■■*" ,iv;;4^>;-, i^rlft^'S i^|>tt$*l^$^i>Sg h'Aftt 11 s^^ Class _ciA^rl-^ Goi^TightN^. CjQEXRIGHT DEPOSm I ^ DAIRY FARMING THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO - DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO DAIRY FARMING BY C. H. ECKLES, D.Sc. PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI AND G. F. WARREN, Ph.D. PROFESSOR OF FARM MANAGEMENT, NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1916 All rights reserved COPYBIGHT, 1916, Bt the macmillan company. Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1916. DEC -7 1316 NnriuaotJ ^resa J. 8. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. C1A4467^2 INTRODUCTION Agriculture now has a recognized place in both, high schools and colleges. If this progress in scientific study is to continue, it is necessary that the instruction be kept on an equal educational basis with all other subjects. The courses in agriculture must stand for good, solid work such as is typi- cal of the entire farming industry. There is a need for text- books that give the basic principles of the subject briefly without being superficial. To help in meeting this need a series of books, to be known as the Farm Series, is being prepared. The aim of each book will be to discuss the phases of its subject that. are of most importance to the farmer; that is, to answer the farmer's questions, and to make these answers in the form of underlying principles rather than as rules. The positive advice or rules that may work in one region may be absolutely wrong in another region, or at an- other time in the same region. If one understands the prin- ciples involved, he will be better able to change his practice to meet the ever-changing conditions. Statements are often made that a farmer shauld_ raise all his cows, that he should produce winter milk, that he should build a silo. Such rules have no educational value and usually have no practical value. The real problem depends on the factors involved in each case. For instance a few of the points that must be considered in deciding whether or not to build a silo are the adaptation of vi INTRODUCTION the farm to corn production, the price of hay, the size of the herd, the price of milk, whether winter or summer dairying is followed, the amount of money available. No rule can be made that will include all these points, for many of them may be changed next year. It is titting that the lirst book of the series should deal with what is probably the most important source of income of American farmers, — dairy farming. As population increases we must of necessity depend more on dairy products and less on beef cattle. The best methods of producing beef are very different from the best methods of producing milk. Many farmers who once kept beef cattle are changing to dairying. For such farmers a study of dairying is of particular importance because it will bring to them in- formation that has been worked out by long experience in dairy regions. Even in the old established dairy regions the changes in prices of land, feed, labor, and dairy products and the increasing importance of manure for growing cash crops, make a study of the principles of dairy farming of prime importance. The success of the teacher will depend in large measure on the extent to which the conditions in the community are studied. Many suggestive questions are given after each chapter. Much time should be spent in finding answers to these. A number of laboratory exercises should be given on farms in the region. One should not too lightly condemn the practices of the farmers, but should rather try to learn what are the natural and economic conditions that led to the present practices. Many farmers in the community are in all proba- bility farming in a manner that is best for present conditions, but that may not be best a few years from now when condi- tions change. This book is adapted for use in schools and colleges that INTRODUCTION vii wish to devote some time to the study of dairy farming. Three to five recitations per week and two laboratory periods per week will usually be desirable. At least a part of the laboratory exercises, and preferably all of them, should be given in periods that are two hours long. If this much time cannot be allowed, the laboratory period may be placed at the end of the day so that when farms are visited, it will be pos- sible to take the longer time that is necessary. It is hoped that the book will also prove useful to farmers who wish a better understanding of the principles involved in the successful operation of a dairy farm. G. F. WARREN. Ithaca, N.Y., April 1, 1916. CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 PAGES Importance or the Dairy Industry ..... 1-11 Milk a universal food, 1 — Value of milk as food, 1 — Butter and cheese as food, 2 — One dairy cow per family, 3 — Amounts of dairy products used, 4 — Milk inspection, 5 — Dairy cattle as a source of meat, 5 — Dairy cattle in other countries, — The dairy cow an efficient machine, 7 — Cows effective users of by-products, 7 — Dairying and main- tenance of soil fertility, 9 — Cows help to provide a full year's work, 9 — Receipts from dairy products, 10. Questions and problems 10 Collateral reading 11 CHAPTER 2 Breeds of Cattle ......... 12-39 Origin of Breeds : Origin of domesticated cattle, 12 — Origin of breeds, 12 — Definition of terms, 13 — Classifica- tion of cattle, 14 — Value of breeds, 14 — Pedigrees, 15. Dairy Breeds: Number of animals registered, 16 — Hol- stein-Friesian, 17 — Jersey, 21 — Guernsey, 24 — Ayrshire, 27 — Brown Swiss, 30 — Dutch Belted, 30 — Kerry, 30. Dual Purpose : Dual Purpose, 31 — Shorthorn, 32 — Polled Durham, 34 — Red Polled, 34 — Devon, 36. Beef Breeds: Hereford, 37 — Aberdeen-Angus, 37 — Galloway, 38. Questions and problems 38 Laboratory exercises 39 Collateral reading 39 ix X CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 PAGES Selection and Improvement of Dairy Cattle . . . 40-78 Selection of a Breed : Selection of a breed, 40. Individual Selection : Selection of individual cows, 42 — Extent of variation of individuals, 44 — High-producing cows more economical producers, 46. Selection by Type : How individual selection is made, 47 — The dairy type, 47 — The udder, 50 — The milk veins and milk wells, 51 — The barrel, 52 — The score card, 53. Selection by Performance Becords : Selection by records, 56 — Overrating the importance of rich milk, 56 — Complete milk records, 58 — Taking samples for testing, 59 — Aver- aging tests, 61 — Permanent records, 61 — Cow testing asso- ciations, 61 — Advanced registry, 64 — Relation of age of cow to yield and richness of milk, 66. Selection of a Bull : Selection of the bull, 69 — Differ- ence in transmission of dairy qualities by different bulls, 71 — Methods of selecting a bull, 73 — Cross breeding, 74. Questions and problems 75 Laboratory exercises 78 Collateral reading 78 CHAPTER 4 Management of Dairy Cattle 79-93 Decline of milk production in summer, 79 — Protection from flies, 79 — Dehorning, 81 — Marking calves, 82 — Shelter, 82 — Milking the heifer, 83— Methods of milking, 84 — Hard-milking cows, 85 — Effect of interval between milkings, 86 — Milking machines, 86 — Cow with leaky teats, 87 — Bloody milk, 87 — Chapped teats, 88 — Warts on teats, 88— Bitter milk, 88 — Kicking cows, 88— Self- sucking cows, 89 — How long should a cow be dry ? 89 — Drying up a cow, 89 — Milking the cow before calving, 90 — Care of cow after calving, 90 — Management of young stock, 91 — Care and management of the bull, 91. Questions and problems 93 Laboratory exercises ....... 93 Collateral reading 93 CONTENTS xi CHAPTER 5 PAGES Feeding Dairy Cattle 94-138 Composition of feeds and feeding stuffs : The uses of feed, 94 — Chemical analysis of feeds, 94 — Water, 95 — Ash, 95 — Protein, 95 — Crude fiber, 95 — Nitrogen-free extract, 95 — Fat, or ether extract, 95 — Digestibility, 96 — Production values, 96 — Feeding standards, 97 — Calculat- ing a ration, 100 — The cost of the ration, 105. Discussion of common feed stuffs: Timothy hay, 106 — Corn stover, 106 — Hay from legumes, 106 — Silage, 107 — Corn, 107 — Wheat bran, 107 — Oats and oat products, 108 — Cottonseed meal, 108 — Linseed meal, 109 — Gluten feed, 109 — Beet pulp and molasses, 109 — Brewers' grains, 109 — Mixed feeds, 110 — Condimental stock foods, 111. Feeding young stock and dry coivs: Calf raising, 112 — Raising the calf on skim-milk, 113 — Raising calves when whole milk is sold, 116 — The use of milk substitutes, 117 — Feeding for veal, 119 — Feeding the dairy heifer, 120 — Salt requirements, 123 — Feeding the cow when dry, 124. Feeding the cow in milk : Water for cows, 125 — Turn- ing on pasture, 126 — Feeding grain while on pasture, 127 — Providing for periods of short pasture, 128 — Amount to feed, 129 — The balanced ration, 131 — Succulent feed, 132 — Palatability of the ration, 132 — Order of feeding, 133. Feeding cows for the maximum production in official tests : Obtaining the maximum production, 133. Questions and problems 135 Laboratory exercises . 137 Collateral reading . 138 CHAPTER 6 The Dairy Barn 139-149 General arrangement of barns, 140 — Lighting, 140 — The floor, 141 — The platform, 142 — The gutter, 144 — The stalls, 144 — Mangeis, 144 — Ties, 145 — Ventilation, 146 — Cost of dairy barns, 147. Questions and problems 148 Laboratory exercises 148 Collateral reading 149 xii CONTENTS CHAPTER 7 ' PAGES CoJiMON Ailments of Cattle 150-167 Normal conditions : The pulse, 150 — Temperature, 151 — Respiration, 151 — Excretions, 151. Instruments and medicines : Instruments and medicines, 151 — Drenching a cow, 152. Common ailments: Milk fever, 153 — Abortion, 155 — Tuberculosis, 156 — Inflammation of the udder, 158 — Scours in calves, 160 — Lice, 161 — Bloat, 162 — Cowpox, 162— Blackleg, 163 — Sorghum and kafir poisoning, 164 — Corn-stalk disease, 165. Questions and problems 166 Laboratory exercises . 166 Collateral reading 167 CHAPTER 8 Milk and Its Products . 168-201 Composition of milk: Average composition, 168 — Water, 168 — Fat, 169 — Protein, 170 — Sugar, 170 — Min- eral matter or ash, 171 — Color of milk, 171. Factors affecting composition: Kind of animal, 172 — Breed, 173 — Stage of lactation, 174 — Individuality of the animal, 175 — Interval between milkings, 175 — Fore milk and strippings, 176 — Effect of feed, 176. IfarArei m^7^• : Sanitary milk, 177 — Certified milk, 181. Butter making on the farm : Butter making on the farm, 182 — Facilities needed, 183 — What is good butter ? 183 — Flavor, 184 — Body, color, and salt, 184— Separation of cream, 185 — Ripening of cream, 186 — Temperature for churning, 187 — Churns and churning, 188 — Salting and working, 189 — Package, 190. Factory products: Creameries, 191 — Cheese .making, 192 — Condensed milk, 193 — Milk flour, 194. Questions and problems 194 Laboratory exercises 195 Collateral reading 200 CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER 9 PAGES Conditions affecting the Development of Dairying . 202-220 Cattle and grass, 202 — Topography and climate, 203 — Location of beef and dairy cattle, 204 — Relation of trans- portation to dairying, 208 — Other adjustments due to transportation, 213 — Marginal regions, 214 — Effect of dis- tance to railroad, 214 — Soil and climate as determining the kind of product, 215 — Kind of product and season of pro- duction, 215 — Animal unit defined, 218. Questions and problems 219 Collateral reading .... .... 220 CHAPTER 10 Systems of Farming on Dairy Farms ..... 221-239 Crops for feed: Corn silage, 221 — Soiling crops, 223 — Roots, 223 — Legumes, 224 — Pasture, 224 — Home-grown grain, 225. Cropping systems for dairy farms : Principles of a good cropping system, 225 — Examples of rotations, 226. Cash crops and feed raised : Feed and cash crops, 227 — All feed purchased, 228 — Nothing but roughage raised, 228 — Roughage and grain raised, 229 — Roughage and cash crops raised, 229. Management of manure : Amount of manure produced, 230 — Fertility of feed returned by cows, 231 — Losses of manure and their prevention, 232 — Value of manure, 234 — Value of manure depends on the rate of application, 235 — Value of manure depends on the crop on which it is applied, 238. Questions and problems . . . . . . . 238 Laboratory exercises . 239 CHAPTER 11 Methods of Renting Dairy Farms ..... 240-245 Cash rent, 240 — Share of crops, 240 — Share of receipts, 240 — Examples of rented farms, 242. Questions and problems 245 Collateral reading: 245 XIV CONTENTS CHAPTER 12 Cost of Production and Methods of Marketing Cost of production : Cost of producing milk, 246 — Cost of raising heifers, 250. Marketing dairy products: Ways of marketing, 253 — Value of skim-milk in cities, 254. Questions and problems Collateral reading CHAPTER 13 Other Important Factors for Success in Dairy Farming 258-288 Way s^ef^ measuring profit: The most important factors for succes#, 258 — Ways of measuring profit, 258. Size of business : Size of business, 259 — Relation of size of farm to efficiency in use of labor, 260 — Relation of size of farm to work done, 262 — Relation of size of farm to efficiency in use of horses, 264 — Relation of size of farm to efficiency in use of machinery, ^65 — Relation of size of farm to efficiency in use of capital, 265 — Size of herd, 267 — Summary of size of dairy farms, 268. Beturns per cow : Reason for poor returns, 269 — Costs and returns must both be considered, 271 — Poor producers promptly sold, 271 — Size of cows, 271. Crop yields: Soils for the dairy farm, 274 — The well- balanced farm, 274. Diversified and specialized dairy farms : Relation of cash crops to profits, 276 — Relation of capital to amount of stock to keep, 277 — Acres per animal unit, 278 — Reasons for large profits on diversified farms, 279. Some successfid farms : A successful dairy and hog farm in Iowa, 281 — A successful diversified dairy farm in New York, 285. Questions and problems . 287 Laboratory exercises 288 Collateral reading 288 CONTENTS XV PAGES Appendix 289-306 Addresses of cattle breeders associations, 289 — Scale of points for a Jersey cow, 290 — Scale of points for Ayrshire cow, 291 — Scale of points for Guernsey cow, 293 — Scale of points for Holstein-Friesian cow, 294 — Imports and ex- ports of daily products, 296 — Legal standards for dairy products, 297 — Average composition of milk and its products, 298 — Average weights of milk and cream, 298 — The Hsecker feeding standard, 298 — Wing's method of balancing rations, 304 — Average weights of feeding-stuffs, 305 — Measuring grain, 305 — Measuring ear corn, 305 — Measuring straw, 306 — Measuring hay, 306 — Capacity of silos, 306. DAIRY FARMING CHAPTER 1 IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY G. F. Warren 1. Milk a Universal Food. Milk is the one universal food of mankind. All civilized peoples use milk from farm animals. The more highly civilized and prosperous the population, the greater is the amount of milk consumed. In regions so far north that cows cannot be kept, reindeer milk is used. In regions like India and the Philippines, which are too hot for our common cattle, the water buffaloes are the dairy animals and beasts of burden. In the deserts the milk of mares and camels serves as food. In regions where the people are very poor, goats and sheep are used as milk animals. In parts of South America llamas are so used. Everywhere civilized man keeps some milk animal. 2. Value of Milk as Food. The value of milk as food is beginning to be better appreciated, but even now its full value is not always realized. Most liquids have very little food value ; for this reason, all liquids are sometimes looked upon as luxuries. But average milk contains 12 to 13 per cent of dry matter. This dry matter is readily digestible and contains necessary foods in good proportions. DAIRY FARMING The edible portion of an average beef animal is only 38 per cent dry matter. The remaining 62 per cent is water.^ A quart of milk weighs 2.15 pounds and contains two- thirds as much energy value, and nearly half as much protein as a pound of sirloin steak. It is particularly rich in ash, the bone-forming materials that are so essential for all young animals. It contains about twice as much of these as does beefsteak. A quart of skim-milk has over one-third of the energy value of a pound of sirloin steak. It is richer in ash and has almost half as much protein as the steak, as is shown in Table 1. Table 1. — Comparison of Sirloin Steak with Milk, Butter, AND Cheese ^ 1 pound sirloin steak 1 quart 4 % milk .... 1 quart skim-milk . . . 1 pound butter .... 1 pound cheese (full cream) Water Pounds .54 1.87 1.95 .11 .34 Dry Matter Protein Pounds Pounds .46 .165 .28 .20 .89 .66 .071 .073 .010 .259 Ash Pounds .009 .015 .015 .030 .038 Energy Value Calories 985 699 366 3605 1950 As the value of milk as food becomes better known, it is more widely used by persons of all ages. If much that is spent for meat were spent for milk, we could be as well fed at less cost. If much of the money that is spent for tea, coffee, alcohol, and other stimulants, that have little or no food value, were spent for milk, our health and our wealth would both be improved. 3. Butter and Cheese as Food. Butter is often thought of as an expensive food, but it is the most concentrated of 1 U. S. Dept. Agr. ; Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin (Revised) 28, pp. 27, 28. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin (Revised) 28. IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 3 our ordinary foods. As shown in Table 1, a pound of butter will furnish three and two-thirds times as much energy as a pound of sirloin steak. Usually it does not cost twice as much as the steak. It is one of the cheap animal foods, is highly concentrated and easy to digest. Cheese is a cheap source of animal protein. We use over four times as much butter as cheese, but the amount of cheese used is increasing. 4. One Dairy Cow per Family. In the ten years 1900 to 1910 the number of steers and bulls in the United States decreased one-fifth, but the number of dairy cows increased with the population. In 1910 the average number of persons living together as one family was 4.5. Counting the dairy cows on farms and those not on farms, there was one dairy cow for each 4.2 persons, or a little over one cow per family. For sixty years the United States has main- Table 2. — Population and Number of Dairy Cows on Farms AND Ranges in the United States Exclusive of Outlying Possessions ^ Year Population Number of Dairy Cows Number of Persons PER Cow 1850 23,191,876 6,385,094 3.6 1860 31,443,321 8,585,735 3.7 1870 38,558,371 8,935,332 4.3 1880 50,155,783 12,443,120 4.0 1890 62,947,714 16,511,950 3.8 1900 75,994,575 17,135,633 4.4 1910 91,972,266 20,625,432 4.5 1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V, p. 704. Thirteenth Census, Vol. I, pp. 24, 1285, and Vol. V, p. 341. In addition to the above there were 973,033 dairy cows not on farms in 1900 and 1,170,338 in 1910. Most of these were kept by families in villages, Vol. V, p. 430. The census does not give the number of cows in cities for the earlier years. 4 DAIRY FARMING tained an average of a little more than one dairy cow per family. Because meat is so expensive we are using less of it, but we are not decreasing the number of dairy cows. 5. Amounts of Dairy Products Used. The number of dairy cows just about keeps pace with population, but there have been changes in the use made of milk. The amount of condensed milk produced increased 165 per cent in the ten years 1899 to 1909.^ The amount of fresh milk used as food has increased rapidly. In New York City the amount consumed per capita has increased one-third in twenty years. Table 3. — Butter and Cheese Produced and Consumed in THE United States, and Milk Shipped to New York City Butter Cheese Milk and Cream Shipped to New York City 4 Year Produced per Capita 2 Consumed per Capita 3 Produced per Capita 2 Consumed per Capita 3 Milk per Capita Condensed Milk and Cream 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Pounds 13.3 16.1 19.1 19.6 17.6 Pounds 18.9 19.4 17.5 Pounds 4.2 4.8 4.1 3.9 3.5 Pounds 2.9 3.6 3.8 Quarts 100 109 133 Quarts 2 5 7 Approximately 288 quarts of milk per person are used per year in the farm family. In cities about 112 quarts per capita^ are consumed. It is possible that this differ- ence has something to do with the better development of 1 Thirteenth Census, Vol. X, p. 374. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177, p. 7. 3 Amount produced plus imports less exports as given in reports of U. S. Dept. Agr. * Data for New York City furnished by The Milk Reporter. 5 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177, pp. 17, 18. IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 5 children on farms. But the amount consumed in cities is rapidly increasing. 6. Milk Inspection. In recent years great interest has been taken in improving the milk supply. Physicians and boards of health have been agitating and inspecting. As in most worthy publicity campaigns many statements are made that are not true. The agitation has brought pressure for better milk, but at the same time the extreme statements made have led many persons to use less milk than they other- wise would. The writer believes that for every person who is injured by milk, many persons suffer from the lack of it. We need education for better care of milk on the farm, in the city, and in the home, but we also need education as to the great food value of milk so that more milk will be used. It is unfortunate when one of these interferes with the other. Dairy inspection has done much good. It will do more good when more wisely performed. In the past it has too often been made by persons who do not understand farm- ing or farmers. The emphasis is often placed on unessential things. An inexperienced youth with an arbitrary score card turned loose among dairy farmers usually does more harm than good. In this way unnecessary antagonism is often aroused. Recent investigations have shown that there is no relationship between the score of a dairy as shown by a score card and the quality of the milk produced.^ In a later chapter the essentials for the production of whole- some milk are discussed. The vital points are that the milker and the cow both be in good health and that the milk be kept cold and as free from dirt as possible. 7. Dairy Cattle as a Source of Meat. Since there is one dairy cow per family there is approximately one veal calf 1 New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 398. 6 DAIRY FARMING or COW available for beef each year per family. About seventeen pounds of dressed veal per family is used annually in the United States.^ Nearly all of this is produced by dairy cows. From the comparative number of dairy cows and other cows, it appears that in addition to veal calves almost half of the beef animals slaughtered are produced by dairy cows. As population becomes more dense, we shall depend more and more on the dairyman for our meat supply. Beef from the beef breeds of animals will become too expensive for any but the wealthy, as it now is in densely populated countries. In the ten years 1900 to 1910 the number of dairy cows increased. Butter production increased 9 per cent and cheese production 7 per cent. But the number of steers and bulls decreased one-fifth. 8. Dairy Cattle in Other Countries. The British Isles have one dairy cow to eleven persons. They import large quantities of cheese and butter. France and the Netherlands have one cow to five persons. Germany has one cow to six persons. Denmark has one cow to two persons. It furnishes large quantities of butter for England. Japan and China show a striking contrast with America and Europe. Their dense population makes any kind of animal food too expensive to be used freely except by the wealthy. Instead of one cow for a family, Japan has one head of cattle for thirty-seven persons. The number of dairy cows is not reported, but this probably means that there is not more than one cow for from seventy to one hundred persons.^ As the population in the United States is becoming denser, we are unfortunately forced to use less animal food, but we 1 Assuming that the calves slaughtered on farms were as heavy as those killed in slaughter houses. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1912, pp. 666-668. International Insti- tute of Agriculture, Vol. V, No. 10, p. 485. IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY J still use far more than any other nation. For each person we now produce over twenty-five times as much human food from animals as is produced for each person in Japan. ^ 9. The Dairy Cow an EflScient Machine. From a given quantity of feed the dairy cow produces more human food than does any other animal. According to Armsby's stand- ards, the amount of feed required to grow and fatten a 1200-pound steer would, if fed to dairy cows, produce about three times as much human food. But the dairy cow must be raised, and the growing heifer is no more efficient than the growing beef animal. Both industries require that cows and bulls be kept. Figures showing the returns from the entire beef industry are not available, but results of the entire dairy industry in one county, including the feed for the entire dairy herds and including milk and meat returned for human food, are given in Table 4, as well as the results from an entire poultry in- dustry. As producers of protein, hens are the nearest com- petitors of dairy cattle, but judged on an energy basis hogs are second to cows. Both hens and hogs consume a higher class of foods so that when compared with cows they are not quite so productive as the figures would suggest. 10. Cows Effective Users of By-products. As population increases, less and less grain is fed to animals because it is all needed as human food. In Europe and other densely populated regions cows are fed less grain than in America. The dairy cow is the most efficient machine for changing grass, hay, straw, cornstalks, and the by-products from mills into human food. The cow will make a larger amount of human food out of these products than will any other ^ Calculated on the basis of animal units aside from horses. See page 218. 8 DAIRY FARMING Table 4, — Proportion of Food Eaten by Various Classes OF Live Stock that is Returned for Human Use ^ Per Cent of Pro- tein Returned Per Cent OF Energy Returned Of Total Food Of Digest- ible Protein Of Total Food Of Digest- ible Food Of Produc- tion Value of Food Cow 2 .... 41.0 48.9 Cow 3 . . . . 31.4 40.6 Dairy herds * . . 14.7 22.9 10.0 15.1 33.8 Steer ^ . . . . 8.9 17.0 Steer ^ . . . . 6.4 11.8 4.7 6.9 14.8 Hen 7 . . . . 16.1 20.9 7.1 8.3 14.1 Poultry flock ^ 14.5 18.6 6.4 7.5 12.6 Hog 9 . . . . 10.2 13.2 15.1 17.5 29.9 1 Values as human food from U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin (Revised) 28. 2 1000-pound cow giving 6000 pounds of 4 per cent milk based on Armsby's feeding standard. ' Similar cow raised to 2 years on Armsby's standard, milked 5 years, then sold as lean beef. * Food eaten by 5191 cows, 1078 heifers, 874 calves, 158 bulls, in Dela- ware County, New York. Pasture assumed to be one-third of the food. Net product 24, 646,000 pounds milk, 100,000 pounds skim-milk, 260 pounds butter, and 559 cows, 235 heifers, 62 bulls, 9 calves for beef. Most of the calves were killed and thrown away at birth. 5 Steer grown to 1000 pounds in 2 years, then fattened 200 pounds in 100 days by Armsby's standard. Meat counted as fat beef. * All food eaten by a steer that grew to 1588 pounds in 3 years, assumed to be fat beef. Ontario Agricultural College, Report, 1893, p. 122. ^ Food and product of 1 hen, average of 1803 by the writer. 8 All feed except grass for an average of 1803 hens and 60 roosters kept one year, 2713 chickens raised. Net product 204,093 eggs above those used for incubation, 1080 fowls and 1404 cockrels and pullets sold for meat, 4395 pounds, records kept by the writer. ' Hogs assumed to have eaten the same feed as 1 hen and to have made a gain of 1 pound for 5 pounds of grain. IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 9 animal. Cows also make use of the grasses that grow on large areas of land that cannot be profitably tilled. 11. Dairying and Maintenance of Soil Fertility. From most parts of the United States large quantities of stock foods are shipped out for foreign use. In many sections roughage that is good stock food is still destroyed. The introduction of dairying helps to keep a larger part of the fertility on the farm. Many farmers who make dairying a part of their farm business consider the maintenance of soil fertility, and the use of waste products, to be as important as the direct profits from the cows. Experiments for many years have shown that it is pos- sible to maintain the fertility of the soil by means of chemical fertilizers, but as a matter of fact farmers who use farm manure are most likely to keep up the fertility. Cows Help to Provide a Full Year's Work. A farm is pri- marily a place to work. The carpenter who works only half the year is not likely to accumulate much property, nor is the farmer who works only half the year likely to pay for a farm. A limited number of cows on the farm give employment in the morning and evening when field work cannot be done. In the North where cows are most numerous, the days are so short during much of the year that a full day's work cannot be done, unless there are chores to do. Cattle also provide work for stormy days and for cold days in winter. They also provide work that children can do before and after school. Farm children are particularly fortunate in that they have to help their fathers in the farm work. In the cities laws are passed to prevent child labor, not because all labor is injurious but because of the conditions under which the work is done. Farm children learn much by working with 10 DAIRY FARMING their fathers. Perhaps the most important thing that they learn is to persist in necessary work even when they would rather not. While helping with the chores the children are learning and at the same time helping to increase the family income. 12. Receipts from Dairy Products. Corn is the most valuable product of American farms but most of it is fed on the farm. Dairy products are probably the largest single source of income of American farmers. The dairy products sold from farms in 1909 amounted to nearly $500,000,000. The value of both cotton and wheat sold exceeded this. But if the cattle and calves that are also a product of the dairy were combined with the milk, the receipts from these sales would probably exceed the sales of any other product. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Get the local retail prices of butter, cheese, milk, skim- milk, and sirloin steak. Make a table showing the amount of protein and energy value that $1 will buy in each product. 2. Define " per capita." Define " dry matter." 3. Find the amount of milk and butter used per person in 10 to 12 families in your region. Average these and compare with the averages given on page 4. Each student may report on one family, or more if there are not 10 students in the class. 4. From the census reports for your state find the population and the number Of dairy cows for your county. How many per- sons are there for one cow? Compare Tvdth Table 2. What dairy products are shipped into your county? What products are shipped out of the county ? 5. Repeat question 4 for your state. 6. What was the total value of all dairy products sold in your county in 1909 ? In your state ? Which of the dairy products sold are most important ? 7. What was the value of dairy products compared with other leading farm products in your state ? IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY INDUSTRY 11 8. Why is more cheese used in Europe than in America? Why are we using more cheese than formerly ? 9. Of what dairy products does the United States import more than it exports? Of which does it export more than it imports? Which are greater in value, the total imports or exports? To what product is this due? See page 296. COLLATERAL READING The Production and Consumption of Dairy Products, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177. The Use of Milk as Food, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 363. In the lists of collateral reading no attempt is made to give a complete list of books and bulletins. A few of the more important references that are readily available are given. Bulletins of the different state experiment stations are not always available, for this reason they are not often given as collateral reading but are referred to in footnotes. At the beginning of the course the experiment station in your state should be asked for all available bulletins. If after examination it appears that certain ones of the publications are likely to be needed for special study, members of the class should send postal cards requesting them. It is better to have the students do this writing because instruction as to where to get information is a part of the course. Write to the Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C., or to your congressman for the census report on agriculture for your state. Also ask for the report on animals and animal products for the United States. Many important laboratory exercises are given after Chapter 2, page 39, and for following chapters. These exercises should be begun while Chapters 1 and 2 are being studied. Because of the frequent use that is made of the Babcock milk test it is a good plan to begin the laboratory work with Exercise 20, page 196. CHAPTER 2 BREEDS OF CATTLE c. h. eckles Origin of Breeds 13. Origin of Domesticated Cattle. No cattle are native to America. All those found in both North and South America are descended from cattle brought from Europe and are the descendants of wild cattle that formerly Hved in Europe and Asia. It is not known where or by whom cattle were first domesticated as it occurred in prehistoric times. It is generally believed that there were two original forms of wild cattle, the one somewhat smaller than the Jersey, the other probably larger than any cattle that live to-day and in type something like the long-horned cattle formerly raised on the ranges of South America and in Texas. 14. Origin of Breeds. The differences between these two wild types account in part for the differences between breeds of cattle, such for instance as the extreme difference in type between the Jersey and the Holstein, or between the long-horned cattle found in Texas and the Angus or the Shorthorns. Other factors in the formation of breeds are climate, food, and nature of the surroundings. For example, the cattle of Holland as a result of living for generations in a rich level 12 BREEDS OF CATTLE 13 country have become adapted to these conditions and are not so well suited to rough scanty pastures as the Brown Swiss, or the Ayrshires which have been produced on poor pastures. On the continent of Europe the breeds and sub- breeds are almost innumerable. They have chiefly originated in the manner mentioned. In Great Britain alone ten or twelve distinct breeds have developed. Up to about the middle of the eighteenth century these natural influences were the chief factors in the development of breeds. About that time, largely as the result of the work of Robert Blake- well, a great interest was aroused in England in improving cattle. The beginning of modern breeds may be traced largely to this great movement. The methods used were careful selec- tion, more liberal feeding, and good management. In some cases, as with the Shorthorns and the Ayrshires, crossbreeding and inbreeding were at first practiced. At the present time most cattle breeders direct their efforts towards further improvement in the breeds already in existence and not towards the establishment of new breeds. 15. Definition of Terms. Scrub and native are terms used to indicate that an animal does not carry more than a small amount of the blood of an improved breed. Grade. This term, generally used with some breed name, as Grade-Holstein, means that the animal has one-half or usually more of the blood of the improved breed. When the proportion of improved blood is high, the animal is called a " high grade." Crossbred indicates that the animal is the offspring of pure- bred parents of distinct breeds. Pure-bred. This term is properly apphed to cattle whose ancestors came from the native home of the breed and con- 14 DAIRY FARMING formed to the standards of the breed. Records must be available showing the breeding of these animals and tracing back in all lines to those coming from the original home of the breed. Pure-bred animals are sometimes called thorough- bred, but this term is also used to indicate a particular breed of horses and is usually restricted to that meaning. Registered. The breeders of each important breed of cattle have an organization for the purpose of keeping records and advancing the interests of the breed. Each of these organizations keeps record books. Any pure-bred animal that has the breed characteristics may be recorded, provided both parents are already on record. A pure-bred animal that is recorded is called a registered animal. 16. Classification of Cattle. The breeds common in America are generally classed as follows : Dairy Breeds. Holstein, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey, Brown Swiss, Dutch Belted. Dual Purpose. Shorthorn (Dairy Type), Red Polled, Polled Durham, Devon. Beef. Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen-Angus, Galloway. 17. Value of Breeds. Animals of a distinct breed that is adapted to the region usually sell for more than animals of mixed or unimproved breeding even if the latter are equally good animals individually. The value of the pure-bred is due to the fact that it is possible to predict with reasonable certainty what characteristics will be inherited by the off- spring. Among dairy cattle it is not uncommon to find ani- mals of mixed breeding that rank with pure-breds as pro- ducers of dairy products. These animals of mixed breeding, however, cannot be depended upon to reproduce themselves in their offspring. Very high grades are m_ore hkely to produce young like themselves. Pure-breds have been BREEDS OF CATTLE 15 bred for generations with certain objects in view, and in time these characteristics become fixed and are transmitted with fair certainty. The breed should be looked upon as a means of retaining the characteristics that have been developed by the efforts of the breeders in the past. Certain breeds have for gen- erations been selected and developed for the purpose of pro- ducing the greatest possible amount of good beef from the least feed. It is reasonable to expect an animal belonging to one of these breeds to excel one whose ancestors have never been selected for any definite purpose. Other breeds have been developed as dairy breeds, or for dual-purpose use, and are the most efficient animals for these purposes. 18. Pedigrees. A pedigree is a record of the ancestry of an animal. Its value lies in the opportunity it affords to study the characteristics of the ancestors. Breed associa- tions ^ have been organized by those interested, primarily for the purpose of keeping authentic records of the ancestry of pure-bred animals. Upon payment of the registration fee an animal that has the required breed characteristics and both of whose parents are recorded, may be recorded and assigned a registration number. By this means it is possible to trace the ancestry of any registered animal as far back as the ancestors that were imported. In ordinary use from three to six generations are recorded on the pedigree as studied by the breeder. While pedigrees are of great value in making it possible to select breeding animals to better advantage, it is a com- mon mistake to attach too much importance to them. An animal with a pedigree may not be any better than others that are high grades of the same breed. Pedigree alone is 1 See addresses on p. 289. 16 DAIRY FARMING no indication of the merit of the animal as an individual since it is merely a record of parentage. Below is given the pedigree of the Jersey cow, Rosette's Gipsy Maid, including four generations. The name ofth( sire in each case appears at the top, and that of the dam a1 the bottom of the bracket. ' Eminent Rosette 66050 Rosette's Golden Lad 57498 Rosette's Gipsy Maid< 220623 Orlando P. 2535 H. C. Rosette's 5th P. 2881 H. C. Reminder P. 2052 H. C. Financial Queen [ Financial Pride P 155098 [6060 H.C. ' Guenon's Golden Lad 62168 My Jolly Girl< 206038 Guenon's Mag V, L 189777 Dairy Breeds Guenon Lad P. 2571 H. C. Loraine 82951 f Guenon's Golden Lad 62168 Maceo's Mag V. 174758 19. Number of Animals Registered. Some idea of the greatly increased interest in pure-bred cattle is shown by the rapid increase during recent years in the number of animals registered by the breed associations. Over five times as many Holsteins were recorded in the last ten years as were recorded in the previous ten years. Three times as many Guernseys, twice as many Ayrshires, and nearly twice as BREEDS OF CATTLE 17 many Jerseys were recorded as in the preceding ten years. Although the totals look large it should be taken into ac- count that the number of registrations for each breed in- cludes all since the herdbook was established. Probably not over one-third of the total registered are now living. In proportion to the total number of dairy cattle in use in the United States the number registered is very small, prob- ably less than one in fifty. Table 5 gives the number of each breed registered, also a comparison of the numbers recorded in the last ten years and in the previous ten years. Table 5. — Numbers of Animals Registered Breed Before 1895 1895-1904 1905-1914 Total up TO 1915 Last Ten Years Com- pared WITH Previous Ten Years Jersey . . . Holstein . . Guernsey . . Ayrshire . . 143,519 56,141 11,029 18,306 111,782 49,296 15,661 11,051 197,300 267,374 52,450 26,919 452,601 372,811 79,140 56,276 Per Cent 176 542 335 244 20. Holstein-Friesian. This well-known breed of cattle originated in Holland and is especially well developed in the province of Friesland. It is not native, as the name Holstein would indicate, to the duchy of Holstein, which is a province of North Germany. Some of the first cattle of this breed imported to America were incorrectly called Holstein, and a breed association was organized under this name. Later another was started called the Dutch-Friesian. These two were combined in 1885 under the name Holstein- Friesian, which is the official name of the breed in this coun- try. It is now generally called Holstein in America, c BREEDS OF CATTLE 19 This breed is probably one of the oldest among those in general use. Holland has been famous for its cattle since the time of the Romans. The best part of Holland is below the level of the ocean, which is kept back by great dikes. The land is level and very fertile and especially adapted to grass. The cattle kept in Holland are given the best care of any cattle in the world. Attention is given to proper feed- ing, gentle handling of the animals, and to good sanitary con- ditions. As a result Holland exceeds all other countries in the average yield of milk and butter-fat per cow. Nearly all of the Holsteins in the United States are descended from about 10,000 head which were imported between 1875 and 1885. This breed ranks first in the number of animals now being recorded. Holsteins are the largest of the dairy breeds, the cows reaching an average weight of 1200 pounds and the bulls 1800 to 2200 pounds as a rule. The color is always black and white in any proportion but never blended. Cows of this breed are gentle and quiet in disposition. The breed- ing qualities are excellent, as is indicated by the rapid in- crease in numbers of recorded animals. The calves average 95 pounds at birth, the largest of any breed except the Brown Swiss. Holsteins produce more milk on the average than any other breed. In percentage of fat they rank the lowest. The figures in Table 6 give the averages of cows in experiment station herds. It is quite certain that these cows, on the average, do not produce any more than well-kept private herds. On a farm where good conditions of management prevail, a herd should average at least 8000 pounds of milk per year. A high average would be 10,000 pounds per year. The milk 20 DAIRY FARMING or butter from this breed has considerably less yellow color than that of Jerseys, and in fact ranks the lowest in this respect. Table 6. — Production of Holstein Cows in Experiment Station Herds. Average Number op Cows Represented Pounds milk per year Per cent fat Pounds fat per year Per cent total solids 8699 3.45 300 12.29 83 83 83 9 The highest fat records for a year made by this breed up to April 1, 1916, were : Duchess Skylark Ormsby . Finderne Pride Johanna Rue Finderne Holingen Fayne Pounds Milk 27,762 28,404 24,612 Pounds Fat 1205 1176 1116 The highest milk record was made by Tilly Alcartra, who produced 30,452 pounds of milk in a year, but she did not give as much fat as a number of other cows. In Holland, cattle of this breed are used for beef production as well as for dairy purposes. The calves are especially well adapted for veal as they are large at birth and gain rapidly during the first few weeks. When dry the cows fat- ten readily, and as is the case with other dairy breeds the gains are made as cheaply and rapidly as with animals of beef breeds. In the great cattle markets the price is always lower for animals of the dairy breeds than for those of beef breeds. There is some basis for this discrimination in the BREEDS OF CATTLE 21 fact that the dairy breeds during fattening deposit larger quantities of fat around the internal organs, and tallow is worth but little as compared with the edible meat. The beef-bred animals deposit more of their fat in the muscular tissue giving the marbled condition so much prized. How- ever, the average meat consumer scarcely discriminates be- tween the beef from a Holstein and that from a beef -bred animal if both be of the same age. It is safe to prophesy that, in the future, dairy cattle will supply a much larger proportion of the beef used in this country, as has long been the case on the continent of Europe. The strong points of the breed are the high milk yield, the marked vigor of constitution especially of the calves, the good breeding qualities, the quiet disposition, and the value for beef and veal. The weakest point is generally considered to be the low percentage of fat, but owing to the large yield of milk the total production of fat is high. 21. Jersey. The Jersey and the Guernsey breeds are often spoken of as the Channel Island breeds. They take their names from the islands of Jersey and Guernsey, located in the English Channel. Jersey Island is only eleven miles long and nine wide. The climate is mild and even. The cattle are pastured by tethering. The system of agriculture followed is very intensive since the average rent of the land is about $50 per acre. The sale of pure-bred Jersey cattle for export is an important source of income. Since 1789 the laws of the island have prohibited the importation of cattle, so this breed has been kept pure since that time. Much attention is given to the type of the animal as well as to the butter production. This has resulted in the development of a breed of great symmetry and beauty. * At the present time this breed is used to a limited extent 22 DAIRY FARMING in England, and has been taken to all English speaking coun- tries, although by far the greatest number is now in North America. Some were brought to the United States about 1850. From 1868 to 1890 large numbers were imported, and again since 1900 several importations have been made Fig. 2. — Imported Jersey cow, Lady Viola, many times champion in the show ring. A good representative of the Island type ; rather small, extreme dairy type, udder almost perfect, long level rump, very symmetrical outline. each year. This breed is most numerous in the Eastern and Southern States. The color may be any shade of yellow except orange — and ranges from light fawn to dark gray or black. The most common color is fawn shading to dark on the lower parts of the body. The tongue, and the switch of the tail are black in the majority of cases. White spots are not uncommon, especially on the lower part of the body. These were at one time strongly objected to, but now receive little atten- BREEDS OF CATTLE 23 tion. The color bears no relation to the value of any par- ticular cow as a dairy animal. Mature Jersey cows usually weigh from 750 to 900 pounds. Those found on Jersey Island and those recently imported are of smaller and more refined type and are known as the Island type in contrast to the larger, coarser type descended from the early im- portations, known as the American type. Cows of this breed are more sensitive than many others on account of a highly developed nervous temperament. When handled gently they become very docile, when care- lessly handled or abused they are quite the reverse. They seem to thrive better than some other breeds in warm cli- mates. As meat producers they rank very low. The calves are small at birth, weighing 55 pounds on the average and they do not gain rapidly for the first few weeks. For these reasons they are not well adapted for veal. The published records of Jersey cows owned by the American experiment stations are given in Table 7. On a farm where fairly good conditions are maintained a Jersey herd should be expected to average about 5500 pounds of milk per year containing on the average 5 per cent of fat. A high average milk yield would be 7000 pounds per cow. * Table 7. — Production of Jersey Cows in Herds Belonging TO Experiment Stations Pounds milk per year Per cent fat . . . Pounds fat per year Per cent total solids Average 5508 5.14 283 14.9 Number of Cows Represented 153 154 153 29 24 DAISY FARMING The highest records for a year up to April 1, 1916, were : Pounds Fat Sophie 19th of Hood Farm .... 