0ass_LB4— Book rr AS. THIRTEEN ESSAYS ON EDUCATION THIRTEEN ESSAYS ON EDUCATION BY MEMBERS OF THE XIII Quot homines tot sententiae 3 ■ * «*■ LONDON PERCIVAL AND CO. 1891 t*% , i PREFACE A small number of professional teachers who call themselves The Thirteen | have for some time been in the habit of meeting for discussion. ^ Thinking that some of the papers which were read at their meetings may have an interest beyond their immediate circle, they venture to publish this little book. It includes certain papers of a less technical kind which were written by members for other, though cognate, purposes, but in the first instance they are all meant for teachers. The essays are independent : each writer speaks for himself alone. Nor is it supposed that collectively the papers cover a definite field. They are arrows of the chase, scattered as such arrows are wont to be. CONTENTS Principles and Practice. By the Hon. Rev. E. Lyttelton, M.A., Head Master of Haileybury College. Jitne 1885 . 1 The Teaching of Music in Public Schools. By E. W. Howson, M.A., Assistant Master at Harrow School. March 1888 27 The Religious Education of Boys. By the Rev. J. E. C. Welldon, M.A., Head Master of Harrow School. May 1891 53 The Scholarship Question. By C. Cookson, M.A., Assistant Master at St. Paul's School, West Kensington. November 1888 83 Commercial Education. By A. T. Pollard, M.A., Head Master of the City of London School. March 1891 . . 117 The Prospective Character of School Training. By C. C. Cotterill, M.A., Head Master of Hollylea Pre- paratory School, Greenbank Road, Liverpool ; late Senior Assistant Master at Fettes College, Edinburgh. July 1887 131 The Teaching of Holy Scripture. By the Rev. T. Field, M.A., Head Master of the King's School, Canterbury. June 1890 ......... 149 viii Contents PAGE An Educational Museum. By the Rev. T. Field, M.A. June 1 89 1 . . . . . . . .169 The Teaching of English Literature. By the Rev. M. G. Glazebrook, M.A., Head Master of Clifton College. March 1889 193 The Universities and Specialisation. By the Rev. M. G. Glazebrook, M.A. May 1889 221 In Behalf of Greek. By the Rev. T. Field, M.A. May 1891 237 Compulsory Greek. By the Hon. Rev. E. Lyttelton, M.A. March 1891 255 The Teaching of Greek. By M. J. Rendall, M.A., Assistant Master at Winchester College. January 1890 . 293 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE BY THE HON. REV. E. LYTTELTON, M.A. June 1885 PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE Public-school education at the present time may be roughly but conveniently divided into three departments — moral or religious, intellectual, and physical. This does not mean that moral is iden- tical with religious training, but at school the two are so closely intertwined that for the purposes of classification they may be treated as one. The line between them and the intellectual is sharp and dis- tinct, as is also that between intellectual and physi- cal. Now of these three classes the first is obviously the most important, yet in practice it occupies less time than either of the other two, though probably a good deal more than it occupied thirty years ago. Of the other two the intellectual training absorbs more time and energy than the physical^that is, a great deal more of the masters' energy, and perhaps something more of the boys'. Opinions differ as to their comparative importance. There is, however, another difference between the three kinds of training which must not be ignored. They differ from each other in clearness of the principles which are involved in carrying them out. Principles and Pi'actice Most people could give satisfactory reasons why boys are encouraged to play games rather than to take walks arm-in-arm along the highroad, like an English town private school of twenty years ago, or than to drill in two parallel lines like some French schools of to-day. Or, again, they could explain why there is a fair consensus of opinion against boys working immediately after a dinner of meat and beer in summer, in spite of the truly strange fact that at a minority of schools this consensus is dis- regarded. But if they were .to be similarly ques- tioned with respect to the methods and practice of religious or intellectual training, they would not be in a position to give a ready answer. Probably they would feel that in the department of religion and morals they were even more in the dark than in questions of intellectual training. The truth is, however, that over this latter there broods a darkness which may be felt. We may realise how far this is the case by consider- ing the extent to which different branches of study can be said to be worked on intelligible principles. If any one may be supposed to be an authority on such a question it would be a public school- master ; and we may imagine one of these func- tionaries being questioned by a stranger as to the nature of public - school education in something of the following fashion. Suppose the stranger had some slight acquaintance with educational circles, he would probably feel some curiosity as to a certain divergence of opinion with regard to what is called the classical question. Supposing, again, Principles and Practice 5 his informant was a classical master, he would naturally expect some clearly-expressed opinion on the subject in favour of the dead languages. He would, however, find that he had reckoned without his host. Though engaged for many hours in the day in teaching these languages, the master would probably admit that he had never given much con- sideration to the question of the place they ought to hold in education. Very likely he would incline to the belief that Greek was useless to a large number of boys who learn it, or rather the elements of it, but would freely admit that some of his colleagues thought quite differently, disclaiming, at the same time, any accurate knowledge of their opinions. When asked what his headmaster thought on the subject, he would perhaps hazard a conjec- ture, coupled with the caution that the fact of the latter insisting on Greek being taught was no indi- cation that he thought Greek a good educational instrument ; it only showed either that the public still demanded it, or that the curriculum of the school was too complicated to allow of its being abolished. With his ideas on the classical contro- versy thus illuminated, the stranger might proceed to the seemingly fatuous question whether the classical teachers had any object in view in teaching the dead languages. On being asked to explain himself, he would say that every lesson given in a classical subject might be concerned either with the mere construing, or the syntax of the language, or the accidence, or the history, or the subject-matter ; the question then would be, Does any classical Principles and Practice teacher confine himself strictly to one or more of these, or do all the teachers in any given school pursue a uniform, consistent method in making their selection ? The answer, if truly given, would be surprising. The stranger would learn in rough out- line the method adopted by this particular master, but would fail to gather any adequate information as to that pursued by other masters at the same school. It would strike him as very strange that uniformity in a matter so important had never apparently been attempted, but he would, of course, from this fact gain an explanation of the teachers' indecision in the classical controversy. It would be very little use arguing about the teaching of classics, unless the disputants had some notion what the phrase implies. At present, any notion they might have formed must be partial and inaccurate when no one follows the same track as his neighbour. Hence also he would descry a reason for the startling vehemence with which some men assert, and others deny, that boys can be taught to think, but he would not be led to understand the uncertainty which exists as to what thinking means, or as to whether it is a desirable object to aim at in educa- tion. In short, in all the questions which concern the heart of the subject he would almost certainly find his informant profoundly ill-informed and profoundly indifferent. He could tell him many things, but the nature of the methods pursued by teachers in these or other subjects, or the reasons of any study being chosen before any other, would not be among them. Principles and Practice The above picture of certain aspects of public- school education demands consideration. We find, in short, the greatest possible divergence of opinion as to the theory of education, when any opinion exists at all, coupled with a bewildering variety of practice. And what is more remarkable than this chaos is the fact that nobody notices it, nor, if they did, would they see anything whatever to deplore. The meaning of this is that the conduct of public-school education is entrusted to those who are obliged to walk without any light to guide them This is not an indictment against headmasters, for, as a matter of fact, they have but little to do with the methods of education adopted in their own schools. To make this clear we must distinguish three classes who each