& €* S* PUJMi M. S B 191 m €l^^f*\f8 VI. Tillage " ^ VII. Planting ^'^ VIII. Harvesting ^-^ IX. Rotation of Crops 1-1 X. Insects ^ XI. DlSP]ASES ^"^' XII. Chemical Composition and Digestibility. I'A XIII. The Feeding of Live Stock = — l^^l XIV. Soiling ^^^ XV. Silos and Silage 1^^ XVI. Statistics -^^'* XVII. Miscellaneous -^'^ XVIII. Literature on Indian Corn 234 CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL. Indian corn, the Zea mans of botanists, is un- questionably native to America. Before the discovery of this country by Columbus this cereal was unknown in Europe, Asia or Africa. Maize was undoubtedly grown by the inhabit- ants of North, Central and South America in prehistoric times. Mounds that were erected prior to the time of the American Indian, of which he has no tradition, that have been ex- plored in recent years, have contained corncol)s and charred kernels. In mounds excavated at Madisonville, 0., in 1879, remains of maize were found in quantities. In the caves occupied by the early Cliff Dwellers in the southwestern United States, ears of corn have been frequently discovered. In South America Darwin found on the coast of Peru, ^lieads of maize, together with eighteen species of recent sea shells, em- bedded in a beach which had been upraised at least eighty-five feet above the level of the sea.''* * Animals and Plants under Domestication, New York, 1890, I, p. 338. (7) 8 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Ears of Indian corn are occasionally found in vessels placed in ancient Indian tombs or mounds in Chili, Peru and Central America. The Smithsonian Institute at Washington has numerous interesting specimens of corn, ex- humed from mounds and tombs, that must be very ancient. One specimen was discovered deposited in an earthen vessel eleven feet under ground in a grave with a mummy, near Ari- quipe, Peru.'"' Marcay refers to corn found in Aymara Indian tombs in South America, that, from the material accompanying it, must belong to a period long before the Spanish conquest.f Among the ruins of Peru are stone carvings of ears of corn, executed centuries ago, before the discovery by Europeans. Original Home. — The original home of In- dian corn is thought by some to be Central America or Mexico, south of the twenty-second degree of north latitude.^ In 1888 Prof. Duges collected at Moro Leon, north of Lake Cuitzco, Mexico, several corn plants which have been termed wild maize, and considered by some to be the original parent of Indian corn. Plants from this source were grown at the Cambridge, * Report United States Department of Agriculture, 1870 p. 420. t Travels in South America, I, p. 69. J Maize: A botanical and economical study, Idv John W. Harshberg-er, 1893, p. 202. HISTORICAL. 9 Mass., botanical gardens, at Philadelphia and at Ithaca, N. Y. The Indians of Mexico and the southwestern United States have for centuries grown corn very similar in general conformation to that found in the mounds of ancient times, which is quite unlike that grown in the northern corn belt. This corn is soft or starchy, of color rang- ing from white to pink, blue and other shades, has a large cob, and round, smooth topped kernels of fair size. Says Sturtevant:* •'Centeotl, in Mexico, was goddess of maize, and hence of agriculture, and was known, according to Clavigero, by the title, among others, of Tonacajohua, 'she who sustains us.' Sahagrun writes of the seventy-eight chapels of the great Temple of Mexico, that the forty-fifth edifice was called Cinteupan, and therein was a statue of the god of maize.'' Indians as corn-growers. — The early Amer- ican explorers discovered the Indians cultivat- ing fields of maize. Delafield tells usf that "when Cartier visited Hochelaga, now called Montreal, in 1535, that town was situated in the midst of extensive cornfields." Champlain in 1603 found cornfields eastward from the Kennebec river. In 1621, Squanto, an Indian, showed the Puritans how to plant and care for maize, and some twenty acres were planted and successfully grown. J At the time of the Pequot * American Naturalist, March, 1885, p. 226. t Transactions New York State agricultural society, 1850, p. 386. J Harshberger; Maize: A botanical study, etc., p. 131. 10 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. war in 1637 the English destroyed over two hundred acres of corn planted by the Indians. The Puritans in King Philip's war, in 1675, took ''what he had worth, spoiled the rest, and also took possession of one thousand acres of corn, which was harvested by the English.''* Wher- ever the early explorers or voyagers went they found either fields of Indian corn or the Indians using the grain for food. Capt. John Smith, in his ^'Indians of Virginia," tells of the methods of planting at that time (1608). Cabeca de Vaca found an abundance of maize near Tampa Bay, Florida, in 1528.f In 1679 La Salle, when on a trip through the Great Lakes and across Illinois, found large quantities of stored corn in a vil- lage of Illinois Indians and took about forty bushels of it.J Columbus in 1498 writes to Ferdinand and Isabella of the maize plant and of fields eighteen miles long. The early ex- plorers also noted maize as an important article of food for man in Yucatan, Nicaragua, and Mexico. Harshberger's conclusions. — In his impor- tant historical study of maize, Harshberger says:§ "The evidence of archaeology, history, ethnology, and philology, which points to central and southern Mexico as * Harshberger; Maize: A botanical study, etc., p. 131. t Torrey Botanical Club Bulletin, VI, p. 86. J Harshberger; Maize: A botanical study, etc., p. 135. 'ilhid., p. 151. HISTORICAL. 11 the original home of maize, is supported by botany and meteorology. All of the plants closely related to maize are Mexican. It is an accepted evolutionary principle that sev- eral species of the same genus, or genera of the same tribe, though dispersed to the most distant quarters of the globe, must originally have proceeded from the same source, as they are descended from the same progenitors. It is also obvious that the individuals of the same species, though now in dis- tant regions, must have proceeded from one spot, where their parents were first produced; for it is incredible that individ- uals, identically the same, should have been produced from parents specifically distinct. Applying these principles to maize, we reach the conclusion that maize was originally Mexican. * * * The evidence to the present date (1893) places the original home of our American cereal, maize, in central Mexico." 12 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. CHAPTER II. BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Indian corn is known by botanists as Zea mays. It belongs to the grass family and is an annual plant. It is classed as an endogenous plant for the reason that it increases in height and diameter of stem by internal growth. The root is of two classes, primary and sec- ondary. The former is fine and fibrous, and in the field the plant produces a large mass of these roots. No long tap root is developed; consequently, as with the grasses generally, the roots branch out in all directions rather near the surface. For this reason shallow cultiva- tion of the growing crop is advocated, as break- ing the roots is deemed an injury to the grow- ing plant. In interesting experiments conducted by Prof. F. H. King at the Wisconsin experiment station* upon the development of corn roots in natural soils under the conditions of field cul- tivation, he washed out plants at different stages * Ninth annual report Wisconsin experiment station, 1892, p. 112. BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 13 of growth. Forty-two days after planting, when the plants were 18 inches high, the roots of two hills met and passed each other in the center between rows 42 inches apart, and had penetrated to a depth of 18 inches. The sur- face roots sloped gently downward toward the center, where those nearest to the surface were some eight inches deep. At the last cultiva- tion, when the plants were nearly three feet high, the roots occupied the entire soil to a depth of two feet, with the surface roots six inches below the center between the rows. At tassel time the roots fully occupied the upper three feet of soil in the entire field, and in the center between the rows the surface roots were still higher, a few being scarcely five inches deep. At maturity the roots were found pene- trating to a depth exceeding four feet and within four inches of the surface in the center between rows. In connection with this study Prof. King estimates that the plants on a well- tilled acre are required to pump from below during growth from 300 to 400 tons of water. The wonderful feeding power of the corn roots is shown in this striking development and ac- tivity. After the corn iDlant becomes well established and has nearly reached its full height the sec- ondary roots come from the stem near the ground. They first appear as nodules from 14 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. which develop the root tips, which proceed to make a downward growth into the soil. After penetrating slightly below the surface a mass of fibrous roots is produced from this buried portion. These roots assist in maintaining the erect position of the plant, as well as in secur- ing nourishment and moisture. Generally the depth of the planting does not influence the depth of the rooth growth. The stem (or culm) of Indian corn, varies in height from 18 inches to 18 feet, according to the variety and conditions of growth. Sturte- vant even notes one variety in South America attaining a height of 24 feet. The stem consists of a number of smooth sections (internodes), joined together by short joints (nodes). The mature stem has a pithy interior with a thin covering of harder material. In a study made by the w^riter on the rate of growth of the corn plant, at the New York experiment station it was noted that the in- crease ranged from three to 18^ inches per week in gain. The most rapid development occurred when the plants were about five weeks old. Under specially favorable conditions a growth of five inches has been recorded in one day. The leaves grow from the joints, there being a leaf at each one. For a greater part of the stem, the lower part of the leaf (sheath) is wrapped about the stem from one joint almost BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 15 to the next. In a study of the corn plant at the Iowa experiment station,'^ the number of leaves on a stalk varied with field corn from 12 to 18, with a width of blade from 3f to 5J in- ches. Microscopical examination of a number of varieties showed considerable difference in the thickness of the leaf structure and in the amount of green coloring matter present. At the Missouri station, Prof. Schweitzer measured the leaf surface of a vigorous plant of average development.! "The total surface of the twelve living leaves on one side was 1,633.73 square inches, which doubled for both sides, and add- ing the area of the outside of the sheaths, makes the total external leaf surface of this plant 3,480 square inches, or 24 square feet." Schweitzer considers the leaves the chief source of production of organic matter, and while 16 or 18 may be produced in our climate, the lower ones die off before maturity, and activity is confined to perhaps twelve. The flower is of two kinds, male and female. The former is known as the tassel, and is situ- ated at the tip of the stem in the form of a branching head (panicle), while the latter is lo- cated in between the sheaths of leaf and stem. * Iowa agricultural college experiment station. Bulletin No. 2, September, 1888. t Missouri agricultural experiment station. Bulletin No. 5, February, 1889. 16 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. and consists of a mass of fine hairs called silk, enclosed in the husks of the ears to be. The tassel contains many small flowers (see Fig. 1), ^ and each of these produces a large amount of pollen or dust for fertilizing the female flowers. This pollen is from the anthers of the flowers, and accord- ing to Harshberger* as many as 2,500 * are formed in a Fig. 1.— The stem at left Is a branch of the • i onfl^r»\^ on /I male panicle, showing spikelets. The center Single ailinei, ailQ figure is of a pair of these spikelets re- , v/\rv r\r\f\ moved. The figure at the right is one of }}^ (J( )0 (JUU arC fiTlVen the male spikelets opened, showing two ? ? o fiowers inside. (After Harshberger.) oo flip nnmbpr lirO- duced by each plant, there being 7,200 stamens to a panicle. The female (pistillate) flowers being located below the male (staminate), the pollen of the male is blown about in the air and falls onto the silks which protrude from the enclosing husks, and fertilizes them. Each silk extends back into the husk and to the seat of what will become a kernel of corn if fully fertilized. The content of this husk is an embryo ear of corn. The portion of the silk exposed is somewhat hairy without, and is a hollow tube within. * Maize: A botanical study, etc., p. BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 17 (The base. wl shaped figure in Fig. 2, with ovule at The pollen develops down into this tube and fertilizes this enil)ryo seed (ovule) at its base on the little cob. The small, rough point seen on the round or flat head of a kernel of corn is the point where this silk was at- tached to it. The kernel or seed. — While but one botanical of corn is culti- sprkele78"rn aliarcWne^^ Vatcd, tlllS OUe lUaV be sion of cob, with ovary, glumes ' «^ andpalets. (After Harshberger.) JiyiJe^l lUtO fivO gl'OUpS or races. Each race is characterized by nu- merous varieties, and these freely cross-fertilize, Fig. 2— A longitudinal section of SpCClCS a portion of an ear witli female Fig. 3. SO that two or three types of seed may be found on the same ear. This race difference, so far as the writer knows, w^as first pointed out by Dr. E. L. Sturtevant.* These races may be de- scribed as follows, and the relative differences * Maize: An attempt at classification. By E. Lewis Stur- tevant, M. D., Rochester, N. Y., 1884, p. 10; illustrated. 