'■i' ClassHxilS. Book. ♦ fi^^ cmm'M^^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. .— ■;:; c MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY BY PHILIP VAN NESS MYERS HONORARY LECTURER IN HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI AUTHOR OF "ancient HISTORY," "A GENERAL HISTORY" AND "HISTORY AS PAST ETHICS" SECO.Vn REVISED EDITIOiY lA^CLUDING THE WORLD WAR, 1914-1918 GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON . NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO COPYRIGHT, 1885, 1905, 1920, BY PHILIP VAN NESS MYERS ENTERED AT STATIONERS* HALL ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 420.6 ^ ^o^ ^\^ gCU597567 gfte iatftenKum grtg< GINN AND COMPANY ■ PRO- PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. S£F 27 1320 3- 33 * X^ The real history of the human race is the history of tendencies which are perceived by the mind, and not of events which are discovered by the senses. — Buckle Historical facts should not be a burden to the memory but an illumina- tion of the soul. — Lord Acton But history ought surely in some degree, if it is worth anything, to antici- pate the lessons of time. We shall all no doubt be wise after the event; we study history that we may be wise before the event. — Seeley PREFACE TO THE SECOND REVISED EDITION The original edition of this work was issued thirty-five years ago — in 1885. The first revised edition was published twenty years later. The second revised edition is now given out. In this edition the text of the mediaeval period has been compressed in order to make possible, without unduly increasing the size of the book, the expansion of the history of the later modern cen- turies and the addition of the story of the World War. The fundamental issues involved in this colossal conflict are viewed as the virtual consummation of the democratic and nationalistic move- ments which have so largely dominated the historic development since the French Revolution of 1789. A number of new maps have been added to the earlier series and the list of cuts and plates increased by many new illustrations. The selected references at the end of each chapter will, it is hoped, serve not-merely as a guide, but also as an enticement, to wider reading and study, P. V. N. M. College Hill Cincinnati CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGH I. General Introduction- : the Chief Factors in Euro- pean Civilization i PART I. THE MIDDLE AGES FIRST PERIOD — THE DARK AGES (From the Fall of Rome to the Eleventh Centurj) II. The Barbarian Kingdoms 7 III. The Church and its Institutions 14 I. The Conversion of the Barbarians 14 II. The Rise of Monasticism 22 III. The Rise of the Papacy 28 IV. The Fusion of Latin and Teuton 35 V. The Roman Empire in the East 43 VI. The Rise of Islam 47 VII. Charlemagne and the Restoration of the Empire IN THE West 59 VIII. The Northmen : the Coming of the Vikings ... 69 SECOND PERIOD — THE AGE OF REVIVAL (From the Opening of the Eleventh Century to the Discovery of America by Columbus in 1492) IX. Feudalism and Chivalry 75 I. FeudaHsm 75 II. Chivalry 88 X. The Norman Conquest of England 96 XL The Papacy and the Empire 103 XII. The Crusades (1096-1273) iio XIII. Supremacy of the Papacy; Decline of its Temporal Power 134 vii viii CONTENTS CHAI'TEK PAGE XIV. Mongolian Conquests and Settlements in Europe . 143 XV. The Growth of the Towns 151 XVI. The Universities and the Schoolmen 166 XVII. Growth of the Nations: Formation of National Governments and Literatures 176 I. England 177 II. France 196 III. Spain 204 IV. Germany 208 V. Russia 216 VI. Italy 216 VII. The Northern Countries 221 XVin. The Renaissance 223 I. The Beginnings of the Renaissance 223 II. The Renaissance in Italy 227 III. General Effects of the Renaissance 241 PART 11. THE MODERN AGE THIRD PERIOD — THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION (From the Discovery of America, in i4c)2, to the Peace of Westphalia, in 164S) xix. tjeocirai-hical discoveries and the beginnings of Modern Colonization 247 XX. The Beginnings of the Reformation 263 XXI. The Ascendancy of Spain; her Relation to the Catholic Reaction 286 I. Reign of the Emperor Charles V (1519-1556) . . 286 II. Spain under Philip II (1556-1598) 292 XXII. The Tudors and the English Reformation (1485- 1603) 298 I. Introductory 298 II. The Reign of Henry VII (14S5-1509) .... 299 III. England severed from the Papacy by Henry VIII (1509-1547) 300 CONTENTS ix CHAPTER PAGE IV. Changes in Doctrine and Ritual under Edward VI (1547-1553) 310 V. Reaction under Mary (i 553-1 558) 312 VI. Final Establishment of Protestantism under Eliza- beth (i 558-1 603) 313 XXIII. The Revolt of the Netherlands: Rise of the Dutch Republic (1572-1609) 324 XXIV. The Huguenot Wars in France (i 562-1629) . . . 335 XXV. The Thirty Years' War (161 8-1 648) 343 FOURTH rERIOD — THE ERA OF THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION (From the Peace of Westphalia, in 164S, to the Treaty of Versailles, in igig) /. THE AGE OE ABSOLUTE AfONARCHY: PRELUDE TO THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION (1648-1789) XXVI. The Doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings AND THE Maxims of the Enlightened Despots 352 XXVII. The Ascendancy of France under Louis XIV (1643-1715) 35S XXVIII. The Stuakts and the English Revolution (1603-1689) 370 I. The First Two Stuarts 370 II. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate (1649- 1660) 282 III. The Restored Stuarts 390 IV. Reign of William and Mary (i 689-1 702) .... 396 XXIX. The Rise of Russia: Peter the Great (1682-1725) 400 XXX. The Rise of Prussia : Frederick the Great (1 740-1 786) 412 XXXI. England in the Eighteenth Century 420 XXXII. Austria under the Benevolent Despot Emperor Joseph II (i 780-1 790) 433 X CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE //. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE NAPOLEONIC ERA (1789-1815) XXXIII. The French Revolution (17S9-1799) 437 I. Causes of the Revolution ; the States-General of 1789 437 II. The National, or Constituent Assembly (June 17, 1789-September 30, 1791) 450 III. The Legislative Assembly (October i, 1791- September 19, 1792) 456 IV. The National Convention (September 20, 1792- October 26, 1795) 459 V. The Directory (October 27, 1795-November 9, 1799) 470 XXXIV. The Consulate and the Napoleonic Empire (I 799-181 5) 477 I. The Consulate (1799-1804) 477 II. The Napoleonic Empire ; the War of Liberation (1S04-1815) 481 ///. FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES (1815-1920) XXXV. The Congress of Vienna and Metternich . . . 505 XXXVI. France since the Second Restoration (181 5-1 91 4) 516 XXXVII. England from the Battle of Waterloo to the World War (1 81 5- 19 14) 525 I. Progress towards Democracy 525 II. Extension of the Principle of Religious Equality . 531 III. England's Relations with Ireland 535 XXXVIII. The Liberation and Unification of Italy . . . 540 XXXIX. The Making of the New German Empire . . . 553 XL. Russia from the Congress of Vienna to the World War (1815-1914) 571 I. Russia's Wars against Turkey and her Allies . . 571 II. The Emancipation of the Serfs, and the Liberal Movement 571; CONTENTS xi CHAPTER PAGE XLI. The New Industrialism 579 XLII. European Expansion in the Nineteenth and the EARLY Twentieth Century 584 I. Causes and General Phases of the Expansion Movement . C84 II. The Expansion of England jSo III. The Expansion of France 507 IV. The Expansion of Germany 500 V. The Expansion of Russia 60 1 VI. The Expansion of the United States .... 602 VII. Check to European Expansion and Aggression in Eastern Asia 603 XLIII. Evolution toward World Federation 610 XLIV. The World War (1914-1918) 616 I. Causes of the War and Train of Events leading up to It 616 II. Outstanding Events of the War 635 INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 673 LIST OF PLATES PAGE Plate I KING ALBERT DECORATING FRENCH OFFICERS (In Color) Frontispiece Plate II THE CITY OF MECCA AND THE SACRED KAABA .... 48 Plate III VIEW OF FLORENCE, ITALY, ABOUT THE YEAR I490 . . 160 Plate IV MILAN CATHEDRAL 1 64 Plate V THE FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD 288 Plate VI SECTION OF OLD LONDON BRIDGE 390 Plate VII ST. mark's square, VENICE 554 Plate VIII THE RHEIMS CATHEDRAL OF TO-DAY 654 Plate IX THE PEACE CONGRESS IN THE HALL OF MIRRORS, VER- SAILLES 666 LIST OF MAPS COLORED MAPS Based in the main on Kiepert, Schrader, Droysen, Spruner-Sieglin, Poole, and Freeman. Many of the maps have been so modified by additions and omissions that as they here appear they are practically new charts. PAGE The Barbarian Kingdoms about A. d. 500 8 The Saracen Empire about A. D. 750 52 Europe in the Time of Charles the Great, A. D. 814 62 The Western Empire as divided at Verdun, A. D. 843 66 The Danelaw 72 Hitchin Manor, England, about 18 16 .' 78 Europe and the Orient in 1096 118 Lands of the Holy Roman Empire under the Franconian Emperors, 1024-1125 13S Angevin Dominions 178 France about 1180 198 Spanish Kingdoms in 1360 . 206 Globe de Martin Behaim, 1492, and Globe Dore vers 1528 250 Explorations and Colonies of the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries 258 Europe at the Accession of the Emperor Charles V, 1 519 286 Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648 . . . ^ 346 Central Europe in 1660 362 Europe after the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt, 1713-1714 364 The Baltic Lands, about 1701 406 The Partition of Poland 410 Prussia under Frederick the Great, 1740-17S6 414 Central Europe in 1780 434 Central Europe in 180 1 478 Central Europe in iSio . . . .... 494 ^^ Europe after 181 5 ^10 ^ Italy in 1859 e<2 Distribution of Races in Austria-Hungary 568 Southeastern Europe after the Treaty of Berlin (1878) 574 ^ The Partition of Africa 590 European Expansion 602 The Far East 606 xiii u^ ^ XIV LIST OF MAPS PAGE FAirope in 19 1 4 618 Southeastern Europe in 1914 -, • • 626 Europe 670 SKETCH MAPS Italy under the Lombards 11 The Roman Empire under Justinian 44 Discoveries of the Northmen 70 The Mongol Empire under Jenghis Khan and his Immediate Successors (thirteenth century) 145 The Empire of the Ottoman Turks about 1464 149 The Hansa Towns and their Chief Foreign Settlements 156 Italy about the Middle of the Fifteenth Century 217 Russia and the Scandinavian Countries at the Close of the Middle Ages 221 The Netherlands at the Truce of 1609 332 Asian Turkey and the Bagdad Railway , . 622 Mittel-Europa and Turkish Annex 646 Battle Line on the Western Front July 15, 1918 658 MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY CHAPTER I GENERAL INTRODUCTION: THE CHIEF FACTORS IN EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION 1. Preliminary Survey. In an earlier volume we sketched briefly the affairs of men from the time when they first emerged from the obscurity of the past to the break-up of the Roman Em- pire in the West.^ In the present work we propose to continue the narrative there begun, and bring the story down to our own day. The fourteen centuries of history included in our survey are generally regarded as forming two periods, namely, the Middle Ages, which embrace the period lying between the dissolution of the Roman Empire in the West and the opening of the sixteenth century, and the Modern Age, which extends from the end of the mediaeval epoch- to the present time. The Middle Ages present two phases — the so-called Dark Ages and the Age of Revival. The Modern Age, as we shall view it, also forms two divisions — the Era of the Protestant Reformation and the Era of the Politi- cal Revolution. 2. Chief Characteristics of the Four Periods. The Dark Ages, which extend from the fall of Rome to about the end of the tenth or the opening of the eleventh century, mark a period of 1 Our Ancient History practically ends with this great revolution of the fifth century of the Christian era, although in order to meet the requirements of some schools there is given in concluding chapters a brief resume of events down to the Restoration of the Empire by Charlemagne, a.d. Soo. 2 See Ancient History, 2d Rev. Ed., p. 17, n. 1. T 2 GENERAL INTRODUCTION [§ 2 decline in civilization^ and a great lessening of the light of culture which for a thousand years and more had illumined the Mediter- ranean lands. The period was one of origins — of the beginnings of peoples, of languages, and of institutions. The Age of Revival begins about the opening of the eleventh century and merges with a new epoch during the fifteenth — the century which marks the discovery of the New World. During all this time civilization was making slow but sure advances: social order was gradually triumphing over feudal anarchy, and govern- ments were becoming more regular. The last part of the period especially was marked by a great intellectual revival, — ^a move- ment known as the Renaissance, or "New Birth," — by improve- ments, inventions, and discoveries, which greatly stirred men's minds and awakened them as from a sleep. The epoch witnessed the great struggle between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, the two most historically important institutions of the mediaeval time. The Crusades, or Holy Wars, were the most remarkable undertakings of the age. The Era of the Reformation embraces the sixteenth century and the first half of the seventeenth. The period is characterized by the great religious movement known as the Reformation, and the tremendous struggle between Catholicism and Protestantism, Almost all the wars of the period were religious wars. The last great combat was the Thirty Years' War in Germany, which was closed by the celebrated Peace of Westphalia, in 1648. After this date the disputes and wars between parties and nations were dynastic or political rather than religious in character. The Era of the Political Revolution extends from the Peace of Westphalia to the Treaty of Versailles, 19 19. The age is espe- cially characterized by a prolonged conflict between despotic and liberal principles of government. Outstanding events of the epoch were the English Revolution of 1688, the American Revolution of 1776, the French Revolution of 1789, and the World War of 1914. Having now made a general survey of the region we are to 1 This was a continuation of the decline which had begun before the break-up of the Western Roman Empire. See Ancient History, 2d Rev. Ed., sect. 548. § 3] SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FALL OF ROME 3 traverse, having marked the successive stages of the progressive course of European civilization, — the intellectual, the religious, and the political revolution, — we must turn back to our starting point, the fall of Rome. 3. Relation to World History of the Fall of Rome. The calamity which in the fifth century befell the Roman Empire in the West is sometimes spoken of as an event marking the extinc- tion of ancient civilization. The treasures of the Old World are represented as having been destroyed, and mankind as obliged to take a fresh start, — to lay the foundations of civilization anew. It was not so. All or almost all that was really valuable in the accumulations of antiquity escaped harm, and became sooner or later the possession of the succeeding ages. The event was not an unrelieved calamity, because fortunately the floods that seemed to be sweeping so much away were not the mountain torrent, which covers fruitful fields with worthless drift, but the overflowing Nile with its rich deposits. Over all the regions covered by the barbarian inundation a new stratum of population was thrown down, a new soil formed that was capable of nourishing a better civilization than any the world had yet seen. Or, to use the figure of Draper, we may liken the precipita- tion of the northern barbarians upon the expiring Roman Empire to the heaping of fresh fuel upon a dying fire; for a time it burns lower and seems almost extinguished, but soon it bursts through the added fuel, and flames up with redoubled energy and ardor. 4. The Three Chief Elements of European Civilization. We must now notice what survived the catastrophe of the fifth cen- tury, what it was that Rome transmitted to the peoples of the new- forming world. This renders necessary an analysis of the elements of civilization. European civilization is largely the result of the blending of three historic elements, — the Classical, the Hebrew, and the Teutonic. By the classical element in civilization is meant that whole body of arts, sciences, literatures, laws, manners, ideas, social arrangements, and models of imperial and municipal government 4 GENERAL INTRODUCTION [§ 4 — everything, in a word, save Christianity — that Greece and Rome gave to mediaeval and modern Europe. Taken together, these things constituted a valuable gift to the new northern race that was henceforth to represent civilization. It is true that the barbarian invaders of the Empire seemed at first utterly indifferent to these things; that the masterpieces of anticjue art were buried beneath the rubbish of sacked villas and cities; and that the pre- cious manuscripts of the old sages and poets, because they were pagan productions and hence regarded as dangerous to Christian faith, were often suffered to lie neglected in the libraries of cathe- drals and convents. Nevertheless, classical antiquity, as we shall learn, was the instructor of the Middle Ages. By the Hebrew element in history is meant Christianity. This has been a most potent factor in modern civilization. It tamed the barbarian conquerors of Rome. It filled Europe with mon- asteries, cathedrals, and schools. It inspired the Crusades and aided powerfully in the creation of chivalry. In short, it has so colored the life and so molded the institutions of the European peoples that their history is very largely a story of this religion, which, first going forth from Judea, was given to the younger world by the missionaries of Rome. Among the doctrines taught by the new religion were the unity of God, the brotherhood of man, and immortality, — doctrines which have greatly helped to make the modern so different from the ancient world. By the Teutonic element in history is meant the barbarian peoples of Indo-European speech — the Goths, Franks, Danes, Angles, Saxons, and kindred tribes' — who at the time of the break- up of the Roman Empire dwelt in central and northwestern Europe or had pushed into the Roman provinces and taken part in the overthrow of the Imperial Roman government. These folk, though of course they had the social institutions and customs of a primitive people, were poor in those things in which the Romans were rich. They had neither arts, nor sciences, nor philosophies. But they possessed, in general, a fine capacity for 1 As to race, they belonged, in the main, to the " Nordic " race of present-day anthropologists. §5] FACTORS IN EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION 5 growth and culture and achievement; and because of this they were destined to play a great role in the history of later times. 5. The Relative Importance in European History of the Classical, the Christian, and the Teutonic Element. The ques- tion as to the influence which each of these great historical factors has exercised upon the development of European civilization is a very important one for the historical student, for the reason that his whole conception of history will be colored by the answer he gives to it. Gibbon, for instance, exalted the classical element and depreciated Christianity, representing this religion rather as a retarding than as a helpful force in the life of the European peo- ples. This misconception of the real place in history that Chris- tianity actually holds is a chief fault of Gibbon's great work, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. On the other hand, some Church historians so represent his- tory as to give Christianity credit for almost all the progress made by the European peoples since the advent of Christ. This is to undervalue the other historical factors. Still others, again, represent the Teutonic element as the chief force in modern civilization, and to the barbarian subverters of the ancient civilization, and their kin of a later time, give chief credit for the freedom and progress achieved by the peoples of Europe. It is certain that we should allow the exclusive claims of none of these schools of interpreters of history. Modern civilization, as we have already intimated, is a very composite product. It has resulted from the mixing and mutual action and reaction upon one another of all the historical elements and agencies that we have mentioned — and many minor ones besides. If any one of these elements were taken from the civilization of to-day, it would be something wholly different from what it is. 6. Celts, Slavs, and Other Peoples. Having noticed the Romans and the Teutons, the two most important of the peoples that present themselves to us at the time of the fall of Rome, if we now name the Celts, the Slavs, the Arabians, and the Mongols and Turks, we shall have under view the chief actors in the drama of mediaeval and of a large part of modern history. 6 GENERAL INTRODUCTION [§ 6 At the commencement of the mediaeval era the Celts were in front of the Teutons, clinging to the western edge of the Euro- pean continent, and engaged in a bitter contest with these latter folk, which, in the antagonism of England and Ireland, was destined to extend itself to our own day. The Slavs were in the rear of the Teutonic tribes, pressing them on even as the Celts in front were struggling to resist their advance. These peoples, backward in civilization, will play only an obscure part in the transactions of the mediaeval era, but in the course of the modern period will assume a most commanding position among the European nations. The Arabians were hidden in their deserts; but in the seventh century we shall see them, animated by a wonderful religious enthusiasm, issue from their peninsula and begin a contest with the Christian nations which, in its varying phases, was destined to fill a large part of the mediaeval period. The Mongols and Turks were buried in central Asia. They will appear late in the eleventh century, proselytes for the most part of Mohammedanism; and, as the religious ardor of the Semitic Arabians grows cool, we shall see the Islam standard car- ried forward by these zealous converts of another race, and finally, in the fifteenth century, we shall see the Crescent, the adopted emblem of the new religion, placed by the Ottoman Turks above the dome of St. Sophia in Constantinople. As the Middle Ages draw to a close, the remote nations of eastern Asia will gradually come within our circle of vision; and, as the Modern Age dawns, we shall catch a glimpse of new continents and strange races of men beyond the Atlantic. PART I. THE MIDDLE AGES FIRST PERIOD — THE DARK AGES (From the Fall of Rome to the Eleventh Century) CHAPTER II THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS 7. Introductory. In one of the concluding chapters of our Ancient History, as a part of the story of the break-up of the Roman Empire in the West, we gave some account of the migra- tions and settlements of the Teutonic tribes. In the present chapter we shall indicate briefly the political fortunes, for the two centuries and more following the fall of Rome, of the prin- cipal kingdoms set up by the barbarian chieftains in the different parts of the old Empire. 8. Kingdom of the Ostrogoths (a.d. 493-554). Odoacer will be recalled as the barbarian chief who dethroned the last of the Western Roman emperors.^ His feeble government in Italy lasted only seventeen years, when it was brought to an end by the invasion of the Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths) under Theodoric, the greatest of their chiefs, who set up in Italy a new dominion known as the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths. The reign of Theodoric covered thirty-three years (a.d. 493- 526), — years of such quiet and prosperity as Italy had not known since the happy era of the Antonines. The king made good his promise that his reign should be such that " the only regret of the people should be that the Goths had not come at an earlier 1 See Andeiii Hision>, 2d Rev. Ed., sect. 547. 7 8 THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS [§ 9 period." His effort was to preserve Roman civilization, and to this end he repaired the old Roman roads, restored the monuments of the Empire that were falling into decay, and in so far as possible nmintained Roman law and custom. Theodoric's chief minister and adviser was Cassiodorus, a statesman and writer of Roman birth, whose constant but unfortunately vain effort was to effect a union of the concjuerors and the conquered, and thus to establish in Italy a strong and permanent Romano-Gothic state under the rule of the royal house of the Ostro- goths. The kingdom es- tablished by the rare abilities of The- odoric lasted only twenty-seven years after his death. It was destroyed by the generals of Jus- ^ T, ... ,, tinian. Emperor of Pig. I. Tomb of 1 heodoric at Ravenna , t- /T7 , ^ UN the East (sect, sco) ; (From a photograph) ^ o / ) and Italy, freed from the barbarians, was for a time reunited to the Empire. 9. Kingdom of the Visigoths (a.d. 415-711). The Visigoths (Western Goths) were already in possession of southern Gaul and the greater part of Spain when the line of Western Roman emperors was brought to an end by the act of Odoacer and his companions. They were driven south of the Pyrenees by the kings of the Franks, but held their possessions in Spain until the beginning of the eighth century, when their rule was brought to an end by the Saracens (sect. 64). When thus overturned the Visigothic kingdom had lasted nearly three hundred years. Dur- ing this time the conquerors had mingled with the old Romanized inhabitants of Spain, so that in the veins of the Spaniard of to-day is blended the blood of Iberian, Celt, Roman, and Teuton, to- gether with that of the last intruder, the African Moor. § 10] KINGDOM OF THE VANDALS 9 10. Kingdom of the Vandals (a.d. 439-533). About half a century before the fall of Rome the Vandals set up a kingdom in North Africa. These barbarians were animated by a more destructive energy than any other of the Teutonic tribes that took part in the subversion of the Roman Empire. Their very name has passed into all languages as the synonym of wanton destruction and violence. The terror of this name they spread throughout the INIediterranean lands. In another connection we have told how the Vandal king, Geiseric, bore in triumph down the Tiber the heavy spoils of Rome itself.^ Being Arian- Christians, the Vandals persecuted with furious zeal the orthodox party, the followers. of Athanasius. Moved by the, entreaties of the African Catholics, the Eastern Emperor Justinian sent his general Belisarius to drive the barbarians from Africa. The expedition was successful, and Carthage and the fruitful fields of Africa were restored to the Empire after having suffered the insolence of the barbarian conquerors for the space of above a hundred years. The Vandals remaining in the country were gradually absorbed by the old Roman population, and after a few generations no certain trace of the barbarian invaders could be detected in the physical appearance, the language, or the customs of the inhabitants of the African coast. The Vandal nation had disappeared; the name alone remained. 11. The Franks under the Merovingians (a.d. 486-752). The Franks, who were destined to give a new name to Gaul and form the nucleus of the French nation, made their first set- tlements west of the Rhine about two hundred years before the fall of Rome. Among their several chieftains at the time of this event was Clovis. Upon the break-up of the Roman Em- pire in the West, Clovis conceived the ambition of erecting a kingdom upon the ruins of the Roman power. He attacked Syagrius, the Roman governor of a district in northern Gaul still independent of the barbarians, and at Soissons gained a decisive victory over his forces (a.d. 486). Thus was destroyed forever the last remnant in Gaul of that Roman authority which had 1 Ancient History, 2d Rev. Ed., sect. 546. 2 ibid. sect. 527. lo THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS [§ 12 been established among its barbarian tribes more than five cen- turies before by the conquests of Julius Caesar that carried the Roman power beyond the Alps. Clovis in a short time extended his authority over the greater part of Gaul, reducing to the condition of tributaries the various Teutonic tribes that had taken possession of different portions of the country. Upon his death (a.d. 511) his extensive domin- ions, in accordance with the ancient Teutonic law of inheritance, were divided among his four sons. About a century and a half of discord followed, by the end of which time the Merovingians^ had become so feeble and inefficient that they were contemp- tuously called rots faineants, or " do-nothing kings," and an ambitious officer of the crown, known as Mayor of the Palace, in a way that will be explained a little later (sect. 71), pushed aside the weak Merovingian king and gave to the Prankish mon- archy a new royal line, — the Carolingian. 12. Kingdom of the Lombards (a.d. 568-774). Barely a decade had passed after the recovery of Italy from the Ostro- goths by the Eastern Emperor Justinian (sect. 8), before a large part of the peninsula was again lost to the Empire through its conquest by another barbarian tribe known as the Lombards. When they entered Italy the Lombards were Christians of the Arian sect; but in time they became converts to the orthodox faith, and Pope Gregory I bestowed upon their king a diadem which came to be known as the "Iron Crown," for the reason that there was wrought into it what was believed to be one of the nails of the cross upon which Christ had suffered. The kingdom of the Lombards was destroyed by Charlemagne, the most noted of the Prankish rulers, in the year 774; but the blood of the invaders had by this time become intermingled with that of the former subjects of the Empire, so that throughout all that part of the peninsula which is still called Lombardy after them one will to-day occasionally see the fair hair and light com- plexion which reveal the strain of Teutonic blood in the veins of the present inhabitants. 1 So called from Merowig, an early chieftain of the race. § 13] ANGLO-SAXON CONQUEST OF BRITAIN II One important result of the Lombard conquest of Italy was the destruction of the political unity established by the Romans and the breaking up of the country into a multitude of petty states. This resulted from the incomplete nature of the conquest and from the loose feudal constitution of the Lombard monarchy, which was rather a group of virtually independent duchies than a real kingdom. Not until our own day did there finally emerge from this political chaos a united Italy/ 13. The Anglo- Saxon Conquest of Britain. In the fifth century of our era, being then en- gaged in her death struggle with the barbarians, Rome withdrew her legions from Britain in order to protect Italy. Thus that province was left exposed especially to the depredations of the Anglo-Saxon corsairs from the Continent. In their extremity the provincials are said to have appealed for aid to the Roman governor of Gaul, picturing, in a supplication known as "The Groans of the Britains," their condition in these terms: '^The barbarians drive us into the sea ; the sea throws us back upon the swords of the barbarians; and we have only the hard choice of perishing by the sword or by the waves." The appeal, if ever made, was 1 See accompanying map and explanatory note. Map of Italy uxder the Lombards Showing how the political unity of the peninsula was shat- tered by the Lombard conquest. The unshaded portions represent the regions taken possession of by the barbarians ; the shaded areas indicate the lands which remained in the hands of the Eastern Emperor 12 THE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS [§14 unavailing, for the Roman legions were just then battUng with the terrible hordes of Alaric and Attila, and could extend no help. Left to themselves the Britons made heroic resistance against the invaders. So bitter was the struggle that the provincials were either exterminated, reduced to serfdom, or driven bodily westward. Almost every trace of Roman civilization, together with the Christian religion, which had been introduced during the Roman rule, was virtually swept away. It is to this period of desperate struggle that the famous King Arthur belongs. The legends that have gathered about the name of this national hero are mostly mythical; yet it is possible that he had a real exist- ence and that the name represents one or more of the most valiant of the Celtic chiefs who battled so long and heroically against the pagan invaders.^ The conquerors of Britain belonged to three Teutonic tribes, — ^the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, — but among the Celts they all passed under the name of Saxons, and among themselves, after they began to draw together into a single nation, under that of Angles, whence the name England (Angle-land). By the close of the sixth century the invading bands had set up in the conquered parts of the island eight or nine, or perhaps more, kingdoms, — frequently designated, though somewhat inac- curately, as the Heptarchy. For the space of two hundred years there was an almost perpetual strife for supremacy among the leading states. Finally, Egbert, king of Wessex (a. d. 802-839), brought all the other kingdoms to a subject or tributary condi- tion, and became in reality, though he seems never, save on one occasion, to have actually assumed the title, the first king of England. 14. Teutonic Tribes outside the Empire. We have now spoken of the most important of the Teutonic tribes which forced themselves within the limits of the Roman Empire in the West, and that there, upon the ruins of the civilization they had over- thrown, laid or helped to lay the foundations of the modern 1 Many of the hard-pressed Britons fled across the English Channel to the adjacent shores of France, and gave name to the French province of Brittany. § 14] TEUTONS OUTSIDE THE EMPIRE 13 nations of Italy, Spain, France, and England. Beyond the boundaries of the old Empire were still other tribes and clans of this same mighty family of nations, — tribes and clans that were destined to play great parts in European history. On the east, beyond the Rhine, were the ancestors of the modern Germans. Notwithstanding the immense hosts that the forests and morasses of Germany had poured into the Roman provinces, the western portions of the land, in the sixth century of our era, seemed still as crowded as before the great migration began.^ These tribes were yet barbarians in manners and, for the most part, pagans in religion. In the northwest of Europe were the Scandinavians, the ancestors of the modern Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians. They were as yet untouched either by the civilization or the religion of Rome. Selections from the Sources. The Letters o/Cassiodoms (Thomas Hodgkin's trans.), bk. i, letters 24, 35 ; bk. ii, letters 32, 34; bk. iii, letters 17, 19, 29, 31, 43; bk. xi, letters 12, 13; bk. xii, letter 20. (These letters are invaluable in showing what was the general condition of things in the transition period between ancient and mediaeval times.) References (Modern). Hodgkin, T., Italy and her Invaders and Theodoric the Goth (Hodgkin is recognized as the best authority on the period of the migration). Villari, P., The Barbarian Ijtvasiofts 0/ Italy. Gummere, F. B., Germanic Origins (an authoritative and interesting work on the early culture of the Germans). Gibbon, E., chaps, xxxviii, xxxix. Church, R. W., The Beginning of the Middle Ages, chaps, i-v. Emerton, E., A71 Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages, chaps, vi, vii. The Cambridge Medieval Ilistoiy, vol. i, chap. XV ; vol. ii. chaps, iv-vii. Topics for Class Reports, i. Life and work of Cassiodorus ; his state papers: Hodgkin, T., Theodoric, chap, ix, pp. 160-173. -• The German con- quest of Gaul : Adams, G. B., The Growth of the French Nation, chap. ii. 1 The Slavs had pushed into the eastern parts of Germany. CHAPTER III THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS I. THE CONVERSION OF THE BARBARIANS 15. How Christianity tempered the Barbarian Conquests. The most ipiportant event in the history of the tribes that took possession of the Roman Empire in the West was their conversion to Christianity. Many of the barbarians were converted before or soon after their entrance into the Empire ; to this circumstance the Roman provinces owed their immunity from the excessive cruelties which pagan barbarians seldom fail to inflict upon a subjected enemy. Alaric left untouched the treasures of the churches of the Roman Christians because his own faith was also Christian. For like reason the Vandal king Geiseric yielded to the prayers of Pope Leo the Great and promised to leave to the inhabitants of the imperial city their lives.^ The more tolerable fate of Italy, Spain, and Gaul, as compared with the hard fate of Britain, is owing, in part at least, to the fact that the tribes which overran those countries had become in the main converts to Christianity before they crossed the boundaries of the Empire, while the Angles and Saxons when they entered Britain were still untamed pagans. 16. Conversion of the Goths, Vandals, and Other Tribes. The first converts to Christianity among the barbarians beyond the limits of the Empire were won from among the Goths. Fore- most of the apostles that arose among them was Ulfilas, who trans- lated the Scriptures into the Gothic language, omitting from his version, however, the Books of the Kings, as he feared that the stirring recital of wars and battles in that portion of the Word might kindle into too fierce a flame the martial ardor of his new converts. 1 See Ancient History, ad Rev. Ed., sects. 540, 546. 14 §17] CONVERSION OF THE FRANKS 15 What happened in the case of the Goths happened also in the case of most of the barbarian tribes that participated in the over- throw of the Roman Empire in the West. By the time of the fall of Rome the Goths, the Vandals, the Suevi, and the Burgundians had become proselytes to Christianity. They, however, professed the Arian creed, which had been condemned by the great council of the Church held at Nicaea during the reign of Constantine the Great. Hence they were regarded as heretics by the Roman Catholic Church, and all had to be reconverted to the orthodox creed, which good work was gradually accomplished. The remaining Teutonic tribes of whose conversion we shall speak — the Franks, the Anglo-Saxons, and the chief tribes of Germany — embraced at the outset the Roman Catholic faith. 17. Conversion of the Franks; Importance of this Event. The Franks when they entered the Empire, like the Angles and Saxons when they landed in Britain, were still pagans. Christianity gained way very slowly among them until a supposed interposition by the Christian God in their behalf led the king and nation to adopt the new religion in place of their old faith. The circum- stances, as reported by tradition, were these. In a terrible battle between the Alemanni and the Franks under their king Clovis, the situation of the Franks had become desperate. Then Clovis, fall- ing upon his knees, called upon the God of the Christians and vowed that if he would give him the victory he would become his follower. The battle turned in favor of the Franks, and Clovis, faithful to his vow, was baptized and with him three thousand of his warriors. This story of the conversion of Clovis and his Franks illustrates how the belief of the barbarians in omens and divine interposi- tions, and particularly their feeling that if their gods did not do for them all they wanted done they had a right to set them aside and choose others in their stead, contributed to their conversion, and how the reception of the new faith was often a tribal or national affair rather than a matter of personal conviction. "The conversion of the Franks," says the historian Milman, ''was the most important event in its remote as well as its i6 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§ IS immediate consequences in European history." It was of such moment for the reason that the Franks embraced the orthodox Roman Catholic faith, while almost all the other Teutonic invaders of the Empire had embraced the heretical Arian creed. This secured them the loyalty of their Roman subjects and also gained for them the official favor of the Church of Rome. Thus was laid the basis of the ascendancy in the West of the Prankish kings. 18. Augustine's Mission to England. In the year a.d. 596 Pope Gregory I, "who alone among men has received, by universal consent, the double Fig. 2. St. Martin's Church, Canter- bury. (From a photograph) ' This church occupies the site of a chapel built in the Roman period and standing at the time of the landing of the monk Augustine, in the year 597. Its walls show some of the Roman bricks of the original church surname of Saint and Great," sent the monk Augustine with a band of forty companions to teach the Christian faith in Britain, in whose people he had become interested through see- ing in the slave market at Rome some fair- faced captives from that remote region. The monks were fa- vorably received by the English, who listened attentively to the story the strangers had come to tell them; and being persuaded that the tidings were true, they burned the temples of Woden and Thor, and were in large numbers baptized in the Christian faith. One of the most important consequences of the conversion of Britain was the reestablishment of that connection of the island with Roman civilization which had been severed by the calami- ties of the fifth century. As the historian Green says, — he is speaking of the embassy of St. Augustine, — "The march of the monks as they chanted their solemn litany was in one sense a return of the Roman legions who withdrew at the trumpet call of Alaric. . . . Practically Augustine's landing renewed that §19] CONVERSION OF IRELAND 17 union with the western world which the landing of Hengist had destroyed. The new England was admitted into the older commonwealth of nations. The civilization, art, letters, which had fled before the sword of the English conquerors, returned with the Christian faith." 19. The Conversion of Ireland. The spiritual conquest of Ireland was effected largely by a zealous priest named Patricius (died about a.d. 469), better known as St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. • With such success ^ '" - were his labors at- '^- ^ f ^ tended that by the -: -?^^^.^C,i!' m^ time of his death a " . 7^^ " ':^^aF^^^^^« great part of the _ ^^_^_ ~Mc^ island had em- braced the Chris- Fig. 3. The Ruins of Iona. (After an tian faith. Never old drawing) did any race re- That man is little to be envied whose patriotism would ppi'vp the Cosnel ^^^ »'>'" force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow warmer among the ruins of Iona. — Dr. with more ardent Johnson, a Joimiey to me Western Isles of Scotland enthusiasm. The Irish or Celtic Church sent out its devoted missionaries into the Pictish highlands, into the forests of Germany, and into the wilds of Alps and Apennines.^ Among the numerous religious houses founded by the Celtic missionaries was the famous monastery established a.d. 563 by the Irish monk St. Columba, on the little isle of Iona, just off the Pictish coast. Iona became a most renowned center of Christian learning and missionary zeal, and for almost two cen- turies was the point from which radiated light through the 1 These Irish missionaries were not merely the representatives of Christianity. " They were instructors in every known branch of science and learning of the time, possessors and bearers of a higher culture than was at that period to be found any- where on the Continent, and can surely claim to have been the pioneers, — to have laid the comer stone of western culture on the Continent, the rich results of which Germany shares and enjoys to-day, in common with all other civilized nations." — Zimmer, The Irish Elemetii in MedieBval Culture, p. 130 1 8 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§20 darkness of the surrounding heathenism. Fitly has it been called the Nursery of Saints and the Oracle of the West,^ 20. Rivalry between the Roman and the Celtic Church; the Council of Whitby (a.d. 664). From the very moment that Augustine touched the shores of Britain and summoned the Welsh clergy to acknowledge the discipline of the Roman Church, there had been a growing jealousy between the Latin and Celtic churches, which had now risen into the bitterest rivalry and strife. So long had the Celtic Church been cut off from all rela- tions with Rome, that it had come to differ somewhat from it in the matter of certain ceremonies and observances, such as the time of keeping Easter and the form of the tonsure." With a view to settling the quarrel, Oswy, king of Northumbria, who thought that "as they all expected the same kingdom of heaven, so they ought not to differ in the celebration of the divine mysteries," called a synod composed of representatives of both parties, at the monastery of Whitby. The chief question of debate, which was argued before the king by the ablest advo- cates of both churches, was the proper time for the observance of Easter. The debate was warm, and hot words were exchanged. Finally, Wilfrid, the speaker for the Roman party, happening to quote the words of Christ to Peter, "To thee will I give the keys of the kingdom of heaven," the king asked the Celtic monks if these words were really spoken by Christ to that apostle, and upon their admitting that they were, Oswy said: "He being the doorkeeper, ... I will in all things obey his decrees, lest when I come to the gates of the kingdom of heaven, there should be none to open them." The decision of the prudent Oswy gave the British Isles to Rome; for not only was all England soon won to the Roman side, but the churches and monasteries of Wales and Ireland and Scotland came in time to conform to the Roman standard and 1 In southern Germany (now Switzerland) the Irish monk Galkis established (a.d. 613) the celebrated monastery of St. Gall, which at a later time became one of the chief seats of learning in central Europe. 2 In the Roman tonsure the top of the head was shaven, in the Celtic the front part only. §21] EARLY ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE 19 custom. "By the assistance of our Lord," says the pious Latin chronicler, "the monks were brought to the canonical observation of Easter and the right mode of the tonsure." One important result of the Roman victory was the hastening of the political unity of England through its ecclesiastical unity. The Celtic Church, in marked contrast with the Latin, was utterly devoid of capacity for organization. It could have done nothing in the way of developing among the several Anglo-Saxon states the sentiment of nationality. On the other hand, the Roman Church, through the exercise of a central authority, through national synods and general legislation, overcame the isolation of the different kingdoms and helped powerfully to draw them together into a common political life. 21. Pagan and Christian Literature of the Anglo-Saxons. A strong side light is cast upon our ancestors' change of religion by two famous poems which date from the Anglo-Saxon period of our literature. One of these, called Beoivulj, was composed while our forefathers were yet pagans, and probably before they left the Continent ; the other, known as the Paraphrase of the Scriptures, was written soon after their conversion to Christianity. Beowulf is an epic poem which tells of the exploits of an heroic Viking, Beowulf by name, who delivers the people from a terrible monster that feasted upon sleeping men. It is alive with the instincts of paganism, and is a faithful reflection of the rough heathen times in which it had birth. Every passage dis- plays the love of the savage for coarse horrors and brutal slaugh- ters. Thus it runs : " The wretched wight seized quickly a sleeping warrior, slit him unawares, bit his bone-locker, drank his blood, in morsels swallowed him; soon had he all eaten, feet and fingers." Before another can be made a victim Beowulf closes with the monster. "The hall thundered, the ale of all the Danes and earls was spilt. Angry, fierce were the strong fighters, the hall was full of din. It was great wonder that the wine-hall stood above the warlike beasts, that the fair earth-house fell not to the ground; but it was too fast in iron bands." Such was the 20 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§ 22 gleeman's song which delighted our Saxon forefathers as they drank and caroused in their great mead halls. In striking contrast with the pagan hero poem stands the Paraphrase, the first fruits in English literature of the mission of Augustine. This consists of Bible stories retold in verse. These metrical paraphrases, it is now believed, were composed, in the main, between the seventh and the tenth century by different poets, who seem to have been disciples or imitators of a certain monk of Whitby, named Caedmon, upon whom, according to a beautiful legend transmitted to us by the Venerable Bede,^ the gift of song had been miraculously bestowed, and who, though he could neither read nor write, turned into sweet verses, as they were recited to him, many of the graphic tales of Holy Writ. In these compositions is reflected in a wonderful manner the revolu- tion in thought and feeling and in aim and purpose of life which the reception of Christian teachings and doctrines, in place of their earlier beliefs and ideas, wrought in the pagan conquerors of Britain. The Paraphrase reminds us of Milton's Paradise Lost (written a thousand years later), and pursues very much the same order in the treatment of its lofty theme. Hence Caedmon is sometimes called the "Saxon Milton." His poem was multiplied in manu- script copies, and for five centuries was read by all classes of English society, being given an honored place alongside the Bible itself. 22. The Conversion of Germany, The conversion of the tribes of Germany was effected by Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, and Prank- ish missionaries, and the sword of Charlemagne (sect. 73). The great apostle of Germany was the Saxon Winfrid, better known as St. Boniface. During a long and intensely active life he founded schools and monasteries, organized churches, preached and 1 Bede the Venerable (about a.d. 673-735) was a pious and learned Northumbrian monk, who wrote, among other works, an invaluable one entitled Historia Ei-clcsias/ica Gcntis Anglorwn, "The Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation." The work recites, as its central theme, the story of how our forefathers were won to the Christian faith. We are indebted to Bede for a large part of our knowledge of early England. § 23] CONVERSION OF RUSSIA 2 1 baptized, and at last died a martyr's death (a.d. 753). Through him, as says Milman, the Saxon invasion of England flowed back upon the Continent. The Christianizing of the tribes of Germany relieved the Teu- tonic folk of western Europe from the constant peril of massacre by their heathen kinsmen, and erected a strong barrier in central Europe against the advance of the waves of Turanian paganism and INIohammedanism which for centuries beat so threateningly against the eastern frontiers of Germany. 23. The Conversion of Russia. Vladimir the Great (d. 1015) was the Clovis of Russia. This ruler, according to the account of the matter that has come down to us, having had urged upon his attention the claims of different religions, sent out envoys to make investigation respecting the relative merits of Mohamme- danism, the Jewish religion, and Latin and Greek Christianity. The commissioners reported in favor of the religion of Constan- tinople, having been brought to this mind by what seemed to them the supernatural splendors of the ceremonials that they had witnessed in the great Church of St. Sophia. Vladimir caused the great wooden idol of the chief god of his people to be hurled into the Dnieper and his subjects to be bap- tized in its waters by the Christian priests. This act of Vladimir marks the real beginning of the evangelization of Russia (988). That the chief Slavic tribes should have come under the re- ligious influence of Constantinople instead of under that of Rome had far-reaching consequences for Russian history. This circum- stance cut off Russia from sympathy with the Roman Catholic West and shut her out from all the civilizing influences that accompanied Latin Christianity.^ 24. Christianity in the North. The progress of Christianity in the North was slow; but gradually, during the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries, the missionaries of the Church won over all the Scandinavian peoples. One important effect of their 1 The Slavic Poles came ultimately under the influence of Rome, and it was this circumstance that helped greatly to draw Poland into the current of the life of western Europe. 2 2 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§25 conversion was the checking of those piratical expeditions which during all the centuries of their pagan history had been constantly putting out from the fiords of the northern peninsulas and vexing every shore to the south. By about the year looo all Europe was claimed by Christianity, save the regions of the northwest about the Baltic, which were inhabited chiefly by the still pagan Finns and Lapps, parts of the Slavic lands, and the larger portion of the Iberian penin- sula, which was in the hands of the Mohammedan Moors. 25. Reaction of Paganism on Christianity. Thus were the conquerors of the Empire met and conquered by Christianity. The victory, it must be confessed, was in a great degree a victory rather in name than in fact. The Church could not all at once leaven the great mass of heathenism which had so suddenly been brought within its fold. For a long time after they were called Christians, the barbarians, coarse and cruel and self-willed and superstitious as they were, understood very little of the doctrines and exhibited still less of the true spirit of the religion they pro- fessed. To this depressing reaction of Teutonic barbarism upon the Church is without doubt to be attributed in large measure the deplorable moral state of Europe during so large a part of the medise.val ages. II. THE RISE OF MONASTICISM 26. Monasticism defined. It was during the period between the third and the sixth century that there grew up in the Church the institution known as Monasticism. This was so remarkable a system, and one that exerted so profound an influence upon mediaeval and even later history, that we must here acquaint ourselves with at least its spirit and aims. The term Monasticism, in its widest application, denotes a life of austere self-denial and of seclusion from the world, with the object of promoting the interests of the soul. As thus defined, the system embraced two prominent classes of ascetics: (i) her- mits, or anchorites, — persons who, retiring from the world, lived § 27] GROWTH OF MONASTICISM 23 solitary lives in desolate places; (2) cenobites, or monks, who formed communities and lived usually under a common roof. 27. Circumstances and Doctrines that fostered the Growth of Monasticism. The development of Christian monasticism^ was fostered by many influences, and particularly by the social and moral decadence that marked the civilization of the later Roman Empire. Never, perhaps, was the moral and spiritual life of the ancient work at a lower ebb than at this time. Nor had the Church escaped the moral contagion. It had in a lamentable degree become conformed unto the world. This state of things awakened a fierce protest in the souls of the more spiritually minded, and created in them a longing for a higher ideal and a more worthy religious life. Such persons naturally embraced with enthusiasm the ascetic ideal, which was in every respect in direct opposition to the prevail- ing conceptions and practices of society. In the face of un- bridled licentiousness, the monks proclaimed the peculiar sanctity of the celibate life. In the face of covetousness and avarice, they preached the absolute worthlessness of all earthly possessions and exalted poverty into a virtue. To those who were pampering their bodies in the luxurious baths, and making them effeminate and soft with perfumes and unguents, they, careless of the body, proclaimed the superiority of a clean soul. In opposition to the gluttony of the rich, the monks prescribed a diet of herbs and coarse bread; in the place of rich apparel, they clothed them- selves in sackcloth and garments of hair. In this opposition of the ascetic ideal to the prevailing life and conduct of men, we see in what measure asceticism was a recoil from a social system which, denying the rightful supremacy of the soul over the body, marred the beauty and destroyed the dignity of life. While the moral and social condition of the Grseco-Roman world thus favored the development of the monastic system, 1 The ascetic ideal of life was by no means original with Christianity. Brahmanism has always had its ascetics and hermits. All Buddhistic lands are to-day filled with monasteries and monks. About the time of Christ there were to be found in Syria among the Jews the Essenes, a sect of religious enthusiasts whose members led a solitary and ascetic life. 24 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§ 28 certain Christian teachings drawn from various texts of the Bible tended in the same direction. Thus the Apostle Paul had said, ''He that is unmarried careth for the things that belong to the Lord; . . . but he that is married careth for the things that are of the world." ^ And Christ himself had declared, " If any man come to me, and hate not his father, and mother, and wife, and children, and brethren, and sisters, yea, and his own life also, he cannot be my disciple";- and, again, he had said to the rich young man, "If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor."^ These passages, and others like them taken literally, tended greatly to confirm the belief of the ascetic that his life of isolation and poverty and abstinence was the most perfect life and the surest way to win salvation. 28. St. Anthony, "the Father of the Hermits." St. Anthony an Egyptian ascetic (b. about a.d. 251), who by example and influence gave a tremendous impulse to the movement, is called the "Father of the Hermits." The romance of his life, written by the celebrated Athanasius, stirred the whole Christian world and led thousands to renounce society and in imitation, of the saint to flee to the desert. It is estimated that before the close of the fourth century the population of the desert in many dis- tricts in Egypt was equal to that of the cities. Most renowned of all the anchorites of the East was St. Simeon Stylites, the Saint of the Pillar (d. a.d. 459), who spent thirty-six years on a column only three feet in diameter at the top, which he had gradually raised to a height of over fifty feet.* 29. Monasticism in the West. During the fourth century the anchorite type of asceticism, which was favored by the mild climate of the Eastern lands and especially by that of Egypt, assumed in some degree the monastic form; that is to say, the fame of this or that anchorite or hermit drew about him a number of disciples, whose rude huts or cells formed what was known as a laura, the nucleus of a monastery. Soon after the cenobite system had been established in the East ^ I Cor. vii. 32, 2^. 3 Matt. xix. 21. 2 Luke xiv. 26. 4 Read Tennyson's poem " St. Simeon Stylites." §30] THE RULE OF ST. BENEDICT 25 it was introduced into Europe, and in an astonishingly short space of time spread throughout all the Western countries where Chris- tianity had gained a foothold. Here it prevailed to the almost total exclusion of the hermit mode of life. Monasteries arose on every side. The number that fled to these retreats was vastly augmented by the disorder and terror attending the invasion of the barbarians and the overthrow of the Empire in the West. The movement drew within the circle of its influence women as well as men, and nunneries were founded in great numbers, which were subject to a disci- pline similar to that of the monasteries. 30. The Rule of St. Benedict. With a view to introduc- ing some sort of regularity into the practices and auster- ities of the monks, rules were early prescribed for their observance. The three essential requirements or vows of the monk were poverty, chastity, and obedience. The greatest legislator of the monks was St. Benedict of Nursia (a.d. 480-543), the founder of the celebrated monastery of Monte Cassino, situated midway between Rome and Naples in Italy. His code was to the religious world what the Corpus Juris Civilis of Justinian (sect. 50) was to the lay society of Europe. Many of his rules were most wise and practical, as, for instance, one that made manual work a pious duty, and another that required the Fig. 4. The Simopetra Monastery of Mt. Athos. (From a photograph) The convents of Mt. Athos in their present state give us a very accurate notion of the great monasteries of Europe, at the close of the twelfth century. — Sabatier, Li/c of St. Fraticis of Assist 2 6 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§31 monk to spend an allotted time daily in sacred reading. The monks who subjected themselves to the Rule of St. Benedict were known as Benedictines. The Order became immensely popular. At one time it embraced about forty thousand abbeys. From its ranks came twenty-four popes, and saints without number. 31. Monastic Reforms; Cluny. Monasticism as an active and potent force in the history of the West has a long and wonderful history of more than a thousand years. This history presents one dominant fact, — ^ ever-renewed reform movements in the mon- asteries. Scarcely was a monastery or a monastic order established before the acquisition of wealth brought in self-indulgence and laxity of discipline. But there was always among the backsliding dwellers in the cloisters a "saving remnant," and upon these choice souls the spirit of reform was sure to descend, and thus it happens that with the reform movements marking the history of the monks are associated the names of many of the purest and most exalted characters of the mediaeval ages. Among the earliest and most noteworthy of these reform move- ments was that which resulted in the founding in the year 910 of the celebrated monastery of Cluny in Burgundy. The influences which radiated from the cloisters of Cluny left a deep impression upon more than two centuries of history. 