stand in a certain relation to education in modern England — first, the school- masters who nominally manage the schools ; secondly, the mass of the public who send their sons to the schools ; thirdly, the educational theorists who write books. Before discussing which of these classes really manage education, it is necessary to say that the third class, that of the theorists, is still a very small one in England, though a much larger one in Germany. The books that they write are heavy and unrewarding to read, but seeing that they deal with the abstract principles of education it would be impertinent in a schoolmaster to express any opinion as to the soundness of their views. The science on which they base their reasoning is called Psychology, and deals with all kinds of mental processes, memory, imagination, reflection, inference, thought, and other 8 Principles and Practice such recondite themes. The growth of the mind and the normal manifestations of its faculties consti- tute perhaps the main subjects of psychology. The votaries of this science are numerous in England, and much more numerous in Germany, and the educa- tional writers in both countries are specialists in certain portions of psychology, those, namely, which border on practical training of the mind. This being so, it might be supposed that the theorists, through their relation with the practical teachers, exercise an important effect on the education of the country. No supposition could be more erroneous. There may be some slight influence on education traceable to the theorists, but it certainly is not exercised through the practical teachers. These gentlemen not only ignore for the most part the recommendations of the theorists, but are quite willing to avow the fact with a feeling akin to honest pride. We will return to this point presently, but meantime let us notice that the schoolmasters, though tolerably impervious to the suggestions of those who have examined the subject, are sensitive enough to the least pressure coming from those who know less than themselves. Public opinion can work great changes on public schools, either by ordinary clamour or by producing alterations in the public examinations, every little fluctuation in which causes a derangement more or less fundamental in the curriculums of all the schools. Schoolmasters at present are in a condition of almost helpless subservience to this quite uninstructed public opinion. They stand between two fires of comment : that Principles and Practice coming from the scientific theorists might be sup- posed to be worth attending to, but to it they turn a deaf ear ; that coming from the public whom they know to be more ignorant than themselves they attentively listen for and instantly obey. Sometimes the bold front which is habitually presented to the theorists is turned for a brief spell towards the public, and they may be heard asseverating that men of experience must know best. But it is only for a brief moment ; they speedily conform, and without denying their claim to a knowledge of education superior to that of the outside public, we must maintain that there are grave reasons indicated already for thinking that this knowledge is very meagre, and positive proof that they cannot make use of it as they would like. Education, in short, is nominally in the hands of those who know a little about it — the schoolmasters ; virtually it is controlled by the public, who know nothing. The only people who understand it are the scientific theorists, and they have nothing to do with it at all. The question now arises why the schoolmasters despise the theorists. We are aware that a similar attitude has been adopted by practical men towards philosophers in many epochs of history, and possibly for some very excellent reason. Still it is worth while asking if the reason still exists, and if it is as good as ever. Now it can hardly be that school- masters, one and all, are really satisfied with the results of their intellectual training. As a rule we admit that they are not given to brooding for days together over their failures ; but that is because they io Principles and Practice are imbued with a robust confidence in themselves, and feel sure they have made the best of an impossible task. A young master of lofty aspira- tions finds it distressing at first to realise that two- thirds of his class make no visible progress in Latin prose or history or syntax. But before long he learns that a similar proportion of boys in the hands of many of his colleagues are in just the same condition, and the bitterness of his disappointment is softened. The truth is then forced upon him that his colleagues do not visibly pine away under a sense of failure, and why should he ? In his better moments, however, it is not difficult to get him to admit that his measure of success with his class is small indeed. And even if it were much larger than it is there would still be no reason to suppose he had reached the best attainable results. A very successful teacher ought to think that he has much to learn, and that he would be more successful still if he learnt something of it. Nor, again, can we attribute this opinion of theorists to the often-talked- of love of anomaly supposed to be innate in English- men. It is true we shrink from the uniformity of the French lycees, or the German gymnasiums ; but that is hardly the same .thing as loving chaos for its own sake, especially when we all know that very many of our best efforts to teach " average boys " classics or history or Euclid or chemistry prove abortive. There must be some other reason, for it would be grossly discourteous to an intellectual elite, such as the public schoolmasters of our day, to hint that they take up this decided attitude without any reason at all. Principles and Practice 1 1 Perhaps we may supply an answer of this kind. Schoolmasters have a dim idea that the writings of Locke, Bain, Herbert Spencer, and many others, though very remarkable and profound, are unprac- tical ; that they are written by men without experi- ence, and that, however good the suggestions of such men may be, the real difficulty is to put them into practice ; so that in fact one year's practical experi- ence of teaching a class is worth a lifetime of scientific thought devoted to the subject by a philosopher in his study. Many will remember that some such view as this was expressed at the time when the question of training of public schoolmasters was under discussion. Now if this is the prevailing view — and we believe it is — there is this much to be said in its support. Many of the English, and nearly all the German, books on education do not profess to be practical. More than that, whatever they profess, they are frequently very dull ; they consume many pages to establishing absurd truisms, and avoid with consum- mate skill just the very points which the practical teacher desires to have clearly explained. But there is one consideration of great importance which concerns this aspect of the question. If the theoretical writers are unpractical, who is to blame ? Supposing an English psychologist by careful study of mental phenomena gains hold on a certain principle which throws light on the development of the power of thought in the young, is he to keep silence about his discovery because he does- not know accurately the practical difficulties in the way of turning it to 1 2 Principles and Practice account which exist in various shapes in different schools ? Certainly not. It is the business of the theorists to discover principles, but the practical man must apply them. If a treatise on education is to be a permanently valuable work, it must not occupy itself with the weltering slough of curriculums, private and public examinations, day-boarders, and fifty other subjects which block the way. These matters are in their essence temporary and accidental ; but a scientific principle must be permanent and stable. The greatest service that can be done to mankind is to discover true principles of action. The applica- tion of them is obviously to be left to practical men. Therefore the plea so constantly urged by school- masters both in England and in Germany, that educational theorists take no account of facts, resolves itself into this, that the principles have been enunci- ated but never tested ; the theorists have done their part, the schoolmasters, instead of doing theirs, are pluming themselves on their contempt for ideas which they do not understand. If schoolmasters felt this lofty scorn for theorists after carefully testing their suggestions and finding them abortive, no one could reasonably object ; or if, while despising all theories, they felt conscious of a large and in- creasing measure of success in their own practice, it would be foolish to censure them severely. But when English schoolmasters admit the incredible difficulty and importance of their task, and the fre- quency of failure, and are dimly aware that a number of painstaking specialists have for more than a century been elaborating ideas which bear full upon the Principles and Practice 1 3 subject, it is difficult to justify their contempt