3 18 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. between them clearly seen by splitting the kernels. In Fig. 8 the shaded parts of kernel above the base represent hard or corneous mat- ter ; the white parts starchy matter. Pop corn. — The substance of the center ker- nel is hard and flinty (corneous) all through, excepting at the germ end, no white, soft starchy substance being present. See a in Fig. 8. Flint corn. — The corneous matter surrounds the sides and top of the kernel, so that it is en- closed in a hard, Hinty coat, with soft starchy substance in the central part. The kernel is usually about as broad as long, and rounding and smooth over the top. Flint corn is some- what smaller than dent, and is best suited to New England and the northern line of corn growing. See h in Fig. 8. Dent corn. — The sides of the kernels consist of corneous matter with the central part filled with soft material, even to the dented or con- tracted rough top. This contraction is due to shrinking of the softer part of the kernel in ripening. The kernel in many varieties is slender or wedge form. Nearly all the corn grown in the great corn belt of the Central West belongs to this race. See c in Fig. 8. Sweet corn. — The kernels consist of translu- cent, horny material, which contain consider- able sugar (glucose) instead of starch. The BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 19 kernels in most varieties are quite wrinkled or twisted and are distinctly wedge shape. See d in Fig. 3. Soft corn. — Excepting the germ the entire kernel is starchy and soft in character and has somewhat the form of the flints. This race is more commonly grown in the sub-tropical corn regions, as the fai* Southwest and in Mexico. This is the early form of corn as grown h\ the Indians. See e in Fig. 3. Pod corn. — Additional to the above another form is found, which is rather uncommon. Pod or husk corn is a variety in which each kernel is enclosed in a small husk, while the aggrega- tion of kernels, which may form a long or short ear, is enclosed in large external husks on a simple cob, as with common ears. Flint and dent corn may exist in this variety. Pod-corn seed when planted will usually give a crop of both podded and unpodded ears. Classified by seed. — Each known variety of Indian corn may be easily classified with one of the so-called races, according to its seed. However, if two or more races are grown near by there will no doubt be ears composed of a mixture of each class, especially if the flowers develop at the same time. 20 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. CHAPTER III. VAIIIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. Indian corn is easily cross-fertilized, accident- ally or artificially, and as a result many so- called new varieties have been introduced in the past. As a rule but few have remained in general public favor for a long term of years, as it is difficult to find a variety that will adapt itself to a wide geographical range and climatic and soil variations. Selecting a variety. — In selecting a variety two things necessai'ily should receive considera- tion: first, the capacity to mature a crop in a given locality, and secondly, productiveness in grain, or grain and forage. In this work it seems best to discuss this subject in two ways: first, to describe a number of standard varieties, and secondly, to give a list of varieties adapted to different States, covering a wide territory. The descriptions of varieties are gleaned from various sources, but unless otherwise indicated, are mainly on the basis of the published inves- tigations of Dr. E. L. Sturtevant (our best au- thority on varieties) in the New York State ex- VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 21 periment station reports, and the bulletins of the Illinois agricultural experiment station. The references of varieties to the several States is as a result of the tests made by the various agricultural experiment stations, unless other- wise specified. Tested varieties.— The following varieties have been well-tested in this country, some of them for many years, and it is lielieved that from this list one can make a most satisfactory selection for almost any part of the United States or Canada. The reader is here re- minded that some of the varieties, if grown in the West or South, may be larger than is here indicated in the descriptions. Dent varieties.— Adams' Earl//: Ears six to f«sfei> Fig. 4.— Adams' Early. seven inches long, about If inches in diameter, slightly or strongly tapering, rounding at the butt; 12 to 16 rowed, the rows often slightly 22 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. spirally or irregularly arranged. Kernels slightly deeper than broad; white above, horny white below, long dimple dented or creased. Cob large, w^hite. Plant 5^ to 6^ feet tall. A favorite in the South for table use in place of sweet corn. Blounfs Prolific: Ears 6 to 8 inches long, and If to li in(^hes in diameter. Ear stalk rather small. Mostly eight rowed. Kernels very angular in outline^ rather deep, white at top, glossy white below, crease dented. Cob small and white. Plant 7 to 8 feet high, bearing its upper ears about 54 inches from the ground, often 4 to 8 on a stalk, the lower ears shorter and more pointed than the upper. A very popular and productive variety in some local- ities in the South and has been widely grown. Originated by Prof. A. E. Blount in Tennessee. Boone Co White: Ears long and uniform from butt to tip. Kernels white, deep, thick; cob white. Stalks of medium height, thick, strong. Very productive. Medium late. Originated by James Riley, Boone Co., Ind., about 1880. Pro- ductive and popular as a bread corn. Well adapted to the central West. Ikirrill d' Whifman or B. d' W.: Ears 8 to 9 inches long, 2 to 2.4 inches in diameter. Cobs white, small. Ears roughish, tapering; butt and tip evenly rounded and well filled; 14 to 16 rowed. Kernels w^hite, broad, wedge shape. VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. Z6 Stalks grow a])out 10 to 11 feet high on rich soils. A favorite variety for silage, but is too late to mature seed properly in the North where early frosts occur. Chester Co. Mammoth: Ears 7 to 11 inches long, 2 J to 2f inches in diameter; smooth; slightly tapering, rounded evenly at butt and Hsize Mg. 5.— Chester Co. Mammoth. tip; 18 to 30 rowed; cob red, large. Kernels yellow, deep, narrow, thick, crease dented. Plants tall. Matures late. Mr. E. S. Carman says:* "We have never raised larger ears of Chester County Mammoth corn than during the past season. We have lots of ears 11 inches "Rural New Yorker, Dec. 13, 1884, p. 832. 24 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. long, with 18 rows bearing 900 large kernels." Originated in Chester Co., Pa. I)H}/fja?is Willie Prolific: Originated by S. W. Dungan of Johnson Co.. Ind. An ear sent the writer by Mr. Dnngaii, as his ''ideal/' was 104 inches long, 2\ inches in diameter, cylindrical, smooth, compact, 16 rowed. Kernels white, crease dented, deep, broad, thick. Cob white, medium size. The plant as grown at Lafay- ette, Ind., is large and vigorous, being a very desirable variety for silage. This is an excel- lent bread corn, is very productive, Init too late for the northern line of the great corn belt. Well adapted to Southern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, etc. Farmer'^ Favorite: Ears 8 to 11 inches long, 2 to 2^ inches in diameter, slightly tapering, 14 to 18 rowed, smooth. Cob red, of medium size. Kernels wedge shaped, deeper than broad, yel- low. Plants of medium height. Also known as Golden Dent. Golden Beauty: Ears 9 to 10 inches long, about 2^ inches in diameter; smooth, nearly cylindrical; cob white, large, does not cover well at tip. Kernels yellow, wedge shaped. Rows 16 to 20. Plant of medium height. Me- dium late. Lfaminij: Ears 7 to 10 inches long, 2 to 24 inches in diameter; smooth, slightly tapering, off-en pointed at tip; cob red, large, 18 to 22 VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 25 rowed. Kernels yellow to orange above, orange below, dented, corners often ronnded, deep, thick. Plant grows 8 to 10 feet high. Matures J%SU£ FIG. 6.— LEAMIN(i. medium early. One of the most popular dents, adapted to a Wide range of territory, and classed as very productive. Originated by J. S. Leam- ing, Clinton Co., 0. Maryland White Gourd Seed: Ear 7 to 8 inches long, about 2| inches in diameter, taper- ing, 16 rowed; cob white. Kernels white, long^ dimple dented. Plants grow to height of about 10 feet. Matures late. Pride of the North: Ears 6 to 8 inches long, two inches in diameter, rough, 12 to 18 rowed; cobs red, small. Kernels broadly wedge shaped, crease dented. Plants of medium height, ma- 26 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. turing early. Resembles Wisconsin Yellow dent. It is claimed* that this variety was originated in Fayette Co., 0., about 1813, where ^51« piQ 7._PRiDE OF THE NORTH. it has been known for many years as Clarridge Corn. Queen of the Prairie: Ears 6 to (S inches long and about If inch in diameter, slightly taper- ing; cob small, red, 16 to 18 rowed. Kernels yellow, flat, deeply dented. Plant about 9 feet tall. Matures medium early. Rilej/s Favorite: Ears 8 to 9 inches long, about 2i inches in diameter, nearly cylindrical, butt and tip well filled, 16 to 22 rowed; cob red, small. Kernels yellow, narrow, wedge shape, deep. Plants of medium size, strong, productive. Mr. James Riley of Boone Co., Ind., originated this corn about 1880, by cross fertil- * J. C. in Farmers'' Review. April 23, 1890. VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 27 izing Golden Yellow and Pride of the North. One of the best Yellow dents and has been suc- cessfully grown over a wide range of territory. S medley : Ears 7 to 9^ inches long, about two inches in diameter, slightly tapering, butt and tip well filled, 10 to 12 rowed; cob red, small. Kernels light orange, deep, broad at top, dent- ed. Plants of medium size, maturing early. Wisconsin Yellow: Ears 7 to 8 inches long, about two inches in diameter, tapering, butt and tip rounding evenly and well filled, mostly 18 rowed; cob red, medium size. Kernels orange yellow, small, deep, dimple dented. Plants of medium size, early. A well known yellow dent, especially for the northern lati- tude of the corn belt where dents will succeed. Flint Y2iViGt\e^.— Canada, also known as Early Canada: Ears 8 to 10 inches long, about 1| inch in diameter, blunt- ly rounded at tip. mostly 8 rowed : cob white, small. Kernels rather orange color. Plant about six feet tall. Matures early. y*sm Canada Twelve-Rowed; also Landreth's 28 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Earliest Yelloir : Ears 7 to 10 inches long, about li inch in diameter, tip well filled; cob medium to large. Kernels small to medium, golden orange in color. Plants attain 6| to 7 feet. A very old variety adapted to the northern line of the corn belt, as is also Canada. Conipion^s Early; also ('ompfon's S^irprise: Ears 9 to 9J inches long and about If inch in diameter, pointed at tip; cob large, white. Kernels medium size, light golden orange color. Plants about seven feet tall. A productive, good variety, widely grown. Dutton: Ears 9 to 10 inches long and about If inch in diameter, with rounded tip; cob small, 12 rowed. Kernels large, golden orange. Plants 6 to 7 feet high. Was first brought into notice by Mr. Salmon Dutton, Cavendish, Vt., about 1818. "The ears of corn from which it was originally selected on an average were from 8 to 12 inches long and contained from 12 to 18 rows.'"^' A very productive and popular variety in the Northeast. A form of this known as Early Dutton has been extensively grown. S. W. Jewett saysf it is '^descended from seed I o])tained from Jesse Buel, selecting it myself from his corn cril), at Albany, about 1839." Ef'yJif Rowed Yellow; also Lony Yellow: Ears * Transactions New York State Agricultural Society, 1853. p. 334. t Country Gentleman, May 8, 1884. VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 29 10 to 11 inches long, about 1^ inch in diameter, slender, slightly tapering, mostly eight rowed. Kernels not large, deep golden orange. King Philijj; also Improved King Philips Eight Bowed Broioi^ Eight Bowed Copper Col- or-ed^ Eight Bowed Yellow: Eai'S 8 to 10 inches long, about IJ inch in diameter, resembling Canada in all other respects except color, Fia. 9.— King Philip Ksize which is copper red. Plant 8 to 9 feet high. Named after the celebrated Indian chief of the Wampanoags, from which tribe it is said'^ the seeds were obtained. Sturtevant, however, says that this variety was originated by Mr. John Brown. Long Island, Lake Winnipiseogee, * Transactions New York State ag-ricultural society. 1853^ p. 333. 30 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. N. H.* This is a hardy variety, adapted to the northern corn latitudes, and is one of the very best and most popular Hint varieties. Longfellow: Ears 9 to 10| inches long, with tendency to expansion at butt, tapering toward the well-filled i^ointed tip; mostly six rowed; cob white and small, kernels deep, yellow- FiG. 10.— Longfellow. orange, large, well rounded. Plants about 7 feet tall. Gregory in his seed catalogue for 1886 states that "it is the result of careful se- lection in a family of Massachusetts farmers for 45 years." A most popular and productive va- riety, well adapted to New England. Neiv England Eight Rowed: This is the Cmi- add or Early Canada of many, and it has many * New York agricultural experiment station report, 1884, p. 166. VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 31 local names. It answers to the general char- acter of the Canada variety. Enfield says:* ^'From this corn the King Philip and some other improved sorts have probal)ly been de- rived." Rhode Island Wlufe Flint: Ears 5 to 6 inches long and about 1^ inch in diameter, well cov- ered at tip, eight rowed, small cob, often red tinged in the interior. Kernels white, very large and hard. Plants about 7 feet high. Rural Tlioroiighhred Flint: Ears 11 to 12 inches long and about 2 inches in diameter, al- ways tapering owing to the space between the pairs of rows toward the butt; mostly eight rowed; cob large. Kernels dingy white, large. Plant 7 to 8 feet high and a vigorous grower. A very late variety, the chief merit of which is in its production of green forage. Introduced by E. S. Carman, editor Rural New-Yorker. WaushakiDn : Ears 84^ to 9 inches long, 1^ inch in diameter, filling completely and roundly at tip; cob small, white; mostly eight rowed. Kernels deep golden orange, rather large flatly rounded, very close set, plants 7 to 9 feet high, leafy, very productive. Originated by Sturtevant Bros., South Framingham, Mass. ^^The originals were quite staple varieties of a mixed Canada and New England Eight Rowed * Indian Corn, New York, 1866. p. 61. 