32. Services of the Monks to Civilization. The early estab- lishment of the monastic system in the Church resulted in great advantages to the new world that was shaping itself out of the ruins of the old. The monks, especially the Benedictines, became agriculturists (the plough as well as the cross was an ensign of the monks), and by patient labor converted the wild and marshy lands which they received as gifts from princes and others into fruitful fields, thus redeeming from barrenness some of the most desolate districts of Europe. The monks also became missionaries, and it was largely to their zeal and devotion that the Church owed her speedy and signal victory over the barbarians. It is about the names of such de- voted monks as Saints Columba, Callus, and Boniface that gathers much of the romance of the missions of the mediaeval Church. §32] SERVICES OF THE IMONKS 27 The quiet air of the monasteries nourished learning as well as piety. The monks became teachers, and under the shelter of the monasteries established schools which were the nurseries of learn- ing during the earlier Middle Ages and the homes for centuries of the best intellectual life of Europe. The monks also became copyists, and with great painstaking and industry gathered and multiplied ancient manuscripts, and thus preserved and transmitted to the modern world much classical learning and literature that would otherwise have been lost. Almost all the remains of the Greek and Latin classics that we possess have come to us through the agency of the monks. The monks also became the chroniclers of the events of their own times, so it is to them that we are indebted for a large and important part of our knowl- edge of the life and happenings of the early mediaeval centuries. Thus the scriptorium, or writing room of the monastery, filled that the great publishing house fills in the modern world. The monks became further the almoners of the pious and the wealthy, and distributed alms to the poor and needy. Everywhere the monasteries opened their hospitable doors to the weary, the sick, and the discouraged. In a word, these retreats were the inns, the asylums, and the hospitals of the mediaeval ages. This spirit of helpfulness and charity found its embodiment in the women who became nuns. To a woman is to be attributed the establishment of the first Christian hospital.^ Fig. 5. A Monk Copyist. (From a manuscript of the fifteenth century) the place in mediaeval society 1 A Roman lady, named Fabiola, in the fourth century founded at Rome, as an act of penance, the first public hospital, and the charity planted by that woman's hand overspread the world, and will alleviate, to the end of time, the darkest anguish of humanity. — Lecky, Hisioiy of European Morals, vol. ii, p. So 28 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§33 III. THE RISE OF THE PAPACY 33. The Empire within the Empire. Long before the fall of Rome there had begun to grow up within the Roman Empire an ecclesiastical state, which in its constitution and its administrative system was shaping itself upon the imperial model. This spiritual empire, like the secular empire, possessed a hierarchy of officers, of which deacons, priests or presbyters, and bishops were the most important. The bishops collectively formed what is known as the episcopate. There were four grades of bishops, namely, country bishops, city bishops, metropolitans (or archbishops), and patriarchs. At the end of the fourth century there were five patriarchates, that is, regions ruled by patriarchs. These centered in the great cities of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. Among the patriarchs, the patriarchs of Rome were accorded almost universally a precedence in honor and dignity. They claimed further a precedence in authority and jurisdiction, and this was already very widely recognized. Before the close of the eighth century there was firmly established over a great part of Christendom what we may call an ecclesiastical monarchy. Besides the influence of great men — such as Leo the Great, Gregory the Great, and Nicholas I — who held the seat of St. Peter, there were various historical circumstances that contributed to the realization by the Roman bishops of their claim to supremacy and greatly aided them in establishing the almost universal authority of the See of Rome. In the following sections we shall enumerate several of these favoring circumstances. These matters constitute the great landmarks in the rise and early growth of the Papacy. 34. The Belief in the Primacy of St. Peter and in the Founding by him of the Church at Rome. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the apostle Peter was given by the Master primacy among his fellow apostles and, furthermore, that Christ intrusted that disciple with the keys of the kingdom of heaven and invested him with superlative authority as teacher §35] ADVANTAGE OF POSITION AT ROME 29 and interpreter of the Word by the commission, " Feed my sheep; . . . feed my lambs," thus giving into his charge the entire flock of the Church. It also teaches that the apostle Peter himself founded the church at Rome, and suffered martyrdom there under the Emperor Nero. These beliefs and interpretations of history, which make the Roman bishops the successors of the first of the apostles and the holders of his seat, contributed largely, of course, to enhance their r^utation and to justify their claim to a primacy of authority over all the dignitaries of the Church. 35. Advantages of their Position at the Political Center of the World. The claims of the Roman bishops were in the early centuries greatly favored by the spell in which the world was held by the name and prestige of imperial Rome. Thence it had been accustomed to receive commands in all temporal matters; how very natural, then, that thither it should turn for command and guidance in spiritual affairs. The Roman bishops in thus occupy- ing the geographical and political center of the world enjoyed a position of preeminence over all other bishops and patriarchs. The halo that during many centuries of wonderful history had gathered about the Eternal City came naturally to invest with a kind of aureole the head of the Christian bishop. 36. Effect of the Removal of the Imperial Government to Constantinople. Nor was this advantage that was given the Roman bishops by their position at Rome lost when the old capital ceased to be an imperial city. The removal, by the acts of Dio- cletian and Constantine, of the chief seat of the government to the East, instead of diminishing the power and dignity of the Roman bishops, tended greatly to promote their claims and authority. It left the pontiff the foremost personage in Rome. 37. The Pastor as Protector of Rome. With the advent of the barbarians there came another occasion for the Roman bishops to widen their influence and enhance their authority. Rome's extremity was their opportunity. Thus it will be recafled how mainly through the intercession of the pious Pope Leo the Great the fierce Attila was persuaded to turn back and spare the 30 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§ 38 imperial city/ and how the same bishop, in the year a.d. 455, also appeased in a measure the wrath of the Vandal Geiseric and shielded the inhabitants from the worst passions of a barbarian soldiery .- Thus when the emperors, the natural defenders of the capital, were unable to protect it, the unarmed pastor was able, through the awe and reverence inspired by his holy office, to render services that could not but result in bringing increased honor and dignity to the Roman See. t 38. Effects upon the Papacy of the Extinction of the Roman Empire in the West. But if the misfortunes of the Empire in the West tended to the enhancement of the reputation and in- fluence of the Roman bishops, much more did its final downfall tend to the same end. Upon the surrender of the sovereignty of the West into the hands of the Emperor of the East, the bishops of Rome became the most important personages in west- ern Europe, and being so far removed from the court at Con- stantinople gradually assumed almost imperial powers,^ They became the arbiters between the barbarian chiefs and the Italians, and to them were referred for decision the disputes arising between cities, states, and kings. Especially did the bishops and arch- bishops throughout the West in their contests with the Arian barbarian rulers look to Rome for advice and help. It is easy to see how greatly these things tended to strengthen the authority and increase the influence of the Roman bishops. 39. The Missions of Rome. Again, the early missionary zeal of the church at Rome made her the mother of many churches. 1 Legend tells how Attila, after his retreat from Italy, being taunted for having allowed himself to be turned back by an unarmed bishop, replied, " It was not the bishop of whom I was afraid but the man who stood behind him." The legend explains that it was St. Peter whom Attila had seen standing with menacing gesture behind the Pope. The legend, read aright, is true. Behind every venerated bishop and holy abbot the barbarians saw a heavenly figure, whose restraining gesture they dared not disregard 2 See Ancient His/oiy, 2d Rev. Ed., sects. 545, 546. 3 During this time Gregory the Great (590-604), who was the most eminent of the early popes, ruled as though he were a temporal prince, and administered affairs almost like an independent sovereign. §40] MOSLEM CONQUESTS AND THE PAPACY 31 all of whom looked up to her with affectionate and grateful loyalty. Thus the Angles and Saxons, won to the faith by the missionaries of Rome, conceived a deep veneration for the Holy See and became its most devoted children. To Rome it was that the Christian Britons made their most frequent pilgrimages, and thither they sent their offering of St. Peter's pence. And when the Saxons became missionaries to their pagan kinsmen of the Continent they transplanted into the heart of Germany these same feelings of filial attachment and love. 40. Result of the Fall of Antic ch, Jerusalem, and Alex- andria before the Saracens. In the seventh century all the great cities of the East fell into the bands of the Mohammedans. This was a matter of tremendous consequence for the church at Rome, since in every one of these great capitals there was, or might have been, a rival of the Roman bishop. The virtual era- sure of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria from the map of Christendom left only one city, Constantinople, that could pos- sibly nourish a rival of the Roman Church. Thus did the very misfortunes of Christendom give an added security to the ever- increasing authority of the Roman prelate. 41. The Iconoclastic Controversy; the Popes become Temporal Sovereigns. A dispute about the use of images in worship, known in Church history as the "War of the Icono- clasts," which broke out in the eighth century between the Greek churches of the East and the Latin churches of the West, drew after it far-reaching consequences as respects the growing power of the Roman pontiffs. Even long before the seventh century the churches both in the East and in the West had become crowded with images or pictures of the apostles, saints, and martyrs, which to the ignorant classes at least were objects of superstitious veneration. But the great disaster which just at this period befell the Church in the East — the irruption and conquests of the Arab Mohammedans — con- tributed to create among tlie Christians there a strong sentiment against the use of images as aids in worship. A party arose, who, like the party of reform among the ancient Hebrews, declared 32 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS [§ 41 that God had given the Church over into the hands of the infidels because the Christians had departed from his true worship and fallen into idolatry. These opposers of the use of images in worship were given the name of Iconoclasts (image-breakers). Leo the Isaurian, who came to the throne of Constantinople in 717, was a most zealous Iconoclast. The Greek churches of the East having been cleared of images, the Emperor resolved to clear also the Latin churches of the West of these symbols. To this end he issued a decree that they should not be used. The bishop of Rome not only opposed the execution of the edict but by the ban of excommunication cut off the Emperor and all the iconoclastic churches of the East from communion with the true Catholic Church. Though images — paintings and mosaics only — were permanently restored in the Eastern churches in 842, still by this time other causes of alienation had arisen, and the breach between the two sections of Christendom could not now be closed. The final outcome was the permanent separation, in the last half of the eleventh century, of the Church of the East from that of the West. The former became known commonly as the Greek, Byzantine, or Eastern Church; the latter, as the Latin, Roman Catholic, or Western Church.^ The East was thus eventually lost to the Roman See, but the loss was more than made good by fresh accessions of power in the West. In this quarrel with the Eastern emperors the Roman bishops formed an alliance with the Prankish princes of the Carolingian house (sect. 72). We shall a little later tell briefly the story of this alliance. Never did allies render themselves more serviceable to each other. The popes consecrated the Prankish chieftains as kings and emperors; the grateful Prankish kings defended the popes against all their enemies, imperial and bar- barian, and dowering them with cities and provinces, laid the basis of their temporal power.- 1 The official name of the Eastern Church is " The Holy Orthodox Catholic Apostolic Eastern Church" and that of the Western Church, "The Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church." 2 The cause of the Roman pontiffs, from about the eighth or ninth century forward, was greatly furthered by two of the most surprising and successful forgeries in all § 41] REFERENCES ^^ Such in broad outline was the way in which grew up the Papacy, an institution which, far beyond all others, was destined to mold the fortunes and direct the activities of Western Christen- dom throughout the mediaeval time. Selections from the Sources. Bede, Ecclesiastical History, bk. i, chaps, xxiii- XXV ; bk. ii, chaps, i, xiii ; bk. iii, chaps, iii, xxv. Translations and Repri^its (University of Pennsylvania), vol. ii, No. 7, " Life of Saint Columban " (an instructive biography of an Irish monk ; the subject of this biography is some- times named Columba the Younger, to distinguish him from St. Columba of lona). WiLLiBALD, The Life of Saint Boniface (trans, into English by George W. Robinson). Henderson, E. F., Select Documents of the Middle Ages, pp. 274- 314, "The Rule of Saint Benedict"; Robinson, J. H., Readings, vol. i, chaps, iv, v; Ogg, F. A., Soitrce Book of Mediceval History, chap. vi. References (Modern). Zimmer, The h-ish Element in Mediaval Cultzt7-e (an authoritative and interesting account of the services rendered mediaeval civilization by the Irish monks). Kingsley, C, The Hermits. Montalembert (Count de), The Monks of the West from Saint Benedict to Saint Bernard, 7 vols, (an ardent eulogy of monasticism). Lecky, History of European Morals, vol. ii, chap, iv (gives the light and the shade of the picture). Wishart, A. W., A Short History of Monks and RIonasterics (the best short account in English of the origin, ideals, and effects of the monastic system). Emerton, E., Intro- duction to the Study of the Middle Ages, chap, ix, " The Rise of the Christian history. These famous documents are known as the Donation of Constantine and the False Decretals. The probable object of the former was to justify the donation of Pippin (sect. 72) by providing evidence of a similar and earlier donation by the first imperial patron of the Church. It " tells how Constantine the Great, cured of his leprosy by the prayers of Sylvester, resolved ... to forsake the ancient seat for a new capital on the Bosphorus, lest the continuance of the secular government should cramp the freedom of the spiritual, and how he bestowed therewith upon the Pope and his successors the sovereignty over Italy and the countries of the West." — Brvce, The Holy Roman Empire, p. 100 The so-called Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, which appeared about the middle of the ninth century, tended to a similar end as did the Donation of Constantine, although they were originally put out in the interest of the bishops and not of the Pope. They formed part of a collection of Church documents, and included many alleged letters and edicts of the early popes. Granting their genuineness, they went to prove that the bishops of Rome in the second and third centuries exercised all that authority and extensive jurisdiction which were now being claimed by the popes of the ninth century. In that uncritical age the documents were received by everybody as authentic. The papal party quoted them in part proof of their claims for the Roman See. They are now acknowledged by all scholars, Roman Catholic as well as Protestant, to have been forged. Laurentius Valla (1406-T457), one of the greatest of the humanists (sect. 253), was the first to demonstrate the real character of the Donation of Constantine. 34 THE CHURCH AND ITS INSTITUTIONS Church." Adams, G. B., Civilization duri)ig the Middle Ages, chap, vi, "The Formation of the Papacy." Cardinal Gibbons, The Faith of our Fathers, chap, ix, " The Primacy of Peter," and chap, x, " The Supremacy of the Popes " (an authoritative statement of the Cathohc view of these matters). The Cambridge Mcdic",'al History, vol. i, chap, xviii ; vol. ii, chaps, viii, xvi, xxii. Topics for Class Reports, i. The religion of the Germans and their con- version : Seignobos, C, History of Mediirval and Modem Civilization, chap. ii. 2. The scriptorium and the labors of the monks as copyists, chroniclers, and authors : Putnam, G. H., Books and their Makers dio'ing the Middle Ages, vol. i, pp. 3-8 1. 3. The monasteries as industrial colonies : Cunningham, W., IVestem Civilization (Mediceval and Modern limes), pp. 35-40. CHAPTER IV THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON 42. Introductory. The conversion of the barbarians and the development in Western Christendom of the central authority of the Papacy prepared the way for the introduction among the northern races of the arts and the culture of Rome, and contrib- uted greatly to hasten in Italy, Spain, and Gaul the fusion into a single people of the Latins and the Teutons, of which important matter we shall treat in the present chapter. We shall tell how these two races, upon the soil of the old Empire in the West, intermingled their blood, their languages, their laws, their usages and customs, to form new peoples, new tongues, and new institu- tions. We shall speak of only a few things and say only just enough to show how composite is the character of the structure that was reared on the site of the ancient Empire, out of the ruins of the broken-down civilization of Rome and the new contributions of the northern peoples. 43. The Romance Nations. In some districts the barbarian invaders and the Roman provincials were kept apart for a long time by the bitter antagonism of race, and by a sense of injury on the one hand and a feeling of disdainful superiority on the other. But for the most part the Teutonic intruders and the Latin-speaking inhabitants of Italy, Spain, and France very soon began freely to mingle their blood by family alliances. It is quite impossible to say what proportion the Teutons bore to the Romans. Of course the proportion varied in the different countries. In none of the countries named, however, was it large enough to absorb the Latinized population; on the contrary, the barbarians were themselves absorbed, yet not without changing very essentially the body into which they were incorporated. Thus about the end of the fourth century everything in Italy, 35 36 THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON [§44 Spain, and France — dwellings, cities, dress, customs, language, laws, soldiers — reminds us of Rome. A little later and a great change has taken place. The barbarians have come in. For a time we see everywhere, jostling each other in the streets and markets, crowding each other in the theaters and courts, kneel- ing together in the churches, the former Romanized subjects of the Empire and their uncouth Teutonic conquerors. But by the close of the ninth century, to speak in very general terms, the two elements have become quite intimately blended, and a cen- tury or two later Roman and Teuton have alike disappeared, and we are introduced to Italians, Spaniards, and Frenchmen. These we call Romance peoples, because at base they are Roman.^ 44. The Formation of the Romance Languages. During the five centuries of their subjection to Rome, the natives of Spain and Gaul forgot their barbarous dialects and came to speak a cor- rupt Latin. Now, in exactly the same way that the dialects of the Celtic tribes of Gaul and of the Celtiberians of Spain had given way to the more refined speech of the Romans did the rude languages of the Teutons yield to the more cultured speech of the Roman provincials. In the course of two or three centu- ries after their entrance into the Empire, Goths, Lombards, Burgundians, and Franks had, in a large measure, dropped their own tongue and were speaking that of the people they had subjected. But of course this provincial Latin underwent a great change upon the lips of the mixed descendants of the Romans and Teutons. This change was hastened and rendered greater than it would otherwise have been, by the decay of literature and learning; for nothing so conserves the forms of a language as its embalmment in literature. This fixes and makes permanent the forms of words, which in the swift stream of illiterate speech are worn and rounded like pebbles in a mountain torrent. 1 Great Britain did not become a Romance nation on account of the nature of the barbarian conquest of that island. As we have seen (sect. 13), the Romanized Celts of the eastern half of Britain were mostly destroyed or driven out by the fierce Teutonic invaders, so that these intruders remained substantially unmixed till their tongue and their law had established themselves in the island. §45] RESULT OF CONFUSION OF LANGUAGES 37 Furthermore, because of the absence of a common popular literature, the changes that took place in one country did not exactly correspond to those going on in another. Hence, in the course of time, we find different dialects springing up, and by about the ninth century the Latin has virtually disappeared as a spoken language, and its place has been usurped by what will be known as the Italian, Spanish, and French languages, all more or less resembling the ancient Latin, and all called Romance tongues, because children of the old Roman speech. 45. Consequences of the Confusion of Languages. We are now in a position to discern one of the causes that helped to render denser that dark pall of ignorance which, settling over western Europe in the fifth century, continued almost unrelieved until the eleventh. As the provincial Latin began to change, the language in which the books were written and the everyday speech began to diverge. Thus the manuscript rolls which held the wisdom of the Greeks and Romans soon became sealed to all save the learned. In this way the confusion of tongues conspired with the general con- fusion and anarchy of the times to extinguish the last rays of science and philosophy, and to deepen the gloom of the night that had settled upon all the lands once illumined by ancient learning and culture. Several centuries had necessarily to pass before the new languages forming could develop each a literature of its own (sect. 248). Meanwhile all learning was shut up within the walls of the monasteries. " For many centuries," says Hallam, " to sum up the account of ignorance in a word, it was rare for a lay- man, of whatever rank, to know how to sign his name." Charle- magne, king of the Franks, the most renowned personage of the five centuries immediately following the fall of Rome, was unable to write. 46. The Personal Character of the Teutonic Laws. The laws of the barbarians were generally personal instead of ter- ritorial, as with us; that is, instead of all the inhabitants of a given country being subject to the same laws, there were different ones for the different classes of society. The Latins, for instance, 38 THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON [§47 were subject in private law only to the old Roman code, while the Teutons lived under the tribal rules and regulations which they had brought with them from beyond the Rhine and the Danube. Even among themselves the Teutons knew nothing of the modern legal maxim that all should stand equal before the law. The penalty inflicted upon the evildoer depended not upon the nature of his crime but upon his rank or that of the party injured. Thus slaves and serfs were beaten and put to death for minor offenses, while a freeman might atone for any crime, even for murder, by the payment of a fine, the amount of the penalty being determined by the rank of the victim. 47. Ordeals. The agencies relied upon by the Teutons to ascertain the guilt or innocence of accused persons show in how rude a state the administration of justice among them was. One very common method of proof was by what were called ordeals, in which the question was submitted to the judgment of God. Of these the chief were the ordeal by fire, the ordeal by ivater, and the ivager of battle} The ordeal by fire consisted in taking in the hand a piece of red-hot iron, or in walking blindfolded with bare feet over a row of hot ploughshares laid lengthwise at irregular distances. If the person escaped unharmed, his innocence was held to be established. Another way of performing the fire ordeal was by running through the flames of two fires built close together, or by walking over live brands; hence the phrase ''to haul over the coals." The ordeal by water was of two kinds, by hot water and by cold. In the hot-water ordeal the accused person thrust his arm into boiling water, and if no hurt was visible upon the arm three days after the operation, the party was considered guiltless. When we speak of one's being in "hot water," we use an expression which had its origin in this ordeal. 1 The wager of battle is by some writers treated as a distinct form of trial ; but being an appeal to the decision of Heaven, it rested on the same principle as the trials by fire and by water, and consequently is properly given a place among the ordeals. §47] ORDEALS 39 In the cold-water trial the suspected person was thrown into a stream or pond: if he floated, he was held guilty; if he sank, he was held innocent. The water, it was believed, would reject the guilty, but receive the innocent into its bosom. The practice common in Europe until a very recent date of trying supposed witches by throwing them into a pond of water to see whether they would sink or float, grew out of this superstition. The trial by combat, or wager of battle, was a solemn judicial duel. It was resorted to in the belief that God would give victory to the right. Naturally it was a favorite mode of trial among a people who found their chief delight in fighting. Even the judge in some cases resorted to it to maintain the authority and dignity of his court. To a person who had dis- regarded a summons the judge would send a challenge in this form: '^I sent for thee, and thou didst not think it worth thy while to come; I demand therefore satisfaction for this thy con- tempt." Religious disputes also were sometimes settled by this sort of "martial logic." In Spain as late as the eleventh century a contention as to which of two liturgies should be adopted was decided by a combat between two knights. The ordeal was frequently performed by deputy, that is, one person for hire or for the sake of friendship would undertake it for another; hence the expression ''to go through fire and water to Fig. 6. Trial bv Combat. (From a manuscript of the fifteenth century ; after Lacroix) 40 THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON [§47 serve one." Especially was such substitution common in the judicial duel, as women and ecclesiastics were generally forbidden to appear personally in the lists. There are instances mentioned, however, where even women performed the wager of battle; in which case, to equalize the conditions, the man was placed in a pit waist-deep, with his left hand tied behind his back. The champions, as the deputies were called, be- came in time a regular class in society, like the gladiators in ancient Rome. Religious houses and chartered towns hired champions at a regular salary to defend all the cases to which they might become a party. In order to make sure that the champion should not, through treachery, cow- ardice, or collusion with his antagonist, betray the cause he had been engaged to defend, he was subjected to severe penalties, such as the loss of a hand or of a foot, or perchance death by hanging, if he allowed himself to be worsted in a combat.^ 1 There were many other forms of the ordeal, besides those we have given, in use among the different Teutonic tribes, some of which were plainly native cus- toms, while others seem to have been introduced by the Christian priests. Thus, there was the ordeal by consecrated bread ; if the morsel strangled the person, he was adjudged guilty. From this form of trial arose the expression, " May this morsel be my last." In what was called the ordeal of the bier the person charged with murder was made to touch the body of the dead man ; if the body stirred or blood flowed afresh from the wound, the man was held guilty of the murder. Such ordeals are found among all primitive peoples. For proof by ordeal among the Hebrews, see Num. v. 11-31 and Josh. vii. 16-18. The combat between David and Goliath, being an appeal to the judgment of Heaven, possesses the essential element of the judicial duel. We also find an ordeal in the test proposed by Elijah to the prophets of Baal, — i Kings xviii. 17-40. It was the same among the Greeks. Thus, for instance, in Sophocles' A>!iii;;o>ie the watchman is made to say, " Prepared we were to take up red-hot iron, to walk through fire." Fig. 7. Wager of Battle between a Man and Woman. (From a manuscript of the fifteenth century ; after Lea, Super- stition and Force) §48] REVIVAL OF THE ROMAN LAW 41 43. The Revival of the Roman Law. Now, the barbarian law system, if such it can be called, the character of which we have merely suggested by the preceding illustrations, gradually displaced the Roman law in all those countries where the two sys- tems at first existed alongside each other, save in Italy and southern France, where the provincials greatly outnumbered the invaders. But the admirable jurisprudence of Rome was bound to assert its superiority. About the close of the eleventh century there was a great revival in the study of the Roman law as embodied in the Justinian Code, and in the course of a century or two this became either the groundwork or a strong modifying element in the law systems of almost all the peoples of Europe. What took place may be illustrated by reference to the fate of the Teutonic languages in Gaul, Italy, and Spain. As the barbarian tongues, after maintaining a place in those countries for tvv^o or three centuries, at length gave place to the superior Latin, which became the basis of the new Romance languages, so now in the domain of law the barbarian maxims and customs, though holding their place more persistently, likewise finally give way, almost everywhere and in a greater or less degree, to the more excellent law system of the Empire. Rome must fulfill her destiny and give laws to the nations. Though longer delayed in their adoption, the law maxims and principles of the Empire at length became more widely spread and influential than the Latin speech; for even England, though she clung tenaciously to her Teutonic customs and maxims, just as she held on to her own Teutonic speech, could not escape the influence of the Roman jurisprudence, which penetrated there, and, to a certain extent, chiefly through the courts of the Church, modified English law, just as the Latin in an indirect way finally modified and enriched the English speech, while leaving it the same in groundwork and structure. " Our laws," says Lord Bacon, "are mixed as our language; and as our language is so much the richer, the laws are the more complete." Under the influence of the classical revival, the various ordeals, which were already disappearing before the growing enlightenment 42 THE FUSION OF LATIN AND TEUTON [§48 of the age and the steady opposition of the papal authority, rap- idly gave way to modes of trial more consonant with reason and the spirit of the civil law. Selections from the Sources. Translatio7is and Reprints (University of Pennsylvania), vol. iv, No. 4, '" Ordeals," etc. Henderson, E. F., Select His- torical Documents, pp. 176-189, " The Salic Law," and pp. 314-319, '■'' Formulae Liturgicae in use at Ordeals " ; Lee, G. C, Soitrce-book of English History, chap, v, "Anglo-Saxon Laws " ; Ogg, F. A., Source Book of Media'oal History, chap. xii. References (Modern). Emerton, E., Ititrodudion to the Middle Ages, chap, viii, "Germanic Ideas of Law." Lea, H. C, Superstition and Force: Essays on the Wager of Law, the Wager of Battle, the Ordeal and Torture. MliNRO, U. C, and Sellerv, G. C, ]\Iedi(rval Civilization, pp. 310-325. Topics for Class Reports, i. The spread of the Latin speech and the formation of the Romance languages : Abbott, F. R., The Common People of Ancient Rome, pp. 3-31. 2. The contribution made by the Germans to civili- zation : Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. v. 3. The influence of the Roman law upon the law systems of Europe: Iladley, J., Introduction to Roman Law, lect. ii. ■ CHAPTER V THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST 49. The Era of Justinian (a.d. 527-565). During the fifty years immediately following the fall of Rome, the Eastern em- perors struggled hard and sometimes doubtfully to withstand the waves of the barbarian inundation which constantly threatened to overwhelm Constantinople with the same awful calamities that had befallen the imperial city of the West. Had the New Rome — the destined refuge for a thousand years of Graeco-Roman learning and culture — also gone down at this time before the storm, the loss to the cause of civilization would have been incalculable. Fortunately, in the year 527, there ascended the Eastern throne a prince of unusual ability, to whom fortune gave a general of such rare genius that his name has been allotted a place in the short list of the great commanders of the world, Justinian was the name of the prince, and Belisarius that of the soldier. The sovereign has given name to the period, which is called after him the " Era of Justinian." 50. Justinian as the Restorer of the Empire and " The Law- giver of Civilization." One of the most important matters in the reign of Justinian is what is termed the "Imperial Resto- ration," by which is meant the recovery from the barbarians of several of the provinces of the West upon which they had seized. Africa, as we have seen (sect. 10), was first wrested from the Vandals. Italy was next recovered from the Goths and again made a part of the Roman Empire. Besides recovering Africa and Italy from the barbarians, Justinian also reconquered from the Visigoths the southeastern part of Spain. But that which gives Justinian's reign a greater distinction than any conferred upon it by the achievements of his generals was 43 44 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST L§ 51 the collection and publication by him of the Corpus Juris Civilis, the " Body of the Roman Law." This work embodied all the law knowledge of the ancient Romans, and was the most precious legacy of Rome' to the world/ In its publication Justinian earned the title of "The Lawgiver of Civilization." Justinian also earned renown as one of the world's greatest builders. He rebuilt with increased splendor the Church of Santa Sophia, which, founded by Constantine the Great, had been burned during a riot in his reign. The structure still stands, Imperial Possessions at Opening: of Reign. |2£lj I-ands reconquered from the Barbarians The Roman Empire under Justinian though the cross which originally surmounted the dome was in 1453 replaced by the Moslem crescent. In its interior decorations this edifice is regarded as one of the most beautiful creations of Christian art. 5L Introduction of the Silk Industry. The introduction and establishment in Europe of the industry of silk production deserves special notice as one of the important matters of a reign so crowded with significant events as to render it an epoch in history. Before the time of Justinian the markets of the West were supplied with silk from China, where the culture of the mul- berry-feeding silkworm had been carried on as one of the most important industries of the country from time immemorial. The 1 See A?!cici!t History, 2d Rev. Ed., sect. 565. §52] THE EMPIRE BECOMES GREEK 45 precious material was brought to Europe, sometimes by sea, but more usually over the Asian land routes of travel. It was a highly prized article of luxury, the more delicate fabrics being worth, it is said, their iveight in gold. The Chinese guarded jealously their industry, and would not allow the worms to be carried out of the country. Their watch- fulness, however, was eluded by two Persian monks, who having concealed in a hollow cane some eggs of the silkworm, made their way out of the empire without detection, and finally reached Constantinople safely with these "spoils of the East," — spoils far more valuable than any which had ever been borne to the Old Rome by her most successful generals. The precious eggs were safely hatched and the species was rapidly propagated, so that in a short time the silk industry of Europe became an important factor in her industrial life. 52, The Empire becomes Greek. Less than a generation after the death of Justinian, the Arabs, of whom we shall tell in the next chapter, entered upon their surprising career of conquest, which in a short time completely changed the face of the entire East. One result of the conquest of the Arabs was to cut off from the Empire those provinces that had the smallest Greek element, and thus to render the population subject to the Emperor more homogeneous, more thoroughly Greek. The Roman element dis- appeared, and though the government still retained the imperial character impressed upon it by the conquerors of the world, the court of Constantinople became Greek in tone, spirit, and manners. Hence, instead of longer applying to the Empire the designation Roman, many historians call it from this time on the Greek or Byzantine Empire. 53. Services rendered European Civilization by the Roman Empire in the East. The later Roman Empire rendered such eminent services to the European world that it justly deserves an important place in universal history. First, as a military outpost it held the Eastern frontier of European civilization for a thousand years against Asiatic barbarism. 46 THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST [§ 53 Second, it was the keeper for centuries of the treasures of ancient civilization and the instructor of the new Western nations in law, in government and administration, in literature, in painting, in architecture, and in the industrial arts. Third, it kept alive the imperial ideal, and gave this molding principle back to the West in the time of Charlemagne. Without the later Roman Empire of the East there would never have been a Romano-German Empire of the West (sect. 74). Fourth, it was the teacher of religion and civilization to the Slavic races of eastern Europe. Russia forms part of the civilized world to-day largely by virtue of what she received from New Rome. References (Modern). Gibbon, E., Decline and Fall, chaps, xl-xliv (on the reign of Justinian; chap. xHv deals with Roman law). Oman, C. W. C, The Stoiy of the Bvzantine Empire, chaps, iv-viii ; and The Dark Ages, chaps, v, vi. HODGKIN, T., Italy and her Invaders, vol. iv, "The Imperial Restoration." Rawlinson, G., The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, chap. xxiv. Encyc. Brit., Art. "Justinian I," by James Bryce. Bury, J. B., History of the Later Roman Empire, 2 vols, (a work of superior scholarship). Harrison, F., Byzantine History in the Early Middle Ages (a brilliant lecture). The Cambridge Medieval Histoiy, vol. ii, chaps, i, ii. Seignobos, C, Histoty of Mediieval ajid Modern Civilization, chap. iii. Topics for Class Reports, i. Justinian as a builder; .St. Sophia: Oman, C. W. C, The Byzantine Empire, chap, viii, pp. 106-1 11 ; Gibbon, E., chap, xl (consult table of contents). 2. Introduction into Europe of the silk industry : Gibbon, E., chap, xl (consult table of contents). 3. The Hippodrome and the " Blues " and the " Greens " : Oman, C. W. C, The Byzantine Empire, chap, ii, pp. 22-25; chap, vi, pp. 75-So; Munro, D. C., and Sellery, G. C., Medieval Civilization, pp. S7-113. CHAPTER VI THE RISE OF ISLAM 54. The Attack from the South upon Ancient Civilization. We have seen the Teutonic barbarians of the north descend upon and wrest from the Roman Empire all its provinces in the west. We are now to watch a similar attack made upon the Empire by the Arabs of the south, and to see wrested from the emperors of the East a large part of the lands still remaining under their rule/ 55. Origin and Character of the Arabs. The Arabs, who are now about to play their surprising part in history, are, after the Hebrews and the Phoenicians, the most important people, histori- cally, of the Semitic race. The name Saracen, applied to them, is of doubtful origin, but seems to come from two Arabic words meaning "children of the desert." They are divided into two distinct classes, — dwellers in towns and dwellers in tents. It is to the latter class alone that the term Bedouins is properly applied. Secure in their inaccessible deserts, the Arabs have never as a nation bowed their necks to a foreign conqueror, although por- tions of the Arabian peninsula have been repeatedly subjugated by different invaders. 56. The Religious Condition of Arabia before Mohammed. Before the reforms of Mohammed the Arabs were idolaters. Their holy city was Mecca. Here was the ancient and most revered shrine of the Kaaba," where was preserved a sacred black stone that was believed to have been given by an angel to Abraham. To this Meccan shrine pilgrimages were made from the most remote parts of Arabia. But though polytheism was the prevailing religion of Arabia, still there were in the land many followers of other faiths. The 1 The student should make a careful study of the maps after pp. 8 and 52. 2 So named from its having the shape of a cube. 47 48 THE RISE OF ISLAM [§57 Jews especially were to be found in some parts of the peninsula in great numbers, having been driven from Palestine by the Roman persecutions. From them the Arab teachers had been made acquainted with the doctrine of one sole God. From the numerous Christian converts dwelling among them they had learned something of the doctrines of Christianity. It was from the Jews and Christians, doubtless, that Mohammed learned many of the doctrines that he taught. About the time to which we have now come there was much religious unrest in Arabia. As it was in Judea at the time of the appearance of Christ, so was it now in this southern land. There were here many seekers after God, — men who, dissatisfied with the old idolatry, were ready to embrace a higher faith. Such was the religious condition of the tribes of Arabia about the beginning of the seventh century of our era when there appeared among them a prophet under whose teachings the fol- lowers of all the idolatrous worships were led to give assent to a single and simple creed and were animated by a fanatical enthu- siasm that drove them forth from their deserts upon a career of conquest which could not be stayed until they had overrun the fairest portions of the Roman and Persian empires and given a new religion to a large part of the human race. 57. Mohammed. Mohammed, the great Prophet of the Arabs, was born in the holy city of Mecca, probably in the year a.d. 570. He sprang from the distinguished tribe of the Koreish, the cus- todians of the sacred shrine of the Kaaba. In his early years he was a shepherd and a watcher of flocks by night, as the great religious teachers Moses and David had been before him. Later he became a merchant and a camel driver. Mohammed possessed a soul that was early and deeply stirred by the contemplation of those themes that ever attract the reli- gious mind. He declared that he had visions in which the angel Gabriel appeared to him and made to him revelations which he was commanded to make known to his fellow-men. The starting point of the new faith which he was to teach was this: There is but one God, and Mohammed is his Prophet. § 58J THE HEGIRA . 49 For a long time Mohammed endeavored to gain adherents merely by persuasion; but such was the incredulity which he everywhere met that at the end of three years his disciples numbered only forty persons. 58. The Hegira (a.d. 622). The teachings of Mohammed at last aroused the anger of a powerful party among the Koreish, who feared that they as the guardians of the national idols of the Kaaba would be compromised in the eyes of the other tribes by allowing such heresy to be openly taught by one of their number, and accordingly they began to persecute Mohammed and his followers. To escape these persecutions Mohammed fled to the neighbor- ing city of Medina. This Hegira, or Flight, as the word signiiies, occurred a.d. 622, and was considered by the Moslems as such an important event in the history of their religion that they adopted it as the beginning of a new era, and from it still con- tinue to reckon historical dates. 59. The Faith extended by the Sword. His cause being warmly espoused by the inhabitants of Medina, Mohammed now assumed along with the character of a lawgiver and moral teacher that of a warrior.^ He declared it to be the will of God that the new faith should be spread by the sword. The year following the Hegira he began to attack and plunder caravans. The flame of a sacred war was soon kindled. Warriors from all quarters flocked to the standard of the Prophet. Their reckless enthusiasm was intensified by the assurance that death met in fighting those who resisted the true faith insured the martyr immediate entrance upon the joys of paradise. Within ten years from the time of the assumption of the sword by Moham- med, Mecca had been captured — an event which constitutes a landmark in the career of Islam — and the new creed established widely among the independent tribes of Arabia. 1 Mohammed about this time gave his followers the following revelation, which had great influence in securing for early Islam its remarkable military successes : " And those who are slain in God's cause, their works shall not go wrong ; He . . . will make them enter into Paradise which He has told them of." — The Koran, sura xlvii. 5 (Palmer's trans.) so THE RISE OF ISLAM [§ 60 60. The Koran and its Teachings. The doctrines of Moham- medanism, or Islam, which means '^ submission to God," are con- tained in the Koran, which is beheved by the orthodox to have been, written from all eternity on tablets in heaven. From time to time Mohammed recited to his disciples portions of the "heavenly book" as its contents were revealed to him in his dreams and visions. These communications were held in the "breasts of men," or were written down upon pieces of pottery, the broad shoulder-bones of sheep, and the ribs of palm leaves.^ Soon after the death of the Prophet these scraps of writing were religiously collected, supplemented by tradition, and then ar- ranged chiefly according to length. Such was the origin of the sacred book of Islam. The fundamental doctrine of Islam is the unity of God: "There is no God save Allah" echoes throughout the Koran. To this is added the equally binding declaration that "Mohammed is the prophet of Allah." The Koran inculcates the practice of four cardinal virtues or duties. The first is prayer ; five times every day must the believer turn his face towards Mecca and engage in devotion. The second requ'rement is almsgiving, or payment of the so-called holy tax. The third is keeping the fast of Ramadan, which lasts a whole month, throughout which period no food must be eaten during the day. The fourth duty is making a pilgrimage to Mecca. Every person who can possibly do so is required to make this journey. To the faithful the Koran promises a heaven filled with every sensual delight, with flowers and fruits and bright-eyed maidens (houris) of ravishing beauty, and threatens unbelievers and the doers of evil with the torments of a hell filled with every horror of flame and demon. 61, The Sunna, Islam is not based upon the Koran alone. It rests in part upon what is known as the Snmia, that is, a great body of traditions of the Prophet's sayings, — those not forming 1 Palmer in the introduction to his translation of the Koran says that it is "probable Mohammed could neither read nor write." §62] CONQUESTS OF THE ARABS 51 a part of the sacred book, — his actions, practices, and decisions handed down from his immediate companions. The first col- lection of these was made in the second century after Moham- med's death. These traditions are regarded by the orthodox Moslem as being almost as sacred and authoritative as the words of the Koran itself. 62. The Conquest of Persia, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa. For exactly one century after the death of Mohammed the caliphs, or successors of the Prophet,^ were engaged ir an al- most unbroken series of conquests. Persia was subjugated and the authority of the Koran was established throughout the land of the Zend-Avesta. Syria was wrested from the Eastern Roman Empire and Asia Minor was overrun. Egypt and North Africa, the latter just recently delivered from the Vandals, were also snatched from the hands of the Byzantine emperors. By the conquest of Persia Zoroastrianism, a religion with a great past, was, as a force in history, destroyed.- By the conquest of Syria, the birthplace of Christianity was lost to the Christian world. By the conquest of North Africa, lands whose history for a thousand years had been intertwined with that of the opposite shores of Europe, and which at one time seemed destined to share in the career of freedom and progress opening to the peoples of that continent, were drawn back into the fatalism and the stag- nation of the East. From being an extension of Europe they became once more an extension of Asia. 63. Attacks upon Constantinople. Thus in only a little more than fifty years from the death of Mohammed his standard had been carried by the lieutenants of his successors through Asia to 1 Abu Bekr (a. d. 632-634), Mohammed's father-in-law, was the first caliph. He was followed by Omar (a.d. 634-644), Othman (a.d. 644-655), and Ali (a.d. 655-661), all of whom fell by the hands of assassins. Ali was the last of the four so-called orthodox caliphs. 2 The number of Guebers, or fire worshipers, in Persia at the present time is about 100,000, found for the most part at Yezd and in the province of Kerman. A larger number may be counted in western India, — the descendants of the Guebers who fled from Persia at the time of the Arabian invasion. They are there called Parsees, from the land whence they came. After the English, they are the most enterprising, intelligent, and influential class in India to-day. 52 THE RISE OF ISLAM [§64 the Hellespont on the one side and across Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar on the other. We may expect to see the Saracens at one or both of these points attempt the invasion of Europe. The first attempt was made in the East, where the Arabs en- deavored to gain control of the Bosphorus by wresting Constanti- nople from the hands of the Eastern emperors; but the use by the besieged of a recently invented combustible compound known as marine fire ("Greek fire") and timely aid from the Bulgarians saved the capital for several centuries longer to the Christian world. The check that the Saracens here received was doubtless next in importance for European civilization to the check given their conquering hordes a little later in France at Tours. 64. The Conquest of Spain (a.d. 7ii). While the Moslems were thus being repulsed from Europe at its eastern extremity, they succeeded in gaining a foothold in Spain. Roderic, the last of the Visigothic kings (sect. 9), was hopelessly defeated in battle, and all the peninsula, save some mountainous regions in the northwest, quickly submitted to the invaders. By this con- quest some of the fairest provinces of Spain were lost to Christen- dom for a period of eight hundred years. No sooner had the subjugation of the country been effected than multitudes of colonists from Arabia, Syria, and North Africa crowded into the peninsula, until in a short time the provinces of Seville, Cordova, Toledo, and Granada became predominantly Arabic in dress, manners, language, and religion. 65. Invasion of France; Battle of Tours (a.d. 732). Four or five years after the conquest of Spain the Saracens crossed the Pyrenees and established themselves upon the plains of Gaul. This advance of the IMoslem host beyond the northern wall of Spain was viewed with the greatest alarm by all Christendom. It looked as though the followers of Mohammed would soon possess all the continent. As Draper pictures it, the Crescent, lying in a vast semicircle upon the northern shore of Africa and the curving coast of Asia, with one horn touching the Bosphorus and the other the Straits of Gibraltar, seemed about to round to the full and overspread all Europe. fe ^^ r ''\ \ -- V "■'^'''S' O-TjV ) \ '^ V^—S^k"''''''^'^ \ X^---''^ \ \ \ ^ jP> \.^ \ V '^^7\ ^^u£l -— \ r \\V r^ j|^i^;^W::>ry^ w \ ^ IJv-V r^ 'i^^-^'\ /b\ M "^yj-^ — - ' " T^^^ i A^ 1 ^^ H£1|74 -^iviT^i^j^ g /C •/i "^ f d p 1 \ -^ r 2 "1 T?' — ^; ^ CO m a < .?^ rifi Km ^^J- J ^ \ K^ % si -Ci , i ^ — < £' 7s 6' B.^fTT »• ^ ^^ ^ ^f""^ t.V^'*'=' J^^*^ "5 /S — 1 / tH#IP^ i ^ S ^ / — — 1 iii- _I]\v, ■^.w-Srv. ^nl]&^ r ^/^ ■^^3^n^ — " 'p~ w^^^^^^^L-^ \ ^ V 1 1 /o ^^ ■> 1 "*■ ^^^"^^"^Sl -* _ ~XJ^^^^ L y' /. ] =^ v. ^"y--^^^^~^^l~^V^^A~~^~AC^ 1 IS I giGli "^ --3f-^^ is M/i'^ iJ/^^ i s " fj3^WM4^L J o S mmf-4- 7 < S O i h/" / /)yc i /.^'kx^^-v-j' / "~7 ■ as « d ^~~^~yL^ (^f |i 4^ -1 f . t /~~"^^-/_ / ^ /i / y7=;;-~N[^«oft*i^ ~ ^"^ J/ j~~~'~~~-~--^ / » / 1- / J X^r~^r^L?r^'^/-^^i 1 '~~~-~~-~L^ / o- / g */j =^^^^1^ 7 ^ / S / * / « § 66] GOLDEN AGE OF THE CALIPHATE 53 In the year 732, just one hundred years after the death of the Prophet, the Franks, under their leader Charles Martel, and their allies met the Moslems upon the plains of Tours in the center of Gaul and committed to the issue of a single battle the fate of Christendom and the future course of history. The Arabs suffered an overwhelming defeat and soon withdrew behind the Pyrenees. The young Christian civilization of western Europe was thus delivered from an appalling danger such as had not threatened it since the fearful days of Attila and the Huns. 66. Golden Age of the Arabian Caliphate. At first the caliphs ruled from the city of Medina; then for almost a hundred years (a.d. 661-750) they issued their commands from the city of Damascus; later they established their court on the Lower Tigris at Bagdad, — ^the representative of the ancient Babylon, — which city for a period of more than five hundred years was a brilliant center of Arabian civilization.^ The golden age of the caliphate of Bagdad covered the latter part of the eighth and the ninth century of our era, and was illus- trated by the reigns of such princes as Al-Mansur (a.d. 754-775) and the renowned Harun-al-Rashid (a.d. 786-809). During this period science and philosophy and literature were most assiduously cultivated by the Arabian scholars, and the court of the caliphs presented in culture and luxury a striking contrast to the rude and barbarous courts of the kings and princes of Western Christendom. 67. The Dismemberment of the Caliphate. ''At the close of the first century of the Hegira," writes Gibbon, ''the caliphs were the most potent and absolute monarchs of the globe. The 1 The caliphs who reigned at Damascus are known as the Ommiads and those who had their court at Bagdad as the Abbasids. In securing their power the Ommiads had caused the murder of the two sons of Ali, Hassan and Hosain. These youths were ever regarded as martyrs by the friends of the house of AH, and the schism caused by their cruel death has never been healed. The Mohammedans of Persia, who are known as Shiahs, are the leaders of the party of Ali, while the Turks and Arabs, known as Sunnites, are the chief adherents of the opposite party. These latter take their name from the fact that they hold the Sunna (sect. 6i) as sacred and authoritative. The Shiahs, on the other hand, reject all these traditions of the Prophet save such as can be traced back to .Mi or to his immediate posterity. 54 THE RISE OF ISLAM [§ 68 word that went forth from the palace at Damascus was obeyed on the Indus, on the Jaxartes, and on the Tagus." Scarcely less potent was the word that at first went forth from Bagdad. But in a short time the extended empire, through the quarrels of sectaries and the ambitions of rival aspirants for the honors of the caliphate, was broken in fragments, and from three capitals — from Bagdad upon the Tigris, from Cairo upon the Nile, and from Cordova upon the Guadalquivir — were issued the commands of three rival caliphs, each of whom was regarded by his adher- ents as the sole rightful spiritual and civil successor of Mohammed. All, however, held the great Prophet in the same reverence, all maintained with equal zeal the sacred character of the Koran, and all prayed with their faces turned toward the holy city of Mecca. 68. The Civilization of Arabian Islam. The Saracens were coheirs of antiquity with the Teutonic peoples. They made es- pecially their own the scientific^ accumulations of the ancient civil- izations and bequeathed them to Christian Europe. These elements of civilization they added to and enriched, and in several of the countries of which they took possession, especially in Babylonia and in Spain, there developed a civilization which in some respects far surpassed any that the world had yet seen. In the arrangements of their court, the organization of their army, and the administration of their government the Arabs imitated the Persians or the Byzantine Greeks. Their govern- ment was an absolute monarchy, such as has always been the favorite form among oriental peoples. The Moslem law system, the basis of which is found in the Koran, was the most original creation of the Arab mind. After the Roman law, it is probably the most influential and widely obeyed system of laws and regulations that any race or civilization has developed. Since the system embraces religious as well as civil matters, it is in some respects like the Mosaic code, from which it freely borrowed. It deals with all kinds of subjects, ranging from prayer and pilgrimages to contracts and inheritances. i Gibbon affirms that no Greek poet, orator, or historian was ever translated into Arabic. See Dccinic and Fall, chap. lii. §6S] ARABIAN CIVILIZATION 55 Commerce and trade, in all the countries of which the Arabs made themselves masters, assumed a fresh activity and a new importance. The Arabs in Babylonia and Syria became the heirs and successors of the ancient Chaldaeans and Phoenicians, and re- created that commercial activity of the earlier time that nourished the great cities of Babylon, Tyre, and Sidon. As in the Odyssey of Homer we have a mirror of the commercial activity and the adventurous trade voyages of the early maritime Greeks, so in the marvelous stories of Sindbad the Sailor we have a like mirror of the voyages and adventures of the Arabian sailors. In the lighter forms of literature — romance and poetry — the Arabs produced much that possesses a high degree of excel- lence. In the field of romance they followed the Persian story-tellers. The inimitable tales of the Arabian Nights, besides being a valuable commentary on Arabian life and manners at the time of the culmination of oriental culture at the court of Bagdad, form also an addition to the imperishable portion of the literature of the world. The poetry of the Arabs was wholly original. It was the natural and beautiful expression of the Arabian genius. The physical sciences were also pursued by the Arabian schol- ars with great eagerness and with considerable success. Geog- raphy was forced upon their attention by their wide conquests and their extended trade relations. From the Greeks and the Hindus they received the germs of astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, alge- bra, medicine, botany, and other sciences. Almost all of the sciences that thus came into their hands were improved and enriched by them, and then transmitted to European scholars.^ They made medicine for the first time a true science. They devised what is known from them as the Arabic system of 1 What Europe received in science from Arabian sources is kept in remembrance by such words as alchemy, alcohol, alembic, algebra, alkali, almanac, azimzUh, chetnistry, elixir, zenith, and nadir. To how great an extent the chief Arabian cities became the manufacturing centers of the mediaeval world is indicated by the names which these places have given to various textile fabrics and other articles. Thus muslin' comes from Mosul, on the Tigris, damask from Damascus, and gauze from Gaza. Damascus and Toledo blades tell of the proficiency of the Arab workmen in metallurgy. 56 THE RISE OF ISLAM [§68 notation,^ and gave to Europe this indispensable instrument of all scientific investigations dependent upon mathematical calculations. All this literary and scientific activity naturally found expres- sion in the establishment of schools, universities, and libraries. In all the great cities of the Arabian Empire, as at Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova, centuries before Europe could boast anything be- yond cathedral or monastic schools, great universities were drawing Fig. S. The Mosque of Cordo\a. (From a photograph) together vast crowds of eager young Moslems and creating an atmosphere of learning and refinement. The famous "university" at Cairo, which has at the present day an attendance of several thousand students, is a survival from the great days of Arabian Islam. In the erection of mosques and other public edifices the Arab architects developed a new and striking style of architecture, — some of the most beautiful specimens of which are preserved to 1 The figures or numerals, with the exception of the zero symbol, employed in their system they seem to have borrowed from India. §69] ISLAM AND SOCIAL PROGRESS 57 us at Cordova and Granada in Spain, — a style which has given to modern builders some of their finest models. 69. The Evil and the Good in Islam. The first fruits of Islam might well lead one to regard it as a faith conducive to culture; but it must be borne in mind that the splendid civili- zation of Bagdad, Cairo, and Cordova was, in great measure at least, a reflected glory. The relation of this brilliant culture to that of the declining Byzantine and Persian empires has been aptly illustrated by likening it to the clouds which gather about the setting sun and are lighted up by it wdth a splendor not their own. In many of its teachings and institutions Islam, in truth, is a system unfavorable to social progress. In opposition to Christian- ity, it tolerates polygamy ^ and places little restraint upon divorce, thus destroying the sacredness of family life. In authorizing the faithful to make slaves of their captives in holy wars, it legalizes slavery; Mohammedan countries are the main strongholds of slavery at the present time. In denying civil equality to un- believers, it tends to create contempt for all non-Moslems and thus sustains and fosters religious intolerance. Islam, however, inculcates some inspiring truths and recom- mends some great virtues. Like Christianity it teaches the unity of God, immortality, and retributive rewards and punishments after death. These doctrines render it immeasurably superior to fetichism or to polytheism, and have made it a great force for the uplift of multitudes of idolatrous tribes in Asia and Africa. Among the leading virtues inculcated by Islam is that of tem- perance. The Koran forbids positively to the believer the use of wine and inferentially of all strong drinks. To this prohibition is attributable the fact that drunkenness is less common and open in Mohammedan than in some Christian lands. Indeed, in countries where the faith of the Koran is really dominant and the influence of Europeans has not been felt, this vice is almost unknown. 