for these ideas, seeing that it is apparently the offspring of ignorance pure and simple. At a well-known public school the inmates of two dormitories, who occupy two adjoining tables in the college dining-hall, for several consecutive years have refused to partake of a certain humble but nutritious compound in the form of suet-pudding and plums, to which an oppro- brious name has been attached. This abstinence is enjoined on all the boys by tradition, and has con- tinued so long that for some considerable time no single member of the dormitories has ever so much as tasted the pudding. Yet they unanimously revile it. Those who know schoolboys will not be sur- prised at the force of a concentrated public opinion, or the daringly illogical habit of mind. But the schoolmaster's contempt for educational principles is even more illogical. He is as ignorant of the prin- ciples as the boys are of the suet-pudding ; but while they stoutly profess themselves content, he willingly admits that he is not. And yet he, unlike them, is a member of an intellectual elite, perhaps a first- classman in classics or mathematics. But the position of affairs will be made clearer by an illustration. We ought to take some principle or principles, to see if they are strongly recommended by educational writers, and then to inquire how far they are put into practice in schools, and if they are prevented by difficulties which are surmountable or not. Now a superficial acquaintance with theoretical writers on education would show that, though they 1 4 Principles and Practice differ much in detail, there is one group of prin- ciples which they concur in maintaining. They are those connected not with the teaching of any one subject but with the fundamental difference between genuine education and cram, between the training of the mind and the imparting the knack of deceiving examiners. The principle is not easy to explain shortly, but may be roughly described as having much in common with the Socratic or maieutic pro- cess. It will be remembered that Socrates professed not to tell his pupils anything that they did not know, but by skilful questioning to help them to put their embryonic ideas into shape. The modern adaptation of the Socratic method, as explained by theorists, would be something of this kind : to lead boys on by question and answer to gradually form general concepts, which when put into words become formulas or rules ; to draw them on, therefore, from what they know to what they do not consciously know — from the concrete to the abstract ; so that the pupil teaches himself, and the teacher merely super- intends and guides and encourages. Hence the object to be aimed at is to get the pupil to build up his own knowledge, and to avoid ever giving him words to learn which he does not understand, or generalisations to remember which he has not himself elaborated ; further, to provide that any new facts which he must learn shall only be told him when his previous investigations have enabled him to receive them and fit them naturally into their place. This is a very brief and inadequate outline of the Pri7iciples and Practice 1 5 principal theory, which may be found emphasised by Locke and Pestalozzi, no less than by Bain, Quick, Spencer, James Payn, and Abbott among recent English writers, and by Jean Paul Richter and Pfisterer, and many others, among the Germans. It will be found to be either expressly set forth or implied by the above writers, and, also, is illustrated freely by all that commends itself in the accounts we have of the teaching of Arnold, Bonamy Price, and others. The nature of the suggestions thus made may be more clearly understood by means of a rapid survey of modern conventional methods as they have been, and are still, adopted in many public schools. It is necessary to make the preliminary remark that we do not at present mean to advocate as practic- able all that this theory involves ; the point is merely to show that it is not put into practice. In any such method of teaching, then, as is here shadowed forth, question and answer must needs occupy a large space. The writers affirm that if the right questions are asked, the interest of the pupils is con- stantly stimulated, and that the knowledge which they gradually formulate they never forget. Here we are at once met by the stubborn fact of large classes. If it is bad for a boy to be told a fact by his master instead of finding it out for himself, obviously it is nearly as bad for him to be told by a schoolfellow, and this is exactly what often occurs, the larger any class is. Again, it is clear that this will happen more frequently in a class where clever and stupid boys are herded together than in one which is thoroughly homogeneous. Yet, strange to say, there 1 6 Principles and Pi'actice are schools where heterogeneous classes are still to be found, in which of course anything like sound teach- ing, Socratic or other, is a sheer impossibility. And what is the recollection most grown-up men have ot the time they passed in such a class ? Does the vision of a guide or superintendent of their intellectual efforts rise up before them ? or is it not rather that of a fussed and anxious lecturer pouring out in a hoarse monologue comments on Wunder's last reading, on Thirlwall's estimate of Pericles, or the number of seats in a Greek theatre, to a pack of list- less lads brooding over their next football match ? This picture would be overdrawn nowadays, but it would not be wholly inaccurate ; there is still a great deal too much of holding forth on the part of the master, a fact which explains the grievous reversal of the ideal relation between the efforts made by the man and that made by the boys. The ideal is that the man should come out of an hour's lesson fresh and cool ; the boys, on the other hand, should feel that their brains have been exercised throughout, and that they are ready for play, not only because they like it but because it is time that the brain effort should cease. As it is, however, the masters emerge hot in the head and hoarse, the boys singularly cool, though perhaps wearied with insufficient ventilation and the monotonous sound of the human voice. In brief, then, one practical alteration which would be effected if this principle were understood would be that classes should always be homogeneous, and that a vigorous and continuous effort should be made by the teacher to lead the boys on from point Principles and Practice 1 7 to point by questions. It would be absurd to say that with large classes of restless young Britons this is an easy task ; but it is quite as absurd to suppose that the standard might not be enormously raised. In the next place, we deal very strangely with this principle in our editions of school notes to the classics. At present the boys are generally told a great deal by these notes. If they choose to cram them up, and look out a few odd words in between, the chances are that their preparation of the lesson passes muster ; and yet this is a ludicrously feeble caricature of what education might be — one that positively discourages thought and teaches nothing but a dependent habit of mind. It is surely difficult to exaggerate the mischief of such a method. Quite recently men have come to see that the still more pernicious use of translations should be checked. But even here they do not understand that the great objection to bad " cribs " — viz. that they encourage dependence — applies equally to good translations. The defence appears to be that the latter are bene- ficial to the literary instinct. Possibly, where such an instinct exists ; in that case they ought to be read after the lesson, not during the preparation. As to notes, it seems pretty clear that they ought to err on the side of being too few ; if they are too many, no amount of lucidity in exposition or brilliancy in scholarship will prevent them from being, as notes for schoolboys, bad and mischievous. If clever and dull boys together are reading classics, the dull ones will want help and ought to get it viva voce. It will be said that the organisation of a school forbids this ; C 1 8 Principles and Practice but this contention has never been fairly tested, nor will it be, till an honest and prolonged effort has been made to meet this particular difficulty. When we turn next to the teaching of grammar and syntax, a strange state of things discloses itself. The theorists assert an obvious truth in saying that generalisations forced upon the young mind destroy the power of thinking. With this caution before us, we mass together generalisations of a peculiarly abstruse kind, concerning the structure of sentences, and call them syntax. Despairing of getting boys to understand these rules, we force them to learn them by heart, or apply them if they can — a process the human boy detests with a generous abhorrence. This is simply because the brain revolts against cram of all kinds, but against the cram of abstract proposi- tions more than any other. And then, when an illustration of a rule occurs, we ask why is this verb in the subjunctive or that noun in the ablative case? and are perfectly satisfied