32 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. type, wliicli were allowed to hybridize in 1875, and the ears resulting selected to the desired type. In 1877 and 1878, at the period of Fig. 11.— Waushakum. Ksize bloom, all the tassels from stalks not showing one large ear, and from all imperfect or off type plants, were removed, thus insuring the fertilization of the ears from prolific and typal plants."* An unexcelled yellow variet}^ White Flmf: Ears 9 to 11 inches long, U inch in diameter, tapering slightly, tip usually not very well filled; cob medium size; mostly 8 rowed. Kernels dingy white, medium size. A very popular, common variety in the North- eastern States. *E. L. Sturtcvant: Report New Yoi-k State agricultural experiment station, 1884. VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 33 Sweet varieties. — Black Mexican; also known as Black Siir/ar and Slate Sireet: Ears 6 to 8 inches long and about 1| i^^ch in diameter, cylindrical, tip rarely well filled; col) white, Fig. 12.— Black Mexkan. small, 8 rowed. Kernels slate-black, broad, crinkled, compactly set, tender and sw^eet when rij)e. Plants abont G feet tall. A medium early, of the best quality, that has been known for many years. Covji ; also known as Earhj Cor//, Cory Early Sugar, Extra Early Cory, La Crosse, Earliest Rockford Market: Ear 4 to 6 inches long, about 1^ inch in diameter, cylindrical, well filled at tip. Kernels whitish, large, broader than deep, crinkled or smooth. Plants small — about five feet tall. One of the very earliest varieties, ripening in about 55 days. Qualit}^ fair. In- troduced in 1885 and has been very popular as an early sort. 3 34 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Crosby's Early ; also Extra Early Crosby and Crosby's Early Twelve Rotved: Ears 6 to 7 inches long, about 1^ inch in diameter, slightly i3ointed toward tip, 12 rowed; cob white. Kernels white, flatly rounded, crimped, of fine quality. Plant 5i to 6 feet tall. Introduced about 1860. One of the best, and second early. Egyptian; also known as Washington Market: Ears 6 to 7 inches long and about If inch in diameter, tapering, 12 to 16 rowed; cob medium size, white. Kernels amber colored, deep, broad, crimped and slightly wrinkled, sweet and ten- der, said to be superior for canning. Plant tall and prolific. Late. Introduced about 1878. Hickox; also Hickox Improved: Ears 8 to 10 inches long and about If inch in diameter; 8 to 12 rowed; cob white. Kernels whitish, slightly rounded, nearly as deep as broad, large, crimped, tender. Plants 6 to 7 feet tall. A favorite late variety, introduced about 1883. MarbleJiead; or Early Marblehead: Ears 6 to 6^ inches long, usually larger toward butt, about If inch in diameter, usually eight rowed; cob reddish. Kernels broadly rounded, crinkled, red or reddish flesh color, very sweet. Plant about 4J feet tall. Introduced about 1878, and originated by selection from Narragansett, which it closely resembles. One of the earliest varieties. Minnesota; also Early Minnesota or Eord's VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 85 Early: Ears 5 to 6 inches long, 1^ inch in di- ameter, rather blunt at tip, eight rowed* cob white. Kernels large, a little pointed, rounded, crinkled, closely set in. Plant about 4i feet tall, bearing ears about 10 inches above ground. Very early. Introduced about 1874, and thought to be derived from the Narragansett. Moore's Early ; also Moore's Early CokcohL Moore^s Concord^ Early Concord: Ears 6 to 8 in- ches long, IJ to 2 inches in diameter, rather pointed toward tip, 12 rowed; cob white. Ker- nels white, very flatly rounded, not closely set on dry ear, of delicate flavor. Plant 6 to Ih, feet tall, bearing ears about twelve inches from Fig. 13.— Makblehead. the ground. A good second early. Originated in 1865 by J. B. Moore of Concord, Mass., by crossing Crosby's Early and Burr's Improved. Narraganseft; also Early Narragansett: Ears 6 to 7 inches long, about If inch in diameter, cylindrical, tip round pointed, usually eight 36 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. rowed; cob reddish. Kernels vary in color from light flesh to dark red. Plants grow about five feet tall, bearing ears 8 to 14 inches above ground. A standard, early, sweet, desirable variety that has been grown many years, being described by Burr in 1865.'^ Ne Plus Ultra: Ears to 7 inches long, about If inch in diameter towards butt where it is strongly rounded, and from near which it nota- bly tapers to the tip: irregularly 12 to 14 rowed; cob white. Kernels white, very narrow at base, crimped and wrinkled, thin and translucent, separating readily from the cob. Plants 5 to 6 feet high, bearing ears 18 to 20 inches above ground. Late, but of excellent quality. Intro- duced about 1882. Pee and Kay; also Western Qaeen^ Maules XX Swjar: Ears 6 to 8 inches long. If to 2 inches in diameter, cob white. Kernels white, flatly rounded over the top, crinkled or crimped, thick, nearly as deep as broad, very sweet. Plants 5 to 6 feet high, ears 16 to 18 inches above ground. Second early. Popular with farmers and market gardeners. StoweJVs Everfjreen : Ears 7 to 8 inches long, about 2^ inches in greatest diameter, often sharply tapering, and then again nearly cylin- drical, rarely filled at tip, 16 rowed; cob white. *The Field und Oarden Vegetables of America, 1865. p. 580, VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 87 Kernels white, wrinkled, narrow and deep, loose, shedding readily from the dry ear. Plants 7^ to 8 feet tall, bearing ears about 30 inches above ground. Foliage abundant. Late. Very tender and sugary, a standard of first quality. At Polk's cannery, at Greenwood, Ind., the largest establishment of its kind in the United J4size> Fig. 14.— STOWELti'S EVERGREEN. States, no other variety of sweet corn is used. Has been grown many years, and is referred to by Burr in 1865.^^ Squantum : Ears 6 to 7 inches long, about 2 inches in diameter at the butt, strongly taper- ing to a tip that is seldom well filled, 12 to 14 rowed; cob white. Kernels white, large, crimped, nearly as broad as deep, not crowded. * Field and Gai'den Vegetables. INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Plant 6 to 6^ feet tall, bearing ears about 24 inches above ground. Standard medium ma- turing. Introduced about 1883. Triumph: Ears 8 to 9 inches long, about 1^ inch in diameter, slender, tapering evenly and strongly in the lower half, 8 and 10 rowed; cob white. Kernels white, large, broadly rounded. Hsizo Fig. 15.— Egyptian. almost flat, very frequently quite open between the pairs of rows, crinkled and crimped. Plant 6 to 7 feet tall, bearing ears about 30 inches above the ground. Introduced in 1874. Sweet corn for succession.— Mr. E. S. Carman recommends''' the following as the best kinds of sweet corn for succession. For first earl 3^, either Cory or Northern Pedigree. Next, Shakers' Early, Perry's Hybrid or Stabler's Early. Then Moore's Concord, Triumph or Hickox. Last, Stowell's Evergreen, Mammoth or Egyptian. * Buml New Yorker, Feb. 25, 1888. VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 89 Pop varieties. — E(/i/ptia//; also White Rice: Ears 4 to 7 inches long and 1^ to 1^ inch in diameter, strongly tapering, many rowed; cob white. Kernel white, large, of rice form. Plant about 5 feet high, bearing ears about 30 inches above ground. Productive. Dwarf Golden is the smallest variety of corn grown, the plant usually being about bS inches high. Sometimes in^lividual plants produce five ttny per- fect ears to a stalk. Neiv England ; also Non- pareil: Ear G to 8 inches long, about one inch in di- fig^ig.-dwarf golden. ameter, eight rowed ; cob white. Kernels glossy, rounded, white or yellow according to variety. Plants 5 to 6 feet high, bearing ears about 16 inches above ground. A standard variety, ri- pening in good season and productive. Pearl: Ears 4 to 5 inches long and f to 1 inch in diameter, near- ly cylindrical, 14 to 18 rowed; cob white. Va- rieties occur which are white, lemon, red or /*sue FIG. iT.-WHiTE PEARL. ^^^y^\q Kemcls flat, much compressed, deeper than broad, triangu- lar, very flinty. A standard, productive variety which has been known for many years. 40 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Rice: Ears 5 to 7 inches long, 1^ to If inch in diameter, strongly tapering, 14 to 20 rowed; cob white. Kernels white or red, pointed into a sort of short spine which is somewhat erect. Plant 6 to 7 feet high, with ear 3 to 5 feet above ground. Very productive. Adaptability of varieties. — Some varieties seem particularly adapted to a wide range of conditions, while others are less so. A few va- rieties are given here, as having been grown in the States in which they are listed, and with a degree of success such as will justify their cul- ture. Most of the tests were made at or under the supervision of an agricultural experiment station, from the pul)lications of which much of the data is secured. Where the information is apparently reliable the varieties are named from most to least productive. Alabama. At Uniontown: Mosby's Prolific, Lee County Field, Blount's Prolific, Head's Field, Madison County Red, Welborn's Con- science, Lloyd's Stock and Strawberry yielded in order given in 1S90. At Auburn, in 1891: Experiment Station Yellow, Clayton Bread, Lindsay's Horsetooth and Hunnicutt. Bulletin 52 of the Alabama station (January, 1894,) rec- ommends Clark's Early, Mastodon (yellow). Early Eclipse (yellow), Gentry's Early Market (white), and Lnproved Golden Dent as the best early varieties. VARIETIES AND THEIR ADAPTATION. 41 Arkansas. At Fayetteville: Welborii's Con- science, Common Yellow, Allen's Mammoth, Mastodon Yellow, Golden Dent, Golden Beauty and Hickory King. (Bulletin 22, December, 1892, Arkansas experiment station.) Colorado. At Fort Collins: Prof. A. E. Blount says in bulletin 2, Colorado experiment station, December, 1887, that Pride of the North and Yellow Flint have proved most valuable. The former is the best. Georgia. At Experiment: Shannons Yellow, Ledbetfcer, Shaw's Improved, Shannon's White, Southern White, Huffman's, Higgins', Patter- son's, Tennessee Yellow, Peek's Premium. (Bul- letins 15 and 23 Georgia experiment station.) Indiana. At La Fayette: The following table gives the average yield of varieties tested for five years at the experiment station at Purdue University, from 1888 to 1892 inclusive. The 1893 yield was so badly influenced by dry weather as to be unfit for comparison: VARIETY. Yield in hu. Ave. No. days ma- ture. Per cent, ears to stalk. Color grain. Purdue Yellow White Prolific Boone Co. White Riley's Favorite Learning" 69.3 76.7 72.3 69.0 61.7 59.7 112 125 126 123 115 125 51.4 43. 43.2 47.7 44.3 43.1 Yellow. White. White. Yellow. Yellow. Chester Co. Mammoth Yellow. The following are tests of 1892, with average 42 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. yields of varieties tested more than one year: VARIETY. Legal Tender Golden Beauty Piasa Queen Mastodon Big- Buckeye Iroquois Haben's Golden , HicI INDIAN CORN CULTURE. given from plaiitings made from Ma}^ 13 to 15.* In the Southern States planting begins sev- eral v^^eeks earlier than in the Northern ones, and with a much longer season for maturity, so that time of planting is not of so great sig- nificance, as for example in Wisconsin, where some varieties will not mature at all, while others will barely mature before killing frosts. Every one will have to be his own judge for his special conditions, but it will be well to watch for the young oak leaves and note the tempera- ture of the soil. Rate or distance apart of planting. — It may l)e accepted as true that where corn is grown for the grain each plant should have an oppor- tunity for its fullest development. With soil of the same character and fertility it would not be best to plant an acre of the same corn in New York and Tennessee under equal condi- tions as regards quantity of seed. A less amount would do where the plants grew large and ro- bust; consequently we find a- person in one hititude growing one or two stalks in a place, while in another locality, with less favorable conditions, three or four stalks are grown. At the Georgia station, in tests as to distance of corn grown in hills, 5x4 feet apart gave the * Annual report Ohio agricultural experiment station for 1888, p. 80. PLANTING. 87 largest yield per acre. Tn reporting on this test Director Redding says: ''The season of 1890 may be considered as about an average one, and therefore the results of this experi- ment may be taken as indicating that a dis- tance of 5x4 (or 2,184 stalks to the acre) is not too great for such land.'"^ In South Carolina in experiments conducted at Spartansburg, Columbia and Darlington on distance apart of planting, the hills ranged from 5x3 to 6x3 feet, and the drills from five to six feet apart. These experiments indicated that Fig. 27.— Farmers' Favorite One-Horse Front rank Corn Drill. ''it made little difference whether the rows were five feet or six feet apart or the checks 5x3 feet or 6x3 feet.^f At the New York experiment station numer- ous experiments with Waushakum corn, ex- * Bulletin No. 10, December, 1890, Georg-ia agricultural experiment station. t Second annual report South Carolina experiment sta- tions, 1889, p. 252. 