17,558 999 Spermfield Owl's Eva 16,457 993 Eminent's Bess 18,783 963 In quantity of milk the Jersey is surpassed by other dairy breeds. In use of food for the economical production of fat the Jersey and her close relative the Guernsey are un- surpassed. The best-known characteristics of this breed are the high percentage of fat and the yellow color of the prod- uct. The yellow color adds nothing to the flavor or the food value of milk or cream but makes the article more attractive to the consumer. The Jersey cow is also an un- usually persistent milker which contributes to her popularity as a family cow. This breed is best adapted for the produc- tion of cream or butter. The weakest points are a lack of vitality in the calves and lack of good breeding qualities in the cow. 22. Guernsey. This breed is a native of the island of the same name, which is the second in size of the Channel Islands. The ancestors of this breed and of the Jersey were undoubtedly the same, and in fact a century ago the two breeds were essentially alike. The conditions under which the two breeds developed are almost identical, but type has been emphasized far less than on Jersey Island. As a result the Guernseys lack the symmetry and uniformity of type characteristic of the Jersey. The Guernsey cow weighs about 1000 pounds on the average, or at least 100 pounds more than the Jersey, and is also coarser boned. In BREEDS OF CATTLE 25 26 DAIRY FARMING general the colors resemble those of the Jersey, but include some colors not found in that breed. The common colors are reddish yellow, or lemon, or orange-fawn, with white markings. Guernseys are probably a little slower maturing than Jerseys, but are ready to freshen when about 24 months old. Like the Jerseys they have little adaptation for beef. Table 8, — Production of Guernsey Cows in Experiment Station Herds Average Number of Cows Represented Pounds milk per year Per cent fat . . . Pounds fat per year Per cent total solids 5509 4.98 274 14.2 17 21 17 6 Records for cows belonging to experiment stations are given in Table 8. A herd should average at least 5500 pounds of milk per year containing 5 per cent of fat. A high aver- age would be 7000 pounds per cow. The highest records for one year up to April 1, 1916, were : Pounds Milk Pounds Fat Murne Cowan May Rilma Spotswood Daisy Pearl .... 24,008 19,673 18,603 1098 1073 957 Guernsey milk and butter have a higher color than do the products of any other breed, and for this reason the Guernsey is especially favored where cream is sold in a critical market. The strong and weak points of this breed are practically the same as for the Jersey. They are best adapted for the BREEDS OF CATTLE 27 production of cream and butter. Their milk yield is not sufficient to warrant their use where milk is sold without regard to its fat content. 23. Ayrshire. The home of this breed is the county, or shire, of Ayr in southwest Scotland. This is a rolling, moder- ately fertile region and is not subject to great extremes of temperature. The origin of the breed is somewhat uncertain, but it dates back to the latter part of the eighteenth century. It is generally believed that the breed was the result of cross- ing Holland, Durham, and Channel Island animals upon the native stock. It is at present the leading dairy breed in Scotland and in New Zealand, and is common in parts of England. Ayrshire cattle were brought into Canada at an early date, and were brought to Massachusetts as early as 1837. These importations stopped after twenty or thirty years, and were not resumed until about 1900. Until recent years the Ayrshires in America were the descendants of the early importations. The importations of the past few years have met with the greatest favor, and as a result the best Ayr- shires in America are now of the same type as those found in Scotland. At the present time this breed ranks fourth among the dairy breeds in numbers registered in the United States. They are most numerous in the dairy sections of the East and in Wisconsin, Ohio, and Illinois. In portions of Canada they constitute the majority of the cattle in use. Many of their characteristics are between the Holstein and Jersey. This is true of the size, yield of milk, yield of fat, disposition of animals, size of calves, and breeding quali- ties. The common color is spotted, red and white, or brown and white in varying proportions. The two colors are dis- tinct and never blend to form a roan as with the Shorthorns. 28 DAIRY FARMING BREEDS OF CATTLE 29 The Ayrshire cows do not show the extreme angular dairy type exhibited by some other breeds. They are smoother over the shoulders and have fuller hind quarters. The udder development is the most perfect found in any breed. Special attention has been paid to this point by the Scotch breeders. The teats are placed uniformly on the udder and are of uniform size. The tendency to short teats has been the cause of much unfavorable criticism, but the care which has been taken within recent years to breed for longer teats has largely removed this objection. In beef production Ayr- shires rank high for a dairy breed. The calves weigh 65 to 70 pounds at birth and are strong and vigorous. Table 9. — Production of Ayrshire Cattle in Experiment Station Herds Average Number of Cows Represented Pounds milk per year Per cent fat ... Pounds fat per year Per cent total solids 6533 3.85 252 12.9 24 24 24 17 Results from experiment station herds are given in Table 9. An average yield of about 6000 pounds of milk contain- ing 3.80 per cent fat may be expected from a herd under farm conditions if given reasonably good treatment. The milk does not show much yellow color. The breed is well adapted for the production of market milk since it gives a large amount of milk of average composition. The best record up to April 1, 1916, is held by Lady of Willowmoor with a production of 956 pounds of fat in one year. 30 DAIRY FARMING 24. Brown Swiss. These cattle are native to the north- eastern part of Switzerland where they have been bred as far back as history records. During the winter, season the cattle are kept in the valleys and in the summer they are pastured upon the mountain slopes. In America this breed is found in almost every state but as a rule only in isolated herds. The total number is small compared with the leading dairy breeds. In appearance these animals are plain, substantial, and well proportioned although inclined to be fleshy and often rather coarse in bone. The cows reach a weight of about 1200 pounds. They are called brown, but the color is really more of a mouse color and varies from a silver gray or light brown, to a dark brown or nearly black. They are noted for their vitality and good breeding qual- ities. They are quiet and gentle. The calves are the larg- est of any breed used in America and are easy to raise on ac- count of their strong vitality. As milk producers the cows rank about with the Ayrshires in both yield and richness of milk. A milk yield of from 6000 to 9000 pounds per year is often obtained, and an average of 6500 pounds per cow should be obtained under good conditions. The fat aver- ages a trifle under 4 per cent. Some excellent advanced registry records have been made by this breed. The best record up to April 1, 1916, is held by College Bravura 2d with a production of 19,461 pounds of milk and 798 pounds of fat in one year. 25. Dutch Belted. This breed has practically the same characteristics as the Holstein, except that it has a white band or belt extending around the body. It is used, to a limited extent only, in the Eastern States. 26. Kerry. These cattle are smaller than those of any other breed. They are natives of Ireland. The average BREEDS OF CATTLE 31 weight of the cows is 650 pounds. The color is black with a little white on the udder and underline. Another some- what larger type of this breed is known as the Dexter Kerry. A few small herds are to be found in the Eastern States. The cows produce a large amount of milk for their size. The milk averages about 4 per cent of fat. Dual-purpose Breeds "27. Dual-purpose. The term dual-purpose is used to describe those breeds of cattle kept for both milk and beef, in contrast with the more specialized breeds, which are kept primarily for either milk or beef alone. All dairy breeds have some value for beef, and all beef breeds are sometimes used for milk. The real dual-purpose cow stands about midway between the dairy type and the beef type. It must not be expected that a cow of this type will compare as a dairy animal with good individuals of the special dairy breeds in milk production, or that her calves can compete in beef pro- duction with those from the special beef breeds. A dual- purpose cow should be expected to produce about 200 pounds of butter-fat per year as against about 300 for an equally good specimen of a special dairy breed, and her calves should make fair beef. Dual-purpose breeds have been in favor in many sections of the United States especially in the corn belt. The dual- purpose breeds are less economical producers of dairy prod- ucts than the special dairy breeds and for this reason should not be chosen by the man who is making dairying an impor- tant part of his farming operations. If the dual-purpose cow is to be used at all, it should be on the general farm in the corn belt where cream is sold and skim-milk is available for feeding calves and pigs, and where the abundance of roughage 32 DAIRY FARMING makes it desirable to have more animals to consume it than the farmer is prepared to handle in the form of dairy cows. 28 Shorthorn. The Shorthorn is probably the best known and most widely distributed breed of cattle. Its native home is northeast England in the counties of York Fig 5 —Doris Clay, a Shorthorn cow of the dairy type with a mnk record of 10,270 pounds in one year. A dual-purpose cow but showing more dairy characteristics than is typical. and Durham. The name Durham, which was formerly ap- phed to this breed to some extent, is explained in this way. As with other breeds it is not possible to tell exactly how the breed was originated. It is probable that the cattle brought from the Continent were crossed with the native Enghsh stock. It is certain that Holland cattle were also a factor in the improvement. The first systematic breeding began BREEDS OF CATTLE 33 about 1780. The men best known in the early history of the breed are Charles and Robert CoUing, Thomas Bates, Thomas Booth, and, more recently, Amos Cruickshank. In developing this breed most attention was given to early maturity and good beef qualities. At the same time cer- tain breeders, especially Thomas Bates, were equally inter- ested in developing a dual-purpose, or general-purpose, ani- mal in which the dairy qualities and the beef characteristics should be well balanced. As a beef animal the Shorthorn ranks in the first class. Within recent times the beef quali- ties have been best developed in animals descended from the herd of Cruickshank. At the present time animals of this breed seen in the show ring in America are of the most pronounced beef type, and their popularity is based upon their beef qualities. Certain strains, however, have been developed by breeders who have maintained the milking characteristic of the early type, and as a result at the present time there is a fairly distinct milking type of pure-bred Shorthorns found in large numbers in England and to a limited extent in America. In recent years a number of milk and butter records have been made by cows of this breed that rank with the special dairy breeds. Herds selected and bred for dual-purpose should average about 5000 pounds of milk per year with a fat content of from 3.8 to 4 per cent. The highest record up to April 1, 1916, is held by Rose of Glenside, 18,075 pounds of milk and 625 pounds of fat in one year. The dual-purpose type does not have so good a beef conformation as the strains developed for beef. The beef animals of this breed produce more milk than does the Here- ford, Angus, or Galloway. The Shorthorn is more widely distributed than any other breed, being widely used in 34 DAIRY FARMING , North and South America, South Africa,- and Australia, as well as in its native home. The colors may be pure red, pure white, red and white, or roan. The color cannot be taken as in any way an indication of the quality of the animal. The mature cows usually weigh about 1400 pounds but may reach 1800 pounds or more. They are larger than the cows of any other breed. Importations to America began as early as 1790, al-- though in small numbers until between 1830 and 1840 when a large number were brought into Ohio. The American Shorthorn Breeders' Association was established in 1882 and since that time has looked after the interests of the breed. More cattle of this breed have been registered than of any other. 29. Polled Durham. Polled Durham cattle are either pure-bred Shorthorns or nearly so. They are of American origin. The " Single Standard " Polled Durhams were originated by crossing native mulley cows with pure-bred Shorthorns. After a certain number of crosses of Short- horn blood these animals were registered in the Polled Durham herdbook. The " Double Standard " Polled Dur- hams are so called since they are eligible to registry in the Shorthorn herdbook. They were originated from naturally mulley cows which appeared in pure-bred Shorthorns. At the present time the latter line of breeding has practically superseded the former. They are in every respect the same as Shorthorns except for the polled characteristics. They are found in considerable numbers in the Central States and have met with considerable favor on account of the polled characteristics. 30. Red Polled. This breed is classed as dual-purpose and comes nearest at the present time, as a breed, to meeting the BREEDS OF CATTLE 35 definition of this classification. It is native to the counties of Suffolk and Norfolk in the eastern part of England. It is beheved by some who have studied the question that Red Polls are descended from cattle brought to England by the Danes and mixed with the native cattle. Until 1846 the cattle of these two counties were known as independent breeds, but on account of their similarity, at this date they Fig. 6 — Jean Duluth Beauty, a Red Polled cow, with a record of 20,280 pounds of milk, and 892 pounds of fat in one year. A dual-purpose cow with a remarkable dairy record. were combined and have since been known as Red Polls. They are used in England as dual-purpose cattle. At the present time the breed is found mostly in the two counties where it originated, to some extent in Australia and New Zealand, and in considerable numbers in America. They were probably introduced into America during the colonial times, but it was not until after 1870 that animals were brought over the descendants of which have been kept 36 DAIRY FARMING pure. They are most numerous in the Middle States. They yield a medium amount of milk, take on flesh readily, and make a fair grade of beef. As beef animals they do not rank in the first class, nor can the cows compete in milk and fat production with the special dairy breeds. A herd kept under good farm conditions may be expected to average about 5000 pounds of milk per year, containing close to 4 per cent of fat on the average. A number of excellent milk records have been made, though none are comparable with those of the special dairy breeds. The cows usually weigh between 1200 and 1300 pounds, but occasionally more ; while the bulls reach a weight of about a ton. In color they are a deep cherry red ; white may appear on the switch of the tail, on the udder, and a few white markings are allowed on the belly. White on any other part disqualifies the animal for registra- tion. American herds of this breed vary widely in type. Some breeders have given most attention to beef production. Other breeders have given most attention to dairy qualities. The proper type to maintain is a balance between these two extremes. The best record up to April 1, 1916, of 20,280 pounds of milk and 892 pounds of fat is held by Jean Duluth Beauty. 31. Devon. Devon cattle are commonly classed as dual-purpose. They were bred and developed in Devon- shire, England. They are thought to be one of the oldest of the breeds that originated in Great Britain. The Devons are smaller than the distinctive beef breeds, the cows weigh- ing from 1200 to 1300 pounds. The color is a bright red. The animal is blocky and compact with a noticeable refine- ment in bone. They are fair milk producers, yielding milk rich in fat, comparing favorably in this respect with the Jerseys. The breed is not numerous in the United States BREEDS OF CATTLE 37 but is found to some extent in the Eastern States. Their popularity seems to be decreasing, judging from the number that are exhibited at fairs. Beef Breeds 32. Hereford. This breed has been developed strictly for beef purposes. The cows are milked to a very limited extent. A few cows in a herd kept primarily for beef may be utilized to supply the family of the owner with milk, or at times may produce enough to make it possible to sell a small amount of dairy products. There are no records of milk production available, although it is known that the milk of this breed ranks rather high in richness and has much the same characteristics as that of the Devons. The Hereford probably ranks lowest in dairy qualities. As is the case with all beef breeds, occasionally a cow is found that is a fair milk producer, but she cannot be depended upon to transmit this characteristic. This breed is a native of Hereford in the south central part of England, where it has been devel- oped for about 150 years. The cows reach a weight of about 1400 pounds and the bulls as high as 2200 pounds. The most distinctive characteristic of the breed is the white face, which is never absent. This is transmitted very strongly to practically all animals having even a small amount of Here- ford blood. Herefords are used mostly for grazing on the plains of the West and Southwest. 33. Aberdeen-Angus. This excellent breed of beef cattle ranks about with the Hereford as a producer of milk. The cattle are always black in color and polled. Only rarely is a cow found that would be profitable in a dairy. These excep- tional cows cannot be counted upon to reproduce this charac- teristic in their offspring. They are bred primarily for beef, 38 DAIRY FARMING but are often used in a limited way for supplying milk for the use of the owners. Angus grades may even be found occasionally in mixed herds kept for milk. Practically no records of the amount or richness of milk are available. A limited number of fat tests made by the author indicate that the milk of this breed averages about 4.0 per cent of fat, or about the same as that of the Shorthorns. The Angus breed originated in northern Scotland. In America it is found chiefly in the corn-producing states. It has not been con- sidered the equal of the Hereford on the ranges. 34. Galloway. This breed is a native of southwestern Scotland. The cattle are black in color, always polled, and are especially known for their long, thick hair, seen to the best advantage during the winter season in northern regions. They are found chiefly in the Middle States and on the ranges. They are strictly a beef breed. No records are available regarding the yield of milk or its richness. As is the case with other beef breeds, occasionally a reasonably good milk producer is found. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Which means more, to say that an animal is pure-bred or to say that it is registered ? 2. Fill out a table like the following, including all breeds of cattle. Breed Native Home Horned OR Hornless Dairy, Dual- purpose OR Beef Colors Usual Weight Pounds BREEDS OF CATTLE 39 3. Tell how each breed of cattle may be distinguished. 4. From Tables 6, 7, 8, 9, find the percentage of solids not fat for the milk of each breed. 6. How did Shorthorn cattle come to be called Durham ? 6. What is meant by Channel Islands? 7. On a map locate the region where each breed originated. Give the leading characteristics of the region as to climate, topog- raphy, and food supply for cattle. Which one of the regions is most like the region where you live ? 8. Make a list of all the known owners of pure-bred cattle in the school district or region, with the breeds owned and numbers of each breed. 9. Which breed of dairy cattle is most numerous in the region ? Which one is increasing most rapidly ? Why ? 10. Why did so many breeds originate in Europe, and why does the same thing not happen in America? LABORATORY EXERCISES 1. If different breeds of cattle are available, make comparisons of them, and write a description of the cattle of each breed that were studied. The score cards given on pages 290 to 296 may be of help in studying each breed. 2. Make an outline drawing of the head of a Jersey and of a Holstein cow as seen from the front. If possible measure the length and width and draw to scale. The difference in the shape of the head is supposed to be one indication that these breeds are descended from two distinct forms of wild cattle. COLLATERAL READING Breeds of Dairy Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 106. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 301-302 and 330-382. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb, pp. 169-332. Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles, pp. 27-106. CHAPTER 3 SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE C. H. ECKLES Selection of a Breed 35. Selection of a Breed. One of the first questions that arises in starting a herd is the choice of a breed. There is a tendency to attach too much importance to this decision. In choosing a breed the following points should be con- sidered. 1. Kind of cattle most common in the locality. 2. Form in which the products are to be marketed. 3. Topography, climate, and food supply. 4. Preference of the breeder. 5. Average production of milk. 6. Average production of butter-fat. 7. Economy of production of milk and fat. 8. Breeding qualities of the cows. 9. Vigor of the calves. 10. Adaptability of the calves for veal, and beef value of discarded cows and bulls. 1 1 . Original cost and probable demand for surplus animals. Most of the points have been discussed in the previous chapter. The advantages to the farmer of using the same kind of stock as his neighbors, should be given far greater prominence than his own preference or any small points of 40 SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 41 difference between breeds. The advantages may be enu- merated as follows : 1. May save expense in buying males for breeding, and make it possible to make more use of a bull that is found to sire especially valuable animals. 2. It is a great advantage in selling stock, since buyers are attracted by large numbers of the same breed in one locality. 3. May save expense in official testing of registered cows for advanced registration. 4. Makes possible a local breed organization and creates greater interest in good stock and proper management. If the pastures are steep and rocky, the more active breeds are likely to be most successful. Where pastures are luxu- riant and where large quantities or roughage are used, the larger breeds are more at home. Between similar breeds the preference of the breeder may decide the choice. For example, if location and market would suggest the Jersey or the Guernsey as the most suitable, the choice between the two might be easily deter- mined by preference. If the dairy farmer expects to sell milk for market, wholesale or retail, his choice would hardly fall on the Channel Island breeds, unless the market is the exceptional one that will pay enough more for rich milk to justify its production. For milk production the Holstein, Ayrshire, or Brown Swiss would be the natural choice. On the other hand, if the location is such that cream is to be sold, then the Jersey and Guernsey breeds would come in for strong consideration on account of their well-known economical use of feed for the production of butter-fat. Under these conditions the probable value of skim-milk for pigs and for calf feeding is still another consideration and in some cases is sufficient to cause the choice to fall 42 DAIRY FARMING upon the Holstein on account of the large production of this valuable by-product. When selling butter-fat, cream or butter, the total qu'an- tity of fat and not the percentage of fat is the important point. For cheese making and for market milk, the total solids, and not fat alone are what is wanted. It is impossible to give data that are entirely satisfactory regarding the relative production of the breeds. The best figures the author has been able to gather are brought to- gether in Table 10. These are yearly records of pure-bred animals as reported by experiment stations in the United States for animals owned by them. It is assumed that the conditions under which these records are made are fairly comparable with and certainly no more favorable than those found in good herds owned by individuals. Table 10. — Production per Year of Cows Owned by Ex- periment Stations Breed Average Pounds Milk Average Per Cent Fat for Year Average Pounds Fat Number Cows Pounds Milk Number Cows Per Cent Fat Holsteins . . . Jerseys .... Shorthorns Red Polls . . . Guernseys . . Ayrshires . 83 153 37 9 17 24 8699 5508 6017 5906 5509 6533 83 154 40 9 21 24 3.45 5.14 3.63 4.03 4.98 3.85 300 283 218 238 274 252 Individual Selection 36. Selection of Individual Cows. The success of a dairy farmer depends more upon the selection of the individuals within the breed than it does upon the choice of a breed. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 43 The efforts of the breeder are constantly directed towards the development of the dairy breeds to the point where the characteristic of high milk production will be uniformly inherited. Even our poorest dairy cows give much more milk than was given under natural conditions. Although much progress has been made we must always expect many cows to fall below our standards because these standards are so far above nature. A certain number of the dairy cows with good parents will have inferior dairy quahties. No method of growing the heifer or of feeding the mature cow can make a naturally inferior cow into a good one. The cow must first of all have the tendency to use her feed for making milk. High production of milk results from selecting such a cow and then providing the proper amount and kind of feed. A cow of high dairy qualities will do little if any better than one of inferior quality unless given suffi- cient and suitable feed. There is little evidence to support the common idea that an inferior cow is the result of wrong methods of raising as a calf. Recent experiments indicate that while the size of the animal and possibly the vigor may be influenced b}^ the feeding when young, the tendency to produce milk is not much affected by the methods followed in raising the ani- mal.^ It should be clearly understood that this does not mean that it makes no difference how a calf is raised. It means that the efficiency of the cow as a milk producer is chiefly a matter of inheritance. Her yield of milk is the result of this inheritance plus the method of feeding and management. If a cow shows one year that she has inherited a tendency toward milk production, she can be expected to produce 1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135. 44 DAIRY FARMING well for her entire lifetime. A cow that is a small pro- ducer by inheritance remains so year after year. The aver- age yearly records in Table 11, selected from many kept by the writer for a number of cows for a term of years, indicate this fact. Some variation occurs, but Table 11 shows that Table 11. — Yield of Butter-fat of Different Individuals BY Years in Pounds Breed First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Jersey 296 416 468 499 580 Jersey 44 115 169 159 Jersey 336 452 545 425 440 Jersey 62 171 123 / Holstein .... 282 323 330 450 380 373 390 Holstein .... 151 167 210 the good cows were good producers year after year, while the inferior ones remained poor just as regularly. Occasion- ally a cow has a poor year because she is out of condition, but normally the results will be uniform when the feed and care are the same. 37. Extent of Variation of Individuals. An abundance of data has been gathered within recent years to make it plain that the variation of individuals as milk producers is the greatest single factor in the success of the dairy. The Connecticut Experiment Station found the five most profitable in their herd were fed a year at a cost of $56.54 each, while the five poorest consumed feed worth $52.02. The best five averaged 304 pounds of fat for the year, and the poorest five 189 pounds. One group lacked $4.09 per cow of paying for their feed. The other group gave $26.91 per cow above the cost of feed. For $4.52 in additional feed SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 45 Fig. 7. — An example of wide variation in production. These cows are registered Jerseys and half sisters. The one above averaged 418 pounds of fat for the first three years in milk. With the same treatment the one below averaged 109 pounds of fat for the same three years. The variation in the production was due to inherited characteristics. 46 DAIRY FARMING the animals in the better group produced 115 pounds more fat each.^ Reports from the Southern States for 719 cows, covering in each case a full year, show that for each $1.00 invested in feed the best 10 cows gave returns of $2.20, while the poorest 10 cows barely returned the value of the feed. The best 30 cows produced three and a half times as much as the poorest animals. ^ In the University of Missouri herd one pure-bred Jersey averaged 480 pounds of fat per year for three years, while her half sister averaged 114 pounds for the same period. A test of 18 Illinois herds, including 226 cows, showed the best herd to average 389 pounds of fat and the poorest 142.^ 38. The High-producing Cows More Economical Pro- ducers. A striking fact brought out by all such figures is that the high producers will give a greater return from the same amount of feed. It costs from $10 to $15 more per year to feed the cow that produces 350 pounds of fat than it costs to feed the cow that yields 200 pounds. It is a common mis- take to assume that it costs no more to feed a cow producing 10,000 pounds of milk per year than it does to feed one yielding 5000 pounds of milk of the same quality. The larger producer must use more feed, but not double that used by the smaller. The former will use about 25 per cent more feed than the latter, while the production of milk is 100 per cent more. In many herds that have not been carefully culled, a greater total profit might be realized by retaining one-half to two- thirds of the herd and disposing of the inferior cows, but a still better return may come from replacing the poor cows by good ones. 1 Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 29. 2 tJ. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, 25th Annual Report, p. 67. 3 Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 102. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 47 Selection by Type 39. How Individual Selection is Made. There are in general two methods of selecting dairy cows. The first is by type or conformation, and the second is by records of production. There is undoubtedly a certain conformation that generally goes with high milk production. This con- formation is generally distinct enough to enable experienced judges to select very good from very inferior cows. As a rule it is fairly easy to select cows that will yield 300 to 350 pounds of fat per year from those that will give half that amount. It is not possible, however, to judge by this means alone which one will produce 300 and which one 500 pounds per year. Often even experienced judges will make decided errors in selecting animals by this method, especially if the cow is not in the most favorable condition to be judged. Since records are available for very few cows offered for sale, it is necessary for most cattle buyers to depend largely upon type. If it were possible to select all cows when giving their largest yield of milk, judging by type would be reasonably accurate. Under practical conditions this is not possible, and cows have to be selected that vary from dry to the high- est milk flow. The appearance of a dry cow gives little indication of her merits. 40. The Dairy Type. The three striking points in the conformation of a highly developed dairy cow are : 1. The spare angular form, carrying no surplus flesh but showing evidence of liberal feeding in her vigorous condition. 2. The extraordinary size and development of the udder and milk veins. YiG, 8. — These pure-bred Jerseys illustrate a wide range in type and also the relation of tvpe to production. The cow above shows good type. A large barrel with plenty of depth from hips to the udder, well-developed udder and milk veins. She produced 592 pounds of fat m a year. The animal below, although perfectly healthy, is very shallow in body, has a small barrel, and an extremely small udder; she produced 122 pounds of fat in a year. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 49 3. The marked development of the barrel in proportion to the size of the animal. A high-class dairy cow rarely carries much flesh when in full flow of milk. At the same time her alert vigorous ap- Steer at middle of barrel. Steer at heart girth. Dairy cow at middle of barrel Dairy cow at heart girth. Fig. 9. — Cross section of a fat steer compared with that of a high-class dairy cow. Notice the large abdomen, bony back, and sharp withers of the cow. The skeleton of the steer is more fully covered with flesh. E 50 DAIRY FARMING pearance, her soft pliable skin and soft hair show that she is not thin on account of a lack of feed. An animal thin in flesh on account of insufficient feed has a stupid appearance and shows a lack of vigor, while the hair generally is rough and stands on end. In either case the paunch may be large or small, depending on the bulkiness of the feed consumed. So characteristic is the angular appearance of the dairy cow that an animal that does not show this form -when in full flow of milk should not be selected. When the cow is near the end of the lactation period, or is dry, she should carry more flesh, and it is a mis- take to be too quick to con- demn a cow at this stage for being too beefy. The well-developed beef animal on the other hand is square and blocky. The general shape, leaving the legs and head out of consideration, is rectangular. The back is broad and level, the thighs full and straight. This difference in the shape of the body of a high-class dairy cow and of a fat steer ready for market is shown by the cross sections in Fig. 9. These were obtained by a device that made it possible to get the exact outlines. 41. The Udder. A well-developed udder is the most important characteristic to be considered in selecting a cow for milk production. Since this gland has the function of secreting the milk, its size and development are of the great- FiG. 10. — A well-formed udder. Note the length of attachment to the body, and the well-developed fore- quarters. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 51 est importance in judging the milk-producing ability of the cow. It is not alone size, but active secreting cells that count. For this reason a meaty hard udder that remains nearly as large after milking as before is of little value. The udder should have a long attachment to the body, extending well up in the rear and well forward in front. The quarters should be even in size without deep indentations between, and the teats should be of proper size for convenient milking and evenly placed. When the cow is dry, it is impossible to judge accurately of the development of the udder. However, a large amount of loose skin showing an abundance of room for expansion when the udder is filled may be taken as an indication that the udder will develop in a satisfactory manner. Little can be judged regarding the future size and shape of the udder in the calf or heifer until the time for calving approaches. 42. The Milk Veins and Milk Wells. Large milk veins are one of the indications of high milk production that should be given careful attention. The blood after passing through the udder and supplying the cells with material for secreting milk starts back towards the heart through the milk veins. The name, of course, is a misnomer since they carry blood, not milk. One of these opens on either side near the front of the udder and passes forward just beneath the skin. These veins crook back and forth and sometimes separate into two or more divisions and finally pass upward through the wall of the abdomen into the body cavity. The por- FiG. 11. — A well-formed udder. Figs. 10 and 11 are both high-producing cows. 52 DAIRY FARMING tions of the veins from the udder to the openings through which they pass into the abdomen are spoken of as the milk veins. The openings are known as the milk wells. The milk veins are one of the most reliable indications of dairy quality, since a large milk production calls for a large flow Fig. 12. — Udder of an inferior cow. This udder is large and well shaped but meaty, and is nearly as large after milking as before. Fig. 13. — A very pendulous udder, objectionable because it interferes with the cow when walking, and because it easily becomes soiled. of blood to the udder, and large milk veins indicate such a circulation. 43. The Barrel. The term barrel is applied in general to that portion of a cow's body between the hind and fore legs. The dairy cow to be a heavy producer must consume enormous quantities of feed. To do this requires large or- gans of digestion. A high -producing cow has wide-sprung ribs and a deep abdomen, giving great capacity for the di- gestive tract and other vital organs. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 53 An animal lacking in barrel cannot use sufficient feed to make her a large producer. The age of the animal has some influence upon the size of the barrel. The apparent capacity is also influenced to some extent by the ration fed. Bulky feeds, such as hay and silage, when fed in large quantities give this effect. In considering the barrel development of a cow the depth as viewed from the side should be observed, then the width as viewed from behind. Some animals show Fig. 14. — A typical weak Fig. 15. — Udder showing poor devel- fore udder, a very common opment behind, and short attachment to defect. the body. great depth but on account of being narrow really have a small capacity. In short a dairy cow should show great vigor, great capacity to use food, and should have a strong de- velopment of the milk-secreting organs, indicating that she is likely to use the food for milk production. 44. The Score Card. The score cards adopted by the vari- ous breed associations are shown on pages 290 to 296. These are designed to set forth the desirable characteristics of the breed and may be studied as a means of becoming familiar with breed types. The preceding discussion of the dairy type is general and applies to all breeds. It is based wholly upon the indications of milk production and does not take 54 DAIRY FARMING into account the many smaller points that go to make up a conformation that is symmetrical and pleasing to the eye. The breed associations in preparing their score cards, in Fig. 16. — Defective udders. The one on the left is that of a pure-bred dairy cow that produced only 10 pounds of milk daily. This udder is ex- tremely small, ill-shaped, weak in the forequarters, and the teats are too short. The one on the right has very small capacity with almost no de- velopment in the forequarters. certain cases, apparently emphasize points in which the breed is likely to be deficient. An example of this is the large number of points given to the fore udder in the Jersey score card. Before using the score card the student should Fig. 17. — A well-developed milk vein. On this cow the milk vein is over one inch in diameter and extends forward nearly to the front legs, entering the body through three milk wells on each side. The veins on the udder are also very prominent. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 55 Teats Milk Milk CO t^ CO 1— 1 1-^ I— 1 Hips Thigh Udder CO Tj5 lo 1— 1 i-H f-!< o o o c3 O Heart Barrel Loin a "o d r^ oi T— 1 1— 1 1— I 1 i-H Rump Pinbones Shoulders ^ ^ M &-$ c3 ^ lO CO N o o '^ V (h ^ 03 O T— I (N CO 56 DAIRY FARMING be familiar with the points of the animal as illustrated in Fig. 18. The use of the score card is an advantage to the beginner as a means of impressing the points to be taken into account and their relative importance. It helps to make the examination systematic and prevents one from forgetting points that should be observed. The value of the score card decreases as experience is gained. Judging in the show ring is done entirely by comparison. The score card given on page 77 is in use by the Depart- ment of Dairy Husbandry, University of Missouri, and is an attempt to give the points that are important in teaching the selection of dairy cows for milk production. It gives comparatively little attention to the smaller details of con- formation or to breed type. Selection by Performance Records 45. Selection by Records. While it is often necessary to select cows by appearances when buying, it is not neces- sary to follow this plan after the animals are in the herd. A more business-like plan is to keep a record of production for each individual in order that the unprofitable animals may be known and rejected. The records to be kept will depend to some extent upon the use made of the milk. If it is sold by quantity regardless of quality, then the total production is the important fact. If the price of milk is based upon the butter-fat, both the quantity and the quahty need to be known. 46. Overrating the Importance of Rich Milk. A com- mon mistake in judging cows by records is attaching too much importance to the percentage of fat. The cow that produces the richest milk does not necessarily give the largest amount of fat, nor does it follow that she is the most economical pro- SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 57 ducer. It is the total amount of fat that counts where fat is the basis of market value. Figures selected from accurate records kept by the author show the relation between the yield of milk, the percentage of fat, and the total fat yield. Table 12. — Rich Milk vs. High Fat Production for the Year Breed Yield Milk Average Per Cent Fat Total Fat Yield Pounds Pounds Jersey 2,796 6.29 176 Jersey . 3,188 5.31 169 Jersey . 13,895 4.90 681 Jersey . 2,849 4.42 126 [iolstein 18,405 3.36 618 Holsteiii 6,387 3.26 208 Holstein 26,861 2.76 741 These figures show that the highest percentage of fat is often accompanied by a low total yield. On the other hand a low percentage of fat may go with either a high or a low milk yield. The figures given, which are some of the extremes taken from the records of a large herd, also indicated clearly that the amount of milk varies much more than the percentage of fat. For this reason it is far more important to know how much milk a cow gives than to know its richness. If all the animals in a herd belong to the same breed, it is about three times as important to know the quantity as it is to have records of the richness, even where milk is sold by the fat content. For this reason the keeping of individual records of cows should always begin with the use of the scales. The cow owner should keep the records by weight and not by measure, and become accustomed to thinking of milk yields in terms of weights. 58 DAIRY FARMING CL Three things should be known in order that the relative profits of each animal may be calculated. These are the amount of milk, the percentage of fat, and the cost of feed consumed. When comparing individual animals these factors rank in importance in the order given. While cows should be fed according to their production, it is not generally practical to keep an individual feed record of each. The best plan on the farm is to know the cost of feeding the entire herd and the total income above feed, and then make such calculations as may seem necessarj- to determine whether certain low-producing cows should be kept. 47. Complete Milk Records. The most satisfactory plan of keeping records is to weigh the milk of each cow daily. This does not require much extra time when proper arrangements are made. The experience of every one who has tried it is that no time spent on the farm pays better. A spring balance, graduated to pounds and tenths, should be provided and placed at a point convenient for the milkers with the milk sheet close at hand. The advantages of daily weighing maj^ be smnmed up as follows : 1. It makes it possible to reject the unprofitable cows. 2. Makes possible economic feeding. Individual cows should be fed in proportion to the amount of milk they produce. Fig. 19. — A good scale for weighing milk. The second pointer is set to read zero when the empty pail is at- tached. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 59 3. Enables the herdsman to detect sickness. Often the first indication that a cow is out of condition is seen on the milk sheet. 4. Makes it possible to judge of the work of different milkers. 5. Creates interest among the milkers that results in better work on their part. When milk records are kept in this form it is recommended that a sample covering two or three days be taken for a Babcock test. This sample is tested for fat, and the result considered the average for the month. Some dairymen weigh the milk on the first and fifteenth of each month or at other stated intervals. From these weights the yearly production may be estimated fairly ac- curately, but the other advantages of daily weighing are enough to make daily weighing preferable. In large herds there is no way for the manager to keep close track of the business except by daily weighing. 48. Taking Samples for Testing. Where many cows are in milk, the most convenient way of taking a sample is with a sampling tube. If a tube is not at hand, a satisfactory sample may be prepared by taking equal quantities of milk from each milking with a very small dipper or spoon, and placing them in a jar. The milk should be well stirred be- fore the sample is taken. Pint glass jars with tightly fitting covers are used to hold the samples. One is provided for each cow and is marked with her name or number. Ex- cept in very cold weather some preservative is used to keep the milk from souring before it is tested. For this purpose formalin, which may be purchased at any drug store, is best. Ten drops is sufficient to keep a sample for several days. The sample when complete is tested with the Babcock test. 60 DAIRY FARMING MILK RECORD «» thcoonth emwno. NAnE AND NUnBER OF ANin«L -7 An Q An 9 pj^ 102 ..ATI n p.n 12 '^pn '*»pn '>-'p.n ,7. An '' pn lop/i 19p.n ^^p.n p.AII <=■ 'p.n 23p.n 2A^n ioi=A.n -vaAfl 20pn 27' 29^ 30^S 31p.n TITM.RM nONTH KICfMT. FAT Fig. 20. — Form for daily milk record sheet. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 61 The reading gives the butter-fat per 100 pounds of milk. When butter is made, some curd, salt, and considerable water remain with the fat to make up normal marketable butter. The amount of butter generally exceeds the fat by about one-sixth and may be estimated if desired by add- ing this amount to the fat. 49. Averaging Tests. A common mistake results from averaging tests. A direct average of the tests made for a certain cow each month during the year will not be a fair average test of the total amount of milk produced during the year by this animal. This results from the fact that the amount of milk represented by each test is not the same. To find the true average test for the year the total fat yield for the period covered by the tests must be divided by the total yield of milk. The same method must be used in get- ting the average test for the herd. 50. Permanent Records. Many who begin keeping records do not make much of a success on account of not having a suitable form for a permanent record. Fig. 22 is a form that has been used with good satisfaction by the author for a number of years. Using a blank book, a page may be ruled for each cow. Space sufficient for several years may be provided in this way in a concise form. In pure-bred herds the pedigree and records of offspring may be put on the page opposite the milk records. 51. Cow-testing Associations. Keeping records, es- pecially of a large herd, involves considerable attention to details. To provide for this, cooperative cow-testing associ- ations have been estabhshed in many places. This plan originated in Denmark in 1895, and the number of associ- ations has since increased with great rapidity. At present 62 DAIRY FARMING o Z o Z o C u I >■ CD UJ o Q O E < z 2 "^ o SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 63 • • • • • c z 03 a Z < OB JU. ^,s -JC >- K CB a Z < (J > < Z K 3 K a I U < E J X a. < > < E III 2 D >■ J -3 1- w (J 1 or lii Z 111 1- a u a: Ui o h o O a. ui d) i: UJ •> O 2 ac r UI > a. < 2 < > < c A U U. I o < J c a. < >- < E Z "3 > J \- m 3 3 < u E ill H u 0> u o o K o O (J a c UI > O Z c 11/ 10 E bl O U o .8 f 1 C VI 1 1 lO a oc e w or >. "^ rn ,G S-, +-< bJ a o o a a .£3 U -^J vi PI o a HH ^ <3j _2 o< >, m ^ y3 a 0} H .^3 s -i-> o o ^ 03 a PS o T3 a (V ri -M n rt ^ P. -(J a> o -o -l-> T3 n -^ ft o U. rC o t/J 4) n3 fl o — ^ o o rt rtl U J3 -d J3 1 O 1 ^ r« 04 (N •4-> O HH [i. 64 DAIRY FARMING over 400 associations are in operation in that country and probably an equal number in other countries of Europe. These associations are formed by groups of farmers own- ing from 500 to 1000 cows. A man is employed who goes from farm to farm spending a day at each. He weighs the milk from each cow and tests it for fat content. He cal- culates the yield of each cow for the month, the cost of feed, and income above feed cost. He also advises the farmer as far as possible regarding methods of feeding and other details. The cost is usually from $1 to $1.50 per cow each year. In a few cases in the United States the man who does the testing also keeps a full set of cost accounts for the farm. 52. Advanced Registry. One of the important factors in the improvement of dairy cattle is the system of advanced registration as conducted by the associations representing the different dairy breeds. The ordinary registration of animals insures the purity of their breeding, but does not indicate their individual merits. Advanced registration gives an accurate record of the production. Cows must be registered in the herdbook before the tests are made. If the production reaches or exceeds a certain standard, they are registered again in another series. This is called advanced registration. The weighing of the milk and the testing for fat are done by representatives of the experiment station in the state where the cow is owned. This insures an ac- curate record made by a disinterested person. Many changes in the rules and requirements have been made for the various breeds since the system was begun in 1890. At present the standards set by the different breeds are not uniform, and occasional changes are made, so it is necessary for a breeder of pure-bred cattle to become familiar with the rules and practices governing his breed at the time. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 65 In general it may be said, that while formerly most of the tests made covered seven days only, now all the tests except for Holsteins cover a full year. Where the year test is made, the owner weighs the milk each milking and the experiment station man weighs and tests it for fat two days each month. The average percentage of fat for the two days is taken as the average for the month. The Holstein breeders still use the seven-day plan most extensively, although many year tests are also made. Where a seven-day test is made, a two-year-old cow must produce 8 pounds of fat for advanced registration. The amount required increases with the age of the cow. A five-year-old must produce 12 pounds or more of fat to be entered. The minimum for a year varies from 214 to 250 pounds of fat with the several breeds for two-year-olds, and for mature cows varies from 322 to 360 pounds. The great value of the advanced registration system is the possibility it affords of putting the selection of breeding animals upon a sound basis. In selecting a male for breed- ing purposes, the pedigrees of its ancestors form about the only basis for judgment as to the probable character of its offspring. If the records show the production of each cow in the pedigree, it becomes possible to judge the value of the animal fairly accurately. Advanced registration is un- questionably the strongest factor now in operation for the rapid improvement of dairy cattle. The great mass of dairy cattle are not, and need not be, registered animals, and hence are not eUgible to advanced registration. However, the system is equally valuable for grades, since improvement is transmitted to grade herds by the pure-bred sires. The addresses of the different breed associations are given on page 289. Further information can be obtained from them. 66 DAIRY FARMING The following list includes the cows having fat records of 950 pounds or more in a year up to April 1, 1916 : Name of Cow Duchess Skylark Ormsby Finderne Pride Johanna Rue Finderne Hohngen Fayne Murne Cowan .... Ona Button DeKol . . May Rilma Banostine Belle DeKol Pontiac Clothilde DeKol 2d Sophia 19th of Hood Farm High-Lawn Hartog De Kol Colantha 4th's Johanna Spermfield Owl's Eva Lothian Maggie DeKol Maple Crest Pontiac Flora Hartog Milanhurst America De- Kol Crown Pontiac Josey Maple Crest Pontiac Spotted Annie . . Pearl Longfield DeKol Caroline Paul Parthenea Eminent's Bess Daisy Grace DeKol Finderne Mutual Fayne Spots wood Daisy Pearl Lily of Willowmoor . Jacoba Irene .... Tilly Alcartra .... Breed Milk in 1 Year Fat in 1 Year Holstein 27,762 1205 Holstein 28,404 1176 Holstein 24,613 1116 Guernsey 24,008 1098 Holstein 26,761 1076 Guernsey 19,673 1073 Holstein 27,404 1058 Holstein 25,318 1017 Jersey 17,558 999 Holstein 25,592 998 Holstein 27,432 998 Jersey 16,457 993 Holstein 27,968 991 Holstein 25,106 986 Holstein 26,433 985 Holstein 28,752 982 Holstein 21,393 981 Holstein 28,050 972 Holstein 25,073 967 Jersey 18,783 963 Holstein 21,718 963 Holstein 22,150 961 Guernsey 18,603 957 Ayrshire 22,596 956 Jersey 17,253 953 Holstein 30,451 951 State in WHICH Owned Minn. N. J. N.J. Ohio Penn. Ohio N. Y. Mass. Ohio Wis. Mass. Ohio Ohio N. Y. N. Y. Ohio Wis. Wis. Mich. Ohio N. J. Ohio Wash. 111. Cal. 53. Relation of Age of Cow to Yield and Richness of Milk. Under ordinary farm conditions the dairy cow fresh- ens the first time at from 24 to 30 months of age. On an SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 67 68 DAIRY FARMING average the production of milk for the lactation period in- creases each year until the cow is about five years old, after which the production remains fairly constant until the animal reaches at least 11 or 12 years. On the average a well-grown two-year-old may be expected to produce 70 per cent, a three-year-old 80 per cent, and a four- year-old 90 per cent of the milk and fat that she will pro- 8000 = 7500 UJ >- 5 7000 Q. =^ 6500 s u. ° 6000 _i UJ >- 5500 5000 y \ y K-YIEt / \ / \ / \ / \ 1 \ s y 1 / ■— ' \ _PERJ •v. :ent fax ^ '•-^ 5.00 ^ u. \- 4.50 S oe .4.00 a^ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 LACTATION PfRIOD Fig. 24. — Influence of age on yield of milk and percentage of fat, averages for six Jersey cows for twelve years. duce when mature. The highest production for a year may come anywhere between the 4th and 11th year. Two-year- olds that are not well grown may not give over half as much as when mature. If a cow continues to breed, her milk flow usually shows little decline until she is 12 years old and sometimes even older. Probably the majority of dairy cattle are rejected from the herd on account of failure to breed, or from udder troubles before the effect of advancing years can be observed to have had any effect upon the milk production. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 69 The richness of milk is less affected by age than is the quan- tity. The average fat content remains practically constant from year to year except that after the cow is eight or nine years old the percentage of fat always declines slowly and gradually with advancing years. A Jersey cow, for example, that averages 5.0 per cent fat when in her prime will decline to about 4.5 per cent when 12 to 15 years of age. The fol- r ^^ Utt^- "^ ^!^lu 2Cco Ws r -^ 2Vf, flot iHtr, ^-. ^^ . ^ ^""^ff- -^ X V, •«-, ^ ptSi iSi- r^ft'- "^ ■~^ ^ :^ 5.00 4.50 -4.00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 DAYS IN MILK Fig. 25. — Influence of the advance in lactation period upon the milk yield and fat content, averages for ten mature cows and ten two-year-old heifers. lowing gives the average percentages of fat by lactation periods for four Jerseys the records of which are complete for 9 years. Lactation period .123456789 Per cent fat . . 4.89 4.82 4.96 4.64 4.62 4.62 4.57 4.49 4.39 Selection of a Bull 54. The Selection of the Bull. The successful develop- ment of a dairy herd depends more upon the selection of the bull than on any other one thing, unless it be the proper culling out of inferior cows^ One-half the inheritance of each young animal in the herd comes from the bull, and for this reason his influence on the herd is far greater than is that of 70 DAIRY FARMING one cow who will have at most only a few daughters. This is the basis of the old but true saying, '' the bull is half the herd." The main opportunity for improvement in a native or mediocre herd is by using a good sire. For example, one 1 • ! ■&'«■ Fig. 26. — An excellent three-quarters-bred cow, showing what a pure- bred sire can do in two generations. The grandmother of this cow was a rather poor milker. She herself produced in nine years, beginning when she was two years old, 96,800 pounds of milk and 3814 pounds of butter.i bull might be the sire of 20 daughters in a herd in one year. If the dams be capable of producing only 200 pounds of fat yearly, and if the sire represents a breed or strain the cows of which are capable of producing 350 pounds of fat per year, it is evident that, if the daughters averaged only half way between, there would be an increase of 75 pounds per cow 1 The Cornell Reading-courses, Vol. Ill, No. 54, p. 53. SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 71 annually. It is not at all uncommon to find even greater differences than this in actual practice. The first cross of improved blood makes the offspring one- half, the second, three-fourths, the third, seven-eighths of the same blood as the improved breed. The continued use of pure-bred sires of the same breed for 10 to 15 years will change a scrub herd until it will have essentially the same characteristics as the improved breed. The careful breeder gives a great deal of thought to the selection of the sire for his herd. The more skilled the breeder, the greater the care taken in this respect. Almost any pure-bred bull will im- prove a scrub herd, but only the bull of the best inheritance will increase or even maintain the standard of a highly de- veloped herd. 55. Difference in Transmission of Dairy Qualities by Different Bulls. There is a wide variation in the way different bulls transmit dairy qualities. This fact is illustrated by the data in Table 13, compiled by the author from the records of the Jersey herd owned by the University of Missouri. This herd is descended from three cows. Com- plete milk and butter-fat records for 21 years make these comparisons possible. The comparisons are made in each case between the production of the daughters of the various sires used and the dam of these daughters. The figure 4381, for example, given as the milk production of the daughters of Missouri Rioter is an average of the production of each daughter which is found in turn by taking the average of all the lactation periods of the particular animal. If in any case the daughter had only three or fewer lactation periods, the comparison is between those and the corresponding periods for the dam. 72 DAIRY FARMING Table 13. — Influence of the Sire Shown by a Comparison OF THE Records of Daughters with Dams Averages for all Lactation Periods Dams Daughters Missouri Rioter Milk Yield 5380 4381 Per cent fat 4.35 4.93 Yield of fat 234 216 Hugorotus Milk yield 4969 4576 Per cent fat 4.66 5.35 Yield of fat 231 245 Lome of Meridale Milk yield 4559 6050 Per cent fat 4.85 4.81 Yield of fat ' 221 291 Missouri Rioter 3rd Milk yield 4775 8005 Per cent fat 4.98 4.80 Yield of fat 238 384 Minette's Pedro Milk yield 5321 5376 Per cent fat 5.03 5.04 Yield of fat 268 271 Daisy's Prince of St. Lambert Milk yield 5362 3932 Per cent fat 5.07 5.03 Yield of fat 269 198 Brown Bessie's Registrar Milk yield 6069 4607 Per cent fat 4.94 4.97 Yield of fat 300 229 Fairy's Lad Milk yield 6219 6169 Per cent fat 4.80 5.24 Yield of fat 299 323 SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 73 Many interesting comparisons may be made of the com- parative values of these bulls. For example, the daughters of Lome of Meridale averaged 1491 pounds of milk more per year for their entire lifetime than did their dams. Eleven out of thirteen were superior to their dams. If thirty daughters of this bull had been milked in one herd, their production would have exceeded that of their dams by 44,730 pounds per year. At SI. 50 per 100 pounds the income would be $671 per year more for the thirty daughters than for their mothers. If the animals were daughters of Missouri Rioter, they would have produced 999 pounds each less than their dams or a total of 29,970 pounds less milk than their mothers in a year. At $1.50 per 100 pounds this would be a decrease of $450. It would then make a difference of $1121 per year whether these thirty cows be daughters of Missouri Rioter or Lome of Meridale. If we make the coiliparison directly from the average yield of the daughters, the difference would be 50,070 pounds of milk per year worth $751 at $1.50 per 100 pounds. If the greatest extremes be taken for compar- ison, as Missouri Rioter 3d and Missouri Rioter, the dif- ference is far greater. 56. Methods of Selecting a Bull. There are two ways of selecting a bull : 1. On the basis of his pedigree and appearance. 2. From the records of his daughters. The pedigree is the most reliable means of judging the probable value of a young bull. The system of advanced registration now in use makes it possible to obtain reUable information concerning the dairy qualities of most of the registered animals. In selecting a young bull one should have these records before him. The points to be considered are especially the records of the cows that are the close an- 74 DAIRY FARMING cestors of the bull. It should also be observed to what extent the bulls have sired high-producing cows. A well- bred bull should have a large number of these records in his pedigree. Many persons overvalue an animal that carries a small fraction of the blood of one noted animal. A pedigree that shows moderately good parents and grandparents is better than one that has one or two unusually good ancestors and the rest mediocre. A noted animal farther back than grand- parents has no very great significance if the nearer relatives are not good. It is doubtful if the conformation or appearance of the bull in any way indicates his value as a sire of superior milk- ing cows. On the other hand it is possible to judge from his conformation to some extent as to the probable type of his daughters. The only really safe plan for the owner of a highly developed herd is to select a bull having daughters in milk so that he may know the characteristics that the bull transmits to his offspring. This, of course, can only be done in a few cases but is always advisable when possible. Care must be taken not to introduce disease by obtaining a bull from a diseased herd. 57. Cross-breeding. Crossing means the mixing of the blood of two distinct breeds. It is a practice that is com- mon among American farmers. The object sought is to combine the most desirable characteristics of the two breeds. The practice has nothing to recommend it. Breeds have been developed and are kept pure in order that certain char- acteristics may be transmitted regularly to the offspring. When two distinct breeds are crossed the chain of inheritance is broken and all possible combinations of the characteristics of the two breeds appear. For example, a farmer having SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 75 Jersey cattle may become dissatisfied with the milk yield and cross them with Holsteins, expecting to combine the Jersey quahty of rich milk with the Holstein characteristic of a large milk yield. Some animals may show this combi- nation, while just as many may inherit a low yield from the Jersey parent and a low percentage of fat from the Holstein. The proper course is first to select the breed that best meets the requirements, and then to continue along this line unless it is found after sufficient trial that a serious error has been made. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Calculate the average percentage of fat for the year for two cows making the following records by months : Cow 1 Cow 2 Pounds Milk Per Cent Fat Pounds Milk Per Cent Fat January. . 631 3.4 140 4.5 February 600 3.3 March . 450 3.8 1040 4.0 April . . 440 3.5 1800 3.3 May . . 390 4.0 1850 3.0 June . . 280 4.0 1720 3.2 July . . 140 4.3 1500 3.0 August . 1450 3.0 September 950 4.0 1480 3.2 October . 1280 3.2 1200 3.4 November 1356 3.4 1000 3.8 December 1280 3.7 600 4.0 2. Compare the multiplicity of breeds in one neighborhood in this country with conditions in Europe. 3. What advantages are there in having one breed only in a community ? 4. Are there any breeders' organizations in your county or state ? 5. Are there any cow-testing associations in your county or state? If so, obtain any published results that are available. 76 DAIRY FARMING What differences in production are found for different cows in the same herd ? 6. Define lactation period. 7. Do you know any farmer in the region who weighs the milk from each cow? 8. Distinguish between rich milk and high yield of butter-fat. 9. How is milk sold in this region, by pound, quart, or on butter- fat basis ? 10. What is the object of having distinct breeds and keeping them pure? 11. What is the distinction between a grade and a cross-bred animal ? 12. Who in this county owns any advanced registry cows? 13. If a Jersey heifer calved at two years of age and in a year pro- duced 3000 pounds of milk, testing 5 per cent fat, how much milk can she be expected to produce when mature ? What will her yearly production of butter-fat probably be? Compare with the average for experiment station herds. Is she a good heifer ? 14. Considering the proportion of fat to remain the same when the heifer becomes a cow, complete the following table. Consider the average butter-fat production of the experiment station herds of the breed as 100 per cent when filling the last column. Which ones are good animals ? Age at Freshen- ing Production in Fol- lowing Year Probable Fat Pro- duction PER Year when Mature Comparison WITH Ex- periment Station Herds Breed Milk Per Cent Fat Total Fat Holstein Holstein Holstein Jersey . Jersey . Guernsey Guernsey Shorthorn 3 7 3 6 31 5 2 7022 7506 8321 3472 5743 4113 4223 5342 3.7 3.8 3.4 4.9 5.1 5.2 4.8 4.0 15. From the figures given on page 17 does there seem to be any danger of over-production of pure-bred cattle in the near future ? SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 77 Score Card for Dairy Cows Scale of Points INDICATING EFFICIENCY OF MILK SECRETING SYSTEM Udder — large, evenly quartered, well held up, not meaty, attachments long, teats squarely placed, and of conven- ient size Milk Veins — capacious, entering large wells INDICATING CAPACITY Muzzle — wide Jaw — wide in angle, strong .... Barrel — • deep, wide, long, well held up, with ribs broad, long, far apart, slant- ing, well sprung . INDICATING CONSTITUTIONAL STRENGTH AND VIGOR Nostril — large, expanded Eye — prominent, bright, intelligent Chest — ■ wide, deep Skeleton — developed for strength, of good quality: roomy, long, and level at pelvis Skin — loose and mellow showing good circulation and secretion .... Carriage — energetic, prompt, alert . INDICATING DAIRY TEMPERAMENT Body wedge shape. General appearance angular and lean, yet clean-cut and neat in every part BREED TYPE Points characteristic of the particular breed, such as size, color, temperament, ruggedness of build, etc SCORE Per Cent 30 10 40 23 25 15 10 10 Cow's Number Fill out the following, showing which cow you would place first, second, etc., and com- pare with the score as given above. If milk records are available also, compare with these. First Second Third Fourth Placing .... Score 78 DAIRY FARMING LABORATORY EXERCISES 3. The Parts of a Cow. Go to a dairy barn or otherwise arrange to have a cow to study. Without the textbook let each student point out each of the parts of a dairy cow as shown in Fig. 18. 4. Make out a Pedigree. If herdbooks of any breed are avail- able, or if they can be borrowed from a breeder in the region, make a pedigree. If advanced registry books are available, fill in the A. R. O. data. If different students take different animals, the pedigrees may be compared to see which animal shows the best breeding. If any farmer in the region has advanced registry animals, pedigrees of these may be worked out, and the same animals may be used for judging, so that comparisons may be made on the basis of both breeding and individuality. 5. Judging Dairy Cattle. Go to a dairy barn or otherwise arrange to have cows to study. Using a score card like the one on page 77, make comparisons of two or more animals. Give the reasons for ranking the animals in the order given. Begin the reasons with the most important difference between the animals compared and give all the leading differences. Make the answers terse and concise. 6. Weighing Milk. If any farmer in the region desires to cooper- ate with the school, take the class to his farm and get the method of weighing started as directed on page 58. Test the milk, and com- plete the records monthly. Feed records may also be taken by a member of the class weekly or monthly. A still better exercise for students who are living on farms is to have them keep the milk rec- ords. COLLATERAL READING Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 26-43, 51, 303-306, 308. The Dairy Herd, Its Foundation and Management, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 55. Dah-y Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eekles, pp. 17-26 ; 116- 174. CHAPTER 4 MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE C. H. ECKLES 58. Decline of Milk Production in Summer. Milk pro- duction of the average herd falls off rapidly in the latter part of the summer. It is not uncommon for the amount of milk sold by a farmer in August to be no more than half that marketed during June. At the season when this rapid decline of milk occurs the animals are greatly annoyed by flies. The flies are often looked upon as the main cause of this decline. There are good reasons for believing that the effect of the fly is overestimated. Where soiling or grain feeding is practiced, the decline at this season is little more than the normal one for the stage of lactation represented by the cows. The main cause for the decreased production at this time of the year is undoubtedly the failure of the cows to eat a sufficient amount of feed. This lack of feed may come from poor pasture due to dry weather, or it may result from the fact that the cows do not graze sufficiently because of the hot weather and the annoyance of flies. The cow is sensitive to excessive heat, and this is probably in most cases a stronger factor than the flies. The main precaution to be observed is to make certain that the animals have plenty of feed easily accessible. 59. Protection from Flies. Cattle in this country are troubled most by two kinds of flies, known as the stable fly and the horn fly. The stable fly resembles the house fly 79 80 DAIRY FARMING except that its mouth parts enable it to bite while the house fly cannot. The horn fly is a native of Europe and was introduced into this country about 1886. It is recognized from its habit of feeding with wings spread, and it usually travels in swarms. It is also seen at times gathered around the base of the horn. Many of the flies that annoy cattle are hatched in manure. The first precaution to be observed, in any attempt to re- duce the number, is to avoid an accumulation of manure where it will remain moist, especially near the barn. Horse manure is preferred by these pests, but they breed in any, even that dropped in the fields by the animals. No practical method has been devised that will do more than reduce the number of flies very slightly. Large fly traps in the barn have been used with some success. Screens on the barn are generally found worse than useless since the flies accompany the animals into the barn and then remain in the barn if the win- dows are screened. Milk rooms should always be protected by screens, on account of the serious danger of flies carrying germs of human diseases into the milk. In recent years a great many preparations designed to repel flies have been placed on the market. These fly re- pellents consist chiefly of some coal tar products with the addition of fish oil, resin, or pine tar. Results at three experiment stations go to show that there is little value in using these preparations. If they are applied daily, it is pos- sible to keep the flies away fairly well, but it is questionable whether the animal does not suffer more from having the pores of its skin closed up with the oily substance than it does from the insect. There is no appreciable increase in the milk flow when these substances are used. MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 81 60. Dehorning. There are many reasons for dehorning the animals in the ordinary business herd. Horns are responsible for frequent injuries and serve no useful pur- pose. Dehorned cattle may be housed in much smaller space and are fed and watered together with much more convenience. As a matter of safety it is well to dehorn bulls. There is no reason for believing that any bad effects follow. It is not advisable to dehorn animals that are to be used for exhibition purposes. While animals without horns are occasionally found in the show ring, they are at a disadvantage. Calves may be dehorned successfully by using caustic potash (potassium hydrate) when they are a few days old. The hair is clipped away from the small buttons which later develop into horns. The caustic potash is moistened and rubbed on the spot until the skin bleeds shghtly, or is just ready to bleed. Care should be taken not to use too much. If sufficient potash has been applied, a dent will be left in the skull after a few days and no horns will ever develop. Persons who have had considerable experience sometimes use this method on calves that are nearly a month old, but it is best done during the first week, after that more skill is required. A few cases have been reported where so much water was used that it ran down into the eyes and put them out. One man used so much potash that holes were eaten through the skull and the calves killed. Such accidents are inexcusable. In using potassium hydrate wrap paper around the end of the stick to prevent injuring the fingers. After an animal is at least one year of age, it may be de- horned by using the saw or special dehorning clippers. De- horning with the saw or cHppers should be done in cool weather in the spring or autumn. 82 DAIRY FARMING 61. Marking Calves. In raising pure-bred cattle it is important that some system of marking be adopted which will make it possible to identify the individuals. This is more important with dairy cattle than with beef breeds, since the calves are taken away from the mothers soon after birth. A number of systems of markings are in use. One plan is to insert tags in the ears. There are many forms of these. They are numbered, and if desired the name of the owner is included. The general objection to this system is the possibility that the tags may be torn out. Another plan is to place a numbered brass tag on a strap about the neck. This is removed when the animal is larger and well known to the owner. The tattoo system is also used with success. This con- sists in printing letters or numbers in the skin of the ear with India ink. The instruments are so made that a combina- tion of letters or figures may be used. These tattoo marks when properly applied are permanent and do not disfigure the animal. They cannot be seen at a distance, but make it possible to positively identify the animal. This system is the most satisfactory with breeds having light- colored skin. The system followed by the writer is to place a strap bear- ing a number on a brass tag around the neck of the calf before it is taken from its mother. This strap is left on until the animal is nearly mature. The tattoo mark is then put on the ear. The color markings of Holsteins, as shown on the diagram of the application for registry or on the pedigree, enable one to identify these animals. But ear tags or other marking systems are also desirable when large numbers are kept. 62. Shelter. The housing of the dairy cow naturally depends upon climatic conditions. She should not be ex- MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 83 posed to severe cold weather. Cold rains and snowstorms are especially to be avoided. The most favorable temper- ature has not yet been experimentally determined, but ob- servation teaches that a barn temperature around 40 or 50° F. is as favorable as any. In cold climates the cow should remain in the barn during the cold season except for a few hours during the middle of the day while the weather is mild. On stormy days or during extreme cold she had better be kept inside constantly. Many barns in such regions are kept too warm. In warm climates it is not necessary to house the animal^ so closely as this. An abundance of fresh air is as necessary for the health of the cow as for any other animal. This should be supplied by proper venti- lation and not through the walls of an improperly constructed barn, or by leaving the cow out- doors exposed to severe weather. Excessively warm weather is far more injurious to the cow than moderately cold. There is no practical means of making the animal comfortable when it is too hot. For this reason hot weather and warm climates are not favorable for high milk pro- duction, especially if accompanied by a high humidity. 63. Milking the Heifer. If the young cow is properly managed before she has her first calf, there is httle difficulty in teaching her to be milked. Calves should be accustomed to being tied when small, and if this is done there will be no Fig. 27. — Teaching a calf to lead : good training for both parties. 84 DAIRY FARMING trouble from tying at any later time. Before freshening, the heifer should be tied for a month or more in the stall where she is to stand when in milk. A careful man should handle her and take care not to excite her. It is especially necessary to use patience and care when she is first milked. 64. Methods of Milking. There is a great difference in the efficiency of milkers. One man may get 20 per cent more milk than another from the same cow. A careless milker may dry up a cow within a few months while a good milker may keep up the milk flow for the entire year. Men who care for cows should always move among them quietly and not startle them by sudden movements or loud talking. The cow cannot control the secretion of milk by her will but it may be affected by excitement. Anything unusual, such as the presence of a dog or a stranger at milking time, will cause some cows to give less milk. Changing milkers is likely to result in a loss of milk for a few milkings, but if the new milker be equally proficient the cow will soon return to the usual amount. However, the milkers should be changed as little as possible. The milking should be done quickly and quietly. If the cow is accustomed to eating grain while being milked, she will not do well without having it every time. She can easily become accustomed to being milked either before or after eating, but always should be treated in the same manner. Care should be taken to get all the strippings, since while the first milk drawn may con- tain as low as 1 per cent of fat, the last contains from 6 to 9 per cent. The teats should always be dry when milked. Wetting the teats is all too common but it is a filthy practice. A small amount of vaseline rubbed on the hands serves the same purpose as wetting the teats and is not at all objectionable. MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 85 \S 65. Hard-milking Cows. Some cows cause considerable annoyance because they milk unusually hard. This condi- tion, which is caused by a strong muscle (sphincter muscle) that closes the opening of the teat, can be remedied by proper treatment* Instruments are made by means of which it is possible to overcome the difficulty with no danger to the animal. In most cases the use of teat plugs alone is sufficient. These plugs, which are made of rubber or lead, are placed in the teat duct and allowed to remain there until the next milking. This is continued until the muscle is some- what relaxed and the opening remains larger. In severe cases a cutting instrument known as the teat slitter (bistoury) is used. This operation should be per- formed by a veterinarian or one having experience in the use of such instruments. In using teat Lead teat plug. Teat slitter or bistoury. Teat expander. plugs, milk tubes, or any instru- Fig. 28. — instruments used in , 1-1 . i 1 • 1 1 treating hard-milking cows. ments which are mserted m the duct of the udder, great care must be taken to sterilize the instruments thoroughly before using them, for if germs gain access they may cause serious trouble. A two per cent solution of carbolic acid or a weak solution of creolin is suitable for disinfecting instruments. It can also be done by boiling them in water just before using. The teats should be thoroughly cleaned before inserting any instrument. S6 DAIRY FARMING 66. Effect of Interval between Milkings. If the cow be milked twice a day at twelve hour intervals, there is usually no marked difference between the night and morning milk. If the periods are unequal, the larger amount of milk and the poorer quality follow the longer period. Heavy-producing cows and all that are being handled to obtain the largest record should be milked three times a day. Few cows can produce over 60 pounds of milk with two milkings, and when 75 to 80 pounds per day is reached, the production will sel- dom go higher unless the cow is milked four times each twenty-four hours. Heavy-producing cows may profitably be milked three times a day. With cows of ordinary ca- pacity the increased yield is not sufficient to pay for the extra labor. A cow that will produce 60 pounds per day with two milkings as a rule will increase to at least 70 if milked a third time. The richness of the milk of heavy milkers is increased somewhat when they are milked more than twice per day. If many cows in the herd are giving over 50 pounds when milked twice a day, it will pay to try milking three times. 67. Milking Machines. A satisfactory milking machine has long been one of the greatest needs of the dairy farmer. While it can hardly be said that the milking machine is out of the experimental stage, still it seems sufficiently well developed to be considered a commercial success at the pres- ent time. It is thoroughly demonstrated that by its use a skilled operator can do as good work as the average milker. It is still a question whether the amount of milk obtained dur- ing the lactation period by a milking machine is equal to that obtained by a good milker. It is quite certain that the cow is not injured by the use of the milking machine. Provided the machine is properly cleaned and used, the MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 87 sanitary condition of the milk is better than under ordinary conditions, but with careless handling of the machine the milk may be in worse sanitary condition than that produced by hand milking. So far the milking machine seems adapted only to herds of 39 cows or more. One milker with a suitable outfit can milk from 25 to 30 cows per hour. The indica- tions are that the use of the milking machine will be widely extended in the near future. As a result many more large dairy herds will be kept. The labor problem is at present the main factor in the way of maintaining large herds. The proper management of a machine requires considerable mechanical ability. 68. Cows with Leaky Teats. Some cows lose a portion of the milk by leakage from the teats before milking. No practical remedy has been devised. If conditions warrant the trouble, the cow may be milked three times a day or the teat opening may be closed after the milking by applying collodion. 69. Bloody Milk. Bloody milk is much more common than is generally supposed. Traces of blood are often found in the separator bowl after milk has been separated although its presence was not suspected. It is not an indication of disease or any unhealthy condition of the cow. It is caused by the rupture of a small blood vessel, which allows the blood to escape into the milk ducts. Sometimes certain cows have this trouble for several months but more often it appears only once or twice. It cannot be prevented or stopped by any specific treatment. One should see that the cow is not being injured in the udder by being stepped on by cows in adjoining stalls or by any other cause. As a rule the cow recovers in a short time with no special treat- ment. 88 DAIRY FARMING 70. Chapped Teats. Chapped teats may occur in cold weather. The apphcation of vaseUne for a few times at the first appearance of the trouble will usually check and cure it. For severe cases the teats should be thoroughly washed and softened with warm water, after which glycerite of tannin may be applied. 71. Warts on Teats. These are often troublesome but usually disappear of themselves. They may be treated by applying vaseline or olive oil. If large, they may be cut off with a pair of sharp scissors and the spot touched with a stick of caustic potash. 72. Bitter Milk. This trouble is most often found where one or two cows are kept to provide a family milk supply. The trouble is confined mostly to cows that have been in milk seven months or more. It rarely occurs when the ani- mal is receiving green feed. The milk has a peculiar taste, described by some as salty but more often as bitter. The taste is present in the fresh milk but it seems to become more noticeable as the milk stands. The cream from milk of this kind churns with difficulty and sometimes will not churn at all. The cause of this trouble and a remedy for it cannot be given with certainty. It most frequently occurs when the animal is overfed with grain. The only treatment that offers promise of removing the trouble is to reduce the grain feed to the amount actuall}^ needed by the animal, or pref- erably less, for a while and to give two or three doses of 1 to 1\ pounds of Epsom salts at intervals of from three to four days. 73. Kicking Cows. The habit of kicking is due usually to wrong management. Cows kick at first from either fear or pain. If not properly handled, they may develop MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 89 the habit. Striking a cow that kicks makes her worse. In case the cow's teats are sore, use vaseUne, or in severe cases, use a milking tube, until the injury can be healed. If the cow is afraid handle her gently. In some cases gentle measures will not work. Some old cows that have got into the habit cannot be cured. Such animals should be tied during milking. This is best done by using a rather heavy strap with a buckle and a loop. The strap is put around one leg above the hock and the end drawn through the loop. The strap is then put around the other leg and buckled so the two legs are held close together. The cow soon learns to stand quietly as long as the strap is in place. 74. Self-sucking Cows. This habit is not very common but it is difficult to break up when once it is acquired. Oc- casionally one cow will suck another one. If an ordinary cow contracts the habit, the best plan is to dispose of her. A fairly effective treatment seems to be to put a bull ring in the cow's nose and hang a second ring from the first. The second ring can generally be taken off after a time. 75. How Long Should a Cow be Dry? Practically all experienced dairymen agree that cows should be dry for a period before freshening. A cow will produce more milk if allowed six weeks to recuperate, than she will if milked continuously. Heavy milk production is a severe tax upon an animal. A cow that has not been dry for a short time will start at a considerably lower level of milk production than will one that has had a chance to rest. Under ordinary conditions six weeks is sufficient, but if a cow is in a thin condition it is better to make the period longer. 76. Drying up a Cow. The most common method of drying a cow is to lengthen the interval between milkings, by at first omitting one milking each day. After a few days 90 DAIRY FARMING the milk is drawn only once in two days until the secretion is stopped. There is less danger of injuring a cow in drying her up than is generally thought. The secretion of milk near the end of the lactation period depends largely upon the stimulation of the nerves in milking and therefore stops readily if this stimulation be removed. If a cow is produc- ing as httle as 10 pounds per day, milking can be stopped at any time with no possible injury. The udder will fill slightly for the first few days, after which the secreted milk is ab- sorbed and no injury follows. If this plan is followed, it is best not to draw any milk after once stopping. If the ani- mal is producing much more than 10 or 12 pounds per day, her feed should at first be reduced for a few days and the character of the ration changed to one low in protein, such as timothy hay, with little or no grain. As soon as the pro- duction of milk begins to drop decidedly it is safe to stop abruptly. The author has followed this plan for a number of years with high-producing cows without the slightest injury in any case. 77. Milking the Cow before Calving. It is the practice of some to milk the heavy milkers several times before the birth of the calf, thinking the udder may be injured. As a rule this is not a good practice. It increases the danger of trouble at the time of freshening and does not reUeve the congested condition of the udder to any great extent. It is only advisable with the heaviest milkers when they are suffering greatly from the distention of the udder. 78. Care of Cow after Calving. The vitality of the cow is low after calving and she should be treated carefully. She should be protected from cold winds and severe weather. Her drinking water is best warmed for a day or two if the weather is cold. The ration for the first few days should be MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 91 light and not very abundant. A bran mash, made by moisten- ing bran with warm water, is well adapted as a grain ration for the first day. If the udder is swollen and congested, the grain ration should be increased very slowly until this condition disappears. As a rule at least two weeks are re- quired to get the cow on a full ration. No alarm need be felt if the udder remains hard and somewhat congested for a few days provided milk can be drawn from each quarter. The cow should be watched closely for the first 48 hours for symptoms of milk fever. This is most likely to occur with the heaviest producers and never with heifers at their first freshening. Every manager of high-producing cows should become familiar with the symptoms of milk fever and have the apparatus on hand to treat it promptly. 79. Management of Young Stock. The cheapest way to raise young stock and the way that produces the most vig- orous animals, is to allow them to run loose in open sheds and tie them up only while they eat their grain feed. Some farmers also follow this system with milking cows with good results. The system is best adapted to regions that have an abundance of straw as large amounts of bedding are required. 80. Care and Management of the Bull. The bull calf should be fed in the same manner as a heifer of the same age. He should always be well fed during the entire period of growth as an undersized animal is not desirable. As a winter ration clover, alfalfa, or other legume hay is best adapted to his needs, while for grain a mixture of corn with oats, bran, or oilmeal is excellent. The same ration that is fed to cows in milk may be used. There is no advantage in having the young bull fat, but he should be kept at least in moderate flesh. When the roughage is of good quality the mature bull requires little or. no grain to keep him in moderate flesh. 92 DAIRY FARMING The bull should not be allowed to run loose with the herd. He should be kept in a paddock where plenty of exercise is possible. A ring should be put in his nose at the age of about one year. A bull should be handled carefully and firmly at all times. Teasing should never be allowed. He does not appreciate petting or unnecessary handling, and is best let alone except when it is necessary to handle him. He should be handled in a firm manner and made to respect his keeper but should never be abused. The bull of a dairy breed is more likely to be vicious than one of a beef breed since the former are much more active and nervous. It should always be taken for granted that the bull is dangerous and that he cannot safely be trusted. The animal should be thoroughly trained for tying and leading when a calf. He may then be tied or led at any time later even if handled only at long intervals. The main mistake made in handhng aged bulls is in hous- ing them too closely without exercise. Plenty of exercise is the most important factor in preserving the vitality of a breeding animal. For any but the most severe climates the best housing for the bull during all seasons of the year is a shed protected from the cold winds but open on one side. Some exposure to the weather especially during the cooler part of the year helps to keep him in good physical condi- tion. Where it is necessary that the bull be kept in show condition all the time, as for example in high-class breeding establishments where buyers are present frequently, the bull is generally kept in a box stall where he may be groomed and where he is protected from the weather. Under these conditions some provision must be made to exercise him regularly or he is likely to become infertile. The ties, fences, and gates should always be strong and kept in good repair MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY CATTLE 93 SO that the ianimal may not have a chance to learn his enor- mous strength. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. At what time of the year do most cows in your region freshen ? From this fact and from Fig. 25, about how much less milk should be given in August than in June? From the creamery or other buyer of milk find the total amount of milk received in April, May, June, July, and August. How does this compare with the natural drop ? 2. What proportion of the cattle in your region are dehorned? How is dehorning done ? 3. What systems of marking cattle are used in your region? 4. Why do dairy cattle require warmer barns than beef cattle ? 