
 <$$smm!ss>sms'55s^ 
 
 
THE PHOSPHATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 WHERE AND HOW THEY OCCUR; HOW THEY ARE 
 MINED; AND WHAT THEY COST. 
 
 WITH 
 
 ON THE 
 
 MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID, ACID PHOSPHATE, PHOS- 
 PHORIC ACID, AND CONCENTRATED SUPERPHOSPHATES, 
 AND SELECTED METHODS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 
 
 FEANCIS WYATT,Ph.d. 
 
 ftft«v Of- cS^ 
 NOV 21 )o9l 
 
 THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 27 Park Place, New York. 
 
 1891. 
 
Copyrighted, 1891, by 
 The Scientific Publishing Company, 
 

 ^ 
 
 -J 
 
 THIS BOOK 
 
 IS 
 
 DEniCATED TO MY FrIEND 
 
 RICHARD P. ROTH WELL 
 
 Editor of The Eng-ineering and Mining Journul, 
 
 AS AN HUMBLE TRIBUTE OF MY ESTEEM 
 
 AND HIGH CONSIDERATION, 
 
P Pv E F A (3 E . 
 
 I^HE self-explanatory title of this book enables me to dispense 
 with a lengthy introduction, nor, if I were to write one, could 
 I add anything to what I have endeavored to say in its pages. 
 
 It embodies many facts, figures and suggestions resulting from 
 long observation and an extremely varied practical experience ; 
 and while these are designed for the exclusive use of specialists, 
 I trust that, taken altogether, it will jirove highly profitable read- 
 ing to all those numerous classes directly or indirectly interested 
 in the production, manufacture, sale and consumption of com- 
 mercial fertilizers. 
 
 I have endeavored to couch it in common, every-day language, 
 and have avoided as far as possible all unnecessary chemical for- 
 mulae and technical terras. In a Avord, my aim and ambition 
 have been to make it intelligible and useful to the ordinary 
 careful reader, and if I have partially succeeded in this, I shall 
 be more than repaid for the labor it has cost me. 
 
 The Author. 
 
 Laboratory of Industrial Chemistry, 
 12 Park Place, New York. 
 
THE PHOSPHATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 CHAPTER T. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY— GENERALITIES. 
 
 The theory of scientific agriculture is based upon a complete 
 knowledge of the nature of soils, plants, animals and manures, and 
 it is evident that until these elements are thoroughly understood 
 no attempts at improvement or i)lans for increased production can 
 possibly be successful. Is it not curiously illustrative of the gen- 
 eral ignorance that very few people know anything of the earth 
 they tread or the soil they cultivate, in what way it was formed, or 
 of what it is composed? How, then, can they imagine the mighty 
 inundations and the terrible upheavals? How conceive anything 
 of that gigantic disemboweling of the earth-monster, and of the 
 awful torrents of burning lavas which it has vomited forth ? Can 
 they realize that our tallest mountains, even those which from their 
 height are covered with perpetual snoAv, were once submerged in 
 rolling seas? or that the rocks and cliffs we meet with in our plains 
 are nothing more than agglomerated masses of organisms that 
 swarmed the waters? This is a seductive topic ; one that might 
 readily carry us far beyond the scope of this small work ; and one 
 that, feeling as we do how utterly impotent we should prove in any 
 attempt to do it justice, we would rather not touch upon at all. 
 
 Remembering, however, that we are not writing solely for the 
 scientific or technical, and that we design to interest the general 
 reader, we are bold enough to attempt a brief summary of acquired 
 facts in order to make subsequent arguments more forcible and 
 clear. 
 
 We believe it to be generally admitted by our geological teachers 
 
10 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 that when our globe was launched into space it was a liquid some- 
 what similar to molten glass, and therefore presented a vastly dif- 
 ferent appearance to that with which we are acquainted. When this 
 mass began to cool, it probably resembled an immense glass ball, 
 the solidified sides of which were uplifted by the bubbling of the 
 intensely hot liquid mass within. These solid projections formed 
 our mountains, and, passing from the transparent to the opaque, 
 they gradually assumed the crystalline form. What is known as 
 the earth's crust must have resulted from an extraordinarily for- 
 cible action consequent upon the fall of temperature. Certain 
 vapors were condensed into acid bodies, and these acids, attacking 
 the alkaline crust, combined with its most powerful bases to form 
 various salts. Some of these salts — such as sulphate of lime or 
 gypsum — were deposited, while others, principally the chlorides, 
 remained in solution and formed the seas. The neutralization of 
 the stronger and more corrosive acids permitted the weaker car- 
 bonic acid to develop its activity, and it is this acid which has con- 
 tinued to play the most important part in nature in our own times. 
 Held in solution by the running waters, it attacked and dissolved 
 the various bases Avhich existed in such large quantities in the moun- 
 tains, and deposited them in the form of carbonates in the valleys. 
 The process of saturation, or neutralization, being entirely accom- 
 plished, chemical equilibrium may be said to have become estab- 
 lished ; the period of great geological catastrophes, therefore, came 
 to an end, and the temperature of the earth gradually sank below 
 the boiling-point. A few volcanic disturbances continued, it is 
 true, to occasionally convulse it ; there was the upheaval, splitting 
 asunder and com])lete overthrow of mountains, the drying up and 
 the division of seas, and the formation of lakes of both fresh and 
 salt water, but they became more and more rare as the temperature 
 continued to cool. 
 
 The rocks with which we are all acquainted and which have 
 grown out of these continuous and still-continuing changes may be 
 roughly divided into three groups : 
 
 First, Sandstones. 
 Second, Limestones. 
 Third, Granite or Gneiss. 
 
 And it is their decomposition, under the combined influence 
 of the atmosphere and water, during a long ])eriod, that has ulti- 
 mately produced fertile soils containing silicates of aluminum, 
 
The Fhosjjhates of America. 11 
 
 potassium, sodium, magnesium, iron ; phosphates, sulphates and 
 chlorides. 
 
 The soil at first resulting from this gradual decomposition 
 formed very thin layers, in which only the lower orders of plants 
 found sufficient food to fructify, deriving from the air and the rain 
 their carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. In the natural 
 process of death and decay, these fresh elements of fertility, in vari- 
 ous states of combination, were transferred by the plants to the soil, 
 which was thus enabled to afford nourishment to a higher vegetation. 
 
 It is the general custom to class arable lands according to the 
 nature of their predominating constituents, and thus we allude to 
 soils as sandy, clayey and limey. 
 
 Sandy soils are distinguished by their extreme porosity, and are 
 frequently in such a fine state of division that in the dry season 
 the least wind will displace and scatter them in all directions. In 
 such cases they are naturally sterile ; but when they are sufficiently 
 moist, they facilitate and encourage the growth of an immense 
 variety of plants of the lower order, which, by their eventual 
 decomposition or putrefaction, form considerable deposits of that 
 valuable substance called humus. 
 
 Such soils are more jiropitious than any others for the develop- 
 ment of plants with very delicate or fine roots, such as barley, rye, 
 oats, lucern, lupins, lentils and potatoes ; but they require constant 
 attention, and a large and regular quantity of manure, because 
 their porosity permits them to absorb such an abundance of oxygen 
 that all their organic matter is rapidly burnt up. 
 
 Clayey soils are heavj^ and compact, and when they contain 
 more than fifty per cent, of pure clay are onerous to work, and 
 unprofitable to cultivate. It has, however, fortunately been dis- 
 covered that the addition to them of so small a quantity as two per 
 cent, of burnt lime suffices to so entirely change their natui'e and 
 consistency, by transforming the silicate of alumina into a porous 
 silicate and aluminate of lime, that it is now an easy matter in 
 districts where lime is cheap and plentiful to overcome this diffi- 
 culty. In hot countries or in Avindy regions or in districts where 
 the subsoil is of a very permeable character, good clay lands offer 
 great advantages, and although they periodically require the appli- 
 cation of large quantities of reconstituents, they possess the faculty 
 of retaining all the precious elements supplied to them, and of 
 storing them up for the use of successive crops. When they contain 
 a proportion of about ten per cent, of carbonate of lime, or chalk, 
 
12 Tlie FhospJtates of America. 
 
 they are the best of all soiLs for the extensive growth of such 
 important plants as wheat, corn, clover, hemp, peas and beans, and 
 of sucli trees as the chestnut and the oak. 
 
 Limey, or j^urely calcareous, are even lighter than sandy soils, 
 and when, as is sometimes the case, they are very white and dry 
 they are absolutely barren. 
 
 Such as these are, however, rarely encountered, for we generally 
 find them mixed with a sufficiency of clay to give them some 
 degree of consistency and render them -available for ordinary pur- 
 230ses. Few soils are entirely devoid of lime, owing to the fact 
 that all rocks contain it in greater or lesser proportion, and because 
 it is transported in immense quantities by waters, in the form of bi- 
 carbonate, and dejjosited. If it were otherwise, or if, in the absence 
 of lime, other alkaline substances were not forthcoming, the acid 
 princijjles secreted by all plants could not be saturated, and the 
 inevitable result would be decomposition and death. In its pure 
 form, however, lime is such an extremely strong base that it is in- 
 compatible with life, and hence it never exists in the soil unless it 
 be combined either with carbonic or silicic or sometimes with sul- 
 phuric and nitric acids. 
 
 It will be thus' seen that the study of geology, even if only 
 elementary, enables the agriculturist to more accurately gauge the 
 natural resources of his land, and will teach him how to adapt his 
 ideas upon drainage, irrigation and ploughing to the surrounding 
 circumstances of soil and climate. 
 
 It will also jirepare his mind for the teachings of chemistry ; 
 that science which has done more than any other to improve the 
 general condition of mankind, and which will enable him to ob- 
 tain the maximum returns from the soil and from plants. 
 
 If production is to be choaj) it must be rapid and plenteous, yet, 
 as we all know, the progress of unaided nature is slow and method- 
 ical, and so chemistry, l)y investigating the law^s which govern the 
 development of all living things and by carefully observing the 
 facts acquired by the ju-actical ex])erience of centuries, has found 
 the means by Avliich the farmer may assist and hasten the natural 
 processes. The Avork is, of course, still far from complete, but ^ve 
 are at least familiar Avith the elements essential to jtlant-growth. 
 AVe know how these elements are distributed, Avhat ])orlion of them 
 is or should be contained in our soils, and Avhat soils are most ])ro- 
 pitious for different kinds of plants. 
 
 Sixty years ago the science of agriculture was in its infancy. 
 
Tlie Phosphates of America. 13 
 
 Our grandfathers could not understand why lands once so fertile 
 and productive should show signs of approaching exhaustion^ The 
 light only came to us after we had studied how out-door plants 
 live, whence they obtain their food, of what elements that food is 
 composed and how it is conveyed and absorbed into their organ- 
 isms. In point of fact, we have discovered that the manner of life in 
 plants is very similar to the manner of life in animals and man. 
 They require certain foods in stated proportions which pass through 
 the process of digestion, they must breathe a certain atmosphere, 
 and they are subject to the influences of heat and cold, light and 
 darkness. 
 
 The tissues of their bodies, like ours, are composed of carbon, 
 hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and certain mineral acids and bases, 
 such as phosphoric and sulphuric acids, lime potash, magnesia and 
 iron. Since, therefore, it is admittedly necessary for man to con- 
 stantly absorb a sufficiency of these elements in the form of food, 
 it follows that similar food is required by plants for similar pur- 
 l^oses.- 
 
 Having determined the elementary composition of plants, inves- 
 tigators directed their attention to the analysis of soils, in order to 
 establish comparisons between virgin or uncultivated lands and 
 old varieties which had long been tributaries to every kind of 
 culture. 
 
 It was found that in the former there is an abundance of most 
 of the dominating mineral ingredients discovered in plant organ- 
 isms, Avhereas in the latter they either exist only in minute propor- 
 tions or are lacking altogether. 
 
 This marked a most important stage in our progress. Argument 
 is no longer necessary to prove that if agriculture is to continue to 
 be the basis of national wealth and prosperity, means must be found 
 of restoring to our soils the chief elements yearly taken away from 
 them by the crops. These chief elements have been shown to be 
 nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, and that they play the most 
 important parts in the functions of vegetation, and are the most 
 liable to exhaustion, is proved by the following figures, borrowed 
 from an address delivered by Prof. H. W. Wiley at the Buf- 
 falo meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of 
 Science. 
 
 According to this careful and painstaking chemist, the estimated 
 mean annual values of some of the agricultural products of the 
 United States closely approach the following figures : 
 
14 The Phoi<2ylutteH of America. 
 
 Wheat 450,000,000 bushels, valued at $440,000,000 
 
 Maize 1,900,000,000 " " 637,000,000 
 
 Oats 600,000,000 " " 168,000,000 
 
 Barley 60,000,000 " '< 33,000,000 
 
 Rye 25,000,000 " " 14,000,000 
 
 Buckwheat 13,000,000 " " 7,280,000 
 
 Potatoes 200,000,000 " " 100,000,000 
 
 Butter, milk and cheese " 380,000,000 
 
 Fruits " 100,000,000 
 
 Rice 98,000,000 lbs. at 5 cts. " 4,900,000 
 
 Vegetables '« 50,000,000 
 
 Tobacco 483,000,000 lbs. at 9 cts. " 42,000,000 
 
 Cotton 6,500,000 bales (480 lbs.) " 250,000,000 
 
 Wool 300,000,000 lbs. at 15 cts. " 45,000,000 
 
 Hay 45,000,000 tons at $8 " 360,000,000 
 
 Miscellaneous, including^ flax, flax-seed, hemp, grass- 
 seed, garden seeds, wines, nursery products, etc., 
 
 valued at 408,945,000 
 
 The mean percentage of ash or mineral matter contained in the- 
 most important of these products is as follows : 
 
 Wheat 2.06 
 
 Maize 1 . 55 
 
 Oats 3.18 
 
 Barley 2.89 
 
 Rye 2.09 
 
 Buckwheat 1.37 
 
 Rice 0.39 
 
 Potatoes 3.77 
 
 Hay 7.24 
 
 Cotton stalks 3.10 
 
 Straw of wheat 5.37 
 
 rye 4.79 
 
 barley 4.80 
 
 oats 4.70 
 
 ' ' buckwheat 6.15 
 
 Stalks of maize 4.87 
 
 The approximate quantities of mineral matters taken from the 
 soil by a single crop of the cereals would thus be : 
 
 GRAIN. 
 
 Wt. in lbs. % Ash. Wt. Ash in lbs. 
 
 Wheat 27,000,000,000 2.06 556,200,000 
 
 Maize 106,400,000,000 1.55 1,649,200,000 
 
 Oats 19,200,000,000 3.18 610,560,000 
 
 Barley 2,880,000,000 2.89 83,232,000 
 
 Rye 1,400,000,000 2.09 29,260,000 
 
 Buckwheat 650,000,000 1.37 8,905,000 
 
 Total 2,937,357,000 
 
 STRAW. 
 
 Wt. in lbs. % Ash. Wt. Ash in lbs. 
 
 Wheat 45,378,000,000 5.87 2,436,798,600 
 
 Maize 212,800,000,000 4.87 10,363,360,000 
 
 Oats 32,000,000,000 4.70 l,504,000,00a 
 
llie Pliosjjhates of America. 15 
 
 Wt. in lbs. % Ash. Wt. Ash in lbs. 
 
 Barley 4,800,000,000 4.80 230,400,000 
 
 Rye 2,333,000,000 4.79 111,750,700 
 
 Buckwheat 1,083,000,000 6.15 66,604,500 
 
 Total 14,712,913,800 
 
 The total weight of ash in the whole cereal production of the 
 country is therefore — 
 
 In grain 2,937,357,000 pounds 
 
 In straw 14,712,913,800 " 
 
 Total 17,650,270,800 " 
 
 Since it is our intention to limit the scope of this work to phos- 
 phates, we may neglect all other constituents of the above amounts 
 of ash, and confine our attention to the 
 
 QUANTITY OF PHOSPHORIC ACID YEARLY REMOVED FROM THE 
 SOIL IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 GRAIN. 
 
 % Phos- Wt. Phosphoric 
 
 Wt. Ash in lbs. phoric Acid. Acid in lbs. 
 
 Wheat 556,200,000 46.98 261,302,760 
 
 Maize 1,649,200,000 45.00 742,140,000 
 
 Oats 610,560,000 23.02 140,550,912 
 
 Barley 83,232,000 32.82 27,316,742 
 
 Rye 29,260,000 46.93 13,731,718 
 
 Buckwheat 8,905,000 48.67 4,334,063 
 
 Total 1,189,376,195 
 
 % Phos- Wt. Phosphoric 
 
 Wt. Ash in lbs. phoric Acid. Acid in lbs. 
 
 Wheat 2,436,798,600 4.81 117,210,012 
 
 Maize 10,363,360,000 12.66 1,312,001,376 
 
 Oats 1,504,000,000 4.69 70,537,600 
 
 Barley 230,400,000 4.48 10,.321,920 
 
 Rye 111,750,700 6.46 7,219,095 
 
 Buckwheat.. 66,604,500 11.89 7,919,275 
 
 Total 1,525,209,278 
 
 Total weight of the phosphoric acid in grain 1,189,376,195 
 
 Grand total, pounds 2,714,585,473 
 
 The acreage under cultivation for the production of the above 
 cereals is estimated officially as follows : 
 
16 The Pliospliates of America. 
 
 Wheat 40,000,000 acres 
 
 Maize 75,000,000 
 
 Oats 28,000, 000 
 
 Barley 3,500,000 
 
 Rye 1,800,000 
 
 Buckwheat 900,000 
 
 Total 143,200,000 
 
 The quantity of phosphoric acid i^er acre is therefore, for the 
 whole cereal crop : 
 
 2,714,585,473 -f- 143,200,000 = 19.0 pounds. 
 
 For the hay crop a similar estimate may be made of the quan- 
 tities of plant food removed. 
 
 The mean percentage of ash in the grasses of the United States 
 is 7.97 ; for timothy it is 5.88 ; for clover it is 6.83. The mean 
 content of ash may consequently be taken at 6.89 per cent. The 
 total weight of hay j^roduced, multiplied by this number, gives 
 6,201,000,000 pounds as the total weight of ash in the hay crop of 
 the United States. 
 
 For the ash of timothy the percentage of phosphoric acid is 
 8.42 ; for red clover, 6.74. The mean pei'centage of phosphoric 
 acid in the ash of timothy and clover is, therefore, 7.56. 
 
 The total weight of phosphoric acid in the hay crop there- 
 fore is 
 
 6,201,000,000 X 1^ = 468,795,600 pounds. 
 
 The number of acres harvested in the United States is about 
 37,500,000, and the quantity of phosphoric acid removed per acre 
 is consequently 
 
 468,795,600 -^ 37,500,000 = 13.5 pounds. 
 
The Phosphates of America. 17 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PHOSPHATES AND THEIR ASSIMILABILITY. 
 
 In the sj^ring-time phosphates are found in noteworthy quanti- 
 ties in young organs of i^lants, especially in the leaves, but the 
 quantity gradually diminishes as the plant approaches maturity, 
 until when the blossoms appear the phosjihates are found to have 
 entirely quitted the leaves and accumulated in the seeds. This is 
 the cause of that peculiar effect, which has long puzzled farmers, 
 that fodder cut and brought in after tJie period of maturity ^\'o\ii% 
 to be much less nourishing to the cattle than that cut before this 
 period has arrived. 
 
 It is worthy of note that in every instance this displacement of 
 the phosphates is accompanied by an equal displacement of the 
 nitrogen, and all those who have made successive analyses of grains 
 in different stages of maturity, must have been struck by the regu- 
 lar parallel manner in which the quantities of both have progres- 
 sively augmented. 
 
 Mr. Corenwinder, alluding to this migration of phosphorus in 
 vegetables, remarks : 
 
 "It has long been known that young buds are rich in nitrog- 
 enous matters, which are always accompanied by a relatively 
 considerable portion of phosphorus, and there is no doubt that 
 these two elements are united in the vegetable kingdom according 
 to some mode of combination which is yet a mystery." 
 
 And Mr. Boussingault, writing upon the same subject, says : 
 
 " We perceive a certain constant relation between the propor- 
 tions of nitrogen and phosphoric acid contained in foods, those 
 being richest in the latter element which contain most nitrogen. 
 This would appear to indicate that in the vegetable organization 
 phosphates particularly cling to the nitrogenous principles, and that 
 they follow the latter into the organization of animals." 
 
 The absolute necessity for the presence of jihosphoric acid in 
 the soil needs no further discussion. It is admitted on all hands 
 that in its absence, vegetation, even when abundantly supplied 
 with nitrogen and all other necessary elements, must come to a 
 standstill. 
 
18 Tlie FJiospJiafes of America. 
 
 The form in which it is assimilated is that of phosphate, pro- 
 duced by the combination of the acid with various bases. Enor- 
 mous deposits of phosphate, chiefly of phosphate of lime, have 
 been and doubtless will continue to be discovered in every quar- 
 ter of the globe ; and as, besides being so essential to jjlant life, 
 it is the princijjal constituent of bones, we have here another 
 proof that if by some exti*aordinary phenomenon its source were 
 suddenly cut off or exhausted, all vegetable and animal life would 
 cease. 
 
 So far back as the year 1698 a celebrated French engineer 
 (Vauban), writing in the Dime Royal, said : 
 
 "We have for a long time past been universally complaining of 
 the falling off in the quantity and quality of our crops ; our farms 
 are no longer giving us the returns we were accustomed to ; yet 
 few persons are taking the pains to examine into the causes of 
 this diminution, which Avill become more and more formidable 
 unless proper remedies are discovered and applied." 
 
 This was a warning note, but it was not until after the com- 
 mencement of the present century that the English farmers began to 
 use crushed bones as a manure, and even then they did so in blind 
 ignorance of the principles to which they owed their virtues, as is 
 clearly shown by an article jDublished by one of the scientific papers 
 of that day (1830), in which the writer says : 
 
 " We need take into no account the earthy matters or phosphate 
 of lime contained in the bones, because as it is indestructible and 
 insoluble it cannot serve as a manure, even though it is placed in a 
 damp soil with a combination of circumstances analytically stronger 
 than any of the processes known to organic chemistry." 
 
 A subsequent writer upon the same subject declares that 
 " bones, after having undergone a certain process of natural fer- 
 mentation, contain no more than two j^er cent, of gelatine, and aa 
 they derive their fertilizing })ower from this substance only, they 
 may be considered as having no value as manure." 
 
 That such opinions as these should have prevailed only fifty 
 years ago seems to us all the more preposterous because of the 
 gigantic strides which we have made since then and because of the 
 singular fact that even the Chinese were better informed than our 
 grandfathers, inasmuch as they knew that the fertilizer was a 
 mineral principle, and for many centuries have used burnt bones as 
 manures. 
 
 Despite the unflagging researches of the best men of the time, 
 
The PJiosphates of America. IS' 
 
 it was not until the year 1843 that the Duke of Richmond, after 
 an exhaustive series of experiments upon the soil with both fresh 
 and degelatinized bones, came to the conclusion that they owed 
 their value not to gelatine or fatty matters, but to their large per- 
 centage of 2'>hosphoric acid! The spark thus emitted soon spread 
 into a flame, and conclusive experiments shortly after published 
 by the illustrious Boussingault set all uncertainty at rest forever 
 
 Numerous species of vegetables were planted in burnt sand, 
 which was ascertained by analyses to contain no trace of phos- 
 phoric acid. It was, however, made rich in every other element 
 of fertility. No development of these p>lants took place until 
 phosphate of lime had been added to the sand, but after this addi- 
 tion their growth became flourishing ! 
 
 Meanwhile large workable deposits of mineral phosphates were 
 already known to exist, they having been almost simultaneously 
 discovered in their respective countries by Buckland in England 
 Berthier in France, and Holmes in America; and in the course of 
 a lecture delivered to the British Association in 1845, Professor 
 Henslow, describing the Suffolk coprolites, suggested the immense 
 value of their application to agriculture. From this time may be 
 dated the development of phosphate-mining as an industry, the 
 pursuit of which has proved so remunerative to capital and labor. 
 
 The mode of occurrence of the best known deposits of phosphate 
 of lime may well be termed eccentric. They have been found in 
 rocks of all ages and of nearly every texture. Sometimes they are 
 very pure, sometimes their combinations are extremely variable. 
 Here they are found in veins, there in pockets, and here again in 
 stratified layers or beds in connection with fossilized debris of all 
 kinds deposited by the ancient seas. Apart from the deposits of 
 the American continent, England, France, Germany, Belgium, 
 Spain, Portugal, Norway, Russia and the West Indies, all have 
 workable and more or less productive phosphate mines, some idea 
 of which may be gathered from the following analyses: 
 
20 
 
 Tlie Fhosp^iafes of America. 
 
 
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The Phosphates of America. 21 
 
 Very large deposits of jiliosphates of alumina and iron have 
 been discovered in the islands of Redonda and Alta Vela, and 
 were at first mistaken and shipped in large quantities for phosphate 
 of lime. Upon complete analysis in London, however, their true 
 nature was discovered, and being quite unsuitable for the manu- 
 facture of sujierphosphate, they were denounced by leading agri- 
 cultural chemists as valueless for fertilizer purposes. The cargoes 
 were consequently refused by the consignees and thrown upon the 
 market at very low prices ; and so great was the jjrejudice against 
 them that a long time elapsed before they met with any jjurchas- 
 ers. The detailed composition of these phosphates is shown in 
 the following analysis, made by us from a fair and well-selected 
 sample : 
 
 Moisture , ... 12.36 
 
 Water of combination » 4.13 
 
 * Phosphoric acid 30.22 
 
 Lime 4.16 
 
 Magnesia traces 
 
 Oxide of iron 7.04 
 
 Alumina , 24.00 
 
 Carbonic acid None 
 
 Sulphuric acid " 
 
 Fluorine traces 
 
 Insoluble sandy matter 18.09 
 
 100.00 
 
 * Equal to 6.5.87 per cent, of tribasic phosphate of lime. 
 
 It appears to have been forgotten, overlooked, or ignored, by the 
 opponents of these phosphates that the jjhos^jhoric acid in the soil 
 invariably exists in the form of phosphates of iron and alumina. 
 The so-called experts had probably not then learned what they are 
 now compelled to admit, that although some difficulty may attend 
 their decomposition in the factory or their transformation into 
 chemical fertilizers, these phosphates are extremely valuable in the 
 raw state — if very finely ground — as a direct manure. 
 
 Nor is this a matter of any personal opinion or prejudice, for as 
 we and others have frequently shown, the iron and alumina in the 
 soils exercise an immediate transforming action upon the phosphate 
 of lime introduced into them in both natural and artificial forms. 
 
 Any one can demonstrate this transformation by adding either 
 peroxide of ii'on or alumina, or both, to a solution of lime phos- 
 phates in water charged with carbonic-acid gas (ordinary car- 
 
22 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 donated -water at high pressure), Avhen in a very short time all 
 phosphoric acid will have disappeared from the solution and will 
 be found in the deposit as phosphate of iron and alumina. 
 
 If the chemists alluded to had confined their statements to the 
 fact that phosphates of iron and alumina were not advantageous 
 materials for the manure manufacturer, they would have been j^er- 
 fectly correct ; but they took on themselves a vast responsibility 
 when they declared them to be useless as fertilizers, for of all 
 questions, that as to the form in which phosphoric acid offers the 
 best all-round advantage to the practical farmer is the most subtle 
 and most delicate. 
 
 If we accept the generally-admitted and rational theory that no 
 element can jjcnetrate into the interior of a plant unless it be in so- 
 lution, it naturally follows that preference will be invariably given 
 to those commercial phosphates which are most readily subject to 
 dissociation ; and this will entirely depend upon two conditions : 
 
 [a) Their own degree of aggregation. 
 
 {Jj) The nature and composition of the soil in Avhich they are 
 employed. 
 
 The first thing to be obtained is undoubtedly a fineness of 
 pulverization which will so divide the molecules as to render them 
 easily decomposable by the natural action of the elements con- 
 tained in the ground. Here we touch at once the real source of 
 our difficulty, for in the matter of pulverization only j^artial suc- 
 cess has so far been achieved by any sufficiently cheap mechanical 
 means, and we are not very much further forward now than we 
 were in 1857, when Liebig recognized the difficulty and i)roposed, 
 in order to solve it, to chemically jierform the disintegration by 
 manufacturing superjahosphates. 
 
 From the standpoint of disintegration this method of Liebig's 
 has been entirely satisfactory, and has enabled agriculture to raj)- 
 idly obtain results from the use of phosphoi-ic acid which would 
 otherwise have been impossible. From a chemical point of view, 
 however, the whole theory fails. We have seen that superphos- 
 phates are only soluble in water so long as the sulphuric acid with 
 which they have been manufactured retains its ascendency, and 
 that when they reach the soil, especially where carbonates are in 
 abundance, the sulphuric acid is at once overpowered, and the phos- 
 phoric acid, instead of remaining combined with one molecule of 
 lime and two molecules of water, at once undergoes reversion. To 
 put it plainly, the issue revolves upon a matter of time and of 
 
The PJiosphates of Aynerica. 23 
 
 money. The farmer buys a ton of raw phosphates, ground as finely 
 as possible and containing, let us say, twenty-five per cent, of phos- 
 phoric acid, for $10. If his land be tolerably acid he will get a 
 rapid return, but if it be not, the phosphate will not decompose, and 
 he will have to wait perhaps several years before obtaining any ap- 
 preciable results for his outlay. On the other hand, he buys a 
 ton of superjihosphates, containing only fourteen per cent, of phos- 
 phoric acid, for |20, and applying it to a phosphate-barren soil, 
 produces the desired results on his very next crop. Hence it is 
 apj^arent that the phosphoric acid of the latter is more I'eadily as- 
 similable than that of the former case ; and this assimilability can 
 only be due to its absolute state of division, which enables the 
 jihosphate to come into contact with the aoid sap of a greater num- 
 ber of root hairs and thus to be dissolved and absorbed by the 
 plant. "We therefore repeat, that to define with scientific accuracy 
 the exact merit or intrinsic value of any specific phosphate is a 
 matter of very serious difliculty ; since besides that of its own phys- 
 ical condition, so much depends ujjon the nature and composition 
 of the soil in which it is to be employed. 
 
 Dr. Charles Graham, of University College, London, was one of 
 the first to realize the facts we have noted, and writing iipon the sub- 
 ject some ten years ago, said that " the vitriolating process, whereby 
 soluble phosphate is formed, was of value where nothing but bones 
 was employed, since it gave agriculture a convenient means of 
 distributing over the land an easily soluble substance in the place 
 of the pieces of bone previously used. With coprolites the same 
 thing was supposed to hold, and as years rolled on acid was more 
 and more used in the prei^aration of phosphatic materials, until at 
 last these have become rather vitriol-cai'riers to the profit of the 
 manure manufacturer than to the benefit of agriculture. Analyti- 
 cal chemists attached so high a value to the soluble phosphates 
 that the factor 30 became with many the multiplier in calculating 
 the commercial value from the centesimal composition of the 
 suijerphosjjhates. Some, indeed, went beyond this ; and in time 
 analytical chemists came to think of soluble phosphates as the only 
 test of vitriolated phosphate minerals — the insoluble being regarded 
 as of little or no use." 
 
 The same subject received much attention at the International 
 Congress of the Directors of Agricultural Experimental Stations, 
 held in Paris in June, 1881, and the result was a general approval 
 of the eflicacy of the undissolved forms. 
 
24 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 It appears to be established by the record of this congress that 
 French and German agricultural chemists are now in accord in re- 
 gard to the comparative value of soluble and 2^^€cipitated phos- 
 I^hates {i.e., those which had once been soluble but have returned 
 to the insoluble state in fine division), French chemists having 
 held for some time that they should be on an equal footing. They 
 also assented to the value of raw ground phosphate of lime, and 
 declared that 
 
 " The congress is of opinion that in reports of analyses the 
 directors of stations should state the solubility of phosj^hates by 
 the exjDressions ' phosj^horic acid soluble in cold citrate of ammonia ' 
 or ' soluble in water,' and not that of ' assimilable phosphoric acid ; ' 
 the Cpngress believing that to aj^ply the term assimilable to the 
 phosj^hate soluble in the citrate would be to class imj^licitly and 
 necessarily in the category of substances not assimilable, the phos- 
 phates which are evidently soluble in the soil, such as those in 
 bone ash, guano, bone powder, farm-yard manure and fossil phos- 
 phates." 
 
 There is probably not a single one of our agricultural ex])eri- 
 ment stations in which the assimilability of raw mineral phos- 
 phates finely ground has not been the object of intelligent study, 
 but so far as we have been able to ascertain by diligent inquiry i;p 
 to date, the results have varied, as we have already premised, in 
 accordance with the kind of phosjjhate used and the nature of the 
 soil into which they were introduced. Nothing of any serious mo- 
 ment has in fact occurred to modify the conclusions formulated in 
 1857 by the well-known Frenchman, De Molon, who, reporting on 
 a very extensive series of trials of ground raw coprolite in many 
 different departments of France, said that 
 
 1. It might be used with advantage in clayey, schistous, grani- 
 tic and sandy soils rich in organic matter. 
 
 2. If these soils were deficient in organic matter or had long 
 been under cultivation, it might still be used in combination with 
 animal manure. 
 
 3. It may not be used with advantage in chalky or limestone 
 soils. 
 
 Here, as it strikes us, is a fairly representative case where an 
 intelligent discrimination is demanded of the farmer, and where he 
 must realize that the term soluble as applied to phosphate fertilizers 
 is an entirely relative one. In one portion of his lands he may use 
 raw phosphates, and they will prove to be soluble and produce 
 
The Phosphates of America. 25 
 
 excellent results ; in another portion, ox^'ing to different constitution 
 of the soil, they will remain insoluble and the result will be ?^^7. 
 
 In England and in some parts of Germany it is still the cus- 
 tom, as we shall show later on, to base the commercial value of a 
 manufactured phosphatic material almost entirely upon its per- 
 centage of phosphoric acid soluble in cold water, and to allow 
 little or nothing for that which may exist in the " reverted " or 
 water-insoluble form. As shown by our experiments and demon- 
 strated by our practice in this country, however, the latter is 
 entirely assimilable by plants, and should therefore have a com- 
 mercial value approximately equal to that of the water-soluble 
 phosphate. 
 
 Neither English nor German chemists worthy of that name 
 attempt to deny this fact, but they appear to be in advance of the 
 philosophy of their lay contemporaries and have not yet acquired 
 sufficient power to stamp out prejudice and imposition. 
 
 All newly discovered truths, when first communicated to an 
 unprepared society, are first denounced and then p.ut aside and for- 
 gotten by the vast majority ; but by and by, when a generation or 
 two have passed away, we see those very truths, so long considered 
 as without the pale of human jjossibilities, insensibly come to be 
 looked upon as commonplaces which even the dullest intellects 
 wonder how we could ever have denied. 
 
 Men may come and men may go, but science remains behind. 
 It sustains the shock of empires, outlives the struggles of rival 
 theories and creeds, and, built upon a rock, must stand forever. 
 
 How, then, can we expect the farmers to perpetually remain in 
 ignorance or darkness on this question, when we know that they 
 are becoming less and less able to restore to their soils, in any other 
 form than that of phosphate of lime the phosjjhoric acid taken 
 from them year by year with their crops ? 
 
 Nothing can stem the demand for artificial manures ; it will go 
 on increasing with such steadiness and rapidity that the visible 
 sources of supply will soon become inadequate. Especially is this 
 true of phosphates of lime, and the recognition of this fact by 
 those engaged in the fertilizer industry explains the eagerness with 
 which fresh deposits of the material are being sought for all the 
 world over. 
 
 The vast workable deposits of the American continent are just 
 at this moment the centres of attraction, and it will therefore be 
 interesting to a large section of the public to know something 
 
^6 Hie Phosphates of America. 
 
 about the mode of their occurrence, how they are mined, handled, 
 prepared for the market, and what they cost. All this informa- 
 tion we shall endeavor to convey in as brief a manner as may he 
 consistent with lucidity, and we shall add to it a practical descrip- 
 tion of the manufacture of sulphuric acid, superphosphates and 
 "high grade supers," and shall give a general outline of those 
 methods of analyses shown by our long and varied experience to 
 be best suited to each class of jjroduct. 
 
 At the present time there is a great and regrettable divergency 
 in the results of jjhosi^hate analyses made by different chemists. 
 To the iininitiated this is an unaccountable fact, to be explained 
 only by a very excusable and popular conclusion, that analytical 
 chemistry is not a reliable or exact science, and that it cannot pro- 
 duce in practice what it expresses by equation. Why, it is asked, 
 should the chemist in the South— who is j^erfectly conscientious 
 and who has no interest to deceive — differ materially in his find- 
 ings from a chemist equally but no more honest and trustworthy 
 working at the East or North? This is a consistent question, and 
 it demands a prompt solution. 
 
 Nothing could cast a greater aspersion on the highest of 2)rofes- 
 sions than this state of affairs, and yet nothing on earth could be 
 more easily and perfectly remedied. All that is necessary is for chem- 
 ists to come together and agree upon certain methods, and to invite 
 purchasers and sellers of phosphates and manures to regulate their 
 settlements on a ^:)re.9criJef? basis. In this manner all divergency 
 of results should disappear, and, all other conditions being equal 
 any further discrepancies would be attributable only to incompe- 
 tency or bad faith. The hand, of course, is not always steady, nor 
 is the eye always accurate, and while we are liable to physical 
 defects and weaknesses, we shall never be free from mistakes ; but . 
 it is nevertheless a fact which has forced itself upon all thinking 
 men, that uniformity in manipulation is the prime factor in the 
 attainment of uniform results, and nowhere is such uniformity a 
 sine qua non as in the laboratory. 
 
Tlie Phosijhates of America. 27 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE PHOSPHATES OF NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 The greatest of our geologists have agreed upon dividing the 
 earth's crust into four classes or periods, which they have named 
 respectively the Archcecai, Paleozoic, Mesozoic aiid Cenozoic times, 
 and the phosphates which we are now to describe occur in the 
 rocks of the first of these divisions, in that portion of them known 
 as the Gneiss formation or Laurentian period. 
 
 These rocks are made up almost entirely of pyroxene, calcite, 
 hornblende, mica, fluor-spar, quartz and orthoclase, and are more 
 or less intermixed at various points with apatite, pyrites, graphite, 
 garnet, ejjidate, idoci'ase, tourmaline, titanite, zircon, opal, calce- 
 dony, albite, scapolite, wilsonite, steatite, chlorite, prehnite, chaba- 
 site, galena, sphalerite, molybdenite, etc. 
 
 The two districts in Canada in which apatite has been thi;s far 
 found to exist in workable quantities are Ottawa County, in the 
 province of Quebec, and Leeds, Lanark, Frontenac, Addington and 
 Renfrew Counties, in the Province of Ontario. The latter district, 
 therefore, covers a much larger area than the former, but on the 
 other hand the country is much lower, the rocks more hornblendic 
 and the apatite much more "pockety" and scattered. In both dis- 
 tricts the Laurentian rocks form immense belts, which traverse the 
 country for many miles with a N. E. and S. W. trend, and which, 
 according to Dana, Hunt and other investigators, extend downward 
 to a depth of at least twenty-five or thirty thousand feet. There 
 is, as may be readily inferred, a great variability in their composi- 
 tion. Sometimes they are entirely granitic gneiss, hornblendic 
 gneiss, rust-colored gneiss and brownish quartz ; at others they 
 are made up of pyroxene, feldspar, calcite, mica, apatite, and py- 
 rites. While there are undoubtedly many spots in which the apa- 
 tite woiild appear to occur in true veins of extreme purity, we 
 have found that the general formation of the fissure material is 
 that of a series of conglomerates. In other words, the gigan- 
 tic lodes are a mixture in which the predominance alternates between 
 pure apatite and pyroxenite or mica, or feldsjjar, or, in fact, any 
 other of the minerals already enumerated. 
 
28 
 
 The Phosjiliates of America. 
 
 The lodes themselves, however, are nevertheless very strongly 
 defined, and there can be no doubt at all as to their continuity in 
 depth. In the province of Quebec we have followed them over 
 the townships of Hull, Templeton, Buckingham, AVakefield, Port- 
 land, Derry, Denholm, Bowman and many others, farther north 
 and west, and they everywhere exhibit the same characteristics. 
 Sometimes they contain no apatite ; at others it is oidy present 
 in rare disseminated crystals. Sometimes they contain it in the 
 proportion of from ten to fifteen per cent, of their entire mass 
 over a very large area. Sometimes, again, it displaces the other 
 rocks altogether, and develops into enormous " bonanzas," in which 
 scarcely any impurities are found. 
 
 The principal phosphate mines of Canada have been located 
 on those portions of the pyroxenite belt in which, at the surf- 
 ace, the apatite has shown signs of predominating, and it is 
 on record that, so far as explored, when these surface " shows " 
 exist in association with feldspar, mica or 2)yrites, the apatite has 
 always continued downward with variable regularity through the 
 entire formation. By far the greater part of the phosphate mined 
 of late years has been obtained in the Quebec district, chiefly 
 from that portion of Ottawa County through which flows the 
 Lievres River. This fact is demonstrable by a reference to the 
 following table, compiled with great care from oflicial data. 
 
 COMPANIES NOW WORKING APATITE MINES IN CANADA. 
 
 NAME OP COMPANY. 
 
 Anglo-Canadian Phosphate Co., L'd 
 Anglo-Continental GuanoWorks Co 
 
 Canadian Phosphate Company 
 
 Central Lake Mining Co 
 
 Dominion Phosphate and Mining 
 Co 
 
 Dominion Phosphate Co., L'd, of 
 London 
 
 East Templeton District Phosphate 
 
 Mining Syndicate 
 
 Foxton Mining Company, L'd. . . . 
 Frontenac Phosphate Company . . 
 
 Kingston Mining Co 
 
 Little Rapids Mining Co 
 
 $500,000 
 800,000 
 
 550,000 
 Private cap- 
 italists. 
 
 125,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 30,000 
 (50,000 
 50,000 
 25,000 
 
 Private cap- 
 italists. 
 
 DISTRICT 
 WHERE WORKING. 
 
 DAILY 
 
 AVERAGE 
 
 OF MEN 
 
 EMPLOYED 
 
 Perth, Ontario. 45 
 Lievres River, 100 
 Quebec. 
 
 150 
 20 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 Templeton, 
 
 Quebec. 100 
 
 Kingston, Ont. 75 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 Lievres River, 15 
 
 Quebec. 
 

 G ii 
 
 5 3 
 
The Phosphates of America. 
 
 29 
 
 Companies now working- Apatite mines in Canada. — Continued. 
 
 NAME OF COMPANY. 
 
 CAPITAL. 
 
 DISTRICT 
 WHERE WORKING. 
 
 DAILY 
 
 AVERAGE 
 
 OF MEN 
 EMPLOYED 
 
 MacLaurin Phosphate Mining Syn- 
 dicate 
 
 100,000 
 Private cap- 
 italists. 
 
 1,000,000 
 250,000 
 250,000 
 
 Templeton, 
 Quebec. 
 Lievres River, 
 Quebec. 
 
 Kingston, Ont. 
 
 50 
 25 
 
 250 
 
 200 
 
 25 
 
 Ottawa Mining" Co 
 
 The General Phosphate Corporation, 
 L'd 
 
 Phosphate of Lime Co , L'd 
 
 Sydenham Mica and Mining Co ... . 
 
 It is affirmed by some excellent authorities that pyroxene rock 
 is never found distinctly bedded, though occasionally a series of 
 parallel lines can be traced through it, which, while possibly the 
 remains of stratification, are probably often joint planes. Some- 
 times, when the pyroxenite has been weathered, apparent signs of 
 bedding are brought out, which are often parallel to the bedding 
 of the country-rock. Thus at Bob's Lake mine, in Frontenac 
 County, a rich green pyroxenite occurs which exhibits this struc- 
 ture. For 10 feet down from the surface this apparent bedding 
 can be distinguished. It gradually grows fainter, until it disap- 
 pears in the massive pyroxenite below. A similar phenomenon has 
 been observed at the Emerald mine, Buckingham Township, 
 Ottawa County, Quebec, and at several other places. 
 
 The pyroxene occurs in several different forms. Sometimes it 
 is massive, of a light or dark green color, and opaque or translu- 
 cent ; at other times it is granular and easily crumbled. Occasion- 
 ally it occurs in a distinctly crystalline form, the crystals being in 
 color of different shades of a dull green, generally opaque or 
 translucent, but sometimes, though rarely, almost transparent. 
 The massive variety is the most common and composes the greater 
 part of the pyroxenites found in the phosphate districts. 
 
 The associated feldspar is generally a crystalline orthoclase, 
 varying in color from white to j^ink and lilac, but occasionally it 
 occurs as a whitish-brown finely crystalline rock. The trap is of 
 the dark, almost black, variety. The apatite itself occurs, as we have 
 already explained, in a very capricious manner and in a very great 
 variety of forms. 
 
 The first Canadian phosphate-mining was done in the township 
 of North Burgess, in Lanark County, and about the year 1863 
 extensive investments were made in lands in that township, near 
 the Rideau Canal, as high as 1300 per acre having in some cases 
 
dO The Pliospliates of America. 
 
 been paid. In 1872 mining was begun on tlie Lievres River and 
 gradually increased until 1880, when English and American caj^i- 
 talists embarked in the industry and prosecuted work on a large 
 scale with the aid of steam machinery. Previous to this time 
 hand labor only was employed and a good proportion of the output 
 was obtained by farmers, who discovered the mineral on their 
 lands and worked at it in a desultory manner as attention to their 
 farm duties permitted. 
 
 The result of such a method was, of course, that the whole of 
 a property was soon cut up with small pits and trenches, rarely 
 exceeding 20 feet in depth, and often interfering considerably 
 with later and larger mining operations, and it was not until well- 
 organized companies, directed by efficient engineers, with steel 
 drills, hoists, pumps, etc., came into the field, that the exploita- 
 tion proceeded on a sound basis. It would be impossible and 
 at the same time uninteresting to attempt a detailed description 
 of all the mines now in operation, and we have concluded to 
 content ourselves by selecting one of the best as a tyjjical 
 example. 
 
 For this purpose we will describe the mode of occurrence,, 
 method of working, possibilities of production and qualities of 2:)rod- 
 uct at the N'orth Star Mbie, which is situated on the east bank 
 of the Lievres River, in the township of Portland, and Avhich in 
 our ojjinion is one of the very few enterprises of its kind Avhich 
 have been conducted on true mining principles. It is perhaps the 
 only one in which proper development work has been undertaken 
 with a view rather to lasting profits than immediate and temporary 
 gains. The managers have made themselves acquainted with and 
 have thoroughly understood the peculiar nature of the formation 
 with which they have had to deal. They have consequently 
 divided their work from the commencement of their operations 
 into two distinct phases, exploration and exploitation. 
 
 The first has consisted in prospecting the lode or belt, uncover- 
 ing its surface over the entire property, to prove the continued 
 presence of the apatite, and then in opening up ])its or quarries to 
 a sufficient depth to demonstrate the importance, dimensions and 
 trend of the deposit. 
 
 The second has consisted in simply following up the indications 
 thus laid bare, by sinking shafts upon the vein, in conformity with 
 the strike and dip of the phosphate. 
 
 The results of this jwlicy have been manifold. Scientifically 
 they have taught lis all we now know concerning the mode of oc- 
 
S =i o 
 
 o -e S 
 
 2 5 O 
 
 i ? j" 
 
 S 5-.i: 
 
 >, ^ cc 
 
 5 g 
 
 a. to 
 
The Fhosjjhates of America. 31 
 
 currence and the continuity in depth of Canadian apatites. In- 
 dustrially they have secured to the company some very consider- 
 able reserves of phosphate, which are now in sight and ready for 
 extraction. 
 
 The entire j^i'operty consists of 200 acres, and it is traversed 
 throughout its length by the pyroxene belt or band, which con- 
 tains, besides the apatite, a large number of the characteristic 
 minerals and has an average width of some 250 feet. The pyrox- 
 ene is occasionally intermixed at the surface with bowlders of 
 granite or gneiss. The trend of the belt or vein is in the usual 
 northeasterly and southwesterly direction, and at intervals of 
 from 50 to 75 feet it is intersected from east to west by faults, or 
 chutes, which dip to the south at an angle of from 45° to 60°, and 
 as these all contain an abundance of apatite they have been chosen 
 as the fitting points for sinking shafts and j^its. 
 
 Taking the southern boundary as a jjoint of departure, the belt 
 of phosphate-bearing matter has been prospected and proved by 
 openings practised at intervals of from 25 to 50 feet. 
 
 Proceeding along the vein towards the north for about 500 feet, 
 we reach the first important opening sunk upon it and known as 
 
 The Office Pit, a sj^ecies of quarry 150 feet in length by 40 in 
 width and about 35 feet deep. Here we find the usual masses of 
 characteristic conglomerates, mica, feldspar and apatite alternating 
 in predominance or heterogeneously mixed up together. In the 
 west-end corner of the quarry a small pit, some 6 feet square, has 
 been sunk \\\)on a vein of apatite and has shown the same features 
 to continue in de^Jth. From a cai'eful measurement and comparison 
 of the entire matter in jjlace, the projiortion of pure apatite in this 
 portion of the lode is estimated at eight per cent, of the total ma- 
 terial to be removed. In other words, for every 100 tons of rock 
 removed 8 tons of apatite can be secured. 
 
 The next in line, at a distance of 100 feet, is the 
 
 Alice Pit JVb. 1, an opening 25 x 15 and 10 feet deep. Here, 
 in exactly the same formation as the jjreceding, there is a very fine 
 vein of pure apatite, about 12 feet wide, running down from the 
 surface with the usual dip to the south. 
 
 Following the belt for another 60 feet we come to 
 
 Alice Pit JVo. 2, Avhich has been opened up for a depth of 10 
 feet on a fault in the vein 30 feet long by 15 feet wide. Several 
 small veins, or stringers, of apatite imbedded in the usual con- 
 glomerate have merged into one, which has gradually widened 
 out until at the bottom it has attained about 5 feet. This is an 
 
32 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 excellent prospect, with all the appearance of developing into a 
 bonanza when brought into further working order. 
 
 Passing over several other openings and faults of similar char- 
 acter for about 250 feet, we come to 
 
 Pit No. 3, which is now being developed and got into shape for 
 exploitation. It has been sunk in solid vein matter and upon the 
 dij} of the chute to a depth of about 100 feet and still retains the 
 appearance of an open quarry. Down its southwest side there 
 run three well-defined veins of apatite, each of them occasionally- 
 interspersed with or hidden from sight by bowlders of feldspar, 
 mica, calcite and pyroxene. 
 
 The next opening upon the belt is at a distance of only 50 feet 
 and is known as 
 
 Shaft No. 1. It is sunk on the dip of the vein at an average 
 angle of about 55° and is now about 600 feet deep. Its progress 
 has been watched Avith the greatest interest by all who are in any 
 way connected with or concerned in the apatite-mining industry, 
 and it has served to prove beyond contestation that the sought-for 
 material is not confined to a mere superficial stratum, but that it 
 continues to accompany the other minerals with which it is so in- 
 timately associated, in exactly the same manner, in depth as at the 
 surface. The same mixture of rocks, the same conglomerates, 
 the same alternating preponderances — these are the history of the 
 shaft. 
 
 Small veins or strings of apatite led into enormous pockets or 
 bonanzas, yielding many thousand tons of pure phosphate ; these, 
 in course of time, gradually pinched out and were replaced by 
 pyroxene, feldspar or mica, through which the veins of apatite 
 were followed until they again merged into a prejionderating 
 mass. 
 
 At the time of our visit to the mine the shaft contained a great 
 deal of water, which had drained in from the melting of the last 
 winter's snow, but the managers were good enough to have the 
 water pumped out in order to facilitate our inspection, and we 
 were thus able to descend in it to within 50 feet of the bottom. 
 After careful inspection, M^e became satisfied that there are very 
 large reserves of apatite in the shaft, especially as the bottom 
 is neared, and that it can readily be rained and brought to the 
 surface. 
 
 Under the peculiar circumstances of the geological formation it 
 was impossible to sink this shaft with any great degree of regu- 
 
The Phosphates of America. 33 
 
 larity. The run of the apatite is a capricious one, and was found 
 to shift about from side to side and take the place of other rocks 
 in a manner that baffled all calculations. We may, perhaps, better 
 convey our meaning if we liken its occurrence to a long string of 
 sausages, of very irregular shape and divided by very irregular 
 lengths of skin, say, for instance, thus : 
 
 y> 
 
 \l 
 
 
 /> 
 
 These pockets were of course worked out as they occurred, 
 with the result that the interior of the shaft now presents the ap- 
 pearance of a series of immense caverns alternating with narrow 
 passages or tunnels. So far as it was possible to judge from the 
 present appearance of the shaft and of the dumps by which it is 
 surrounded, we estimated the amount of rock material already re- 
 moved from it at about 160,000 tons and the apatite at about 
 twelve per cent, of that total. 
 
 At a distance of 100 feet further along the belt Ave reach 
 2'he Shaft JVo. 2, a reproduction in the main of the No. 1 
 shaft already described. It has been carried down on the dip of the 
 vein at an angle of 50° to 55° S. with a tramway which hugs the 
 foot-wall. The width and height of the shaft range from 50 
 to 120 feet wide and from 16 to 75 feet high, all in solid vein 
 matter between well-defined walls of granitic gneiss, with phos- 
 phate overhead and underfoot. The apatite in the vein has fre- 
 quently developed into large bonanza chambers or pockets, and 
 there is every promise of a continuation of this phenomenon as 
 
34 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 the pit goes down, since the bottom and sides of it now consist 
 almost entirely of massive green phosphate. From careful meas- 
 urements in the excavation, the quantity of total material re- 
 moved from this shaft was computed at about 40,000 tons and 
 the proportion of apatite at about twelve per cent, of the mass. 
 The average daily number of men employed in sinking this shaft 
 and dealing with the ore has been as follows : 
 
 Twenty-five miners and strikers with 1 steam drill underground ; 
 5 men at the surface unloading the cars ; 25 men and boys in the 
 cobbing-house, engine-house and blacksmith's shop ; total, 55 men 
 and boys. The average wages paid to these — grouped together — 
 has been |1 per capita and per day. 
 
 The average cost of powder and steam and the wear and tear of 
 drills, engines, hoists, tools and other plant Ave estimate from prac- 
 tical experience at 25 cents per ton of rock removed. 
 
 From these data it is easy for us to compute the cost of the 
 phosphate per ton. 
 
 55 men and boys at $1 per day for 300 days $16,500 
 
 40,000 tons of rock removed at 25 cents per ton for plant 
 and wear and tear 10,000 
 
 Total cost of, say, 5,000 tons clean phosphate. . .$26,500 
 or, say, $5.60 per ton at the mine. 
 
 The width of the pyroxene belt in the neighborhood of this 
 shaft is about 300 feet, and saving that in some places there is a 
 considerable intermixture of huge granitic bowlders, there is no 
 change in its predominating characteristics over the remainder of 
 the property. 
 
 The equipment necessary to the proper working of an apatite 
 mine must include : 
 
 One or two good boilers of about 50 H. P. each. 
 One or two double drill compressors. 
 One or two hoisting engines of about 20 H. P. each. 
 Three or four machine drills fully equipped. 
 All necessary fittings and pipe for compressors. 
 A first-class plunger pump. 
 A first-class double forcing pump. 
 
 A line of transport wagons of abo<it 2 tons each capacity. 
 A line of transport sleighs, for wmler, of about 2 tons each capacity. 
 A commodious blacksmith and carpenter shop, well provided with 
 all kinds of tools. 
 
 A cobbing-house fully equipped. 
 
The Phosphates of America. 35 
 
 A cooking and boarding house to accommodate, saj', 250 men. 
 A sleeping-house to accommodate, say, 250 men. 
 A large warehouse for stores of all kinds. 
 Offices and dwelling for a local superintendent. 
 
 It has already been explained that the form in which the phos- 
 phate occurs in the Canadian mines is that of a hexagonal crystal- 
 line mass of fluor-apatite. Sometimes it is extremely compact ; 
 at others it is coarse and grannlar. It has a hardness of 5 and a 
 mean specific gravity of 3.20, and is generally so friable as to fall 
 to pieces if struck with the pick. It varies in color from green to 
 blue, red, brown or yellow, according to the greater or lesser pro- 
 portions of impurities with Avliich it is contaminated. 
 
 A series of our analyses made from average samples taken from 
 many of the largest Avorking mines may be regarded as very fairly 
 representative of the average chemical composition of the ma- 
 terial. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL SAMPLES OF CANADIAN APATITE. 
 
 1st Qiial. 2d Qual. 3d Qual. 
 
 Phosphate of lime 88.20 78.65 66.32 
 
 Carbonate of lime 4.13 8.05 9.20 
 
 Fluoride of lime 3.10 3.04 2.97 
 
 Alumina and iron oxides 0.70 1.03 1.87 
 
 Magnesia 0.20 0.31 0.47 
 
 Insoluble siliceous matter 3.67 8.92 19.77 
 
 100.00 100.00 100.00 
 
 What is the origin of these remarkable phosphates is a question 
 that has been, and still continues to be, the cause of much contro- 
 versy. 
 
