if left quite to itself. But it will 
 not, like the batter, which is a true fluid, ever find its 
 own level. The soft dough usually calls for three times 
 as much flour as liquid, but this proportion has to be 
 modified according to the conditions stated in the rules 
 for batters. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE SOFT DOUGH 
 
 Emergency Biscuit 
 
 As its name implies, the emergency biscuit can be 
 made in a time of stress, or under difficulties. It does not 
 call for the use of a molding board, a rolling pin, or a 
 
 154 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: DOUGHS 155 
 
 biscuit cutter. It takes less time to mix than any other 
 batter or dough, its appearance is novel, and its flavor is 
 good. 
 
 Ingredients. Two cups of flour, four teaspoonfuls of 
 baking powder, one-half teaspoonful of salt, two to four 
 tablespoonfuls of butter, fresh lard, or other shortening. 
 Two-thirds of a cup of liquid are required. This may be 
 milk, water, or a mixture of both. Or in case of need it 
 may be egg beaten in water, in the proportion of one egg 
 to a pint of water. 
 
 Method. Mix and sift the flour, salt, and baking 
 powder. Chop the shortening into the dry ingredients, 
 using the back of a steel-pronged fork. Do not chop it too 
 fine; bits the size of half a pea will be small enough. Add 
 the dry ingredients to the liquid, and mix very lightly, 
 with as little manipulation as possible, until a soft dough 
 is formed. The dough should be rather moist, and spongy, 
 and porous. It should be so soft that it wiU spread 
 if left without support at the sides, yet it should be 
 so stiff that it will remain rough on top when it is 
 dropped by spoonfuls into greased muffin pans. Bake 
 in a hot oven. Shortly before removing from the oven 
 the tops should be brushed over with milk, if this has 
 not been used for the wetting, or with a mixture of 
 sugar and water — two teaspoonfuls of sugar to a cup 
 of water. (Why?) 
 
 DERIVATIVES OF THE SOFT DOUGH 
 
 Simple luncheon buns, or tea cakes to be served hot, 
 may be made by adding to the biscuit mixture sugar, 
 spice, fruit, either fresh or dried, nuts, chocolate — or 
 even chopped, cold meat. 
 
 The orthodox baking-powder biscuit is this same dough, 
 
156 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 made just a little stiff er, so that it can be rolled out on a 
 molding board and cut with a biscuit cutter. 
 
 The shortcake, in strawberry or peach time, is the 
 same dough, with the maximum of shortening, rolled out 
 and baked, split open while hot from the oven, spread 
 with a mixture of fruit and sugar, the split halves put 
 together and more fruit and sugar piled on top, and a 
 blanket of whipped cream spread over all. 
 
 The cruller, to be fried in deep fat, has beaten egg 
 and milk, half and half, for the wetting, is slightly 
 sweetened — perhaps two tablespoonfuls of sugar to 
 a cup of flour — is spiced with cinnamon, lightly rolled, 
 cut out with a cruller cutter, fried according to the 
 rules for frying an uncooked mixture (see Chapter XIII, 
 page 122), and dusted over with powdered sugar before 
 serving. 
 
 A plain crust for a meat pie, or for a deep-dish fruit 
 pie, can be made from this dough. It can be used also for 
 dumplings. (See Chapter XI, page 92.) 
 
 THE STIFF DOUGH 
 
 A stiff dough is one that will not cling to the sides of the 
 mixing bowl, one that can be handled without adhering 
 to the fingers, one that can be rolled out quite thin with- 
 out sticking to the rolling pin or the molding board. The 
 proportions for such a mixture depend more on the ability 
 of the cook to manipulate skillfully and with a light touch 
 on the rolling pin than on any given measurements, or 
 than even on the kind and quality of flour used. Four 
 times as much liquid as flour is often given as the propor- 
 tion for this mixture, but the less flour used the crisper 
 and lighter will be the dough. 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS I DOUGHS 157 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE STIFF DOUGH 
 
 Plain Pie Crust 
 Ingredients. 
 
 1 cup flour. 3^ cup shortening. 
 
 ]/i teaspoonful salt. 34 cup water, cold as possible. 
 
 Method. Sift flour and salt together. Chop the short- 
 ening into the flour, add the liquid, and mix lightly to 
 a dough. This should be so stiff as not to stick to the 
 sides of the mixing bowl. Place the dough on a lightly 
 floured molding board, and roll out to a thickness of one- 
 fourth of an inch. Then fold one-third of this sheet of 
 pastry over toward the center, fold the remaining third 
 over the double sheet formed by the first fold, and roll 
 the whole again until it is one-quarter of an inch thick. 
 Repeat this process until the folding and rolling have been 
 performed three times. Another method is to roll up 
 the sheet of pastry like a jelly-roll once, and then roll 
 out to a thickness of one-quarter of an inch. The disad- 
 vantage of this method is that an inexperienced worker 
 will find it difficult to avoid using that '' heavy hand " 
 for pastry which crushes out the air caught between the 
 folds, and gives a tough, heavy crust instead of one that is 
 flaky, light, and crisp. 
 
 The proportions given will make a lining for two large 
 pie plates, allowing for building up the rim, or will make 
 an upper and an under crust for one two-crust pie. An 
 example of a cream filling for one good-sized pie is given 
 below. 
 
 Date Cream Filling 
 
 Ingredients. Two cups of rich milk, with flour, butter, 
 and salt in the proportions to make a medium white 
 sauce. (See Chapter II, page 9.) Sugar (one-half cup 
 
168 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 or more), dates (one cupful or more), eggs (two, three, or 
 four). 
 
 Method. Make a medium white sauce on the basis of 
 two cups of milk. Add the sugar, then the dates, stoned 
 and chopped, and cook at a low temperature until the 
 dates are softened. Add the well-beaten eggs, pour into 
 the lined pie plate, and bake until the crust is brown. If 
 more than two eggs are used a meringue can be made of 
 two of the whites, and the remainder of the eggs used as 
 described in the filling. The meringue is spread on after 
 the pie is baked. It should then be placed in a cool oven 
 to '' set " and brown very slightly on the top. 
 
 Note. Pastry should be put into a very hot oven at first, and the 
 heat reduced after it has browned. 
 
 Ginger Snaps 
 Ingredients. 
 
 1 cup flour. 1 tablespoonful dry ginger. 
 
 l^ teaspoonful salt. \i cupful shortening. 
 
 34 cup brown sugar. 34 cupful water. 
 
 1 teaspoonful baking powder. 
 
 Method. Mix and sift together the flour, salt, sugar, 
 baking powder, and ginger. Rub the shortening into 
 the dry mixture. Add this to the liquid and mix to a 
 stiff dough. Roll out very thin, cut into rounds, and bake 
 for from 5-8 m. in a hot oven. 
 
 Nut Cookies 
 Ingredients. 
 
 2 cups flour. 3^ cup shortening. 
 3^2 teaspoonful salt. 1 egg. 
 
 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder. 2 tablespoonfuls milk. 
 
 Y2 cup sugar. ^ to 1 cupful chopped nuts. 
 
 Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar, add the 
 egg, previously well beaten, add the flour — sifted with 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: DOUGHS 159 
 
 the salt and baking powder — alternately with the milk; 
 lastly stir in the nuts. Roll out moderately thin, cut 
 into rounds, and bake for about 10 m. 
 
 Hard Gingerbread 
 Ingredients. 
 
 2 cups flour. }/2 teaspoonful baking soda. 
 
 1 tablespoonful ginger. /^ cup butter. 
 
 J^ teaspoonful salt. Yi cup molasses. 
 
 Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients, heat the 
 molasses gently, and stir in the butter until it is dissolved; 
 then add the dry mixture. Roll thin, and spread the sheet 
 of dough on the inverted bottom of a dripping pan. Bake 
 in a quick oven. 
 
 Note. The gingerbread is less apt to burn if baked on the inverted 
 bottom of a pan than if baked in the ordinary way. Can you infer a 
 reason for this? 
 
 The Effect of Combining Certain Leavens, or 
 Using them Singly 
 
 1. (a) Make a thick batter, using flour, salt, and sweet 
 milk. Use baking soda alone for the leaven, in the pro- 
 portion of one teaspoonful to a pint of milk. Add melted 
 butter the last thing, one tablespoonful to a cup of flour. 
 Bake in muffin pans. (6) Make a thick batter as before, 
 using sour milk, just nicely loppered instead of sweet, 
 and using soda alone for the leaven, (c) Make a third 
 batter, using the same ingredients as in 6, but adding as 
 much baking powder as soda, (d) Make a muffin batter 
 with sweet milk and baking powder in the standard 
 proportions. 
 
 2. Compare the first three muffins with the last, taken 
 as a standard. Which of the muffins had a yellow tint 
 
160 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 and an unpleasant taste and odor? Which muffin rose 
 the highest? Was this a Httle yellow ? Account for the 
 yellow tint. How could it be avoided? Which muffin 
 rose the least? Was this yellow? Suggest some means of 
 making this muffin lighter. 
 
 II 
 
 The Nature of the Gas Evolved 
 
 1. Into each of three test tubes put an equal amount of 
 baking soda. Add to the three tubes, respectively, four 
 times as much vinegar, sour milk, and molasses as the 
 amount of soda used. (The liquids may be measured, 
 allowing 1 cc. to a gram, or two tablespoonfuls to an 
 ounce.) Note the height to which the effervescence 
 rises in the tubes; note the speed of the action; test 
 what gas is given off. 
 
 2. To a small amount of baking powder in a test tube, 
 the same kind used in your practical work, add three times 
 its volume of water. Test what gas is given off. 
 
 3. To baking soda alone add water, and heat. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Study of Baking Powders 
 
 1. To a given number of grams of tartaric acid, 
 H2C4H4O6, add sufficient baking soda, HNaCOa, to lib- 
 erate the gas from the latter, according to the equation 
 
 H2C4H406+2HNaC03 = Na2C4H406+2H20+2C02 
 Treat the mixture with water, and note the amount of 
 effervescence, first on adding cold water, and later, when 
 the first action has ceased, on heating the mixture gently. 
 
 2. To a given number of grams of cream of tartar, 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS! DOUGHS 161 
 
 KHC4H4O6, add sufficient baking soda to liberate the 
 gas according to the equation 
 
 KHC4H406+HNaC03 = KNaC4H406+H20+C02 
 Proceed as before, noting the amount of gas given off, 
 first in the cold, then after heating slightly. 
 
 3. Combine, as before, calcium acid phosphate, 
 CaH4(P04)2, with baking soda according to the equation 
 
 CaH4(P04)2+2HNaC03 = CaHP04+Na2HP04+2H20 
 
 +2CO0 
 
 Test as before what conditions are necessary for com- 
 plete evolution of the gas. 
 
 4. Combine ammonia alum, NH4AI (804)2, with baking 
 soda according to the equation 
 
 2NH4A1(S04)2 + 6HNaC03 = 2A1(0H)3 H-3Na2S04 + 
 (NH4)2S04 + 6C02 
 
 Test as before whether or not all the gas is given off in 
 the cold. 
 
 5. Estimate the weight in grams of each baking powder 
 that would be required to raise one cup of flour. (It is 
 supposed that 475 grams of carbon dioxide are needed to 
 raise one pound of flour.) Compare the amount of bak- 
 ing powder needed according to your estimate with that 
 called for in your recipes. Account for the discrepancy, 
 if there is one. In the commercial baking powders from 
 20-25 per cent of starch is used as a '^ filler " to pre- 
 vent the ingredients from acting on one another. This 
 should be allowed for in your estimate. 
 
 Note on "The Effect of Combining Diiferent Leavens," etc. 
 
 I (a). When baking soda alone is used as a leaven there ^^all be 
 an evolution of carbon dioxide from its decomposition by heat. The 
 volume of gas given off will be in proportion to the amount of soda 
 used, and the mixture will rise "in proportion to the volume of gas. 
 But the method prescribed in this step is meant to be a warning rather 
 than an example, for the residue left after the decomposition of the 
 
162 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 carbonate vnW discolor the flour mixture and impart an unpleasant taste 
 and odor. It is hardly necessary to say that the product is unwhole- 
 some, for the disagreeable effects will be a safeguard against its being 
 eaten in such quantity as to do harm. 
 
 I (6) . In the souring of milk only a very small amount of lactic acid 
 is formed, from .4 per cent (when the milk will taste sour) to 1 per cent. 
 It is true that other acids are usually present, but the total acidity in milk 
 is seldom sufficient in amount to call for enough soda to give off enough 
 carbon dioxide to raise the mixture. If the acid is present in too small 
 amount to decompose the proportion of soda usually prescribed, that 
 is, one teaspoonful to a pint of milk, the excess of the soda will be de- 
 composed under the influence of heat, thus liberating the gas, but dis- 
 coloring the mixture in the same way, though not to the same extent, 
 as when soda alone is used as a leaven. (See I, (a).) 
 
 The correct amount of soda to use with sour milk can be deter- 
 mined scientifically by experimenting with a small quantity of the milk, 
 adding soda to it in definite small amounts, testing with litmus after 
 each addition, and when the neutral point is reached calculating the 
 amount needed for the volume of milk to be used for the particular 
 mixture in hand. The long patience necessary for such a process will 
 dissuade most of us from attempting it, as will the knowledge that such 
 painstaking would be scorned by our grandmothers, who added their 
 saleratus to the milk "according to their judgment," and could unerringly 
 tell by tasting the mixture whether or not they had added enough. 
 
 I (c). Recalling what has been stated under I (h), it may be in- 
 ferred that soda alone, measure ye never so wisely, will not find enough 
 acid in sour milk to act upon with the result of liberating enough gas to 
 raise the mixture. Therefore, in practice it is found that baking powder, 
 if added in equal amount with the soda, will give the desired lightness, 
 while the better flavor of the sour milk cakes will be present. 
 
 I (d). The muffin made by this process is meant to be the standard, 
 as regards the degree to which it has risen. If muffin (c) is higher this 
 signifies that so much baking powder need not have been used as an aid 
 to the soda and acid. 
 
 Ill (1, 2, 3, and 4). The amount of baking powder to be used in 
 any flour mixture depends on the constituents of the powder. For 
 instance, tartaric acid, whose molecular weight equals 150, when com- 
 bined with sodium bicarbonate will release a weight of carbon dioxide 
 equal to 88. Cream of tartar, molecular weight 188, releases an amount 
 of gas to equal 44. Calcium acid phosphate, molecular weight 234, will 
 release gas equal to 88. Alum, 237, releases gas equal to 132. As- 
 suming that a teaspoonful of any of the baking powders of commerce 
 approximates in weight a teaspoonful of any other, the amount of gas 
 evolved by a cream of tartar powder may be represented by 1, a tartaric 
 acid by 2, a phosphate by 2, and an alum by 3. This is somewhat off- 
 set by the greater stability of the cream of tartar powder, owing to its 
 slowness to dissolve, so that the evolution of gas is not complete until 
 heat is applied to the batter. 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS: DOUGHS 163 
 
 PROBLEMS IN PRACTICAL WORK 
 Boston Brown Bread 
 
 Make a thick batter, using equal parts of corn meal, 
 rye meal, and Graham flour. The wetting is to be equal 
 parts of molasses and sour milk. Use soda for the leaven, 
 helping it out by adding an equal volume of baking 
 powder. 
 
 Steam one hour for every cup or fraction of a cup of 
 dry ingredients used. 
 
 Problem. To estimate the amount of soda. " 
 
 Vinegar Cake 
 
 To one cup of water add three tablespoonfuls of cider 
 vinegar. Use this mixture, or part of it, as the wetting 
 for a rich muffin batter, using half as much sugar as flour 
 and half as much butter as sugar. 
 
 Problem. To estimate the amount of soda needed for 
 the leaven. Commercial vinegar contains about 6 per 
 cent of acetic acid. 
 
 Soft Molasses Gingerbread 
 
 Make a thick batter, the wetting to be three parts of 
 molasses to one part of water. Use one-fourth as much 
 butter as flour, and one-fourth as much ground ginger as 
 butter. 
 
 Problem. To determine the kind and quantity of 
 leavening. 
 
 Cream Puffs 
 
 Add one-half cup of butter to one cup of boiling water, 
 and cook the two together until the butter is melted. 
 Add one cup of flour, sifted with the right amount of salt, 
 
Q 
 < 
 
 164 
 
FLOUR MIXTURES AND LEAVENS! DOUGHS 165 
 
 and stir the whole quickly until a smooth ball is formed 
 which will not stick to the sides of the saucepan. The 
 flour must be added all at once, so that the temperature 
 of the boiling mixture may be sufficiently lowered to pre- 
 vent lumping. Remove the saucepan from the fire just as 
 soon as a ball is formed which will not cling to the sides 
 else the mixture may ''oil" and the puffs be a failure. 
 
 While still hot, break into the saucepan, one at a time, 
 as many eggs as are needed to complement the volume of 
 butter used, beating each one into the mixture until it is 
 thoroughly incorporated before adding the next. When 
 the eggs have all been added, continue to beat the mixture 
 until it will not " string " when the fork is drawn through 
 it. 
 
 Drop by spoonfuls on a baking sheet, or on the inverted 
 bottom of a dripping pan, and bake the same as popovers. 
 
 Problem. To determine the number of eggs needed. 
 (See Chapter XA^ page 148.) 
 
 Filling for Cream Puffs. ]\Iake a medium white sauce. 
 Add one-half as much beaten egg as milk, and twice as 
 much sugar as flour. Flavor with vanilla, lemon extract, 
 fruit juice, or chocolate. 
 
 A pastry bag can be used to fill the puffs, or one can 
 be improvised by making a cornucopia of stiff paper, 
 inserting the end into a small opening in the side of the 
 freshly baked puffs, then pouring the filling into the cornu- 
 copia and squeezing the larger end, thus forcing the mix- 
 ture into the puffs. 
 