5. Are any advanced registry records made by breeders in this region? How many times a day do they milk? 6. How long are most of the cows dry in the best dairy herds of your region? LABORATORY EXERCISES 7. Removing the Horns from a Calf. Following the direction on page 81 remove the horns from a calf less than three weeks old. 8. Milking Contest. A milking contest may be held. Farmers should act as judges. Some of the points to consider should be : The effect of the manner of handling the cow on her composure ; how clean the milk is kept ; how completely the milk is removed from the udder ; and how fast the work is done. COLLATERAL READING Stable Fly, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 540. Dehorning Cattle, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 350. CHAPTER 5 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE c. h. eckles Composition of Feeds and Feeding Standards 81. The Uses of Feed. A dairy cow uses feed for the following purposes : 1. For maintaining the body. 2. To supply the material for milk. 3. For development of the fetus. 4. For growth in case the animal is immature. 5. To produce gain in weight. Three general classes of food material are required. 1. Protein or nitrogenous material. 2. Carbohydrates and fat. 3. Ash or mineral matter. The main problem of feeding is to supply the proper amount of the food material of the three classes in the least expensive form. It is evident that the first step is to know what the animal requires for food and how to prepare a ration that will meet this demand. 82. Chemical Analysis of Feeds. When a chemist makes an analysis of any foodstuff, clover hay for example, he determines the amounts of water, protein, ash, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat that the substance contains. All feedstuffs contain these same constituents, but in widely varying quantities. 94 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 95 83. Water. All feeds, even those apparently dry, like corn or hay, contain a portion of water varying from 10 to 15 per cent. Roots, such as beets and turnips, contain about 90 per cent of water. The water in the feed eaten serves the same purpose as ordinary water consumed by the animals. 84. Ash. This is the mineral part of the plant substance remaining after the material is burned. It makes up the greater part of the bone, and is a necessary part of milk and of lean meat. The ash elements that are most likely to be deficient are common salt, phosphorus, and calcium. 85. Protein. All protein compounds contain nitrogen. They serve the purpose of building up tissue in the body, such as muscle and skin, and constitute the curd of milk. Lean meat and the white of an egg are familiar examples of nearly pure protein. All feeds contain more or less pro- tein. Among hays, clover, alfalfa, cowpea, and soybean contain the largest amounts. Among the common concen- trates linseed meal, cottonseed meal, and wheat bran con- tain relatively large quantities. A certain amount of protein is indispensable in a ration, as nothing else can be substituted for it by the animal. 86. Crude Fiber. This is the woody part of the plant, which is the least digestible. The amount of this constitu- ent increases with the age of the plant, and is large in feeds like hays and corn stover, and small in concentrates like corn and linseed meal. 87. Nitrogen-free Extract. This term includes the sugars, starches', and other carbohydrates that are much like crude fiber in composition, but are much more digestible. 88. Fat or Ether Extract. That part of the foodstuff that will dissolve in ether is called ether extract. It con- sists mostly of fats, and is usually so called although it 96 DAIRY FARMING includes sufficient other products to make it somewhat inaccurate to call it fat. The crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat all serve much the same purposes in the body. They supply heat to keep the body warm, and material to be built into fat and to be burned or oxidized in the body to furnish energy. 89. Digestibility. An animal is not able to digest all of the substances in any foodstuff. The proportion -of the protein, for example, that may be used depends largely upon the nature of the feed. The grains are more thoroughly digested than the hays. The amounts of each of the sub- stances that can be digested from any feed are determined by what are called digestion trials. The chemist makes such a trial by analyzing the food consumed during a certain period, and at the same time collecting all the dung excreted and analyzing that to find out how much passes through the alimentary canal. The difference between the amount consumed and the amount voided is called digestible. Such tests have been made of all common feeding stuffs, so the practical feeder has data at hand regarding both the com- position of feeds and their digestibility to serve as a, guide in preparing suitable rations. 90. Production Values. The values' of different feeds are not always in proportion to the digestible nutrients. If a food is hard to digest, some of the energy derived from it is required to make up the loss due to the hard work of diges- tion. Corn and other grains are easily digested, and for this reason, energy from grains is worth more to the animal than is the same amount of energy from timothy hay or other coarse feeds. Timothy hay if burned gives off as much heat or energy as does corn meal, but, in one experiment, Armsby found the animal digested only 44 per cent of the timothy, while FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 97 77 per cent of the corn meal~was ^igestib^e."OI^ account "of the energy required for digestion still less was available for use in storing up fat, or for producing milk. On the basis of digestibility 168 pounds of timothy was equal to 100 pounds of corn, but for production purposes, that is, for storing fat, producing milk, or making growth, 269 pounds of timothy was necessary to equal 100 pounds of corn. Table 14 gives a comparison of the amounts of energy available from corn and from timothy hay. Table 14. — Energy Values per 100 Pounds of Corn Meal AND Timothy Hay, each Containing Fifteen Per Cent Water Corn Meal Timothy Hat Heat value when burned . Heat value of material digested Production value Therms 171 131 70 Therms 176 78 26 It is not safe to compare roughage with grain on the basis of digestible nutrients, but such a comparison between dif- ferent classes of hay is fairly reliable, and grains may be compared with grains on the basis of digestible nutrients. The best way thus far found for comparing different feeds is on the basis of the energy values for production. The feeding standards given on pages 298 to 304 are based on digestible material. Armsby's standards given in this chapter are based on production values. 91. Feeding Standards. The many analyses that have been made enable us to know how much of each of the sev- eral constituents is contained in all common feeds on the average. It is also known that the cow needs all of these H 98 DAIRY FARMING FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 99 constituents. The next question is, how much of each constituent is needed to supply what the cow must have to enable her to produce a good flow of milk. This problem has been worked on for many years by able investigators, and a fairly accurate knowledge of the subject has resulted. A statement of the food requirements of the animal is known as a feeding standard. The first feeding standard to come into use in a practical way was one prepared by Wolff, an eminent German in- vestigator. A later revision by Lehmann, known as the Wolff -Lehmann standard, has been widely used. A standard prepared in this country by Hsecker has also met with much favor. The most recent feeding standard to come into use was prepared by Dr. Armsby of the Pennsylvania Exper- iment Station and is based upon his own extensive investi- gations and those of Kellner in Germany. He bases this standard upon the amount of digestible protein, and the production value, or energy value, of the feed. He uses the term *' therm " to represent the energy or heat value re- quired to raise 1000 kilograms of water one degree centi- grade (1000 calories). He first estimates the protein and energy required for maintaining the animal, and to this adds the amount of each necessary to supply what is needed for the milk. The maintenance requirements for cattle are given as follows : Live Weight Digestible Protein Re- quired Energy Value Required Pounds Pounds Therms 500 .30 3.80 750 .40 4.95 1000 .50 6.00 1250 .60 7.00 1500 .65 7.90 100 DAIRY FARMING The maintenance requirement naturally increases with the size of the animal, but not in direct proportion. As "a result of his investigations, Armsby suggested .p5 pounds of digestible protein and .3 therms energy value for each pound of milk. This was based upon average milk containing 4 per cent of fat. The author ^ has recently pro- posed the following modification of Armsby's standard to adapt it to the feeding of cows not producing average milk : Per Cent Fat Digestible Protein Energy Required per Required per Pound Milk Pound Milk Pounds Therms 3.00 .050 .26 3.50 .052 .28 4.00 .055 .30 4.50 .058 .33 5.00 .062 .36 5.50 .066 .40 6.00 .070 .45 6.50 .075 .50 Where it is not practicable to take the richness of the milk of each cow into account the following may be used and the requirement based upon breed average : Breed Digestible Protein per Pound Milk Energy per Pound Milk Holstein .... Shorthorn 1 Ayrshire \ . . Brown Swiss J Jersey \ . . . Guernsey / Pounds .05 .055 .066 Therms .26-.28 .28-.30 .40-.45 92. Calculating a Ration. Let it be assumed that the cow to be fed weighs 1150 pounds and produces daily 30 1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Research Bulletin 7. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 101 pounds of milk testing 4.5 per cent fat. According to the preceding table the maintenance requirement would be as follows : Digestible protein 56 pounds Energy . 6.60 therms For the production of 30 pounds of 4.50 per cent milk there would be needed : Digestible protein (30 X .058) 1.74 pounds Energy (30 X .33 ) 9.90 therms The total requirements then are as follows : Digestible Protein Energy Value For maintenance .... For milk production . . . .56 1.74 6.60 9.90 Total 2.30 pounds 16.50 therms The problem is to find a ration that contains this amount of digestible protein and has this energy value. Other problems also enter into the question, such as bulk* and the comparative cost of the several feeds available. In cal- culating a ration we always begin with the roughage, since on most farms considerable roughage is on hand that should be used to the best advantage, and, as already pointed out, the cow is adapted for consuming coarse feeds and must have a certain bulk in her ration at all times. We will as- sume that on the farm where the foregoing ration is to be fed, corn silage, clover hay, and corn are on hand, and wheat bran and cottonseed meal may be purchased if necessary to provide the proper ration. 102 DAIRY FARMING Table 15. — Dry Matter, Digestible Protein, and Energy Values per 100 Pounds^ Feeding Stuff Green fodder and silage : Alfalfa Clover — crimson . . Clover — red .... Corn fodder — green Corn silage ^ . . . . Hungarian grass . . . Rape Rye Timothy Hay and dry coarse fodders : Alfalfa hay Clover hay — - red Corn forage — field cured Corn stover .... Cowpea hay .... Hungarian hay . . . Oat hay Soybean hay .... Timothy hay .... Straws : Oat straw Rye straw Wheat straw .... Roots and tubers : Carrots Mangels Potatoes Rutabagas Turnips Grains : Barley Corn Corn-and-cob meal . . Oats Pea meal Total Dry Matter Pounds 28.2 19.1 29.2 20.7 25.6 28.9 14.3 23.4 38.4 91.6 84.7 57.8 59.5 89.3 92.3 84.0 88.7 86.8 90.8 92.9 90.4 11.4 9.1 21.1 11.4 9.4 89.1 89.1 84.9 89.0 89.5 Digestible Protein Poujids 2.50 2.19 2.21 .41 .88 1.33 2.16 1.44 1.04 6.93 5.41 2.13 1.80 8.57 3.00 2.59 7.68 2.05 1.09 .63 .37 .37 .14 .45 .88 .22 8.37 6.79 4.53 8.36 16.77 Energy Value Therms 12.45 11.30 16.17 12.44 16.56 14.76 11.43 11.63 19.08 34.41 34.74 30.53 26.53 42.76 44.03 36.97 38.65 33.56 21.21 20.87 16.56 7.82 4.62 18.05 8.00 5.74 80.75 88.84 72.05 66.27 71.75 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 346. 2 Owing to an error, the original publication gave the protein of corn silage as 1.21, but .88 is correct. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 103 Table 15. — Dry Matter, Digestible Protein, and Energy Values per 100 Pounds {Continued) Feeding Stuff Grains {Continued) '. Rye Wheat By-products : Brewers' grain — dried Brewers' grain — wet Buckwheat middlings Cottonseed meal . . Distillers' grains — dried Principally corn Principally rye . . Gluten feed — dry Gluten meal — Buffalo Gluten meal — Chicago Linseed meal — old process Linseed meal — new process Malt sprouts .... Rye bran Sugar beet pulp — fresh Sugar beet pulp — dried Wheat bran .... Wheat middlings . . . Total Dry Matter Pounds 88.4 89.5 92.0 24.3 88.2 91.8 93.0 93.2 91.9 91.8 90.5 90.8 90.1 89.8 88.2 10.1 93.6 88.1 84.0 Digestible Protein Pounds 8.12 8.90 19.04 3.81 23.34 35.15 21.93 10.38 19.95 21.56 33.09 27.54 29.26 12.36 11.35 .63 6.80 10.21 12.79 Energy Values Therms 81.72 82.63 60.01 14.82 75.92 84.20 79.23 60.93 79.32 88.80 78.49 78.92 74.67 46.33 56.65 7.77 60.10 48.23 77.65 A good ration of roughage would be corn silage 35 pounds and clover hay 10 pounds. Using the data given in Table 15, the following calcula- tions are made : Digestible Protein Energy Value 35 lb. silage .... 10 lb. clover hay . . Pounds (.35 X .88) .31 (.10 X 5.41) .54 Therms (.35 X 16.56) 5.80 (.10 X 34.74) 3.47 Total .85 9.27 104 DAIRY FARMING This leaves 1.45 pounds of protein and 7.23 therms of energy to be supphed by the grain. If corn is grown on the farm, we will use it as far as possible in making up the grain ration. The amounts to be used can only be found by trial. We will start with the following : corn 6 pounds, bran 3 pounds, cottonseed meal 1.5 pounds. 35 pounds corn silage . 10 pounds clover hay . 6 pounds corn .... 3 pounds bran .... 1.5 pounds cottonseed meal Total in ration . . . Required .... Digestible Energy Protein Value Pounds Therms .31 5.80 .54 3.47 .41 5.33 .31 1.45 .53 1.26 2.10 17.31 2.30 16.50 This ration gives more energy than is necessary and is deficient in protein. Since cottonseed meal is the highest in protein we will omit 1 pound of corn and increase the cottonseed meal to 2 pounds. We then have : Digestible Protein Energy 35 pounds corn silage 10 pounds clover hay 5- pounds corn . 3 pounds bran . 2 cottonseed meal . Total in ration . Required . . Pounds .31 .54 .34 .31 .70 2.20 2.30 Therms 5.80 3.47 4.44 1.45 1.68 16.84 16.50 This ration approaches the standard closely enough for practical purposes. It is not essential to have an exact FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 105 agreement with the standard, since the composition of the feed varies to some extent and the individual requirements of the animals are also subject to some variations. 93. The Cost of the Ration. In the foregoing, no atten- tion has been given to the relative cost of the feeds used in making up the ration. This question is one of great impor- tance, and must always be taken into account. In pre- paring the ration the cost should be calculated at the same time, and trial made of various combinations that offer to reduce the cost. A careful study of the figures in Table 15 will be of great assistance in the selection of the most economical ration. If the ration at hand is short in protein, and the purchase of some concentrate to supply this deficiency is contemplated, a study should be made of the amount of digestible protein in various feedstuffs, together with the price. A good plan is to calculate the cost per pound of digestible protein to ascertain in what feed it can be purchased most economically. For example, if cottonseed meal costs $32 per ton, one pound of digestible protein would cost 4.6 cents, if the value out- side the protein be ignored. With bran at $20 per ton a pound of digestible protein would cost 9 '8 cents, and with oats at 50 cents per bushel, or $31.25 per ton, it would be worth 18.7 cents. Under these conditions it is readily seen which feedstuff would be the cheapest source of protein for the ration deficient in that constituent. If the question is that of providing the cheapest ration as a whole and not merely supplying a lack of protein, it is equally important to study the energy value of the several feeds as carefully as is done with the protein. It is readily seen, for example, that while bran has an energy value of 48.23 therms per 100 pounds, corn has a value of 88.84. If corn 106 DAIRY FARMING and bran are the same price per pound, corn is by far the cheaper feed. With bran at $20 per ton, a therm of energy costs 2.07 cents, while in corn at $26 per ton the same energy costs only 1.46 cents. When planning the ration to be pur- chased, or even the crop to be grown in some cases, it is well to make such calculations as suggested and determine which are the cheapest feedstuffs under the existing conditions. Discussion of Common Feedstuffs No particular feed or combination of feeds is essential for the most economical production of milk. The first consider- ation is to grow the most suitable crops on the farm in order that the amount purchased may be as small as possible without reducing the efficiency of the ration. In the brief discussion which follows, only the most common feedstuffs are considered. 94. Timothy Hay. The value of this hay as a feed for dairy cows is often greatly overestimated. It is unpalatable except when cut early and therefore will not be consumed in sufficient quantities. The most serious objection is the low protein content. 95. Corn Stover. This is the name applied to dried corn stalks from which the ears have been removed. It may be utilized to a small extent. It has the same characteristics and objections as timothy hay, and cannot be depended upon for more than a part of the roughage. 96. Hay from Legumes. Hay of this class is especially valuable for the dairy cow. It includes the common clovers, alfalfa, the cowpea, soybean, field pea, and other less com- mon legumes, such as vetch and crimson clover. Forage from this class of plants when properly cured is highly palatable, and contains a relatively large amount of protein. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 107 For this reason a legume hay should by all means be grown by the dairy farmer. The ash content is also large, which is of importance, especially when fed with corn products that are low in ash. 97. Silage. It is very important that a succulent food be supplied to the cow at all times. In feeding corn silage it should be kept in mind that this of itself is not a complete ration for the cow in milk, since it is relatively high in car- bohydrates and low in protein. It is usually not advisable to feed over about 35 pounds to a small cow and 40 to 45 to a large one. It is not advisable to feed it as the only roughage. Some hay should be given. For this purpose the legumes are best adapted, on account of their high protein and ash content. 98. Corn. Over the greater part of America, corn is the cheapest grain. In the corn belt this valuable grain is often fed to excess. On the other hand, some dairymen do not feed any of it, on account of the erroneous idea that it is not suited for milk production. Corn may be fed in reasonable quantities to any class of animals on the farm. It is es- pecially palatable for the cow in milk. However, it should not be the only grain feed. Corn is low in protein and ash content. If combined with corn stover, corn silage or timothy hay for roughage, the protein content is entirely too low for a dairy ration. Corn silage and ground corn combined with clover or alfalfa hay and bran, however, makes a good ration for general feeding. 99. Wheat Bran. Next to corn, wheat bran is the most important cow feed of this country. Its great value as a food for growing animals and cows in milk comes from the high ash and protein content. Its hght, loose character also makes it a valuable addition to a heavy ration in the way 108 DAIRY FARMING of lightening up the mass so that it is easier for the digestive juices to act upon it. This is of special importance in con- nection with such feeds as cottonseed meal, that have a ten- dency to form a pasty mass in the stomach. Wheat middlings, or shorts, is a valuable feed for the cow, but it is more like corn meal in composition and prop- erties than like bran. As a rule it is better to make use of bran rather than shorts for the cow in milk. 100. Oats and Oat Products. Oats is an excellent feed for cows and growing animals when the cost is not pro- hibitive. Woll found oats to be about 10 per cent more valuable per pound than bran as feed for cows. In general, it may be said that oats are themselves an excellent feed. But if the balance of the ration is deficient in protein, oats do not contain enough protein to make up the shortage. The valuable by-products of oats are mainly from oatmeal mills, and consist of oat shorts and finely divided parts of the grain. Besides these, a mUch larger quantity of hulls must be disposed of by these mills. Hulls are mostly crude fiber and are about like oat straw in feeding value. The by-products of the oatmeal mills are therefore valuable, to the extent that they contain the parts of the grains. Oat hulls are used largely to form a portion of various mixed feeds. 101. Cottonseed Meal. This by-product is left after the oil is extracted from cottonseed. It contains a higher amount of protein than any other common feed. For this reason it is especially valuable for balancing rations deficient in protein, for instance those in which corn and corn products form a large proportion. It should not be fed to excess. As a rule from two to four pounds per day is the maximum. However, in the South, where it is abundant, it is fed in much larger quantities with good results. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 109 102. Linseed Meal. This valuable feed is the residue after linseed oil is extracted from flaxseed. It ranks next to cottonseed meal in protein, and on the market usually sells for a little more. It seems to exert a very favorable effect upon animals of all kinds. Like cottonseed meal, it is especially valuable as a means of supplying the protein usually lacking in the farm-grown ration. 103. Gluten Feed. This is a by-product from starch and glucose factories. It consists of the corn grain after the starch is extracted. In protein content it ranks about midway between bran and oil meal, and is a palatable and valuable feed. 104. Beet Pulp and Molasses. Formerly beet pulp was fed to cattle in the neighborhood of beet-sugar factories, but now much of it is dried. The feeding value of dried beet pulp is a little less per pound than corn, which it resembles in the relative amount of protein and carbohydrates present. It swells greatly when moistened and cannot be pressed into a compact mass. For this reason it is easily digested and is valuable to lighten up a grain ration that otherwise would form a mass in the stomach not easily penetrated by the digestive juices. Low-grade molasses is another by-product of cane and beet-sugar factories. It is often sold in combination with other feeds, such as beet pulp and alfalfa hay, and sometimes with nearly worthless materials such as peanut hulls, weed seeds, cocoa waste, or peat moss. Molasses serves a useful purpose in making unpalatable feeds more readily consumed. Unfortunately it is too often used to disguise material of little or no feeding value. 105. Brewers' Grains. Fresh brewers' grains are fed in large quantities where they may be hauled directly from the 110 DAIRY FARMING brewery. Considerable objection has been raised by city health authorities to the use of this feed. If fed in moderate amounts under proper sanitary conditions, it is not ob- jectionable. However, the use of it is so often abused that officials in some locahties have found it easier to prohibit the use than to regulate it. The objection comes from feeding these grains exclusively, from allowing decomposi- tion to begin before feeding, and from the very objection- able sanitary conditions that exist if special care is not taken to keep the feed boxes, feeding troughs, and, in fact, the entire stable, clean. This feed should not be used in excess of twenty pounds per day, and should be supplemented with hay and some other grain, such as corn. The greater part of the brewers' grains now produced are dried, and in this form may be transported long distances. This feed is rich in protein. Four or five pounds may be used in the ration to advantage. At present the larger part of this by-product finds a market in Europe. 106. Mixed Feeds. No small proportion of the grain supplied the dairy cows of the United States is in the form of mixed feeds. As a class, mixed feed is to be looked upon with suspicion. Where the unmixed grains and by-products may be bought on the market, it is always safer to purchase them and to make such mixtures as may be best to supple- ment the available farm feeds. The main purpose of the manufacturers or dealers in putting feed mixtures on the market is to dispose of material of inferior quality or of some by-product of little or no value. One of the most common ingredients of mixed feeds is oat hulls, from oatmeal factories. In many cases the hulls are ground fine to escape detection, and the claim is made that ground oats is a part of the mixture. A careful examination will usually disclose the fact FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 111 that oat hulls have been added. Ground corncobs and corn bran are occasionally mixed with wheat bran. A cottonseed feed that is a mixture of cottonseed hulls and cottonseed meal is found on the market. The only object in making such a mixture is to sell cottonseed hulls at a good price. Alfalfa hay of doubtful quahty is mixed with sugar refuse, and by hberal advertising sold at a price above its real value. Nearly all states where large quantities of feed are pur- chased by the farmers now have laws regarding the sale of feeding stuffs. These laws, however, do not take the place of intelligence on the part of feed users. Such a law generally requires the proper branding of each sack and labeling to indicate the chemical composition. It should be remem- bered that the label gives the total amount of protein and other constituents, and not the amount of each that is digestible, which is decidedly lower. Feed buyers should patronize only reliable dealers, and buy feeds that are labeled and guaranteed. There are no mixtures better than the buyer can make himself, and there is no special feed or mixture having any remarkable properties not possessed by familiar feeds. The buyer of mill feeds should make a point of keep- ing in touch with the experiment station of his state, and if the feed control is vested in some other body or official, with them as well, and make use of the information they will be able to furnish regarding the feeds on the market. 107. Condimental Stock Foods. Numerous articles vari- ously known as '' stock food " and ^' condition powders " are common on the market and are fed to a considerable extent by farmers who are not well informed regarding the feeding of live stock. They are guaranteed to make stock grow faster, cows to give more and richer milk, and some are recommended as cures for nearly all diseases of domestic 112 DAIRY FARMING animals. The best of these substances generally have for their base common feedstuffs, such as linseed meal or wheat middlings, while others contain low-grade mill refuse or even ground bark or clay. To the base is added various other substances, such as common salt, charcoal, sulphate of iron, gentian, pepper, and Epsom salts, and often tumeric or iron oxide for coloring. Some may have a small value as a tonic, but if such treatment is desirable, the necessary drugs should be purchased at a drug store, and may be had for a small part of the sum asked for the same in the form of stock food. Many experiment stations have made feeding tests which have shown that no value was derived from the use of the several brands of commercial stock foods. Money expended for this class of articles will give far greater returns if used for the purchase of ordinary feed. Feeding Young Stock and Dry Cows 108. Calf Raising. The careful dairyman sees in the best heifers the possibility of cows that will not only replace the discarded members of the herd but help to raise the aver- age production. The question is often asked as to whether it pays to raise the calf. The answer is that only under exceptional conditions can the farmer afford not to raise the well-bred heifer calves. Some farmers near large cities where feed is high in price find it more profitable to buy all their cows, but as a general practice in most farming sections, the best heifers should be raised. The dairy-bred calf is almost always raised by hand. A discussion of the subject is naturally divided into two parts on account of the two common conditions : 1. Calf raising where skim-milk is on hand. 2. Raising the calf where whole milk is sold. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 113 109. Raising the Calf on Skim-milk. It is well known that calves may be raised on skim-milk practically as well as when fed whole milk. A skim-milk calf is not quite so fat during the first few weeks but grows equally as well as the one receiving the un- separated milk and de- velops into an equally good animal. Skim-milk differs from whole milk only in the much smaller amount of butter-fat that it contains. The calf may be taken from the cow at birth or allowed to nurse two or three days. It should be given its mother's Fig. 30. — A thrifty Holstein heifer six months old, raised on skim-milk after the first two weeks with very little grain. It was fed 200 pounds of whole milk, and 2610 pounds of skim-milk. nigHmni^^^^^^ ^^^ 1 Bv i^^^^^^^^^^^H ^^^^HHtIbhb' ^^^^^ H^ 7^»r j^^^l «t^^^^H w ' ^^^I^^^^L-__ '^^wK^mm HIB ^ — ..^JIHHII — ;i Fig. 31. — The same animal shown in Fig. 30 when four years old, a good type of cow and a good producer. 114 DAIRY FARMING milk for the first few days, later mixed milk is as good. Care must be taken not to overfeed at any time. For the first two weeks ten to twelve pounds per day is all that the largest calf will require. A small one needs even less. It may be fed in two feeds, but three feeds are better for the first two or three weeks. Each animal should be fed by itself so that it is cer- tain to get the proper amount of milk. As the calf gets older the amount of milk may be in- creased some- what, but it is not necessary to feed over 16 pounds a day at any time. A large calf can take up to 20 pounds without injury. The milk must always be fed fresh and sweet. Milk that has been standing some time, even if it does not taste sour, is not in the best condition for feeding. The milk should have a temperature of 90° F. or higher while the calf is young, but later it becomes less sensitive to a slight change in temperature. After about two weeks the feeder may begin to replace the whole milk with skim-milk. This should be done gradually, about a week being given to the change. The amount fed should not be greater because skim-milk is given in place of whole milk. By the time the calf is a month old it will begin to eat Fig. 32. — A Holstein heifer calf six months old, raised on whole milk. Total milk consumed 2960 pounds. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 115 grain. The grain is best fed dry after the milk is drunk. Corn meal, linseed meal, oatmeal, or a mixture of all, serves almost equally well for this purpose. Where corn is grown in abundance, corn meal is most commonly used as it alone Fig. 33. — The same animal shown in Fig. 32, when six years old, a good milk producer but no better than the one raised on skim-milk. has been found equal to any other grain or any combination for this purpose. ' The total amount of feed required for a calf raised on skim-milk up to the age of six months is shown by the following, which is the average amount fed to seven calves. Whole milk 360 pounds Skim-milk 2804 pounds Hay 270 pounds Grain 113 pounds Average weight of calves at birth .... 66 pounds Average weight at 180 days 303 pounds Average daily gain 1.3 pounds The skim-milk calf should have hay placed within reach as soon as it is old enough to eat it, or when it is about one 116 DAIRY FARMING month old. The calf does equally well for the first three or four months with hay or with pasture grass for roughage. Another exceedingly important point is the necessity for cleanUness of the pails and troughs used for calf feeding. A good rule is to have the calf pails as clean as the milk pails. The barn or stalls must also be clean and light. Dark, damp, or dirty stalls often result in serious sickness. The best part of the barn should be used for the calf pens. The raising of the calf on sldm-milk may be summarized as follows : 1. Take the calf from its mother not later than the third day. 2. Feed mother's milk for two weeks, then change gradu- ally to skim-milk. 3. Especially avoid overfeeding. Keep the calf a little hungry, and make sure that each calf receives its proper amount. 4. Feed the skim-milk warm and fresh every time. 5. Feed dry grain, preferably corn meal, as soon as the calf will take it. 6. Keep the utensils and stalls clean at alj times. 110. Raising Calves when Whole Milk is Sold. The main difficulty in calf raising where whole milk is sold on the market is the matter of expense. To raise a calf on whole milk means that the milk consumed may be greater in value than the calf raised. If the calf is fed whole milk as freely as skim-milk is given, it would consume 2000 to 2500 pounds before it is weaned. At $1.50 per hun- dredweight, the feed up to six months would represent a value of $30 to $38. It is evident that this sum can be expended with profit only on very valuable calves. As a result of this situation the practice of not raising even FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 111 the best heifer calves is too common. This pohcy stands in the way of improvement of the herd. The IlUnois Ex- periment Station found the average profit per cow to be $20.53 more each year in those herds in which a pure-bred bull was kept and calves raised. 111. The Use of Milk Substitutes. Several calf meals advertised as milk substitutes are on the market. These are sold under a trade name and the composition is not given. In general they are a mixture of linseed meal, oatmeal, wheat middlings, and corn meal. In some cases bean meal, ground flaxseed, or skim-milk powder is included. The Cornell University Experiment Station ^ obtained good results by the use of a commercial calf meal composed of oatmeal, wheat meal, flaxseed, and dried skim-milk. The calves received in addition a grain mixture consisting of corn, oats, and wheat bran, three parts each. The calves were fed whole milk alone for the first week after which the calf meal was gradually introduced. The feeding of milk was gradually reduced until at the end of about one month the calves were receiving only the calf meal, grain mixture, and hay. Most of the calves were able to grow fairly well on this ration, and they developed into good cows. The average quantities of feed used up to five months of age were : Whole milk 226 pounds Calf meal .220 pounds Grain 109 pounds Hay 329 pounds Average gain per day 1-1 pounds Total cost of feed $14.69 1 Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 269 and 304. 118 DAIRY FARMING Excellent results were also obtained by the same station by the use of dried skim-milk powder. The quantities of feed required for each calf up to five months with this ration were : Whole milk 185 pounds Milk powder 230 pounds Hay 370 pounds Grain 114 pounds Gain per day 1.25 pounds Total cost of feed $11.75 The Illinois Experiment Station conducted an experiment to determine the minimum amount of milk necessary to raise a calf. Milk feeding was continued to the age of from 42 to 56 days. Whole milk was fed the first three weeks followed by skim-milk up to the age of eight weeks. It was concluded that it is advisable to feed milk long enough to give the calves a good start. After the age of eight weeks the calves thrived on grain and hay. The grain ration was a mixture of corn, 4 parts ; oats, 4 parts ; and bran and lin- seed oil meal, 1 part each. The total amounts fed per animal were whole milk, 134 pounds ; skim-milk, 422 pounds. The total value of the milk used was $4.62 for each calf.^ These results show clearly that the milk can be reduced to an amount that does not make the cost of raising the calf excessive. When grain is substituted for milk under the conditions discussed, it must not be expected that the calf will appear as fat and thrifty as one receiving milk. How- ever, there is no reason for believing that the dairy qualities of the cow are injured in any way. If a good ration is fed as the calf grows older, it will make up any deficiency in size that may result from the lack of more milk in the ration when young. ^ Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 164. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 119 112. Feeding for Veal. To make a good veal requires liberal feeding of fresh whole milk. So far no substitute for whole milk has been found for this purpose. The best quality of veal is produced when the animal receives nothing but whole milk and is slaughtered at the age of two months. The regulation of the United States Government for inter- state commerce requires that the calf be at least three weeks old before being put on the market. Many cities also have regulations regarding either the age or the weight of veal calves. Where such regulations are not enforced the ten*- dency is to market the calves younger than this age, since when milk is high priced, the younger the calf is sold the greater the profit. The first question to be answered is whether the calf can be raised profitably for veal. It often happens, especially with the breeds having small calves, that the milk fed is worth more than the market value of the calf when sold. For this reason some do not attempt to raise the calf for veal but destroy those not wanted for breeding purposes at birth. Table 16. — Feed Consumed and Gain First 30 Days Breed No. Calves Average Birth Weight Weight AT End OF 30 Days Average Daily Gain Pounds OF Milk Con- sumed Pounds Milk per Pound Gain Jersey . . . Holstein . . . Ayrshire . . . 10 8 2 49 83 70 88.9 127.0 107.0 1.33 1.47 1.23 376 441 344 9.42 10.02 9.31 The average daily gain of a dairy-bred calf is from 1.2 to 2 pounds during the firsl few weeks. About 10 pounds of whole milk are required for each pound of gain. The data 120 DAIRY FARMING in Table 16 show the average gain and weight for calves of three breeds as found by the author. 113. Feeding the Dairy Heifer. No special difficulties are experienced in raising heifer calves from the time of weaning until they come into milk. If pasturing is practiced, no further attention or additional feed is necessary so long as the grass is abundant. The winter ration should consist of a good quality of roughage with a small amount of grain. A good ration is corn silage and clover or alfalfa hay, with a grain allowance of about 2 or 3 pounds daily per animal. A more liberal grain ration will cause a more rapid growth of the young animals and earlier maturity. It is possible by heavy grain feeding to have a heifer as mature at the age of 18 months as another fed entirely on roughage is at 24 months. Liberal feeding during the growing period and the better condition of the animal which follows result in a larger milk yield during the first year than is the case when less is fed. The size of the animal when mature is influenced to some extent by the manner of feeding during the growing period. In experiments by the author, heifers fed a liberal ration measured over an inch more in height when mature than did heifers fed a ration with less nutrients. ^ At the age of 18 months the difference was nearly 3.5 inches, but the group receiving the lighter ration continued to grow for several months after the heavier fed group had ceased grow- ing. The lighter fed group, however, remained slightly smaller. Another factor that has some influence on the size of the cow when mature is the age at which she comes into milk. A heifer that freshens at an early age, for example, 20 to 22 months for a Jersey, and' 22 to 24 for a Holstein, will not develop into so large an animal as she would if she ^ Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 121 '^ rr^ ^ -■ w ra dj O 122 DAIRY FARMING were somewhat older. The difference will not be very- marked unless the animal has also been fed a light ration up to this time and is therefore immature for the age. Heavy grain feeding when young, accompanied by late breeding, will develop a heifer to her maximum size. A ration that does not supply an abundance of food in an easily digestible form, as, for example, hay and silage alone, together with early calving will result in a slower growth of the animal and a somewhat smaller size at maturity. The best practice to follow is one between these two ex- tremes. A heifer fed exclusively on roughage is too slow in reaching maturity, while the heavy feeding of grain is too expensive. A good development can be had by feeding good roughage together with about 2 or 3 pounds of grain per day during the winter season. The figures in Table 17, as found by the writer, will be of assistance to the farmer who wishes to know whether his young animals are being fed so that their development is up to the average of the breed. Table 17. — Average Height and Weight of Dairy Heifers Jerseys HOLSTEINS Age Height at Withers Weight Height at Withers Weight Inches Pounds Inches Pounds 6 months 31.7 265 40.8 350 9 months 41.2 378 43.4 444 12 months 43.4 468 45.6 548 15 months 45.2 556 47.4 620 18 months 47.0 598 48.8 710 24 months 48.4 750 50.0 900 FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 123 Sufficient data are not at hand for the Guernsey and Ayrshire breeds, but they fall between the two breeds given. It is well to breed the heifer, so that she will come into milk at 24 to 26 months of age if a Jersey or Guernsey, and at 28 to 30 months if a Holstein or an Ayrshire, the variations suggested being made to allow for the size of the animal. The milking tendency of the cow when mature is not in- fluenced to any appreciable extent by any ordinary variations in the ration fed during the growing period. The dairy characteristic of a cow is a matter of inheritance and does not seem to be influenced to any great extent by over- or under- feeding when a heifer. In experiments by the author with over 40 animals some of the best milk producers, as well as some of the worst, were in a group fed excessively from birth to first calving. Another group receiving a light ration up to calving time showed the same variation in quality.^ 114. Salt Requirements. All animals that consume large quantities of vegetable food require salt. It is not merely an appetizer but a necessity. Animals that live upon meat do not have this craving. A cow kept without salt shows a strong craving for it during the first few weeks, then quiets down into an emaciated condition of low vitahty, which will result in a complete breakdown after several months. The amount of salt needed varies with the amount of feed consumed. A dry cow needs about .75 ounce per day. The cow in milk needs the same amount for maintenance and in addition about .6 ounce per day for each 20 pounds of milk. The amount required therefore for cows yielding from 20 to 30 pounds of milk per day is about 1.5 ounces. Salt may be supplied by mixing the proper amount regularly in the feed or it may be placed where the animal can have access 1 Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 135. 124 DAIRY FARMING to it. If the cattle run out every day, the best way to salt them is to keep a constant supply in a box in the yard. The plan of salting the cattle at intervals of one or two weeks is not to be recommended. 115. Feeding the Cow when Dry. The milk yield of a cow throughout her entire lactation period is influenced by her condition of flesh at calving time. For good results it is very important that she be in good flesh at this time. A high producer will yield fully 20 per cent more during the year if in good order at calving time. Less trouble is also experienced when the calf is born. All mammals naturally take on flesh before the young is born. This reserve store of food is needed to aid in the production of milk. We expect a dairy cow to give several times as much milk as the calf requires. The importance of her being fat is there- fore all the greater. The grain given to a dry cow is not lost. It is used to store up fat in the body for the purpose of milk production. If when a good cow is dry, she is fed sufficient grain to get her in good flesh, it is just as sure to be returned in milk as is the grain fed when the cow is giving milk. The astonishing records of milk and fat production obtained within recent years from cows under official test are due in no small measure to a realization of the importance of having the cow well fed before freshening and in a high state of flesh. The feeding of the cow when dry will depend upon her condition when milking ceases. If in good flesh, only a little more than a maintenance ration should be given. If not in good condition, a more liberal ration is advisable, suffi- cient to insure her being in good flesh when she freshens. The character of the ration fed at this time need not vary materially from that given to the cows in milk. Good pas- FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 125 ture, legume hay, and roots or silage are adapted for use as roughage. As the time for freshening approaches, the cow should by all means have a laxative ration if she has not been receiving it before ; if on pasture, no special atten- tion is called for in this respect. The cow should have ex- ercise, and nothing is better than freedom in a smooth pas- ture or freedom in a barnyard in winter. Feeding the Cow in Milk 116. Water for Cows. Large amounts of water are necessary for producing the milk itself and for the digestion and assimilation of the larger quantities of feed required to make it. The author found by experiments that a cow producing 27 pounds of milk per day drank 77 pounds of water. The same cow when dry drank only 15 pounds per day. Another cow producing over 100 pounds of milk per day used an average of 250 pounds of water. These figures show that the water requirement is in proportion to the milk produced and the food consumed. They also show that the question of water supply is much more important for the cow in milk than for the dry cow. Dry cows need not be watered more than once daily in winter time and do not seem to want it oftener. During the summer the demand for water is greater on account of the greater evaporation from the skin. Cows on heavy feed, producing large quan- tities of milk, should always have access to water at least twice daily. For the best results, water of good quality should be supphed close at hand, since if the animals are required to walk long distances in cold weather, they may not drink a sufficient amount and the milk flow may be reduced for this reason. Water contaminated by drainage from barnyards or with sewage should be avoided for sanitary reasons, as 126 DAIRY FARMING well as for the additional reason that cows maj^ not drink as much as is needed for the best results. In very cold climates it is profitable to warm the water for dairy cows. It is cheaper to warm the water with a tank heater by burning coal or wood than to supply the necessary heat by allowing the animal to burn high-priced feed in its body for this purpose. A cow producing 25 pounds of milk daily requires about 1 pound of corn daily to warm the water used if it be given at the freezing point. Larger producers would require a correspondingly larger amount for this pur- pose. An even more important reason for warming water is that a heavy-milking cow will not drink enough water if it is near the freezing temperature. The activities of the organs of digestion and milk secretion are almost stopped for a while if a cow drinks 30 or 40 pounds of ice water. Where water is warmed it is generally brought to a tempera- ture of about 60° F. 117. Turning on Pasture. Cattle are pastured in summer over the greater part of this country and every owner of a cow welcomes the time when the cow may be turned out to pasture. In changing from dry to green feed it is best to go somewhat slowly, especially with heavy-milking cows. The young immature grasses are mostly water and it is almost impossible for a heavy-milking cow to eat enough to supply the necessary nutrients. Another reason for making the change slowly is the effect upon the taste of the milk. When a cow is changed suddenly from grain to grass, the milk may be given a strong taste ; while if this change is made gradually, little or no change in taste is noticed. A common mistake is to pasture too closely in the fall and to turn out too early in the spring. The cows should be FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 127 kept off the pasture until the grass is well started. Grass can only grow by having leaves above the ground in contact with the air and sunshine. If the cattle are turned out to graze while the grass is very short, its growth is slow since it has no chance to get enough leaves to prepare its food. 118. Feeding Grain while on Pasture. The cow that produces a small quantity will give but little if any more if fed grain while on pasture. However, with the very heavy- producing cow the case is quite different, and it is necessary that she be fed some grain or she will not continue long on the high level of n^ilk production. The high-producing cow cannot eat and digest a sufficient amount of grass to supply the necessary nutrients and must have some concentrated feed in order to continue to produce large quantities of milk. Experiments made by the Cornell University Experiment Station covering four years showed that while an increase of milk yield was obtained from grain feeding it was not economical to produce it in this way. Only about one addi- tional pound of milk was obtained for each pound of grain fed. In these experiments the pasture furnished an abun- dance of grasses. It was observed, however, that the cows that had grain during the summer gave better results after the grazing season was over than those that received no grain. This is also a matter of common observation by dairymen and should be taken into account in considering the question of summer feeding. The practice of the writer in regard to grain feeding on pasture is represented in the following statement : Jersey or Guernsey cow, producing : 20 pounds milk daily 2 pounds grain daily 25 pounds milk daily 3 pounds grain daily 30 pounds milk daily 6 pounds grain daily 35 pounds milk daily 8 pounds grain daily 128 DAIRY FARMING Holstein^ Shorthorn, or Ayrshire, producing : 25 pounds milk daily 2 pounds grain daily 30 pounds milk daily 3 pounds grain daily 35 pounds milk daily 5 pounds grain daily 40 pounds milk daily 7 pounds grain daily It must be kept in mind that this apphes only when pas- tures are abundant. When a small amount of grain is fed as a supplement to pasture, little attention is necessary as to the relative amount of protein and carbohydrates that it contains. When corn is the cheapest grain, it may be fed alone if desired. Any mixture of common concentrates serves the purpose, since it is total digestible nutrients that is needed and the protein is usually supplied in ample amounts by the grass. When larger amounts of grain are fed, more care must be taken to have enough protein. 