 Sir William Dawson, in a paper read before the Natural Histor- 
 ical Society, Montreal, 1878, "On the Phosphates of the Laurentian 
 and Cambrian of Canada," discusses the probability of animal origin, 
 and holds that there are certain considerations which jjoint in this 
 direction. Among these are the presence of the iron ores, the 
 graphite, and of Eozoon Canadense, which he, with others, holds to 
 represent the earliest known forms of life. He further says that 
 the possibility of the animal origin of this phosphate is strengthened 
 by the presence of phosjjhatic matter in the crusts and skeletons of 
 fossils of primordial age, " giving a jjresumjjtion that in the still 
 earlier Laurentian a similar preference for i^hosphatic matter may 
 have existed and jjerhaps may have extended to still lower forms, 
 of life." 
 
36 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 Others, again, have conleiuled that it must have been ejected 
 from the earth's interior by volcanic action, and prominent among 
 these is the present Director of the Geological Survey of Canada, 
 A. R. C. Sehvyn, who says : 
 
 "My own examinations of the Canadian apatite deposits (veins, 
 etc.) have led me to a conclusion respecting their origin correspond- 
 ing with that of the Norwegian geologists. I hold that there is 
 absolutely no evidence Avhatever of the organic origin of the apatite, 
 or that the deposits have resulted from ordinary mechanical sedi- 
 mentation processes. They are clearly connected, for the most part, 
 with the basic eruptions of Archaean date." 
 
 This view is also taken by Mr. Eugene Coste, who, in his report 
 on the "Mining and Mineral Statistics of Canada for 1887," con- 
 cludes an article on " The Iron Ores and Phosphate Deposits (?) in 
 the Archaean Rocks" by saying : 
 
 "It is only natural that we should conclude, as maiiy other 
 geologists have done befoi-e, that the iron ore and jihosphate to be 
 found in our Archaean rocks are the result of emanations Avhich 
 have accompanied or immediately followed the inti'usions through 
 these rocks of many varied kinds of igneous rocks which are no 
 doubt the equivalent of the volcanic rocks of to-day. These de- 
 jjosits, then, are of a deep-seated origin, and consequently the fears 
 entertained, principally by our phosphate miners, that their dejjosits 
 are mere surface pockets, are not well founded. These fears are 
 no doubt partly the result of the belief Avhich has been somewhat 
 prevalent that the apatite in them was the metamorphic equivalent 
 of the phosj)hate nodules of younger formations, and it may be also 
 that they have resulted from the fact that the apatite is irregularly 
 distributed in these deposits and is often suddenly replaced by rock. 
 But notwithstanding this, Avhen the deposits are properly under- 
 stood to be, as we hold they are, igneous dykes and veins accom- 
 panying the igneous rocks, it will be easily seen why in the 
 deposit itself the economic minerals can be suddenly replaced by 
 rocks which may be said to be nothing else but the gangue. If this 
 origin is understood it will facilitate and encourage the working of 
 these deposits in dei)th, because the accompanying igneous rock, 
 forming a mass or a dyke alongside of the deposit, will be easy to 
 follow, and because if it is apatite or iron-bearing at the surface, it 
 will always be a guarantee that it will also be in depth, as each sepa- 
 rate mass of igneous rock is genqrally quite constant in composi- 
 tion." 
 
The Phosphates of Afnerica. 37 
 
 Despite the great attention and care with which we have our- 
 selves examined numerous specimens of the Canadian apatites taken 
 from various points over the entire formation, we have failed to 
 discover by means of the microscoj^e the least trace of anything 
 that would lead us personally to connect them with organic life. 
 We prefer to ascribe them to a decomposition of the pyroxenite by 
 a process of segregation similar to that which in other places has 
 resulted in the production of quartz and orthoclase, and we can see 
 no reason for making any distinction between the character of the 
 deposits. According to Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, the stratiform char- 
 acter of these endogenous deposits, as seen alike in the individual 
 portions and in the arrangement of these as constituent parts of a 
 vein, is well shown at llie Union mine, in the Lievres district. 
 Here the great mass or lode is seen to be bounded on the west by 
 a dark-colored amphibolic gneiss, nearly vertical in attitude, and 
 with northwest strike. Within the vein, and near its western 
 border, is enclosed a fragment of the gneiss, about twenty feet in 
 width, which is traced some yards along the strike of the vein to a 
 cliff, where it is lost from sight, its breadth being previously much 
 diminished. It is a sharply broken mass of gray banded gneiss, 
 with a re-entering angle, and its close contact with the surround- 
 ing and adherent coarsely granular pyroxenic veinstone is very 
 distinct. Smaller masses of the same gneiss are also seen in the 
 vein, which was observed for a breadth of about 150 feet across its 
 strike (nearly coincident with that of the adjacent gneiss), and be- 
 yond was limited to the northeast by a considerable breadth of the 
 same country-rock. 
 
 In one opening on this lode there are seen, in a section of forty 
 feet of the banded veinstone, repeated layers of apatite, pyroxenite 
 and a granitoid quartzo-feldspathic rock, including portions of dark 
 brown foliated pyroxene, all three of these being unlike anything 
 in the enclosing gneiss, but so distinctly banded as to be readily 
 taken for country-rock by those not apprised of the venous char- 
 acter of the mass. A fracture, with a lateral displacement of two 
 or three feet, is occupied by a gi-anitic vein twelve inches wide, 
 made up of quartz with two feldspars and black amphibole, which 
 themselves present a distinctly banded arrangement. This same 
 granitic vein is traced for fifty feet, cutting obliquely across both 
 the pyroxenite and the older granitoid rock, and at length spreads 
 out, and is confounded with a granitic mass interbedded in the 
 greater vein. It is thus posterior alike to the older quartzo-feld- 
 
38 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 spathic rock, the pyroxenite and the apatite, as are also many 
 smaller quartzo-feldspathic veins, which, both here and in other 
 localities in this region, intersect at various angles the apatite, the 
 pyroxenite and the granitoid rock into which the latter graduates. 
 We have thus included in these great apatite-bearing lodes 
 quartzo-feldspathic rocks of at least two ages, both younger than 
 the enclosing gneiss. A smaller vertical vein of fine-grained black 
 diabase-like rock intersects the whole. No one looking for the 
 first time at this section of forty feet, as exposed in the quarry, 
 with its distinctly banded and alternating layers of ])yroxenite 
 and granitoid quartzo-feldspathic rock, including two larger and 
 several smaller layers of crystalline apatite, would question the 
 stratiform character of the mass, whose venous and endogenous 
 nature is nevertheless distinctly apparent on further study. 
 
 In other portions of the same great vein, quarried at many 
 points, this regularity of arrangement is less evident. Occasion- 
 ally masses are met with ])resenting a concretionary structure, and 
 consisting of rounded or oval aggregates of orthoclase and quartz, 
 with small crystals of pyroxene around and between them ; 
 the arrangement of the elements presenting a radiated and zone- 
 like structure, and recalling the orbicular diorite of Corsica. 
 The diameter of these granitic concretions varies fi'om half an 
 inch to one and two inches, and they have been seen in several 
 localities in the veins of this region over areas of many square 
 feet. 
 
 In the Emerald mine the stratiform arrangement in the vein is 
 remai'kably displayed. Here, in the midst of a great breadth of 
 apatite, were seen two parallel bauds (since removed in mining) of 
 pyroxenic rock, several yards in length, running with the strike of 
 the vein, and in their broadest parts three and eight feet wide re- 
 spectively, but becoming attenuated at either end and disappear- 
 ing, one after the other, in length, as they did also in depth. These 
 included vertical layers, evidently of contemporaneous origin with 
 the enclosing apatite, were themselves banded with green and 
 white from alternations of pyroxene of a feldspar with quartz. 
 Accompanying the apatite in this mine are also bands of irregular 
 masses of flesh-red calcite, sometimes two or three feet in breadth, 
 including crystals of apatite, and others of dark-green aniphibole. 
 Elsewhere, as at the High Rock mine, tremolite is met with. In 
 portions of the vein at the Emerald mine pyrite is found in con- 
 siderable quantity, and occasionally forms layers many inches in 
 
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 6 
 
 S 
 
 ■^ 
 
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 rt 
 
 p? 
 
 ^ 
 
 S 
 
 w 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 H 
 
 £ 
 
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 H 
 
 
 
 -t: 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 - 
 
 > 
 
 <! 
 
 ■a 
 
 2 
 
 ^H 
 
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 li 
 
 s 
 
 "m 
 
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 -i; 
 
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 ^ 
 
 3 
 
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 0) 
 
 
The Phosj)liates of America. 39 
 
 thickness. Several large parallel bands of apatite occur here with 
 intervening layers of pyroxene and feldspathic rock, across a 
 breadth of at least 250 feet of veinstone, besides numerous small 
 irregular, lenticular masses of apatite. The pyroxenite in this 
 lode, as elsewhere, inchides in places large crystals of phlogopite, 
 and also presents in drusy cavities crystals of a scapolite and 
 occasionally small, brilliant crystals of colorless chabazite, which 
 are implanted on quartz. 
 
 At the Little Rapids mine, not far from the last, where well- 
 defined bands or layers of apatite, often eight or ten feet wide, 
 have been followed for considerable distances along the strike, and 
 in one place to about 200 feet in depth, these are, nevertheless, 
 seen to be subordinate to one great vein, similar in comjjosition to 
 those just described, and including bands of granular quartz. In 
 some portions of this lode the alternations of granixlar pyroxenite, 
 quartzite and a quartzo-feldspathic rock with little lenticular 
 masses of apatite are repeated two or three times in a breadth of 
 twelve inches. 
 
 The whole of the observations thus set forth serve to show the 
 existence, in the midst of a more ancient gneissic series, of great 
 deposits, stratiform in character, complex and varied in composi- 
 tion, and though distinct therefrom, lithologically somewhat simi- 
 lar to the enclosing gneiss. Their relations to the latter, however, 
 as shown by the outlines at the surfaces of contact by the included 
 masses of the wall-rock, the alternations and alternate deposition 
 of mineral species and the occasional unfilled cavities lined with 
 crystals, forbid us to entertain the notion that they have been filled 
 by igneous injection, as conceived by Plutonists, and lead to the 
 conclusion that they have been gradually deposited from aqueous 
 solutions. 
 
 As one of the most interesting results of the extensive and 
 costly mining operations carried out during the past few years, it 
 has, we repeat, been demonstrated that the apatite really does 
 traverse the entire stratum in which it is found, and that, if it is 
 extremely pockety and deceptive in its occurrence, it nevertheless is 
 perfectly persistent. It has also been proved that, to put it broadly, 
 the same geological characteristics j^revail throughout the belts. 
 
 It hence follows that all the deposits may be mined by the same 
 method, and that, since we are called upon to deal with invariably 
 mixed-up lodes, the quantity of apatite produced will be in direct 
 proportion to the amount of rock removed. 
 
40 Tlie PhospJtates of America. 
 
 After duly and seriously coiifsidering the problem I'roiu every 
 standpoint, we venture to say that, if the best working mines could 
 be all grouped together, the total ratio of pure apatite to other ma- 
 terial could be brought up to about seven jjer cent. 
 
 It is true that there would be certain times when "bonanza" 
 pockets would permit of very large pi'oduction, but it is equally 
 true that when the ordinary veins commence to " j)inch," as they 
 often do, the average production woi;ld be very small, or sometimes 
 even 7iil until other bonanzas appeared. The figure of seven per 
 cent, is therefore a very reasonable one as basis for calculations, 
 when applied to Canadian mining as a whole. 
 
 A properly equijjped mine, under the direction of a careful and 
 experienced miner, judicious in his use of explosives, should be al- 
 lowed the following force of men, employed as set forth : 
 
 20 men at prospecting or preparatory work over various 
 parts oi the property at $1.10 per day each for 300 
 days $6,600 
 
 50 miners and strikers in shafts or quarries with one steam 
 
 drill at $1.20 per day each for 300 days 18,000 
 
 10 men at surface labor, unloading-, dumping, etc., at $1 
 
 per day each for 300 days 3,000 
 
 10 men in engine or machine shop, blacksmith shop and 
 
 carpenter's shop at $1.20 per day each for 300 days. . 3,600 
 5 men in cobbing house at $1 per day each for 300 days. . 1,500 
 
 20 boys in cobbing house at 75 cents per day each for 300 
 
 days 4,500 
 
 115 men and boys employed daily — cost for the year $37,200 
 
 From practical experience in this class of work it is estimated 
 that the miners and prospectors will produce 5 tons of i"ock matter 
 from the lode or belt })er day and jjer man, and it has been found 
 that the other labor and the plant must be regarded as accessory to 
 this production. 
 
 Seventy men at 5 tons per day for 300 days will therefore pro- 
 duce 105,000 tons of material, which, at 25 cents per ton, will cost 
 $26,250 for steam, explosives, wear and tear of plant, tools and 
 general stores. 
 
 The cost of the apatite per ton at the mines, ready for ship- 
 ment, will therefore be approximately as under : 
 
 Total yearly cost of labor $37,200 
 
 Total cost of stores, etc 26,250 
 
 Total expenditure at mine $63,450 
 
C5 -O 
 
llie riiospliates of America. 41 
 
 Total production of rock, 105,000 tons. 
 
 Seven per cent, of this quantity = 7,350 tons phosphate of all 
 grades, from seventy to eighty-five per ceTit. 
 
 163,450 -^ 7,.350 tons = |8.60 per ton. 
 
 These figures are suggested, we repeat, as those of the avei*age 
 mining cost, and it is hardly necessary to add that while some of 
 the mines now working may be doing better, others are certainly 
 not doing so well as this. In any event we must add to the 
 figures the salaries of various ofiicers and the interest on the 
 capital invested in the purchase of the mine. If these items 
 be grouped together under one head, we shall 2)robably be within 
 the mark if we charge them at the very moderate sum of |1.40 
 per ton on the amount of ore produced. This would therefore 
 place the average net cost jDer ton, at the mines, at llO for the 
 qualities named. Again, it must be remembered that we are 
 estimating the averages over the entire year. It would be obviously 
 unfair to object to them that, M'hen the mines are in "bonanza,"^ 
 the phosphate does not cost more than one-half the estimated 
 amount, just as it would be unreasonable to claim, during a long 
 period of "dead" work, that it costs twice or three times as much. 
 When studying this question of cost, we must bear in mind that, 
 owing to the mixed-up nature of the vein matter, nearly all the 
 output has hitherto been put through the expensive process of hand- 
 cobbing, as show in our illustration, in order to arrive at an average 
 standard quality of from seventy-five to eighty-five per cent, of 
 phosphate of lime. The impossibility of obtaining fairly remu- 
 nerative prices in Europe, which is the market for the entire Cana- 
 dian output, for lower grades, has necessitated this cobbing and 
 induced a state of affairs probably unprecedented in the history of 
 any mining operations. We refer to the fact that the whole of the 
 apatite mining companies have been shipping no more than about 
 one-third of their total production ; the balance has been lost in 
 the cobbing, and has been consigned to the dumps with the re- 
 fuse, where it now remains as useless material ! 
 
 That few, if any, of the enterprises have paid any dividends on 
 their ca23ital is not a matter for surprise under such circumstances- 
 as these, nor is any argument necessary to show how immeasurably 
 their position wculd be ameliorated if a market were created for 
 lower grade ores. The cost of transportation now renders these 
 unfit for the market of Europe, but they are just the very class of 
 
42 The Pliosjjhates of America. 
 
 material required for the manufacture of fertilizers for home con- 
 sumption, and it would be wiser policy to dispense with all the 
 exjjensive processes of hand selection and cobbing at the majority 
 of the mines, and to rest content Avith such an assortment at the 
 quarry side as would insure an average grade of sixty per cent. 
 The proi^ortion of this quality to the total vein matter removed 
 would be about double that of the pure apatite ; in other words, 
 instead of seven, the output could be placed at fifteen per cent., 
 and the cost of cobbing would be saved. 
 
 The costliness of handling at the mine, however, is not the 
 only impediment to the greater development of the apatite indus- 
 try in Canada; another, and very serious obstacle, is the comparative 
 inaccessibility of the deposits. One or two of the most important 
 <;ompanies have gone to the expense of constructing shutes, or in- 
 clined railroads, for the carriage of their product to the river's 
 banks, but by far the greater portion of the output is at present 
 rolled in wagons or sleighs over very indifferent roads generally 
 leading to a rough storehouse, provided with a weighing shed and 
 a. Howe's scale. At this point different compartments or bins 
 receive the phosphate according to its grade or quality, and a 
 series of tramways connect the stored heaps with inclined shutes, 
 Avhence the material is loaded directly into scows or barges on the 
 river. 
 
 The actual cost of transport from the chief mining centres in 
 the Quebec district to the wharf-side at Montreal has been the 
 object of special inquiry, and the following figures have been ob- 
 tained from official sources : 
 
 ■COST OF TRANSPORTING APATITE FROM THE CHIEF MINING CENTRES IN 
 OTTAWA COUNTY TO THE WHARF AT MONTREAL. 
 
 Loading' at mines, carting to and imloading at Riverside 
 
 Store $1 50 
 
 Loading into scows 05 
 
 Towing to Buckingham Village 18 
 
 Unloading scows and loading on cars of C. P. R. R 13 
 
 Railway' freight to Montreal 1 25 
 
 Wharfage, insurance and incidentals at Montreal 50 
 
 Total cost of transport from the mines per ton $3 60 
 
 It would hence appear that the average cost of Canadian apa- 
 tite delivered free on board vessels at Montreal outward bound 
 for European ports must be placed at about |14 per ton, and 
 
The Pliosphates of America. 
 
 43 
 
 against this it will be of interest to study the selling prices which 
 prevailed for the material during 1890. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE SELLING PRICES OF CANADIAN APATITE F. O. B. MON- 
 TREAL DURING 1890. 
 
 For phosphate guaranteed to contain 85 percent., $25 00 per ton. 
 
 80 '• 23 50 
 
 75 " 18 00 
 
 " " 70 " 14 50 
 
 65 " 11 25 
 
 If we could assume that the two highest of the above qualities 
 formed the bulk of the material exported, it is evident that Cana- 
 dian phosphate-mining would have to be placed in the front rank 
 of profitable enterprises. Whether the bulk is thus composed, 
 however, is a very perj^lexing qtiestion in the face of the following 
 •official figures showing the total quantities and values of ore yearly 
 exported since the opening of the mines in ISYV : 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE YEARLY EXPORTS AND VALUES OF CANADIAN PHOS- 
 PHATES. 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 QUANTITY, TONS. 
 
 VALUE, DOLLARS 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 QUANTITY, TONS. 
 
 VALUE, DOLLARS 
 
 1877. . . . 
 
 2,823 
 
 47.084 
 
 1884 
 
 21,709 
 
 424,240 
 
 1878. . . . 
 
 •10,743 
 
 208,109 
 
 1885 
 
 28,969 
 
 496,293 
 
 1879.... 
 
 8,446 
 
 122,035 
 
 1886 
 
 20,440 
 
 343,007 
 
 1880. . . . 
 
 13,060 
 
 190,086 
 
 1887 
 
 23,152 
 
 433,217 
 
 1881.... 
 
 11,968 
 
 218,456 
 
 1888 
 
 18,776 
 
 298,609 
 
 1882. . . . 
 
 17,153 
 
 388,357 
 
 1889 
 
 29,987 
 
 394,768 
 
 1883.... 
 
 19,716 
 
 427,668 
 
 1890 
 
 22,000 
 
 330,000 
 
 From the values thus recorded we gather that in the year 1885 
 about 29,000 tons were sold at the average of |17 per ton in Mon- 
 treal, whereas in 1890 the output fell to 22,000 tons and the price to 
 an average of $15 per ton at the same place. This would indicate 
 that the average quality of the entire yield was seventy to seventy- 
 five per cent, of tricalcic or bone jshosphate, and in such a case 
 the net profit on the entire exi^loitation could not have been very 
 large. 
 
 Nothing could possibly be more confirmatory of our views of 
 this mining field, therefore, than the official returns relating to it, 
 and we cannot refrain from again insisting, and with additional em- 
 phasis, upon the necessity for an immediate and radical change of 
 policy. 
 
44 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 The custom of throwing the entire cost of production upon the 
 high grades is unfair and should be discontinued. In its stead a 
 rule should be established of setting aside for foreign shipment 
 only such portions of the pure apatite as may be obtained directly 
 from the lode without hand-cobbing at the surface. There would 
 be no difficulty in disposing of these choice lots in Europe at very 
 high prices, and there is no doubt that with proper care and skill 
 in the management they could be brought up to one-fourth of the 
 total output. The balance of the material mined would certainly 
 average more than sixty per cent., would i)robably go up to sixty- 
 five, and would of course, as we have already explained, bear a far 
 larger proportionate relation to the total rock removed than it 
 does now. Since there is no lack of grinding facilities at Bucking- 
 ham Village, quite close at hand, and since there are several abun- 
 <lant deposits of pyrites — the material required for sulphuric acid 
 manufacture — in the immediate vicinity, it is self-evident that this 
 low-grade material could be readily and cheaply transformed into 
 an excellent superphosphate, containing at least fourteen per cent, 
 of soluble or available phosphoric acid. 
 
 There would be no difficulty whatever in establishing a sale for 
 such an article at a very fair rate of profit, and the demand simul- 
 taneously created for sulphuric acid by the adoption of this method 
 would stimulate the development of the chemical industry in vari- 
 ous branches, and new channels would thus be opened up for the 
 safe and profitable investment of capital and the constant and re- 
 munerative employment of labor. 
 
The Phosphates of America, 45 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 The amorphous and nodular deposits of phosphate of lime thus 
 far discovered in the United States have been found in that portion 
 of the rocks of the fourth geological period or " Cenozoic " time 
 known as the Tertiary Formation, or " age of mammals," which 
 immediately preceded the Quaternary liorniation, or " age of 
 man." 
 
 It is probable that the earth's surface really began to assume its 
 present geographical aspect in this tertiary age, and a great part of 
 itafaioia Hiid Jfoi'u either closely resembled or was identical Avith a 
 large number of our existing familiar species. Chief among its 
 characteristics was a marked and continuous subsidence of the 
 seas and an accompanying increased elevation of the land. The 
 seas underwent evaporation ; lagoons were formed ; marshes were 
 dried up; lakes were drained, and mountain chains arose and towered 
 above deep valleys. The climatic conditions were next revolution- 
 ized, for the even temperature communicated by the earth's interior 
 heat to an unbroken surface could no longer prevail. A redis- 
 tribution of fauna 3ind flora hence necessarily ensued, and number- 
 less species were naturally exterminated before perfect acclimation 
 could be accomplished. The fossilized remains of these extinct 
 species, including incredibly gigantic reptiles and sea monsters, con- 
 tinue to afford a most interesting field for the study of paleontology, 
 and have enabled us to recognize the pachydermatous anoplothe- 
 rium as the oldest typical mammal, and to trace the succeeding 
 true ruminant and carnivora and the endless swarms of shell-fish 
 and bivalves right down to the present time. 
 
 The subdivisions of the tertiary age embrace three eras, which 
 are respectively known to geologists as follows : 
 
 The Eocene Era, or age of nearly extinct species. 
 
 The Miocene Era, or age of which the species are more than 
 half extinct. 
 
 The Pliocene Era, or age of which more than half the species 
 are still living. 
 
 The rocks of the tertiary have been classified according to 
 
46 The Pliosphates of America. 
 
 certa n characteristic differences in their essential features arising- 
 from the fact that one portion of them was deposited by fresh and 
 another by salt Avater. The oldest of them comprise gradually 
 ascending beds of sands, clays, compact sandstones, loose shell-beds 
 and calcareous sandstones, and they gradually develop into marls, 
 clays, chalk, solid limestones and greensands. No other age was 
 subjected at various intervals to more severe eruptive action, and 
 its close was marked by immense disturbances, of which most of 
 our active volcanoes remain as monuments for our ■wondering con- 
 templation. 
 
 The portion of the tertiary strata in which our workable phos- 
 phate dejjosits are found may be broadly said to hug the coast of 
 the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico from New Jersey to 
 Texas, and to embrace within its area the most extensive marl-beds 
 in the world. 
 
 Deposits of more or less commercial value and importance have 
 been located and worked in Virginia, North and South Carolina, 
 Alabama, Georgia and Florida, and there is no reason why they 
 should not be found in large quantities in States where they are not 
 at present known, or whei-e they have only hitherto appeared to be 
 of very low grade. 
 
 If no further discoveries should take j)lace in our time, however, 
 the vast beds of South Carolina and Florida are capable of yielding 
 more than sufficient to supply the entire needs of the world far into 
 the fixture, and as they are the only j)resent sources likely to be 
 extensively exploited in this country, we may dismiss all others 
 without further comment. 
 
 In his work on "The Phosphate Rocks of South Carolina," 
 Professor Francis S. Holmes tells iis, in reference to their discovery, 
 that in November, 1837, in an old rice field about a mile from the 
 west bank of the Ashley River, in St. Andrew's Parish, he found a 
 number of rolled or water-worn nodules of a rocky material filled 
 with the impressions of marine shells. These nodules or rocks Avere 
 scattered over the surface of the land, and in some places had been 
 gathei'ed into heaps so that they could not materially interfere 
 with the cultivation of the field. As these rocks contained little 
 carbonate of lime (the material of all others then most eagerly 
 sought after), they were thrown aside and considered useless as a 
 fertilizing substance. In December, 1843, in another old field he 
 attempted to bore with an augur below the surface to ascertain the 
 nature of the earth beneath, with the hope of finding marl. On 
 
The Phosphates of America. 47 
 
 removing the soil above the rocks they were seen in a regular 
 stratum about one foot thick imbedded in clay, and seemed to be 
 identically the same as those found scattered on the surface of ad- 
 joining land, all of them bearing impressions of shells and having 
 similar cavities and holes filled with clay. It was on the 23d or 24th 
 of February, 1844, while engaged in the removal of the upper beds 
 covering the marl, that the laborers discovered several stone arrow- 
 heads and one stone hatchet.' Not long after finding these relics of 
 human w^orkmanship, and while engaged in his usual visits to the 
 Ashley marl-bed. Prof. Holmes found a bone projecting from the 
 bluff immediately in contact with the surface of the stony stratum 
 (the phosphate rocks); he pulled it out and beheld a human bone I 
 Without hesitation he condemned it as an "accidental occupant" 
 of quarters to which it had no right, geologically, and so threw 
 it into the river. A year after, a lower jaw-bone with teeth was 
 taken from the same bed. Subsequent events and discoveries show 
 conclusively that the first-described bone was in " 2)lace," and that 
 the beds of the post-Pliocene, not only on the Ashley River, but in 
 France, Switzerland and other European countries, contain bones- 
 associated with the remains of extinct animals and relics of human 
 workmanship. 
 
 The necessary lime or calcareous earth for manufacturing salt- 
 petre on the west bank of the Ashley River during the Confederate 
 war was obtained by sinking pits into the Eocene marl-bed. 
 
 Upon the removal of a few feet of the upper layers the workmen 
 discovered in one pit a number of oddly-shaped nodules, resem- 
 bling somewhat the marl-stones (phosphate rock) found in the 
 stratum above the marl, but more cylindrical in form and not 
 perforated, and having their exterior polished, as though each in- 
 dividual specimen had received a coat of varnish ; they appeared 
 to have been deposited in a large corner or pocket in the marl-bed. 
 Upon submitting these samples to analyses their true value was- 
 revealed and South Carolina thereafter became a centre of attrac- 
 tion. 
 
 It was not until about 1867, however, that a mining company 
 could be organized to test the practicability of working the phos- 
 phate on a commercial scale, but this company was no sooner 
 started than it became a success, and the industry has since then 
 progressed with such leaps and bounds that it has raised the status 
 of South Carolina to that of the most productive phosphate field 
 yet known to industry. 
 
48 
 
 Tlie Pliosphates of America. 
 
 The geological formation of what is commonly called its phos- 
 phate " belt " is made up of quaternary sands and clays. These 
 overlie the beds of Eocene marls, upon whose surface and inter- 
 
 ^§ 
 
 mixed with which is foimd the 2)hosphate deposit. The presumed 
 total area covered by this characteristic formation, as shown by 
 the map, is 70 miles in length and 30 miles in width, extending 
 
The Phosphates of America. 49 
 
 from the mouth of Broad River, near Port Royal, in the south- 
 east, to the head waters of the Wando River in the northeast. 
 Its major axis is parallel to the coast, and its greatest width is in 
 the neighborhood of Charleston. 
 
 Whether the deposit is continuous or not over the whole of this 
 zone, it certainly varies considerably in depth and thickness. In 
 many places we have seen it 3 feet thick and cropping out at the 
 surface, whereas in others it has dwindled down to a few inches, 
 or was found at depths varying from 3 to 20 feet. These two con- 
 ditions, thickness of deposits and depth of strata, taken together 
 with the I'ichness of material in phosphoric acid, are of course the 
 chief points for consideration in the economic working of the 
 Charleston phosphate beds on an industrial scale. 
 
 The niost approved and generally adopted method of ascertain- 
 ing the importance and value of the deposits is that of boring and 
 pit-sinking. 
 
 A careful topographical survey is first made of the country, 
 and when this has been done there commences a systematic series 
 of bore-holes from any point that may be arranged, by means of a 
 long steel borer or rod, specially designed for the purpose. The 
 boring rod is worked down through the upper strata until it is ar- 
 rested by the solid bed of phosphate. Directly the slightest resist- 
 ance is offered to its passage it is di'awn up, and the distance it has 
 traversed is measured with a foot-rule. The measurement having 
 been noted, the rod is again let down, is forced through the resist- 
 ing strata, and is then again withdrawn and measured. The differ- 
 ence between the first and second measurements is taken as repre- 
 senting the thickness of the phosphate bed. These bore-holes are 
 practised at distances of 100 feet aj^art over the total surface to be 
 examined. The results obtained with the rod are verified and con- 
 firmed by a series of exploratory pits — 10 feet long by 5 feet wide 
 — which are dug over the course of the bore-holes at intervals of 
 500 feet. The bore-holes are driven to a maximum depth of 15 
 feet, and no pits are at present sunk on those portions of the land 
 where at that distance no phosphate has been encountered. Im- 
 mediately after removing the overlying strata the phosphate is 
 carefully taken out, its depth and thickness measured, and an aver- 
 age sample of the rock and nodules secured and laid aside for 
 analysis. 
 
 The practically invariable nature of the superincumbent ma- 
 terial throughout the entire belt, as shown by the digging of a 
 
50 
 
 Tlie Pliospliates of America. 
 
 large number of pits under our direction, is represented in the fol- 
 lowing table, the figures being averages compiled from our field 
 note-book : 
 
 Soil very black and acid 
 
 Mixture of sand and blue cla3' 
 
 Silicious clay 
 
 Potters' clay mixed with shells 
 
 Sandy, hard conglomerate 
 
 Phosphate rock or nodules mixed with 
 
 blue clay 
 
 Depth of overlying beds 
 
 Feet. 
 IK 
 
 traces 
 
 W^ 
 
 BORO. 
 
 Feet. 
 1^ 
 9>^ 
 
 Feet. 
 1 
 4 
 3^ 
 
 % 
 12-V 
 
 Feet. 
 2 
 
 IK 
 4 
 
 Ik' 
 2K 
 
 Ilk 
 
 This is still further illustrated and will be probably more clearly 
 conveyed by the accompanying sketches of typical sections, pre- 
 pared by R. A. F. Penrose, Esq., and borrowed from Bulletin No. 
 46 of the United States Geological Survey. 
 
 Section ENE. and WSW. throug:h Pinckney's phosphate field. South CaroHna. A, 
 sand ; B, ferruginous sand ; C, phosphate roclc ; D, Ashley marl. Scale : 1 inch = 60 feet. 
 
 So far as we have been able to discover, no systematic inves- 
 tigation has been made of those lands which contain the jjhosj^hate 
 
 Averag^e section in Pinckney's phosphate mine, Berkeley County, South Carolina. A, clay 
 sand ; B, ferrufjinous sand ; C, phosphate rock ; D, Ashley marl. Scale : 1 itu-h = 6 feet. 
 
 deposit at a greater maximum depth than 15 feet, it having been 
 hitherto considered impracticable, under the conditions of abun- 
 
Tlie Phosphates of America. 
 
 51 
 
 dant surface supply and consequent low mining cost, to conduct a 
 profitable exploitation at any greater depth. A far wider area of 
 lands than those actually classed as mining properties may there- 
 fore contain the very same deposit of phosphate, lying under acon- 
 
 
 .>i^#^ 
 
 
 Section in one of Fishburne's pits, South Carolina. A, santl ; B, ferruginous sand ; C, 
 phosphate nodules in clay matrix. Scale : 1 inch — 7 feet. 
 
 siderably greater accumulation of the quaternary strata, and this 
 is the view we are personally disposed to adopt as representing the 
 facts. Whether or not, however, in face of the recent Florida phos- 
 phate discovery, any economical means will ever be devised in our 
 time to exploit them at a profit, should they really exist, is a ques- 
 tion as to which we are in very serious doubt. 
 
 The phosphate deposits in South Carolina are of two kinds, the 
 "River" and the "Land," but the material found in the river bot- 
 toms of the "belt" is of practically the same chemical description 
 as that of the land, having, in fact, been merely Avashed into them 
 from its original beds. It has been worked extensively and has 
 proved to be of great commercial value, since it is obtained by the 
 simple and inexpensive process of dredging, and is thus raised and 
 washed free from all adhering impurities by one and the same 
 operation. 
 
 The dredging scoops are made extremely massive in order that 
 they may break through the nodular stratum, and the boats are 
 held in jwsition at the four corners by " spuds " or strong square 
 poles with iron points, which are dropped into the water before 
 dredging is begun, and afford a strong support for the boat by 
 going through the nodule stratum and down into the river-bed 
 below. The nodules are thrown from the scoop into the washer, 
 which is on a lighter alongside the dredging boat. The washer, in 
 some cases, is the same as those used by the land-mining companies, 
 to be presently described, but often it consists of a truncated cone, 
 with perforated sides, revolving on a horizontal axis. It is sup- 
 
52 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 plied on the inside with steel spirals, arranged around the side like 
 the grooves in a rifle, and heavy streams of water flow into its two 
 ends. The nodules are dumped by the dredge into the small end 
 of the cone and come out at the large end. They are then removed 
 by a derrick to another lighter and towed to shore. 
 
 The dredging machine is not the only means employed for rais- 
 ing the river phosphate, some companies having adopted a contriv- 
 ance consisting of six large claws, which open w^hen they descend, 
 and close, forming a kind of bucket, when they rise. It is said 
 that some of these machines can dredge in 50 to 60 feet of water, 
 while the ordinary dredging boat cannot raise the phosphate in 
 over 20 feet. 
 
 Both the rock and nodules from these river and land deposits 
 occur in very irregular masses or blocks of extremely hard con- 
 glomerate of variegated colors, weighing from less than half an 
 ounce to more than a ton. The mean specific gravity of the mate- 
 rial is 2.40, and it is bored in all directions by very small holes. 
 These holes are the Avork of innumerable crustacefe, and are noAV 
 tilled with sands and clays of the overlying strata. Sometimes the 
 rock is quite smooth or even glazed, as if Avorn by water ; at others 
 it is rough and jagged. 
 
 Interspersed between the nodules and lumps of conglomerate are 
 the fossilized remains of various species of fish and some animals, 
 chiefly belonging to the Eocene, Pliocene or post-Pliocene ages. 
 
 Very careful analyses of a large number of the samples of land 
 rocks taken from the pits and made in our laboratory gave, after 
 being Avell dried at 212° F., the following average : 
 
 Moisture, water of combinatioii and organic matter lost on 
 
 ignition 8.00 
 
 Phosphate of lime 59.63 
 
 Carbonate of lime 8.68 
 
 Iron and alumina (calculated as oxides) 6.60 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 0.73 
 
 * Sulphuric acid and fluoride of lime 4.80 
 
 Sand, siliceous matters and undelermined 11.56 
 
 Total 100.00 
 
 While it is shown by these figures that the grae of this phos- 
 phate is not extremely high, it has been proved by experience all 
 over the world to be admirably adapted for the purpose of manu- 
 facturing commercial fertilizers, and it will doubtless long eon- 
 
 * The sulphuric acid represents the s\ilphur combined witli iron as pyrites. 
 
The Phospliates of America. 53 
 
 tinue for this reason to maintain a leading position as a raw 
 material. 
 
 Before the land rock can be made available for industrial pur- 
 poses, it is made to pass through three distinct and successive 
 operations. 
 
 1. Mining or excavating. 
 
 2. AVashing it free from sand and other impurities. 
 
 3. Kilning, to free it from moistfire. 
 
 Taking these in their order, it is customary to establish a main 
 trunk railroad, starting at the river front or on the bank of some 
 convenient stream, and jjassing right through the centre of the 
 property to be exploited. 
 
 Alternate laterals can be run off at right angles from any por- 
 tion of this main line, at distances of, say, 500 feet, in conformity 
 with the nature of the ground. Between and parallel to these 
 laterals a ditch or drain is dug to a depth extending 4 to 5 feet 
 below the phosphate strata. From this main drain the excava- 
 tors start their lines at right angles to the laterals, commencing 
 at one end of the field and digging trenches 15 feet wide and 
 500 feet long, the work being so arranged that the men are stationed 
 at intervals of 6 feet. Every man is supposed to dig out, daily, 
 a "pit" 6 feet long, 15 feet wide, and down to the phosj^hate 
 rock. The overlying material is thrown out to the left-hand side 
 of the trench. The phosphate itself is thrown out to the right and 
 taken in wheelbarrows to the railroad cars which pass at either 
 end of the trench. The water drains from the trenches into the 
 underlying ditch, and is thence 2)umped out by means of a steam- 
 pump worked by a locomotive engine. The pumji and the engine 
 are secured to connected railway platforms, and run along the rail- 
 road track from one ditch to another as occasion requires. 
 
 The cars, loaded with the crude phosphatic material dug out of 
 the pits, are run down to the washing apparatus, constructed at an 
 elevation of some 30 feet from the ground, and generally consist- 
 ing of a series of semi-circular troughs 20 to 30 feet long, set in 
 an iron framework at an incline of some 20 inches rise in their 
 length. Through every trough passes an octagonal iron-cased 
 shaft provided with blades so arranged and distributed as to form 
 a screw with a twist of one foot in six, which forces the washed 
 material upwards and projects the fragments against each other. 
 The i^hosjjhate-laden cars are hauled up an incline and their con- 
 tents dumped into the bottom ti-ough, where the phosphate en- 
 
54 The Pliospliates of America. 
 
 counters one or more heavy streams of water, pumped up by a steam- 
 pump. This water does not run off at the bottom, but overflows 
 at the higher end near where it enters. When sufficiently washed, 
 the material isj^ushed out upon a half-inch-mesh screen ; the small 
 debris being received on oscillating Avire tables below. 
 
 The phosphate is now ready for kilning or drying, and of all the 
 methods hitherto adopted for this important process, that of simple 
 roasting in an ordinary kiln, such as is generally used in the manu- 
 facture of bricks, is said to have been found at once the most rapid, 
 effective and economical. 
 
 The rock is built on layers of pine wood, and owing to its con- 
 taining a considerable quantity of organic matter, it readily lends 
 itself to combustion and requires but a short time to become quite 
 red-hot. 
 
 The kilns are made sufficiently large and are so arranged as to 
 allow free passage to a train of cars, which, running on the main 
 line of railroad, can be loaded in the kiln, run down to the landing 
 place and discharged directly into the barges or boats on the river. 
 
 Since the beginning of oj^erations in 1 8G8, the yearly quantities of 
 phosphate taken from the South Carolina rivers and mines have been: 
 
 Year. Land Rock. River Rock. Total Tons. 
 
 1868-70 18,000 1,989 19,989 
 
 1871 33,000 17,055 50,655 
 
 1873 38,000 22,502 60,502 
 
 1873 45,000 45,777 90,777 
 
 1874 43,000 57,716 100,716 
 
 1875 48,000 07,969 115,969 
 
 1876 54,000 81.912 135,912 
 
 1877 39,000 126,569 165,569 
 
 1878 113,000 97,700 210,700 
 
 1879 102,000 98,586 200,586 
 
 1880 125,000 65,162 190,163 
 
 1881 141,000 124,541 265,541 
 
 1882 190,000 140,772 330,773 
 
 1883 226,000 129.318 355,318 
 
 1884 258.000 151,243 409,243 
 
 1885 224,000 171,671 395,671 
 
 1886 294,000 191 .194 485,194 
 
 1887 230,000 302,757 432,757 
 
 1888 360,000 190,274 450,274 
 
 1889 250,000 212,101 462,101 
 
 1890 300,000 237,149 537,149 
 
 Totals, 3,031,000 2,434,557 5,465,557 
 
 1891, estimated total from all sources 650,000 
 
The PJwsphates of America., 55 
 
 And the number and the importance of the companies actually- 
 engaged in mining are shown in the following table : 
 
 LAND PHOSPHATE COMPANIES. 
 Navie. Address. Capital. 
 
 Williman Island Co P. O., Beaufort; works, Bull River. $200,000 
 
 Bolton Mines (K. S. Tupper). P. O., Charleston ; works, Stono 
 
 River 50,000 
 
 Charleston Mining & Manu- 
 facturing Co P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 
 
 River 1,000,000 
 
 Camphell & Hertz P. O., Rantowles ; works, Ran- 
 
 t^wles Creek 50,000 
 
 Bulow Mines (Wm. M. Bradley) P. O., Charleston; works, Ran- 
 towles Creek 250,000 
 
 Mt. HoUey Mining & Manu- 
 facturing Co P. O., Charleston; works, Mt. 
 
 Holley, N. E. R. R 50,000 
 
 C. H. Drayton P O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 
 
 River 50,000 
 
 William Gregg P. O., Summerville ; works, Ash- 
 ley River 50,000 
 
 F. C. Fishburne. P. O., Jacksonboro ; works, Pon 
 
 Pon River 50,000 
 
 Meadville Mines (E. Meade).. . P. O., Charleston ; works, Cooper 
 
 River 300,000 
 
 Magnolia Mines (C. C. Pinck- 
 
 ney) P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 
 
 River \ 100,000 
 
 Rose Mines (A. B. Rose) P. O., Charleston ; works. Ashley 
 
 River 100,000 
 
 Wayne & Von Kolnitz P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 
 
 River 50,000 
 
 St. Andrews Mining Co P. O., Charleston ; works, Stono 
 
 River 200,000 
 
 Hannahan Mines P. O., Charleston ; works. Cooper 
 
 River 50,000 
 
 Horse Shoe Mining Co. (Wm. 
 
 Greo-g) P.O., Charleston; works, Ashepoo 
 
 River 50,000 
 
 Wando Phosphate Co P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 
 
 River 200,000 
 
 T. D. Dotterrer P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 
 
 River 25,000 
 
 Archdale Mines (Hertz & War- 
 ren) P. O., Charleston ; works, Ashley 
 
 River 20,000 
 
 Pacific Guano Co P. O., Charleston ; works, Bull 
 
 River 100,006 
 
 Eureka Mining Co P. O., Charleston ; works, Jack- 
 sonboro, C. & S. R. R 40.000 
 
56 The PhosjyJiaies of America. 
 
 RIVER PHOSPHATE COMPANIES. 
 ]^ame. Address, Capital. 
 
 Beaufort Phosphate Co.. P. O., Beaufort ; woilcs, Beaufort River. |100,00(> 
 
 Coosaw Minintr Co P. O., Coosaw ; works, Coosaw and Bull 
 
 rivers 600,000 
 
 Carolina Mining Co P. 0., Beaufort ; works, Beaufort River. 250,000 
 
 Farmers' Mining Co P. C, Beaufort ; works, Coosaw River. . 125,000 
 
 Oak Point Mines Co P. O., Beaufort ; works, Wimbe Creek... 150,000 
 
 Sea Island Chemical Co. P. O., Beaufort ; works, Beaufort River. 250,000 
 
 Of the river companies, the Coosaw, which for many years 
 has been one of the chief operators, lias lately been compelled ta 
 suspend its production on account of a serious controversy with the 
 State, and in this connection it will be interesting to refer to a 
 message which was sent to the Legislature by the Governor of 
 South Carolina on the 1st of March, 1891, in which he makes the 
 following statement: 
 
 "In 1870 the Legislature granted privileges to a corporation 
 known as the River and Marine Company to mine rock in the 
 navigable w^aters of the State for t-vventy-one years. The State re- 
 ceived nothing for this valuable franchise. The Coosaw Mining 
 Company obtained from the original grantors exclusive right ta 
 mine in Coosaw River, and with a })aid-up capital of ^275,000 com- 
 menced operations. Li 1876 the General Assembly passed an act 
 confirming the exclusive right of the Coosaw Company to mine in 
 that river for the term of twenty-one years at a fixed royalty of $1 
 per ton, and this lease has now expired. The act of 1876 Avas drawn 
 by the attorney of the Coosaw Company, and so adroitly Avorded 
 as to give color to the claim that the grant of that river was per- 
 petual *so long as that company shall make true returns,' etc., and 
 under this the company claims that its tenure is not a lease expiring 
 in 1891, but a contract running for all time. This claim is pre- 
 posterous, and this General Assembly must not hesitate to move for- 
 ward and act promptly and decisively. 
 
 "The Coosaw River, to which this company lays claim, is, ])er- 
 haps, the best ])hosphate field in the world, and the lease under 
 which it has been mined for twenty-one years has made every stock- 
 holder wealthy. Their plant, which has been obtained from the 
 surplus profits, is valued at $750,000 or over; and in the mean time, 
 by fabulous dividends, the original cai)ital of ^275,000 has been re- 
 turned to the stockh()ld(!rs, as I am informed, over and over again. 
 When you are told that the out]>ut of this com])any this year has 
 been 107,000 tons, worth ^7 i)er ton f. o. b., ami that the cost of 
 
The Pliosphates of ytiiie7'ica. 57 
 
 mining this rock, including royalty, cannot exceed !j<4.25 per ton, 
 and is believed by many to be much less, you will see that the 
 margin of profit exceeds one hundred per cent, on the original in- 
 vestment. The total royalty secured by the State from its ])hos- 
 phate has been over $2,000,000, and of this amount over half has 
 been ])aid by the Coosaw Company. 
 
 " The expiration of the Coosaw lease in March next makes it pos- 
 sible to double the income of the State from the phosphate royalty 
 without injuring the industry or interfering unduly with any vested 
 right. We therefore demand a survey of the phosjihate territory 
 and the sale of its lease at auction to the highest bidder, after a 
 minimum royalty has been fixed by the board of control upon each 
 district surveyed. Anything less than a thorough and reliable 
 survey would be a waste of time and money, and this will take a 
 good deal of both. But it will repay its cost, and until we have 
 the data which alone can be thus obtained, we cannot legislate in- 
 telligently or derive the benefits from this valuable property that 
 ■we ought. This year the royally has been $237,000, and all of 
 it excej^t $3,000 was paid by six large mining corporations, whose 
 field of operations is confined to a territory within twenty miles 
 of Beaufort. You will be told by some that this indicates an 
 exhaustion of the deposits ; but I am sure it only means that good 
 rock is more jjlentiful or more cheai)ly mined there than elsewhere. 
 A survey alone can denionstrate the tx'uth or falsity of this belief, 
 which is based ujjon the assurance of experts who themselves have 
 mined in other waters of the State, and as the reliance of capitalists 
 ujion an estimate of the value of any given deposit of phosphates 
 will depend largely upon the character of the man making the sur- 
 vey, I have thought it best to obtain the help of the United States 
 Government, if possible, and ask the detail of an officer of the 
 Navy or Coast Survey to do the work. I think an appropriation 
 of $10,000 will be sufticient to start with, and by the time the 
 General Assembly meets a year hence, it will have something 
 definite to go upon and can continue the work or not as it may deem 
 best. In the mean time, by means of this surve}'^ and the oppor- 
 tunity for further investigation, to which all my spare time shall be 
 devoted, a clearer understanding as to the best system of manage- 
 ment of this important industry can be obtained and the General 
 Assembly can then act intelligently, 
 
 " When the Coosaw lease expires, March 1 next, let us open 
 that river to all miners who choose to enter it ; allow the board of 
 
58 The Phosphates of Amei'ica. 
 
 control to parcel out llie territory among them so as to prevent 
 conHict ; raise the royally to $2 per ton and place one or more 
 inspectors on the ground to supervise the work and weigh the rock 
 when shipped. All the river rock mined in South Carolina is 
 exported to Europe, and last year the demand was so great as to 
 necessitate the exportation of 40,000 tons of land rock, while the 
 price has steadily increased since 1887." 
 
 This is a strong message, and how far Governor Tillman is 
 justified in assuming the river deposits to he either "practically 
 inexhaustible " or to have been very little affected by the enormous 
 drain to which they have been subjected during the j^ast twenty 
 years, is a question of extreme delicacy. To what extent it is politic 
 or wise on the part of the State to increase the first cost of a raw 
 material which is just now threatened with fierce competition from 
 a most formidable and naturally favored rival is also a matter for 
 very serious consideration. In any event, the fact remains that the 
 Coosaw Company has seen fit to disagree with the views of the 
 Govei'nor and has joined issue with the State on the question of 
 right. When the State Phosphate Commission, therefore, took 
 possession of the Coosaw River territory, on the 2d of March, 1891, 
 and made preparations to lease it to all who ap2:)lied for a license, 
 the company filed a protest, and on March 6th was granted a tem- 
 porary injunction by Judge Simonton, of the United States Court, 
 whereby the State Phosphate Commission was enjoined from enter- 
 ing upon, or otherwise interfering with, that part of the Coosaw 
 River which the company had previously occupied. As a first 
 result of the litigation the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court has 
 decided as follows : 
 
 "The acts of 1870 and 1876 must be construed in^:)«ri matiirla. 
 Under the first act the State gave the grantees for twenty-oue years 
 the right to mine in its navigable streams. This grant was upon 
 the condition that the grantees should pay annually |!l a ton on 
 each ton dug and mined, and that they make a return of their 
 operations annually, or oftener if required. This was not an 
 exclusive right (Bradley vs. The Phosphate Company, 1 Hughes). 
 It was upon condition ; that is to say, it existed so long as the con- 
 ditions were fulfilled and no longer. The act of 1876 pi-oposed 
 modification of this contract in four particulars. 
 
 " 1. The time for making the returns was definitely fixed at the 
 end of each month. This was an advantage to both parties. 
 
The Phosphates of America. 59 
 
 " 2. The royalty was made payable on each ton dug, mined and 
 shipped, not on the rock mined. This was in favor of the grantees. 
 
 " 3. The royalty was made payable quarterly, not annually, this 
 provision to-go into effect immediately and royalty for the two quar- 
 ters of the current year to be paid at once. This was in favor of 
 the State. 
 
 "4. The right to mine, therefore, if not exclusive, was made 
 exclusive on account of the acceptance of the State's proposals. 
 
 " The original contract was unchanged in every other respect. 
 The royalty remained the same, U per ton. The grant was 
 wholly on condition, that is to say, existed so long as and no longer 
 than the conditions were fulfilled. The duration of the grant dur- 
 ing which these conditions were of force was unchanged — twenty- 
 one years from 1870. 
 
 " This is a reasonable construction of a doubtful act by which 
 the doubt is resolved in favor of the sovereign grantor ; it is a 
 familiar rule of construction that when a statute operates as a grant 
 of public property to an individual, or the relinquishment of a public 
 interest, and there is a doubt as to the meaning of its terms or its 
 general purpose, that construction will be adopted which will sup- 
 port the claim of the government rather than that of the individual. 
 Nothing can be enforced against the State." 
 
 This, then, is the present position of affairs, and pending an 
 appeal from this decision the Coosaw Company has refrained from 
 dredging the rivers and will certainly strain every nerve to prevent 
 others from doing so, thereby reducing the output and quantity 
 of river rock hitherto exported to Europe by about one-half. 
 
 It will have been noticed that in the course of his message the 
 cost of producing one ton of river rock in marketable condition 
 was placed by the Governor at 14.25 per ton, including the |1 
 royalty paid to the State, and that this is a fairly correct statement 
 is borne out by the facts elicited in 1886 by a commission espe- 
 cially appointed by the Legislature to investigate the subject. The 
 same figures apply with equal fairness to the cost of the land phos- 
 phate, as demonstrated by the testimony sworn to by various ex- 
 perts before the examining body and by our own practical investi- 
 gation in the field. With a properly constructed plant, regular 
 drainage and efficient and economical management, we find that 
 the total cost of production of land phosphate in clean, dry, mar- 
 ketable condition may be thus stated : 
 
60 Tlie Pliospliates of America. 
 
 Mining at a maximum depth of 15 feet $1.00 
 
 Draining the mine , . . « 25 
 
 Loading on cars and carrying to washer 60 
 
 Washing 30 
 
 Drying and handling in kiln 50 
 
 Shipping from kiln into vessels on river 25 
 
 Interest on capital invested ia plant and repairs to same. ... 15 
 
 Superintendence and management of inines 20 
 
 Towag'e to Charleston, say 25 
 
 Total per ton of 2,240 pounds $3.50 
 
 The present selling jjrice of dry phosphate containing a mean 
 average of fifty-seven per cent, tribasic or " bone phosphate " of 
 lime is %1 per ton of 2,240 pounds on wharf at Charleston, and if we 
 may judge of the total net profits accruing to the miners during the 
 past twelve months by the dividends actually distributed by some 
 of the companies whose published accounts have been placed at 
 our disposal, they cannot be estimated at less than $1,000,000. 
 
 These figures are doubtless, in a great measure, responsible for 
 the rapid intellectual and industrial growth of South Carolina, and 
 they are significantly emphasized by the fact that of the total 
 phosphate mined in the State, more than one-third is actually used 
 in fertilizer factories situated in and around Charleston and owned, 
 by the following companies : 
 
 Port Royal Fertilizer Co Port Royal, S. C. 
 
 Baldwin Fertilizer Co Port Royal, S. C. 
 
 Atlantic Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Ashley Phosphate Co , Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Edisto Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Wando Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Berkeley Phosphate Co Chai'leston, S. C. 
 
 Etiwan Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Ashepoo Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Stono Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Imperial Fertilizer Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Mead Phosphate Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Royal Fertilizer Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Chicora Fertilizer Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Wilcox & Gibbes Fertilizer Co Charleston, S. C. 
 
 Globe Phosphate Co Columbia, S. C. 
 
 Columbia Phosphate Co Columbia. S. C. 
 
 Greenville Fertilizer Co Greenville, S. C. 
 
 The combined total output of superphosphates by these com- 
 panies for the present year is estimated at about 400,000 tons. 
 
The Phosj^hates of America. Gl 
 
 Assuming this quantity to require in round numbers 200,000 tons 
 of raw ])hosphate, and further assuming that the output of the 
 latter will this year attain our estimated figure of 650,000 tons, as 
 we believe it will, there remains an available surplus over local re- 
 quirements of 450,000 tons of phosphate of lime. Of this quantity 
 about one-half may go to Great Britain and Germany and the 
 balance wilf go coastwise to Richmond, Baltimore, Philadelphia 
 and New York. 
 
 There can be no doubt that, as we have already remarked, 
 South Carolina rock must be regarded as a raw material of the 
 first class in the manufacture of soluble and available phosphates, 
 and that, as such, it is and Avill continue to be everywhere held in 
 the highest esteem. In Europe it is generally used in combination 
 with Belgian cretaceous phosphates and very high-grade Canadian 
 apatites, and in this way yields results that cannot be surpassed by 
 any other material as an all-round staple, uniform and reliable 
 
 article. 
 
 If we were asked to express an opinion in an off-hand way as 
 to the probable extent and capacity of the yet untouched or unex- 
 ploited deposits, we should hesitate to give any decided answer be- 
 cause of the lack of sufficient data or reliable figures. From in- 
 formation which we have been able to gather, however, from sour- 
 ces in which we have every reason to place the fullest confidence, 
 the explored but still unexploitedarea covered by land and river de- 
 posits embraces an area of no less than thirty miles. Regarding this 
 as a mere approximation to the possible truth, we might venture, 
 in the same spirit of speculation, to place the yield of this area at 
 the present average of 750 tons to the acre. 
 
 The conclusion drawn from these hypotheses would be that the 
 State may be relied upon to still produce about 14,000,000 tons, 
 and allowing for a continued average production and sale of, say, 
 50,000 tons per month, either for local consumption or export trade, 
 it would appear as if the mines would all be exhausted in about 
 twenty-eight years from the present time. 
 
 Whether the mining companies now in the field have or have 
 not entertained this view of the matter, it is impossible to say, nor is 
 it very material to the issue. The fact remains that the known avail- 
 able and readily accessible deposits are all appropriated, and that 
 no falling off in the demand for the product has yet been traceable 
 to the influence of any other source of supply. As time rolls on, 
 local manufacturing requirements cannot fail to increase in large 
 
62 The Pliosphates of America. 
 
 proportions, and we regard it as even liiglily probable that at no 
 distant date this source of consumption will absorb all that can be 
 produced, and thus while the present profitable nature of the min- 
 ing operations will be maintained, there will be no balance avail- 
 able for other markets. 
 