 Note. "When the cream-puff mixture is formed, before baking, 
 into a cylindrical shape by passing it through a pastry tube about an 
 inch in diameter, the cakes are called " eclairs." They are filled as usual, 
 and are generally spread w"ith a chocolate icing. 
 
 The cream-puff mixture is called by French cooks the "chou" paste. 
 
166 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Different leavening agents — air, steam, carbon 
 dioxide. 
 
 2. Various classes of commercial baking powders — 
 tartrate, phosphate, alum, etc. The use of egg albumen 
 in baking-powder manufacture. 
 
 3. The nature of the products formed by double de- 
 composition of the substances in the baking powders of 
 commerce. The different opinions regarding the whole- 
 someness or unwholesomeness of the residues left in the 
 dough from the different classes of baking powder. 
 
 4. The need of some elastic and tenacious substance to 
 hold the gas evolved from the baking powder or other 
 leaven. 
 
 5. Common adulterants of baking powder; of flour. 
 Tests for these adulterations. The bleaching of flour. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Discuss the advantages and the disadvantages of 
 adding the dry mixture to the wetting, or conversely, the 
 wetting to the dry ingredients, in mixing a batter or dough. 
 In what cases might one method be more advisable; in 
 what cases might the other be more advantageous to use? 
 
 2. Why is not baking soda alone used for a leaven 
 without the addition of an acid? 
 
 3. Describe the different ways in which butter may be 
 added to a batter or dough, and the effect of these various 
 methods. 
 
 4. Discuss various methods of ascertaining how much 
 soda is required when used as a leaven with sour milk or 
 other acid liquid. 
 
 5. Recipes for the use of soda sometimes prescribe that 
 it shall be added to the sour milk or other liquid; some- 
 times that it shall be sifted in with the dry ingredients. 
 Compare the advantages and disadvantages of both 
 methods. 
 
 6. What effect was produced by cooking the flour, but- 
 ter, and water together in making the cream puffs? Why 
 
QUESTIONS 167 
 
 was it necessary to the success of the mixture that this 
 effect should be produced? (Try to conceive what would 
 happen if the ingredients were mixed in the usual way.) 
 
 7. Besides the carbon dioxide, other leavening agents, 
 such as air and steam, are present in flour mixtures. 
 Enumerate the mixtures in which each of these agents 
 played the most important part; the mixtures in which 
 each had probably the least effect. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 The exercises on this subject may be chosen from the 
 various derivatives of the soft and the stiff doughs. 
 
 References 
 
 See References for Chapter XV, wath the addition of: 
 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. XII. 
 
 Bulletin 13, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry. 
 
168 
 
C'HAPTER XVII 
 QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 
 
 To the Student. Good quick-process bread can be 
 made in a two-hour class period. Excellent quick-process 
 bread can be made at home in from three to five hours. 
 
 The quantity of ingredients given in the following 
 recipe will make one ordinary oblong loaf, but for class 
 practice it is better to use only half the amount given 
 and make one-half a loaf, two students baking their 
 portions in one bread pan. 
 
 You must be careful not to lose, if possible, a single 
 minute of the time apportioned for each step, so that the 
 loaves may be made, risen, and baked under at least ap- 
 proximately the same conditions, thus facilitating a more 
 correct inference regarding the effect of the different 
 methods and ingredients used. 
 
 If your teacher decides to give two lessons to bread 
 making, the first might very well be spent in comparing 
 the effect of making a sponge, with that of kneading what 
 is called a " straight dough," and the second lesson could 
 be given to studying the action of the various '' yeast 
 aids " used in bread making. If you are already famihar 
 with the technique of kneading, etc., the first processes 
 may be skipped, and you will be interested in beginning 
 at once on the '' yeast aids." 
 
 169 
 
170 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 METHODS OF BREAD MAKING 
 Quick-Process Bread — Sponge Method 
 Ingredients. 
 
 1 compressed yeast cake. 1 cup liquid (milk, water, or a 
 
 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls butter. mixture of both). 
 
 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls sugar. 3 cups flour. 
 3^ teaspoonful salt. 
 
 Note. Though three cups of flour are allowed, your bread will be 
 much lighter if you try not to use all of this quantity. 
 
 Method. Sift flour, salt, and sugar. Blend the yeast 
 cake in a bowl with a little of the warm liquid until the 
 mixture is smooth and free from lumps. Add the remain- 
 der of the liquid, and the butter. Add flour enough to 
 make a thin batter. {This step of the process should oc- 
 cupy not more than 7 vi.) 
 
 Set the bowl in a warm place, and cover it with a cloth. 
 A good way to insure an even temperature is to stand 
 the bowl in a pan (dish pan) of warm water, about 112° 
 or 114° F., o*r in the absence of a thermometer you may 
 judge sufficiently of the temperature of the water by be- 
 ing able to hold your whole hand in it, up to the wrist, 
 for ten seconds by the clock, and hardly a second more. 
 The water must be so high as barely to escape floating 
 the bowl, and the whole thing should be covered with a 
 thick cloth, or the temperature kept up by the addition 
 of hot water from time to time. The contents of the bowl 
 will thus be maintained at a favorable temperature for 
 the growth of the yeast. Allow the mixture to stand until 
 it is spongy and full of holes, and has doubled in bulk. 
 {This step should occupy not more than 30 m.) 
 
 Add to the sponge flour enough to knead into a soft 
 dough, and knead, at first lightly, then more thoroughly, 
 on a lightly floured board until the dough is an elastic 
 
QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 171 
 
 mass which will not stick either to the board or to the 
 hands. {This step should occupy not more than 15 m.) 
 
 Shape the dough into a loaf, place this in a lightly 
 greased baking pan, and let it rise again in a warm place 
 until it has doubled in bulk. If the pan is water-tight it 
 may be allowed to stand in warm water as before. {This 
 step should occupy about 20 m.) 
 
 Bake, with gradually increasing heat, for 45 m. 
 
 The loaf should be weighed before and after baking. 
 
 Note. If a very thick crust is desired, the oven temperature should 
 be low and the baking prolonged. This method gives a nutty-flavored 
 loaf, which is both wholesomer and more delicious. 
 
 Quick-Process Bread — Straight Dough Method 
 
 Ingredients same as before. 
 
 Method. Sift flour, salt, and sugar. Blend the yeast 
 cake in a bowl with a little of the warm liquid until 
 smooth. Add the remainder of the liquid and the butter. 
 Add flour enough to make a soft dough. {This step should 
 occupy not more than 7 m.) 
 
 Knead the dough on a lightly floured board, gently at 
 first, but increasing the pressure as the mass becomes less 
 sticky, and continuing to knead until the dough will no 
 longer adhere to the hands or the board. ( This step should 
 occupy not more than 15 m.). 
 
 Set the dough to rise in a greased bowl, placed in a pan 
 of water and closely covered, as already described. Allow 
 to stand until the dough has doubled in bulk. {This step 
 should be completed in 30 m.) 
 
 Remove the dough from the bowl, manipulate lightly, 
 hardly more than shaping with the hands into loaves, and 
 place these in greased pans to rise again in a warm place until 
 once more doubled in bulk. ( This should take place in 20 m.) 
 
 Bake as before, with gradually increasing heat, for 45 m. 
 
172 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Remember to weigh before and after baking. 
 Compare the two loaves. Which rose the highest? 
 Which has the finer and more even grain? 
 
 Notes. A second kneading, after the bread has risen once in the 
 dough stage, gives a finer gr^in, and this method should be used in 
 making quick-process bread at home. 
 
 A single compressed yeast cake will yield, during its growth, sufficient 
 gas to raise eight or more loaves of bread made by the slow, or overnight 
 process. Many housekeepers prefer to use a dried yeast for this method, 
 and when a dried yeast is used a sponge is generally preferred to the 
 "straight dough." The reason is thought to be that a sponge affords 
 better conditions for a re-birth of activity, so to speak, on the part of 
 the yeast cells, since these are in the spore state in the dried yeast, 
 and need longer coaxing before they begin to work than is needed by 
 the compressed yeast, which is merely in a resting state. Once the 
 cells have come out of the spore state, however, they are very active, 
 so that by the time the dough is mixed and kneaded their vigorous 
 growth quickly raises the mass. 
 
 The reverse of this appears to be the case with the compressed yeast, 
 whose initial activity is very great, and in actual practice it has been 
 found well to take advantage of this, and knead up the dough at once. 
 
 Whenever the slow-process method is used it is advisable to scald 
 the wetting first, to sterilize it, so as to avoid the presence of other 
 organisms than the yeast. These do not have time to do harm during 
 the quick process. Of course if the liquid is scalded it must be allowed 
 to cool to such a temperature as will not hurt the yeast plant. 
 
 QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 
 Made by straight dough and sponge methods 
 
 STUDY OF YEAST AIDS 
 
 Make a loaf of quick-process bread by the second 
 method, using one or two teaspoonfuls of glucose instead 
 of cane sugar. 
 
QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 
 
 173 
 
 Make a similar loaf, using cane sugar, but adding to the 
 dry ingredients one or two tablespoonfuls of malt flour. 
 If this cannot be procured use one or two tablespoonfuls 
 of malt extract, measuring this with the liquid. 
 
 Make another loaf, working into the dough one small 
 mashed potato, and using potato water for the wetting — 
 provided the potato has been pared before boiling. The 
 other ingredients given on page 170, including the sugar, 
 should be used here. 
 
 Compare the three loaves with the loaf made by the 
 standard method, without the use of a yeast aid. Which 
 is the best risen? Which has the evenest grain? Which 
 the most agreeable flavor? 
 
 If time allows, a further study of the keeping qualities 
 of bread may be made, in which comparison should be 
 made of loaves in which the wetting was milk, water, and 
 potato water, respectively, and of loaves made with and 
 without the addition of mashed potato. The loaves 
 should be compared a week after baking. 
 
 QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 
 Made without and with a yeast aid 
 
 DERIVATIVES OF THE PLAIN BREAD DOUGH 
 
 Crumpets, sometimes called English Muffins. 
 Use the proportions of flour, salt, and milk for a thin 
 batter. Allow one cake of compressed yeast for every 
 
174 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 cup of liquid. Allow from one to two tablespoonfuls of 
 butter for every cup of flour. Proceed as in the sponge 
 method of making quick-process bread, and when the 
 batter is well raised pour into greased muffin rings on a 
 hot griddle, filling them half or three-quarters full. When 
 raised to the top, turn, ring and all, with a pancake turner, 
 and bake until brown on both sides. 
 
 These muffins are generally allowed to become cold, 
 then they are split or pulled apart and toasted. 
 
 Raised Waffles. Make a thin batter as for crumpets. 
 Add two eggs for every pint of milk, the yolks beaten and 
 used for part of the wetting, the stiffiy-beaten whites 
 folded into the mixture just before cooking. 
 
 Raisin Bread. This is made on the basis of a thick 
 batter, using one yeast cake, as before, to every cup of 
 liquid. Just before the second rising add, in the following 
 order, for every cup of liquid, two tablespoonfuls of butter, 
 creamed; four tablespoonfuls of sugar, one well-beaten 
 egg, and a half-cupful of raisins. 
 
 Doughnuts. These are made on the basis of the soft 
 dough, or the regular bread dough, but one-half cupful of 
 sugar, one or two beaten eggs, and a dash of cinnamon are 
 added to the foundation bread mixture. 
 
 Roll, cut out, and fry in deep fat, like crullers. 
 
 Coffee Cake. This is made on the basis of the dough- 
 nut mixture, with the addition of a little more sugar 
 and about a half-cupful more butter. Form into rather 
 large rings or twists, sprinkle chopped nuts over the 
 top before baking, and dust with powdered sugar be- 
 fore serving. 
 
 Election Cake. The coffee-cake mixture, with about a 
 quarter-cup more butter (making from three-quarters to 
 one cup of butter to three cups of flour), one-half to one 
 

 175 
 
176 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 cup more sugar, perhaps an extra egg or two, and then the 
 whole mass can be fairly loaded up with raisins, currants, 
 chopped figs, candied citron, and spices. 
 
 Note. All the richer derivatives of the bread dough should have 
 a longer time allowed for the rising. No definite number of minutes 
 can be given. The test is that the mixture shall double in bulk. These 
 richer mixtures are more suited for home work. 
 
 Plainer derivatives of the quick-process dough are the 
 raised buns or rolls, which are allowed to rise in the pans 
 until feather-light, after sufficient " second kneading " 
 to give a fine grain; the Parker House rolls, which are made 
 by rolling a sheet of the dough to half an inch in thickness, 
 then spreading with butter, folding, and rolling again; 
 lastly cutting out in circles, pressing a furrow across the 
 middle with the handle of a wooden spoon, doubling over 
 along the line of the furrow, and letting rise in the pan 
 until feather-light before baking. 
 
 Plain currant buns can be made by working in a handful 
 of currants to the dough, and proceeding as for raised 
 buns. 
 
 Other variations can be experimented with as skill and 
 experience are gained. 
 
 TO JUDGE A LOAF OF BREAD 
 
 In judging bread at county fairs. Farmers' Institute 
 exhibits, or school contests, a score card should be used. 
 This enumerates the various points to be observed in 
 judging a loaf, and the number of credits given for each 
 point. Many schools and colleges get up their own score 
 cards, so that there is a great deal of variety; but though 
 in the details there may be a lack of correspondence, there 
 is general agreement in broadly judging every loaf on the 
 three great essentials of flavor, appearance, and texture. 
 
QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 177 
 
 SAMPLE SCORE CARDS 
 
 Bread Score Card I 
 
 Flavor 
 
 Lightness 
 
 Grain and texture 
 
 Crust — color, depth, texture 1^ 
 
 Crumb — color, moisture 10 
 
 Shape and size 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Bread Score Card II 
 
 171 ...... 20 
 
 Flavor 
 
 Doughiness and moisture 
 
 Texture and Grain ^0 
 
 Lightness 
 
 Sweetness 
 
 Color 
 
 Crust 
 
 Shape and size 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Bread Score Card III 
 
 General Appearance ^^ 
 
 Texture 
 
 Color 
 
 Elasticity of crumb |^ 
 
 Flavor 
 
 Odor ....:. -i^ 
 
 Total 100 
 
178 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Further Study of Yeast 
 
 I 
 
 Conditions which Affect the Growth of Yeast 
 
 Blend one-half a compressed yeast cake with a small 
 amount of water, and add this to one cupful of a thin 
 batter, made of equal parts of flour and water. Divide 
 into four parts — A, B, C, and D. 
 
 1. Freeze A by surrounding the vessel that holds it with 
 a mixture of equal parts of finely chopped ice and coarse 
 salt. After the batter has been frozen hard for ten or 
 more minutes, allow it to thaw; then set the vessel in a 
 warm place, or place it in warm water, as in the recipes 
 for bread, and see whether the yeast plant has retained 
 its vitality. 
 
 2. Boil part B for 1 m., allow it to cool, place in a favor- 
 able temperature as before, and note whether or not the 
 life of the plant has been destroyed by boiling. 
 
 3. Add to C one teaspoonful of common salt, and place 
 the mixture in a favorable temperature for growth. 
 
 4. Keep D for a control test under favorable conditions 
 from the start. Note in each case the amount of gas, if 
 any, given off. 
 
 II 
 
 By-product of the Growth of Yeast 
 
 Fill a wide-mouthed bottle with a mixture of cane 
 sugar and water, or glucose syrup and water, in the pro- 
 portion of two tablespoonfuls of the syrup (or sugar) to 
 a pint of water. Add one-quarter of a yeast cake, cover 
 the bottle with a saucer, or a soup plate, and invert it. 
 
QUICK-PROCESS BREAD 179 
 
 When the gas has displaced the Hquid in the bottle (it 
 may take several hours, or overnight), test it by pouring 
 some into a beaker filled with lime water, by pouring 
 some on a Hghted candle, etc. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Comparison of Dried and Compressed Yeast 
 
 Make a thin batter, using one cupful each of flour and 
 water. Divide into two parts, A and B. Blend with A 
 one-eighth cake of compressed yeast; blend with B 
 one-eighth cake of dried yeast, previously softened in 
 water. Place each mixture in a 100 cc. beaker, set these 
 in a warm place, and observe: (a) in which the gas was 
 first generated; (b) in which the action continued longest; 
 (c) in which the total amount of gas generated was the 
 greatest — as evidenced by the height to which the bubbles 
 rose in the beaker. 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. Bacteria, yeasts, and molds; where found, how de- 
 veloped; various results of their life activities. 
 
 2. ''Wild" yeasts; their action on food; how to obtain 
 and utilize them. The " barms," the salt-rising breads, 
 the ancient leavens. 
 
 3. Different phases of the life of the yeast plant — the 
 active or growing state, the resting state, the dormant or 
 spore state. 
 
 4. Cultivated yeasts — brewer's yeast, dried yeast, com- 
 pressed yeast; methods of manufacturing these. 
 
 5. Fermented milk, koumiss, kephir, matzoon. 
 
 6. The chemical and physical changes in the making of 
 bread ; the chemical and physical changes in the baking of 
 bread. 
 
 7. Varieties of bread — whole wheat, Graham, Vienna, 
 ^tc, Aerated bread. 
 
18G PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 8. Breads of various countries — Danish and Norwegian 
 breads, pumpernickel and other rye breads. 
 
 9. Antiquity of bread making; bread making in Egypt, 
 in Rome, etc. 
 
 10. Historical associations of bread; the bakers gilds; 
 the bread riots; laws regarding the making and sale of 
 bread. 
 
 11. The bread-making industry of today. Sanitation 
 of bakeries. Delivery conditions. Cost of bakers' as 
 compared with home-made bread. 
 
 12. Adulterations of bread. Pure Food laws relating 
 to bread. 
 
 13. Purchase of flour — in barrels, in bags, in small sacks, 
 in quantities of one or more pounds. 
 
 14. Milling processes; the great flour mills and the 
 characteristics of the flour produced by each. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Compare the nutritive value of a helping of cereal 
 with that of a slice of bread. (See charts.) 
 