119. Providing for Periods of Short Pasture. Unfortu- nately the season of abundant pastures is often short. In many localities a dry period of several weeks often occurs at times during the summer season. It is probable that as much loss occurs from improper feeding at such times as is caused by improper feeding during the winter. As long as the cows are on pasture, and other work is pressing, the farmer is inclined to let the cows get along the best they can. It is well known to all experienced dairymen that if a cow is once allowed to decline in her milk production, it is difficult to bring her back to normal. To make a large profit from the cow, a large yearly production must be had and to obtain this ordinarily requires that the flow of milk be kept up for 10 months out of the year. It is possible to supplement short pasture by the feeding of grain, but this is as a rule unnecessarily expensive. It will pay, however, if no other feed is available. Provision for short pasture is FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 129 best made either by having green crops on hand that may be cut for feed, or by feeding silage or alfalfa hay during this period. The use of green crops cut and taken to the animals is known as the soiling system. In recent years the use of corn silage for summer feeding is meeting with the greatest favor and promises to displace the practice of soiling to a large extent, because it is much less expensive. For summer feeding a silo of small diameter is recommended in order that the silage may be fed fast enough to prevent spoiling. If the silage is not needed it can be kept for winter use. 120. Amount to Feed. One of the most common mistakes made in feeding cows is in not feeding them enough. If a cow does not respond in milk yield when well fed, she should be sold. The cheapest production is obtained from a high- producing cow well fed. The cow may be looked upon as a milk-producing machine, which we supply with the raw material in the form of feed. This raw material is manu- factured into milk. The same rule holds as with any manu- facturing plant; it is run most economically near its full capacity. One should understand that, first of all, the animal must use a certain amount of its food to maintain the body. This is called the ration of maintenance and is practically the same whether the animal is being utilized for full capacity or merely being kept without producing any milk at all. About 50 per cent of all the feed she can consume is used by a medium dairy cow for this purpose. It is evident that after going to this expense it is the poorest economy to re- fuse to give the other 50 per cent of a full ration, which would be used entirely for milk production. Since only half of a full ration is available for making milk, it is clear that if through mistaken ideas of economy the cow is fed 75 per cent of a full ration the amount she has available for producing 130 DAIRY FARMING milk is reduced 50 per cent. The heavy-milking cow is the one most commonly underfed. It is often observed that heavy-milking cows rapidly get thin in flesh after calving and may drop greatly in the amount of milk within a short time. This is the result of underfeeding. If a certain cow has a capacity to produce only 25 pounds of milk daily and is al- ready receiving enough feed for this amount, it is a waste of feed to increase her ration as she will not correspondingly increase in milk. If a cow of this type is given more feed than she needs, she uses part of it for laying on fat and soon commences to appear smooth and beefy. The practical question arises then as to what means may be employed to determine how much feed a certain cow needs. The most accurate plan is to calculate the ration according to the feed- ing standard as described in paragraph 92. There are in addition certain observations that may be made the basis of practical feeding operations. One is the condition of the animal in regard to flesh. The inclination to give milk is so strong in a good cow that when underfed she will continue for some time to give more than is provided for by her ration and will supply the remaining material that is required from her body. This results in a gradual loss in weight. When a cow in milk loses weight, it means that she is underfed and unless her ration is increased soon she will drop materially in milk yield. On the other hand if a cow in milk is gaining in weight, it is evident that she is getting more feed than she is using and her ration may be cut down. Another suggestion is to note carefully the amount of milk the cow produces at her best, which will be within a short time after calving. Then be sure to feed enough to sup- port this amount of milk production. Later, as she declines, FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 131 due to the advance in the lactation period, reduce the feed to correspond to the dechne in milk. The following rules serve as a general guide for practical feeding : 1. Feed all the roughage the cows will eat up clean at all times. 2. Feed 1 pound of grain per day for each pound of fat produced per week, or 1 pound of grain per day for each 3 pounds of milk produced by Jersey ; 3| by Ayrshire ; and 4 by Holstein. 3. Feed all that the cows will take without gaining in weight. It is best to become accustomed to thinking in terms of weight rather than in terms of measure in calculating rations and feeding dairy cows. It is often more convenient when feeding to measure than to weigh the feed. The most prac- tical plan generally is to feed with a measure and weigh the feed mixture used often enough to make it possible to esti- mate closely how much is required by measure to give the weight desired. 121. The Balanced Ration. The most common mistake made in feeding dairy cows, next to underfeeding, is giving too little protein. This mistake is especially common in the corn-belt on account of the wide use of corn and timothy hay, both very deficient in protein. Where alfalfa hay is fed the ration nearly always has enough protein. A milking cow must use a certain amount of protein, and no other material can take its place. A ration is said to be balanced when the protein and carbohydrates are in the right pro- portion. It is not possible to make a good ration by using corn and timothy hay unless large quantities of mill feeds rich in 132 DAIRY FARMING protein are fed. In formulating a ration the roughage is the first consideration, since the character of this portion largely determines the kind of grain to be fed. The cheapest source of protein is generally leguminous hay, such as clover, alfalfa, or cowpea. If an abundance of any one of these can be grown, the problem of making an economical ration is greatly simplified. If alfalfa hay is fed, it is not necessary to use concentrates that are rich in proteins. If mixed hay and corn silage are used, at least one-third of the grain should be rich in protein. 122. Succulent Feed. In order to obtain the best re- sults it is necessary to have a portion of the ration of a suc- culent character. This term is applied to feeds that contain much water, such as green grass, corn silage, roots, and cabbage. Such feeds seem to have a value outside of the actual nutrients they contain on account of the favorable effect upon the digestion of the animal. In the corn-belt, corn silage furnishes the cheapest and best succulent feed for winter. In other sections, especially north of the corn- belt, the growing of root crops is generally practicable. They supply this desirable element of the ration in an entirely satisfactory form. 123. Palatability of the Ration. An animal will give better results if it rehshes its ration. Sometimes even if a feed containing enough nutrients is offered, a sufficient amount is not eaten on account of a lack of palatability. Hay and other coarse feeds show the most variation in this respect, depending upon time of cutting and manner of curing. It is advisable to have the grain composed of a mixture of two kinds or more as this increases palatability. A ration for very high-producing cows should be a mixture of five or six feed^uffs. Succulent feeds are always palatable and FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 133 they aid digestion by keeping the animal in good condition. When a good ration has been selected there is no reason for change for the sake of variety. If the animal craves a change in ration, it is an indication that the ration it has been receiv- ing is deficient in some particular. 124. Order of Feeding. Regularity in feeding is of greater importance than any special routine. The common practice is to feed twice daily giving about one-half the grain and roughage at each feed. The grain is generally fed first and the hay feeding reserved until the milking is done to avoid having dust in the barn. Silage should also be fed after milking to prevent possible odors in the milk. The cow readily becomes accustomed to a certain routine and this should not be varied any more than is absolutely neces- sary. She may be accustomed to receive grain either before or after milking, or be easily taught to demand it while the milking is being done. Feeding Cows for the Maximum Production in Official Tests 125. Obtaining the Maximum Production. The maxi- mum production is obtained from high-producing cows by a combination of expert handling and the best possible ration. Such cows cannot be fed entirely by any rule, nor can their ration be calculated by a formula. The individual animal and her characteristics must be taken into account. One of the essential things is having the animal in the proper condition of flesh at calving. She should be dry for two months or more for the best results, and be fed a liberal amount of grain during this period. Some form of suc- culence is absolutely necessary as a part of the ration. Roots, such as common beets, sugar beets, or mangels are 134 DAIRY FARMING even better than silage for this purpose, and may be fed up to 50 pounds or more per day. The cow must be brought up to the full ration carefully after calving, using about three weeks for this purpose. The grain ration should consist of a mixture of several concen- trates, all of which are palatable. So long as the animal re- mains in normal condition, no change in the grain ration is necessary. Special attention must be given to the physical condition of the cow. A careful herdsman always closely observes the character of the dung excreted, and learns to judge when the digestion is normal. At the first indication of lack of a keen appetite the ration is cut down until the animal is again in condition to utilize the full amount. If the digestion gives indication of even sUght disorder, a purgative, such as Epsom salts, 1 to IJ pounds at a dose, should be administered at once. The grain should always be eaten with a relish, and the animal should show a disposition to want a little more than she receives. A ration for a heavy-milking cow must be rich in protein. Much more grain should be fed in proportion to the roughage than with an ordinary producer. In fact, for the maximum production of a great producer, the nutrients will need to be largely supplied by con- centrates. The following daily ration was fed by the writer to a Jersey cow that was producing daily 40 pounds of milk, containing 2 pounds of fat. The cow weighed about 900 pounds and produced during the year 13,895 pounds of milk and 680 pounds of fat. The same grain mixture was fed during the greater part of the milking period, including the pasture season. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 135 Pounds Corn silage . . « 15. Alfalfa hay 15. Corn meal 3.5 Bran 3.5 Oats 3.5 Oil meal 1.5 Total roughage per day 30., Total grain per day 12. A Holstein cow under charge of the author was fed the following amounts daily while producing an average of 100 pounds of milk daily. Pounds Corn silage 15. Alfalfa hay 20. Dried beet pulp 4. Corn meal . 6.1 Bran . 6.1 Oats 6.1 Gluten feed 1.9 Linseed meal 1.9 Cottonseed meal 1.9 Total roughage 35. Total concentrates 28. The grain ration was prepared by mixing 100 pounds each of corn, bran, and oats, and 30 pounds each of the last three named above. One pound of dried beet pulp was added to six pounds of the grain mixture and the entire mass moistened with water some time before feeding. The cow was fed and milked four times each twenty-four hours. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Distinguish between composition of a feed, digestible nutri- ents, and production value. 2. Define concentrate, succulent, roughage, corn stover. 3. What succulent winter feeds are used in your region ? 4. What common feeds of your region are high in protein? 136 DAIRY FARMING 5. Calculate the amounts of corn and clover hay required to maintain a cow weighing 1000 pounds. 6. Find the amount of protein and energy required for a 1250- pound cow producing 40 pounds of milk daily, containing 3.5 per cent of fat. 7. From the feeds in Table 15, calculate a ration that will sat- isfy the conditions in problem 6. How does the ration agree with the standards on page 304 ? 8. Find the protein and energy in the following rations : Ration 1 Ration 2 Corn silage 30 lb. Timothy hay . . . . 12 lb, Alfalfa hay 10 lb. Corn fodder 10 lb. Corn 6 1b. Corn 6 1b. Cottonseed meal . . . 1 lb. Bran 1 lb. What is the Umiting factor in the second ration? For how much 3.5 per cent milk does each ration supply protein in addition to maintaining a 1000-pound cow ? 9. Calculate a ration for a 900-pound Jersey cow giving 23 pounds of milk daily, using the common feeds of the region. 10. When bran is worth $20, cottonseed meal $30, clover hay $10 per ton ; and corn 70 cents, and oats 50 cents per bushel, find which is the cheapest source of protein. Which is the cheapest source of energy ? 11. Obtain the local prices of purchased feeds in the region. Which is the cheapest source of energy ? Of protein ? 12. With prices given in problem 11, calculate the cheapest possible satisfactory ration for a Shorthorn cow weighing 1200 pounds and giving 30 pounds of milk daily. 13. Is skim-milk usually available for calf feeding in this region? What are the common calf feeds used ? 14. Let each student find the approximate amounts of milk and other feeds used in raising a calf to six months of age for his own farm or some other farm. At normal prices, what is the feed worth? Have aU these reports compared and averaged. Compare with results on pages 115, 250 and 252. 15. Proceed in a similar manner to find the usual method of feed- ing heifers in the region. 16. What is the usual date for turning cows to pasture in your region? About what times are they taken off of pasture in the FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE 137 fall? At what time are the pastures not likely to furnish enough feed? 17. What effect does the manner of feeding the heifer have on the amount of milk that she is likely to give as a heifer ? As a ma- ture cow? 18. What conclusion would you draw from observing that a cow when giving milk was gradually getting thinner? What con- clusion if she were gaining in flesh? LABORATORY EXERCISES 9. Raising a Calf. Let each student who can arrange to do so, raise a calf, following the directions that apply to the conditions. Keep track of all the feed used, and see if the calf can be raised at less than the usual cost. This is particularly important in regions where whole milk is sold. 10. Study of Feeding on a Dairy Farm. Obtain permission to visit a dairy farm, preferably one where the farmer has scales that will weigh cattle ; or students may do this work for herds on their home farms. A spring balance and tape measure will be required. Make a list of the cows in the herd, and find out the following facts about each. Or if the herd is too large, use five or six cows that are giving different amounts of milk. Each student may do the work for one cow. Cow 1 Cow 2 Cow 3 Cow 4 Age Breed Weight Pounds milk . . . Per cent fat .... Protein for maintenance Protein for milk Total .... Protein of food . . . Energy for maintenance Energy for milk Total .... Energy of food . . . Gaining or losing flesh 138 DAIRY FARMING How much milk is each giving? If the farmer does not know, arrangements can be made to have one student or the farmer weigh the milk for one or two days. What mixture of grain is fed? How much grain is each getting? If the farmer does not know the weight of a day's feed, he can measure out what he is using and this can be weighed. What does the grain mixture weigh per quart? In the same way the amounts of silage and other feeds may be obtained. Weigh each cow. Ask the farmer's opinion as to which cows are gaining and which losing in flesh. Obtain samples of milk for each cow, and test for fat. Calculate the amount of energy and protein for maintenance of each cow, the amount necessary for milk production, and the amount in the feed. The results may be summarized in a table Uke the one shown on page 137. Does it seem probable that any one of the cows is not obtaining enough protein or enough energy? Are there practical ways in which the ration may be cheapened by using different feeds? It may be that the farmer will be willing to experiment with increasing or decreasing the feed or with using a different mixture. If he is willing to do so, the results should be followed carefully. 11. Raising Heifers. Obtain measurements of a number of heifers, and compare with the results on page 122. COLLATERAL READING Computing Rations for Farm Animals by Use of Energy Values, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 346. Handling and Feeding Silage, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 578. The Feeding of Farm Animals, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulle- tin 22. Feeding Skim-milk Calves, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' BuUetin 233, pp. 22-25. Feeds and Feeding, Henry and Morrison. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. Ill, pp. 56-118, 308, 310, 313-317. The Feeding of Animals, W. H. Jordan. Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles, pp. 254-294. CHAPTER 6 THE DAIRY BARN C. H. ECKLES It is only within recent years that the arrangement and construction of the dairy barn has been given the attention that its importance justifies. It pays to have a comfortable Fig. 35. — Interior of a well-arranged barn. barn on account of the larger production of milk which re- sults. The arrangement of the barn is also an important factor in efficient use of labor and in keeping the workers contented. There is a growing demand for better sanitary conditions surrounding the milk supply, and this means 139 140 DAIRY FARMING that barns must be constructed with more attention to those details that make it possible to keep milk clean. 126. General Arrangement of Barns. The style of barn construction will necessarily vary with the locality, climate, and many other factors. The interior arrangements of the cow barn, however, may be much the same in barns differ- ing widely in general plan of construction. The most com- mon arrangement of dairy cows in a barn is in two rows, id^T^-R — Att£Y- 32-0- d:^ 3 c M i"iT^ i^n^^i I 'G-izk ALLZV io /o\ c|oi4' |S7[aZJZ>SJ D C '■ U ■ — I u i(c) Fig, 36. — Floor plan of a good barn in which the cows face the center. The calf pens and milk room are not shown. facing either towards the center or towards the wall. If a manure carrier is used, it is most convenient to have the heads together, as this saves time in feeding with no loss in cleaning. If a wagon is to be driven through the barn for cleaning, the cows should face the wall. More than two rows require that the barn be too wide for efficient lighting and for convenience in handling the cattle. The barn should be located where there is good drainage and where it is con- venient from the standpoint of labor. 127. Lighting. One of the most serious defects in many barns, especially in old ones, is lack of sufficient hght. A light barn is more healthful for the animals, and it is the first step toward removing the objectionable features often THE DAIRY BARN 141 connected with dairy work. A dark barn is almost always a dirty barn. By having plenty of sunlight, dirty conditions are easily seen and are usually corrected. There should be about four square feet of glass per cow. The best arrange- ment is to have the windows extend from the ceiling about o Fig. 37. — Floor plan of a barn for 20 cows. halfway to the floor, as this makes it possible for the sunhght to reach farther into the barn. 128. The Floor. One of the most important considerations of all is the floor. A satisfactory floor is comfortable for the cows, sanitary, easily cleaned, durable, and not too ex- pensive. The floors most commonly used are wood, con- crete, or dirt, with wood or concrete gutters. A floor of dirt, although comfortable for the cows, is only aUowable under conditions where it is not possible to have a better 142 DAIRY FARMING one. The main objection, of course, is that it cannot be kept clean. A fairly good arrangement in a cheap barn is a dirt floor for the cows to stand upon with a cement gutter behind, provided with a strip extending forward about one foot to catch the urine. A tight wooden floor is comfortable for the cows and may be kept in good sanitary condition if Fig. 38. — A well-lighted barn. in good repair. The main objection to this material is its high first cost and lack of durability. Concrete is durable and sanitary, but not so comfortable for the cows as the others. It requires a liberal use of bedding. In putting in a con- crete floor care must be taken to have the surface given a rough finish, otherwise the animals will slip and sooner or later seriously injure themselves. It is not necessary to make the floor as thick as is sometimes recommended. On solid earth four inches is as good as more. 129. The Platform. The best arrangement for keeping cows clean is the platform and gutter. It is well to have the platform about 6 inches wider at one end than at the other THE DAIRY BARN 143 SO that the cows may be arranged in order of size and fit the platform. The same result may be accomplished by having the platform on one side of the barn wider than that Fig. 39. — Cross section of a barn with cows facing the center. The style of manger may be varied as shown in Fig. 41. The length of the platform should be varied to suit the breed. on the other. The width of the platform from manger to gutter should vary to suit the breed. The length of platform needed for animals from 2 years old to the largest cows is given in Table 18. Table 18. — Length of Platform Required for Different Breeds Breed Shortest Longest Average Jersey .... Guernsey . . . Ayrshire .... Holstein .... Shorthorn . . . 48 inches 50 inches 50 inches 54 inches 54 inches 56 inches 58 inches 58 inches 62 inches 62 inches 54 inches 56 inches 56 inches 60 inches 60 inches The platform should slope about one inch from the manger to the gutter. It is better to have it rise half the way back and then slope to the gutter. This helps to prevent the front feet from slipping and causing injury to the knees. A very good platform can be made by laying 2 inches of con- crete, then a layer of tar paper, and on this place IJ to 2 inches of concrete. The paper extends to within about 4 inches of the gutter. The tar paper prevents moisture from 144 DAIRY FARMING Fig. 40. — jModern stalls and ties. Steel construction gives a neat appearance, is sanitary, strong, and durable. rising and, by stopping the loss of heat, also makes the con- crete warmer for the cow to lie on. One of the best floor arrangements is one in which the floor, manger, and passage- ways are of concrete with a wooden platform on top of the concrete under the cows. In this case two inches of concrete under the plank is sufficient if placed on solid ground. 130. The Gutter. The gutter is often made too shallow. It should be preferably about 8 or 9 inches deep and about 16 inches wide and should be tight to prevent urine from getting under the floor. A common plan is to have the passageway behind the animals 2 to 4 inches lower than the platform. 131. The Stalls. When the cow is tied in a stanchion, the stall should be 42 to 44 inches wide for the large breeds, while 36 to 42 inches is sufficient for the smaller breeds. Partitions are used in many barns, but some dairymen pre- fer to dispense with them for the sake of facilitating the move- ment of the cows in getting in and out of the stalls, and for convenience in doing chores. 132. Mangers. Concrete is the best material for mangers from the standpoint of sanitation and durability. The most common type of concrete manger is the continuous, which is built in the form of a trough before the cows. By having the feed alley raised, feed can be swept into the manger with- out lifting. (See Fig. 36.) The main advantage of this THE DAIRY BARN 145 style is the ease of feeding and cleaning. It may also be used for watering in the barn. Some objections are made to this style of construction on account of the chance it affords for one cow to rob another of a portion of its feed. Partitions TYPES OF MAN6ERS wmm: Fig. 41. — Types of mangers. of sheet iron or concrete are sometimes used to overcome this difficulty. 133. Ties. The cow should be fastened so that she Hes down exactly where she stands or a little forward if possible. The most objectionable way is to tie a cow to a manger so that she must back up to he down. This results in covering the cow with filth. The most common ties in use are various forms of stanchions. There is no better way to keep the cow clean than to tie her with a stanchion, properly constructed, and stand her on a platform of the right dimensions pro- 146 DAIRY FARMING vided with a gutter of sufficient depth. The old style rigid stanchion is not a satisfactory tie, as the cow has no free- dom and cannot lie in a natural position. Many forms of stanchions are in use that are entirely satisfactory. These are generally hung on short chains at top and bottom and are constructed of either wood or steel. The double post slip chain tie is equally comfortable for the animals, but not so con- venient for use. Stanchion or chain ties may be attached to either iron or wooden frame- work as supports. 134. Ventilation. An abundance of fresh air is as essential as plenty of feed. The most simple form of ventilation is by windows. This works best when the sash is hinged in the mid- dle or at the bottom so that the air can be admitted by tipping the top of the window sash slightly into the room. This throws the air towards the ceiling and away from the animals. This form of ventilation can be used satisfac- torily in mild climates. In northern latitudes it is not satisfactory during severe weather on account of the difficulty of properly controlhng the intake of air during rapid changes of wind and temperature. The best form of ventilation yet devised is the King system. This consists of a large flue, opening near the floor and extending above the roof, for taking out foul air. A number of smaller openings arranged at intervals of 10 to 12 feet along the walls allow for the intake of air. The intakes open to the outer air near the ground, pass upwards inside the wall and open into the barn near the ceiling. These open- FiG. 42. — A common tie for dairy cows. This stanchion is of steel with a wooden lin- ing and hangs on chains at the top and bottom to al- low freedom of movement. THE DAIRY BARN 147 ings should be provided with means for closing if the wind pressure causes too rapid movement of the air. 135. Cost of Barns. The price of milk, climate, cost of lumber, and many other factors influence the cost of dairy barns. Where milk is high in price and where a correspond- ing quahty is demanded, a very different barn will be required from the kind needed when milk goes to the creamery. If valuable pure-bred stock is kept, a somewhat more expen- sive barn may be justified than would be needed for ordinary cows, because a good barn may help one to sell the stock. Some very good dairy barns built where moderate in cost of $50 Unless milk '.- have been lumber is price at a per cow. FLUES ARC AT END OF BARN Fig. 43. — Cross section of a barn show- ing the King sj'stem of ventilation. The air enters near the ceiling on the sides and is drawn out through large flues opening near the floor. sells at a very high price, one should certainly hesitate to spend more than $100 per cow for the barn, including milk room, and silo, and storage place for the other dairy feeds. On the corn-belt farm, where few cows are kept and where there is an abundance of straw, the cows may run in an open shed. If there is a milking shed in which the cows are milked and fed grain, very clean milk may be obtained. No system is better for the health of the animals than running loose in a good shed, but where dairying is made the primary business a regular dairy barn is ordinarily desired. 148 DAIRY FARMING QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. What materials are used for barn floors in your region ? Describe the floor in some good barn, and tell how it was made. 2. What different kinds of stanchions are used? 3. Are manure carriers used in any barns? If so, what kind is used, and what did it cost? 4. Does any barn in the region have the King system of ventila- tion? If so, describe it. 5. If any barn has been built in the region in the past few years, find the cost per cow. 6. Draw a floor plan for a barn to hold 6 horses, 15 cows, and young stock. Or change the numbers of stock to suit the condi- tions. Show dimensions of stalls, mangers, etc., and location of milk house. LABORATORY EXERCISES 12. Study of a Barn. Arrange with the owner to visit a good dairy barn in the region, and study its general arrangement. A tape measure and thermometer will be required. Some of the points to be determined are as follows : Length, width, height of posts, height of peak, height of ceiling in cow barn. Capacity for hay, silage, grain. See page 305. Make a diagram of a cross section of the floor similar to figure 39, indicating the dimensions of the feed alley, manger, platform, gutter, etc. How wide a place is allowed for each cow? What kind of stanchions are used? What did they cost? How many cubic feet of air space is there per cow? What system of ventilation is used? Did the air appear to be good when you entered the barn? What is the temperature in the barn? How are the windows arranged? How many square feet of glass is there per cow ? Is there a milk house ? How many feet must be traveled with the milk from each cow? Are the arrangements for feeding the cows and for cleaning the barn convenient? THE DAIRY BARN 149 COLLATERAL READING Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. I, pp. 245-260. Ice Houses and the Use of Ice on the Dairy Farm, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 623. A Plan for a Small Dairy House, U. S. Dept. Agr,, Farmers' Bulle- tin 689. Lightning and Lightning Conductors, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers* Bulletin 367. Homemade Silos, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 589. Ventilation for Dwellings, Rural Schools and Stables, F. H. King. Cost of Fencing Farms in the North Central States, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 321. CHAPTER 7 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE C. H. ECKLES The author makes no attempt at giving directions for the treatment of such diseases and accidents as call for the services of the competent veterinarian. The farmer should depend largely upon the qualified veterinarian as his adviser in matters concerning the health of his animals, but there are certain common troubles that every manager of dairy cows should know how to handle. The discussion which follows aims to present a few of the facts that every dairy- man should know. The discussions are in the nature of advice for the owner of dairy stock and are not expected to take the place of expert advice by the veterinarian. Normal Conditions 136. The Pulse. The heart of the cow normally beats 50 to 60 times per minute. It is more rapid in young animals than in old, and is increased by excitement or exercise. The most convenient way to take the pulse of a cow is to stand on her left side and reach over the neck and feel the pulse on the lower side of the right jaw. A quick, bounding pulse indicates inflammation at some point in the body. The trained veterinarian becomes very skillful in diagnosing dis- ease by the feeling of the pulse. 150 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE 151 137. Temperature. The normal temperature of a cow usually varies between 99° and 103° F. The temperature is taken by means of a self-registering, or clinical, thermometer. Before using it the mercury is shaken down. The instrument is placed in the rectum for at least three minutes before the reading is made. A rise in temperature indicates fever due to inflammation at some point in the body. A rise of 4 degrees is serious, while as much as 6 degrees is dangerous. A sudden fall in temperature is also serious. The dairyman should provide himself with a good clinical thermometer and become fa- miliar with its use. 138. Respiration. A cow normally breathes from 10 to 25 times per minute. Rapid breathing may be caused by exercise, heat, or excitement, or by distention of the stomach with gaseous food to such an extent that the lung capacity is diminished. Rapid, short, or difficult breathing usually signifies trouble with the respiratory organs. 139. The Excretions. The excretions of an animal, the urine and feces, or dung, show the general condition of the digestive tract and kidneys. The stockman should be quick to observe any abnormality in this respect and determine the cause if possible. It is especially important to observe the feces of the cow when she is under conditions of high feeding as this is the best index of the state of her digestion. The knowledge necessary to interpret the various conditions that appear can only be had by experience and observation. Instruments and Medicines 140. Instruments and Medicine. Every manager of a herd of dairy cattle should be prepared for the ordinary emer- gencies. If a competent veterinarian is not readily accessi- 152 DAIRY FARMING ble, this is all the more important. The following instru- ments and medicines are most often needed, and it is advisable to have them on hand : Milk fever outfit, if high-producing cows are kept 2 milk tubes of different sizes 3 teat plugs of different sizes Trocar, if there is much trouble from bloating Syringe Drenching bottle Clinical thermometer A liberal amount of carbolic acid or some other good dis- infectant should always be on hand, as frequent use will be found for it. Crude carbolic acid can be used in a 2 per cent solution, when applied to the animal's body, or in a 5 per . A cent solution for disinfecting other objects, such CO -^ z^ I ^ * ^ "i — - • - ; W "^d^-^ ^ [ ' ■■ \ "Y^ U '-.:f. y^ / / Cc / ^ ^ ~^ pulJS lowd. in. li\d Ohio N.Y 11^55 Fig. 70. — Average farm prices for five years, 1910-1914. As we go eastward the prices of hay and corn rise faster than does the price of butter. This favors the production of butter where feed is cheap. Lawrence County, New York, to Washington, D. C, about 500 miles. Milk is the most bulky of the dairy products for its value and is also very perishable, so that it is produced nearest to the places where it is to be consumed. The city must reach out just far enough to obtain its necessary supply. Milk is now regularly sljipped to New York City from points over 300 miles away. Farms that are favorably situated for the sale of milk cannot afford to produce butter for sale on the wholesale mar- ket. Hay and other feeds are too valuable nearer the cities. 210 DAIRY FARMING One who under such conditions produces butter or cheese is using more expensive raw materials and gets little if any more for his product. In 1912 farmers who sold milk to cities in different parts of the United States received an average of 3.57 cents per quart above all shipping costs. The averages varied from 2.9 to 4.4 cents for different cities.^ In the same year the average farm price of butter was 26.1 cents per pound. ^ The price received for the milk was probably equal to 36 cents per pound for butter. How difficult it is for farmers near cities to compete in butter production with those who have cheaper feed is shown by a comparison of prices in Ne\Y York and Iowa. The average farm prices in 1914 are given in Table 24. Table 24. — Average Farm Prices in Iowa and in New York ^ Iowa New York Butter Hay ....... . Corn $ .26 10.10 .55 $ .31 14.60 .83 Per Cent of Iowa Price 119 145 151 Butter was only 19 per cent higher on New York farms than on Iowa farms, but hay was 45 per cent higher and corn 51 per cent higher than in Iowa. Other feeds are in about the same proportion. It is evident that butter and cheese production must shift to the regions of cheap feed. This shift is most strikingly shown by census figures. All 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Weekly News Letter to Crop Reporters, Sept. 24, 1913. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1912, p. 686. 3 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1914, pp. 516, 570, 626. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 211 of the northern states east of Indiana produced much less butter in 1909 than they did ten years before. The Chicago demand for milk was strong enough to cause a decrease in butter production in Illinois. In New York, butter production decreased 40 per cent and cheese production decreased 19 per cent in ten years. At CREAMERIES 1914- -J- { 1 . . ^ \ Fig. 71. Location of creameries in the United States. ^ the same time cheese production increased 88 per cent in Wisconsin, and butter production increased 50 per cent in Minnesota. The great center of butter production is west of Chicago. More butter is shipped from Chicago to the Eastern States than is produced in the nine North Atlantic States. ^ Wis- consin, Iowa, and Minnesota are the leading butter states, in the order named. From the rapid rate of increase, it is probable that Minnesota will rank first at the next census 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 396. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 177. 212 DAIRY FARMING period. There is no reason to suppose that any other state will be a close competitor with Wisconsin in cheese production. Table 25. — Pounds Butter and Cheese made on Farms AND IN Factories^ Butter Cheese 1899 1909 Per Cent Increase 1899 1909 Per Cent Increase New York Wisconsin Minnesota 115,408,222 106,552,649 82,363,315 69,358,918 131,085,193 123,551,515 -40 23 50 130,010,584 79,384,298 105,584,947 148,906,910 -19 88 These declines in New York do not mean that the dairy business has declined. They merely show that the readily Fig. 72. — Location of cheese factories in the United States.^ transportable dairy products are coming from regions of cheaper feed. At the same time that these decreases have 1 Thirteenth Census, Vol. V, p. 489. 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1915, p. 397. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 213 taken place in butter and cheese production, the amount of milk sold to be consumed as milk has more than doubled (increased about 121 per cent). There is still much butter and cheese produced in New York and other eastern states and will be for some time to come. The amount of land that is good for pasture but not good for crops is more than enough to supply all the milk needed in the cities. The Fig. 73. — Distribution of cheese production in the United States. Most of the cheese is produced in regions that are cool, and that have good pastures on soils well supplied with lime.^ remaining land is used for the production of cheese and but- ter. As the populations of the cities increase, the production of both of these will decrease. Some butter will always be made because the milk supply cannot be just right for each day's demand. The excess is usually made into butter. 188. Other Adjustment due to Transportation. Because of differences in prices of feed and kinds of products sold, the ^ Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 231. 214 DAIRY FARMING methods of dairying are very different in different regions. Near cities the cost of feed is so high and the value of the protein in milk (skim-milk) is so great that the raising of calves is very expensive. Many fanners who are thus sit- uated regularly buy their cows. This is certain to continue to be the general practice. This provides a steady market for mature cows from regions where feed and milk are both cheaper. Such men can raise more calves than they need and can sell some of them as cows. Because of the expense of raising cows where feed is high priced, the tendency in such regions is to keep the cows longer. On New York farms, there were 7 cows for each yearling heifer in 1910, indicating that the average cow is probably kept until she is 8 or 9 years old. In Wisconsin there was one yearling heifer for each 4.7 cows. In Iowa there was one heifer for each 3.6 cows. In these states the cows are kept about half as long as they are in New York. 189. Marginal Regions. There are of course many regions where the conditions are about equally favorable for each class of dairy products. The region may be at the end of the milk-shipping region so that the freight charges on milk make the net price of milk about the same as that of butter. Such regions tend to prevent the price of milk from rising. If it rises much, farmers stop making cheese or butter and ship the milk ; and if the price drops, they go back to butter or cheese making. 190. Effect of Distance to Railroad. Back from the rail- roads on which milk or cream is shipped there are some- times communities or farms that find it better to make butter than to haul milk too far. In many of the milk-sell- ing regions there are such examples. Sometimes the farmers get calves from men living near the railroad, take them to Xi THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 215 the distant farm to be raised, and then sell the cows back to the dairymen nearer the railroad. It is often more profit- able for the farmers in such regions to cooperate and haul the milk to the railroad. 191. Soil and Climate as Determining the Kind of Prod- uct. There are no important dairy regions that do not Per Cent 16 14 12 10 8 G 2 / k / / 1 ^\ ^ j 1 1 \ \^ •\ /•■**! ^ 1 f \ .:\ :^:: '**•♦, x '/ ' \ ^v. V — ~— ^^ / / \ ..--^ / *\ Milk Butter Cre&m CKeese )dj\. Feb. Mar A|3r. M&y June July Aug. 5ept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Fig. 74. — Proportion of the year's product made in each month. Record for cheese made in Wisconsin, butter received in Chicago, and milk and cream received in New York. Most of the cheese and butter is made in summer and stored for winter use. have good pastures. Cheese production appears to have a further limitation. Nearly all the cheese is produced in cool regions that have a limestone soil or that have a soil fairly well supplied with lime. Butter is produced on all kinds of soils, but most of the commercial product is from regions where the soil and climate will grow good pastures. 192. Kind of Product and Season for Production. The demand for milk in the cities is practically constant. Fifty- two per cent of the total milk shipped to New York City is 216 DAIRY FARMING received during the six months beginning May 1. But almost two-thirds (64 per cent) of the cream is used during the summer months.^ Because pasture is so much cheaper than winter feed, the products that are readily stored, such as condensed milk, Butter |De rib. ^2t Milk per qt 42^ 40, •.. ...- ,j 40 38. •• % .•i ^3.8 36. '.y ^« .* _ 3.6 34_ '•. y ••* -34 32 _ \ ,.*' ••** _3.2 30„ -3.0 ZQ_ - 2.8 26.. ■^ '^^ -\t y y ^ 2.6 ZA .o^. X ^ ^ y u 2.4 Z2 "-^ ^ L22 Aiv. Feb. Maj: Apr May June July Au^. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. Fig. 75. — Average farm prices of butter and of market milk at shipping stations for the five years 1910-1914. In order to secure a constant supply of milk the prices in the different months have to be in proportion to the costs of production in each month, but the amount of stored butter prevents the winter price of butter from rising as. high as it otherwise would. butter, cheese, and milk flour, are most largely produced on grass. About 75 per cent of the cheese in Wisconsin is pro- duced in the six months beginning with May.^ Over three- fifths (63 per cent) of the butter received in Chicago is received during these six months.^ 1 The Milk Reporter, Feb., 1915, p. 16. ' Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 231, p. 21. 3 Chicago Dairy Produce, Jan. 16, 1915, p. 5. THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 217 Of course some butter and cheese is produced in all months. The problem is whether to have the cows freshen in the spring, and thereby have most of the production made on pasture ; or to have them freshen in the fall, and therefore have most of the production made in winter. It is perfectly clear that the majority of farmers find that the summer dairy pays best for cheese and butter. Many of those who sell market milk have the cows freshen in the fall. Table 26. — Five-year Average Farm Prices of Butter in THE United States, 1910-1914 ; and Three-year Average Prices of Market Milk at Shipping Stations, 1913-1915 Milk ^ Butter 2 Cents per Per Cent of Cents per Per Cent of Quart Dec. Price Pound Dec. Price January 4.13 99 28.4 100 February 4.06 97 27.2 96 March 3.90 93 25.9 92 April . . 3.61 86 25.4 90 May . . 3.21 77 24.7 87 June . . 