1 The Koran (sura iv. 3) allows the believer to take " two, or three, or four wives, and not more." By a special dispensation (sura xxxiii. 49) Mohammed was allowed to take a larger number. At one time the Prophet had ten wives. 58 THE RISE OF ISLAM Selections from the Sources. The Koran is our chief source for a knowl- edge of Islam as a religion. The translation by Palmer, in Saord Books of the East, is the best. 77/ c' Spccc/ns and Table-talk of the Prophet Mohainmed (trans, by Stanley Lane-Poole). Europeatt History Studies (University of Nebraska), vol. ii, No. 3, " Selections from the Koran." Robinson, J. II., Readings, vol. i, chap, vi, pp. 1 14-1 20 ; Ogg, F. A., Soiure Book of Alediceval History, chap. vii. References (Modern). Muir, W., The Coran : its Composition and Teaehings ; The Life of Mohammed; Annals of the Early Caliphate \ and The Rise anil Decline of Islam (all these works are based on the original sources; they are, however, written in an unfriendly and unsympathetic spirit). Smith, R. 15., Mohammed and MoJiammedan ism (has a short bibliography). Sprenger, A., The Life of Mohammed. Irvin<;,W., Mahomet and his Successors. Gibbon, E., The Decline and Ball, chaps. 1-lii. MargoLiouth, D. S., Mohammed and the Rise of Islam. F"reeman, E. A., History and Conquests of the Saracens (a rapid sketch by a master). Syed Ameer Ali, The Spirit of Islam : or the LiJ'e and Teachings of Mohammed and Slio/i History of the Saracens. PoOLE, S. L., Studies in a Mosque. Encyc. Frit., i ith ed.. Arts. " Mahomet," " Mahommedan Institutions," " Mahommedan Law," " Mahommedan Religion." The Cambridge Ah'dic7'al Ilistoiy, vol. ii, chaps, .\-xii. Topics for Class Reports, i. Mohammed: Carlyle, T., Heroes and Hero- worship, lect. ii, "The Hero as Prophet." 2. S^jme teachings of Islam: Gilman, A.,' The Sa?-acens, chap, xv; Seignobos, C, History of MedicBval and of Modern Civil izatio>t, chap. iv. CHAPTER VII CHARLEMAGNE AND THE RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE IN THE WEST 70. Introductory. We return now to the West. The Franks, who with the aid of their confederates withstood the advance of the Saracens upon the field of Tours and saved Europe from subjection to the Koran, are the people who first attract our attention. Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, their king, is the imposing figure that moves amidst all the events of the times,^ — indeed, is the one who makes the events and renders the period an epoch in universal history. The story of this era affords the key to very much of the sub- sequent history of western Europe. The mere enumeration of the events which are to claim our attention will illustrate the important and germinal character of the period. We shall tell how the Mayors of the Palace of the Merovingian princes became the actual kings of the Franks; how, through the liberality of the Prankish kings, the popes laid the foundations of their temporal sovereignty; and how Charlemagne restored the Roman Empire in the West, and throughout its extended limits, in the fusion of things Roman and things Teutonic, laid the basis of modern civilization. 71. How Duke Pippin became King of the Franks (a.d. 751 ). Charles Martel, who saved the Christian civilization of western Europe on the field of Tours, although the real head of the Prankish nation, was nominally only an officer of the Mero- vingian court (sect. ii). He died without ever having borne the title of king, notwithstanding he had exercised all the authority of that office. But Charles' son, Pippin III, aspired to the regal title and honors. He resolved to depose his titular master and to make 59 6o CHARLEMAGNE [§ 72 himself king. Not deeming it wise, however, to do this without the sanction of the Pope, he sent an embassy to represent to him the state of affairs and to sohcit his advice. Mindful of recent favors that he had received at the hands of Pippin, the Pope gave his approval to the proposed scheme by replying that it seemed altogether reasonable that the one who was king in reality should be king also in name. This was sufficient. Childeric — such was the name of the Merovingian king — was straightway deposed, and Pippin, whose own deeds together with those of his illustri- ous father had done so much for the Prankish nation and for Christendom, was crowned king of the Franks (a.d. 751), and thus became the first of the Carolingian line, the name of his illustrious son Charles (Charlemagne) giving name to the house. 72. Pippin helps to establish the Temporal Power of the Popes (a.d. 756). Shortly after this transaction Pope Stephen II, troubled by the king of the Lombards, besought Pippin's aid against the barbarian. Pippin, quick to return the favor which the head of the Church had rendered him in the securing of his crown, straightway interposed in behalf of the Pope. He de- scended into Italy with an army, expelled the Lombards from their recent conquests, and made a donation to the Pope of the re- gained lands' (a.d. 756). As a symbol of the gift he laid the keys of Ravenna and of many other Italian cities on the tomb of St. Peter. This endowment may be regarded as having practically laid the basis of the temporal sovereignty of the popes; for although Pope Stephen, as it seems, had already resolved to cast off alle- giance to the Eastern Emperor and set up an independent Church state, still it is not probable that he could have carried out such an enterprise successfully had he not been aided in his project by the Prankish king. 73. Accession of Charlemagne; his Wars. Pippin died in the year 767, and his kingdom passed into the hands of his two sons, Carloman and Charles, the latter being better known by the 1 The sovereignty of all these lands belonged nominally to the Emperor at Constantinople. His claims were ignored by Pippin. §7.V THE WARS OF CHARLEMAGNE 6i name he achieved of Charlemagne, or "Charles the Great." Three years after the accession of the brothers, Carloman died, and Charles took possession of his dominions. Charlemagne's long reign of nearly half a century — he ruled forty-six years — was filled with military expeditions and con- quests, by which he so extended the boundaries of his dominions that they came to embrace the larger part of western Europe. Among the first undertakings of Charlemagne was a campaign against the Lombards, whose king, Desi- derius, was troubling the Pope. Charlemagne wrested from Desiderius all his possessions, shut up the un- fortunate king in a monastery, and placed on his own head the famous "Iron Crown" of the Lombards (sect. 12). In the year 778 Charlemagne gathered his warriors for a crusade against the Mohammedan Moors in Spain. He crossed the Pyrenees and succeeded in winning from the Mos- lems all the northeastern corner of the peninsula. These lands thus regained for Christendom he made a part of his dominions, under the title of the Spanish March.^ But by far the greater number of the campaigns of Charlemagne were directed against the still pagan Saxons. These people were finally reduced to permanent submission and forced to accept Charlemagne as their sovereign and Christianity as their religion. Fig. 9. Head of a Ninth- Century Bronze Eques- trian Statuette. (Thought by some to be a portrait of Charles the Great) 1 As Charles was leading his victorious bands back across the Pyrenees, the rear of his army, while hemmed in by the walls of the Pass of Roncesvalles, was set upon by the wild mountaineers (the Gascons) and cut to pieces before he could give relief. Of the details of this event no authentic account has been preserved ; but long after- wards, associated with the fabulous deeds of the hero Roland (in the celebrated romance Chanson de Roland), it formed a favorite theme of the tales and songs of the Trouveurs of northern France (sect. 219). 62 CHARLEMAGNE [§ 7+ 74, Restoration of the Empire in the West (a.d. soo). An event of seemingly little real moment, yet in its influence upon succeeding affairs of the greatest importance, now claims our attention. Pope Leo III having called upon Charlemagne for aid against a hostile faction at Rome, the king soon appeared in person at the capital and punished summarily the disturbers of the peace of the Church. The gratitude of Leo now led him to make a most signal return for the many services of the Prankish king. To understand his act a word of explanation is needed. For a considerable time a variety of circumstances had been fostering a growing feeling of enmity between the Italians and the emperors at Constantinople. Just at this time, by the crime of the Empress Irene, who had deposed her son, Constantine VI, and put out his eyes that she might have his place, the Byzantine throne was vacant, in the estimation of the Italians, who con- tended that the crown of the Caesars could not be worn by a woman. In view of these circumstances Pope Leo and those about him conceived the purpose of taking away from the hereti- cal and effeminate Greeks the imperial crown and bestowing it upon some strong and orthodox and worthy prince in the West. Now, among all the Teutonic chiefs of Western Christendom there was none who could dispute in claims to the honor with the king of the Franks, the representative of a most illustrious house and the strongest champion of the young Christianity of the West against her pagan foes. Accordingly, as Charlemagne was partic- ipating in the solemnities of Christmas Day in the basilica of St. Peter at Rome, the Pope approached the kneeling king, and placing a crown of gold upon his head proclaimed him Emperor and Augustus (a.d. 800). The intention of Pope Leo was, by a sort of reversal of the act of Constantine the Great, to bring back from the East the seat of the imperial court; but what he really accomplished was a resto- ration of the line of emperors in the West, which three hundred and twenty-four years before had been ended by Odoacer, when he dethroned Romulus Augustulus.^ We say this was what he 1 See Ancient Hisioiy, 2d Rev. Ed., sect. 547. § 75] CHARLES AS A RULER 63 actually effected; for the Greeks of the East, disregarding wholly what the Roman people and the Pope had done, maintained their line of emperors just as though nothing had occurred in Italy. So now from this time on for centuries there were, most of the time, two emperors, one in the East and another in the West, each claiming to be the rightful successor of Caesar Augustus/ This revival of the Empire in the West was one of the most important matters in European history. It gave to the following centuries "a great political ideal," which was the counterpart of the religious ideal of a universal church embodied in the Papacy, and which was to shape large sections of mediaeval history. 75. Charles the Great as a Ruler. Charlemagne must not be regarded as a warrior merely. His most noteworthy work was that which he effected as a legislator and administrator. In this field, too, were exhibited the finer qualities of his masterful per- sonality. In building up his great empire Charlemagne practiced much cruelty and unrighteousness, but over this empire, once established, he ruled with the constant solicitude of a father. Among the characteristic institutions of the Empire Vv^as the Diet, or General Assembly, a survival manifestly of the old Teutonic folkmote, an assembly of freemen. This body held a meeting every year in the spring.^ At these gatherings there took place merely an interchange of views between Charlemagne and the assembled freemen of the realm; for the Diet was not a legislative body. Its functions were confined to giving the 1 From this time on it will be proper for us to use the terms Wcstei'ii Empire and Eastern Empire. These names should not, however, be employed before this time, for the two parts of the old Roman Empire were simply administrative divisions of a single empire ; but we may properly enough speak of the Roman Empire in the West, and the Roman Empire in the East, or of the Western and Eastern emperors. What it is very essential to note is, that the restoration of the line of the Western emperors actually destroyed the unity of the old Empire, so that from this time on until the destruction of the Eastern Empire in 1453, there were, as we have said in the text, two rival emperors, each in theory having rightful suzerainty of the whole world, whereas the two emperors in Roman times were the co-rulers of a single and indivisible World Empire. See Bryce's The Holy Roman Empire. '- In the autumn (here gathered a second smaller assembly, or council, which was composed solely of the magnates of the Empire and the chief royal advisers. 64 CHARLEMAGNE [§ 75 Emperor advice and information. Its relation to Charlemagne is well shown by the words with which he is represented as having once addressed one of its meetings: "Counsel me," he said, "that I may know what to do." In connection with the General Assembly we should notice the celebrated Capitularies of Charlemagne. These were not laws proper, but collections of decrees, decisions, and instructions covering matters of every kind, civil and religious, public and domestic. Some of them were drawn up with the concurrence of the Diet; a greater number embodied simply Charlemagne's own ideas of what his chiefs or his subjects needed in the way of advice, suggestion, or command. Another noteworthy feature of the government of Charlemagne was the itinerant commissioners {niissi doniinki), whose duty it was to visit at stated intervals all parts of a given circuit, observe how the local magistrates were discharging their several duties, correct what was wrong, and report to the Emperor all matters of which he should be informed. This was an admirable device for putting the head of the vast Empire in close and almost personal touch with all its parts near and remote. Charlemagne, particularly after his coronation as Emperor, exercised as careful a superintendence over religious as over civil affairs. He called synods or councils of the clergy of his domin- ions, presided at these meetings, revised the canons of the Church, and addressed to abbots and bishops fatherly words of admoni- tion, reproof, and exhortation. Education was also a matter to which Charlemagne gave zealous attention. He was himself from first to last as diligent a student as his busy life permitted. His biographer, Einhard, says that he could repeat his prayers as well in Latin as in German, and that he understood Greek, although he had difficulty in its pronuncia- tion. He never ceased to be a learner. In his old age he tried to learn to write, but found that it was too late. Distressed by the dense ignorance all about him, Charlemagne labored to instruct his Subjects, lay and clerical, by the establish- ment of schools and the multiplication and dissemination of books § 76] CHARLEMAGNE'S PLACE IN HISTORY 65 through the agency of the copyists of the monasteries. He invited from England the celebrated Alcuin, one of the finest scholars of the age, and with his help organized what became known as the Palace School, in which his children and courtiers and he himself were pupils. A spirit of rare comradeship seems to have pervaded this happy school. The different members of it were in pleasantry given Hebrew or classical names. Charlemagne was known as King David; Alcuin, as Flaccus; while still others bore the names of Homer, Pindar, Samuel, Columba, and Jeremiah. A great number of other schools were established by Charle- magne in connection with the cathedrals and monasteries through- out his dominions. In causing the establishment of these schools Charlemagne set at work influences that left a deep and per- manent impression upon European civilization. They mark the beginning of a new intellectual life for Western Christendom. 76. The Death of Charlemagne (814) ; his Place in History. Charlemagne enjoyed the imperial dignity only fourteen years, dying in 814. By the almost universal verdict of students of the mediaeval period, he has been pronounced the most imposing per- sonage that appears between the fall of Rome and the fifteenth century. ''He stands alone," says Hallam, ''like a beacon upon a waste, or a rock in the broad ocean." He is the King Arthur of the French, — the favorite hero of mediaeval minstrelsy. His greatness has erected an enduring monument for itself in his name, the one by which he is best known, — Charlemagne. 77. The Results of his Reign. Among the many results of the reign of Charlemagne we should take notice of the three fol- lowing. First, he did for Germany what Caesar did for Gaul, — brought this barbarian land within the pale of civilization and made it a part of the new-forming Romano-Teutonic world. Second, through the part he played in the revival of the Empire, he helped to give to the following generations "a great political ideal" — the ideal of a world empire — and to set up an authority among the European princes which was destined to lend character to large sections of mediaeval history.^ 1 See Chapter XI, 66 CHARLEMAGNE [§ 78 Third, Charlemagne kneaded into something like a homogene- ous mass the various racial elements composing the mixed society of the wide regions over which he ruled. Throughout his long and vigorous reign that fusion of Roman and Teuton of which we spoke in a previous chapter went on apace. He failed, indeed, to iinite the various races of his extended dominions in a permanent political union, but he did much to create among them those reli- gious, intellectual, and social bonds which were never afterwards severed. From his time on, as it has been concisely expressed, there was a Western Christendom. 78. Division of the Empire; the Treaty of Verdun (843). Like the kingdom of Alexander and that of many another great conqueror, the mighty empire of Charlemagne fell to pieces soon after his death. ''His scepter was the bow of Ulysses which could not be drawn by any weaker hand." Charlemagne was followed by his son Lewis, surnamed the Pious (814-840). Upon the death of Lewis fierce contention broke out among his surviving sons, Lewis, Charles, and Lothair, and myriads of lives were sacrificed in the unnatural strife. Finally, by the famous Treaty of Verdun (843), the Empire was divided as follows: to Lewis was given the part east of the Rhine, the nucleus of the later Germany ; to Charles, the part west of the Rhone and the INIeuse, one day to become France; and to Lothair, the narrow central strip between these, stretching across Europe from the North Sea to the Mediterranean, and including the rich lands of the lower Rhine, the valley of the Rhone, and Italy. To Lothair also was given the imperial title. This treaty is celebrated, not only because it was the first great treaty among the European states but also on account of its marking the divergence from one another, and in some sense the origin, of two of the great nations of modern Europe, — Teutonic Germany and Romanic France. As shown by the celebrated bilingual oath of Strassburg,^ there had by this time grown up 1 This was an oath of friendship and mutual fidelity taken by Lewis and Charles just before the Treaty of Verdun (in 842). The text of the oath has been preserved both in the old German speech and in the new-forming Romance language. It is interesting as affording the oldest existing specimens of these languages. >< 79] THE EMPIRE AND OTTO THE GREAT 67 in Gaul, through the mixture of the provincial Latin with Ger- man elements, a new speech, which was to grow into the French tongue, — the firstborn of the Romance languages.^ 79. Renewal of the Empire by Otto the Great (962). In the division of the dominions of Charlemagne, the imperial title, as we have just seen, went to Lothair. The title, however, meant scarcely anything, carrying with it little or no real authority. Matters ran on thus for more than a century, the empty honor of the title sometimes being enjoyed by the kings of Italy, and again by those of the Eastern Franks. But with the accession of Otto I to the throne of Germany in the year 936, there appeared among the princes of Europe a second Charlemagne. Besides being king of Germany, he became, through interference on request in the affairs of Italy, king of that country also. Furthermore, he wrested large tracts of land from the Slavs, and forced the Danes, Poles, and Hunga- rians to acknowledge his suzerainty. Thus favored by fortune, he conceived the idea of reviving once more the imperial authority, just as it had been revived in the time of the great Charles. So in 962, just a little more than a century and a half after the coronation at Rome of Charlemagne, Otto, at the same place and by the same papal authority, was crowned Emperor of the Romans. For a generation no one had borne the title. From this time on it was the rule that the prince whom the German Electors chose as their king had a right to the crown of Italy and also to the imperial crown. After this the Empire came to be called the Holy Roman Empire, although, as Voltaire very truthfully observed concern- ing it later, it was ''neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire." Respecting the great part that the idea of the Empire played in subsequent history we shall speak in a later chapter (Chapter XI) . Selections from the Sources. Eginhard (Einhard), Life of the Emperor Karl the Great (translation by William Glaister recommended). (Einhard was Charles' confidential friend and secretary. "Almost all our real, vivifying knowledge of Charles the Great," says Hodgkin, " is derived from Einhard, 1 Compare sect. 44. 68 CHARLEMAGNE and . . . the Ilia Camli is one of the most precious bequests of the early Middle Ages.") Translations and Reprints (University of Pennsylvania), vol. vi, No. 5, "Selections from the Laws of Charles the Great." Robinson, J. H., Readings^ vol. i, chap. vii. References (Modern). IIuIjgkjn, T., Charles the drat, and Mombekt, J. I., History of Charles the Great (the first is the best short biography in English). Bryce, J., The Holy Roi/ian Empire, chaps, iv, v (gives a clear view of the import of the restoration of the Empire). EmertoiN, E., Introduction to the Middle Ages, chaps, xii-xiv. Serge.'VNT, L., The Franks, chaps, xvi-xxii (an admirable sketch, with a moderate appraisement of Charles' work). West, A. F., Alcnin and the Rise of the Christian Schools, and Mullinger, J. B., The Schools of Charles the Great. Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. vii. The Cambridge Mediei'al History, vol. ii, chaps, xviii, xix, xxi. D.A.VIS, H. W. C, Charlemagne. Topics for Class Reports, i . Charlemagne and his court : Davis, H. W. C, Charlemagne, chap. x. 2. A letter of Charlemagne summoning an abbot with his men to a general assembly : Ogg, F. A., Source Book of Medicvval Histoiy, pp. 141-144. 3. Alcuin and the Palace School: West. A. F., Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools, chap. iii. 4. The import of the restoration of the Empire : Bryce, J., The Holy Roman Empire (Sth ed.), chaps, iv, v, xxi (a subject for the advanced student). 5. The things needed to be done, which Charlemagne did : Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, pp. 154-169. CHAPTER VIII THE NORTHMEN: THE COMING OF THE VIKINGS 80. The Northern Folk. Northmen, Norsemen, Scandina- vians, are different names applied in a general way to the early inhabitants of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. For the reason that those making settlements in England came for the most part from Denmark, the term Danes is often used with the same wide Fig. io. A Viking Ship It was the custom of the Northmen to bury their dead sea-king near the sea in his ship and over the spot to raise a great mound of earth. The boat shown in the cut was found in 1880 in a burial mound at Gokstad, South Norway. Its length is 78 feet. From the mode of sepulture it is inferred that the mound was raised between A. d. 700 and 1000 application by the English writers. These people were very near kin to those tribes— Goths, Vandals, Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and the rest — ^that seized upon the western provinces of the Roman Empire. They were Teutons in language, habits, and spirit. 81. The Northmen as Pirates and as Colonizers. For the first eight centuries of our era the Norsemen are practically hid- den from our view in their remote northern home; but towards the end of the eighth century their black piratical crafts are to be seen creeping along the coasts of Britain, Ireland, and Gaul, and even venturing far up the inlets and creeks. 69 70 THE NORTHMEN [§81 Every summer these dreaded sea rovers made swift descents upon the exposed shores of these countries, plundered, burned, murdered; and then upon the approach of the stormy season they returned to winter in the sheltered fiords of the northern peninsulas. After a time the bold corsairs began to winter in the lands they had harried during the summer; and soon all the shores of the countries visited were dotted with their stations and settlements. With a foothold once secured, fresh bands came from the crowded lands of the north; the winter stations grew into permanent colonies; the sur- rounding country was gradually wrested from the natives; and in course of time the settlements coalesced into a real kingdom. Commencing in the latter part of the eighth century, these marauding expe- ditions and colonizing enterprises did not cease until the eleventh century was far advanced. The consequences of this wonderful outpouring of the Scandinavian peoples were so important and lasting that the movement may well be compared, as it has been, to the great migration of their German kinsmen in the fifth and sixth centuries. Europe is a second time inundated by the Teutonic barbarians. The most noteworthy characteristic of these Northmen is the readiness with which they laid aside their own manners, habits, ideas, and institutions, and adopted those of the country in which they established themselves. "In Russia they became Russians; in France, Frenchmen ; in Italy, Italians ; in England, Englishmen." Discoveries of the Northmen §82] SETTLEMENTS OF THE NORTHMEN 71 82. Colonization of Iceland and Greenland; the Discovery of America. Iceland was settled by the Northmen in the ninth century, and about a century later Greenland was discovered and colonized. In 1874 the Icelanders celebrated the thousandth anniversary of the settlement of their island. Iceland became the literary center of the Scandinavian world — -"the Greece of the North," it has been called. There grew up here a class of scalds, or bards, who, before the introduction of writing, preserved and transmitted orally the sagas, or legends, of the Northern races. About the middle of the thirteenth century these poems and legends were gathered into collections known as the Elder or Poetic Edda, and the Younger or Prose Edda. These are among the most interesting and important of the literary memorials that we possess of the early Teutonic peoples. They reflect faithfully the beliefs, manners, and customs of the Norsemen, and the wild adventurous spirit of their sea-kings. America was reached by the Northmen as early as the open- ing of the eleventh century; the "Vinland" of their traditions was probably some part of the New England coast. Whether these first visitors to the continent ever made any settlements in the new land is a disputed question. 83. The Norsemen in Russia. While the Norwegians were sailing boldly out into the Atlantic and taking possession of the isles and coasts of the western seas, the Swedes were pushing their crafts across the Baltic and troubling the Finns and Slavs on the eastern shore of that sea. Either by right of conquest or through the invitation of the contentious Slavonic clans, the renowned Scandinavian chieftain Ruric acquired, about the middle of the ninth century, kingly dignity, and became the founder of the first royal line of Russia. 84. The Danish Conquest of England; Alfred the Great and Canute. The Northmen — Danes, as called by the English writers — began to make descents upon the English coast toward the close of the eighth century. These sea rovers spread the greatest terror throughout the island; for they were not content with plunder, but, being pagans, took special delight in burning 72 THE NORTHMEN [§84 the churches and monasteries of the now Christian Anglo-Saxons, or English, as we shall hereafter call them. In a short time fully one half of England was in their hands. The wretched English were subjected to exactly the same treatment that they had inflicted upon the Celts. Just when it began to look as though they would be wholly enslaved or driven from the island by the heathen intruders, Alfred (871-901), later to be known as Alfred the Great, came to the throne of Wessex. For six years the youthful king fought heroically at the head of his brave thanes; but each year the possessions of the English grew smaller, and finally Alfred and his few remaining followers were forced to take refuge in the woods and morasses. After a time, however, the affairs of Alfred began to mend. He gained some advantage over the Danes, but he could not expel them from the island, and by the celebrated Treaty of Wedmore (878) gave up to them all the northeastern part of England. Alfred's best claim to the title of Great that has been conferred upon him springs from his work as a lawgiver and a patron of learning. He collected and revised the ancient laws of the Anglo- Saxons, tempering and altering them in accordance with Chris- tian morals and principles. The code that he thus made formed the basis of early English jurisprudence. Alfred also fostered learning by becoming himself a translator. With the exception of the Bible, some short poems, and the well-known Paraphrase of the Scriptures (sect. 21), the translations by Alfred were the first books written in their own tongue that the English had placed in their hands. Here we have the beginnings of the prose literature of England. ''The mighty roll of the prose books that fill her libraries," writes Green, "begins with the translations of Alfred, and above all with the Chronicle of his reign." ^ For a full century following the death of Alfred his successors were engaged in a constant struggle to hold in restraint the Danes 1 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle here alluded to was a minute and chronological record of events, probably begun in syslcmafic form in Alfred's reign and continued down to the year ii=;4- It was kept by the monks of different monasteries, and forms one of our most valuable sources for early English history. THE DAIN^ELAAV. §85] THE NORTHMEN IN GAUL 73 already settled in the land, or to protect their domains from the plundering inroads of fresh bands of pirates from the northern peninsulas. In the end the Danes got the victory, and Canute, king of Denmark, became king of England (1016). For eighteen years he reigned in a wise and parental way. Altogether the Danes ruled in England about a quarter of a century, and then the old English line was restored in the person of Edward the Confessor (1042 ) . 85. Settlement of the Northmen in Gaul. The Northmen began to make piratical descents upon the coasts of Gaul before the end of the reign of Charlemagne. The great king had been dead only thirty years when these sea rovers ascended the Seine and sacked Paris. At last the Carolingian king, Charles the Simple, did something very like what Alfred the Great had done across the Channel only a short time before. He granted to Rollo, the leader of the Northmen who had settled at Rouen, a considerable section of coun- try in the north of Gaul, upon con- dition of homage and conversion (911). In a short time the new- comers had adopted the language, the manners, and the religion of the French, and had caught much of their vivacity and impul- siveness of spirit, without, however, any loss of their own native virtues. This transformation in their manners and life we may conceive as being recorded in their transformed name, — North- men becoming softened into Norman. 86. Normandy in French History. The establishment of a Scandinavian settlement in Gaul proved a most momentous mat- ter, not only for the history of the French people but for the history of European civilization as well. This Norse factor was Fig. II. Rollo. (From the monument at Rouen) 74 THE NORTHMEN [§ 86 destined to be one of the most important of all those various racial elements which on the soil of the old Gaul blended to create the richly dowered French nation. For many of the most romantic passages of her history France is indebted to the adven- turous spirit of the descendants of these wild rovers of the sea. The knights of Normandy lent an added splendor to French knighthood, and helped greatly to make France the hearth of chivalry and the center of the crusading movement of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Nor was the influence of the incoming of this Scandinavian race felt upon French history alone. Normandy became the point of departure of enterprises that had deep and lasting con- sequences for Europe at large. These undertakings had for their arena England and the Mediterranean lands. Their results were so important and far-reaching that we shall devote to the nar- ration of them a subsequent chapter (Chapter X). Selections from the Sources. The Story of Burnt Xjal (trans, by George W. Dasent). An Icelandic saga; a picture of times and manners. Asseu, The Life of A'ing Alfred (ed. by W. H. Stevenson). Kendall, E. K., Source- Took, chap, ii, " England and the Danes." References (Modern). Keary, C. F., The Vikings in Hester// Christendom (depicts the various Viking undertakings as " one phase ... of the long struggle between Christianity and the heathenism of the North "). Pauli, R., The Life of Alfred the Great (the best life of the great king). Green, J. R., The Conquest of England; all excepting chaps, x and xi. Du Chaii.i.u, P. B., The Viking Age, 2 vols, (reflects the life and ideals, customs and manners of the Norsemen). Macfadyen, D., Alfred, the JJest Saxon. Boyesen, Ii. H., The Sto7y of Nonvay; the opening chapters. Mawer, A., The Vikings. Topics for Class Reports, i. Voyages of the Northmen to America: Fiske, J., The Discovery of America, vol. i, chap. ii. 2. The Siege of Paris by the Northmen: Ogg, F. A., Source Book of ]\Iediir7y of the Normans, p. aS). The records of the British navy in the war of 1914-1918 show that these Viking traits still persist in the English race. 96 § 107] EVENTS LEADING UP TO THE CONQUEST 97 magnitude not only to the conquered people but indirectly to the world, was their conquest of England in the eleventh century.^ 107. Events leading up to the Conquest, In the year 1066 Edward the Confessor, in whose person, it will be recalled, the old English line was restored after the Danish usurpation (sect. 84), died, and immediately the Witan,- in accordance with the dying wish of the king, chose Harold, Earl of Wessex, the best and strongest man in all England, to be his successor. When the news of the action of the Witan and of Harold's acceptance of the English crown was carried across the Chan- nel to William, Duke of Normandy, he was greatly vexed. He declared that Edward, who was his cousin, had during his life- time promised the throne to him, and that Harold had assented to this, and by solemn oath engaged to sustain him. He now demanded of Harold that he surrender to him the usurped throne, threatening the immediate invasion of the island in case he refused. King Harold answered the demand by collecting an army for the defense of his dominions. Duke William now made ready for a descent upon the English coast. 108. The Battle of Hastings (1066). The Norman army of invasion landed in the south of England, at the port of Hastings, which place gave name to the battle that almost immediately followed, — the battle that was to determine the fate of England. .The charge of the Norman horsemen was begun by a knight riding out from the lines and advancing alone, tossing up his sword and skillfully catching it as it fell, and singing all the while the stirring battle song of Charlemagne and Roland.^ The Eng- lish watched with astonishment this exhibition of " careless dexter- ity," and if they did not compare the vivacity and nimbleness of 1 Not long before the Normans conquered England, they succeeded in gaining a foothold in the south of Italy, where they established a feudal state, which ultimately included the island of Sicily. The fourth head of the commonwealth was the celebrated Robert Guiscard (d. 1085), who spread the renown of the Norman name throughout the Mediterranean lands. This Norman state, converted finally into a kingdom, lasted until late in the twelfth century (1194). - The Witan, or Witenagemot, which means the " Meeting of the Wise Men," was the common council of the realm. The House of Lords of the present Parliament is a survival of this early national assembly. 3 See above, p. 61, n. i. 98 NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND [§109 the Norman foe with their own heavy and clumsy ways, others at least have not failed to mark the contrast. The battle once joined, the conilict was long and terrific. The day finally went against the English. Harold fell, pierced through the eye by an arrow; and William was master of the field. He now marched upon London, and at Westminster, on Christmas Day, 1066, was crowned king of England. 109. The Distribution of the Land and the Gemot of Salis- bury. Almost the first act of William after he had established his power in England was to fulfill his promise to the nobles who had Fig. 18. Battle of Hastings. (From the Bayeux tapestry) aided him in his enterprise, by distributing among them the unre- deemed' estates of the English who had fought at Hastings in defense of their king and country. Profiting by the lesson taught by the wretched condition of France, which country was kept in a state of constant turmoil by a host of feudal chiefs and lords many of whom were almost or quite as powerful as the king himself, William took care that in the distribution no feudatory should receive an entire shire, save in two or three exceptional cases. To the great lord to whom he must needs give a large fief, he granted not a continuous tract of land but several estates, or manors, scattered in different parts of the country, in order that there might be no dangerous con- centration of property or power in the hands of the vassal. 1 " When the lands of all those who had fought for Harold were confiscated, those who were willing to acknowledge William were allowed to redeem theirs, either paying money at once or giving hostages for the payment " (Stubbs, Const. Hist., vol. i, p. 258). As many as 20,000 .Saxon proprietors in all are said to have been dispossessed by as many Norman followers of William. §110] DOMESDAY BOOK 99 Another equally important limitation of the power of the vassal was effected by William through his requiring all fief holders, great and small, to take an oath of fealty directly to him as overlord. This was a great innovation upon feudal custom, for the rule was that the vassal should swear fealty to his own immediate lord only, and in war follow his banner even against his own king. The oath that William exacted from every fief holder made the alle- giance which he owed to his king superior to that which he owed to his own immediate lord. At the great gemot, or military assembly, of Salisbury in the year 1086 "all the landholders of substance in England" swore lo William this solemn oath of superior fealty and allegiance. William also denied to his feudatories the right of coining money and making laws; and by other wise restrictions upon their power he saved England from those endless contentions and petty wars that were distracting almost every other country of Europe. To overawe the dispossessed people William now built and garrisoned fortresses or towers in all the principal cities of the realm. The celebrated Tower of London and the great black, massive tower still standing in the city of Newcastle were built by him, and are impressive memorials of the days of the Con- quest. His nobles also erected strong castles upon their lands, so that the whole country fairly bristled with these fortified private residences. With the towns dominated by the great fortresses, and the open country watched over by the barons secure in their thick- walled castles, the Normans, though greatly inferior in numbers to the Saxons, were able to hold them in complete subjection. 110. Domesday Book. One of the most celebrated acts of the Conqueror was the making of the Domesday Book. This famous book contained a description and valuation of all the lands of England, — excepting those of some counties, mostly in the north, that were either unconquered or unsettled; an enumeration of the cattle and sheep; and statements of the income of every man. It was intended, in a word, to be a perfect survey and census of the entire kingdom. 100 NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND L>?111 The commissioners who went through the land to collect the needed information for the work were often threatened by the people, who resented this "prying into their affairs," and looked upon the whole thing as simply another move preparatory to fresh taxation. But notwithstanding the bitter feelings with which the English viewed the work, it was certainly a wise and necessary measure, and one prompted by statesmanlike motives. 111. The Curfew and the Forest Laws. Among the regulations introduced into England by the Conqueror was the peculiar one known as the cur- few. This law re- quired that upon the ringing of the church bell at night- fall every person should be at home and that the fires should be buried ^ and the lights ex- tinguished. Two reasons have been assigned for this ordinance: the one supposes that its object was to prevent the people's assembling by night to plan or execute treasonable undertakings ; the other represents it simply as a safe- guard against fire. The law was certainly in force in Normandy before the Conquest; indeed, according to Palgrave, it was a universal custom of police throughout the whole of mediaeval Europe. Less justifiable and infinitely more odious to the people were the Forest Laws of the Normans. The Normans were excessively fond of the chase. William had for the sport a perfect passion. An old chronicler declares that "he loved the tall deer as if he Fk;. 19. Do.MKSUAY Book. (From a facsimile edition published by royal command in 1 8G2) There are two large volumes of the survey, one being a folio of 760 pages and the other a large octavo of 900 pages. The strong box shown in the cut is the chest in which the volumes were formerly kept 1 Hence the term atrfezv, from couvrir, "to cover," and/i7<, "fire." §112] SUCCESSORS OF THE CONQUEROR loi were their father." Extensive tracts of country were turned into forests by the destruction of the farmhouses and villages. More than fifty hamlets, and numerous churches, are said to have been destroyed in the creation of what was known as the New Forest/ The game in these forests was protected by severe laws. Tjo kill a deer was a greater crime than to kill a man. Several mem- bers of the Conqueror's family were killed while hunting in these royal preserves, and the people declared that these misfortunes were the judgment of Heaven upon the cruelty of their founder. 112, The Norman Successors of the Conqueror. For nearly three quarters of a century after the death of William the Con- queror, England was ruled by Norman kings.- The latter part of this period was a troublous time. The succession to the crown coming into dispute, civil war broke out. The result of the contention was a decline in the royal power, and the ascend- ancy of the Norman barons, who for a time made England the scene of the same feudal anarchy that prevailed at this period upon the Continent. Finally, in 1154, the Norman dynasty gave place to that of the Plantagenets. Under Henry II (1154-1189), the first king of the new house, and an energetic and strong ruler, the barons were again brought into proper subjection to the crown, and many castles which had been built without royal permission during the preceding anarchical period, and some of which at least were little better than robbers' dens, were dis- mantled and demolished. 113. Results of the Norman Conquest. The most important and noteworthy result of the Conquest was the establishment in England of a strong centralized government, which resulted largely from the modification of feudal rules and practices effected by the Conqueror. England now became a real kingdom, — what it had hardly been in more than semblance before. 1 The term forest as applied to these hunting parks does not necessarily mean a continuous wooded tract, but simply untilled ground left to grow up to weeds and shrubs as a covert for game. 2 William 11, known as Rufus "the Red" (1087-1100) ; Henry I, sumamed Beauclerc, "the good scholar" (1100-1135); and Stephen of Blois (1135-1154). William and Henry were sons, and Stephen a grandson, of the Conqueror. 102 NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND [§ 113 A second result of the Conquest was the founding of a new feudal aristocracy. The Saxon thane was displaced by the Nor- man baron. This not only introduced a new and more refined element into the social life of England, but it also changed the membership, the temper, and the name of the national assembly, the old English Witan now becoming the Parliament of later times. A third result of the Concjuest was the drawing of England into closer relations with the countries of continental Europe. The Norman Conquest was in this respect like the Roman con- Cjuest of the island. Through the many continental relations — political, social, commercial, and ecclesiastical — now established or made more intimate, England's advance in trade, in architec- ture, in her religious and intellectual life, was greatly promoted. And in this connection must be borne in mind particularly the close political and feudal relations into which England was brought with France, for out of these grew the jealousies and rivalries which led to the long Hundred Years' War between the two countries.^ Selections from the Sources. 77/e Bayeux Tapestry (reproduced in aut6- type plates with historic notes by Frank Rede Fowke, London, 1875). This is a strip of linen canvas over two hundred feet long and nineteen inches wide, upon which are embroidered in colors seventy-two pictures, representing episodes in the Norman conquest of England. The work was executed not long after the events it depicts, and is named from the cathedral in France where it is kept. Its importance consists in the information it conveys respecting the life and manners, and the costumes, arms, and armor of the times. Kendall, E. K., Source-Book of English Ilistoty, chap. iii. Ogg, F. A., Sottrce Book of Medicsval Histoiy, chap. xiv. References (Modern). Haskins, C. H., The A'07'mans /;/ European Histoiy. Freeman, E. A., The A'orman Conquest (a little book which contains "the same tale told afresh," that fills the six volumes of the author's earlier great work on the Norman Conquest). Johnson, A. H., The A^ormafts m Europe. Stenton, F. M., ]Vi!Uam the Couijueror. Green, J. R., The Conquest of England., chap. x. Topics for Class Reports, i. Effects on England of the Norman Conquest: Freeman, E. A., The A'orman Conquest, chap. xiv. 2. Life in the manor house : Trailk H. D. (ed.), Social England, vol. i, pp. 375-382. 3. Why the battle of Hastings is regarded as one of the decisive battles of history : Creasy, E. S., Decisive Battles of the World, chap. vii. 1 For the effects of the Conquest upon the English language and literature, .see sects. 203, 204. CHAPTER XI THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE 114. The Two World Powers. ''The two great ideas," says James Bryce, "which expiring antiquity bequeathed to the ages that followed were those of a world monarchy and a world reli- gion." We have seen how out of one of these ideas, under the favoring circumstances of the earlier mediaeval centuries, was developed the Empire, and out of the other the Papacy. The history of these two powers, of their relations to the rulers and the peoples of Europe, and of their struggle with each other for supremacy, makes up a large part of the history of the mediaeval centuries. It is of these important matters that we must now try to get some sort of understanding. What we have learned about the ideas and principles of feu- dalism will aid us greatly in our study, for, as we shall see, the whole long struggle between these two world powers was deeply marked by feudal conceptions and practices. 115. The Three Theories respecting the Relations of- Pope and Emperor. After the revival of the Empire in the West and the rise of the Papacy, there gradually grew up three different theories in regard to the divinely constituted relation of the "world king" and the "world priest." The first was that Pope and Emperor were each independently commissioned by God, the first to rule the spirits of men, the second to rule their bodies. Each reigning thus by original divine right, neither is set above the other, but both are to cooperate and to help each other. The special duty of the temporal power is to maintain order in the world and to be the protector of the Church. The Emperor bears the sword for the purpose of executing the decrees of the Church against all heretics and disturbers of its peace and unity. Thus 103 104 THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE [§115 this theory looked to a perfect and beautiful alliance between Church and State, a double sovereignty emblemized in the dual nature of Christ. The second theory, the one held by the imperial party, was that the Emperor was superior to the Pope in secular affairs. Arguments from Scripture and from the transactions of history were not wanting to support this view of the relation of the two world powers. Thus Christ's payment of tribute money was cited as proof that he regarded the temporal power as superior to the spiritual. And then, did he not say, " Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's"? Further, the gifts of Pippin and Charles the Great to the Roman See made the popes, it was maintained, the vassals of the emperors. Fig. 20. The Spiritual The third theory, the one held by the AND THE Temporal p^p^i p^j-^y^ maintained that the or- PowER. (From a ninth-cen- 1 • 1 1 .• f ^u * \ . , ^ darned relation 01 the two powers was tury mosaic in the Lateran , ,. . . r, (^ -I the subordination of the temporal to at Rome ; aiter Jaeger, _ _ t' ]Velte:cscJiii]ite) ^he spiritual authority, even in civil St. Peter gives to Pope Leo I II affairs. This view was maintained by the stola and to Charlemagne SUch textS of Scripture aS these: "But the banner of Rome as symbols ^^ jj^^^ jg spiritual judgeth all things, of the spiritual and temporal .> o 07 powers. The portrait of chaiie- yet lie himself is judged of uo man " ; ^ magna here shown is with little " ggg^ J ^.^^g t^jg day Set thee over the doubt the oldest in existence . 1 1 • i nations and over the kingdoms, to root out, and to pull down, and to destroy, and to throw down, to build, and to plant."- The conception was further illustrated by such comparisons as the following, — for in mediaeval times par- able and metaphor often took the place of argument : As God has set in the heavens two lights, the sun and the moon, so has he established on earth two powers, the spiritual and the temporal; 1 I Cor. ii. 15. '^ Jer, i. 10. § 116] REFORMS OF GREGORY VII 105 but as the moon is inferior to the sun and receives its light from it, so is the Emperor inferior to the Pope and receives all power from him.^ Again, the two authorities were likened to the soul and the body; as the former rules over the latter, so is it ordered that the spiritual power shall rule over and subject the temporal. The first theory was the impracticable dream of lofty souls who forgot that men are human. Christendom was virtually divided into two hostile camps, one supporting the imperial, the other the papal, claims. 116. Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) and his Reforms. One of the most eminent supporters of the papal claims was Pope Gregor)'- VII, better known by his earlier name of Hildebrand, the most noteworthy character, after Charlemagne, that the Mid- dle Ages produced. In the year 1049 ^^ was brought from the cloisters of the celebrated monastery of Cluny, in France, to Rome, where he became the maker and adviser of popes, and finally was himself elevated to the pontifical throne, which he held from 1073 ^^ 1085. When Gregory came to the papal throne one grave danger threatening the Church was the marriage of the clergy. At this time a great part of the minor clergy were married. Gregory resolved to bring all the clergy to the strict observance of celi- bate vows. By thus separating the priests from the attachments of home, and lifting from them all family burdens and cares, he aimed to render their consecration to the duties of their offices more whole-souled and their dependence upon the Church more complete. Though most obstinately opposed by a large section of the clergy, this reform was finally effected, — but not in Gregory's time, — so that celibacy became as binding upon the priest as upon the monk. Gregory's second reform, the correction of simony,^ had for one of its ultimate objects the freeing of the lands and offices of 1 Dante, maintaining the rights of the Emperor, ruined the force of this comparison by pointing out that while the moon often eclipses the sun, the sun never eclipses the moon. - By simony is meant the purchase of an office in the Church, the name of the offense coming from Simon Magus, who offered Peter money for the power to confer the Holy Spirit. See Acts viii. 9-24. io6 THE TAPACY AND THE EMPIRE [§ 116 the Church from the control of lay lords and princes, and the bringing of them more completely under the direction of the Roman pontiff. The evil of simony had grown up in the Church chiefly in the following way: As the feudal system took possession of European society, the Church, like individuals and cities, assumed feudal relations. Thus, as we have already seen, abbots and bishops, as the heads of monasteries and churches, for the sake of protec- tion, became the vassals of power- ful barons or princes. When once a prelate had promised fealty for his estates or temporalities, as they were called, these became henceforth a permanent fief of the overlord and subject to all the in- cidents of the feudal tenure. When a vacancy occurred the lord as- sumed the right to fill it, just as in case of the escheat of a lay fief.^ In this way the temporal rulers throughout Europe had come to exercise the right of nominating or confirming the election of almost all the great prelates of the Church. Now these lay princes who had the patronage of these Church offices and lands handled them just as they did their lay fiefs. They required the person nominated to an abbacy or to a bishop- ric to pay for the appointment and investiture a sum proportioned to the income from the office. This was in strict accord with the feudal rule which allowed the lord to demand from the vassal, upon his investiture with a fief, a sum of money called a relief (sect. 90). This rule, thus applied to Church lands and offices, was, it is easy to see, the cause of great evil and corruption. The Fig. 21. Investiture ok a Bishop by a King THROUcm THE GiVIXG OF THE CrOSIEK, OR Pastoral Staff. (From a manuscript of the tenth century) 1 Tlie clergy and monks still retained the nominal right of election, but too frequently an election by them was a mere matter of form. H17J EXCOMMUNICATION AND INTERDICT 107 ecclesiastical vacancies were virtually sold to the highest bidder, and at times the most unsuitable persons became bishops and abbots. To remedy the evil Gregory issued decrees forbidding any one of the clergy to receive the investiture of a bishopric or abbey or church from the hands of a temporal prince or lord. Any one who should dare to disobey these decrees was threatened with the penalties of the Church. 117. Excommunication and Interdict. The principal in- struments relied upon by Gregory for the carrying out of his decrees were the spiritual weapons of the Church, — Excom- munication and Interdict. The first was directed against individuals. The person excom- municated was cut off from all relations with his fellow-men. If a king, his subjects were released from their oath of allegiance. Any one providing the excommunicate with food or shelter in- curred the penalties of the Church. Living, the excommunicated person was to be shunned as though tainted with an infectious disease; and dead, he was to be refused the ordinary rites of burial. The interdict was directed against a city, province, or kingdom. Throughout the region under this ban the churches were closed; no bell could be rung, no marriage celebrated, no burial ceremony performed. The sacraments of baptism and extreme unction alone could be administered. It is difficult for us to realize the effect of these bans in mediaeval times. They rarely failed in bringing the most con- tumacious offender to a speedy and abject confession or in effect- ing his undoing. This will appear in the following paragraph. 118. The Investiture Contest; Emperor Henry IV's Humili- ation at Canossa (1077). It was in Germany that Gregory ex- perienced the most formidable opposition to his reform measures. The Emperor elect. King Henry IV (1056-1106), — who had been threatened by Gregory with excommunication and deposition, — gathering in council such of the prelates of the Empire as would answer his call, even dared to bid Gregory descend from the io8 THE PAPACY AND THE EMPIRE [§ 119 papal throne. Gregory in turn gathered a council at Rome and deposed and excommunicated the Emperor. " In the name of Almighty God, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost," thus ran the solemn papal decree, "I withdraw . . . from Henry the king . . . the rule over the whole kingdom of .the Germans and over Italy. And I absolve all Christians from the bond of the oath which they have made or shall make to him; and I forbid any one to serve him as king." This decree is especially memorable for the reason that this was the first time that a pope had ventured to depose a king. Henry's deposition encouraged a revolt on the part of some of his discontented subjects. He was shunned as a man accursed by Heaven. His authority seemed to have slipped entirely out of his hands, and his kingdom was on the point of going to pieces. In this wretched state of his affairs there was but one thing for him ta do, — to go to Gregory and humbly sue for pardon and rein- statement in the favor of the Church. Henry sought Gregory among the Apennines, at Canossa, a stronghold of the celebrated Countess Matilda of Tuscany. But Gregory refused to admit him to his presence. It was winter, and on three successive days the king, clothed in sackcloth, stood with bare feet in the snow of the courtyard of the castle, waiting for permission to kneel at the feet of the pontiff and to receive for- giveness. On the fourth day the king was admitted to Gregory's presence and the sentence of excommunication removed. Henry afterwards avenged his humiliation. He raised an army, descended upon Rome, and drove Gregory into exile at Salerno, where he died with these words on his lips: ''I have loved justice and hated iniquity, and therefore I die an exile" (1085). But the quarrel did not end here. It was taken up by the suc- cessors of Gregory, and Henry was again excommunicated. After maintaining a long struggle with the power of the Church and with his own sons, who were incited to rebel against him, he finally died broken-hearted. 119. Concordat of Worms (1122). Henry's successors, not- withstanding the blow that had been given to the prestige of the § 119] CONCORDAT OF WORMS 109 imperial power, kept up the quarrel with the popes. The outcome of the matter, after many years of bitter contention, was the cele- brated Concordat of Worms. It was agreed that all bishops and abbots of the Empire, after free election by those having the right, should receive the ring and staff, the symbols of their spiritual jurisdiction, from the Pope, but that the Emperor should exercise the right of investiture by the touch of a scepter, the emblem of temporal rights and authority. This was a recognition by both parties that all spiritual authority emanates from the Church and all temporal authority from the State. It was a compromise, — "a rendering unto Caesar of the things that are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's." We must here drop the story of the contentions of Pope and Emperor in order to watch the peoples of Europe as at the time we have now reached they undertake with surprising unanimity and enthusiasm the most remarkable enterprises in which they were ever engaged, — the Crusades, or Holy Wars. It was the prestige and strength which the Papacy had gained in its contest with the Empire which enabled the popes to exert such an influence in setting the Crusades in motion and in direct- ing them; while at the same time it was these great enterprises which, reacting upon the Papacy, greatly aided the popes in realizing Gregory's ideal of making the papal authority supreme throughout Western Christendom. Selections from the Sources. Dante, De Mo7iarc/iia (trans, by Aurelia Henry). Dante argues that the authority of the Emperor comes direct from God and not from the Pope. Henderson, E. F., Select Historical Documents, pp. 351—409. Robinson, J. H., /headings in European History, vol. i, chap. xiii. References (Modern). Bryce, J., The Holy Rofuan Empire (this little work has become a classic). Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. X. Emerton, E., JMediaval Europe, chaps, vii and viii. Alzog, J., Uni- versal Church History, vol. ii, pp. 253-336, 481-510. Tout, T. F., The Empire and the Papacy. Vincent, M. R., 77;;? Age of Hildebrand (earlier chapters). Topics for Class Reports, i. The monastery of Cluny : Munro, D. €., and Sellery, G. C., Alediceval Civilization, pp. 137-152. 2. The strife over investi- tures : Seignobos, G., Histo>y of Medieval and of Modem Civilization, pp. 105- 109. 3. Emperor (elect) Henry IV at Canossa: Stephens, W. R. W., Hildebrand a7id his Times, pp. 126-132. CHAPTER XII THE CRUSADES (1096-1273) 120. The Crusades defined; their Place in Universal His- tory. The Crusades were great military expeditions carried on intermittently for two centuries by the Christian peoples of Europe for the purpose of rescuing from the hands of the Moham- medans the holy places of Palestine and maintaining in the East a Latin kingdom. Historians usually enumerate eight of these expeditions as worthy of special narration. Of these eight the first four are often designated the Principal Crusades and the remaining four the Minor Crusades. But besides these there were a children's crusade and several other expeditions, which, being insignificant in numbers or results, are not usually enumerated, as well as several enterprises in Europe itself which partook of the nature of crusades. Viewed from the broadest standpoint the Crusades against the Moslems were simply an episode in that age-long drama of the struggle between the East and the West, between=Asia and Europe, of which the contest between the ancient Greeks and Persians was the opening act. Looked at in connection with a narrower cycle of events, they mark the culmination of the long contest between the two great world religions, Islam and Christianity, the beginnings of which we have already seen, and which down to the twentieth century found expression in the antagonism between the Ottoman Turks and the Christian races of Europe. 