if the poor boy retails the rule from memory. This is a gross perversion of rational training. It deceives a boy into thinking he knows something, when he knows nothing but a few sounds. Not many years ago his father was learning the same rules translated into Latin. We look upon this now as mediaeval darkness. Perhaps it was, but it did less harm than our present enlight- enment. No one ever supposed that he knew any- thing from learning Latin syntax rules, and a true idea of one's own ignorance is better than a false impression of knowledge. Surely it would not be impossible for boys to be given carefully graduated Principles and Practice 19 examples of certain constructions, and led to discover the rules exemplified, and to put them first into his own words, then, for convenience, into the technical phraseology. No doubt there are difficulties con- nected with organisation, but it is our business to reduce those difficulties to a minimum in applying, as far as we can, a scientific principle, instead of magnifying them in our efforts to prevent the principle being applied at all. But previous to all this there is the necessity for schoolmasters to make up their minds as to the question whether classics ought to be taught at all. It is a truly lamentable phenomenon now before our eyes in England, that of a host of cultivated, talented men — brought up on the choicest literature in the Greek and Latin languages, who have feasted their minds on this regal fare, and who are now prepared to hand on the secret of so much enjoyment to the next generation — calmly allowing the classical con- troversy to be settled for them, and the teaching of classics to be gradually taken from them, because they have no opinion of their own. Nor can it be wondered at if the strange fact alluded to at the beginning of this essay (p. 5) be taken into account. The teaching of classics may mean the cultivation of the literary taste, or the training in accuracy, or in the elements of archaeology, of history, of mythology; it may extend to the cultivation of the reasoning powers, or be confined to a dismal demand on the memory alone. In the hands of one man it will stimulate the imagination and encourage a vigorous independence of view, intellectual decision, and a 20 Principles and Practice robust love of knowledge : in the hands of another man equally conscientious and scarcely less gifted, but trammelled by a different school organisation, it will inspire nothing but hatred of literature ; it will stunt all the faculties of the mind, and leave its traces only in increased feebleness, confusion, and self-dis- trust ; and yet people go on arguing about the teaching of classics as if every one knew exactly what the phrase meant all over the United Kingdom. The methods of different schools vary enormously, and those of individuals in any one school scarcely less ; and ignorant though the outside public are of the exact truth, we classical masters ourselves know very little more of the way our own subject is taught. It is true that the main reason why we have no opinion on the classical controversy is that all theo- retical questions bore most of us to death ; but even if this were otherwise, nobody knows what his neigh- bour is doing or is supposed to do, and if we feel satisfaction in our own separate methods, it is a satisfaction based on no intelligible principle of any kind. Next, as to science teaching. Without having any very close acquaintance with the subject, I may point to one or two significant phenomena which have lately been brought to notice. We know that science teaching was introduced into schools by men who insisted on its unrivalled power of developing the reasoning faculties, and stimulating the growth of observation in the young. Mr. Herbert Spencer has bombarded the educational world with such notions. So the attempt was made : the theorists for once Principles and Practice 2 1 forced an idea upon the reluctant schoolmasters, and science has been taught for several years with the conscientious patience that would be expected from such men. But we hear from the universities that the result is the contrary of the expectation, and less satisfactory. Instead of the reason being de- veloped, the memory has been crammed. Boys have learnt how to imbibe, but not how to observe or correlate or infer. In short, like nearly everything else, science teaching has been methodised into a system of giving information : the boys listen to a lecture, take notes, and copy them out. Of course examinations and large classes and lack of time have much to do with the mischief; but it is re- markable that, so far from finding any " divine discontent " among the professors, an inquirer would see many indications of a slumberous acquiescence in the inevitable, a placid conviction that everything is proceeding very happily ; and in a sense this is true. The boys enjoy being told about the Gulf Stream, and the master likes to display his knowledge, and as long as this is so it is useless to expect a reform. The men of theory have done all that can be fairly expected of them. The practical men spoil the result, and seem totally unconscious of the fact. History as at present taught violates our principle most seriously. We are told that to force a general- isation which others have arrived at upon any one who does not know upon what it has been based, is to destroy the power of thinking, and to teach a habit of intellectual dependence. In his- tory teaching there is incessant danger of this. A 22 Principles and Practice thoughtful lecturer in Greek history develops an interesting and brilliant view of the causes of the decline of Athens, more comprehensive than Grote's, sounder than Curtius's ; and if he does not at once give his class the benefit of it he is no ordinary man. Yet they know very few facts indeed on which it is professedly based, and long before they learn them they are bidden to write down and " get up " the precise theory which the adult lecturer has elaborated after months or years of study. Just in the same way mischievous little books are given to young boys for them to learn about Greece and Rome, written in childish language, but embodying the fully -developed views of a number of English or German scholars as to constitutional tendencies in a state, and the causarum nexus. Here is a pitiable farce indeed ! The only sensible thing to do would be for competent persons to decide on the kind of facts which boys must learn before they proceed to reason on them. Young boys should be taught nothing but facts in a narrative form, and the utmost care taken that their learning of dates shall be a reality, and should extend, however thinly, over the whole of the world's history, so as at least to let them see that history is continuous. At present most schoolboys are totally ignorant of everything between the taking of Jerusalem and the Norman Conquest of England. A patch of spurious and secondhand opinions about Greece and Rome, and another about the beheading of King Charles, would fairly represent the historical acquisitions of a very large number. This, however, must be regarded Principles and Practice 23 merely as a suggestion. The subject is too compli- cated to be treated adequately in a paragraph. Lastly, a slight appreciation of the importance of this or any other educational principle would soon force the question of the training of teachers into practical politics. Perhaps public opinion on this subject is ripening, but very slowly, and no one not in the profession can fully understand how great is our need. And yet the conditions are extremely simple. At most schools a youth is at once set down to a task of the utmost delicacy and difficulty — the teaching of a large class of small boys at the very bottom of the school. As if this task were likely to be too easy, the work is often arranged so as to be beyond the power of several members of the class, and from the nature of the subjects inter- esting to very few indeed. Moreover, in addition to the powerful counter-attractions zealously fostered by masters and boys, there still exists in some schools the practice of bringing boys to study grammatical difficulties and verb forms soon after they have eaten a generous meat-meal. With the problem thus simplified, the bachelor of arts sets to work, and not a hint is given to him from any quarter. True, he has no idea that he needs any ; but if he anxiously sought help he would get very little, and might be thought to be betraying his incompetence. His previous training, then, has of course fitted him for it. Far from it. Very often he has been chosen for nothing whatever but a high degree, since what- ever other qualifications are required they have little or nothing to do with teaching. This means that 24 Principles and Practice he is unusually sharp in a subject in which he has to train boys who are unusually dull. And if we were to inquire diligently for persons presumably incapable of understanding the difficulties presented by the dead languages to dull boys, we could not possibly make a more promising selection than the first class in the classical tripos