3.16 75 23.5 83 July . . 3.33 79 22.9 81 August . 3.49 83 23.6 83 September 3.66 87 24.7 87 October 3.98 95 25.8 91 November 4.14 .99 26.7 94 December 4.19 100 28.3 100 The average farm price of butter in the United States by months is given in Table 26, also the average farm price of milk that is shipped to the leading cities. The highest price of milk is reached in December. The June price is 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Weekly News Letter to Crop Correspondents, Sept. 24, 1913, Jan. 20, 1915, Apr. 28, 1915. * U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbooks. * 218 DAIRY FARMING only 75 per cent of the December price. Butter is less variable in price. The butter held in storage prevents the winter price from rising as high as it would otherwise go. Under normal conditions this stored butter prevents the winter price from rising high enough to cover the increased cost of feed as it must do in the case of milk. The winter prices of butter and cheese are based not primarily on the cost of winter feed, but on the cost of summer feed plus the cost of storage. In spite of this difference in favor of production of butter on pasture, there are some farms that can produce it in win- ter to the best advantage. Occasionally a farmer sells but- ter at retail at such a high winter price that it more than covers the higher feed cost. If the farmer is very short of pasture and has an abundance of cheap winter feed, winter production may pay. Sometimes the pressure of other work in the summer is enough to more than offset the difference in feed cost. Occasionally a farmer has such profitable summer work and so much of it that he cannot afford to milk cows in the summer, but may be able to milk them for butter pro- duction in winter. 193. Animal Unit Defined. In order to compare the amount of live-stock on different farms, it is necessary to reduce all kinds of animals to some common basis. One cow, bull, or horse is called an animal unit. Two head of young stock are counted as one unit. Seven sheep, fourteen lambs, five hogs, ten pigs, one hundred hens, are each counted as one animal unit. In each case the numbers given represent a group that eats approximately as much food as a cow or horse, and produces manure worth as much as that produced by a cow or horse. Similarly, the number of cattle units on a farm are the approximate equivalent in THE DEVELOPMENT OF DAIRYING 219 grown cattle. To find the number of cattle units add half the number of young stock to the number of cows and bulls. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Is your region more or less favorable for cattle production than the average of the country ? Consider the ease with which per- manent pastures are maintained, length of the pasture season, amount of pasture land that is not good for crop growing, amount of good forage crops grown, cost of winter feed, and total cost of feed for the entire year. 2. Is the region relatively better for beef or for dairy cattle? Some of the points to consider are : cost of feed, coolness of the cli- mate, whether the pasture grass is luxuriant enough to maintain a good flow of milk, and the market for dairy products. 3. What form of dairy products are usually most profitable in this region ? Why ? 4. From the railroad agent find the amounts shipped in a car- load of cattle, of butter, of milk, of cream. What is the freight on a car-load of each to the nearest large city ? Use the same city in each case. 5. From farmers, find about how many pounds of feed are repre- sented in a car-load of each of the above products. 6. From the census report for your state, fill in the following table : Number of farms in the state • Number of dairy cows Number of dairy cows per farm Quantity of milk produced Quantity of milk produced per cow * Pounds of butter made on farms Pounds of butter made in factories Total pounds of butter Pounds of cheese made on farms Pounds of cheese made in factories Total pounds of cheese Amount of milk sold Amount of cream sold Amount of butter-fat sold 1 Notice that this is too low because some heifers that are too young to give milk are included with cows. 220 DAIRY FARMING Total value of all dairy products sold Average value of dairy products sold per farm 7; Compared with the preceding census, which of the following are increasing and which decreasing : number of cows ; butter made on farms ; butter made in factories ; cheese. In each case give the reasons for the change. 8. A similar study may be made for the county. 9. How may steers and bulls born before 1909, and born in 1909, are there in your state or county for each 100 dairy cows ? Compare with Table 23, page 207. What proportion do dairy cows represent of all cattle? Compare with Table 22, page 203. 10. How many beef and dairy cows were there in your state or county? How many heifers born in 1909? How many cows for each heifer? Compare with the figures on page 214. 11. Are the calves in your region raised, or sold for veal? If sold, at what age? 12. Does your region produce all its dairy cows? Does it pro- duce any to be shipped to other regions ? 13. About what proportion of the cows in the dairy herds of your region are replaced each year? 14. At what time of the year is most of the milk, butter, or cheese of your region produced ? Why ? COLLATERAL READING Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 43-103, 276-278. CHAPTER 10 SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS G. F. Warren Dairy farms may be classified according to the cropping system that they use, also according to whether they raise or buy their feed, and may be compared in many other ways. A few of these problems of organization are here discussed. Crops for Feed 194. Corn Silage. The most striking change in the dairy industry in the last century has come in connection with the use of the silo. This provides a succulent feed in the winter and makes it possible to obtain a better production of milk at that time of year. The silo is a means of saving corn- stalks in the best possible form for winter use. It does not increase the value of the grain. In fact, there is always some loss in the silo, and the cost of putting corn into the silo is more than the cost of husking from standing stalks. Aside from its value as a succulent feed, it is primarily a substitu- tion of corn-stalks for hay. In regions where the season is too short for maturing corn, it may still be grown for the silo. In arid regions corn and other crops that would not produce much grain are nevertheless of value for silage. Few crops except corn and similar plants are used gener- ally for the silo. Crops that make good hay are best stored 221 222 DAIRY FARMING as hay, because hay can be handled more cheaply and be- cause the hay crops pack so loosely in the silo that the losses are considerable. The higher the price of hay, the more important a silo becomes. The more general use of silos in the East is pri- marily due to the high price of hay. The average farm price of hay in New York is 86 per cent above that in Ne- braska, but in every region the price is rising so that interest in silos is general. Next to the price of hay the number of cattle is the pri- mary consideration in building a silo. A silo that holds much less than 75 to 100 tons is expensive for its capacity. But such a silo will furnish feed for 20 to 30 cattle during the winter months. It is usually not profitable to have a silo for less than 10 cattle. If one has over 20 cattle in a region where corn grows well, a silo is usually profitable. Between these limits the price of hay, the amount of money available, the machinery that must be purchased, and whether winter or summer dairying is followed, will deter- mine whether or not a silo will be profitable. In Livingston County, New York, only 7 per cent of the farmers who had fewer than 15 cattle units had silos, but 83 per cent of those who had 25 or more cattle units had silos. Silage costs more than the estimates often given. In the Eastern States it usually costs about $4 to $5 per ton. It is often considered to be worth one-third as much as hay. In the corn-belt a ton of silage often contains about five bushels of corn. To compare the cost of silage with the value of corn husked from the standing stalks, we must add to the value of the corn grain the extra cost of puttipg it in the silo, and interest on the money invested in the silo, and an- nual depreciation of the silo. These extra costs often amount SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 223 to $1 per ton. On this basis silage usually costs $3 to $4 per ton. 195. Soiling Crops. Sometimes dairy cattle are kept in the barn, and green feed is brought to them rather than provide pasture for them. This system is practiced in some places in Europe and occasionally in America. The system will keep more cows on a given area of land, and it is therefore frequently advocated by persons who do not un- derstand American farming. When land is very high in price, or labor very cheap, it is a good system. On the edge of cities it sometimes pays because land for pasture would be too expensive. The high price received for the milk may make it possible to follow this expensive method and yet make a profit. The large amount of labor involved is shown by results at the New Jersey Experiment Station. The equivalent of 50 cows was kept for 6 months on various soiling crops. During that time 278 tons of green crops were hauled to the barn. The cost of the labor to haul these crops to the barn, to say nothing of the cost of growing them, would be more than the entire cost of pasture in many dairy regions. It often pays to cut some corn-stalks or to give some other feed at times when the pasture is short, as discussed on page 128, but this is. very different from fol- lowing a soiUng system. Such feeding is supplementing pasture, not trying to do without it. Even when land be- comes high in price and labor cheap, it is not probable that a soiUng system will be generally used in America, because corn silage is cheaper and is as good. Any system of barn feeding during the pasture season means that milk is being produced on the winter basis of cost, whereas the product must be sold at the summer price, which is much lower. 196. Roots. Mangels, sugar beets, or other root crops 224 DAIRY FARMING are much grown for stock food in Europe, but in regions where corn silage can be grown, such crops are not Ukely to be raised extensively, because corn silage is nearly as good and is cheaper. The cool moist climate of Europe and the cheap labor are favorable for growing roots. Our climate is better adapted to corn, and our labor is so costly that root crops are expensive feed. The farmer who keeps too small a herd to justify him in having a silo, sometimes finds that it pays to raise root crops to give a succulent feed in winter. Roots are a very expensive feed, but a few pounds a day will often increase the milk yield enough to pay. Per- sons who make advanced registry tests usually raise mangels or beets to feed to the cows while on test. Root crops also have a place in regions where the season is so short that corn silage cannot be raised. 197. Legumes. The importance of raising alfalfa, clover, or some other legume has already been emphasized. Many farms in the eastern half of the United States are better adapted to clover than to alfalfa, but where alfalfa grows without too much difficulty it is preferred. Cowpeas are the most common legume in the South. Soybeans, vetch, and many other legumes are grown by some farmers, but in most parts of the North, alfalfa or clover is more profitable. 198. Pasture. The common pasture plants in the north- eastern quarter of the United States are Kentucky blue-grass and white clover. On land that is deficient in lime, Canada blue-grass or redtop is often the chief pasture plant. Blue- grass requires several years to form a good sod. If the pas- ture land is well supplied with lime and is fairly fertile, the pasture usually requires little attention, but if it is not fertile, more care is necessary. In the South the common pasture plant is Bermuda grass. SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 225 199. Home-grown Grain. In the corn-belt it nearly always pays to raise more corn than the cattle eat. Since there is an abundance of corn, it should be fed as liberally as possible and yet have a good ration. In the Eastern States and north of the corn-belt farm-grown oats are often ground for cow feed. Oats are nearly always too high in price to be a profitable feed to buy, but the costs of marketing the oats and hauling other feeds to take their place are often enough to make it pay to feed the oats that one has. Cropping Systems on Dairy Farms 200. Principles of a Good Cropping System. The great majority of the dairy cows are in the northeastern quarter of the United States (see Fig. 68), east of central Nebraska and north of Washington, D.C. Most of this region is adapted to timothy, blue-grass, and clover. Permanent pastures of blue-grass and white clover are common. The usual cropping system is : Corn or other tilled crops on sod land for one or more years. Small grain for one or two years with timothy and clover seeded in the last year. Hay for one or more years, or hay followed by pasture. This is an ideal cropping system for the dairy farm. The three different classes of crops supplement each other in the control of weeds. The corn furnishes silage or grain or both. The small grain gives its best yield and at least cost when grown after a tilled crop. The grasses and clover are started by seeding in the small grain at very low cost. If the land is adapted to clover, this helps to supply the protein that is not provided in sufficient quantity by the other feeds grown in the rotation. Q 226 DAIRY FARMING Everywhere a good rotation for a dairy farm should if possible provide clover, alfalfa, or some other legume for hay and should provide an abundance of roughage and pas- ture. It should if possible provide a cash crop, or a feeding crop for some other class of animals, such as corn for hog feed. 201. Examples of Rotations. There are many variations of this rotation plan that follow the general principles given Iw^i^*: 4..^ Fig. 76. — A good basis for profitable dairying ; high-grade cows on a good blue-grass pasture ; corn for the silo in the background ; clover in an adjoining field ; timothy and oats also raised. above. In the southern part of the region described above, from southern Pennsylvania to Kansas, a common rotation is corn, winter wheat, clover. A little farther north, corn is removed too late for the planting of wheat, therefore oats are grown_ following corn. In the Northeastern States, corn, potatoes, cabbage, and other tilled crops are usually followed by oats in which grass is seeded. The hay is usually left for about three years. In this region hay does well and is high in price. SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 227 In the best part of the corn-belt, corn is raised for several years in succession because this is the most important crop. A good rotation for much of this region is corn two years, followed by one year of oats in which clover and timothy are seeded. This may be cut for one or two years, or if there is not a permanent blue-grass pasture, it may be cut for hay one year and pastured one year. in regions where alfalfa is grown, systems of cropping are not so definitely established. Perhaps the ideal dairy region is one that is naturally adapted to corn and alfalfa and that has permanent pastures of blue-grass and white clover. In the South, a good rotation is cotton one or two years, followed by corn. The corn is followed by one year of oats and cowpeas, the oat crop being harvested in time to raise a crop of cowpeas the same year. Cowpeas or some other crop is sometimes planted between the rows of corn. This system, together with Bermuda grass pastures, provides legumes, corn, pasture, and a cash crop. The legume and pasture are, however, more expensive to raise than are the grasses of the North. There is room for a great develop- ment of dairying in the South, but the greatest dairy centers will remain in the regions where grass grows more readily. These are but a few of the great variety of cropping sys- tems followed on different dairy farms. Cash Crops and Feed Raised 202. Feed and Cash Crops. There are many ways in which the type of farming on dairy farms may be described. Some of the most important comparisons are based on the extent to which feed is purchased and the amount of other products sold. The following are some of the different methods : 228 DAIRY FARMING 1. All feed bought, no crops raised, nothing but milk and discarded cows sold. 2. Nothing but roughage raised. 3. Roughage and all or part of the grain raised. 4. Same as 2, but with some cash crop or other product sold. 5. Same as 3, with some cash crop or other product sold. 6. With any of the above methods, the cows may be raised or may be purchased. 7. The cows may be pure-bred so that there is a consid- erable income from the sale of stock. In general, each of the above types is more profitable than the preceding, provided the conditions are favorable for it. 203. All Feed Purchased. Some dairy cows are kept in cities. Most of these are kept to supply milk for home use, but some large dairies are maintained where all feed must be purchased. Usually the cows are fed largely on factory by- products that are not readily shipped. But sometimes or- dinary feeds are purchased. The high price received for the milk sometimes makes such an enterprise profitable. Calves are very rarely raised in cities, because feed is too expensive. Ordinarily it is cheaper to produce the milk in the country where pastures are available. It costs less to ship milk than it does to ship the hay and other feed required to make it. 204. Nothing but Roughage Raised. This system is very common in the hilly and mountainous parts of the Eastern States. A better system is not easy to devise for some regions where the land is not adapted to any crop ex- cept hay and pasture and where the fields are all so small and rough as to prevent the profitable growth of other crops. Because of the small amount of field work, it is not often SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 229 profitable to employ much hired help. The farmer with the help of one member of the family at chore time can milk 20 or 25 cows and, therefore, under this system, the women often help with the milking. The farmer can do the re- mainder of the day's work alone. In haying time he may need a little extra help. Such farmers usually find that it pays best to have the cows freshen in the spring so as to pro- duce most of the milk in summer and thus reduce the grain bill. One of the important reasons for winter dairying is to have the summer free for field work, but on farms where little field work is done this is no advantage. Under these conditions the milk production per cow is the most important problem because profits depend almost en- tirely on the cow. It is sometimes possible to find some other product besides milk that can be raised without much extra cost. Berries, eggs, honey, or hay will often add much to the income. Sometimes pure-bred stock is kept and a good profit made from the sale of the surplus animals. 205. Roughage and Grain Raised. Where the land is good enough to raise grain, this system pays much better than the preceding one because the grain feed can be raised without having to hire much extra labor, and with practically the same number of horses that must be kept anyway. (See Farm Records on page 281.) 206. Roughage and Cash Crops Raised. One of the most profitable types of dairy farming is the combination of intensive cash crops with a dairy. The manure is used to grow potatoes, cabbages, apples, tobacco, hops, peas, or sweet corn for canning factories, or some other crop for sale. Where the soil and markets are favorable for one or two of these crops, this system usually pays much better than trying to raise the grain feed. It is, of course, much 230 DAIRY FARMING better to raise the grain feed than nothing. But if instead of raising the grain, one can raise cash crops that will pay the feed bill several times over, he should certainly choose the latter course. Hay is another good cash crop for dairy farms near large cities. Most of the highly successful dairy farms in New York and New England sell some crops, as do many of the farms in other sections. Some of these farms also raise all their grain feed, but most of them buy a consider- able part of it. (See Farm Records on pages 242 and 285.) Farther from the cities the cash crops are more likely to be grain or grain marketed through hogs. This is the most commonly profitable type of dairy farming in the corn-belt. It is certain to increase greatly in that region. All of the roughage and most of the grain is raised for all of the farm sfock. A little cottonseed meal, or other nitrogenous feed, is purchased to balance the ration. Much more corn is raised than can be fed to the cows. This is sold or is fed to hogs. If skim-milk is available for hog feed, the conditions are particularly favorable for hog production. (See Farm Records, page 281.) Management of Manure The success of the dairy farm is in no small measure de- pendent on the use that is made of the important by-product, manure. 207. Amount of Manure Produced. Under the direction of the writer, R. E. Deuel determined the amount of manure produced by a herd of 46 cows of different breeds and ages, averaging 1008 pounds in weight. He found that excrement was produced at the rate of 13f tons per year. Some years ago Roberts found the amount to be 13.5 tons per 1000- pound animal. In each case a little over one ton of bedding SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 231 was used, so that if the cows were kept in the barn all the time and if no manure were lost, there would have been nearly 15 tons of manure per 1000-pound cow. Much .of the year the cows are either at pasture or in the barnyard so that part of the manure is lost. About a ton of manure per cow per month is ordinarily available when cows are kept in the barn and turned out in the barnyard for a part of the day. In the Northern States 8 to 10 tons of manure a year, including bedding, are usually available for each cow or animal unit kept. 208. Fertility of Feed Returned by Cows. The propor- tions of the constituents of the feed that are returned in the excrement are somewhat variable. A fat animal that is not working or giving milk returns a very large proportion of the food materials. A good dairy cow from the very fact that she is an efficient machine returns a small propor- tion. Table 27. — Proportion of Constituents of Food that Are Returned in the Excrement of Dairy Cows Deuel Wolff i Dry matter Organic matter Nitrogen . Ash ... Per Cent 45.5 43.3 44.3 63.6 Per Cent 43.8 39.5 47.5 53.9 R. E. Deuel determined the average results for a herd of 46 dairy cows. These results as well as the results by Wolff are given in Table 27. Dairy cows return somewhat over 40 per cent of the organic matter and nitrogen of the food eaten, and more than half of- the mineral matter. Dry 1 C. M. Aikman, Manures and Manuring, pp. 227, 281. 232 DAIRY FARMING COWS, or COWS that are giving little milk, often return a half more than these amounts. If one wishes organic matter to plow under to make humus, he can feed cows and still have 40 per cent of the humus- making material left. For this reason, it is usually more profitable to feed stock than to plow under green-manure crops. If one desires nitrogen as a fertilizer, he can feed cows, and still get back nearly half of the nitrogen of the feed. If he needs phosphorus and potassium, he can feed cows, and get back over half of these materials that are in the feed. In addition to the above all of the bedding may be recovered. Some of the manure may be lost, but for the time cows are in the barn, if the manure is reasonably well cared for, it is safe to estimate that over a third of the fertilizing value of the feeds will actually be applied to the land. 209. Losses of Manure and their Prevention. On many farms the manure is allowed to lie around in the barnyard until a very large part of it is lost. Exposure for five months resulted in a loss of over half of the value of the manure. ^ One of the important reasons for keeping cattle is to obtain manure, but there is no object in this if the manure is wasted. If manure is kept moist enough so that it will not heat, and yet if neither the liquid in it nor rain water that falls on it, is allowed to escape, it will keep with practically no loss. The safest place for manure is on the land. On some farms it is possible to haul it every day. This is the best possible way to save it. When this practice is followed, it is con- venient to have the barn so arranged that one can drive through between two rows of cows that have their heads toward the wall. In regions where little is done except to 1 Elements of Agriculture, G. F, Warren, p. 141. SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 233 care for the cows and raise feed for them, the practice of daily hauhng is often best. If many acres of crops are grown for sale or for use in feeding other animals, the field work is so important that during much of the year one cannot afford to take the time to haul manure every day. There are then three ways of keeping the manure. It may be left in piles until it can be hauled, it may be kept in covered barnyards, or may be kept in a manure shed. A cheap shed with a concrete floor will keep off the rain and prevent the liquids from leaching away. A convenient way of using such a shed is to have the barn equipped with a manure carrier so that the manure from the cows, horses, and other animals, can be put in the shed. The floor of the shed should be two to four feet below the floor of the barn to increase its capacity. The writer has found that a shed 25 feet square will ordinarily hold the manure from about 20 animal units until the time when it can be hauled. The floor need not be expensive. Three inches of concrete on solid ground will answer all purposes. A better plan is to have the shed large so that cattle, hogs, or other stock, can run in it. This keeps the manure solid and makes a good covered shed. With either of the above plans, it is convenient to have the barn so arranged that the cows' heads are together. This saves time in feeding, and the barn can be cleaned with a manure carrier as quickly as if the cows faced the wall. The majority of farmers throw the manure in piles in the barnyard. The rains then wash away much of the best part of it. Even with this method, considerable saving can be made by having the eave troughs and yard drainage so arranged that a minimum amount of water will run through 234 DAIRY FARMING the manure. In arid regions even this precaution is not always necessary because there may be only enough rain to keep the manure wet without washing it away. With this method of handling, it should be hauled away frequently. If possible, all of it should be hauled out in the winter and spring so that as httle as possible will be lost by summer rains. In August usually it can be cleaned up again. Bet- ter care of manure by using the covered shed method, or by some other method, is well worth consideration. 210. Value of Manure. Manure is sometimes valued according to its chemical analysis. If purchased in com- mercial fertilizers, the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and calcium in a ton of manure would cost over %2. But what manure is worth to a farmer depends not on its chemical analysis but on what he is going to do with it. If it is to be left in the barnyard, it has no value. If used on some crops, it may have a very high value. On other crops its value is less. If applied in very large quan- tities, its value per ton is less than when used in moderate amounts. The good returns that often come from combining dairying with such intensive crops as potatoes, cabbages, hops, to- bacco, apples, and grapes are due partly to the high value of manure for growing such crops. It is just as easy by use of manure to increase the potato crop ten per cent as it is to increase a grain crop by the same proportion. But the po- tato crop has so much greater value per acre that the returns from such an increase are much more. Manure has a high value for growing corn and is chiefly used on that crop in regions where more intensive crops are not raised. For raising corn, small grain, and hay, manure is often credited to the cows at about $1 to $1.50 per ton at the barn. SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 235 The cost of hauling is usually about 50 cents so that these figures would make the manure cost the crops $1.50 to $2 per ton. For some new regions these figures may be high, but in the eastern half of the United States manure is always worth at least $1 per ton at the barn. Where truck crops or other very intensive crops are raised, it may be worth much more. 211. The Value of Manure Depends on the Rate of Appli- cation. The Pennsylvania Experiment Station has con- ducted an extensive series of fertilizer and manure experi- ments since 1882. A four-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, hay is followed. On one plot 6 tons of manure is applied on the corn and on the wheat. On another plot 10 tons is used. The check plots receive no treatment. The total values of the crops per acre for 32 years were as follows : ^ No treatment $474 Six tons manure every other year (96 tons) ... 714 Ten tons manure every other year (160 tons) . . 747 When a total of 96 tons of manure was applied, the value of the increased crops amounted to $2.50 per ton of manure. An additional application of 64 more tons gave increased crops worth 51 cents for each additional ton. For the entire period of 32 years this extra manure would have been worth nearly five times as much per ton if applied at the lesser rate. If one kept 30 animal units and ob- tained 6 tons of manure from each one, or 180 tons per year, he would have 5760 tons of manure in 32 years. If this manure were applied at the lesser rate, the total value of the increased crops would be $14,400. If applied at the heavier rate, the same manure would have brought increased 1 Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 90. Later data furnished by F. D. Gardner. 236 DAIRY FARMING crops worth only $9,828. The manure would have been worth $4,572 more to the farmer if spread thinner. The land that received the heavier application is better for future crops but by no means is it better to the ex- tent of the cost of the heavier application. The best measure of how much better it is, is found in the results of the last few years. As an average for the last four years, the plots that had received 64 more tons of manure per acre gave crops worth only $8.63 more than the crops on the plots using the lighter application. This difference is not enough to give any promise of catching up. The same principle is shown by results at the Ohio Ex- periment Station. Many different experiments have been conducted for many years. In every case a given quantity of manure has given the greatest returns when spread thinly. One test in a three-year rotation of potatoes, wheat, clover, has been continued for 21 years. Manure was applied at the rate of 4, 8, and 16 tons on wheat. The total values of the crops per acre were as follows : ^ No treatment $782.49 4 tons manure every three years (28 tons) . . 900.04 8 tons manure every three years (56 tons) . . 963.17 16 tons manure every three years (112 tons) . . 1099.31 When a total of 28 tons of manure was applied, the in- creased crops were worth $4.20 per ton of manure. An ad- ditional application of 28 more tons of manure per acre gave additional crops worth $63.13, or $2.25 per ton for the additional manure. A still further addition of 56 more tons gave crops worth $2.43 per ton for the last additional manure. Of course the land that has received the heavier appli- 1 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Circular 144. Data for 1914 supplied by C. G. Williams. SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 237 cation is in better condition, but this is not enough to make up for the past difference in returns. Even with the fer- tihty left from all the previous years of treatment the plots that had the heaviest applications were still paying least per ton of manure on the twenty-first year. Of course if there is enough manure, the heavier applica- tion is very desirable, but with a limited amount it is better to spread it thinly. These figures also indicate the high value that one can assign to manure if he is keeping a small amount of stock. If a farmer had 180 tons of manure a year to apply for 21 years under conditions like those in the Ohio experiment, the manure would produce increased crops worth $15,869, if applied at the rate of 4 tons every three years, but would give increased crops worth only $10,693 if applied at the rate of 16 tons every three years. If the manure is not wasted, this amount is usually available on a farm that keeps 15 cows in addition to the usual amount of young stock, horses, etc. If applied at the rate of 4 tons every three years, it would provide for 135 acres of crops. These are about the condi- tions on many 160-acre farms. If the manure were applied at the rate of 16 tons every three years, it would provide for only 34 acres of crops. This would be a very small farm. Another way to provide for the larger application would be to keep four times as many cows on the larger area. But this would make a very heavily-stocked place. From the above, we see that one of the strong reasons for keeping a moderate number of cows is the high value that can be obtained from the intelligent use of small applications of manure. One of the reasons why it may not pay to stock the farm too heavily is the smaller value that manure then has. 238 DAIRY FARMING 212. The Value of Manure Depends on the Crops on which it is Applied. At the Ohio Experiment Station, 8 tons of manure was applied on wheat as compared with the same application on potatoes. The manure gave increased crops worth $3.45 per ton when applied on potatoes, but gave only $2.72 per ton when applied on the wheat crop. If one farmed 75 acres of this land with this three-year rotation and had 200 tons of manure to use each year, he would make $3066 more in twenty-one years if he applied it on the potatoes rather than on the wheat. With corn, wheat, and oats, each grown continuously on the same land at the Ohio Experiment Station, corn paid the best prices for manure, wheat next, and oats least. Such experiments indicate the great importance of applying the manure on the right crop in the rotation. They also indicate the great advantage of combining dairying with the production of such intensive crops as potatoes. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. Make a list of all the farmers you know, with the number of cows that they keep, and state whether or not they have a silo. Lists by different members of the class can be combined to make a cow and silo census. What proportion of the farmers who have 10 cows or less have a silo ? What proportion of those who have 10 to 20 cows have a silo ? What proportion of those who have over 20 ? 2. Make a list of all the different kinds of silos of the region. Of as many as possible, find the cost (including labor by the farmer) and the cost for each ton of capacity. 3. If any farmers have cut part of a field for silage and have husked part of the same field, find the yield of silage and of grain. How many bushels of corn in a ton of silage ? If the use of the silo and machinery and extra work amount to $1.00 per ton, what would a ton of the silage cost at the present price of corn ? 4. Does any one in the region follow a soiling system ? 5. Are roots raised for stock food by any farmers in this region ? 6. What are the best legumes for the dairy farm in this region ? SYSTEMS OF FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS 239 7. What are the common pasture plants of the region? 8. What are the usual crops grown on the dairy farms of this region ? 9. What feeds do dairy farmers in this region buy? What cash crops or other products are sold from dairy farms? 10. What crop rotations are used in the region? Do they in- clude the types of crops that make a good cropping system? 11. What are the usual methods of handling manure in this re- gion ? Is it taken out of the barns with a carrier, loaded on a wagon driven through the barn, or is it thrown out into the barnyard? Do any farmers in the region haul manure every day? Do any have a shed in which manure is kept? What proportion of the farmers clean up and haul all the manure at least twice a year? On what crops is the manure usually applied, and at what rate per acre? 12. How many months are animals usually kept in the barn here ? About how many tons of manure are available for each ani- mal unit kept ? If possible find the tons of manure hauled by some farmer and number of animals kept. How many tons were there per animal unit? 13. For some farm in the region find the area, acres of crops grown, number of each kind of animals, and crop rotation. Calcu- late the number of animal units and probable tons of manure avail- able. On which crops, how often, and at what rate would you use this manure? LABORATORY EXERCISES 35. Field Trip to a Farm. Visit one or more dairy farms. Make sketches of the farms, showing location of different fields. What crops were grown on each field last year ? What was done with the crops? What areas will probably be grown this year? On which field is the manure applied? How is the manure cared for? Is the pasture permanent or rotated? What are the chief plants in the pasture ? Is the pasture land good land for use in raising grain ? What disposition was made of the crops last year? Are the fields and pasture conveniently arranged as to size and nearness to the barn? What is the kind and amount of fencing? How many months in the year are the stock kept on pasture ? For how many months does the pasture furnish all the feed ? How many animal units are kept in the pasture ? How many acres of pasture per ani- mal unit ? CHAPTER 11 RENTING DAIRY FARMS G. F. Warren 213. Cash Rent. When cash rent is paid, the tenant usu- ally furnishes everything but the land. The landlord then has little to do with the farm. In some regions the land- lord furnishes the cows and rents the farm and cows. 214. Share of Crops. In regions where grain or cotton is the major product, the landlord usually receives a share of the crop. If cows are kept, the landlord has no share in them. Only rarely does a good dairy farm develop under these conditions. The landlord is not likely to provide suitable buildings. The tenant justly feels that the manure produced by the cows he feeds increases the yield of the landlord's land with no expense to the landlord. 215. Share of Receipts. In the older states the almost universal system of sharing the products on rented dairy farms is for each party to receive half of the receipts from all products of the farm. The landlord furnishes the land and does any extensive repairing of buildings. For small repairs to buildings and fences he usually furnishes materials, and the tenant does the work. He usually pays the taxes, pays half the seed, feed, fertilizer, threshing, silo filling, hay pressing, and similar bills ; and furnishes half or more of the cattle and other stock from which he shares the in- come. 240 RENTING DAIRY FARMS 241 The tenant furnishes the human labor, machinery, and horses, and half of the other stock, and pays half of the bills mentioned above. He pays such bills as horseshoeing and machinery repairs. Each party has half of the receipts and owns half of the young stock raised. In regions where little but milk is sold, the landlord usually furnishes all cows (see page 244). When profitable cash crops are raised in addition to dairying, the tenant usually furnishes some of the cows (see farm, page 242). In either case the calves raised are usually a part of the product, to be divided equally. Many variations occur. If the chances of making a profit are poor, the tenant obtains concessions from the landlord. If the chances are good, the tenant may make concessions to get the place. The landlord often furnishes some machinery or horses, usually what he happens to own. The tenant often owns all the hens and receives all the product from them. Usually he is then required to furnish all the feed for them. A hog or two is often kept in the same way. If hogs are an important enterprise, the feed and returns are divided. Sometimes the landlord pays all the fertilizer bill and often furnishes all the grass seed. Sometimes the tenant furnishes all the grain for horses, and sometimes this cost is shared. Colts usually belong to the tenant but are sometimes shared. The fertility of the land, character of the buildings, quality of the cows, distance to market, price of milk, size of the farm, and many other factors must be considered before one can say what the exact terms of the lease should be. For the tenant the quality of the cows kept, the fertility of the land, and amount of good crop land available are more important than minor details in the lease. It seems probable that this general system of rental will R 242 DAIRY FARMING come to be used in most regions where dairying becomes the most important industry. One advantage of the system is that it stimulates the keeping of animals. In several counties where this has been studied the results show that the rented farms keep more live-stock per acre than do the farms oper- ated by owners. 216. Examples of Rented Farms. The results on farms will show the method better than it can be described. A Successful Tenant Farm in Western New York — 193 Acres. A Variety of Products Sold. Cows Shared Equally Capital Tenant Landlord Farm $ 500 750 8 21 400 75 $14,000 Machinery and tools 6 horses 1 brood sow 8 Poultry 21 20 cows 400 Calves and bull 75 $1754 $14,504 Crops Acres Total Crop Corn 4 32 16 33 4 14 1 14 8 200 bushels Wheat Oats 800 bushels 560 bushels Timothy and clover Potatoes 50 tons 350 bushels Field beans 252 bushels Apples 50 bushels Peas for canning factory . Sweet corn for canning factory Sweet corn stalks and pea vines put in silo 14 tons 24 tons RENTING DAIRY FARMS 243 A Successful Tenant Farm in Western New York — Continued Tenant Landlord Receipts Milk Cattle sales and increased inventory . Poultry and eggs . Hogs Wheat $1000 30 60 116 343 49 252 30 175 84 $1000 30 60 116 343 Oats Potatoes Beans 168 49 252 Apples Peas Sweet corn .... 175 84 Expenses Labor $2139 $ 200 40 150 60 20 20 10 24 8 36 $2277 Grass seed $ 40 Feed Fertilizer 150 60 Machinery up-keep Harvesting 120 Threshing and coal 24 Taxes 9 36 Receipts less expenses Interest on tenant's ca pital @ 5% . . investment . . $ 568 $1571 $ 88 $ 439 $1838 Tenant's labor income Landlord's per cent on $1483 12.7 This farm is a large diversified business with good cows. Most of the feed raised and nearly half of the income is derived from the sale of crops. The provisions of the lease are the usual ones for a farm of this type. With a farm of this size and with good cows both parties are doing well. 244 DAIRY FARMING A Successful Tenant Farm of 190 Acres that is Highly Specialized. The Landlord Furnishes all the Cows CaPITALi Farm Machinery and tools Feed and supplies . Cows Heifers and calves . BuU ...... 5 horses .... Colt Hog Hens Turkeys .... Landlord $13,300 375 300 1,725 210 200 175 80 $16,365 Crops Silage corn .... Timothy and clover hay Oats Mangels Potatoes Orchard and garden Total Crop 188 tons 78 tons 1200 bushels 250 bushels 120 bushels Receipts Hay MUk . Cattle sales and increased inventory Hides Colt increased inventory .... Outside work Hogs Eggs Poultry Landlord 178 1239 165 1 33 25 $1641 RENTING DAIRY FARMS 245 Tenant Landlord Expenses Labor $ 400 30 76 4 15 10 8 10 5 10 66 Machinery up-keep Building up-keep Feed . Silo filling $ 50 76 45 Ice 4 Horseshoeing Stallion service Grass seed Twine 38 8 Threshing Fuel for threshing and silo filling . . Insurance 10 5 10 Taxes 66 Interest on tenant's capital at 5% . . . Landlord's per cent on investment . . $ 634 $1125 $ 60 $1065 $ 312 $1329 8.1 QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. What are the usual systems of renting in your region? 2. Do the systems of rental encourage the keeping of stock? Do tenant farms have as much stock as farms operated by owners ? 3. Make a list of all the persons you can find who have re- cently changed from hired man to tenant. On the average how many years did they spend as hired men? 4. Make a list of as many persons as possible who have changed from tenant to owner in the past few years. On the average how many years have they been tenants ? 5. Write a lease that seems to you to be fair to both parties and that gives a reasonable consideration to maintenance of the fertility of the land. COLLATERAL READING Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 321-329. Cyclopedia of Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. IV, pp. 170-185. Farm Leases in Iowa, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 159. CHAPTER 12 COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING G. F. Warren Cost of Production 217. Cost of Producing Milk. Reliable figures on the cost of keeping cows are available for two regions that repre- sent decidedly different dairy conditions. Delaware County, near New York City, is a hilly region where the pasture season is short. Practically all grain is purchased. Because of the nearness to large cities, hay is very high in price. In this county the average cost per cattle unit for over six thousand cows was $99. The year whose records are here quoted was one of unusually high feed prices even for the region. In the following year the cost was $88. All the costs of keeping the cows and of the calves raised were charged directly to the cows, raising calves being one means of offsetting depreciation on cows. How near these two balance in this region is shown by the fact that the re- turns from cattle and hides sold were only $1 per cow above the amounts spent for cattle purchased. This region is fairly typical for New England and for hilly regions in other states near the large eastern cities. Rice County, Minnesota, represents a region of very low- priced feed. The figures were obtained several years ago when feed was cheaper than it is to-day. Hay is worth less 246 COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 247 than one-third as much as in regions Uke Delaware County, near New York City. Because of the very low price of feed, the average cost of keeping a cow was only $60. Table 28. — Cost of Producing Milk Quantities Pounds grain fed Hours human labor .... Pounds milk produced per cow . Pounds butter-fat per cow . . Costs Feed Bedding Buildings Dairy equipment Interest Human labor Horse labor Hauling milk Bull cost Depreciation Miscellaneous Less cattle increase and net sales Total cost Delaware Co.i N. Y., 6422 Cows Per Cattle Unit 1662 130 4514 208 $66.60 .75 4.41 .41 2.94 18.26 .20 5.01 .91 .92 ,57 Rice C0.2 Minn. Per Cow 864 133 5252 188 $27.50 4 2.46 .58 2.35 18.66 1.98 3.19 3.28 $60.00 It will be observed that the costs other than feed are al- most exactly the same in the two regions. The average costs other than feed for keeping cows under farm conditions vary widely on different farms, but in the great majority of cases for grade herds are between $30 and $40 per cow. In ^ Report of the Proceedings of the American Farm Management Asso- ciation, November, 1913. 2 Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 124. 3 This item included elsewhere. * Charge for this item not given. 248 DAIRY FARMING pure-bred herds the costs are usually much more. Next to feed, labor is the most important cost. The importance of having the farm and buildings so arranged as to facilitate work is at once apparent. Table 29. — Cost of Producing Milk on New York Farms ^ Grade Herds Pure-bred Herds 1913 1914 1913 1914 Quantities Number herds .... 17 8 5 4 Number cows .... 297.5 189.6 110.5 85.5 Number cows per herd . 17.5 23.7 22.1 21.4 Number cattle units per herd 23.9 30.9 32.8 36.3 Average value of cows $71.10 $70.31 $215.90 $268.89 Pounds milk per cow 6185 5584 7000 7388 Value milk per cow $99.46 $86.42 $107.70 $105.10 Pounds grain per cattle unit ....... 1551 1479 2339 2295 Pounds dry forage per cattle unit 3028 2480 3216 3200 Pounds silage per cattle unit 6554 5540 6791 8980 Hours man labor per cattle unit .... 