121. The Religious Motive; Pilgrimages. The chief moving force of the Holy Wars was the religious ideas and feelings of the times, particularly the sentiment respecting holy places and pifgrimages. In all ages men have been led by curiosity, senti- ment, or religion to make pilgrimages to spots which retain the §121] SACRED PLACES AND PILGRIMAGES iii memory of remarkable occurrences or have been consecrated by human suffering or heroism. Especially has the religious senti- ment of every people made the birthplaces or the tombs of their prophets, saints, and martyrs places of veneration and pilgrimage. Benares, Mecca, and Jerusalem attest the universality and strength of the sentiment among Hindus, Mohammedans, and Christians alike. Among the early Christians it was thought a pious and meri- torious act to undertake a journey to some sacred place. Espe- cially was it thought that a pilgrimage to the land whose soil had been pressed by the feet of the Saviour of the world, to the Holy City that had witnessed his martyrdom, was a peculiarly pious undertaking, and one which secured for the pilgrim the special favor and blessing of Heaven. Pilgrims began to make visits to the Holy Land from the countries of western Europe as soon as Christianity had taken possession of this part of the Roman Empire. At first the jour- ney was so difficult and dangerous that it was undertaken by comparatively few. Before the conversion of the Hungarians, who held the land route between Germany and the Bosphorus, the pilgrim usually made his way to some Mediterranean port, and sought a chance passage on board some vessel engaged in the Eastern trade. A great religious revival in the eleventh century, kindling as it did a holy fervor in multitudes of souls, gave a great impulse to this pilgrimaging zeal, and caused the number of pilgrims to the Holy Land greatly to increase. Instead of solitary travelers, companies numbering hundreds and even thousands^ might now be seen crowding the roads leading to Jerusalem; for the con- version of the Hungarians had recently reopened the overland route down the Danube. But just at this time a great revolution took place in the polit- ical affairs of the East. The Seljuk Turks, a prominent Tatar tribe, zealous proselytes of Islam, wrested Syria from the tolerant 1 The largest company of which there is record numbered 7000 persons. This was led by an archbishop and set out in the year 106^, 112 THE CRUSADES [§122 Saracen caliphs. The Christians were not long in realizing that power had fallen into new hands. Pilgrims were insulted and persecuted in every way. The churches in Jerusalem were, in some cases, destroyed or turned into stables. Now, if it were a meritorious thing to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulcher, much more would it be a pious act to rescue the sacred spot from the profanation of infidels. This was the conviction that changed the pilgrim into a warrior, — this the sentiment that for two centuries and more stirred the Christian world to its profoundest depths and cast the population of Europe in wave after wave upon Asia. 122. The Growth of a Martial Spirit in the Church; the Church and Chivalry. This transformation of pilgrimages into crusades would not have been possible had not the Church itself in the course of the centuries undergone an amazing transfor- mation. In the earliest Christian times a Quaker spirit ruled the Church; by the eleventh century a martial spirit had taken com- plete possession of it. Various causes and circumstances had concurred to effect in the Church this astonishing transformation. First, Christianity, while transforming the barbarians, had been itself transformed by them. The new converts had carried their martial spirit into the Church. Fighters they had been and fighters they remained. Transformed by this alien spirit the Church modified its early Quaker teachings, and came at last to approve the military life, which the first Christians had very generally condemned as incompatible with the teachings of the Master. A second influence that helped to introduce the military spirit into the Church was the reaction upon it of the martial creed of Islam. For three centuries and more before the First Crusade the Moslems had been in contact, and during much of this time in actual combat, with the Christians of Europe. Under such circumstances the Church, as was natural, caught the military spirit of Mohammedanism and became quite as ready as its rival to call upon its followers to fight in defense or for the spread of the faith. §123] THE PEACE AND THE TRUCE OF GOD 113 This military spirit in Christendom found characteristic expres- sion in chivalry. We have already spoken of the relation of the Church to the institution of knighthood (sect. 99). Chivalry passed under its tuition and patronage. When at the close of the eleventh century there went forth the papal call for volun- teers for the Holy Wars, it fell upon the willing ears of myriads of knights eager to make good their oaths of knighthood and to win renown in combat with the Moslem infidel. Once the old pagan Rome had made use of these same war-loving men of the North to fight the battles of the Empire; now the new Christian Rome enlists them beneath her standard to fight the battles of the Cross. 123. The Peace and the Truce of God. Closely connected with the subject of the preceding paragraph, and also related in a very signiiicant way to the Crusades, was the institution estab- lished by the Church in the eleventh century and known as the "Truce of God." We have already become acquainted in some measure with the anarchical condition of society under feudalism. The central authority of the state was everywhere relaxed, and neither the emperor nor the kings were able to put a stop to the marauding and fighting of the great feudal lords. This right of waging pri- vate war was one of the most dearly prized privileges of these semicivilized barons. So Europe had reverted to that condition of perpetual warfare between tribes and clans that the Continent was in before Rome arose, and after centuries of titanic effort established throughout her wide Empire what was called the "Roman Peace" {Pax Romana). Every land was filled with fightings and violence. As one writer pictures it: "Every hill was a stronghold, every plain a battlefield. The trader was robbed on the highway, the peasant was killed at his plow, the priest was slain at the altar. Neighbor fought against neighbor, baron against baron, city against city." In the midst of this intolerable anarchy the Church lifted up a protesting voice. Just at the close of the tenth and in the early part of the eleventh century there was a movement in 114 THE CRUSADES [§123 France which aimed at the complete abolition of war between Christians. The Church proposed to do what had been effected for a time by the Caesars. It proclaimed what was called the " Peace of God." In the name of the God of peace it commanded all men to refrain from war and robbery and violence of every kind as contrary to the spirit and the teachings of Christianity. But it was found utterly impossible to make men desist from waging private wars, even though they were threatened with the everlasting tortures of hell. Then the clergy in southern France, seeing they could not suppress the evil entirely, concluded it were wiser to try to regulate it. This led to the promulgation of what was called the "Truce of God." We find the first trace of this towards the middle of the eleventh century in a Church edict commanding all men to maintain a holy and unbroken peace during four days of the week, from Wednesday evening to Monday morning, that is, during the days which were supposed to be rendered peculiarly sacred by the Saviour's death, burial, and resurrection. Who- soever should dare disobey the decree was threatened with the severest penalties of the Church. This movement to redeem at least a part of the days from fighting and violence embraced in time all the countries of western Europe. The details of the various edicts issued by Church councils and by the popes varied widely, but all em- braced the principle of the first edict. This Truce of God was not, as we may easily believe, very well observed; yet it did at least something during the eleventh and twelfth centuries to better the general condition of things, to mitigate the evils of private warfare, and to render life more tolerable and property more secure. We shall see a little later how the Church used the restraining authority it had acquired in this field to make it possible and safe for the feudal barons and knights, leaving their fiefs and other possessions under the protecting aegis of the Church, to go with their retainers on the distant and often prolonged expeditions of the Crusades. §124] THE NORMANS AS CRUSADERS 115 124. Norman Restlessness and Crusading Zeal. To the vari- ous causes and antecedents of the Crusades already noticed must be added, as a near inciting cause, that spirit of adventure and unrest with which almost all the lands of western Europe were at just this time being filled by the enterprises of the Normans. The conquest of England by William the Conqueror and that of southern Italy and Sicily by other Norman leaders were simply two of the most important of their^ undertakings. Throughout the eleventh century the Norman knights, true to the old Viking spirit of their ancestors, were constantly raiding in Spain, in Africa, and in other Moslem lands. Everywhere they engaged in battle with the infidels. Everywhere they stirred up the embers of the old fierce hate between Christian and Moslem. Everywhere throughout Western Christendom they awakened, by their restless zeal, the crusading spirit and thus did much to prepare the way for the Holy Wars. 125. Various Minor Causes. We have now detailed the chief causes, remote and immediate, of the Crusades. But there were other concurring causes which must not be overlooked. Many took part in the expeditions from mere love of change and adven- ture. Some of the Italian cities engaged in the undertakings from commercial or political motives. ]\Iany knights, princes, and even kings headed expeditions with a view of securing fiefs in the East from lands wrested from the infidel. Multitudes of serfs joined them to escape from a life of misery that had become unbearable. And vast numbers of the baser sort joined them in order to secure immunity from the penalty of debt and crime; for, as we shall see, the person and property of the crusader were taken under the special protection of the Church. Yet, notwithstanding that so many unworthy motives animated vast numbers of those engaging in the Crusades, we shall not be wrong in thinking that it was the religious feeling of the times, the conviction that the enterprise of rescuing the sacred places was a holy one, which was the main incitive force, in the absence of which all the other causes and motives enumerated would have proved wholly inadequate either to set in motion or to keep in ii6 THE CRUSADES [§126 motion these remarkable and long-continued expeditions. Because it was a generous religious sentiment that organized them, because it was the moving force of a grand religious ideal that maintained them so long, they are rightly called Holy Wars. 126. Circumstances favoring the Crusading Enterprises. Notwithstanding the number and strength of the forces that con- ^ curred to transform the population of the West into zealous crusaders, the Holy Wars would not have been possible or would have failed to meet with even the partial success that attended them had it not been for several favoring cir- cumstances. First, just before this time the Hun- garians had been converted to Chris- tianity, and thus the overland route to the East, which for several centuries had been barred by heathen hordes, was re- opened. Thus was the pathway for the earlier Crusaders prepared. Second, the growth during the tenth and eleventh centuries of the sea power of the republics of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, to- gether with that of the Normans in southern Italy ,^ enabled the Christians to clear the middle Mediterranean of the Moslem pirate ships that had vexed its waters and shores ever since the rise of the Mohammedan power. Because of the crusaders' dread of the sea, 1 See above, p. 97, n. i. Fig. 22. Reception of Crusaders by the King of Hungary. (From a fifteenth-century manuscript ; after Lacroix) m7] THE LEGEND OF PETER THE HERMIT 117 the water route to Palestine was not followed by the earlier expedi- tions; but the advantages of the water passage gradually came to be realized and all the later expeditions reached their destination by ship. From the beginning of the movements it was alone the com- mand of the sea by the Italian cities that rendered possible that transport service which was indispensable to the maintenance of the colonies established in Palestine as a result of the First Crusade. Third, just four years before the First Crusade the vast empire which had been established in Asia by the Seljuk Turks fell to pieces and was replaced by a number of mutually jealous Turkish principalities. This was a most fortunate circumstance for the first crusaders, for had they been compelled to encounter the undivided forces of the original empire, it is not probable that any of them would ever have reached the Holy Land. Fourth, the cause of the Christians was greatly furthered by the antagonism of the Arabs and the Turks. This antagonism — which has been prolonged to our own day — almost fatally divided the strength of the Mohammedan world. Finally, the development within the Church of the papal power was a circumstance in the absence of which the Crusades could never have found a place in the history of Western Christendom. The popes used their preeminent authority to persuade the people to engage in the wars as pious undertakings. It was they who incited, organized, and directed with greater or less success the expeditions, and to them belongs whatever measure of praise or of censure attaches to the enterprises as a whole. 127. The Legend of Peter the Hermit. There is a tradition which makes one immediate inciting cause of the First Crusade to have been the preaching of a monk named Peter the Hermit, a native of France. This legend tells how the monk, moved by devout longing, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land; how his sympathy and indignation were stirred by the sight of the indig- nities and cruelties to which the native and the pilgrim Christians were subjected by the infidels; and how, armed with letters from the patriarch of Jerusalem to the Christians of Europe, he hastened to Rome, and there, at the feet of Pope Urban II, begged to be ii8 THE CRUSADES [§128 commissioned to preach a crusade for the deliverance of the Holy City. The Pope is represented as commending warmly the zeal of the hermit and, with promises of aid, sending him forth to stir up the people to engage in the holy undertaking. The legend now exhibits the monk as going everywhere, and addressing in the streets and in the open fields the crowds that press about him. The people look upon the monk, clothed in the coarse raiment of an anchorite, as a messenger from heaven, and even venerate the ass upon which he rides. His wild and fervid eloquence alternately melts his auditors to tears or lifts them into transports of enthusiasm. Such, in essential features, is the tradition of Peter the Hermit. The first part of this account is now discredited, and it seems quite certain that the monk's alleged pilgrimage to Jerusalem is a pure embellishment of the tale by later romancers. That the preaching of the monk, however, was of a most extraordinary character and produced a deep impression upon the popular mind is beyond doubt. But the real originator of the First Crusade was Pope Urban, and not the hermit, as the legend represents. 128. The Council of Clermont (1095). While the religious feelings of the Christians of the West were growing tenser day by day, the Turks in the East were making constant advances, until at last they were threatening Constantinople itself. The Emperor Alexis Comnenus sent urgent letters to the Pope, asking for aid against the infidels, representing that, unless help were extended immediately, the capital with all its holy relics must soon fall into the hands of the barbarians. Pope Urban called a great council of the Church at Piacenza in Italy to consider the appeal, but nothing was effected at this meeting. Later in the same year a new council was convened at Clermont in France, Urban purposely fixing the place of meet- ing among the warm-tempered and martial Franks. Fourteen archbishops, two hundred and twenty-five bishops, four hundred abbots, and of others a multitude that no man could number, crowded to the council. After the meeting had considered some minor matters the §129] THE FIRST CRUSADE 119 question which was agitating all hearts was brought before it. The Pope himself was one of the chief speakers. He possessed the gift of eloquence, so that the man, the cause, and the occasion all contributed to the achievement of one of the greatest triumphs of human oratory. Urban pictured the humiliation and misery of the provinces of Asia; the profanation of the places made sacred by the presence and footsteps of the Son of God; and then he detailed the conquests of the Turks, until now, with almost all Asia Minor in their possession, they were threatening Europe from the shores of the Hellespont. "When Jesus Christ sum- mons you to his defense," exclaimed the eloquent pontiff, "let no base affection detain you in your homes; whoever will aban- don his house, or his father, or his mother, or his wife, or his children, or his inheritance, for the sake of his name, shall be recompensed a hundredfold and possess life eternal." Here the enthusiasm of the vast assembly burst through every restraint. With one voice they cried, ^'Dieu le volt! Dieu le volt!'' "It is the will of God! It is the will of God! " Thou- sands immediately affixed the cross ^ to their garments as a pledge of their engagement to go forth to the rescue of the Holy Sepul- cher. The following summer was set for the expedition. 129, The First Crusade (1096-1099) ; Founding of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. It was the countries of France and southern Italy that were most deeply stirred by the papal call. By edict the Pope had granted to all who should enlist from right motives "remission of all canonical penalties," and promised to the truly penitent, in case they should die on the expedition, "the joy of life eternal." Under such inducements princes and nobles, bishops and monks, saints and sinners, rich and poor, hastened to enroll themselves beneath the standard of the Cross. "Europe," says Michaud, "appeared to be a land of exile, which every one was eager to quit." Raymond, Count of Toulouse; Robert, Duke of Normandy; Godfrey of Bouillon, Duke of Lower Lorraine; Bohemund, Prince 1 Hence the name Crusades given to the Holy \\'ars, from Old French crois, " cross." 120 THE CRUSADES [§129 of Otranto, and his nephew, Tancred, the ''mirror of knight- hood," were among the most noted of the leaders of the different divisions of the army which was soon gathered.^ The expedition is said to have numbered about three hundred thousand men.- The crusaders traversed Europe by different routes and re- assembled at Constantinople. Crossing the Bosphorus, they first captured Nicsea, the Turkish capital in Bithynia, and then set out across Asia Minor for Syria. The line of their dreary march between Nicaea and Antioch was whitened with the bones of nearly one half their number. Arriving at Antioch, the survivors captured that place and then, after considerable delay, pushed on towards Jerusalem. When at length the Holy City burst upon their view a perfect delirium of joy seized the crusaders. As they moved on they took off their shoes and marched with uncovered head and bare feet, singing the words of the prophet: "Jerusalem, lift up thine eyes, and behold the liberator who comes to break thy chains." The city was taken by storm. A terrible slaughter of the infidels followed. The government which the crusaders established for the regained Holy City was a model feudal state, called the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, the limits of which very nearly coincided with the boundaries of ancient Palestine. The code known as the Assizes of Jerusalem, which was a late compilation of the rules and customs presumably followed by the judges of the little state, forms one of the most complete and interesting collections of feudal customs in existence. 1 ISefore the regular armies of the crusaders were ready to move, those who had gathered about Peter the Hermit, becoming impatient of delay, urged him to place himself at their head and lead them at once to the Holy Land. Dividing command of the mixed multitudes with a poor knight called Walter the Penniless, and followed by a throng, it is said, of eighty thousand persons, among whom were many women and children, the hermit set out for Constantinople by the overland route. Thousands of the crusaders perished miserably of hunger and exposure on the march. Those who crossed the Bosphorus were surprised by the Turks, and almost all were slaughtered. '- As Kugler observes, the enormous figures of the chroniclers can only be taken to mean "a great many people." They represent, of course, simply vague guesses . or estimates. §130] RELIGIOUS ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD 121 At the head of the kingdom was placed Godfrey of Bouillon, the most devoted of the crusader knights. The prince refused the title and vestments of royalty, declaring that he would never wear a crown of gold in the city where his Lord and Master had worn a crown of thorns. The only title he would accept was that of " Baron of the Holy Sepulcher," Many of the crusaders, considering their vows to deliver the Holy City as now fulfilled, soon set out on their return to their homes, some making their way back by sea and some by land. 130. Origin of the Religious Orders of Knighthood. In the interval between the First and the Second Crusade, the two famed religious military orders known as the Hospitalers and the Tem- plars ^ were formed. A little later, during the Third Crusade, still another fraternity, known as the Teutonic Knights, was established. The objects of all the orders were the care of the sick and wounded crusaders, the entertainment of Christian pilgrims, the guarding of the holy places, and ceaseless battling for the Cross. These fraternities soon acquired a military fame that was spread throughout the Christian world. They were joined by many of the most illustrious knights of the West, and through the gifts of the pious acquired great wealth and became possessed of numerous estates and castles in Europe as well as in Asia. 131. The Second Crusade (1147-1149); Preaching of St. Ber- nard; Failure of the Crusade. In the year 1146 the city of Edessa, the outlying bulwark in the northeast towards Mesopo- tamia of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, was taken by the Turks and the entire population slaughtered or sold into slavery. This disaster threw Europe into a state of the greatest alarm lest the little Christian kingdom should be overwhelmed and all the holy places should again fall into the hands of the infidels. 1 The Hospitalers, or Knights of St. John, took their name from the fact that the organization was first formed among the monks of the Hospital of St. John at Jeru- salem ; while the Templars, or Knights of the Temple, were so called because of the fact that one of the buildings of the brotherhood occupied the site of Solomon's Temple. In the case of the Hospitalers it was monks who added to their ordinary monastic vows those of knighthood ; in the case of the Templars it was knights who added to their military vows those of religion. Thus were united the seemingly incongruous ideals of the monk and the knight. 122 THE CRUSADES [§132 The scenes that marked the opening of the First Crusade were now repeated in many of the countries of the West. St, Bernard of Clairvaux, an eloquent monk, was the second Peter the Hermit who went everywhere arousing the warriors of the Cross to the defense of the birthplace of their religion. The contagion of the enthusiasm seized not merely upon barons, knights, and the com- mon people, which classes alone participated in the First Crusade, but the greatest sovereigns were now infected by it. Louis VII, king of France, was led to undertake the crusade through remorse for an act of great cruelty against some of his revolted subjects. The Emperor Conrad III of Germany was persuaded to leave the affairs of his distracted realms in the hands of God and conse- crate himself to the defense of the sepulcher of Christ. The best part of the strength of both the German and the French division of the expedition was wasted in Asia Minor. Mere remnants of the armies joined in Palestine. The siege of Damascus, which was now undertaken, proved unsuccessful, and the crusaders, broken in spirit, returned home. 132. The Third Crusade (ii89-ii92); Frederick Barbarossa, Saladin, and Richard the Lion-Hearted. The Third Cru- sade was caused by the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, the renowned sultan of Egypt. This event occurred in the year 1187. The intelligence of the disaster caused the greatest consternation and grief throughout Christendom. Three of the great sovereigns of Europe, Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard I of England, assumed the cross, and set out, each at the head of a large army, for the recovery of the Holy City. The English king, Richard, afterwards given the title of Cocur dc Lion, the "Lion-Hearted," in memory of his heroic exploits in Palestine, was the central figure among the Christian knights of this crusade. The German army, attempting the overland route, after meet- ing with the usual troubles in eastern Europe from the unfriendli- ness of the natives, was decimated in Asia Minor by the hardships of the march and the swords of the Turks. The Emperor Fred- erick was drowned while crossing a swollen stream, and most of § 133] ^ THE FOURTH CRUSADE 123 the survivors of his army, disheartened by the loss of their leader, soon returned to Germany with little or nothing accomplished. The English and French kings took the sea route, and finally mustered their forces beneath the walls of Acre, which city the Christians were then besieging. After one of the longest and most costly sieges they ever carried on in Asia, the crusaders at last forced the place to capitulate, in spite of all the efforts of Saladin to render the garrison relief. For two years Richard contended in vain with Saladin, a knightly and generous antagonist according to the chroniclers, for possession of the tomb of Christ. He finally concluded with him a favorable truce and then set out for home; but while trav- ersing Germany in disguise he was discovered and was arrested and imprisoned by order of the Emperor Henry VI, who was his political enemy. Henry cast his prisoner into a dungeon and, notwithstanding the outcry of all Europe that the champion of Christianity should suffer such treatment at the hands of a brother prince, refused to release him without an enormous ransom, which was paid by the English people. 133. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) ; Capture of Con- stantinople by the Latins. The city of Venice was the rendezvous of the Fourth Crusade. It was made up largely of unscrupu- lous adventurers and the marine forces of Venice. It was origi- nally aimed at Egypt but struck Constantinople. A great share of the responsibility for the diversion of the crusade from its first designation lies, it seems, at the door of the Venetians, who, when it was proposed that the crusaders should undertake to right certain alleged wrongs of the imperial family at the Byzantine capital, seeing in the proposed adventure an opportunity to further their trade interests in the Black Sea regions, took pains to insure that the expedition should be launched in that direction. The outcome of the crusade was the capture and sack of Con- stantinople and the setting up of a Latin prince, Baldwin of Flanders, as Emperor of the East (1204). The Empire was now remodeled into a feudal state like the Kingdom of Jerusalem established by the knights of the First Crusade. Most of the 124 THE CRUSADES [§133 Greek islands and certain of the shore lands of the old Empire were given to Venice as her share of the spoils. A great part of the remaining lands was allotted as fiefs to Frankish knights. One of the most interesting of the feudal principalities that arose on the ground conquered from the Greeks was the dukedom of Athens. Hundreds of Western knights assembled at this capital of ancient culture and created there a brilliant feudal court which completely captivated the imagination of Europe/ Fig. 23. The Horses of St. Mark's. (From a photograph) These celebrated bronze horses were among the trophies which the Venetians received as their share of the phinder when Constantinople was sacked by the crusaders. They were placed over the portico of St. Mark's in Venice. They were carried off to Paris by Napoleon during his ascendancy, but upon his downfall were restored to the Venetians. In 1915, during the World War, they were lowered and taken to a place of safety The Latin Empire of Constantinople, as it was called, lasted only a little over half a century (1204-1261). The Greeks, at the end of this period, succeeded in regaining the throne, which they then held until the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453- A most regrettable result of the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders was the destruction of the numerous masterpieces of 1 Recall the " Duke Theseus " in Chaucer's Knigfht's Tale of Palamon ami Arcife and in Shakespeare's . / Midsummer Nig/ifs Dream. The Frankish dukes of Athens maintained their principality till 131 1. §134] THE CHILDREN'S CRUSADE 125 art with which the city was crowded, for Constantinople had been for nine centuries the chief place of safe deposit for the priceless art treasures of the ancient world. The extent of the loss suffered by art in the ruthless sack of the city will never be known. It would seem as though almost all the bronze and silver statues and all the ornamental metal work of the churches and other edifices of the city went into the melting pot. Still another lamentable consequence of the crusaders' act was the weakening of the military strength of the capital. For a thousand years Constantinople had been the great bulwark of Western civilization against Asiatic barbarism. Its power of resist- ance was now broken, with momentous consequences for Western Christendom, as we shall learn later (Chapter XIV). 134. The Children's Crusade (1212). During the interval between the Fourth and the Fifth Crusade the religious enthu- siasm that had so long agitated the men of Europe came to fill with unrest the children, resulting in what is known as the Children's Crusade, The chief preacher of this crusade was a child about twelve years of age, a French peasant lad, named Stephen, who became persuaded that Jesus Christ had commanded him to lead a cru- sade of children to the rescue of the Holy Sepulcher. The children became wild with excitement and flocked in vast crowds to the places appointed for rendezvous. Nothing could restrain them or thwart their purpose. "Even bolts and bars," says an old chronicler, ''could not hold them." The great majority of those who collected at the rallying places were boys under twelve years of age, but there were also many girls. The movement provoked the most diverse views. Some declared that it was inspired by the Holy Spirit, and quoted such scriptural texts as these to justify the enthusiasm: "A little child shall lead them"; "Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings thou hast perfected praise," Others, however, were quite as confident that the whole thing was the work of the devil. The German children, whose number is estimated at from twenty to forty thousand, crossed the Alps and marched down 126 THE CRUSADES [§135 the Italian shores looking for a miraculous pathway through the sea to Palestine, Beneath the hardships of the journey a great part of the little crusaders died or fell out by the way. Those reaching Rome were kindly received by the Pope, who persuaded them to give up their enterprise and return to their homes. The French children, numbering thirty thousand, according to the chroniclers, set out from the place of rendezvous for Mar- seilles. Their leader, Stephen, rode in great state in a chariot surrounded by an escort of infantile nobles, who paid him the obedience and homage due a superior and sacred being. The little pilgrims had no conception of the distance to the Holy Land, and whenever a city came in sight eagerly asked if it were not Jerusalem, Arriving at Marseilles, the children were bitterly disappointed that the sea did not open and give them passage to Palestine. The greater part, discouraged and disillusioned, now returned home; five or six thousand, however, accepting gladly the seem- ingly generous offer of two merchants of the city, who proposed to take them to the Holy Land free of charge, crowded into seven small ships and sailed out of the port of Marseilles. But they were betrayed and sold as slaves in Alexandria and other Mohammedan slave markets. This children's expedition marked at once the culmination and the decline of the crusading movement. The fervid zeal that inspired the first crusaders was already dying out. "These children," said the Pope, referring to the young crusaders, "re- proach us with having fallen asleep, whilst they were flying to the assistance of the Holy Land." 135. The Minor Crusades; End of the Kingdom of Jeru- salem. The last four expeditions — the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth^ — undertaken by the Christians of Europe against the 1 The Fifth Crusade (1216-1220) was led by the kings of Hungary and Cyprus, Its strength was wasted in Egypt, arid it resulted in nothing. The Sixth Crusade (1227-1229), headed by Frederick II of Germany, succeeded in securing from the Saracens the restoration of Jerusalem and that of several other cities of Palestine. The Seventh Crusade (1249-1254) was under the lead of Louis IX of France, sumamed §136] CRUSADES IN EUROPE 127 infidels of the East may be conveniently grouped as the Minor Crusades. They were marked by a less genuine enthusiasm than that which characterized particularly the First Crusade, and ex- hibited among those taking part in them the greatest variety of objects and ambitions. The flame of the Crusades had burned itself out, and the fate of the little Christian kingdom in Asia, isolated from Europe and surrounded on all sides by bitter ene- mies, became each day more and more apparent. Finally, the last of the places (Acre) held by the Christians fell into the hands of the ]\Ioslems, and with this event the Latin Kingdom of Jeru- salem came to an end (1291). The second great combat between Mohammedanism and Christianity was over, and '^ silence reigned along the shore that had so long resounded with the world's debate" (Gibbon). 136. Crusades in Europe. Notwithstanding the strenuous and united efforts which the Christians of Europe put forth against the IMohammedans, they did not succeed in extending permanently the frontiers of Western civilization in the Orient. But in the southwest and the northeast of Europe it was dif- ferent. Here the crusading spirit rescued from Moslem and pagan large territories, and upon these regained or newly acquired lands established a number of little Christian principalities, which later grew into states or came to form a portion of states which were to play great parts in the history of the following centuries. The states whose beginnings are thus connected with the cru- sading age are Portugal, Spain, and Prussia. We will say just a single word respecting each of them. 137. Crusades against the Moors in the Iberian Peninsula. Just before the actual beginning of the Crusades against the Moslems of the East a band of northern knights went to the help the Saint. It met with disaster in Egypt. The Eighth Crusade (1270-1272) had for leaders St. Louis and Prince Edward of England, afterwards Edward I. Louis directed his forces against the Moors about Tunis, in North Africa. Here the king died of the plague. Nothing was effected by this division of the expedition. The division led by the English prince was, however, more fortunate. Edward succeeded in capturing Nazareth and in compelling the sultan of Egypt to agree to a treaty favorable to the Christians (1272). 128 THE CRUSADES [§138 of the Christians against the Moslems in the west of the Iberian peninsula. The issue of this chivalric enterprise was the formation of a little feudal principality, the nucleus of the later kingdom of Portugal. At the time of the Second Crusade some German and English crusaders, on their way to Palestine by sea, stopped here and aided the native Christians in the siege and capture from the Mohammedans of the important city of Lisbon (1147). This gave the little growing state its future capital. Thus Portu- gal was, in a very strict sense, a creation of the crusading spirit. Then during all the time that the Crusades proper were going on in the eastern Mediterranean, the Spanish Christian knights were engaged in almost one uninterrupted crusade against the Moslem intruders. By the middle of the thirteenth century the Christians had crowded the Moors into a small region in the south- ern part of the peninsula. Upon the ground thus regained there arose a number of small Christian states which finally coalesced to form the modern kingdom of Spain. The circum- stances attending the origin of this kingdom left a deep impress, as we shall learn later, upon all its subsequent history.^ 138. Crusades by the Teutonic Knights against the Pagan. Slavs (1226-1283). At the time of the Crusades all the Baltic shore lands lying eastward of the Vistula and which to-day form a part of Prussia were held by pagan Slavs. These people, like the pagan Saxons of an earlier time, resisted strenuously the introduction of Christianity among them. Devoted priests who carried the gospel to them, together with their converts, were often massacred. Finally, a crusade was preached against them. Early in the thirteenth century (1226) some knights of the Teutonic Order transferred their crusading efforts to these north- ern heathen lands. For the greater part of the century the knights carried on what was a desperate and almost continuous war of extermination against the pagans. Upon the land wrested from them were founded the important fortress-cities of Konigs- berg and Marienburg. The surrounding Slav population was either destroyed or subjected, and the whole land was gradually 1 See sect. 224. §139] CRUSADES AGAINST THE ALBIGENSES 129 Germanized. Thus what was originally Slav territory was con- verted into a German land, and the basis laid of a principality (Duchy of Prussia) which later came to form an important part of modern Prussia.^ Thus the crusading zeal of the knight-monks contributed to the creation of one of the strongest of modern European states. 138. Crusades against the Albigenses (1209-1229). During the crusading age holy wars were preached and waged against heretics as well as against infidels and pagans. In the south of France, which country since the settlement of Marseilles by the Greeks in the sixth century b. c. had been open, by way of the sea, to Hellenic, Roman, and Saracenic influences, was a sect of Christians called Albigenses,^ who had departed so far from the orthodox faith that Pope Innocent III declared them to be ''more wicked than Saracens." He therefore, after a vain en- deavor to turn them from their errors, called upon the French king, Philip II, and his nobles to lead a crusade again the heretics and their rich and powerful patron, Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse. The king held aloof from the enterprise, being fully occupied watching his own enemies; but a great number of his nobles responded eagerly to the call of the Church. The leader of the first crusade (1209-12 13) was Simon de Montfort, a man cruel, callous, and relentless beyond belief. A great part of Languedoc, the beautiful country of the Albigenses, was made a desert, the inhabitants being slaughtered and the cities burned. Upon the capture of a single town, Beziers by name, thirty thousand per- sons, men, women, and children, were slain. In 1229 the fury of a fresh crusade burst upon the Albigenses, which resulted in their prince (Raymond VII) ceding the greater part of his beautiful but ravaged provinces to Louis IX, king of France, and submitting himself to the Church. The Albigensian heresy was soon wholly extirpated by the tribunal of the In- quisition (sect. 304) which was set up in the country. 1 See on map of modern Europe how the German territory on the northeast is thrust out into the Slavonic mass. 2 From Albi, the name of a city and district in which their tenets prevailed. 130 THE CRUSADES [§140 INFLUENCE UPON EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION OF THE CRUSADES 140. Their Effect upon the Eastern Empire. Among the most noteworthy results of the Crusades we may place the preser- vation for a time of Constantinople/ The shock of the First Crusade rolled back the tide of Turkish conquest, and thus postponed the fall of the Eastern Empire, or at least of its capital, for three centuries and more, thereby gaining for the young Christian civilization of central Europe time suf- ficient to consolidate its strength into an impregnable bulwark before the return- ing tide of Mohammedan invasion swept in again upon Christendom. It is al- together probable that, had the Seljuk Turks been allowed to cross the Bos- phorus in the twelfth century, they would have carried their conquests much farther to the west than their kinsmen, the Osmanli, were able to do in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries (Chap- ter XIV). Furthermore, the fall of Constanti- nople in the twelfth century would have meant probably the permanent loss of all the literary treasures the city was holding in safe-keeping for civilization; for the West was not yet ready, as is shown by the vandalism of the men of the Fourth Crusade, to become the ap- preciative and reverent guardian of this precious bequest. 141. Their Effects upon the Towns and upon Commerce and Society. The towns gained many political advantages at the expense of the crusading barons and princes. Ready money in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was largely in the hands of the burgher class, and in return for the contributions and loans 1 But for the crime of the men of the Fourth Crusade (sect. 133) the Eastern em- perors might possibly have been able to hold the Bosphorus indefinitely against the Ottoman Turks. Fig. 24. A Medi/Eval Windmill. (From an en- graving of an abbey and its precincts, dating from about the middle of the fourteenth century) § 142] POLITICAL EFFECTS OF THE CRUSADES 131 they made to their overlords or suzerains they received charters conferring special and valuable privileges. Thus, while power and wealth were slipping out of the hands of the nobility, the cities and towns were growing in political importance and making great gains in the matter of municipal freedom. The Holy Wars further promoted the prosperity of the towns by giving a great impulse to commercial enterprise. During this period Venice, Pisa, and Genoa acquired great wealth and reputation through the fostering of their trade by the needs of the crusaders and the opening up of the East. The Mediterranean was whitened with the sails of their transport ships, which were constantly plying between the various ports of Europe and the towns of the Syrian coast. Also, various arts, manufactures, and inventions (among these the windmill^ and probably the mariner's compass) before unknown in Europe were introduced from Asia. This en- richment of the civilization of the West with the "spoils of the East" we may allow to be emblemized by the famous bronze horses that the crusaders carried off from Constantinople and set up before St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice (Fig. 23). The effects of the Crusades upon the social life of the Western nations were marked and important. Giving opportunity for romantic adventure, they aided powerfully in the development of that institution of knighthood which, as we have seen, nourished many of the noblest virtues and most exalted sentiments of modern society (sect. 105). And under this head must be placed the general refining influence that contact with the more cultured nations of the East had upon the semibarbarous folk of the West. These influences, which we designate the social, were felt of course in the country as well as in the town, but their more permanent impress was probably left upon the life of the urban communities. 142. Their Political Effects. The. Crusades, as we have noticed in another connection (sect. 95), helped to break down the power of the feudal aristocracy and give prominence to the 1 Windmills were chiefly utilized in the Netherlands, where they were used to pump the water from the oversoaked lands, and thus became the means of creating the most important part of what is now the kingdom of Holland. 132 THE CRUSADES [§ 143 kings and the people. Many of the nobles who set out on the expeditions never returned, and their estates, through failure of heirs, escheated to the crown; while many more wasted their fortunes in meeting the expenses of their undertaking. Thus the nobility were greatly weakened in numbers and influence, and the power and patronage of the kings correspondingly increased. This process of the disintegration of feudalism and the growth of monarchy is to be traced most distinctly in France, the cradle and center of the crusading movement. The laying of the foundations of the later states of Portugal, Spain, and Prussia should also be noticed here as showing how the Crusades helped to create the map of modern Europe. 143. Their Effects upon the Native Literatures and the In- tellectual Life of Europe. In no realm were the effects of the Crusades more positive than in the field of literature. From the East was brought in a vast amount of fresh literary material con- sisting of the traditions of great events like the siege of Troy, and of great heroes, such as Solomon and Alexander the Great. These legends, exaggerated and distorted and curiously mingled with the folklore of the Western peoples, came now to form the basis of a vast literature consisting of romances, epic poems, and pious tales, iniinite in variety and form. In this way the native literatures of Europe were enriched and their growth greatly stimulated. Furthermore, the knowledge of geography and of the science and learning of the East gained by the crusaders through their expeditions greatly stimulated the Latin intellect and helped to awaken in western Europe that mental activity which resulted finally in the great intellectual outburst known as the Renaissance (Chapter XVIII). . 144. Their Influence on Geographical Discovery. Lastly, the incentive given to geographical exploration led various travel- ers, such as the celebrated Venetian Marco Polo (sect. 158), to range over the most remote countries of Asia. Nor did the matter end here. Even that spirit of maritime enterprise and adventure which rendered illustrious the close of the Middle Ages, inspiring § 144] REFERENCES AND STUDY TOPICS 133 the voyages of Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Magellan, may be traced back to that lively interest in geographical matters, that curiosity respecting the remote regions of the earth, awakened by the expeditions of the crusaders.^ These various growths and movements, commercial, social, polit- ical, intellectual, and geographical, in European society, which, though not originated by the Crusades, were nevertheless given a fresh impulse by them, we shall trace out in following chapters. Selections from the Sources. Chronicles of the Crusades (Bohn). Read the chronicle by Geoffrey, who writes as an eyewitness of scenes of the Third Crusade. Archer, T. A., Crusade of Richard I (Enghsh History by Contem- porary Writers). Translations and Reprints, vol. i, No. 4, " Letters of the Crusaders"; also vol. iii, No. i, "The Fourth Crusade." Robinson, J. H., Readings in European History, vol. i, chap. xv. References (Modern). Burr, G. L., The Year 1000 and the Antecedents of the Crusades (in A?nerican Historical Review for April, 1901, vol. vi. No. 3 (shows the unhistorical character of the tradition of the "millennial terror"). Archer, T. A., and Kingsford, C. L., The Crusades. Cox, G. W., The Crusades. Emerton, E., MedicEval Ejirope, chap. xi. Adam.S, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap. xi. MiCHAUD, J. F., Histojy of the Crtisades, 3 vols, (very interesting, but in part discredited through a new appraisement of the trustworthiness of the sources for the Crusades). Pears, E., The Fall of Constantinople (the best account of the Fourth Crusade). Gray, G. Z., The Children's Cnisade. Gibbon, E., The Declifte and Fall, chaps. Iviii-lxi. Lane- Poole, S., Saladin, and the Fall of the Kingdom of ferusalem. Topics for Class Reports, i. The speech of Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont : Ogg, F. A., Source Book of Mediceval History, pp. 284-288. 2. Saint Bernard and his preaching of the Second Crusade : Morison, J. C, The Life and Times of St. Bernard, pp. 415-428. 3. Stories from the Crusades which formed material for literature : Munro, D. C, and Sellery, G. C, Medieval Civilization, pp. 269-276. 1 Colonel Henry Yule, speaking of the influence of the travels and writings of Marco Polo, says : " The spur which his book eventually gave to geographical studies, and the beacon which it hung out at the eastern extremities of the earth, helped to guide the aims ... of the greater son of the rival republic. His work was at least a link in the providential chain which at last dragged the New World to light." — Introduction to The Book of Ser Marco Polo (London, 1875). CHAPTER XIII SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY; DECLINE OF ITS TEMPORAL POWER 145. Preliminary Survey : the Papacy at its Height. In an earlier chapter on the Empire and the Papacy we related the begin- nings of the contention for supremacy between Pope and Emperor. In the present chapter we shall first speak of the Papacy at the height of its power, and then tell how, as the popes, with the Em- pire ruined, seemed about to realize their ideal of a universal eccle- siastical and secular monarchy, its temporal power was shattered by a new opposing force, — the rising nations. We have already noticed the work of some of the upholders of the Papacy, notably that of Pope Gregory VII. Gregory had many worthy successors. The most eminent of these were Alex- ander III (1159-1181) and Innocent III (1198-1216), under whom the power of the Papacy was at its height. In the paragraphs immediately following we shall glance at some of the events which signalized the pontificates of these representatives of the papal supremacy. The events we shall touch upon are those which record the triumph of the Papacy first over the Empire and then over the kings of France and England. 146. Pope Alexander III and Emperor Frederick Bar- barossa. A little after the settlement known as the Concordat of Worms (sect. 119) the first of the House of Hohenstaufen came to the German throne, and then began a sharp contention, lasting, with intervals of strained peace, for more than a century, between the emperors of this proud family and the successive occupants of the papal chair. This contest was practically the continua- tion, although under changed conditions of course, of the strug- gle begun long before to decide which should be supreme, the '^ world priest" or the "world king." We can here do no more '34 § 147] THE POPE AND PHILIP AUGUSTUS 135 than simply note the issue of the quarrel in so far as it concerned Pope Alexander III and one of the most noted of the Hohenstaufen, Frederick Barbarossa, the crusader. After maintaining the contest for many years Frederick, van- quished and humiliated, was constrained to seek reconciliation with the Pope. Then followed the Peace of Venice (1177) with its dramatic incidents. In front of St. Mark's Cathedral, in the presence of a vast throng, Frederick, overwhelmed by a sudden emotion of awe and reverence, cast off his mantle and flung him- self at the feet of the venerable pontiff, who raised him from the ground and gave him the kiss of peace. That was for the imperial power its second Canossa. Precisely one hundred years had passed since the humiliation of the Emperor Henry IV (sect. 118). 147. Pope Innocent III and Philip Augustus of France. When one of the most powerful and self-reliant of all the emperors after Charlemagne was forced thus to bow before the papal throne, we are not surprised to find the kings of the different countries of Europe subjecting themselves obediently to the same all-pervad- ing authority. French and English history, of the period covered by the pontificate of Innocent III, both afford a striking illustra- tion of the subject relation which the sovereigns of Europe had come to sustain to the Roman See, The French throne was at this time held by Philip Augustus ( 1 180-12 23). On some pretext Philip had put away his wife and entered into another marriage alliance. Pope Innocent III, as the censor of the morals of kings as well as of the morals of their subjects, commanded him to take back his discarded queen, and upon his refusal to do so, laid France under an interdict. Philip was finally constrained to yield obedience to the Pope. This triumph of the Papal See over so strong and imperious a sovereign has been pronounced "the proudest trophy in the scutcheon of Rome." 148. Pope Innocent III and King John of England. The story of Innocent's triumph over King John (i 199-12 16) of Eng- land is familiar. The see of Canterbury falling vacant, John or- dered the monks who had the right of election to give the place 136 SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY [§ 149 to a favorite of his. They obeyed; but the Pope immediately declared the election void, and caused the vacancy to be filled with one of his own friends, Stephen Langton. John declared that the Pope's archbishop should never enter England as primate, and proceeded to confiscate the estates of the see. Innocent now laid all England under an interdict, excommunicated John, and incited the French king, Philip Augustus, to undertake a crusade against the contumacious rebel. The outcome of the matter was that John was compelled to yield to the power of the Church. He gave back the lands he had confiscated, acknowledged Langton to be the rightful primate of England, and even went so far as to give England and Ireland to the Pope, receiving them back as a perpetual fief ( 12 13) . In token of his vassalage he agreed to pay to the Roman See the annual sum of one thousand marks sterling. This tribute money was actually, paid, though irregularly, until the reign of Edward III (sect. 152). 149. The Mendicant Orders, or Begging Friars/ The imme- diate successors of Innocent III found a strong support for their authority in two new monastic orders known as the Domini- can and the Franciscan. They were so named after their re- spective founders, St. Dominic (1170-1221) of Old Castile and St. Francis (about 1 182-1226) of Assisi, in Italy. The principles on which these fraternities were established were very different from those v/hich had shaped all previous monastic orders. Speaking in general terms, until now the monk had sought cloistral solitude primarily in order to escape from the world, and through penance and prayer and contemplation to work out his own salvation. In the new orders the members instead of withdrawing from the world were to remain in it and give themselves wholly to the work of rescuing and saving others. This virtue of self-forgetting service was incarnate especially in St. Francis and his early followers. In exalting this virtue they rendered a distinct and timely service to European morality. Just as the early monks, through the emphasis laid on the virtue of 1 From fratrcs, frins, "brethren." § 149] THE MENDICANT ORDERS 137 chastity, made a needed protest against the sensuality of a senile and decadent civilization (sect. 27), so did the Franciscans, through the stress laid on the virtue of self-sacrifice for others, make a needed protest against the selfishness and hardness of an age that seemed to have forgotten the claims of the poor, the suffering, and the lowly. Again, the orders were also as orders to renounce all earthly possessions, and, ^'espousing Poverty as a bride," to rely entirely for support upon the daily and voluntary alms of the pious. ^ Hitherto, while the individual members of a monastic order must espouse extreme poverty, the house, or fraternity, might possess any amount of communal wealth. This had led to indolence and laxity of discipline, and the espousal of poverty by the new brotherhood was a protest against the luxurious habits of the old orders. There was at first a wide difference between the two fraternities. St. Francis and the disciples whom his boundless self-sacrificing charity drew about him devoted themselves, in imitation of Christ and the apostles, to preaching the gospel to the poor and outcast and to visiting those whp were sick and in prison. St. Dominic made his appeal to the higher and cultured class. He conceived his mission to be the combating of heresy, with which the intel- lectual ferment of the times had begun to fill Christendom. These different tendencies of the two great founders are tersely expressed in the respective titles given them: St. Francis was called the ''P'ather of the poor"; St. Dominic, the "Hammer of the heretics." But notwithstanding that the differing genius of the two saints left at first a distinct impress upon their respec- tive orders, still each fraternity in time borrowed much from the other and the two finally became very much alike. The new fraternities grew and spread with marvelous rapidity, and in less than a generation they had quite overshadowed all 1 The Mendicant Friars soon came to interpret their vow of poverty more Hberally, and believed that they met its obligations when they put the title of the property they acquired in the hands of the Pope, while they themselves simply enjoyed the use of it. The new fraternities grew in time to be among the richest of the monastic orders. 138 SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY [§ 150 the old monastic orders of the Church. The popes conferred upon them many and special privileges. They in turn became the stanchest friends and supporters of the Roman See. They were to the Papacy of the thirteenth century what the Benedictines had been to Pope Gregory VII, or what the later Order of the Jesuits was to be to the papal Church of the period of the Reformation. 150. The Revolt of the Nations. The fourteenth century marks the turning point in the history of the temporal power of the Papacy. In the course of that century the lay rulers in several of the leading countries of Europe, supported by their subjects, succeeded in regaining their lost independence. France, Germany, and England successively revolted — the expression is not too strong — against the Roman See and formally denied the right of the Pope to interfere in their political affairs. But it should be carefully noted that the leaders of this revolt against the secular domination of the Papacy did not think of challenging the spiritual authority of the Pope as the supreme head of the Church. Their attitude was wholly like that of the Italians of our own day, who, while dispossessing the Pope of the last remnant of his temporal sovereignty, abate nothing of their veneration for him as the Vicar of God in all things moral and spiritual. 151. Pope Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair of France. It was during the pontificate of Boniface VIII (i 294-1303) that the secular authority of the popes received a severe blow and began rapidly to decline. Boniface held Gregory VII's exalted views of the prerogatives of the papal office. Taking as his war- rant these words of Scripture, " Behold I have set thee over king- doms and empires,"^ he assumed an attitude towards the lay rulers which, was certain to bring the ecclesiastical and civil au- thorities into angry and violent collision. In the year 1296 he issued a bull in which, under pain of excommunication, he forbade all ecclesiatical persons, without papal permission, to pay taxes in any form levied by lay rulers. All civil rulers of whatsoever 1 Jer. i. 10. Lands of the HOLY R03IAN EMPIRE under the FrBnconlan Emperors !) r , , — ^ 10S4.11S5 ^{ — -yrsT^c^^ 100 150 200 250 •"'ri ^ '^CjV BALTIC SEA § 152] THE POPES AT AVIGNON 139 name — baron, duke, prince, king, or emperor — who should presume to impose upon ecclesiastics taxes of any kind were also to incur the same sentence. Philip of France regarded the papal claims as an encroachment upon the civil authority. The contention between him and the Pope speedily grew into a bitter and undignified quarrel. In one of his letters to Boniface, Philip addressed the pontiff in words of unseemly and studied rudeness. Phijip was bold because he knew that his people were with him. The popular feeling was given expression in a famous States-General which the king summoned in 1302, and in another called together the next year. The three estates of the realm — the nobility, the clergy, and the commons — declared that the Pope had no authority in France in political matters; that the French king had no superior save God. The end was soon reached. At Anagni, in Italy, a band of soldiers in the French pay, with every indignity, accompanied by blows, made Boniface a prisoner. After three days he was set free by friends and returned to Rome, only, however, to be there made the victim of fresh insults. In a few days he died, broken- hearted, it is said, at the age of eighty-seven (1303). By all historians of the rise and decline of the temporal power of the popes, the scene at Anagni is placed for historical instruc- tion alongside that enacted more than two centuries earlier at Canossa (sect. 118). The contrasted scenes cannot fail to im- press one deeply with the vast vicissitudes in the fortunes of the mediaeval Papacy. 