88 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. tending over four years, gave the most satis- factory yields where four to five stalks grew in hills 42 by 44 inches apart. "^ At the Illinois station elaborate experiments with dent corn have been carried on since 1S88 on number of kernels planted per hill and the distance apart of the hills. As a general thing the largest yields occurred from planting four kernels in a hill, and the average yield of 69.5 bu. of air-dry corn was the greatest amount se- cured, and this by putting four seeds in hills four feet apart, f At the Purdue University station the rela- tion of thickness of planting to yield has been studied for eight years.:}: The average results of this work show^ no material difference in yields where stalks are practically 11, 12 or 14 inches apart, l)ut for distances exceeding this there is a gradual falling oil in yield. In an interesting article on "Distance apart in planting corn," D. S. B. of Hartford, N. Y., says:§ "The distance, after years of experiments on average soils is, in my opinion, 33 inches or six to the rod. This with good tools renders cultivation easy and rapid, and with three * Annual reports New York agricultural experiment sta- tion for 1882, 1883, 1881, 1885. t Illinois agricultural experiment station Bulletin 31, March, 1894, p. 354. X Purdue University agricultural experiment station, Bul- letin 50, April, 1894, p. 46. g Country Gentleman, March 18, 1886. PLANTING. 89 or four stalks in the hill covers the ground thoroughly, smothering, to a certain degree, weeds in the latter part of the season, and yielding maximum crops of grain and fodder. On some soils, with plenty of manure, 30 inches have given the best results, but not so invariably as 33 inches. At the latter distance the ears will be as sound and well developed as at a greater, but not so long; at the same time there will be a larger number, making the yield the same. The fodder is much superior to that grown at greater distance, stock consuming it with little waste, as it is fully developed and if cut at the proper time and properly cured makes superior feed for cows.*' This probably applies to flint corn. For the large western dent corn this distance is too close. If corn is to be planted in hills, in the North as a rule 36x42 inches will prove satisfactory for the large varieties; and if in drills, one kernel every foot in drills 42 inches apart. In the South these distances may l)e increased to suit conditions. Drills vs. hills.— Experimental work thus far conducted indicates that it makes but little difference, so far as yield is concerned, whether corn is grown in drills or in hills. Cleaner cul- tivation can be maintained with the hill sys- tem, as the soil may be stirred on all sides of the group of plants. A field of drilled corn, however, by going up and down between the rows, can be kept creditably free of weeds and may require less labor in hoeing than will that planted in hills. In E'ew England and the 90 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Middle States most of the corn is grown in hills, but in the Central West and South the drill system is largely practiced. Morrow and Glardner* in 1893 grew^ seven half-acre plats of corn in hills and drills, and * Illinois agricultural experiment station. Bulletin 31, March, 1894. PLANTING. 91 found practically no difference in yields. This is in accordance with previous experience. At the Connecticut State experiment station corn was planted in drills four feet apart, with plants 10 inches apart in the row, and in hills 48 by 40 inches four plants to the hill, and 48 by 20 inches two plants per hill.* The drilled corn gave about six per cent more dry matter and a larger yield of each food ingredient. The composition of the grain was about the same, whether hill or drill grown. At the South Carolina stations, as already noted, it made no practical difference in yield whether the corn was planted in hills or drills. Fig. 29.— Challenge Corx Planter. Where land is fairly level, and the corn crop is an item of special importance on the farm, * Annual report for 1800 Connecticut State ag-ricultural experiment station, p. 183 1)2 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. on well-prepared land the drill system will be most economical in rapidity of i3lanting and cultivating. This means, of course, that a modern horse corn-planter shall be used. Depth of planting.— On warm, light soil, the seed should be planted deeper than where it is cold and retentive. The process of vegeta- tion is slower on cold than Avarm land, as the temperature is lower at the same depth below the surface. In summer if a drouth occurs the greater depth of planting on the light soil is lieneficial to the growing crop. If a low river bottom is the corn field, shallow planting will do, as crops rarely suffer from lack of moisture in such a location. Generally speaking the writer believes one and a half inch a satisfactory depth to plant the seed. As bearing on this subject, the following table of results of experiments on depth of planting, conducted at the Ohio and Illinois ex- periment stations, is of interest.* The Ohio experiments are average results of six years' work (1883-18SS) and those of Illinois of five years' duration (1888-1893): * Bulletin No. 31, Illinois station, March, 1894, and seventh annual report of Ohio station, for year 1888, p. 81, PLANTING. 93 YIELD IN BUSHELS PER ACRE FROM CORN PLANTED AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS. Tear. Depth planted in inches. Station. 1. £. S. 4. 6. 6. 60.3 92.0 60.3 58.5 29.0 7. 1883 86.3 36.9 72.5 58.9 33.7 60.8 37.4 64.8 41.3 32.9 93.0 50.7 41.6 62.5 32.3 28.1 43.0 100.8 51 .0 70.3 62.7 40.7 88.. 87.0 58.4 70.3 40.0 73.1 81.0 62.3 56.5 33.4 io.h 1884 1885 1886 1887 ( Ohio. 1888 96.2 Average 64.0 55.0 1 1888 1889 1890 109.7 83.0 77.8 65.8 51.3 84.4 83.0 72.8 64.7 48.7 1892 \ Illinois. 1893 Average 77.5 71.5 65.1 68.8 61.2 60.0 40.5 ' At the Oliio station it is to l)e noted that the shallow plantings gave decidedly the best re- turns, and at the Illinois station the same prac- tically holds true. It is important to note, however, that the Ohio '^corn planted three and four inches deep seemed to retain its vital- ity longer than that planted at less depth. The roots of the deep-planted corn were found, as we should naturally expect, much deeper in the soil than where the corn was planted more shallow; hence their opportunity to secure food and moisture was materially enhanced." The experiments in both States were conducted on deep, retentive soils. 94 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Listing. — The listing process is peculiarly a Western one, practiced on the big corn fields of Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and the other great corn-growing States west of the Mississippi. In 1886 the Fanners^ Review published* a number of articles on listing, one of which, by Nelson Cowles of Dakota City, Neb., is so clear in ex- plaining the process that it is inserted here in the main: '•The listing plow consists of a double share and mold board, or a right and left-hand plow, so joined together as to Fig. 30.— ]-isting Plow. turn the soil both ways from a common center. Attached to the plow is a small subsoiler which loosens the soil in the bottom of the furrow. There are two classes of the different makes of listers, the single and the combined. When the single lister is used a common Hoosier drill follows the plow in the furrow and plants the corn. In the combined imple- ment a drill is attached directly to the plow, thereby saving the labor of an extra man and horse, and if the implement is properly constructed works equally as well. "There are methods of listing corn known as 'single' and 'double' listing. In the single method work is not com- * Farmers'' Review, April 21, 1886. PLANTING. 95 raenced until planting- time, when the lister is used in the hollows oi" middles between the old corn rows, or else on fall- plowed land, where the lister is run through the field from thi'ee to four feet apart, according- to the soil, kind of corn planted, and judgment of the opei-ator. The single method .seems better adapted to sections of uncertain rainfall, being only one-half the labor of the double plow, which is as fol- lows: As soon as the stalks are cleared from the field in the spring, the listing plow, with drill removed, is put at work splitting the old corn rows, thus filling the middles and form- ing a new ridge therein. This preparation gives drainage and opens the soil to the warming influence of the sun. Then when planting time comes the drill is attached and the new ridge is divided, and the corn planted in the furrow thus made, the drill dropping the corn, one kernel in a place, from 8 to 20 inches apart, as the operator may choose. By this l)lan more thorough tillage is secured. * * * "In cultivating after the corn is up the field is gone over with a planker, or what is far better, a smoothing harrow, which smoothes the ridge and prepares the ground for the cultivator, which is used with but one shovel on each side of the row the first time and both shovels afterwards.*' Concerning the merits of listing there is much diversity of opinion. At the Kansas ex- periment station this practice has been com- mended on the basis of experimental returns.* Four plats listed, compared with four given surface planting, showed a small gain for the former — about four per cent. At the Minne- sota station results somewhat unfavorable to listing were secured in 1888. f Francis Mc- * Kansas agricultural experiment station. Report for 1889, p. 19. t Minnesota agricultural experiment station. Bulletin No. 5. 1888. 96 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. PLANTING. 97 Keiizie, in the Farmers' Review (April 21, 1886), states that he believes listing is of doubtful utility excepting in very sandy land where the rainfall is deficient. On ordinary prairie land he prefers the standard method. Another writer in this same journal expresses no faith in listing where there is abundant moisture and heav\^ soil. Prof. Georgeson of Kansas says : * "Deep plantiuy- by the use of the lister is undoubtedly the best means to tide over a drouth. Here in Kansas, where the rainfall is somewhat uncertain, the majority of the farm- ers list their corn, and in a dry season listed corn frequently yields a fair crop when surface-planted corn is a failure. The roots of listed corn are not so near the surface and they there- fore do not feel the drouth so severely. For this same rea- son listed corn can be cultivated deeper with impunity. But the lister cannot be used to advantage ev^erywhere, espe- cially where the rainfall is usually sufficient to supply the needs of the crop. In such regions listed corn would be liable to be drowned out unless the soil was well drained: Again, on stiff clays listing cannot be practiced with the same advantage as it can on the black prairie mold." Mr. J. M. Boomer of Kansas says in the Breeders Gazette (Feb. 13, 1895,) that he has been listing corn for fifteen years, and nine- tenths of the corn in his neighborhood is listed. He plants with a single-horse drill, dropping the kernels 15 inches apart. He prefers a sin- gle drill to a double one, because if the rows are not just the right distance apart the two- '^' Indiana Fanner. June oO. 1eing grown upon it which made only a slight drain upon that particular element. If no ma- nure was put upon the land it is plain, in view of these facts, that the land could be cropped to l)etter advantage l^y the rotation system than by continuously growing the same class of plants on it. An important factor in rotation also bears on the plant food left in the roots of the crop last removed from the field. Gulley states* that when either red clover or cowpeas are grown on land of average fertility in the South after cutting off the crop for hay the stubble and roots on an acre of soil contain as much nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash that may become available to the next crop as a dressing * First Lessons in Agriculture, 1892, p. 85. ROTATION OF CROPS. 128 of 300 to 600 lbs. of cottou-seed meal, ov 500 lbs. of a standard fertilizer. Importance of rotation recognized. — In the rotation system the fact must not ])e lost sight of tha,t the soil may be kept free of weeds to the best advantage. Grass land, followed by a hoed crop, permits clean cultivation. The importance of rotation is recognized to- day by the practical farmer, even though he may not understand the principles underlying the practice. In experiments at tlie Purdue University station very notable gains are shown in favor of rotation as applied to Indian corn. An experiment was begun in 1880 to com- pare different systems of cropping without using manures. On one series of plats grain is grown in succession year after year, or two crops alternating with each other, these crops being corn, oats, wdieat. On another series of plats the same crops have been grown in rota- tion with clover or timothy. The jaelds of corn on the two series for 1893, and the average yields for the last six years, as given by Prof. W. C. Latta, are as follows :'=' • 1893. Average for 6 years. Crops grown in rotation 22.2 bu. 31.99 bu. Grain crops only grown lo.l bu. 27.46 bu. Gain from rotation 7.1 bu. 4.53 bu. * Purdue University agricultural experiment station, Bul- letin 50, April, 1894. 124 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. As no manure was used the yields are natur- ally small, but the balance in favor of the ro- tation is a large percentage. For 18 years rotation tests have been con- ducted on corn at the Illinois station.'^ Where corn, oats and clover were grown in rotation a decided gain in yield of corn was secured over those plats which did not receive a dressing of commercial fertilizer, that were not in rotation. Systems of rotation. — There are numerous rotations including corn which are satisfactory. On the Purdue University farm a rotation of corn, oats, wheat, clover sown on wheat in early spring of third year, and cropped fourth and fifth years, proves quite satisfactory. To favor large cropping stable manure is well dis- tributed over tlie clover stubble before it is plowed in. The corn has a fertile field and its cultivation cleans it of weeds in good shape for the crops which follow that receive no hoeing. The oat plant is a gross feeder, and following after the corn it finds the ground well enriched with the available food in the roots and stubble and the manure previously applied. For the Southern States where red clover will grow, Gulley recommendsf the following five-year rotation: Corn; clover on corn stub- * Illinois agricultural experiment station, Bulletin No. 30, p. 357. t First Lessons in Agriculture, 1892, p. 86. ROTATION OF CROPS. 