or moderations. The subtleties of grammar and syntax such as be- wilder schoolboys have always been plain as the alphabet to them ; they have no recollection of ever being puzzled by such things, and among all the men who have studied Latin or Greek in England they are the only ones of whom this is true, and these are the men first seized upon by headmasters. They may be admirable men in other respects ; they may even ultimately learn how to teach ; but the one qualification of a practical experience of the diffi- culties which they have to train others to surmount is just that which they, and they alone, have never possessed. As a practical proposal for the remedying of this sorry state of things we need only say that the system of training of teachers as practised in Germany is one which, with a few obvious modifica- tions, could perfectly well be introduced gradually into England. Till this is brought about, informal attempts could well be made by headmasters to see that each young assistant is imbued with some idea of an aim in teaching ; that at any rate he knows with which of the manifold branches of study connected with the dead languages he is supposed to be mainly concerned ; and that from time to time Principles and Practice 25 cautions are given to him as to avoiding the most pernicious and prevailing errors whereby teaching often becomes mere cramming of knowledge into boys' minds, which is subsequently discovered to have been thrown off " in an unexpectedly victorious manner." To conclude then : we find that public -school- masters, a picked body of talented men to whom the sons of the upper classes of the country are en- trusted, are exposed to two influences — that of the uninstructed public, and that of the thoughtful theoretical writers on education j that they are keenly alive to the slightest pressure from the side of the public ; but the plainest and most obviously sensible recommendations repeatedly urged by psycho- logists and other theorists are widely ignored, with results fatal to intellectual progress, though there is good reason for believing that these recommendations might easily be enforced wholly or in part. Much more might be said to show that the force which is exercised by the public on school education is an ill- regulated, fitful, and after all but a feeble one, and that the position of headmasters is so strong as to have often been described as a despotism ; and yet that they hardly pretend to have a free hand in the management of their teaching, so closely is the curriculum adapted to the supposed omnipotence of examiners and outsiders generally. It might also be interesting, if space allowed, to inquire more particularly into the reasons of this impotence of the teaching profession generally in shaping its own programme, as well as into the strange reluctance 26 Principles and Practice of schoolmasters to admit the influence of scientific writers on education into their school organisation. But within the limits of a single essay it is unadvis- able to deal with more subjects than have here been touched upon. These remarks are intended to be in some sense introductory to the following essays, wherein various suggestions as to the training of boys are put forward, mainly, it is hoped, in accord- ance with the important principles here advocated. THE TEACHING OF MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS BY E. W. HOWSON, M.A. March 1888 THE TEACHING OF MUSIC IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN approaching this difficult subject I am conscious of extreme hesitation and diffidence, and I feel tempted to open the paper with apologies for venturing to discuss the question at all. But two considerations have induced me to undertake the task. In the first place it appeared to me that the subject of School Music was one which this society ought un- doubtedly to consider, and secondly, I saw no valid reason why an amateur like myself should be deterred — always providing this, that he studiously avoided the temptation of airing his own ideas, and limited himself to a statement of facts and opinions derived from those who are best qualified to give them. The fact is that the musical world is extremely sensitive of unprofessional criticism, and rightly so. For there is no province of art or science into which the dilettante delights to trespass more freely than Music. And musicians have constant reason to regret and resent the dogmatic and half-educated criticism of amateurs. The reason of this state of things is obvious. There are few subjects with 30 The Teaching of Music which a superficial acquaintance is more possible than with Music. Like Politics and Painting and Fiction, it is one of the regular and recognised topics for social discussion. Religion is too serious, Greek and Latin too bookish, Natural Science too abstruse, but every schoolgirl has opinions upon Music, and is encouraged by society to express them. And if this is in one sense an insult to Music, it is in another and a truer sense a compliment. It is a tacit confession that Music is a thing which appeals to the heart, and ministers to the pleasure of almost every human being. It is no part of my present purpose to enlarge upon the grandeur and beauty of Music. Her praises are safe in" the hands of Plato, Luther, and Milton. Her power is acknowledged by every family of the human race. No religion can thrive, no army can take the field, without her aid. The Highlander with his bagpipe, the grenadier with his drum and fife, the Turk with his cymbals, even the revivalist with his harmonium, are each and all indebted to Music for their spirit and success. It would not be difficult to collect from the pages of history a store of instances where Music of one kind or another has converted misery into happiness, defeat into victory, scepticism into worship. The palace of Saul, the ramparts of Lucknow, the dome of St. Peter's, bear testimony to her magnetic power. The songs of the Lollards, the chorales of Luther, were among the most potent influences which hastened on the Reformation ; the sea -ballads of Dibdin kindled the mettle of the sailors who broke in Public Schools 31 the power of France in 1805. And no one who has once felt the spell of the ninth symphony or the great choruses of the " Messiah " should hesitate to do all he can to lead others to the same sources of solace and pleasure. I am perfectly aware that all this will sound mere rhetoric to a vast number of excellent people. Dr. Johnson's historic remark about the difficulty of playing the violin cannot easily be forgotten ; and there are hosts of others who, without feeling a positive distaste for Music, regard it with suspicion as a dangerous, enfeebling, and even paganising in- fluence. The " kist o' whustles " is an accursed thing to the " unco guid," and it was only the other day that an earnest young vicar told me how he had received a violent protest against allowing the organ to play softly during silent prayer. " It savoured of grace," he was told, and he was urged to discontinue " the tootling of the so-called praying machine." Others, again, are repelled by the affecta- tion and eccentricity of a clique who regard musical appreciation as the trade-mark of fashionable culture, who adopt a slang and terminology, half technical, half hysterical, and who consider those who have not been initiated into the mysteries and jargon of their set as uninteresting and half-educated Philis- tines. But musicians are not all prigs, pagans, or ritualists, and this distaste or distrust of music is due au fond to ignorance or prejudice. And the hard fact remains that among the capital influences which ennoble, comfort, and refine mankind, Music stands nearest to her great mistress — Religion. 3 2 The Teaching of Music If all this is true, it is a manifest duty that every one who can should be brought within reach of her influence. A man who is indifferent to music, either from incapacity or ignorance, is immeasurably the poorer, and as we can do a boy no greater kindness than by teaching him to appreciate good music, so we are doing him a cruel injustice if we deny him the chance of such an unspeakable advantage. It is idle to talk of an unmusical ear ; the fact is proved beyond contention that an unmusical ear is in a vast majority of cases an ear which has never received any training, assistance, or encouragement I chanced to visit a large Board school the other day, and asked the teacher to let me hear the lads sing. They were fifty in number, and they sang in two parts, and I could not detect a discordant note The master told me that it was rare that a boy came under his notice who was disqualified by incapacity. The fact is that musical teaching to all alike is a thing of quite recent growth, and our fathers and many of ourselves who have never received any musical education are unable to express an opinion founded on our own case. My first proposition, then, is this, that Music of some kind should be taught to all, or nearly all, alike, and not merely to a select few who have been gifted by Nature with a predisposition for it. This, to be sure, is no new