The Phosphates of America. 63 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 THE PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF FLORIDA. 
 
 The existence of nodular amorphous phosphate deposits in 
 Florida is not a matter of recent discovery, for they had been 
 found in various directions many years ago, but were never believed 
 to be of sufficient importance either in quantity or quality to merit 
 the serious attention of capitalists. Like many other of our natural 
 resources, therefore, they remained long dormant and unthought 
 
 of. 
 
 The first tentative mining operations were commenced in the 
 year 1888 by The Arcadia Phosphate Company, on a very small 
 scale, in Peace River, and they met with such marked encourage- 
 ment that many who had hitherto remained sceptically watching 
 their efforts came into the same field, and the year 1889 saw the 
 Peace River Phosphate Company and the De Soto Phosphate Com- 
 pany dredging the river with an expensive modern plant. 
 
 The unostentatious and cautious manner in which these corpo- 
 rations conducted their business for some time prevented their 
 movements and successes from being noised abroad, but when the 
 attention of those in the immediate locality could no longer be 
 diverted from the facts, universal interest was aroused and pros- 
 pectors went to work in all parts of the State. Discovery now fol- 
 lowed discovery in rapid succession, and each new field was claimed 
 to be of more value and importance than its predecessor. The 
 land-owners became excited ; wealth " beyond the dreams of ava- 
 rice " danced before their eyes and reposed under their feet. The 
 local newspapers started a " boom " and all Florida was in the 
 throes of a wildly exaggerated and feverishly speculative phosphate 
 fever. Landf which heretofore were valued at from 11.50 to |3 
 per acre readily changed hands at |150 to |200 per acre, and many 
 a " cracker homesteader " who went to bed a poor man woke up in 
 the morning to find himself a capitalist. 
 
 While, however, it is undoubtedly a very good thing to- have 
 big phosphate mines, very little use can be made of them without 
 the necessary means for their exploitation, and money is still a rare 
 commodity in the South. It hence became necessary to offer to 
 
64 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 Northern capitalists a shave in the benefits of the discovery, and 
 this has led to the employment of many expert chemists and min- 
 ing engineers. As one of the first of these to be called into the 
 field, we have had occasion during the last two years to traverse 
 every county on the Gulf of Mexico, from Tallahassee to Punta 
 Gorda, and the first difiiculty that confronted us in our hunt for 
 the phosphate treasure was the total absence of a correct topo- 
 graphical or geological chart of the State. 
 
 It had always been customary, so far as we can remember, to 
 speak and think of Florida as a combination of impossible sand- 
 banks and uninhabitable tropical swamps, and apart from the few 
 adventurous "Yankees" who had "gone in" for orange culture, no 
 one seemed to manifest any interest in its destiny and nothing 
 seemed more unnecessary than a prolonged visit from the oflicers 
 of the Geological Survey. Nothing had therefore been attempted 
 by that body, and the only important scientific data to which we 
 could turn were the old notes of Le Conte and Agassiz and the 
 more recent paper which Professor Eugene A. Smith published in 
 the America}!. Journal of Science in 1881. At the present mo- 
 ment the immense amount of capital promised to be involved in 
 the development of Florida i)hosphates has awakened the govern- 
 ment to the necessity for action, and several of its well-organized 
 survey parties are in the field doing solid work that will eventually 
 clear up many points now plunged in obscurity. 
 
 The official public reports of these arduous investigations must, 
 however, naturally take a considerable time, and we are thus led 
 to hope that a brief resume of the results of our own examinations 
 will be acceptable, and assist in clearing away from the paths of 
 others some of the embarrassing obstacles which we have had to 
 encounter. 
 
 The topographical aspect of Florida is that of a very low-lying 
 and gently undulating peninsula ; its highest ])oint being no more 
 than 250 feet and the average height a))out 80 feet above the 
 level of the sea. 
 
 The elevated ])oints or ridges are composed entirely of sand 
 and are covered with a very luxuriant growth of tall pines. The 
 depressions or valleys, especially when situated along the coast, 
 are composed of a mixture of calcareous marls and sand, from which 
 outcrop, at irregular and frequent intervals, large and small bowl- 
 ders of limestones, sandstones and phosphate rock. These valleys 
 .ire princijjally known in the country as "hommock land," and are 
 
^ TL^A^ 
 
 
 
 
 Cf tri^ip oj^ j^EJ^ioo . 
 
FLORIDA ROCK-PHOSPHATE MINING. 
 Removing overburden of sand by the " Gopher" machine, Dunnellon Mines, Marion Co. 
 
The Phosphates of America. 65 
 
 said to be very fertile. When uncultivated, however, they are 
 covered with a dense wild growth of vegetation characteristic of 
 the swamp. 
 
 Without jjausing to consider the climatic conditions, which are 
 sufficiently well known and which, besides, are outside the scope 
 ■of our w'ork, and passing at once to the prominent geological as- 
 pects, we may say that the entire State of Florida a])})ears to us to 
 be underlaid, at greatly varying depths, with u])per eocene lime- 
 stone rock, and that its first emergence must, in our opinion, be 
 consequently dated from that period. We have based this opinion 
 on the careful examination of many artesian wells that have been 
 practised in several directions, and it is well sustained by the one 
 at Lake Worth, which was completed in June, 1890, and of which 
 the following detailed particulars have been published by Mr. N, 
 H. Darton, of the United States Geological vSurvey : 
 
 0-400 feet. Sands with thin layers of semi-vitrified sand at 50 and 
 60 feet. 
 
 400-800 " Very fine-grained soft, greenish-gray quartz sand, con- 
 taining occasional foraminifera and water-worn shell 
 fragments. 
 
 800-850 •♦ No sample. 
 
 850-860 " White sands, with abundant foraminifera of four or five 
 species. 
 
 860-904 " No sample. 
 
 904-915 " Gray sands containing sharks' teeth, small water-worn 
 shell and bone fragments, sea-urchin spines and litlii- 
 fled sand fragments. 
 
 915-1000 " No sample. 
 1000-1213 " Samples at frequent intervals. Vicksburg limestone, 
 containing orbitoides in abundance throughout, to- 
 gether with occasional undt-termintible fragments of 
 molluscan casts, corals and echinoderras. It is a 
 creamy-white, hard, homogeneous limestone through- 
 out. 
 
 Nor do ^ve rely upon the artesian Avells alone, for the Vicks- 
 burg limestone also appears as an outcrop at the surface in many 
 localities, and has been specially noticed in Wakulla and Franklin 
 counties, west of Tallahassee, in Marion and Citrus counties, in 
 Tampa Bay, and on the banks of the Manatee and Caloosahatchee 
 rivers. 
 
 In the opinion of Mr. N. 11. Darton, above mentioned, the phos- 
 jjhates of Florida belong to three formations, distinctly separate 
 stratigraphically, and each represents a long interval of geologic 
 
66 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 time. The rock phosphates apj^ear to be the deeply eroded rem- 
 nants of the i^hosphatized surface of the middle tertiary limestone ;, 
 the conglomerate deposits overlie these limestones unconformably, 
 and in the Gainesville region, at least, appear to be miocene in 
 age, and the river drift deposits are apparently entirely subsequent 
 to the great mantle of pleistocene white and gray sands which 
 covers the entire peninsula to a greater or less depth. 
 
 Excepting in its light color the rock phosphate is a phj^sical 
 counterpart of the brown limonite iron ores of the Appalachian 
 limestone valleys, and the deposits have very similar structural 
 relations. In a number of localities the massive phosphate grad- 
 uates into the limestone, usually by short transitions, and many 
 areas have been discovered in the phosphate belt and under the 
 conglomerate in the Bartow region where the limestone is only par- 
 tially 2)hosphatized. In the mines at Dunellon the massive phos- 
 phate is apparently continuous with the limestones, but there are 
 occasional casts and impressions of the middle tertiary niollusca 
 undoubtedly lying as they were originally deposited. Mr. Darton 
 further says that the origin of the phosphate of lime is not defi- 
 nitely known, but that it seems exceedingly probable that guano Avas 
 the original source, and that the genesis of the deposits is similar 
 to that of the phosphates in some of the West Indies. Two pro- 
 cesses of deposition have taken place, one the more or less complete 
 replacement of the carbonate of lime by phosphate of lime, and the 
 other a general stalactitic coating on the massive phosphates, its 
 cavities, etc. 
 
 The apparent restriction of the rock-phosphate deposits to the 
 western "ridge" of Florida may have some special bearing on their 
 genesis, but at jn-esent no definite relationship is perceived. The 
 aggregate amount of phosphate rock distributed in fragmentary 
 condition in the various subsequent formations is very ^reat, greater 
 by far than the amount remaining in its original position, and it is 
 possible that the area at one time included the greater part, if not 
 all, of the higher portions of the State. As this region apparently 
 constituted a long, narrow peninsula or archipelago during early 
 miocene times, it is a reasonable tentative hypothesis that during 
 this period guanos were deposited from Avhich was derived the ma- 
 terial for the phosphatization of the limestone, either at the same 
 time or soon after. 
 
 Mr. Walter B. Davidson, A.R.S.M., Avriting in the Engineering 
 and 3fi)tiiig tTovrnal on the probable origin of these phosphates, 
 
FL<ii;n>A i;<icK-rHMsrnATE mimx-,. 
 
 Open cut in Cove Bend Phosphate Company's mine, Inverness, Citrus Co. 
 
FLdKIOA UOriv-PHOSPHATE MININi;. 
 Working in "boulder" material after removal of top soil. 
 
The PJiosjjJiales of America. 67 
 
 suggests that at the close of the cenozoic period the waters of 
 the ocean were probably more phosphatic than they are now. 
 
 In these shallow warm seas there lived myriads of shell-fish, 
 many secreting phosphate as well as carbonate of lime, as is shown 
 by the analysis of a shell of lingula ovalis quoted by Dana as con- 
 taining 85.79 per cent, of phosphate of lime. Although no doubt 
 much of this phosphate Avas acquired by accretion at a subsequent 
 period, the fish-shells of these geological epochs were undoubtedly 
 more phosphatic than those of the present era. Fishes of all 
 kinds teemed in these waters, died, and their bones, Avhile mostly 
 disappearing, served to increase the amount of phosphate of lime 
 in the limestone. 
 
 Gradually the shores emerged from the seas, and even while 
 they rose came the great geologic era of semi-recent geology — the 
 glacial epoch. 
 
 The cold of this epoch, as we know, drove all and every living 
 creature which could travel southward, always southward. The 
 strongest survived the longest. Some sought the swamps and warm 
 estuaries of the Carolinas, but numbers were pushed to the south- 
 ern limit, and the great mammal horde of the tertiary ei^och flocked 
 to the SM'amps and estuaries of Florida. There they died — some 
 from want of food, some killed by the strongest, some drowned, 
 some of natural death, but most from the terrible cold wave. The 
 bones of these animals lay there in myi-iads ; some were preserved, 
 some rotted. 
 
 At this time also the shallow sea was swarming with sharks, 
 manatee, whales and other denizens of tropic waters, many of them 
 also driven south by the change in the temperature in the northern 
 latitudes; and their bones and teeth added to the "Valley of 
 Bones" which we now find along this southern shore. 
 
 Then came the swing of the thermometric pendulum, and the 
 Champlain period was an era of melting of glaciers and of ice, 
 when most American rivers Avere fifty times the size they are to- 
 day, and after that, man first left records of his sojourn here. 
 
 The Champlain floods were not so severe in their action in the 
 South as in the North, but no doubt it was during this j^eriod 
 that the Peace River pebble-formation and the soft-rock phos- 
 phates were largely deposited. 
 
 While these quaternary changes were taking place, Florida was 
 still slowly but surely rising, and denudation began. Then once 
 more the slightly elevated peninsula gradually sank under sea- 
 
€8 The rhospJia/es of America. 
 
 level, and it was covered by successive deposits of sand, varied Ly 
 clays, the beach being the red clays of northern Florida and south- 
 ern Georgia. 
 
 Before this took place, however, an economic change bearing on 
 this subject had occurred. In many places the limestone, then the 
 dry land, had been leached b)^ tlie rain-water even as chalk to-day 
 can be leached, and is leached, by Avater containing more or less 
 carbonic acid. The highly phosphatic limestone was denuded and 
 dissolved, the bicarbonate of lime carried away in solution and the 
 more insoluble ])hosphate in suspension. In the stiller waters of 
 the estuaries and in the wider river beds (the I'iver had the same 
 course as now, broadly speaking) the phosphate of lime in suspen- 
 sion was deposited as an alluvial secondary deposit. This was 
 mixed, of course, in many })laces with lime, sand and clay brought 
 down by the same waters. 
 
 While all thisAvas in action, above the limestone were the bones 
 of the various beasts and fishes killed by the awful cold and by 
 overcrowding. Some of these bones helped by their decomjjosition 
 to add to the phosphate of lime present in the underlying strata, 
 and some were pseudomorphed into fossils of 2)hosphate of lime, 
 just as we find them to-day in vast quantities ; some were washed 
 down and were deposited with the ])hosphatic mud, and some are 
 still in situ in the clay overlying the limestone or mixed with the 
 shell reefs and beaches. 
 
 Our own conclusions took precedence of both these opinions, and 
 were i)ublished in the I^iigi)ieeri}i(j (uid Mining Journal of August 
 23, 1890. "VVe then argued and still believe that during the miocene 
 submergence there was deposited upon the iipper eocene limestones, 
 more especially in the cracks or fissures resulting from their drying 
 lip, a soft, finely disintegrated calcareous sediment or mud. 
 
 The gradual evai)oration of these miocene waters brought about 
 the formation, ])rincipally in the neighborhood of the rock cavities 
 and fissures, of large and small estuaries. These estuaries were re- 
 plete, swarming with life and vegetable matter — fish, molluscs, rep- 
 tiles and marine plants. They were, besides', heavily charged with 
 gases and acids, and their continuous concentration ultimately in- 
 duced a multiplicity of readily conceivable processes of decompo- 
 sition and final metamorphism. 
 
 In our opinion they constitute the origin of our Florida ])hos- 
 phate of lime, and disregarding all other hypotheses, we consider 
 that we are practically contemplating — 
 
*;»^- 
 
 *HS!^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 4-^ 
 
 ^' 
 
 :>. #^* 
 
 ■^\;^ 
 
 FLORIDA HOCK-PHOSPHATE MINES. 
 
 Remarkable deposit of " drift " or "gravel" phosphate at Anthony. One cubic yard yields aliout 
 
 .'ilK) pounds washeo nmteiial, avei'iipinn seventy-six per cent, phosphate of lime and four per cent. 
 
 oxides of iron and alumina. 
 
The Plwsjiludes of America. G9 
 
 1. A foundation of upper eocene limestone rocks very much 
 cracked up and fissured, the cracks having a general trend north- 
 east and southwest. 
 
 2. Irregular beds, pockets or banks of miocene deposits, dried 
 and hardened by exposure, and alternately calcareous, sandy or 
 marly ; generally phosphatic, and sometimes entirely made up of 
 decomposed organic debris, the phosphoric acid being combined 
 with various bases (lime, magnesia, iron, alumina, etc.). 
 
 After the disappearance of the miocene sea there came some 
 gigantic disturbances of the strata. There were upheavals and de- 
 2)ressions. The underlying limestones were probably again split 
 up, and the miocene deposit was broken and hurled from the sur- 
 face into yawning gaps and from one fissure to another. 
 
 Now came the pliocene periods, or end of the tertiary, and then 
 the seas of quaternary age, with their deposits and drifts of shells, 
 sands, clays, marls, bowlders and other transported materials, and 
 the accompanying alternate or concurrent influences of cold, heat 
 and pressure. 
 
 If we take the whole of these phenomena broadly into consider- 
 ation, we must be led to conclude that those portions of the phos- 
 phatic miocene crust which did not fall into permanent limestone 
 fissures or caverns at the time of the disturbance of the strata, be- 
 came at length very thoroughly broken up and disintegrated. They 
 were rolled about and intermixed with sand, clay and marls, and 
 were dej^osited with them in various mounds or depressions in con- 
 formity with the violence of the waters, or with the uneven struct- 
 ure of the surface to which they were transported. 
 
 Occasionally this drifting mass found its way into very low- 
 lying portions of the country, say into those regions where consider- 
 able depression was brought about by the sinking and settling of 
 the recently disturbed mass. At other times it was rolled to and 
 deposited on slightly higher points. In the first of these cases we 
 find a vast and complete agglomeration, comparable to an immense 
 pocket, of broken-up phosphate rock, finely divided phosphate debris, 
 sands, clays and marls, all heterogeneously mixed in together. In 
 the second case Ave find the phosphate in large bowlders, sometimes 
 weighing several tons, and intermixed with but relatively small 
 proportions of any foreign substances. 
 
 Considering these phenomena, we reach the conclusion that the 
 features in the Florida deposits of phosphate to be most particu- 
 larly emphasized, are that the formation consists essentially of — 
 
70 Tlie Phosphates of America. 
 
 1. Original pockets or cavities in the limestone filled with hard 
 and soft rock phosphates and debris. 
 
 2. Mounds or beaches, rolled up on the elevated points, and 
 chiefly consisting of huge bowlders of phosphate-rock. 
 
 3. Drift or disintegrated rock, covering immense areas, chiefly 
 in Polk and Hillsboro counties, and underlying Peace River and 
 its tributaries. 
 
 As we have already remarked, the Avork of exploration or pros- 
 pecting has now extended all over the State in each of these vari- 
 eties of the formation ; actual exploitation on the large scale by 
 regular mining and hydraulic methods has also been commenced 
 at various points ; and we have been able to make a very careful 
 study of the workings on several occasions, with the result that the 
 theories we first formulated have been in every way confirmed. 
 
 In several of the mines, notably in those of Marion and Ci- 
 trus counties, there are immense deposits of phosphatic material, 
 proved, by actual experimental work, to extend in many cases over 
 uninterrupted areas of several acres. The deposits in each case have 
 shown themselves to be combinations of the " original pocket " and 
 the "mound" formation, and the superincumbent material, or over- 
 burden, is jjrincipally sand, and may be fairly said to have an aver- 
 age depth of about 10 feet. The phosphate immediately under- 
 lying it is sometimes in the form of enormous bowlders of hard 
 rock, cemented together with clay, and sometimes in the form of a 
 white plastic or friable mass resembling kaolin, and probably pro- 
 duced by the natural disintegration of the hard rock by rolling, 
 attrition or concussion. The actual thickness of the deposits is 
 too variable to be computed with any accuracy into an average, 
 but in one case which specially interested us, the depth is 50 feet, 
 and only a little over two acres of the land have already yielded 
 more than 20,000 tons of good ore, without signs of exhaustion. 
 
 Directly outside the limits of these combined "pockety" and 
 " mound " formations the deposits of phosjihate seem to abruptly 
 terminate, and to give place to an unimportant drift, which some- 
 times crops out at the surface, and which may be followed in all 
 directions over the immediate vicinity Avithout leading to another 
 pocket of exploitable value. 
 
 Since the same geological phenomena are prevalent in nearly 
 every section of the country, with the exceptions of Polk and 
 Hillsboro counties, where they are somewhat modified, we consider 
 ourselves, in view of these facts, warranted in declaring that the 
 
►7 o 
 
 ►J a 
 
llie Pliosphates of America. 
 
 71 
 
 Florida phosphates of high grade occur in beds of an essentially 
 pockety, extremely capricious, uneven and deceptive nature. 
 
 Sometimes the pockets will develop into enormous and deep 
 quarries, and probably yield fabulous quantities of various mer- 
 chantable qualities. At other times they will be entirely super- 
 ficial, or will contain the phosphate in such a mixed condition as 
 to render profitable exploitation impossible. 
 
 An excellent, and indeed tyjjical, example of this superficiality 
 is afforded by one of our recent examinations, in which the geo- 
 logical conditions did not differ in any essential j^articular from 
 those described. The area investigated may be thus represented : 
 
 
 5120 acres of land. 
 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 Each division representing 640 acres. 
 
 Very fine phosphate indications were scattered more or less all 
 over this tract, sometimes in the form of big bowlders outci'opping 
 at the surface, sometimes in the form of small debris, brought up 
 from below by the mole or the gopher. A local "expert" had es- 
 timated that it contained millions of tons, and our own first im- 
 pressions of it were of the highly sanguine order. A systematic 
 exploration was, however, at once instituted and carried out ; 
 first by boring all over the tract with a twenty-foot auger, and 
 then by sinking confirmatory pits at short intervals to a depth of 
 15 to 20 feet, according to the plan described in the chapter on 
 South Carolina. 
 
 The result of our work was extremely disappointing, and may 
 be briefly summarized thus : 
 
 A. — No phosphate in workable quantities. 
 
 B. — A small basin or pocket of good phosphate, covering an area of 
 about 15 acres. 
 
 C. — No phosphate in workable quantities. 
 
 D. — No phosphate in workable quantities. 
 
 E. — Large quantities on surface, leading to a very large pocket, cover- 
 ing about 35 acres. Very much mixed-up material, principally 
 phosphate of low grade. 
 
 E. — No phosphate in workable quantities. 
 
72 The FJiosjjJinfes of America. 
 
 G. — No phosphate in workable quantities. 
 
 H. — The highest point in the tract — very densely grown, big bowlders 
 of phosphate and sandy cong'lomerate on surface. Fifteen 
 small pockets of phosphate, ending in limestone at a depth 
 of thirteen feet. 
 
 The total acreage covered by these widely scattered phosphate 
 DEPOSITS was set down at eighty-three acres, and the character, 
 quantity and composition of the phosphate itself, as shown by 
 the pits dug and by the material extracted from them, were es- 
 timated after experiment to be as follows : 
 
 CHARACTER AND QUANTITY OF PHOSPHATE BED. 
 
 Bowlder material, large and small, after 
 
 screening 13 per cent, of the mass. 
 
 Debris and whitish i^hosphate, soft and 
 
 plastic 29 " " " 
 
 Sand, clay, flints and waste 58 " " " 
 
 100 " " 
 
 AVERAGE ANALYTICAL VALUE OF THE PHOSPHATES (AFTER SUN-DRYING). 
 
 Bowlders. Debris, etc. 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride (PaOg) 37.00 30.00 
 
 Oxides of iron and alumina (clay) 4 . 25 7 . 50 
 
 After this analysis of the bowlder material liad been made, the 
 remaining lumps were all broken up with a liammer into pieces 
 averaging 1^ inches in size and very carefully washed, Avith con- 
 stant shaking on a fourteen-mesli screen held under a stream of 
 water. After being thoroughly dried in the sun, the washed ma- 
 terial was put through a hand-crusher, then ground to the fineness 
 of seventy-mesh, and submitted to analysis. The results, which 
 have a most important bearing on the vexed question as to the form 
 of combination in which the iron and alumina of these phosphates 
 chiefly occur, Avere in this case as follows : 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride (PgOg) 38. 10 
 
 Oxides of iron and alumina 1 . 73 
 
 The thickness of tlie phosi)hate bed varied in different places 
 from 3|- to 27 feet, but was found to have an average of about 8 
 feet. Assuming that this thickness would yield, say, 5000 tons to 
 the acre (a conservative com2:»utation), we reach a probable total of 
 415,000 tons for the entire tract, of which, according to the experi- 
 ments summarized above, dihowt fifty-five thousand tons might be 
 high-grade "bowlder," containing, say, eighty jjer cent, of bone 
 
^4" f,' <r 3r:4 
 
 
 a ,2 
 
z a 
 5 = 
 
 ^j a 
 
The PJios])hates of America. 73 
 
 phosphate, and about one Jiundred and ticenty-Jive thousand dons 
 debris and seconds, containing from sixty to sixty-five per cent, 
 of bone phosphate. 
 
 The capriciousness exhibited in this instance is not at ail ex- 
 ceptional or singular, but has been confirmed in several others, and 
 it is not quoted in any deprecatory sense, but as an example of the 
 necessity for exercising unusual care and discretion when making 
 exjjert examinations. 
 
 In the case of the "pebble" or "drift" deposits this caution 
 needs not perhaps to be so extremely precise, for, as we have already 
 stated, these are marked by unusual regularity in the chief centres 
 of their occurrence. The extensive area in which they have been 
 found may be roughly said to take its point of departure in Polk 
 County, a little to the south of Bartow, and thence, Avith a gradually 
 narrowing tendency, to practically continue to within n very short 
 range of Charlotte Harbor. 
 
 As will be seen from 'the map, the country is very flat and 
 swamjjy ; is intersected at frequent intervals by the Aiafia, Mana- 
 tee, Peace and other rivers, and by numerous small rivulets and 
 streams. 
 
 Pit-sinking and l)oring is now going on over an area of many 
 hundreds of miles, and so far as we have been able to ascertain, the 
 })rospectors have succeeded in demonstrating that this section of 
 Florida is virtualli/ iiuderlaid with a nodular 2>hosp]iate stratum 
 of a thickness varyiiig from a few inches to thirty feet, a7id covered 
 by an, overburden that may be fairly averaged at about eight feet. 
 
 The actual chief working centre for " pebble " phosphates is 
 Peace River, which rises in the high lake lands of Polk County 
 and flows rapidly southward into the Gulf of Mexico. Its course 
 is extremely irregular, and its bottom is a constant succession of 
 shallows and deep basins. 
 
 Lakes Tsala-Opopka and Chillicohatchee and Pains and Whid- 
 den creeks are its chief tributaries and the main sources of its phos- 
 phate deposits ; the jiebbles being washed out from their banks 
 and borne along their beds by the torrential summer rains. 
 
 The exploitation of the pebbles is performed, as illustrated, by 
 means of a ten-inch centrifugal steam suction pump placed upon a 
 barge. The pipe of the pump, having been adjusted by ropes and 
 pulleys, is plunged ahead from the deck into the water. The mix- 
 ture of sand and phosphate sucked up by it is brought into revolving 
 screens of varying degrees of fineness, whence the sand is washed 
 
74 The Pliospliates of America. 
 
 Tjack into the river. The cleaned pebbles are discharged from the 
 screens into scows, at the rate of about twelve tons per hour, and 
 are floated down to the " works," where they are taken up by an 
 elevator to a drying-room and dried by hot air, screened once more, 
 and are then ready for market. The total cost of raising, washing, 
 drying, screening and loading on the cars in execution of orders, 
 is variously estimated at from 50 cents to |2 per ton ; but from 
 special information recently afforded to us by one of the largest 
 operators we are enabled to place it at $1.40, and this, to the best 
 of our knowledge and belief, is the lowest yet recorded in the 
 world's history of phosphate-mining 
 
 The pebbles, when freed from impurities and dried, are of a 
 dark blue color, and are hard and smooth, varying in size from a 
 grain of rice to about one inch in diameter. Their origin is proved 
 by the microscope to be entirely organic, and they are intimately 
 mixed up with the bones and teeth of numerous extinct sj)ecies of 
 animals, birds and fish. 
 
 There can be no doubt that these river deposits all proceed 
 from the banks of " drift " situated on the higher lands in Polk 
 County, and as a proof of it, if we take Lakeland and Bartow as 
 the centre of these " drift " beds, m'c shall find that the " j^ebbles " 
 are all of the same size, and only differ in that they are of a lighter 
 color than those of the river, and that they are imbedded in a 
 matrix of sand and clay, to which they frequently bear the propor- 
 tion of about twenty per cent, by weight. 
 
 Their separation from this matrix by most of the companies 
 now working is effected in a very crude manner and on a great 
 variety of plans. One of the largest concerns in Polk County em- 
 ploys a floating dipper dredge, the use of which, it claims, is natu- 
 rally indicated by the fact that in this very low-lying section of 
 the State, water springs a few feet below the soil, and thus enables 
 the dredge to work in a canal which it deepens and extends as it 
 removes the material. The entire mass, matrix and all, is brought 
 up to the surface by the dredge and dropped into a species of dis- 
 integrator or crusher. Thence it passes on into a revolving washer 
 mounted on the same barge. From the washer, the matrix and 
 water return to the canal, while tlie clean nodules are carried by 
 a spiral conveyer to a steam-heated dryer on anotlier barge ; from 
 the dryer they fall into a revolving screen, wliich removes any 
 remaining particles of adhering sand, and the now marketable 
 phosphate is caught up by elevators and delivered on board rail- 
 
Q S 
 
The PhospJtates of America. 75 
 
 Avay cars standing on a track ])aralk4 with the canal. We have 
 been informed tliat the actual capacity of this plant is 300 tons a 
 day, and that a car-load of twenty tons can be raised, washed, 
 dried and loaded by it for market in forty minutes at no greater 
 cost than that of the river pebbles. We have, however, considered 
 it necessary to accept this statement with due reserve. 
 
 The custom so long prevalent in South Carolina of imposing a 
 royalty upon all phosphates removed from navigable rivers or 
 streams has redounded so much to the profit of tliat State that the 
 Florida authorities have decided to avail themselves of a similar 
 method of taxation in order to swell their meagre revenues, A 
 law regulating this kind of mining Avas accordingly recently passed 
 by the Legislature and has now been signed by the Governor. 
 
 Under its provisions the Governor, Comptroller and Attorney- 
 General are constituted a board of phosphate commissioners, which 
 board shall have the management and control of all phosphates in 
 the navigable waters of the State. The board will ajipoint a phos- 
 phate inspector at a salary not to exceed $1,500 per annum, Avho 
 Avill act as its executive ofHcer. 
 
 On all the phosphates taken from navigable waters within the 
 application of the law a royalty of 50 cents per ton will be col- 
 lected when the jjhosphatic material analyzes "fifty per cent, or 
 less, and not to exceed fifty-five per cent., bone phosphate of lime ; " 
 75 cents per ton for " material analyzing over fifty-five per cent, 
 and not exceeding sixty per cent.," and " |1 per ton for every ton 
 of phosphate rock, etc., analyzing in excess of sixty per cent, bone 
 phosphate of lime." 
 
 Account is to be rendered to the board of commissioners and 
 payment of royalty made to the State quarterl3\ 
 
 The State grants the right to persons, either natural or eorjjo- 
 rate, to mine the navigable waters of the State within certain well- 
 defined limits, in no case to exceed ten miles by course of stream, 
 for a period not to exceed five years, j) reference being given, how- 
 ever, to riparian owners and to those who have commenced to 
 mine in good faith before the passage of the act. 
 
 The bill further enacts that no person or persons shall be per- 
 mitted to mine the bed of any navigable water of the State until 
 he or they shall have first filed with the board of phosphate com- 
 missioners a bond, Avith good and sufficient sureties to be ajjproved 
 l3y the board and in such sum as the board shall deem proper, 
 JVIining mi;st begin Avithin six months from date of contract and 
 
76 llic Phosphates of America. 
 
 continue to the full term of the contract, unless the pliosphate or 
 jjhosphatic deposit he previously exhausted. 
 
 The passage of this law has, of course, elicited a great deal of 
 opposition, and will undoubtedly lead to litigation between the 
 State and many of the companies which claim vested rights in the 
 river deposits. A considerable number of these companies are, how- 
 ever, unaffected by its provisions which do not apjjly in cases of navi- 
 gable streams or parts thereof that are not meandered, and the own- 
 ership of the lands embracing which, is vested in a legal purchase?'. 
 
 With the extremely low cost of production of the "pebble" ma- 
 terial, however, it is hardly conceivable that so trifling a tax as 
 that imposed by the new law can be regarded as a burden, or that 
 it will have the least injurious effect upon the progress and profits 
 of the industry. Nor will tlie pr(\sent trouble between the Coosaw 
 Mining Company and the State of South Carolina fail to facilitate 
 and hasten the introduction of the new material, and when once 
 this introduction has been thoroughly and favorably secured, it 
 will soon win for itself the good opinion of European as well as 
 of domestic superphosjjhate manufacturers. 
 
 The chemical composition of Florida phosphates, and more 
 especially of those known as "hard rock" or "bowlder," is far 
 from being constant or reliable, as would be naturally anticipated 
 in such an irregular and varied formation as Ave have attempted 
 to describe. Nor is it more uniform in its physical aspect, for 
 while in some regions it is perfectly white, in others it is blue, yel- 
 low or brown. In many instances it is practically free from iron 
 and alumina, but in not a few districts it is heavily loaded with 
 these commercially objectionable constituents. A large proportion 
 of the land I'ock is A'ery soft when dam}), but becomes so hard 
 when dried that it has long been used by the natives, ignorant of 
 its other values, as a foundation or building stone. 
 
 For the purposes of general illustration we present the follow- 
 ing averages, selected from the results of several hundreds of our 
 complete anal3'ses, made either in Florida or New York. The 
 samples, in every case, were taken fi'om exploratory ])its in differ- 
 ent counties, and were marked before leaving the gi'ound with full 
 details of their origin. We have classed them as — 
 
 1. Bowlders of hard-rock phosphate, or cleaned high-grade ma- 
 terial. 
 
 2. Bowlders and debris, or unselected material, merely freed 
 from dirt. 
 
g 
 
 n 
 
 a 
 
 S 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 >> 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 "B 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■o 
 
The Phosphates of America. 77 
 
 3. Soft white phosphate, in which no bowlders are found. 
 
 4. Pebble phosphate from Peace River as sent to market. 
 
 5. Pebble phosphate from Polk County drift beds, washed and 
 
 screened. 
 
 Bowlders (carefully selected, 120 samples). . , 
 
 Bowlders and debris (237 samples) 
 
 Soft white phosphate (148 samples) 
 
 Pebble from Peace River (84 samples) 
 
 Pebble from drift-beds, Polk Co. (92 samples) 
 
 PHOS- 
 PHATE 
 OF LIME. 
 
 80.49 
 
 74 
 
 90 
 
 65 
 
 15 
 
 61 
 
 75 
 
 67 
 
 25 
 
 OXIDES 
 OF IRON 
 AND AL- 
 UMINA. 
 
 SILICA 
 AND SIL- 
 ICATES 
 
 CAR- 
 BONIC 
 ACID. 
 
 2.25 
 
 4.20 
 
 2.10 
 
 4.19 
 
 9.25 
 
 1.90 
 
 9.20 
 
 5.47 
 
 4.27 
 
 2.90 
 
 14.20 
 
 3.60 
 
 3.00 
 
 10.40 
 
 1.70 
 
 In working or quarrying the "hard-rock" or "high-grade 
 bowlder" deposits, the details of most importance are the careful 
 selection by conscientious and capable superintendents of the dif- 
 ferent qualities, and the accurate sampling and analyses of the 
 different piles before shipment. There is at present a less remuner- 
 ative market in this country than in Europe for the richest grades, 
 and it is therefore probable that for some time to come the entire 
 production of hard rock will be exported. As we have alreadv 
 said and shall more fully e.xplain later on, the majority of foreign 
 manufacturers will make no contracts for a raw material which 
 contains a higher maximum than three per cent, of oxides of iron 
 and alumina. To make shipments within this limit must conse- 
 quently be the aim of the miners who would establish a good rep- 
 utation, and nothing but experience in actual work, harmoniousbj 
 conducted heticeen the mine and the lahoratonj, can be relied upon 
 in the great majority of cases to accomplish it. To ourselves this 
 matter has been a source of constant preoccupation, and in the 
 mines with which we are professionally connected we have now 
 succeeded in reducing objectionable constituents to a minimum by 
 adopting the following general scheme of work : 
 
 The pockets are located by boring and by confirmatory pits, and 
 the results of these operations are daily transferred to a map. The 
 pits are carefully sampled, foot by foot, as they go down, and the 
 various qualities of " bowlder," " soft white," " gravel," etc., are 
 sent to the laboratory with ample details of their origin. The re- 
 sults of the analyses are daily placed upon the map, side by side 
 with the other details of the survey. 
 
 We thus finally acquire a geological and chemical map of our 
 
78 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 property, can form an approximately correct idea of the quantity 
 and the quality of material at our command, and can decide with, 
 intelligence upon the best points at which to commence industrial 
 operations on the desired scale. 
 
 Our plant is so constructed as to enable us to crush the whole 
 of our rock material to a suitable size, say, 14^-inch ; to pass our en- 
 tire out])ut through washers and screens similar to those we have 
 described in the chapter on South Carolina ; and to iinally dry it 
 by hot air, avoiding direct contact with fire. The cost of produc- 
 ing one ton of clean 2)hosphate rock under these conditions, as 
 shown by our practical working experience, averages about |o, and 
 from the fact that the method was based upon and has fully justified 
 the results of a very lengthy series of laboratory experiments, we 
 are enabled to claim for it — 
 
 1. That, the product being reduced to a uniform size, 
 the difficulties hitherto experienced in obtaining fair and con- 
 cordant samples on shipment and arrival are materially less- 
 ened, if not entirely obviated. 
 
 2. That the objectionable iron and alumina, being nearli/ 
 always present in the original sample in the form of clay 
 which is held and secreted in the interstices or cracks of tlie 
 rock, are nearly all removed by the water and the agitation 
 during the washing process. 
 
 On somewhat similar lines to these, a very ingenious and prac- 
 tical as well as economical method of mining and preparing the 
 land-rock phosphates is that devised by the Jeffrey Manufacturing 
 Company, of Columbus, Ohio, and now being used by some of the 
 larger companies. The rock is hoisted from the quarries by a der- 
 rick, delivered to a crusher, and thence into a system of screens. 
 The first is a dry screen, the second a washing screen and the 
 third a finishing, or rinsing screen ; and the rock is delivered from 
 one wet screen to the other by short elevators, and then taken from 
 the last screen by slow-motion elevator, so as to drain off as much 
 of the water as possible. It is then delivered at the top of a fur- 
 nace having interlapping shelves, under which the flues conducting 
 the products of combustion to the stack are carried. While de- 
 scending from one of these shelves to the other through the hopper- 
 like aperture to the furnace, the rock is either heated to the neces- 
 ary degree to dry it, or, by a retaining device at the bottom, may 
 be kept until thoroughly calcined, after which it is delivered hot 
 to the foot of an elevator. The flue connecting with this elevator 
 
FLORIDA RUCK-PHOSPHATE MIMING. 
 View of the phosphate-drying machine in use at the Ocala and Due River Pliosphate Company's mine, 
 
 EUiston, Citrus Co. 
 
■ '-M - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a-, i) 
 
 ;1 
 
The Phosphates of America. 79- 
 
 and furnace is arranged with three conduits, one for the smoke 
 and heat, one for the buckets of the elevator, and one for the dry- 
 air drauglito Tlie partition between the smoke and combustion 
 flues and that of the elevator is thin iron after reaching the height 
 of the brick-work. The buckets are constructed of screen wire, so 
 that the escape of vapor from the heated rock is impeded as little 
 as possible. The partition between the bucket-flue and the dry- 
 air flue is perforated at intervals, so that the draught of dry air 
 will produce the effect of drawing off the vapor from the buckets 
 of heated rock as they pass upward through the elevator-flue. The 
 movement of the elevator is so slow that about twenty minutes 
 from the starting at the bottom, or boot end, are required to de- 
 liver a bucket of phosphate-rock at the top ; after the delivery is 
 once commenced, however, it is continuous. At the top, the chain 
 of buckets passes through a third, or drying-screen, which revolves 
 in a square, heated chamber, shown in the illustration at the toj) of 
 the dryer-frame. In passing through this dry screen, all the sand 
 or material that is not rinsed or washed out of the interstices and 
 from the clay deposit of the rock, is knocked off in a separate par- 
 tition of the hopper iinderneath the heated chamber. The phos- 
 phate-rock is delivered, as shown in space broken away, to the 
 hopper just underneath the open end of the screen at the rear of 
 the dryer, and is delivered, it will be obsei'ved, in chutes from this 
 altitude to the storage-bins in the warehouse, or on board cars at a 
 railroad track, the buckets continuing their course down the in- 
 clined flue to the boot, to receive the continuous flow of phosphate. 
 There is a draught of hot, dry air thrown ujj this return flue, that 
 meets the phosphate being delivered from the dry screen, and 
 carries off what remaining vapor there may be arising from the 
 heated rock through an opening into the stack above. 
 
 The operation of this system of machinery is automatic after 
 leaving the crusher, and every motion of the rock is in the direc- 
 tion required to reach storage or shipment. The Avater supply at 
 different mines, requiring different arrangements of pumping ma- 
 chinery, the latter has not been included in our drawing. 
 
 From the dry-screen, running back to the waste or culm pile, 
 there is a conveyor which relieves the dry-screen of the sand and 
 material that would otherwise accumulate beneath it. Where the 
 phosphate is found in a clay matrix, it is not practicable to use a 
 dry screen successfully; the latter is therefore in such cases elimi- 
 nated, and a piig introduced in place of it, similar to the machine 
 
80 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 used in wasbing hematite ores and pugging clay. To prevent the 
 clay from balling up in the revolving screens, it is thoroughly soit- 
 ened and disintegrated ; anel Avhen this has been done it will easily 
 wash out of the ])hosphate, the succeeding stages of the process 
 being the same as in handling dry rock. 
 
 With the mere addition of a dredging apparatus, this method of 
 exploitation is equally applicable to the "pebble" and river-de- 
 posits, the process of drying, elevating and storing being quite as 
 economical and efficient as in the case of the hard rock. 
 
 Our oj)ening remarks on the speculative character of the 
 "boom" are justified by the following ])artial list of the mining 
 com2:)anies formed in Florida for various j)urposes within the past 
 two years : 
 
 Name. Address. Capital. 
 
 Arcadia Phosphate Co De Soto County ; office, Sa- 
 vannah, Gra 
 
 Peace River Phosphate Co De Soto County, Arcadia. Fla. ; 
 
 principal office, New York.. $300,000 
 
 De Soto Phospliate Co Zolfo, De Soto County ; of- 
 fice, Atlanta, Ga 250,000 
 
 South Florida Phosphate Co Liverpool, De Soto County. . 240,000 
 
 Charlotte Hai-bor Phosphate Co . . Fort Ogden, De Soto County 
 
 Boca Grande Phosphate Co De Soto County ; deposit 
 
 worked on Caloosahachie 
 
 River 250,000 
 
 Lee County Phosphate Co Fort Myers, Lee County ; de- 
 
 ])osit on Caloosahachie Riv- 
 er 250,000 
 
 Fort Meade Pliosphate, Fertilizer, 
 Land and Improvement Co Fort Meade, Po k County. . . . 50,000 
 
 Homeland Pebble Phosphate Co . . Homeland, Polk County.- 100,000 
 
 Homeland Mining and Land Co . . Homeland, Polk County 120,000 
 
 Black River Pliosphate Co Clay County 200,000 
 
 Pharr Pliosphate Co Bartow, Polk County 
 
 Jackson and Peace Rivei- Plios- 
 phate Co Apopka, De Soto County 1,000,000 
 
 Tampa Pliospliate Co Tampa, Hillsboro County. . . 25,000 
 
 Prospect Phosjjliate Co Dunnellon, Marion County 
 
 E. C. Evans Mining- Co Dunnellon, Marion County. . . 
 
 Glenn Alice Pliosphate Co Bay Hill, Sumpter County . . 
 
 Dunnellon Phospluite Co Dunnellon, Marion County. . . 1,350,000 
 
 Sterling Phosiiiuite Co Hernando County 3,000,000 
 
 Withlacoocliee River Phosphate 
 Co Panasol'kee, Ma-rion County... 400,000 
 
 The Early Bird Phosphate Co Marion County 500,000 
 
 The New York Phosphate Co Marion County 4,000,000 
 
1 -s-a I 
 
 •s 
 
 1 -s 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 a 
 
 — 1 " 
 
 J 
 
 Ik] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 IP 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 a: 
 < 
 is 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O m O w ?: a: O 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 aj 
 
 
 
 
 R 
 
 
 
 rjn 
 
 
 ^5 
 
 r— 1 
 
 [W] 
 
 !/J 
 
 
 i 
 
 03 
 
 Pfl 
 
 «j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 I 
 111 
 
 DC 
 
 < 
 
 
 

 5 g 
 
The Phosjjliates of America. 81 
 
 Kame. Address. Capital. 
 
 The Eagle Phosphate Co Marion County 3,000,000 
 
 The Florida Phosphate Co., Lim- 
 ited Phosphoria, Polk County 1,000,000 
 
 Whittaker Phosjohate and Ferti- 
 lizer Co Homeland, Polk County 500,000 
 
 Virginia-Florida Phosphate Co Fort Meade, Polk County 120,000 
 
 The Gulf Phosphate Mining and 
 
 Manufacturing Co Liverpool, De Soto County. , 240,000 
 
 The Terraceia Phosphate Co Works in Manatee and Polk 
 
 counties 1,000,000 
 
 The Lay Phosphate Co Bartow 575,000 
 
 The Moore & Tatum Phosphate Co.. Bartow, Polk County 100,000 
 
 The Cove Bend Land Phosphate 
 
 Co Tompkinsville, Citrus County 200,000 
 
 Albion Phosphate Mining and 
 
 Chemical Co Baltimore, Md 500,000 
 
 Belleview Phosphate Co Jacksonville 600,000 
 
 The Florida Rock Phosphate Co . . . Citrus County 125,000 
 
 Alachua Phosphate Co Gainesville 300,000 
 
 Alafia River Phosphate Associa- 
 tion Bartow 100,000 
 
 Alalia River Phosphate Co Bartow 1,000,000 
 
 Alafia Phosphate Co Jacksonville 35,000 
 
 Albion Phosphate Co Gainesville 300,000 
 
 Albion Mining and Mfg. Co Gainesville 300,000 
 
 American Mining and Imp't Co . . . Bartow 1,200,000 
 
 Anglo-American Phosphate Co. . . . Ocala 400,000 
 
 Archer Phosphate Co Gainesville 100,000 
 
 Atlantic and Gulf Phosphate Co. . . Bartow, Fla., and Charleston, 
 
 S. C 10.000 
 
 Berkley Phosphate Co Bartow 40,000 
 
 Farmers' Co-operative Mfg. Co. of 
 
 Georgia 200,000 
 
 Florida Blue Rock Phosphate Co. . Bowling Green 150,000 
 
 Florida Phosphate and Fertilizer 
 
 Co Tallahassee 100,000 
 
 Florida Phosphate Co Ocala 210,000 
 
 Gainesville Phosphate Co Gainesville 50,000 
 
 Globe Phosphate Mining- and Mfg. 
 
 Co Ocala 2,000,000 
 
 Great Sovithern Phosphate Co 30,000 
 
 Ichetucknee Phosphate Co Jacksonville 30,000 
 
 Jacksonville and Santa Fe Phos- 
 phate Co 500,000 
 
 La Fayette Land and Phosjihate 
 
 Co Apalachicola.. 10,000 
 
 Lake City Land and Timber Co 50,000 
 
83 TAe PlLOspliates of America. 
 
 Name. Address. Capital. 
 
 Lake City Pliospluite Co Lake City $100,000 
 
 Little Bros. Fertilizer Co. South Jacksonville 100,000 
 
 Madison Phosphate Co Madison 50,000 
 
 Magnolia Phosphate Co Gainesville 50,000 
 
 Marion Phosphate Co Savannah 5,000,000 
 
 Marion and Citrus Phosphate Co 200,000 
 
 North and South Alafia River 
 
 Phosphate Co 360,000 
 
 Ocala and Blue River Phosphate 
 
 Co Ocala 780,000 
 
 Orang-e County Phosphate Co Orlando 10,000 
 
 Panasofkee Phosphate Co Ocala 100,000 
 
 Paola Creek Phosphate Co Bartow 150,000 
 
 Peninsular Phosphate Co Ocala 200,000 
 
 Standard Phosphate Co Orlando 500,000 
 
 Standard Phosphate Co Ocala 2,000,000 
 
 Stonewall Pliosphate Co Jacksonville. 500,000 
 
 Waukulla Lumber and Phosphate 
 
 Co Tallahassee 10,000 
 
 Waukulla Phosphate Co Crawfordsville 10,000 
 
 Wekiva Phosphate Co Sanlord 10,000 
 
 Zeigler Phosphate Co Ocala 25,000 
 
 Columbian Phosphate Co Jacksonville 
 
 Land Pebble Phosphate Co Bartow 
 
 Tliis list is, we repeat, only a ])artial one, and tlie numher of 
 companies is increasing daily. If, instead of the meaningless 
 '■'■paper capitaV whicli most of them represent, fifty-odd nnllious 
 of dollars were really at stake, the fact would excite serious anxiety. 
 We should he compelled to show tliat tlie amount of phosphate to 
 be mined and disposed of at a profit in order to ])ay afive-per-cent. 
 dividend on the investment would surj^ass tlie total consumptive 
 capacity of the entire world. Fortunately no sucli question is nec- 
 essary; we know tliat the " capital " is merely nominal; that many of 
 the companies are mere " mushrooms," and that, in brief, this phase 
 of the question will regulate itself. 
 
 From all that has preceded it will jjrobably have been gathered 
 that, in our opinion, Florida phosphate-mining will prove extremely 
 profitable to those who purchase and work its fields with judgment, 
 but that it will as certainly turn out in the highest degree disas- 
 trous to those who j)urchase on insufficient or incomj)lete examina- 
 tion and allow themselves to be led away by their excited first im- 
 pressions. The interior of the country is still practically unsettled, 
 and travelling is attended by some difficulties and much inconven- 
 
^' 'illtiLllltl^^ 
 
 #iLibiir,ii 
 
 iiiiiillil(il!!!l?l!lf? !m;5.' 
 
 m 
 
 HT-^- 
 
 kj 
 
Tlte Phosphates of America. 83 
 
 ience. The negro labor, which forms ninety-five per cent, of all 
 that is used in the mines, is cheap, but is not very good and is far 
 from plentiful. There are no wagon roads suitable for transporta- 
 tion i^urjjoses, and the railroad facilities are altogether inadequate, 
 the companies being at the present time very poorly provided 
 with freight cars. 
 
 Only relatively few mines are within access to the railway, 
 and of these the larger number ship their "high-grade rock" 
 by rail to Fernandina and thence to Europe by steamer, while a 
 smaller number forward theirs to Tampa over the South Florida 
 Railroad. The " pebble " phosphate is chiefly sent over the 
 Florida Southern Railroad to Punta Gorda, but some of it goes 
 over the same line to St. John's River via Sanford. The rock 
 going to Fernandina pays a freight of about ^2.20 per ton, that 
 to Port Tampa about $1.10, and the "pebble" to Punta Gorda 
 and St. John's River costs about 7.5 cents. 
 
 The natural difliculties and impediments are at present i-ather 
 discouraging, but the deposits themselves are of such immense 
 extent, and the demand for them is likely to be so great and con- 
 tinuous, that all obstacles to their exploitation must be of necessity 
 eventually cleared away. With the disappearance of the obstacles 
 the material of all grades Avill come forward in large quantities, 
 and as its chemical composition is very satisfactory, it will soon 
 compete f avorablj'^ for superphosphate-making with any other phos- 
 phates now pojDular with fertilizer manufacturers. 
 
84 Tlie Phoqjliates of America. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 SULPHURIC-ACID MANUFACTURE. 
 
 Until Mr. Rodwell published his book, " The Birth of Chemis- 
 try," we had always been led to believe that the discovery of sul- 
 phuric acid was due to Basil Valeutiiie, but we have now reason to 
 suppose that it was known long before his time. 
 
 It was reserved for one Gerard Dornaeus to describe Avith 
 tolerable exactitude what it really was, and this he did in a pam- 
 phlet published in the year 1570. 
 
 English makers originally prepared it by burning copperas (pro- 
 to-sulphate of iron) in brick ovens at a high temperature, and con- 
 densing the vapors which distilled off as an impure oil of viti'iol, 
 the commercial value of which was $1()()0 per ton. This ])rocess 
 gave way to the use of sulphur and nitre, burnt together in enor- 
 mous glass globes and concentrated by boiling in glass retorts, the 
 j^roduct being called " oil of vitriol made by the bell." 
 
 Passing on by successive stages, at which we need not stop, Ave 
 arrive at the year 1746, and find the first leaden chamber erected in 
 that year in Birmingham by Messrs. Roebuck and Garbett, the 
 proportions of raw material employed being seven or eight pounds 
 of sulphur to one pound of saltpetre. This mixture was placed 
 upon lead plates standing in Avater Avithin the chamber, and Avas 
 ignited by means of a red-hot iron bar thrust in through a sliding 
 panel in the Avail. 
 
 Shortly after this time came the introduction of a separate aj)art- 
 ment for burning the sulj)hur in a current of air, Avhich Avas regula- 
 ted by a slide moving in the iron furnace-door, the vapors being 
 taken off through the roof into the adjoining chamber. 
 
 Progressively and finally, tlic industry in Europe has now 
 reached a point which may be almost considered perfect, there be- 
 ing little room for improvement in Avorks constructed to comj^ly 
 Avith all the re(piirements of modern progress and modification. 
 
 In order to make ourselves completely understood by those who 
 know little or nothing of the subject, Ave have prepared the an- 
 nexed drawing of a modern sulphuric-acid Avorks, and may state 
 that when sulphur (S) is burnt in air it combines Avith the oxygen 
 
The Phosphates of America. go 
 
 of the latter, and sulplmi- dioxide is formed (SO,). If this gas be 
 brought into contact with nitric-acid vapor (HNO3) and steam 
 (IIoO), a combination takes place resulting in the formation of sul- 
 phuric acid and nitric oxide, thus : 
 
 3 SO, + 2 HNO3 + 3 H,0 = 3 HoSO^ + 2 NO. 
 
 The nitric-acid vapor is produced by heating a mixture of nitrate 
 of soda and oil of vitriol in an iron pan contained within the brim- 
 stone or pyrites burners, and it is carried into the lead chambers 
 simultaneously with the sulphur dioxide by means of a well-regu- 
 lated air current. Reduced, as we have seen, to nitric oxide'^ it 
 does not remain in this form, but immediately combines with the 
 free oxygen introduced by the air-current and becomes nitric per- 
 oxide (NO2). Assisted by the presence of steam, it thus constantly 
 enacts the part of an oxygen-carrier to the sulphur dioxide, as 
 may be gathered from the following figures: 
 
 and — 
 
 NO + O = NO, 
 Nitric oxide + Oxy-eii = Nitric peroxide 
 
 NO, + SO, + H,0 = H,SO, + NO. 
 
 Nitric peroxide + Sulpliur dioxide + Steam. 
 
 And so oxidation and reduction go on, and the circle of opera- 
 tions is complete and continuous. 
 
 The air of the atmosphere contains about seventy-nine per cent, 
 of nitrogen and about 20.90 per cent, of oxygen in every 100 vol- 
 umes. This nitrogen plays no part at all in the changes we have de- 
 scribed, and it hence follows that the required oxygen is accompa- 
 nied by four times its volume of an inert gas which merely serves to 
 fill up the chamber space and which calls for immediate and steady 
 removal in order that the working elements may have fair play. At 
 one time a simple chimney arranged at the end of the works, oppo- 
 site to that at which the gases enter the chambers, was deemed 
 sufficient, but it Avas soon discovered— to the cost of the manufact- 
 urer—that the nitrogen, in itself escaping, carried off with it a 
 large share of the nitric oxide. As the preservation of this latter 
 gas is so important a factor in the economy of the industry, means 
 had to be devised whereby it could be saved without inconvenience, 
 and these means were duly provided and are now universally em- 
 ployed, as we shall presently see. 
 
 From the commercial standpoint of economical production, the 
 chief questions tliat have to be seriously considered by fertilizer 
 
86 The Fhosphaies of America. 
 
 manufacturers who contemplate the erection of an acid j^lant may 
 be briefly summed up in the following manner: 
 
 (a) Of pyrites and brimstone, which is the most economical and 
 best source of sulphur? 
 
 (b) If the preference be given to pyrites, what kind of furnace 
 or burner is best adapted for effecting its complete combustion, 
 including the " fines " ? 
 
 (c) What are the best dimensions to accord to the leaden cham- 
 bers in which are combined and condensed the gases induced by 
 this combustion ? 
 
 {(I) How may the maximum results be produced from the ore at 
 a minimum expenditure of nitrate of soda ? 
 
 (e) How to dispose of the residual cinders after dcsulj^huri/a- 
 tion in order to lessen first cost. 
 
 Of the first problem, the commercial aspect is the only part 
 with which we need to deal, for it is at last understood and, if 
 somewhat reluctantly, generally admitted, that from a pound of 
 sulphur, whether it be taken in the form of pure brimstone or in 
 combination with some mineral as a bisulphide, the same quantity 
 of sulphurous-acid gas, generated by its combustion, Avill be ob- 
 tained. 
 
 From a purely scientific and theoretical point of view, and speak- 
 ing with that impartiality which we are called upon to observe, 
 there can be very little doubt that if all things Avere equal 
 there Avould be no room for hesitation in awarding immediate 
 preference to the cleaner, purer and in every way simpler brim- 
 stone ; and we must even go so far as to admit that inasmuch 
 as very few, if any, of the pyrites ores hitherto discovered and 
 worked are absolutely exempt from all traces of arsenic, there are 
 certain branches of chemical manufacture in which it would be 
 unadvisable, and others in which it would be in the highest degree 
 dangerous, to use them. These, however, call for the employment 
 of but a very insignificant quota of the gigantic total annually re- 
 quired for the great chemical fertilizer industry, in which a trace of 
 arsenic in the sulphuric acid employed is a matter of indifference. 
 