 2. Which cereals can be successfully used for bread 
 making and which cannot? Why? 
 
 3. Why is it not best to use pastry flour in bread 
 making? 
 
 4. Criticise the bread score cards on page 177. Con- 
 struct a score card that might, in your judgment, be a 
 better guide in judging bread. 
 
 5. Name some labor-saving devices that are used in 
 bread making. Discuss their value. 
 
 6. Compare the action of baking powder and of yeast 
 in leavening flour mixtures. 
 
 7. Compare the economy of aerated and of yeast-raised 
 bread. What is the proof that a certain amount of flour 
 is lost in the latter process? To what is due the difference 
 in flavor of the two kinds of bread? 
 
 8. Is more yeast, that is, a larger number of yeast cells, 
 actually present in quick-process bread than in slow 
 process? 
 
 9. Why is a smaller proportion of salt used in bread 
 
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 I 
 
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 O 
 
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 181 
 
182 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 making than in the other flour mixtures? Suggest a 
 method of adding salt in the process of bread making that 
 will minimize its effect on the growth of the yeast. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. The making of whole- wheat bread. 
 The other exercises on this subject may be chosen from 
 the variations on the bread dough. 
 
 References 
 
 See references for Chapter XV, with the addition of 
 
 Conn. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. XI. 
 
 Bulletins 67, 101, 126, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Experi- 
 ment Stations, and Farmers' Bulletin 112. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 SUGAR 
 
 To the Student. If you refer to the charts, page 225, 
 you will find that cane sugar is pure carbohydrate, mixed 
 with no trace of any other food principle. It is thus the 
 one food which may be said to be chemically pure. As 
 a food, sugar has fallen into some disrepute, owing to the 
 unwholesome effects following over-indulgence in sweets. 
 Since, however, it is much easier to over-eat of expensive 
 candies and bonbons, done up in costly boxes, than it is 
 to over-eat of the purer home-made varieties, some recipes 
 will be given in this chapter for simple candy that may 
 be eaten without hurt, provided it is taken at the right 
 time and in proper quantity. Incidentally there are many 
 interesting principles to be learned regarding the cookery 
 of sugar, for notwithstanding the certainty of its chemical 
 composition it is one of the most uncertain substances to 
 work with, and is always doing surprising things in the 
 saucepans. An experienced cook says, " It has ways 
 that are past finding out; it is so easily affected by the 
 atmosphere." * 
 
 STUDY OF SUGAR IN COOKING 
 
 Peanut Brittle 
 
 Ingredients. Equal parts of sugar and peanuts, roasted, 
 shelled, and chopped. 
 
 Method. Cook the sugar over the fire in a shallow pan 
 
 183 
 
184 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 until it turns into a clear, brown liquid. Stir it judiciously 
 from the bottom up, while cooking. The lumps which 
 will form may be pressed out with the back of the spoon 
 — they should not cause uneasiness, since they are only 
 one of the odd happenings that may be expected when 
 dealing with sugar. 
 
 When the whole is melted to a clear, golden brown the 
 peanuts should be added; the mixture is then stirred to- 
 gether and poured on a plate or a marble slab. A smooth 
 plate or a slab need not be greased, as the peanut brittle 
 will slip off in one sheet when cold. It may then be broken 
 into pieces for eating. 
 
 Compare the peanut brittle with cane sugar as to sweet- 
 ness, flavor, and texture. Save a portion of it for a test 
 to be made later. 
 
 The basis for individual class work may be from one- 
 quarter to one-half cup of sugar. 
 
 Almond Rock 
 
 The sugar is melted as for peanut brittle. Shelled and 
 blanched almonds are placed in rows on a dish, lightly 
 stuck on by drops of the melted sugar just as it begins 
 to turn brown. The cooking of the sugar is continued 
 until it is as brown as for peanut brittle; it is then poured 
 over the almonds. , 
 
 Glace Nuts 
 
 Halves of shelled walnuts are dipped into sugar melted 
 as for peanut brittle, but the nuts should be dipped before 
 the sugar browns, or at farthest when it is barely begin- 
 ning to turn. The dipped nuts are placed one by one 
 on a very lightly greased slab or plate, until the sugar 
 coating is hard. This confection should be made in 
 
SUGAR 185 
 
 dry, clear weather. It should be used within two or 
 three days at the utmost, since it is easily affected by 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 Vanilla Fudge 
 
 Ingredients. Sugar and milk, in the proportions of 
 three to one. A small amount of butter, perhaps one 
 teaspoonful to every cup of sugar. Vanilla extract, or 
 a bit of vanilla bean. 
 
 Method. Melt the butter in the bottom of the sauce- 
 pan. Add the milk and sugar, stir until the mixture 
 boils, then cook for about 15 m. without stirring. Remove 
 from fire, add flavoring extract, beat until creamy, pour 
 into lightly greased pans, and cut into squares with a 
 greased knife as soon as it is hard enough. If vanilla bean 
 is used for flavoring it should first be boiled in the milk for 
 a few minutes. Chopped nuts can be added just before 
 beating, if desired. Save a portion for a test to be made 
 later. 
 
 Compare with cane sugar as to sweetness, fiavor, 
 texture. 
 
 Basis for class work : one-half to one cup of milk. Less 
 time should be allowed for cooking a small quantity. 
 Why? 
 
 Velvet Molasses Candy 
 
 Ingredients. Molasses and water in equal parts. 
 Three times as much sugar as water, and one-fourth as 
 much vinegar as water. About a tablespoonful of butter 
 to every cup of sugar. 
 
 Method. First melt the butter in the saucepan, then 
 add all the other ingredients, and boil until a spoonful of 
 the mixture will form a firm ball when dropped into cold 
 
186 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 water. Pour into a greased pan, and when cool enough to 
 handle pull until white and firm. Save a portion for a 
 test to be made later. 
 
 Compare with cane sugar as to sweetness, flavor, 
 texture. 
 
 Basis for class work: one-half to one cup of sugar. 
 
 Fondants 
 
 Ingredients. Sugar, water, and cream of tartar or 
 some acid substance. About twice as much sugar as 
 water is a good proportion. Allow one-eighth of a tea- 
 spoonful of cream of tartar for two cups of sugar. 
 
 Method. Mix the sugar, water, and cream of tartar 
 and let them stand for half an hour, if time permits. 
 Put on to boil in an agate or other smooth-lined saucepan, 
 and stir gently until the sugar is dissolved. Then cease the 
 stirring, and from time to time wipe off with a damp cloth 
 any crystals of sugar that have been thrown up against 
 the sides of saucepan. A strip of cheesecloth, folded 
 around the tines of a fork, will do this very nicely. Let 
 the mixture boil for 10 m.; then try whether a spoonful 
 dropped into cold water will form a soft ball. Continue to 
 cook until the syrup has reached this stage; then pour it 
 out on a shallow dish to cool quickly. In cooling it will 
 harden so that the pressure of a finger-tip on the surface 
 will make a dent, and when this stage is reached the mass 
 should be worked from the edges to the center with a 
 spatula until it is a white, glossy, creamy paste. As it 
 hardens it can be kneaded like dough until firm. This 
 can be used as a filling for bonbons, for chocolate creams, 
 for creamed walnuts, nut bars, etc. 
 
 The fondant can be packed into a jar, covered with 
 glazed paper, and kept in the refrigerator for future use. 
 
SUGAR 187 
 
 If well made it should be white, glossy, and satiny in 
 appearance, and should feel as smooth as lard when a bit 
 is rubbed between thumb and forefinger. If it has 
 " grained " it can be boiled over again in a small amount 
 of water, and this process can be repeated, so long as the 
 sugar does not burn, without hurt to the result other than 
 that the fondant will turn slightly yellow. 
 
 Compare the relative sweetness of the fondant, the 
 vanilla fudge, and the cane sugar. Compare the texture 
 of fondant and cane sugar. Save a portion for a later test. 
 
 Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 
 
 I 
 Comparison of Cane Sugar and Glucose 
 
 1. Compare the properties of cane sugar and commercial 
 glucose as follows: 
 
 (a) Which has the more crystalline structure? 
 {h) Which is the easier dissolved in water? 
 (c) Which has the sweeter taste? (Note the relation 
 between solubility and flavor in this and other substances.) 
 
 2. Set aside the solutions made in h for a few days to 
 see whether crystallization will take place. Note shape 
 and size of crystals where these are formed. 
 
 3. Determine what proportion of cane sugar will be 
 held in solution by cold water, what proportion by boil- 
 ing water. Use at least a half-cupful of water in each case. 
 
 4. Apply Trommer's test to solutions of cane sugar and 
 glucose in the following manner. Place in two test tubes, 
 A and B, about half an inch of sodium hydroxide solution. 
 Add one drop of a solution of copper sulphate. Shake a 
 little. Note change that has taken place. What sub- 
 stance is formed? Add to the two test tubes, respectively, 
 
188 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 about a half-inch of (a) the cane sugar solution; (6) the 
 solution of glucose, made in 1-6. By means of a paper 
 strip, hold both test tubes at the same time over the gas 
 flame and heat gently until one of the solutions just 
 begins to change slightly in color. Remove from heat. 
 You will find that the color will continue to change from 
 the effect of the retained heat. What salt of copper is now 
 present? What agent has caused the reduction? 
 
 II 
 
 Effect on Cane Sugar of Dry Heat 
 
 1. Brown a quarter-cupful of cane sugar as for making 
 peanut brittle. As soon as a clear, golden-brown liquid 
 is formed, pour on it, quickly and all at once, a quarter- 
 cupful of water. Drain off the liquid immediately. Taste 
 it. Taste the less soluble mass. The liquid, which should 
 be a deep brown color, is caramel; the golden mass is 
 known as barley sugar. Compare the sweetness of the 
 barley sugar with that of cane sugar. Dissolve some of it 
 in water, and set it aside for a day or two to see whether 
 re-crystallization will take place. Have you any reason 
 to infer that a chemical change has taken place in the cane 
 sugar through the agency of heat? 
 
 Dissolve some of the peanut brittle in hot water and 
 see whether it re-crystallizes from solution; whether the 
 caramel present can be separated to any extent from the 
 barley sugar. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Effect of Water and Heat 
 
 1. Boil a solution of one part cane sugar and three parts 
 water in a flask or covered vessel for from one-half to one 
 
SUGAR 189 
 
 hour, keeping up the quantity of water. Apply Trom- 
 mer's test to small portions at the end of each twenty- 
 minute period until a reducing sugar is found to be 
 present. 
 
 2. Apply Trommer's test to a portion of the vanilla 
 
 fudge. 
 
 IV 
 Effect of Water, Heat, and Acid 
 
 1. Boil a solution of one part cane sugar and three parts 
 water as in III-l, after the addition of one-tenth of its 
 volume of sulphuric acid. After 15 m. boiling, apply 
 Trommer's test to small portions, and continue to test, 
 at intervals of 5 m., until a reducing sugar is found to be 
 present. 
 
 2. Apply Trommer's test to solutions of the velvet 
 molasses candy and the fondant. 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The sources of commercial sugar — the sugar cane, 
 the sugar maple, the beet, etc. 
 
 2. The various steps in the manufacture of sugar; the 
 different grades of sugar that result — brown, white, lump, 
 powdered, etc. 
 
 3. The by-products of the manufacture of sugar, e. g., 
 molasses. 
 
 4. Classification of sugars — the monosaccharids or 
 simple sugars; the disaccharids. 
 
 5. Sugar as an antiseptic. Sugar as an intestinal 
 irritant. 
 
 6. Amount of sugar permitted in the diet. Factors 
 which influence the digestion and assimilation of sugar. 
 
 7. Sugar in the diet of training; during physical exer- 
 tion such as mountain climbing; in the army during long 
 marches, etc. 
 
190 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 8. Chemical changes in the cooking of sugar. 
 
 9. Sugar vs. fat as a source of energy. 
 
 10. Laws relating to the manufacture, adulteration, 
 and sale of sugar. Imports and exports of sugar, etc. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Classify, according to their chemical composition, 
 the following sugars and saccharine substances: cane 
 sugar, milk sugar, maple sugar, honey, molasses. 
 
 2. Compare the cost of home-made and commercial 
 candies of the same class, including the cost of fuel and 
 labor for the home-made. 
 
 3. Discuss methods of apportioning the daily allowance 
 of sugar in the diet so as to secure the wholesomest results. 
 
 4. Name familiar examples of the use of sugar as an 
 antiseptic. 
 
 5. Compare sugar, fat, and gelatine as protein sparers. 
 
 6. Compare sugar, fat, and gelatine as energy givers. 
 
 7. Compare starch and sugar as protein sparers and 
 energy givers. 
 
 8. Trace the connection between the experiments and 
 the practical work of this chapter. 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chaps. XIV and XV. 
 Chittenden. The Nutrition of Man, Chap. II, and pp. 290-1. (Ed- 
 
 1907.) 
 Church. Food, Part I. 
 
 Conn. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home, see Index. 
 Jordan. The Principles of Human Nutrition, Chap IV. 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chap. XV. 
 Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, Lecture IV. 
 Sherman. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, see Index. 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. V. 
 Thompson. Practical Dietetics, see Index. 
 Wiley. Koods and Food Adulterants, Part IX. 
 Farmers' Bulletin No. 93, U. S. Department of Agriculture: Sugar 
 
 as Food. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 BEVERAGES 
 
 To the Student. Coffee and tea contain a certain 
 nerve-stimulating substance called caffeine. A similar 
 substance, but one that is much milder in its action, theo- 
 bromine, is found in cocoa and chocolate. These com- 
 pounds may be regarded as quite near relatives — if not 
 exactly sisters, surely first cousins — of that Borgian fam- 
 ily which includes nicotine, strychnine, morphine, etc., in 
 that they may all be traced back to the common ances- 
 try of what chemists call the nitrogen heterocycles. This 
 is something that need not trouble you until you study 
 organic chemistry. It is sufficient for today to know that 
 caffeine, as well as strychnine, if taken at the wrong time, 
 or in excessive quantity, may work as a mischief-maker in 
 the system. It is the opinion of many persons that the 
 wrong time to take coffee or tea (the caffeine-containing 
 beverages) is any day before one's thirtieth birthday, and 
 that excessive quantity is anything more than one cup at 
 breakfast time. But this one cup of coffee, if well made, 
 is tolerated by most persons of adult age. 
 
 Besides the nerve-stimulants just mentioned, tea, coffee, 
 and chocolate contain tannin, an astringent substance 
 which is found in most fruits and vegetables. 
 
 In the methods of making coffee that follow, the same 
 brand of coffee should be used, since it will be inter- 
 esting to note the different results from different ways 
 of making. 
 
 191 
 
192 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 FOUR WAYS OF MAKING COFFEE 
 I. Cold-Process Coflfee 
 
 Proportions. Four ounces of coffee to one pint of 
 water. 
 
 Method. Mix the coffee thoroughly with cold water. 
 Let it stand eight to ten hours, or overnight. Decant 
 the liquid carefully, heat until it boils, and serve. 
 
 Coffee made in this way is said to be less hurtful than 
 when made by the more usual methods. 
 
 2. Boiled Coflfee with Cold Water 
 
 Proportions. Two ounces of coffee to one pint of water. 
 
 Method. Mix one or two spoonfuls of beaten egg with 
 one-half cup of cold water — or one or two crushed egg- 
 shells may be substituted for the beaten egg. (See notes 
 following recipes.) Add the remainder of the water, and 
 heat very slowly to boiling. Let boil for 3 m.; then draw 
 aside from the heat and allow to settle for 5 m. before 
 serving. 
 
 3. Boiled Coflfee with Boiling Water 
 
 Proportions. Two ounces of coffee to one pint of water. 
 
 Method. Mix the dry coffee with beaten egg and cold 
 water as in 2. Add freshly boiling water, let it boil for 
 5 m., draw aside to settle as in 2, and serve. 
 
 4. Filtered or " Drip " Coflfee 
 
 Proportions. Four ounces of coffee to one pint of water. 
 
 Method. Place the coffee in the strainer, or the upper 
 part of the coffeepot. Stand the coffeepot in a pan of 
 hot water. Add the boiling water to the coffee, one- 
 fourth at a time, at intervals of 1 m. Cover the pot be- 
 
BEVERAGES 193 
 
 tween the additions of water. The coffee, if not strong 
 enough, may be re-filtered. 
 
 This is sometimes called French coffee, and is served 
 for after-dinner coffee. A better result may be obtained 
 by the use of a percolater, where the boiling water in the 
 lower part of the pot is made to squirt out over the ground 
 coffee in the upper part, filter through it, and drip into 
 the lower part again, and the process may be kept up 
 until the coffee is the desired strength without any fear 
 that it will grow cold. 
 
 Notes. It is said that the flavor of the beverage is improved if 
 the dry, ground coffee is heated in the oven for a few minutes before 
 adding the water. 
 
 A very small amount of salt, one-quarter teaspoonful to a cup of 
 water, is also said to improve very much the flavor of the coffee. The 
 taste of the salt will not be apparent in so small quantity. 
 
 One raw egg is sufficient to clear one cup of ground coffee. Clean 
 eggshells, for the sake of the albumen which adheres to them, may be 
 substituted for the egg — when these are at hand — for the sake of 
 economy. Or a square inch of isinglass, or dried fish skin, or one of 
 the patent coffee settlers, can also be substituted for the egg. Or a 
 skillful coffee maker can make good clear coffee without any such aid. 
 
 A perfectly clean coffeepot, free from the odor of the coffee of the 
 day before, is another important factor in good coffee making. To 
 this end, after scrupulous washing of the pot it should be put away on 
 the shelf with the lid open until needed for use. 
 