idea. The Greeks, with a sure instinct, insisted upon it. In this Plato and Aristotle were at one. In the third book of the Republic Plato discusses the purpose and benefit of a musical training. He points out the character of in Public Schools 33 its influence ; how it educates the sense of grace and proportion ; how it quickens the spirit and stirs the imagination. So, too, Milton, in his Tractate on Education, urges that the scholars in his ideal school should spend their time before the midday meal " in recruiting and composing their travailed spirits with the solemn and divine harmonies of music, heard or learnt, either while the skilful organist plies his grave and fancied descant in lofty fugues, or the whole symphony, with artful and unimaginable touches, adorn and grace the well- studied chords of some choice composer." Music is unquestionably one of those subjects which are eminently fitted for an educational instru- ment. No doubt it does not in itself comprise all the functions of education ; no single subject can. To educate a man properly you must train his powers of observation ; you must refine his taste and sense of proportion ; you must stimulate his imagination ; you must, above all things, touch his spirit ; and if in combination with this you can, at the same time, increase his pleasure, taut mieux. Now, Music satisfies all these conditions, and satis- fies them in the best possible way ; moreover, when studied scientifically, it may be as rigorous an engine of calculating and accuracy as mathematics itself. If it can do all I have claimed for it, it fully deserves a place in the front rank of educational studies. But there is an objection which may be immedi- ately and very naturally urged against this proposed extension of musical teaching. It will be said that a new subject has been added to a set of studies D 34 The Teaching of Mttsic which is already too numerous. I am conscious, of the difficulty and share the apprehension. Without any question our main task nowadays is to narrow, and not to broaden and multiply, our branches of study. But it must be remembered that we are still in a state of transition. A process of natural selec- tion is going on, a score of subjects are jostling for admission, and the fittest studies will" survive. My contention is that Music is one of the fittest. There seems to be little doubt that education in the future will be something more human than it was fifty years ago. The highly -finished copy of Elegiacs and the faultless paper on Rules of Accidence will give place to a wider knowledge of History and more intelligent appreciation of Literature. And I venture to hope that Music may find a far more dominant place in the life of our schools. But how- ever that may be, I think I shall be able to show later on that the amount of time requisite for adequate musical teaching is not excessive enough to create serious difficulty. So far, I have been mainly concerned in asserting a general proposition that Music ought to be taught to the majority and not the minority of boys at school. Let us now go a step farther, and enter into more particular details. If, then, the mass of boys are to learn Music, two questions may very properly be asked. First, is it necessary that they should all learn Music in the same way? Secondly, if not, which is the best method for combined musical teaching? These questions obviously hang together. It may be urged in Public Schools 35 in answer to the first that so long as a boy learns the rudiments of Music, it does not matter very much how he does it. The piano is usually regarded as the instrument which presents to indi- viduals the easiest means of learning the notation, scales, keys, the two most important clefs, and very much more besides. Shall we then adopt the piano as the instrument best suited for our pur- pose ? The London School Board have proved by a recent vote that the piano is in their opinion indispensable. It must, however, be remembered that we are here speaking of School Music in its corporate capacity as a study which is not to touch a boy here and there, but to engage the interests and affections of almost the whole school. Bearing this in mind, I cannot think that any one who knows anything of public school life would dare to hope that lessons on the piano would answer the purpose at all. This is not a question for a musical expert ; it is a point to be decided by common sense. School Music must thrive on esprit de corps. But esprit de corps would be stifled in five minutes in the atmo- sphere of a practising room, and frightened to death at a chorus of grand pianos. If, then, pianos will not answer the purpose, is there any other instrument or set of instruments that will satisfy our conditions ? Now, undoubtedly a very great deal can be done in public schools with a string band and a brass band, and they are susceptible of more development than they have hitherto attained. It is impossible to overrate the educational value of a well-trained string band. The delicacy of manipulation, the observation 36 The Teaching of Music of strict time, the subordination of part to part, the refinement of expression, and above all the sense of unity, produce an effect unlike anything else. And, if it were practicable to create a string band including the majority of the school, there is no doubt that this would be the best form of School Music. But it is a vast mistake to be too visionary and ambitious, and it would be foolish to disguise from ourselves the fact that stringed and wind instruments are too delicate and difficult for the mass of clumsy fingers. So, too, but in a less degree, with a brass band. This is of course a rougher machine, and many boys who have not the patience or dexterity to learn the violin will do very well at the ophicleide or the cornet. Indeed, there seems to be something in a wind instrument particularly salutary for a boy with excessive and boisterous vitality. I have myself known more than one instance of a turbulent and intractable lad being gradually civilised by practice on the cornet. It seems to have the effect of letting off moral as well as physical steam. By all means, then, let us encourage in every way in our power our school bands. Let them give con- certs or take part in them. Engage the best teacher that can be obtained for the purpose. But it would be most unwise to treat them as more than what they are, viz. the study or diversion of a minority. I have indeed heard it gravely maintained by one dis- tinguished musician that if he wished to teach boys intervals and time he would rather do it by wind instruments than by any other means, and very likely thirty penny whistles could as easily be taught to i7i Public Schools 37 play concordantly as thirty violins, supposing the members were in earnest. It is a pretty fancy. I like to picture to myself a perverse class of thirty penny whistles. There would be no need of a double dose of original sin to produce the most strident discordant babel that ever lacerated a musical ear. Before leaving the subject of Instrumental Music, it may be well to make a few remarks on the diffi- culty arising from the noise which instrumental practice involves. Often this difficulty is very serious indeed, particularly when the space is limited and the school buildings near together. No one, least of all those with a musical ear, can take a form or even read a book in close proximity to the in- effectual tootle of a flute, the maddening squeaks of a raw fiddler, or the spasmodic grunts of a euphonium. It is, of course, mainly an architectural question. A building can be, and has been, constructed where a whole orchestra may be in full cry and yet be practi- cally inaudible a few yards off. It can be done, it is done at the Guildhall School of Music and the new Music School at Harrow, but it is a very ex- pensive undertaking. Double glass doors, double walls, double windows, and, when the building is more than one storey high, double floors, and, finally, an elaborate ventilating apparatus, are indispensable. These cost money, but if the building is not so constructed it will be little better than useless. It appears, then, that instrumental music, whether it be on pianofortes, stringed, wind, or brass instruments, is not fitted to be the basis of School Music, but may be regarded as a special branch of musical instruction. 