 We may therefore leave the interests of small works where 
 only fine or medicinal chemicals are produced, or where only com- 
 ])aratively small quantities of acid are required, out of the ques- 
 tion. 
 
 In comparing the relative cost of sulphuric acid derived from 
 brimstone or pyrites, it must be borne in mind that in the latter we 
 
The PJiosjjJiates of America. 87 
 
 have to deal with two very distinct species of sulphides — those con- 
 taining little or no copper and those bearing it in proportions varying 
 from one and a half to five j^er cent. Ores of the second category M'ill, 
 as it is hardly necessary to say, always be preferred as a source of 
 sulphur when other things are equal, and will, from that very fact, 
 serve the general purpose of keejjing the price of brimstone Avithin 
 reasonable limits. They are now almost exclusively used by the 
 larger European chemical makers, who, being compelled from lack 
 •of domestic material to import their p^a-ites, have adopted the 
 copper-bearing ores of Spain and Portugal, and by a very slight 
 addition to their working plant, recover from the cinders the 
 copper, silver and gold, and apply the proceeds of the ready and 
 profitable sale of these metals to the reduction of first cost. 
 
 There are, fortunately, a few cases where our own intelligent 
 manufacturers have kept pace with the times and obtained notably 
 brilliant results by using j^yrites and adopting modern processes, 
 but these only serve to bring into more proniinent notice the lack 
 of enter23rise and energetic initiative so clearly apparent generally 
 throughout the country. 
 
 As regards the purely iron ores, dependent for their value en- 
 tirely upon their sulphur contents, the greatest, if not the only, 
 bar to their more extensive application by our manufacturers, is 
 probably the distance by Avhich the centres of consumption are 
 separated from the mines. The actual cost of raising and render- 
 ing them suitable for the market would appear never to exceed 
 an average of 11.50 per ton, whereas the average cost of transport 
 to all industrial centres is more than double that amount. 
 
 If, after making all deductions for every possible source of 
 loss, their actual sulphur contents be estimated at forty per cent., 
 and if their cinders be treated as a valueless factor, it follows 
 from this that while in the vicinity of the mine the maximum 
 cost of pyrites-sulphur would be only $5.75 per ton, the price of 
 railway and other transportation is so great that under normal 
 market conditions it no longer offers great advantage over im- 
 ported brimstone upon reaching the consumers' kilns. 
 
 The question of freight being, therefore, such a momentous one, 
 it is worth while to consider whether the railroad charge nj^on a 
 finished fertilizer would be less onerous than that applied to the 
 raw product, and if so, whether the erection of acid works on or 
 near the pyrites mines would not be the surest means of turning an 
 important source of sulphur to profitable account. 
 
b8 The FJwsjihafes of America. 
 
 It would, of course, be folly to expect all those who are now in 
 the fertilizer trade to become owners of good pyrites mines, but 
 this fact need in nowise prevent them from erecting Avorks near 
 such mines in order to profit by whatever advantages are to be 
 derived from using the brimstone substitutes. Let us therefore 
 examine what those advantages actually are. 
 
 To commence wath the furnace. The various forms introduced 
 during the j^ast few years for burning pyrites in England, France 
 and Germany by Sjsence, Perret-Oliver, Juhel-Maletra, Gersten- 
 hoefer and others have all been accurately described by popular 
 writers, and it will suflice for present purposes to ])oint out that the 
 principal conditions to be realized with either lump or fines are : 
 
 First.— l^o generate and convey to the lead chambers a maxi- 
 mum of sulphurous acid and a minimum excess of atmospheric air. 
 
 Second. — A combustion so perfect that less than one per cent, 
 of sulphur shall remain in the cinder. 
 
 Third. — To avoid any distillation of the sulphur or the forma- 
 tion of ferrous sulphide (FeS). 
 
 The necessary oxidation of the iron and the consequent pro- 
 ])ortionate increase of the superfluous nitrogen carried by the air 
 in the mixture of gases, cause the volume of the latter, produced 
 by burning pyrites, to be much greater than that proceeding from 
 the combustion of pure brimstone, and it will be hence understood 
 that the proper regulation of the air-supply — important under any 
 conditions — is es})ecially so when pyrites are employed. 
 
 The gases derived from pyrites are knoM'n to move only at the 
 rate of about one foot })er minute, and it therefore follows that lliey 
 remain sufticiently long in the chambers to become so intimately 
 and thoroughly mixed that any attem])t to give a specific direc- 
 tion, either to the manner of their entry or their exit, becomes 
 unnecessary. 
 
 According to theory, only three molecules of oxygen need to 
 be admitted into the furnaces, two for tlie formation of sulphurous 
 acid and the third to transform the latter into lIjSO^. For one 
 kilogramme of ordinary brimstone this would requii'e 1500 
 grammes or 1055 litres of oxygen, or 5275 litres of atmospheric 
 air ; the amount of air necessitated by burning the same quantity 
 of sul])liur in iron pyrites being, according to the same calculation, 
 6595 litres. 
 
 In practical industry, however, IMr. Sclnvarzenberg has shown 
 that these figures do not suffice, and that it is necessary to intro- 
 
The Phosphates of America. 89 
 
 dnce 6199 litres of dry air in the case of brimstone and 8114.9 
 litres in the case of pyrites, each being calculated on the basis of 
 0° C. and a barometric pressure of 760 millimetres. These figures 
 serve to demonstrate that the quantity of sulphur to be profitably 
 burned jier cubic foot of chamber space will fluctuate with the 
 higher or lower situation of the works. 
 
 The ingenious differential anemometer invented by Pedes and 
 modified by Fletcher, and the beautiful and simple apparatus for 
 analyzing the chamber gases designed by Orsat, have so facilitated 
 the general process that an exactly proportioned current of air 
 may now be measured out to meet the varying requirements of 
 both situation and material employed. An exanii)le of this is 
 afforded by Buchner's cai'cful analyses, which show that the 
 quantity of sulphurous-acid gas passed from the burners to the 
 chambers varies from six to eight per cent., according to the nature 
 of the pyrites, the construction of the furnace and the manage- 
 ment of the air-supply. Ilis greatest average by careful working 
 was as follows : Sul])hurous acid, 6.07 ; oxygen, 7. 18 ; nitrogen, 
 86.74. The sulphurous acid requiring only 3.03 volumes of oxygen 
 for its transformation into H2SO4, it will be seen that after sub- 
 tracting this quantity from the above total there still remained 
 4.15 volumes to pass away with the nitrogen into the atmosphere, 
 and the greatest watchfulness should be invariably observed by 
 chamber managers to keej) as nearly as possible within these 
 proportions. 
 
 In some of the works where pyrites ores are burned, it is 
 still customary not to convey the hot gases from the burners 
 directly to the chambers, but to previously cool and at the same 
 time cleanse them from the dust by which they are generally ac- 
 companied by causing them to pass from the flues into an upright 
 brick stack, carried from an independent foundation to about 10 
 feet above the level of the furnace arch. From this they enter a 
 range of cast-iron pipes 2 feet 6 inches in diameter and 27 feet 
 long, in three lengths, cast in two halves, and each provided with 
 a man-hole to facilitate cleaning. 
 
 These pipes are fitted into a tunnel of lead 5 feet square and 
 40 feet long, connected at its opposite extremity with the acid 
 chamber by a seven-pound sheet-lead pipe of about 1^- feet in 
 diameter. 
 
 Intelligent and thoughtful managers have now discarded this 
 antiquated system in favor of a far simpler and more rational 
 
90 The FJwsphaies of America. 
 
 arrangement of their plant, which we have endeavored to broadly 
 outline in our illustration on opposite page, and at which a critical 
 glance will he interesting. 
 
 Acid ChamhevK. — The (?nbject of chamber construction is well 
 worn, if not exhausted ; their form and size have long been bones 
 of contention over which certain wiseacres, with plenty of time for 
 useless discussion, have growled ad 'nauseam. After a very varied 
 experience and careful inspection of many working systems, Ave 
 have concluded that the required object — i.e., the jiroper conden- 
 sation of the gases — can take place equally well in one large cham- 
 ber as in a series of two or three, and that a choice of either is 
 essentially a matter of personal taste and personal opinion. A 
 very excellent arrangement will be found to consist in a set of 
 two, adopting as favorable dimensions 125 feet long by 24 feet 
 Avide and 18 feet high. The connections are made by a fifteen to 
 eighteen inch diameter lead pipe hung from the roof, with a good 
 fall at its end to prevent the accumulation of any condensed acid. 
 
 As to the necessary thickness of lead, there is almost as much 
 diversity of ojDinion as upon the dimensions of the chambers ; but 
 remembering that a good chamber, properly started and soundly 
 built, should last from ten to twelve years, a happy medium may 
 be attained in this direction by adopting seven-})ound lead for the 
 first and six-pound for the second. 
 
 The amount of chamber room should in no case be less than 
 20 cubic feet for every pound of sulphur consumed. 
 
 The pressure of steam should be as evenly distributed as possi- 
 ble, and the faulty system sometimes adopted of introducing it 
 from a single jet, which can only jjlay upon one portion of the 
 gases, must be carefully avoided. Since of every 100 tons of 
 chamber acid produced one-half consists only of water originally 
 injected in the form of steam, it has been urged by Dr. Sprengel 
 that this warm steam unnecessarily expands the bulk of the gases, 
 instead of lowering their temperature, and causing them to shrink 
 in volume. 
 
 To obviate this inconvenience he has therefore suggested the 
 use of a spray of cold water, to be forced into the chamber by a 
 pump of his own invention ; but the device, while ingenious, does 
 not work well and has not been generally adopted. 
 
 The preferred method is to inject steam into the entrance end 
 of the chamber and into its side rather more than half the way 
 alonjT. 
 
92 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 The surest means of accurately knowing what is going on iir 
 the chambers is afforded by the provision and maintenance in 
 proper condition of "drips" and "caps." This is a well-estab- 
 lished fact among old and expei-ienced acid-makers universally. 
 
 The best apparatus for taking drips consists of a small lead 
 dish placed within the chamber upon a 15-inch diameter earthen- 
 ware pipe, about 3 feet high, and at about 1^ feet from the side. 
 A small half-inch lead pipe, shaped like an S, is fixed into the bot- 
 tom of the dish and pierces the chamber side, setting with its 
 mouth over a leaden basin standing upon a leaden ledge outside. 
 The liquid acid passes as it is formed through the siphon, drips 
 into the basin and, overflowing upon the ledge, is carried back 
 again into the chamber by a small pipe. 
 
 • Two drips should be arranged in each chamber of the set, 
 at equal distances from each other, and the contents of the basins 
 will constantly represent the nature of the acid and indicate 
 its strength, nitrosity, etc., at any moment. Certain openings 
 should be left in each chamber ; a man -hole, and a small hole near 
 the end for sampling. A couple of Avindows Avill also be useful, 
 one fixed in the darkest side, about five feet from the ground, and 
 the other in a direct line with it npon the top. 
 
 The light shining through these windows reveals to an experi- 
 enced eye the exact condition of the gases. 
 
 The following indications are furnished by the caps of the 
 chambers as to what is going on within, and are worthy of note : 
 
 When one of those covering the first chamber is slightiy lifted 
 the gases should rush out with great force. This should become 
 less noticeable or almost disappear in the second chamber. 
 
 If the inside of the cap be quite dry and covered with small 
 crystals, which, upon being moistened, turn green, the evidence is 
 certain of an insufficiency of steam. 
 
 If, on the contrary, it be dripping wet, it is equally certain that 
 the steam is in excess, and in either case the remedy is obvious 
 and at hand. 
 
 Tile regulation of the supply of nitre, after that of the draught, 
 is an extremely im})ortant point, a mismanagement inevitably en- 
 tailing one of two evils : 
 
 First. — If the quantity supplied be too large it ruins the lead 
 and excludes all possibility of profitable working. 
 
 Second. — If the quantity be too small there is an inevitable 
 escape of sulphurous acid. 
 
The Phosphates of America. 93 
 
 Volumes might still be devoted to a discussion of the reactions 
 which go on between the gases in the chambers, and, from a truly 
 scientific point of view, few questions are of a more absorbingly 
 interesting nature. Our present purpose, however, of pointing out 
 how to avoid accidents or trouble in what is really, when properly 
 understood, a very simple and natural process, will best be served 
 by briefly summarizing a few leading facts. 
 
 The nitric acid used in the process plays no other part, as we 
 have previously explained, than that of carrying from the oxygen 
 of the air to the sulphurous acid, the necessary atom of the former 
 "by which, with water, its transformation into sulphuric acid is 
 effected, and consequently whatever be the manner of its entry, it 
 is eventually discharged from the chambers in its original form. 
 This being allowed, it becomes immaterial whether io is intro- 
 duced directly and separately into the chambers, as is customary 
 in many large European Avorks, by means Avhich have frequently 
 Ijeen described, or whether it is sent in by the older, more econom- 
 ical, and certainly simpler system of "potting." 
 
 If the gases reach the chambers with a due excess of oxygen 
 and there meet with a sufficiency of steam, none of the nitrogenous 
 compounds will disappear. 
 
 Should steam, however, be absent, there must naturally be 
 formed a nitro-sulphuric compound, which will prevent any reac- 
 tion between the sulphurous acid and the oxygen by using up the 
 nitrogen for its own condensation. 
 
 If the entering gases are deficient in oxygen, no sulphuric acid 
 can be formed, owing to the fact that the nitrogen compounds are 
 reduced in rapid succession to bioxido and protoxide. If, on the 
 other hand, they contain too little sulphurous acid, the nitrogen 
 compounds are transformed into nitric acid by the steam, and in 
 this state exercise a violent and destructive action on the lead. 
 
 With the display of only ordinary care and intelligence, how- 
 ever, there should be little chance for any of these mishaps, and a 
 simple glance at regular intervals through the side windows or a 
 slight removal of the caps will always insure against them. 
 
 The gases in the first working chamber must invariably be 
 white, while those issuing from the last cap of the second chamber 
 must be of a very deep red and emit strong nitrous fumes. 
 
 We know from experience that the gases allowed to pass away 
 from well-managed factories do not contain more than a maximum 
 of five per cent, of oxygen, and we also know that when the red 
 
94 
 
 The Plio^iiliates of America. 
 
 color of the last chamber lessens or fades away, it is because of the 
 presence of sulphurous acid, which, if it were allowed to pass into 
 the absorbing tower, would not only denitrate the nitrous acid, 
 but would cause the dissipation of all the recoverable nitrogen 
 compounds. 
 
 A sufficient attention to details which, if small in themselves, 
 are of the highest importance to the re- 
 sults, will bring a set of chambers in a very 
 short time to a state of perfect working 
 order, but it is positively essential that the 
 operations be presided over by a competent 
 suj^erintendent, who, in addition to a fre- 
 quent examination of the furnace cinders 
 as a check upon the burning of the ores, 
 should also determine by a rough analysis 
 of the gases every day at their entry into, 
 as well as at their exit from, the cliambers, 
 the approximate quantity of sulphurous acid 
 contained in the one case and the amount 
 of oxygen in the other. 
 
 E 
 
 VT^TJS^ 
 
 
 
 'a 
 
 ti'i'r^rfii^ 
 
 r^^^^^^ 
 
 n 
 
 
 GAY-LUSSAC TOWERS. 
 
 Tlie solubility of nitrous acid in oil of 
 vitrit)! containing less than four molecules 
 of Avater was first taken advantage of by 
 the distinguished French chemist. Gay Lus- 
 sac, who invented the columns which bear 
 liis name, and with which even those who 
 still disdain their use are not unfamiliar. 
 The tower shown in the figure is a very prac- 
 tical form, and it must be built of eight- 
 pound sheet-lead and should be from 40 to 
 50 feet in height, with an interior diameter 
 of from 5 to 6 feet, or such other dimension* 
 as are necessary to insure a cubical ca- 
 I)acity of about two i)er cent, of the entire 
 chamber s])ace. 
 
 Either a briek or a wooden framework 
 may serve as a support, but the foundation 
 must be solid and the tower itself kept 
 
 SECTIONAL VIEW OF 
 GAY LUSSAC OR ABSORB- . 
 
 iNG TOWER. plumb aiul completely accessible to the air 
 
The Phosphates of America. 95 
 
 The packing must be carefully attended to, the proper plan 
 being to commence with a few of the best tire-bricks at the bottom,, 
 following this with a couple of feet of large, chemically clean,, 
 pure flints, and finishing up with large lumps of hard-burnt oven (not 
 gas) coke, the latter being not only an admirable absorbent, but 
 also extremely cheap and sufficiently light to obviate any danger 
 from lateral pressure. Into the exit-pipe are fitted very small 
 glass windows, through which it will be satisfactory occasionally 
 to note that the escaping gases yield no red fumes by contact with 
 the air. A few feet above the tower is placed a cistern, which, by 
 means of a properly regulated tap, supplies the cold, absorbing- 
 sulphuric acid of a strength equal to 62° B., and the great point 
 to be attained is the maintenance of such a perfect and equal dis- 
 tribution in the form of a drizzling rain that not a particle of 
 the ascending gases may escape its contact. A convenient sam- 
 pling arrangement is connected with the tank at the bottom, and 
 the nitrous vitriol is frequently tested by adding to a small sample 
 a quantity of very cold water, when, if the absorption has been 
 complete, large volumes of red fumes will be thrown off. The 
 liquid is jiumped from the tank to the Glover tower by means of 
 the " egg," as hereafter described. 
 
 THE GLOVER TOWER. 
 
 This remarkably ingenious and valuable addition to the sulphu- 
 ric-acid plant is named after its disinterested inventor, Mr. John 
 Glover, an English chemist, and is to be shortly but accurately de- 
 scribed as — 
 
 First. — A most perfect, raj^id, and economical concentrator of 
 chamber acid. 
 
 Second. — An absolute denitrator of the nitrous vitriol. 
 
 Third. — An adjunct sine qua non to the Gay Lussac tower. 
 
 That it should still be far from imiversally used or even known 
 in this country is an extraordinary and regrettable fact, which 
 affords sufficient reason for here devoting a certain space to an ex- 
 position of its value. 
 
 The erection of a Glover tower, while not a difficult matter, 
 nevertheless requires very careful study, sound judgment and 
 considerable knowledge of the functions it is expected to fulfil. 
 
 Occupying an intermediate position between the pyrites furnace* 
 and the chambers, it receives the whole of the sulphurous and ni- 
 trous gases arising from the combustion. With a height of .30 feet 
 
96 
 
 Tlie Fhos2)hafes of Amei'ica. 
 
 for lump pyi'ites and about 40 feet for " smalls," and an external 
 diameter of 10 feet S(j[uare, its foundation must be solid and its outer 
 fi'amework offer no impediment to a free circulation of the air. 
 A very good form is shown in the accompanying illustration, and 
 
 ft 
 
 a 
 
 
 I , i 
 
 1). ;l 
 
 r-"T^I'"T.^.L_^ 
 
 -^ 
 
 SECTIONAL VIEWS OF THE "CLOVER"' OR DENITRATINQ TOWER. 
 
 its construction is extremely simple. It has a framework of iron, 
 lined throughout with twelve-])Ound sheet-lead Avithout cross-joints. 
 This is in its turn lined with small glass cubes and pounded glass- 
 filling, to a thickness varying from a foot to a foot and a half. The 
 
The Pliospliates of America. 97 
 
 dish destined to receive the hot concentrated acid must be of twenty- 
 five pound lead and have a well-formed lip, a loose sheet of lead 
 being placed over its bottom to prevent injury from the linings. 
 The cast-iron gas-pijje leading from the furnace projects a little 
 above the dish some 8 or 9 inches into the tower, and directly be- 
 neath an arch built either of pure quartz or glass bricks, levelled up 
 Avith small lumps of pure silica or the broken-up ends of old bottles. 
 Upon this arch comes the packing, and here we enter into the 
 dangerous domain of discussion and disagreement, where, while 
 all managers agree in admitting the utility of the tower, all have 
 pet theories as to the manner in which it is to be lined and packed 
 in order to wear well and be turned to i^rofitable account. 
 
 In a tower which has now been continually at work for nearly 
 four years, and Avith which we are well acquainted, there are first 
 placed upon the arch about 8 feet of open packing, with first-class 
 fire-bricks, into the interstices of which is loosely distributed a 
 sufiicient quantity of minute siliceous pebbles. 
 
 Next comes about 3^ feet of chemically clean and jDure flints of 
 moderate size, and finally, up to wathin about five feet of the cover 
 (which, together with the distributing apparatus, is the same as 
 that described in the Gay-Lussac tower) come successive layers 
 of the best hand-picked hard-burned oven-coke. 
 
 Immediately below the cover is an exit-pipe 3 feet in diameter, 
 leading to the chamber with a considerable fall, while upon the 
 to23 of the tower are two tanks i^laced side by side and suitably 
 covered, but accessible to the cooling influence of the air. Into 
 one of these tanks is pumped the whole of the acid from the Gay- 
 Lussac tower, as we previously remarked, and into the other all or 
 any part of the 50° B. acid from the lead chambers. 
 
 Pipes lead from each tank to a reaction wheel imder the cover of 
 the tower, whence, with the same cautious observance of minute 
 and equal distribution already insisted upon in the case of the 
 Gay-Lussac tower, the two liquids, made to meet and combine in 
 equal proportions, trickle downwards. 
 
 We have seen that the acids from the chambers and the bottom 
 tanks must be continually hoisted to the cistern on the summit of 
 the towers, and it has been demonstrated that compressed air will 
 carry them to any height, while exercising no decomposing action 
 on the liquids. 
 
 The description of siphon or " eg^ " (as it is commonly called) 
 
98 
 
 Tlie Phosphates of America. 
 
 best adapted to the piirjiose, is shown in the illustration, and is 
 made of thick cast-iron, shaped something like an English soda- 
 water bottle. 
 
 It is placed in position iipon a somewhat lower level than the 
 bottom tanks, requires no lead lining, and is closed at one end by 
 a man-hole door of wrought-iron. On its top side are provided 
 three flanged openings fitted with a corresponding number of pipes 
 
 ACID-SIPHON, OR "EGG." 
 
 — one for the blower, one for the acid charger, and the third, Avhich 
 extends right through to a hollowed-out space in the iinder side, for 
 delivery. Valves and cushions are fitted to the pipes leading from 
 the tanks to the main passage into the ogg, such main being also 
 provided with a perfect-fitting strong screw-valve and a long rod. 
 Near the bottom is a guide, the upper part of which traverses a 
 very strong wooden frame in which is fixed the screw-worm, and 
 having upon its top a small hand- wheel. When ready to charge, this 
 valve is turned up and the cistern plug removed. When the egg 
 
Tlie Phosphates of America. 99 
 
 is full the cistern plug is reseated, and the screw-valve over the eg^ 
 iirmly fixed in its place. 
 
 The engine chosen for working the " egg " should have both a 
 steam and air cylinder, Avorked with a direct stroke, and should be 
 constructed to force acid through the delivery-pipe to the required 
 height with ease and freedom. 
 
 The whole pumping-gear must be kept scrupulously clean and 
 in good repair, and it is a wise measure of precaution to provide 
 two " eggs " for each set of towers, so as to avoid, in case of a break- 
 down, any stoppage of the jjrocess. 
 
 As the absorbing powers of concentrated sulphuric acid are 
 known to become less, proportionately, with the increase in its tem- 
 l^erature, the absolute necessity for effectually cooling that which 
 runs from the Glover before passing it on to the Gay-Lussac tower 
 need hardly be insisted upon. 
 
 A sufficiently long leaden worm jjipe immersed in Avater, kept 
 constantly cold, will answer all purposes. 
 
 The action which takes place in the denitrating column is ex- 
 tremely complicated. 
 
 Briefly stated, it may be said that the gases from the furnaces 
 and the nitre-pots jjass into and up the column at a temperature of 
 from 900° to 1000° F., being met and traversed in their course 
 by the fine down-pouring rain of acid proceeding from the two 
 cisterns placed over its summit. 
 
 There thus simultaneously ensues a thorough denitration and 
 concentration ; the nitrous compounds given oft" by the acid from 
 the Gay-Lussac tower and the steam resulting from the evaj)oration 
 of the weak acid are both carried by the thoroughly cooled furnace 
 gases into the chamber, the acid flowing into the bottom cistern 
 being concentrated by the loss of its waiter to from 62° to 63° B. 
 
 The proper position naturally indicated for a Glover tower, 
 therefore, is, as we have shoAvn in our plan, as close a prox- 
 imity to the burners as may be compatible with perfect safety from 
 fire, since the hotter the gases, the greater will be the evaporation 
 and the higher the degree of concentration of the acid flowing 
 through it. 
 
 Some ten years ago Mr. Scheurer-Kestner pointed out that 
 during the combustion of pyrites, there is formed in the furnace a 
 large quantity of sulphuric anhydride which, being carried into the 
 denitrator with the other gases, is presumably responsible, by its. 
 
lUO Tlie Phosphates of America. 
 
 corrosive action, for the rapid tleeomposition of the fire-bricks 
 generally used for the base of the interior lining. Having con- 
 tinued his experiment up to recent times, the same distinguished 
 author has published further and still more elaborate analyses, 
 entirely confirmatory of his first discovery, and, as incontro- 
 vertible evidence, proves that the addition to a sulphuric-acid 
 plant of a GloA^er tower, invariably results in an augmentatlo)i 
 of production amounting^ according to its dimensions and the 
 excellence of its construction, to from ten to twenty 2^^^' c^^tt., xcith 
 no increase in the material employed. 
 
 His operations Avere conducted in his own works, at Tliann, 
 with shelf-burners, consuming 54 tons of pyrites — " fines " aver- 
 aging forty-eight jjer cent, sulphur — daily. The whole of the 
 acid produced in the chambers was passed through the Glover 
 tower, where an evaporation of no less than 3|^ tons of water was 
 noted in every twenty-four hours. Starting with an accurate 
 knowledge of the quantities contained in the chamber, tanks and 
 various apparatus, the total daily production Avas accurately re- 
 corded during a period of sixteen days, at the end of which mat- 
 ters were so arranged as to be exactly in the same position as they 
 were at the commencement of the experiment. 
 
 Of the 96 tons of 66° B. acid obtained, 15.152 tons, or 15.70 
 ])er cent., must have been formed in the tower. A second experi- 
 ment, by what may be termed an indirect method, confirmed this 
 result. 
 
 In this case the exact quantitj^ of sulphuric acid condensed in 
 the leaden chambers was accurately determined, with an absolute 
 previous knowledge of what should be theoretically yielded from 
 the amount of })yrites burned. The difference between this quan- 
 tity, and that actually obtained, represented the excess formed or 
 condensed in the Glover tower. Thus: 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Sulphuric acid of 66° B. produced ' 48. 300 
 
 Sulpliuric acid of 66° B. condensed in the chamber 40.378 
 
 Difference representing the acid formed in the Glover tower . 7 . 922 
 Or 16.30 per cent 
 
 To these figures must be added the sulphuric acid which, pass- 
 ing with the gases through the tower in a state of vapor, was con- 
 densed in the connection-pipe. This being daily and exactly 
 
The Phosphates of America. 101 
 
 measured during the course of each experiment, was found to 
 represent from two, to two and a half per cent, of the whole prod- 
 uct, the entire gain being thus brought up to the extraordinary 
 total of about eighteen per cent. Mr. Scheurer-Kestner is proba- 
 bly one of the best manufacturing chemists in the world, and as a 
 shrewd man of business, he supplements his theory by a very solid 
 and practical final piece of evidence. 
 
 Using his own words, he 'says that before the Glover tower was 
 erected in his works at Thann, his sets of chambers produced in 
 each twenty-four hours six tons of oil of vitriol on the basis of 66° 
 Beaume. Ever since the tower has been adopted and brought to 
 proper working order, the production has been increased to 7.280 
 tons. The difference, 7.280 — 6.000 = 1.280, in actual practical 
 working, therefore, represents seventeen and a half per cent, of his 
 total output. 
 
 Mr. Scheurer-Kestner attributes the formation of this sulphuric 
 acid, outside the leaden chamber, to a double origin, about one-half 
 being due to the anhydride produced during the combustion and 
 dissolved by the descending current of liquid in the tower, and the 
 other half being spontaneously formed by the action of the nitrous 
 compounds on the ascending sulphurous acid. 
 
 COSTS OF PRODUCTION. 
 
 From what has preceded it is perfectly clear that the actual 
 cost of suljDhuric acid entirely depends \\\io\\ three chief conditions: 
 
 First. — The price of sulphur. 
 
 Second. — The resources, adaptability and excellence of the 
 working plant. 
 
 Third. — The chemical, mechanical and, generally, industrial 
 skill of the working management. 
 
 It would, therefore, be obviously unfair to make any allowance 
 for short-comings which have no right to exist, and it Avill be wise, 
 in going into figures, to assume perfection in every detail. 
 
 A correct basis for calculation is furnished by Avhat is com- 
 monly known as chamber acid — that is to say, the product daily 
 formed in the chambers and subjected to no other concentration 
 than that by the Glover tower. With proper care it may be made 
 to average a gravity of say 52° Beaume, and for the decomposi- 
 tion of average natural phosphates no greater strength than this is 
 required. 
 
102 The Phosjiliatcs of America. 
 
 If tbe entire product from the chambers were put through 
 the Glover tower, the gravity could be run up to 60° or even 62° 
 13. and the concentrated liquid could be easily reduced to any 
 required strength by the addition of water, as shown by a table 
 in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 The composition of pure HjSO^ is made uj) of 81.63 parts of 
 sulphuric anhydride and 18.37 parts of water. 
 
 For every 100 pounds by weight it contains: 
 
 Hydrogen 2 . 041 pounds 
 
 Sulphur 33.653 " 
 
 Oxygen 66.306 " 
 
 Total 100 
 
 Hence the quantity of acid produced by 100 pounds of sul2)hur 
 should be: 
 
 Sulphur 100.00 pounds 
 
 Hydrogen 6.20 " 
 
 Oxygen 199.80 " 
 
 Total H2SO4 equals 306 
 
 In other words, one pound of sulphur, when properly burned, 
 theoretically yields 3.06 pounds of the monohydrate, with a 
 specific gravity of 1.842 at 15° C. and 66° according to 
 Beaume's hydrometer. In i)ractice, a regular average yield of 
 about 2.95 pounds of 66° Beaunie, or even 4.50 pounds of 52° 
 Beaumo, is considered an excellent result, and while the state- 
 ments of manufacturers Avho claim to do better than this must 
 be received Avith caution, it may nevertheless be laid down as an 
 axiom th&i from every pound of su^yhur really hunied, xchether 
 it he i)i the form of briniMone or of pyrites^^ the scone amount of 
 fiulphiiroKs-acid ga-% and consequently of sulphuric acid, will, 
 under all equal conditions, he produced. 
 
 A reference to the annexed analytical table will show the pro- 
 portion of sul})hur contained in the pyrites now mined and used in 
 this country. 
 
The Phosphates of America. 
 
 103 
 
 
 0> c\ 
 
 P -S H- 
 
 OJ H O 
 
 p_ — p 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 S- 3 S- 
 
 " CO o 
 
 vis min 
 zabeth 
 nt Law 
 
 p 
 ^ 3 
 
 
 
 •" 
 
 : 
 
 :: 
 
 C P B 
 
 (t) >^ p 
 
 ?= o 
 
 < 3- ^ 
 
 
 Linty, New Y 
 mine. Virgin 
 unty. North 
 
 e, Massachus 
 mine, Vermo 
 rence Count 
 
 ^^ 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 ^ p 
 - 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •D 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 p 
 
 ^■l 
 
 
 tc 
 
 CC 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 
 
 o 
 ■-s 
 
 
 
 to h-L 
 
 
 
 )^ 
 
 '0 
 
 ^ >;^ 
 
 +^rfxosa^*-ai-h(^oshf^ 
 
 39.1 
 46.0 
 44.0 
 
 CO 00 >t- 
 
 OS t)^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 to ai 
 
 X as 
 
 SipooppoopyT^ 
 35 I-' O O CO CT io o o 
 
 o o 'to 
 
 b b 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 SULPHUR. 
 
 l-t 
 
 *^ 
 
 o o 
 
 oc;»w^ooi-^oo 
 
 O C5 iO 
 
 O O -■"} 
 
 
 c+ 
 
 
 )^ 
 
 -1-1 
 
 OS OS 
 
 J5h(^*»*^>^-»4^0Sh^OS 
 
 OS t*^ OS 
 
 CO o» tt^ 
 
 CO *^ 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 ;o 
 
 3S OD 
 
 X'*^to*>-iooo'0^ 
 
 
 
 
 re 
 
 IRON. 
 
 
 ro 
 
 
 <? lO GO to or to to O O 
 
 O OT I-' 
 
 o o OS 
 
 OT o 
 
 00 
 
 o 
 
 o to 
 
 OOOOOWIOOOO 
 
 O O C3 
 
 o o o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r*- r*- 
 
 
 
 Tl 
 
 
 J-1 
 
 o 
 
 ; 
 
 ^ to M. CO OS to OS p? *^ 
 t3 f-J. bt to I-^ bi o o o 
 
 
 OS pj |_i 
 
 O OT j^ 
 
 p p 
 
 2 
 
 COPPER. 
 
 OS 
 
 o 
 
 
 (D OOOIOOOOO 
 
 K -Jl 
 
 
 
 ri- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lr^ 
 
 „ ci- 
 
 Tl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i-S 
 
 
 
 
 f* 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 o p 
 CO ?o 
 
 '-OBos'hf'.osop " 
 
 r r r 
 
 0) 
 
 cc 
 
 O P 
 
 a 
 
 ARSENIC. 
 
 h-^ 
 
 h-t 
 
 o w 
 
 ^ (c 00 -3 OS ^ (C 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ►D 
 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 
 4^ O 
 
 H-i : : p p ■ '. ■ 
 
 jo ■ ■ CO to • 
 
 
 
 00 hf^ 
 
 b b 
 
 2 
 
 ZINC. 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 o o 
 
 
 
 
 
 <:<■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • P 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o o 
 
 • • • P !~' • • • 
 
 
 
 • o 
 
 • P 
 
 
 LEAD. 
 
 • 
 
 rf^ 
 
 ZO -^ 
 
 CO oi • 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 o 
 
 to rP^ 
 
 OS to • 
 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 variabl 
 none 
 
 : : : 
 
 : : : 
 
 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 
 
 
 rt> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 <j 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 c-*- p 
 
 p g • 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 . . p ^ ., ., 3. ^ ^ 
 
 . . o .. - - p - - 
 
 ^ P-: 
 
 
 
 a> 
 
 SILVER. 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 n a' 
 
 (C cy • 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IT) 
 
 
 
 
 )^ . 
 
 o to Ol o O O . 00 . 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 CARBO- 
 
 
 . 
 
 -3 • 
 
 iO 0» O 05 OS CO • o • 
 
 
 
 
 
 NATE LIME 
 
 • 
 
 ' 
 
 ox • 
 
 O O CO 00 -3 O ' O • 
 
 
 
 
 r* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nj 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 o . 
 
 '.'.'.'.<=>'.'.'.'. 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 SULPHATE 
 
 . 
 
 
 OJ • 
 
 c? • • • • 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 
 
 LIME. 
 
 * 
 
 ' 
 
 at 
 
 • • • • o • • • • 
 
 
 
 
 r* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ►fl 
 
 CARBO- 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 NATE 
 
 
 
 §: 
 
 • • • to 
 
 ot 
 
 
 
 • • 
 
 3 
 
 MAGNESIA. 
 
 
 ro 
 
 ^^ 
 
 h-l. h-l. 1-1. I_l l_i 
 
 to to 
 
 to 1-^ 
 
 to 
 
 ffl 
 
 
 »^ 
 
 o 
 
 lo 00 
 
 OS OS to to to CO CO to 00 
 
 O --3 Ci 
 
 oi OS OS 
 
 h^ 05 
 
 o 
 
 SILICA, 
 
 -5 
 
 <-> 
 
 >t». l-i 
 
 wojoiOTto^^if^oo 
 
 O t4^ C5 
 
 O or 00 
 
 Or lO 
 
 
 -J 
 
 OS 
 
 -^J o 
 
 OCJT05C0OC5C0OO 
 
 O O CO 
 
 
 
 .■^ 
 
 
104 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 From these figures it will a])pear that the average may be 
 safely taken at forty-six per ceiil. of sulphur, and of this amount, a 
 varied experience has demonstrated tliat at least six per cent, are 
 generally unavailable and should therefore be regarded as loss. 
 
 The prices of raw material given in the following table are in- 
 tended to cover all costs of delivery to works in readily accessible 
 shipping ports, and are based, not upon the high values now pre- 
 vailing for brimstone and communicated to it by speculation, but 
 upon the average prices which have prevailed during the past live 
 years. 
 
 In the pyrites estimate, considerable additions have been made 
 to the items of nitre and labor, and it lias been considered wise in 
 both cases to write off the whole value represented by the works 
 in ten years, experience of this system in practice having proved 
 highly satisfactory. 
 
 Despite sundry drawbacks the balance of advantage is un- 
 equivocally shown to be on the side of the pyrites, even when 
 utilized at centres so far distant frojn the sources of production as 
 to entail a very heavy freight. 
 
 TABLE OF COMPARISON SHOWING THE ACTUAL COST OF PRODUCING ONE 
 TON OF 53° BEAUME SULPHURIC ACID FROM BRIMSTONE AND PYRITES 
 IN ACCESSIBLE SHIPPING PORTS. 
 
 Brimstone (short tons). 
 
 1 ton of brimstone (98 per cent. S.l thirds, at |31 $31.00 
 
 50 lbs. of nitrate of soda, at 2i coiits i)er lb 1 . 35 
 
 500 lbs. coals, at, say, $4 per ton 1 .00 
 
 Workmen's wages 2.35 
 
 Superintendence and management 3.00 
 
 General jobbing repairs 50 
 
 Interest on capital of |75,000 at 10 ;,' per year, the works be- 
 ing calculated to produce 30 tons daily and to hist for 
 
 ten years 4 . 60 
 
 Total $33 . 60 
 
 Product equals 4^^ tons of 53° B. Cost per ton. ... $7.65 
 
 Pyrites (short tons). 
 
 2^ tons of iron pyrites at 46 per cent, sulphur, at 13 cents 
 
 per unit and per ton $13.80 
 
 60 lbs. nitrate of soda, at 3^ cents per lb 1 .50 
 
 500 lbs. of coals, at, say, $4 per ton 1 .00 
 
 Workmen's wages 3 . 00 
 
Tlie Phosphates of America. 105 
 
 Superintendence and management 2.00 
 
 General jobbing repairs 60 
 
 Interest on capital, same terms as above 4 . 60 
 
 Total $26.50 
 
 Product equals 4| tons of 50° B. Cost per ton f 5 . 90 
 
 We have already hinted at the feasibility of manufacturings 
 the acid in the vicinity of the pyrites mines, but have not for- 
 gotten to add that its practicability must be established by clearly 
 demonstrating that the cost of carrying phosphates or 66° B. acid 
 is less than the freights now paid upon the jDyrites ore. 
 
 The problem deserves to be inquired into by capitalists, since 
 its favorable solution would still more reduce costs, as follows : 
 
 COST OP ACID PRODUCTION AT THE MINES. 
 2^ tons of iron pyrites, containing- 46 per cent, sulphur, at 
 
 a maximum of 5 cents per unit delivered at the works. $5.75 
 Other charges, same as given in preceding table 12.70 
 
 Total cost of 4i tons 50° B. acid $18.45 
 
 Cost per ton $4.10 
 
 To put it plainly, the manufacturer at the mines would be 
 working upon sulphur which, on an exactly equivalent chemical 
 basis of calculation, would cost him $15.25 less per ton than the 
 pi'ice paid for brimstone by his competitors. 
 
106 The Phosphates of America, 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE MANUFACTURE OF SUPERPHOSPHATE, PHOSPHORIC ACID, 
 AND " HIGH-GRADE SUPERS." 
 
 The process of superphosphate manufacture from mineral 
 phosphates is not very generally understood, and while neither 
 very complicated nor difficult, requires a certain amount of 
 chemical knowledge and experience which the majority of those 
 concerned in it do not possess. Hence it follows that no article 
 iA the market is more variable, both in its physical condition and 
 chemical composition. 
 
 Nor can this remain a source of surprise when we remember 
 that each manufacturer adopts some peculiar system of his own, 
 and that no two fertilizer factories bear any resemblance to each 
 other. 
 
 We have seen that raw phosphates, whether of animal or 
 mineral origin, are made up of three molecules or parts of lime 
 (CaO) combined Avith one molecule or part of phosphoric anhy- 
 dride (Po^s)- "^^^ words acid phos])hate, superphosphate, water- 
 soluble phosphate, are all used to describe a product obtained by 
 treating these raw phosphatic materials with a sufficient propor- 
 tion of sulphuric acid to transform two out of their three mole- 
 cules of lime into sulphate of lime or gypsum (CaSO^). 
 
 To the lay reader, the chemistry of the mixture will be more 
 readily understood if we briefly explain, that when a piece of pure 
 ])hosphorus is burnt in contact with dry air it gives off vapors, 
 every two atoms of which combine with five atoms of atmospheric 
 oxygen to form a snow-white powder. This powder is the phos- 
 phoric anhydride above alluded to, and it has a molecular weight 
 of 142. Its chief characteristic is its attraction for water, and if 
 left temporarily exposed to the air it rapidly deliquesces. 
 
 In this moist state it is found to have combined Avith water in 
 the molecular ratio of 1:3, and its comi)ositioii has become 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride (PgOg) 1 mol. = 142 by weight. 
 
 Water (HgO) 3 mols. ^. 54 " 
 
 Or, Phosphoric acid (HsPO^) 2 mols. = 196 « 
 
 • In other words, every 100 parts of it contain 
 
The Phosphates of America. 
 
 10-^ 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride (PoOg) 73.45 
 
 Water (H3O) '. 37.55 
 
 100 
 
 And it may be regarded as typical of the tribasic combination 
 in which the anhydride is always encountered in nature. 
 
 It has the faculty of exchanging one, two, or all three of its 
 water-molecules, for molecules of various bases, and thus we are 
 quite familiar with it as 
 
 CaO(HoO)3PoOg, or acid phosphate 0/ lime, in which it has 
 taken one molecule of lime in place of one molecule of water ; 
 
 {CsiO)^}IoO Po^s' ^^" *>^^^ft^<^(t phosphate of lime, in which it 
 has taken two molecules of lime in place of two molecules of 
 water ; and 
 
 (CaO)3PgOg, or tribasic phosphate of lime, in which all the 
 water-molecules have been displaced by lime. 
 
 The first of these compounds is soluble in water. 
 
 The second insoluble in water but soluble in neutral citrate of 
 ammonia. 
 
 The thii'd is only soluble in strong acids. 
 
 When quite pure, every 100 parts of each of them is made 
 up of — 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride (PoOg) 
 
 Lime (CaO) 
 
 Water (HgO) 
 
 Acid Phos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 60.68 
 33.93 
 15.39 
 
 100 
 
 Neutral 
 Phos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 53.20 
 
 41 .18 
 
 6.63 
 
 100 
 
 Tribasic 
 
 Phos- 
 phate of 
 Lime. 
 
 45.81 
 
 54.19 
 
 100 
 
 The tricalcic or last of these compounds is the phosphate of 
 lime which occurs in the deposits we have been engaged in con- 
 sidering, and the problem of making it soluble in water or in 
 neutral citrate of ammonia has been worked out by chemists on 
 the following basis : 
 
 Sulphuric acid is known to be more energetic in its action at 
 ordinary temperatures than any other acid used in industry. It 
 therefore has the power of displacing all other acids from their 
 salts and of taking their bases to itself to form sulphates. 
 
 The acids chiefly present in natural phosphates are phosphoric, 
 carbonic, fluoric and silicic, and these, when brought into contact 
 
108 The PhospJuctes of America. 
 
 with diluted sulphuric acid, are all dislodged. The bases become 
 sulphates. The phosphoric anhydride combines with Avater and 
 remains in the mass as free phosphoric acid, while the carbonic, 
 fluoric, and part of the silicic acids, go off as vapor, the two latter 
 generally combined in the very poisonous form of silicon tetra- 
 fluoride. In the manufacture of fertilizers, however, as at present 
 carried out, the object is not to produce free phosphoric acid, but 
 "ac^V7j^:)/io.<!Jt?/ia^e," since, as we have already seen, this latter salt is * 
 quite soluble in water, and therefore can fulfil all the conditions 
 that are deemed by some authorities to be essential in a plant food. 
 It hence follows that the substitution of the bases must not be 
 complete, but must be only carried to a sufficient point to displace 
 all foreign acids, and to saturate two out of the three molecules of 
 the lime combined with phosphoric anhydride. 
 
 Lest this proposition should ap])ear too complicated, we may 
 endeavor to make it more clear by an example, in which we shall 
 assume that we are called upon to deal with a Florida phosphate, 
 the composition of which has been determined by chemical analy- 
 sis to be as follows : 
 
 Moisture and organic matter 3.90 
 
 Tribasic phosphate of lime 79.40 (equal to 36.43 P0O5) 
 
 Carbonate ol' lime 5.48 
 
 Phospliates of iron and alumina. . . 3.00 (equal to about 1.50 P2O5) 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 0.72 
 
 Sulphate and fluoride of lime 3.20 
 
 Sandy matters, silicates, etc 4.30 
 
 100 
 
 The sulphuric acid known as "chamber acicV^ when measured 
 with Beaume's hydrometer at a temperature of 60° F., contains the 
 following percentages of sulphuric anhydride (SO3) and pure mono- 
 hydrate (H2SO,) : 
 
 Degrees Beaumt Percentage of Percentage of 
 
 at 60° F. SO^ (Anhydride) H^SO,, (Monohydrate). 
 
 48 48.70 59.63 
 
 49 49.80 61.00 
 
 50 51.00 62.47 
 
 51 53.20 63.94 
 
 52 53.50 65.53 
 
 53 54.90 67.30 
 
 54 56.00 68.60 
 
 55 57.10 69.94 
 
The Fhosjjhates of America. 
 
 109 
 
 With the analysis and this table before us, we may proceed to 
 find out in what proportions the powder and the liquid must be 
 brought together to transform the insoluble phosphates into a 
 water or citrate soluble form, and we acquire this knowledge by 
 resorting to an equation, which we will endeavor, as an example, 
 to produce in its simplest expression : 
 
 Molecular Weights. 
 
 310 196 
 
 CagPoOg + SH.,SO^ = 2CaS04 + CaH^PsOg 
 
 1 molecule of tri- + 2 molecules of = 2 molecules gyp- + 1 molecule of 
 basic phosphate of monohydrate sum "super" or 
 
 lime sulphuric acid acid-calcic 
 
 phosphate. 
 
 Molecular Weights. 
 
 100 98 
 
 CaCOj + H8SO4 =-- CaSO^ + COg 4- H^O 
 
 1 molecule of + 1 molecule of = 1 molecule + 1 molecule 4- 1 molecule 
 
 carbonate of monohy- of gypsum of carbon- o f water 
 
 lime dratesulphu- ic-acidgas or steam. 
 
 ric ac'd 
 
 Molecular Weights. 
 
 245 
 
 (AlPO;)^ 
 
 1 molecule of 
 
 phosphate o f 
 
 alumina 
 
 294 
 3H.SO, = AL(S04)3 
 
 3 molecules of = 1 molecule of 
 monohy d r a t e sulphate of alu- 
 sulphuric acid mina 
 
 + 
 
 (H3P04)2 
 
 2 m o 1 e c u le s 
 phosphoric acid. 
 
 Molecular Weights. 
 
 803 294 
 
 (FePO^), + 3HsS0, = Fea(S04)3 + (HgPOJa 
 
 1 molecule of + 3 molecules of = 1 molecule of + 2 molecules 
 phosphate o f monohy d r a t e ferric sulphate phosphoric acid, 
 iron sulphuric acid 
 
 Molecular Weights. 
 
 84 98 
 
 MgCOg + HgSO^ 
 1 molecule + 1 molecule 
 carbonate of monohy- 
 of mag- drate sul- 
 nesia phuric acid 
 
 MgSO, + 
 1 molecule -t- 
 sulphate of 
 magnesia 
 
 CO3 + HjO 
 1 molecule + 1 molecule 
 carbonic- water (or 
 acid gas steam). 
 
110 
 
 The Pliosphates of America. 
 
 Mdecidar Weights. 
 
 78 98 
 
 CaF, + H3SO4 = CaS04 + 2HP 
 
 1 molecule of + 1 molecule of = 1 molecule of + 2 molecules of 
 
 calcium fluor- m o n o h ydrate gypsum hydrofluo ric 
 
 ide sulphuric acid acid. 
 
 If tJiree hvndred and ten parts of trihasic phosphate of lime 
 require one hundred and ninety-six parts of the pure monohydrate 
 of sidphuric anhydride (H2SO4) for its transformation into mono- 
 calcic or acid-phosphate, it follows that 1 part will require .632 
 parts of the acid. 
 
 Assuming the chamber a.cid we are called upon to use to be of 
 50° B. strength, we refer to our table and find that it contains 
 62.47 per cent, of pure HgSOi. The quantity of it to be taken as 
 an equivalent of .632 parts of the latter, therefore, is found by the 
 equation: 62.47 : 100 :: 0.632 a; = 1.012 parts, and this is the 
 method of calculation we must observe for all the bodies shoion to 
 exist in our sample of phosphate. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE QUANTITY OF CHAMBER SULPHURIC ACID OF VARIOUS STRENGTHS 
 -EXPRESSED IN POUNDS-REQUIRED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SUPERPHOSPHATE. 
 FROM NATURAL PHOSPHATES IN ORDER TO PRODUCE ACID-PHOSPHATE. 
 
 Every pound of 
 the following- 
 substances re- 
 quires — 
 
 Acid 
 at 
 
 48° B. 
 Pounds. 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 49° B. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 50° B. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 51° B. 
 Pounds 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 52° B. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 53° B. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 54° B. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 55° B. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Tribasic phos- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 phate of lime 
 
 1.060 
 
 1.036 
 
 1.012 
 
 .988 
 
 .965 
 
 .940 
 
 .921 
 
 .903 
 
 Carbonate of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lime 
 
 1.640 
 
 1.605 
 
 1.565 
 
 1.535 
 
 1.495 
 
 1.456 
 
 1.428 
 
 1.411 
 
 Phosphate of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 alumina 3.025 
 
 2.008 
 
 1.930 
 
 1.884 
 
 1.839 
 
 1.790 
 
 1.756 
 
 1.721 
 
 Phosphate of 
 iron 
 
 1.630 
 
 1.595 
 
 1.558 
 
 1.521 
 
 1.485 
 
 1.446 
 
 1.420 
 
 1.390 
 
 Carbonate of 
 
 magnesia.. . . 
 
 1.949 
 
 1.905 
 
 1.860 
 
 1.815 
 
 1.775 
 
 1.726 
 
 1.690 
 
 1.660 
 
 Fluoride of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lime 
 
 2.006 
 
 2.059 
 
 2.010 
 
 1.962 
 
 1.916 
 
 1.866 
 
 1.830 
 
 1.794 
 
 With a proper application of the data thus furnished there 
 should be no difficulty in dealing with any phosphatic material of 
 which the composition is accurately known, and it is only neces- 
 sary, in proof of this, to give one more illustration. 
 
 Returning to the phosphate we have already used, but assum- 
 
The Phosphates of America. Ill 
 
 ing for the sake of variety that our chamber acid is of 52° B. 
 strength instead of 50° B., we shall find that 
 
 79.40 lbs. phosphate Inne X .965 = 76.62 lbs. 
 
 5.48 " carbonate " Xl.495=: 8.19 " 
 
 3.00 " phosphatesof iron and alumina combined X 1.839 = 5.52 " 
 
 0.72 " carbonate of magnesia X 1-775= 1.28 " 
 
 8.20 " fluoride of calcium Xl.916= 6.13 " 
 
 The total quantity of 52" B. acid required for every 100 
 lbs. of raw material, in order to bring the insol- 
 uble phosphates into a soluble form, is tlierefore ... 97.74 " 
 
 It would thus appear to the unobserving, that a mixture of one 
 ton each of the raw materials i^roduces, after allowing for certain 
 losses in the fabrication — such as evaporation — about two tons of 
 fertilizer, and that we have gone to unnecessary trouble to dem- 
 onstrate a very simple fact. Such "rule-of -thumb" reasoning is 
 no doubt responsible for the many bad "supers" we meet with in 
 the trade, and the present is therefore the right time to ask what 
 kind of a fertilizer has been thus prepared. As a matter of abso- 
 lute fact, no question is so little understood by the majoritj' of 
 those who should be able to answer it, and yet no other is of so 
 much importance. 
 
 We have been taught by chemistry that certain qualities are 
 essential in a fertilizer in order that it may produce its results 
 with rapidity and economy. Without a sufficient knowledge of the 
 reactions involved, how can the possession of these qualities be in- 
 variably assured and conscientiously guaranteed? 
 
 Let us therefore examine a little more closely into the nature 
 of this very complicated bod3^ 
 
 As revealed to us in our own pj-actice and by the experience of 
 other chemists, there can be no reasonable doubt that the tricalcic 
 phosphates of minei-al origin, when treated with sulphuric acid, 
 become partially or wholly changed into three distinct forms : 
 
 1. Free phosphoric acid soluble in water. 
 
 2. Acid phosphate of lime soluble in water. 
 
 3. Neutral phos]jhate of lime insoluble in water, but readily 
 soluble in neutral citrate of ammonia. 
 
 There can also be no doubt that the nature and extent of this 
 change, as well as the physical condition of the mass resulting 
 from the mixture, Avill depend entirely upon two factors : 
 
 A. The skill and intelligence of the practical operatoi*. 
 
 JB. The nature and composition of the phosphate to be handled. 
 
112 The Pliosphates of America. 
 
 Assuming that A leaves nothing to be desired, the bulk of our 
 average raw phosphates still offers two difficulties of considerable 
 magnitude. If they are treated with the theoretical amount of 
 acid, as in our example, they may yield a wet, pasty mass or mud 
 "which can only be dried with difficulty, and which therefore remains 
 long unmarketable. If, on the other hand, something less than 
 the theoretical quantity of acid be taken, a certain proportion of 
 the substance remains unattacked and therefore becomes neither 
 "water" nor "citrate" soluble. This is because there is in their 
 composition, either a lack of some needed, or an excess of some 
 objectionable constituent, and we are hence led to quite naturally 
 inquire, what we are to regard as a defective ])hosphate. 
 
 The result of prolonged investigations pursued under many 
 and varying conditions has proved to us, that next to an insuffi- 
 ciency of the phosphoric acid itself, a lack or insufficiency of car- 
 bonate of lime is the most serious defect. This defect is aug- 
 mented in the presence of iron and alumina in any form. 
 
 In Europe, and especiallj'^ in England, high-grade phosphates 
 have great commercial value, but they lose part of it when the 
 oxides of iron and alumina, taken together, exceed three per cent. 
 This is because the market price of the English manufactured 
 fertilizer is made dependent upon its percentage of water-soluble 
 2)hosphoric acid, and because, even when all other conditions are 
 favorable, the presence of iron and alumina gradually causes 
 "water "-soluble to revert into "citrate "-soluble phosphates Avhen 
 kept for a short time ready made in the factory. When an acid of 
 greater average strength than 50° 13. is used for the attack on the 
 phosphate — and stronger acids are frequently necessary — free phos- 
 phoric acid is at first almost exclusively produced as a result of 
 the reaction. After a little time, when the temperature is at its 
 maximum, this free phosphoric acid commences to react upon the 
 undecom2)osed material, and first of all upon any iron and alumina 
 that may be present. Bodies insoluble in water result from this 
 reaction, and hence the English fertilizer makers studiously avoid 
 all mineral phosphates containing more than the stated maximum. 
 In this country we are not handicapped by any such foolish 
 prejudices. Our farmers are hard-headed and practical and have 
 no marked prefei'ence for water-soluble phosphoric acid. They 
 have been taught by theory and have proved by their own field 
 practice, that citrate-soluble phosphates are readily transformed 
 into plant food by the elements in the soil. This being the case, 
 
Tlie Phosphates of America. 113 
 
 all they ask of us is the maximum of " available phosphoric 
 acid'''' in a fine, dry and merchantable condition, and this we can 
 give them without difficulty and without regard to a few units 
 more or less of oxides of iron and alumina, by carefully regulat- 
 ing the percentage of carbonate of lime in our raw product. When 
 circumstances allow of this regulation, through the mixture of a 
 phosphate containing much carbonate, Avith another containing little 
 or none — as for instance, the blending of Canadian apatite with 
 Belgian cretaceous phosphates — we personally prefer that course, 
 but where such facilities are wanting, we invariably resort to the 
 addition of finely powdered chalk, or any other cheap and available 
 source of the carbonate. 
 