 TEA 
 
 Freshly boiling water is invariably prescribed for mak- 
 ing tea, but since there is often carelessness in carrying 
 out this direction, it may be well to state that by freshly 
 boiling is meant water that has just boiled for the first 
 time, not water that has continued to boil for perhaps 
 half an hour, nor water that has boiled and cooled and 
 been boiled again for several times. And by freshly hoil- 
 ing is meant water that is actually boiling at the time of 
 tea-making, not water that has been boiling a few minutes 
 ago and been set aside. 
 
194 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 To Make Tea 
 
 Method I. Allow one rounded teaspoonful of tea for 
 every cup of water. Put the tea into the teapot, pour on 
 the freshly boiling water, and set the pot where the bever- 
 age will keep hot, but not boil, for 5 m. — no longer. It 
 can then be served from the pot, or strained from the 
 leaves into a clean, thoroughly heated pot, since if the 
 serving time is prolonged the tea acquires a bitter taste 
 from standing on the leaves. 
 
 A CUP OF TEA 
 
 Method 2. Proceed as before, and after the hot water 
 has been added to the tea, cover the pot closely with a 
 tea cozy, and let it stand for 10 m. to '' draw " before 
 serving. 
 
 Method 3. Put the tea into a tea ball, or one of the 
 open tea strainers, pour the water into the cup, and dip the 
 ball up and down in the water until the color indicates 
 the strength desired. If a tea strainer is used the strainer 
 is held over each cup and the water poured through. 
 
 Compare the flavor of the tea made in different ways. 
 
BEVERAGES 195 
 
 Cocoa I 
 
 Ingredients. Cocoa, sugar, water, salt, and milk. 
 
 Proportions. Twice as much sugar as cocoa, twice as 
 much water as sugar, one tablespoonful of cocoa to every 
 cup of milk, one-quarter teaspoonful of salt to every cup 
 of milk. When more than a pint of cocoa is to be made, 
 the proportion of water should be diminished, no more 
 being required than will make a paste after a few minutes' 
 boiling. 
 
 Method. Cook the cocoa, sugar, water, and salt, 
 stirring constantly, until the spoon leaves a track in the 
 mixture. Add the milk, and let the whole boil for a 
 minute. Decrease the temperature, and beat the mix- 
 ture with a Dover beater until a thick froth forms 
 on the top. 
 
 Make on the basis of one tablespoonful of cocoa. 
 
 Cocoa II 
 
 Proceed as before, omitting the salt, and omitting the 
 final beating. Compare the flavor of the two. 
 
 Cocoa III 
 
 Proceed by the directions on the can of cocoa. 
 
 Compare the flavor of the cocoa made by the different 
 methods, and account for the differences. Compare the 
 cost. Decide which method you prefer. It is very much 
 a matter of individual taste. 
 
 Note. Cream may be substituted for one-half the milk in making 
 cocoa, if it is desired to enrich it. 
 
196 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Spanish Chocolate I 
 
 Ingredients. Chocolate, sugar, water, salt, milk, eggs. 
 
 Proportions. Twice as much sugar as chocolate. As 
 much water as sugar. One cup of milk and one egg to 
 every ounce of chocolate. One-quarter of a teaspoonful 
 of salt to every cup of milk. 
 
 Method. Break the chocolate into little bits and cook 
 with the water, sugar, and salt until a paste is formed as 
 in Cocoa I. Add the milk, let the whole boil for a minute, 
 have ready the eggs, stiffly beaten, and turn them quickly 
 into the hot chocolate, beating vigorously all the while 
 with a Dover beater. This dish will be more successful 
 if one person turns in the eggs while the other beats, but 
 a rapid worker can manage both operations. The essen- 
 tial point is that the eggs shall be beaten into the mixture 
 before they have time to coagulate in lumps. The 
 chocolate when finished should be very thick but smooth 
 in consistency. 
 
 Make on the basis of two squares (ounces) of chocolate. 
 
 Spanish Chocolate II 
 
 Ingredients and proportions the same as before. 
 Method the same, except that in this case the chocolate 
 is to be quickly poured on to the beaten eggs in a bowl, 
 while the mixture is vigorousl}^ beaten as before with a 
 Dover beater. 
 
 Compare the flavor of the two. Which do you like 
 best? Account for the difference. (Recall the conclusions 
 you formed regarding the effect of initial high temperature 
 on eggs. Chapter V, page 34). In which method of making 
 the Spanish chocolate is it easier to avoid curdling the 
 eggs? 
 
BEVERAGES 197 
 
 FRUIT DRINKS 
 
 Fruit Punch 
 
 Ingredients and method. Equal parts of shredded 
 pineapple, strawberries, and red currants. Cook until 
 soft in half their volume of water, strain, sweeten, and 
 when cold dilute to taste with water or Apollinaris, and 
 serve in glasses half filled with shaved ice. 
 
 Apple Tea 
 
 Ingredients. Ten sour apples, two quarts of water* 
 four tablespoonfuls of sago, the juice of two lemons; 
 sugar to taste — or from one to two cups of sugar. 
 
 Method. Wipe and chop the apples, and cook in 
 water until tender. Strain, add the sago, cook again until 
 slightly thickened, sweeten, chill, add lemon juice, and 
 
 serve. 
 
 Tea Punch 
 
 Ingredients. 
 
 }/2 cup boiling water. 3^ cup lemon juice. 
 
 1 cup sugar. 1 cup orange juice. 
 
 ^ cup dry tea. 1 cup grated pineapple. 
 
 1 cup strawberry pulp. 1 quart ice water. ^ 
 
 Method. Mix the ingredients in the order given. 
 Let stand for 15-20 m., strain, chill, and serve 
 in tall glasses with a candied cherry in each glass. 
 Or the mixture may be poured over a block of ice 
 in a punch bowl and a quart of Apollinaris added be- 
 fore serving. 
 
198 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Experiments to Aid or Confirm Inferences 
 
 Tannin: Its Presence and its Effects 
 
 I 
 
 Presence of Tannin 
 
 Into eight test tubes pour about one inch of the follow- 
 ing, respectively: 
 
 Grape juice. 
 
 Apple juice or cider, or cider vinegar. 
 
 Blackberry juice, diluted with water. 
 
 Infusion of tea in cold water) the solutions to be of equal 
 
 Infusion of tea in hot water ) strength. 
 
 Infusion of coffee in cold water ) the solutions to be of equal 
 
 Infusion of coffee in hot water ) strength. 
 
 Solution of cocoa. 
 
 Add to each test tube a few drops of a solution of iron 
 chloride or any soluble salt of iron. A black color or 
 precipitate indicates the presence of tannin. 
 
 II 
 
 Effect of Tannin 
 
 Into SIX test tubes pour about an inch of the following, 
 respectively : 
 
 Hydrated and dissolved gelatine. A solution of pepsin. 
 White of egg. A solution of pancreatine. 
 
 A solution of Liebig's extract. Some clear saliva. 
 
 Add to each test tube a few drops of a strong solution 
 of tannin. Note in which cases, and to what extent, 
 precipitation takes place. Determine by the use of 
 Millon's reagent whether protein bodies are present in 
 the solutions of pepsin and pancreatine, and in the saliva. 
 Millon's reagent is the test used to demonstrate the 
 presence of small amounts of proteid in any substance, 
 
QUESTIONS 199 
 
 TOPICS FOR STUDY OR DISCUSSION 
 
 1. The history of tea, coffee, and chocolate. 
 
 2. The chief varieties of coffee; the great coffee planta- 
 tions of the world; the manufacturing processes used in 
 the preparation of coffee for the market. 
 
 3. The chief tea-producing countries. The effect on 
 tea of climate, soil, and method of manufacture. 
 
 4. Cocoa, and the by-products of its manufacture — 
 cocoa shells, cocoa butter, etc. 
 
 5. The chemical composition of coffee, tea, and choco- 
 late. The difference between the cocoa and chocolate of 
 commerce. 
 
 6. The effect on digestion of tea, coffee, and cocoa. 
 The effect of these beverages on the nerves. 
 
 7. Common adulterants of tea, coffee, and chocolate. 
 Food laws relating to these substances. 
 
 8. Races and nations which favor the use of each of the 
 beverages studied. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Which of the substances tested in Experiment I do 
 you infer contains the largest amount of tannin? Which 
 the smallest? 
 
 2. What fallacy is involved in prohibiting the use of tea 
 and coffee and permitting the use of grape juice, black- 
 berries, etc., in the diet? 
 
 3. On what grounds might tea and coffee be forbidden 
 and other foods containing tannin be allowed? 
 
 4. Has the method of making tea and coffee any effect 
 on the amount of tannin extracted? 
 
 5. Which would be easier of digestion, a gelatine jelly 
 flavored with coffee, or one flavored with orange juice? 
 Why? What is the effect of tannin on protein foods? 
 on the digestive juices? 
 
 6. Compare the effect of drinking tea or coffee at the 
 beginning of a meal, during the meal, or at its close. 
 
 7. What do you think was the cause of the discoloration 
 of the potato in the work of Chapter II, page 10? 
 
200 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 References 
 
 Bailey. Sanitary and Applied Chemistry, Chap. XXII. 
 
 Church. Food, Part IV. 
 
 Hutchison. Food and Dietetics, Chap. XVIII. 
 
 Lassar-Cohn. Chemistry in Daily Life, see Index. 
 
 Lusk. The Science of Nutrition, see Index. 
 
 Snyder. Human Foods, Chap. XIV. 
 
 Thompson. Food and Dietetics, see Index. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 CAKES, PIES, AND PtJDDINGS 
 
 To the Student. It has been said that there is really 
 no need to include a lesson on cake making in a formal 
 course of instruction, for whether they are taught or not, 
 girls will naturally make cake, and the principles involved 
 can be taught by means of those more prosaic and every- 
 day dishes which are far more important in the daily diet. 
 
 This lesson, then, may be omitted, or if it is included 
 may be used as an exercise in originality, since no recipe, 
 but general instructions only, will be given. 
 
 There are two great classes of cakes — those made with 
 butter or other shortening, and those made without. The 
 first is the more important class, in that it is the larger, 
 and it includes the greater variety. The standard or 
 type form of this class, from which ever so many other 
 cakes can be derived, is the old-fashioned one called the 
 '' one-two-three-four " cake, so named because one (part) 
 of butter, two of sugar, three of flour, and four eggs are 
 called for in the orthodox recipe. Experienced cake 
 makers have called this the " mother of cakes." 
 
 A diagrammatic representation of this standard mixture 
 is given on page 202. This shows how variety may be intro- 
 duced, and it illustrates the wide scope for individual 
 taste that is afforded in the various kinds and amounts of 
 ingredients that may be used. 
 
 An explanation of the diagram will follow. 
 
 Note. For every cup of nuts, when nuts are used, one-quarter 
 teaspoonful of salt should be added to the cake mixture. This will 
 
 201 
 
202 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 bring out the flavor of the nuts in such a way as greatly to add to the 
 deliciousness of the cake. 
 
 Likewise, when nuts are used, one-quarter cup of butter should be 
 subtracted from the maximum amount, since nuts are rich in fat, and 
 an excess of this will cause the cake to fall. 
 
 When chocolate is used, one-half ounce of butter should be subtracted 
 from the maximum amount, since chocolate contains nearly half its 
 weight of fat. 
 
 
 
 ^ tupsoLdcia 
 
 yA"fep.oLSattf 
 
 DIAGRAM OF CAKE MAKING 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM 
 
 The three cups of flour are here taken as the standard 
 and unalterable quantity, since the proportion of all the 
 other ingredients may vary according to circumstances^ 
 
CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 203 
 
 Even the amount of flour may vary, according to its 
 thickening property, as shown in the work in preceding 
 chapters. But it is in this case assumed to be constant, 
 and all the other ingredients are allowed for on the basis 
 of this quantity. 
 
 A question mark follows the prescribed amount of 
 salt, since if salted butter is used this may be omitted or 
 lessened. 
 
 Extending from the angles of the hexagon to right and 
 left are the minimum and maximum quantities of eggs, 
 milk, butter, and sugar. The eggs and milk, taken to- 
 gether, should equal one and one-half cups of liquid, ac- 
 cording to the rules for the thick batter given on page 146 ; 
 thus, the smaller the number of eggs the larger will be 
 the amount of milk used. The baking powder will simi- 
 larly be used in larger quantity if the number of eggs 
 is fewer. 
 
 The optional ingredients, given at the upper part of the 
 figure, afford opportunity for still greater variety accord- 
 ing to the quantity used and the various combinations 
 that may be made, such as nuts and spice, nuts and 
 chocolate, nuts and fruit, or nuts and spice and fruit, or 
 nuts and chocolate and fruit. Where a combination of 
 two or more of these is used the volume of the mixture had 
 better not exceed two cups. 
 
 Standard Method of Mixing 
 
 Cream the butter until it is white and satiny and may 
 be beaten with a spoon. Add the sugar, and mix this in 
 thoroughly. Add the stiffly-beaten eggs, then the flour 
 (sifted with the salt and baking powder), alternately 
 with the milk, being careful to add only a very little of 
 
204 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 the milk at a time, so as to avoid curdling the batter 
 and spoiling the grain of the cake. 
 
 VARIETIES IN METHODS OF MIXING 
 
 Eggs may be added by: 
 
 1. Beating stiff, adding to the milk, and using the 
 mixture for wetting. 
 
 2. Adding the beaten yolks to the creamed butter and 
 sugar; adding the stiffly-beaten whites the last thing to 
 the batter. 
 
 3. Adding the whole egg, unbeaten, to the creamed 
 butter and sugar. 
 
 Butter may be added by: 
 
 1. Rubbing it into the flour until thoroughly well 
 mixed. 
 
 2. Melting, and adding it the last thing to the batter. 
 
 3. Chopping it lightly into the dry mixture. 
 Fruit may be added by: 
 
 1. Flouring the fruit and adding it the last thing to the 
 batter, or just before the stiffly-beaten whites of eggs, if 
 eggs are added by Method 2. 
 
 2. Adding the fruit directly to the creamed butter, and 
 mixing well. 
 
 3. Heating the fruit until well plumped up, and add- 
 ing as in 1. 
 
 Other varieties in the general method are: (1) adding 
 the baking powder by stirring it into the batter just 
 before this goes into the baking pan; (2) putting all the 
 ingredients together into a bowl, the butter being just 
 softened, and beating them all up at once until a fine- 
 textured batter results. This last method needs for 
 success either a patent cake mixer or a strong arm. 
 
CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 205 
 
 PIES 
 
 General Rules for Making Pies 
 
 1. When the filling of the pie is uncooked, the pastry 
 and the filling are baked together. 
 
 2. Pies made \vith a cooked filling are best when the 
 crust, or shell, is previously baked. 
 
 3. When a pie is made of very juicy fruit its under crust 
 should be brushed over with white of egg, to prevent 
 sogginess, and a little flour should be added to the filling, 
 two tablespoonfuls to every cup of sugar used as sweeten- 
 ing, to absorb excess of moisture. 
 
 4. When the skins are retained on the fruit for a pie, 
 or when other forms of tough cellulose are present; the 
 sugar should be added last. (Why?) In this case the 
 filling is very often cooked, and then Rule 2 should be 
 observed. 
 
 5. If a large amount of flour or starchy substance is used 
 for the filling, this must be cooked before it goes into the 
 pastry shell. 
 
 6. Eggs may be substituted for flour, or flour for eggs, 
 as thickening for the filling, or a mixture of both may be 
 
 used for thickening. 
 
 .' 
 
 Note. One cup of flour mil make upper and under crusts for a good- 
 sized pie; six tablespoonfuls will be enough for an individual pie 5-6 
 inches in diameter. 
 
 EXAMPLES 
 
 Apple Pie 
 
 Make a plain pie crust (see Chapter XVI, page 157), 
 cut out the upper crust by inverting the pie plate on 
 the sheet of pastry and cutting a circle from this at least 
 one-half inch larger than the circumference of the pie 
 
206 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 plate. Line the pie plate with the remainder of the paste, 
 and proceed as follows: 
 
 Allow four or five good-sized apples for a pie about as 
 large as a dinner plate. Wash the apples, divide into 
 eighths or quarters, core, and pare. Cut the sections into 
 thin slices, arrange these in the lined pie plate in layers, 
 and sprinkle with sugar, allowing one to two tablespoon- 
 fuls of sugar for each apple. Add a few cloves, or a little 
 ground cinnamon, or nutmeg. Fill the apples well in 
 toward the rim of the pie plate. Moisten the edges of 
 the under crust with water before covering the pie with 
 the upper crust. Slits or openings of any preferred shape 
 should be cut in the upper crust before the pie is baked, 
 to allow for the escape of steam. These may be made 
 either before or after the upper crust is adjusted — it is 
 easier to put the crust on the pie before the openings are 
 made; it is easier to arrange the slits in some symmetrical 
 design before the crust is put on. The two crusts should 
 be pressed together lightly but firmly at the edges. 
 
 Pastry should be baked in a very hot oven for the first 
 half of the time; afterwards with gradually decreasing heat. 
 
 Note. Bits of butter are sometimes put on the apples before the 
 top crust goes on, to enrich the fiUing. 
 
 Some cooks bake the apples without sugar, and after the pie is done, 
 and while still hot, lift the upper crust and add the sweetening. 
 
 The capacity of a pie plate may be enlarged by a process that is 
 called building up the rim. Narrow strips of paste are cut and placed 
 on the edge of the under crust, previously moistened, before the pie 
 plate is filled. One, two, or more strips can be thus built up into a 
 little ridge, deepening the cavity of the plate, so that a thick, generous 
 pie can be made. 
 
 Strawberry Pie 
 
 Prepare the pastry as for apple pie, and arrange the 
 under crust in the pie plate. Hull and wash the berries. 
 Measure as much of the berries as will fill the pie plate, 
 
CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 207 
 
 and measure half as much sugar as berries. Mix the sugar 
 thoroughly with one-fourth its volume of flour. Brush 
 the bottom crust over with w^hite of egg, and fill the pie 
 plate with alternate layers of berries and sugar. Put on 
 the top crust, and bake. 
 