152. Removal of the Papal Seat to Avignon (1309-1376) ; Revolt of Germany and England. In 1309, through the concur- rence of various influences, the papal seat was removed from Rome to Avignon, in Provence, adjoining the frontier of France. Here it remained for a space of nearly seventy years, an era known in Church history as the " Babylonian Captivity." While it was established here all the popes were Frenchmen and their policies were largely dictated by the French kings. Under these circumstances it was but natural that outside of France there should be stirred up a more and more angry protest against the 140 SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY [§ 153 interference of the popes in civil matters. The measures taken at this time by the national assemblies of Germany and England, in both of which countries a national sentiment was springing up, show how completely the Papacy had lost prestige as an inter- national power. In 1338 the German princes, with whom rested the right of electing the German king, in opposing the papal claims declared that the German Emperor derived all his powers from God through them and not from the Pope. The German Diet indorsed this declaration, and the principle that the German Emperor, as to his election and the exercise of his functions, is independent of the Roman See became from that time forward a part of the German constitution. A little later (in 1366), during tlje reign of Edward III, the English Parliament, acting in a like spirit and temper, put an end to English vassalage to Rome by formally refusing to pay the tribute pledged by King John'^ and by repudiating wholly the claims of the popes upon England as a fief of the Holy See. 153. The Great Schism (1378-1417). The stirring of the national sentiment in several of the countries of Europe was not the only disastrous result to the Papacy of the Babylonian exile. The discontent awakened among the Italians by the situation of the papal court led to an open rupture between them and the French party. In 1378 the opposing factions each elected a pope, and thus there were two heads of the Church, one at Avignon and the other at Rome. Such was the beginning of the Great Schism. The spectacle of two rival .popes, each claiming to be the right- ful successor of St. Peter, naturally gave the reverence which the world had so generally held for the Roman See a rude shock, and one from which it never fully recovered. 154. The Church Councils of Pisa (1409) and Constance (1414-1418). For the lifetime of a generation all Western Chris- tendom was deeply agitated by the bitter and unseemly quarrel. No peaceful solution of the difficulty seemed possible. Some even favored a resort to force. The faculties of the University 1 See sect. 14S. The payment of this tribute had fallen in arrears. § 155] CHURCH COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE 141 of Paris invited suggestions as to the best means . of ending the schism. They received ten thousand written opinions. The drift of these was in favor of a general council. Finally, in 1409, a council of the Church assembled at Pisa for the purpose of quiet- ing the unfortunate feud. This council deposed both popes and elected Alexander V as the supreme head of the Church. But matters instead of being mended hereby were only made worse; for neither of the deposed pontiffs would lay down his authority in obedience to the demands of the council, and consequently there were now three popes instead of two. In 1414 another council was called at Constance for the settle- ment of the growing dispute. One of the claimants resigned and the other two were deposed. A new pope was then elected, the choice of the assembly falling upon an Italian cardinal, who be- came Pope Martin V (141 7). In his person the Catholic world was again united under a single spiritual head. The schism was outwardly healed, but the wound had been too deep not to leave permanent scars upon the Church.^ The Roman pontiffs, although the battles of the lost cause were fought over again and again in different countries, were never able, after the events of the fourteenth century, to exercise such authority over the kings of Europe or exact from them such obedience in civil affairs as had been possible for the popes of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The splendid ideal of Hildebrand, though so nearly realized, had at last, as to one half of what he purposed, proved an utter failure. 155. The Papacy remains a Spiritual Theocracy. We say that the Roman pontiffs failed as to one half of their purpose ; for while they failed to make good their supremacy in temporal affairs, they did succeed — in opposition to a party which wished to limit the spiritual authority of the Papacy by a general council 1 Aside from the settlement of the papal feud, the Council of Constance is noted for the trial and condemnation by it of the Bohemian reformer Huss as a teacher of heresy (sect. 235). The most reprehensible part of this affair was the imprisonment and harsh treatment of Huss before his conviction ; for this was in direct violation of the safe- conduct which the Emperor Sigismund had given him, relying upon which the reformer had come to the Council. 142 SUPREMACY OF THE PAPACY [§ 155 of the Church — in establishing and perpetuating an absolute dominion in all matters of faith and doctrine. And so the Papacy, though its temporal power has been en- tirely taken from it, and its spiritual authority rejected in gen- eral by the northern nations, still remains, as Macaulay says, ''not in decay, not a mere antique, but full of life and youthful vigour." The Pope is to-day, in the view of more than half of Christendom, the infallible head of a Church that, in the famous words of the brilliant writer just quoted, "was great and respected before the Saxon had set foot on Britain, before the Frank had passed the Rhine, when Grecian eloquence still flourished in Antioch, when idols were still worshiped in the temple of Mecca. And she may still exist in undiminished vigour when some traveler from New Zealand shall, in the midst of a vast solitude, take his stand on a broken arch of London Bridge to sketch the ruins of St. Paul's." Selections from the Sources. Henderson, E. F., Select Historical Docu- tfieiiis, p. 430, "John's Concession of England to the Pope"; p. 432, "The Bull ' Clericis Laicos.'" The Mirror of Perfection (ed. by Paul Sabatier). This is the life of St. Francis written by a companion and disciple. It is a wonderful story simply and lovingly told. References (Modern). Bryce, J., The Holy Romait Empire, chaps, xi and xiii. Pastor, L., The Histo)y of the Popes, vol. i (Catholic). Emerton, E., Mediieval Europe, sections of chaps, ix and x. Barry, W., 77^.? Papal Monarchy, chaps, xviii-xxv. Balzani, U., The Popes and the Hohenstaiifen. ToUT, T. F., The Empire and the Papacy, chaps, xi, xiv, xvi, and xxi. Sabatier, P., Life of St. Francis of Assisi (a book of genius and spiritual insight). Creighton, M., Histoiy of the Papacy, vol. i, " The Great Schism ; the Council of Constance." Topics for Class Reports, i. St. Francis of Assisi and the world into which he came: Jessopp, A., The Coming of the Friars, pp. 2-23. 2. St. Dominic and the Friars in England : Jessopp, A., The Coming of the Friars, pp. 23-52. 3. The quarrel between Pope Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair of France: Emerton, E., The Beginnings of Modern Europe, pp. 11 6- 11:3. CHAPTER XIV MONGOLIAN CONQUESTS AND SETTLEMENTS IN EUROPE 156. The Three Invasions. We have witnessed two invasions of Europe since the dissolution, in the fifth century of our era, of the imperial Roman government in the West — one by the Teu- tonic tribes from the North and another by the Arabians from the South — -and have noted the effects of each upon the course of European history. Our attention is now drawn to a third in- vasion, or, rather, series of invasions, this time from the East, by nomadic Mongolian races — the Hungarians, the Mongols proper, and the Ottoman Turks. The ultimate results for European civilization of the Teutonic invasion were, on the whole, good. The consequences, direct and indirect, of the Arabian invasion were mixed, and it would be difficult to make an appraisement of its net effects. On the other hand, the results of the Mongolian conquests, aside from the Hungarian intrusion, were almost wholly disastrous, as we shall learn, to European civilization. Through the Mongol conquests the growth of the promising Russian nation was for a long time checked; while through the conquests of the Ottoman Turks all the races of southeastern Europe were subjected for centuries to the degrading domination of a race alien in blood, in social insti- tutions, and in religious belief. 157. The Hungarians. We have already seen the first of these non- Aryan intruders — the Magyars, or Hungarians — adding to the turmoil and terror created throughout Europe in the ninth and tenth centuries by the Northmen and Saracens (sect. 92). During this period they established themselves on the middle Danube, and laid there the foundations of the important kingdom of Hungary, which was destined to play a significant role in 143 144 MONGOLIANS IN EUROPE [§ 158 European history. In marked contrast to almost every other people of Mongolian origin, the Hungarians in course of time adopted the manners, customs, and religion of the peoples about them^ — became, in a word, thoroughly Europeanized, and then for a long time thereafter were a main defense of Christian Europe against other invading tribes — Mongols and Ottoman Turks — of the same great human stock. 158. The Mongols. Two centuries and more after the intru- sion into Europe of the Hungarians, the Mongols (or Tatars), Fig. 25. Hut-Wagon of the Medieval Tatars. (From Yule's Boo A' of Ser Marco Polo) The wandering Scyths who dwell In latticed huts high-poised on easy wheels. /EsCHYLUS, Prom. Vinci., 709-710; quoted by Yule untamed and unbelievably cruel nomads bred on the steppes of central Asia, that nursery of conquering races, appeared as marauders on the eastern frontiers of Europe. The outgoing point of their savage expeditions was Mongolia. Their first great chieftain was Jenghiz Khan ( 1 206-1 227), the most terrible scourge that ever afflicted the human race. At the head of innumer- able hordes composed largely of Turkish tribes, callous and pitiless in their slaughterings as though their victims belonged to another species than themselves, Jenghiz traversed with sword and torch a 1 They were won to Christianity in the tenth century. See above, sect. 126. §158] THE MONGOL CONQUESTS 145 great part of Asia. He conquered northern China, and then turning westward overran Turkestan and Persia. Cities disappeared as he advanced; populous plains were transformed into silent deserts. Before death overtook him he had extended his authority to the Dnieper in Russia and to the valley of the Indus. Even in death The Mongol Empire under Jenghiz Khan and his Immediate Successors (thirteenth century) The shaded area shows the countries either under the direct rule of the Mongols or tributary to them he claimed his victims: at his tomb forty maidens were slain that their spirits might go to serve him in the other world. The vast domains of Jenghiz passed into the hands of his son Oktai (d. 1 241), a worthy successor of the great conqueror. He pushed outwards still farther the boundaries of the empire in the east as well as in the west of Asia, and made a threatening inva- sion of Europe. In the space of two or three terrible years (1238-1241) almost half of Europe (a large part of Russia, Poland, and Hungary) was pitilessly ravaged. 146 MONGOLIANS IN EUROPE [§ 159 One of the most noted of the successors of Oktai was Kublai Khan (1259-1294), who made Cambalu, the modern Peking, his royal seat, and there received ambassadors and visitors from all parts of the world. It was at the court of this prince that the celebrated Italian traveler Marco Polo resided many years and gained that valuable and quickening knowledge of the Far East which he communicated to Europe in his remarkable work of travels and observations. Upon the death of Kublai Khan the immoderately extended and loosely knit empire fell into disorder and separated into many petty states. It was restored by Timur, or Tamerlane ( 1 369-1405), who seems arrogantly to have set about reducing the whole earth to obedience. His dominions came to embrace a great part of Asia. Timur's immense empire crumbled to pieces after his death. His descendant Baber invaded India (1525) and established there what became known as the Kingdom of the Great Moguls. This Mongol state lasted over two hundred years, — until de- stroyed by the English in the eighteenth century. The mag- nificence of the court of the Great Moguls at Delhi and Agra is one of the most splendid traditions of the East. These foreign rulers gave India some of her finest architectural monuments. The mausoleum at Agra, known as the Taj Mahal, is one of the most beautiful structures in the world.^ 159. Historical Results of the Mongol Outbreak. Asia has never recovered from the terrible devastation wrought by the Mongol conquerors. Many districts swarming with life were swept clean of their population by these destroyers of the race and have remained to this day desolate as the tomb. "Were noth- ing to stop the increase of population from this hour till the day of judgment," writes an old chronicler, "it would not reach one tenth of what it was before Jenghiz Khan's coming." 1 Wherever we find an upspringing of art and architecture under the Mongols we shall not be wrong in attributing it to the influence upon them of the civilizations with which they came in contact in China, Persia, India, and western Asia. Their architects and artisans were generally furnished by the conquered races or by the cities of western Europe. § 159] RESULTS OF MONGOL CONQUESTS 147 But it is the relation of the Mongol eruption to the history of the West that chiefly concerns us at present. This revolution had significance for European history, as we have already intimated, almost solely on account of the Mongols having laid the yoke of their power for a long time — for about three centuries — upon the Eastern Slavs. This was some such calamity for Russia as the later conquests of the Ottoman Turks, of which we shall speak directly, were for the lands of southeastern Europe, This Fig. 26. The Taj Mahal at Agra. (From a photograph) This magnificent monument was erected by the Mogul emperor Shah Jehan (1628-1658), for a favorite wife who died in 1631 Tatar domination, as we shall learn, left deep and permanent traces upon the Russian character and upon Russian history (sect. 239). But there was some good issuing out of so much evil. As a consequence of the establishment of the extended empire of the Mongols there was better communication on the land side between Europe and eastern Asia than had ever existed before or was destined to exist again until the construction in our own day of the Trans-Siberian Railroad. The way was long and wearisome but comparatively safe, and consequently it was traversed back and forth by embassies between the European courts and the Mongol potentates and by missionary-monks, artisans, merchants, 148 MONGOLIANS IN EUROPE [§ 160 and explorers. Marco Polo is the type and symbol of it all. Through this means there were brought into Europe from the Far East various arts, ideas, and inventions which undoubtedly contributed to the revival of culture in the West and to the inauguration of a new age for the European peoples. 160. The Beginnings of the Ottoman^ Empire. The latest, most permanent, and most important historically of all the Mon- golian sovereignties was that established by the Ottoman Turks. The nucleus of this great empire was a little state set up in Asia Minor about the middle of the thirteenth century by a band of Turkish warriors. Gradually the Ottoman princes subjected to their rule the surrounding tribes and at the same time seized upon province after province of the Asiatic possessions of the Byzantine emperors. During the latter half of the fourteenth century a large part of the regions that came to be known as Turkey in Europe fell into their hands. 161. The Janizaries. The conquests of the Turks were greatly aided by a remarkably efficient body of soldiers known as the Janizaries, which was organized early in the fourteenth century. This select corps was composed at first of the fairest children of Christian captives. When war ceased to furnish recruits, the sultans levied a tribute of children on their Christian subjects. At one time this tribute amounted to two thousand boys yearly. This method of recruiting the corps was maintained for about three hundred years. The boys, who were generally received at the age of about eight, were brought up in the Mohammedan faith and carefully trained in military service. These '' infant proselytes of war" formed a military body that was one of the chief instru- ments in the creation of the Ottoman Empire. 162. The Fall of Constantinople (1453). The fall of Con- stantinople was delayed for a time by the attacks of the Mongols upon 'the Ottomans in Asia." But finally, in the year 1453, Mohammed II the Great laid siege to the capital with a vast army 1 From Othman I (1288-1526), or Osman, whence not only Ottoman^ but Osmanlis, the favorite name which the Turks apply to themselves. 2 The Mongols of Tamerlane inflicted a decisive defeat upon the Ottomans, under Bajazet, in the battle of Angora (in Asia Minor), 1402. §162] THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE 149 and fleet. After a short investment the place was taken by storm. Of the hundred thousand inhabitants of the capital many thou- sands were slain and above fifty thousand made slaves. The Cross on the dome of St. Sophia was replaced by the Crescent. Thus fell New Rome into the hands of the barbarians of the East almost an exact millennium after Old Rome had passed into the possession of the barbarians of the West. Its fall was one The Ejmpire of the Ottoman Turks about 1464 of the most harrowing and fate-laden events in history. As Mohammed, like Scipio at Carthage, gazed upon the ruined city and the empty palace of Constant ine, he is said, impressed by the mutability of fortune, to have repeated musingly the lines of the Persian poet Firdusi: "The spider's web is the curtain in Caesar's palace; the owl is the sentinel on the watchtower of Afrasiab."^ The Turks have ever remained quite insensible to the influences of European civilization. They were alv/ays looked upon as in- truders in Europe, and their presence there led to several of the 1 Afi-asiab is the name of a personage who figures in the historical legends of Persia, ISO MONGOLIANS IN EUROPE [§162 most sanguinary wars of modern times. As their power declined they were gradually dispossessed of their conquests, and by the end of the second decade of the twentieth century had been virtu- ally driven from Europe, just as the Mohammedan Moors, four or five centuries earlier, had been expelled from the southwestern corner of the continent by the Christian chivalry of Spain. Selections from the Sources. The Book of Ser Marco Polo, 2 vols, (trans, by Henry Yule ; new ed. revised by Henri Cordier). The best part of these volumes is condensed in Noah Brooks' The Stoiy of Marco Polo. Marco Polo resided seventeen years at the court of Kublai Khan at Cambalu, the modern Peking. He saw the Mongol court at the time of its greatest brilliancy and gave Europe a vivid description of what he observed and heard in an account which our growing knowledge of the Far East is giving a constantly higher reputation for accuracy and honesty. References (Modern). Howorth, H. H., IIisto?y of the Mongols from the Ninth to the AUneteenth Century, 3 parts (the best and most comprehensive work on the subject). Creasy, E. S., History of the Ottoman Turks, vol. i, chaps, i-vi. Gibbon, E., The Decline and Fall, chaps. Ixiv-lxviii. Mijatovich, C, Constantine, the Last Emperor of the Greeks ; or the Conquest of Constanti- nople by the Turks, A.D. 1433 (the best account in English). PooLE, S. L., The Stoty of Turkey, chaps, i-vii. Freeman, E. A., The Ottoman Power in Europe, chaps, i-iv. Topics for Class Reports, i. Marco Polo at the Mongol court: Brooks, N., The Stoiy of Marco Polo, pp. 111-162. 2. The Janizaries: Oman, C. W. C, The Byzantitie Empire, pp. 324, 325; Creasy, E. S., HistoVy of the Ottoman Turks, vol. i, pp. 21-24, 161. 3. The Conquest of Constantinople: Oman, C. W. C, The Byzantine Empire, pp. 343-350 ; Gibbon, E., Decline and Fall, chap. Ixviii. CHAPTER XV THE GROWTH OF THE TOWNS 163. The Barbarians and the Roman Cities. The old Roman towns, as points of attack and defense, suffered much during the period of the barbarian invasions. When the storm had passed, many of the once strong-walled towns lay "rings of ruins" on the wasted plains. Rome, during the Gothic wars, was for a time without a Hving soul within its walls. In Britain a consid- erable part of the Roman towns seem to have been virtually wiped out of existence by the Anglo-Saxon invaders. In south- ern France, in Italy, and in Spain the cities on the whole suf- fered less; yet in none of the countries where they had sprung up and flourished under the shelter of the Roman rule did they wholly escape hurt and harm. But it was not alone the violence of the destroyers of the Empire that brought so many cities to ruin. What chiefly caused their depopulation and decay was the preference of the barba- rians for the open country to the city. As we have already learned, they had no liking for life within city walls. Hence it was inevitable that under the influence of the invasion, city life, speaking generally, should give place to country life. Up to the eleventh century the population of Europe was essentially a rural population like that of Russia to-day. 164. Rapid Development of the Cities in the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. But just as soon as the invaders had settled down and civilization had begun to revive, the old Roman towns began gradually to assume somewhat of their former importance, and new ones to spring up in those provinces where they had been swept away and in the countries outside of the limits of the ancient Empire. 151 152 GROWTH OF THE TOWNS [§165 During the tenth century western Europe, it will be recalled, was terribly troubled by the Northmen, the Hungarians, and the Saracens (sect. 92). There being no strong central government, the cities, thrown upon their own resources for defense, some- times with and sometimes without royal or imperial sanction, armed their militia, perfected their municipal organization, and above all else surrounded themselves with walls. Strong walls were the only sure protection in those evil times. Thus Europe became m ^"^iM Fig. 27. The Amphitheater at Arles in Medieval Times (From Smith, T/ie Troitbadoiirs at Ho)ue) The amphitheater was made a fortress, packed with houses, in the eighth century, on account of Saracen incursions. — Justin H. Smith thickset with strong-walled cities, the counterpart of the castles of the feudal lords, which were the defense of the countryside. 165. The Towns enter the Feudal System; their Revolt. When feudalism took possession of Europe the cities became a part of the system. They became vassals and suzerains. As vassals they were of course subjected to all the incidents of feudal ownership.^ They owed allegiance to their suzerain, were 1 At first each householder in a town was a tenant of the lord of the fief and was individually liable to him for rents or military service ; but later many of the towns as towns, that is, as corporate bodies, became responsible for the rents and services due the lord. It was not until the towns came to act in their corporate capacity that they became an important factor in the political system. §165] REVOLT OF THE TOWNS 153 he baron, prince, prelate, king, or emperor, and must pay him feudal tribute and aid him in his war enterprises. As the cities, through their manufactures and trade, were the most wealthy members of the feudal system, the lords naturally looked to them for money when in need. Their demands and exactions at last became unendurable, and a long struggle broke out between them and the burghers, which resulted in what is known as the en- franchisement of the towns. It was in the course of the eleventh cen- tury that this revolt of the cities against the feudal lords be- came general. The burghers by this time had made their walls strong and had learned to fight, — if indeed they had ever forgotten that art. They became bold enough to defy their lord, — to shut their gates in the face of his taxgatherer and even in the face of the lord himself, be he king or emperor, when he came to parley with them. The contest lasted two centuries and more. The advantage in the end rested with the burghers. In process of time the greater number of the towns of the countries of west- ern Europe either bought with money or wrested by force of arms charters from their lords or suzerains. Many lords, however, of their own free will gave charters to the towns within their fiefs, granting them various exemptions and privileges, for the reason that this fostered their growth and prosperity and made them more profitable vassals and tenants. P'iG. 28. A Count and his Wife grantinc; a Charter to a City. (From a fifteenth-century manuscript ; after LacroLv) 154 GROWTH OF THE TOWNS [§166 As the cities, under the protection of their charters, grew in wealth and population, many of them in some countries became at last strong enough to cast off all actual dependence upon lord or king, became in effect independent states, — little common- wealths. Especially was this true in the case of the Italian cities and in a less marked degree in the case of some of the Ger- man towns. Respecting the fortunes of the cities in these two countries we shall speak with some detail in later sections. 166. The Industrial Life of the Towns; the Gilds. The towns were the workshops of the later Middle Ages. The most noteworthy characteristics of their industrial life are connected with certain corporations or fraternities known as gilds. There were two chief classes of these, the gild merchant and the craft gilds. The gild merchant appears in the towns as soon as their commercial life becomes in any way active, that is to say, about the eleventh century. The members of the fraternity, speaking generally, were the chief landowners and traders of the place, and in many towns the city government was more or less completely in their hands. Later, as trade developed, the craftsmen began to form sepa- rate fellowships on the model of the earlier society. We hear of unions of the shoemakers, the bakers, the weavers, the spin- ners, the dyers, the millers, and so on to the end. In some cities there were upwards of fifty of these associations. No sooner had these plebeian societies grown strong than, in many of the Continental cities, they entered into a bitter struggle with the patrician gild merchant for a share in the municipal government or for participation in its trade monopoly. This conflict, in some of its features, reminds us of that between patrician and plebeian in ancient Rome. It lasted for two cen- turies and more, — the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries mark the height of the struggle on the Continent, — and during all this time filled the towns with strenuous confusion. The outcome, speaking in general terms, was the triumph of the craftsmen. The internal history of the towns during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is very largely the story of the gilds in their §167] THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE 155 manifold activities. This story, however, it is impossible to give even in outline in our short space. We must content ourselves with having merely indicated the place of these interesting fraternities in the life of the mediaeval towns. 167. The Hanseatic League. When, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the towns of northern Europe began to extend their commercial connec- tions, the greatest draw- back to their trade was the insecurity and dis- order that everywhere prevailed. The trader who intrusted his goods designed for the Italian market to the overland routes was in danger of losing them at the hands of the robber nobles, who watched all the lines of travel and either robbed the merchant outright or levied an iniquitous toll upon his goods. Nor was the way by sea beset with less peril. Piratical crafts scoured the waters and made booty of any luckless merchantman they might overpower or by treacherous beacons lure to wreck upon the dangerous shores. Finally, about the middle of the thirteenth century, some of the German cities, among which Liibeck and Hamburg were prominent, began to form temporary alliances for protecting their merchants against pirates and robbers. These transient leagues finally led to the formation of the celebrated Hanseatic^ League, whose firm organization as a political power dates from near the middle of the fourteenth century. The confederation came to 1 From the old German lumsa, a " confederation " or " union." Fig. 29. Relief over the door of the Public Scales, Nuremberg. (By Adam Kraft, the greatest German sculptor in stone of the Renaissance period) The Hanseatic League paid great attention to correctness of measure, weight, and quality. — Henderson 156 GROWTH OF THE TOWNS [§ 168 embrace eighty or more — the number is uncertain-^ of the prin- cipal towns of North Germany. The league organized armies, equipped navies, and exercised all the powers of sovereignty. It was ''mediaeval Germany on the sea." In order to facilitate the trading operations of its members, the league maintained in different foreign cities factories, magazines, inns, and chapels. These stations were somewhat like the settlements established to-day by Europeans in the countries of the Far East. Bergen 3? j^ The Hansa Towns and their Chief Foreign Settlements The" most noted centers of the foreign trade of the confederation were the cities of Bruges, London, Bergen, Wisby, and Novgorod. The league thus became a vast monopoly, which endeavored to control in the interests of its own members the entire commerce of northern Europe. 168. Causes of the Dissolution of the League. Numerous causes concurred to undermine the prosperity of the Hansa towns and to bring about the dissolution of the league. Most promi- nent among these was the development of the manufactures and trade of the peoples whom the German merchants had for a time commercially subjected. The native traders now naturally became §169] GROWTH OF THE ITALIAN CITIES 157 jealous of these foreigners, and the sovereigns of the land in which they had been allowed to establish settlements found it to their interest to annul the privileges formerly granted them and to encourage home industry and trade. Another agency of disruption was the great maritime dis- coveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which trans- ferred the centers of commercial activity as well from the Baltic as from the Mediterranean ports to the harbors on the Atlantic seaboard. Finally, the Reformation and the accompanying reli- gious wars in Germany, which brought many of the Hansa towns to utter ruin, completed the dissolution of the league. 169. Causes of the Early Growth of the Italian Cities. But it was in Italy that the mediaeval cities acquired the greatest power and influence. Several things conspired to promote their early and rapid development, but a main cause of their prosperity was their trade with the East and the enormous impulse given to this commerce by the Crusades. With wealth came power, and all the chief Italian cities became distinct, self-governing states, with just a nominal dependence upon Pope or Emperor. Towards the close of the thirteenth century northern and central Italy was divided among about two hundred contentious little city-republics. Italy had become another Greece. 170. The Rise of Despots. The constant wars of the Italian cities with each other and the incessant strife of parties within each city led to the same issue as that to which tended the end- less contentions and divisions of the Greek cities in ancient times. Their democratic institutions were overthrown, and by the end of the thirteenth century a large part of the city-republics of northern and central Italy had fallen into the hands of domestic tyrants, many of whom by their crimes rendered themselves as odious as the worst of the tyrants who usurped supreme power in the cities of ancient Hellas. We shall now relate some circumstances, for the most part of a commercial or social character, which concern some of the most renowned of the Italian city-states. 158 GROWTH OF THE TOWNS [§ 171 171. Venice. Venice, the most famous of the Italian cities, had its beginnings in the fifth century in the rude huts of some refugees who fled out into the marshes of the Adriatic to escape the fury of the Huns of Attila. Here, secure from the pursuit of the barbarians, who were unprovided with boats, they gradually built up, on some low islets, a number of little villages, which finally, towards the close of the seventh century, coalesced to form a single city, at whose head was placed a ruler bearing the title of Duke, or Doge, a name destined to acquire a wide renown. Conquests and nego- tiations gradually ex- tended century after century the possessions of the island republic, until she finally came to control the coast and waters of the eastern Mediterranean in much the same way that Carthage had mastery of the western Mediter- ranean at the time of the First Punic War. Even before the Crusades her trade with the East was very extensive, and by those expeditions was expanded into enormous dimensions. The sea between Italy and the ports of Egypt and Syria was whitened with the sails of her transports and war galleys. It will be recalled that she took part in the Fourth Crusade, which resulted in the capture of Constantinople by the Latin Christians (sect. 133). As her share of the divided lands of the Eastern Empire she received the Peloponnesus, most of the Greek islands, and the shore lands of the Hellespont, — a goodly empire of the sea. Venice was at the height of her power during the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. Her supremacy on the ta«i-^I^S5!f^'' Fig. 30. State Barge of Venice used IN THE Ceremony of "Wedding the Adriatic " (From a model preserved in the Venetian Arsenal ; after Lacroix) She was a maiden city briglit and free ; No guile seduced, no force could violate ; And, when she took unto herself a mate. She must espouse the everlasting sea. Wordsworth §171] "WEDDING THE ADRIATIC" 159 Mediterranean was celebrated each year by the unique ceremony of "Wedding the Adriatic" by the dropping of a ring into the sea.- The origin of this custom was as follows : In the year 11 77 Pope Alexander III, out of gratitude to the Venetians for services ren- dered him in his quarrel with the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, gave a ring to the Doge with these words: "Take this as a token of dominion over the sea, and wed her every year, you and your successors forever, in order that all may know that the sea belongs to Venice and is subject to her as a bride is subject to her husband." This annual celebration of the ceremony was one of the most brilliant spectacles of the Middle Ages. The sea-power and commercial ascend- ancy of Venice was embodied in her famous marine Ar- senal. This consisted of a series of wharves, dockyards, and vast magazines filled with marine war-engines and military stores of every kind. In the city's palmiest day sixteen thousand shipbuilders, workmen, and guards were employed here. The Arsenal was one of the sights of Europe and is still an object of interest to the curious traveler. Dante introduced in his Inferno'^ a celebrated description of the place, doubtless from personal knowledge of it. The decline of Venice dates from the fifteenth century. The conquests of the Ottoman Turks during this century deprived her of much of the territory she held east of the Adriatic, and finally the discovery of the New World by Columbus and of an unbroken 1 Canto xxi, 7-19. Fig. 31. A Canal in Venice (From a photograph) i6o GROWTH OF THE TOWNS [§172 water route to India by Vasco da Gama gave a deathblow to her commerce. From this time on the trade with the East was to be conducted from the Atlantic ports instead of from those in the Mediterranean. 172. Genoa. Genoa, on the old Ligurian coast, was after Venice the most powerful of the Italian maritime cities. She early crushed her near competitor Pisa,^ and then entered into a fierce competition with Venice for the control of the trade of the Orient. The period of Genoa's greatest prosperity dates from the re- capture of Constantinople from the Latins by the Greeks in 1261. Through jealousj'^ of the Venetians the Genoese assisted the Greeks in the recovery of the city and in return were given various commercial privileges in places along the Bosphorus. Very soon they established stations upon the shores of the Euxine and began to carry on a lucrative trade with eastern Asia by way of the Black Sea and the Caspian. The jealousy with which the Venetians regarded the prosperity of the Genoese led to oft-renewed war between the two rival republics. For nearly two centuries their fleets contended, as did the navies of Rome and Carthage, for the supremacy of the sea. The final blow to Genoa's prosperity was given by the irruption into Europe of the Mongols and the Ottoman Turks and the capture of Constantinople by the latter in 1453. The Genoese traders were now driven from the Black Sea, and their traffic with eastern Asia was completely broken up; for the Venetians had control of the ports of Egypt and Syria and the southern routes to India and the countries beyond, — that is, the routes by way of the Euphrates and the Red Sea. 173. Florence. Florence, "the most illustrious and fortunate of Italian republics," although, from her inland location upon the Arno, shut out from engaging in those naval enterprises that con- ferred wealth and importance upon the coast cities of Venice, 1 Pisa is located a little to the south of Genoa, on the same co^st. The first battle between the navies of the two republics was fought in 1070. Thenceforward for two centuries the rival cities were engaged in an almost continuous war, which finall)' resulted in the complete destruction of the power of Pisa. o fc s §174] CONTRIBUTIONS OF TOWNS TO CULTURE i6i Genoa, and Pisa, became, notwithstanding, through the skill, industry, enterprise, and genius of her citizens, the great manu- facturing, financial, literary, and art center of the later mediae- val centuries. The list of her illustrious citizens, of her poets, statesmen, historians, architects, sculptors, and painters is more extended than that of any other city of mediaeval times; and indeed, as respects the number of her great men, Florence is per- haps unrivaled by any city of the ancient or modern world save Athens. In her long roll of fame we find the names of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Machiavelli, Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Amerigo Vespucci, and the Medici. About the beginning of the fifteenth century Florence fell into the hands of the celebrated Medici,^ a Florentine family that had grown rich and powerful through mercantile enterprises. These usurpers of liberty were fortunately enlightened despots and made their rule generally acceptable to the Florentines through a mu- nificent patronage extended to artists and scholars, an unstinted liberality in the prosecution of public works, and the glory they shed upon Florence by the maintenance of a brilliant court. 174. Services to Civilization of the Mediaeval Towns. Modern civilization inherited much from each of the three great centers of mediaeval life,— the monastery, the castle, and the town. We have noticed what came out of cloister and of baronial hall, what the monk and what the baron contributed to civili- zation.- We must now see what came out of the town, what con- tribution the burgher made to European life and culture. In the first place, the mediaeval cities bequeathed to modern times certain valuable economic ideals and principles. It was in the heart of these communities, as within the early Benedictine monasteries, that labor, almost for the first time in history, if we except the teachings and practices of the Hebrews, was emanci- pated and the stigma put upon it by slavery and serfdom 1 The two most distinguished names of the house are those of Cosimo de' Medici (1389-1464), who was called the " Friend of the People and the Father of his Country," and Lorenzo, his grandson (1448-1492), who had bestowed upon him the title of " The Magnificent." 2 See sects. 32, 97. l62 GROWTH OF THE TOWNS [§174 removed/ In the cities of ancient Greece and Italy, speaking generally, trading, save in a large way, and all manual employ- ments were given over into servile hands; a citizen engaging in business was in some cases punished by being deprived of his citi- zenship, since he was regarded as having dis- honored himself. In the mediaeval towns, on the contrary, it was a very general rule that only the members of the merchant and craft gilds could have lot and part in the munici- pal government. This meant that here labor had ceased to be servile and was coming to be looked upon, at least by the laborers them- selves, as honorable. This new feeling re- FiG. 32. The Hotel de Ville, or Town garding labor the Hall, of Louvain. (After Liibke) towns transmitted to This magnificent Gothic edifice dates from the fifteenth the Modern Age. 1 hlS century. Fortunately it escaped unharmed when a great wag one of the mOSt part of the city was laid in ruins by the Germans at the . i , f opening of the war of I9M prCClOUS elements of the great bequest. In the second place, the towns were the cradle of modern com- merce; that is, of trade on a large scale between widely separated cities and lands. It was through the activity and enterprise of — ^ ^- iM^f^. 1 Serfdom was early extinguished in the towns, which became one of the most powerful agencies, both through direct action and indirect influence, in the abolition of rural serfdom. §174j MEDIEVAL CATHEDRALS 163 the mediaeval merchant and trader that was laid the basis of that vast system of international exchange and traffic which forms so characteristic a feature of modern European civilization. In the third place, the mediaeval cities, along with the monas- teries, were the foster home of architecture, sculpture, and paint- ing. These things, as has been well said, are ''the beautiful Fig. 33. The Cologne Cathedral. (From a photograph) This edifice was begun in the eleventh century, but was not finished until our own day (1880). It is one of the most imposing monuments of Gothic architecture in the world flowers of free city life." The old picturesque high-gabled houses, the sculptured gild halls, the artistic gateways, the superb palaces, and the imposing cathedrals found in so many of the cities of Europe to-day bear witness to the important place which the mediaeval towns hold in the history of architecture and art. The mediaeval cathedrals, in which the art instinct as well as the religious feeling of the IMiddle Ages reached its loftiest expression, were, like the Crusades, the outgrowth of a faith and an en- thusiasm that animated all classes alike. Many of the structures i64 GROWTH OF THE TOWNS [§ 174 were the result of the united toil of generation after generation. The expense was met in various ways. Rich monasteries made large contributions; city councils voted constant appropriations; kings made grants or exempted from taxation cities and prov- inces that would undertake the erection of a church or a cathedral; while the bequests of the dying, and the free offer- ings of the people, in labor and products, swelled the streams of contribution. The style of architecture employed from the ninth to the middle of the twelfth century in church structure was the Romanesque, characterized by the rounded arch and the dome; but towards the close of the twelfth century this was commonly superseded by the Gothic, distinguished by the pointed arch, buttressed walls, broad, beautiful windows, the slender spire, and rich ornamenta- tion. The pointed arch seems to have been developed in southern France, but the revolution from the round arch to this form doubt- less received an impulse from the East, through the medium of the Crusades, since the pointed style was employed by the Mos- lems in the construction of their mosques as early, certainly, as the ninth century. In the fourth place, the towns were the birthplace of modern political liberty. They became such through giving society . a new order at a time when political society was made up of orders. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there were in the state only two classes, or orders, which had participation in the government, — the nobility and the clergy. The inhabitants of the towns grew into a new order destined to a great political future, the so-called Third Estate, or Commons} During the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, under circumstances which we shall ex- plain in a succeeding chapter, the representatives of the towns came to sit along with the nobles and the clergy in the national 1 In England the men of the rural districts, that is of the counties, formed from the first, or almost from the first, a part of this order. In other European countries, however, it was not until a later time that the agricultural class came to reinforce the new estate. "^ § 174] REFERENCES AND TOPICS 165 diets or parliaments of the different countries/ What this meant for the development of modern parliamentary government we shall learn later. In the fifth place, it was the most typical of the free cities — those of Italy — which gave to the world the Renaissance, that great essentially intellectual movement which marked the latter part of the Middle Ages. The relation of the Italian cities to this mental awakening will be made the subject of a section further on. Selections from the Sources. Lee, G. C, Source-Book, sect. 56, " Charter of the City of London (from Henry I)." Colby, C. W., Selections, p. 70, "A Town Charter." Trajtslations and Reprints, vol. ii. No. i, "English Towns and Gilds." Robinson, J. H., Readings iii European History, \o\. i, chap, xviii (last part). References (Modern). Guizot, F. P. G., History of Civilization in Europe, lect. vii, "' Rise of the Free Cities." Green, Mrs. J. R., Town Life in the Eifteenth Centtiry. ZiMMERN, H., The Ha7tsa Toums. Symonds, J. A., Age of the Despots, chaps, iii and iv. Hazlitt, W. C, The Venetian Republic (the standard authority in English). Thayer, W. R., A Short History of Venice. Goss, C, The Gild l\ferchant. Mrs. Oliphant, Makers of Vcjiicc. In the " Mediaeval Towns " series there are separate volumes on Florence, Nuremberg, Bruges, etc., which contain chapters of interest. Topics for Class Reports, i. The gilds in English towns: Cheyney, E. V., An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England, pp. 59-73- 2. City life in Germany : Munro, D. C, and Sellery, G. C, Mediaval Civili- zation, pp. 358-365. 3. The Hanseatic League: Henderson, E. F., A Short History of Germany (1902 ed.), vol. i, pp. 189-202. 1 In England the towns were first asked to send representatives to Parliament in 1265 (sect. 191); in France the delegates of the Third Estate sat with the lords and clergy for the first time in 1302 (sect. 213); in Aragon and Castile the representatives of the cities were admitted to the Cortes in 11 33 and 1162 respectively ; in Germany the deputies of the free imperial cities acquired membership in the Diet during the reign of Heniy VII (130S-1313). CHAPTER XVI THE UNIVERSITIES AND THE SCHOOLMEN 175. Introductory. "History's tru^e object of study," says an eminent historian, "is the human mind; it should aspire to know what this mind has believed, thought, and felt in the dif- ferent ages of the life of .the human race." What we have narrated in preceding chapters respecting medi- aeval institutions and enterprises will have revealed to the thought- ful reader something at least of both the mind and the heart of the men of the Middle Ages. Nothing, however, mirrors more perfectly the purely intellectual life of those centuries than the universities which the age-spirit called into existence. For this reason we propose in the present chapter to say something of these institutions and of what was taught in them. 176. The Rise and Early Growth of the Universities. It will be recalled that a significant feature of the work of Charle- magne was the establishment of schools in connection with the cathedrals and monasteries of his realm (sect. 75). From the opening of the ninth till well on into the eleventh century the lamp of learning was fed in these episcopal and monastic schools, although throughout the tenth century the flame burned very low. Closely associated with these Church seminaries we find the names of many of the most influential men of the earlier mediaeval centuries. But towards the close of the eleventh and the opening of the twelfth centur>' a new intellectual movement, which was destined to affect profoundly these schools, began to stir western Christen- dom. This mental revival was caused by many agencies, particu- larly by the quickening influence of the Graeco-Arabian culture in Spain and the Orient, with which the Christian West was just now being brought into closer contact through the Crusades. 166 §177] GROWTH OF THE UNIVERSITIES 167 As a consequence of this newly awakened intellectual life there arose a demand for more advanced and specialized instruction than that given in the cloister schools, and especially for a freer and more secular system of education, one that should prepare a person for entering upon a professional career as a physician, lawyer, or statesman/ It was in response to these new demands that the universities came into existence. Their early history is very obscure for the reason that the most ancient ones, as Laurie says, "grew and were not founded." Some of these were mere expansions of cathedral or monastery schools; others developed out of lay schools which had grown up in commercial towns, especially in the Italian cities, and in which the instruction given was almost wholly secular in character and practical in aim. It was about the end of the twelfth and the opening of the thirteenth century when the earliest universities were formally recognized by royal and papal charters. Three of the most ancient universities were the University of Salerno, noted for its teachers in medicine; the University of Bologna, frequented for its instruc- tion in law; and the University of Paris, revered for the authority of its doctors in theology. Bologna and Paris served as models in organization and government for the most of the later univer- sities. The University of Paris gave constitution and rules to so many as to earn the designation of "the Mother of Universities and the Sinai of the Middle Ages." 177. University Organization: the "Nations," or Gilds. Many features of the mediaeval university can be understood only in the light of the fact that in the mediaeval town the alien was almost as wholly without rights, both political and civil, as was the alien in a city of ancient Greece, and that in case of most of the universities not only the students but the masters as well 1 The number of faculties in the mediasval university was not fixed. A usual number was four, — the Faculty of Theology, the Faculty of Medicine, the Faculty of Law, and the Faculty of Arts (or Philosophy). The course in arts embraced what is to-day covered by the courses in letters and science, and served as a preparation for entrance upon one of the three specialized professional courses, though most of the students never went beyond it. 1 68 UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLMEN [§ 178 were almost all noncitizens of the towns in which they gathered. Consequently, for the sake of comradeship, for mutual assistance and "the avenging of injuries," the students, either alone or in connection with their teachers, organized themselves, according to the countries whence they came, into associations or gilds, which came to be known as "Nations." At Paris there were four of these groups, at Bologna thirty-six. These gilds exercised or enjoyed special rights and privileges. These very generally included exemption from taxation and from military service and freedom from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts. The early universities thus became in a large measure self-governed and self-judged communities, in a word, "literary republics," holding some such relation to the civil authorities of the cities in which they were situated as many of these cities them- selves, in the age of independent city life, held to the state. 178. Students and Student Life. The number of students in attendance at the mediaeval universities was large. Contempo- raries tell of crowds of fifteen, twenty, and even thirty thousand at the most popular institutions. These numbers have been called in question, and it will be safe to consider them, like other medi- aeval figures, merely as "metaphors for immensity." But that the attendance was numerous is certain, for in those times all who were eager to acquire knowledge — and the intellectual fer- ment was general — must needs seek some seat of learning, since the scarcity and great cost of manuscript books put home study out of the question. Then, again, many of the pupils attending the nonprofessional courses were mere boys of twelve or there- abouts, — the high-school pupils of to-day; while, on the other hand, the student body embraced many mature men, among whom were to be counted canons, deans, archdeacons, and other dignitaries. Student life in the earlier university period, before the dormi- tory and college system was introduced, was unregulated and shamefully disorderly. The age was rough and lawless, and the student class were no better than their age; indeed, in some re- spects they seem to have been worse. For the student body § 179] STUDENTS AND STUDENT LIFE 169 included many rich young profligates, who found the universities the most agreeable places for idling away their time, as well as many wild and reckless characters who were constantly engaging in tavern brawls, terrorizing the townsmen at night, even way- laying travelers on the public roads and, as an old chronicler avers, " committing many other enormities hateful to God." Fig. 34. University Audience in the Fifteenth Century (From Geiger's Renaissance unci Hum anisnius) Between the students composing the different "Nations" there existed much race prejudice and animosity, which sometimes broke out in unseemly riots in the lecture room. The most serious feuds, however, arose between the students and the townsmen. "Town and gown" disagreements and fights were common and not unfrequently resulted in the migration to another city of the whole, or practically the whole, body of students and masters, 179. Branches of Study and Methods of Instruction. The advanced studies given greatest prominence in the universities 170 UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLMEN [§179 were the three professional branches of theology, medicine, and law. The natural sciences can hardly be said to have existed, although in alchemy lay hidden the germ of chemistry and in astrology that of astronomy. The Ptolemaic theory, which made the earth the stationary center of the revolving celestial spheres, gave color and form to all conceptions of the structure of the universe. The method of instruction, which was given in the Latin language, was the same in all the university departments. It was a servile study of texts, which were regarded with a veneration bordering on superstition and were minutely analyzed and com- mented upon. Thus in theology it was a study of the Bible and particularly of the writings of the Church Fathers and doctors; in medicine, an explanation of the works of Hippocrates and Galen with their Arabian commentators; in natural science, a study of the physics of Aristotle; in civil law, a commentary on the works of the Corpus Juris of Justinian, and in canon law, on the decisions and edicts of popes and councils. Not even in the physical sciences was there any serious appeal to experience, to observation, to experiment. In anatomy discussions took the place of dissections.' Books were considered better authority -than nature herself. "Aristotle," says Ueberweg, "was regarded as the founders of religions are wont to be considered." One venturing to criticize this "Master of those who know" was looked upon as presumptuous and irreverent. This mode of study resulted in part from an imitation of the method followed in theology, which was perforce a study of texts held as authoritative or infallible; and in part from the lack of books, which made dictation by the teacher and note taking and memorizing by the student the only practicable mode of carrying on the work of the lecture room. The ordinary classes met in private rooms or hired apartments. Mass meetings of the "Nations" and other large assemblages were held in some convenient cathedral or convent church that was 1 At Bologna, where anatomical study was most advanced, each student witnessed only one dissection during the year. §180] PETER ABELARD 171 borrowed for the occasion. The university itself had at first neither dormitories nor halls.^ The modern method of creating a university was reversed. As Dr. Jessopp says, " the men came first; the bricks and mortar followed long after." 180. Scholasticism; the Province of the Schoolmen. Spring- ing up within the early ecclesiastical schools and developed within the later universities, there came into existence a method of philosophizing which, from the place of its origin, was called Scho- lasticism, while its representatives were called Schoolmen, or Scholastics. The chief task of the Schoolmen was the reducing of Christian doctrines to scientific form, the harmonizing of reve- lation and reason. Viewed in this light, it was not altogether un- like that theological philosophy of the present day whose aim is to harmonize the Bible with the facts of modern science. 181. Peter Abelard. The most eminent of the early School- men was Peter Abelard (1079-1142). Such a teacher the world probably had not produced since Socrates enchained the youth of Athens. At Paris over five thousand pupils are said to have thronged his lecture room. Driven by the shame of a public scandal to seek retirement, he hid himself first in a monastery and later in a solitude near the city of Troyes. But his admirers followed him into the wilds in such multitudes that a veritable university sprang up around him in his desert retreat. Abelard carried to an extreme the tendency of the Schoolmen to rationalize everything. ^'A doctrine is believed," he taught, "not because God has said it, but because we are convinced by reason that it is so." He declared doubt to be the starting point in the quest of knowledge, and, apparently with the object of producing this desirable state of mind in his disciples, wrote a book entitled Sic et Non ("So and Not So"), which was a col- lection of mutually contradictory opinions of the Church Fathers on every conceivable theological question. 1 It was this poverty of the university which rendered so easy those migrations or secessions of dissatisfied students and masters of which we hear so frequently. Nothing prevented them, if they felt themselves wronged by the local authorities, from fleeing from one city to another. Several of the younger universities originated in such movements. 172 UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLMEN [§ 182 The Church conservatives became frightened. Bernard of Clairvaux, preacher of the Second Crusade, entered the lists against the presumptuous champion of the human reason, Ber- nard's principle was that man acquires a knowledge of divine things by way of the heart and not by way of the intellect. " God is known," he finely said, "in proportion as he is loved." He charged Abelard with pride of intellect: "There is nothing in heaven or on earth," he said, "that he does not claim to know." He complained that no place was left for faith ; the human reason usurped everything. The temper of the times was against Abelard. Certain of his opinions were condemned by two Church councils, and he was forced to burn part of his writings. This was one of the most noteworthy collisions between ecclesiastical authority and freedom of thought during the Middle Ages. Abelard's brilliant reputation as a philosopher was tarnished by grave faults of character. Intrusted with the education of a fascinating and mentally gifted maiden, Helo'ise by name, Abelard betrayed the confidence reposed in him. A secret marriage bound in a tragic fate the lives of teacher and pupil. The "tale of Abelard and Heloise" forms one of the most romantic yet saddest traditions of the twelfth centur>'. 182. Scholasticism in the Thirteenth Century; Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. The thirteenth century witnessed a fresh development of Scholasticism. The impulse to this re- newed intellectual activity came to the Christian West, like many similar incitements, from ancient Greece. It came at this time through various channels, but mainly through the Arabian schools in Spain. Before the end of the first quarter of the thirteenth century all the works of Aristotle were for the first time brought to the knowledge of the Schoolmen. Before this it was chiefly his logic which was known to them ; but now all his other works were translated into Latin, at first from Arabic or Hebrew versions, and then later directly from the Greek text. It would be difficult to exaggerate the stimulating influence of these fresh philosophical and scientific acquisitions upon the §183] SCIENTIFIC SIDE OF SCHOLASTICISM 173 Christian thinkers of the West. The great age of Scholasticism now opened. The universities of Paris and Oxford were the chief centers of the new movement; the Mendicant Orders furnished its most illustrious representatives. From the Dominican Order came Albertus Magnus, or ''Albert the Great" (i 193-1280), who was called ''the second Aristotle," and Thomas Aquinas (1225 or 1227-12 74), known as "the Angelic Doctor." As philosophers these Schoolmen stand to each other in some such relation as did Plato and Aristotle, nor are their names unworthy of being linked with the names of those great thinkers of ancient Greece. The reputation of Aquinas as the greatest Scholastic and theologian of the IVIiddle Ages rests largely upon his prodigious work entitled Siimma Theologim, or " Sum of Theology." In its ponderous folios all revealed truth, all the doctrines of the Church, and all related knowledge are sys- tematically arranged and welded by logic into an all-comprehending and absolute science.^ The work is regarded as the standard of orthodoxy in the Roman Catholic Church. 183. The Scientific Side of Scholasticism; Roger Bacon. The typical Schoolman was a logician, and speculative subjects connected with theology were his supreme interest; yet there were some Schoolmen who devoted themselves largely to physical science, and sought to gain a knowledge of nature not alone through books but by direct personal observation and study of nature herself. The impulse to this study of the natural sciences was communicated to Christian scholars mainly through their contact with Greek and Arabian learning. The most noteworthy representative of the scientific activity of the Scholastic age was the English Franciscan friar, Roger Bacon (d. about 1294), called "the Wonderful Doctor," on account of his marvelous knowledge of mechanics, optics, chemistry, and 1 This was not the first attempt of the kind. In the twelfth century Peter of Lom- bard (d. 1 164) wrote his famous Four Books of Sentences, which earned for him the title of "the Master of Sentences." This work, which served in some sort as a basis for the Swnma by Aquinas, consisted mainly of a collection of short quotations from the writings of the Church Fathers and doctors. It was one of the most popular textbooks ever written. It held its place in the schools as a manual of theology for more than three hundred years. 174 UNIVERSITIES AND SCHOOLMEN [§184 other sciences. He understood the composition of gunpowder, or a similar explosive, and seemingly the nature of steam; for in one of his works he says that ''wagons and ships could be built which would propel themselves with the swiftness of an arrow, without horses and without sails." His contemporaries believed him to be in league with the devil. He certainly was in league with the Arabian scholars, whose works he studied. He suffered persecu- tion and was imprisoned for fourteen years. Roger Bacon's greatest bequest to posterity was a book called Opus Majus, in which is anticipated in a wonderful way those principles of modern inductive science laid down by Francis Bacon in the seventeenth century. "The advance of sound his- torical judgment," says Andrew D. White, "seems likely to bring the fame of the two who bear the name of Bacon nearly to equality."