125 ble in spring; clover; oats followed by cow- peas the same year; cotton. Either the cotton or oats may be left out, and a four-year rota- tion be adopted. To secure the most economical and profit- able cropping of the farm the practice of a judicions rotation is absolutely essential. This fact can easily be demonstrated in noting the practice of successful farmers. 126 INDIAN COiiN CULTUKE. CHAPTER X. mSECTS. The purpose of tliis chapter is to describe brietly some of the more injurious insects affect- ing the corn phmt oi* its seed and to suggest remedies witli which to suppress them. The des('riptions and remedies are those given by economic entomologists of high standing, and more especially by Prof. F. M. Webster, ento- mologist of the Ohio experiment station; Dr. J. A. Lintner, New York State entomologist, and Prof. S. A. Forbes, Illinois State entomologist. From a valuable paper by Webster on ^'Insects Affecting the Corn Crop" '' numerous important descriptive abstracts were made. The State reports of Forbes and Lintner were also freely used. Injuring seed after planting. — The seed com fl I) (Pltorhia fusicejjs, Zetty). This is a yellow- ish-white, footless maggot, about one-fourth inch long, blunt at posterior and pointed at anterior end. It feeds on the substance of the * Report Indiana State Board of Agriculture, 1885, jpp. 180-215. INSECTS. 127 swollen kernel in the ground. It has not proved very destructive. A tarring of the seed before planting will doubtless keep off the maggot. TI7/-6 ironns (Elateriche). These are the larvae (grubs) of the common snapping beetles, of which there are many species. These worms (Fig. 41) are greatly abundant only in new- ly-plowed meadows. ^''' ^'-^^^^ '^^^^• They eat into and destroy the kernels of corn or eat off the germinating shoot or roots. Lintner says the best preventive in infested fields is starving out by crops of buckwheat or peas.* Fall plowing of sod land is thought desirable b}^ many farmers, the grubs being disturbed and ^xg. 42.-false wire frozen out. Fig. 42 is of the False wire worm (Iiilus). Affecting the root^,— Corn plant louse {Aphis maidis, Fitch). Small, pale green lice, covered with a v/hitish mealy substance, feed below the surface on the juices of the corn root. Large numbers of these will be found about the roots of one plant. Later in the season great num- bers of dull black and green aphis are found on the leaves, husks and tassels of the plant, which are the same insects in a different stage of de- * Eighth report on the injurious and other insects of the State of New York for the year 1891, p. 283. 128 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. velopmeiit. Ants are nearly always found associated with the aphis, they feeding on a liquid known as honey-dew, which exudes from the body of the louse. There seems to be no Fig. 43.— Cokn-Leaf Plant Louse, Aphis maidis, Forbes. A. Winged female, .fi. Wingless female that gives birth to young. C Pupa. (After Forbes.) effective method at present known for destroy- ing these lice on a practical basis. Corn root irorm (D'lahrofica lomjicoj'nis^ Say). The developed beetle is green or yellowish- green, about a quarter of an inch long, and re- sembling in form the striped squash beetle. From the latter part of July till the blossom- ing period is past the beetle feeds on the pollen and silk. When ready to lay her eggs the female descends to the ground about the roots of the corn and deposits a considerable number of minute white eggs. From these the next INSECTS. 129 spring batch out minute, active grubs, wbicb begin to feed at once on the corn roots, if a new crop has been planted on old ground. The worms follow these small roots to larger ones, into which they burrow, often to the base of the plant. When full grown the worms are nearly white, a trifle less than half an inch long and about the size of ordinary wheat straw just below the head. When they reach full growth the worms leave the root, crawl to one side in the soil, make a cell there, and transform into white pupa (grub stage), which soon changes into the beetle form. This insect has done great damage in our corn fields, especially in the Central West. In 1885 Prof. Webster noted damage to the corn crop of Moses Fowler of Lafayette, Ind., amounting to 15 per cent of the entire crop on 10.000 acres— a total loss of about $16,000." A rotation of crops is a satisfactory method for preventing damage from this insect, as has been demonstrated on a large scale. Wheat or oats may be substituted for the corn crop, as this insect cannot secure food from their roots, they being too w^oody and tough. The first crop of corn on grass or clover sod is not usu- ally injured by this pest, although numerous cases have occurred where the corn was injured on clover sod. * Report Indiana Board of Agriculture for 1885, p. 188. 9 180 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. White (j nib {LacJmosternafusca, Frohl). This is the larva of the common brown May beetle or June bug. The beetles deposit small, whit- ish eggs about the roots of grass which in about a month hatch into small, brown-headed grubs that feed on the roots about them. During the second year the grubs work near the surface and reach their full growth during the spring of the third or fourth year. They are most abundant in old grass lands, and when this is plowed for one or two seasons may work great damage to the corn which may be planted on it. This is a difficult insect to extermiuate. Fall plowing is no doubt advantageous. Pasturing land in the late summer and fall with pigs will be a means of gettiug rid of many, then plow- ing during the late fall or spring. Affecting the stalk. — Cut woy^ms. Cut worms are of numerous kinds, all of which belong to one special group — the Noduidce, The follow- ing are characteristics common to nearly all the species, according to Lintner.* PIG. 41 -GLASSV CriT WOKM. Larva ^hcn f ul 1 grO WU, CUt of Haaena devustatrlx, (After Riley.) -lYoriTlS lllCaSUre frOlTL an inch and a fourth to nearly two inches in * Eighth report on the injurious and other insects of the State of New York for the year 1891, p. 281. INSECTS. 131 length. They have 16 feet, of which the three anterior pairs (true legs) are pointed, and the five remaining pairs (prolegs) stout, blunt, and armed with minute hooks for clasping. In form they are stout, tapering slightly toward the extremities. In appearance they are usu- ally dull colored, greasy looking, dingy brown, gray or greenish, with some light and dark longitudinal lines, and sometimes w^ith oblique dashes. The}^ have a large, shining, red or red- dish-brown head. The first ring or collar bears a darker-colored, shining, horny plate, as does also the last one, known as the anal plate. The l)ody is never hairy, but the several rings have upon each six or eight small, blackish dots or humps, from each of which a short hair is given out. The cut w^orms do most of their feeding at night, during the day Fig. 45 —Moth of Cut Worm shown . i • i i i i in Fig.44. (AfterKiiey.) bcing hiddeu bcneatli stones, sticks and rubbish. Some cut worms feed on the parts of the young plant above ground and some below. The parents of cut worms are moths. These deposit their eggs on a plant near by the feed- ing ground as a rule, although they are also placed on fruit trees. The eggs soon hatch, when the young worms drop to the ground 132 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. and enter it, where they feed. Later they go deeper into the soil and remain there over winter. In spring they come to the top soil again and feed. In a few weeks they become full-grown worms, when they make cells in the soil, in which they locate and where they undergo a change to pupa, and soon after de- velop into the moth. Fig 46.— Moth of Dingy Cutworm Agrotis subgothica. (After Kiley.) About 12 kinds of cut worms are especially prevalent on corn. On new sod ground the cut worm is most frequently found. Numerous methods have been tried to pre- vent the ravages of cut worms, but as a rule they are more or less unsatisfactory. Lintner recommends the use of a tablespoonful of salt scattered over each hill of corn.'*' He says this method has been used with considerable suc- cess. The explanation of this protection is that the salt dissolves and is taken up by the roots into circulation and makes the food un- palatable to the worms. It appears to the * Eighth report, etc., p. 239. INSECTS. 133 writer that great care should be used in apply- ing this salt, as too much will certainly kill the young plants. Lintner also notes* that a gen- tleman who soaked his corn in copperas water before planting was not troubled by the worms. A bushel of corn is placed in a tub and covered with water, and a pound or pound and a half of copperas water added^ which has been dis- solved in warm water. This is stirred among the seed, which are al- lowed to soak 24 to 30 hours. Prof. J. B. Smith recommends the use of kainit (a potash salt) to prevent cut- worm ravages.! Ex- periments of his gave favorable results. The Agrotls ypsilon, Katt. a, cut worm; kalult SllOUld bC b. head of worm from front; c, moth. (After Riley.) broadcastcd over the field just before planting, as in spreading fer- tilizer, for such it also is. Riley, Fletcher and others have recommended the poisoning of green grass or clover and placing it in bunches about the fields. The cut worm will be killed * Eighth report, etc., p. 239. t Bulletin 75, New Jersey agricultural experiment station, Nov 7, 1890. 134 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. by eating the poisoned grass. This should be done just at nightfall. Stalk borer {Gortyna nitela, Guen). A full- grown worm is a little over an inch long, bluish- brown above, with three white lines on the back, the central one continuous, the others interrupted for a considerable space at the middle." This worm is the product of eggs laid by a moth on grass or early-planted grain. When the eggs hatch the worm crawls down ± 2 FIG 48.— Stalk Boubh, Gorti/7ia nitela. Guen. J, moth; 2, worm. (After Riley.) into the stem of the plant. To prevent their ravages, Webster recommends f one ounce of pyrethrum powder in two gallons of water, or one part crude carbolic acid to 100 parts water. Spray or sprinkle the young plants so this liquid will run down among the unfolded leaves. Chinch bug (Bliss us leucopterus, Say). This is a true bug that is about three-twentieths of an inch long and one-third its length in breadth. * F. M. Webster: Bulletin 8, Purdue University, April, 1885. t Report Indiana State Board of Agriculture, 1885, p. 192. INSECTS. 185 The body is black and slightly hairy as seen under a microscope. The wing covers are white with a sub-triangular black spot in the middle of the outer margin of each and a few black veins upon their middle. The feet, claws and enlarged ends of the antennae are black, while elsewhere the antennae and legs are dull yellow. The chinch bag deposits at least two sets of eggs, one in the fall upon the crown or the roots of plants, and another in spring. The eggs are very minute and one bug deposits about 500 at inter- vals extending over several weeks. The eggs hatch in about two weeks. At first the larva is pale j^ellow, but changes to red, except the two anterior segments of the body, and the J legs, which are yellowish. After FIG. 49.-APirLT CHINCH the first moult it becomes bright BXJQ, Blissusleucopterus, i 'ii i i i j.i Say. (Af ter Kiiey.) red With a palo band across the middle of the body. After the second moult the wing' pads begin to show and the general color gets darker, with the pale band still con- spicuous. A third moult develops the pupa with distinct wing pads, the anterior portions being dark brown and the abdominal portions grayish, except the tip, which is brown. It takes from five to seven weeks to change from 136 INDIAN CORN CULTURIi. the egg to the perfect insect where winter does not interfere.* When winter comes the insects seek shelter under sticks, stones, leaves and rubbish of all sorts. This is one of the most destructive insects, especially as applied to wheat and oats, and also, though in a lesser degree, to corn. Mr. L. Fig 50.— Young of Chinch Bug; a and fe, eggs: c, young; e, larva after first moult; /, larva alter second moult; fir, pupa; /t, leg of pupa; i. beak. (After Klley.) 0. Howard, now United States Entomologist, in 1887 estimated the losses from chinch bugs in nine States to be $60,000,000. Walsh, in 1864, estimated the loss in Illinois for that year caused by this bug to be $73,000,000, while Shinier claimed that during the same year three-fourths of the wheat and one-half of the corn of the Mississippi valley was destroyed by it, involving a loss of $100,000,000.1 * Abstracted from an article on the chinch bug" in the second report of the New York State Entomologist for 1885. t Second report New York State Entomologist, 1885, p. 156. INSECTS. 137 Many different methods have been attempted to prevent the ravages of this insect, but each one is more or less unsatisfactory. The area grown to wheat should be diminished. All trash about infested fields should be as fully burned as possible in fall^ winter or spring. Insecticides may be used to advantage. Kerosene emulsion, diluted to about five per cent, is perhaps the most effective insecticide. To make the emulsion take one-half pound of common soap and dissolve in one gallon of hot water, after which add to the boiling mixture two gallons of kerosene and churn the mixture violently for about five minutes with a hand force pump. This may be diluted with water to make 30 gallons for use. This seems to be about the best of the insecticides for chinch bugs. For some years past experiments have been conducted to propagate among chinch bugs a fatal disease. A large amount of work has been done by Prof. F. H. Snow of Kansas Uni- versity in this direction. A peculiar fungi be- ing placed in contact with the bug soon causes its death. Healthy bugs may be inoculated with the disease and set at liberty in the in- fested fields and may spread the disease with such great rapidity as to practically annihilate the bugs. A perfect epidemic of the disease occurs. This fungus may be propagated and 188 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. distributed over the country, as done by Prof. Snow, and used to inoculate bugs where neces- sary. The work of Snow has been most en- couraging.