 Note. Instead of a top crust, strips of pastry about half an inch 
 wide may be crossed over the top and moistened and pressed down 
 where they touch the under crust. This may be said to be a compromise 
 between a one-crust and a two-crust pie. 
 
 Cranberry Pie 
 
 Before putting in the under crust, measure water 
 nearly to fill the pie plate. Measure as much cranberries 
 as water, half as much raisins as cranberries, and as much 
 sugar as raisins. Take two tablespoonfuls of flour for 
 every cup of water. 
 
 Cook flour, butter, and water as for medium white 
 sauce (see Chapter II, page 9) . Add the cranberries and 
 the raisins (stoned), and cook together until the raisins are 
 soft. Remove from fire and add sugar. Pour the mixture 
 into the pastry shell, which should have been previously 
 baked. 
 
 Note. Figs are a delicious substitute for raisins in a cranberry pie; 
 or cranberries alone may be used. 
 
 To Bake a Pastry Shell. Line the pie plate as usual. 
 Place a piece of cheesecloth over the pastry, and on it 
 enough flour, cornmeal, or similar substance to keep 
 the pastry from losing its shape. Bake until the crust 
 is brown and crisp on the under side. 
 
 Another way is to invert a pie plate, and cover it with 
 the pastry, fitting it smoothly on. Invert a second pie 
 plate over this, laying it on lightly, and bake quickly in 
 a hot oven until the crust is brown. The shell can then 
 
208 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 be slipped off and fitted into its proper place in the pie 
 plate. 
 
 Yet a third way is to fit the crust into the pie plate, and 
 prick it all over with a fork before baking. This is the 
 simplest method, but the pastry will not be so light, and 
 the holes in the bottom may allow the juice to leak out. 
 It can be used where the filling is not over moist. 
 
 Raisin Pie 
 
 Sometimes called Mock Mince Pie. Measure water in 
 the pie plate, as for the cranberry pie. Take one-half as 
 much raisins as water, one-eighth as much sugar as raisins, 
 and one-half as much molasses as sugar. Allow one egg, 
 one tablespoonful of lemon juice, and one teaspoonful of 
 mixed spice for every cup of water used. 
 
 Stone and chop the raisins, and cook them in the water 
 until soft. Add sugar, molasses, and spice. Remove 
 from fire, cool slightly, then stir in, first the beaten eggs, 
 then the lemon juice. Pour into pastry shell, and cover 
 with the top crust, or with strips of pastry. 
 
 Lemon Pie 
 
 Measure water as before. Take half as much sugar 
 as water, half as much flour as sugar, and half as much 
 lemon juice as flour. Allow one egg for every cup of water 
 used, or one egg to a small pie; two or three to a large one. 
 
 Heat the water. Mix the flour and sugar thoroughly, 
 stir into the water, and cook, stirring constantly until 
 the mixture boils. Remove from the fire, and very rapidly 
 stir in the egg yolk. Add the lemon juice, and pour into 
 the well-browned pastry shell. Cover the top with a 
 meringue made from the whites of the eggs (see Chapter V, 
 page 33) . This may be browned in the oven, or under a gas 
 
CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 209 
 
 flame, or by holding- a hot stove lid, or a heated salaman- 
 der over it. 
 
 Note. When the egg is added the mixture should be warm enough 
 to coagulate it sufficiently to thicken the whole, but not hot enough to 
 cause curdling. The filUng made in this way should cut firm when cold. 
 
 PUDDINGS 
 
 To the Student. The foundation for several classes 
 of puddings will be given, with merely a hint as to how 
 the pudding is made. This will be a fine opportunity to 
 use initiative and originality and to make some delicious 
 pudding not just like everybody's else. 
 
 FOUNDATIONS FOR PUDDINGS 
 
 Foundation i. A thick batter. ,The batter is sweet- 
 ened, enriched by eggs and butter; and fruit, either fresh 
 or dried, spices, etc., may be added. Suet may be sub- 
 stituted for butter, or molasses for sugar. Steam one 
 hour for every cup or fraction of a cup of flour. 
 . Foundation 2. A soft dough. The dough should be 
 very light, and may be used in several ways : (a) Spread 
 with fresh fruit or preserves, rolled up like a jelly-roll, 
 and steamed, baked, or sometimes boiled. (6) Apples, 
 cored and pared, or other fruit may be inclosed in individ- 
 ual portions of the dough, and boiled, baked, or steamed. 
 These are called dumplings, (c) Fresh fruit may be 
 cooked in a deep dish, a sheet of biscuit dough on top, and 
 the whole baked until the crust is brown. 
 
 Foundation 3. Bread crumbs. Rolled and sifted 
 crumbs are substituted for flour, and the baking powder 
 measured as usual. The wetting should have a large 
 proportion of egg. Fruit, sugar, etc., as for the puddings 
 made on Foundation 1, may be added. 
 
210 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 The English Plum Pudding is made on a foundation of 
 bread crumbs, but for this the bread should not be stale, 
 and should be rubbed to crumbs rather than grated. An 
 equal weight of every ingredient is taken, i.e., crumbs, 
 finely-chopped suet, eggs, raisins, and currants. Candied 
 peel and spices, in any desired quantity, are also used. 
 
 This pudding, made on the basis of one pound of crumbs, 
 with the other ingredients in proportion, will require from 
 six to eight hours to boil — the longer rather than the 
 shorter time being preferable. 
 
 Foundation 4. Cereal. Proceed as for batter puddings, 
 Foundation 1. Cooked, or left-over cereal, gives excellent 
 results, but the uncooked grains, such as corn meal, 
 pettijohn, etc., may be used, and also the ready-prepared 
 forms, such as corn flakes, etc. 
 
 Foundation 5. A chou paste (see Chapter XVI, pages 
 163-5). Substitute milk for water, bake in individual 
 cups, and serve hot, in the baking cups, with a rich sauce. 
 
 Foundation 6. Cake or bread. These may be used in 
 the following ways: (a) Cut stale cake into slices, ar- 
 range in layers in a baking dish, alternating with fruit, 
 pour a custard mixture over all, and bake. (6) Spread 
 sUces of bread with butter, place in a baking dish with 
 the buttered side down, pour a custard mixture over, and 
 bake. (See Bread and Butter Pudding, Chapter XII, 
 page 107.) (c) Make a hght cake mixture, bake, cut in 
 slices, and serve while hot with a well-flavored sauce. 
 This is called Cottage Pudding. 
 
 Foundation 7. A thick sauce, using flour and liquid in 
 the proportions for a thick white sauce. (See Chapter XII, 
 page 110.) (a) Use fruit juice for the liquid, and either 
 flour, cornstarch, or arrowroot for the thickening. (For pro- 
 portions of these, see results of experiments, Chapter XIV, 
 
CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 211 
 
 Exercise 3.)" ^ggs may be used to enrich the pudding, or 
 to make it Hghter and more spongy. (See Chapter XV, 
 page 143.) (b) Make a rich, thick white sauce, using flour, 
 butter, and milk. Sweeten and flavor. Stir in the beaten 
 yolks of four eggs for every cupful of milk used in making 
 the sauce, then beat into the warm mixture the stiffly- 
 beaten whites of the eggs. Bake in a slightly-greased 
 pudding dish for from one-half to three-quarters of an 
 hour. Observe the same rules for the care of the oven 
 given for the baking of popovers (Chapter XV, page 145) . 
 
 To Boil Puddings 
 
 Method I. The pudding is tied in a cloth wrung out of 
 hot water and then well dredged with flour. Room is 
 allowed for swelling. The bag thus made, containing the 
 pudding mixture, is dropped into rapidly boiling water 
 and boiled continuously until cooked, the amount of 
 water being kept up as it is reduced by evaporation. A 
 thick stoneware plate in the bottom of the kettle will keep 
 the pudding bag from adhering to the hot metal, and pos- 
 sibly burning. 
 
 Method 2. The pudding is poured into a well-greased 
 bowl or other mold, and a floured cloth is tied over this. 
 Bowl and all are dropped into boiling water and cooked as 
 in 1. 
 
 Method 3. The pudding is poured into a well-greased 
 pudding tin, or other mold. This is covered with oiled 
 paper and set into a kettle of boiling water, which is 
 covered and kept over the fire until the pudding is cooked. 
 
 Note. All boiled puddings may be steamed with equally good 
 results. 
 
212 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. What rules for the making of pies were illustrated 
 in each of the recipes for pies given in this chapter? 
 
 2. Which method of cooking — boiling, baking, or 
 steaming — could best be used for each of the seven classes 
 of puddings, or for any variation within each class? 
 
 3. Name the chief principles of the preparation of food 
 that were demonstrated in making one particular dish of 
 each of the three kinds — cake, pie, or pudding — described 
 in this chapter. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 1. Construct an original cake mixture on the basis of 
 the 1-2-3^ cake. 
 
 2. Make any one of the following pies, illustrating 
 thereby some definite rule or rules for the making of pies: 
 orange cream pie, orange meringue pie, nut custard pie, 
 cherry pie, fig pie, sweet potato pie, squash pie. 
 
 3. Make a pudding on any one of the '' Foundations" 
 you prefer. 
 
 4. Frost a cake and decorate it, imitating the illustra- 
 tions that follow. 
 
 CAKE COVERED WITH CONFECTIONER'S FROSTING, READY 
 
 TO ORNAMENT 
 
CAKES, PIES, AND PUDDINGS 
 
 213 
 
 CAKE DECORATED WITH ORNAMENTAL FROSTING 
 
 Tubes used: leaf, star, and small cord; shank on which tubes can be 
 screwed; paper folded and cut same as leaf tube. 
 
, 
 
APPENDICES 
 
PREFACE TO APPENDIX A 
 
 THE composition of the foods in the series of charts in Ap- 
 pendix A has been adapted from Bulletin 28, United States 
 Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations. 
 The percentage composition given in Bulletin 28 has been trans- 
 lated into pounds and ounces, for the convenience of the house- 
 keeper, since food is purchased — and thought of — in this way 
 by the ''plain woman" (to paraphrase the language of the phi- 
 losophers), who buys and cooks, if not by the scientist. 
 
 These pounds and ounces have been estimated in as nearly 
 round numbers as possible. Common foods are not of definite 
 chemical composition; no two samples of any one food yield 
 identical results on analysis — hence, to repeat, round averages 
 have been given, as being easier to remember, easier to calculate 
 from, and sufficiently^ correct for everj^day use. 
 
 The estimation of the nutrients has been made from the 
 analyses of the foods ''as purchased," since we are all interested 
 in knowing just what we get for our money when we go to 
 market, and just how much of that good money has to be spent 
 for "refuse." 
 
 The calorific value of each food has been copied without alter- 
 ation from Bulletin 28, from the average "as purchased." 
 
 On the other hand, the 100-calorie portions have been esti- 
 mated from the foods as cooked and ready to serve, so that the 
 portions are, presumably, whollj^ edible. 
 
 The prices are of course approximate, and will be found to vary 
 according to season, locality, and ver>^ often according to the 
 amount purchased. 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 CHARTS OF THE COMPOSITION OF FOODS 
 
 BREAD, CAKE, AND CRACKERS — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Am't 
 
 
 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Boston brown bread 
 
 $0.04 
 
 %of5»iloaf 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 8.0 
 
 5.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 1230 
 
 Graham 
 
 .05 
 
 1 loaf 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.3 
 
 8.3 
 
 5.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 1210 
 
 Rye 
 
 .05 
 
 1 loaf 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 8.5 
 
 5.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 1190 
 
 White 
 
 .05 
 
 1 loaf 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 8.5 
 
 .5.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 1215 
 
 Zwieback 
 
 .10 
 
 44 zwbk. 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 11.7 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 1970 
 
 Cake, avg. of 
 
 .15 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 10.0 
 
 3.3 
 
 0.2 
 
 1675 
 
 Crackers, avg. 
 
 .25 
 
 64 soda 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.4 
 
 12.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 1905 
 
 100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Purchased 
 
 Boston brown bread 1.3 ounces, one rather small, round slice. 
 
 Graham bread .... 1.3 ounces, one good slice. 
 
 Rye bread 1.3 ounces, one good slice. 
 
 White bread 1.3 ounces, one good slice. 
 
 Zwieback 0.8 ounce, between 2-3 zwieback. 
 
 Cake 1.0 ounce, 
 
 Crackers 0.8 ounce, between 3-4 crackers. 
 
 217 
 
218 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 II 
 CEREALS AND CEREAL PREPARATIONS — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Am't 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Barley (meal) 
 
 $0.10 
 
 2 cups 
 
 1.6 
 
 0.3 
 
 11.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 1640 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 .04 
 
 2)4 cups 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.3 
 
 12.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 1655 
 
 Macaroni 
 
 .12 
 
 40 stks. 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 11.8 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 1665 
 
 Oatmeal 
 
 .05 
 
 2 cups 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.2 
 
 11.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 1860 
 
 *Rice 
 
 .08 
 
 2 cups 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.0 
 
 12.6 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 1630 
 
 Rolled oats 
 
 .05 
 
 .3 cups 
 
 2.6 
 
 1.2 
 
 10.7 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 1850 
 
 Flaked wheat 
 
 .08 
 
 3-6 cups 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 12.0 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 1690 
 
 Shredded wheat 
 
 .123^ 
 
 12 cups 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 12.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 1700 
 
 Wheat germs 
 
 .07 
 
 2 cups 
 
 1.6 
 
 0.3 
 
 12.2 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 1695 
 
 ♦Amounts of the nutrients under 0.1 ounce in 1 lb. are omitted, since such 
 small quantities may be disregarded in ordinary work. 
 
 lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Corn-meal mush . . . 4-5 ounces, 
 
 Macaroni 3-4 ounces, 
 
 Oatmeal porridge . . . 3-4 ounces, 
 
 Rice, boiled 3-4 ounces, 
 
 Rolled oats, porridge . 3-4 ounces, 
 
 Flaked wheat, dry 
 Shredded wheat 
 Wheat germs . . 
 
 1 ounce, 
 1 ounce, 
 3-4 ounces. 
 
 an ordinary helping, about a 
 
 half-cupful, 
 a side dishful as usually helped, 
 an ordinary helping, a small 
 
 half-cupful, 
 an ordinary helping, a small 
 
 half-cupful, 
 an ordinary helping, a small 
 
 half-cupful. 
 34 to 3^ of 1 cupful, 
 one shredded-wheat biscuit, 
 an ordinary helping, a small 
 
 half-cupful. 
 
CHAET8 OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 
 
 219 
 
 III 
 DAIRY PRODUCE — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 of 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Am't 
 
 in 
 1 lb. 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 No of 
 
 Name 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ref- 
 use 
 
 Calories 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Butter 
 Buttermilk 
 Cheese 
 
 Cream cheese 
 Cream 
 Milk 
 
 Skimmed milk 
 Whey 
 
 $0.30 
 
 .01 Ji 
 
 .20 
 
 .20 
 .10-20 
 .03-05 
 
 •OiM 
 
 2 cups 
 1 pint 
 
 1 pint 
 1 pint 
 1 pint 
 1 pint 
 
 0.2 
 0.4 
 4.5 
 4.0 
 0.4 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 0.1 
 
 13.5 
 0.1 
 5.5 
 5.4 
 3.0 
 0.6 
 0.0 
 0.0 
 
 0.7 
 0.1 
 0.4 
 0.6 
 0.8 
 0.8 
 0.8 
 
 1.8 
 14.7 
 5.2 
 5.7 
 12.0 
 14.0 
 14.6 
 15.0 
 
 0.5 
 0.1 
 0.7 
 0.5 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 3605 
 165 
 2055 
 1950 
 910 
 325 
 170 
 125 
 
 100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Purchased 
 
 Butter 0.5 ounce, 1 small ball or square. 
 
 Buttermilk 10.0 ounces, 1% glasses. 
 
 Cheese 0.8 ounce, an ordinary cube, 1^ to 2-inch. 
 
 Cream cheese 0.8 ounce, an ordinary 1>^ to 2-inch cube. 
 
 Cream 2.0 ounces, M cupful. 
 
 Milk 5.0 ounces, a generous % of 1 cupful. 
 
 Skimmed milk .... 9-10 ounces, 13^ to \}4 cupfuls. 
 
 Whey 12.0 ounces, l}^ cupfuls. 
 
220 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 IV 
 FRUIT, DRIED— AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 
 
 Ounces of the following 
 
 in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Am't 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ref- 
 use 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Apples 
 
 $0.10 
 
 4 cups 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.3 
 
 10.7 
 
 4.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 1350 
 
 Apricots 
 
 .15 
 
 80 apr. 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.2 
 
 10.0 
 
 4.7 
 
 0.3 
 
 
 1290 
 
 Currants 
 
 .12 
 
 2 cups 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.3 
 
 12.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.7 
 
 
 1500 
 
 Dates 
 
 .10 
 
 60 dts. 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 11.5 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 1.4 
 
 1450 
 
 Figs 
 
 .16 
 
 16 fgs. 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 1475 
 
 Prunes 
 
 .10 
 
 40-50 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 1200 
 
 Raisins 
 
 .12 
 
 2 cups 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 11.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 1450 
 
 100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Purchased 
 
 Apples 0.8 ounce, nearly 3^ of 1 cupful. 
 
 Apricots 0.8 ounce, 3 to 4 apricots. 
 
 Currants 1.1 ounces, about 3^ of 1 cupful. 
 
 Dates 1.2 ounces, about 4 dates. 
 
 Figs 1.1 ounces, 1 large fig. 
 
 Prunes 1.4 ounces, 3 to 4 prunes. 
 
 Raisins 1.2 ounces, About 3^ of 1 cupful. 
 
CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 
 
 221 
 
 V 
 
 FRUIT, FRESH — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Am't 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 I'ro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ret- 
 fuse 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Apples 
 
 $0.03-04 
 
 3 avg. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 10.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 4.0 
 
 220 
 
 Apricots 
 
 
 6 avg. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 1.0 
 
 255 
 
 Bananas 
 
 .05 
 
 3-4 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 2.3 
 
 8.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 5.2 
 
 300 
 
 Cherries 
 
 
 100-130 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 2.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 345 
 
 Cranberries 
 
 .10 
 
 4 cups 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 14.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 215 
 
 Grapes 
 
 .05-25 
 
 100-120 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.2 
 
 2.3 
 
 9.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 2-4 
 
 335 
 
 Melons 
 
 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.7 
 
 7.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 90 
 
 Oranges 
 
 .05-10 
 
 2-3 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 10.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 4.3 
 
 170 
 
 Peaches 
 
 
 5-6 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.4 
 
 11.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 3.2 
 
 145 
 
 Plums 
 
 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 3.2 
 
 11.8 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 370 
 
 Pears 
 
 
 3-4 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 2.0 
 
 12.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 1.6 
 
 260 
 
 Strawberries 
 
 .15 
 
 1^ qts. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 13.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 175 
 
 100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Apples 7 ounces, 1 to 2 apples. 
 
 Apricots 6-7 ounces, 2 to 3 apricots. 
 
 Bananas 5 ounces, 1 good-sized banana. 
 
 Cherries 4 ounces, 30 to 35 cherries. 
 
 Cranberries 7 ounces, nearly a cupful of stewed berries 
 
 (without sugar) . 
 
 Grapes 5 ounces, 20 to 25 grapes. 
 
 Melons 
 
 Oranges 9 ounces, 1 big orange. 
 
 Peaches 10 ounces, about 3 peaches. 
 
 Plums 4r-5 ounces, 1 to 3 plums. 
 
 Pears 7 ounces, 1 to 2 pears. 
 
 Strawberries 9 ounces, 30-50 berries. 
 
222 
 
 principle:s of food preparation 
 
 VI 
 FISH, GROUP I 
 
 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 
 
 
 No of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ref- 
 fuse 
 
 fr, 1 lb. 
 
 Black bass 
 
 $0.22 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 5.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 8.8 
 
 205 
 
 Buffalo fish 
 
 .10 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 8.3 
 
 205 
 
 Codfi-h 
 
 .12 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 
 6.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 8.3 
 
 165 
 
 Dried codfish 
 
 .08 
 
 4.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 
 8.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 400 
 
 Haddock 
 
 .12 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 
 6.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 8.0 
 
 165 
 
 Flounder 
 
 .15 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 
 5.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 9.7 
 
 115 
 
 Perch (white) 
 
 .10 
 
 1.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 
 4.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 10.0 
 
 200 
 
 Pickerel (pike) 
 
 .12 
 
 1.4 
 
 0.0 
 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 7.5 
 
 190 
 
 Red snapper 
 
 .15 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 
 6.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 7.4 
 
 225 
 
 lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Black bass 3.5 ounces. 
 
 Buffalo fish 3.5 ounces. 
 
 Codfish 4.5 ounces. 
 
 Dried codfish .... 1.4 ounces. 
 
 Haddock 4.5 ounces. 
 
 Flounder 6.0 ounces. 
 
 Perch (white) .... 3.5 ounces. 
 
 Pickerel (pike) .... 3.3 ounces. 
 
 Red snapper 3.2 ounces. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 Why is the water-content of dried codfish higher than that of fresh? 
 
 Considering the amount of refuse in dried and in fresh codfish, which 
 is the more economical purchase, that is, which will yield the most 
 protein and the largest number of calories for an equal sum? 
 
CHARTS OF COMPOtSITION OF FOODS 
 
 228 
 
 VII 
 
 FISH, CRUSTACEOUS — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Ani't 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 lib. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ref- 
 fuse 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Clams (solids) 
 
 $0.20 
 
 15-20 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.8 
 
 13.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 
 340 
 
 Crabs, in shell 
 
 .30 
 
 6 avg. 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 6.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 8.3 
 
 195 
 
 Lobster 
 
 .25 
 
 Yi of 
 1 lobster 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 0.1 
 
 10.0 
 
 140 
 
 Oysters 
 
 .20 
 
 1 pint or 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.5 
 
 14.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 335 
 
 (solids) 
 
 
 20 avg. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scallops 
 
 .20 
 
 1 pint 
 or 20-30 
 
 2.3 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 13.0 
 
 1.2 
 
 
 345 
 
 lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Claras, cooked . 
 Crabs, meat of . 
 
 Lobster, meat of 
 Oysters, cooked 
 
 ounces, 
 ounces, 
 
 ounces, 
 ounces, 
 
 Scallops 4.7 ounces. 
 
 3-5 clams. 
 
 meat of from 2-3 crabs after 
 
 cooking, 
 about 3^ of the meat of 1 lobster, 
 about 5 oysters. 
 5 to 8 scallops. 
 
224 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 VIII 
 FISH, GROUP II — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 of 
 1 lb. 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ref- 
 fuse 
 
 Calories 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Butterfish 
 
 Catfish 
 
 Eel 
 
 Halibut 
 
 Lake trout 
 
 Mackerel 
 
 Salmon 
 
 Shad 
 
 Whitefish 
 
 $0.15 
 .12 
 
 .16-25 
 .15 
 .25 
 
 .12-20 
 .20 
 .15 
 
 1.5 
 3.6 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 1.5 
 1.7 
 2.4 
 1.5 
 1.7 
 
 1.0 
 2.7 
 1.4 
 0.8 
 0.8 
 0.6 
 1.5 
 0.8 
 0.5 
 
 
 
 6.4 
 8.2 
 9.0 
 9.3 
 6.0 
 6.6 
 6.5 
 5.6 
 5.2 
 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 
 7.0 
 3.0 
 3.0 
 2.3 
 7.6 
 7.0 
 5.5 
 8.0 
 8.5 
 
 460 
 915 
 580 
 470 
 385 
 365 
 660 
 380 
 325 
 
 lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Butterfish 3.0 ounces. 
 
 Catfish 1.5 ounces. 
 
 Eel 2.8 ounces. 
 
 Halibut 3.0 ounces. 
 
 Lake trout 3.0 ounces. 
 
 Mackerel 3.5 ounces. 
 
 Salmon 2.0 ounces. 
 
 Shad 3.0 ounces. 
 
 Whitefish 3.7 ounces. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 Which group of fish has the highest calorific value? To what may 
 this be attributed? Could the two groups be classified on this basis? 
 
CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 
 
 225 
 
 IX 
 
 FLOUR, SUGAR, SYRUP, CHOCOLATE, ETC. 
 AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 Coat 
 
 Am't 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Bread flour 
 
 $0.04 
 
 3 cups 
 
 1.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 12.2 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.1 
 
 1665 
 
 Pastry flour 
 
 .07 
 
 3M cups 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.2 
 
 12.2 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 1625 
 
 Whole wheat flour 
 
 .04 
 
 2)4 cups 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 11.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.2 
 
 1675 
 
 Graham flour 
 
 .04 
 
 3 cups 
 
 2.2 
 
 0.3 
 
 11.4 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.3 
 
 1670 
 
 Corn starch 
 
 .10 
 
 2M cups 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 14.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 1675 
 
 Cane sugar 
 
 .06 
 
 2 cups 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 1860 
 
 Honey, strained 
 
 .25 
 
 l}4 cups 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 13.0 
 
 3.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 1520 
 
 Molasses 
 
 .06 
 
 1 pint 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 11.3 
 
 4.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 1290 
 
 Tapioca 
 
 .10 
 
 2 cups 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.0 
 
 1650 
 
 Chocolate 
 
 .50 
 
 16 sqrs. 
 
 2.0 
 
 7.6 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 2860 
 
 Cocoa 
 
 .50 
 
 2 cups 
 
 3.3 
 
 4.5 
 
 6.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 2320 
 
 Olive oil 
 
 .50-75 
 
 1 pint 
 
 0.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 4082 
 
 100-Calorie Portion of the Foods, as Purchased 
 
 Bread and other flours . 1 .0 ounce, 
 
 Corn starch 1.0 ounce, 
 
 Cane sugar 0.9 ounce, 
 
 Honey, strained ... 1.0 ounce, 
 
 Molasses 1.4 ounces, 
 
 Tapioca 1.0 ounce, 
 
 Chocolate 0.6 ounce, 
 
 Cocoa 0.8 ounce, 
 
 Olive oil 0.2 ounce, 
 
 3 tablespoons, or as much flour 
 as will make one biscuit of 
 average size. 
 
 2 tablespoons, or as much as will 
 stiffen 1 cup of milk or other 
 liquid to a mold. 
 
 nearly 2 tablespoons of granu- 
 lated sugar, or 3-4 lumps. 
 
 2 tablespoonfuls. 
 
 2 generous tablespoonfuls. 
 
 2 tablespoons, enough to make 
 
 a cupful of pudding, 
 half a square, or just a little over. 
 
 3 tablespoons. 
 1}4 teaspoonfuls. 
 
226 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 X 
 
 MEATS AND OTHER FOODS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 of 
 lib. 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ref- 
 fuse 
 
 Calories 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Bacon 
 
 Beef 
 
 Corned beef 
 
 Dried beef 
 
 Lamb 
 
 Mutton 
 
 Pork 
 
 Veal 
 
 Eggs, hen's 
 
 Gelatine 
 
 $0.15-25 
 .10-30 
 .08-18 
 .25-30 
 .10-30 
 .08-25 
 .15-20 
 .10-25 
 .15-35 
 .60-1.25 
 
 1.3 
 2.5 
 2.0 
 4.0 
 2.0 
 2.0 
 1.3 
 2.8 
 2.0 
 13.4 
 
 10.0 
 1.8 
 4.0 
 1.3 
 3.0 
 3.8 
 7.6 
 1.0 
 1.5 
 
 
 
 2.5 
 8.6 
 8.0 
 8.5 
 7.5 
 7.0 
 5.0 
 8.5 
 10.6 
 2.0 
 
 0.7 
 0.1 
 0.7 
 1.5 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.6 
 
 1.3 
 3.0 
 1.3 
 0.7 
 3.4 
 3.0 
 2.0 
 3.6 
 1.8 
 
 2795 
 
 735 
 
 1271 
 
 780 
 
 1055 
 
 1255 
 
 2215 
 
 580 
 
 650 
 
 1705 
 
 lOO-Calorie Portion of Above Foods, as Usually Served 
 
 Bacon 0.5 ounce, or from 1 to 2 small, thin slices. 
 
 Beef 3.0 ounces, or an ordinary small helping. 
 
 Corned beef 1.5 ounces, or an ordinary helping. 
 
 Dried beef 2.8 ounces, or an ordinary good helping. 
 
 Lamb 1.4 ounces, or 3^ of 1 chop, or twice the vol- 
 ume of lean from the leg, etc. 
 
 Mutton 1.6 ounces, or an ordinary slice. 
 
 Pork 0.4 ounce, or ^ of a small slice. 
 
 Veal 3.0 ounces, or an ordinary helping. 
 
 Eggs 2.5 ounces, or 1 very large egg, or 1^ eggs 
 
 of average size. 
 
 Gelatine 1.0 ounce, or about 2 tablespoonfuls of the 
 
 dry, granulated gelatine. 
 
CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 
 
 227 
 
 XI 
 
 NUTS, IN SHELL — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 rn<?t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ref- 
 fuse 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Almonds 
 
 $0.20-25 
 
 120 
 
 2.0 
 
 4.8 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 7.0 
 
 1660 
 
 Butternuts 
 
 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 13.8 
 
 430 
 
 Chestnuts 
 
 .10-20 
 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.8 
 
 9.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.3 
 
 3.8 
 
 1425 
 
 Cocoanuts 
 
 .05-10 
 
 1 small 
 
 0.5 
 
 4.2 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 7.8 
 
 1413 
 
 Filberts 
 
 .15 
 
 4 cups 
 
 1.2 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.2 
 
 8.3 
 
 1575 
 
 Hickory- 
 
 .05 
 
 100 
 
 1.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 10.0 
 
 1265 
 
 Peanuts 
 
 .05 
 
 1 qt. 
 
 3.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 3.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 4.3 
 
 1935 
 
 Pecans 
 
 .20-25 
 
 100 
 
 1.0 
 
 5.3 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 1846 
 
 Walnuts 
 
 .30 
 
 50 
 
 1.0 
 
 4.2 
 
 1.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 9.5 
 
 1375 
 
 100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Purchased 
 
 Almonds 1 ounce, 
 
 Butternuts 4 ounces, 
 
 Chestnuts 1.1 ounces, 
 
 Cocoanuts 1.1 ounces. 
 
 Filberts 1.0 ounce, 
 
 Hickory nuts .... 1.3 ounces. 
 
 Peanuts 0.8 ounce. 
 
 Pecans 0.8 ounce. 
 
 Walnuts 0.9 ounce, 
 
 7 or 8 almonds. 
 
 1 to 2 chestnuts. 
 
 10 to 12 nuts. 
 6 to 8 nuts, 
 about a dozen. 
 6 to 8 nuts. 
 4 whole walnuts. 
 
228 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 XII 
 POULTRY 
 
 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ref- 
 fuse 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Chicken 
 
 $0.15-20 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 7.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 6.7 
 
 295 
 
 Duck 
 
 .18-20 
 
 2.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 
 6.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 3.0 
 
 1220 
 
 Fowl 
 
 .12-16 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 7.5 
 
 0,1 
 
 4.0 
 
 775 
 
 Goose 
 
 .15-20 
 
 2.2 
 
 4.5 
 
 
 6.4 
 
 0.1 
 
 2.8 
 
 1506 
 
 Turkey 
 
 .18-25 
 
 2.8 
 
 3.0 
 
 
 6.6 
 
 0.1 
 
 3.5 
 
 1075 
 
 100-Calorie Portion of Above Foods, as Usually Served 
 
 Chicken 3.0 ounces, 1 small second joint, or a side 
 
 of the breast. 
 
 Duck 1.0 ounce, an equivalent portion, or a mod- 
 erate helping. 
 
 Fowl 1.7 ounces, an equivalent portion, or a mod- 
 erate helping. 
 
 Goose 0.8 ounce, an equivalent portion, or a mod- 
 erate helping. 
 
 Turkey 1.3 ounces, an equivalent portion, or a mod- 
 erate helping. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 Account for the fact that there is a larger proportion of refuse in 
 chicken than in the other forms of poultry. 
 
 Considering the calorific value and the amount of refuse in these foods 
 as purchased, which would be the most economical kind of poultry to 
 buy at the highest cost given for each? 
 
CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 
 
 229 
 
 XIII 
 VEGETABLES, GREEN — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Am't. 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of in 
 1 lb. 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat C'hy 
 
 Water Salts 
 
 1 
 
 Ref- 
 fuse 
 
 Calories 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Asparagus 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 Celery 
 
 Lettuce 
 
 Spinach 
 
 $0.10-20 
 
 .03-08 
 
 .10 
 
 .20 
 .20 
 .08-10 
 
 1 good 
 bunch 
 
 head 
 
 1 small 
 head 
 
 2 heads 
 2 heads 
 1 quart 
 
 0.4 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.2 
 0.2 
 0.3 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 0.0 
 0.0 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.5 
 0.5 
 0.6 
 
 15.0 
 
 12.8 
 
 14.7 
 
 12.0 
 12.8 
 14.8 
 
 O.l 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 0.1 
 0.3 
 
 2.0 
 
 3.0 
 2.4 
 
 103 
 
 125 
 
 140 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 110 
 
 lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Asparagus 14 ounces, almost, after cooking. 
 
 Cabbage 11 ounces, after cooking. 
 
 Cauliflower 12 ounces, after cooking. 
 
 Celery IH pounds, 
 
 Lettuce 1J4 pounds, 
 
 Spinach 12 ounces, after cooking. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 What could be added to these vegetables as seasoning or condiment 
 to bring up their calorific value? 
 
230 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 XIV 
 
 VEGETABLES, LEGUMINOUS — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Am't 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Re- 
 fuse 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Beans, butter 
 
 $0.12>^ 
 
 80 pods 
 
 0.7 
 
 0.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 4.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 8.0 
 
 370 
 
 Beans, dried 
 
 .05 
 
 2 cups 
 
 3.6 
 
 0.3 
 
 9.5 
 
 2.0 
 
 0.6 
 
 
 1605 
 
 Beans, Lima, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fresh 
 
 .12 
 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.6 
 
 5.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 8.8 
 
 255 
 
 Beans, Lima 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 dried 
 
 .10 
 
 2}/i cups 
 
 3.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 10.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 0.6 
 
 
 1625 
 
 Beans, string 
 
 .15 
 
 100 pods 
 
 0.3 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 13.5 
 
 0.2 
 
 
 180 
 
 Lentils 
 
 .10 
 
 2}4 cups 
 
 4.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 9.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.0 
 
 
 1620 
 
 Peas, dried 
 
 .05 
 
 2 cups 
 
 4.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 10.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.4 
 
 
 1655 
 
 Peas, green 
 
 .15 
 
 100 pods 
 
 0.5 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 6.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 7.4 
 
 255 
 
 lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Beans, butter 
 
 3 ounces, 
 
 Beans, dried, cooked 2-3 ounces. 
 
 Beans, Lima 4 ounces, 
 
 Beans, Lima, dried, 
 
 cooked 3 ounces, 
 
 Beans, string 1 pound. 
 
 Lentils 3-4 ounces. 
 
 Peas, dried, cooked . . 2-3 ounces. 
 
 Peas, green 3-4 ounces, 
 
 1 good helping, something less 
 
 than 3^ cupful. 
 1 small helping, 
 a large helping, 3^2 cupful. 
 