^ It is with justice that the earlier Bacon has been called " the pioneer of modern science." 184. The Last of the Schoolmen. The fourteenth and fif- teenth centuries witnessed the decline of Scholasticism. Scholas- tic debate in the hands of unworthy successors of the great philosophers of the thirteenth century fell away for the most part into barren disputations over idle and impossible questions. The representatives of this degenerate Scholasticism became objects of the unmeasured scorn and ridicule of the men of the New Learning brought in by that revival of classical culture which marked the later mediaeval age. 185. The Services of the Schoolmen to Intellectual Prog- ress. The Schoolmen fill a large place in the history of the in- tellectual development of the race. They rendered in this relation two distinct and important services. In the first place, by their ceaseless debates and argumenta- tion they stimulated to activity the mediaeval intellect and dis- ciplined it in the processes of exact reasoning. They made the universities of the time real mental gymnasia in which the European mind was trained and prepared for its later and, happily, more fruitful work. 1 A History of the Way/are of Science with Theology, vol. i, p. 386. §185] SERVICES OF THE SCHOOLMEN 175 In the second place, the Schoolmen rendered a great serv- ice to the cause of intellectual freedom. This assertion at first blush may appear strange, when one recalls that the submis- sion of reason to Church authority was one of the fundamental maxims of the orthodox Schoolmen. But the place they gave the human reason and the constant appeal they made to it was preparing the way for the full and plain assertion of the prin- ciple of freedom of thought. " Scholasticism as a whole," says Professor Seth, "may be justly regarded as the history of the growth and gradual emancipation of reason which was completed in the movements of the Renaissance and the Reformation." Selections from the Sources. Translations and Reprints, vol. ii, No. 3, " The Mediaeval Student." Henderson, E. F., Select Historical Documents, pp. 262-266, " The Foundation of the University of Heidelberg. References (Modern). Rashdall, H., The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. Laurie, S. S., The Rise and Early Constitution of Universities. COMPAYR^, G., Abelard, and the Origin and Early Histoiy of Universities. Jessopp, a., The Coming of the Friars, chap, vi, " The Building up of a Univer- sity." Emerton, E., MedicEval Europe, chap. xiii. Gallienne, Richard Le, Old Love Stories Retold, "Abelard and Heloise." Topics for Class Reports, i. The "Nations" at the universities: Com- payre, G., Abelard, pp. 96-107. 2. Student life : Munro, D. C., and Sellery, G. C., MedicEval Civilization, pp. 348-357 ; Compayre, G., Abelard, pp. 263-279. 3. The teachers : Compayre, G., Abelard, pp. 279-286. CHAPTER XVII GROWTH OF THE NATIONS : FORMATION OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS AND LITERATURES 186. Introductory. The most important political movement that marked the latter part of the Middle Ages was the fusion, in several of the countries of Europe, of the petty feudal prin- cipalities and half-independent cities and communes into great nations with strong centralized governments. This movement was accompanied by, or rather consisted in, the decline of feudalism as a jvernmental system, the loss by the cities of their freedom, and the growth of the power of the kings. Many things contributed to this consolidation of peoples and governments, different circumstances favoring the movement in the different countries. In some countries, however, conditions were opposed to the centralizing tendency, and in these the Modern Age was reached without nationality having been found. But in England, in France, and in Spain circumstances all seemed to tend towards unity, and by the close of the fifteenth century there were established in these countries strong despotic mon- archies. Yet even among those peoples where national govern- ments did not appear, some progress was made towards unity through the formation of national languages and literatures, and the development of common feelings and aspirations, so that these peoples were manifestly only awaiting the opportunities of a happier period for the maturing of their national life. This rise of monarchy and decline of feudalism, this substitu- tion of strong centralized governments in place of the feeble, irregular, and conflicting rule of the feudal nobles or of other local authorities, was a very great gain to the cause of law and good order. It paved the way for modern progress and civilization. 176 §187] GROWTH OF THE NATIONS 177 In these changes the political liberties of all classes, of the cities as well as of the nobility, were, it is true, subverted. But though Liberty was lost, Nationality was found. And the people may be trusted to win back freedom, as we shall see. Those sturdy burghers — the merchants, artisans, lawyers of the cities — who, in the eleventh century, showed 'themselves stronger than lords, will in time, with the help of the yeomanry, prove themselves stronger than k'mgs. Europe shall be not only orderly but free. Out of despotic monarchy will rise constitutional, representative government. I. ENGLAND 187. General Statement. In earlier chapters we told of the origin of the English people and traced their growth under Saxon, Danish, and Norman rulers. In the present sections we shall tV'l very briefly the story of their fortunes under the Plantagenet^ house and its branches, thus carrying on our narrative to the accession of the Tudors in 1485, from which event dates the beginning of the modern history of England. The chief events of the period which we shall notice were the martyrdom of Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, the loss of the English possessions in France, the wresting of Magna Carta from King John, the formation of the House of Commons, the conquest of Wales, the wars with Scotland, the Hundred Years' War with France, and the War of the Roses. 188. The Martyrdom of Thomas Becket (1172). The most impressive event in the reign of the first Plantagenet, Henry II, 1 The name Plmttagenet came from the peculiar badge, a sprig of broom plant {planie de genet), adopted by one of the early members of the house. Following is a table of the sovereigns of the family : Henry II 1154-1189 house of Lancaster Richard I 1189-1199 Henry IV 1399-1413 John 1199-1216 Henry V 1415-1422 Henry' III 1216-1272 Henry VI 1422-1461 Edward I 1272-1307 house of vork Edward II 1307-1327 Edward IV 1461-1483 Edward in 1327-1377 Edward V 1483 Richard II I377-I399 Richard HI 14S3-1485 178 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§188 was a tragedy, — the murder of Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This event possesses great historical interest for the reason that it grew out of those contentions between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities which, as we have seen, make up a large part of mediaeval history. The circumstances leading up to the tragedy were these. In the early years of Henry's reign Thomas had been a favorite courtier, and chancellor of the realm. Thinking that he would serve him well as primate, Henry made him Archbishop of Can- terbury. As Archbishop, Thomas came into conflict with the king on several matters involving the relations of the clergy to the civil power, the most important of which was a question re- garding the trial of clerks by the secular courts. At this time in England the clergy were exempt from the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts of justice.^ Since the Church courts could inflict no severer penalty than imprisonment, it often happened that clerks guilty of the most heinous crimes, even of murder, were pun- ished inadequately or even not at all. Moreover, the judges of these courts were said to be over-lenient in dealing with accused members of their own order. Henry resolved that the clergy, like laymen, should be subject to the civil courts. To this end he caused to be drawn up the so-called Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), which among other things provided that persons in orders accused of crime should be tried by the king's judges, if these judges deemed the cases to be such as should come before them, and that no case should be appealed from the courts of the archbishops to the Pope without the king's consent. Thomas, after some hesitation, swore to observe the Consti- tutions, but soon he repented having done so, and sought and obtained from the Pope release from his oath. He maintained 1 Charlemagne had recognized the principle, held from early times by the Church, that ecclesiastics should be amenable only to the ecclesiastical tribunals, by freeing the whole body of the clergy from the jurisdiction of the temporal courts, in criminal as well as in civil cases. Gradually the bishops acquired the right to try all cases relating to marriage, trusts, perjury, simony, or concerning widows, orphans, and crusaders, on the ground that such cases had to do with religion. §189] MARTYRDOM OF THOMAS BECKET 179 ''-p|ii;^/p? that the ordinances took away from the Church undoubted rights and privileges. His course led to a long and violent quarrel with the king. Finally, Henry dropped an impatient expression, which four of his courtier knights interpreted as a wish that Thomas should be put out of the way. These men sought out the archbishop in the cathedral at Can- terbury and murdered him on the steps of the altar. The people ever regarded Thomas as a martyr and his tomb in the cathedral became a place of pilgrim- age. Three hundred years later the poet Chaucer made the journey thither of a goodly company of pil- grims the groundwork of his cele- brated Canterbury Tales (sect. 205). The attitude of the people after the murder of Thomas compelled Henry to give up the idea of en- forcing the provisions of the Consti- tutions of Clarendon. Moreover, he vvas constrained to do penance for his participation in the crime by submit- ting to a flogging by the monks of Canterbury at the martyr's tomb. 189. Loss of the English Possessions in France (1202-1204). The issue of the battle of Hastings, in 1066, made William of Normandy king of England. But we must bear in mind that he still held his possessions in France as a fief from the French king, whose vassal he was. These Continental lands, save for some short intervals, remained under the rule of William's Norman successors in England. Then, when Henry, Count of Anjou, came to the English throne as the first of the Plantagenets, these territories were greatly increased by the French possessions of that prince. The larger part of Henry's dominions, indeed, was in France, the whole of the western half of the country being in his hands; but for all of this he of course paid homage to the French king. Fig. 35. The Murder of Thomas Becket. (From a Canterbury seal of the four- teenth century i8o GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§ 190 As was inevitable, a feeling of intense jealousy sprang up be- tween the two sovereigns. The French king was ever watching for some pretext upon which he might deprive his rival of his pos- sessions in France. The opportunity came when John, in 1199, succeeded Richard the Lion-Hearted as king of England. Twice that odious tyrant was summoned by Philip Augustus of France to appear before his French peers and clear himself of certain charges, one of which was the murder of his nephew Arthur. John refused to obey the summons. Philip was finally able, so strong was the feeling against John, to dispossess him of all his lands in France, save a part of Aquitaine in the south. The loss of these lands was a great gain to England. The Angevin kings had been pursuing a policy which, had it been successful, would have made England a subordinate part of a great Continental state. That danger was now averted. In the words of Freeman, "England had been a dependency of Anjou; Aquitaine was now a dependency of England." 190. Magna Carta (1215). Magna Carta, the "Great Char- ter," held sacred as the safeguard of English liberties, was an instrument which the English barons and clergy wrested from King John, and in which the ancient rights and privileges of the people were clearly defined and guaranteed. The circumstances which led up to this memorable transaction, narrated in the briefest way possible, were as follows: Among the kings of foreign race whom the Norman Conquest brought into England there were those who disregarded the customs and insti- tutions of the realm and ruled in a very arbitrary and despotic manner. King John, as will easily be believed from the revelation jQ(),his character already made, surpassed the worst of his prede- ^Ed^prs in tyranny and wickedness. His course led to an open fi^ycj)! of the barons of the realm. The tyrant was forced to bow ^i($h§TStorm he had raised. He met his barons at Runny- .9Kldf^ 3) .flat meadow on the Thames, and there affixed his seal to ^f .yifiifiument that had been prepared to receive it. jucAfggfjg the important articles of the Great Charter were the followi^j which we give as showing at once the nature of the § 191] THE GREAT CHARTER i8i venerable document and the kind of grievances of which the people had occasion to complain: Art. 12. "No scutage^ or aid shall be imposed in our kingdom except by the common council of our kingdom, except for the ran- soming of our body, for the making of our oldest son a knight, and for once marrying our oldest daughter, and for these purposes it shall be only a reasonable aid;" . . . Art. 39. "No free man shall be taken or imprisoned or dispos- sessed, or outlawed, or banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him, nor send upon him, except by the legal judgment of his peers or by the law of the land. Art. 40. "To no one will we sell, to no one will we deny, or delay right or justice." The Great Charter did not create new rights and privileges, but in its main points simply reasserted and confirmed old usages and laws. It was immediately violated by John and afterwards was disregarded by many of his successors ; but the people always clung to it as the warrant and safeguard of their liberties, and again and again forced tyrannical kings to renew and confirm its provisions and swear solemnly to observe all its articles. Considering the far-reaching consequences that resulted from the granting of Magna Carta, — the securing of constitutional liberty as an inheritance for the English-speaking race in all parts of the world, — it must always be considered the most important concession that a freedom-loving people ever wrung from a tyran- nical sovereign. 191. Beginnings of the House of Commons (i265). The reign of Henry III (12 16-12 72), John's son and successor, wit- nessed the second important step taken in English constitutional freedom. This was the formation of the House of Commons, the Great Council having up to this time been made up of nobles and bishops. It was again the royal misbehavior — so frequently 1 Scutage was a money payment made in lieu of personal military service. 2 This article respecting taxation was suffered to fall into abeyance in the reign of John's successor, Henr}^ III, and it was not until about one hundred years after the granting of Magna Carta that the great principle that the people should be taxed only through their representatives in Parliament became fully established. 1 82 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§ 191 is it, as Lieber says, that Liberty is indebted to bad kings, though to them she owes no thanks — that led to this great change in the form of the English national assembly. Henry had violated his oath to observe the provisions of the Great Charter and had become even more tyrannical than his father. In the words of a contemporary, the English were op- pressed 'Mike as the people of Israel under Pharaoh." The final outcome was an uprising of the barons and the people similar to that in the reign of King John. The leader of the revolt was Earl Simon, a son of the Simon de Montfort who led the first crusade against the Albigenses. It was open war between the king and his people. In an engagement known as the battle of Lewes (1264), the royal forces were defeated and Henry was taken prisoner. In order to rally all classes to the support of the cause he represented, Earl Simon now issued, in the king's name, writs of summons to the barons (save the king's adherents), the bishops, and the abbots to meet in Parliament; and at the same time sent similar writs to the sheriffs of the shires, directing them "to return two knights for the body of their county, with two citizens or burghers for every city and borough contained in it." Although the knights of the different shires had in several instances before this been represented by delegates, so that the principle of representation was not now for the first time intro- duced into the English constitution, still this was the first time when plain untitled citizens, or burghers, had been called to take their place with the barons, bishops, and knights, in the great council of the nation, to join in deliberations on the affairs of the realm.^ From this gathering, then, may be dated the birth of the House of Commons (1265). Formed as it was of knights and burghers, representatives of the common people, it was at first a 1 At first the burghers could take part only in questions relating to taxation, but gradually they acquired the right to share in all matters that might come before Parlia- ment. Just thirty years later (in 1295), in the reign of Edward I, there was gathered through regular constitutional summons what came to be called the Model Parliament, since in its composition it served as a pattern for later parliaments. § 192] CONQUEST OF WALES 183 weak and timorous body, quite overawed by the great lords, but was destined finally to grow into the controlling branch of the British Parliament. 192. Conquest of Wales (1272-1282). For more than seven hundred years after the withdrawal of the Romans from Britain, the Celtic tribes of Wales maintained among their mountain fastnesses an ever-renewed struggle with the successive invaders of the island, — with Saxon, Dane, and Norman. They were forced to acknowledge the overlordship of some of the Saxon and Norman kings; but they were restless vassals and were constantly withholding tribute and refusing homage. When Edward I (1272-1307) came to the English throne, Llewellyn III, who held the overlordship of the Welsh chiefs, refused to render homage to the new king. Edward led a strong army into the fastnesses of the country and quickly reduced his rebel vassal to submission. A few years later, and the Welsh patriots were again in arms; but the uprising was soon crushed, and Llewellyn was slain (1282). His head, after the barbarous manner of the times, was exposed over the gateway of the Tower of London.^ The last remnant of Welsh independence was now extinguished. Edward made his little son, born during the campaign, feudal lord of the Welsh, with the title of Prince of Wales; and from that time the title has usually been borne by the eldest son of the English sovereign. The strong-walled a^id picturesque castle-fortresses — those at Conway and Carnarvon are particularly celebrated — which Ed- ward built or strengthened to guard the conquered land are, like the old watch-towers of the Norman kings in England (sect. 109), historical monuments of the greatest interest to the modern traveler in Wales. For two centuries after the death of Llewellyn the Welsh were the unwilling and at times rebellious subjects of England. Then occurred a happy circumstance, — the accession to the English throne of a prince of Welsh descent; for Henry Tudor, the first of the Tudor dynasty, was the grandson of a Welsh knight, named 1 See Plate VI, facing p. 390. 1 84 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§193 Owen Tudor. With princes of the ancient British race reigning in London, the Welsh, from sullen subjects, were suddenly trans- formed into ardent and loyal supporters of the English throne. 193. Wars with Scotland (i296-i328). In 1285 the ancient Celtic line of Scottish chiefs became extinct. A great number of claimants for the vacant throne immediately arose. Chief among these were Robert Bruce and John Balliol, distinguished noblemen of Norman descent, attached to the Scottish court. Edward was asked to act as arbitrator and decide to whom the crown should be given. He consented to do so, but only on Fig. 36. Carnarvon Castle. (From a photograph) This fortress was founded by Edward I in 1283. It is one of the most impressive of the decayed mediaeval strongholds of the British Isles condition that the Scottish nobles should do homage to him as their overlord. This they were constrained to do. Edward's commissioners then decided the question of the succession in favor of Balliol, who now took the crown of Scotland as the fully acknowledged vassal of the English sovereign (1292). Balliol soon broke the feudal ties which bound him to Edward and sought an alliance with the French king. In the war that followed the Scots were defeated and Scotland fell back as a for- feited fief into the hands of Edward (1296). As a sign that the Scottish kingdom had come to an end, Edward carried off to London the royal regalia, and with this a large stone, known as the Stone of Scone, upon which the Scottish kings, from time out of memory, had been accustomed to be crowned. The venerated "stone of destiny" was taken to Westminster Abbey, and there §193] WARS WITH SCOTLAND 185 put beneath the seat of a stately throne-chair, which to this day is used in the coronation ceremonies of the English sovereigns. The two countries were not long united. The Scotch people loved too well their ancient liberties to submit quietly to this extinguishment of their national independence. Under the inspi- ration and lead of the famous Sir William Wallace, an outlaw knight, all the Lowlands were soon in determined revolt. Wallace gained some successes,^ but at length was betrayed into Edward's hands. He was condemned to death as a traitor, and his head, garlanded with a crown of laurel, was fixed on London Bridge (1305). The romantic life of Wal- lace, his patriotic services, his heroic exploits, and his tragic death at once lifted him to the place that he has ever since held as the national hero of Scotland. The struggle in which Wallace had fallen was soon renewed by the al- most equally renowned hero Robert Bruce (grandson of the Robert Bruce mentioned above), who was the representative of the nobles, as Wal- lace had been of the common -people. With Edward H- Bruce fought the great battle of Bannockburn, near Stirling. Edward's army, consisting of a large body of horsemen and foot soldiers, was almost annihilated (1314). It was the most appalling disaster that had befallen the arms of the English people since the memorable defeat of Harold at Hastings. 1 Notably a great victory at what is known as the battle of Stirling (1297). " Edward I died while on a campaign against the Scots (1307). He was one of the ablest and best beloved of English kings. He so improved the laws of the realm and made such great and beneficent changes in the administration of justice as to earn the title of the " English Justinian." Fig. 37. Coronation Chair IN Westminster Abbey Beneath the seat is the celebrated Scottish Stone of Scone, which was carried away from Scotland by Edward I 1 86 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§194 The independence of Scotland really dates from the great victory of Bannockburn, but the English were too proud to acknowledge it until after fourteen years more of war. Finally, in the year 1328, the young king Edward HI gave up all claim to the Scottish crown, and Scotland, with the hero Bruce as its king, took its place as an independent power among the nations of Europe. Respecting the results to both the English and the Scotch of the failure of the Edwards to subject Scotland to their rule, the historian Gardiner finely comments as follows: "IMorally, both nations were in the end the gainers. The hardihood and self- reliance of the Scottish character is distinctly to be traced to those years of struggle against a powerful neighbor. England, too, was the better for being balked of its prey. No nation can suppress the liberty of another without endangering its own." The independence gained by the Scotch at Bannockburn was maintained for nearly three centuries, — until 1603, when the crowns of England and Scotland were peacefully united in the person of James VI of Scotland, who became James I of Eng- land, the founder of the Stuart dynasty of English kings. During the greater part of these three hundred years the two countries were very quarrelsome neighbors. The Hundred Years' War (133 8-1 453) 194. Causes of the War. The long and wasteful war between England and France known in history as the Hundred Years' War was a most eventful one, and its effect upon both England and France so important and lasting as to give it a prominent place in the records of the closing events of the Middle Ages. The war with Scotland was one of the things that led up to this war. All through that struggle France, as the old and jealous rival of England, was ever giving aid and encouragement to the Scots. Then the English possessions in France, for which the English king owed homage to the French sovereign as over- lord, were a source of constant dispute between the two countries. Trade jealousies also contributed to the causes of mutual hostility. 195] THE BATTLE OF CRECY 187 Furthermore, upon the death of Charles IV of France, the last of the direct Capetian line, Edward III laid claim to the French crown in much the same way that William of Normandy centuries before had laid claim to the crown of England. 195. The Battle of Crecy (i346). The first great combat of the long war was the famous battle of Crecy. Edward had invaded France with a strong force, made up largely of English bowmen, and had penetrated far into the country, ravaging the land as he went,^ when he finally halted and faced the pursuing French army near the village of Crecy, where he inflicted upon it a terrible defeat. Twelve hundred knights, the flower of French chiv- alry, and thousands of foot soldiers lay dead upon the field. The great battle of Crecy is memorable for several reasons, but chiefly because feudalism and chivalry- there received their deathblow. "The whole social and political fabric of the Middle Ages," writes Green, "rested on a military base, and its base was suddenly withdrawn. The churl had struck down the noble; the bowman proved more than a match, in sheer hard fighting, for the knight. From the day of Crecy feudalism tot- tered slowly but surely to its grave." The battles of the world were thereafter to be fought and won, not by mail-clad knights with battle-ax and lance, but by common foot soldiers with bow and gun. 196. The Black Death (1347-1349). At just this time there fell upon Europe the awful pestilence known as the Black Death. The plague was introduced from the East by way of the trade routes of the Mediterranean, and from the southern countries Fig. 38. Charge of French Knights and Flight of English Arrows 1 88 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§197 spread in the course of a few years over the entire continent, its virulence without doubt being greatly increased by the unsanitary condition of the crowded towns and the wretched mode of living of the poorer classes. In many places almost all the people fell victims to the scourge. Some villages were left without an inhabitant. Many monasteries were almost emptied. In the Mediterranean and the Baltic ships were seen drifting about without a soul on board. Crops rotted unharvested in the fields; herds and flocks wandered about un- attended. It is estimated that from one third to one half of the population of Europe perished. Hecker, an historian of the pestilence, estimates the total number of victims at twenty-five millions. It was the most awful calamity that ever befell the human race.^ 197. The Peasants' Revolt (i38i). The terrible scourge caused the contending nations for a time to forget their quarrel. But no sooner had a purer atmosphere breathed upon the con- tinent than their minds were again turned to war, and the old struggle was renewed with fresh eagerness. After a few years of fighting- a treaty of peace was framed which brought a cessation of the war for more than a half century. The most important event in English domestic history during this interval was what is known as the Peasants' Revolt. One of the grievances of the peasants grew out of their relations to the landlords. Many of the former serfs had commuted into money payments the personal services they owed their lords (sect. 91) and had thus got rid of this badge of serfdom. They were now free laborers working for hire. The rise in wages occasioned by the Black Death caused the landlords to regret the bargain they had made with their former serfs, since the commutation money 1 Under the terror and excitement of the dreadful visitation, religious penitents, thinking to turn away the wrath of Heaven by unusual penances, went about in pro- cession, lacerating themselves with whips (hence they were called yiagc//anfs). This religious frenzy had its most remarkable manifestation in Germany. 2 These years witnessed a double campaign in France by Edward III and his eldest son, known as the Black Prince from the color of the armor he wore. The campaign was made notable by the celebrated battle of Poitiers (1356), which was for the French a second Crecy. §198] THE PEASANTS' REVOLT 189 would not now pay for as many days' labor as the serfs were originally bound to render. The landlords endeavored to escape from their bad bargain by means of legislation. They secured the enactment by Parliament of a law known as the Statute of Laborers (1351), which made it a misdemeanor for any unem- ployed laborer to refuse to work for the wages paid before the plague. Attempts to enforce this statute caused much discontent and trouble. The hard conditions under which those still held in serfdom led their lives constituted another grievance of a large class. In these words of one of the leaders of the uprising we hear the burden of their complaint: ''For what reason do they hold us in bondage? Are we not all descended from the same parents Adam and Eve? And what can they show, or what reasons give, why they should be more the masters than ourselves?" ■ The storm burst in 1381. The peasants rose in almost every part of England and marched in crowds upon London. The essence of their demands was the abolition of villanage (serfdom) in England. There was tumult and violence everywhere. Abbeys and manor houses were sacked, and the charters which were the evidence of the peasants' servitude were burned. The revolt had the usual issue. The bands of insurgents were finally scattered and their leaders were pitilessly put to death. Yet the insurrection was a success after all. The fear of another uprising and the inefficient character of sullen labor caused the landlords to hasten the process that had long been going on of commuting into money payments or rents the grudgingly rendered personal services of the serfs. At the end of a hundred years after the revolt there were very few serfs to be found in England. The abolition of serfdom was an important step in the nation- alization of the English people. Sweeping away artificial barriers between classes, it hastened the unification of English society and the creation of a true English nation. 198. Battle of Agincourt (1415). During the reign in Eng- land of Henry V, France was unfortunate in having an insane king^ Charles VI; and Henry, taking advantage of the disorder 190 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§199 into which the French kingdom naturally fell under these cir- cumstances, invaded the country with a powerful army, made up largely of archers. On the field of Agincourt the French suffered a most humiliating defeat, their terrible losses falling, as at Crecy, chiefly upon the knighthood. Five years later was concluded a treaty,' according to the terms of which the French crown, upon the death of Charles, was to go to the English king. 199. Joan of Arc; the Relief of Orleans (1429). But patriotism was not yet wholly extinct among the French people. There were many who regarded the concessions of the treaty as not only weak and shameful but as unjust to the Dauphin Charles, who was thereby disinherited, and they ac- cordingly refused to be bound by its provisions. Consequently, when the poor insane king died, the terms of the treaty could not be carried out in full, and the war dragged on. The party that stood by their native prince, afterwards crowned as Charles VII, were at last reduced to most desperate straits. The greater part of the coun- try was in the hands of the English, who were holding in close siege the important city of Orleans. But the darkness was the deep gloom that precedes the dawn. A better day was about to rise over the distressed country. Re- ligious enthusiasm was to accomplish what patriotism alone could not do. A strange deliverer now appears,— the famous Joan of Arc. This young peasant girl, with soul sensitive to impressions from brooding over her country's wrongs and sufferings, saw visions and heard voices which bade her undertake the work of delivering France. She was obedient unto the heavenly voices. Fig. 39. Joan of Arc We have no authentic likeness of Joan of Arc. The above must be regarded as an idealized portrait 1 The Treaty of Troyes, 1420, §200] EFFECTS ON ENGLAND OF THE WAR 191 Rejected by some, yet received by most of her countrymen as a messenger from Heaven, the maiden kindled throughout the land a flame of enthusiasm that nothing could resist. Inspiring the dispirited French soldiers with new courage, she forced the English to raise the siege of Orleans (from which exploit she be- came known as the Maid of Orleans) and speedily brought about the coronation of Prince Charles at Rheims (1429). Shortly afterward she fell into the hands of the English, was tried by ecclesiastical judges for witchcraft and heresy, and was condemned to be burned as a heretic and a witch. Her martyrdom took place at Rouen in the year 1431. But the spirit of the Maid had already taken possession of the French nation. From this on, the war, though long continued, went steadily against the English. Little by little they were pushed off from the soil they had conquered, and driven out of their own Gascon lands of the south as well, until finally they held nothing in the land save Calais. Thus ended, in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, the Hundred Years' War. 200. Effects upon England of the War. The most important effects of the war as concerns England were the enhancement of the power of the Lower House of Parliament and the awakening of a national spirit. The maintaining of the long and costly quarrel called for such heavy expenditures of men and money that the English kings were made more dependent than hitherto upon the representatives of the people, who were careful to make their grants of supplies conditional upon the correction of abuses or the confirming of their privileges. Thus the war served to make the Commons a power in the English government. Again, as the war was participated in by all classes alike, the great victories of Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt aroused a national pride, which led to a closer union between the different elements of society. Normans and. English, enlisted in a common enter- prise, were fused by the ardor of a common patriotic enthusiasm into a single people. The real national life of England dates from this time. 192 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§ 201 The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) 201. The Two Roses; the Battle of Bosworth Field. The Wars of the Roses is the name given to a long contest between the adherents of the houses of York and Lancaster, rival branches of the royal family of England. The strife was so named because the Yorkists adopted as their badge a white rose and the Lancas- trians a red one. The battle of Bosworth Field (1485) marks the close of the war. In this fight King Richard III, the last of the House of York, was overthrown and slain by Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who was crowned on the field with the diadem which had fallen from the head of Richard, and saluted as King Henry VII. With him began the dynasty of the Tudors. 202. The Effects of the Wars. The first important result of the Wars of the Roses was the ruin of the baronage of England. One half of the nobility were slain. Those that survived were ruined, their estates having been wasted or confiscated during the progress of the struggle. Not a single great house retained its old-time weaJth and influence. The war marks the final downfall of feudalism in England. The second result of the struggle sprang from the first. This was the great peril into which English liberty was cast by the ruin of the nobility. It was primarily the barons who had forced the Great Charter from King John, and who had kept him and his successors from reigning like absolute monarchs. Now the once proud and powerful barons were ruined, and their confis- cated estates had gone to increase the influence and patronage of the sovereign, who when strong and willful, like Henry VIII, did pretty much as he pleased and became unjust and tyrannical. In short, upon the ruins of the baronage was erected something like a royal despotism. Not until the revolution of the seven- teenth century did the people, by overturning the throne of the Stuarts, curb the undue power of the crown and recover their lost liberties. §203] FORMATION OF MODERN ENGLISH 193 Growth of the English Language and Literature 203. The Language. From the Norman Conquest to the middle of the fourteenth century there were in use in England three languages: Norman French was the speech of the con- querors and the medium of polite literature; Saxon, or Old English, was the tongue of the conquered people; while Latin was the language of the laws and records, of the Church services, and of the works of the learned. Modern English is the old Saxon tongue worn and improved by use and enriched by a large infusion of Norman-French words, with less important additions from the Latin and other languages. It took the place of the Norman-French in the courts of law about the middle of the fourteenth century. At this time the language was broken up into many dialects, and the expression "King's English" is supposed to have referred to the standard form employed in state documents and in use at court. 204. Effect of the Norman Conquest on English Literature. The blow that struck down King Harold and his brave thanes on the field of Hastings silenced for the space of above a century the voice of English literature. The tongue of the conquerors became the speech of the court, the nobility, and the clergy; while the language of the despised English was, like themselves, crowded out of every place of honor. But when, after a few generations, the downtrodden race began to reassert itself, English literature emerged from ' its obscurity and, with an utterance somewhat changed, — yet unmistakably it is the same voice, — resumed its interrupted lesson and its broken song. 205. Chaucer (i34o?-i4oo). Holding a position high above all other writers of early English is Geoffrey Chaucer. He is the first in time, and, after Shakespeare, perhaps the first in genius, among the great poets of the English-speaking race. He is reverently called the " Father of English poetry." Chaucer stands between two ages, the mediaeval and the mod- ern. He felt not only the influences of the age of feudalism which was passing away but also those of the new age of 194 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS L§206 learning and freedom which was dawning. It is because he was highly sensitive to these various influences and reflects his sur- roundings faithfully in his writings that these are so valuable as interpreters of the period in which he lived. Chaucer's greatest and most important work is his Canterbury Tales. The poet represents himself as one of a company of story- telling pilgrims who have set out on a journey to the tomb of Thomas Becket at Canterbury (sect. i88). The persons, thirty- two in number, making up the party, represent almost every calling and position in the middle class of English society. The prologue, containing characterizations of the different members Fig. 40. Plowing Scene, (From a manuscript of the fourteenth century) of the company, is the most valuable part of the production. Here as in a gallery we have shown us faithful portraits of our ancestors of the fourteenth century. 206. William Langland. The genial Chaucer shows us the pleasant, attractive side of English society and life; William Langland, another writer of the same period, in a poem called the Vision of Piers the Ploivnian (1362), lights up for us the world of the poor and the oppressed. This poem quivers with sympathy for the hungry, labor- worn peasant, doomed to a life of weary routine and hopelessness. The long wars with France had demoralized the nation; the Black Death had just reaped its awful harvest among the ill-clad, ill-fed, and ill-housed poor. Occasional outbursts of wrath against the favored classes are the mutterings of the storm soon to burst upon the social world in the fury of the Peasants' Revolt, and later upon the religious world in the upheavals of the Reformation. § 207] JOHN WYCLIFFE 195 207. John Wycliffe (1324-1334) and the Lollards. Foremost among the reformers and religious writers of the period under review was John Wycliffe, called "the Morning Star of the Ref- ormation." This bold reformer attacked first many of the prac- tices and then certain of the doctrines of the Church. He gave the English people the first translation of the entire Bible in the English language. There was no press at this time to multiply editions of the book, but by means of manuscript copies it was widely circulated and read. Its influence was very great, and from its appearance may be dated the beginnings of the Ref- ormation in England. Wycliffe did not wholly escape persecution in life, and his bones were not permitted to rest in peace. His enemies attrib- uted to his teachings the unrest and the revolt of the peasants, and this caused him to be looked upon by many as a dangerous agitator. In 141 5 the Council of Constance (sect. 154) pro- nounced his doctrines heretical, and ordered that his body be taken from its tomb and burned. This was done, and the ashes were thrown into a neighboring stream called the Swift. "This brook," in the words of the old ecclesiastical writer Thomas Fuller, "hath conveyed his ashes into Avon, Avon into Severn, Severn into the Narrow Seas, they into the ocean; and thus the ashes of Wycliffe are the emblem of his doctrine, which now is dispersed all the world over." The followers of Wycliffe became known as Lollards (babblers), a term applied to them in derision. Their religious opinions were regarded as erroneous or as heretical; and heresy at that time was hated and feared, at least by those in authority. Parliament passed a law (1401) known as the Statute for the Burning of Heretics, which made it the duty of the proper civil officers, in cases of persons convicted of heresy by the ecclesiastical courts, to receive the same and "before the people, in a high place, cause them to be burnt, that such punishment may strike fear to the hearts of others." Heretics had been burned in England before the passage of this law, but now for the first time did Parliament by special 196 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§208 enactment make this form of punishment the penalty for reli- gious dissent. It was the opening of a sad chapter in English history. Under the statute many persons whose only fault was the teaching or the holding of religious opinions different from those of the Church perished at the stake. 208. Caxton (1412-1491) and the Printing Press. The great religious movement referred to in the preceding paragraph, which during the sixteenth century transformed the face of England, was hastened by the introduction of printing into the island by William Caxton towards the close of the fifteenth century. The first work which appeared from his press was entitled the Game of Chess (1474). He also printed Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, and almost everything else worth reproducing then existing in the English language, besides various works from the Latin and the French. The eagerness with which the books that fell from Caxton's press were seized and read by all classes indicates the increasing activity and thoughtfulness of the public mind. Manifestly a new day — one to be filled with intellectual and moral revolutions — was breaking over the land of Alfred and of Wycliffe. II. FRANCE 209. Beginnings of the French Kingdom. The separate his- tory of France may be regarded as beginning with the partition of Verdun in 843.^ At that time the Carolingians, of whom we have already learned (Chapter VII), exercised the royal power. Towards the close of the tenth century, the first of the Capetian dynasty came to the throne. We shall now direct attention to some of the most important transactions of the period covered by the mediaeval Capetian kings. Our special aim will be to give prominence to those matters which concern the gradual consolidation of the French monarchy and the development among the French people of the sentiment of nationality. 1 See sect. 7S and accompanying map. §210] FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS 197 France under the Direct Line of the Capetians (987-1328) 210. General Statement. The Capetian dynasty takes its name from Hugh Capet, Duke of Francia, the first of the house. The direct line embraced fourteen kings.^ The first Capetian king differed from his vassal counts and dukes simply in having a more dignified title; his power was scarcely greater than that of many of the lords who paid him homage as their suzerain; but before the close of the Middle Ages France had come to be one of the most compact and powerful kingdoms in Europe. How various circumstances conspired to build up the power of the kings at the expense of that of the great feudal lords and of the Church will appear as we go on. In this place, however, it should be noted that nothing con- tributed more to the strength and influence of the monarchy during the period of which we are speaking than the fortunate circumstance that for eleven generations, spanning more than three centuries, no French king lacked a son to whom to transmit his authority. With no disputed successions the monarchy grew steadily in power and prestige. The most noteworthy events of the earlier Capetian period, regarded from the point of view of the growth of the French kingdom, were the acquisition by the French crown of the greater part of the English possessions in France, the Crusades, the admission of the Third Estate to the National Assembly, and the abolition of the Order of the Templars. Of these several matters we will now speak in order. 211. The Acquisition of the English Possessions in France. In our sketch of the growth of England we spoke of the extensive 1 Table of the Capetian Kings (direct line) Hugh Capet ... Robert 1 1 (the Pious) Henry I Philip I Louis VI (the Fat) . Louis V 1 1 (the Young) Philip II (Augustus) 987-996 Louis VIII (the Lion) 996-1031 Louis IX (the Saint) 1031-1060 Philip III (the Bold) 1060-110S Philip IV (the Fair) . 1108-1137 Louis X {/e Nirt in) . 1137-1180 Philip V (the Tall) . 1 180-1223 Charles IV (the Fair) 1223-1226 1226-1270 1270-1285 i2S5-i3r4 1314-1316 1316-1322 1322-1328 198 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§212 possessions of the first Angevin kings in France, and told how the larger part of these feudal lands was lost through King John's misconduct and resumed as forfeited fiefs by his suzerain Philip Augustus, king of France (sect. 189). The annexation of these large and flourishing provinces to the crown of France brought a vast accession of power and patronage to the king, who was now easily the superior of any of his great vassals. 212. The French and the Crusades. The age of the Capetians was the age of the Crusades. These romantic expeditions, while stirring all Christendom, appealed especially to the ardent, imagi- native genius of the Gallic race. Three Capetian kings, Louis VII, Philip Augustus, and Louis IX, were themselves leaders of cru- sades. It was the great predominance of French-speaking persons among the first crusaders which led the Eastern peoples to call them all Franks, the term still used throughout the East to designate Europeans, irrespective of their nationality. But it is only the influence of the Crusades on the French mon- archy that we need to notice in this place. They tended very materially to weaken the power and influence of the feudal nobil- ity, and in a corresponding degree to strengthen the authority of the crown and add to its dignity. The way in which they brought about this transfer of power from the aristocracy to the king has been already explained in the chapter on the Crusades (sect. 142). In that same chapter we also saw how the crusade against the Albigenses resulted in the almost total extirpation of that hereti- cal sect and in the final acquisition by the French crown of large and rich territories formerly held by the counts of Toulouse, the patrons of the heretics, 213. Admission of the Third Estate to the National As- sembly (1302). The event of the greatest political significance in the Capetian age was the admission, in the reign of Philip the Fair, of the representatives of the towns to the National Assembly. This transaction is in French history what the creation of the House of Commons is in English history (sect. 191). A dispute having arisen between Philip and the Pope respecting the control of the offices and revenues of the Church in France S°ir-a^ ^ /^l^KoucVi ,kV7 ^ )»%

^ U>^d-^ A . rvi ^«^ ^\EV^u^''.». vr Vt] rw> ' ^JS_L^-^ r^^ « MAINE*^ ^ \^ J '^~\\ 9^ " LeMan n) ./"^ I V.T-f" ? '1 4 A„gers /^ J '^s h Means ^ N "ViSt^y^V- *cV> \s~^^< ^'^1K- 7 Tom jjrtV^Hlois'* mi 11^ „ lA'i'i'^ >^^^^~~i^ \*~~\ I jt-'- H«/ > /. MARC ^\* '- V-x .< r\ "'I L n!>S J -R.ff«TO«/,^ "^-^v. ^ \N /.♦ \ A . K-''' K\ NDY 'JV ~r /) [1 3 Kuyal Domaia I I Fiefs held bythe English King J. l I 'Flpfs lielri by other Vassals §214] DESTRUCTION OF THE TEMPLARS 199 (sect. 151), Philip, in order to rally to his support all classes throughout his kingdom, called a meeting of the National Assem- bly, to which he invited representatives of the burghers, or inhabit- ants of the towns. This council had hitherto been made up of two estates only, — the nobles and the clergy; now is added \vhat comes to be known as the Tiers Efat, or Third Estate, while the assembly henceforth is called the Estates- General or States- General. Before the growing power of this Third Estate — a power developed, however, outside and not within the National Assembly itself — we shall see the Church, the nobility, and the monarchy all go down, just as in England we shall see clergy, nobles, and king yield to the rising power of the English Commons. 214. The Abolition of the Order of the Templars (1307). We have already, in connection with the history of the Crusades, learned about the origin of the Order of the Templars (sect. 130). In recognition of their services the Templars had had bestowed upon them, through the gifts of the pious and the grants of princes, enormous riches and the most unusual privileges. The number of manors and castles that they held in the different countries of Europe, but chiefly in France, is estimated at from nine to ten thousand. But gain in wealth and power had been accompanied apparently by a loss in virtue and piety. At all events the most incredible rumors of the immoral and blasphemous character of the secret rites of the society were spread abroad. Taking advantage of the feeling against the Order, Philip re- solved upon its destruction. He was moved doubtless by various motives, but beyond all question it was the riches of the society, — which Philip coveted, — and not its sins, that were the real cause of its undoing. The blow fell suddenly. Upon a preconcerted day the chiefs of the Order throughout the kingdom were arrested, and many of them afterwards put to death on various charges.'^ The great crime brought to Philip enormous wealth, which greatly enhanced the growing power and patronage of the crown. 1 The Order was formally abolished in 1312 by Pope Clement V, the first of the Avignon popes, who was wholly under the influence of Philip. 2 00 GROWTH OF THE^ NATIONS [§215 France under the Medieval Valois^ (1328-1498) 215. Effects upon France of the Hundred Years' War. The main interest of the period of French history upon which we here enter attaches to that long struggle between England and France known as the Hundred Years' War. Having already, in connec- tion with English affairs, touched upon the causes and incidents of this war, we shall here speak only of the effects of the strug- gle on the French people and kingdom. Among these must be noticed the almost complete prostration of the French feudal aristocracy, which was already tottering to its fall through various undermining influences; the growth of the power of the king, a consequence, largely, of the ruin of the nobility; and, lastly, the awakening of a feeling of nationality and the drawing together of the hitherto isolated sections of the country by the attraction of a common and patriotic enthusiasm. Speaking in a very general manner, we may say that by the close of the long war French feudalism, as a political system and force, was over, and that France had become, partly in spite of the war but more largely by reason of it, not only a great mon- archy but a great nation. 216. Louis XI and Charles the Bold of Burgundy. The foundations of the French monarchy, laid and cemented in the way we have seen, were greatly enlarged and strengthened by the unscrupulous measures of Louis XI (1461-1483), who was a per- fect Ulysses in cunning and deceit. His maxim was, "He who does not know how to dissimulate does not know how to reign." The great feudal lords who still retained power and influence he brought to destruction one after another, and united their fiefs to the royal domains. 1 The House of Valois was a branch of the Capetian family. The following table exhibits the names of the mediasval Valois kings : Philip VI 132S-1350 Charles VII (the Victorious) . 1422-1461 John (the Crood) 1 350-1364 Louis XI 1461-14S3 Charles V (the Wise) . . . 1364-1380 Charles VIII (the Affable) . 1483-1498 Charles VI (the Well-Beloved) 1380-1422 §217] CHARLES VIII IN ITALY 201 Of all the vassal nobles ruined by the craft of Louis, the most renowned and powerful was Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Charles was endeavoring, out of a great patchwork of petty feudal states and semi-independent cantons and cities, to build up a kingdom between Germany and France/ Louis was frequently warring with the duke and forever intriguing against him. Upon the death of the duke — he was killed in 1477 i^^ ^ battle with the Swiss — Louis, without clear right, seized a considerable part of his dominions. By cession and by inheritance Louis also added to France important lands in the south (Provence and other territory), which gave the French kingdom a wider frontage upon the Mediterranean and made the Pyrenees its southern defense. 217. Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. Charles VIII (1483- 1498), son and successor of Louis XI, was the last of the mediae- val Valois. Through his marriage to Anne of Brittany he brought that great fief, which had hitherto constituted an almost inde- pendent state, under the direct rule of the crown. Charles was a romantic youth. It was his dream to make France instead of Germany the head of the world empire. With a standing army, created during the latter years of the war with England, at his command, he invaded Italy, intent on the con- quest of Naples, — to which he laid claim on the strength of an old bequest, — -proposing, with that state subdued, to lead a crusade to the East against the Turks. Charles' march through Italy was a mere '^ promenade." In the early spring of 1495 he entered Naples in triumph, where, amidst splendid ceremonies, he caused himself to be crowned " King of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem." Meanwhile the king of Aragon, the Venetians, and other powers were uniting their armies to punish the insolence and check the vaulting ambition of the would-be emperor and crusader. Only at the cost of a large part of his army did Charles succeed in making good his retreat into France. 1 His success would have meant practically a restoration of the old Lotharingian kingdom (see map, p. 66). It seems one of the misfortunes of history that Charles did not succeed in his ambition. Such a kingdom as he planned might have proved a serviceable " buffer state " between France and Germany. 202 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§218 This enterprise of Charles is noteworthy not only because it marks the commencement of a long series of campaigns carried on by the French in Italy, but further on account of Charles' army having been made up largely of paid troops instead of feudal retainers, which fact assures us that the feudal system, as a military organization, had virtually come to an end. m,S The Beginnings of French Literature 218. The Troubadours. The contact of the old Latin speech in Gaul with that of the Teutonic invaders gave rise there to two , very distinct dialects. ;^-r ^ '^"1 One was the Provencal , }, r '" or Laiigue d'Oc, the tongue of southern France and of the ad- joining regions of Spain and Italy; and the other French proper, or Languc d'O'il, the language of northern France. About the begin- ning of the twelfth century, by which time the Provencal tongue had become settled and somewhat polished, literature in France first began to find a voice in the songs of the Troubadours, the poets of the South. It is instructive to note that it was the home of the Albigensian heresy, the land that had felt the influence of every Mediterranean civiliza- tion, that was also the home of the Troubadour literature. The counts of Toulouse, the protectors of the heretics, were also the patrons of the poets. It was, as we have intimated, the same fierce persecution which uprooted the heretical faith that stilled the songs of the Troubadours. Fig. 41. I\ THE Land of the Troubadours — THE Castle of Foix. (From Smith, TIic Troubadours at Home) § 219] THE TROUVEURS 203 The compositions of the Troubadours were, for the most part, love songs and satires. Among the countless minstrels of the South were some who acquired a fame which was spread through- out Christendom. The verses of the Troubadours were sung in every land, and to their stimulating influence the early poetry of almost every people of Europe is largely indebted. 219. The Trouveiirs. These were the poets of northern France, who composed in the Langue d'O'il, or Old French tongue. They flourished during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. As the Troubadours of the South found worthy patrons in the counts of Toulouse, so did the Trouveurs of the North find admiring en- couragers in the dukes of Normandy. There was, however, a wide difference between the literature of southern and that of northern France. The compositions of the Troubadours were almost exclusively lyric songs, while those of the Trouveurs were chiefly epic or narrative poems, called romances. These latter celebrated the chivalrous exploits and loves of great princes and knights and displayed at times almost Homeric animation and grandeur. Many of them gather about three famfliar names, — Charlemagne, King Arthur, and Alexan- der the Great, — thus forming what are designated as the cycle of Charlemagne, the Arthurian or Armorican cycle, and the Alexandrian.^ The influence of these French romances upon the springing literatures of Europe was most inspiring and helpful. Nor has their influence yet ceased. Thus in English literature, not only did Chaucer and Spenser and all the early island poets draw inspiration from these fountains of Continental song, but the later Tennyson, in his Idylls of the King, has fllustrated the power over the imagination yet possessed by the Arthurian poems of the old Trouveurs. 220. Froissart's Chronicles. The first really noted prose writer in French literature was Froissart (about 133 7-1 410), 1 These epics, it will be noticed, represent the three elements in the civilization of western Europe, — the German, the Celtic, and the Grasco-Roman. It was the Crusades that brought in a fresh relay of tales and legends from the lands of the East (sect. 143). 2 04 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§221 whose picturesqueness of style and skill as a story-teller have won for him the title of the "French Herodotus." Born, as he was, only a little after the opening of the Hundred Years' War, and knowing personally many of the actors in that long struggle, it was fitting that he should have become, as he did, the annalist of those stirring times. Froissart's inimitable Chronicles have an added value from the age in which they were written. It was, as we have learned, a transition period. Feudalism was fast passing away and chivalry was beginning to feel the dissolving breath of a new era. But as the forests never clothe themselves in more gorgeous colors than when already touched by decay, so chivalry never arrayed itself in more splendid magnificence than when about to die. In the age of Edward III and the Black Prince it displayed its most sumptuous and prodigal splendor. And this is the age which the rare genius of Froissart has painted for us. III. SPAIN 221. The Beginnings of Spain. When, in the eighth century, the Saracens swept like a wave over Spain, the mountains of Asturias and Cantabria in the northwest corner of the peninsula afforded a refuge for the most resolute of the Christian chiefs who refused to submit their necks to the Moslem yoke. These brave and hardy warriors not only successfully defended the hilly dis- tricts that formed their asylum but gradually pushed back the invaders and regained control of a portion of the fields and cities that had been lost. By the opening of the eleventh century several little Christian states, among which we must notice especially the states of Castile and Aragon because of the prominent part they were to play in later history, had been established upon the ground thus recov- ered or always maintained. Castile was at first simply ''a line of castles" against the Moors, whence its name. 222. Union of Castile and Aragon (1479). For several cen- turies the princes of the little states to which we have referred § 223] THE CONQUEST OF GRANADA 205 kept up an incessant warfare with their Mohammedan neighbors; but, owing to dissensions among themselves, they were unable to combine in any effective way for the complete reconquest of their ancient possessions. But the marriage, in 1469, of Ferdinand, prince of Aragon, to Isabella, princess of Castile, paved the way for the virtual union in 1479 of these two leading states, both greatly enlarged since the eleventh century, into a single kingdom. By this happy union the quarrels of these two rival principalities were composed, and they were now free to employ their united strength in effecting what the Christian princes amidst all their contentions had never lost sight of, — the expulsion of the Moors from the peninsula. 