38 The Teaching of Music We are thus brought by a process of exhaustion to Choral Music. Here at last we touch bottom. It is universally conceded by theory and practice that Choral Music presents fewer difficulties and offers greater possibilities than any other form of Music for large bodies of persons, and I hasten therefore to lay down my second proposition that a choral class should be formed in every school coextensive, or almost coextensive, with the school. This may seem to many an audacious paradox, and it will be necessary to explain how such a system can be carried into effect. And here I will not venture to give my own opinion. It is a matter where only experts should be heard. Consequently I have endeavoured to elicit the views of several of our most experienced school musical directors. A disappointment meets one at starting upon such an inquiry. Our premier school has not grappled as yet with the problem, and it is a matter of regret that Eton has little or nothing to tell us about the development of School Music. Let us turn, then, to the experience and opinions of those who have organised School Music on a broad basis. By the kindness of Mr. Farmer, Mr. Parker, Mr. David, and Mr. Eaton Faning, I am enabled to state what conclusions they have reached on this question. The organisation of Music at a public school is no easy work. The musical director has to contend with many difficult obstacles. His first task is to overcome the traditional prejudice of boys against Music. Mr. Farmer was in the habit of telling many in Public Schools 39 quaint stories of his early experience at Harrow, when he was regarded as an adventurer, or at best as one of the inferior servants of the school — some- thing, he used often to say, between Noggs l and Custos. 2 By his genius and geniality he triumphed over these difficulties, and succeeded in making good Music thoroughly popular in the school. A boy is tempted to look at Music as an effeminate subject hardly worthy of a robust and masculine spirit, and more fitted for the gentler retreat of his sister's schoolroom. And he is very reluctant to part with this prejudice. Compulsory lessons will not remove it ; it requires an infinity of tact, humour, and faith on the part of the musical instructor. It must always be remembered that boys have no formed tastes. They can only appreciate the simpler styles of music, and it is a perilous mistake to force elaborate music upon them. In saying this it must not be thought that boys prefer third-rate music or dislike what is good. On the contrary, they will listen attentively and with pleasure to the best music, but it must be simple in form and presented to them without cant and affectation. The other capital difficulty which the instructor has to confront is the fact that he is not allowed a free hand. He is hampered at every turn by the limited time at his disposal. If the attendance at choir practice is voluntary, it requires herculean efforts of enthusiasm to maintain a good attendance. And the difficulty is augmented if the hour of practice 1 Noggs is the traditional name for the man who rings the school bell, etc. 2 Custos is the chief porter of the school. 40 The Teaching of Music is stolen from the hours of play. If, again, the attendance is compulsory, there is a sense of arti- ficiality and mechanism and a constant demand for a remission of ordinary work. How to solve these problems satisfactorily is the business of a musical director, who should be in touch with the general working arrangements of the school. One further point of minor importance remains before proceeding to discuss the various systems of teaching. It is familiar to every one who knows anything of musical teaching that the two recognised methods of teaching vocal music are the two systems known respectively as the sol-fa or fixed doh, and the tonic sol-fa or movable doh. I confess I was mystified the first time I saw the extent and per- fection to which these systems are carried in our elementary schools. We have nothing at all com- parable to it in our public schools. The tonic sol-fa lesson is bewildering. The key-note is struck. The teacher points with a magic rod to a scroll whereon are written divers strange symbols of no apparent meaning. Immediately the class of fifty bumpkins break into a succession of intervals perfectly accurate and without hesitation. In collecting opinions I asked whether the sol - fa or tonic sol- fa was considered advisable or possible in public schools. But I learn, somewhat to my surprise, that neither system is in practice at any of our larger schools, and that it would probably be impossible under present conditions to introduce them without the daily instruction which is given in the elementary schools. Let us now pass on to inquire how the difficulties in Public Schools 41 above mentioned have been surmounted, and what methods have been adopted by the best - known authorities. The four schools I have selected for the purpose are Harrow, Rugby, Uppingham, and Sherborne. The Harrow system is unique in many respects. It was established and developed by Mr. John Farmer. To speak concisely, it may be described as Music on a democratic basis. The assumption at Harrow is that every boy in the school is a member of the Musical Society, every boy sings in chapel, every boy sings in some part of the school concert, no Harrow boy declines to sing or to try to sing a song when he is asked. The object, of course, of this system is to rescue Music from clique, affecta- tion, and indifference. The result is that interest in Music is very widely diffused throughout the school. In a report presented by Mr. Farmer to the Head- masters' Conference at Harrow in 1878, he describes - House-singing as " the starting-point of all the Music in the school." This feature is peculiar to Harrow/and requires some description. House-singing is a " free- and-easy " once a fortnight in every house, conducted by the Music-master. The songs are sung in unison or solo, never in harmony. They are all bound up in one book, and comprise the best national songs of England, and also a collection of school songs, several of which, such as " Forty Years On " and " Willow the King," have found their way far beyond the limits of Harrow Hill. It is impossible to overrate the advantage of these meetings. They freshen the minds of the boys with breezy, patriotic, 42 The Teaching of Music wholesome melody, and effectually exorcise the vulgar ditties of the music hall. Nothing mawkish, inferior, or sentimental is permitted. House-singing is to some extent also a lesson in articulation, expression, and the elementary rules of singing. To encourage the singing of these songs a body of twelve bass or tenor voices is chosen annually from each house, and a competition takes place. Some school or national song is selected, and the prize is adjudged to the house twelve who sing it in unison, with the best articulation, unity, time, and tune. As in the houses so in the chapel. Here, again, the singing is not in harmony but in unison. Some fourteen or fifteen powerful voices are chosen to act as a choir, and to lead the rest of the school, especi- ally in the transition from chant to chant and the pointing of the Psalms. The German chorales lend themselves best to this treatment, and are sung very largely. There is a massive masculine effect in a hearty rendering of such magnificent melodies as "Rejoice to-day with one accord," or "O sacred Head surrounded," which contrasts favourably with the pretentious and rather irritating performance of graceful little anthems. It should never be forgotten that the service is for the boys, not the boys for the service. Far better that the boys should sing than listen, far better that they should feel the words than criticise the rendering. This encouragement of unison singing was the distinctive feature of Mr. Farmer's work at Harrow. But it must in justice be added that he was fully alive to the value of part-singing. And this he endeavoured to encourage by large in Public Schools 43 voluntary classes, to which part-singing was taught in an occasional, irregular, but hearty and enthusi- astic way. To this also must be added a house competition in glees and madrigals, which has con- tinued with marked success for many years in the Christmas and Easter terms. Here, however, he was hampered and fettered by want of time and oppor- tunity, and it has been reserved for his successor to develop this side of his work. In reply to some questions which I addressed to Mr. Farmer on this subject, he laid down the four following principles : " ( 1 ) I should make use of the advantage of the tonic sol-fa system, but ahvays in connection with the old notation. " (2) An hour a week is the shortest time that ought to be given to singing. But what I find to be much better is two half- hours (or two forty-five minutes) weekly. " (3) It is a great advantage that even those who suffer for want of ear, or for want of control over the voice, should be trained to sing. So many who begin by being seemingly earless become useful singers ; and even if it is a downright obstinate case, it would always be an advantage and never do harm to the singing of a large class. In a large chorus the few voices singing out of tune, or even " talking," are redeemed by the larger number singing in tune. " There is a time when one might select the best set out of the larger number, but the greatest pains and patience should be given to the whole. There is no difficulty in selecting the best. " (4) Boys ought never to be tempted into tenor 44 The Teaching of Music singing. Out of a large number — 400 or 500 boys between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years — there might be every now and then a boy or two with a natural tenor voice, but even in that case, out of respect to this natural tenor voice, I think the scientific Italian teacher would not