 This method of facilitating spontaneous dj-ying Avas suggested 
 by us to a few manufacturers some years ago, and has been depre- 
 cated and denounced as far too costly for general use. Those who 
 denounced it, however, have not yet made known a cheaper or more 
 practical plan, for the one which they proposed, of effecting the 
 drying by the application of external heat in ovens or on hot floors, 
 has invariably proved disastrous. How could it in fact do other- 
 wise, when we know that monocalcic or water-soluble phosphate 
 of lime cannot exist in any other than the hydrated state? 
 
 In making our proposal, we had borne in mind that this hydrated 
 state can only be preserved by spontaneous drying, and we had 
 experimented enough to know that this drying can only be easily 
 effected as we have described. AVe consequently can see no more 
 valid reason to-day than Ave could ten years ago, why, under proper 
 restrictions, the carbonate should not be used. 
 
 The difficulties of a manufacturer only commence Avlien he is 
 called upon to use a refractory raw material, and it is only under 
 such circumstances that he finds scope to develop the fertility of 
 his resources. If our mineral phosphates Avere not of ever-varying 
 composition, a knoAvledge of chemistry Avould not be so essential 
 to their treatment, but as the case stands Ave are helpless without 
 the assistance of the analyst. In his absence the manufacturer 
 gropes blindly in the dark, for he knows not what elements he is 
 mixing together and can predict nothing concerning the nature of 
 the compound that will result from their reactions on each other. 
 
 Figures, like actions, are more eloquent than words, and as our 
 assertions are made on the strength of our own A\'ork, we will close 
 this part of our argument by giving some examples that should 
 carry conviction. 
 
114 The PhospJiates of America. 
 
 The following experiments were made with Florida phosphate 
 containing as high as eight per cent, of iron and alumina. After 
 having been tried in several factories and pronounced worthless for 
 the purpose, they Avere finally made into superphosphates of excep- 
 tionally good quality. 
 
 The composition of the material was : 
 
 Phosphate of lime 81 . 10 (equal to 37.20 P^Ob) 
 
 Carbonate of hme 3.70 
 
 Oxides of iron and ahmiina (combined) 7.90 
 Moistui'e, insoluble, and undetermined 7.30 
 
 100 
 
 One hundred pounds of it were treated with 94 pounds of 55° B. 
 chamber acid, and one hour after the " super" had dropped into the 
 "den" a sample was drawn from various points, mixed, analyzed 
 and found to contain : 
 
 Total phosphoric anhydride soluble in liydrochloric acid. ... 20.01 < 
 Of which there was found to be 
 
 Water-soluble phosphoric anhydride 15.90 
 
 Citrate-soluble " " 16.30 
 
 At the end of ten days this " super " Avas still in the "den" 
 and in a very wet and unmanageable condition. Sampling and 
 analyses were repeated, and it was now found to contain : 
 
 Total phosphoric anhydride soluble in bydrocidoric acid. . . . 19.96 
 Of wliich there was found to be 
 
 Water-soluble phosphoric anhydride 15. 10 
 
 Citrate-soluble " " 17.01 
 
 Another batch was made with the same lot of j)hosphate after 
 adding to it eight per cent, by weight of very finely powdered chalk. 
 Upon analyses before treatment with acid it Avas now shown to 
 contain : 
 
 Phosphate of lime 75.03 (equal to 34.40 P2O5) 
 
 Carbonate of lime 10.72 
 
 Oxides of iron and ahunina (combined). 7 . 27 
 Moisture, insoluble, and undetermined 6 . 98 
 
 100 
 
 One hundred pounds were passed through a 70-mesh screen and 
 then worked up with 02 pounds of 55° B. chamber acid as before, and 
 dropped into the "den." At the end of an hour, when the sample 
 
Tlie PhospJintes of America. 115 
 
 was drawn as iu the last experimeut, it had ah-eady commenced to 
 "set," and the result of the analysis was : 
 
 Total phosphoi'ic anhydride sohible in hydrochloric acid. ... 18.97 
 Of wliich tliere was found to be 
 
 Water-soluble phosphoric adhydride 16 . 30 
 
 Citrate-soluble " " 18.10 
 
 At the end of thirty-six hours after mixing, it was dry enough to 
 be dug out of the " den " and was in a veiy porous and friable state, 
 the analysis at this time showing it to contain : 
 
 Total pliosphoric anhydride soluble ia hydrochloric acid. ... 19.19 
 Of which there was found to be 
 
 Water-soluble phosphoric anhydride 16. 17 
 
 Citrate-soluble " '' 18.53 
 
 The increase in the last figure was due to decrease in moisture. 
 
 In order to test the question of the advisability or otherwise of 
 using calcined phosphates from Florida, made by the prevailing 
 method of firing the material in heaps, a third experiment was 
 performed at the same works. Before treatment Avith acid the 
 finely comminuted material (70-mesh) was analyzed with the fol- 
 lowing result : 
 
 Phosphate of lime 77.18 (equal to 35.40 PoOj) 
 
 Carbonate of lime 3 . 64 
 
 Quick-lime , 4 . 65 
 
 Oxides of alumina and iron (combined) 7 . 53 
 
 Moisture, insoluble, and undetermined 7 . 00 
 
 100 
 
 After being worKed up with 92 pounds of 55° B. sulphuric acid 
 it M^as dropped into the " den " as usual, and sampled and analyzed 
 at the end of an hour, as in the other cases. It was still quite wet 
 and yielded : 
 
 Total phosphoric anhydride soluble in hydrochloric acid. ... 18.73 
 Of which tliere was found to be 
 
 Water-soluble phosphoric anhydride , » 15 . 54 
 
 Citrate-soluble " " 16.79 
 
 It was removed from the " den " on the eighth day after its manu- 
 facture, in a very damp and unsatisfactory condition, quite unfit 
 to pass through the pulverizer or to be put into bags. It yielded 
 on analysis : 
 
116 'The Phosphates of Atnerica. 
 
 Total phosphoric anhydride soluble ia liydrochloric acid. . .18.93 
 Of which there was found to be 
 
 Water-soluble i)hosphoric anhj^dride 15.03 
 
 Citrate-soluble '• " 17.01 
 
 Unless our conclusions are ill-founded in every particular, these 
 figures and details confirm the position we have assumed. 
 
 1)1 the Jirst place, they jjrove that raw mineral phosphates con- 
 taining a fair propoi'tion of carbonate of lime may carry a high 
 percentage of iron and alumina and yet yield a j^erfectly dry and 
 pulverulent product, in Avhich nearly all the phosphoric acid is in 
 a readily soluble or available form. As a necessary consequence, 
 while this amount of carbonate certainly calls for an increased 
 outlay of sulphuric acid and thereby adds somewhat to the cost of 
 manufacture, it is, nevertheless, in the end a source of the truest 
 kind of economy and profit. 
 
 Tn the second p)lace, they prove what we have never ceased to 
 claim, that the prevalent custom of calcining Florida phosphates is 
 unscientific and harmful, and that whereas the production of a dry 
 and porous "super" ahvays follows the use of carbonate, the pres- 
 ence of free lime always retards the drying action. 
 
 In the third pdace, they prove the necessity for comjjlete chemical 
 analysis of the raw material, and demonstrate the utter worthless- 
 ness of analytical reports which merely give the percentage of total 
 phosjjhoric acid, calculated to its equivalent of tricalcic or "bone" 
 phosphate. What kind of iron and steel would be produced, if 
 those concerned in that industrj^ Avere content to know the mere 
 percentage of metallic iron contained in a sample of iron ore? 
 
 Turning noAv from the purely chemical, to that side of the 
 industry which calls for mechanical details, Ave come first to the 
 oj^eration of grinding the ra^v })hosphate, and we may be allowed 
 to say that this is a matter for the most serious attention. 
 
 A growing recognition of the necessity for extremely fine 
 grinding is one of the most satisfactory results of scientific teach- 
 ings, and we are glad to see that progressive manufacturers now ad- 
 rait it to be the only means of attaining high dissolving efficiency. 
 
 In proportion to the natural hardness of the phosphate rock 
 this necessity for fine separation of the particles increases, and it 
 has been the experience, with Canadian apatites for example, that 
 unless the material is so disintegrated as to pass freely through a 
 70 or even an 80 mesh screen, it is only very slowly and incom- 
 pletely acted ujion by 50° B. sulphuric acid. 
 
The riiosphates of America. 
 
 117 
 
 Several popular methods of grinding now give great satisfaction 
 on the industrial scale, and of these we may mention the plants 
 which comprise — 
 
 J^irst. — A Blake stone-crusher for reducing the lumps to the 
 size of small marbles, attached to a set of French burr mill-stones 
 fitted with revolving screens up to 90 or 100 mesh. 
 
 Second. — The Sturtevant mill and crusher, which is composed 
 of two cylindrical heads, or cups, arranged upon the opposite sides 
 of a case, into which they slightly project, facing each other, and are 
 made to revolve in opposite directions. The rock, being conveyed 
 to the interior of the case through the opening at the top, is re- 
 
 THE STURTEVANT MILL IN CROSS-SECTION. 
 
 tained and prevented from dropping below the revolving heads or 
 cups by a cast-iron screen, and entering, as it must, the heads or 
 cups in revolution, is immediately thrown out again from each cup, 
 in opposite directions, with such tremendous force that the rock 
 from one cup in the collision with the rock thrown oppositely from 
 the other cup is crushed and pulverized, and the grinding, whit-li 
 otherwise would be upon the mill, is transferred to the material, 
 which is at once reduced to powder. 
 
 The mill is composed of four elementary jiarts — a case, two 
 hollow heads or cups, and a screen. 
 
 The principle of its construction is shown in the above cross- 
 section of its elementary parts. 
 
118 The FhospJi-aies of America. 
 
 B B represent the two oi)])Osite heads or cups of the mill hold- 
 ing the two bushings E E, Avhich slightly project into the case. 
 At Z Z, the stone hollow cones are shown (which form themselves 
 in each head by the packing of the rocks being ground after the 
 machine has been run a few moments). The hopper is filled with 
 rocks, which drop into the case of the machine between the two 
 heads. In a few moments after the mill has started the two stone 
 hollow cones Z Z form themselves and become as hard as the 
 rock. When these hollow cones have formed, the centrifugal force 
 given by their revolution will hurl out of the hollow cones in the 
 general directions indicated by the arrows all the rocks that are 
 forced into them. The iron confining-screen C is of very small 
 diameter, and an im2)ortant object is accomplished by this arrange- 
 ment. The ground rock is let out of the screen at once. 
 
 We have found it advisable to attach a set of rock-eraery 
 stones to this mill for grinding the fine tailings, which amount to 
 about thirty per cent. In this way the average milled product of 
 TO-mesh may be fairly taken as about two tons per hour. 
 
 Tliird. — The Griffin mill, which is of the class known as a 
 roller and die mill, in which the material is reduced by being 
 crushed by a roll running within and against the inner surface of 
 a ring or die. 
 
 It is a substantial mill and receives its power by a pulley run- 
 ning horizontally. From this pulley is suspended the roller-shaft, 
 by means of a universal joint, and to the lower extremity of this 
 shaft is rigidly secured the crushing-roll, which is thus free to 
 swing in any direction within the case. 
 
 The illustration on the next page shows that the case consists 
 of the base or j^an (24) containing the ring or die (VO), against 
 which works the roll (31) and upon the inner vertical surface of 
 Avhich the crushing is done. 
 
 This pan or base has a number of openings through it down- 
 Avard outside of the ring or die Avhich lead into a pit or receptacle 
 below. Upon this base is secured the screen-frame (44), Avhich is 
 surrounded with a sheet-iron cover (45) and to the top of which is 
 fastened a conical shield (25) open at the apex, through which the 
 roll-shaft works. 
 
 To this cone is attached the feeder-arm (34) by means of which 
 the automatic feeder is operated. The crusliing-roll is attached to 
 the end of the lower or roll-shaft (l), and just above the roll is the 
 fan (V). On the under side of the roll are shown shoes or ploughs 
 
Tlie Phosphates of Amemca. 
 
 119 
 
 (5), varying in shape according to the nature of tlie work to be done. 
 The pulley (17) revolves upon the tapered and adjustable bearing- 
 stud (20), which is in turn supported by the frame composed of the 
 standards (23). Two of these standards (23a) are extended above 
 
 SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE GRIFFIN MILL. 
 
 the pulley to carry the arms (22) in which is secured the hollow- 
 journal pin (12). Within the pulley is the universal joint from 
 which the roll-shaft (l) is suspended. This joint is composed of 
 the ball or sphere (9) with trunnions attached thereto. These 
 trunnions work in half-boxes (11) which slide up and down in re- 
 
120 The Fhosjihates of America. 
 
 cesses in the pulley-head casting (IG). The joint in the pulley is 
 inclosed by means of the cover (13), thus keeping the working parts 
 away from all dust and grit, and lubricating oil is supplied for all 
 parts needing it through the hollow pin (12). 
 
 When the mill is stai'ted, the pulley and the roller-shaft revolve 
 together, the roller hanging free in the centre of the ring, Avhen, the 
 shaft being pushed outward, the roll on its lower end comes in con- 
 tact Avith the ring or die and immediately begins to travel around 
 on the latter's inner surface, jjressing against it with a force suffi- 
 cient to effectually })ulverize anything that comes in its way. The 
 material to be reduced is fed into the mill in sufficient quantity to 
 fill the pan as high as the shoes or ploughs on the lower side of the 
 roll. The ploughs then stir it up and throw it against the ring, so that 
 it is acted upon by the roll, and when fairly in operation, the whole 
 body of loose material whirls around rapidly within the j^an and up 
 against the screens, through which all that is sufficiently fine passes 
 at once, the coarser portion falling down to be acted upon again. 
 
 The universal joint, by which the roll-shaft is connected with 
 the pulley, allows perfect freedom of movement to the roll so that 
 it can easily pass over obstructions of any kind. Pieces of iron or 
 steel, such as are usually found in all rock to be ground, do no dam- 
 age to the mill. 
 
 In dry grinding the fine material that passes through the screens 
 falls downward through the openings outside of the ring into the 
 receptacle underneath, from which it is carried by a conveyer pro- 
 vided for that purpose. 
 
 The fan attached to the shaft above the roll draws a small 
 quantity of air in at the top of the cone, forcing it through the 
 screens and out into the discharge, thus effectually keeping all 
 dust within the mill. 
 
 It is stated of this mill that four tons of South Carolina phos- 
 phate rock (seventy-five per cent, of which would pass through a 
 VO-mesh screen) may be ground and passed through the screens in 
 an hour. 
 
 Fourth. — The Frisbee-Lucop phosphate mill, which is built of 
 steel and weighs about three tons. It is driven by belt, develops 
 a speed of 300 revolutions under full feed, requires 18 horse power, 
 and is said to be capable of grinding 15 tons of phosphate rock 
 to a fineness of No. 150 mesh, per day of ten hours. 
 
 The pulverization of the material is effected by heavy cylin- 
 drical rollers which are caused to revolve upon the inner surface 
 
The PliospJiates of America. 
 
 121 
 
 of a steel ring, against which they exert a pressure of some 2000 
 pounds per square inch. The effect of this force is augmented by 
 a differential grinding motion imparted by the drivers. 
 
 As fast as it is produced, the jMilverized is separated from the 
 coarse material, by gravity, being drawn from the mill through 
 pipes connected with the top of the casing by an exhaust-fan, and 
 carried to settling bins or chambers. 
 
 Five different varieties of steel, each having special character- 
 istics suited to the requirement, are used for the interior or Avork- 
 ing parts of the machine. The wearing parts, being few in number 
 and simple in shape, are readily replaced when worn. 
 
 The construction of the mill will be easily understood from the 
 following transverse vertical section through its centre. 
 
 The shaft S is of hammered steel, 39 inches between bearings^ 
 
 THE FRISBEE-LUCOP PHOSPHATE MILL. 
 
 "which are 3^ inches by 10 inches long. Pulleys are double-arm, 
 fast and loose, 28 inches in diameter by 8-inch face. 
 
 To the shaft is keyed the driving-arm A A previously forced 
 on. This is a solid casting 6yig- inches thick through the ends and 
 9|^ inches through the flanges or hub. The rear ends of the arm 
 are made concave to receive the rolls when the mill is at rest. 
 Upon both sides of the arm are fastened the discs D D, annular 
 plates fitting around the flanges of the arm and firmly secured to 
 it by two disc-bolts 1|- inches in diameter. 
 
 Between the discs are placed the drivers B B, two in number, 
 rigidly bolted to the discs by the two driver-bolts, 1^ inches square. 
 The drivers are cylindrical, G^V inches long by 6 inches diameter, 
 made of cast-steel or forged iron, and weigh 45 pounds each. When 
 worn by contact with the rolls they may be turned a quarter cir- 
 cumference on the bolt. This may be repeated imtil the four 
 sides are worn. 
 
123 
 
 The Fhosphafes of America. 
 
 There are two rolls, R R, of chrome steel, 8 inches in diameter 
 ■by 6-inch face, Aveighing about 80 pounds each. They are held free 
 in position by the discs between their drivers and the rear ends of 
 
 the arm. 
 
 The fan-blades F F, four in number, are of steel or 
 wrought-iron and are firmly fastened on each disc exteriorly by 
 the disc-bolt and dowel-pin, and distribute the material to be pul- 
 verized into the path of the rolls. 
 
 Four liners, L L, or thin steel plates are placed betAveen the 
 
 VIEW OF TRANSVERSE VERTICAL SECTION OF FRISBEE-LUCOP PHOSPHATE MILL. 
 
 ends of the rolls and the discs (cut to receive them) and take the 
 Avear off the ends of the rolls. 
 
 The revolving parts of the mill centred within the ring have 
 all a uniform motion with the shaft, but the rolls have an inde- 
 pendent motion around their axes. The ring G G is of rolled 
 steel, 6 inches face and 3 inches in thickness, held in position by 
 wedge-keys K K to the casing of the mill C C. Exterior to 
 the " centre " are two small circulating fans (wrought blades in a 
 cast hub), the purpose of whi(^h is to keep the pulverized material 
 in circulation so that it may be readily withdrawn by the exhaust- 
 fan which carries the product of the mill to the settling-bins. 
 
 The casing of the mill is of cast-iron, divided horizontally. 
 
The Phosphates of America. 123 
 
 The uppei* and lower halves are held together by hinged bolts in 
 slots cut in the flange of each section. The upper half is hinged 
 to the lower at one side and is easily raised so as to give free 
 access to the interior of the mill for examination and the replacing 
 of worn parts. The casing and the three pedestal bearings for 
 the shaft are seated upon a heavy bed-plate as indicated in the illus- 
 trations. Being a balanced machine it does not require elaborate 
 or expensive foundations. 
 
 The difliculty of estimating the exact cost of grinding phos- 
 phates to a fineness of 70 or 80 mesh, either by the methods we 
 have thus described or any others now in use and perhaps equally 
 good, is naturally very considerable, since so much must, perforce, 
 depend upon the nature of the material itself. We have seen it va- 
 riously estimated at from 50 cents to |2 per ton, and have even met 
 those who claim to be able to do the needful work for less than 
 the first figure. As a matter of sober fact, however, we have 
 found that in practice, when breakages, repairs and general wear 
 and tear are taken into account, $1.50 per ton is more like the 
 proper figure, and we therefore usually adopt it as a fair basis 
 for calculations. 
 
 The operation of grinding having been satisfactorily jjerformed, 
 the phosphate is submitted to compleAe analysis and, its chemical 
 composition being thus known, is finally conveyed to the mixer. 
 
 The mixing together of the raw materials in the j^roportions 
 determined by proper computation is performed in a commodious 
 shed, of which the annexed drawing will convey the necessary under- 
 standing. It must be near to the sulphuric-acid chambers, and 
 directly connected with a high shaft or chimney and a condensing 
 apparatixs or scrubber ; the latter for absoibing the noxious fumes 
 set free by the decomposing mass. 
 
 A strong brickwork shell with a good foundation is built in 
 the centre of the shed. This shell is divided off into from six to 
 twelve chambers or "dens" some 15 feet square and 20 feet high, 
 each of which must communicate, by means of a good-sized flue, 
 with the scrubber and factory chimney. 
 
 The air-tight iron doors of the "dens" must slide easily back- 
 ward or forward when the superphosphate has become dry enough 
 to be dug out. 
 
 The tojjs of the "dens" are fitted with mixers of cylindrical 
 shape about 10 feet long, 3 feet in diameter and 4 feet high. 
 The mixer may be constructed of wood lined with sheet lead, or 
 
124 
 
 The Phosjihaies of America. 
 
 of brick, or of iron, or in fact any suitable material in accordance 
 with the fancy. It stands over the dividing wall of two " dens ;" is 
 generally provided with movable traps for discharging its contents 
 at either of its ends and with a revolvhig axle or shaft fitted with 
 arms or spirals. It should have a hopper and a gas-flue, and the 
 driving gear must be of wrought-iron. Running into it from the 
 
 WATER 
 CISTERN 
 
 SIDE VIEW OF A SUPERPHOSPHATE WORKS. 
 A, Discharge from mixer to^'denr 1, 2, 3, i, Exit-flues conducting fumes to condenser. 
 
 top directly under the hopper is a 2-inch lead pipe fitted with a 
 stop-cock and connected with a tank of sulphuric acid placed di- 
 rectly overhead. The acid tank is provided with a gauge which 
 shows the exact amount of liquid run into each batch as required 
 by calculation. The tank communicates in its turn with the acid 
 reservoirs from which, when emptied, it is replenished by a pump. 
 The phosphate is brought forward from the mill in buckets on an 
 
The Phosphates of America. 
 
 125 
 
 endless chain. Each l)ucket hohls a known weight of material and 
 each empties itself into the hopper of the mixei-. Where there is 
 no convenience for establishing an endless chain, the material can 
 be carried to the hopper in sacks direct from the mill. When 
 this hopi^er contains 1000 pounds of the powder, the acid tap 
 underneath it is turned on, the agitators of the mixer are set in 
 motion, and then the powder is allowed to run in a steady stream 
 from the hopj^er. 
 
 When all the acid and the phosphate are in the mixer, the 
 agitators are made to revolve with swiftness and energy for about 
 two minutes, after which the trap of the mixer is opened and its 
 
 SUPERPHOSPHATE MIXER. 
 
 contents, a thick mud or mortar-like mass, are shot from it into 
 one of the "dens" at its either extremity. 
 
 These operations are repeated until the " den " is full, care 
 being taken to keep the gas-flues open and to see that the acid 
 always runs into the mixer in advance of the powder. A neglect 
 of the latter precaution invariably results in serious difficulties 
 from clogging. 
 
 Each charge should be equal to an average of about 1900 
 pounds, and each "den" should hold about 120 tons. Assuming, 
 therefore, the length of time required for running a charge to be 
 five minutes, it is an easy matter to fill up a " den " each day of ten 
 working hours. 
 
 The mixed mass enters the "dens" in a semi-liquid state and 
 
126 
 
 The Phosphates of Amei'ica. 
 
 soon becomes extremely hot, generally attaining a temperature of 
 from 230° to 240° F. When properly composed it commences to 
 "set" almost at once, and at the end of the second day is suffi- 
 ciently hard to be dug out of the "den" with picks and shovels. 
 
 In this state it is loaded into automatic dumping-cars and piled 
 up in heaps, all large lumps being broken down by a blow from 
 the shovel. In a couple of days it is ready to pass through a dis- 
 integrator and may then be put up in bags. 
 
 The average superphosphate manufactured in this country con- 
 tains about thirteen to foi;rteen per cent, of "available" l^o^s' 
 but the rapid development of the industry during the past few 
 years has led to the introduction of what are known as "high- 
 
 AUTOMATIC DUMPING CAR FOR SUPERPHOSPHATE WORKS. 
 
 grade supers," containing about forty-five per cent, of phosphoric 
 anhydride (PgOg) in a "water" and "citrate" soluble form. The 
 plan upon which these goods are produced is perfectly scientific 
 and rational, much more so, in fact, than the one we have just 
 described, for it consists in using phosphoric acid as the solvent in 
 lieu of the oil of vitriol. 
 
 The theory of the action of })hosphoric acid upon pure phos- 
 phate of lime may be exi)lained by either of the two following 
 simple equations, or, to speak more correctly, by a combination 
 of both of them : 
 
 CiisPoOg + 4(H3P04) + GHoO 
 1 insoluble tri- + 4 phosphoric + 6 water 
 calcic phos- 
 phate 
 
 3 CaH,(P04)3(HaO)2 
 3 crystallized "acid" 
 or " soluble " phos- 
 phate. 
 
The Phosphates of America. 127 
 
 2Ca3P308 + 2(H3P04) + ISH^O = 3CaoH2(PO,)3(HoO)4. 
 2 insoluble tri- + 3 phosphoric + 12 water =3 crystallized neutral 
 
 calcic phos- acid phosphate, soluble ia 
 
 phate • neutral citrate of am- 
 
 monia. 
 
 The advantages offered by the cheaj) production of such an 
 article as this in commercial form are, of course, too manifest to^ 
 need any elaboi-ate explanation, but it may nevertheless not be out 
 of place to mention a few of them. 
 
 In the manufacture of superphosphates we have seen that the 
 desired solubility, either in water or in citrate of ammonia, is at- 
 tained at the cost of doubling the bulk of the raw material by the 
 addition of an acid which practically serves no other purpose and 
 has no other value than as a dissolvent. If the original material, 
 therefore, contain sixty per cent, of tricalcic phosjjhate, the " super '^ 
 can only contain thirty per cent., and this, from the agricultural 
 consumers' standpoint, is certainly an anomaly, and, aj^art from 
 any question of solubility, must remain so for two reasons : 
 
 1. A ton of sixty-per-cent. phosphate of lime, finely ground but 
 insoluble in water or citrate of ammonia, can be jjurchased at some 
 central jjoint for, say, $10. 
 
 2. A ton of superphosphate, containing only thirty ])cv cent, 
 phosphate of lime, cannot be purchased at the same spot for less 
 than $15. 
 
 In the one case, freight is paid upon only forty per cent, of inert 
 material, whereas in the other it is paid upon seventy per cent. 
 
 Apart from the perfectly legitimate profits attached to the 
 manipulation and transformation of a sluggish into an active body, 
 those who at present derive the greatest benefit from the trade in 
 fertilizers are the railroad companies. If it were for no other 
 object than the reduction of freight charges to a minimum limit, it 
 is consequently worth while to consider the advisability of substi- 
 tuting for the old method of manufacture, the one which we shall 
 now attempt to describe. 
 
 The details of superphosphate mixing, and the reactions involved 
 in the process, have been gone over in a sufficiently ample manner 
 to i>repare the way for the statement, that the cheapest and best- 
 known method of producing phosphoric acid is by displacing it from 
 its combination with phosphates of lime by means of oil of vitriol. 
 
 The proportion of phosphoric acid contained in the raw material 
 being a matter of only relative importance, the adoption of such a 
 
128 
 
 T]ie Phosphates of America. 
 
 method would open up a channel for the use of many low-grade 
 phosphates, which now, for lack of a market, are practically of no 
 value. The only essential conditions to be fulfilled are : 
 
 A. That the material shall contain a minimum of carbonate of 
 lime, in order that no unnecessary excess of sulphuric acid need be 
 used. 
 
 J^. That it shall contain as small a percentage as jDossible of any 
 combination of iron and alumina, both of which, besides being diffi- 
 cultly soluble, contribute to the formation of a gelatinous mass that 
 seriously interferes' with the proper carrying out of the o^Derations. 
 
 In order to ascertain the quantity of sulphuric acid necessary to 
 insure the desired reaction, it is of course essential that the exact 
 composition of the raw material be first determined by a reliable 
 analysis. Supposing ourselves to be in possession of this informa- 
 tion, we may imagine that we are called upon to deal with a 
 mineral phosphate containing : 
 
 Moisture and organic matter 4.00 
 
 Phosphate of lime , 55.00 
 
 Carbonate of lime 3.50 
 
 Phosphates of iron and alumina 6.50 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 0.75 
 
 Fkioride of lime 2.25 
 
 Saudy and siliceous matters 28.00 
 
 100 
 The quantity of oil of vitriol of various strengths required for 
 the complete liberation of all the phos^jhorie acid, and the satisfac- 
 tion of all the bases in such a sample as this, is very readily calcu- 
 lated from the figures in the following table : 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF CHAMBER SULPHURIC ACID OF VARIOUS 
 STRENGTHS REQUIRED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF PHOSPHORIC ACID FROM 
 NATURAL PHOSPHATES. 
 
 Every pound of 
 the Vollowinj; 
 substances re- 
 quires— 
 
 Tncak'ir phos- 
 phate of lirae 
 
 Carbonate of 
 lime 
 
 Phosphate of 
 iron 
 
 Phosphate of 
 alumina 
 
 Carbonate of 
 magnesia... . 
 
 Fluoride of 
 lime 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 48° B. 
 Pounds. 
 
 1.590 
 1.640 
 1.630 
 2.025 
 1.940 
 2.006 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 49° B. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1.554 
 1.605 
 1.595 
 2.008 
 1.905 
 2.059 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 50° B. 
 
 Poun()s. 
 
 1.517 
 1.565 
 1.558 
 1.930 
 1.860 
 2.010 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 51° B. 
 Pounds. 
 
 1.482 
 1.535 
 1.521 
 1.884 
 1.815 
 1.962 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 52° B. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1.446 
 1.495 
 1.485 
 1.839 
 1.775 
 1.916 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 53° B. 
 Pounds. 
 
 1.408 
 1.456 
 
 1.446 
 1.790 
 1.726 
 1.866 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 54° B. 
 
 Pounds, 
 
 1.382 
 1.428 
 1.420 
 1.756 
 1.690 
 1.830 
 
 Acid 
 
 at 
 
 55° B. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1.352 
 1.411 
 1.390 
 1.721 
 1.660 
 1.794 
 
7%e PTiospliates of America. 129 
 
 Selecting an acid strength of 50° B. for our illustration, we 
 shall find that our sum will Avork out thus : 
 
 55 lbs. phosphate of lime X 1.517 = 83. 44 lbs. vitriol of 50° B. 
 
 3.50 " carbonate of lime X 1.565= 5.48 " " " 
 
 6.50 " phosphate of iron and alumina X 1.930 = 12.55 " " " 
 
 0.75 " carbonate of magnesia X 1.860= 1.40 " " " 
 
 3.25 " fluoride of lime X 3.010= 4.53 " " " 
 
 Total sulphuric acid of 50° B. strength re- 
 quired for every 100 pounds of the above 
 phosphate 107.39 lbs. 
 
 The decomposition of the raw material is effected in large wood- 
 en tanks made of suitable wood and provided with wooden agitators. 
 
 2147 pounds 60° B. sulj^huric acid are run into each tank and 
 diluted with water until its strength is reduced to 14° B. The 
 agitators are now set in active motion, and 2000 pounds of the phos- 
 phate, finely ground as directed for super2:)hosphate manufacture, 
 are slowly added and the stirring is continued for five hours. Open 
 steam is occasionally blown in by an injector through the side of 
 the tank, in order to keep up the temperature of the mixture. 
 
 At the end of the specified time the cream from each tank is 
 run off into filters — large wooden vessels lined with lead and pro- 
 vided with false bottoms. 
 
 The hydrated sulphate of lime here separates from the solution 
 of phosphoric acid, the latter passing through the filter as a bright 
 straw-colored fluid, of a gravity which, at first, is about 12° B., 
 but which gradually gets reduced by careful washing to 1° B. 
 
 By the exercise of ordinary care and precautions, all cracks on 
 the surface of the gypsum contained in the filters may be avoided, 
 for were they to be formed, too ready an outlet would be afforded 
 for the washing-water. The washing is stopped directly the grav- 
 ity reaches 1° B., and the hydrated sulphate of lime is first piled 
 up in the centre of the filters to drain, and is then carried to the 
 dump ; the last runnings from the filters, which are too weak for 
 'economical concentration — everything under 5° B. — being used to 
 dilute the sulphuric acid in subsequent operations. 
 
 If the wooden tanks be put up on the large scale in series of 
 ten, a batch of the emulsion can be discharged from them, one 
 after the other, every half -hour, when once they are all in proper 
 Avorking order, and in this manner twenty tons of phosphate can be 
 treated per day. 
 
130 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 All the phosphoric-acid liquor above 5° B. which has passed 
 through the filters is blown by an "egg" (similar to the one de- 
 scribed in the chapter on sulphuric acid) into an elevated tank, and 
 thence it runs by gravitation to the evaporators, a series of leaden 
 pans of any convenient form of construction, and heated either by 
 a direct fire from the top or from the bottom or by the waste 
 steam from the boilers. If any choice is to be awarded to either 
 of these modes of evaporation, it must, in our opinion, fall upon 
 top-heating ; for as the hot gas comes into direct and immedi- 
 ate contact with the acid and the vapors produced are at once re* 
 moved by the draught, it is evidently the quickest, while the 
 pans are much less acted upon and freer from the danger of being 
 burnt through than those which are fired from below. The vessel 
 must, however, be kept constantly full and at a uniform level, in 
 order to protect the lead from any direct contact with the flame ; 
 nor is this a matter of any difticulty, since the heavy concentrated 
 acid continuously sinks downward, and may be drawn off from the 
 bottom, in a stream directly proportionate to that in which fresh 
 acid from the tank above is allowed to run in at the top. 
 
 In works where it is thought best to heat the pans from the 
 bottom, the latter are generally so arranged in sets, that the weak 
 acid flows in at one end in a regulated stream, and is transferred 
 from pan to pan by overflow-pipes. The pans themselves in this 
 case are placed on cast-iron plates, those at the fire end being very 
 thick, to protect them from the extra heat, and generally lined with 
 clay and fire-brick. The fireplace comes under the strongest of the 
 pans, and the flame gradually travels towards the weakest, such an 
 arrangement being required by the fact that the concentration be- 
 comes more difticult as the acid gains in strength. According to 
 extensive and perfectly trustworthy experiments, a series of pans 
 having a total area of 118 superficial feet, with a fireplace of 6^ 
 superficial feet, can produce, when properly constructed, eight tons 
 of phosphoric acid in twenty-four hours, concentrated to 45° B,, 
 with a consumption of no more than twelve to fourteen per cent, 
 of its own weight of coal. 
 
 During the progress of the evaporation, the acid solution de- 
 posits a considerable quantity of sulphate of lime, and it is there- 
 fore generally necessary to decant off the fluid before the final 
 degree of concentration can be attained. The gypsum can be re- 
 moved to one of the filters already described, and washed out with 
 any liquid that may be running into them from the mixing-tuns. 
 
Tlie PliospTiates of Amei'lca. 
 
 131 
 
 The finished liquid at 45° B. should contain nearly forty-five 
 per cent, of phosphoric anhydride, with only a mere trace of lime. 
 It will probably be contaminated to some extent by magnesia and 
 iron and alumina, but neither of these, provided it is not present 
 in any great quantity, will be a source of serious difficulty for the 
 purpose in view. 
 
 We are now in possession of an acid body, which can take 
 the place of sulphuric acid in the manufacture of soluble and 
 assimilable phosphates, and we have only to come back to the old 
 superphosjjhate mixers, and use the same modes of manipulation 
 and the same system of calculation as in superphos^^hate manu- 
 facture. All that is needed is to change the numbers, in order 
 to accord with the different composition of the two acids. 
 
 A raw jihosphate of about the following comjjosition may be 
 taken as a typical material for economical treatment : 
 
 Moisture and organic matter 3.00 
 
 Phosphate of lime 75 .00 (eqvial to 34.40 P.O5) 
 
 Carbonate of lime : 7.50 
 
 Alumina and iron oxides (combined) 3.00 
 
 Fluorides, silicates and sand 11 .50 
 
 100 
 
 The quantity of phosphoric acid of 45° B. required to trans- 
 form this insoluble phosphate into a "soluble" or readily "avail- 
 able" form may be taken from the annexed table. In calculating 
 it we have assumed in a practical way, and without pretension 
 to absolutely theoretical accuracy, that an acid solution of 45° B. 
 "factory test " will contain, say, forty-two per cent, of phosphoric 
 anhydride (P3O5) or about fifty-eight per cent, of phosphoric acid 
 (H3PO,). 
 
 TABLE FOR USE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF HIGH-GRADE SUPERPHOSPHATES 
 FROM PHOSPHORIC ACID OF 45° B. 
 
 Every Pound of the foHowinj,' Substances Re- 
 quires for its Transformation 
 
 Into Water- 
 
 Sohible or "Acid 
 
 Phosphate." 
 
 Into Citrate-Solu- 
 ble or Neutral 
 Phosphate. 
 
 Mineral phosphate of lime 
 
 Pounds. 
 2.310 
 3.380 
 
 Pounds. 
 0.625 
 1.690 
 2.112 
 3.270 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 Iron oxide 
 
 Alumina oxide .... 
 
 
 We therefore proceed to ascertain that : 
 
133 The Phosjihates of America. 
 
 75 lbs. phospluite of lime.. . X -635 require 46.88 lbs. phosphoric acid. 
 7i0bs. carbonate of lime.. X 1.690 " 13.68 
 8 lbs. iron and alumina as 
 
 oxides, say X 3.000 •' 9.00 
 
 So that the total phosphoric-acid solution 
 of 45° B. reqviired to render 100 pounds 
 of the above phosphate soluble in neu- 
 tral citrate of ammonia is 68 . 56 pounds. 
 
 This quantity being the known required minimum, it is easy 
 after one or two trials of the drying capacity of the mixture, to 
 increase it at will up to any desii'ed limit, it being evident that the 
 tnore it is increased the greater will he the amount of " loater-sol- 
 uble ''''phosphate produced ! 
 
 The mixture, when made, is dropped, charge by charge, into the 
 " dens," where it very soon sets into a porous mass, not quite dry, 
 but sufficiently so to be easily dug out. This mass is cut uj^ into 
 l)ieces of reasonable size and dried by hot air, in sheds constructed 
 for the purpose, in any form, or on any plan, that will facilitate 
 effective and rapid work. Directly it is sufficiently dryfor the 
 market it is put through a disintegrator and filled into bags. 
 
 In Europe the great superiority of this method of dealing with 
 ]-aw phosphates over the more generally established plan has been 
 recognized for some years, and the high-grade product is much in 
 vogue in Germany and France. The rough-and-ready plant which we 
 have outlined has been supplemented in those countries by much 
 labor-saving machinery in the form of mixers and filtering presses, 
 the majority of which are protected by patent and chiefly manu- 
 factured in Germany, at Halle an der Saale. For the purposes of 
 experimental demonsti'ation, however, we have deenied it preferable 
 to dispense with a description of all costly foreign apparatus, feeling 
 that we may trust to the well-known genius of our American me- 
 chanical engineers for the construction of such plant as may be 
 necessary in different localities, and under varying circumstances. 
 When we bear in mind the proverbial conservatism of the farmer 
 and his distaste for innovations, we shall see the necessity for going 
 slow in this matter, for it will doubtless take some time to create 
 an active demand from his direction for a concentrated superphos- 
 phate. Meantime, however, those who are engaged in handling 
 fertilizers as middlemen will be more readily convinced, especially 
 when they appreciate the economy in transportation, if in nothing 
 else, which such a product will afford. How great this economy 
 
The FJiOsphates of America. 133 
 
 really is can easily be shown by a few figures Avhieh, while not pre- 
 sented as the actual cost at which large and well-situated manu- 
 facturers could produce it, Avill suffice for purposes of illustration. 
 
 Commencing with the cost of phosphoric acid and assuming 
 the factory to be located at a point within easy access by rail or 
 by water, or both, we may calculate that 
 
 1 ton of 2000 pounds mineral phosphate, containing- fifty 
 
 to sixty per cent, phosphate of lime will cost $4.00 
 
 Grinding same to a fineness of 70 to 80 mesh. .. " 1.50 
 
 2130 povinds chamber sulphuric acid of 50° B. at. say, 
 
 17.00 per ton will cost 7.50 
 
 Labor of mixing and filtering, wear and tear, etc., cal- 
 culated at the z*ate of, say, $1 per gross ton of raw- 
 material handled will cost 2.00 
 
 Concentration, labor, wear and tear of plant, calculated 
 
 at $1 per gross ton of raw material will cost 2.00 
 
 Total net cost of producing, say, 1000 pounds 
 
 of 45° B. phosphoric acid $17.00 
 
 Cost of the 45° B. phosphoric acid per ton of 
 
 2000 pounds $34.00 
 
 Passing now to the manufacture of high-grade siqyerphosjyhate 
 by decomposing the mineral phosphates with this acid instead of 
 with chamber sulphuric acid, Ave shall find that it works out thus: 
 
 1 ton mineral phosphate, containing seventy-five to 
 eighty per cent, tribasic phosphate, and of about the 
 general composition shown in the examples selected 
 
 for foi-mer calculations will cost $14.50 
 
 Grinding same to 70 or 80 mesh " 1.50 
 
 1 ton phosphoric acid of 45° B " 34.00 
 
 Cost of mixing, manipulating, drying, pulverizing and 
 bagging the finished material, calculated at $2 
 per ton of material used 5.00 
 
 $55.00 
 
 The net product of the mixture after allowing fifteen 
 per cent, for loss, by evaporation and in manufact- 
 ure, will be, say, thirty-fovr hundred pounds. It 
 will contain, ^/feen hundred and thirty jJotmds of 
 phosphoric anhydride (P0O5) and costs $55.00 
 
 Its cost per ton, ready for market, and containing forty- 
 five per cent, of mixed ivater-soluble and citrate- 
 soluble phosphoric anhydride will therefore be $32.50 
 
 Or a little over 3| cents per pound of phosphoric anhydride. 
 
134 The rhosphates of America. 
 
 Since, as we have already explained, the great bulk of our super- 
 phosphate is not made to contain more than from twelve to four- 
 teen per cent, of phosjjhoric acid soluble in Avater and ammonium 
 citrate, and since it, for this reason, only represents on an average the 
 equivalent of thirty j)<^r cent, of hone phosj)hote of lime made sola- 
 hie, it necessarily follows that more than three tons of it would bo 
 required to equal one ton of the concentrated or high-grade ma- 
 terial. The latter contains the equivalent of ninety-nine percent, 
 of bone phosphate of lime, made practically as soluble and equally 
 available, and is therefore, as we liaA'e said, specially adapted to the 
 requirements of the middleman. The distributer would onl}' pay 
 freight on one ton where he now i)ays it on three, and could, if he 
 so desired, dilute it down to the ordinary commercial strength by 
 the addition of gypsum, or any other convenient and low-i)riced 
 flller. 
 
 A fruitful subject for angry discussion and costly litigation has 
 been that bearing on the noxious vapors evolved during the manu- 
 facture of fertilizers from any of the })hosphates we have described. 
 It has been urged, and, to our minds, very consistentl}', that we 
 should apply to them the same methods so successfully used in 
 suppressing the devastating fumes from other chemical works, 
 and there cannot be a doubt that if this were done, the present 
 menace to the health and comfort of the workmen, and others 
 employed in and about the neighborhood, would disappear. 
 
 As we have already pointed out, the fumes of fertilizer fac- 
 tories chiefly consist of carbonic acid, hydrofluoric acid, silicic 
 tetrafluoride, sulphuric acid and steam ; and of all these, the most 
 dangerous to life and health are the compounds generated by the 
 liberation of fluorine from the fluoride of calcium, the average pro- 
 portion of which in our phosphates may be safely taken at about 
 three per cent. The quantity of deadly vapor thus becomes very 
 large in some of our big works, but it need not necessarily bealarin- 
 ing provided the gas-flues be jiroperly worked. A ventilating-fan 
 would easily conduct it all into the scrubber, where, meeting with a 
 fine spray of very cold water, it would immediately be decomposed, 
 hydrofluosilicic acid and gelatinous silica being formed. The acid 
 could either be washed away into the main sewers or passed off into 
 an open drain, and the finely divided silica could be allowed to de- 
 jwsit itself on the bottom of the condenser. 
 
 Mr. John IVIorrison, an English chemical engineer of great abil- 
 ity, who has done a great deal of valuable work in this connection 
 
Tlie Phosphates of America. 
 
 135 
 
 and devised the very practical scrubbing apparatus shown in the 
 annexed sketch, says that the mixer fumes possess within them- 
 selves every element needed for their speedy destruction and but a 
 single element (heat) to in any vi^ay retard it ; and this is quite 
 
 Q 
 
 O 
 ^ !^ 
 M O 
 ft) M 
 H !z! 
 
 a CO 
 
 true. He objects, therefore, to the introduction of steam, on the 
 ground that with every ton of superphosphate produced at least 
 five per cent, of water in the form of steam is evolved, and as such 
 a quantity is quite sufficient to saturate the effluent gases it is use- 
 less to employ any more. While a steam-jet will aid the draught ; 
 augment the agitation of the gases ; and hasten the purification of 
 
136 Tlie PJwspJiafes of America. 
 
 an atmosphere thickly laden Avith noxious vapors, it is nevertheless 
 demonstrable that to the extent of the heat liberated in its own 
 condensation, it retards the perfect filtration of the residual vapors, 
 and any benefit accruing from its introduction is wholly dispropor- 
 tionate either to its quantity or its expense. 
 
 Tlie most important point is to cool the gases by draughtage 
 into chambers or flues of sufficient area or length, and where this 
 can be managed economically little more is required, for the fume 
 will quietly subside of itself. In the majority of cases, however, a 
 maximum of condensing work must be accomplished in a minimum 
 of space, and here the better way is to submit the gases to a sort 
 of dry-scrubbing process so as to hasten the deposition of the 
 fluorine compounds. How this is to be done must depend upon the 
 special circumstances in each particular case, but there should al- 
 Avays be provided, within a suitable flue, a sufficient number of im- 
 pinging or baffling diaphragms, to momentarily arrest the motion 
 of the gases and divert them into another direction, it being found 
 that the greatest deposition of silica takes place at these eddying 
 points. 
 
 The great bulk of the solid matter being tluis early arrested, 
 only the residual vapors now remain to be dealt with, and these are 
 caused to traverse, in an upward direction, one or more water tow- 
 ers or wet scrubbers, simply packed Avith Avood spars, to pass aAvay- 
 to the chimney. 
 
 The necessary draught is created by an exhaust-fan of special 
 construction actuated by the mixer engine. It is best fixed be- 
 tween the toAvers and the chimney, and its poAver is controlled by 
 a damper just sufficiently to secure a slight "pull in " at the mixer 
 mouth. The den doors are, of course, made as tight as ])ossible to 
 avoid unnecessary dilution of the gases and interference with the 
 eflficiency of the fan. 
 
 Gas dilution means reduced condensing efficiency. Yet there 
 have been hosts of failures, due to a total misapprehension of the 
 necessities of the case, and to the impracticable construction or 
 wholly insuflftcient capacity of the condensing plant. In the erec- 
 tion of the latter two things have to be constantly borne in mind : 
 First, that the evolution of the gas is spasmodic and (especially 
 in the case of hot vitriol) extremely violent when the spasm is on ; 
 and, second, that every chokable part of the ajsparatus must admit 
 of the readiest possible access. To provide for the first of these, 
 the plant has to be of ample dimensions, and unless the second be 
 
TJie PhospJiates of America. 13 T 
 
 remembered, the most annoying failures will ensue at most incon- 
 venient seasons. 
 
 Where such failures involve stoppages they are fatal to every 
 semblance of manufacturing economy, since every unnecessary 
 reduction in the day's dissolving tonnage, adds to the cost and 
 diminishes the profits. 
 
 The wet scrubbers are packed with wood spars for two reasons: 
 First, because spars exert no thrust on the tower sides and so save 
 the necessity of tie-rods ; and, secondly, because they seem to afford 
 a maximum of interstitial, or scrubbing surface, to a minimum of 
 solidity. The fire-brick packing sometimes adojDted is less eco- 
 nomical, for it not only largely augments the dead- weight of the 
 towers, but decreases the ratio of useful surface to solid material 
 by its pigeon-hole overlap. 
 
 The spars are made of wedged section, in order to delay the 
 choking of the towers, both by affording extra space for the 
 deposit of silica, and by facilitating its detachment and convey- 
 ance to the tower base by the action of the water. Silica depos- 
 ited on the sides of square-sectioned spars, clogs the tower by 
 reducing the packing spaces, whereas on wedged-section spars, a 
 considerable deposit can take place without at all affecting the 
 packing- mesh. 
 
 Where economy of water is an object one tall tower is jirefer- 
 able to two or three shorter ones, but the best arrangement is a 
 tower of moderate height, divided into two packed upcasts, with a 
 downcast flue between 
 
138 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 SELECTED METHODS OF PHOSPHATE ANALYSIS AND GENER- 
 ALLY USEFUL LABORATORY DETAILS. 
 
 The world's consumption of mineral phosphates and superphos- 
 phates from all sources, amounts to several million tons a year. 
 The commercial value, alike of these natural and artificial products, 
 depends upon their percentage of phosphoric acid, and upon their 
 freedom from certain undesirable or injurious constituents as re- 
 V ealed by chemical analysis. 
 
 The miner, the manufacturer, and the farmer, are hence equally 
 dependent upon the analytical chemist, whose province it is to 
 determine how much the two first shall receive, and how much the 
 last shall pay for the merchandise. The responsibility is a heavy 
 one for the analyst, and he must either justify it or bring a great 
 deal of discredit upon his profession. 
 
 We know that chemistry is the most precise of the sciences. 
 It is not only capable of producing exact results, but it can fore- 
 tell with unerring certainty, even before an operation is commenced, 
 what those results will be. Complete concordance in phosphate 
 xinalysis should consequently be " a thing of course," and a dozen 
 chemists in as many different parts of the globe have no right to 
 differ in the second decimal in their findings on the same sample. 
 
 An average error of no greater importance than say one unit 
 of phosphate of lime, worth 20 cents, would entail, when spread over 
 a total year's consumption of raw material, a cash difference of 
 about $300,000. This difference, of course, constitutes a loss, 
 which is sometimes borne by the miners who sell, and sometimes 
 by the manufacturers Avho buy. 
 
 We have seen that in certain cases where superphosphates are 
 sold on the basis of their water-soluble phosphoric acid, iron and 
 alumina phosphates as a raw material, have no commercial value. 
 Any widely differing results obtained by chemists in their deter- 
 minations of these bodies in shipments of mineral phosphates, 
 therefore, may cause infinite trouble between miners and manu- 
 facturers. 
 
 At the i>resent time there prevails between the contracting 
 
The Phosphates of America. 139 
 
 parties, what appears x;poii its face to be an equitable arrangement 
 in this connection. The market price of the phosphate rock is 
 fixed at a certain sura per unit of phosphate of lime, and it is agreed 
 that this rock may contain a certain amount of oxides of iron and 
 alumina without affecting its price. This tolerated amount, how- 
 ever, must not exceed three per cent, by weight of the mass, and every 
 additional per cent, of oxides of iron and alumina is to be compen- 
 sated for by a proportionate deduction from the total quantity of 
 phosphate of lime. 
 
 To justify such a deduction, it is necessary to remember that in 
 the initial stage of superphosjihate manufacture, a great deal of 
 free phosphoric acid is produced, which, in the presence of oxides 
 of iron and alumina, enters into combination with them to form 
 phosphates in the following proportions : 
 
 Oxide of iron to phosphoric anhydride 1 : 0,88 
 
 Oxide of alumina to phosphoric anhydride 1 : 1,37 
 
 Ratio of the equally combined oxides to the acid 1 : 1,13 
 
 It follows from this that every per cent, of these equally 
 combined oxides causes 1.13 per cent, of phosphoric anhydride 
 (P2O5) to become insoluble in Avater. "Where " reverted " phos- 
 phates are valueless, therefore, the European manufacturer is jus- 
 tified in declining to pay for what Avill bring him no return for his 
 money . 
 
 A Avorking example of this arrangement may serve to make it 
 more clear, and will specially emphasize the necessity for conformity 
 of analysis betAveen shipper and consignee. We give an instance 
 which actually turned out as follows : 
 
 A cargo of phosphate i-ock was shipped from one of our ports 
 to Liverpool, in fulfilment of a contract, embodying the above 
 arrangement in regard to iron and alumina, and fixing the price 
 of the material at 25 cents j)er unit of phosphate of lime. 
 
 The analysis of the cargo (1000 tons) by the chemists at the 
 ports of shipment, and arrival, resijectively, showed the following 
 variations: 
 
 Shipment. Arrival. 
 
 Phosphate of lime 78.30 77.10 
 
 Oxides of iron and alumina (combined) 2.95 5.01 
 
 These results were contested by the shippers, and the sealed 
 samples, taken and reserved at both ports, were handed to four 
 
140 
 
 The Fliofsphates of America. 
 
 reputable chemists. Two of these were in New York and two in 
 London, and the following were the results of their Avork: 
 
 New York chemist No. 1 
 
 New York chemist No. 2 
 
 London chemist No. 1 
 
 London chemist No. 2 
 
 SHIPPING SAMPLE. 
 
 ARRIVAL SAMPLE. 
 
 Phosphate 
 of Lime. 
 
 Oxides of 
 Iron and 
 Alumina. 
 
 Phosphate 
 of Lime. 
 
 0.\ides of 
 Iron and 
 Aknnina. 
 
 77.80 
 77.40 
 78.01 
 
 77.25 
 
 3.70 
 4.01 
 3.95 
 4.15 
 
 76.95 
 
 77.30 
 76.80 
 77.15 
 
 4.86 
 4.22 
 4.90 
 
 5.12 
 
 
 These figures M'^ere, of course, unsatisfactory in themselves, but 
 they made it clear that the greatest error had been made, in the 
 first instance, by the shippers' chemist, and it was consequently 
 arranged that the cargo should be paid for on the averages of the 
 three English chemists, Avhich were : 
 
 Phosphate of lime 77 per cent. 
 
 Oxides of iron and alumina 5 " 
 
 The original invoices had been made out by the shippers on the 
 basis of their own analysis at the price of |19.25 per ton, but the 
 final settlement stood thus : 
 
 Oxides of iron and alumina found by analysis 5 per cent. 
 
 " " " allowed by contract 8 *' 
 
 " " " to be paid for by sellers . 2 " 
 
 1 : 1,13 : : 2 : 2.26 phosphoric anhydride. 
 
 The factor for converting phosphoric anhydride (P205) into 
 phosphate of lime is 2.18— consequently 2.26 X 2.18 = 4.92 phos- 
 phate of lime. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF INVOICE. 
 
 Phosphate of lime found by analysis 77 per cent. 
 
 Deduct the equivalent of two per cent, iron and 
 
 alumina as above 4.92 " 
 
 Total phosphate to be paid for at 25 c. per unit. . . 72.08 " 
 Value of the phosphate per ton, $18. 
 
 The difference between the amount of the original invoice and 
 that of the settlement was therefore $1250. 
 
 How are Ave to account for these divergencies ? Must they be put 
 down to carelessness, incapacity, inexperience, bad faith, or must 
 
llie Phosphates of America. 141 
 
 we attribute them, as we have ah-eady suggested, to the faulty 
 methods of sampling at either or both ends, and to the lack of a 
 uniform method by which all chemists should agree to work? The 
 first four factors perhaps require to be counted with, but there 
 is no doubt in our minds that the two last are the real causes 
 of the trouble, and Ave have long endeavored to bring about an 
 agreement that would go far in causing them to diminish or dis- 
 appear. If chemists were not human, or if they were entirely 
 superior to petty prejudices, an entente cordiale might not be very 
 difficult. Unfortunately, however, every individual is jjrone to 
 regard his own work as irreproachable, and from that very fact to 
 look upon any outside suggestions of modification as j^resumptuous 
 and unnecessary. In a former chapter Ave pointed out the advi- 
 sability of chemists coming together and arriving at a definite 
 understanding, but if all hope of this is to be finally abandoned as 
 impracticable, there is still one way open by Avhich to establish 
 and enforce a method that shall alone be used in the settlement 
 of phosphate affairs. The mine-owners must act in unison and 
 fix their OAvn basis for sampling, analyzing and valuation. 
 
 There is no reason Avhy the interests of the manufacturer 
 should differ from those of the producer. If phosphate of lime in 
 the required form be Avorth a certain price per unit, Avhy should a 
 door be left open to chicanery Avhen the time comes to pay for it? 
 Why should there be any material difference between the shippers' 
 and the buyers' samples, if both are faithfully taken according to 
 prescribed rules and with a proper regard for the true interests of 
 each party to the contract ? 
 
 Whatever method of analysis be chosen, it must be accom- 
 panied by complete details of laboratory manipulation. The obserA'- 
 ance of these details should be insisted upon, and must be com- 
 municated to all the A\arious chemical and industrial societies in 
 order that they may be expeditiously and officially brought before 
 analytical chemists all over the Avorld. All contracts between 
 miners and manufacturers should contain a sj^ecial clause specify- 
 ing that 
 
 "The phosphate sold under this contract shall be paid for at 
 
 the rate of per unit and per ton of phosphate of lime, and 
 
 shall not contain more than a maximum of per cent, of iron 
 
 and alumina, calculated as oxides, on the dry basis. Every unit of 
 these oxides, singly or combined, in excess of the maximum, shall 
 be deemed to neutralize tAvo units of the phosphate of lime, and 
 
142 Tlie P]ioq)]iates of America. 
 
 such excess shall therefore be deducted from the total ])lio.s})hate 
 of lime found in the results of chemical analysis. 
 