223. The Conquest of Granada (1492). At the time when the basis of the Spanish monarchy was laid by the union of Castile and Aragon, the Mohammedan possessions had been reduced, by the constant pressure of the Christian chiefs through eight cen- turies, to a very limited dominion in the south of Spain. Here the Moors had established a strong, well-compacted state, known as the Kingdom of Granada. As soon as Ferdinand and Isabella had settled 'the affairs of their dominions, they began to make preparation for the reduction of this last stronghold of the Moorish power in the peninsula. The Moors made a desperate defense of their little state. The struggle lasted for ten years. City after city fell into the hands of the Christian knights, and finally Granada, pressed by an army of seventy thousand, was forced to surrender, and the Cross replaced the Crescent on its walls and towers (1492). The Moors, or Moriscos, as they were called, were allowed to remain in the country, though under many annoying restrictions. What is known as their expulsion occurred at a later date (sect. 324). The fall of Granada holds an important place among the many significant events that mark the latter half of the fifteenth cen- tury. It marked the end, after an existence of almost eight hun- dred years, of Mohammedan rule in the Spanish peninsula, and thus formed an offset to the progress of the Moslems in eastern Europe and the loss to the Christian world of Constantinople. 2o6 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§224 224. Influence upon the Spanish Character of the Moorish Domination and the Moorish Wars. The long wars which the Spanish Christians waged against the Arab Moors left a deep impress upon the national character. In the first place, the oppor- tunity which they afforded for knightly service and romantic ad- venture heightened that chivalrous spirit of which more than traces are noticeable in the feelings and the bearing of the Spaniard of to-day. In the second place, they made religion a thing of patriotism, and thus aroused religious zeal and fostered the growth of intol- erance. The unfortunate bias and temper thus imparted to the Spanish national character set Spain apart from the other Western nations, and affords the key to much of her later history both in Europe and in the New World. For illustration, it was, without doubt, the development in the Spanish people of this zealous religious spirit that helped to prepare the ground in Spain for the setting up there of the terrible tribunal of the Inquisition. 225. The Inquisition. The Inquisition, or Holy Office, was a tribunal the purpose of which was the detection and punish- ment of heresy. Its establishment in Spain casts a dark shadow upon the reign of the illustrious sovereigns Ferdinand and Isabella. Being employed by the government for the securing of politi- cal as well as religious ends, the tribunal became an instrument of the most incredible tyranny. The Jews were in this earlier period the chief victims of the court. Accompanying the an- nouncement of the sentences of the Holy Office there were solemn public ceremonies known as the auto-da- je ("act of faith"). The assembly was held in some church or in the public square, and the following day those condemned to death were burned out- side the city walls. It is particularly to this last act of the drama that the term ai/to-da-fe has come popularly to be applied. The Inquisition secured for Spain unity of religious belief, but only through suppressing freedom of thought and thereby sapping the strength and virility of the Spanish people. Whatever was most promising and vigorous was withered and blasted or was cast out. In the year 1492 the Jews, under circumstances of great The Alhambra: Palace of the Moorish Kings at Granada (From a photograph) §226] THE EPIC OF THE CID 207 distress, were expelled from the country. It is estimated that between two and three hundred thousand of this unhappy race were forced to seek an asylum in other lands. Thus, at the same time that Ferdinand and Isabella were doing so much to foster the national life, their unfortunate religious zeal was planting the upas tree which was destined completely to over- shadow and poison the springing energies of the nation. 226. Death of Ferdinand and Isabella. Queen Isabella died in 1504, and Ferdinand followed her in the year 1516, upon Fig. 42. Recumbent Effigy of Queen Isabella. (From the magnificent sarcophagus in the Royal Chapel at Granada) which latter event the crown of Spain descended to their grandson, Charles, of whom we shall hear much hereafter as the Emperor Charles V. With his reign the modern history of Spain begins. Beginnings of the Spanish Language and Literature 227. The Language. After the union of Castile and Aragon it was the language of the former that became the speech of the Spanish court. During the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella it gradually gained ascendancy over the numerous dialects of the country and became at last the national speech. By the conquests and colonizations of the sixteenth century this Castilian speech was destined to become only less widely spread than is the English tongue. 228. The Poem of the Cid. Castilian or Spanish literature begins in the twelfth century with the romance poem of the Cid, one of the best-known literary productions of the mediaeval period. This grand national poem was the outgrowth of the sentiments inspired by the long struggle between the Spanish Christians and 208 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§ 229 the Mohammedan Moors. Its influence in evoking the sentiment of Spanish patriotism and in stimulating the spirit of Spanish nationality has been likened to the effects of the poems of Homer in creating fraternal bonds between the cities of ancient Hellas. IV. GERMANY 229. Beginnings of the Kingdom of Germany. The history of Germany as a separate kingdom begins with the break-up of the empire of Charlemagne, about the middle of the ninth cen- tury (sect. 78). The part east of the Rhine, with which fragment alone we are now concerned, was called the Kingdom of the Eastern Franks, in distinction from that west of the river, which was known as the Kingdom of the Western Franks. This Eastern Frankish kingdom was made up of several groups of tribes, — the Saxons, the Suabians, the Thuringians, the Bava- rians, and the East Franks, of which the latter were at this time chief, and gave name to the whole. Closely allied in race, speech, manners, and social arrangements, all these peoples seemed ready to be welded into a close and firm nation. That such was not the outcome of the historical development during mediaeval times was due largely to the adoption by the German emperors of an unfortunate policy respecting a world empire. This matter will be explained in the following sections. 230. Consequences to Germany of the Revival of the Empire by Otto the Great. We have in another place, while tracing the history of the Empire, told how Otto I of Germany, in imi- tation of Charlemagne, restored the imperial authority (sect. 79). Otto's scheme respecting the establishment of a world empire was a grand one but, as had been demonstrated by the failure of the attempt of the great Charles, was an utterly impracticable ideal. Yet the pursuit of this phantom by the German kings resulted in the most woeful consequences to Germany. Trying to grasp too much, the German rulers seized nothing at all. Attempting to be emperors of the world, they failed to become even kings of Germany. While they were engaged in outside § 231] THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS 209 enterprises their home affairs were neglected and the vassal princes of Germany succeeded in increasing their power and making themselves practically independent. Thus while the kings of England, France, and Spain were gradually consolidating their dominions and building up strong centralized monarchies on the ruins of feudalism, the preoccupied sovereigns of Germany were allowing the country to become split up into a great number of semi-independent states, the ambitions and jealousies of whose rulers were to postpone the uniiication of Germany for several hundred years — until our own day. Had the emperors inflicted loss and disaster upon Germany alone through this misdirection of their energies, the case would not be so lamentable; but the fair fields of Italy were for cen- turies made the camping fields of the imperial armies, and the whole peninsula was kept embroiled with the quarrels of Guelphs and Ghibellines, and thus the nationalization of the Italian people was also delayed for centuries. 231. Germany under the Hohenstaufen Emperors (ii38- 1254). The matter of chief importance during the rule of the Hohenstaufens was, as we have learned, the long and bitter con- flict waged between them and the popes. The name of the most noted of the Hohenstaufen emperors — Frederick Barbarossa^ — is familiar to us. Frederick gave Ger- many a good and strong government, and gained a sure place in the affections of the German people, who came to regard him as the representative of the sentiment of German nationality. Other emperors, when engaged in contentions with the Pope, always had a great many among their own German subjects ready to join the Roman See against their own sovereign; but all classes in Germany rallied about their beloved Frederick. When news of his death was brought back from the East (sect, 132) they refused to believe that he was dead, and as time passed a legend arose which told how he slept in a cavern beneath one of his castles on a mountain top, and how, when the ravens should cease to circle about the hill, he would appear, to make the German people a nation united and strong. 210 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§232 Frederick Barbarossa was followed by his son Henry VI (1190- 1197), who, by marriage, had acquired a claim to the kingdom of Sicily/ Almost all his time and resources were spent in attempts to reduce that remote realm to a state of proper sub- jection to his authority. By leading the emperors to neglect their German subjects and interests, this southern kingdom proved a fatal dower to the Hohenstaufen house. By the close of the Hohenstaufen period Germany was divided into about three hundred virtually independent states, the princes and the cities having taken advantage of the prolonged absences of the emperors, or their troubles with the popes and the Italian cities, to free themselves almost completely from the control of the crown. There was really no longer either a German Kingdom or a Holy Roman Empire. The royal as well as the imperial title had become an empty name. 232. The Seven Electors; the Interregnum (1254-1273). In order to make intelligible the transactions of that period in Ger- man history known as the Interregnum, which we have now reached, we must here say a word about the Electors of the Empire. When, in the beginning of the tenth century, the German Carolingian line became extinct, the great nobles of the king- dom assumed the right of choosing the successor of the last of the house, and Germany thus becamg an elective feudal mon- archy. In the course of time a few of the leading nobles usurped the right of choosing the king, and these princes became known as Electors. There were at the end of the Hohenstaufen period seven princes who enjoyed this important privilege, four of whom were secular princes and three spiritual. This electoral body held in its hands the destinies of Germany. .We are now in a position to understand the shameful trans- action of the sale of the German crown. The Electors, like 1 The Hohenstaufen held the kingdom until 1265, when the Pope gave it as a fief to Charles I of Anjou (brother of Louis IX of France). Charles' oppressive rule led to a revolt of his island subjects and to the great massacre known as the Sicilian Vespers (1282), one of the great tragedies of history. All the hated race of Frenchmen were either killed or driven out of the island. §233] THE INTERREGNUM 211 the pretorians of ancient Rome,^ put up the bauble for sale. There were two bidders, both foreigners, Richard of Cornwall (brother of the English king Henry HI) and Alphonso, king of Castile. Each offered the Electors large bribes, and so both were elected, — one of the Electors voting for both candidates. Al- though Alphonso had shown so much anxiety to secure the honor, he never once set foot within the limits of Germany, and Richard contented himself with an occasional visit to the country. r ^i^fi ■mw Fig. 43. The Electors' Seat. (From a photograph) This structure stands on the banks of the Rhine near Coblenz. On the top are stone seats where the Electors met to elect the German king. The building shown is an eighteenth-century restoration Of course neither of the emperors-elect possessed any real authority in Germany or in any of the countries claimed as parts of the Empire. The period is known in German history as the Interregnum. Anarchy prevailed throughout the country. Princes made themselves petty despots in their dominions, while the lesser nobles became robbers and preyed upon traders. 233. Towns and Free Imperial Cities. The kingly power having fallen into such utter contempt that all general govern- ment was practically in abeyance, the towns found it necessary, in order to protect themselves against the violence and oppres- sion of the princes and barons, to form confederations and take 1 See Ancient Histoiy, 2d Rev. Ed., sect. 515. 212 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§234 their defense in their own hands. It was during this anarchical period that the Hanseatic League (sect. 167) grew rapidly in strength and influence. During the course of the thirteenth century many of the towns, through the favor of their suzerain, were relieved of the presence of the imperial officers and became what are known as free imperial cities. They of course still acknowledged the suzerainty of the Emperor, but were allowed to manage their local affairs to suit themselves, and thus became practically little common- wealths, somewhat like the city-republics of Italy. 234. Rise of the Swiss Republic. The most noteworthy mat- ters in German history during the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- turies are the struggle between the Swiss and the princes of the Hapsburg or Austrian family, the religious movement of th^ Hussites, and the growing power of the House of Hapsburg. Embraced within the limits of the mediaeval Empire was the country now known as Switzerland. Its liberty-loving people yielded to the Emperor a nominal obedience, like that of the free imperial cities; but they were very impatient of the claims of various feudal lords to authority over them. Among the lords claiming or actually possessing rights over different* cantons or communities were the counts of Hapsburg.^ The efforts of the Hapsburgs to bring the mountaineers wholly under their direct power led the three so-called Forest Cantons, Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden, to form a defensive union, known as the Everlasting Compact (1291). This league laid the basis of the Swiss Confederation, one of the most typical and interest- ing of the federal states of to-day. The struggle between the brave hillsmen and the House of Haps- burg was long and memorable.- Embellished by Swiss patriotism 1 So called from the castle of Hapsburg, in Switzerland, the cradle of the house. In 1273 Count Rudolph of Hapsburg was chosen Emperor. A little later he acquired Austria as an appanage for his house. From this new possession the family took a new title, — that of the House of Austria. 2 Noteworthy battles, all victories for the Swiss, were the battle of Morgarten (1315), the battle of Sempach {1386), and the battle of Nafels (138S). It was at Sempach, as a patriotic myth relates, that Arnold of Winkelried broke the ranks of the Austrians by collecting in his arms as many of their lances as he could and, as they pierced his §235] LEGEND OF WILLIAM TELL 213 with thrilling tales of heroic daring and self-devotion, the history of this contest reads like a romance. But modern historical criticism has reduced much of the story to ordinary prose. Thus the tale of the hero-patriot William Tell and the tyrant Gessler we now know to be a myth, with nothing but the revolt as the nucleus of fact. Yet, as has been truly said, "the legend of William Tell, and a present- ment of it by Schiller [through heightening pride in race and achievement], form a national asset of priceless value." Just at the close of the Middle Ages (in 1499) the Hapsburg Emperor Maximil- ian I, having been defeated in a war with the league, concluded with it a treaty which practi- cally established the independ- ence of the Swiss-Confederation and gave it a place in the family of European states. One effect upon the Swiss of their long struggle for liberty was the fostering among them of such a love for the military life that when, at a later period, there was lack of warlike oc- cupation for them at home, the Swiss soldiers hired themselves out to the different sovereigns of Europe ; and thus it happened that, though trained in the school of freedom, these sturdy moun- taineers became the most noted mercenary supporters of despotism. 235. The Hussites. About the beginning of the fifteenth cen- tury, through the medium of the university connections between Fig. 44. William Tell. (From the monument at Altdorf, Switzerland) breast, bearing them with him to the ground, exclaiming, " Comrades, I will open a road for you," 214 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§236 England and Germany, the doctrines of the English reformer Wycliffe began to spread in Bohemia. The chief of the new sect was John Huss, a professor of the University of Prague. The doctrines of the reformer were condemned by the great Council of Constance (sect. 154), and Huss himself, having been deliv- ered over into the hands of the civil authorities for punishment, was burned at the stake (141 5). The following year Jerome of Prague, another reformer, was likewise burned. Shortly after the burning of Huss a crusade was proclaimed against his followers, who had risen in arms. Then began a cruel, desolating war of fifteen years, the outcome of which was the almost total extermination of the radical party among the Hussites. 236. The Imperial Crown becomes Hereditary in the House of Austria (1433). In the year 1438 Albert, Duke of Austria, was raised by the Electors to the imperial throne. His accession marks an epoch in German history, for, from this time on until the dissolution of the Empire by Napoleon in 1806, the imperial crown was practically hereditary in the Hapsburg family, the Electors, although never failing to go through the formality of an election, always, with one exception, choosing a person of Haps- burg descent. The greatest of the Hapsburg line during the mediaeval period was Maximilian I (1493-1519). The most noteworthy matter of his reign was the efforts made for constitutional reforms which should enable Germany to secure that internal peace and national unity which France, England, and Spain had each already in a fair degree attained. But every effort of this kind failed, because the Electors and princes would not give up any part of their privileges and power. Beginnings of German Literature 237. The Nibelungenlied, It was during the rule of the Hohenstaufen that Germany produced the first pieces of a national literature. The Nibelungenlied, or the "Lay of the Nibelungs," is the great German mediaeval epic. It was reduced to writing about §238] MINNESINGERS AND ROMANCERS 215 1200, being a recast of ancient German legends and lays dating from the sixth and seventh centuries. The hero of the story is Siegfried, the Achilles of Teutonic legend and song. The names and deeds of Attila, Theodoric, and other warriors of the age of the Wanderings of the Nations are mingled in its lines. This great national epic romance may be likened to the poem Beowulf of our Saxon ancestors (sect. 21). It is gross and brutal, filled with fierce lightings and horrible slaughters, — a reflection of the rude times that gave birth to the original ballads out of which the epic was woven; but there are also embodied in it the feudal virtues of loyalty and courage, while it further bears traces of the later softening influences of Christianity and of chivalry. 238. The Minnesingers and Romancers. Under the same em- perors, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Minne- singers, the poets of love, as the word signifies, flourished. They were the ''Troubadours of Germany."^ Closely connected with the lyric poetry of the Minnesingers is a species of chivalric romances known as court epics. The finest of these pieces have for their groundwork the mythic Celtic- French legends of the Holy Grail and the Knights of King Arthur's Round Table. The best representative of these romances is the poem of Parsifal." The moral and spiritual teaching of the poem is that only through humility, purity, and human sympathy can the soul attain perfection. Just at the close of the Middle Ages the humanistic studies (sect. 253) came to interest the scholars of Germany. The result was that for three hundred years thereafter much of the best literary work of the German scholars and writers was done in Latin, — the mother tongue being regarded by the later humanists as plebeian and fit only for inferior composition, — and thus the development of the native literature was seriously checked. 1 The most eminent of the Minnesingers of the mediaeval time in Germany was Walther von der Vogelweide (1170-1227). 2 By Wolfram of Eschenbach (d. about 1220). 2i6 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§239 V. RUSSIA 239. The Beginnings of Russia; the Mongol Invasion. The state estabUshed by the Swedish adventurer Rurik (sect. 83) came to be known as Russia, from Ros, the name of the Scandi- navian settlers. The descendants of Rurik gradually extended their authority over neighboring tribes, until nearly all the north- western Slavs were included in their growing dominions. In the thirteenth century an overwhelming calamity befell Russia. This was the overrunning and concjuest of the country by the Mongol hordes (sect. 159). The barbarian conquerors inflicted the most horrible atrocities upon the unfortunate land, and for two hundred and fifty years held the Russian princes in a degrading bondage, forcing them to pay homage and tribute. This misfortune delayed for centuries the nationalization of the Slavic peoples. It was just such a misfortune as a little later befell the Greeks and other races of southeastern Europe (sect. 162). 240. Russia freed from the Mongols. It was not until the reign of Ivan the Great (1462-1505) that Russia, — now fre- quently called Muscovy from the fact that it had been reorgan- ized with Moscow as a center, — after a terrible struggle, suc- ceeded in freeing itself from the hateful Tatar domination and began to assume the character of a well-consolidated monarchy. By the end of the Middle Ages Russia had become a great power, but she was as yet too closely hemmed in by hostile states to be able to make her influence felt in the affairs of Europe. VI. ITALY 241. No National Government. In marked contrast to all those countries of which we have thus far spoken, unless we except Germany, Italy came to the close of the Middle Ages without a national or regular government. This is to be attrib- uted, as we have already learned, to a variety of causes, but in large part to that unfortunate rivalry between Pope and Emperor which resulted in dividing Italy into two hostile camps. §242] RIENZI, TRIBUNE OF ROME 217 And yet the mediaeval period did not pass without attempts on the part of patriot spirits to effect some sort of political union among the different cities and states of the peninsula. The most noteworthy of these movements, and one which gave assurance that the spark of pattiotism which was in time to flame into an Italy about the Middle of the Fifteenth Century inextinguishable passion for national unity was kindling in the Italian heart, was that headed by the patriot-hero Rienzi in the fourteenth century. 242. Rienzi, Tribune of Rome (1347). During the greater part of the fourteenth century the seat of the Roman See was at Avignon, beyond the Alps (sect, 152). Throughout this period of the "Babylonian Captivity," Rome, deprived of her natural 2i8 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§242 guardians, was in a state of the greatest confusion. The nobles terrorized the country about the capital and kept the streets of the city itself in constant turmoil with their bitter feuds. In the midst of these disorders there appeared from among the lowest ranks of the people a deliverer in the person of one Nicola di Rienzi. With imagination all aflame from long study of the records and monuments of the freedom and the glories of ancient Rome, he conceived the magnificent idea of not only delivering the capital from the wretchedness of the prevailing anarchy but also of restoring the city to its former proud position as head of Italy and mistress of the world. Possessed of considerable talent and great eloquence, Rienzi easily incited the people to a revolt against the rule, or rathfer misrule, of the nobles, and succeeded in having himself, with the title of Tribune, placed at the head of a new government for Rome. The remarkable revolution drew the attention of all Italy and of the world beyond the peninsula as well. Encouraged by the success that had thus far attended his schemes, Rienzi now began to concert measures for the union of all the principalities and commonwealths of Italy into a great re- public, with Rome as its capital. He sent ambassadors throughout Italy to plead, at the courts of the princes and in the council chambers of the cities, the cause of Italian unity and freedom. The splendid dream of Rienzi was shared by other Italian patriots besides himself, among whom was the poet Petrarch, who was the friend and encourager of the plebeian tribune and who "wished part in the glorious work and in the lofty fame." But the moment for Italy's unification had not yet come. Not only were there hindrances to the national movement in the ambitions and passions of rival parties and classes, but there were still greater impediments in the character of the plebeian patriot himself. Rienzi proved to be an unworthy leader. His sudden elevation and surprising success completely turned his head, and he soon began to exhibit the most incredible vanity and weakness. The people withdrew from him their support; the Pope excommunicated him as a rebel and heretic; and the §243] MACHIAVELLI AND THE PRINCE 219 nobles rose against him. He was finally killed in a sudden uprising of the populace (1354). Thus vanished the dream of Rienzi and of Petrarch, of the hero and of the poet. Centuries of division, of shameful subjection to foreign princes, — French, Spanish, and Austrian, — of wars and suffering, were yet before the Italian people ere Rome should become the center of a free, orderly, and united Italy. 243. The Renaissance. Though the IMiddle Ages closed in Italy without the rise there of a national government, still before the end of the period much had been done to create those com- mon ideals and sentiments upon which political unity can alone securely repose. Literature and art here performed the part that war did in other countries in arousing a national pride and spirit. The Renaissance, of which we shall tell in the following chapter, with its awakenings and achievements, did much towards creating among the Italians a common pride in race and country; and thus this splendid literary and artistic enthusiasm was the first step in a course of national development which was to lead the Italian people, in the fullness of time, to a common political life. Here, in connection with Italian Renaissance literature, a word will be in place respecting The Prince, by the Florentine historian Machiavelli (1469-1527). In this remarkable book the writer, imbued with a deep patriotic sentiment, points out the way in which, in the midst of the existing chaos, material and spiritual, Italy might be consolidated into a great state, like England or France or Spain. The redeemer of Italy and the maker of the new state must be a strong despotic prince, who in the work must have no moral scruples whatever, but be ready to use all means, however unjust and wicked, which promised to further the end in view. The way in which Machiavelli instructs the prince to build up a state out of the broken-down institutions of the Middle Ages was, in truth, the very way in which the despots of his time in Italy had actually created their principalities; but that he should have seriously advised any one to adopt their immoral statecraft 220 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§244 soon raised against him and his teachings, especially in the North, a storm of protest and denunciation which has not yet subsided. Machiavelli found disciples enough, however, so that his work had a vast though malign influence in molding the political morality of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 244. Savonarola (i452-i498). A word must here be said respecting the Florentine monk and reformer Girolamo Savo- narola, who stands as the most noteworthy personage in Italy during the closing years of the mediaeval period. Savonarola was at once Roman censor and Hebrew prophet. His powerful preaching alarmed the conscience of the Florentines. At his suggestion the women brought their finery and orna- ments, and others their beautiful works of art, and, piling them in great heaps in the streets of Florence, burned them as vanities. Savonarola even urged that the government of Florence be made a theocracy and Christ be proclaimed king. But finally the activity of his .enemies brought about the reformer's downfall, and he was condemned to death, strangled, his body burned, and his ashes thrown into the Arno. Savonarola may be regarded as the last great mediaeval forerunner of the reformers of the sixteenth century. Yet he was not a reformer in the same sense that Luther, for instance, was. He was not a precursor of Protestantism. He stood firmly on Catholic ground. He wished, it is true, to reform the Church, but he had no quarrel with its doctrines or its form of government. His reform was a reaction against the pagan and immoral tend- encies of the Renaissance. He waged warfare against the human- ists and their heathen studies; he declared that in matters of faith an old woman was wiser than Plato. In like manner he opposed the artistic revival, which to him seemed a dangerous renewal of what was most immoral and debasing in the pagan past. Fig. 45. Sa\c)narola. (Por- trait by Fra Bartolommeo) §245] THE UNION OF CALM A R 221 VII. THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES 245. The Union of Calmar (1397). The great Scandinavian Exodus of the ninth and tenth centuries drained the northern lands of some of the best elements of their population. For this reason these countries did not play as prominent a part in mediaeval history as they probably would otherwise have done. Russia and the Scandinavian Countries at the Close of the Middle Ages The constant contentions between the ungovernable nobility and their sovereigns were also another cause of internal weakness. In the year 1397, by what is known as the Union of Calmar, the three kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden were united under Margaret of Denmark, 'Hhe Semiramis of the North." The treaty provided that each country should retain its constitution and make its own laws. But the treaty was violated, and though the friends of the measure had hoped much from it, it brought only jealousies, feuds, and wars. Thus the history of these northern countries during the later 2 22 GROWTH OF THE NATIONS [§245 mediaeval time presents nothing of primary interest which calls for narration here; but early in the Modern Age we shall see Sweden developing rapidly as an independent monarchy and for a period playing an important part in European affairs. Selections from the Sources. Lanier, S., The Boy's Froissaii (being Sir John Froissari's Chronicles edited for boys). Aitcassin and Alcolette (trans, by Andrew Lang). This is the most exquisite love story, in prose and verse, 'preserved to us from the age of the Troubadours. Henderson, E. F., Select Historical Documents, pp. 1-16S. Kendall, E. K., Source-Book, chaps, v-vii! References (Modern), (i) Works of a general character: Guizot, F. P. G., History of Civilization in Europe, lects. ix and xi. WiLSOX, W., The State (has chapters on the development of the governmental institutions of the leading states). Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, chaps, xiii and xiv. Emerton, E., The Beginnings of Mode7-n Europe. (2) National histories : Green, J. R., History of the English People, parts of vols, i and ii. He.xderson, E. F., Histoiy of Germany in the Middle Ages. Hassall, a., The French People. HUME, M. A. S., The Spanish People. The " Story of the Nations " series contains convenient volumes on each of the chief European states. (3) Biographies and books on special topics: Lowell, F. C,foan of Arc. Trevelyan, G. M., England in the Age of Wycliffe (the best account of the Peasants' Revolt). Poole, R. C, Wycliffe and Movements for Reform. G.\SQUET, F. A., The Great Pestilence. Smith, J. H., The Troubadours at Home, 2 vols. Mrs. Oliphant, The Makers of Florence. Le.a, H. C., A History of the Inquisi- tion in the Middle Ages, 3 vols. In the '" Heroes of the Nations " series are to be found separate biographies of many of the great characters of the period under review. Topics for Class Reports, i. The Black Death : Hecker, J. F. C., The Epi- demics of the Middle Ages, chaps, i-vi ; Green, J. R., History of the English People, vol. i, pp. 428-433 (for effects of the plague in England). 2. The fall of Granada : Prescott, W. H., History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, Part I, chap, xv; or Irving, W., The Conquest of Granada. 3. Savonarola, the burning of the "vanities": Clark, W., Savonarola, chap. xv. 4. Introduction of trial by torture in the later mediaeval period : Seignobos, C, Histo?y of Mediceval and Modem Civilization, pp. 215-220. CHAPTER XVIII THE RENAISSANCE L THE BEGINNINGS OF THE RENAISSANCE « 246. The Renaissance defined. By the term Renaissance ("New Birth'"), used in its narrower sense, is meant that new enthusiasm for classical literature, learning, and art which sprang up in Italy towards the close of the Middle Ages and which during the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries gave a new culture to Europe/ • Using the word in a somewhat broader sense, we niay define the Renaissance as the reentrance into the world of that secular, inquiring, self-reliant spirit which characterized the life and cul- ture of classical antiquity. . This is simply to say that under the influence of the intellectual revival the men of western Europe came to think and feel, to look upon life and the outer world, as did the men of ancient Greece and Rome; and this again is merely to say that they ceased to think and feel as mediaeval men and began to think and feel as modern men. 247, The Crusades in their Relation to the Renaissance. Many agencies conspired to bring in the Renaissance. Among these were the Crusades. These long-sustained enterprises, as we pointed out in summarizing their effects, contributed essentially to break the mental lethargy that had fallen upon the European mind, and to awaken in the nations of western Europe the spirit of a new life. Before the Crusades closed, the way of the Renais- sance was already prepared. In every territory of human activity 1 By many writers the term is employed in a still narrower sense than this, being used to designate merely the revival of classical art ; but this is to depreciate the most important phase of a many-sided development. The Renaissance was essentially an intellectual movement. It is this intellectual quality which gives it so large a place in universal history and which we shall stress in our brief account of its principal phases. 223 2 24 THE RENAISS.\NCE [§248 the paths along which advances were to be made by the men of coming generations had been marked out, and in many directions trodden by the eager feet of the pioneers of the new Hfe and cukure. 248. The Development of National Literatures as an Expression of the New Spirit. The awakening of this new spirit in the Western nations is especially observable in the growth and development of their native literatures. It was, speaking broadly, during and just after the crusading centuries that the native tongues of Europe found a voice, — began to form literatures of their own. We have in another place spoken of the formation and gradual growth of some of the most important of these languages (sect. 44). As soon as their forms became somewhat settled, then literature was possible, and all these speeches bud and blossom into song and romance. In Spain the epic poem of the Cid, a reflection of Castilian chivalry, forms the beginning of Spanish literature; in the south of France the Troubadours fill the land with the melody of their love songs; in the north the Trouveurs recite the stirring romances of Charlemagne and his paladins, of King Arthur and the Holy Grail ; in Germany the harsh strains of the NibclungcnUed are followed by the softer notes of the Minnesingers; in Italy Dante sings his Divine Comedy in the pure mellifluous tongue of Tuscany and creates a language for the Italian race; in England Chaucer writes his Canterbury Tales and completes the fusion of Saxon and Norman into the English tongue. This formation of the modern European languages and the growth of native literatures foreshadowed the approaching Renaissance; for there was in them a note of freedom, a note of protest against mediaeval asceticism and ecclesiastical restraint. And at the same time that this literary development heralded the coming intellectual revival it hastened its advance; for the light songs, tales, and romances of these national literatures, unlike the learned productions of the Schoolmen, which were in Latin and addressed only to a limited class, appealed to the masses and thus stirred the universal mind and heart of Europe. §249] DANTE AND THE REVIVAL 225 249. Town Life and Lay Culture. The spirit of the new Hfe was nourished especially b}^ the air of the great cities. In speaking of mediaeval town life we noticed how within the towns there was early developed a life like that of modern times. The atmos- phere of these bustling, trafficking cities called into existence a practical commercial spirit, a many-sided, independent, secular life which in many respects was directly opposed to mediaeval teachings and ideals. This intellectual and social movement within the mediaeval towns, es- pecially in the great city- republics of Italy, was related most intimately, as we shall see in a moment, to that great re- vival of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to which the term Renais- sance is properly and dis- tinctively applied. 250. Dante as a Fore- runner of the Renais- sance. We have already spoken the name of Dante, but the great place he holds in the intellectual history of the race requires that we should speak with some detail of the relation which he sustained to the age which, just as he tippeared, was passing away and to the new age which was then approaching. Dante Alighieri, "the fame of the Tuscan people," was born at Florence in 1265. He was^gxiled by the Florentines in 1302, and at the courts of friends learned how hard a thing it is "to climb the stairway of a patron." He died at Ravenna in 132 1, and his tomb there is a place of pilgrimage to-day. Fig. 46. Dante. (Ftom a portrait by S. Tofanelli) 226 THE RENAISSANCE [§251 It was during the years of his exile that Dante wrote his im- mortal poem the Commedia, as named by himself, because of its happy ending; the Divina Commedia, or the "Divine Comedy," as called by his admirers. This poem has been called the ''Epic of Medisevalism." It is an epitome of the life and thought of the Middle Ages. Dante's theology is the theology of the mediaeval Church; his philosophy is the philosophy of the Schoolmen; his science is the science of his time. But although Dante viewed the world from a standpoint which was essentially that of the mediaeval age which was passing away, still he was in a profound sense a prophet of the new age which was approaching, — a forerunner of the Renaissance. He was such in his feeling for classical antiquity. He speaks lovingly of Vergil as his teacher and master, the one from whom he took the beautiful style that had done him honor. His modern attitude towards Grseco-Roman culture is further shown in his free use of the works of the classical writers; the illustrative material of his great poem is drawn almost as largely from classical as from Hebrew and Christian sources. Again, in his self-reliant judg- ment, in his critical spirit, in his mental independence, Dante exhibits intellectual traits which we recognize as belonging rather to the modern than to the mediaeval man. 251. The Fresh Stimulus from the Side of Classical An- tiquity. We have now reached the opening of the fourteenth century. Just at this time the intellectual progress of Europe received a tremendous impulse from the more perfect recovery of the inestimable treasures of the civilization of Grseco-Roman antiquity. So far-reaching and transforming was the influence of the old world of culture upon the nations of western Europe that the Renaissance, viewed as the transition from the mediaeval to the modern age, may properly be regarded as beginning with its discovery, or rediscovery, and the appropriation of its riches by the Italian scholars. In the following sections we shall try to give some account of this Renaissance movement in its earlier stages and as it manifested itself in Italy. §252] AGENCIES OF THE RENAISSANCE 227 II. THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY 252. Inciting Causes of the Movement. Just as the Refor- mation went forth from Germany and the PoHtical Revolution from France, so did the Renaissance go forth from Italy. And this was not an accident. The Renaissance had its real beginnings in Italy for the reason that all those agencies which were slowly transforming the mediaeval into the modern world were here more active and effective in their workings than elsewhere. Foremost among these agencies must be placed the influence of the Italian cities. We have already seen how city life was more perfectly developed in Italy than in the other countries of western Europe. In the air of the great Italian city-republics there was nourished a strong, self-reliant, secular, myriad-sided life. It was a political, intellectual, and artistic life like that of the cities of ancient Greece. Florence, for example, became a second Athens, and in the eager air of that city individual talent and faculty were developed as of old in the atmosphere of the Attic capital. "In Florence," says Symonds, "had been pro- duced such glorious human beings as the world has rarely seen. . . . The whole population formed an aristocracy of genius." In a word, life in Italy earlier than elsewhere lost its mediaeval characteristics and assumed those of the modern type. We may truly say that the Renaissance was cradled in the cities of mediae- val Italy. The Italians, to use again the words of Symonds, were "the firstborn among the sons of modern Europe." A second circumstance that doubtless contributed to make Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance was the fact that in Italy the break between the old and the new civilization was not so complete as it was in the other countries of western Europe. The Italians were closer in language and in blood to the old Romans than were the other new-forming nations. They regarded themselves as the direct descendants and heirs of the old con- querors of the world. This consciousness of kinship with the men of a great past exerted an immense influence upon the imagination of the Italians and tended not only to preserve the continuity of 228 THE RENAISSANCE [§253 the historical development in the peninsula but also to set as the first task of the Italian scholars the recovery and appropriation of the culture of antiquity. But more potent than all other agencies, not so much in awak- ening the Italian intellect as in determining the direction of its activities after they were once aroused by other inciting causes, was the existence in the peninsula of so many monuments of the civilization and the grandeur of ancient Rome. The cities them- selves were, in a very exact sense, fragments of the old Empire; and everywhere in the peninsula the ground was covered with ruins of the old Roman builders. The influence which these reminders of a glorious past exerted upon sensitive souls is well illustrated by the biographies of such men as Rienzi and Petrarch. 253. The Two Phases of the Italian Renaissance. It was, as we have already intimated, the nearness of the Italians to the classical past that caused the Renaissance in Italy to assume essentially the character of a classical revival, — a recovery and appropriation by the Italians of the long-neglected heritage of Grseco-Roman civilization. The movement here consisted of two distinct yet closely related phases, namely, the revival of classical literature and learning and the revival of classical art. It is with the first only, the intel- lectual and literary phase of the movement, that we shall be chiefly concerned. This feature of the movement is called distinctively "Humanism," and the promoters of it are known as "Human- ists," because of their interest in the study of the classics, the literae humaniores, or the "more human letters," in opposition to the diviner letters, that is, theology, which made up the old education. 254. Petrarch,^ the First of the Humanists. "Not only in the history of Italian literature but in that of the civilized world, and not only in this but in the history of the human mind . . . Petrarch's name shines as a star of the first magnitude." It is in such words as these that one of the greatest historians of humanism 1 F"ranccsco Petrarca (1304-1374). Petrarch is best known to most as the writer of ItaHan sonnets, but his significance for general history is due almost wholly to his relation to the revival of classic learning in Italy, and consequently it is only of this phase of his activity that we shall speak. §254] PETRARCH AND HUMANISM 229 speaks of Petrarch and his place in the history of the intellectual progress of the race. It will be worth our while to try to under- stand what Petrarch was in himself and what he did which justifies such an appraisement of his significance for universal history. To understand Petrarch is to understand the Renaissance. Petrarch was the first and greatest representative of the human- istic phase of the Italian Renaissance. He was the first scholar of the mediaeval time who 'i\'» iV \a 1,1, , ' fully realized and appre- ciated the supreme excel- lence and beauty of the classical literature and its value as a means of cul- ture. His enthusiasm for the ancient writers was a sort of worship. At great cost of time and labor he made a collection of about two hundred manuscript volumes of the classics. Among his choicest Latin treasures were some of Cicero's letters, which he had himself discovered in an old library at Verona and reverently copied with his own hand. He could not read Greek, yet he gathered Greek as well as Latin manuscripts. He had sixteen works of Plato and a revered copy of Homer sent him from Constantinople; and thus, as he himself expressed it, the first of poets and the first of philosophers took up their abode with him. This last sentiment reveals Petrarch's feeling for his books. The spirits of their authors seemed to him to surround him in his quiet library, and he was never so happy as when holding converse with these choice souls of the past. Often he wrote Fig. 47. Petrarch. (From a portrait by S. Tofanelli) 230 THE RENAISSANCE [§255 letters to the old worthies, — Homer, Cicero, Vergil, Seneca, and the rest, — for Petrarch loved thus to record his thoughts, and spent much of his time in the recreation of letter writing; for recreation, and life itself, letter writing was to him, Petrarch's enthusiasm for the classical authors became conta- gious. Fathers reproached him for enticing their sons from the study of the law to the reading of the classics and the writing of Latin verses. But the movement started by Petrarch could not be checked. The impulse he imparted to humanistic studies is still felt in the world of letters and learning. 255. Petrarch's Feeling for the Ruins of Rome. Petrarch had for the material monuments of classical antiquity a feeling akin to that which he had for its literary memorials. The men of the real mediaeval time had no intelligent curiosity or feeling respecting the monuments and ruins of the ancient world. Their attitude towards all these things was exactly the same as that of the modern Arabs and Turks towards the remains of past civilizations in the lands of the Orient. To these degen- erate successors of masterful races the ruins of Nineveh and Baby- lon are convenient brick quarries, and nothing more. They are absolutely indifferent respecting all that great past to which these vast ruins bear silent and melancholy witness. How different is it with us, children of the Renaissance, as we dig in those same mounds, carefully and reverently gathering up every fragment of lettered stone or brick that may tell us something of the thoughts and feelings and deeds of those men of the early time! All this illustrates perfectly the difference between the mediaeval man and the man of the Renaissance. During all the mediaeval centuries, until the dawn of the intellectual revival, the ruins of Rome were merely a quarry. The monuments of the Caesars were torn down for building material, the sculptured marbles were burned into lime for mortar. Now, Petrarch was one of the first men of mediaeval times who had for the ruins of Rome the modern feeling. "He tells us how often with Giovanni Colonna he ascended the mighty vaults of the Baths of Diocletian, and there in the transparent air, amid §256] BOCCACCIO AND THE DECAMERON 231 the wide silence, with the broad panorama stretching far around them, they spoke, not of business or poHtical affairs, but of the history which the ruins beneath their feet suggested."^ 256. Boccaccio, the Disciple of Petrarch. Petrarch called into existence a school of ardent young humanists who looked up to him as their master, and who carried on with unbounded en- thusiasm the work of exploring the new spiritual hemisphere which he had discovered. Most distinguished among these disciples was Boccaccio (13 13-1375), whose wide fame rests chiefly on his Decameron, a collection of tales written in Italian, but whose work as a humanist alone has interest for us in the present connection. Boccaccio did much to spread and to deepen the enthusiasm for antiquity that Petrarch had awakened. He industriously col- lected and copied ancient manuscripts and thus greatly promoted classical scholarship in Italy. Imitating Petrarch, he tried to learn Greek, but, like Petrarch, made very little progress towards the mastery of the language because of the incompetence of his teacher and also because of the utter lack of textbooks, gram- mars, and dictionaries. He persuaded his teacher, however, to make a Latin translation of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and was thus instrumental in giving to the world the first modern trans- lation of Homer. It was a wretched version, yet it served to inspire in the Italian scholars an intense desire to know at first hand Greek literature, — that literature from which the old Roman authors had admittedly drawn their inspiration. 257, The Italians are taught Greek by Chrysoloras. This desire of the Italian scholars was soon gratified. Just at the close of the fourteenth century the Eastern Emperor sent an embassy 1 Burckhardt, The CivUizaiion of the Renaissance in Italy, p. 177. Petrarch repre- sents still other phases and qualities of the modern spirit, upon which, however, it is impossible for us to dwell. Regarding his feeling for nature in her grand and romantic aspects, we must nevertheless say a single word. One of the most remarkable passages in his writings is his description of his ascent of Mount Ventoux, near Avignon, for the sake of the view from the top. This was the beginning of the mountain climbing of modern times, — a new thing in the world. There was very little of it in antiquity, and during the Middle Ages apparently none at all. Even Dante always speaks of the mountains with a shudder. Nothing distinguishes the modern from the mediaeval man more sharply than this new feeling for nature in her wilder and grander moods. 232 THE RENAISSANCE [§258 to Italy to beg aid against the Turks. The commission was headed by Manuel Chrysoloras, an eminent Greek scholar. No sooner had he landed at Venice than the Florentines sent him a pressing invitation to come to their city. He acceded to their request, was received by them with such honor as they might have shown a celestial being, and was given a professor's chair in the university (1396). Young and old thronged his classroom. Men past sixty "felt the blood leap in their veins" at the thought of being able to learn Greek. The appearance of Chrysoloras as a teacher at Florence marks the revival, after seven centuries of neglect, of the study of the Greek language and literature in the schools of western Europe. This meant much. It meant the revival of civilization, the opening of the modern age; for of all the agencies concerned in trans- forming the mediseval into the modern world one of the most potent certainly was Greek culture.^ 258, The Search for Old Manuscripts. Having now spoken of the pioneers of Italian humanism in the fourteenth century, we can, in our remaining space, touch only in a very general way upon the most important phases of the humanistic movement in the following century. The first concern of the Italian scholars was to rescue from threatened oblivion what yet remained of the ancient classics. Just as the antiquarians of to-day dig over the mounds of Assyria for relics of the ancient civilization of the East, so did the humanists ransack the libraries of the monasteries and cathedrals and search through all the out-of-the-way places of Europe for old manuscripts of the classic writers. The precious manuscripts were often discovered in a shameful state of neglect and in advanced stages of decay. Sometimes they were found covered with mold in damp cells or loaded with dust in the attics of monasteries. Again they were discovered, as 1 If it be true [as has been asserted] that except the blind forces of nature nothing moves in this world which is not Greek in its origin, we are justified in re- garding the point of contact between the Cireek teacher Chrysoloras and his Flor- entine pupils as one of the most momentous crises in the history of civilization. — Symonds §259] PATRONS OF THE NEW LEARNING 233 by Boccaccio in the manuscript room of the Benedictine mon- astery of Monte Cassino, mutilated in various ways, some, for instance, with the borders of the parchment pared away, and others with whole leaves lacking/ This late search of the humanists for the works of the ancient authors saved to the world many precious manuscripts which, a little longer neglected, would have been forever lost. 259. Patrons of the New Learning; the Founding of Libraries. This gathering and copying of the ancjent manuscripts was costly in time and labor. But there was many a Maecenas to encourage and further the work. Prominent among these promot- ers of the New Learning, as it was called, were Cosimo and Lorenzo de' Medici at Florence. It was largely due to their genuine and enlightened interest in the great undertaking of recovering for culture the ancient classical literatures that Florence became the foster home of the intellectual and literary revival. Among the papal promoters of the movement Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455) was one of the most noted. He sent out explorers to all parts of the West to search for manuscripts, and kept busy at Rome a multitude of copyists and translators. A little later Pope Julius II (1503-15 13) and Pope Leo X (1513-1521) made Rome a brilliant center of Renaissance art and learning. Libraries were founded where the new treasures might be safely stored and made accessible to scholars. In this movement some of the largest libraries of Italy had their beginnings. At Florence the Medici established the fine existing INIedicean Library. At Rome Pope Nicholas V enriched the original papal collection of books by the addition, it is said, of fully five thousand manu- scripts, and thus became the real founder of the celebrated Vatican Library of the present day. 1 This mutilation was due chiefly to the scarcity of writing material, which led the mediaeval copyists to erase the original text of old parchments that they might use them a second time. In this way many works of classical authors were destroyed. Sometimes, however, the earlier text was so imperfectly obliterated that by means of chemical reagents it can be wholly or partially restored. Such twice-written manuscripts are called palimpsests. 234 THE RENAISSANCE [§260 260. How the Fall of Constantinople aided the Revival. The humanistic movement, especially in so far as it concerned Greek letters and learning, was given a great impulse by the dis- asters which in the fifteenth century befell the Eastern Empire. Constantinople, it will be recalled, was captured by the Ottoman Turks in 1453. But for a half century before that event the threatening advance of the barbarians had caused a great migration of Greek scholars to the West. So many of the exiles sought an asylum in Italy that one could say: "Greece has not fallen; she has migrated to Italy, which in ancient times bore the name of Magna Graecia." These fugitives brought with them many valuable manuscripts of the ancient Greek classics still unknown to Western scholars. The enthusiasm of the Italians for everything Greek led to the appointment of many of the exiles as teachers and lecturers in their schools and Fig. 48. A Block-Printed Page FROM THE " BiBLIA PaUPERUM " (From Lacroix) universities. Thus there was now a repetition of what took place at Rome in the days of the later republic; Italy was conquered a second time by the genius of Greece. 261. The Invention of Printing. During the latter part of the fifteenth century the work of the Italian humanists was greatly furthered by the happy and timely invention of the art of print- ing from movable letters, the most important discovery, in the estimation of the historian Hallam, recorded in the annals of mankind. §261] THE INVENTION OF PRINTING 235 The making of impressions by means of engraved seals or blocks seems to be a device as old as civilization. The Chinese have practiced this form of printing from an early time. The art appears to have sprung up independently in Europe during the later mediaeval period. First, devices on playing cards were formed by impressions from blocks; then manuscripts were stamped with portraits and pictures. The next step was to cut into the same block a few lines of explanatory text. In time the lines increased Fig. 49. The Printing of Books. (From Early Venetian Printing) to pages, and during the first half of the fifteenth century many entire books were produced by the block-printing method. But printing from blocks was slow and costly. The art was revolutionized by John Gutenberg (1400-1468), a native of Mainz in Germany, through the invention of the movable letters which we call type.^ The oldest book known to have been printed from movable letters was a Latin copy of the Bible issued from the press of Gutenberg and Faust at Mainz between the years 1454 and 1 Some Dutch writers claim for Coster of Haarlem the honor of the invention, but there is nothinar aside from unreliable tradition on which such a claim can rest. 236 THE RENAISSANCE [§262 i; iff! 1111:1 1456. The art spread rapidly and before the dose of the fifteenth century presses were busy in every country of Europe — in the city of Venice alone there were two hundred — multiplying books with a rapidity undreamed of by the patient copyists of the cloister. The most celebrated of the early printing houses was that established at Venice by Aldus Manu- tius (1450-1515) and known as the Aldine Press. In the course of a few years Aldus gave to the appreciative scholars of Europe an almost com- plete series of the Greek authors and many Latin and Hebrew texts. Al- together he printed over a hundred works. In quality of paper and in clearness and beauty of type his editions have never been surpassed. The work of the Aldine Press at Venice, in con- nection of course with what was done by presses h^^"-^ ^>^^^'' IM f '\i i^rtH^^H^ls^^ b Fig. 50. Case of Chained Books. (From Clarke, T/ie Care of Books) The case shown is preserved in the Chapter Library, Hertford, England. In some Hbraries this practice of chaining the books was kept up even in the eighteenth century of less note in other places, made complete the recovery of the classical literatures, and by scattering broadcast throughout Eu- rope the works of the ancient authors rendered it impossible that any part of them should ever again become lost to the world. 262. Humanism crosses the Alps. As early as the middle of the fifteenth century the German youths had begun to cross the Alps in order to study Greek at the feet of the masters there. As the type and representative of these young German humanists we §'263] THE ARTISTIC REVIVAL 237 may name Reuchlin, who in 1482 journeyed to Italy and presented himself there before a celebrated teacher of Greek. As a test of'his knowledge of the language he was given a passage from Thucydi- des to translate. The young barbarian — for by this term the Italians of that time expressed their contempt for an inhabitant of the rude North — turned the lines so easily and masterfully that the examiner, who was a native-born Greek, cried out in admiration and astonishment, "Our exiled Greece has flown beyond the Alps." In transalpine Europe the^humanistic movement became blended with other tendencies. In Italy it had been an almost exclusive devotion to Greek and Latin letters and learning; but in the North there was added to this enthusiasm for classical culture an equal and indeed supreme interest in Hebrew and Christian antiquity. Hence here the literary and intellectual revival be- came, in the profoundest sense, the moving cause of the great religious revolution known as the Reformation, and it is in con- nection with the beginnings of that movement that we shall find a place to speak of the humanists of Germany and the other northern lands. 