116 100 161 183 Costs per cattle unit Grain $22.71 $18.99 $34.18 $34.24 Dry forage 17.76 12.90 23.00 16.88 Silage, etc 12.90 11.74 14.33 17.47 Pasture 4.96 4.43 4.52 4.15 Bedding 2.22 1.33 2.55 2.70 Man labor ..... • 19.26 16.63 27.86 30.78 Horse labor 2.64 3.77 3.22 2.31 Equipment labor . . . .91 .76 .97 .79 Interest 3.55 2.95 11.21 15.90 Buildings 2.81 2.04 2.34 3.27 Breeding fees .... .003 .36 8.21 1.76 Veterinary and medicine .20 .09 .55 .59 Miscellaneous .... 2.13 1.95 6.92 10.16 * New York State Department of Agriculture, Circular 130, p. 82. COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 249 Table 29. — .Cost of Producing Milk on New York Farms — Continued Grade Herds . Pure-bred Herds 1913 1914 1913 1914 Summary Feed ....... Man labor . . . . . All else . . . . . . $58.33 19.26 14.46 $48.06 16.63 13.25 $76.03 27.86 35.97 $72.74 30.78 37.48 Total Returns per cattle unit Milki Increase and net sales . . Manure Miscellaneous .... $92.05 $72.81 18.02 10.59 .39 $77.94 $66.24 13.37 7.87 .06 $139.86 $72.61 87.01 10.11 1.79 $141.00 $61.73 90.47 10.12 1.95 Total Profit per cattle unit . . . $101.81 $9.76 $87.54 $9.60 $171.52 $31.66 $164.27 $23.27 From these costs the value of the manure should be de- ducted to find the returns that the average farmer would have to get in order to make a profit on cows. For Rice County the value of the calf would also have to be deducted. This value is included in the Delaware County figures. Accurate results of cost accounts on a number of New York farms including 673 cows are given in Table 29. These farms were not especially selected but are somewhat larger and better managed than the average farm. Most of them were located in parts of the state where feed is somewhat cheaper than in Delaware County. The accounts are with the entire dairy herd considered as a unit. For the grade herds there is a surprisingly close agree- ment with Table 28 as to costs other than feed. The pure- bred herds cost more in every way, but the returns are more ^ Notice that this is total milk divided by the number of cattle units. The value of the milk per cow is given above. 250 DAIRY FARMING than enough to cover the greater cost. The pure-bred herds on the average pay best. 218. Cost of Raising Heifers. The cost of raising heifers on a Wisconsin farm that raised about twenty a year was kept for five years. The food costs to raise a heifer to two years of age varied from $39 to $42. The total costs varied from $60 to $65 in different years. The average cost of raising one group of about twenty heifers is given in Table 30. To these costs the value of the heifer at birth should be added and the value of the manure produced in the barn subtracted. Of course, the exact figures should not be expected to apply to another farm, but the comparative costs are worth studying. Table 30. — Average Cost of Raising Jersey Heifers to Two Years Old on a Wisconsin Farm ^ Quantities used Whole milk, lb. . Skim-milk, lb. . Grain, lb. . . . Silage, lb. . . . Mixed hay, lb, . Corn stover, lb. . Days pasture Hours man labor Costs Feed .... Bedding . . . Labor .... Interest Buildings Equipment Loss by discarding Miscellaneous Total Raising to 1 Year Old 342 3165 547 353 857 123 40 $24.58 1.00 5.14 1.12 1.57 .55 1.99 Second Year 3250 1120 672 171 23 $16.11 2.00 2.86 2.53 .81 .42 1.38 55.95 11 Total 2 Years 342 3165 547 3603 1977 672 294 63 $40.69 3.00 8.00 3.65 2.38 .55 .42 3.37 $62.06 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 49. COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 251 The quantities of feed used in growing heifers at the Ohio Experiment Station and estimated costs are given in Tables Fig. 77. — The heifers for which the costs of production are here given in Table 30. 31 and 32. These heifers were fed a little more whole milk and were fed over twice as much grain as the ones men- tioned above. The costs were therefore higher.^ The costs other than feed vary from $21 to $28 in the dif- ferent results here quoted. The feed costs vary from $41 to $ 58. In the States east of Ohio feed is higher in price, so that this cost is likely to be more. In some irrigated regions where alfalfa hay is very cheap, the feed cost may be lower. Where skim-milk is not available the feed cost is somewhat higher, but need not be prohibitive, as is shown on pages 116 to 118. 1 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 289. 252 DAIRY FARMING Table 31. — Cost of Raising 29 Jersey Heifers at the Ohio Experiment Station. Average weights ; at birth 55 lb. ; at one year 472 lb. ; at 2 years 758 lb. Raising to 1 Year Old Second Year Total 2 Years Quantities used Whole milk, lb Skim-milk, lb Grain, lb Silage, lb Hay, lb Stover, lb ... . Days pasture .... Costs Feed . . Other costs estimated 469 2918 564 444 767 37 118 $27.39 12.79 87 785 2426 1038 254 159 $27.12 14.89 469 3005 1349 2870 1805 291 277 $54.51 27.68 Total $40.18 $42.01 $82.19 Table 32. — Cost of Raising 22 Holstein Heifers at the Ohio Experiment Station. Average weights ; at birth 82 lb. ; at 1 year 571 lb. ; at 2 years 962 lb. Quantities used Whole milk, lb. . . Skim-milk, lb. . . Grain, lb Silage, lb Hay, lb." .... Stover, lb . . . Days pasture . . Costs Feed Other costs estimated Total Raising to 1 Year Old 445 2661 647 656 796 11 121 .57 12.79 $41.36 Second Year 174 870 2247 1419 232 151 .55 14.89 $44.44 Total 2 Years 445 2835 1517 2903 2215 243 272 $58.12 27.68 $85.80 COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 253 Marketing Dairy Products 219. Ways of Marketing. The milk supply in many small towns and cities is retailed by dairymen who produce part or all of the milk that they sell. There are some oppor- tunities for retailing milk in regions where dairying is not a general industry. Such regions are likely to have beef or dual-purpose cattle, and the farmers are not likely to know how to care for a dairy animal. One who has good cows and who knows how to care for them often has a good opportu- nity in such a town. Every town that is near to farm land offers an opportunity for some retail dairyman. Some- times there are too many in the business so that the business will not pay for the time spent, but retailing frequently offers a good chance for an energetic man. Many farmers make butter to retail in a near-by town or to be shipped by parcel post. The prices received are some- times enough to make this a good method of selling. The great majority of dairymen have to sell on a general market at prices fixed by the purchaser. Sometimes the conditions are such that the selling part of the business calls for httle thought, but often there are some points to study. Cooperation in ■ hauling milk is often a great saving of time. If the price of milk varies with the fat content, the farmer should be able to estimate which is the best kind of milk to produce. If he has more than one market, he should be able to make similar estimates. In regions where market milk sells for so much that one cannot afford to sell the product in any other way, one often sees farmers who persist in selhng butter-fat or butter long after this has ceased to be the best practice. 254 DAISY FARMING 220. Value of Skim-milk in Cities. When milk is sold to the creamery, the fat basis is, of course, the proper basis of payment. Argument is often made that payment for market milk should be on the same basis. The public is often ac- cused of ignorance because it refuses to pay for milk in pro- portion to the fat contained. For human food, protein is probably the most important constituent of milk. How much the cities are willing to pay for sldm-milk is shown by the high price that they are willing to pay for milk when they could get the same butter- fat in cream at much less cost. If the other constituents were in proportion to the fat, then the percentage of fat would be in proportion to the value as human food, but the richness in protein does not increase so rapidly as the fat. Common retail prices in New York City are 9 cents for milk, 40 cents per quart for 23 per cent cream, and 38 cents per pound for butter. ^ On the average, milk contains about 3.7 per cent fat. At these prices the butter-fat costs about $1.13 per pound in milk, 82 cents in .cream, and 44 cents in butter. Evidently, milk is not purchased merely for its butter-fat, else butter-fat in cream would sell at the same price that it does in milk. The value that the public places on fat, as measured by the price of cream, shows that about 27 per cent of the amount paid for milk is paid for food that is contained in the skim-milk. Stated in another way, if the value of the fat is measured by the price of cream, then the fat in a quart of milk is worth 6.5 cents, and the skim-milk sells for 2.5 cents. Or, if the fat in milk is considered to have the same ^ Prices furnished by the Borden Company and verified from several other sources. COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 255 value as the fat in butter, then the fat in a quart of milk is worth 3.5 cents, and the skim-milk sells for 5.5 cents. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. For each of the regions given in Tables 28 and 29 find the feed cost and all other costs and the per cent that the feed cost is of the total cost. Compare the feed costs in the different regions. 2. At the prices of feeds in this region, find the approximate value of the feed required to feed a cow, as given in Table 28. 3. What per cent is the feed of the total cost of raising heifers, as given in Table 30. 4. At prices of feed and milk in this region, find the approxi- mate value of the feed used to raise a heifer, as given in Table 30. 5. Using the weights given on page 298, how many pounds are there in one gallon of milk? In one gallon of 35 per cent cream? How many quarts in 100 pounds of milk? In 100 pounds of 20 per cent cream? 6. In what proportion should milk testing 3.2 per cent fat and milk testing 4.5 per cent fat be mixed to make milk testing 4 per cent ? 7. Using figures from page 298, how much dry matter is there in 40 quarts of skim-milk? In 100 pounds? 8. Some animal food is necessary for good success with hens. Meat scrap is often purchased for this purpose at about $3 per hundred pounds. It is also fed to hogs. It contains about 90 per cent dry matter, but the dry matter is not so valuable as that in skim-milk. If the dry matter in skim-milk is worth the same as that in meat scrap, what would 100 pounds of skim-milk be worth ? What would it be worth per quart ? 9. A farmer is offered 30 cents a pound for butter-fat, or $1.30 per hundred for whole milk. His average test is 3.8 per cent. Which is the higher price ? Would the skim-milk be worth the dif- ference as feed for hogs or poultry? 10. What would be received for 100 pounds of 4 per cent milk when sold at each of the following prices : a. 3 cents per quart? 6. $1.50 per 100 pounds? c. 35 cents per pound for butter-fat ? d. 30 cents per pound for butter ? 256 DAIRY FARMING Considering the value of skim-milk and the labor of making butter, which would be the best way to sell? 11. The prices paid for milk by the Borden Company from April, 1915, to March, 1916, were as follows, in the region where the freight to New York is 26 cents per 40-quart can. Butter-fat April . , May . . . June . . July . . . August . September October November , December . January February . March . . 3.0 1.31 1.06 1.00 1.16 1.32 1.41 1.70 1.80 1.80 1.70 1.65 1.60 3.5 1.46 1.21 1.15 1.31 1.47 1.56 1.85 1.95 1.95 1.85 1.80 1.75 4.0 1.61 1.36 1.30 1.46 1.62 1.71 2.00 2.10 2.10 2.00 1.95 1.90 4.5 1.76 1.51 1.45 1.61 1.77 1.86 2.15 2.25 2.25 2.15 2.10 2.05 5.0 1.91 1.66 1.60 1.76 1.92 2.01 2.30 2.40 2.40 2.30 2.25 2.20 The above prices will be paid to dairymen where they maintain, during this contract, conditions scoring not less than 25 per cent on equipment and 43 per cent on methods, according to the New York Department of Health Score Card, as scored by the Company's rep- resentatives. Dairymen scoring less than 25 per cent on equip- ment and 43 per cent on methods, will receive ten cents per 100 pounds less than the above schedule. Milk of intermediate com- position was paid for at corresponding prices. Calculate the average price for the year for milk with each per cent of fat. What is the average price for fat in 3 per cent milk ? What is paid per pound for the additional fat in 4 per cent milk ? In 5 per cent milk? What is the price for the additional fat above 3 per cent in all cases ? 12. If sMm-milk is worth as much as found in problem 8, at what price would butter have to be sold to bring as much as the average price paid by the Borden Company for 3 per cent milk ? For 5 per cent milk? 13. Using the average production given on page 42, what would be the value of the milk for one .year for a cow of each breed ? COSTS OF PRODUCTION AND METHODS OF MARKETING 257 14. Find the average price paid at retail in a near-by city for butter, cream with known fat content, and milk. What price is paid for fat in each form? COLLATERAL READING Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 440-493. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 49. CHAPTER 13 OTHER IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING G. F. Warren Ways of Measuring Profits 221. The Most Important Factors for Success. In a dairy region the most important factors have been shown to be the size of the business, the returns per cow, the crop yields, and the diversity of the business.^ Many other factors have to do with financial success, but on careful examination it will be found that most of them are covered by the above. For instance, nothing is said about the effective use of labor, but the most important single factor controlling such use is the size of the business. The following are some of the many other factors that cause minor variations in profit on many farms and that sometimes become the most important factors. Too much or too little capital may be invested in buildings or stock. Too many or too few men or horses may be kept. The region or farm may not be adapted to dairying. The wrong kind of product for the region may be sold. The barns and fields may be so arranged as to aid in the work, or they may cause a loss of time. Other things being equal, large cows pay better than small ones. 222. Ways of Measuring Profit. Two things are at work on a farm — money and men. To be called a financial suc- 1 Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 349. 258 FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 259 cess any business should pay a reasonable rate of interest on the capital invested and, in addition, pay fair wages for the labor used. The best way to measure profits on a farm is first to find the difference between the receipts and the business expenses for a year, including in expenses all labor except the owner's. This difference represents the pay for the use of the capital and for the owner's time. The interest on the money invested in the business calculated at 5 per cent, or at the current rate of interest, should be subtracted from the income from capital and owner's labor to get the amount left to pay for his time. This is called his labor income. The following averages from 73 farms in Illinois show the method of figuring : ^ Average capital $51,091 Average receipts 5,042 Average farm expenses 1,866 Income from capital and owner's labor 3,176 Interest on capital at 5 per cent . . 2,555 Owner's labor income 621 Size of Business 223. Size of Business. In order to be most economically manpged, a dairy farm should be large enough to provide full use for a reasonable equipment of modern machinery. This does not mean that it should be one of the great costly and money-losing establishments that are often maintained by wealthy men. But it does mean that a farm is working at a disadvantage if it is not large enough to provide work for two or three persons. Just how many acres this will require depends on the richness of the land and on what is done with the milk. A small area of land that will naturally grow two tons of hay and fifty bushels of corn per acre will represent 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 41, p. 9. 260 DAIRY FARMING as large a business as many more acres of poor soil. If milk is sold at retail, a smaller area and smaller number of cows may represent an equally large business. But even when milk is sold at retail, it is very desirable to have 15 to 30 cows. How important a reasonable area of land is to a dairy farmer is shown by the results from 1988 farms in New York as given in Table 33. Table 33. — Relation of Size of Farm to Labor Income. 1988 Farms, Tompkins, Livingston, and Jefferson Counties, New York Acres Number of Farms Average Number of Acres per Farm Average Acres of Crops Average Labor Income 30 or less .... 31-50 51-100 101-150 151-200 Over 200 . . . . 74 141 616 572 304 281 22 44 79 126 177 281 14 25 40 66 89 134 $121 252 402 568 776 995 These farms are fairly typical of many of the dairy farms from Dakota to New England. About half the farm is devoted to hay, corn, small grain, and other farm crops. The other half is pasture, or woods and waste land. The farms of less than 100 acres are on the average not paying the owner more than interest and hired man's wages. There are of course some small farms that pay well, but, as a rule, the larger farms pay better. Similar results have been ob- tained in many other states. 224. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Labor. In every region where such studies have been made the small farms accompUsh much less per man than do the FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 261 fair-sized farms. Table 34 gives results for one county. The average number of men per farm as given in the table includes all human labor. Work of women and children is expressed in terms of the number of men that would have been required to do the same work. On the smallest farms, very little work was done by any one except the operator. On the farms of over 200 acres, the hired labor and labor by members of the family amounted to the time of one and one- third men, or, counting the time of the farmer, these farms had the equivalent of 2.35 men. The farms of less than 30 acres had an average of 3.5 animal units per farm besides work horses. Those of over 200 acres had an average of 34.2 animal units besides work horses. The producing enterprises on most farms are the acres of crops grown and the animals other than horses. Table 34. — Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Labor. 670 Farms, Jefferson County, New York Average Acres Average Man Equiva- lent Average Acres of Crops Number OF Animal Units except Work Horses Acres of Crops PER Man Animal Units EXCEPT Horses PER Man 30 or less . . . 1.04 14 3.5 13 3 31-50 . . . 1.18 25 7.9 21 7 51-100 . . . 1.34 40 13.2 30 10 101-150 . . . 1.61 66 19.4 41 12 151-200 . . . 1.98 89 25.1 45 13 Over 200 . . . 2.35 134 34.2 57 15 The acres of crops grown, the yields of these crops, the number of producing animals, and the production of these animals are a measure of the amount that is being accom- pUshed on a farm. The crop yields and the production of 262 DAIRY FARMING animals are no better on the small farms than on the large farms, hence the acres of crops and the animals kept are a fairly accurate measure of the amount accomplished. The acres of crops raised per man varied from 13 on the small farms to 57 on the largest farms. The number of animal units per man varied from 3 on the small farms to 15 on the largest farms (Table 34). 225. Relation of Size of Farm to Work Done. From cost accounts and other records, we know approximately how much time it takes to do each kind of farm work under normal conditions. The raising of a wheat crop ordinarily takes 15 to 25 hours of man labor and 20 to 40 hours of horse labor per acre. With anything like efficient methods of work, 20 hours of man labor and 30 hours of horse labor per acre is sufficient. Many farmers do better than this. We may therefore say that a wheat crop represents two days of man work and three days of horse work. If much more time than this is spent, the work is not efficiently done. This may be because the fields are too small, because of poor machinery, because the land is unusually hard to work, or for other reasons. It matters not why time is lost. If it is lost, the farm is not efficient. Similarly the average farmer spends about 150 hours of work per year on a cow. If the barn or pasture is unhandy, or if he has only a half-dozen cows, more time may be re- quired. Some farmers who get good returns spend less time. To care for a cow for a year may be counted as about 15 days' work (see Table 35). In order to compare farms, all the productive enterprises are similarly expressed in work units. The income of the farm is dependent on the crops raised, the cows and other productive animals kept, the outside work done for pay. FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 263 Table 35. — Units of Productive Work Timotliy, alfalfa, clover, per acre per cutting Oats, wheat, barley, rye, buckwheat, per acre Corn husked from standing stalks, per acre , Corn husked from shock, per acre .... Corn for silo, per acre Field beans, per acre Cotton, per acre Tobacco, per acre Potatoes, cabbage, beets, per acre .... Peas for canning factory, per acre .... Hops, per acre Apples, peaches, pears, bearing per acre . . Dairy cow 10 cattle or colts running loose 10 brood sows, and raising pigs to weaning . 50 hogs, not brood sows 100 ewes 100 hens Raising 200 chickens Man Work Units Horse Work Units 1 1 2 3 3 5 6 6 5 6 4 5 12 6 20 7 10 10 3 5 20 8 15 5 15 2 20 1 30 5 25 5 50 3 15 2 15 2 Table 36. — Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Men and Horses. 670 Farms, Jefferson County, New York Units of Pro- Units op Pro- Acres ductive Work ductive Work PER Man PER Horse 30 or less . 102 35 31-50 . . 154 41 51-100. . 205 57 101-150 . . 245 62 151-200 . . 253 65 Over 200 . 294 76 264 DAIRY FARMING Much other work may be done, such as repairing machinery and buildings, taking care of work horses, mowing the lawn, and the hke, but it is the productive work that limits the income. On farms in Jefferson County, New York, the average amount of productive work per man varied from 102 work units on the small farms to 294 on the largest farms. Each man on the largest farms is accomplishing nearly three times as much work as a man on the small farms. It must be remembered also that the crop yields and the returns per cow are as good on the larger farms. Each horse on the large farms is accomplishing twice as much as each horse on the small farms. The farms of less than 100 acres are very waste- ful of both man and horse labor. Table 37. — Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Horses. 1248 Farms, Jefferson and Livingston Counties, New York ACKES Number OF Farms Acres of Crops Number OF Horses Acres op Crops per Horse 30 or less 42 14.2 1.5 9.5 31-50 64 28.4 2.3 12.3 51-100 315 46.8 3.1 15.1 101-150 364 73.5 4.2 17.5 151-200 226 98.7 5.0 19.7 Over 200 . 237 152.8 7.2 21.2 226. Relation of Size of Farm to Eflaciency in the Use of Horses. The discussion given above is the best way of com- paring horse labor. Another comparison is shown in Table 37. On the large farms, twice as many acres of crops are raised per horse as on the small farms. The average cost of keeping a horse, as shown by cost accounts, is about $100 to FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 265 $175 a year in different parts of the United States. This includes feed, labor, depreciation, and all other costs. From this the importance of the efficient use of horses is apparent. 227. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Machinery. The small farms are very inadequately equipped with machinery, as is shown in Table 38. Even the Table 38. — Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Machinery. 1248 Farms, Livingston and Jeffer- son Counties, New York Acres Acres op Crops Value op Machinery Value op Machinery per Acre OP Crops 30 or less 14.2 $141 $9.93 31-50 28.4 207 7.29 51-100 46.8 426 9.10 101-150 73.5 497 6.76 151-200 98.7 613 6.21 Over 200 152.8 833 5.45 farms of over 200 acres have an investment in machinery of only $833. This represents machinery of all ages. Prob- ably the cost when new would be over twice as much, but even this sum will not provide all the well-established ma- chines, such as a grain-binder and manure-spreader for each farm. But, while the small farms are not well equipped, their machinery cost per acre of crops is almost double that on the larger farms. 228. Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in the Use of Capital. The small farm has relatively much more of its capital invested in unproductive ways than does the large farm. No matter how small the farm may be, the owner desires a respectable house. Table 39 shows that the small- 266 DAIRY FARMING est farms have 43 per cent of their capital in houses ; the largest farms have somewhat better houses, but have only 9 per cent of their capital thus invested. Table 39. — Area Related to Investment in Buildings. 578 Farms, Livingston County, New York Acres Value of Houses Per Cent of Total Capital in Houses Value OF Other Buildings Per Cent OF Total Capital IN Other Buildings Value OP Other Buildings PER Ani- mal Unit 30 or less . . . 31- 50 ... 51-100 . . . 101-150 . . . 151-200 . . . Over 200 . . . $1494 1000 1236 1477 1810 2113 43 23 18 14 13 9 $ 655 681 1091 1408 1900 2552 19 15 16 13 13 11 $164 95 87 74 73 50 The barns on the small farms also take a much larger proportion of the capital. The smallest farms have 19 per cent of their capital thus invested, the largest farms have only 11 per cent thus tied up. A barn for ten head of stock costs much more than half as much as an equally good barn for twenty head of stock. The smallest farms have an investment in barns of $164 per animal unit. The largest farms have only $50 per animal unit. Yet observations lead to the conclusion that the stock on the larger places is better housed. If interest, repairs, depreciation, and insurance on a building amount to 8 per cent of the value, then the housing cost per animal unit will vary from $13 per year on the small- est farms to $4 per year on the largest. Similar results for the United States are shown in Table 40. These indicate, as for other points in this work, that the results are of general rather than local application. The FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 267 farms of less than 20 acres have 36 per cent of their capital invested in buildings and machinery. Those of 100 to 174 acres have only 17 per cent of the money thus invested, yet they have much better buildings and more machinery. Money thus employed not only is unproductive, but it is a source of constant cost for repairs. If a farmer had all his money invested in buildings and machinery, his income would, of course, be zero. In fact, he would not be a farmer at all. Table 40. — Area Related to Investment in Buildings and Machinery, for United States, 1909, from the Census Report Per Cent OF Capi- AcREs Buildings "^ . y^^^^" Machin- tal in Machin- ery Under 20 20- 49 50- 99 100-174 175-499 500-999 1000 or over Value of Buildings per Farm Per Cent OP Capi- tal IN Buildings Value of Machin- ery $ 605 34 $ 56 474 21 76 848 19 156 1182 14 241 1734 10 390 2174 8 639 3330 5 1196 2.5 2.8 3.1 2.7 2.4 2.4 1.0 229. Size of the Herd. In regions where very little ex- cept dairy products is sold, the number of cows kept is the best measure of the size of the business. Table 41 gives results from such a region in Jefferson County, New York, and shows that farmers who have herds of 20 or more cows are doing very much better than those who have smaller herds. In fact, the size of the herd is as important as the quality of the cows. The usual advice to sell the poorest cows and keep only the best ones should be changed to the more practical advice to replace the poorest cows by good 268 DAIRY FARMING ones, rather than leave half of the barn empty. A cow that is much too poor to keep may yet pay as well as an empty stanchion. Of course, if the farm has too many cows for its area, it will pay to sell the poorest ones and decrease the number. In regions like Jefferson County that are well adapted to dairying and not adapted to many other things, herds of 20 to 30 cows when kept on farms that are large enough for the herd, are usually more profitable than small herds. Of course the number of cows should not be increased out of proportion to the farm. On the other hand extremely large herds are a disadvantage because the farm family is ordinarily not able to do the work and too much labor must be hired. Table 41. — Relation of Number of Cows and Milk Sold PER Cow TO Labor Income. 585 Farms, Jefferson County, New York Milk Sold per Cow Less than $50 $51-75 . . 76-100 . . Over 100 . . Number of Cows 6-10 Labor Income $632 447 599 760 11-20 Labor Income $ 481 704 836 1054 Over 20 Labor Income $1046 1093 1249 1959 230. Summary of Size of Dairy Farms. Unless a dairy farm keeps four or five horses, it cannot take advantage of the great economy in human labor that comes from the use of four-horse machinery. But each horse ought to raise 20 to 30 acres of crops so that this calls for 80 or more acres of crops. If 25 cows and young stock are kept, there will usually need to be 60 to 100 acres of pasture. This calls for 140 to 200 acres of land, a very common size FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 269 in most of the dairy regions of the United States. The aver- age size of farms among subscribers to Hoard's Dairyman was reported to be 167 acres. In some of the rich irrigated valleys the pastures and alfalfa are so productive that a considerably smaller area provides an equally large business. In some very fertile regions Hke Lancaster County, Pennsyl- vania, where very intensive crops are combined with dairying, a farm of 60 to 80 acres represents as large a business as two or three times this area in some regions. Not every dairyman has money enough to buy a farm of the best size, but there are other ways of obtaining land. The usual steps in becoming a farm owner are : first, to work as a hired man ; then to become a tenant ; then own a mort- gaged farm ; and finally pay off the mortgage. Only 36 per cent of the farmers in the United States own free from mort- gage all the land that they operate. If one who has too small a farm knows how to farm and how to live economically, he will often find it profitable to go in debt to buy more land. A mortgage is not necessarily a bad thing. The im- portant point to consider is the use to which the borrowed money is put. It may not be wise to mortgage a farm for the purpose of buying an automobile, but it may be good business to mortgage it to buy additional cows or land that is needed. Another way of enlarging the farm is to rent additional land. There are half a million farmers in the United States who own part of the land that they operate, and who rent additional land. Returns per Cow 231. Reasons for Poor Returns. No single factor is more important than the returns per cow (see Table 41). Low returns may be due to not having a good market for 270 DAIRY FARMING dairy products, or may be due to selling the wrong kind of product ; for instance, making butter in a region where there is a good demand for market milk at much better prices. Low returns may be due to keeping the wrong kind of cattle for the region or for the kind of product sold, or to poor production because of poor care or feed, or to having cows that are naturally not good ones. Before one can intelligently change his practice, he must find out to which of these causes his poor returns are due. The preceding chapters have given attention to feeding and to determining which are the cows that are naturally poor, so that nothing more need be said on these most vital points. Even in regions unfavorable for dairying there are usually some persons who make more money by combining dairying with their other farm work than they would make if they did not keep cows. Everywhere there must be cows enough to supply the fresh milk even if butter is shipped in. But in some regions the prices of products are low com- pared with feed prices and other costs. In such regions, a farmer who is only a fair dairyman may find that it pays best to keep only a few cows or possibly to keep only enough to supply products for home use. In some regions milk is sold by the quart at the same price regardless of the percentage of butter-fat. In such a region, herds that give a high test are at so great a disad- vantage that they cannot often be made to pay. Those who keep pure-bred cattle sometimes fail to make a profit because they select a breed that is not desired in the region. The best market for the surplus stock of the small breeder is nearly always in his neighborhood. He should raise the kind that is wanted. FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 271 232. Costs and Returns must Both be Considered. No set standard can be given for the receipts that are necessary in order to make a profit, because the costs of feed and labor are so variable in different regions and on different farms in the same region. But many studies of this question have indicated that it is a fairly easy matter to obtain receipts per cow of a half more than the average for the region. Usually the most profitable farms in a region are doing as well as this. But increased costs must also be considered. It is not the return per cow, nor the cost, that is of most impor- tance, but the relation between the two. Sometimes the better returns are obtained at too great cost. On the other hand, a dairy herd that produces less than the average some- times pays, because the farmer has reduced the cost of feed and labor to a still lower point. 233. For Good Returns the Poor Producers should be Promptly Sold. In one county in New York the farmers who obtained the best production per cow were doing the most buying and selling of cows. Those who obtained poor to fair returns were on the average replacing 1 cow in 23 by purchase, but those who obtained the best returns replaced one-seventh of the herd each year by purchase. Those who got the lowest production per cow replaced one- seventh of the herd each year by cows purchased or raised. Those who obtained good production replaced one-fifth, and those who got the best production replaced one-fourth each year. They disposed of poor cows and milked good cows whether they were home-raised or purchased. The essential point is not who raised the cow, but how much her milk is worth. 234. Size of Cows. As machines for changing feed into milk, large cows and small cows seem to be about equally 272 DAIRY FARMING effective. But the milk produced for a given amount of barn room and labor is also important. Of two animals that are equally efficient users of food, the larger animal is usually much more profitable. Table 42 gives the value of the milk and value of the feed for 355 cows in Wisconsin. Table 42. — Relation of Size of Cows to Value of Product ABOVE Food Cost^ Weight of Cows Average Weight Number OF Cows Pounds OF Butter- fat Value of Product Value of Feed Value OF Product FOR $1 IN Feed 900 and under 847 87 366.2 $114.52 $60.32 $1.90 901-1000 952 82 417.8 131.22 69.86 1.88 1001-1100 1071 53 447.8 142.56 76.28 1.87 1101-1200 1175 60 477.7 155.02 82.81 1.87 1201-1300 1276 31 506.2 163.52 91.51 1.79 1301-1400 1379 26 525.8 171.79 92.15 1.86 Over 1400 1556 16 566.6 184.61 96.60 1.91 Value OF Product above Food Cost $54.20 61.36 66.28 72.21 72.01 79.64 88.01 It takes very little more barn room and very little more labor to care for large cows than it does for small ones. Medicine, veterinary fees, and many other expenses cost about the same for large as for small cows. These costs were found to be $25 per year in Minnesota, and $29 in New York (page 247). According to the figures in Table 42 a herd of 15 cows av- eraging 1276 pounds in weight would make more butter than 20 cows averaging 847 pounds. The saving on labor, barn room, and other fixed costs, would be about $125 per year 1 Data furnished by F. W. WoU, for cows whose records are reported in Wisconsin, Bulletin 226. FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 273 by keeping the smaller number of large cows. Where the land is level, and particularly if hay or other roughage is abundant, large cows are usually more profitable. Even if small ones are introduced the farmers usually change to large ones in time. Where the pastures are on steep, rocky hillsides small cows are better able to hold their place. If pastures are very poor, the large cow is at a disadvantage. She needs more feed, but she is not able to walk so far as the small one. In the South where heat and insects are both serious enemies of the dairy business, nearly all of the cows kept are of the small active breeds. Records of 110 cows kept by the University of Nebraska showed that cows averaging 801 pounds in weight gave an average of 263 pounds of butter-fat, those weighing 1002 pounds gave 278 pounds of fat, and those averaging 1211 pounds produced 346 pounds of butter-fat. The production was in proportion to the size.^ Of course the vital point is production per cow. If one is buying a cow with a known record, it is the record that should be considered. A large cow that is a failure is a bigger failure than a small one that is a failure. The best success comes from keeping large cows that are also good for their size. When large numbers are considered, the production and feed consumption seem to be about in proportion to the size. The advantage of having large animals is in the saving of barn room and labor, just as there is an advantage in using a six-foot mower rather than a four-foot one. ^ Records of cows reported in Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 139. Cows sorted by average weights for the years reported, into three groups, 900 pounds or less, 901-1100 pounds, and over 1100 pounds. T 274 DAIRY FARMING Crop Yields The returns from crops and costs of these crops have as much to do with the success of the farm as a whole as do the returns from the cows. It is not enough that the farmer be a good dairyman, he should be a good dairy farmer. Sometimes the farmer raises crops that are good for feed but cost too much to raise. More frequently the yields are not good enough to be profitable. 235. Soils for the Dairy Farm. Only under exceptional conditions does it pay to choose land that is not naturally productive. The farmer ordinarily raises all the hay and part of the grain for the cows. If he buys grain, he ought to have for sale some product other than milk that will more than pay the feed bill. It is usually difficult for a farmer who has poor land to succeed in competition with those who have good land. Occasionally, but not usually, the poor land is enough cheaper to make up for the difference in quality. The best dairy soils are loams and clay loams that grow grass well. The great dairy sections of the North are on soils that grow Kentucky blue-grass and white clover for pasture, clover or alfalfa hay, and corn. Dairy farms do not as a rule buy much chemical fertilizer. The farmers who get better crops than their neighbors are as a rule receiving greater profits than the average, but as in the case of good returns per cow, the returns are sometimes obtained by methods that are too costly. Sometimes poor crops are grown by such economical methods that they pay well. Many successful farmers have crops a fifth better than their neighbors grow. 236. The Well-balanced Farm. If a good-sized business, good cows, and good crops are three of the most important FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 275 factors for success, then a farmer who excels in all three ought to do very well indeed. With rare exceptions this is the case. Table 43 gives the labor incomes on 585 farms. Table 43. — Relation of Size of Farm, Receipts per Cow, AND Crop Yields, to Labor Income on 585 Farms with Six or More Cows, Jefferson County, New York Receipts per cow $50 or less 3S per cow 355U or less Crop index 85 per cent or less index 86-115 per cent ^. index over 115 per cent Receipts per cow $51-$75 Crop ,eceipt Crop eceipts per cow 3?51-$75 Crop index 85 per cent or less Crop index 86-115 per cent Crop index over 115 per cent Receipts per cow over $75 Crop index 85 per cent or less Crop index 86-115 per cent Crop index over 115 per cent Acres 100 or less 101-150 Labor Income Labor Income $ 273 482 415 590 653 636 935 1038 1124 381 158 304 437 537 594 641 659 Over 150 Labor Income $ 331 424 413 669 1017 1161 1233 1148 1291 They are grouped as small, medium, and good-sized farms; small, medium, and good returns per cow ; and small, medium, and good crop yields ; so that there are 27 different com- binations (crop index compares the crops with average crops as 100 per cent). A study of this table indicates that if the crops are wasted by being fed to cows that give very poor returns, the final result is poor, even with a good-sized farm and good crops. Medium cows and medium crops with a good-sized farm pay very much better than the best cows and crops on a small farm. Improvement in any one of the three points helps, but well-balanced improvement in all is best. A fourth important factor for success in dairy 276 DAIRY FARMING farming is the diversity of the business. It usually pays better to have cash crops or other products combined with the dairy. Diversified and Specialized Dairy Farms 237. Relation of Cash Crops to Profits. As has previously been mentioned (page 229), farmers who combine cash crops or some other product with dairying, usually make more than do those who sell nothing but dairy products. The poorer the cows, or the lower the price of dairy products, the more important it is that crops be sold. But even with extra good returns per cow, those who sell some crops are usually doing better than those who sell no crops, as is shown in Table 44. The results here given are for a typical region in New York. In the corn-belt the most generally profitable type of dairy farming is to raise corn for sale or for hog feed in addition to raising feed for the cows. Table 44. — Relation of Receipts per Cow and Cash Crops TO Profits on 585 Farms with Six or More Cows. Jef- ferson County, New York Per Cent of Receipts from Crops No crops sold 1-20 per cent 21-40 . . 41-60 . . Over 60 Receipts per Cow prom Milk and ITS Products $50 or less Labor Income $ 56 311 426 554 599 $51-$75 Labor Income $ 571 589 947 1366 Over S75 Labor Income $ 926 962 1183 ^ Only two farms in this group. ^ No farms in this group. FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 'it 238. Relation of Capital to Amount of Stock Kept. The amount of capital must also be considered in determining how many cows to keep. Farmers who are short of capital usually keep less stock than do those who have more capital. Table 45. — Relation of Capital and Cash Crops to Profits. 578 Farms, Livingston County, New York Per Cent of Receipts prom Crops 20 or less 21-40 . 41-70 . 71-90 . Over 90 . Capital $5000 or less Labor Income $253 181 256 424 231 $5001- $15,000 Labor Income $399 411 624 623 497 Over $15,000 Labor Income $1000 1399 1038 1194 473 Table 45 shows that with small capital those .who depend largely on cash crops make the most, while with larger capital those who derive more of their money from live- stock are doing best. The exact capital groups will vary with different land values, but tljie principle is universal, that one who is short of capital should keep less stock than one who has more money. This is as one would expect. Live- stock represents added capital after one has bought and equipped his farm. If one is short of money, the absolutely essential things are land, machinery, and horses. One may get along without live-stock, but one cannot farm without land and equipment. The majority of farmers understand this principle. When they get more money, they increase the amount and improve the quality of their live-stock. For the young man with small capital it often pays to gradually work into pure-bred cattle. One can begin with 278 DAIRY FARMING a few moderate-priced pure-breds and, with a good bull, can gradually develop a good herd. Ordinary pure-breds can be improved just as grade cows can be improved. The advantage of the pure-breds is that after one has them im- proved, they are in greater demand for breeding purposes because they are recorded. 239. Acres per Animal Unit. Another way of comparing farms is on the basis of the number of acres of crops grown per animal unit kept. Results for one dairy region in New York are given in Table 46. The amount of stock that it pays to keep, of course, depends on the returns that one gets from it. With very poor returns, very little stock should be kept. The better the returns, the more heavily the place should be stocked. With good stock in the region here mentioned, it pays best to have an animal unit other than horses for each 3 to 4 acres of crops. The exact ampunt that it pays to keep will of course vary with different regions and on different farms, but nearly always it is best to have the place moderately well stocked rather than go to either extreme. Table 46. — Relation of Acres of Crops per Animal and Receipts per Animal Unit to Labor Income. 670 Farms, Jefferson County, New York Receipts for each Animal Unit ex- cept Horses $50 or less $51-$75 Over $75 Labor Income Labor Income Labor Income 1.0-2.0 $210 $649 $ 895 2.1-3.0 264 680 971 3.1-4.0 314 763 1053 Over 4.0 378 824 914 FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 279 240. Reasons for Larger Profits on Diversified Farms. There are many reasons why it does not pay to go to the extreme either way. Ordinarily a man can raise feed for more cows than he can milk. If each man milks 10 to 15 Hours 1200 800 400 Distribution Man Labor M A M J Cattle II Corn Horses I^^Ti Oats, 1913 Manure ^]^L Oats, 1914 Potatoes, 1912 CXX> Wheat, 1914 X?S66» Potatoes, 1913 r r Hay N D Alfalfa, 1914 Cabbage Poultry Farm Personal Equipment Fig. 78. — Distribution of man labor on a highly successful diversified dairy farm, that kept 42 cows, 1 bull, 10 heifers, and 9 horses. The crops raised were potatoes 11 acres, corn for silo 19 acres, oats 44 acres, hay 102 acres, and cabbage 7 acres, besides starting crops for the next year. The cabbages, potatoes, and some of the hay were sold for more than enough to pay the entire feed and labor bills. COWS, he can raise the hay and silage for these cows and part of the grain, and in addition will have time to raise hay, grain, potatoes, cabbage, or other crops for sale. If the cows are so poor, or prices of the product so low, that the cows do not pay a good price for their feed, it is of vital importance that 280 DAIRY FARMING cash crops be raised. Even if the cows are highly profitable, it may still pay to raise crops for sale, because these crops can be raised at very little additional cost. It might be suggested that more cows be kept to eat the additional crops, but this calls for more men, who in turn can raise additional crops. In regions where cash crops are not raised, the women usually help with the milking because the farmer can raise feed for more cows than he can milk, and it does not pay to keep a hired man unless there is full work for him. Women can milk and do housework between milkings. If the region is well adapted to crops, it pays better to employ men and have them do farm work between milkings. Figure 78, page 279, shows the distribution of labor on a very success- ful diversified dairy farm. The owners of this farm have followed the same system for three generations and have always been successful. If a farm is too heavily stocked, much feed will have to be purchased in a poor year or some of the stock must be sold. In such years feed is likely to be very high and stock cheap, so that whatever one does he is likely to lose. If a farm is too heavily stocked, the returns per ton of manure used will be low. The value of manure depends on how heavily it is applied. A light application usually gives better returns per ton of manure than does a heavy applica- tion, as shown on page 235. If one goes to the other extreme and keeps no animals or too few animals, he will not have a full year's work. Animals help to provide winter work, they provide work night and morning when the days are too short to allow a full day of field work. Notice how little winter work there would be for the farm shown in figure 78 if there were no cows and no manure hauling. FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 281 Most farms have a considerable amount of low-grade hay, mixed hay, and other products that do not have much market value or that are too bulky to pay to sell. At least enough stock should be kept to make use of these low-grade products. On many farms there is some land that will not pay for farming, but that will bring some income as pasture. Farmers who find cash crops very profitable often tend to keep too little live-stock. The more money one has and the more profitable his animals are, the nearer he should come to exclusive stock farming, but it usually pays to sell at least one cash crop. In the corn-belt, corn marketed through the hog takes the place of a cash crop. When little money is available and when stock pays poorly, one should keep fewer animals, but it usually pays to produce at least one kind of animal or animal product. It is desirable that a farm have two to four important products for sale, and usually at least one should be an animal product, and at least one a cash crop. Some Successful Dairy Farms 241. A Successful Dairy and Hog Farm in Iowa. One can learn much by a study of successful farms, provided he is sure that the farm he is studying is really successful. A farm is a financial success when it pays interest on the capital invested and pays good wages to the operator. Some- times unimportant peculiarities of the farm are erroneously considered the cause of success. A systematic study of a number of farms will help to avoid this error. The record here given for an Iowa farm shows one of the best types of dairy farming for the corn-belt. (Data furnished by Professor H. B. Hunger, Iowa State College.) 