 "This chemical analysis shall be made in duplicate, from the 
 same sample, by two chemists, one representing the buyer and the 
 other the seller, and it shall be performed in strict accordance with 
 the method, in all its details, hereunder set forth. If the two 
 analyses only exhibit on their face a maximum difference equalling 
 one per cent, of 2)hosphate of lime, such difference shall be adjusted 
 by taking the mean of the two results ; but in case the difference 
 should exceed this maximum, a third analysis shall be made by 
 another chemist, to be mutually agreed upon by the contracting 
 parties, and the settlement shall then and there take place iipon 
 the basis of an average between the results of this third analysis 
 and those of that one of the other two first chemists which was 
 nearest to its figures." 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Phosphate of Oxides of Iron and 
 
 Lime. Alumina. 
 
 Chemist No. 1 finds 78.20 2.85 
 
 " " 2 " 76.30 2.70 
 
 " 3 " 77.40 3.00 
 
 Average of Nos. 1 and 3 77.80 2.92 
 
 To strengthen these preliminary suggestions we Avill now set 
 forth what we regard as the best and the most practical methods 
 of sampling and analysis. These methods are being constantly 
 employed in our own work, and while Ave claim no originality for 
 them, they have stood the test of our experience in many fields 
 and on every variety of material with perfect satisfaction. 
 
 SAMPLIXG. 
 
 As this work is generally undertaken rather by practical working- 
 men than by analytical chemists, it is deemed advisable to point out, 
 in the plainest possible way, the easiest, most effective and accurate 
 method of conducting it. Nor need we dwell upon the im])ortance 
 of this operation and the necessity for its being carefully super- 
 vised by all capable managers, for we have already shown that enor- 
 mous losses have continually been made and must ever surely result 
 from ignoring or disregarding details. 
 
 When the phosphates are sampled upon the mine for the con- 
 trol of the daily Avork, it is necessary to take them from the piles. 
 The latter are therefore very carefully gone over, and averages are 
 
The Pliosphates of America. 143- 
 
 selected from their every part and placed aside until, in tbe opinion 
 of the sampler, a sufficient quantity has been amassed to make 
 it representative. The big lumps are then all broken up with a 
 hammer, and the entire material is spread out upon the surface of 
 a level floor, well mixed up, and passed through a crusher to 
 reduce all the lumj^s to a small uniform size. It is then again 
 spread upon the floor, shovelled up in a circular direction into a 
 cone-like heap and then once more spread out flat. About a 
 fourth part is next separated from the whole by taking out with a 
 spade two strips crossed at right angles, and adding a small por- 
 tion from each remaining quadrant. This fourth is made to go 
 through the same process of spreading, heaping and dividing into 
 fourths until the last operation leaves no more than about five 
 pounds, which, after thorough mixing on a table, is ground to an 
 impalpably fine j^owder, emptied into wide-mouthed bottles, well 
 corked, securely sealed and labelled. 
 
 When the sam23ling takes place either at the port of shipment 
 or discharge, it must not be lost sight of that the result is to form 
 the basis of the price per ton which the miner is to realize for 
 his cargo. It has, therefore, to be performed in the jii-esence 
 of trusted and reliable representatives of both seller and buyer. 
 If the loading and unloading is done by means of buckets, every 
 twentieth bucket of the whole cargo is set aside. The entire 
 sample is then passed through a stone-crusher in order to reduce 
 all the lumps to a very small size, and is then spread out upon 
 a level floor and tossed up into a heap and treated in the same 
 general way as described for the smaller sample at the mines. 
 When it has been reduced, however, in the present case, to about 
 five tons, it is taken to a mill, ground to a fineness of 80 mesh, and 
 filled into bags of 200 pounds capacity, which are securely tied 
 and placed in a row. Each one of these fifty sacks is then sampled 
 at both ends by means of a sharp-pointed augur, 18 inches long 
 and 1^ inches diameter, which is first plunged into the top and 
 then into the bottom for its entire length, being emptied of its con- 
 tents into a large tin plate by giving it a tap on the side after each 
 operation. When all the sacks have been samj^led in this way, 
 the powder is thoroughly mixed by passing it through a sieve- 
 twice or even three times, and is then divided into three equal parts, 
 each of which is put in a wide-mouthed glass bottle and sealed 
 with the seal of both parties to the contract. One of these sam- 
 ples is handed over to some public officer, or other party mutually 
 
144 The Fhosphaies of America. 
 
 agreed upon for safe-keeping in case of dispute ; the other two are 
 taken, one by each of the contracting parties, for the purjjoses of 
 analysis. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MINERAL PHOSPHATES APATITE, PHOSPHORITE, 
 
 COPROLITE, ETC. 
 
 The sample must bear the date upon Avhich it was drawn, and 
 must in every case be representative of the bulk. It must be clearly 
 labelled with all particulars as to its origin and destination, includ- 
 ing the name of the vessel or the number of the railroad car. When 
 drawn as a "working sample of the mine it must bear the mention 
 
 '■'^ average sample from Mine No drawn by from 
 
 piles No representing tons." 
 
 All these details are entered in the laboratory journal, and this 
 having been done, the entire sample to be analyzed is first made to 
 pass through a screen of 80 mesh by the analyst. The following 
 determinations are then proceeded with : 
 
 Moisture. 
 
 Water of combination and organic matter. 
 
 Carbonic anhydride (COo). 
 
 Insoluble siliceous matters. 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride (PgOg). 
 
 Sulphuric anhydride (SO^). 
 
 Fluorine (Fl). 
 
 Lime (CaO). 
 
 Magnesia (MgO). . 
 
 Iron and alumina as oxides (combined). 
 
 Moisture. 
 
 Two grammes of the substance are very carefully weighed in 
 accurately tared and well-ground watch-glasses. The latter are 
 then adjusted with the clip so as to leave a sufficient opening 
 for the passage of steam, and are placed in the gas-oven at 110° 
 C. At the end of three hours the glasses are taken out, closed 
 tightly, placed in the desiccator until quite cold, and then brought 
 upon the scale. 
 
 The difference between the present and the original weight 
 -^ 2 = moisture in one gramme of the material. 
 
 'Water of Combination and Organic Matter. 
 The residue from the moisture determination is carefully brushed 
 into an accurately-tared platinum crucible. The crucible is i:)laced 
 
TJie Phosphates of America. 145 
 
 over a small Bunsen flame for ten minutes, and is then brought to a 
 white heat by means of the blast. After being kept at this high 
 temperature for five minutes the flame is removed, the crucible 
 is covered ; placed in the desiccator ; and allowed to become 
 quite cold. It is then weighed, and the difference between the 
 present Aveight and that of the residue from the moisture deter- 
 mination -^ 2 represents the " loss on ignition " in one gramme of the 
 material. 
 
 The total of this loss on ignition includes water of combination, 
 organic matter, and carbonic anhydride, and as the latter is to 
 be determined separately, its weight when found must be deducted 
 from this total. 
 
 Carbonic Anhydride (COg). 
 
 This is one of the most essential of the determinations, and 
 should be made in every sample destined for factory use. There 
 are numerous excellent methods of performing it, but the two 
 most commonly used in our laboratory are those of Scheibler and 
 Schrotter. The first-named is based upon the principle that the 
 quantity of carbonic anhydride contained in pure chalk can be used 
 a,s a measure of the quantity of that salt itself. Instead of estimat- 
 ing the carbonic-acid gas by weight, therefore, this method allows 
 of its estimation by volume, and when skilfully handled it yields 
 very rapid and very accurate results. The second is a far simpler, 
 and in our experience equally expeditious, method, and our students 
 consequently take more readily to it than to the other. It only re- 
 quires ordinary care in its manipulation to give perfect satisfac- 
 tion. 
 
 A mere glance at the figure will suftice to show that the appa- 
 ratus is made of blown glass, and that its principle depends upon 
 the loss of weight which occurs in a carbonate when its carbonic- 
 acid gas is expelled. 
 
 Two grammes of the original substance are accurately weighed 
 and introduced into A. The tube B is now filled with fifty per 
 cent, hydrochloric acid and the tube C about a quarter filled with 
 concentrated sulphuric acid. All the stoi^-cocks have meantime 
 been kept closed, and the apparatus is now brought upon the scale 
 and very accurately weighed. The weight being noted in the 
 agenda it is withdrawn from the scale, the stop-cock on tube B is 
 gradually opened and the hydrochloric acid thus allowed to come 
 into contact with the phosj^hate. When all the acid is in, the tap 
 
146 
 
 The Pliospliates of America. 
 
 is closed and the ap])aratus is allowed to stand in a warm place 
 (say at 80° C.) for two hours with occasional agitation. The 
 carbonic-acid gas passes off through C, the sulphuric acid, however, 
 preventing the escape of any moisture that might otherwise ac- 
 company it. At the end of two hours B is opened, and the air 
 
 schrOtter's apparatus for the estimation of carbonic-acid gas. 
 
 is drawn through the apparatus by suction applied to a piece of 
 thin India-rubber tubing connected with I) in order to sweep out 
 all traces of the CO,. B is then closed and the apparatus is 
 allowed to become quite cold, when it is brought back to the scale 
 and weighed. The difference between the present and the first 
 weight -^ 2 represents the COj in one gramme of the normal 
 sample. 
 
The PhoiipJidfes of America. 147 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Weight of the carefully dried "Schrotter" charged with ^ 
 
 Two grammes Phosphate in A I qq r^ 
 
 Diluted HCl in B .^ ^^'^^^ 
 
 Concentrated H0SO4 in C j 
 
 Weight of the carefully dried apparatus at the end of two 
 
 hours, after the prescribed manipulation f 
 
 Loss in weight by 3 grammes phosphate 0.087 
 
 Equal 0.0435 in 1 gramme, or 4.35 per cent. 
 
 Insoluble jSiliceovs Matters. 
 
 Five grammes of the original sample in its normal state are accu- 
 rately weighed out and placed in a porcelain dish with about 30 c.c. 
 of aqua regia. The dish is placed upon a sand or air bath, cov- 
 ered with an inverted funnel, gradually heated, and evaporated to 
 dryness ; care being taken to avoid any spurting and consequent 
 loss. As soon as it is dry, the residue is moistened with pure con- 
 centrated hydrochloric acid, and again evaporated to complete dry- 
 ness, after which the heat of the bath is increased to 125° C. and so 
 maintained for about ten minutes. When it has become cool the 
 silica wnll all be insoluble, and the residue is treated with 50 c.c. 
 of concentrated hydrochloric acid and allowed to remain in this 
 contact for fifteen minutes. The acid is then diluted, filtered 
 through an ashless filter, and the poi'celain dish and the filter care- 
 fully w^ashed with hot water until the filtrate measures 250 c.c. 
 The residue on the filter, which should be quite white, is now dried 
 in the oven, calcined and weighed. The weight 4- 5 = insoluble 
 siliceous matter ih 1 srramme of the material. 
 
 SylpJmrlc Anhydride (SO 
 
 Twenty -five c.c. of the filtrate from the siliceous matter, repre- 
 senting 0.50 gramme of the phosphate, are placed in a beaker, 
 boiled, and treated while boiling with 5 c.c. of a saturated solution 
 of barium chloride. The hot liquid is brought upon a small ash- 
 less filter ; the beaker and the filter are well washed with boiling 
 water until the last washings show no trace of chlorides ; and the 
 filter is then dried, calcined and weighed. The weight X .3429 
 X 2 = sulphuric anhydride (SO3) in 1 gramme of the material. 
 
 N.B. — The words "ashless filter" are used on this, and on all 
 subsequent occasions, only iii a comparative sense, and are meant 
 to indicate the round cut filters, washed in hydrochloric and 
 
148 The riiospliates of America. 
 
 hydrofluoric acids manufactured by Messrs. Schleicher & Schuell. 
 These filter rapidly, retain the finest preciisitates, and leave an ash 
 which — in the No. 590, of 9 cubic centimetres diameter, for example 
 — only amounts to 0.00008 gramme. 
 
 Phosphoric Anhydride (P2O5). 
 
 Twenty-five c.c. of the filtrate from the siliceous matter, repre- 
 senting 0.50 gramme of the phosphate, are placed in a beaker with 10 
 grammes ammonium nitrate. The solution is heated over a Bun- 
 sen or other smokeless flame, and wdien (piite warm is treated Avith 
 150 c.c. of molybdic solution and well stirred. After digesting for 
 one hour at 70° C, it is filtered and washed with water three or 
 four times. The beaker in which the precipitation was made is now 
 placed beneath the funnel ; a small hole is hiade in the bottom of 
 the filter-paper with the point of the stirring-rod, and the precipi- 
 tate is washed from the filter into the beaker by means of a hot 
 mixture of water and ammonia (5 : 1). If this washing is skil- 
 fully performed, the amount of liquid used will not exceed 75 c.c. 
 in order to remove all traces of the ammonium-phospho-molyb- 
 date. 
 
 The filtrate having been nearly neutralized by the careful addi- 
 tion of hydrochloric acid until the yellow color only disappears 
 with difticulty, is allowed to cool, and there are then added to it 
 very slowly, in fact, drop by drop, 20 c.c. of magnesia mixture, stir- 
 ring with a glass rod all the time. Finally, there are poured in 
 about 50 c.c. of strong ammonia, the mixture is again stirred, and 
 then allowed to stand for four hours. The precipitate is collected 
 on an ashless filter, and the beaker is very thoroughly washed 
 with dilute ammonia by means of a rubber tip on the glass rod. 
 When all the liquid has passed through the filter, the latter is 
 washed carefully twice, by blowing the dilute ammonia down its 
 sides in a fine stream, and is then placed in the drying-oven. 
 When (piite dry, it is removed from the funnel, folded care- 
 fully in order to prevent loss of its contents, placed in a tared 
 porcelain crucible, and ignited, at first very gently, but finally over 
 the most intense obtainable flame, for ten minutes, in order that 
 the residue may become white. The crucible is now covered, 
 transferred with the tongs to the desiccator, allowed to become 
 quite cold, and weighed. The weight of this magnesium pyro- 
 phosphate (MgoPoOj) X .6396 X 2 = phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) 
 in 1 gramme of the material. 
 
The Phosioliates of America. 149 
 
 Fluorine (Fl). 
 
 This element may first of all be tested for, qualitatively, in order 
 to save much unnecessary trouble. 
 
 Two or three grammes are placed in a platinum dish with about 
 2 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid. The dish is covered with a 
 watch-glass thinly coated with wax, through which the operator 
 may trace some mark with a fine needle-point Heat is then 
 gently applied, and, at the end of, say, ten minutes the watch- 
 glass is removed, and the wax upon it is washed off. The etching 
 of the characters traced on the glass proves the jjresence of fluor- 
 ine, and the analysis may be proceeded with as follows : 
 
 Five grammes of the finely-ground phosphate are fused in a 
 platinum dish, with 15 grammes of the mixed carbonates of sodium 
 and potassium, and 2 grammes of very fine sand. After fusing very 
 thoroughly with a strong heat for a quarter of an hour, the dish is 
 removed from the fire, cooled down, and its contents dissolved in 
 hot water and treated Avith ammonium carbonate in excess, in order 
 to remove the last trace of soluble silica. The liquid is now 
 filtered and washed with great care ; the filtrate is nearly neutral- 
 ized with hydrochloric acid and then treated Avith an excess of 
 calcium chloride, solution (CaClg). 
 
 The precipitate, consisting of phosphate, fluoride and some 
 carbonate of lime, is washed several times by decantation with 
 boiling water, collected on an ashless filter, dried and calcined. 
 After being allowed to cool, the residue is treated with acetic acid 
 and evaporated to dryness on the water-bath in order to trans- 
 form the carbonate of lime into acetate of lime. The acetate 
 is next well washed out with boiling water several times, and 
 the final residue is brought on an ashless filter, dried, calcined 
 and weighed. This time, the weight represents only the phosphate 
 and fluoride of lime contained in the five grammes of the original 
 sample. 
 
 After taking due note of this weight, the residue is returned to 
 the platinum dish, 5 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid are added 
 to it, heat is applied, and the fluorine is all driven off. When 
 no more fumes are evolved, the source of heat is removed, the resi- 
 due in the dish is treated with 100 c.c. alcohol, filtered and washed 
 with alcohol up to 200 c.c. 
 
 The alcoholic filtrate contains the phosphoric acid, and this is 
 precipitated as ammonio-magnesium phosphate. The precipitate 
 
150 The Pliospliates of America. 
 
 is washed, dried, calcined and weighed as Mg^P^O;, every part 
 of which X .1396 = phosjshate of lime (CaaPgOg). 
 
 We now refer to our note-book to find the weight of the com- 
 bined phosphate and fluoride of lime contained in the live grammes of 
 the original sample asdetermined after the acetic-acid treatment,and 
 by means of this Aveight we now make the following calculation : 
 
 EXAMPLE (TAKEN AT RANDOM FROM OUR AGENDA). 
 
 Weight of the residue of combined phosphate and fluoride 
 
 of lime in 5 grammes of the sample 3.900 
 
 "Weight of the phosphate of lime calculated from MgaPgO^ . 3.775 
 
 Fluoride of lime, by difference in 5 grammes 0.125 
 
 Tlierefore 5 : .125 : : 100 : a; = 2.50 per cent, fluoride of lime, 
 which X .4897 = 1.22 per cent, fluorine. 
 
 Oxides of Iron and Alumina. 
 
 This highly-important determination is the object of much con- 
 troversy, and may be roughly said to be the pivot upon which 
 revolves very nearly every difference in the phosphate analyses of 
 various chemists. A large number of schemes have been devised 
 and experimented with, but only very few of them have proved 
 worthy of general application. 
 
 The chief points required of a method for practical work are : 
 that it should be accurate, that it should be easy and rapid, and 
 finally, that it should be economical. All these we believe to be 
 embodied in the following plan, which, Avhen carried out with care 
 and exactly as we shall describe it, produces constant and strictly 
 concordant results. When left to our own choice we have always 
 pi'cferred it to any other for our own work, and many of our pupils 
 and former assistants Avho have left us and are now employed 
 either at phosphate mines or at fertilizer Avorks throughout the 
 country, continiu' to exactly accord in results with our laboratory. 
 We consider this to be a great point in its favor, and it is in fact 
 the one which mainly prompts lis to so strongly recommend its 
 general adoption. 
 
 Fifty c.c. of the filtrate fi'om the siliceous matter, equalling one 
 gramme of the jihosphate, are placed in a beaker and made alkaline 
 with ammonia. 
 
 The resulting jjrecipitate is redissolved by the addition of just 
 sufficient hydrochloric acid, and the liquid is then again made 
 alkaline with ammonia in very slight excess. Fifty c.c. of concen- 
 trated and pure acetic acid are now added ; the mixture is stirred, 
 
The PJiosphatcs of America. 151 
 
 and allowed to stand in a cool j^lace until perfectly cold. Ii is then 
 filtered on an ashless filter and the beaker and residue are carefully 
 washed twice with boiling water. The flask containing the filtrate 
 is then removed from beneath the funnel and replaced by the 
 beaker in which the first j^recipitation was made. The substance 
 on the filter is now carefully dissolved in a little hot, fifty-per-cent. 
 solution of hydrochloric acid, and the filter is washed twice with 
 hot water. The filtrate in the beaker is next made alkaline with 
 ammonia in slight excess ; then made strongly acid with pure con- 
 centrated acetic acid ; well stirred up, and again allowed to stand 
 until absolutely cold. The flask containing the first filtrate is now 
 replaced under the funnel, the liquid in the beaker is filtered 
 into it, the filter is washed twice with cold Avater containing a 
 little acetic acid, and then three times with boiling distilled water. 
 The funnel containing the filter is now placed in the oven and com- 
 completely dried, after which the filter and its contents are cal- 
 cined, and weighed as 'phosphates of iron and alumina in one 
 (jranime of the materml. For all the general i^urposes of the 
 factory, or for the control of daily work at the mines, it is 
 only necessary to divide the figure thus found by 2, and to state 
 the result roughly as "oxides of iron and alumina (combined)." 
 As we have given our reasons for this proceeding in an earlier part 
 of this chapter, it is not necessary to rej^eat them, and we will con- 
 tent ourselves with a mere example. 
 
 The weight of the combined phos2)hates in one gramme was .058 ; 
 then .058 -^ 2 = .029 = 2.90 per cent, oxides of iron and alumina 
 
 When reporting upon a sample for commercial purposes 
 that is to say, when determining its value to the manufacturer 
 of Avater-soluble superphosphates, it is sometimes necessary to 
 carry this analysis a little further. In such cases, after carefully 
 noting the accurate weight of the combined phosphates, they are 
 dissolved in boiling hydrochloric acid. The solution is filtered 
 into a 100-c.c. flask and washed up to the mark with boiling Avater. 
 No residue should remain on the filter save perhaps a speck or two 
 of carbon resulting from the recent incineration. In one half of 
 the filtrate, the phosphoric anhydride is determined by the molyb- 
 date method already described. The resulting MggPaOy X .6396 X 2 
 equals the PgOg in one gramme of the combined jihosphates. 
 
 The remaining half of the filtrate is boiled Avith a small piece 
 of zinc in a flask fitted Avith a Bunsen A'^alve. When the iron is com- 
 pletely reduced and gives no trace of pink coloration with potas- 
 
152 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 sium sulj)hocyanate, the liquid is cooled, about one gramme of mag- 
 nesium sulphate is dissolved in it, and it is then titrated Avitli g'^ 
 N. permanganate solution, every c.c. of which = .00080 ferric oxide. 
 The number of c.c. used X 2 will represent the amount of iron 
 oxide contained in one gramme of the above jihosphates. Two out 
 of the three constituents being thus accurately known, the third, 
 which is the alumina, can easily be determined by difference, as 
 for example : 
 
 Weight of the combined phosphates of h'on and alumina. . .058 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride determined in the above 031 
 
 Iron oxide (FeoOg) " " 010 
 
 .041 
 
 Oxide of alumina (by difference) 017 
 
 In reporting upon the sample we should therefore state the 
 presence of 
 
 Oxide of iron , 1.00 per cent. 
 
 Oxide of alumina 1.70 " 
 
 Weight of these oxides combined 2.70 " 
 
 instead of the 2.90 per cent, which were obtained by merely divid- 
 ing the combined phosphates by 2. 
 
 The only other method of determining the percentage of iron 
 and alumina which has been used in our laboratory with satis- 
 factory results, was recently adopted at the request of clients, and 
 is generally known as the Glaser method, from its having been 
 first suggested and described by a German chemist of that name 
 (in Ztschr. Angew. Chem., 89, 636). The way in which Ave carry 
 it out, differs somewhat from the first description by its author, 
 and is as follows : 
 
 Two and a half grammes of the phosphate are dissolved in 10 c.c. 
 hydrochloric acid ; evaporated to dryness ; taken up again with 
 hydrochloric acid, raised to boiling, and washed out into a 250-c.c. 
 flask with as little water as possible. Ten c.c. concentrated sulphuric 
 acid are now added, and the solution is allowed to stand for five min- 
 utes, with frequent shaking. After adding some ninety-five per cent, 
 alcohol, the mixture is cooled, made up to the mark with alcohol, 
 well shaken, and Avhen the contraction in volumehas taken place, is 
 again made up to 250 c.c. and mixed. After standing one hour it is 
 filtered, and 200 c.c. (= 2 grammes phosphate) are taken and gently 
 
Tlie Pliospliates of America. 153 
 
 evaporated to a small bulk. When organic matter is present, it is 
 desirable to evaporate to pastiness, that the acid may partially de- 
 compose it. The solution is now washed into a beaker with about 
 50 to 100 c.c. water ; boiled for a short time with bromine or other 
 oxidizing agent, as suggested by H. H. B. Shepherd (in Chem. 
 N'ews, 63, 251) ; and, after adding ammonia, it is again boiled for 
 about half an hour. It is then cooled, and, after the addition of 
 a little more ammonia, is filtered ; washed Avith a hot solution of 
 ammonium chloride to prevent the precipitate from passing through 
 the filter ; ignited, and weighed. The ^jhosphoric acid is determined 
 by dissolving the ignited precipitate, exactly as we have described 
 in the foi'mer method, and the oxides of iron and alumina are 
 obtained by difference. If magnesia is present, the phosphates of 
 iron and alumina obtained as above must be freed from this im- 
 purity by washing the precipitate off the filter, and boiling with, 
 water and a little nitrate of ammonium. 
 
 As we have already stated, our own preferences are in favor of 
 the first method, and this, not only because we believe it to be2:)er- 
 fectly exact and reliable, when in the hands of a skilful oj^erator, 
 but because it is much more rapid and much less costly. We, 
 however, have no positive objections to the Glaser scheme, and 
 when carried out on the above lines should have every confidence 
 in the accuracy of its results. 
 
 Lime (CaO). 
 
 The total filtrates from the iron and alumina determination first 
 described are mixed by shaking the flask, and are then concen- 
 trated by boiling down to about 100 c.c. At this point there are 
 added to the liquid about 20 c.c. of a saturated solution of am- 
 monium oxalate, and the mixture, after stirring, is withdrawn 
 from the fire, covered with a watch-glass and allowed to stand 
 for six hours. At the end of this time the supernatant fluid is 
 filtered through an ashless filter ; the residue is washed three times 
 by decantation with boiling water, and then brought ujjon the 
 filter, and the beaker and filter are thoroughly washed at least 
 three times more. The filter is then dried, taken from the funnel 
 with the greatest care, j^laced in a tared platinum crucible, and 
 ignited at a low red heat for ten minutes. At the end of this 
 time it is brought to the highest possible temperature by the 
 blast, kept there for five minutes, covered, and then rapidly re- 
 moved to the desiccator. When quite cold it is weighed in the 
 
154 Tlte Pliospliates of Amei'lca. 
 
 covered crucible. The net weight = CaO in one gramme of the 
 material. 
 
 It is customary in our laboratory to ignite and weigh this residue 
 three times, or until the two last weights are identical. 
 
 3Iagnesia (MgO). 
 
 The filtrates and all the washings from the lime determination, 
 as above detailed, are well shaken together, and concentrated by 
 boiling to about 100 e.c. 
 
 After allowing the liquid to become quite cold, it is poured into 
 a beaker, the flask carefully rinsed out into the same with distilled 
 water, and the liquid made very strongly alkaline with ammonia. 
 
 After well stirring, the mixture is covered with a watch-glass 
 and allowed to stand over night. The precipitate of ammonio- 
 magnesium-phosphate is then carefully filtered through an ashless 
 filter, the beaker thoroughly washed out with dilute ammonia by 
 means of a rubber-tipped rod, and the washings brought on the 
 filter. The latter is then finally washed twice with the ammonia 
 water, placed in the drying-oven, calcined in a tared porcelain 
 cru ible, at first at a very low, then at the highest obtainable heat, 
 and weighed as MggPgOy. The weight X .360 = MgO in one 
 gramme of the material. 
 
 If all the foregoing determinations have been performed with 
 the required care, the quantities found should add up to a total very 
 closely approximating 100. Assuming that this is the case, we 
 suggest that a reliable opinion may at once be formed for the 
 manufacturei", as to the industrial value of any mineral phosphate, 
 by combining the various isolated bodies as follows : 
 
 The magnesia is multiplied by 2.10. Result — carbonate of magnesia. 
 
 The carbonic anhydride left over by 
 
 the magnesia is multiplied by.. 2.27 ** = carbonate of lime. 
 
 The fluorine is multiplied by 2.05 " = fluoride of lime. 
 
 The sulphuric acid is multiplied by 0.75 '• = iron pyrites. 
 
 Tiie lime renialnmg after satisfj'ing 
 the carbonic anhydride and 
 fluorine is multiplied by 1.84 "J = phosphate of lime. 
 
 The phosphoric acid, if any, remain- 
 ing after this satisfaction of 
 
 lime is multiplied by 2.00 " = phosphate of iron and 
 
 alumina. 
 
 If all the phosphoric acid be used up by the lime available 
 under this scheme, the iron and alumina may be regarded as having 
 
The PJiosphates of America. 155 
 
 existed in the form of silicates or clay, and, as we have pointed 
 out in the chapter on Florida phosphates, our own experiments 
 have very conclusively proved that in a majority of cases, they 
 really do so exist. They would therefore be to a great extent 
 unacted upon by the dilute chamber acid, used in the manufacture 
 either of superphosphates or phosphoric acid. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SUPERPHOSPHATES. 
 
 The sample should be well intermixed and properly prepared 
 and passed through a sieve having circular perforations one-twenty- 
 fifth of an inch in diameter, so that separate portions shall accurately 
 represent the substance under examination, without loss or gain of 
 moisture. 
 
 3Ioistm'e. 
 
 Two grammes are accurately weighed into the watch-glasses 
 and heated for five hours at 100° in a steam-bath. 
 
 'Water-soluble Phosphoric Anhydride. 
 
 Five grammes are weighed out into a small beaker ; washed by 
 decantation four or five times with not more than from 20 to 25 c.c. 
 of water, and then rubbed up in the beaker with a rubber-tipped 
 rod to a homogeneous jiaste, and washed four or five times by 
 decantation Avith from 20 to 25 cc. of water each time. These 
 Avashings are all run through a 9-c.c. — No. 589 Schleicher and 
 Schiiell — filter into a 500-c.c. flask. The residue is finally trans- 
 ferred to the filter, and washed with water until the flask is filled 
 up to the mark. The flask is now shaken, and 50 c.c. of the clear 
 liquor, equal to ^ gramme of superphosphate, are transferred to 
 a beaker, and treated with 150 c.c. of molybdic solution. The 
 mixture is digested at 80° C. for one hour, filtered and washed with 
 water. After testing the filtrate for P^Og by renewed digestion 
 and addition of more molybdic sohition, the precipitate is dissolved 
 on the filter with ammonia and hot Avater (as described in the anal- 
 ysis of raw phosjjhate) and washed into a beaker to a bulk of not 
 more than 100 c.c. It is nearly neutralized with hydrochloric acid, 
 cooled, and magnesia mixture is added slowly from a burette (one 
 drop per second), with vigorous stirring. After fifteen minutes 
 30 c.c. of ammonia solution of density .95 are added, and the whole 
 is allowed to stand for two hours. It is then filtered on an ash- 
 
156 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 less filter, washed as in tlie case of raw pbosjtliates, dried, calcined 
 in a porcelain crucible and weighed as MggPaOj. The weight of 
 the residue X .0396 X 2 = the vater-soluhle 2)hos2jhoric' anhydride 
 in one gramme of the superi)hosphate. 
 
 Citr at e-h I soluble Phosphoric Anhydride. 
 
 The residue from the treatment with water is washed into a 
 200-c.c, flask, with 100 c.c. of strictly neutral ammonium citrate 
 solution of density 1.09. The flask is securely corked and placed 
 in a water-bath, the water of which stands at 65° C. (The water- 
 bath should be of snch a size that the introduction of the cold 
 flask may not cause a reduction of the temperature of the bath of 
 more than 2° C.) 
 
 The temperature of 65° C. is maintained for thirty minutes, with 
 vigorous shaking of the flask every Ave minutes. The warm solu- 
 tion in the flask is then filtered quickly and washed with water of 
 ordinary temperature. The filter is transferred, with its contents, 
 to a capsule, and ignited until the organic matter is destroyed. It 
 is then treated with 10 to 15 c.c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid ; 
 digested over alow flame imtil the phosphate is dissolved ; diluted 
 to 200 c.c. mixed, and passed through a dry filter. One hundred 
 c.c. of it are nearly neutralized with ammonia ; 10 grammes of 
 ammonium nitrate are added ; the liquid is made quite warm and 
 there are then added to it 150 c.c. molybdic solution. The process- 
 is completed exactly the same way as with raw phosphates. 
 
 The weight of the MgoPgO^ X .6396 X 2 -^ 5 equals the c/iJm^e- 
 insoluhle iihos2)horic anhydride in one gramme of the substance. 
 
 Total Phosphoric Anhydride. 
 
 Two grammes of the superphosphate are weighed with great 
 accuracy and treated in a porcelain capsule with 30 c.c. concen- 
 trated hydrochloric acid. Heat is applied and there is added cau- 
 tiously, and in small quantities at a time, about .5 gramme of 
 finely-pulverized potassium chlorate. 
 
 The mixture is gently boiled until all phosphates are dissolved 
 and all organic matter destroyed, and is then diluted to 200 c.c, 
 mixed and passed through a dry filter. Fifty c.c. of filtrate — 
 equal to half a gramme of the superphosphate — are then taken and 
 neutralized with ammonia, and about 15 grammes of dry am- 
 monium nitrate are added. The solution is now made warm ; 150 
 c.c. molybdic solution are added, and thenceforward the process 
 is conducted exactly as in the case of raw phosphates. 
 
The Phosphates of America. 157 
 
 The weight of the Mg^PgO^ X .0396 X 2 equals the total 2:>hos- 
 phoric anhydride in one gramme of the substance. 
 
 The three following determinations have now been made : 
 
 1. The P2O5 soluble in water. 
 
 2. The P2O5 insoluble in ammonium citrate. 
 
 3. The total P2O5 contained in the substance. 
 
 The figures obtained in the first two cases, added together and 
 deducted from the last, will therefore show the amount of citi'ate- 
 soluble phosphoric acid in one gramme of the substance ; as for 
 example : 
 
 Total P3O5 in one gramme 0.160 gramme 
 
 PgOg soluble in water 0.140 
 
 PoOg insoluble in water and ammonium citrate . . 004— .144 *' 
 
 P3O5 soluble in ammonium citrate 016 ' 
 
 and the manner in which we should state the result of such an 
 analysis as this in our reports would be as follows : 
 
 Moisture ? 
 
 "Water-soluble phosphoric anhydride (P2O5) 14.00 
 
 Citrate-soluble or assimilable phosphoric anhydride (PgOj). 1.60 
 
 Insoluble phosphoric anhydride (P0O5) 0.40 
 
 Equal to 34 per cent, of bone phosphate made soluble. 
 
 THE VOLUMETRIC ESTIMATION OF PHOS- 
 PHORIC ACID. 
 
 While we have long discarded the use, in our commercial labor- 
 atory, of all volumetric processes of determining phosphoric acid 
 for commercial purposes, we nevertheless have always found the one 
 that we shall now describe of considerable value in the factory. 
 With a little practice it is possible to observe the end reaction with 
 great accuracy, and provided not more than one per cent, of com- 
 bined ii'on and alumina is present, the results are tolerably reli- 
 able. 
 
 The formulae for preparing the standard solutions required are 
 given on another page, and the principle on which the method is 
 based is the fact, that phosphoric anhydride and uranic oxide com- 
 bine together to form a compound insoluble in acetic acid. 
 
 P2O, -f 2 ITr^O^ = Ur.P^On 
 
 142 + 576 = 718. 
 
158 The PhospJiates of America. 
 
 It follows, therefore, that if a solution of phosphoric auhydride 
 in acetic acid, be treated with a solution of uranic acetate, the PoO^ 
 is precipitated, and it has been found that the slightest excess of 
 uranic acetate can be detected in the mixture, by bringing a drop 
 of it into contact with a drop of freshly-prepared solution of potas- 
 sium-ferrocyanide, and noting the reddish-brown color produced. 
 The first ste]) being to establish the accuracy of the solutions, 50 
 c.c. of the standard solution of sodic phosj)hate are run into a 
 small beaker; made akaline with ammonia; and then distinctly acid 
 with acetic acid. Five c.c. of the sodic-acetate solution .are now 
 run into the mixture with a pipette ; the beaker is brought over 
 the flame of a Bunsen burner and the contents heated to about 70° 
 C. When this point is attained the uranic-acetate solution is run 
 in very cautiously, drop by drop, from a burette, until a drop of 
 the mixture in the beaker taken out and placed in contact with a 
 drop of the ferrocyanide solution, on a white porcelain slab or plate, 
 gives a slight, but yet distinct, reddish -brown color. 
 
 When the necessary point has been attained— which generally 
 requires two or three trials — the uranic solution is so arranged by 
 dilution, or calculation, as to make 1 c.c. of it correspond to ex- 
 actly 1 c.c. of the standard sodic-phosphate solution ; in other 
 Avords, to .002 P2O5. 
 
 The accurate standardization being completed, the sample of 
 mineral phosphate to be examined is now Aveighed out. One gramme 
 is dissolved in nitric or hydrochloric acid in the usual way, and 
 with the usual precautions is filtered and Avashed to about 200 c.c. 
 Fifty c.c. (equal to .250 gramme phosphate) are now placed in a 
 beaker, made alkaline with ammonia, then strongly acid with acetic 
 acid and treated with 5 c.c. of sodium-acetate solution. The mixt- 
 Mve is then heated to 70° C, and at tliis temperature the uranium 
 solution is run in, drop by drop, until the color reaction on the 
 white plate is plainly visible. A second titration is made on an- 
 other 50 c.c. of the solution of phosj^hate, and if the results are the 
 same the operation is ended. Every c.c. of the uranic-acetate 
 solution used equals .002 gramme PoOj in .250 gramme of the 
 material. 
 
 As will have been gathered from our opening remarks, the re- 
 sults of this process, as we describe it, are seriously vitiated by 
 tlie presence of moi'e than one per cent, of iron and alumina. 
 When, however, these two bodies are present in any considerable 
 amount there is a way out of the difliculty afforded by the fact 
 
The Pliosjjliates of America. 159 
 
 that they will remain precipitated in the acetic-acid solution as 
 phosphates, especially in the presence of sodic acetate. When 
 the liquid has become quite cold, therefore, they can be filtered 
 off, washed, redissolved in hydrochloric acid, treated again with 
 ammonia and acetic acid, made cold, filtered, washed, dried, cal- 
 cined and weighed as iron and alumina phosphates. 
 
 If the filtrates from these operations be mixed together and 
 heated to 70° C, they may be titrated with uranic solution as usual, 
 and the quantity of P.,05 found by titration, added to half the 
 weight of the phosphates of iron and alumina, will give, very 
 approximately, the total amount of phosphoric anhydride in the 
 original substance. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF PYRITES FOR SULPHURIC-ACID 
 MANUFACTURE. 
 
 The sample is drawn from bulk in much the same manner as 
 that described for the sampling of phosphates, and is ground to 
 the fineness of 100 mesh, care being taken that every particle 
 passes through the screen. The requisite quantity, say eight 
 ounces, is now put into a wide-mouthed bottle provided with a 
 tight-fitting rubber stopper, and the analysis is proceeded with. 
 
 The necessary determinations in the pyrites most ordinarily- 
 used in this country for acid manufacture are : 
 
 Moisture. 
 
 Siliceous matters. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 3Ioisture. 
 
 One gramme of the sample is weighed between two tightly- 
 ground watch-glasses of which the tare, including the clip, i& 
 accurately known. The necessary space to allow for evaporation 
 having been adjusted, the glasses containing the powder are placed 
 in the gas-oven and kept at 110° C. until no further loss of Aveight 
 is observed. Three weighings should be made at intervals of 
 about one hour. The difference between the original, and the final 
 
160 Hie PJiosphates of Avierica. 
 
 weight of the pyrites, and watch-glasses, represents the moisture in 
 
 the sample. 
 
 Siliceous Matter and Silicates. 
 
 One gramme of the original sample is treated with about 20 
 c.c. of a mixture of three vols, nitric acid (specific gravity 1.4) 
 and one vol. strong hydrochloric acid, both ascertained to be 
 absolutely free from sulphuric acid. All spurting is carefully 
 avoided and heat is gently applied, and the mixture evaporated 
 to dryness in a water-bath ; 5 c.c. of hydrochloric acid are 
 now added, and once more evaporated (no nitrous fumes ought 
 to escape now), and finally the dried residue is treated with a 
 little concentrated hydrochloric acid and 100 c.c. of hot water 
 and filtered through a small filter and washed with hot water. 
 The insoluble residue on the filter is dried, ignited and weighed. 
 It may contain besides silicic acid and silicates some sulphates 
 of barium, lead and calcium, but these may be disregarded. 
 
 Snlphur. 
 
 The filtrate and washings from the last determination, are 
 slightly saturated with ammonia, filtered while hot, and washed on 
 the filter with hot water, avoiding channels in the mass. Suffi- 
 ciently dense, but yet rapidly-filtering paper, must be used, and 
 choice made of funnels with an angle of exactly 60°, whose tube is 
 not too wide, and is completely filled by the liquid running 
 through. The washing is continued until the addition of a little 
 BaCP to the last runnings shows no opalescence even after a 
 few minutes. The filtrate and Avashings must not exceed 200 c.c, 
 or if they do, they should be concentrated by evaporation. Pure 
 HCl in very slight excess is now added ; the liquid is heated to 
 boiling ; removed from the burner ; and treated with 40 c.c. of 
 a ten-per-cent. solution of BaCU, previously heated to boiling. 
 After precipitation the liquid is left to stand for half an hour, 
 when the precipitate should be completely settled. The clear 
 portion is decanted through a filter, and the preci])itate is washed 
 Avith hot water by decantation three or four times, until the liquid 
 loses all acid reaction. It should then be washed on to the filter, 
 dried, ignited and weighed. Its weight X .1372 = sulphur in one 
 
 gramme of the ore. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 The ferric hydrate, jirecipitated from the original solution in 
 the sulphur determination, is dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
Hie Phosphates of America. IGl 
 
 warmed, and reduced with pure zinc until no coloration is produced 
 when a drop of the liquid is brought into contact with a dro}) of 
 jDotassium-sulphocyanate solution. 
 
 It is then cooled, and titrated with | N permanganate solution, 
 until the faintest possible pink color remains constant for two 
 minutes. Every c.c. of the permanganate employed = .0056 Fe 
 in one gramme of the ore. 
 
 Cop2)er. 
 
 Five grammes of the original sample are treated with concen- 
 trated nitric acid, and evaporated to dryness. The residue is 
 treated with concentrated sulphuric acid ; heated on a sand-bath 
 till the free acid is all driven off ; and then cooled, treated with 
 water, boiled, cooled again, finally treated with one-fourth its 
 volume of alcohol, and allowed to stand for twelve hours and 
 filtered. The residue on the filter is washed three times with a 
 mixture of one part alcohol and two jiarts water, and the dilute 
 filtrate is then saturated with hydrogen sulphide and allowed to 
 stand for some hours. The jirecipitated sulphides are washed 
 with a solution of HgS ; dissolved in aqua regia ; neutralized 
 with an excess of ammonia ; and made slightly acid again with 
 hydrochloric acid. If not clear, the solution is then filtered, and 
 the filter well washed until no longer acid. 
 
 The solution is now boiled ard treated with 25 c.c. of a strong 
 mixture, containing equal weights of potassium sulphocyanide and 
 sodium bisulphite. The addition is made by degrees and with 
 constant stirring, and, when completed, the beaker is removed from 
 the fire and allowed to stand until quite cold, when the white pre- 
 cipitate of copjyer siib-si(l2)hocyanide will have all gone down. 
 The liquid is now filtered carefully through a double-tared filter, 
 and the precipitate is well washed several times, first by decanta- 
 tion with cold water in the beaker, and finally on the filter. The 
 washing is complete when all traces of chlorides have disappeared, 
 and the precipitate is then thoroughly dried in the gas-oven. 
 When perfectly dry it is weighed, the tare of the double filter 
 is deducted from the weight, and the balance X .^-f-^ = Cu in one 
 gramme of the ore. 
 
162 
 
 The Phosjihates of America. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF BRIMSTONE. 
 
 Moisture. 
 
 In order to prevent the evaporation of moisture during grinding, 
 an average sample of the unground or only roughly-crushed ma- 
 terial weighing 100 grammes is dried at 100° C, for some hours in 
 an oven or water-bath. 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 Ten grammes are burnt in a tared porcelain dish and the res- 
 idue is weighed. 
 
 Direct Estimation of Sulphio: 
 
 Fifty grammes of the finely-ground brimstone are dissolved in 
 200 c.c. carbon bisulphide, by digesting it in a stoppered bottle at 
 the ordinary temperature, and the specific gravity of the liquid = s 
 is estimated. This must be reduced to the specific gravity at 15° C. 
 = S by means of the formula (valid up to 25° C.) S = s -f- 0.0014 
 (t — 15°). The following table gives for each value of S the percent- 
 age in this solution, Avhich number must be multij)lied by 4 to in- 
 dicate the percentage of sulphur in the sample of brimstone : 
 
 Spec. 
 
 % 
 
 Spec. 
 
 % 
 
 Spec. 
 
 % 
 
 Spec. 
 
 % 
 
 Spec. 
 
 % 
 
 Spec. 
 
 % 
 
 Grav. 
 
 S. 
 
 Grav. 
 
 S. 
 
 Grav. 
 
 S. 
 
 Grav. 
 
 S. 
 
 Grav. 
 
 S. 
 
 Grav. 
 
 S. 
 
 1.271 
 
 
 
 1.293 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.313 
 
 10.2 
 
 1.334 
 
 15.2 
 
 1.355 
 
 20.4 
 
 1.376 
 
 28.1 
 
 1.273 
 
 0.3 
 
 1.293 
 
 5 3 
 
 1.314 
 
 10.4 
 
 1.335 
 
 15.4 
 
 1.3,56 
 
 20 6 
 
 1.377 
 
 28.5 
 
 1.273 
 
 0.4 
 
 1.394 
 
 5.6 
 
 1.315 
 
 10.6 
 
 1.336 
 
 15.6 
 
 1.3.57 
 
 31.0 
 
 1.378 
 
 29.0 
 
 1.274 
 
 0.6 
 
 1.29.") 
 
 5.8 
 
 1.316 
 
 10.9 
 
 1.3.37 
 
 15.9 
 
 1.3,58 
 
 31.2 
 
 1.379 
 
 29.7 
 
 1.27.5 
 
 0.9 
 
 1.296 
 
 6.0 
 
 1.317 
 
 11.1 
 
 1.338 
 
 16.1 
 
 1.3.59 
 
 31.5 
 
 1.380 
 
 30.2 
 
 1.276 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.397 
 
 6.3 
 
 1.318 
 
 11.3 
 
 1.339 
 
 16.4 
 
 1 360 
 
 31.8 
 
 1.381 
 
 30.8 
 
 1.277 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.398 
 
 6.5 
 
 1.319 
 
 11.6 
 
 1.340 
 
 16.6 
 
 1.361 
 
 33.1 
 
 1.382 
 
 31.4 
 
 1 278 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.299 
 
 6.7 
 
 1.330 
 
 11.8 
 
 1..341 
 
 16.9 
 
 1.362 
 
 33.3 
 
 1.383 
 
 31.9 
 
 1.279 
 
 1.9 
 
 1.300 
 
 7.0 
 
 1.331 
 
 12.1 
 
 1.342 
 
 17.1 
 
 1.36;{ 
 
 22.7 
 
 1.384 
 
 32.6 
 
 1.2!^U 
 
 2.1 
 
 1.301 
 
 7.3 
 
 1.323 
 
 13.3 
 
 1.343 
 
 17.4 
 
 1.364 
 
 23.0 
 
 1.385 
 
 33.2 
 
 1.281 
 
 2.4 
 
 1.302 
 
 7.5 
 
 1.333 
 
 13.6 
 
 1.344 
 
 17.6 
 
 1.365 
 
 3:5.2 
 
 1.386 
 
 33.8 
 
 1.282 
 
 3.6 
 
 1.303 
 
 7.8 
 
 1.324 
 
 12.8 
 
 1.345 
 
 17.9 
 
 1.366 
 
 33.6 
 
 1.387 
 
 34.5 
 
 1.283 
 
 3.9 
 
 1.304 
 
 8.0 
 
 1.325 
 
 13.1 
 
 1.346 
 
 18.1 
 
 1.367 
 
 34.0 
 
 1.388 
 
 35.3 
 
 1.28-1 
 
 3.1 
 
 1.30,5 
 
 8.3 
 
 1.326 
 
 13.3 
 
 1.347 
 
 18.4 
 
 1 .368 
 
 24.3 
 
 1.389 
 
 36.1 
 
 1.285 
 
 3.4 
 
 1.306 
 
 8.5 
 
 1.327 
 
 13.5 
 
 1.348 
 
 18 6 
 
 1.369 
 
 24.8 
 
 1.390 
 
 36.7 
 
 1.286 
 
 3.6 
 
 1.307 
 
 8 7 
 
 1.338 
 
 13.8 
 
 1.349 
 
 18.9 
 
 1.370 
 
 25.1 
 
 1.391 
 
 37.3 
 
 1.287 
 
 3.9 
 
 1.308 
 
 8.9 
 
 1.339 
 
 14.0 
 
 1.3.'J0 
 
 19.0 
 
 1.371 
 
 25.6 
 
 (satur. 
 
 ited) 
 
 1.288 
 
 4.1 
 
 1.309 
 
 9.2 
 
 1.330 
 
 14.3 
 
 1.351 
 
 19.3 
 
 1.372 
 
 36.0 
 
 
 
 1.289 
 
 4.4 
 
 1.310 
 
 9.9 
 
 1.331 
 
 14 5 
 
 1.3.53 
 
 19 6 
 
 1.373 
 
 30.5 
 
 
 
 1 .290 
 
 4 6 
 
 1.311 
 
 9.4 
 
 1.33i 
 
 14.7 
 
 1.353 
 
 19.9 
 
 1.374 
 
 26.9 
 
 
 
 1.291 
 
 4.8 
 
 1.313 
 
 9.7 
 
 1.333 
 
 15.0 
 
 l.a54 
 
 20.1 
 
 1.375 
 
 27.4 
 
 
 
 ESTIMATION OF SULPHURIC ACID. 
 
 According to our experience, the amount of actual II2SO4 con- 
 tained in a given bulk of chamber acid is best determined in the 
 volumetric way as described by Lunge — i.e., by titrating a meas- 
 ured volume of the acid Avith standard soda solution, using me- 
 thyl orange as the indicator (31 grammes pure sodium oxide in 
 1 litre distilled water, standardized with very accurate normal IICl.) 
 
llie Pliospliates of America. 163 
 
 The results are always expressed in percentages of monohy- 
 
 drated sulphuric acid (HjSO^) by weight. The specific gravity of 
 
 the acid is taken Avith a hydrometer and called a-. Ten c.c. of the 
 
 acid are then taken with an accurate pipette and diluted to 100 c.o. 
 
 Of this solution 10 c.c. are taken for titration, and, if the number 
 
 of cubic centimetres of normal soda solution = 0.031 gramme NagO 
 
 per cubic centimetre consumed is called y, the percentage of the 
 
 .-, . 4.9 y 
 acid IS -. 
 
 RAPID ANALYSIS OF LIMESTONE OR CHALK. 
 
 Insoluble. 
 One gramme of the substance is dissolved in hydrochloric acid 
 and the residue is filtered, washed, dried, and ignited. In the presence 
 of appreciable quantities of organic substance the filter is weighed 
 after drying at 100°, and afterwards ignited. The difference be- 
 tween the first and second weights is taken as organic matter. 
 
 Xiime. 
 
 One gramme of the substance is dissolved in 25 c.c. normal hy- 
 drochloric acid and titrated with normal alkali. The amount of 
 alkali used is deducted from 25 and the remainder is multiplied by 
 2.8 to find the percentage of CaO, or by 5 to find that of CaCOj. 
 If any magnesia be present it would be calculated as lime, and 
 provided its amount be not very large, this is admissible in the 
 manufacture of "supers" on the plan we have suggested. 
 
 When, however, the magnesia exceeds, say two per cent., it can 
 be separately estimated as follows, and the result deducted from the 
 figure given above. 
 
 Magnesia. 
 
 Two grammes of the substance are dissolved in HCl ; the CaO 
 is precipitated with NHj and ammonium oxalate, and filtered with 
 the usual precautions. The magnesia is precipitated in the filtrate 
 by sodium phosphate, filtered, washed with ammonia water, dried, 
 ignited, and weighed as MgaPoO^, Avhich X ,3603 = MgO. 
 
 Jro/i. 
 Two grammes of the substance are dissolved in HCl, reduced 
 by zinc, and diluted. Some manganese solution free from iron is 
 then added and the mixture is titrated with | N. permanganate, of 
 which each c.c. = .0080 FcoO,. 
 
164 
 
 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 TABLE GIVING THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF THE ELEMENTS ACCORDING TO 
 THE LATEST DETEKMINATIOJ^S. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Aluminum. . 
 Antimony. . 
 
 Arsenic . 
 
 Barium 
 
 Beryllium. . 
 
 Bismuth 
 
 Boron 
 
 Bromine 
 
 Cadmium. . . 
 
 Caesium 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Carbon 
 
 Chlorine. . . . 
 
 Cerium 
 
 Chromium . . 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Copper , 
 
 Didymium. . 
 
 Erbium 
 
 Fhiorine. . . . 
 
 Gold 
 
 ; Hydrogen. . 
 
 Indium 
 
 Iodine 
 
 Iridium 
 
 Iron 
 
 Lanthanum. 
 
 Lead 
 
 Lithium. . . . 
 Magnesium. 
 Manganese. 
 Mercury. . . . 
 
 Atomic 
 Weii,'lit, 
 
 132. 
 
 74. 
 
 136. 
 
 9. 
 
 210, 
 
 11. 
 
 79. 
 111. 
 133. 
 
 89. 
 
 11. 
 
 35. 
 141. 
 
 52. 
 
 58, 
 
 G3, 
 147. 
 169, 
 
 19, 
 196 
 1 
 113 
 126 
 196 
 
 55 
 
 139 
 
 206 
 
 7 
 
 23 
 
 54 
 199 
 
 Name. 
 
 Molybdenum 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Niobium. . . . 
 Nitrogen. . . . 
 
 Osmium. 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 Palladium. . 
 Phosphorus. . 
 Platinum. . . 
 Potassium. . 
 Rhodium , . . . 
 Rubidium . . . 
 Ruthenium . . 
 Selenium. . . . 
 
 Silicon 
 
 Silver 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Strontium , . 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Tantalum . . . 
 Tellurium . . . 
 Thallium. . . 
 Thorium. . . . 
 
 Tin 
 
 Titanium.. . . 
 Tungsten. . . 
 Uranium. . . . 
 Vanadium. . 
 
 Yttrium 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Zirconium. . 
 
The Phofi2)]iates of America. 165 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES OF THE METRICAL SYSTEM. 
 
 Weights. 
 1 milligramme = .001 gramme. 
 
 1 centigramme = .01 gramme. 
 
 1 decigramme = .1 gramme. 
 
 1 gramme = weight of a cubic centimetre of water at 4° C. 
 
 1 decagramme = 10.000 grammes. 
 1 hectogramme = 100.000 grammes. 
 1 kilogramme = 1000.000 grammes. 
 
 Measures of Capacity. 
 1 millilitre = 1 cubic centimetre, or the measure of 1 gramme of 
 
 water. 
 1 centilitre = 10 cubic cent. 
 1 decilitre = 100 cubic cent. 
 1 litre = 1000 cubic cent. 
 
 Measures of Length, 
 1 millimetre = .001 metre, 
 i centimetre = .01 metre. 
 1 decimetre = .1 metre. 
 1 metre = the ten-millionth part of a quarter of the earth's meridian. 
 
 STOCHIOMETRY, OR CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS. 
 
 Conversion of Thermometer Degrees. 
 
 °C. to °R., multiply by 4 and divide by 5. 
 
 "C. to °F., multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 33. 
 
 "R. to °C., multiply by 5 and divide by 4. 
 
 °R. to °F., multiply by 9, divide by 4, then add 32. 
 
 °F. to "R., first subtract 32, then multiply by 4 and divide by 9. 
 
 °F. to °C., first subtract 32, then multiply by 5 and divide by 9. 
 
 To Find the Percentage Comjjosition having the Formula Given. 
 Find the molecular weight from the formula, then 
 
 Molecular weight Weight of constituent in a molecule. 
 100 ~ Percentage of constituent. 
 
 Or, proceed thus ^ 
 
 Multiply the atomic weight of the element by 1, 2, 3, etc., according 
 to the number of atoms of the element there are in the molecule ; multi- 
 ply the number thus obtained by 100 and divide by the molecular weight. 
 
 To Find the Weight of any Element Contained in any Given Weight 
 of a Com2JOund Substance. 
 
 Molecular weight Weight of constituent in a molecule. 
 Given weight ~ Required weight. 
 
 Or, multiply the atomic weight of the element by 1, 2, 3, etc., accord- 
 ing to the number of atoms of the element there are in the molecule ; 
 multiply the number thus obtained by the given weight and divide by 
 the molecular weight. 
 
166 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOLIDS. 
 
 Solids heavier than, and insoluble in, water. 
 
 a. By weighing in air and water. 
 
 „ (weight in air) 
 
 Sp. gr. = ^^ ' • 
 
 (loss of weight in water) 
 
 h. By Nicholson's hj'drometer. 
 