* Clean cultivation is most essential in any case, and Forbes recommends heavy fertiliza- tion of lands as an additional safeguard.f Corn hill hugs (Spltenophorus). There are a number of forms of these bugs which are known as snout beetles or bill bugs. They are all medium-sized, dark-colored insects. With most Fig 51.— Corn bill Bvg, Sphenophoms rohustus, Horn, a larva; 6, pupa; c, beetle, back view; d, beetle, side view. (After Riley.) species the adult insects sink the beak into the stem of the young corn plant and make small cavities in it into which the eggs are deposited, where they hatch later on. One of the most destructive corn-bill bugs is Sphenophorus ochereus, Lee. Its depredations are mainly confined to recently reclaimed swamp lands. Webster, in discussing the life * First, second, third and fourth, annual reports Director University of Kansas experiment station, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894. t Sixteenth report State Entomologist of Illinois for 1890. INSECTS. 139 history of this pest,* from which the following information is secm^ed, says: ''There is the best of evidence that this pest has for several years been working serious injury to the corn crop planted on recently-drained swamp lands in Indiana, hundreds of acres being thus de- stroyed.'' The larva is white with brown head, the lat- ter small, body becoming very robust posteri- orly, so much so that it appears to be fully two-thirds as broad as long, and very much wrinkled. The feet are lacking. The adult is black beneath, but varying in color above from pale ochreous to plumbeous and cinereous. Length one-half to nearly three-fourths inch. The insect passes the winter in the adult form, and in spring feeds on the tender parts of stems of reeds and rushes, and later on on the same parts of the young corn. In late May or June the female burrows into the earth and deposits her eggs in or about the bulbous roots of a species of reed. The larvee burrow in these bulbs, which are often the size of a hen's egg and very hard, and transform to the adult in- sect therein, appearing on the rushes, reeds or corn in August or September. This species will probably never breed in the roots of corn. To get rid of this species the best method will be to drain the land thoroughly and get "^ Insect Life, Vol. II, p. 132. 140 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. rid of the plants it breeds in by burning or cul- tivating them out. Fall plowing has been tried, but I am not informed with wdiat success. If the stubble is burned in spring some beetles of the other species may be destroyed. An application of paris green to the young plants may be of benefit by preventing injuries. Affecting the ear. — Corn worm (HeUothis armiger, Hubn.). This is also known in the South as the boll worm, as it injures the cotton Fig. 52.— The Cokn Wobm HeUothis armiger, Hubn. a, b, d, pupa In cocoon; e, /, moth. (After Riley.) ; c, larva; boll. The adult insect is a medium-sized, heavy-bodied moth, with yellowish-gray or clayey-yellow fore wings, tinged with light olive-green, marked with lines of darker green INSECTS. 141 and dark brown or black. The hind wings are of a paler shade, with a broad, blackish outer band enclosing a pale spot toward the apical portion. Com stock states that there are five broods of this insect in a season in the South, while in the latitude of Missouri, Southern Illinois and Virginia, Riley thinks there are but three. The adult insect deposits its eggs in the tip of the ear, among the silk. After hatching the larvae feed until about one-third grown, when they begin to tunnel through the kernels under the husks toward the butt of ear. In Tennessee the writer was unable to grow sweet corn suc- cessfully owing to the ravages of this pest. The grown worm is about one and one-fourth inch long, rather robust, tapering toward the head. In color the worms vary from pale green to dark brown. There are several black, shining, elevated tubercles on each segment, each bearing a short brown hair. The full-grown larvae make a round hole in the earth, the inside walls of which they cement over. At the bottom of these chambers these larvae change to pupae, where they pass the winter. It is recommended to plow in the fall, thus throwing up these chambers and subjecting the pupae to winter exposure and destroying 142 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. INSECTS. 143 them. This is thought to be quite an effective remedy. Angoiimis grain moth {SHotroga cerealella^ Oliv.) The adult insect, a moth, is small and slender, having an expanse of wings a little over one- half inch. The body and fore wings are dull yellowish or buff color and satiny appearing. FIG.04.—ANGOUMIS Grain Moth, Sitotroga cerealella, Ollv. a, full grown larva; ft, pupa; c, female moth; 6-, egg; y. corn cut open showing larva at worn. (Alter Klley.) The front wings are comparatively long and narrow, freckled with black scales, which are thicker toward the tips and form a line along the plait of the wings. The fringe is paler in color. The hind wings are blackish, of a leaden lustre, narrow, very suddenly becoming con- tracted to a point near the tip. Under side of wings lead color. Front legs blackish; hind legs with two spurs and fringed with long hairs. The egg will hatch and the change from larva to adult occur in about a month's time 144 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. under favorable conditions. A number of eggs are deposited on the side of the kernels. In four to seven days they will hatch, and the larva will then burrow into the kernel and l)egin to feed on the inside of it. In about three weeks it is full grown, when it is about one-fifth of an inch long. Then it burrows towards the outer end of the kernel, leaving only a thin cap to cover the cavity. A small white cocoon is then made in the burrow, and the larva in this soon changes to pupa, and after a short time emerges in the moth form. This insect is especially injurious in the South, where stored corn is often seriously damaged. North of Kentucky little inj ury may be expected from it, as it is a warm climate insect. At the New York State experiment station the writer had considerable experience with it, as it occurred in a collection of corn in the museum. These insects were brought to the museum in specimen ears shipped from the South and before their ravages could be stopped nearly the entire collection was ruined. In the field there is no known method of combating it. To destroy the insect in the seed, place the grain in a comparatively tight room and pour a little bisulphide of carbon in among the corn. This soon changes into a deadly gas and will destroy all insects inhaling it. But to save the seed the operation should I^'SECTS. 145 ^e repeated as soon as new moths appear. TJie bisul- phide of carbon is very in- flammable, as well as poisonous, so great care should be taken not to ex- pose a tire to the fumes Being heavier than air, the f limes will sink down through a pile of com. 1 he fumes of this gas would also destroy other insects injurious to stored grain including the grain or barn weevil, and the grain Syl- van us, both of which are common in the South. Ac- C'ording to Webster the worms are destroyed at a temperature of 120 deg. F., for four hours, so Tf means can be obtained by which to heat the ears to this degree a very desir- able thing will be accom- plished. Other Insects.— While there are numerous other Hisects which injure corn they do it to so small an 10 146 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. extent that it is unnecessary to devote special attention to them. Grasshoppers, blister beetles, leaf hoppers, rose ])iigs, flea beetles, army worms, etc., all at times do slight damage to growing corn. Usually those insects which feed on the growing plant may be destroyed by spraying the leaves with some form of arsenic poison, such as paris green, london purple, etc. DISEASES. 147 CHAPTER XL DISEASES. The Indian corn plant is appreciably injured by but very few fungous or bacterial diseases — in fact less than is any other cereal. Of these smut is the only one commonly known all over the United States. The following diseases are the only ones of sufficient importance to especially merit atten- tion in these pages: Smut.— f Usiilago niai/dis, Corda.). Smut as seen by the farmer is either a distorted, green- ish-white piece of vegetable tissue, or a mass of black, greasy powder, which generally ap- pears brealdng out from an ear of corn or from the leaf or stalk when green or succulent. The source of this disease is a simple, tubular, minute lolant, too small to be seen by the naked eye, which grows in the tissues of the corn plant and feeds upon its juice. These little plants, of which there are vast numbers, branch out in tubular form when they find a spot in 148 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. the corn plant that is especiall}^ nourishing. Then, inside of tliese tubes, minute bodies termed spores (seeds) develop, and finally the spot becomes a mass of these, and then all of Fig. 56.— Cobn Smut breaking out on the ear. (After Tulasne.) the little plants excepting the spores wither away. The dark-colored, loose smut, is mostly the mass of spores, of which there are countless numbers. A single cubic incti of them would contain over fifteen billions. The top of a pin- DISEASES. 149 head that has been moistened will bear from 30,000 to 50,000.* These spores are really seeds, and if the right degree of moisture is supplied they germinate in a few hours and produce very minute, thread- like plants, from which soon develop '^sporids." The wind may blow these latter upon a young corn plant, in which case they may grow into its vegetable flesh and develop to a remarkable degree and eventually break out in the com- mon form of smut. This disease is distributed through tjie agency of the smut, and the more the spores are scat- tered about the more prevalent it may become. It is abundant all over the United States and in the corn-growing parts of Europe. AYhile considerable damage may occur from this fun- gus the extent of this is not generally appreci- ated by corn growers. Bessey states f that in Iowa he saw a piece of hind the crop of which '^ fully 66 per cent had been destroyed." This, however, is an unusually severe case. Prof. W. H. Brewer says: J '^I have never seen a field which has been injured to the extent of one per * Bessey: Bulletin 11, Nebraska agricultural experiment station, Dec. 18, 1889, p. 29. t Bulletin 11, Nebraska agricultural experiment station. J Tenth census of the United States, Vol. Ill, report on the cereal production of the United States, p. 107. 150 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. cent, but I have heard of cases in the year 1879 ■" '" '^ where the damage amounted to one- sixth.'^ Smut said to be injurious.— Smut is gener- ally thought by farmers to be injurious to live stock, yet but little satisfactory evidence is at hand to prove that such is the case, as it is com- monly eaten. But three experiments on this point have come to the writers knowledge. Dr. Gamgee for three weeks fed two healthy cows on smut, wet and dry. The wet did no harm, but a loss in weight followed the eating of the dry. The animals had voracious appetites, w^ere fed three times per day, and ate from 3 to 12 oz. at a dose. In three weeks they ate 42 lbs. of smut.* Prof. Henry of the Wisconsin experiment station performed a similar experi- ment on two cows.f One cow ate as much as 32 oz. of smut in a day, and the other up to 64 oz. The latter cow died suddenly the next day after eating a large amount of smut. Prof. Henry attributes her death to having eaten this, which is not strange. In making a post- mortem examination no serious derangement was found in the intestines, but Prof. Henry thinks the brain was affected. An associated press dispatch in the daily papers of Nov. 10, ^Report Comraissioner of Ag-riculture on Diseases of Cat- tle in the United States, Washington, 1871, pp. 73-76. ^Breeder's Gazette, Oct. 10, 1894. DISEASES. 151 1894, comments on the sudden death of cattle in Illinois and says that farmers attribute it to the stock eating smutted corn. Prof. Morrow, so the dispatch says, thinks not, as they had fed a steer two bushels of smut at the Univer- sity of Illinois and it had not injured him. It is very questionable if cattle are injured by smut in the fodder; yet it will be safer and better to keep it out of the rations. Preventing smut. — There is no absolutely sure method of preventing the appearance of smut. The spores on seed corn may be de- stroyed by the use of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol or bluestone). A strong solution in water should be made, using about' half a poand of the sulphate to a gallon of water. The seed may be soaked about half an hour, after which it should be removed from the liquid and dried. The smut may also be killed by soaking the seed in water at 160 deg. F. for five minutes. It is also important to adopt preventive meas- ures. The spores will pass through animals in the manure and germinate, so that is a reason why stock should not eat it. The smut in the held which can be secured should be burned. Rotation of crops wall also reduce the degree of prevalence. Bacterial disease.— This is a disease caused by a very minute class of plants termed bac- 152 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. teria, so small that they can be seen only under powerful microscopes. One of these plants consists of a single cell, with an outer coat, and inside contents. These lolants in- crease by dividing in halves or sections and each developing into a perfect plant, or by spores which they may produce. Bacteria can withstand great extremes of heat and cold. There are many different kinds, one of which causes injury to Indian corn by developing in its tissues and juices. Symptoms.