282 DAIRY FARMING Capital Invested in the Farm Business 160 acres land Machinery and tools 18 cows, 4 heifers, 2 calves . . . . 1 buU 17 cows, 2 heifers, 11 calves . . . 8 horses, 2 colts 7 horses, 3 colts 5 ewes 18 brood sows, 26 other hogs and pigs 19 brood sows, 40 other hogs and pigs 100 chickens Feed and supplies Cash to run farm April 1, 1913 $32,000 715 2000 175 1340 35 630 50 1079 100 ,124 April 1, 1914 $32,000 764 175 2440 1360 715 50 1047 100 $38,651 Crops Grown 1913 Crop Acres Total Yield Amount Sold Amount Received Corn Corn for silo .... Oats Hay 44 11 28 15 1990 bu. 128 tons 1540 bu. 19 tons 150 600 $95 198 In addition, there were 45 acres of rotated pasture and 17 acres of farmstead roads and waste land. Corn is raised for two years, followed by oats in which grass is seeded. The hay is left down two years, part for hay and part for pasture. Receipts 3939 lb. butter-fat @ 33^, skim-milk returned . . . $1300 12 cattle sold and 6 increase of inventory .... 755 Eggs 30 85 hogs sold and 15 increase of inventory .... 1645 Horses sold and increase of inventory 138 150 bushels corn 95 600 bushels oats 198 Outside labor 9 Machine work 30 $4200 FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 283 Farm Expenses 1 man 12 months $ 344 1 man 1 month 40 Machinery and repairs cost above increase value . . 81 Grain feed 69 Horseshoeing 10 Breeding fees 20 Veterinary 20 Seeds 47 Twine 11 Threshing 31 Machine work hired 13 Fuel for farm use 5 Insurance 25 Taxes 110 Sheep sold for less than inventory value 7 Decrease in feed on hand 32 $ 865 Summary Receipts $4200 Expenses 865 Income from capital and operator's labor .... $ 3335 Interest on average capital $38,388 at 5% . . . . 1919 Labor income $ 1416 Efficiency Factors Size Acres 160 Acres crops 98 Number cows 17i Number brood sows 18^ Number men 2x^2 Number work horses 7| Number of productive man work units 620 Number of productive horse work units 435 Production Corn 45 bushels per acre Oats 55 bushels per acre Hay 11 tons per acre Receipts per cow from butter-fat $74 Receipts per cattle unit $88 Pigs raised per sow 5.4 Diversity Three main sources of income — milk, cattle, and hogs 284 DAIRY FARMING Efficiency in use of labor Crop acres per man 47 Crop acres per horse 13 Work units per man 298 Work units per horse 58 Fertility Acres of crops, including rotated pasture per animal unit 3.6 The farm represents a good-sized business. It provides full work for two men (one besides the owner) and has enough crops to justify the use of four-horse teams and good machinery. The crop yields are excellent. The returns per cow are very good for milk sold to a creamery. The $74 per cow represents a production of 225 pounds of butter-fat per cow in addition to new milk for home use and for calves. The number of pigs per sow is good. The farm has three important products, — milk, cattle, and hogs. The corn raised for hog feed takes the place of the cash crops that are raised by the farm described on page 285. The farmer has for five years used a pure-bred bull and now has ten pure-bred cows, so that cattle are a third im- portant source of income. The acres of crops raised per man and work units per man are very good. The efficiency in the use of horses is only fair. It is possible that the farm might pay a little better if fewer horses were kept. In short, the farm is a good-sized business, has good crops, good cows, good diversity, and uses man labor efficiently, and the place is carrying enough stock so that there is a good supply of manure. The farmer had a common school education. He worked as a hired man five years, then as tenant five years, after which he bought this farm and has been operating it four years. The efiiciency factors given above when compared FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 285 with the averages for farms given in preceding tables, show how well the farm is managed. 242. A Successful Diversified Dairy Farm in New York. This farm is typical of the best general type of dairy farming for those portions of the Eastern States where intensive cash crops combine well with dairying. Capital Invested in the Farm Business 211 acres of land . Machinery and tools 31 cows .... 2 calves .... 3 calves .... 1 bull .... 5 horses .... 25 sheep, 38 lambs 28 sheep, 43 lambs 75 chickens . . . Feed and supplies . Cast to run farm . Crops Grown Crop Acres Total Yield Amount Sold Amount Received Corn for silo .... Wheat Oats Timothy and clover hay Potatoes Apples ..... Cabbage 10 11 26 55 12 2 1 120 tons 330 bu. 1006 bu. 83 tons 2400 bu. 40000 lb. 310 bu. 2 tons 2025 bu. 36000 lb. $264 25 1050 145 In addition to the above there were 85 acres of permanent pasture and 9 acres of woods, farmstead, waste land, etc. 286 DAIRY FARMING Receipts 264,837 lb. milk $3449 Calves sold and increase inventory 290 Sheep, lambs, and wool 204 Eggs . . 106 310 bu. wheat 264 2 tons hay 25 2025 bu. potatoes 1050 Apples 145 $5533 Farm Expenses Labor $1100 Feed 511 Fertilizer 100 Seeds 53 Other expenses 260 $2024 Summary Receipts $5533 Expenses 2024 Income from capital and operator's labor .... 3509 Interest on average capital $18,455 @ 5% . . . . 923 Labor income 2586 Efficiency Factors Size Acres 211 Acres of crops 117 Number of cows 31 Number of men 3f Number of work horses 5 Number units productive man work 835 Number units productive horse work 431 Production Corn 12 tons Potatoes 200 bu. Oats 41 bu. Wheat 30 bu. Milk sold per cow 8543 lb. Receipt per cow from milk $111 Receipt per cattle unit $112 Lambs raised per ewe 1.5 Receipts per ewe $8.16 FACTORS FOR SUCCESS IN DAIRY FARMING 287 Diversity Two main sources of income — milk and potatoes — several other important things. Efficiency in use of labor Crop acres per man 32 Crop acres per horse 23 Work units per man 228 Work units per horse 86 Fertility Acres of crops per animal unit 2,6 Fertilizers produced per acre of crops . . . $.85 Although this farm is a long distance from the preceding one, its success has been due to the same factors. The farm is a good-sized business, the cows and crops are good, the farm combines dairying with cash crops. The only differ- ence is that the Iowa farm marketed its corn crop through hogs, while the New York farm raised a human food crop for direct sale. Instead of keeping hogs to eat up extra grain, the New York farm depends to a large extent on purchased grain. Each farm followed the best type of farming for its conditions. Because of the size and diversity of the business each man is accomplishing a large amount. The production per cow on this farm is unusually good. The farmer has been in the dairy business for many years and now has a herd of high grade and pure-bred Holsteins. The farmer began as a tenant and worked this farm many years on shares. Be- cause of his good-sized diversified business, with good pro- duction, he was able to save money and buy the farm. QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 1. What is the labor income for a farm on which the expenses amounted to $1028, the receipts $2524, and on which the capital was $20,247 ? 2. For a dairy farm in your region find the total area, area in each crop, number of each kind of animals, and number of men em- 288 DAIRY FARMING ploj^ed. Calculate the units of productive man and horse work. Calculate the area of crops and units of productive work per man and per horse. Compare with farms of the same area in Tables 33-40. If each student bases his report on a different farm, the results" may be compared. 3. To how many animal units is the stock on the above farm equal? (See p. 218.) How many acres of crops per animal unit? About what proportion of the manure is produced in the barn. How many tons would this probably make per year if it is all saved ? If the manure is well cared for, and if eight tons are applied per acre, how many years would it take to cover the entire farm? 4. What is the value of the barns on the above farm? How much is this per animal unit? Compare with Table 39. 5. Are conditions in your region naturally favorable for large or for small breeds of dairy cattle ? 6. What things aside from dairy products are commonly sold from dairy farms in your region ? 7. As an average for the beginning and end of the year, how many animal units are there on the farm described on page 281 ? How many on the farm on page 285? 8. Compare the farms on pages 242 and 244 as to size of business, crop yields, returns per cow, work units per man and horse, and in other ways. 9. Compare each of the above farms as to efficiency in the use of men and horses with farms of the same area in Table 36. LABORATORY EXERCISES 36. Record of a Year's Business on a Farm. Arrange with some dairy farmer to allow the class to go to his farm and study his methods and obtain a record of his business for the past year, using Farmer's Bulletin 661 for taking the record. Later calculate the labor income and work, the efficiency factors, and compare with the farms described on pages 281 and 285. What are the strong points and what are the weak points of the farm ? Each student should make a similar record and study of the farm on which he lives. COLLATERAL READING A Method of Analyzing the Farm Business, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 661. Farm Management, G. F. Warren, pp. 535-565. APPENDIX ADDRESSES OF CATTLE BREEDERS' ASSOCIATIONS American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Association, Charles Gray, Sec, Chicago, 111. Ayrshire Breeders' Association, C. M. Winslow, Sec, Brandon, Vt. Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association, Ira Inman, Sec, Beloit, Wis. Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America, E. J. Kirby, Sec, Covert, Mich. American Galloway Breeders' Association, R. W. Brown, Sec, Carrollton, Mo. The American Guernsey Cattle Club, William H. Caldwell, Sec, Peterboro, N.H. American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association, R. J. Kinzer Sec, Kansas City, Mo. The Holstein-Friesian Association of America, F. L. Houghton, Sec, Brattleboro, Vt. The American Jersey Cattle Club, R. M. Gow, Sec, 324 West 23d St., New York City. Red Polled Cattle Club of America, H. A. Martin, Sec, Gotham, Wis. American Shorthorn Breeders' Association, P. W. Harding, Sec, Chicago, 111. The Polled Durham Breeders' Association, J. H. Martz, Sec, Greenville, O. u 289 290 APPENDIX SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COW Adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club, 1913 Dairy Temperament and Constitution Head, 7. A. Medium size, lean ; face dished; broad between eyes ; horns medium size, incurving 3 B. Eyes fuU and placid ; ears medium size, fine, carried alert ; muzzle broad, with wide open nostrils and muscular Ups, jaw strong 4 Neck, 4. Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to head and shoulders 4 Body, 37. A. Shoulders light, good distance through from point to point, but thin at withers ; chest deep and full be- tween and just back of fore legs 5 B. Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge shape, with deep, large abdomen, firmly held up, with strong muscular development 10 C. Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal pro- cesses ; loins broad and strong 5 D. Rump long to tail-setting, and level from hip bones to rump bones • 6 E. Hip-bones high and wide apart 3 F. Thighs flat and wide apart, giving ample room for udder 3 G. Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well apart, with good feet, and not to weave or cross in walking 2 H. Hide loose and mellow 2 /. Tail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at setting- on 1 Udder, 26. A. Large size, flexible, and not fleshy 6 B. Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between teats 4 C. Fore udder full and well rounded, running well for- ward of front teats 10 Carry forward ^ APPENDIX 291 Brought forward 68 D. Rear udder well rounded, and well out and up be- hind 6 Teats, 8. Of good and uniform length and size, regularly placed . 8 Milk-Veins, 4. Large, long, tortuous, and elastic, entering large and numerous orifices 4 Size, 4. Mature cows, 800 to 1000 pounds 4 General Appearance, 10. A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a propor- tioning of parts to each other, depending on size of animal, with the general appearance of a high-class animal, with capacity for food and productiveness at pail . . . 10 100 SCALE OF POINTS FOR AYRSHIRE COW Adopted by Ayrshire Breeders' Association, 1906 Head, 10. Forehead — Broad and clearly defined 1 Horns — Wide set on and inclining upward 1 Face — Of medium length, slightly dished, clean-cut, showing veins 2 Muzzle — Broad and strong without coarseness, nostrils large 1 Jaws — Wide at the base and strong 1 Eyes — Full and bright with placid expression ... 3 Ears — Of medium size and fine, carried alert .... 1 Neck, 3. . Fine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to head and shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, nearly free from loose skin, elegant in bearing 3 Fore Quarters, 10. Shoulders — Light, good distance through from point to point, but sharp at withers, smoothly blending into body 2 Chest — Low, deep, and full between and back of fore- legs ......•• .^ Carry forward ^•*- 292 APPENDIX Brought forward 21 Brisket — Light 1 Legs and Feet — Legs straight and short, well apart, shanks fine and smooth, joints firm ; feet medium size, round, solid, and deep 1 Body, 13. Back — Strong and straight, chine lean, sharp, and open . jointed 4 Loin — Broad, strong, and level 2 Ribs — Long, broad, wide apart, and well sprung . . 3 Abdomen — Capacious, deep, firmly held up with strong muscular development 3 Flank — Thin and arching 1 Hind Quarters, 11. Rump — Wide, level, and long from hooks to pin bones, a reasonable pelvic arch allowed 3 Hooks — Wide apart and not projecting above back nor unduly overlaid with fat 2 Pin Bones — High and wide apart 1 Thighs — Thin, long, and wide apart 2 Tail — Long, fine, set on a level with the back .... 1 Legs and Feet — Legs strong, short, straight when viewed from behind and set well apart ; shanks fine and smooth, joints firm ; feet medium size, round, solid, and deep 2 Udder, 22. Long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy; firmly attached to the body, extending well up, behind and far forward ; quarters even ; sole nearly level and not indented between teats, udder veins well developed and plainly visible 22 Teats, 8. Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal to half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal to one-third the length ; length 2| to 3| inches, thickness in keeping with length, hanging perpendicular, and not tapering 8 Mammary Veins, 5. •Large, long, tortuous, branching, and entering large orifices , _5 Carry forward 82 APPENDIX 293 Brought forward 82 Escutcheon, 2. Distinctly defined, spreading over thighs and extending well upward 2 Color, 2. Red of any shade, brown, or these with white ; mahog- any and white, or white ; each color distinctly defined. (Brindle markings allowed, but not desirable) .... 2 Covering, 6. Skin — Of medium thickness, mellow, and elastic ... 3 Hair — Soft and fine 2 Secretions — Oily, of rich brown or yellow color ... 1 Style, 4. Alert, vigorous, showing strong character, temperament inclined to nervousness, but still docile 4 Weight, 4. Weight at maturity not less than one thousand pounds 4 Total 100 SCALE OF POINTS FOR GUERNSEY COW Adopted by Guernsey Cattle Club Dairy Temperament Constitution, 38. Clean-cut, lean face ; strong, sinewy jaw ; wide muzzle with wide-open nostrils ; full, bright eye with quiet and gentle expression ; forehead long and broad. . . 5 Long, thin neck with strong juncture to head ; clean throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder blades ; large rugged spinal processes, indicating good devel- opment of the spinal cord . 5 Pelvis arching and wide ; rump long ; wide, strong struc- ture of spine at setting on of tail. Long, thin tail with good switch. Thin, incurving thighs 5 Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an open, relaxed conformation ; thin arching flanks . . 5 Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and navel development, indicative of capacity and vitality . . 15 Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture, but not thick _3 Carry forward 38 294 APPENDIX Brought forward 38 Milking Marks Denoting Quantity of Flow, 10. Escutcheon wide on thighs ; high and broad, with thighs oval 2 Milk veins long, crooked, branching, and prominent, with large or deep wells 8 Udder Formation, 26. Udder full in front 8 Udder full and well up behind 8 Udder of large size and capacity 4 Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of good and even size 6 Indicating Color of Milk, 15. Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base of horns, on udder, teats, and body generally. Hoof, amber-colored 15 Milking Marks Denoting Quality of Flow, 6. Udder showing plenty of substance, but not too meaty 6 Symmetry and Size, 5. Color of hair, a shade of fawn, with white markings. Cream-colored nose. Horns amber-colored, small, curved, and not coarse 3 Size for the breed : mature cows, four years old or over about 1050 pounds 2 100 SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW Adopted by Holstein-Friesian Association Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance ; fine in contour 2 Forehead — Broad between the eyes ; dishing 2 Face — Of medium length ; clean and trim especially under the eyes, showing facial veins ; the bridge of the nose straight 2 Muzzle — Broad with strong lips 1 Ears — Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair plentiful and soft ; the secretion oily and abundant 1 Eyes — Large ; full ; mild ; bright 2 Horns — Small ; tapering finely towards the tips ; set modera- ately narrow at base ; oval ; inclining forward ; well bent inward ; of fine texture ; in appearance waxy . . . . 1 Carry forward 11 APPENDIX 295 Brought forward 11 Neck — Long ; fine and clean at juncture with the head ; free from dewlap ; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders 4 Shoulders — Slightly lower than hips ; fine and even over tops ; moderately broad and full at sides 3 Chest — Of moderate depth and lowness ; smooth and moder- ately full in the brisket, full in the fore flanks (or through the heart) 6 Crops — Moderately full 2 Chine — Straight ; strong ; broadly developed, with open vertebrae 6 Barrel — Long ; of wedge shape ; well rounded ; with a large abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item age must be considered) 7 Loin and Hips — Broad ; level or nearly level between the hook bones ; level and strong laterally ; spreading from chine broadly and nearly level ; hook bones fairly promi- nent 6 Rump — Long ; high ; broad with roomy pelvis ; nearly level laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried out straight to dropping of tail 6 Thurl — High, broad 3 Quarters — Deep ; straight behind ; twist filled with develop- ment of udder; wide and moderately full at the sides 4 Flanks — Deep ; comparatively full 2 Legs — Comparatively short ; clean and nearly straight ; wide apart ; firmly and squarely set under the body ; feet of medium size, round, solid, and deep 4 Tail — Large at base, the setting well back ; tapering finely to switch ; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or below ; the switch full 2 Hair and Handling — • Hair healthful in appearance ; fine, soft, and furry ; the skin of medium thickness and loose ; mellow under the hand ; the secretions oily, abundant, and of a rich brown or yellow color 8 Mammary Veins — Very large ; very crooked (age must be taken into consideration in judging of size and crooked- ness) ; entering very large or numerous orifices ; double extension ; with special developments, such as branches, connections, etc 10 Carry forward 4: 296 APPENDIX Brought forward Udder and Teats — Very capacious ; very flexible ; quarters even ^ nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist, extending well forward in front ; broad and well held up Teats — Well formed ; wide apart, plump, and of convenient size Escutcheon — Largest ; finest Table 47. — Imports and Exports of Dairy Products 84 12 2 2 100 Year Ending June 30, 1912 ■ Year Ending June 30, 1913 Year Ending June 30, 1914 Amount Value Amoxmt Value Amount Value Imports Butter, pounds . Cheese, pounds Cream, gallons . Milk .... 1,025,668 46,542,007 1,120,427 $237,154 8,807,249 923,779 61,671 1,162,253 49,387,944 1,247,083 $304,094 9,185,184 1,068,109 135,724 7,842,022'$1,753,461 63,784,313 11,010,693 1,773,152 1,549,549 1,089,440 Total . . . Exports Butter, pounds . Cheese, pounds Condensed milk, pounds . . . Other milk and cream . . . 6,092,235 6,337,560 20,642,738 10,029,853 1,468,432 898,035 1,651,879 244,913 3,585,600 2,599,058 16,525,918 10,693,107 872,804 441,186 1,432,848 474,055 3,693,597 2,427,577 16,209,082 15,403,143 877,453 414,124 1,341,140 333,217 Total . . . 4,263,259 3,220,893 2,965,934 Notes for Table 48, on Page 297 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1913, p. 487. 2 No state standards. 3 Federal rulings adopted. * Percentage of fat based on total solids. 6 Fat, 7.8 per cent ; total solids plus fat, 34.3 per cent. ^ For butter making, 25 per cent fat. ^ This standard for sweetened condensed milk: "Evaporated milk," solids, 24 per cent ; fat, 7.8 per cent. * No report ; 1910 standard given. ^ By weight. 10 Not more than 0.2 per cent " filler." 11 Must correspond to 11.5 per cent solids in crude milk. 12 If artifically colored. 1^ Must correspond to 12 per cent solids in crude milk. " 23-24 per cent solids, 7.9 per cent fat ; 24-25 per cent solids, 7.8 per cent fat ; 25-26 per cent solids, 7.7 per cent fat ; 26 per cent solids, 7.6 per cent fat. 1^ In May and June, solids 12 per cent. " Fat, 27.5 per cent of total solids. APPENDIX 297 Table 48. — -Legal Standards for Dairy Products^ ^ J 12: State Milk 1 m < 05 ^0 Condensed Milk < ^^ I— 1 --^ < 5 H « 1— 1^^ ^- 03 OD.'S — m _ n 03 T3 -ofe OJ-uJ 03^ -*^ *^ ^ -f^ ■4^ ■^'^ -tj -tj += 4.2 ^ •^' p c3 P S3 c3 03 P'o o3 c3 ti Hcc cc c fe Per 1^ fe ^ hc» fc ^ E^ Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Alabama 2 . . . . Arizona ^ . . . , Arkansas ^ . . . . California . . . . 11.5 8.5 3.0 8.8 18.0 8O.0" 50* 0) (^) 12 Colorado .... 3.0 16.0 6 80.0 50^ 14 12 Connecticut . . . 11.75 8.5 3.25 16.0 Delaware 2 . . . . District of Columbia 12.5 9.0 3.5 9.3 20.0 83.0 Florida .... 11.75 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 50 4 128.0 7 7.77 12 Georgia .... 11.75 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 50 * J28.0 27.66 * 14 12 Hawaii ^ . . . . 11.5 8.5 3.0 28.0 7.7 Idaho 11.2 8.0 3.2 9.3 18.0 82.5 30 {') {') 14 12 Illinois 11.5 8.5 3.0 9.25 18.0 82.5 50 4 {') {') 8 Indiana 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 50* 28.0 27.5* 8 Iowa 12.0 3.0 16.0 80.0 9 12 Kansas 11.75 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 6 80.0 50* {') {') 14 12 Kentucky . . . 12.5 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 50* 28.0 27.66 * 14 12 Louisiana .... 8.5 3.5 8.0 18.0 (*) {') Maine 11.75 8.5 3.25 18.0 Maryland 12.5 3.5 9.25 18.0 (^) (^) 4 6 Massachusetts 12.15 3.35 9.3 15.0 Michigan .... 12.5 3.0 12 Minnesota . . . 13.0 9.75 3.25 20.0 45* (^) e) 12 Mississippi 2 . . Missouri . . . 12.0 8.75 3.25 9.25 18.C 82.5 50* 28.0 7.76 14 Montana .... 11.75 8.5 3.25 20.0 82.5 50* 14 Nebraska .... 3.0 18.0 14 12 New Hampshire 12.0 8.5 18.0 80.0 1410 New Jersey . . 11.5 3.0 16.0 New Mexico 2 . . New York . . . 11.5 3.0 18.0 (") 25.0* Nevada .... 11.75 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 50* 26.5 7.8 14 North Carolina . 11.5 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 50* 28.0 27.5* 14 12 North Dakota . . 12.0 9.0 3.0 15.0 14 Ohio 12.0 3.0 80.0 12 (13) 25.0* Oklahoma . . 12.51 9.5 3.0 18.0 81.5 14 Oregon .... 9.0 3.2 20.0 30 (14) (14) 12 Pennsylvania . . 12.0 3.25 18.0 32 8 6 Porto Rico . . 12.0 9.0 3.0 Rhode Island 12.0 2.5 South Carolina 2 . South Dakota 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 80.0 50* 28.0 27.5* 14 ]2 Tennessee . . 8.5 3.50 Texas 8.5 3.25 Utah 12.0 9.0 3.2 9.0 18.0 80.0 50* C*) {') 14 12 Vermont .... 12.5 15 9.25 Virginia .... 11.75 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 (^) Q') 8 Washington . . . 12.0 8.75 3.25 9.3 18.0 30 West Virginia 2 . . Wisconsin 8.5 3.0 9.0 18.0 82.5 50* 28.0 8.0 14 Wyoming .... 8.5 3.25 9.25 18.0 82.5 50* 28.0 (16) 14 12 298 APPENDIX Table 49. — Average Composition of Milk and its Products Skim-milk, gravity . Skim-milk, separator Buttermilk . . . Whey Wateb 89.88 90.60 91.24 93.04 Ash .77 .78 .70 .42 Protein 3.54 3.57 3.50 0.84 Sugar 4.91 4.95 4.00 5.34 Fat 0.90 0.10 0.56 0.36 Table 50. — Average Weights Product Weight in Pounds per Quart ^ Average milk 2.15 20 per cent cream 2.10 25 per cent cream 2.09 30 per cent cream 2.08 40 per cent cream 2.01 50 per cent cream 1.97 The Haecker Feeding Standard The feeding standard formulated by Prof. T. L. Haecker of the Minnesota Experiment Station ^ has found consider- able favor especially in the Middle West. This standard is based upon a long series of investigations concerning the requirements for maintenance and for the production of milk of varying richness. This standard has recently been modified by Savage in the direction of simplicity in form and some increase in the nutrients. This standard makes use of the total digestible nutrients and does not exclude the amide nitrogen as is done by Armsby. ^ Calculated from the specific gravity of cream as given by Farrington and Woll, Testing Milk and its Products, 20th edition, p. 77. ^ Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletins 69, 79, 130, 140. APPENDIX 299 This accounts mostly for the difference in protein require- ment and the larger amount of protein in the various feed- stuffs as shown in the table. This standard as modified by Savage is expressed in terms of digestible protein and total nutriment. The term " total nutriment " is applied to the sum of the digestible protein, the digestible carbohydrates, and the fat. The latter is multiphed by 2.25 to convert into its carbohydrate equiva- lent. The maintenance requirement is stated for each 100 pounds live weight, and the amount necessary for the animal in question is then found by calculation, taking the weight of the animal into account. Maintenance Requirement Digestible Protein Pounds Total Digestible Nutriment, Pounds Per 100 lb. live weight .070 .79 For One Pound of Milk Per Cent Fat Digestible Protein Pounds Total Digestible Nutriment, Pounds 3.0 .057 .29 3.5 .061 .32 4.0 .065 ,.35 4.5 .069 .38 5.0 .073 .41 5.5 .077 .43 6.0 .081 .46 6.5 .085 .49 In using this standard the same plan of calculation is followed as explained for the Armsby standard. The main- 300 APPENDIX tenance requirement is first calculated, taking into account the size of the animal. To this is added the amount neces- sary to produce the milk, taking into account the amount and richness. For example, let it be assumed the problem is to calculate the ration for a 1150-pound cow producing 30 pounds of 4.5 per cent milk daily. According to the pre- ceding statements the requirements would be as follows : Digestible Protein POUXDS Total Nutriment Maintenance 1150 lb. 30 1b. 4.5% milk . . (.070 X 11.5) .81 (30 X .069) 2.07 (.79 X 11.5) 9.09 (30 X 38) 11.40 Total 2.88 20.49 The ration to be fed will then be selected and calculated using the average composition of feeds as given in Table 51, making such changes and modifications as are seen to be necessary in order to bring the composition of the ration reasonably close to the standard. Table 51. — Dry Matter, Digestible Protein and Total Nutriment per 100 Pounds ^ Total Drt Matter Concentrates. Corn Sweet Corn . . . Corn-and-cob Meal Gluten Feed . . Gluten Meal . . Hominy Feed (chops) Germ Oil Meal . . 89.4 91.2 84.9 90.8 90.5 90.4 91.4 Digestible Protein 7.8 8.8 4.4 21.3 29.7 6.8 15.8 Total Nutriment 84.3 88.3 70.9 80.6 85.9 83.9 78.8 1 This table is adapted from Henry's " Feeds and Feeding," 10th edition, p. 582. APPENDIX 301 Total Dry Digestible Total Matter Protein Nutriment Corn Bran 90.6 6. 69.2 Wheat .... 89.5 8.8 79.7 Red-dog Flour . . 90.1 16.2 80.8 Wheat Middlings . 88.8 13. 68.8 Wheat Bran . . . 88.1 11.9 59.5 Rye 91.3 9.5 81.6 Rye Middlings . . 88.2 11. 69.7 Rye Bran .... 88.4 11.2 62.0 Barley 89.2 8.4 77.3 Oats 89.6 10.7 69.5 Oatmeal .... 92.1 11.9 92.0 Oat Middlings . . 91.2 13.1 85.4 Oat Hulls . . . 92.6 1.3 41.2 Buckwheat . . . 86.6 8.1 61.7 Buckwheat Middlings 87.2 22.7. 73.7 Buckwheat Hulls . . 86.8 1.2 30.9 Rice 87.6 6.4 86.5 Canada Field Pea . . 85.0 19.7 69.9 Cowpea 85.4 16.8 74.2 Soybean 88.3 29.1 85.2 Kafir Corn .... 90.1 5.2 52.6 Linseed Meal . . 90.2 30.2 '77.7 Cottonseed . '. . . 89.7 12.5 81.4 Cottonseed Meal . . 93.0 37.6 80.6 Cottonseed Hulls . 88.9 .3 37.3 Dried Brewers' Grains 91.3 20.0 65.7 23. 4.9 16.3 Malt Sprouts .... 90.5 20.3 69.4 Dried Distillers' Grain 92.4 22.8 88.6 Wet Beet Pulp .... 10.2 .5 8.2 Dried Beet Pulp . . . 91.6 4.1 69.0 Sugar-beet Molasses . 79.2 4.7 58.8 Silage. Corn 26.4 23.9 1.4 0.1 17.2 Sorghum 14.1 Red Clover 28.0 25.8 1.5 2.7 11.8 Soybean 15.2 Cowpea Vine .... 20.7 1.5 12.1 302 APPENDIX Dried Roughage. Fodder Com with Ears . Corn Stover, Ears removed Timothy . . . Orchard Grass . Redtop . . . Kentucky Bluegrass Bermuda Grass Johnson Grass . Barley .... Oat .... Hungarian Grass Prairie Grass Buffalo Grass Hay from Legumes and Mixed Legumes and Grasses. Red Clover . . Alsike Clover Crimson Clover Sweet Clover Soybean . . . Cowpea Alfalfa (western U. S.) Hairy (winter) Vetch Peanut Vine . . . Oat and Pea . . . Mixed Grasses and Clover Straw and Chaff. Wheat Rye Oat Barley Buckwheat Fresh Green Roughage. Green Corn and Sorghum- forage. Total Dry Matter 57.8 59.5 86.8 90.1 91.1 86.0 92.9 89.8 85.0 86.0 86.Q 90.8 85.0 84.7 90.3 90.4 92.1 88.2 89.5 93.2 88.7 92.4 89.5 87.1 90.4 92.9 90.8 85.8 90.1 Digestible Protein 2.5 1.4 2.8 4.9 4.8 4.4 6.4 2.9 5.7 4.7 5.0 3.0 3.0 7.1 8.4 10.5 11.9 10.6 13.1 11.1 11.9 6.7 7.6 5.8 .8 .7 1.3 .9 1.2 Total Nutriment 39.8 34.2 48.1 50.4 53.9 46.2 54.9 50.3 51.6 45.2 54.4 49.5 48.6 48.9 50.6 48.1 49.7 54.2 49.1 51.5 56.2 55.6 52.4 50.5 36.9 41.2 42.6 42.3 39.7 APPENDIX 303 Total Dry Digestible Total Matter Protein Nutriment Fodder, Corn, all Varieties .... 20.7 1.0 13 8 Sweet Varieties . . . 20.9 1.2 14.7 Fresh Green. Grasses . Pasture Grass . . . 20. 2.5 13.7 24.2 Kentucky Blue-grass . 34.9 2.8 Timothy 38.4 1.5 22.7 Orchard Grass . . . 27.0 1.2 15.7 Redtop in bloom . . 34.7 1.9 24.3 Wheat Forage . . 22.7 1.7 14 6 Rye Forage .... 23.4 2.1 -1. Jt* v/ 17.1 Oat Forage, in Milk . 37.8 2.5 22.9 Barley Forage . . . 21.0 1.9 12.9 Johnson Grass . . . . 25.0 .6 14 7 Bermuda Grass . . , 28.3 1.3 X A. 1 15 6 Common Millet . . 20.0 0.8 12.3 Fresh Green Legumes, Grasses and Legumes Combined. Red Clover 29.2 2.9 19.3 Alsike Clover 25.2 2.6 15.1 Crimson Clover 19.1 2.4 12.6 Sweet Clover 20.0 2.5 11.8 Alfalfa . . . 28.2 3.6 16.6 Cowpea . . . 16.4 1.8 11.0 Soybean . . , 24.9 3.1 15.2 Canada Field-pea 15.3 1.8 9.4 Roots and Tubers. Potatoes 20.9 1.1 17.0 Common Beet 11.5 1.2 9.3 Mangel . . . 9.1 1.0 7.0 Sugar Beet . . 13.5 1.3 11.3 Flat Turnip . . 9.9 .9 7.5 Carrot .... 11.4 .8 9.2 Rutabaga . . . . . 11.4 1.0 9.5 Miscellaneous. Dwarf Essex Rape . . 14.3 2.0 10.6 Cabbage 10.0 2.3 8.4 Field Pumpkins . . . 9.1 1.0 7.3 304 APPENDIX Wing's Method of Balancing Rations A short method of balancing rations devised by H. H. Wing is practical and convenient. He divides the ordniary grains into three groups : low pro- tein (less than 12 per cent) ; medium protein (12 to 25 per cent) ; high protein (over 25 per cent). The figures given in the table are for the total and not the digestible protein. Table 52. — Wing's Method of Balancing Rations Low Protein Gi WUP Medium Protein Group High Protein Group Total Protein 12% or less Total Protein 12% to 25%, Total Protein 25% or more Corn . 10.3 Wheat bran . . .15.4 Malt sprouts .... 26.3 Oats . 11.4 Mixed wheat feed . 16.3 Linseed oil meal . . . 33.9 Wheat .... . 11.9 Wheat middlings . 16.9 Cottonseed meal . . . 45.3 Rve . 11.3 Cottonseed feed . 20.0 Gluten feed .... 25.0 Barley .... 12.0 Buckwheat feed . 18.3 Brewers' dried grains . 25.0 Buckwheat . . 10.8 Pea meal .... 20.2 Distillers' dried grains (corn) 31.2 Hominy chop . 10.5 Cull beans . . .21.6 Buckwheat middlings . 26.7 Dried beet pulp . 8.1 Corn-and-cob meal 8.5 Mixed hay, corn silage, and corn fodder are very similar in composition as far as the relation between the protein and carbohydrates is concerned. When roughage of this class is used, a grain mixture made by mixing equal parts by weight of one from each of the three groups will make a well- balanced ration. A dairy cow in full flow of milk should receive all the hay and silage she will eat and the grain mix- ture at the rate of one pound for each 3 or 3^ pounds of milk that she produces, if this milk be about the average composition of 4. percent. If the milk contains 3 to 3.5 percent fat, 1 pound grain to 4 pounds of milk is sufficient. If alfalfa hay is used the high protein feed is not necessary. APPENDIX 305 Table 53. — Average Weights of Different Feeding-Stuffs ^ Feeding Stuff Barley meal Barley, whole Brewers' dried grains . . Corn-and-eob meal . Corn-and-oat feed . Corn, bran Corn meal Corn, whole Cottonseed meal .... Distillers' grains, dried Germ oil meal .... Gluten feed Gluten meal Hominy meal Linseed meal, new process Linseed meal, old process Malt sprouts Oats, ground Oats, whole Rye bran . ... . . Rye meal Rye, whole Wheat bran Wheat, ground Wheat middlings (flour) . Wheat middlings (standard) Wheat, whole .... One Quart One Pound Weighs Measures Pounds Quarts 1.1 0.9 1.5 0.7 0.6 1.7 1.4 0.7 0.7 1.4 0.5 2.0 1.5 0.7 1.7 0.6 1.5 0.7 0.5-0.7 1.0-1.4 1.4 0.7 1.3 0.8 1.7 0.6 1.1 0.9 0.9 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.6 1.7 0.7 1.4 1.0 1.0 0.6 1.8 1.5 0.7 1.7 0.6 0.5 2.0 1.7 0.6 1.2 0.8 0.8 1.3 2.0 0.5 Rules for Measuring Feed Measuring Grain. A bushel of grain contains approxi- mately f cubic feet. To find the capacity of a bin, find the number of cubic feet and multiply by |, or multiply by 8 and divide by 10. Measuring Ear Corn. Two bushels of ears are ordinarily required to make one bushel of grain. To find the capacity 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 222. X 306 APPENDIX of a crib, find the number of cubic feet and multiply by |, or multiply by 4 and divide by 10. Seventy pounds of ear corn is ordinarily called a bushel. Measuring Straw. Few weights of straw have been re- ported. The writer measured and weighed two barns full of settled wheat straw. The mows were 14 feet deep, 1200 cubic feet were required for one ton. Measuring Hay. Some kinds of hay are heavier than others. The deeper the mow or stack and the longer it has stood, the heavier the hay is per cubic foot. Of course the bottom of a mow is much heavier than the top. Usually about 500 cubic feet of settled hay are counted as one ton. A barn 30 X 60 feet and 16 feet from floor to top of the plate, and having the peak 9 feet above the plate, was filled as full as possible with timothy hay and refilled after a few days. This hay was baled by the writer about five months later. It weighed 51|^ tons. On another year it weighed 51 tons. A barn 30 X 42 feet and 16 feet from floor to top of plate, with peak 9 feet above the plate, was similarly filled, and baled out 32.75 tons. Capacity of Silos. King gives the weight of a cubic foot of silage at different depths two days after filling, as follows : ^ Depth Weight per Cubic Foot Average Weight to this Depth Feet Pounds Pounds 1 19 19 10 33 26 20 46 33 30 56 40 36 61 43 1 Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 59. INDEX Aberdeen-Angus, 37. Abortion, 155. Advanced registry, 64, 133. Age and production, 66. Alfalfa, 106, 224. Animal unit, defined, 218. acres per, 278. Ash, 95. Associations, breeders, 289. cow- testing, 61. Ayrshire, 27. no. registered, 17. Babcock milk test, 58, 196. Balanced rations, 97, 131, 298, 304. Barns, 82, 139. costs of, 147, 266. Beef, breeds, 37. from dairy cattle, 5, 20. Beet pulp and molasses, 109. Bitter milk, 88. Blackleg, 163. Bloat, 162. Bloody milk, 87. Breeders' associations, 289. Breeds, beef, 14, 37. classification of, 14. dairy, 14. dual purpose, 14, 31. milk of various, 173. origin of, 12. production of various, 42, 66. selection of, 40. Brewers' grains, 109. Brown Swiss, 30. Bull, management of, 91. selection of, 69. Butter, ash in, 2. compared with beef, 2. energy in, 2. imports and exports, 296. legal standards, 297. making, 182. prices by months, 217. production per capita, 4. protein in, 2. regions of production, 209. season of production, 215. Butter-fat, 59, 196. factors affecting amount of, 172. Buttermilk, composition of, 298. Calf raising, 112. scours, 160. Calving, care at, 90. Canada pea, 106. Capital and amount of stock, 277. Cattle, origin of, 12. Centralizer, 192. Certified milk, 181. Cheese, ash in, 2. compared with beef, 2. energy in, 2. imports and exports, 296. legal standards, 297. making, 192. production per capita, 4. protein in, 2. regions of production, 209, 211. season of production, 215, 216. Churning, 187. Climate, 203, 215. Clover, 106, 224. Condensed milk, 193. imports and exports, 296. Condimental feeds. 111. Corn, 107. silage, 107, 221. stover, 106. Corn-stalk disease, 165. Costs of production, 246. Cqttonseed meal, 108. Cows, compared with other animals, 7. numbers of, 6. size of, 271. 307 308 INDEX Cowpea, 106, 224. Cowpox, 162. cow-testing associations, 61. Cream, imports and exports, 296. legal standards, 297. separation, 185. weight of, 298. Creameries, 191. Crimson clover, 106. Crop rotations, 225. yields, 274. acres per horse, 264. acres per man, 261. cash, 227, 276. Cropping systems, 225. Crossbreeding, 13, 74. Crude fiber, 95. Dairy products, receipts from, 10. Dehorning, 81. Devon, 36. Diversified farming, 227, 276, 279. Drenching a cow, 152. Drying up a cow, 89, 124. Dual purpbse, 14, 31. Dutch Belted, 30. Ether extract, 95. Feeding standards, 97, 298, 304. Feeds, 104, 300, 304, 305. condimental. 111. costs of, 246. digestibility, 96. effect on milk, 176. energy- in, 104. mixed, 110. production values of, 96. returned in manure, 231. uses of, 94. weights of, 305. Fertility of feed in manure, 231. Flies, 79. Floors of barns, 141. Galloway, 38. Garget, 158. Gluten, 109. Grade, defined, 13. Guernsey, 24. no. registered, 17. Gutters, 144. Hsecker feeding standard, 298. Hay, weight of, 306. Heifers, feeding, 120. cost of raising, 250. Hereford, 37. Holstein, 17. Ice cream, legal standards, 297. Inflammation of the udder, 158. Jersey, 21. number registered, 17. Kaffir poisoning, 164. Kerry, 30. Kicking cows, 88. Labor costs, 246, 248. Labor income, 259. Legal standards, 297. Legumes, 106, 224. Lice, 161. Light for barns, 140. Linseed meal, 109. Maintenance requirements, 299. Mangers, 144. Manure, 9, 230. amount produced, 230. application of, 235. losses of, 232. value of, 231, 234. Marketing, 253. Marking cattle, 82. Meat from dairy cattle, 5, 20. Milk, ash in, 2. bitter, 88. certified, 181. color of, 171. compared with beef, 2. composition of, 168. condensed, 193. consumed per capita, 4. cost of, 246. energy in, 2. fever, 153. flour, 194. from different animals, 172. inspection, 5. INDEX 309 legal standards, 297. prices by months, 217. records, 58. sanitary, 177. substitutes, 117. sugar, 170. testing, 59, 196. value as food, 1. veins, 51. weight of, 298. wells, 51. Milking, methods of, 83, 84. machines, 86. Mixed feeds, 110. Molasses, 109. Nitrogen-free extract, 95. Oats, 108. OU meal, 109. Pasture, 126, 224. feeding grain on, 127. Pedigrees, 15. Polled Durham, 34. Population of the United States, 3. Production values of feeds, 96. Profits, factors affecting, 258. Protein, 95. Pulse, normal, 150. Pure bred, defined, 13. Rations, calculating, 100. Red Polled, 34. Registry, advanced, 64. number of animals in, 17. Renting dairy farms, 240. Respiration, normal, 151. Rotations, crop, 225. Salt, 123. Sanitary milk, 177. Score cards, 53, 77, 290. Scours, 160. Selection, individual, 42. of a breed, 40. of a bull, 69. Shelter, 82. Shorthorn, 32. Silage, 107, 221. Silo, capacity of, 306. Skim-milk, composition of, 298. for calves, 112. value as food, 2, 254. Soiling crops, 223. Soils for dairying, 274. Sorghum poisoning, 164. Stalls, 144. Stanchions, 145. Straw, weight of, 306. Strippings, 176. Successful farms, 242, 281. Succulent feed, 132. Teats, chapped, 88. leaky, 87. Temperature, normal, 151. Tenure of dairy farms, 240. Ties, 145. Timothy hay, 106. Topography, 203. Transportation and dairying, 208. Tuberculosis, 156. Udder, 50. inflammation of, 158. Variations, extent of, 44. Veal production, 119. Ventilation, 146. Vetch, 106, 224. Water for cows, 125. in feed, 95. Weights of feeds, 305. Wheat bran, 107. middlings, 108. Whey, 298. Wing's feeding standard, 304. Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard, 99. Work units, 263. Printed in the United States of America. npHE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects Animal Husbandry for Schools By MERRITT W. HARPER Associate Professor of Animal Husbandry in the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University Cloth, 121710, ill. ^og pages. $1.40 To meet the demand for a book on Animal Husbandry- suitable for use by students of high school age this book has been written, and in content, style, and arrangement it is admirably adapted to the purpose. It belongs to the Rural Textbook Series prepared under the editorial supervision of Professor L. H. Bailey of Cornell University. In the five parts into which the book is divided the author treats of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry, and each is discussed with reference to breeds, judging the animal, feeding, and care and management. There is also a chapter on the general principles of feeding. Practical questions and numerous laboratory exercises supplement the text and compel the student to think through each subject as he proceeds. The book is extensively illustrated. Designed for use as a textbook, it is also well suited for use as a refer- ence book in schools in which time limitations make it impossible to use it as a text. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Warren's Elements of Agriculture By G. F. WARREN, Professor of Farm Management and Farm Crops, New York State College of Agriculture at Cor- nell University Cloth, i2mo, 4^6 pages, $i.io Written by Professor G. F. Warren, who is in charge of the Department of Farm Management and Farm Crops in the New York State College of Agri- culture, Cornell University, an authority on questions pertaining to practical agriculture. Professor Warren is, moreover, a farmer. He grew up on a farm in the mid- dle West and is living at the present time on a farm of three hundred and eighteen acres, which he supervises in connection with his work at the Univer- sity. The " Elements of Agriculture " is a text that does not " talk down " to the pupil. It gives agriculture rank beside physics, mathematics, and the languages, as a dignified subject for the course of study. In Warren's "Elements of Agriculture " there is no waste space. It is writ- ten with the ease that characterizes a writer at home in his subject, and it is written in a style pedagogically correct. The author has been a teacher of high school boys and girls and knows how to present his subject to them. Experts in the teaching of agriculture the country over have been unanimous in praise of the text. For instance : Mr. J. E. Blair, Supt. of Schools, Corsicana, Texas : "An examination of Warren's ' Elements of Agriculture' convinces me that it is a book of uncommon merit for secondary schools as well as for the private student. It is thoroughly scientific in matter, and is written in an attractive style, that cannot fail to please as well as instruct." Supt. E. S. Smith, Whiting, Iowa : " I am very much pleased with Warren's ' Elements of Agriculture.' In my opinion it is the only book on the market that presents the work of agriculture suitably for high schools; too many books are too simple and do not give enough work ; a book for high schools must be more than a primer." THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Field Crop Production By GEORGE LIVINGSTON Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Ohio State University Cloth, ismo, illustrated, xix + ^34 pages, $1.40 This is one of the excellent books of the Rural Text- book Series, edited by Professor Liberty Hyde Bailey. After an introductory view of the whole field of plant life and crop rotation, there are twenty chapters on dif- ferent crops, for example, corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice, buckwheat, perennial grasses, annual grasses, clovers, alfalfa, root crops, fibre crops, etc. There is a chapter also on marketing grain. ' The book is simple and non-technical in style and in- tensely practical, the topics treated being those of immedi- ate interest and profit to students who expect to become actual farmers. It points out the ''better way" of raising farm crops, of selecting the field, of preparing the soil, of sowing the seed, of cultivating the plant, of harvesting the crop. It tells what causes hard and soft wheats, how to prevent smut in the corn crops, and about reseeding old meadows and pastures. The appendix contains references for outside reading and review questions for each chapter. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York Principles of Agronomy By J. S. HARRIS and GEORGE STEWART Utah Agricultural College Clothy i2mo, illustrated, 430 pages', List price, $1.40 The " Principles of Agronomy " deals with the practices that underlie success in crop production and will be wel- comed by those schools that emphasize, in the agriculture course, the field crop studies. The student is introduced in this book to the four elements that will affect his suc- cess in raising crops for market. First, the nature of the plant and its activities; then, the composition of soils; next, the characteristics of the principal field crops and details regarding their cultivation and care ; finally, the principles of farm management When one has surveyed the subject from these four points of view he has a clear idea of what is involved in the practical problem of crop production. He sees that results are determined by the character of the plant, by the soil, and by the manage- ment as well as by the crops themselves. The book will appeal to the practical man whether he be student or farmer. It deals with conditions as they are, and discusses practical problems that involve both principles and applications : What shading does to plants; Hozv to modify soils ; When to irrigate ; How to p7'event potato diseases ; etc. The book is comprehensive and well organized. It is, moreover, well written and attractively illustrated. It is a good story well told. Lists of supplementary readings, provided at the ends of chapters, permit of extension of the course into any field of special local interest. The appendix contains ref- erence material, tables, rules, glossary, etc. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York / LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 002 852 498 5 ^:^^^^^ W y*'|fe:^' : ^fli^- ^<^«^?s< ^7_ vt^-M A<<, < j,jV Sii«5£t5i;i»y