 Let IV j^ be the weight required to sink the instrument to the mark 
 on the stem, the weight of the instrument being W ; to take the 
 specific gravity of any sohd substance, place a portion of it weigh- 
 ing less than tc^ in the upper pan, with such additional weight, say 
 10 Q, as will cause the instrument to sink to the zero-mark. The 
 weight of the substance is then iVj^ — w^. Next transfer the sub- 
 stance to the lower pan, and again adjust with weight u\ to the 
 zero-mark. 
 
 <-, Wi — w- 
 Sp. gr. = — -i ?. 
 
 c. By the specific-gravity bottle (applicable to powders). 
 
 Weigh the flask filled to the mark with water, then place the 
 substance, of known weight in the flask, fill *o the mark with 
 water and weigh again. 
 
 (weight of substance in air) + (weight of flask and water) — 
 o _ (weight of flask and water and substance) 
 
 (weight of substance in air) 
 
 Solids lighter than, and insoluble in, ivater. 
 
 The solid is weighted by a piece of lead of known specific gravity 
 and weighed in water. 
 
 Sn e-r — (weight of substance in air) 
 
 (weight of lead in water) — (weight of lead and substance in 
 water) -t- (weight of substance in air) 
 
 Solids heavier than, and insoluble in, water. 
 
 Proceed as in a, using instead of water some liquid without 
 action on the solid. 
 
 (weight of bulk of liquid equal to substance) = 
 (weight of substance in air) — (weight of substance in liquid). 
 
 ,, „ „ (weight of bulk of liquid equal to substance) 
 
 (weight of bulk of water ^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^.^ 
 
 equal to substance) = (sp. gr. of liquid) ' 
 
 (weight of substance in air) 
 
 Sp. gr. = 
 
 (weight of bulk of water equal to substance)* 
 
Tlie Pliosphates of America. 167 
 
 NOTES ON STANDARD ACID, ALKALINE, AND OTHER 
 SOLUTIONS, CALLED FOR IN THIS WORK. 
 
 In the conduct of volumetric examinations, which are frequently 
 extremely useful, expeditious and exact, it is essential that all 
 "standard" solutions be prepared and employed as nearly as pos- 
 sible at a constant temperature. This temperature should be that 
 of the surrounding atmosphere, or as cool a place as may be avail- 
 able in the laboratory, say 60° to 70° F. The liquids should be 
 kept as clear as j)0ssible, and always shaken up just previous to 
 being used. 
 
 The indicator most commonly used in alkalimetry and acidi- 
 metry is tincture of litmus, which must be kept in open vessels, to 
 avoid its being spoiled. When employing litmus, the liquid to be 
 tested must be kept boiling for some time, in order to expel all 
 CO2 ; and normal acid must be added as long as further boiling 
 causes the color to change back from red to purple or blue. This 
 takes a long time ; sometimes half an hour or even more. This 
 time may be saved by replacing litmus by a very dilute solution of 
 methyl-orange (sulphobenzene-azodimethyl-aniline) ; but in this 
 case the liquids must never be hot, but of the ordinary temperature, 
 and none but mineral acids may be employed. The cold solution 
 of sodium carbonate is colored just perceptibly yellow by adding a 
 drop or two of the solution of methyl-orange, preferably by means 
 of a pipette ; if the color is too intense, it will on neutralization 
 cause the transition into red to be less sharp. Methyl-orange is 
 not acted upon in the least by COg, and when all NajCOa has been 
 decomposed, the slightest excess of HCl causes the yellow to change 
 suddenly and sharply into pink. The rule is, therefore, to run in 
 the normal acid quickly and with constant agitation till the change 
 of color has taken place. The opposite change of color from pink 
 to faint yellow is just as sharp when titrating mineral acids with 
 sodium hydrate or carbonate. 'Ihe results are identical with those 
 obtained by litmus, but, as we have said, they are obtained very 
 much more quickly, and Avithout heating the liquids. 
 
 Other indicators in constant use are phenolphthalein and coral- 
 line, of which it is always useful to have a small supply. 
 
 NORMAL SODIUM CARBONATE. 
 
 Dissolve 53 grammes of pure, dry monocarbonate, prepared by 
 
168 The Phos2)hates of America. 
 
 igniting the bicarbonate to redness, in water, and make \\\) to one 
 litre. 
 
 NORMAL SULPHURIC ACID. 
 
 Dilute about 30 c.c. of pure sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1.840) to one 
 litre ; then determine the strength of this solution by titration with 
 normal sodium carbonate, and dilute so as to make one c.c. of the 
 sulphuric acid neutralize one c.c. of the alkali ; after dilution check 
 the strength by another titration. 
 
 DECI-NORMAL OXALIC ACID. 
 
 Dissolve 6.3 grammes of pure, recrystallized oxalic acid, dried 
 between paper, in one litre of water. 
 
 NORMAL HYDROCHLORIC ACID. 
 
 Dilute 181 grammes of the pure acid, of sp. gr. 1.10, to one litre ; 
 
 N . . 
 
 check by titration with — silver solution or by sodium carbonate. 
 
 NORMAL NITRIC ACID. 
 
 Take some pure nitric acid and dilute to one litre. The strength 
 of this solution must be ascertained, and the acid diluted accord- 
 ingly. The most exact method of checking the nitric acid is by 
 pure calcium carbonate, one gramme of which requires 20 c.c. of 
 normal acid. 
 
 NORMAL CAUSTIC ALKALI. 
 
 Take about 42 gi'ammes of pure sodium hydrate and dis- 
 solve in 800 c.c. of water ; titrate with any normal acid, and dilute 
 until it corresponds with the acid, volume for volume. Normal 
 POTASSIUM HYDRATE may be made in a similar manner. 
 
 NORMAL AMMONIUM HYDRATE 
 
 is made by diluting strong ammonia to the required strength, and 
 checking by titration with normal acid. 
 
 DECI-NORMAL SILVER NITRATE SOLUTION. 
 
 Dissolve 10.8 grammes of pure silver in pure dilute nitric acid, 
 heat gently, and when dissolved dilute to one litre. If a neutral 
 solution is required, take 17 grammes of pure silver nitrate and 
 dissolve in water to one litre. Of this solution 
 
The PJiOsphates of America. 169 
 
 1 c.c. = .01080 gramme Ag. 
 
 " =: .01700 " AgNos. 
 
 " = .00355 " CI. 
 
 " r= .00585 " NaCl. 
 
 DECI-NORMAL SODIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION. 
 
 Dissolve 5.85 grammes of pure sodium chloride, dried by gentle 
 ignition, to one litre. 
 
 1 c.c. = .00585 gramme NaCl . 
 " = .00355 " CI. 
 
 " = .01080 " Ag. 
 
 BARIUM CHLORIDE SOLUTION. 
 
 Dissolve 122 grammes of barium chloride, dried between paper 
 to one litre. 
 
 1 c.c. = .0490 gramme HgSO^. 
 
 " = .0480 " SO4. 
 
 " = .0400 " SO3. 
 
 " = .1220 " BaClo(2H20). 
 
 " = .1040 " BaClo. 
 
 " := .0685 " Ba. 
 
 STANDARD URANIUM SOLUTION. 
 
 Take about 40 grammes of uranium acetate, dissolve in water j 
 add about 25 c.c. of glacial acetic acid, and make up to one litre. 
 This solution is then titrated against the sodium phosphate and 
 diluted until 50 c.c. are equivalent to 50 c.c. of the latter. 
 
 1 c.c. = .002 gramme PgOg. 
 
 STANDARD SODIUM PHOSPHATE SOLUTION. 
 
 Take 10.085 grammes of pure, crystallized, non-effloresced, di- 
 sodium hydrogen phosphate, dried between paper, and dissolve to 
 one litre. Check this solution by evaporating 50 c.c. to dryness 
 and igniting. The residue should weigh .1874 gramme. 
 
 50 c.c. = .1 gramme P2O5. 
 
 SODIUM ACETATE SOLUTION. 
 
 Dissolve 100 grammes of the salt in water, add 100 cc. of pure 
 acetic acid (sp. gr. 1.04), and dilute to one litre. Exact quantities 
 are not necessary. 
 
170 Tlie Phosphates of America. 
 
 MAGNESIA MIXTURE. 
 
 Dissolve 110 grammes of dry crystallized magnesium chloride 
 and 280 grammes of ammonium chloride in one litre of distilled 
 water. Filter, add 700 c.c. liquor of ammonia of specific gravity 
 .96 and shake. Allow to cool and then add sufficient distilled 
 water to complete two litres, mix thoroughly and label. 
 
 NEUTRAL AMMONIUM CITRATE SOLUTION. 
 
 Mix 370 grammes of commercial citric acid with 1500 cubic 
 centimetres of water ; nearly neutralize with crushed commercial 
 carbonate of ammonia ; heat to expel the carbonic acid ; cool ; add 
 ammonia until exactly neutral (testing by saturated alcoholic 
 solution of coralline) and bring to a volume of two litres. Test the 
 gravity, which should be 1.09 at 20° C, before using. 
 
 AMMONIUM NITRATE SOLUTION. 
 
 Dissolve 200 grammes of commercial ammonium nitrate in 
 . water and bring to a volume of two litres. 
 
 MOLYBDIC SOLUTION. 
 
 Dissolve 150 grammes of ammonium molybdate in one litre of 
 distilled water. Pour the solution slowly and in small portions at 
 a time into one litre of nitric acid of siDecific gravity 1.20. After 
 each addition of the ammonium molybdate solution the mixture 
 must be shaken and the agitation kept up until the liquid is en- 
 irrely clear. 
 
 Keep the mixture in a warm place for several days, or until a 
 portion heated to 40° C deposits no yellow precipitate of ammonium 
 phospho-molybdate. Decant the solution from any sediment, and 
 preserve in glass-stoppered vessels. 
 
 Fifty c.c. of this solution suffice to precipitate 0.100 gramme 
 
 P,0,. 
 
 SATURATED SOLUTION OF AMMONIUM OXALATE. 
 
 Place about eight ounces of pure ammonium oxalate in a litre 
 bottle, fill up with pure distilled water, shake occasionally during 
 a few hours, finally allow to settle and use the supernatant liquid, 
 drawing it off with a pipette as required. 
 
 STANDARD POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE SOLUTION. 
 
 For the accurate determination of iron in small quantities we 
 prefer the permanganate to any other reagent. The iron is re- 
 
The Phosphates of America. 
 
 171 
 
 duced to the ferrous state and the permanganate sohition is then 
 added until all the iron is peroxklized^ a fact which is demon- 
 strated directly the color of the iron solution turns purple. The 
 quantity of permanganate used in the operation is the measure of 
 the iron ^Ji'esent, as may be gathered from the equation : 
 
 lOFeSO^ +8H2SO4 +2KMn04 =5Fe2(S04)3 +K0SO4 +2MnS0^ +8H2O. 
 
 The solution may be conveniently made of quinquenormal 
 strength. Dissolve 3.162 grammes of very dry permanganate of 
 potassium in one litre of water and keep in a stoppered bottle. 
 Every c.c. of the solution should be equal to .0056 Fe or .0080 
 
 To ascertain its exact strength, which is a very important point 
 considering the small amounts of iron we are generally called 
 upon to determine, dissolve one gramme of double sulphate of iron 
 and ammonium in 20 c.c. of water and 5 c.c. dilute sulphuric acid. 
 If 25 c.c. of the permanganate are required to produce a faint 
 pink color, permanent for two minutes, the solution is sufficiently 
 correct. One hundred c.c. of this solution may be diluted to one 
 litre with distilled water and labelled -^-^ N. permanganate solution, 
 every c.c. of which = .00080 ferric oxide. 
 
 SYMBOLS, MOLECULAR WEIGHTS, AND PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION, OF SUB- 
 STANCES USED IN THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY. 
 
 
 
 
 Molec- 
 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Molecular Formula 
 
 ular 
 
 Percentage Composition. 
 
 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 Aluminum 
 
 oxide 
 
 ALO3 
 
 103 
 
 Al 53.40, 46.60. 
 
 " 
 
 hydrate. . . . 
 
 A1,(H0), .... 
 
 157 
 
 AUO, 65.61, HoO 34.39. 
 
 Ammonia. 
 
 
 NH, 
 
 17 
 
 N 82.35, H 17 67 
 
 Ammonium carbonate. 
 
 H(NH,)Co, + 
 
 
 
 
 
 (NHJCOgNHg. 
 
 157 
 
 NH, 32.49, CO, 56.05, 
 H,0 11.46. 
 
 " 
 
 chloride. . . 
 
 NH4CI 
 
 53.5 
 
 NH3 31.77, HCl 68.23. 
 
 
 magnesium 
 
 
 
 
 
 phosphate 
 
 
 
 
 
 cryst 
 
 Mo:(NH,)PO,+ 
 
 
 
 
 
 6aq 
 
 245 
 
 Mo-0 16 30 NH 6 93 
 
 
 
 
 
 P.,05 29.09, HoO 47.68. 
 
 <( 
 
 nitrate 
 
 NH4NO3 
 
 80 
 
 NH3 21.25, N^d- 67.50, 
 H3O 11.25. 
 
 
 phosphate. 
 
 (NH,).HPO,.. 
 
 132 
 
 NH, 25.68, PoOs 53.93, 
 HoO 20.39. 
 
 a 
 
 sod'm phos- 
 
 
 
 
 
 phate 
 
 (NH4)NaHP04 
 
 
 
 
 
 + 4aq 
 
 209 
 
 NH38.I3, Na,0 14.83, 
 P3O5 33.97; H2O 43.06. 
 
172 
 
 Tlie Plio^pluiles of America. 
 
 Symbols, Molecular Weights, and Percentage Composition, of Substances used in the Fer- 
 tilizer Industry. — Continued. 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Molecular Formula 
 
 Molec- 
 ular 
 Weight 
 
 Percentage Composition. 
 
 Barium cJilonde 
 
 " sulphate 
 
 Calcium monoxide 
 
 " hydrate 
 
 " carbonate . . . . 
 
 " chloride 
 
 " chloride cryst. 
 
 " phosphate 
 monobasic. . . . 
 
 " phosphate, di- 
 basic 
 
 BaCl, H-2aq... 
 
 BaSO'4 
 
 CaO 
 
 244 
 233 
 
 56 
 
 74 
 100 
 111 
 219 
 
 234 
 
 136 
 
 310 
 136 
 172 
 
 44 
 
 28 
 36.5 
 160 
 95 
 
 203 
 
 84 
 
 246 
 
 222 
 
 63 
 
 142 
 
 98 
 
 158 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 106 
 
 84 
 
 358 
 
 64 
 
 80 
 
 98 
 178 
 114 
 
 18 
 
 BaClo 85.24, H^O 14.76. 
 BaO 65.67, SO3 34.33. 
 Ca 71.43. 28.57. 
 CaO 75.67. H,0 24.33. 
 CaO 56.00, CU, 44.00. 
 Ca 36.05, CI 63^: 95. 
 CaClo 50.69, HoO 49.31. 
 
 CaO 23.93, P0O5 60.68, 
 HgO 15.38. 
 
 CaO 41.18, P2O3 52.20, 
 H3O 6.62. 
 
 CaO 54.19, P2O5 45.81. 
 
 CaO 41.18, SOs 58.82. 
 
 CaO 32.56, SO3 46.51, 
 
 HoO 20.93. 
 C 27^27, 72.73. 
 C 42.85, 57.15. 
 CI 97.26, H 2.74. 
 Fe 70.00, 30.00. 
 Mg 25.26, CI 74.74. 
 
 MgClo 46.80, HoO 53.20. 
 MgO 46.62, CO^" 53.38. 
 MgO 16.26, SO3 32.53, 
 H2O 51.22. 
 
 MgO 36.04, PoO, 63.96. 
 N0O3 85.71, H06 14.29. 
 P 43.66. 56.34. 
 P3O5 72.45, HoO 27.55. 
 
 KgO 29.75, MuoO, 70.25. 
 Si 46.67. 53.33. 
 NaoO 77.50, HoO 22.50. 
 NaoO 58.49, CO, 41.51. 
 NalO 36.90, CO^ 52.38, 
 HjO 10.71. 
 
 NaoO 17.32, P0O5 19.84, 
 
 HoO 62.84. 
 S SO.'OO, 50.00. 
 S 40.00, 60.00. 
 
 SO, 81.63, HoO 18.37. 
 HoSO, 55. 06." SO., 44.94. 
 SO, 56.14, S 28.07, H,0 
 15.79. " ' 
 H 11.11, 88.89. 
 
 Ca(HO)o 
 
 CaCOa ." 
 
 CaClo 
 
 CaClg +6aq. .. 
 CaH,(PO,),.. 
 
 CaHP04 
 
 Ca3(P0,), .... 
 
 CaSO, 
 
 CaSO^ + 2aq . . 
 CO, 
 
 " phosphate, tri- 
 basic 
 
 " sulphate, an- 
 hydrous 
 
 " sulphate, cryst 
 (gypsum) 
 
 Carbonic anhydride 
 
 " oxide 
 
 co: 
 
 HCl 
 
 Fe,03 
 
 MgClo 
 
 Hydrochloric acid 
 
 Iron oxide 
 
 Magnesium chloride 
 
 " chloride 
 
 crystals. . . . 
 
 " carbonate.. 
 
 " stilphate . . 
 
 " pyrophos- 
 phate 
 
 Nitric acid 
 
 MgClo+6aq.. 
 
 MgC0"=* 
 
 MgSO^ + 7aq.. 
 
 MgoPgO, 
 
 HNO, 
 
 p.o;. 
 
 H3PO, 
 
 KMnO, 
 
 SiOo 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride.. 
 
 '• acid 
 
 Potassium permangan- 
 ate 
 
 Silicic acid 
 
 Sodium hydrate 
 
 '• carbonate 
 
 " bicarbonate. . . . 
 
 " phosphate . . . . 
 
 Sulphurous anhydride. . 
 Sulphuric anhydride . . . 
 " acid (mono- 
 hydrate) 
 
 Pyro-sulphuric acid. . . . 
 Thio-sulphuric " .... 
 
 Water 
 
 NaHO 
 
 NaoCO., 
 
 NaHCOs 
 
 NaoHPO^ + 12 
 aq 
 
 SOo 
 
 so; 
 
 HoSO., 
 
 H:>SoO 
 
 h;s;o3 
 
 H,0 
 
 
 
The PJiosphates of America. 
 
 173 
 
 USEFUL TABLES FOR THE FACTORY. 
 
 TABLE FOR THE SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF ALKALIES, ALKALINE EARTHS 
 
 AND ACIDS. 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Sodium oxide 
 
 " hydrate 
 
 " carbonate 
 
 " bicarbonate.. . 
 
 Potassium oxide 
 
 " hydrate... . 
 " carbonate. 
 
 " bicarbonate 
 
 Ammonia 
 
 Ammonium carbonate 
 Calcium oxide (lime). . 
 
 " hydrate 
 
 " cai'bonate . . . . 
 
 Barium hydrate 
 
 " (cry.).. 
 " carbonate. . . . 
 
 Strontium oxide 
 
 " carbonate.. 
 
 Magnesium oxide 
 
 " carbonate. 
 
 Nitric acid 
 
 Hydrochloric acid . . . . 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 Oxalic acid 
 
 Acetic acid 
 
 Tartaric acid 
 
 Citric acid 
 
 Formula. 
 
 Molec- 
 ular 
 WeiL'ht. 
 
 Quantity to be 
 
 weighed so that 
 
 1 c.c. of Normal 
 
 Solution = 
 
 1 per cent, of 
 
 Substance. 
 
 NaoO 
 
 NaHO 
 Na.,C03 
 NaHCda 
 
 K„0 
 
 KHO 
 
 K,C03 
 KHCO3 
 
 NHg 
 
 (NH,)X03 
 
 CaO 
 
 CaH.,03 
 
 CaCbg 
 
 BaHoOs 
 
 BaH^OoSHoO 
 
 BaCOg 
 
 SrO 
 
 SrCO., 
 
 MgO 
 
 MgC03 
 
 HNO3 
 
 HCl 
 
 h;so^ 
 
 H/COi 
 H^C'.Oa 
 
 H6C40g 
 
 C«0,H«-hH.,0 
 
 63 
 
 40 
 106 
 
 84 
 
 94 
 
 56 
 188 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 96 
 
 56 
 
 74 
 100 
 171 
 315 
 197 
 103.5 
 147.5 
 
 40 
 
 84 
 
 63 
 
 36.5 
 
 98 
 126 
 
 60 
 150 
 210 
 
 Grammes. 
 
 3.1 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.3 
 
 8.4 
 
 4.7 
 
 5.6 
 
 6.9 
 10.0 
 
 1.7 
 
 4.8 
 
 3.8 
 3.7 
 5.0 
 8.55 
 15.75 
 9.85 
 5.175 
 7.375 
 3.00 
 4.30 
 6.3 
 3.65 
 4.9 
 6.3 
 6.0 
 7.5 
 7.0 
 
 Normal 
 Factor. 
 
 .031 
 
 .040 
 
 .053 
 
 .084 
 
 .047 
 
 .056 
 
 .069 
 
 .100 
 
 .017 
 
 .048 
 
 .038 
 
 .037 
 
 .050 
 
 .0855 
 
 . 1575 
 
 .0985 
 
 . 0575 
 
 .07375 
 
 .020 
 
 .043 
 
 .063 
 
 .0365 
 
 .049 
 
 .063 
 
 .060 
 
 .075 
 
 .070 
 
 V^ILIHJ iHJlll ^fi '-^ 7 '-^H ' ■: . 
 
 In order to find the amount of pure substance present in the material examined 
 multiply the number of c.c. by the " normal factor.*' 
 
 TABLE COMPARING THE DEGREES OF BADME WITH SPECIFIC GRAVITY DEGREES AT 15» C. 
 
 De^s. of 
 Baum6. 
 
 Sp. Gr. 
 
 De-js. of 
 Baum6. 
 
 Sp. Gr. 
 
 Dess. of 
 Baum6. 
 
 Sp. Gr. 
 
 Des's. of 
 Baum6. 
 
 Sp. Gr. 
 
 
 
 1.000 
 
 19 
 
 1.147 
 
 37 
 
 1.337 
 
 55 
 
 1.596 
 
 1 
 
 1.007 
 
 30 
 
 1.157 
 
 38 
 
 1.349 
 
 56 
 
 1.615 
 
 2 
 
 1.014 
 
 31 
 
 1.166 
 
 39 
 
 1.361 
 
 57 
 
 1.634 
 
 3 
 
 1.030 
 
 33 
 
 1.176 
 
 40 
 
 1.375 
 
 58 
 
 1.653 
 
 4 
 
 1.038 
 
 33 
 
 1.185 
 
 41 
 
 1.388 
 
 59 
 
 1.671 
 
 5 
 
 1.031 
 
 34 
 
 1.195 
 
 43 
 
 1.401 
 
 60 
 
 1.690 
 
 6 
 
 1.041 
 
 35 
 
 1.205 
 
 43 
 
 1.414 
 
 61 
 
 1.709 
 
 7 
 
 1.049 
 
 36 
 
 1.215 
 
 44 
 
 1.438 
 
 63 
 
 1.729 
 
 8 
 
 1.057 
 
 37 
 
 1.225 
 
 45 
 
 1.442 
 
 63 
 
 1.750 
 
 9 
 
 1.064 
 
 28 
 
 1.234 
 
 46 
 
 1.456 
 
 64 
 
 1.771 
 
 10 
 
 1.073 
 
 39 
 
 1.345 
 
 47 
 
 1.470 
 
 65 
 
 1.793 
 
 11 
 
 1.080 
 
 30 
 
 1.256 
 
 48 
 
 1.485 
 
 66 
 
 1.815 
 
 13 
 
 1.088 
 
 31 
 
 1.267 
 
 49 
 
 1.500 
 
 67 
 
 1.839 
 
 13 
 
 1.096 
 
 32 
 
 1.278 
 
 50 
 
 1.515 
 
 68 
 
 1.864 
 
 14 
 
 1.104 
 
 33 
 
 1.289 
 
 51 
 
 1.531 
 
 69 
 
 1.885 
 
 15 
 
 1.113 
 
 34 
 
 1.300 
 
 52 
 
 1.546 
 
 70 
 
 1.909 
 
 16 
 
 1.131 
 
 35 
 
 1.313 
 
 53 
 
 1.562 
 
 71 
 
 1.935 
 
 17 
 
 1.130 
 
 36 
 
 1.334 
 
 54 
 
 1.578 
 
 72 
 
 1.960 
 
 18 
 
 1.138 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
174 
 
 The FJwspJiafes of America, 
 
 ANTHON'S TABLE BY WHICH TO PREPARE SUI-PHURIC ACID (OIL OK Vri'RIOL) OF ANY 
 STRENGTH BY MIXING THE ACID OF 1.80 SPECIFIC GRAVITY WITH WATER. 
 
 100 parts of Water 
 at 15° to 20° bein 
 mixed with parts 
 of Sulpliuric Acid 
 of 1.86 sp. f;r. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 5 
 10 
 15 
 20 
 25 
 30 
 35 
 40 
 45 
 50 
 55 
 60 
 65 
 70 
 75 
 80 
 85 
 90 
 95 
 100 
 110 
 130 
 
 Give an 
 Acid of 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 1.009 
 1.015 
 1.035 
 1.060 
 1.090 
 1.113 
 
 .140 
 ,165 
 
 .187 
 ,210 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1.229 
 
 1.248 
 
 1.265 
 
 1.280 
 
 1.297 
 
 1.312 
 
 1.326 
 
 1.340 
 
 1.357 
 
 1.372 
 
 1.386 
 
 1.398 
 
 1.420 
 
 1.438 
 
 100 parts of Water 
 
 Give an 
 Acid of 
 Speefic 
 Gravity. 
 
 100 parts of Water 
 
 Give an 
 
 Acid of 
 Speefic 
 Gravity. 
 
 at 15° to 20° beinj,' 
 mi.xed witli parts 
 
 at 15° to M° bein<c 
 mixed witli parts 
 
 of Sulphuric Acid 
 of 1.86 sp. s-r. 
 
 of Sulphuric Acid 
 of 1 86 sp. }ir. 
 
 130 
 
 1.456 
 
 370 
 
 1.723 
 
 140 
 
 1.473 
 
 380 
 
 1.727 
 
 150 
 
 1.490 
 
 390 
 
 1 . 730 
 
 160 
 
 1.510 
 
 400 
 
 1.733 
 
 170 
 
 1.530 
 
 410 
 
 1.737 
 
 180 
 
 1.543 
 
 420 
 
 1.740 
 
 190 
 
 1.450 
 
 430 
 
 1.743 
 
 200 
 
 1.568 
 
 440 
 
 1.746 
 
 210 
 
 1.580 
 
 450 
 
 1.750 
 
 220 
 
 1.593 
 
 460 
 
 1.754 
 
 230 
 
 1.606 
 
 470 
 
 1.757 
 
 240 
 
 1.620 
 
 480 
 
 1.760 
 
 250 
 
 1.630 
 
 490 
 
 1.763 
 
 260 
 
 1.640 
 
 500 
 
 1.766 
 
 270 
 
 1.048 
 
 510 
 
 1.768 
 
 280 
 
 1.654 
 
 520 
 
 1.770 
 
 290 
 
 1.667 
 
 530 
 
 1.772 
 
 300 
 
 1.678 
 
 540 
 
 1.774 
 
 310 
 
 1.689 
 
 5r)0 
 
 1.776 
 
 320 
 
 1.700 
 
 560 
 
 1.777 
 
 330 
 
 1.705 
 
 580 
 
 1.778 
 
 340 
 
 1.710 
 
 590 
 
 1 . 780 
 
 350 
 
 1.714 
 
 600 
 
 1.782 
 
 360 
 
 1.719 
 
 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS OK PHOSPHORIC ACID BY SPECIFIC 
 GRAVITY AT 15» C. 
 
 Specific 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 HaFO^. 
 
 PjOs. 
 
 1.00.54 
 
 1 
 
 .726 
 
 1.0109 
 
 2 
 
 1.452 
 
 1.0164 
 
 3 
 
 2.178 
 
 1.0220 
 
 4 
 
 2.904 
 
 1.0276 
 
 5 
 
 3.630 
 
 i.o;m 
 
 6 
 
 4.356 
 
 i.oasio 
 
 7 
 
 5.082 
 
 1.0449 
 
 8 
 
 5.808 
 
 1.0508 
 
 9 
 
 6.534 
 
 1.0567 
 
 10 
 
 7.260 
 
 1.0627 
 
 11 
 
 7.986 
 
 1.0688 
 
 12 
 
 8.712 
 
 1.0749 
 
 13 
 
 9.4;i8 
 
 1.0811 
 
 14 
 
 10.164 
 
 1.0874 
 
 15 
 
 10.890 
 
 i.oy;{r 
 
 16 
 
 11.616 
 
 1.1(X)1 
 
 17 
 
 12.342 
 
 1.1065 
 
 18 
 
 13.068 
 
 1.1 130 
 
 19 
 
 13.794 
 
 1.1196 
 
 20 
 
 14.520 
 
 1.1262 
 
 n 
 
 15.246 
 
 l.i;J29 
 
 22 
 
 15.972 
 
 l.Ki97 
 
 23 
 
 16.698 
 
 1.1465 
 
 24 
 
 17.424 
 
 l.l.'-);^ 
 
 25 
 
 18.1.50 
 
 1.1604 
 
 26 
 
 18.876 
 
 1.1674 
 
 27 
 
 19.602 
 
 1.1745 
 
 28 
 
 20.328 
 
 1.1817 
 
 29 
 
 21.054 
 
 1.1889 
 
 30 
 
 21.780 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 1.1962 
 1.2036 
 1.2111 
 1.2180 
 1.2262 
 1.2338 
 1.2415 
 1.2493 
 1.2572 
 1.2651 
 1.2731 
 1.2812 
 1.2894 
 1.2976 
 1.30.59 
 1.3143 
 1.3227 
 l.;«13 
 1.3399 
 1.3486 
 1.;J573 
 1.3661 
 1.37.50 
 1.3840 
 1.3931 
 1.4022 
 1.4114 
 1.4207 
 1.4;J01 
 1.4395 
 
 Per cent, of 
 H3PO, 
 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 37 
 38 
 39 
 40 
 41 
 42 
 4;$ 
 44 
 45 
 46 
 47 
 48 
 49 
 50 
 51 
 52 
 53 
 54 
 55 
 56 
 57 
 58 
 59 
 60 
 
 Per cent, of 
 P=<05 
 
 22.506 
 23.232 
 23.958 
 24.684 
 2,5.410 
 26.138 
 26.862 
 27.588 
 28.314 
 29.0-10 
 29.766 
 30.492 
 31.218 
 31.944 
 32.670 
 ;W.490 
 34.222 
 34.948 
 a5.674 
 36.400 
 37.126 
 37.852 
 38..578 
 39.304 
 40.(«0 
 40.7.56 
 41.482 
 42.208 
 42.934 
 43.660 
 
The Phos2)Jiates of America. 
 
 URE'S TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS OF AMMONIA. 
 
 175 
 
 Specific 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 Specific 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 Specific 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Ammonia. 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Ammonia. 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 Ammonia. 
 
 .8914 
 
 27.940 
 
 .9177 
 
 21.200 
 
 .9564 
 
 10.600 
 
 .8937 
 
 27.633 
 
 .9227 
 
 19.875 
 
 .9614 
 
 9.275 
 
 .8967 
 
 27.038 
 
 .9275 
 
 18.550 
 
 .9662 
 
 7.950 
 
 .8983 
 
 26.751 
 
 .9320 
 
 17.225 
 
 .9716 
 
 6.625 
 
 .9000 
 
 26.500 
 
 .9363 
 
 15.900 
 
 .9768 
 
 5.300 
 
 .9045 
 
 25.175 
 
 .9410 
 
 14.575 
 
 .9828 
 
 3.975 
 
 .9090 
 
 23.850 
 
 .9455 
 
 13.250 
 
 .9887 
 
 2.650 
 
 .9138 
 
 22.525 
 
 .9510 
 
 11.925 
 
 .9945 
 
 1.325 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS OF BARIUM CHLORIDE BY SPECIFIC 
 GRAVITY AT 21. 5» C. 
 
 Specific 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 Specific 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 Per cent, of 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 BaCla + 2Aq. 
 
 BaClo. 
 
 Gravity. 
 
 BaCla 4- 2Aq. 
 
 BaCla- 
 
 1.0073 
 
 1 
 
 .853 
 
 1.1302 
 
 16 
 
 13.641 
 
 1.0147 
 
 2 
 
 1.705 
 
 1.1394 
 
 17 
 
 14.494 
 
 1.0222 
 
 3 
 
 2.558 
 
 1.1488 
 
 18 
 
 15.346 
 
 1.0298 
 
 4 
 
 3.410 
 
 1.1584 
 
 19 
 
 16.199 
 
 1.0374 
 
 5 
 
 4.263 
 
 1.1683 
 
 20 
 
 17.051 
 
 1.0452 
 
 6 
 
 5.115 
 
 1.1783 
 
 21 
 
 17.904 
 
 1.0530 
 
 7 
 
 5.968 
 
 1.1884 
 
 22 
 
 18.756 
 
 1.0610 
 
 8 
 
 6.821 
 
 1.1986 
 
 23 
 
 19.609 
 
 1.0692 
 
 9 
 
 7.673 
 
 1.2090 
 
 24 
 
 20.461 
 
 1.0776 
 
 10 
 
 8.526 
 
 1.2197 
 
 25 
 
 21.314 
 
 1.0861 
 
 11 
 
 9.379 
 
 1.2304 
 
 26 
 
 22.166 
 
 1.0947 
 
 12 
 
 10.231 
 
 1.2413 
 
 27 
 
 23.019 
 
 1.1034 
 
 13 
 
 11.084 
 
 1.2523 
 
 28 
 
 23.871 
 
 1.1122 
 
 14 
 
 11.936 
 
 1.2636 
 
 29 
 
 24.724 
 
 1.1211 
 
 15 
 
 12.789 
 
 1.2750 
 
 30 
 
 25.577 
 
 TABLES SHOWING THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND PERCENTAGE OF SOME SATURATED 
 SOLUTIONS USED IN FERTILIZER ANALYSIS, ETC. 
 
 The Percentage refers to Anhydrous Salt. 
 
 Tem- 
 perature. 
 Celsius. 
 
 Ammonium chloride. 
 " sulphate 
 
 Barium chloride 
 
 Calcium chloride 
 
 Magnesium sulphate 
 
 15 
 19 
 15 
 15 
 15 
 
 Percentage 
 of Salt. 
 
 26.30 
 50.00 
 25.97 
 40.66 
 25.25 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 1.0776 
 1.2890 
 1.2827 
 1.4110 
 
 1.2880 
 
176 
 
 The Phosphates of America. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS OF NITRIC ACID BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY 
 
 AT 15° C. 
 
 
 Liquid 
 
 Dry 
 
 Spe- 
 
 Liquid 
 
 Dry 
 
 Spe- 
 
 Liquid 
 
 Dry 
 
 Spe- 
 
 Liquid 
 
 Dry 
 
 Specific 
 
 Acid 
 
 Acid 
 
 cific 
 
 Acid 
 
 Acid 
 
 cific 
 
 Acid 
 
 Acid 
 
 cific 
 
 Acid 
 
 Acid 
 
 Grav- 
 
 (sp.sr. 
 
 in 100 
 
 Grav- 
 
 (sp.g-r. 
 
 in 100 
 
 Grav- 
 
 (sp.j^r. 
 
 in 100 
 
 Grav- 
 
 fsp.^cr. 
 
 in 100 
 
 ity. 
 
 1..5) in 
 100 pts 
 
 parts 
 
 ity. 
 
 l.^) in 
 100 pts 
 
 parts 
 
 ity. 
 
 1..5) in 
 100 pts 
 
 50 
 
 parts 
 39.850 
 
 ity. 
 
 1 .5) in 
 100 pts 
 
 parts 
 
 1.5000 
 
 100 
 
 79.700 
 
 1.4189 
 
 75 
 
 59.775 
 
 1.2947 
 
 1.1403 
 
 25 
 
 19.925 
 
 1.49«0 
 
 99 
 
 78.903 
 
 1.4147 
 
 74 
 
 .58.978 
 
 1.3887 
 
 49 
 
 39. ".53 
 
 1 . 1345 
 
 24 
 
 19.138 
 
 1.4960 
 
 98 
 
 78.106 
 
 1.4107 
 
 73 
 
 .58.181 
 
 1.2836 
 
 48 
 
 38.356 
 
 1.1386 
 
 3:! 
 
 18.331 
 
 1.4940 
 
 97 
 
 77.309 
 
 1.4065 
 
 73 
 
 .57.384 
 
 1.3765 
 
 47 
 
 37.4.59 
 
 1.1237 
 
 22 
 
 17.534 
 
 1.4910 
 
 96 
 
 76.512 
 
 1.4023 
 
 71 
 
 .56.. 557 
 
 1 2705 
 
 46 
 
 36.663 
 
 1.1168 
 
 21 
 
 16.737 
 
 1.4880 
 
 95 
 
 75.715 
 
 1.3978 
 
 70 
 
 .55.790 
 
 1.3644 
 
 45 
 
 35.865 
 
 1.1109 
 
 20 
 
 15.940 
 
 1.4850 
 
 94 
 
 74.918 
 
 1.3945 
 
 69 
 
 .54.993 
 
 1.3583 
 
 44 
 
 .35.068 
 
 1.1051 
 
 19 
 
 15.143 
 
 1.48-.'0 
 
 93 
 
 74.121 
 
 1.3883 
 
 68 
 
 .54.196: 
 
 1.3523 
 
 4:5 
 
 34.371 
 
 1.0993 
 
 18 
 
 14.346 
 
 1.4790 
 
 92 
 
 73.324 
 
 1.3833 
 
 67 
 
 53. 339, 
 
 1 3463 
 
 42 
 
 33.474 
 
 1.0935 
 
 17 
 
 13.. 549 
 
 1.4760 
 
 91 
 
 72.. 527 
 
 1.3783 
 
 66 
 
 .53 003 
 
 1.3403 
 
 41 
 
 33.677 
 
 1.0«78 
 
 16 
 
 13.7.53 
 
 1.4T;50 
 
 90 
 
 71.730 
 
 1.3733 
 
 65 
 
 51.805 
 
 1.3341 
 
 40 
 
 31.880 
 
 1.0831 
 
 15 
 
 11.9.55 
 
 1.4700 
 
 89 
 
 70.933 
 
 1.3681 
 
 64 
 
 51.068' 
 
 1.3377 
 
 39 
 
 31 083 
 
 1.0764 
 
 14 
 
 11.158 
 
 1.4670 
 
 88 
 
 70.136 
 
 1.3630 
 
 63 
 
 .50.211 
 
 1.3212 
 
 38 
 
 30.386 
 
 1.0708 
 
 13 
 
 10.368 
 
 1.4640 
 
 87 
 
 69.339 
 
 1.3579 
 
 63 
 
 49.414 
 
 1.2148 
 
 37 
 
 39.4f9 
 
 1.06.-)1 
 
 13 
 
 9.564 
 
 1.4600 
 
 86 
 
 68.542 
 
 1.3539 
 
 61 
 
 48.617 
 
 1.3084 
 
 36 
 
 28.69-' 
 
 1.0,595 
 
 11 
 
 8.767 
 
 1.4570 
 
 85 
 
 67.745 
 
 1.3477 
 
 60 
 
 47.830 
 
 1.2019 
 
 35 
 
 27.895 
 
 1. 0.140 
 
 10 
 
 7.970 
 
 1.45:30 
 
 84 
 
 66.948 
 
 1.3427 
 
 59 
 
 47.033 
 
 1 . 1958 
 
 34 
 
 27.098 
 
 1.0485 
 
 9 
 
 7.173 
 
 1.4500 
 
 83 
 
 66.155 
 
 1.3376 
 
 58 
 
 46.226, 
 
 1.1895 
 
 33 
 
 26.301 
 
 1.0430 
 
 8 
 
 6.376 
 
 1.4460 
 
 83 
 
 65.354 
 
 1.3323 
 
 57 
 
 45.429 
 
 1.1833 
 
 33 
 
 25.. "104 
 
 1.9375 
 
 7 
 
 5.. 579 
 
 1.4424 
 
 81 
 
 64.557 
 
 1.3370 
 
 56 
 
 44.632 
 
 1.1770 
 
 31 
 
 24.707 
 
 1.03:0 
 
 6 
 
 4.782 
 
 i.4;5a5 
 
 80 
 
 63.760 
 
 1.3316 
 
 55 
 
 4;3.836 
 
 1.1709 
 
 30 
 
 33.900 
 
 1.0267 
 
 5 
 
 3.985 
 
 1.4346 
 
 79 
 
 62.963 
 
 1.3163 
 
 54 
 
 43.038 
 
 1.1648 
 
 39 
 
 2:3.113 
 
 1.0213 
 
 4 
 
 3.138 
 
 1.4306 
 
 78 
 
 62.166 
 
 1.3110 
 
 53 
 
 42.241 
 
 1.1587 
 
 28 
 
 22.316 
 
 1.01.59 
 
 3 
 
 2.391 
 
 1.4269 
 
 77 
 
 61.369 
 
 1.30.56 
 
 53 
 
 41 .444 
 
 1.1.515 
 
 27 
 
 21.517 
 
 1.0106 
 
 3 
 
 1.594 
 
 1 . 4228 
 
 76 
 
 60.573 
 
 1 3001 
 
 51 
 
 40.6471 
 
 1.1467 
 
 26 
 
 30.733 
 
 1.00,)3 
 
 1 
 
 0.797 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE STRENGTH OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID BY SPECIFIC GRAVITY 
 
 AT 15= C. 
 
 Spe- 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Spe- 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Spe- 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 Spe- 
 
 Per 
 
 Per 
 
 cific 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cific 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cific 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 cific 
 
 cent. 
 
 cent. 
 
 Grav- 
 
 of 
 
 of acid 
 
 Grav- 
 
 of 
 
 of acid 
 
 Grav- 
 
 of 
 
 of acid 
 
 Grav- 
 
 of 
 
 of acid 
 
 ity. 
 
 HCl. 
 
 of 1.20 
 sp. fjr. 
 
 ity. 
 
 HCl. 
 
 of 1.20 
 sp. sr. 
 
 ity. 
 
 HCl 
 
 of 1.20 
 sp. gr. 
 
 ity. 
 1.0497 
 
 HCl 
 
 of 1.30 
 sp. gr. 
 
 1.3000 
 
 40.777 
 
 100 
 
 1.1515 
 
 30.582 
 
 75 
 
 1.1000 
 
 30.388 
 
 50 
 
 10.194 
 
 25 
 
 1.1982 
 
 40.369 
 
 99 
 
 1.1494 
 
 :30.174 
 
 74 
 
 1.0980 
 
 19.980 
 
 49 
 
 1.0477 
 
 9.786 
 
 24 
 
 1.1964 
 
 ;39.961 
 
 98 
 
 1.1473 
 
 29.767 
 
 7:5 
 
 1.0960 
 
 19. 573 
 
 48 
 
 1.01.57 
 
 9.:379 
 
 2:3 
 
 1.1946 
 
 :39.5.54 
 
 97 
 
 1.1453 
 
 2t».359 
 
 73 
 
 1.0939 
 
 19.165 
 
 47 
 
 1 .0437 
 
 8.971 
 
 23 
 
 1.1938 
 
 :{9.146 
 
 96 
 
 1.14:31 
 
 28.951 
 
 71 
 
 1.0919 
 
 18.757 
 
 46 
 
 1.0417 
 
 8.56:3 
 
 31 
 
 1.1910 
 
 ;38.7:i8 
 
 95 
 
 1.1410 
 
 28.544 
 
 70 
 
 1.0899 
 
 18.349 
 
 45 
 
 1.0;j97 
 
 8.155 
 
 30 
 
 1.1893 
 
 :38.3:3o 
 
 94 
 
 1 . 1389 
 
 28.136 
 
 09 
 
 1.0879 
 
 17.941 
 
 44 
 
 1.0:577 
 
 7.747 
 
 19 
 
 1.1875 
 
 :}7.92:3 
 
 93 
 
 1.1369 
 
 37.728 
 
 68 
 
 1.08.59 
 
 17.534 
 
 43 
 
 1.03.57 
 
 7.340 
 
 18 
 
 1.18.57 
 
 ;37.516 
 
 92 
 
 1 . i:U9 
 
 27.321 
 
 67 
 
 1.08:38 
 
 17.136 
 
 43 
 
 i.a3:37 
 
 6.933 
 
 17 
 
 1.1846 
 
 ;37.108 
 
 91 
 
 1 . 1338 
 
 26 913 
 
 66 
 
 1.0818 
 
 16.718 
 
 41 
 
 1.0;!18 
 
 6.524 
 
 16 
 
 1.1822 
 
 36.700 
 
 90 
 
 l.i:308 
 
 26.. 505 
 
 (fc5 
 
 1.0798 
 
 16.310 
 
 40 
 
 1.0,298 
 
 6.116 
 
 15 
 
 1 1802 
 
 :36.392 
 
 89 
 
 1 . 1387 
 
 26.098 
 
 64 
 
 1.0778 
 
 15.903 
 
 39 
 
 1.0279 
 
 S.TOQ 
 
 14 
 
 1 1782 
 
 35.884 
 
 88 
 
 1.1267 
 
 35.690 
 
 63 
 
 1.0758 
 
 15.494 
 
 38 
 
 1.02.59 
 
 5.301 
 
 13 
 
 1.1762 
 
 :J5.476 
 
 87 
 
 1.1247 
 
 25.382 
 
 63 
 
 1.07:38 
 
 15.087 
 
 37 
 
 1 .()23i> 
 
 4.893 
 
 13 
 
 1.1741 
 
 :{5.068 
 
 86 
 
 1.1326 
 
 34.847 
 
 61 
 
 1.0718 
 
 14.679 
 
 36 
 
 1.0320 
 
 4.486 
 
 11 
 
 1.1721 
 
 :{4.660 
 
 85 
 
 1.1306 
 
 24.466 
 
 60 
 
 1.0697 
 
 14.271 
 
 35 
 
 1.02(X) 
 
 4.078 
 
 10 
 
 1.1701 
 
 :34.2.53 
 
 84 
 
 1.1185 
 
 ;i4.0.58 
 
 .59 
 
 1 0677 
 
 13.863 
 
 34 
 
 1 0180 
 
 3.670 
 
 9 
 
 1.1681 
 
 ;33.M5 
 
 8:3 
 
 1.1164 
 
 23.ft50 
 
 58 
 
 1.06.57 
 
 13.4.56 
 
 3:s 
 
 1.0160 
 
 3.263 
 
 8 
 
 1.1661 
 
 33.4:37 
 
 82 
 
 1.1143 
 
 33.342 
 
 57 
 
 1.06:37 
 
 13.049 
 
 33 
 
 1.0140 
 
 3.8,54 
 
 7 
 
 1.1641 
 
 ;i3.039 
 
 81 
 
 1.113:3 
 
 22.834 
 
 50 
 
 1.0617 
 
 12.641 
 
 31 
 
 1,0120 
 
 2.447 
 
 6 
 
 1.16 
 
 :i3.62] 
 
 80 
 
 1.1103 
 
 22.42(i 
 
 .55 
 
 1.0597 
 
 13.333 
 
 :jo 
 
 1 0100 
 
 2.039 
 
 5 
 
 1.1599 
 
 :i2.213 
 
 79 
 
 1.1082 
 
 22.019 
 
 54 
 
 1 0577 
 
 11.835 
 
 3!t 
 
 l.(H)80 
 
 1.&31 
 
 4 
 
 1 . 1578 
 
 :il 805 
 
 78 
 
 1 1061 
 
 21.611 
 
 .53 
 
 1.05.)7 
 
 11.418 
 
 28 
 
 1.0060 
 
 1.224 
 
 3 
 
 1.1.5.57 
 
 :ti.:398 
 
 77 
 
 1.1041 
 
 21.203 
 
 53 
 
 1.0.-);37 
 
 11.010 
 
 27 
 
 1.0040 
 
 .816 
 
 2 
 
 1 . 1.5;}6 
 
 :i0.990 
 
 76 
 
 1 . 1020 
 
 20.796 
 
 51 
 
 1.517 
 
 10.602 
 
 20 
 
 1.0020 
 
 .408 
 
 1 
 
TJie Phospliates of America. 
 
 17 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL APPARATUS 
 REQUIRED IN "PHOSPHATE MINING" OR 
 
 1 sand-bath. 
 
 1 set fine sieves. 
 
 1 iron mortar with pestle. 
 
 Porcelain evaporating-dishes. 
 
 Hydrometer for light liquids. 
 
 Hydrometer for heavy liquids. 
 
 Mohr's burette with pinch-cock, 50 
 
 c.c. in ^^0, 
 Mohr's burette with pinch-cock, 100 
 
 c.c. in \. 
 Iron support for two burettes. 
 10-inch lipped cylinders. 
 Graduated cylinders, 100 c.c. 
 Iron wire triangles. 
 Pieces brass wire gauze, 6x6. 
 Iron tripods. 
 
 Test-tubes, 5 and 6 inches. 
 Test-tube stands. 
 Desiccators. 
 Triangular files. 
 Round files. 
 Funnel supports, wood, for four 
 
 funnels. 
 Retort stands, iron, 3 rings. 
 Quire filter-paper. 
 24 4-ounce German tincture bottles. 
 13 16 - ounce German tincture 
 
 bottles. 
 German glass tubing. 
 Dozen glass stirrers. 
 Horn spoons witli spatulas. 
 Rubber tubing for connections. 
 Flasks, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16 ounces. 
 1 carbonic-acid apparatus, Schrotter. 
 Liebig's condenser, 20 inches. 
 Condenser support. 
 Gay-Lussac's burette, 50 c.c. in ^. 
 Burette floats to fit Mohr's burettes. 
 4 pipettes, volumetric, fixed, 10, 25, 
 
 50, 100 c.c. 
 4 pipettes, Mohr's graduated. 
 5 10 50 100 c.c. 
 
 divided in 4^ j\ ^V i 
 1 Taylor's hand ore-crusher. 
 Half-dozen boxes gummed labels, 
 assorted sizes. 
 
 AND CHEMICALS COMPRISING THE " OUTFIT " 
 "FERTILIZER FACTORY'' LABORATORIES. 
 
 Several packages of Schleicher and 
 SchueJl's washed and cut filters, 
 7, 9 and 11 centimetres diameter. 
 
 1 large Fletcher's blowpipe. 
 
 1 dozen rubber tips for glass rods. 
 
 1 steel forceps, 4i inches. 
 
 1 air-bath, copper, 6x8 inches. 
 
 10 grammes platinum foil. 
 
 1 yard platinum wire. 
 
 1 gross each wide-mouthed bottles, 
 with corks, 1, 2, 4 ounces. 
 
 Porcelain mortars, 5 inches, with 
 pestle. 
 
 1 pair paper-scissors. 
 
 1 dozen royal Berlin crucibles, Nos. 
 00 and 0, and covers. 
 
 1 30-c.c. platinum crucible. 
 
 1 100-c.c. platinum dish. 
 
 Wash-bottles (pints). 
 
 1 chemical balance (for rough 
 weighing), capacity 5 ounces. 
 
 1 set weights, 100 grammes down. 
 
 2 paper scale thermometers, 100° 
 and 200° C. 
 
 Half-dozen each funnels, 2, 2^, 3, 4, 
 5, 6 inches. 
 
 2 dozen beakers with lip, assorted 
 sizes. 
 
 1 dozen 2-inch watch-glasses. 
 
 1 6-inch water-bath, copper, with 
 
 rings. 
 1 glass alcohol lamp, 4 ounces. 
 1 Berzelius alcohol-lamp with stand 
 
 and rings. 
 1 fine balance, 100 grammeg 
 
 capacity. 
 1 set of fine weights, 100 grammes 
 
 down, 
 4 each volumetric flasks, marked 
 
 100, 250, 500 c.c. 
 6 litre flasks , glass-stoppered, 1000 
 
 c.c. 
 
 3 mixing cylinders, glass-stoppered, 
 1000 c.c. 
 
 1 nest Berzelius' beakers, 1 to 4. 
 12 sheets each blue, red and yel- 
 low test-paper. 
 
The Phosjjhates of America. 
 
 CHEMICALS. 
 
 Acetic ucid. 
 
 Acetic acid, glacial. 
 
 Alcohol (absolute). 
 
 Alcohol (common). 
 
 Ammonic carbonate. 
 
 Ammonic chloride. 
 
 Ammonic hydrate. 
 
 Amnionic niolybdate. 
 
 Ammonic nitrate. 
 
 Ammonic oxalate. 
 
 Ammonic sulphocyanide. 
 
 Ammonic sulphhydrate. 
 
 Argentic nitrate. 
 
 Baric carbonate. 
 
 Baric chloride. 
 
 Bromine water. 
 
 Calcic chloride. 
 
 Chlorine water. 
 
 Citric acid. 
 
 5 grammes coralline \ in- 
 
 5 " methyl-orange V dica- 
 
 5 " phenolphthalein ; tors. 
 
 Distilled water. 
 
 Ferric chloride. 
 
 Ferrous sulphate (crystals). 
 
 Fine white pure sand. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid (concent.). 
 
 Hydro-disodic phosphate. 
 
 Indigo solution. 
 
 Iron wire and plate. 
 
 Magnesic chloride crystal. 
 
 Magnesic sulphate. 
 
 Nitric acid (concent.). 
 
 Nitro - hydrochloric acid (aqua 
 
 regia). 
 Oxalic acid (crystals). 
 Platinic chloride. 
 Potassic carbonate (dry) 
 Potassic chlorate. 
 Potassic dichromate. 
 Potassic ferricyanide. 
 Potassic ferrocyanide. 
 Potassic hydrate, 
 potassic permanganate (crystals). 
 Potassic and sodic carbonates 
 
 (mixed). 
 Potassic sulphocyanide. 
 Sodic acetate. 
 Sodic carbonate. 
 Sodic chloride. 
 Sodic nitrate (crystals). 
 Sulphuric acid (concent.). 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 Uranic acetate. 
 Zinc, granular. 
 
 TuE End. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Acid Chambers. 
 Arrangement of drips, windows and 
 
 caps in 92 
 
 Construct ion of 99 
 
 Dimensions of 90 
 
 Exit gases from 94 
 
 General biints in management of. .93, 94 
 
 Pressure of steam in 90 
 
 Reactions of gases in 93 
 
 Regulation of nitre supply in 93 
 
 Sprengel pump in 90 
 
 Thickness of lead for, and amount of 
 space in 90 
 
 Acid Phosphate of Lime. 
 
 Composition of 107 
 
 Production of, in the manufacture 
 of superphosphate Ill 
 
 Acid siphon or '* egg," Description 
 of 98, 99 
 
 Acid solution. Concentration of 130 
 
 Acids and alkalies. Table for syste- 
 matic analysis of 173 
 
 Agricultural products, Value of, in 
 U.S 14 
 
 Agriculture, Theory of scientific 9 
 
 Air Supply, 
 Importance of regulating, in sul- 
 phuric acid manufacture 89 
 
 Regulation of, in pyrite burners 88 
 
 " " for burning brim- 
 stone 88 
 
 Alkalies and acids. Table for system- 
 atic analysis of 173 
 
 Alumina and Iron. 
 Combination of, in Florida phos- 
 phates 154, 155 
 
 Determination of oxides of 150-153 
 
 Elimination of, from Florida phos- 
 phates 78 
 
 Estimation of, in ra w phosphates. 150, 151 
 Glaser's method of estimating... 152, 153 
 In Florida phosphates 76, 78 
 
 Ammonia. 
 
 Citrate solution of 170 
 
 Hydrate solution (normal) of 168 
 
 Nitrate solution of 170 
 
 Oxalate solution of 170 
 
 Table showing strength of various 
 solutions of 175 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Determinations necessary in 144 
 
 Divergence in, of phosphates. 26, 139, 140 
 
 Of alkalies and acids, Table for 173 
 
 " brimstone 162 
 
 " chalk or limestone 163 
 
 " fertilizers. Normal solutions use- 
 ful in 167-171 
 
 Analysis. 
 
 Of Florida phosphates 77 
 
 " phosphates. Volumetric 157-158 
 
 " pyrites ores 159-161 
 
 " raw phosphates 138, 144, 154 
 
 " soils 13 
 
 " sulphuric acid 163 
 
 " superphosphates — 155-157 
 
 Preparation of sample for phos- 
 phate 144 
 
 Selected methods of 138 
 
 Volumetric, of phosphates 157, 158 
 
 Apatites. 
 Average cost delivered at Montreal 42 
 
 " " of mining 40,41 
 
 Canadian, see Canadian Apatites. 
 