— The disease is characterized by the plants turning yellow and sickly while young. The roots of the plants, especially the lowest ones, decay. While the whole plant will be affected, the injury is most apparent in the lower part of the stem, which will be dis- colored and perhaps dying. Sometimes the stem appears corroded, and semi-transparent, firm, gelatinous material gathers upon these marred places. After midsummer the leaf sheaths become discolored and spotted, with an appearance of decay. If these sheaths are stripped off the injury is made more conspicu- ous. These injured or spotted places appear watery and sometimes are smeared more or less with a thin coating of the gelatinous matter. Finally the ears are attacked, the husks wilt, turn brown and become packed close together, and gummy matter exudes from the tissues. DISEASES. 153 Often a white fungus occurs and permeates the entire ear. This disease was first investigated in 1882, and most of the information known of its char- acter is derived from studies made of it by Prof. T. J. Burrill of the Illinois experiment station.* The malady is widely prevalent, with- out doubt, yet is mainly known in Illinois and Nebraska. It is thought that animals eating cornstalks affected by this bacteria will die of what is called ''cornstalk disease.'' While this trouble is not confined to special kinds of soils and conditions it has been found most prevalent on rich land. Thus far the writer knows of no method proposed to prevent the occurrence of this disease. Rust occurs on Indian corn, but only to a slight extent and at uncertain periods. The loss from this disease is probably very imma- terial. * See Bulletin 6 of that station, August, 1889, pp. 165-175. 154 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. CHAPTER XII. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND DIGESTI- BILITY. Several hundreds of analyses of Indian corn have been made at agricultural experiment stations, by the United States department of agriculture, in college laboratories and else- where. Most of these analyses are of the grain, although some are of various parts of the plant. Composition of grain. — All of the available analyses published in the United States up to TABLE SHOWING AVFRAGR CHEMICAL, COMPOS"TTO\ OF TMK SEEDS OP THE VARIOi:S CF.ASS S OF COKN. Dent Flint Sweet Pop Soft AU varieties and all analyses. . . Number Analyses. Water. 1 > Nitrogen- Jree extract. 86 10.6 1.5 10.3 2.2 70.4 68 11.3 1.4 10.5 1.7 70.1 26 8.8 1.9 11.6 2.8 66. >S 4 10.7 1.5 11.2 1.8 6. .6 5 9.3 1.6 11.4 2.0 70.2 208 10.9 1.5 10.5 2.1 69.6 ^ 5.0 5.0 8.1 5.2 5.5 5.4 September, 1890, showing the food composition of corn, have been collated and published by COMPOSITION AND DIGESTIBILITY. 155 Jenkins and Winton,* from which the figures in tlie foregoing table, representing averages, are given. These represent per cents in fresh or air-dry material. Mr. Clifford Richardson, as Assistant Chemist of the United States Department of Agricul- ture, made a special study of the chemical com- position of American cereals.f As based upon over 200 analyses of corn from different parts of America, he says: ^'Corn may be said, there- fore, without doubt, to be very constant in its composition within narrow limits." The fol- lowing figures are taken from Richardson's re- port, the average results of 202 analyses made in 1882 and 1883, showing per cent in the grain of the sul)stances specified: Ash 1.55 per cent. Albuminoids 10.39 per cent. Nitrogen 1.66 per cent. Composition of mill products.— The com- position of the mill products of Indian corn is shown in the following figures, which are aver- ages taken from Jenkins' and Winton's tables, previously referred to: * A Compilation of Analyses of American Feeding Stuflfs, by E. H. Jenkins, Ph. D., and A. L. Winton, Ph. B., United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Sta- tions. Experiment Station Bulletin Ko. 11, 1892, p. 155. t An Investigation of the Composition of American Wheat and Corn, by Clifford Richardson, Department of Agricul- ture, Chemical Division, Bulletin No. 1, p. 69; Bulletin No. 4, p. 98; Bulletin No. 9, p. 82. Washington, 1883, 1884, 1886. 156 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Corn-meal. Corn-and-coh meal. Number of analyses. . .77 7 Water 15.0 per cent 15.1 per cent. Ash 1.4 per cent 1.5 per cent. Protein (N. X6.25) 9.2 per cent • 8.5 per cent. Crude fibre 1.9 per cent 6.6 per cent. Nitrogen-free extract. .68.7 per cent 64.8 per cent. Fat 3.8 per cent 3.5 per cent. Composition of by-products. — Tn these same feeding tallies are given analyses of the by- products and waste material of corn, including the cob and refuse of starch or hominy mills. The averages of these analyses are as follows, in per cents: Corncobs Hominy cbops . . Corn germ Gluten meal Starch feed, wet. 5> ?> ^ ^ ., 18 1 1 Crude fih Nitroge free extrac 10.7 1.4 2.4 30.1 54.9 12 11. 1 2.5 9.8 3.8 64.5 3 10.7 4.0 9.8 4.1 64.0 32 9.6 0.7 29.4 1.6 52.4 12 65.4 0.3 6.1 3.1 22.0 0.5 8.3 7.4 6.3 3.1 These figures show corncobs to contain some nutriment. Gluten meal has a very high feed- ing value, as based on a large per cent of pro- tein. Composition of green corn. — The composi- tion of the green corn plant, of silage, and of the dried fodder, and the several parts of the plant, is given in the following table which is also arranged from Jenkins' and Winton's COMPOSITION AND DIGESTIBILITY. 157 tables of American feeding-stuffs. The figures given are averages in per cents: GREEN. Number analyses. 1 '^ ^ Nitrogen- free extract. 4 Corn-fodder— Flint varieties 40 10 63 7 21 126 4 4 99 35 17 16 15 60 79.8 77.1 79.0 73.4 79.1 79.3 66.2 76.1 79.1 42.0 30.0 50.9 68.4 40,1 1.1 l.l 1.2 1.5 1.3 1.2 2.9 0.7 1.4 2.7 5.5 1.8 1.2 3.4 2.0 2.1 1.7 2.0 1.9 1.8 2.1 0.5 1.7 4.5 6.0 2.5 1.9 3.8 4.312.1 4.314.6 5.612.0 6.7 15.5 4.412.8 5.012.2 8.719.0 7.314.9 6.011.1 14.334.7 2L435.7 0.7 Flint varieties* 0.8 Dent varieties 0.5 Uent varieties* 0.9 Sweet varieties All varieties 0.5 0.5 Leaves and husks cut green. Stripped stalks cut green. . . Silage 1.1 0.5 8 Dry fodder — Fodder, field cured Leaves, field cured 1.6 1 4 Husks, field cured 15.828.3 7 Stalks, field cured 11.0 19.7 17.0 5 Stover, field cured 31.91 1.1 1 1 Digestibility.— The chief value of a food depends upon its palatability and digesti- bilit}^ The digestibility of some of the parts of the corn plant has been determined in feeding experiments, while that of other parts has been computed. The per cents of digesti- ble matter of some of these parts are given in the following table, which is arranged from figures given by Prof. W. A. Henry :f *Cut after kernels had glazed. t Special Report on the Diseases of Cattle and Cattle- Fetding, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, 1892, p. 496, 158 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. CLASS OF CORN. Green fodder — Fhnl vari^^ties Dent varieties Sweet varieties Silage Dry fodder - Fodd. r, field cured Slover, fi Id cured Grain — Dent Flint Sweet Averagre for all varieties . Mill products and refuse Corn-meal, bolted Corn-and-cob meal Corncob Corn germ Gluten meal Per cent digestible matter in corn of Crude Carho- Fat. protein. liydrates. 1.5 12.0 0.5 1.2 12.8 0.4 1.4 12.6 0.4 1.2 11.8 0.6 2.S 29.5 1.0 2.0 34.1 0.6 7.0 63.4 3.9 7.1 63.0 3.9 7.9 61.4 6.3 7.1 62.7 4.2 6.3 61.8 3.0 6.5 56.3 2.9 1.6 43.9 0.3 9.3 63.6 4.1 25.0 49.4 5.6 Digestible matter in different parts. — The accompanying table, the result of researches by Ears, Topped fodder. Blades. Huslcs. Stuhhle. Toerage yield per acre. 22 25 27 23 75.3 23.5 28 54.9 28.3 25 48.2 29.1 27 39.8 30.7 22 48.0 23.8 20 64.7 20.7 30 42.0 29.4 28 37.0 26.1 29 35.8 26.6 29 31.8 26.9 32 37.5 29.2 34 39.6 27 6 23 63.6 18.6 31 48.4 24.6 29 42.4 22.7 33 35.7 25.8 34 32.8 26.5 29 36.6 22 25 44.4 20.1 33 34.1 26.3 34 28.3 27.0 24 50.6 20.7 32 40.6 27.0 25 39.4 23.1 24 36.5 22.5 18 45.7 19.4 export trade. A verification of this statement may be found in the following table. In spite of this fact, it is confidently believed that the persistent and judicious work of Mr. Murphy will result eventually in a decided increase in our export trade. With a firm belief in the value of Indian corn as a food, he has sacrificed 14 210 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. much of personal fortune and time to properly present the merits of this grain to the several European governments. Mr. Murphy will never reap the reward he deserves for the service he has bestowed upon American corn growers: TOTAL CROP AND EXPORT OF INDIAN CORN. YEAR. 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 Average Total yield. 1,094,255,000 991,898,000 1,092,719,0. 932,274,000 850,148.500 1.321,069,000 1,283.827,500 1.342,558,000 1,388,218,750 1,754,591,676 1,717,434,543 1,194,916,000 1,617,025,100 1,551,066.895 1.795,528,000 1,936,176,000 1,665,441, COO 1,456,161,000 1,987,790,000 2,112,892,000 1.489.970,000 2,060,154,000 1,628,464,000 1,019,496,000 1,495,169,749 Bushels exported. 10.673,553 35,727,010 40,154.374 35.985,834 30,025,036 50,910,532 72,052,611 87 192.110 87,884,892 99 r)72,329 93,648,147 44.340,683 41.655,653 46,258,606 52,876,456 64.829,617 41,368,584 25,360,869 70,841,673 103,418,709 32,041,529 76,602,285 47,119.524 66,489,529 Per cent exported. 56,568,021 1.0 3.6 3.7 3.9 3.5 3.9 5.7 6.5 6.3 5.7 5,5 3.7 2.6 3.0 2.9 3.3 2.5 1.7 3.6 4.9 2.2 3.7 2.9 4.1 3.8 These figures show that the largest ship- ments abroad were made in 1879 and 1889, and that after 1879, up to 1892, excepting 1889, the shipment fell below the average amount ex- ported yearly for 23 years. The average yield in bushels per acre for the country, for the years 1890-94, has varied from 9.6 for Colorado in 1893 to 51.7 for Con- necticut the same year. New Hampshire shows the highest general average yield, being 44.6, STATISTICS. 211 45.7, 43.2 and 47.3 bushels respectively for the years 1890 to 1893. The averages of all the States for the same periods were 23.1, 28.7, 26.8 and 25.9 bushels. The relatively high yield of the New England States is due to the intensive methods of farming practiced over a small area, in which either stable manure or artificial fer- tilizers are largely used. Corn crop of the world.— Before leaving this subject it will be w^ell to note the extent of the In- dian corn crop of the world. About 80 per cent COUNTRY. United States Canada Austria-Hungary — France Italy Portugal Roumania Russia Japan Cochin China Natal ArgentlDe Republic. New South Wales... New Zealand Queensland Victoria Year. Acres. 1S91 76,204,516 1891 241.086 1890 5,691,886 18P0 1,350,641 1890 4,724,110 1891 1,284,920 1891 4.184.3T2 18P0 1887 55.365 1889 13,245 1887 206,368 1888 1890 173,836 1891 5,759 1890 99.400 1891 10.357 Bushels. 2,060,154,000 9,432,559 109.126.632 23.815.177 74,961,075 20,225.700 59.977.319 24.233 177 1,245,016 304,180 2,566.638 49,200.612* 5,523.611 246.393 2,448.625 592,178 of that grown is produced in the United States, while the large share of the balance is grown in a few countries along the lower Danube river in Europe, in Spain, Argentine Republic and Mexico. An entirely satisfactory statement of the world's crop cannot be secured, owing to the fact that statistics are not available of the crop grown in Mexico and many other coun- tries. The above table is as recent a statement * Commercial estimates. 212 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. as the writer could secure of the yields of corn of different countries, and is compiled from many government reports.* When the Indian corn harvest of the United States is better than an average one the total world's crop of this cereal exceeds in size that of the total yield of any other cereal. * Production and distribution of the principal agricultural products of the world. Conapiled from official statistics. United States Department of Agriculture. Report No. 5, p. 15. MISCELLANEOUS. 213 CHAPTER XVII. MISCELLANEOUS. A number of subjects of interest and impor- tance are placed in this chapter. They seemed inappropriate to the subject matter of the pre- ceding chapters, yet of sufficient importance to be classed by themselves under this general heading. Detasseling. — Since 1888 this subject has re- ceived considerable attention at some of the experiment stations. According to McLaren'^ in 1739 James Logan of Philadelphia published an account of some experiments made by him where he removed the tassels of the corn plant and transposed the pollen. Li 1879 Beal called attention to the fact that a corn plant does not naturally fertilize itself, the pollen being dis- charged from the tassels before the appearance of the silk.f Among the early experiments made at the stations some evidence seemed to indicate that * Agricultural Science, Vol. 7, p. 319. t Michigan Board of Agriculture Reports, 1879, p. 198; 1880, p. 283. 214 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. a larger crop was secured by detasseling. Later investigations, however, in most cases gave evidence of reduced crop yield due to this practice. In 1888 Shelton of Kansas found a loss of nearly 10 per cent due to detasseling.*, Roberts in 1890, at Cornell University^ how- ever, secured a gain of 50 per cent due to de- tasseling, and this experiment attracted wide attention to the subject.f Further work at Cornell seemed to corroborate this result in a measure. In 1892 there was a gain in weight of good ears amounting to 15 per cent, and of poor ears of 26 per cent on the detasseled rows, besides being a gain in number of ears.J At the Illinois station, however, several years of experimentation have shown no advantage to be derived from this process, but if anything a loss. At the Nebraska station, a decided loss is shown from detasseling.§ Ten detasseled rows 20 rods long each gave a yield of 528 lbs. of corn; 10 alternate rows, not detasseled, 1,220 lbs., and 20 undisturbed rows elsewhere in the field, 2,369 lbs. The cost of detasseling was estimated at $1.25 per acre. At the Kansas station in 1891 the results were adverse to detas- * Kansas experiment station. Report of 1888, p. 27. fCorneU University experiment station. Bulletin 25, 1890. XlUd., Bulletin 49, December, 1892, p. 317. ^ Nebraska experiment station. Bulletin No. 25, Dec. 1, 1892, p. 4. MISCELLANEOUS. 215 seliiig, while in 1892 they were favorable.'