 1 good helping, 
 about a pint, 
 a good helping, 
 a small helping, 
 a good helping. 
 
CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 
 
 231 
 
 XV 
 
 VEGETABLES, STARCHY — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 C03t 
 
 Am't 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Kef- 
 use 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Hominy 
 
 
 3H cups 
 
 1.5 
 
 0.1 
 
 12.5 
 
 1.8 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 1650 
 
 Macaroni 
 
 
 See Cereals and Cereal Preparations, page 218 
 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 $.01-02 
 
 3-4 1 0.3 1 0.0 1 2.5 1 10.5 | 0.1 1 2.6 
 
 310 
 
 Rice 
 
 
 See Cereals and Cereal Preparations, page 218 
 
 
 Sweet potatoes 
 
 .0.3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3-4 0.3 0.1 j 3.5 J 9.4 0.1 2.6 
 
 ' 1 
 
 460 
 
 100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Hominy 4 ounces, J'^ cupful of cooked hominy. 
 
 Macaroni .... 4 ounces, nearly, the usual helping. 
 
 Potatoes 4-5 ounces, 1 good-sized potato 
 
 Rice 3-4 ounces, the usual helping. 
 
 Sweet potatoes .... 3-4 ounces, ]4, of a large, or 1 small sweet 
 
 potato. 
 
232 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 XVI 
 VEGETABLES, SUCCULENT — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Am't 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calories 
 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ref- 
 fuse 
 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Cucumber 
 
 $0.20 
 
 13^-2 
 large 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.4 
 
 13.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 2.4 
 
 70 
 
 Egg plant 
 
 .05-10 
 
 i^of 1 
 egg pl. 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.0 
 
 14.7 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 130 
 
 Green corn 
 
 .01-02 
 
 2-4 
 ears 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 4.4 
 
 0.1 
 
 10.0 
 
 455 
 
 Squash 
 
 .05 
 
 'A-l sq. 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.0 
 
 0.8 
 
 7.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 8.0 
 
 105 
 
 Tomatoes 
 
 .01-02 
 
 2-4 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.7 
 
 15.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 
 105 
 
 lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Cucumbers, pared ' . . 114 pounds, 2 to 4 cucumbers, after paring. 
 Egg plant, fried . . . 12-14 ounces, 7 or 8 good slices. 
 Green corn 4-5 ounces, 1 medium-sized ear, after cook- 
 ing. 
 Squash, cooked .... 8 ounces, a cupful of pulp, after cooking. 
 
 Tomatoes 1 poimd, nearly a pint of cooked tomato. 
 
CHARTS OF COMPOSITION OF FOODS 
 
 233 
 
 XVII 
 VEGETABLES, ROOT — AS PURCHASED 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Am't 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 of 
 lib. 
 
 in 
 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts ^«^- 
 use 
 
 Calories 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Beets 
 
 
 3-6 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 11.2 
 
 0.1 , 3.0 
 
 170 
 
 Carrots 
 
 
 2-6 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.0 
 
 1.5 
 
 11.0 
 
 0.1 : 3.2 
 
 160 
 
 Onions 
 
 $0.03 
 
 4-6 
 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 
 1.5 
 
 12.6 
 
 0.1 1.5 
 
 205 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 Rutabagas 
 
 Turnips 
 
 .02 
 .02 
 .01-02 
 
 2-5 
 
 KoflRb. 
 
 3-4 
 
 0.2 
 0.2 
 0.2 
 
 0.1 
 0.0 
 0.0 
 
 1.8 
 1.1 
 1.0 
 
 11.0 
 10.0 
 10.0 
 
 0.2 1 2.7 
 0.1 4.6 
 0.1 ! 4.7 
 
 240 
 135 
 125 
 
 lOO-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Beets 7-8 ounces, 3 medium-sized beets, after 
 
 peeling. 
 
 Carrots 7-8 ounces, 3 medium-sized carrots. 
 
 Onions 7-8 ounces, 2 to 3 onions. 
 
 l*arsnips 5-6 ounces, 1 to 2 parsnips. 
 
 Rutabagas 10-12 ounces, a heaping cupful of the mashed 
 
 vegetable. 
 Turnips 8-9 ounces, 2 to 3 turnips. 
 
234 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 XVIII 
 VISCERAL FOODS— AS PURCHASED 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 Cost 1 Am't 
 
 Ounces of the following in 1 lb. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name I of in 
 lib. ! 1 lb. 
 
 Pro- 
 tein 
 
 Fat 
 
 C'hy 
 
 Water 
 
 Salts 
 
 Ref- 
 use 
 
 Calories 
 fr. 1 lb. 
 
 Brains, calves' 
 Heart, beef's 
 
 Kidneys, 
 
 veal or lamb 
 Liver, calves' 
 Sweetbreads 
 Tongue, beef's 
 
 Tripe 
 
 $0,121/^ 1 1 pair 
 
 .08 1 y^-Hoi 
 
 \ 1 heart 
 .05 4-6, or 1 
 
 kdny. beef 
 
 1 2-4 slices 
 
 .30 1-2 pair 
 .12 H-H of 
 1 tongue 
 .08-10 
 
 1.4 
 2.5 
 
 2.5 
 
 3.0 
 2.5 
 2.5 
 
 2.6 
 
 1.5 
 4.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.5 
 2.0 
 1.0 
 
 1.3 
 
 0.4 
 
 13.0 
 
 8.4 
 
 12.0 
 
 11.0 
 11.3 
 
 8.4 
 
 12.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 0.1 1.0 
 
 0.2 
 
 1 
 
 0.1 
 0.2 
 0.1 4.0 
 
 0.1 
 
 555 
 1320 
 
 585 
 
 575 
 825 
 545 
 
 270 
 
 100-Calorie Portion of Above, as Ready to Serve 
 
 Brains 2^ ounces, 
 
 Heart 1.0 ounce, 
 
 Kidneys 2.0 ounces, 
 
 Liver 2.0 ounces. 
 
 Sweetbreads 2.0 ounces, 
 
 Tongue 1.5 ounces, 
 
 Tripe 6.0 ounces. 
 
 3^2 to 1 kidney. 
 3^ to 3^ a slice. 
 
 Account for the presence of carbohydrate where it occurs in visceral 
 foods. 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 TIME TABLES FOR COOKING 
 
 Time Table for Cooking Meats, Poultry, and Fish 
 
 I. MEATS 
 
 Baking. hours min. 
 
 Beef, rare, per pound 8-12 
 
 Beef, well done, per pound 15 
 
 Beef, fillet, very hot oven 30 
 
 Beef, sirloin or ribs, 5 lbs., rare .... 1 5 
 
 Beef, sirloin or ribs, 5 lbs., well done . 1 20 
 
 Beef, sirloin or ribs, 10 lbs., rare ... 1 30 
 
 Beef, sirloin or ribs, 10 lbs., well done . 1 50 
 
 Beef, rump or chuck, 10 lbs., rare . . 1 35 
 
 Beef, rump or chuck, 10 lbs., well done 2 
 
 Lamb, per pound 15-18 
 
 Lamb, crown of 1 
 
 Lamb, fore quarter, 6-8 lbs 1 30 
 
 Lamb, leg, 6 lbs 1 30 
 
 Mutton, rare, per pound 10 
 
 Mutton, well done, per pound .... 15 
 
 Mutton, large leg, 12 lbs 2 
 
 Mutton, saddle 1 15-30 
 
 Mutton, shoulder, stuffed, 5-6 lbs. . . 1 15 
 
 Pork, per pound 30 
 
 Veal, per pound 20 
 
 Venison, per pound 10 
 
 Boiling. 
 
 Beef, per pound 15-20 
 
 Beef, corned, per pound 30 
 
 Mutton, per pound 15-20 
 
 Broiling. 
 
 Chops, French or loin 6 
 
 Chops, English 8-10 
 
 Steak, 1 in. thick ' 4-8 
 
 Steak, l}/^ in. thick 6-10 
 
 235 
 
23G PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Frying. hours min. 
 
 Bacon, thin 3-5 
 
 Chicken 6-8 
 
 Chops, breaded 5 
 
 Croquettes 1-2 
 
 Tests for cooking meat. 
 
 1. The muscle, when sHghtly pressed, is elastic; it loses elasticity 
 
 when overcooked. 
 
 2. When pressed close to the bone with the tines of a fork, if the 
 
 juice that flows is very slightly pink, the meat is properly 
 cooked. If the juice is red the meat is underdone; if colorless, 
 it is overcooked. 
 Note. The length of time for cooking fish and meat depends more 
 on the shape than on the weight of the piece — a thick, chunky 
 piece calling for a longer time than a thin, flat piece. 
 
 II. POULTRY 
 Baking. 
 
 Chicken, 3-4 lbs 1-1 >^ 
 
 Duck 
 
 Duck, wild, very hot oven 
 
 Fowl, 4-5 lbs 2-23^ 
 
 Goose, 8 lbs 2 
 
 Turkey, 8 lbs lM-2 
 
 Turkey, 12 lbs 3 
 
 Boiling. 
 
 Chicken, per pound 
 
 Chicken, 3 lbs 
 
 Fowl, per pound 
 
 Turkey, per pound 
 
 Turkey, 9 lbs 2^ 
 
 Broiling. 
 
 Chicken, spring 
 
 Squab 
 
 Frying. 
 
 Chicken 
 
 Test for the cooking of poultry. 
 
 The joint at the end of the leg breaks off easily. 
 
 45-60 
 20-30 
 
 15-20 
 
 50-60 
 
 20-30 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 10-12 
 
 6-8 
 
TIME TABLES FOR COOKING 
 
 237 
 
 III. FISH 
 
 Baking. hours mix. 
 
 Thick fish, per pound 10-15 
 
 Thin fish, per pound 8-10 
 
 Halibut, 6 lbs 1 
 
 Boiling. 
 
 Thick fish, e. g., halibut, salmon, per lb. 15 
 
 Thick fish, e. g., bluefish, bass, per lb. . S-10 
 
 Thin fish, c. g., flounder, per pound . . 6-8 
 
 Clams (to steam) 20 
 
 Lobster, for salad 25-30 
 
 Lobster, to be re-cooked 15-20 
 
 Frying. 
 
 Fillets or steaks 4-7 
 
 Smelts, trout, and other small fish . . 3-5 
 
 Test for the cooking of fish. 
 
 When the flesh can readily be separated from the bone, the fish is 
 cooked. 
 
 Time Table for Cooking Vegetables 
 
 Boiling. 
 
 Artichokes 
 
 Asparagus 
 
 Beans, shelled 
 
 Beans, string ^i--Yz 
 
 Boiling. 
 
 Beets, young . 
 
 Beets, old 1-3 
 
 Brussels sprouts 
 
 Cabbage, young 
 
 Cabbage, old 1 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Cauliflower 
 
 Celery, stewed 
 
 Corn, green 
 
 Dandelion greens 
 
 Macaroni 
 
 30-45 
 15-30 
 30-60 
 
 45 
 
 20-25 
 30-45 
 
 30-60 
 30-45 
 20-45 
 3-25 
 45-60 
 20-40 
 
238 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 Boiling — confinued. 
 
 Onions 
 
 Okra 
 
 Oyster plant .... 
 
 Parsnips 
 
 Peas 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Potatoes, sweet . . 
 
 Rice 
 
 Spinach 
 
 Squash, summer . . 
 Squash, winter . . . 
 Tomatoes, stewed 
 Turnips, white . . . 
 Turnips, yellow . . 
 
 Baking. 
 
 Beans 
 
 Beets 
 
 Onions 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Squash 
 
 Sweet potatoes . . . 
 Tomatoes 
 
 Frying. 
 
 Egg plant ..... 
 Potatoes, French fried 
 Potatoes, sliced . . 
 Summer squash . . 
 
 HOURS 
 
 8-10 
 
 30-60 
 
 45-60 
 
 30-45 
 
 12-45 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 20-30 
 
 20-40 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 15-25 
 
 30-45 
 
 30-60 
 
 45 
 45 
 
 10-20 
 
 5-8 
 
 10-15 
 
 4-8 
 
 4 
 
 Time Table for Cooking Flour Mixtures, etc. 
 
 I. BREAD, MUFFINS, AND CAKES 
 Baking. 
 
 Biscuits, soda or baking powder . . . 12-20 
 
 Bread, 1 lb. loaf, 1 cup wetting .... 40-45 
 
 Bread rolls ............ 15-25 
 
 Bread sticks 10-15 
 
 Cake, angel or sponge 45-60 
 
 Cake, layer 12-20 
 
 Cake, loaf 40-60 
 
 Cake, fruit l/4~2 
 
 Cake, plain cup 35-45 
 
TIME TABLES FOR COOKING 
 
 239 
 
 Baking — coviinnM. hours min. 
 
 Cake, pound 1M~13^ 
 
 Cake, wedding 3 h. or steam 2h. and 
 
 bake 1>^ h. 
 
 Cookies 6-12 
 
 Corn cake, thick 25-30 
 
 Corn cake, thin 15-20 
 
 Gingerbread 20-30 
 
 Graham gems 25-30 
 
 Muffins, baking powder 20-25 
 
 Muffins, yeast 30 
 
 n. PASTRY, PUDDINGS, ETC. 
 
 Batter puddings 35-40 
 
 Bread puddings M~l 
 
 Cheese straws 8-10 
 
 Custard pudding 30-45 
 
 Custard, cup 20-25 
 
 Indian pudding 2-3 
 
 Patties 20-25 
 
 Pies 30-50 
 
 Plum pudding 2-3 
 
 Rice pudding, 1 
 
 Rice pudding, creamy 2-3 
 
 Souffles 30-40 
 
 Tapioca pudding 1 
 
 Tarts 15-20 
 
 Steaming. 
 
 Brown bread 3 
 
 Puddings 1-3 
 
 Boiling. 
 
 Plum pudding 6-8 
 
APPENDIX C 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF THE PREPARATION OF FOOD 
 Which have been Illustrated in the Preceding Chapters 
 
 Acid coagulates albumin. 
 
 Acid precipitates casein. 
 
 Acid softens connective tissue (collagen). 
 
 Acid softens cellulose. 
 
 Acid softens gelatine jellies. 
 
 Acid, water, and heat change starch to sugar. 
 
 Acid, water, and heat invert cane sugar. 
 
 Acid in strong solution is an antiseptic. 
 
 Heat coagulates albumin. 
 
 Heat softens gelatine. 
 
 Heat develops the flavor of the sapid extractives of food in pro- 
 portion to the degree of temperature employed. 
 
 Heat converts starch to dextrine. 
 
 Heat caramehzes sugar. 
 
 Heat (dry) dehydrates foods, causing loss in weight. 
 
 Heat (moist) bursts starch cells. 
 
 Heat sterihzes foods by destroying germs. 
 
 Heat and water invert cane sugar. 
 
 Heat and water applied for a sufficient length of time convert 
 starch into sugar. 
 
 Heat in excess will change the characteristic properties of gela- 
 tine. 
 
 Heat in excess will change the characteristic properties of pectin. 
 
 Heat destroys the active principle in pineapple juice. 
 
 Heat is readily conducted by water and steam. 
 
 Heat is not well conducted by dry air. 
 
 Heat is not well conducted by cooked food of an albuminous 
 nature. 
 
 Heat is not well conducted by collaginous connective tissue. 
 
 Heat is not well conducted by dextrinized foods. 
 
 240 
 
PRINCIPLES OF PREPARATION OF FOOD 241 
 
 Heat volatilizes lemon juice. 
 
 Heat in excess causes a chemical change in citric acid, resulting 
 
 in a disagreeable flavor. 
 Initial high temperature develops a more pronounced flavor 
 
 than the same temperature gradually attained. 
 
 Salt toughens cellulose. 
 
 Salt in moderately strong solution lessens the solvent action of 
 
 water. 
 Salt in weak solution dissolves globuhn. 
 Salt yellows vegetable connective tissue. 
 Salt is an antiseptic. 
 Salt in solution raises the boihng point of water. 
 
 Water dissolves one-third its volume of salt. 
 
 Water (cold) dissolves one-third its volume of sugar. 
 
 Water, 212° F., dissolves three times its volume of sugar. 
 
 Water dissolves albumin. 
 
 Water (cold) is absorbed by gelatine. 
 
 Water (hot) dissolves previously hydrated gelatine. 
 
 Water dissolves the sapid extractives of foods. 
 
 Sugar toughens cellulose. 
 
 Sugar is a dehydrating agent. 
 
 Sugar in large quantity is an antiseptic. 
 
 Sugar in solution raises the boihng point of water. 
 
 Baking soda neutrahzes acids. 
 
 Baking soda increases the solvent action of water. 
 
 Baking soda is decomposed by heat, ^vith evolution of carbon 
 
 dioxide. . 
 
 Saltpeter, used in pickhng or on corning meats, has an oxidizmg 
 
 action, and will preserve the red color. 
 
 Air can be beaten into albumin. 
 Air can be beaten into gelatine. 
 Air can be beaten into cream. 
 Air or gas can be held by gluten. 
 
 Spice is an antiseptic. 
 
 Retention of potassium salt makes potato less mealy when 
 
 boiled or steamed. . . 
 
 A starchy thickening, added to milk, will prevent its bemg 
 
 curdled by acid. 
 