 Chemical composition of 35 
 
 Combination of various bodies de- 
 termined in phosphate If 4 
 
 Continuity of veins of 39 
 
 Coste, Eugene, on the origin of 
 
 Canadian 36 
 
 Dawson, Sir William, on Canadian. 35 
 
 Geological aspect of Canadian 27 
 
 In rocks of Laurontian period 27 
 
 Methods of mining, in Canada.. 31, 40, 42 
 Mines, Principal working of, in 
 
 Canada 28 
 
 Output of, from 1877 to 1890 . . 43 
 
 Probable origin of Canadian 35, 37, 38, 39 
 Ratio of, to other rocks in Canadian 
 
 mines. 40 
 
 Selling price of , in 1890 43 
 
 Selwyn, A. R. C, on the origin of 
 
 Canadian 36 
 
 Transportation of 42 
 
 Values, Yearly, of 43 
 
 Apparatus, List of chemical and 
 other, chiefly required in " phos- 
 phate mining" and " fertilizer fac- 
 tory " laboratories 177 
 
 ARCHiBAN rocks, Composition of 27 
 
 Artesian wells in Florida 65 
 
 Artificial heat. Evil eflFects of, when 
 
 used to dry superphosphates 113 
 
 Assimilability of phosphates 18-22 
 
 Atomic weights, Table of 164 
 
 Barium Chloride. 
 
 Standard solution of 169 
 
 Table showing strength 0£ various 
 
 solutions of 175 
 
 Bartow as a phosphate-producing re- 
 gion 74 
 
 Baume degrees compared with speci- 
 fic gravity 173; 
 
 Boom in Florida phosphates ... 63, 
 
180 
 
 Iiulc. 
 
 BoussiNGAULT On the migration of 
 phosphates in plants 17 
 
 Brimstone. 
 
 Air supply in burning 88 
 
 Analysis of 162 
 
 Cost of manufacturing H0SO4 from. 104 
 
 In sulphuric acid manufacture 86 
 
 Moisture, Determination of, in 162 
 
 Possible yield of H2SO4 from 102 
 
 Sulphur, Determination of, in 162 
 
 Calcining and drying Florida phos- 
 phates 71 
 
 Calcining phosphates. Fallacy of, ex- 
 posed 75 
 
 Canadian Apatites. 
 
 Chemical composition of 35 
 
 Companies now engaged in mining. 28 
 
 Cost of production of 42 
 
 Dawson, Sir William, on 35 
 
 Geological aspects of 27 
 
 Methods of mining 29, 31, 40. 42 
 
 Natural impediments in the way of 
 
 mining in Canada 42 
 
 Necessity of a change in the meth- 
 ods of mining in Canada 44 
 
 Occurrence of 27, 35 
 
 Origin of 35-40 
 
 Output of, mines from 1877 to 1890.. 43 
 
 Principal working mines of 28 
 
 Value of lands containing 29 
 
 Veins of 39 
 
 Wasteful methods of mining 42 
 
 Canadian Phosphates 29-42 
 
 Equipment necessary for mining of. 34 
 Mining, Extravagant method of 42 
 
 Carbonate of lime as an important 
 ingredient in the manufacture of 
 
 superphosphates 112 
 
 Estimation of, in phosphates 145 
 
 Carbonic Acid Gas. 
 
 Estimation of, in phosphates 145 
 
 SchrOtter's apparatus for estimation 
 of 146 
 
 CENOZOictime 45 
 
 Chalk or Limestone, 
 
 Analysis of 163 
 
 Determination of magnesia in 163 
 
 Chamber Acid. 
 For decomposition of phosphates, 
 
 Table of quantity of 110 
 
 In manufacture of phosphoric acid, 
 
 Table of 128 
 
 SO3 and H.2SO4 in, Table showing 
 value of 108 
 
 Chemical knowledge required in the 
 manufacture of fertilizers Ill 
 
 Chemicals, General list of those, 
 chiefly required in phosphate an- 
 alyses 178 
 
 Cinders from pyrites burning. Value 
 of 87 
 
 Citrate. 
 Insoluble P.iOs, Determination of, 
 
 in superphosphates 156 
 
 Soluble PiOr,, Determination of, in 
 
 superphosphates 157 
 
 Soluble phosphates 111,112 
 
 Clayey soils 11 
 
 Combination of 
 Iron and alumina in Florida phos- 
 phates 154, 155 
 
 Raw materials used in the manu- 
 facture of superphosphate 125 
 
 Various bodies determined in phos- 
 phate analysis 154 
 
 Combined water and organic matter 
 in raw phosphates. Determination 
 of 144 
 
 Companies, Bogus, in Florida and 
 their evil influence 82 
 
 Companies now engaged in 
 
 Canadian apatite mining 28 
 
 Florida phosphate mining 80, 81, 82 
 
 . South Carolina phosphate mining, 55, 56 
 
 Composition of 
 Phosphoric acid solution of 45° B.. . 131 
 
 Plants 13 
 
 Principal phosphates 20 
 
 Superphosphates as manufactured 
 in United States . .. 126 
 
 CONCENTRAIION of acid Solutions 130 
 
 Condensing plant for the fertilizer 
 factory 134-137 
 
 Construction of fertilizer woriis.iys, 124 
 
 Contracts, Proposed modifications 
 in present forms of making 141, 142 
 
 Conversion of thermometric degrees 165 
 
 CoosAW Mining Co., History and 
 earnings of 56-58 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Determination of, in pyrites 159 
 
 Estimation of, as subsulphocyanide 
 in pyrites ores and residues 161 
 
 Coralline, as an indicator 167 
 
 Corenwinder, on the migration of 
 phosphates in plants 17 
 
 Cost of Production of 
 
 Canadian apatites 42 
 
 Florida phosphates 74, 78 
 
 High-grade superphosphates 133 
 
 Phosphoric acid 133 
 
 South Carolina phosphates 59, 60 
 
 Sulphuric acid 104, 105 
 
 CosTB, Eugene, on the origin of 
 Canadian apatites 36 
 
 Crops, Percentage of mineral matter 
 in the U. 3 14-16 
 
 Crust of the earth. Geological divis- 
 ions of the 27 
 
 Dawson, Sir W., on probable ori- 
 gin of Canadian apatite 35 
 
Index. 
 
 181 
 
 Decomposition of phosphates, Table 
 of quantity of chamber acid re- 
 quired for 110 
 
 Decomposition of rocks 10 
 
 Defects in the raw material used in 
 superphosphate manufacture and 
 how to remedy them 113 
 
 Degrees Baume compared with spe- 
 cific gravity 173 
 
 Dptosits. 
 Of nodular and amorphous phos- 
 phates 15 
 
 Of phosphate in America 25 
 
 Development of Florida phosphate 
 deposits 63 
 
 Difficulties in the manufacture of 
 superphosphate 112 
 
 Directions for manufacturing super- 
 phosphate 123-126 
 
 Discovery OF 
 Charleston phosphates. Processor 
 
 Holmes on 45 
 
 Mineral deposits of phosphates 19 
 
 Phosphate in Florida 63 
 
 The fertilizing value of phosphates. 19 
 
 Disintegration of Phosphates. 
 
 In the factory 117-123 
 
 In the soil 22 
 
 Liebig's theory of 22 
 
 Divergence in analysis of phos- 
 phates ~" 
 
 Dredges, Mining by means of float- 
 ing 74 
 
 Dredging system in South Caro- 
 lina 51,52 
 
 Drift deposits in South Carolina... 73, 75 
 
 Drips, Arrangement of, in manufac- 
 ture of H2SO4 92 
 
 Drying. 
 And calcining Florida phosphates. .. 74 
 
 Phosphates in South Carolina 53, 54 
 
 Washing and, of phosphates 72 
 
 Earth's crust, Geological divisions 
 of the 27 
 
 Eocene era 45 
 
 Farmer, Relative value of phos- 
 phate to the 23 
 
 Fertilizer analysis, Normal solu- 
 tions useful in 167-171 
 
 Fertilizer Industry. 
 Molecular weights of substances 
 
 used in 171, 172 
 
 Per cent, composition of substances 
 
 used in V\, 172 
 
 Symbols of substances used in the, 
 
 171, 172 
 
 Fertilizer Works. 
 Amount of fluorine in gases from . . 134 
 Fume condenser for. Sketch of . .135-137 
 
 General outline and plan of 123, 124 
 
 Nature of the fumes from 134 
 
 Fertilizer Works. 
 Noxious fumes from 134 
 
 Fertilizers. 
 Chemical knowledge required in the 
 
 manufacture of Ill 
 
 ManufacturcKS of, in South Caro- 
 lina, List of 60 
 
 Production of, in South Carolina.. 60, 61 
 
 Fertilizing value of phosphates. Dis- 
 covery of 19 
 
 Florida. 
 
 Artesian wells in 65 
 
 Mining law in 75, 76 
 
 Topographical aspect of 64 
 
 Florida Phosphate. 
 
 Analysis, Typical, of 77 
 
 Boom in 63 
 
 Calcining, Fallacy of 78 
 
 Chemical composition of a sample 
 
 of 108 
 
 Companies now engaged in min- 
 ing 80-82 
 
 Composition, Typical, of 72. 77 
 
 Cost of production of 74-78 
 
 Deceptive mdications of deposits of. 71 
 
 Deposits, Development of 63 
 
 Discovery of deposits of 63 
 
 Drying and calcining. Methods of... . 74 
 Exploration, Systematic, of de- 
 posits of 51 
 
 Formation of. Theories on the 66-69 
 
 Geological aspect of, deposits 66-69 
 
 Iron and alumina, Elimination of, 
 
 from 78 
 
 Iron and alumina in 76-78 
 
 Lands and their inflated values 63-80 
 
 Maps of, deposits 78 
 
 Mining, by floating dredges 74 
 
 Pebble mining. Methods of 73, 74 
 
 Physical aspect of. Genera) 74, 76 
 
 Pockety nature of deposits of 71 
 
 Rock mining. Methods of 77. 78 
 
 Speculative dealings in, lands 63-80 
 
 Suggestions for working, deposits.. . . 78 
 Washed and dried 72 
 
 Florida Phosphate Mines. 
 Companies now working, Parti 1 
 
 list of 80-82 
 
 Extent and aspect of 70 
 
 In Lakeland and neighborhood 74 
 
 In Peace River and its tributaries. . 73 
 
 In pebble regions 73 
 
 Jeffrey Manufacturing Co.'s plant 
 
 for working 78 
 
 Negro labor in 83 
 
 Suggestions for working 78 
 
 Thickness of phosphate stratum in.70-73 
 
 Fluorine. 
 Amount of, in gases from fertilizer 
 
 works 134-137 
 
 Estimation of, in raw phosphates... 119 
 
182 
 
 Index. 
 
 Formation. i 
 
 Of the globe 10 
 
 " soils 11 
 
 Frisbee-Lucop phosphate mill 120-123 
 
 Fume condenser for fertilizer works, 
 Sketch of 133-137 
 
 Fumes from fertilizpr works 134-137 
 
 Furnace, Varieties of, in pyrites 
 burning 86 
 
 Gay-Lussac towers, Construction 
 and use of 94, 95 
 
 Geological. 
 Canadian apatite deposits, aspects 
 
 of 27 
 
 Classiflcatioa of tertiary rocks.. .45, 46 
 
 Divisionof the earth's crust 27 
 
 Florida phosphate deposits, aspects 
 
 of 63-69 
 
 Maps of Florida phosphate deposits 78 
 South Carolina phosphate deposits, 
 aspects of — , 48 
 
 Glaser's method of estimating iron 
 and alumina in raw phosphates, 
 
 152, 153 
 
 Globe. Formation of the 10 
 
 Glover Towers, Construction and 
 
 use of 95-101 
 
 Packing of 97 
 
 Grain crop. Percentage of phos- 
 phoric acid in 15 
 
 Griffin phosphate mill 118-120 
 
 Grinding phosphates, Various me- 
 thods of 117-123 
 
 Hay Crop. 
 Percentage of mineral matter in the. 13 
 Phosphoric acid in the 16 
 
 Higih-Grade Superphosphates. 
 
 Arguments in favor of 127 
 
 Chemical theory and desirability of 
 
 manufacture of 123 
 
 Cost of manufacturing 133 
 
 Manufacture of l.'^2 
 
 Plant used in manufacture of 132 
 
 Practical examples in the manufac- 
 ture of 123 
 
 Tables for the manufacture of... 128, 131 
 
 132 
 
 Holmes, Professor, on the discovery 
 of Charleston phosphates 43 
 
 Hydrochloric acid table 176 
 
 Indications of Florida phosphate 
 deposits. Deceptive — 71 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Estimation of, in limestone 163 
 
 " " " phosphates 151 
 
 " " " pyrites 161 
 
 Titration by permanganate of 171 
 
 Iron and Alumina. 
 Combination of, in Florida phos- 
 phates 154, 155 
 
 Iron and Alumina. 
 Elimination of, from Florida phos- 
 phates 78 
 
 Estimated by Glaser's method . . 152, 153 
 Estimation of.in raw phosphates, 150, 151 
 
 In Florida phosphates 76, 78 
 
 In phosphates 21, 139 
 
 In superphosphates 112 
 
 Oxides of. Determination of 150-153 
 
 Jeffrey Manufacturing Company's 
 plant for mining, washing and 
 drying Florida phosphates (illus- 
 trated) 78, 79 
 
 Lakeland, Florida, Phosphate mines 
 in V4 
 
 Laurentian period 27 
 
 Liebig's theory of disintegrating 
 phosphates 22 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Estimation of, in limestone 163 
 
 Estimation of, in raw phosphates. . . 153 
 Insoluble siliceous matter in. Deter- 
 mination of 163 
 
 Iron in chalk or. Determination of. 163 
 Magnesia in, Determination of ... . 163 
 Mineral phosphate of. Action of sul- 
 phuric aeid on ... 108 
 
 Limestone, Analysis of 163 
 
 Limy soils 12 
 
 Low-grade phosphates. Utilization 
 of 128 
 
 Magnesia. 
 In limestone or chalk, Determina- 
 
 ti in of 163 
 
 In raw phosphates. Determination 
 
 of 154 
 
 Mixture, Preparation of 170 
 
 Manufacture of 
 
 High-grade superphosphates 132-134 
 
 Phosphoric acid 129-133 
 
 Sulphuric acid 84-102 
 
 Superphosphates 106-128 
 
 Map op 
 
 Florida phosphate deposits 78 
 
 South Carolina phosphate deposits. 48 
 
 Measures and weights of tne me- 
 trical system 165 
 
 Methyl-orange asaa indicator 167 
 
 Metrical system. Measures and 
 weights of the 165 
 
 Mill. 
 
 Frisbee-Lucop 121 
 
 Griffln phosphate 118-120 
 
 Sturtevant, phosphate 117, US 
 
 Mineral. 
 Deposits of phosphates. Discovery of. 19 
 Matters in the crops of the United 
 
 States 14-16 
 
 Phosphates of lime. Action of sul- 
 phuric acid on 108 
 
Index. 
 
 183 
 
 Mining Law. 
 
 In South Carolina 56-57 
 
 In Florida 75, 78 
 
 Miocene era 45 
 
 Mixers used in production of super- 
 phosphates 124 
 
 Moisture in raw phosphates, Deter- 
 mination of . . 144 
 
 Molecular welshts of substances 
 used in the fertilizer industry... 171, 172 
 
 Negro labor in Florida 83 
 
 Neutral phosphate of lime, Chemi- 
 cal composition of 107 
 
 Nitre in sulphuric acid manufac- 
 ture 85, 92 
 
 Nitric Acid. 
 
 In sulphuric acid manufacture 85 
 
 Table 176 
 
 Nodular deposits of phosphate of 
 lime 45 
 
 North Star mine, Canada, Descrip- 
 tion of the 30 
 
 Organic matter. Estimation of com- 
 bined water and, in phosphate an- 
 alysis... ^ 144 
 
 Origin of phosphates 17,78 
 
 Output of 
 Canadian apatite mines, 1877 to 1890. 43 
 Superphosphates in South Caro- 
 lina 60. 61 
 
 Oxides of Iron and Alumina. 
 Determination of, in South Carolina 
 
 phosphates 150-153 
 
 Estimated by Glazer's method.. 152, 153 
 
 Oxygen in sulphuric acid manufact- 
 ure 85 
 
 Packing. 
 
 Of Gay-Lussac Tower 95 
 
 Of Glover tower 97 
 
 Peace River, Florida, Phosphate 
 mines in 73 
 
 Phenolphthalein as an indicator. . . 167 
 
 Phosphates. 
 Action of sulphuric acid on insoluble 
 
 varieties of 107, 108 
 
 Alumina and iron, of 21, 139 
 
 Amorphous and nodular. Deposits of 45 
 Analysis of, Chemicals required in. 178 
 Analysis of. Determinations to be 
 
 made m 114 
 
 Analysis of, Divergence in. ..23, 139, 110 
 
 Analysis of. Methods of 1 '8. 144, 154 
 
 Analysis, Volumetric, of. 157, 158 
 
 Analytical list ot best known 20 
 
 Analyzing, Selected methods of 
 
 138, 144-154 
 
 AssimiJability of 18-2k; 
 
 Buying and selling. Contracts for. . . 
 
 141. 142 
 Canadian .29,42 
 
 Phosphates. 
 Chamber acid reauired to decom- 
 pose, Table showing quantity of. . 110 
 Chemical composition of a sample 
 
 of Florida 108 
 
 Citrate soluble Ill, 112 
 
 Combination of various bodies de- 
 termined in 154 
 
 Commercial value of 25, 138, 149 
 
 Composition of the principal 20 
 
 Consumption of. World's approxi- 
 mate 138 
 
 Contracts for buying and selling 
 
 141, 142 
 
 Cost of production of Florida 74-78 
 
 Co~>t of production of South Caro- 
 lina 59-60 
 
 Decomposition of, Table showing 
 quantity of chambsr acid of any 
 
 strength for 110 
 
 Dsposits of. in America 25 
 
 Discovery of fertilizing value of 19 
 
 Discovery of mineral deposits of 19 
 
 Disintegration of, in the factory. .117- 123 
 
 Disintegration of, in the soil 22 
 
 Disintegration of, Liebig's theory of 22 
 Drying of, Methods of, in South 
 
 Carolina 53, 54 
 
 Farmer, Relative value of, to the 23 
 
 Florida, 3ee Florida Phosphate. 
 Fluorine in raw. Determination of.. 149 
 
 Grinding, Methods of 117-123 
 
 Iron and alumina. Determination of, 
 
 in 150,151, 152, 153 
 
 Iron and alumina in Florida 151, 155 
 
 " 21.139 
 
 Iron in. Estimation of 151 
 
 Liebig's theory on raw 22 
 
 Lime in raw, Estimation of 153 
 
 Location of deposits of 77 
 
 Low-grade, Utilization of 128 
 
 Magnesia in raw, Determination of, 154 
 
 Mill, Frisbee-Lucop's 121 
 
 Mill, Griflia's 118, 12a 
 
 Mill, Sturtevant's 117, 118 
 
 Moisture in raw. Determination of. 144 
 Nodular and amorphous. Deposits of. 45 
 Of lime, mineral, Action of sulphuric 
 
 acid on 108 
 
 Of lime, neutral, Chemical compo- 
 sition of 107 
 
 Organic matter. Determination of 
 
 combined water and, in raw 144 
 
 Origin of 17 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride in raw. De- 
 termination of 148 
 
 Plants, Migration of, in 17 
 
 Raw, used in various soils 23, 24 
 
 Sampling, at the mines 142, 141 
 
 " before shipment 143,144 
 
 Sellingand buying, Contractsfor.lll. Ii2 
 
184 
 
 Index. 
 
 Phosphates. 
 Siliceous, insoluble, matter, Deter- 
 mination of, in raw 147 
 
 Soil, Necessi ty for, on the 17 
 
 Soil, Reversion of, in the 23 
 
 Soluble and precipitated 24 
 
 South Carolina, see South Carolina. 
 Sulphuric anhydride in raw. Deter- 
 mination of 147 
 
 Tertiary strata. Workable strata of. 46 
 Value of, to the farmer. Relative . . 23 
 
 Volumetric analysis of 157, 158 
 
 Water, combined, and organic mat- 
 ter. Determination of, in raw 144 
 
 World's approximate consumption 
 
 of 138 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. 
 Calculations connected with the 
 
 manufacture of 132 
 
 Chamber acid required in manufac- 
 ture of. Table of 128 
 
 Chemical composition of 107 
 
 Commercial value of. Fixing 138, 139 
 
 Concentration of weak solutions of. 130 
 
 Cost of manufacturing 13^ 
 
 Determination, Volumetric, of. 157-159 
 Gases produced in manufacture of. 
 
 Volume of 88 
 
 Grain crop, Percentage of , in 15 
 
 Hay crop, Percentage of , in 16 
 
 High-grade superphosphates. Table 
 of quantities of phosphoric acid re- 
 quired in the manufacture of 131 
 
 Manufacture of, on the large scale 
 
 from low-grade ores 129-133 
 
 Plant required in manufacture of, 
 
 129, 130 
 Solution of 45° B., Composition of. . 131 
 Solutions of. Concentration of weak 130 
 
 Solutions of, Strengths of 174 
 
 Straw, Percentage of, in 15 
 
 Superphosphate manufacture, set 
 
 free in the Ill 
 
 Superphosphate manufacture. Table 
 of quantities of phosphoric acid re- 
 quired in 131 
 
 Table for use in manufacture of 
 
 high-grade superphosphates 131 
 
 Table showing strength of various 
 
 solutions of 174 
 
 Tri basic. Composition of 107 
 
 Volumetric determination of 157-159 
 
 Phosphoric Anhydride 106 
 
 Chemical composition of 106 
 
 Determination of, in raw phos- 
 phates 148 
 
 Determination of, in superphos- 
 phates 155-157 
 
 Determination of, volumetrically.. 
 
 157. 158 
 
 Phosphoric Anhydride. 
 Determination of water-soluble, in 
 superphosphates 155 
 
 Plant growth, Elements of 12 
 
 Plant Required in Manufacture of 
 
 Phosphoric acid 129, 130 
 
 Sulphuric acid 90, 91 
 
 Superphosphate 123, 124 
 
 Plants. 
 
 Composition of 13 
 
 Life of 13 
 
 Migration of phosphates in 17 
 
 Pliocene era 45 
 
 Pressure of steam in sulphuric acid 
 chambers 90 
 
 Pyrite burners. Regulation of air 
 supply in 88 
 
 Pyrites. 
 
 Air supply in burning 88 
 
 Analysis of 150, 161 
 
 Average composition of 103 
 
 Burning, Furnace used in 86 
 
 Cinders from burning. Value of 87 
 
 Copper, Determmation of 159, 161 
 
 Insoluble siliceous matter. Deter- 
 mination of IfiO 
 
 Iron in. Determination of 161 
 
 Methods of sampling 159 
 
 Residues, Utilization of 87 
 
 Samplings of, for analysis 159 
 
 Sulphur in. Determination of 160 
 
 Sulphuric acid manufacture. Use of, 
 in 86 
 
 Pyroxene, Occurrence and charac- 
 teristics of 29 
 
 Quebec, Canada, Apatite deposits of. 27 
 
 Reactions in sulphuric acid manu- 
 facture 85 
 
 Rocks. 
 
 Archsean 27 
 
 Decomposition of 10 
 
 Limestone, in Florida 65 
 
 Of the Laurentian period 27 
 
 Phosphates, of S. Carolina 46 
 
 Tertiary, Classification of 45. 46 
 
 Varieties of 10 
 
 Sampling. 
 
 Phosphate at the mines 143 
 
 Phosphate before shipment 144 
 
 Pyrites for analysis 159 
 
 Sandy soils 11 
 
 Scheurer-Kestner's experiments 
 with the Glover tower 100, 101 
 
 Schrotter's CO2 apparatus 146 
 
 Selling prices of South Carolina 
 phosphate 60 
 
 Selwyn, a. R. C, on the origin of 
 Canadian apatites 36 
 
 Siliceous matter, insoluble. 
 
 In limestone. Determination of 163 
 
 In py rites. Determination of 160 
 
Index. 
 
 185 
 
 Siliceous matter, insoluble. 
 In raw phosphates. Determination 
 of 147 
 
 Soil. 
 Disintpgratioa of phosphates in the. 22 
 
 Formation of the 11 
 
 Limy 12 
 
 Raw phosphates. Use of, in various, 
 
 23, 24 
 Varieties of 11 
 
 South Carolina. 
 As a pioneer in the fertilizer in- 
 dustry 60 
 
 Drift deposits in 73, 75 
 
 Drying of phosphates. Methods of .53, 54 
 
 Fertilizers, Production of, in 61 
 
 Manufacture of fertilizers in 60 
 
 Manufacturers of fertilizers in. List 
 
 of 60 
 
 Mining law in 56, 57 
 
 South Carolina Phosphate. 
 Companies now engaged in mining. 55, 56 
 
 Continuity of, deposits 48 
 
 Cost of production of 59, 60 
 
 Deposits 46-62 
 
 " Unexploited, of 61 
 
 Dredging scoops used in mining. . .51, 52 
 Excavating and exporting, Methods 
 
 of 53, 54 
 
 Exploring, Methods of, deposits ... 49 
 Extent of deposits near Charleston. 48 
 Geological formation of, deposits. . . 48 
 Holmes, Professor, on the discovery 
 
 of, deposits 46 
 
 Map of, deposits 48 
 
 Mining of. Methods of 53-.i5 
 
 Nature of material overlying 49, 50 
 
 Oxides of iron and alumina in. De- 
 termination of 150-153 
 
 Pit sinking in 49 
 
 Production of. Annual 54 
 
 River and land 51 
 
 Rocks 46 
 
 Specific gravity of 52 
 
 Table of annual production of 54 
 
 Thickness of strata in, deposits 49 
 
 Typical sections of, deposits 50, 51 
 
 Unexploited areas of 61 
 
 South Carolina Superphosphates, 
 Output of 60, 61 
 
 Specific Gravcty. 
 Comparison of degrees Baum6 with 173 
 
 How to determine 166 
 
 Of Pouth Carohna phosphates 52 
 
 Speculative dealing in Florida phos- 
 phate land 63, 80 
 
 Sprengel pump in acid chambers 90 
 
 Standard solutions 167- 170 
 
 Steam pressure in sulphuric acid 
 chambers 90 
 
 Stoichiometry 165 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Percentage of mineral matter in 14 
 
 Percentage of phosphoric acid in .. . 15 
 
 Sturtevant's phosphate mill 117, 118 
 
 Subsulphocyanide, Estimation of 
 copper as, in pyrites ores and resi- 
 dues 161 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Estimation of, in brimstone 162 
 
 " " in pyrites 160 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. 
 Action of, on mineral phosphate of 
 
 lime 108 
 
 Air supply in manufacture of 88, 89 
 
 Analysis of 163 
 
 Chambers 90-93 
 
 Chemistry of manufacturing pro- 
 cess of 84-90 
 
 Composition of pure 102 
 
 Cost of manufacture of, from py- 
 rites and brimstone. 104, 105 
 
 Gay Lussac and Glover towers in 
 
 the manufacture of 91-101 
 
 Manufacture of 84-102 
 
 " " Early methods of., ^i 
 
 Manufacture of. Plant required in.90, 91 
 
 Nitre in manufacture of 85 
 
 Nitre supply in. Regulation of 92 
 
 Oxygen in manufacture of 85 
 
 Plant required in manufacture of .90, 91 
 
 Pumping siphon, or " egg " 98, 99 
 
 Pyrites in manufacture of 86 
 
 Reactions in manufacture of 85 
 
 Table for preparing various strengths 
 
 of, by adding water 174 
 
 Table showing valae of chamber 
 acid in SO3 and H2SO4 according 
 
 to Baume 108 
 
 Yields of, in actual practice from 
 
 pyrites and brimstone 102 
 
 Sulphuric Anhydride. 
 Determination of, in raw phos- 
 phates 147 
 
 Table showing value of chamber 
 
 acid in 108 
 
 Superphosphate Manufacture. 
 Chemical equations involved in ... 109 
 
 Chemistry of 106 
 
 Superphosphates. 
 Acid phosphate of lime. Production 
 
 of, in the manufacture of Ill 
 
 Analysis of 155-158 
 
 Chemical theory of high-grade, man- 
 ufacture 125 
 
 Citrate soluble. Water and. 112 
 
 Composition of, as manufactured in 
 
 United States 126 
 
 Composition of, "Variability in 106 
 
 Consumption, World's, of 138 
 
 Cost of producing high-grade 132 
 
 Cost of transportation of 127 
 
18(J 
 
 Index. 
 
 SUPERPHOSPHATES. 
 
 Desirability of high-grade, manufac- 
 ture 126 
 
 Determination of citrate insoluble 
 
 PsOjin 156 
 
 Determination of citrate soluble 
 
 PjOsin 157 
 
 Determination of total r206 in 157 
 
 Determination of water soluble 
 
 PjOjin 155, 156 
 
 Difficulties in the manufacture of.. 112 
 
 Drying, Methods of 113 
 
 Equations involved in manufactur- 
 ing 1C9 
 
 Examples of scientific and accurate 
 
 methods of manufacturing... 114, 115 
 High-grade, Arguments in favor of. 127 
 " " Cost of Manufacturing. 133 
 " Manufacture of.... 126, 132 
 " " Plant used in manufac- 
 ture of 132 
 
 " " Practical examples in 
 
 the manufacture of . ?29 
 " " Tables for the manufac- 
 ture of 128, 131, 132 
 
 Iron and alumina in 112 
 
 Manufacture of 106-128 
 
 " " Calculations em- 
 ployed in 110, 111 
 
 " " Difficulties in 112 
 
 " Directions for... 123-126 
 " " Equations involved 
 
 ia 109 
 
 " " Examples of scien- 
 tific 114, 115 
 
 " " high-grade 132-134 
 
 " " Plant required in, 
 
 123, 124 
 Merchantable, Methods of making, 
 
 dry and 113 
 
 Mixers used in the production of... 124 
 Mixture of the raw materials in the 
 
 manufacture of 123-125 
 
 Moisture in. Determination of 155 
 
 Output of, in South Carolina 60, 61 
 
 Phosphates, mono-calcic, and di- 
 calcic. Production of, in the manu- 
 facture of Ill 
 
 Phosphoric acid set free in the man- 
 
 facture of , Ill 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride in. Determi- 
 nation of 155-157 
 
 Plant required in manufacture of, 
 
 123, 124 
 Raw Material, Combination of, 
 
 used in the manufacture of 125 
 
 Raw Material, Defects in the, 
 used in the manulacture of, and 
 
 how to remedy them 113 
 
 Raw Material, Mixture of, used In 
 the manufacture of 123-125 
 
 Superphosphates, 
 
 Raw Material, Qualities of, in man- 
 ufacturing Ill 
 
 Sampling, Method of 155 
 
 Table showing the quintity of 
 chamber acid of any strength re- 
 quired to decompose any phos- 
 phate of known composition. 110 
 
 Water and citrate soluble 112 
 
 Symbols of substances used in the 
 
 fertilizer industry 171, 172 
 
 Tables. 
 
 For preparing sulphuric acid of 
 various strengths by adding water 174 
 
 For systematic analysis of alkalies 
 and acids 173 
 
 Of atomic weights '. 161 
 
 Showing amount of chamber acid of 
 various strengths required in the 
 manufacture of phosphoric acid 
 from natural phosphates in rela- 
 tion to the production of high- 
 grade "supers" . 128 
 
 Showing annual production of Ca- 
 nadian apatite 43 
 
 Showing annual production of South 
 Carolina phosphate 54 
 
 Showing quantities of phosphoric 
 acid required in the manufacture 
 of high-grade superphosphates 
 from mineral phosphates 131 
 
 Showing quantity of chamber acid 
 of various strengths required to 
 decompose any phosphates of 
 known composition 110 
 
 Showing strengths of various solu- 
 tions of ammonia 175 
 
 Showing strengths of various solu- 
 tions of barium chloride.. 175 
 
 Showing strengths of various solu- 
 tions of hydrochloric acid 176 
 
 Showing strengths of various solu- 
 tions of nitric acid 176 
 
 Showing strengths of various solu- 
 tions of phosphoric acid 174 
 
 Showing the value of chamb3r acid 
 in SO3 and H2SO4, according to 
 
 Baume 108 
 
 Tertiary. 
 
 Age, Characteristics of 45 
 
 " Subdivision of 45 
 
 Rocks. Geological ciassificaion of. 15, 46 
 
 Strata, Workable phosphate de- 
 posits of 46 
 
 Thermometric degrees. Conversion 
 
 of 165 
 
 Tillman, Governor, on the Coosaw 
 
 Mining Co . £6 58 
 
 Topookaphical aspect of Florida 64 
 
 Tkibasio phosphoric acid. Chemical 
 
 composition of 107 
 
Index. 
 
 187 
 
 Uranium acetate solution 169 
 
 VALUKSot" agricultural products 14 
 
 Volumetric estimatiun of phosphor- 
 ic acid 157-159 
 
 Water, combined, and organic mat- 
 ter in raw phosphates. Determina- 
 tion of 141 
 
 Washing and drying Florida phos- 
 phates 72 
 
 WraGHTS. 
 Measures and. Metrical system of.. 165 
 Table of atomic 161 
 
 Wells, Artesian, in Florida 65 
 
 Windows in sulphuric acid chambers 92 
 
ADVERTISERS' INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Abel's Mining Accidents and Their Prevention - - - - xiv 
 
 American Ore Machine Co. ...... vii 
 
 Beckett Foundry & Machine Co. ...... xvii 
 
 Bradley Fertilizer Co. ....... ix 
 
 Chism's Mining Code of the Republic of Mexico - - - - iv 
 
 Eimer & Amend ...-...- xi 
 
 Endlich's Manual of Qualitative Blow-Pipe Analysis - - - vi 
 
 Engineering and Mining Journal ..... ii 
 
 Frisbee-Lucop Mill Co. ........ xxi 
 
 Harrington & King Perforating Co. ..... i 
 
 Heil, Henry Chemical Co. ....... xi 
 
 Howe's Metallurgy of Steel ...... xiii 
 
 Hunt's Chemical and Geological Essays ..... xxii 
 
 Hunt's New Basis for Chemistry ..... xxiii 
 
 Hunt's Physiology and Physiography ..... xxiv 
 
 Hunt's Systematic Mineralogy ...... xxv 
 
 Jeffrey Manufacturing Co. - ----- • iii 
 
 Krom, S. R. - - - - - - - - - xiii 
 
 Kunz's Gems and Precious Stones of North America - - - xx 
 
 Lawrence Machine Co. ....... xix 
 
 Ledoux & Co. ....-.-..y 
 
 Mason Regulator Co. ...----- xv 
 
 Mecklenburg Iron Works ....... xiii 
 
 Norwalk Iron Works Co. .-.--.- xv 
 
 Peters' Modern American Methods of Copper Smelting - - - xviii 
 
 Poole, Robert & Son Co. ....... xvi 
 
 Richards & Co. .....-.-. xiii 
 
 Scientific. Publishing Co. ....... xxvi 
 
 Stetefeldt's Lixiviation of Silver Ores .----. viii 
 
 Sturtevant Mill Co. ------- - xv 
 
 Trenholm, P. C. - - - - - . - • - xix 
 
 Vol k &Murdock Iron Works ...... m 
 
 Wedding's Basic Bessemer Process ------ x 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
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ADVERTISEMENTS. jjj 
 
 « MiDOCK IRi 
 
 CHARLESTON, S. C, 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 Machinery for Washing, Pulverizing and 
 Manipulating Phosphate Rock. 
 
 ENGINES, BOILERS AND MACHINERY, 
 
 ETC., ETC. 
 
 PHOSPHATE MACHINERY, 
 
 '^'"'^ OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, 
 
 —FOR— 
 
 ROCK AND PEBBLE 
 PHOSPHATE. 
 
 WE FURNISH 
 
 ELEVATORS, CONVEYORS, 
 
 CRUSHERS, WASHERS, 
 
 SCREENS, DRYERS, 
 ETC., ETC. 
 
 We have equipped some of the largest Phosphate 
 plants in the country. Will furnish plans and estimates 
 on complete outfit, or any parts that may be desired. 
 
 THE JEFFREY MFG. CO.. 
 
 COLUJMBUS, O. 
 
IV ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 THE MINING CODE 
 
 REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. 
 
 WITH THE 
 
 Kegulations for the Organization of the Mining Deputations and the 
 Schedule for the Levying of Fees and Dues, with all the 
 Latest Official Circulars and Decisions of the Mining 
 Section of the Ministry of Public Works and 
 with the Laws of June 6th, 1887, upon 
 the Taxation of Mines and their 
 Products, the Ooncesiion of 
 Mining Territory and 
 the Purchase of a 
 Process for the 
 Treatment 
 of Orts. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE OFFICIAL EDITION IN THE ORIGINAL SPANISH. 
 
 BY 
 
 RICHARD E. CHISM, 
 
 MINING ENGINEER, 
 MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS. 
 
 THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
 
 27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 LEDOUX & CO., 
 
 Analjtioal and Advising Glieniists 
 
 -AND- 
 
 Ciemical Engineers. 
 
 EXPERT EXAMINATIONS of Phosphate and other 
 Mineral Properties. 
 
 PROFESSIONAL ADVICE regarding the manufacture and manipulation 
 of FERTILIZERS, treatment of rock, and valuation of fertilizing 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 PLANS and SPECIFICATIONS for the erection of plants for the manufac- 
 ture of fertilizers, acid phosphates, and sulphuric acid. 
 
 ANALYSES of phosphate rock, marls, earths, raw fertilizing materials, 
 mixed fertilizers, sulphuric acid, pyrites, and pyrites cinder. Our long 
 experience in this branch of work justifies us in guaranteeing prompt 
 and accurate returns. 
 
 CONTRACTS by the month or year for professional advice and analytical 
 work. 
 
 PRICES will be furnished on application, and will be made as low as com- 
 patible with accurate work. 
 
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VI ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 M:^]srxj-A.L 
 
 OF 
 
 QUALITATIVE BLOWPIPE ANALYSIS 
 
 AND 
 
 DETERMINATIVE MINERALOGY. 
 
 F. M. ENDLICH, s. N.D., 
 
 MINING ENGINEER AND METALLURGIST, 
 
 LATE MINERALOGIST SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, AND UNITED STATES GEOLOQICAIt 
 AND GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF THE TERRITORIES. 
 
 Bound in Cloth. Illustrated. Price S^.OO. 
 
 This work has been specially prepared for the use of all students in this 
 great department of chemical science. The difficulties which beset begin- 
 ners are borne in mind, and detailed information has been given concern- 
 ing the various manipulations. All enumerations of species as far as pos- 
 sible have been carried out in alphabetical order, and in the determinative 
 tables more attention has been paid to the physical characteristics of 
 substances under examination than has ever yet been done in a work of this 
 kind. To a compilation of all the blowpipe reactions heretofore recognized 
 as correct the author has added a number of new ones not previously pub- 
 lished. The entirearrangement of the volume is an original one, and to the 
 knowledge born of an extensive practical experience the author has added 
 everything of value that could be gleaned from other sources. The book 
 cannot fail to find a place in the library or workshop of almost every student 
 and scientist in America. 
 
 T^BLE OW COISTTENTS. 
 
 Chapter I.— Appliances and Reagents required for Qualitative Blowpipe Analysis. 
 Chapter II.— Methods of Qualitative Blowpipe Analysis. 
 
 Chapter III.— Tables giving Reactions for the Oxides of Earth and Minerals. 
 Chapter IV.— Prominent Blowpipe Reactions for the Elements and their 
 Principal Mineral t'ompounds. 
 Chapter V.— S>stematic Qualitative Determination of Compounds. 
 Chapter Vt. —Determinative Tables and their Application. 
 
 THE SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
 
 27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 VII 
 
 INAROD DRYPDLVERIZER 
 
 THE NAROD DRY AND WET GRANULATOR. 
 
 V. L. RICE, Patentee. 
 
 Q 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 ^ > . 
 •5i . :3 -^ ^ « 
 
 go 
 
 00 ^ f^ ;:fl tf > tci 
 
 , ^ ^ w » ^ « 
 
 P O PJ- f^ o ?5 ''^ 
 
 5i 
 
 
 55 
 O 
 
 oo 
 
 S5 2; o 
 2 > d 
 
 rzido 
 
 03 «> 
 
 "1 ™ "z; J t-9 
 
 Pulverizer produces from 20 to 200 mesh fineness. Granulalor from «ize of wheat 
 berry to 20 mesh. Botn mills fed in sizes one-inch cube and under. Deliver finished 
 and uniform product throus^h screen into hopper below. Only wearing parts are 
 rolls and ring, which are made of beso chilled carbonized iron, dense and fiber- 
 less, hence durable. 
 
 PERFECT PRESERVATION OF GRANULATION. NO TAIL- 
 INGS. NO REGRINDING. NO SLIME. ANY DEGREE OF 
 FINENESS OBTAINABLE FINENESS REGULATED 
 BY SIZE MESa OF SCREEN IN MILL. 
 
 Capacity: Hard Quartz, 2)/^ to 3 ; Phosphates, Cements, etc., 3^3 to 4 tons per hour. 
 
 Only 15 to 20 Horse Power Required. Weight of Each Mill, 5,600 Lbs. 
 
 The heavier parts can be made suitable for mountain transportation. 
 
 TESTIMONIAL LETTER (EXTRACT). 
 
 Wilmington, n. C., Oct. 21, 1891. 
 American Ore Machinery Co., No. I Broadway, New York: 
 
 Gentlemb.v: After ovpr nine months' experience with the Narod Mill, I think 
 it by far the best and most economical Phosphate Grinder on the market. I have 
 not known it to do less than 314 tons, and under favorable conditions 4 tons per 
 hour. The Mill does not require 20 horse power, runs smooth without heating, and 
 hasnever broken down. Yours truly, C. E. BoRDBN, 
 
 Supl. Navassa Guano Co. 
 
 AMERICAN ORE MACHINERY CO 
 
 1 Broadway, New York, N. Y, U S. A. 
 
VIII ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 The Lixiviation of Silver Ores 
 
 WITH 
 
 fIyposu.lph.ite Solutions. 
 
 BY CARL A. STETEFELDT. 
 
 In Cloth, Illustrated. Price, - - $5.00. 
 
 Notices and Opinions. 
 
 " We can unreservedly recommend this work." — Mexican Finaucier. 
 
 Prof. Safford, of the Vanderbilt University, writes: "Mr. Stetefeldt has 
 given us a most useful work and one well up with the times." 
 
 Prof. Comstock, of the University of Illinois, says : " There is a crying need 
 of more works like it upon cognate subjects." 
 
 " It is in every respect a model of what such a book should be and is another 
 illustration of German thoroughness." — Journal of Analytical Chemistry. 
 
 Prof. Egi.eston, of the Columbia College School of Mines, writes: "The 
 book is a very valuable contribution to our knowledge of teaching, and I shall take 
 great pleasure in recommending it to students, metallurgists and others." 
 
 " It is particularly valuable for its descriptions of the chemistry of the process, 
 in which the older works are woefully deficient. It gives all the facts, apparently 
 which one engaged in milling ore by the process should know." — Mining Industry. 
 
 Prof. Hofman, of the Dakota School of Mines, writes : " I have no hesita- 
 tion in saying that the ' Lixiviation of Silver Ores ' is the best existing work upon 
 the subject, and will, undoubtedly become the text-book for specialists in this in- 
 interesting field." 
 
 Prof. Sharpless, of the Houghton Mining School, writes : "One who has 
 occasion to read up the recent advances of lixiviation processes will appreciate the 
 work which has been done by the author in compiling and in original research, and 
 the profession should extend its tlianks to Mr. Stetefeldt for his successful effort 
 * to fill up a gap in metallurgical literature.' " 
 
 Prof. Britno Kerl, in a review of thisbook which he prepared for the Berg, und 
 Jdueiteninaennische Zeitung, of Berlin, says: "All the defects of the old process 
 have been overcome by the Russell process as described by Mr. Stetefeldt in his 
 book, which fills a real gap in metallurgical literature. ... Its translation 
 into German would be a very desirable addition to our literature." 
 
 John Heard, Jr., Mining Engineer, writes: 
 
 "This treatise is the most valuable—indeed the only valuable — one on lixivia- 
 tion. The amount of careful, intelligent, original and compiled research is enor- 
 mous ; the tables and drawings must be invaluable and, indeed, indispensable to any 
 manager of a lixiviation plant, and the figures there recorded are more convincing 
 arguments as to the value and range of lixiviation as a method of extracting silver 
 from certain ores than the author's dogmatic deductions. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
 
 27 PARK PLACE, NEW YORK. 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. JX 
 
 Middlesex County, 
 Suffolk. 
 
 THE GRIFFIN MILL 
 
 vs. 
 
 THE FERTILIZER M'F'RS. 
 
 J 
 
 ■I7ZZX3 GJLm^A^USX: 
 
 1st. That, the Griffin Mill is the latest and best mill manufactured 
 for pulverizing all hard or refractory substances. 
 
 2d. That it will do its work more satisfactorily, with less wear 
 and at less expenditure of power than any other mill, requiring less 
 than 20 horse power 
 
 3d. I'hat it will grind to an even degree of fineness, with direct 
 delivery and without tailinas. 
 
 4th. That it is being used bv leading fertilizer manufacturers 
 with positive success. 
 
 5th. That the mill is simple in construction, with no exposed jour- 
 nals, and with very little wearing surface. 
 
 TmiSS X3 TT" X 33 Z3 INT O IE: : 
 
 'POO Mills, C 
 
 October 21, 1891 
 
 Wappoo Mills, Ch ' rleston, S. C, \ 
 
 Bradley Fertilixer Co. : 
 
 We have put in the liner of the two sets of screens sent u«, and 
 with sun-dried rock are getting out at the rate of i6^ tons in ten 
 hours. H. B. Jennings, 
 
 Superintendent. 
 
 Alexandria, Va., 1 
 Occooer 24, 189J. / 
 Dear Sirs : We have received a great deal of satisfactian from 
 our Mill ; it requires little or no attention, goes right along, does its 
 work, and does it nicely. We are. 
 Yours respectfully. 
 (Signed) Alexandria Fertilizer and Chemical Co. 
 
 88 Wall Street, New York. 
 Dear Sirs : It gives me much pleasure to be able to gay that, 
 since we erected the two mills bought of you some eigdt months 
 ago, they have done excellent work, and to our entire satisfaction. 
 Tbe power required to run them is very small, not over 20 borse 
 each The repairs are very small and easily ett'ected. Each mill 
 will easily turn out 30 tons in a run of 10 hou'S, producing a product 
 all of which will readily pa=s a 40 mesh screen, and 9i) per cent, of it 
 will pass through a 60-mesh screen. We feel safe in saying you 
 have in this mill very decidedly the best mill on the market, and it 
 will, without doubt, supersede all others. 
 
 fiEAD Fertilizer Co., 
 Clement Read, Tr^as. and Mangr. 
 
 Cleveland, October 22, 1891. 
 Gentlemen : We are at present pulverizing a trifle over two tons 
 per hour through a 180-mesh wire. It requires only about 16 horse 
 power, and so far the wear and tear has been very sligh , not over 
 two cents per ton. We consider this a very good showing, as our 
 material is tough and hard. We can heartily recommend it to any- 
 body 1 equiring such a machine. VVe ate. 
 Respectfully yours, 
 (Signed) THt; Ohio Metallic Co., 
 
 F. J. Drake, Secy, and Treas. 
 
 That the Bradley Fertilizer Company has six of these Mills in 
 constant use at their Weymouth factories, and are prepared to dem- 
 onstra te to any one by practical tests that it pulverizes ptiosphate 
 rock to the best condition for fertilizing pui poses. 
 
 TmS "VE3FLI3 I C T: 
 
 That by reason of the above, and much other testimony, the Court 
 decides that the ch.imant's affirmations are true, and that the Court 
 therefore recommends that every manufacturer of fertilizers send 
 at once to the Bradlev Fertilizer Company, 27 Kilby Street, Boston, 
 for their full descriptive, ill strated circulars of these Mills. 
 
ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 BASIC BESSEMER PROCESS. 
 
 By Dr. H. WEDDING. 
 
 The Scient'fic Publishing Company has secured the rights 
 •of publication in the United States of a translation of this, the 
 acknowledged authoritative work on the Basic Bessemer or Thomas 
 Process, which is now for the first time placed before American 
 metallurgists. 
 
 Translated from the German by 
 
 WILLIAM B. PHILLIPS, Ph. d., 
 
 Professor of Chemistry and Metallm-gy in the University 
 of Alabama, 
 
 and 
 
 ERNST PROCHASKA, Met. e.. 
 
 Late Engineer at the Basic Steel Works, Teplitz, Bohemia, and at 
 the Works of the Pottstowm Iron Co., Pottstovvn, Pa. 
 
 With supplementary chapter on Dephosphorization in the 
 Basic Open Hearth Furnace, by Ernst Prochaska. 
 
 The Standard Work, and the Only Book in English 
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 Bound in Cloth. Profusely Illustrated. Price $3.50. 
 
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ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
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XII 
 
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 THE METALLURGY OF STEE 
 
 BY 
 
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ADVERTISE MENTS. XIII 
 
 KRONl'S 
 
 -PERFECTED STANDARD— 
 
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 Ore Feeders, Dry Kilns 
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XIV ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 G ACCIDENTS 
 
 AND 
 
 THEIR PREVENTION. 
 
 BY SIR FREDERICK AUGUSTUS ABEL 
 
 With Discussion by Leading Experts. Also, the United 
 
 States, British and Prussian L,a\Ars relating to 
 
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 rrice, - - - $4.00 in Cloth, 
 
 Contents : 
 Mining Accidents. By Sir Frederick A. Abel. Wilh discussion by President 
 Bruce, of the British Institute of Civil Engineers; and Prof. Arnold Lupton, C. 
 Tylden Wright, Emerson Bainbridge, William Morgans, Sydney F. Walker, Col. 
 Paget Mosley, Henry Hall, Col. J. D. Shakespear, Stephen Humble, Sir George 
 Elliot, Sir Warington Smyth, A. R. Sawyer, A. Giles, R. Bedlington, Edward 
 Combes, George Seymour, Henry Harries, William Cochrane, James Ashworth, J. 
 
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XVIII 
 
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 Chapter I.— Description of the Ores of Copper. 
 
 Chapter II.— Distribution of the Ores of Copper. 
 Chapter III.— Methods of i;opper Assaying. 
 
 Chapter IV.— The Roasting of Copper Ores in Lump Form. 
 Chapter V.— Stall Roasting. 
 
 Chapter VI.— The Roasting of Ores In Lump Form in Kilns. 
 Chapter VII.— Calcination of Ore and Matte in Finely Divided Condition. 
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 Chapter XII.— Late Improvements in Blast Furnaces. 
 Chapter XIII —The Smelting of Pyritous Ores Containing Copper and Nickel. 
 Chapter XI V.— Reverberatory Furnaces. 
 
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 PULVERIZING 
 
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XXII 
 
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 CHEllICiL AND (liLDGICAL 
 
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 Author of " Mineral Physiology and Physiography,' "A New Basis 
 
 for Chemistry," " Systematic Miners'logy," and 
 
 " Chemistry of the World." 
 
 FOURTH EDITION. 
 
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 IPI^ICE, S2.50. 
 
 T^Sk-BLE OS' CONTENTS. 
 
 
 Preface ; 
 
 XII. 
 
 I. 
 
 Theory of Igneous Rocks and Vol 
 
 
 
 canoes ; 
 
 XIII. 
 
 II. 
 
 Some Points in Chemical Geology ; 
 
 
 III. 
 
 The Chemistry of Metamorphic 
 
 
 
 Rocks; 
 
 XIV. 
 
 IV. 
 
 The Chemistry of the Primeval 
 Earth ; 
 
 XV. 
 
 V. 
 
 The Origin of Mountains; 
 
 XVI. 
 
 VI. 
 
 The Probable Seat of Vocanic 
 
 
 
 Action; 
 
 XVII. 
 
 VII. 
 
 On Some Points in Dynamical 
 Geology; 
 
 
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 On Limestone, Dolomites , and 
 Gypsums; 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 IX. 
 
 The Chemistry of Natural Waters; 
 
 XIX. 
 
 X. 
 
 Petroleum, Asphalt, Pyroschists 
 
 
 
 and Coal; 
 
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 XI. 
 
 Granites and Granitic Vein 
 stones; 
 
 
 The Origin of Metalliferous De- 
 posits; 
 
 The Geognosy of the Appala- 
 chians and the Origin of Crys- 
 talline Rocks; 
 
 The Geology of the Alps; 
 
 History of the Names Cambrian 
 and Silurian in Geology; 
 
 Theory of Chemical Changes and 
 Equivalent Volumes; 
 
 The Constitution and Equiva- 
 lent Volume of Mineral 
 Species; 
 
 Thoughts on Solution and the 
 Chemical Process; 
 
 On the Objects and Method of 
 Mineralogy ; 
 
 The Theory of Types in Chem- 
 istry. 
 
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A D VERTISE M EN TS. 
 
 XXIII 
 
 A CHEMICAL PHILOSOPHY 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS STERRY HUNT, m.a., ll. d., 
 
 Author of "Chemical and Geological Essays," " Mineral Physiology 
 
 and Physiography," " Systematic Mineralogy," and 
 
 " Chemistry of the World," 
 
 THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND AUGMENTED, WITH NEW PREFACE. 
 
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 II. Nature of the Chemical Process. 
 ill. Genesis of the Chemical Ele 
 ments. 
 IV Gases. Liquids and Solids, 
 V. The Law of Numbers. 
 VI. Equivalent Weights. 
 VII. Hardness and Chemi- 
 cal Indifference. 
 
 VIII. The Atomic Hypothesis. 
 IX. The Law of Volumes. 
 X. Metamorphosis in Chemistry. 
 XI. The Law of Densities. 
 XII. Historical Retrospect. 
 XIII. Conclusions. 
 XIV. Supplement. 
 Appendix and Index. 
 
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XXIV ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 MINERAL 
 
 A SECOND SERIES OF 
 
 CHEMICAL AND GEOLOGICAL ESSAYS, 
 
 WITH 
 
 A GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS STERRY HUNT, ini. ^., lt.. d.. 
 
 Author of "Chemical and Geological Essays," "A New Basis for 
 
 Chemistry," "Systematic Mineralogy," and 
 
 " The Chemistry of a World." 
 
 SECOND EDITION. REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
 
 PRICE, $5.00. 
 
 T^BILiE OF COISTTEHSTTS. 
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 Chapter I —Nature in Thought and Language. 
 
 chapter 11.— The Order of the Natural Sciences. 
 
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 Chapter IV. — Celestial Chemistry from the Time of Newton. 
 Chapter V.— The Origin of Crystiilline Rocks. 
 
 Chapter VI —The Genetic History of Crystalline Rocks. 
 Chapter VII,— The IJecay of Crystalline Rocks. 
 Chapter VIII.— A Natural System in Mineralogy, with a Classification of Silicates. 
 Chapter IX.— History of Pre-Cambrian Rocks. 
 
 Chapter X.— The Geological History of Serpentine, with Studies of Pre- 
 Cambrian Rocks. 
 Chapter XI. —The Taconic Question in Geology. 
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ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 XXV 
 
 SYSTEMATIC MINERALOGY 
 
 BASED ON A 
 
 NATURAL CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 WITH A GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THOMAS STERRY HUNT, m.a., ll.d., 
 
 Author of " Chemical and Geological Essays," "Mineral Physiology and 
 
 Physiography," "A New Basis for Chemistry,"" 
 
 and " Tne Chemist! y of a World. ' 
 
 BOUND IN CLOTH. PRICE $5.00. 
 
 The aim of the author in the present treatise has been to reconcile the 
 rival and hitherto opposed Chemical and Natural History methods in Min- 
 eralogy, and to constitute a new system of. classification, which is " at the 
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 " to observe a strict conformity to chemical principles, and at the same time 
 to retain all that is valuable in the Natural History method ; the two 
 opposing schools being reconciled by showing that when rightly under- 
 stood, chemical and physical characters are really dependent on each other, 
 and present two aspects of the same problem which can never be solved but 
 by the consideration of both." He has, moreover, devised and adopted a 
 Latin nomenclature and arranged the mineral kingdom in classes, orders, 
 genera and species, the designations of the latler being binomial. 
 
 T^BLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter I. The Relations of Mineralogy ; 
 II. Mmeralosical Systems; 
 
 III. First Principles in Chemis- 
 
 try; 
 
 IV. Chemical Elements and No- 
 
 tation; 
 V. Specific Gravity; 
 VI. The Coefficient of IViineral 
 Condensation; 
 VII. The Theory of Soluiion; 
 Vlil. Relations of Condensation to 
 Hardness and Insolubility: 
 IX. Crystallization and its Rela 
 tions ; 
 
 Chapter X. The Constitution of Mineral 
 Species ; 
 XI. ANewMineralogicalClassi- 
 ticatioii ; 
 XII, Mineralogical Nomencla 
 tare; 
 
 XIII. Synopsis of Mineral Species; 
 
 XIV. The Metallaceous Class; 
 XV. The Halidaceous Class. 
 
 XVI. The Oxydaceous Class; 
 XVII. The Pyricaustaceous Class; 
 XVIII. Mineral History of Waters; 
 General Index; 
 Index of Names of Minerals. 
 
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