^ As based on this experience the Kansas investi- gators state that in seasons favorable to the production of much pollen, when the pollena- tion can take place u.nder normal conditions (as to rainfall and temperature) it is advanta- geous to remove a portion of the tassels, but * * * where the contrary conditions prevail the practice results in diminishing the crop." No doubt the practice will have but few fol- lowers. In numerous experiments the opera- tion has been thought to be a direct injury to the plant. Further, the operation of detassel- ing involves extra cost of crop, while the re- turns where an increase has occurred in most cases were not remarkable. In case the corn-grower wishes to experi- ment in this work the following suggestion by Watson of the Cornell University station may be of service :f " From these three experiments made at this station in detasseling corn it has been observed that it is of the utmost impor- tance to have the tassel removed at the earliest time possible, certainly before they have be- come expanded, and still better if enclosed within the folds of the leaf." The operation of * Kansas experiment station. Bulletin 45, December, 1893, pp. 132-138. t Cornell University ag-ricultural experiment station, Bul- letin No. 49, December, 1892. 216 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. removing the tassels was by giving them an upward pull by hand, which caused the stalk to break off above the upper joint w^ithout in- juring the leaves at all. Cost of growing a crop.— Much has been published in the agricultural press on the cost of growing a crop or acre of Indian corn. Of course, as might be expected, there is a great diversity of opinion on this subject. Many statements have been printed and often these have been quite imperfect in detail. No inter- est may be allowed on money invested in land, tools, buildings; no account is taken of taxes and loss of soil fertility in many instances, yet al] these facts bear on the cost of producing the crop. Says Sanborn : * "We wish to repeat again, what we in effect have already said, that we have not seen by any writer a fair statement of the cost of a crop. Such cost must include something of the manager's time, something for the use of machinery and its breakages, something of the time lost in purchase and sales, and loss of time in dull weather and winters. A true calcula- tion will add, probably, at least 25 per cent to the apparent cost." The following figures bearing on the cost question are from some of the most complete statements secured by the writer. Tliese are given simply as evidence along a line in which the corn-grower takes much interest. None of the figures are really conclusive, but are more or less interesting and suggestive. "^Mirror and Farmer, Dec. 6, 1894. MISCELLANEOUS. 217 In 1886 the Secretary of State of Michigan published a crop report giving information on the cost of producing wheat, oats and corn crops in that State.* The estimates are based on 817 reports from correspondents represent- ing 650 townships. The cost of producing and marketing one acre of corn in the State was $19.14, or 21.4 cents per bushel of ears. This is based on the average price for corn on Jan. 1, 1886, viz.: 24 cents per bushel of ears. The cost for the year 1885 was estimated at 20.9 cents per bushel of ears. In 1889 the Secretary of the Kansas Board of Agriculture investigated this subject in that State and estimated from the returns that it cost the farmers of Kansas, where an average yield of 30 bu. per acre was grown, 21 cents a bushel to produce and deliver. For a number of years the Farmers^ Review published numerous articles from corn-growers on the cost of crop production. In the Review of April 7, 1886, A. S. Morley, Arlington, Neb., gives the following figures from his ledger: TWENTY-FIVE ACRES CORN. Fall plowing, 9 acres at $1.25 $11.25 Interest and taxes, at $3 75.00 Cutting nine acres stalks 2.25 Plowing 16 acres, at $1.25 20.00 Cultivating 9 acres — fall plowing 3.00 Harrowing and mai-king 4.00 * Michigan Crop Report, Jan. 1, 1886. No. 51, page 8. 218 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Planting at 25c. per acre $6.25 Seed 1.50 Double harrowing 6.00 Cultivating 12i days 37.00 Total cost $166.25 Cost per acre 6. 65 Yield per acre, 50 bushels. Cost per bushel in field, 13.3 cents. Adding 4 cents per bushel for husking and market- ing, the cost will be 17.3 cents. 8. B. of Clinton Co., Incl., in the Indiana Farmer (March 19, 1S92), gives the following figures, based on the cost of raising 12 acres of corn : Plowing 8 days at $2.50 $20.00 Preparing ground 3 days 7.50 Planting 4.00 Seed 1.00 Cultivating 10 days at $2.50 25.00 Husking 600 bushels at 2ic 15.00 Rent of land at $4 per acre 48.00 Total cost unmarketed $120.50 Cost per acre 10.04 At 50 bushels per acre, cost per bushel 20 cents. At a meeting of the Oxford (Ohio) Farmers' Club President L. N. Bonham gave the follow- ing itemized statement of the cost of growing a 24-acre field of corn 110 rods long.* Breaking stalks $1.50 Raking and burning 1.50 Plowing ten days 25.00 Harrowing 2i days 5.62 * Farmers'' Review^ June 24, 1885. MISCELLANEOUS. 219 Planting H days $3.75 Seed (3 bushels) 2.00 Replanting- 3.25 Rolling 2 days 5.00 Cultivating 3 times, long way, 3 days 15.00 Cultivating 2 times, short way. 4^ days 22.50 Thinning 3.50 Total cost of cultivating $68.62 Husking 8 days, 4 men, 2 teams 56.00 Tax on land 24.25 Interest on land or rent 120.00 Total cost unmarketed $268.87 Cost per acre in crib 11.87 Cost to cultivate and gather per acre 5.20 There were 60 bushels per acre, or a total of 1,440 bushels, worth at husking time $360 00 Worth per acre 15.00 Cost per bushel, 18.6 cents. Xo allowance is here made for the fodder, which is worth as much as average hay if propeii.y cured. The Practical Faruu^r a few years ago pub- lished a number of articles on the cost of grow- ing corn. Among the contributors to this sub- ject was Mr. T. B. Terry, who gave the figures of the cost of the crop of Mr. E. A. Peters of Central Ohio. They are as follows: Plowing 30 acres, 20 days at $3 $70.00 Harrowing and working land 15 days 45.00 Planting, 3 days at $4 12.00 Seed, 5 bushels at 60c 3.00 Cultivating, 20 days at $3 60.00 Cutting 750 shocks at 7c. each 52.50 Husking 2.400 bushels at 4c 96.00 220 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Hauling to cribs, 18 days at $3 $54.00 Rent of land 200.00 Total $592.50 By 750 shocks at lOc. each 75.00 $517.50 Cost per bushel a trifle over 21.5 cents. In the Eastern States the cost of production is somewhat higher. It is interesting to note that in these figures the question of impover- ishment of soil is not considered, although it is far from an insignificant one. Large yields of Indian corn.— In 1889 the American Agriculturist offered a number of valuable prizes, which were supplemented by other parties, for the production of large yields per acre of farm crops of certain kinds. In the corn class the first prize offered w^as $500 cash in gold. A number of other prizes w^ere offered. The crop was in each instance grown on not less than one acre of land and a complete record kept of the work of preparing land, fertilizing, labor, etc. The harvesting was done in the presence of three disinterested witnesses, wdio measured the product, and whose signatures attested the honesty and correctness of the con- testant's report, which was made out on a form properly prepared and sworn to. Forty-five people filed comx^etitive reports, and the aver- age yield of crib-cured shelled corn for the 45 was 89 bushels per acre. The largest yield was MISCELLANEOUS. 221 secured by Z. J. Drake of Marlboro Co., South Carolina, who grew 239 bushels of crib-cured shelled corn on one acre of land, or 217 bushels, free of all water. This the writer believes to be the largest yield of corn from one acre of land on record. The land on which this crop was grown was sandy in character, the original growth on it being oak, hickory and long-leaf pine. It has a gentle slope, with northern exposure, and was well drained natural l3^ The soil ^'was a fair specimen of much of the poor land in the South." In 1885, planted to corn, almost no crop was secured, and in 1887 not over five bushels per acre was obtained. The following table gives some facts as to how this acre was fertilized for the crop of corn : 1,000 bushels stable manure $50.00 867 lbs. kainit 7.80 867 lbs. cotton-seed meal 10.80 200 lbs. acid phosphate 2.00 1,066 lbs. manipulated guano 13.32 200 lbs. animal bone 4.00 400 lbs. nitrate of soda 12.00 600 bushels cotton seed 120.00 Cost of application 7.00 Total cost $226.92 There were other items of expense, such as labor, interest on land, etc., amounting to $37.50, bringing the total cost of crop to $264.42. 222 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. Corn at that time in South Carolina was valued at 75 cents a bushel, which makes the grain worth $191.16, and adding the fodder value, $15, makes a total of $206.16 value in receipts. In February stable manure was hauled on the land, followed by applications of guano, cotton-seed meal and kainit. The land was then plowed, and following the plow cotton-seed meal was strewn in the furrows. A subsoil plow came after, breaking the soil to a depth of 12 inches. A Thomas smoothing harrow followed after the plowing. One bushel of Southern white dent corn of the gourd-seed variety was planted on March 2. The rows were furrowed out, alternately three and six feet apart, and five or six kernels were dropped to each foot of the row. Between the wide rows, later on in May, guano was applied, and then later, in June, a mixture of 500 lbs. of guano, cotton-seed meal and kainit was spread in the wide spaces. Still later, in June, 100 lbs. of nitrate of soda was scattered between the narrow rows and hoed in. Frequent culti- vation w^as employed, but the land was kept flat, not ridged. The plants grew so large it became necessary to erect posts and nail slats to them on both sides of each row to prevent the corn from falling. The harvesting was done in the pres- ence of a large number of spectators. J. C. MISCELLANEOUS. 223 (Campbell, representative of the Ainertcau Agri- cnUnrist, (x. B. W. Dunn, J. W. Reynolds and John J. Tart were the witnesses to the harvest- ing. Besides winning the $500 in gokl offered by the American Agriculturist Mr. Drake also won an additional prize of $500 offered by the South Carolina Board of Agriculture to the person who would bring the first prize to that State. Tn competition for the same prize, Mr. Alfred Rose, of Penn Yan, N. Y., won the second prize, growing 191 bushels of shelled crib-cured corn on one acre of ground. The total cost of producing Mr. Rose's crop was $55. The third prize went to George Gartner of Pawnee Co., Neb., who grew 151 bushels of shelled crib-cured corn on one acre. The total cost of producing his crop was $49.70. Cross fertilization.— The subject of crossing varieties of Indian corn has been studied at a number of the experiment stations, especially Illinois, Kansas, Minnesota, New York and Ohio. Of these Illinois has published the larg- est amount of information concerning this work.* It is commonly known that if two different varieties of corn are grown near each other they will "" mix " or cross fertilize. In this way, * See bulletins Illinois experiment station, especially 21 and 25. 224 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. unintentionally, the purity of seed is injured and perhaps new varieties are accidentally begun. In crossing it is essential that the female parts of the plant be kept covered, so that the only pollen to come in contact with the pistil shall be of the variety it is desired to cross with. The following is given by McCluer as the method most satisfactory at the Illinois station:* "We have found the best method to be to cover up, before the silks are out, both the tassel and the coming ear, with a closely-woven cloth bag. Covering the tassel of the stalk desired for a male parent insures a full supply of pollen, which seems to retain its vitality for several days if kept dry. * * * When the silks reach a length of three or four inches the ear is ready for fertilization. We then gather the pollen on a sheet of smooth paper and roll it up funnel-shaped. Next raise an umbrella and hold it in such. a way as to keep all flying pollen from the ear, remove the bag, and apply the pollen until the silks are almost hidden. In favorable corn weather a single application of pollen is sufficient." The practical results of cross fertilization to produce new varieties are as yet slightly felt, so far as experimental data goes. The results now published are interesting, yet contain much of uncertainty. Morrow and Gardner think, however,! that increased yields can be obtained by crossing two varieties, and note * Illinois experiment station. Bulletin No. 21, p. 100. ti6i(Z., No. 25, April, 1893, p. 179. MISCELLANEOUS. 225 that a few farmers are changing their practice accordingly. This practical crossing is accom- plished by planting in one row one variety and in the next another, and removing the tassels of the one as soon as they appear. Of course the ears of the plants lacking tassels will be fertilized by the other row where pollen exists, thus producing a cross from \vhich seed may be selected. Not much effect may be seen as the result of planting crossed seed the first year, while the second it may be very marked. Interesting data concerning several crossing experiments is given by McCluer in the bulle- tins previously referred to from which the fol- lowing notes are gleaned. Figs. 60, 61 and 62, loaned by the Illinois station, show the effects of some cross fertilizing done there: "Of 142 plats planted with sweet corn, pop corn, and these crosses, it is safe to say there was as much uniformity in any one of the crossed plats as in any, and very much more than was found in most of the plats planted with pure varieties. "Corn grown from the crosses the second year has con- tinued to be comparatively uniform in type where the parent varieties were similar; but where the parent varieties were widely different, as in the crosses between sweet and dent, the progeny has tended strongly to run back to the parent forms, while at the same time taking on other forms differ- ent from either. "From the work so far done there seems to be no way of telling beforehand what varieties will, when crossed, pro- duce corn of an increased size, and what will not. "In the production of new varieties by crossing it will 15 226 INDIAN CORN CULTURE. . 0) ^ So o ia ^^ a a CB tM is 03 .iS 00 O «i.O MISCELLANEOUS. 227 S3 > o So tH (U ^^ .5H M a 00 o h J3" K ■*-i ,o V^ -W < t: ^