242 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION 
 
 A starchy thickening will keep a custard from wheying 
 Cooking m an open kettle wall preserve the brightness of the 
 
 color of vegetables. 
 The yolk of egg coagulates at a lower temperature than the white 
 Hard-cooked yolk of egg is soluble in water. 
 Bromelin, the ferment in fresh pineapple juice, dissolves proteids 
 
 I 
 
INDEX 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acid, its effect on cellulose, 
 
 20 
 Albumin, 48, 49 
 Almond butter, 124 
 Almond rock, 184 
 Apple compote, 24 
 Apple jelly, 27 
 Apple pie, 205 
 Apple tea, 197 
 Apples, 
 
 Baked 4 
 
 Composition of, 220, 221 
 
 Jelly from, 27 
 
 Steamed, 4 
 
 Bacon, 
 
 Broiled, 125 
 
 Composition of, 226 
 Baking-powder biscuit, 155 
 Baking powders, study of, 160 
 Banana fritters, 123 
 Bananas, 
 
 Baked, 5 
 
 Broiled, 73 
 
 Composition of, 221 
 
 Steamed, 5 
 Barding, 82 
 Batters, 140, 209 
 Bavarian cream, 51 
 Beef, 
 
 A la mode, 83 
 
 Braised, 81 
 
 Composition of, 226 
 
 Corned, 93 
 
 Jelly, 44 
 Beets, 
 
 Baked, 3 
 
 Composition of, 233 
 
 Steamed, 3 
 
 Beverages, 191 
 
 Apple tea, 197 
 
 Cocoa, 195 
 
 Coffee, 192 
 
 Fruit punch, 197 
 
 Spanish chocolate, 196 
 
 Tea, 193, 194 
 
 Tea punch, 197 
 Biscuit. See Flour mixtures 
 Boiled puddings, 211 
 Bouillon, 96 
 Braised beef, 81 
 Bread. See Flour mixtures 
 Bread and butter pudding, 107 
 Bread crumbs, 209 
 Brown bread, Boston, 163, 217 
 Brown stew, 92 
 Brunswick stew, 93 
 Butter, 103 
 
 Ahnond, 124 
 
 Composition of, 219 
 
 Drawn, 56 
 
 Cabbage, 
 
 Boiled, 15 
 
 Composition of, 229 
 
 Escalloped with cheese, 16 
 
 EscaUoped with tomato, 16 
 Caffeine, 191 
 Cakes, 201 
 
 See also Flour mixtures 
 Calves' foot jelly, 43 
 Candy. See Su^ar 
 Cane sugar, 187, 188, 225 
 Caper sauce, 90 
 Carrots, 
 
 Composition of, 233 
 
 Creamed, 18 
 
 Jelly from, 27 
 
246 
 
 INDEX 
 
 CeUulose, 7, 20, 24 
 Cereals, 130, 210, 218 
 Charts, 216 
 
 Composition of foods, 
 
 Bread, cake, and crackers, 
 
 217 
 Cereals and cereal prepara- 
 tions, 218 
 Dairy produce, 219 
 Dried fruit, 220 
 Fish, 222, 223, 224 
 Flour, sugar, syrup, choco- 
 late, etc., 225 
 Fresh fruit, 221 
 Fruit, 220, 221 
 Meats, 226 
 Nuts, 227 
 Poultry, 228 
 Vegetables, 229-233 
 Visceral foods, 234 
 Principles of preparation of 
 
 food, 240 
 Time tables for cooking. 
 Fish, 237 
 
 Flour mixtures, 238 
 Meats, 235 
 Poultry, 236 
 Vegetables, 237 
 Cheese, 11. See also Rabbits 
 Composition of, 219 
 Cottage, 103 
 Souffle, 114 
 Chicken jelly, 43 
 Chocolate, 191, 196, 225 
 Chocolate bread pudding, 108 
 "Chou" paste, 165, 210 
 Chowder, 58, 93 
 Cocoa, 191, 195, 225 
 Coffee, 191, 192 
 Coffee cake, 174 
 Coffee extract, 43 
 Coffee jelly, 42 
 Color, preservation of, 24 
 Compote, apple, 24 
 Consomm^, 96 
 Cooked salad dressing, 120 
 Cookies, nut, 158 
 Corn, 
 Boiled, 7 
 Composition of, 232 
 
 Corned beef. See Beef 
 Cottage cheese, 103 
 Cranberry pie, 207 
 Cranberry sauce, 26 
 Cream, 
 
 Composition of, 219 
 
 Whipped, 24 
 Cream fiUing, 157 
 Cream puffs, 163 
 Cream salad dressing, 120 
 Cream soups. See Milk soups 
 Cream tomato soup, 105, 106 
 Croustades, 17, 18 
 Crullers, 156 
 Crumbs, buttered, 9 
 Crumpets, 173 
 Curry 
 
 of oysters, 65 
 
 of tomato, 85 
 Custard, 
 
 Baked, 33 
 
 Meringue for, 33 
 
 Rennet, 102 
 
 Soft, 32 
 
 Dairy produce, composition 
 
 of, 219 
 Date cream filling, 157 
 Daubing, 82 
 Doughnuts, 174 
 Doughs, 154, 209 
 Drawn butter sauce, 56 
 Dumplings, 92 
 
 Egg lemonade, 31 
 
 Egg toast, 107 
 
 Eggs, 30. See also Custard and 
 Omelet 
 Baked, 3 
 
 Composition of, 226 
 Creamed on toast, 31 
 "Hard-cooked, 30 
 Molded, 34 
 Soft-cooked, 3, 30 
 Test for freshness, 30 
 
 Election cake, 174 
 
 Emergency biscuit, 154 
 
 Enghsh muffins, 173 
 
 English plum pudding, 210 
 
INDEX 
 
 247 
 
 Exercises, 14, 21, 28, 38, 51, 
 
 58, 78, 88, 99, 112, 128, 138, 
 
 167, 212 
 Experiments, 10, 19, 48, 66, 75, 
 
 97, 122, 126, 135, 149, 150, 
 
 159, 187 
 
 Fat, applying to meat, 82 
 
 Fats, 115 
 
 Fig marmalade, 12, 133 
 
 FiUing, 
 
 Date cream, 157 
 
 For cream puffs, 165 
 Fish, 53 
 
 Baked, 54 
 
 Boiled, 54 
 
 Broiled, 55 
 
 Composition of, 222-224 
 
 Fried, 55 
 
 Steamed, 54 
 
 Time table for cooking, 237 
 Flom* mixtures, 140, 154, 169 
 
 Baking-powder biscuit, 155 
 
 Boston brown bread, 163 
 
 Coffee cake, 174 
 
 Composition of, 217, 225 
 
 Cream puffs, 163, 165 
 
 Crullers, 156 
 
 Crumpets, 173 
 
 Date cream filling, 157 
 
 Doughnuts, 174 
 
 Election cake, 174 
 
 Emergency biscuit, 154 
 
 Enghsh muffins, 173 
 
 French pancakes, 144 
 
 Ginger snaps, 158 
 
 Griddle cakes, 142-144 
 
 Hard gingerbread, 158 
 
 Muffins, 146 
 
 Nut cookies, 158 
 
 One-two-three-four cake, 201 
 
 Parker House rolls, 176 
 
 Pie crust, 156, 157 
 
 Popovers, 145 
 
 Quick cakes, 147 
 
 Quick-process bread, 169 
 
 Raisin bread, 174 
 
 Shortcake, 156 
 
 Soft molasses gingerbread, 163 
 
 Steamed puddings, 147 
 
 Flour mixtures — continued 
 
 Time table for cooking, 238 
 
 Vinegar cake, 163 
 
 Waffles, 144, 174 
 Fondants, 186 
 French coffee, 193 
 French di'essing, 115 
 French pancakes, 144 
 Fricassee, 93 
 Fritadella, 100 
 Fritters, 
 
 Banana, 123 
 
 Batter, 144, 147 
 Fruit, composition of, 220, 221 
 Fruit di-inks, 197 
 Fruit jelly, 27 
 Fruit punch, 197 
 Fruit toasts, 107 
 Frying, 
 
 Cooked mixtures, 123 
 
 Deep fat, 115, 121 
 
 Uncooked mixtures, 123 
 Fudge, vanilla, 185 
 
 Gelatine, 42, 226 
 
 Gelatine jellies, general rules for, 
 
 44 
 Ginger pears, 25 
 Ginger snaps, 158 
 Gingerbread, 
 
 Hard, 158 
 
 Soft molasses, 163 
 Glaseed nuts, 184 
 Glaze, 96 
 
 Globulin of meat, 97 
 Glucose, 187 
 Golden buck, 110 
 Griddle cakes, 142-144 
 
 Haggis, 93 
 
 Hamburg steak, 72 
 
 Haricot, 93 
 
 Heat, its effect on food, 1, 188, 
 
 189 
 Hollandaise sauce, 56 
 Home economics, value of, xi- 
 
 xiii 
 Horseradish sauce, 73 
 
 Irish stew, 93 
 
248 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Jellying principle, 24 
 Jelly, 
 
 Apple, 27 
 
 Beef, 44 
 
 Calves' foot, 43 
 
 Chicken, 43 
 
 Coffee, 42 
 
 From turnips or carrots, 27 
 
 Fruit, 27 
 
 Lemon, 42 
 
 Milk, 51 
 
 Pineapple, 43 
 
 Ribbon, 51 
 Junket, 102 
 
 Kolcannon, 93 
 Kreatin, 97 
 
 Lamb, 
 
 Boiled, 89 
 
 Composition of, 226 
 Leavens, 140, 154 
 Lemon jelly, 42 
 Lemon pie, 208 
 Lemon sauce, 124 
 Lemon sponge, 134 
 
 Macaroni, 
 
 Boiled, 133 
 
 Composition of, 218, 231 
 
 With apple sauce, 134 
 
 With cheese, 134 
 
 With tomato, 134 
 Maitre d'hotel butter, 73 
 Marinade, 117, 121 
 Marrow bones, deviled, 125 
 Mayonnaise, 118 
 Meat, 70, 79, 89, 226 
 Meat baUs, 2 
 Meat stews. See Stews 
 Medium white sauce, 9 
 Meringue, 
 
 For custard, 33 
 
 For pie, 158, 208 
 Milk, 101, 219 
 Milk jeUy, 51 
 Milk puddings, 107 
 Milk soups, 104 
 Milk toast, 106 
 
 Mississippi steamboat potatoes, 
 85 
 
 Mocha icing, 114 
 
 Mock bisque soup, 105, 106 
 
 Mock mince pie, 208 
 
 Mock mayonnaise, 119, 120 
 
 Molasses, 
 
 Composition of, 225 
 Soft gingerbread, 163 
 Velvet candy, 185 
 
 Muffins, 146 
 
 Mushrooms with tomatoes, 84 
 
 Nut cookies, 158 
 Nuts, 184, 201, 226 
 Nutted cream, 128 
 
 Olive rabbit, 110 
 Omelet, 
 
 Foamy, 34 
 
 Varieties of, 35 
 One-two-three-four cake, 201 
 Onions, 
 
 Buttered, 16 
 
 Composition of, 233 
 Orange sponge, 134 
 Oyster rabbit, 110 
 Oysters, 62 
 
 A la poulette, 65 
 
 Broiled, 2 
 
 Composition of, 223 
 
 Creamed, 65 
 
 Curry of, 65 
 
 Rabbit, 110 
 
 Soup, 63 
 
 Steamed, 2 
 
 Stew, 63 
 
 Supreme of, 66 
 
 With cheese, 65 
 
 Pancakes, 142-144 
 Parker House rolls, 176 
 Parsley, chopped, 73 
 Parsnips, 
 
 Boiled, 19 
 
 Composition of, 233 
 Peaches, 
 
 Baked, 4 
 
 Steamed, 4 
 Peanut brittle, 183 
 
INDEX 
 
 249 
 
 Pears, 
 
 Composition of, 221 
 
 Ginger, 25 
 Peas, 
 
 Composition of, 230 
 
 Green, 26 
 Peppers (green) farci, 86 
 Pie crust, 156, 157, 207 
 Pies, 205 
 
 Apple, 205 
 
 Cranberry, 207 
 
 General rules, 205 
 
 Lemon, 208 
 
 Pastry shells, 207 
 
 Raisin, 208 
 
 Strawberry, 206 
 Pilaff, Turkish, 138 
 Pineapple jelly, 43 
 Pineapple juice, action of, 49 
 Popovers, 145 
 Piquante sauce, 56 
 Pot roast, 82 
 Potato, study of, 7 
 Potatoes, 
 
 Baked, 3, 10 
 
 Boiled, 3, 8 
 
 Composition of, 231 
 
 Mashed, 8 
 
 Mississippi steamboat, 85 
 
 With cheese, 9, 10 
 Poultry, 
 
 Composition of, 228 
 
 Time table for cooking, 236 
 Protein, tests for, 48 
 Puddings, 209 
 
 Bavarian cream, 51 
 
 Boiled, 211 
 
 Bread and butter, 107 
 
 Chocolate bread, 108 
 
 Enghsh plum, 210 
 
 Foundations for, 209 
 
 Lemon sponge, 134 
 
 Nutted cream, 128 
 
 Orange sponge, 134 
 
 Steamed, 147 
 
 Suet, 129 
 
 Questions, 6, 13, 21, 28, 37, 50, 
 57, 68, 77, 87, 98, 111, 127, 
 
 136, 152, 166, 180, 190, 199, 
 
 212 
 Quick cakes, 147 
 Quick-process bread, 169 
 
 Rabbits, 
 
 Golden buck, 110 
 
 OUve, 110 
 
 Oyster, 110 
 
 Scotch woodcock, 110 
 
 Welsh, 109 
 
 Yorkshire, 1 10 
 Ragout, 93 
 Raisin bread, 174 
 Raisin pie, 208 
 References, bibhographical, 6, 
 14, 22, 29, 41, 52, 60, 69, 
 78, 88, 100, 114, 129, 138, 
 153, 167, 182, 190, 200 
 Rennet custard, 102 
 Ribbon jelly, 51 
 Rice, 11 
 
 Baked, 12 
 
 Boiled, 11 
 
 Composition of, 218, 231 
 
 Steamed, 12 
 
 With fig marmalade, 12 
 Roast, 
 
 Pot, 82 
 
 Standing rib, 79 
 Rolled skirt steak, 74 
 
 Salad dressings, 121 
 
 Cream, 120 
 
 French, 115 
 
 Marinade, 117, 121 
 
 Mayonnaise, 118, 
 
 Mock mayonnaise, 119, 120 
 
 Sour cream, 120 
 Salads, preparing, 120 
 Salisbury steak, 73 
 Salmi, 93 
 
 Salt, its eflfect on cellulose, 7 
 Sauce, 
 
 Caper, 90 
 
 Cranberry, 26 
 
 Drawn butter, 56 
 
 HoUandaise, 56 
 
 Horseradish, 73 
 
250 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Sauce — continued 
 
 Lemon, 124 
 
 Maitre d'hotel, 73 
 
 Medium white, 9 
 
 Piquante, 56 
 
 Tomato, 16 
 Scotch woodcock, 110 
 Scrapple, 129 
 Seasoning, 70 
 Shortcake, 156 
 Slaw, 
 
 Cold, 86 
 
 Hot, 85 
 Soup stock, 94-96 
 Soups, 
 
 Bouillon, 96 
 
 Clear, 96 
 
 Consomme, 96 
 
 Court bouillon, 96 
 
 Cream tomato, 105, 106 
 
 Milk, 104 
 
 Mock bisque, 105, 106 
 
 Stock, 94-96 
 Sour cream salad dressing, 120 
 Spanish chocolate, 196 
 Spinach, 
 
 Composition of, 229 
 
 In croustades, 17 
 Sponge puddings. See Puddings 
 Squash, 
 
 Boiled, 19 
 
 Composition of, 232 
 Standing Rib Roast, 79 
 Starch, chemical change in, 135 
 Steak, 70 
 
 Accompaniments to, 73 
 
 Hamburg, 72 
 
 Rolled skirt, 74 
 
 Sahsbury, 73 
 
 Stuffing for skirt, 74 
 
 Tender, 71 
 
 Tough, 72 
 Steamed puddings, 147 
 Stews, 
 
 Brown, 92 
 
 Irish, 93 
 
 Meat, 89, 90, 92, 93 
 
 Oyster, 63 
 Strawberry pie, 206 
 
 Strawberry whip, 42 
 Stuffing for skirt steak, 74 
 Suet pudding, 129 
 Sugar, 183 
 
 Almond rock, 184 
 
 Composition of, 225 
 
 Fondants, 186 
 
 Glaceed nuts, 184 
 
 Peanut brittle, 183 
 
 Vanilla fudge, 185 
 
 Velvet molasses candy, 185 
 Supreme of oysters, 66 
 Syrup, composition of, 225 
 
 Tannin, 191, 198 
 
 Tea, 191, 193 
 
 Tea punch, 197 
 
 Time tables for cooking, 235 
 
 Toast, 
 
 Egg, 107 
 
 Fruit, 107 
 
 Milk, 106 
 
 Tomato, 107 
 Tomato sauce, 16 
 Tomato toast, 107 
 Tomatoes, 16 
 
 Baked, 4 
 
 Composition of, 232 
 
 Curried, 85 
 
 Deviled, 84 
 
 Steamed, 4 
 
 Toast, 107 
 
 With mushrooms, 84 
 Topics for study, 5, 13, 20, 27, 
 37, 50, 56, 68, 76, 87, 98, 
 111, 127, 136, 148, 151, 160, 
 166, 179, 183, 189, 199 
 Turkish pilaff, 138 
 Turnips, 
 
 Composition of, 233 
 
 Jelly from, 27 
 
 Mashed, 17 
 
 Vanilla fudge, 185 
 Veal, 
 
 Bu-ds, 83 
 
 Composition of, 226 
 Vegetables, 
 
 Composition of, 229-233 
 
 Time table for cooking, 237 
 
INDEX 
 
 251 
 
 Vegetables, green, study of, 15 
 Velvet molasses candy, 185 
 Vinegar cake, 163 
 Visceral foods, composition of, 
 234 
 
 Waffles, 144, 174 
 
 Water, effect of salts on, 19 
 
 Welsh rabbit, 109 
 Whey, 104, 219 
 Whipped cream, 24 
 
 Yeast aids, study of, 172, 
 
 178 
 Yorkshire rabbit, 110