allow the voice to be injured by beginning to use it in part-singing during those early years when the voice is not settled. " I should always hire good professional tenors for school glee-singing. It would not do to give up the advantage of glee-singing or part-singing for the sake of tenor voices." The main outlines of Mr. Farmer's system have thus been described. It was conceived in the interests rather of the unmusical than the musical boy. The general standard of Music was raised, but specially gifted boys were not brought into much prominence, and large numbers never advanced beyond the point of singing melodies by ear in unison. Where Mr. Farmer ended Mr. Faning has begun. To the broad foundation laid by his prede- cessor Mr. Faning would add a more highly-developed system of choral singing. This development would take the following shape : Every boy in the school should undergo a short examination every term by the Music -master, so that the state of his voice may be ascertained. A classification should then be made as follows : trebles, altos, tenors, basses, nondescript or unsettled voices, and those who apparently cannot sing at all. Special note should be made of those who possess any previous knowledge of Music. in Public Schools 45 Two choirs should then be formed — a Principal Choir and a Reserve Choir. The former should be carefully selected, and if it consisted of fifty voices the proportion in a public school should probably be as follows : eighteen trebles, eight altos, ten tenors, and fourteen basses, but the proportion might vary according to the nature, strength, and quality of the voices. This choir would be a nucleus of the best voices in the school. The rudiments of Music should be taught, and the staff notation should be employed as being of most use to a boy afterwards. Two hours a week should be given to this choir. The first half of each hour should be occupied in theoretical work, the second half in vocal. But probably as time went on, the theoretical work would become known, and more time could be given to actual singing. The Reserve Choir, on the other hand, should be composed of all those whose voices were indifferent, or whose knowledge of the rudiments of Music was inadequate. From this choir vacancies in the Principal Choir should be from time to time filled up. Voices in a state of transition should not belong to either choir. The reserve choir should have lessons distinct from the principal one. Two hours a week should be allotted for practice. But occasionally a combined practice of the two choirs would be advisable. The attendance at the Reserve Choir should be compulsory. The rudiments of Music on which a boy should be well exercised are — ( 1 ) the names of the notes ; (2) scales and intervals ; (3) sharps, flats, naturals, 46 The Teaching of Music and key signatures; (4) rests and dots; (5) value of notes ; (6) time : beating, reading, singing in time ; (7) rounds and canons, which are most useful for teaching beginners to sing in parts. Mr. Faning insists on the duty of teaching the rudiments at the preparatory schools, so that a boy if possible could take his place in the principal choir. And here in passing it may be observed that the preparatory schools are in too many cases neglectful of this work. With small and manageable numbers it should be comparatively easy to ground every boy in the rudiments of Music. It is to be hoped that they will endeavour to supply this deficiency. Let us now turn to the system of Herr David at Uppingham. He has been more fortunate than most Music-masters in the latitude and encourage- ment he has received. The late Mr. Thring was a devoted believer in the educational value of Music, and he acted up to his belief. There is very little unison singing at Uppingham. The Psalms are sung in this way, and that is all. Nor, again, is there any house-singing. But the choral singing is carried to considerable length, and with remarkable success. There are generally two concerts a term, and a term of twelve weeks is generally found sufficient to get up the choruses of an oratorio like " Judas Maccabaeus " or "Joshua." Often professional assistance is called in to make the performance of a great work more effective. Some years ago the half-yearly visits of Sir Sterndale Bennett as musical examiner gave a decided impulse to the work. On Sunday evening there is a regular practice of oratorio music. Fully in Public Schools 47 two-thirds of the boys are often present at these practices, and thus have an opportunity of getting acquainted with the great masterpieces of sacred music. Every boy's voice is tried on his arrival. Out of a total of 320 boys the proportions of voices are found to be about 30 trebles, 30 altos, 30 basses, 10 tenors ; but the number of trebles has diminished every year of late, owing to the fact that boys enter school so much later, at thirteen or fourteen, whereas they used to come at ten or eleven. There is no use of the tonic sol-fa or other system. The rudiments of Music are taught, and a class for this purpose is held in the preparatory school attached to Uppingham. Hullah's adaptation of Wilhelm's method is employed, supplemented by black-board work. Every boy who has any voice or ear is taken into the choir, no matter how little music he knows. If a boy has any music at all in him, he soon learns to take part in chorus singing. Herr David considers that the preparatory schools are the place for systematic training in sight-singing. This could easily be done, he thinks, if they went in less for having " nice little concerts." The explanation of scales and intervals is combined with actual practice. Thus, if the choir is singing "For unto us a child is born," an explanation is given (1) of time ; (2) of the G major scale, pointing out the semitones ; (3) the G major chord. This of course does not pretend to be a system, but perhaps more is done in this way than could be done by systematic training. After all, the main thing to be striven for is the quickening of musical interest in 48 The Teaching of Music the school. It is calculated that not more than 50 out of 320 boys have not at some time of their school career practised part-singing. It should be added that the choir get two half-holidays and two exercises remitted every term. Next, we come to the system adopted by Mr. L. Parker at Sherborne. Of this I am in a position to give the following account : (1) Out of a total of 300 boys there are about 100 in the choir. (2) They are taught the old notation. Mr. Parker would not teach the tonic sol-fa under any circumstances. " My sole aim," he says, " is to culti- vate musical taste. The tonic sol-fa is an admirable vehicle for teaching large masses to sing set works in a short time, but is now, I think, allowed to be of but small use for general musical purposes." (3) Six concerts are given in the year. At three of these oratorios and cantatas are performed ; the other three are miscellaneous. (4) Each boy in the choir devotes an hour and a half weekly. Each part has half an hour's practice, and the full choir meets on Sunday afternoons from 4.45 to 5.45 for combined practice. (5) Membership of the choir is voluntary. (6) The solos are, as far as possible, sung by members of the choir. No professional singer is ever engaged, with the exception of an occasional tenor. (7) There is practically no unison singing. So far our inquiry has been confined to those schools where an attempt has been made to place Music on the broadest possible basis, in touch with in Public Schools 49 the school as a whole. Before summing up the con- clusions to be derived from such an inquiry, it will not be out of place to take an instance of a school where Music is the concern of the minority rather than the majority of the boys. And for this purpose we can hardly do better than select the system now in existence at Rugby, where Mr. Basil Johnson is working with acknowledged success. He has been good enough to furnish me with the following par- ticulars of the method pursued there. The chorus in the school consists of about eighty members, who sing in the concerts and also form the choir of the chapel. A concert is only given in two out of, the three terms, viz. Midsummer and Christ- mas. In preparation for these concerts there are part-practices on four separate evenings in the week for about half an hour, and a full practice once a week, on Saturday, for one hour. For the chapel services there is a full practice every Sunday for half an hour. All these practices are voluntary and out of school hours, but work is excused in some form or another to the members of the choir, either weekly or by the remission of repetition at the end of the term. In addition to the choir there is a band of about twenty members, a part-song club of ten selected voices from the choir, a competition between the houses in quartette singing, and organ recitals every Sunday in chapel. But the difficulty is the same at Rugby as elsewhere. It is found in practice almost impossible to maintain an efficient voluntary class, without allowing remission of work to an extent which is not hitherto conceded. E 5