263. The Artistic Revival. As we have already seen, the new feeling for classical antiquity awakened among the Italians embraced not simply the literary and philosophical side of the Graeco-Roman culture but the artistic side as well. Respecting this latter phase of the Italian Renaissance it will be impossible for us to speak in detail, nor is it necessary for us to do so, since the chief significance of the Renaissance for universal history, as already noted, is to be sought in the purely intellectual movement traced in the preceding pages of this chapter. The artistic revival in so far as it concerned sculpture and paint- ing was in its essence a return of art to nature ; for mediaeval art lacked freedom and naturalness. The artist was hampered by ecclesiastical tradition and restraint; he was, moreover, under the influence of the religious asceticism of the time. His models as a rule were the stiff, angular, lifeless forms of Byzantine art or the gaunt, pinched bodies of saints and anchorites. In the decoration 238 THE RENAISSANCE [§264 of the walls, pulpits, and altars of the churches he was not at liberty, even if he had the impulse, to depart from the consecrated traditional types.^ Now, what the Renaissance did for art was to liberate it from these trammels and to breathe into its dead forms the spirit of that new life which was everywhere awakening. This emancipa- tion movement took place largely under impulses which came from a study of the masterpieces of ancient art. Thus did classical antiquity exercise the same influence in the emancipation and revival of art as in the emancipation and revival of letters. 264. Renaissance Architecture. Under the iniluence of the revival, architecture also underwent trans- formation, regarding which a word must be said before we pro- ceed to name the most eminent of the Italian Renaissance sculptors and painters. In ar- chitecture it was the old Greek and Roman styles of building which were revived. The Roman dome and circular arch, and the Greek architrave, or the horizontal beam covering.columns, windows, and doors, now took the place of the Gothic pointed arch (sect 174) and became the dominant forms. But it was not the pure classical orders that reappeared, for the builders of the Renaissance often combined with classical forms certain Gothic elements, such as spires and towers. One of the Fig. 51. Tomb at Tours of the Children OF Charles VIII. (From a photograph) Showing the influence of ancient classical art upon the art of the Renaissance 1 In the Greek Church at the present time the artist in the portrayal of sacred subjects is not permitted to change the traditional expression or attitude of his figures. §265] ITALIAN RENAISSANCE PAINTING 239 most impressive of Renaissance sacred buildings is St. Peter's at Rome.^ The great dome which crowns the building was the work of Michael Angelo. 265. Why Painting was the Supreme Art of the Italian Renaissance." The artistic revival in Italy produced many emi- nent sculptors,- but the characteristic art of the Italian Renais- sance was painting, and for the reason that it best expresses the ideas and sentiments of Christianity. The art that would be the handmaid of the Church needed to be able to represent faith and hope, ecstasy and suffering, — none of which things can well be expressed by sculpture, which is essentially the art of repose. Sculpture was the chief art of the Greeks because the aim of the Greek artist was to represent physical beauty or strength. But the problem of the Christian artist is to express spiritual emotion through the medium of the body. This cannot be repre- sented in cold, colorless marble. Thus, as Symonds asks, "How could the Last Judgment be expressed in plastic form?" The chief events of Christ's life removed him beyond the reach of sculpture. Therefore, because sculpture has so little power to express emotion, painting, which runs so easily the entire gamut of feel- ing, became the chosen medium of expression of the Italian artist. This art alone enabled him to portray the raptures of the saint, the sweet charm of the Madonna, the intense passion of the Christ, the moving terrors of the Last Judgment. 266. The Four Masters; Mingling of Christian and Classical Subjects. The four supreme masters of Italian Renaissance painting were Leonardo da Vinci ^ (1452-1519), whose masterpiece 1 Begun in 1506 and finished in 1626. Otlier important examples of Renaissance architecture are St. Paul's Cathedral in London, the Louvre in Paris, and the Escorial in Spain. 2 The views presented in this paragraph are those of Symonds in his work on The Fine Arts, which forms the third volume of his Renaissance in Italy. 3 In the list of Italian sculptors the following names are especially noteworthy: Ghiberti (137S-1435), whose genius is shown in his celebrated bronze gates of the Baptistery at Florence, of which Michael Angelo said that they were worthy to be the gates of Paradise; Brunelleschi (1377-1444), Donatello (1386-1466), and Michael Angelo (1475-1564). 4 Leonardo da Vinci was, in his many-sidedness and versatility, a true child of the Italian Renaissance ; he was at once painter, sculptor, architect, poet, musician, and scientist. 2 40 THE RENAISSANCE [§267 is his Last Supper, on the wall of a convent in Milan; Raphael (1483-1 520), the best beloved of artists, whose Madonnas are counted among the world's treasures; Michael Angelo^ (1472- 1564), whose best paintings are his wonderful frescoes, among them the Last Judgment, in the Sistine Chapel at Rome; and Titian (1477-1576), the Venetian master, celebrated for his portraits, which have preserved for us in flesh and blood, so to speak, many of the most noteworthy personages of his time.- The earlier Italian painters drew their subjects chiefly from Christian sources. They literally covered the walls of the churches, palaces, and civic buildings of Italy with pictorial representations of all the ideas and imaginings of the mediaeval ages respecting death, the judgment, heaven, and hell. As Symonds tersely expresses it, . they did by means of pictures what Dante had done by means of poetry. The later artists, more under the influence of the classical revival, mingled freely pagan and Christian subjects and motives, and thus became truer representatives than their predecessors of the Renaissance movement, one important issue of which was to be the reconciliation and blending of pagan and Christian culture. 267. The Paganism of the Italian Renaissance. There was a religious and moral or, to speak more accurately, an irreligious and immoral side to the classical revival in Italy which cannot be 1 Michael Angelo, as we have seen, was an architect and sculptor as well as a painter. He is the only modern sculptor who can be given a place alongside the greatest sculptors of ancient Greece. 2 A longer list of the most eminent Italian painters would include at least the following names: Cimabue (about 1240-1302) and Giotto (1276-13;,;), precursors of the revival; Fra Angelico (1387-1455) ; Correggio (about 1494-1534) ; Tintoretto (15 18-1594) ^nd Veronese (about 1530-15SS), representatives of the Renaissance proper. Fig. 52. Raphael §268] EFFECTS OF THE RENAISSANCE 241 passed wholly unnoticed even in so brief an account of the move- ment as the present sketch. In the first place, the study of the pagan poets and philosophers produced the exact result predicted by a certain party in the Church. It proved hurtful to religious faith. Men became pagans in their feelings and in their way of thinking. Italian scholars and Italian society almost ceased to be Christian in any true sense of the word. With the New Learning came also those vices and immoralities that characterized the decline of classical civilization. Italy was corrupted by the new influences that flowed in upon her, just as Rome was corrupted by Grecian luxury and sensuality in the days of the failing republic. Much of the literature of the time is even more grossly immoral in tone than the literature of the age of classical decadence. III. GENERAL EFFECTS OF THE RENAISSANCE 268. The Renaissance brought in New Conceptions of Life and the World. The Renaissance effected in the Christian West an intellectual and moral revolution so profound and so far- reaching in its consequences that it may well be likened to that produced in the ancient world by the incoming of Christianity. The New Learning was indeed a New Gospel: Like Christianity, the Renaissance revealed to men another world, another state of existence; for such was the real significance, to the men of the revival, of the discovery of the civilization of classical antiquity. Through this discovery they learned that this earthly life is worth living for its own sake; that this life and its pleasures need not be contemned and sacrificed in order to make sure of eternal life in another world; and that man may think and investigate and satisfy his thirst to know without endangering the everlasting welfare of his soul.^ 1 The longings and the superstitious fears of men in the age of transition between mediaeval and modern times is well epitomized in the tradition of Dr. Faustus. " That legend," says Symonds, " tells us what the men upon the eve of the Revival longed for, and what they dreaded, when they turned their minds toward the past. The secret of enjoyment and the source of strength possessed by the ancients allured them : but they believed that they could only recover this lost treasure by the suicide 242 THE RENAISSANCE [§269 These discoveries made by the men of the Renaissance gave a vast impulse to the progress of the human race. They inspired humanity with a new spirit, a spirit destined in time to make things new in all realms, — in the realm of religion, of politics, of literature, of art, of science, of invention, of industry. Some of these changes and revolutions we shall briefly indicate in the remaining sections of the present chapter. To follow them out more in detail in all the territories of human activity and achievement will be our special aim in later chapters, where we propose to trace the course of the historical development through the centuries of the Modern Age, — the great age opened by the Renaissance. 269. It restored the Broken Unity of History. When Chris- tianity entered the ancient Graeco-Roman world war declared itself at once between the new religion and classical culture, especially between it and Hellenism. The Church, soon trium- phant over paganism, rejected the bequest of anticiuity. Some of the elements of that heritage were, it is true, appropriated by the men of the mediaeval time and thus came to enrich the new Christian culture; but, as a whole, it was cast aside as pagan, and neglected. Thus was the unity of the historical development broken. Now, through the liberal tendencies and generous enthusiasms of the Renaissance there was effected a reco;iciliation between Christianity and classical civilization. There took place a fusion of their qualities and elements. The broken unity of history was restored. The cleft between the ancient and the modern world was closed. The severed branch was reunited to the old trunk. of the soul. So great was the temptation that Faustus paid the price. After imbibing all the knowledge of the age, he sold himself to the devil, in order that his thirst for experience might be quenched, his grasp upon the world be strengthened, and the ennui of his activity be soothed. His first use of his dearly-bought power was to make blind Homer sing to him. Amphion tunes his harp in concert with Mephistopheles. Alexander rises from the dead at his behest, with all his legionaries; and Helen is given to him for a bride. Faustus is therefore a parable of the impotent yearnings of the spirit in the Middle Ages, — its passionate aspiration, its conscience- stricken desire, its fettered curiosity amid the cramping limits of impotent knowledge and irrational dogmatisms." — Revival of Learning, P- 53 (^d. iSSS) §270] HUMANISM AND EDUCATION 243 The importance for universal history of this restoration of its broken unity, of this recovery by the Modern Age of the long- neglected culture of antiquity, can hardly be overestimated; for that culture had in its keeping not only the best the human race had thought and felt in the period of the highest reach of its powers but also the precious scientific stores accumulated by all the ancient peoples. What the recovery and appropriation of all this meant for the world is suggested by ex-President Woolsey in these words: "The old civilization contained treasures of perma- nent value which the world could not spare, which the world will never be able or willing to spare. These were taken up into the stream of life, and proved true aids to the progress of a culture which is gathering in one the beauty and truth of all the ages." 270. It reformed Education. The humanistic revival revolu- tionized education. During the Middle Ages the Latin language had degenerated, for the most part, into a barbarous jargon, while the Greek had been practically forgotten and the Aristotelian philosophy perverted. As to Plato, he was virtually unknown to the mediaeval thinkers. Now humanism restored to the world the pure classical Latin, rediscovered the Greek language, and recovered for civilization the once-rejected heritage of the ancient classics, including the Platonic philosophy, which was to be a quickening and uplifting force in modern thought. The' schools and universities did not escape the influences of this humanistic revival. Chairs in both the Greek and Latin lan- guages and literatures were now established, not only in the new universities which arose under the inspiration of the New Learn- ing but also in the old ones. The scholastic method of instruc- tion, of which we spoke in a preceding chapter, was gradually superseded by this so-called classical system of education, which dominated the schools and universities of the world down to the incoming of the scientific studies of the present day. 271. It aided the Development of the Native Literatures. The classical revival gave to the world the treasures of two great literatures. And in giving to the scholars of Europe the master- pieces of the ancient authors, it gave to them, besides much 244 THE RENAISSANCE [§272 fresh material, the most faultless models of literary taste and judgment that the world has ever produced. The influence of these in correcting the extravagances of the mediaeval imagina- tion and in creating correct literary ideals can be distinctly traced in the native literatures of Italy, France, Spain, and England. It is sometimes maintained, indeed, that the attention given to the ancient classics, and the preferred use by so many authors during the later mediaeval and the earlier modern period of the Latin as a literary language,' retarded the normal development of the native literatures of the European peoples. As to Italy, it is true that the national literature which had started into life with such promise with Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio was for almost a century neglected; but in transalpine Europe, apart from Germany, where for a period Latin did almost supplant the vernacular, the revived study of the classics did not produce the disastrous effects observed in Italy. On the contrary, as we have just said, the effect of humanism upon the great literatures of Europe, aside from the exceptions noticed, was to enrich, to chasten, and to refine them. 272. It called into Existence the Sciences of Archaeology and Historical Criticism. Many sciences were in germ in the Renaissance. As to the science of archaeology, which possesses such a special interest for the historical student, it may be truly said that it had its birth in the classical revival. We have already noticed the new feeling for the remains of antiquity that stirred in the souls of the men of the Renaissance (sect. 255). The ruins of Rome were naturally the first object of the curiosity and archaeological zeal of the Italian scholars. From the fifteenth century down to the present day the interest in the monuments and relics of past civilizations has steadily increased and has led to remarkable discoveries, not only on classical ground but also in Assyrian and Egyptian territories, — discoveries which, by carrying the story of the human race back into a past immensely remote, have given an entirely new beginning to history. 1 Some of the very best literary work of the period was done in Latin, as witness the Colloquies by Erasmus and the Utopia by More. §273] THE REVIVAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORM 245 What is true of the science of archaeology is equally true of the science of historical criticism. We have seen that the spirit which awoke in the Renaissance was a questioning, critical spirit, one very different from the credulous mediaeval spirit, which was ready to accept any picturesque tradition or marvelous tale with- out inquiry as to its source or credibility. Here began that critical sifting and valuation of our historical sources which has resulted in the discrediting of a thousand myths and legends once regarded as unimpeachable historical material, and in the consequent recon- struction of oriental, classical, and mediaeval history. The true founder of the science of historical criticism was Laurentius Valla (1407-1457). His greatest achievement as a critic was the demonstration, on philological and historical grounds, of the unauthentic character of the celebrated Donation of Con- stantine.^ He also called in question the authority of Livy and proved the spurious character of the alleged correspondence be- tween Seneca and the Apostle Paul. The achievements of Valla ushered in the day of historical criticism. 273. It gave an Impulse to Religious Reform. The human- istic movement, as we have already noticed, when it crossed the Alps assumed among the northern peoples a new character. It was the Hebrew past rather than the Graeco-Roman past which stirred the interest of the scholars of the North. The Bible, which the printing presses were now multiplying in the original Hebrew and Greek as well as in the vernacular languages, became the subject of enthusiastic study and of fresh interpretation. Consequently what was in the South a restoration of classical literature and art became in the more serious and less sensuous North a revival of primitive Christianity, of the ethical and religious elements of the Hebrew-Christian past. The humanist became the reformer. Reuchlin, Erasmus, and the other humanists of the North were the true precursors of the great religious revolution of the six- teenth century. There were certain principles and qualities in humanism which made inevitable this transformation of the revival in its passage 1 See p. 32, n. 2. 246 ' THE RENAISSANCE [§273 from the South to the North. In the first place, the principle of free inquiry in humanism was bound to come into collision with the principle of ecclesiastical authority. It was this tendency in humanism which at last awakened the fears of the papal court and set it in opposition to the entire intellectual movement of which in its earlier stages it had been a most zealous promoter. In the second place, there was in the humanists a spirit of self- reliance in religious matters which was a foreshadowing of the coming individualism of the Reformation. Writing to his brother, who in his letters was accustomed to make many citations from the Church Fathers, Petrarch says: "You would do well to trust, for a time at least, more to your own powers, nor be afraid that the same spirit which made the Fathers wise will not aid you." This is a note of the Protestant Revolution. Selections from the Sources. Robinson, J. 11., and Rolfe, H. W., Petrarch (selections from Petrarcli's " correspondence with Boccaccio and other friends "). Whitcomb, ^l., Source-Book of the Renaissance, Part I. The Book of the Coiuiier (the Tudor Translations). This book is one of the most char- acteristic products of the Itahan Renaissance. It was translated into all the chief European languages and exerted a vast influence upon life and manners everywhere, and especially in England. "There is not the slightest reason for doubting," says Professor Saintsbury, " that Sidney himself had the Courtier and its ideal constantly before him." References (Modern). The literature on the Renaissance is very extensive ; we shall suggest only a few titles. Symonds, J. A., The Renaissance in Italy, 7 vols, (the best extended history in English). Burckhardt, J., The Civiliza- tion of the Renaissance in Italy (philosophical and suggestive). Field, L. F., An Introduction to the Study of the Renaissance. Mrs. Oliphant, Makers of Florence and Makers of Venice. Adams, G. E., Civilizatio7i during the Middle Ages, chap. xv. Emerton, E., The Beginnings of Modem Europe, chap. ix. Grimm, H., The Life of Michael Angelo, 2 vols. Topics for Class Reports, i. The mediaeval feeling for nature : McLaughlin, E. T., Studies in Mediceval Life and Literature, pp. 1-33. 2. Petrarch's ascent of Mount Ventoux : Robinson, J. H., and Rolfe, H; W., Petrarch, pp. 307-320. 3. Dante and his Divine Comedy: Lowell, J. R., Among my Books (Second Series), pp. 1-26. 4. The new feeling for the ruins of Rome: Burckhardt, J., Ihe Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, pp. 1 77-186; Symonds, J. A., The Revival of Learning, pp. 142-157. 5. Aldus Manutius and the Aldine Press: Putnam, J. H., Books and their Makers, vol. i, pp. 417-440. PART II — THE MODERN AGE THIRD PERIOD — THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION (From the Discovery of America, in 1492, to the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648) CHAPTER XIX GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES AND THE BEGINNINGS OF MODERN COLONIZATION 274. Transition from the Mediaeval to the Modern Age. The discovery of America by Columbus, in 1492, is often used to mark the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times; and this was an event of such transcendent importance — the effect upon civilization of the opening up of fresh continents was so great — that we may very properly accord to the achieve- ment of the Genoese the honor proposed. Yet we must bear in mind that no single circumstance or event actually marks the end of the old order of things and the beginning of the new. The finding of the New World did not make the new age; the new age discovered the New World. The undertaking of Columbus was the natural outcome of that spirit of commercial enterprise and scientific curiosity which for centuries — ever since the Cru- sades — had been gradually expanding the scope of mercantile adventure and broadening the horizon of the European world. His fortunate expedition was only one of several brilliant nautical exploits which distinguished the close of the fifteenth and the opening of the sixteenth century. This same period was also marked by significant intellectual, political, and religious movements, which indicated that civiliza- tion was about to enter — indeed, had already entered — upon a new phase of its development. 247 248 GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES [§ 274 In the intellectual world, as we have seen, was going on the wonderful Revival of Learning, producing everywhere unwonted thought, stir, and enterprise/ This intellectual movement alone would suffice to mark the period of which we speak as the begin- ning of a new era; for the opening and the closing of the great epochs of history, such as the Age of Christianity, the Age of the Protestant Reformation, and the Age of the Political Revolution, are determined not by events or happenings in the outer world but by movements within the soul of humanity. In the political world the tendency to centralization which had long been at work in different countries of Europe, gathering up the little feudal units into larger aggregates, was culminating in the formation of great independent nations with strong monar- chical governments. The Age of the Nations was opening. This movement was one of vast significance in European history and might in itself very well be regarded as forming a division line between two great epochs. In the religious world there were unrest, dissatisfaction, inquiry, complaint, — premonitory symptoms of the tremendous revolution that was destined to render the sixteenth century memorable in the religious records of mankind. This upheaval also constitutes a sort of continental divide in history. Closely connected with these movements were three great inventions which, like the inventions of our own time, were also signs of a new age, and which powerfully helped on the mental and social revolutions. Thus the intellectual revival and the 1 The truest representative of the intellectual revival on its scientific side was Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), who, while Columbus and others were exploring the earth's unknown seas and opening up a new hemisphere for civilization, was exploring the heavens and discovering the true system of the universe. He had fully matured his theory by the year 1507, but fearing the charge of heresy he did not publish the great work embodying his view until thirty-six years later (in 1543). It should be carefully noted, however, that the Copernican theory had little influence on the thought of the sixteenth century. It was denounced as contrary to Scripture by both Catholics and Protestants, and was almost universally rejected for more than a hundred years after its first publication. Even after the revelations made by the telescope of Galileo (i 564-1642) the acceptance of the truth was so hindered by theological opposition that the complete triumph of the doctrine was delayed until the eighteenth century. See Andrew D. White, The Warfare of Science with Theology, vol. i, chap. iii. §275] MARITIME EXPLORATIONS 249 religious reform were greatly promoted by the new art of printing ; the kings in their struggle with the nobles were materially aided by the use of gunpowder, which rendered useless costly armor and fortified castle and helped to replace the feudal levy by a regular standing army, the prop and bulwark of the royal power; while the great ocean voyages of the times were rendered possible only by the improvement of the mariner's compass,^ whose trusty guidance emboldened the navigator to quit the shore and push out upon hitherto un- traversed seas. 275. Maritime Explorations; the Terrors of the Ocean. To appreciate the greatness of the achievements of the navigators and explorers of the age of geographical dis- covery, we need to bear in mind with what terrors the mediaeval imagination had in- vested the unknown regions of the earth. In the popular conception these parts were haunted by demons and dragons and mon- sters of every kind. The lands were shrouded in eternal mists and darkness. The seas were filled with awful whirlpools and treacherous currents, and shallowed into vast marshes. Out in the Atlantic, so a popular superstition taught, was the mouth of hell; the red glow cast upon the sun at its setting was held to be positive evidence of this. Away to the south, under the equator, there was believed to be an impassable belt of fire. This was a very per- sistent idea, and was not dispelled until men had actually sailed beyond the equatorial regions. Fig. S3. A Chinese Magnet Figure (After Beazley) A rude form of the com- pass used by early Chi- nese sailors. The little wooden figure was set on a pivot, and in the out- stretched arm was placed a bar of magnetized iron 1 It is a disputed question as to what people should be given the credit of the discovery of the properties of the magnetic needle. In a very primitive form the com- pass was certainly in use among the Chinese as early as the eighth century of our era. There il" no reliable record of its use by European navigators before about the middle of the thirteenth century. It seems most probable that a knowledge of the instrument was gained in the East by the crusaders. 2 50 GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES [§276 276. Portuguese Explorations; Prince Henry the Navigator. Many incentives concurred to urge daring navigators in the later mediaeval time to undertake voyages of discovery, but a chief motive was a desire to find a water way that should serve as a new trade route between Europe and the Indies. The first attempts to reach these lands by an all-sea route were made by sailors feeling their way down the western coast of the African continent. The favorable situation of Portugal upon the Atlantic seaboard caused her to become foremost in these enterprises. Throughout the fifteenth century Portuguese sailors were year after year penetrating a little farther into the myste- rious tropical seas and uncovering new reaches ol the western coast of Africa. The soul and inspiration of all this maritime enterprise was Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460). In the year 1442 the Portuguese mariners reached the Gulf of Guinea, and here discovered the home of the true negro. Some of the ebony-skinned natives were carried to Portugal as slaves. This was the beginning of the modern African slave trade, which was destined to shape such large sections of the history of the centuries with which we have to do. The traffic was at first approved by even the most philanthropic persons, on the ground that the certain conversion of the slaves under Christian masters would more than compensate them for their loss of freedom. Finally, in i486, Bartholomew Dias succeeded in reaching the most southern point of the continent, which, as the possibility of reaching India by sea now seemed assured, was later given the name of Cape of Good Hope. But at the same time it was a dis- appointment to the Portuguese to find that Africa extended so far to the south. Even should India be reached, the way, it was now known, would be long and dangerous. This knowledge stimulated efforts to reach the Indies and the ''place of spices" by a different and shorter route. 277. Columbus in Search of a Westward Route to the Indies finds the New World (1492). It was Christopher Colurribus, a Genoese by birth, who now proposed the bold plan of reaching §277] CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 251 these eastern lands by sailing westward. The sphericity of the earth was a doctrine held by all the really learned men of this time. This notion was also familiar to many at least of the com- mon people; but they, while vaguely accepting the view that the earth is round, thought that the habitable part was a comparatively flat, shieldlike plain on the top of it. All the rest they thought to be covered by the waters of a great ocean. While agreed as to the globular form of the earth and of the curvature of the land as well as of the water surface, scholars dif- fered as to the propor- tion of land and water. The common opinion among them was that the greater part of the earth's surface was water. Some, however, believed that three fourths or more of its surface was land, and that only a narrow ocean separated the western shores of Europe from the eastern shores of Asia. Columbus held this latter view and also shared with others a misconception as to the size of the earth, supposing it to be much smaller than it really is. Consequently he felt sure that a westward sail of three or four thousand miles would bring him to the Indies. Thus his very misconceptions fed his hopes and drew him on to his great discovery. Everybody knows how Columbus in his endeavors to secure a patron for his enterprise met at first with . repeated repulse and disappointment; how at last he gained the ear of Queen Fig. 54. Christopher Columbus. (After the Capriolo portrait ; from the Coliunbus Moiwrial Volume) 2 52 GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES [§278 Isabella of Castile; how a fleet of three small vessels was fitted out for the explorer; and how the New World was discovered, — or rather rediscovered (sect. 82). The return of Columbus to Spain with his vessels loaded with the strange animal and vegetable products of the new lands he had found, together with several specimens of the inhabitants, — a race of men new to Europeans, — produced the profoundest sensation among all classes. Curiosity was unbounded. The spirit of hazardous enterprise awakened by the surprising discovery led to those subsequent undertakings by Castilian adventurers which make up the most thrilling pages of Spanish history. Columbus made altogether four voyages to the new lands; still he died in ignorance of the fact that he had really discov- ered a new world. He supposed the land he had found to be some part of the Indies, whence the name West Indies which still clings to the islands between North and South America, and the term Indians applied to the aborigines. It was not until the middle of the sixteenth century that it became fully estab- lished that a great new double continent, separated from Asia by an ocean wider than the Atlantic, had been found. Columbus never received during his lifetime a fitting recog- nition of the unparalleled service he had rendered Spain and the world. Jealousy pursued him, and from his third voyage he was sent home loaded with chains. Even the continent he had dis- covered, instead of being called after him as a perpetual memo- rial, was named for a Florentine navigator, Amerigo Vespucci, whose chief claim to this distinction was his having written the first widely published account of the new lands. 278. The Voyage of Vasco da Gama (i497-i498); the Portuguese create a Colonial Empire in the East. We have seen that by the year i486 the Portuguese navigators, in their search for an ocean route to the Indies, had reached the southern point of Africa. A little later, six years after the first voyage of Columbus, Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese admiral, doubled the Cape, crossed the Indian Ocean, and landed on the coast of Malabar. §279] ^PAPAL LINE OF DEMARCATION 253 The discovery of an unbroken water path to India effected most important changes in the trade routes and traffic of the world. It made the port of Lisbon the depot of the Eastern trade. The merchants of Venice were ruined. The great ware- houses of Alexandria were left empty. The old route to the Indies by way of the Red Sea, which had been from time imme- morial a main line of communication between the Far East and the Mediterranean lands, now fell into disuse, not to be reopened until the construction of the Suez Canal in our own day. Portugal dotted the coasts of Africa and Asia, the Moluccas and other islands of the Pacific archipelago, with fortresses and factories, and built up in these parts a great commercial empire, and, through the extraordinary impulse thus given to the enter- prise and ambition of her citizens, now entered upon the most splendid era of her history. 279. The Papal Line of Demarcation. Remarkable and bold as were the voyages of Columbus and Vasco da Gama, these were now to be eclipsed by the still more adventurous enterprise of the circumnavigation of the globe by Ferdinand Magellan, a navigator of Portuguese birth. But to make intelligible the object of this expedition there is needed a word of explanation con- cerning what is known as the Papal Line of Demarcation. Upon the return of Columbus from his successful expedition. Pope Alexander VI, with a view to adjusting the conflicting claims of Spain and Portugal, issued a bull wherein he drew from pole to pole a line of demarcation through the Atlantic one hundred leagues west of the Azores^ (the line was afterwards moved two hundred and seventy leagues westward-) and awarded to the Spanish sovereigns all pagan lands, not already in possession of Christian princes, that their subjects might find west of this line, and to the Portuguese kings all unclaimed pagan lands discovered 1 As it was impossible for the surveyors and geometers to fix upon the right starting point, the indefiniteness of the language of the bull made no end of trouble. See Bourne's Essays in Historical Criticism, Essay vii. 2 One result of this change was to throw the eastward projecting part of South America (Brazil) to the east of the demarcation line, and thus to make it a Portuguese instead of a Spanish possession. 2 54 GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES [§280 by Portuguese navigators east of the designated meridian.^ By treaty arrangements as well as by papal edicts — which were based on the theory of that time that the ocean like the land might be appropriated by any power and absolute control over it asserted - — the Portuguese were prohibited from sailing any of the seas thus placed under the dominion of Spain or from visiting as traders any of her lands, and the Spaniards from trespassing upon the waters or the lands granted to the Portuguese. Spain was thus shut out from the use of the Cape route to the Indies which had been opened up by Vasco da Gama, and con- sequently from participation in the coveted spice trade, unless perchance a way to the region of spices could be found through some opening in the new lands discovered by Columbus. 280, The Circumnavigation of the Globe by Magellan (1519-1522). Such was the situation of things when Magellan laid before the young Emperor Charles V, grandson of the Isabella who had given Columbus his commission, his plan of reaching the Moluccas, or "Spice Islands," — which he contended were in Spanish waters," — by a westward voyage. The young king looked with favor upon the navigator's plans and placed under his com- mand a fleet of five small vessels. Magellan directed his ships in a southwesterly course across the Atlantic, hoping to find towards the south a break in the new- found lands. Near the most southern point of South America he found the narrow strait that now bears his name. Through this channel the bold sailor pushed his vessels and found himself upon 1 The claim of the popes to the right thus to dispose of pagan lands was believed to be supported by such Scripture texts as this : ''• Ask of me, and I shall give thee the heathen for thine inheritance, and the uttermost parts of the earth for thy possession" (Psalms ii. 8). Spain and Portugal recognized this claim, but the Catholic sovereigns in general only in so far as it coincided with their interests to do so. After the Lutheran revolt the rulers of the Protestant states gave no heed to it. 2 Hugo Grotius (15S3-1645), the eminent Dutch jurist, in a treatise entitled ALi>-e Liicritm, refuted this theory, and in opposition to it maintained that the ocean should be free to all, — a far-reaching doctrine which finally became a part of the common law of nations. 3 There was difficulty in determining just where among the islands lying southeast of Asia the papal line of demarcation, when carried around the globe, should run. §280] VOYAGE OF MAGELLAN 255 a great sea with a blank horizon to the west. From the calm, unruffled face of the new ocean, so different from the stormy Atlantic, he gave to it the name Pacific. The voyage of these first intruders^ from the Old World upon the unknown sea, beneath the strange constellations of the south- ern skies, was one of almost incredible sufferings, endured with the bravest fortitude. Finally, on March 16, 1521, Magellan reached the group of islands now known as the Philippines, hav- ing been so named in honor of Philip II, Charles' son and his successor on the Spanish throne. The year following the discovery of the Philippines a single battered ship of the fleet, the Victoria, with eighteen men out of the original crews of over two hundred sailors, entered the Spanish port of Seville. The globe had for the first time been circum- navigated. The most adventurous enterprise of which record has been preserved had been successfully accomplished. " In the whole history of human undertakings," says Draper, "there is nothing that exceeds, if, indeed, there is anything that equals, this voyage of ]\Iagellan's. That of Columbus dwindles away in comparison." Equally does the exploit seem to have impressed the imagi- nation of Magellan's own age. The old writer Richard Eden (b. about 1 521) refers to it as "a thing doubtless so strange and marvelous that, as the like was never done before, so is it perhaps never like to be done again; so far have the navigations of the Spaniards excelled the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to the region of Colchis, or all that ever were before"; and a Spanish contemporary declares, "Nothing more notable in navigation has ever been heard of since the voyage of the patriarch Noah." The results of the achievement were greater in the intellectual realm than in the commercial or the political domain. It revo- lutionized whole systems of mediaeval theory and belief; it pushed aside old narrow geographical ideas; it settled forever and for all men the question as to the shape and size of the earth. It brought to an end the scholastic controversy concerning the antipodes, — that is, whether there were men living on the "under" side 1 The Pacific had several years before this been seen at the Isthmus of Darien. 256 GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES [§281 of the earth. The state of most men's minds in regard to this matter had till then been just about the same as is ours to-day on the question whether or not ttie planets are inhabited. 281. These Voyages and Geographical Discoveries ushered in a New Epoch. By some geographers civilization is conceived as having passed through three stages, — the potamic (or river) stage, the thalassic (or in- land sea) stage, and the oceanic stage. In the case of our own civilization, whose beginnings we seek in Egypt and Babylonia, these steps or stages seem fairly well defined and mark off historical times into three great periods, which may be named the River Epoch, the Sea Epoch, and the Ocean Epoch. The River Epoch was that during which civilization was confined to river valleys, like those of the Nile, the Tigris, and the Euphrates. The chief cities of this period, as, for instance, Memphis and Thebes in Egypt, Nineveh and Babylon in Mesopotamia, arose on the banks of great streams. Rivers were the pathways of commerce. Boats were small, and the art of sea navigation was practically unknown. The Sea Epoch was that during which the Mediterranean was the main theater of civilization. It was ushered in by the Phoenicians, the first skillful sea navigators. From the river banks the seats of trade and population were transferred to or near the shores of the Mediterranean, and Tyre and Sidon and Carthage and Ephesus and Miletus and Byzantium and Corinth and Athens Fig. 55. " The Antipodes in Deri- sion." (From Cosmas, CJirisiiaii Topog- raphy ; after Beazley, T/ie Down of Modern Geograpliy) Cosmas lived in the sixth Christian century. In the cut here reproduced from his Topograpliy, he ridicules the idea of a round earth with people on the underside whose heads hang downwards. The views of Cosmas as to the existence of an antipodal people had defenders throughout the mediaeval centuries §282] EARLY COLONIAL EMPIRES 257 and Rome arose and played their parts in the transactions of the thalassic age. So largely did the events of this age center in and about the Mediterranean that this sea has been aptly called the Forum of the ancient world. The Ocean Epoch was opened up by the voyages and geo- graphical discoveries of which we have just been speaking. In this period the great oceans have ceased to be barriers between the nations and have become instead the natural highways of the world's intercourse and commerce.^ 282. The Five Early Colonial Empires. One of the most important phases of the earlier history of this Ocean Epoch was the expansion of the five states on the Atlantic seaboard of Europe — namely, Portugal, Spain, France, the Netherlands, and Eng- land — each into a great empire, embracing colonies and depend- encies in two hemispheres. This expansion of Europe into Greater Europe holds somewhat such a place in modern history as the expansion of Hellas into Greater Hellas and of Rome into Greater Rome holds in ancient history. In the mutual jealousies and the conflicting interests of these growing colonial empires is to be found the ground and cause of many of the great wars of modern times since the close of the religious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. For this reason, although it is our special task to trace the lines of the historic development in Europe, we shall from time to time call the reader's attention to these European interests out- side of the European continent. In the present connection a few words in regard to Spanish conquests and the beginnings of Spanish colonization in the New World will suffice. 283. The Conquest of Mexico (1519-1521). The accounts of Spanish explorations and conquests in the lands opened up by the fortunate voyage of Columbus read more like a romance than any other chapter in history. They tell of men growing old while hunting through strange lands for the Fountain of 1 The Ocean Epoch may be conceived as embracing two periods, — the Atlantic and the Pacific period. The latter is just opening. See Chapter XLII on the expansion of Europe. 2 58 GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES [§283 Youth; of expeditions lost for years to the knowledge of men, while searching beneath gloomy forests for El Dorado; of explo- rations upon seas and amidst mountains never before looked upon by men of the Old World; of voyages on ocean-like rivers which led no one knew where; and of ancient states conquered and their enormous accumulations of gold and silver seized by a few score adventurous knights/ Perhaps the most brilliant exploit in which the Spanish cava- liers engaged during this period of daring and romantic adventure was the conciuest of Mexico. Reports of a rich and powerful "Empire" upon the mainland to the west were constantly spread among the Spanish colonists, who very soon after the discovery of the New World settled the islands in the Gulf of Mexico. These stories inflamed the imagination of adventurous spirits among the settlers, and an expedition, consisting of five or six hundred foot soldiers and sixteen horsemen, was organized and placed under the command of Hernando Cortes for the conquest and "con- version" of the heathen nation. The expedition was successful, and soon the Spaniards were masters of the greater part of what now constitutes the republic of Mexico. The state that the conquerors destroyed was not an empire, as termed by the contemporary Spanish chroniclers, but rather a sort of league or confederacy — something like the Iroquois confederacy in the North — formed of three Indian tribes.- Of these the Aztecs were the leading tribe and gave name to the confederacy. At the head of the league stood a sachem, or war-chief, who bore the name of Montezuma. The Aztecs, at the time of the discovery of America, had reached what is called the "middle stage of barbarism," — a stage of culture which the Mediterranean races had reached 1 Juan Ponce de Leon started on his romantic expedition in search of the fabled spring in 15 12; Vasco de Balboa discovered the Pacific in 1513; Hernando de Soto, while searching for a rich Indian kingdom, found the Mississippi in 1541; and in the same year Francisco de Orellana descended the eastern slope of the Andes to the Napo, floated down that stream to the Amazon, and then drifted on down to the sea. 2 Prescott's description of the Mexican state, especially as to its political organization, is misleading. For later authorities see bibliography at the end of the chapter. EXPLORATIONS AND COLOIVIES OF THE 15TH, 16TH,AND 17TH CENTURIDS ] FRENCH C BRITISn SPANISH ri ] DAM8H \ I POKTUGTJESEL DUTCH British and French Rival Claims 1 II \ 20 Longitude 40 KasI from 60 Greenwich 80 S284] CONQUEST OF PERU 259 and passed probably two thousand years before Christ. They employed a system of picture-writing. Their religion was a sort of sun worship. They were cannibals and offered human victims in their sacrifices. They had no knowledge of the horse or the ox or of any other useful domesticated animal except the dog.' They cultivated maize, but were without wheat, oats, or barley. They held their lands in common, and lived in communal or joint-tenement houses, which were large enough to accommo- date from ten to one hundred families. It was these immense structures which the Spanish writers described as "palaces" and "public edifices." These buildings were, doubtless, the same in plan as those to be seen at the present day among the Pueblo Indians of the southwestern part of the United States. 284. The Conquest of Peru (1532-1536). Shortly after the conquest of the Indians of Mexico the subjugation of the Indians of Peru was effected. The civilization of the Peruvians was supe- rior to that of the Mexicans. It has been compared, as to several of its elements, to that of ancient Assyria. Not only were the great cities of the empire filled with splendid temples and pal- aces, but throughout the country were to be seen magnificent works of public utility, such as roads, bridges, and aqueducts. The government of the Incas, the royal or ruling race, was a mild paternal autocracy. Glowing reports of the enormous wealth of the Incas, the commonest articles in whose palaces, it was asserted, were of solid gold, reached the Spaniards by way of the Isthmus of Darien, and it was not long before an expedition, consisting of less than two hundred men, was organized for the conquest of the country. The leader of the band was Francisco Pizarro, an iron-hearted, cruel, and illiterate adventurer. 1 It has been conjectured that the backwardness in civilization of the native races of the Americas is to be attributed in part to their lack of useful tame animals. See Fiske, The Discovery of America, vol. i, p. 27. The native fauna of the New World as compared with that of the Old is singularly poor in tamable species. Aside from the llama, the alpaca, and the turkey, the New World has contributed nothing of essential value to the great store of domesticated stocks which constitute the basis of so large a part of modern industry. 2 6o GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES [§285 Through treachery Pizarro made a prisoner of the Inca, Ata- hualpa. The captive offered, as a ransom for his release, to fill the room in which he was confined "as high as he could reach" with vessels of gold. Pizarro accepted the offer, and the palaces and temples throughout the empire were stripped of their golden vessels, and the apartment was filled with the precious relics. The value of the treasure is estimated at over $15,000,000. When this vast wealth was once under the control of the Spaniards, they seized it all, and then treacherously put the Inca to death (1533)- With the death of Atahualpa the power of the Inca dynasty passed away forever. 285. Beginnings of Spanish Colonization in the New World. Not until more than one hundred years after the discovery of the Western Hemisphere by Columbus was there established a single permanent English settlement within the limits of what is now the United States; but into those parts of the new lands opened up by Spanish exploration and conquest there began to pour at once a tremendous stream of Spanish adventurers and colonists in search of fortune and fame. Upon the West India Islands, in Mexico, in Central America, all along the Pacific slope of the Andes, and everywhere upon the lofty and pleasant table- lands that had formed the heart of the empire of the Incas, there sprang up rapidly cities as centers of mining and agricultural industries, of commerce, and of trade. Often, as in the case of Mexico, Quito, and Cuzco, these new cities were simply the renovated and rebuilt towns of the conquered natives. Thus did a Greater Spain grow up in the New World. Before the close of the sixteenth century the Spanish dominions in the new lands formed of themselves a magnificent empire and were the source, chiefly through their gold and silver mines, of a large revenue to the royal exchequer. It was, in part, the treasures derived from these new possessions that enabled the sovereigns of Spain to play the important part they did in the affairs of Europe during the century following the discovery of America.^ 1 After having robbed the Indians of their wealth in gold and silver, the slowr accumulations of centuries, the Spaniards further enriched themselves by the enforced §285] AN HISTORICAL PARALLEL 261 Suggestion to Teachers — Comparative Study In no way, we think, will the teacher be able to give his pupils so clear an idea of the character of the sixteenth century as by having them make a comparative study of that century and the nineteenth. The striking parallels which they will discover between the two periods will be sure to suggest to them that "the wonderful nine- teenth century," as it is called by Alfred Russel Wallace, hke the sixteenth, may be a transition period, a period which will be regarded by the future historian as we regard the sixteenth, — as the beginning of a new age in history. Having gained this viewpoint, they will see all the events, movements, and enterprises of the earlier period under a familiar light. The following will suggest in what realms parallels may be sought. The Sixteenth Century The Nineteenth Century a. The New Learning. Great intel- a. The New Sciences. Great intel- lectual activity. lectual activity. b. The Reformation. Revision of /'. The New Theology. Revision of creeds. Relation of the religious creeds. Relation of this move- movement to the Renaissance. ment to the birth of the new scientific spirit. c. The unification of great nations, — c. The unification of great nations, — England, France, Spain. Germany, Italy. labor of the unfortunate natives. Unused to such toil as was exacted of them under the lash of worse than Egyptian taskmasters, the Indians wasted away by millions in the mines of Mexico and Peru and upon the sugar plantations of the West Indies. More than half of the native population of Peru is thought to have been consumed in the Peruvian mines. " During fifty years," says a recent writer, " the Spaniards uniformly conquered and enslaved [the natives] ; put them to forced labour, to which they were physically unequal ; and on the least resistance or other provocation, massacred them in great numbers. One estimate says that in these years 40,000,000 of the native Americans perished by violence : the lowest makes the number 10,000,000 ; and it is to be feared the former is nearer the truth. It is certain that the islands of the West Indies once contained nearly 6,000,000 of a race now quite extinct; and that in Hayti alone they sank, in fifteen years, from 1,000,000 to 60,000, and, in fifty years, to 200 " (Payne, European Colonics, pp. 89, 90). As a substitute for native labor, negroes were introduced. This was the beginning of the African slave trade in the New World. At the outset the traffic was approved by a benevolent bishop named Las Casas (1474-1566), known as the "Apostle of the Indians." Before his death, however. Las Casas came to recognize the wickedness of negro as well as of Indian slavery and to regret that he had ever expressed approval of the plan of substituting one for the other. See Fiske, The Discovery of America, vol. ii, pp. 454-458. 2 62 GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES [§285 The Sixteenth Century The Nineteenth Century d. The expansion of Europe ; the d. The expansion of Europe ; the par- partition of the New World and tition of Africa and of Oceania, of southern Asia. The formation The formation of new colonial of colonial empires, — Portu- empires, — English, French, Ger- guese, Spanish, Dutch, French, man, Belgian, and American, and English. Great geographical and astronom- ical discoveries (Columbus, Co- pernicus), which reveal the uni- verse as infinite in space. Man's conceptions concerning the earth Great geological and biological dis- coveries {Evolution — Lyeli, Dar- win), which reveal the universe as infinite in time. Man's con- ceptions as to his origin and his ... . , . place m the plan of creation and Its place \\\ the universe rev- , . . , , . . , revolutionized, olutionized. f. Great inventions, now first hit /. Great inventions, — the steam rail- upon or brought into general use, way, the ocean steamship, the — printing, gunpowder, and the electric telegraph, electric motor, mariner's compass. Political, etc. Political, social, and eco- social, and economic revolutions nomic revolutions caused or caused or promoted by them. furthered by their introduction. Selections from the Sources. Cathay and the Way Thither (ed. by Colonel Henry Yule). The student here learns with what knowledge of Eastern Asia Columbus and the others set out, and what they expected to find. The Jojirnal of Ch7-istophe7- Coliirnbiis (Hakluyt Society publications). Old South Leaflets. Nos. 29, 31-36, 39, 71, 89, 90, 102. The First Three English Books on America (ed. by Edward Arber). This work possesses a special fascination. Secondary Works. Keane, J., The Evolution of Geography, chaps, v-viii. Beazley, C. R., Prince Hcniy the iVavigator. There are numerous lives of Columbus : Winsor's, Irving's, and C. K. Adams' are recommended. GuiLLEMARD, F. H. H., The Life of Ferdinand Magellan. Fiske, J., The Dis- covoy of America, 2 vols (there is not a chapter here that will fail to interest and charm young readers). The Cambridge Alodern LIisto?y, vol. i, chap, i, " The Age of Discovery "; and chap, ii, " The New World." Bourne, E. G., Essays in Historical Criticism, Essay No. 7, "The Demarcation Line of Pope Alexander VI"; and Spain^ in Ame7-ica (1450-1580). Prescott, W. H., Con- quest of Mexico and Conquest of Pent (should be read with later works). Payne, E. J., Histoty of the N'eiv World called Amet-ica, vol. i, pp. 303-364 (for the relation of the native civilizations of the Americas to their animal and plant life). Topics for Class Reports, i. Prince Henry the Navigator: Bourne, E. G., Essays in Historical Criiicisin, Essay No. 6. 2. The civilization of the Aztecs: Fiske, J., The Discovery of America, vol. ii, chap, viii, pp. 215-239. 3. The civilization of the Peruvians: Fiske, J., The Discovery of Aynerica, vol. ii, chap, ix ; Winsor, J., A'arrative and Critical History of America, vol. i, chap. iv. CHAPTER XX THE BEGINNINGS OF THE REFORMATION 286. Introductory Statement. When the Modern Age opened the European peoples were on the eve of a great rehgious revolu- tion. This was a dual movement. It was an insurrection against the Papacy, resulting in the severance by half the nations of Europe of the bonds which throughout the mediaeval time had united them to the ecclesiastical empire of the Roman pontiffs. Since the secession movement was successful, it is rightly called a revolution, — the Protestant Revolution. But the movement was something more than a successful rebellion against ecclesiastical authority. It was, as we shall learn, caused in large part by the existence of certain evils and abuses in the Church, and resulted in a great renovation of the religious and moral life of Western Christendom. Hence it is properly spoken of as a reform, — as the Reformation. That the movement was a dual one should be carefully noted, for it is only when regarded from both the indicated points of view that its complex phenomena can be intelligently observed and rightly interpreted. In the present chapter we shall speak of the causes and the beginnings of the revolution in Germany; in succeeding chapters we shall follow the vicissitudes of its fortunes in the principal countries of northern Europe. 287. Causes of the Reformation. Our first endeavor must be to get some sort of comprehension of what caused the northern nations of Europe first to become dissatisfied with the state of things ecclesiastical and religious and then to secede from the ancient Church. There were various causes. One cause was the Renaissance, that great intellectual awaken- ing which marked the close of the mediaeval and the opening of the modern epoch. We shall see in a moment how it was the antagonism which developed between the promoters of the 263 2 64 THE REFORMATION [§287 new humanistic learning and the upholders of the old scholastic theology that helped to prepare the way for the great schism. A second cause of the revolution was the existence in the Church of most serious scandals and abuses. The necessity of the thorough reform of the Church in both "head and members" was recognized by all earnest and spiritually minded men. The only difference of opinion among such was as to the manner in which the work of renovation should be effected, whether from within or from without, by reform or by revolution. A third cause was jealousy of the Papacy on the part of the temporal princes, and the clash of papal claims with the rising sentiment of national patriotism. It is true that the claims to temporal supremacy put forward by some of the mediaeval popes were no longer maintained; still there remained a very large field embracing matters such as appointment or nomination to Church offices, the taxation of the clergy and of Church property, ques- tions concerning marriages, wills, and so on, which the popes as the guardians of religion claimed the right to regulate or to review. Thus the nations were really very far from being independent. As respects many matters which we now regard as attaching to national sovereignty, they were virtually provinces of an ecclesi- astical world empire centered at Rome. The situation might be illustrated by a comparison with that in a federal commonwealth like our own. Just as in our Union every person owes allegiance to two authorities, that of his State and that of the Federal Government, so in mediaeval times every person owed allegiance to two authorities, — to his own king and to the Roman pontiff. And as before our Civil War it was often difficult for one to determine whether his first duty was to his own State or to the Federal Government, so before the Protestant Revolution it was often difficult for one to decide to which he owed superior allegiance, — to his own prince or to the Pope. As regards the monks and the other " clergy, the question was apt to be decided in favor of the Papal See, for they were prone to regard themselves as subjects of the Pope rather than as subjects of the king under whose rule they lived. §288] CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION 265 But it was at the point where the papal supremacy interfered with the financial interests of the lay governments that the most friction and trouble developed. As head of the Church the popes were drawing an immense revenue from every state embraced within the ecclesiastical empire. A large part of the landed prop- erty of Europe was in the hands of the Church, and a consider- able portion of the vast revenues derived from it was, in the form of annates and contributions of the clergy, drawn into the Roman treasury. Furthermore, through the system of papal indulgences (sect. 290) vast additional sums were collected for papal use in all the different countries. In some countries the direct and indirect contributions of the people to the Papal See probably exceeded the taxes which they paid to their own government. Moreover, it was a matter of notoriety that the immense sums drawn to Rome were not always used in the promotion of religious objects, but in the hands of unworthy pontiffs like Alexander VI were used to further personal ambitions or to promote the political fortunes of the Papacy. This state of things culminating just at the time when the sentiment of nationality was awakening in several of the different countries and just when the secular governments, growing stronger, were assuming new functions and were requiring larger revenues for the maintenance of their standing armies and for other public purposes, it was inevitable that among the civil rulers the situation should come to be regarded with feelings of ill-will and impatience. It is doubtless true that in several of the northern countries it was this condition of things which had more to do in bringing about the secession from Rome than had the desire of religious freedom or of moral reform. The circumstances marking the outbreak of the revolution, which we shall now proceed to consider, will afford a commentary on this brief statement of the causes which produced it. 288. The Humanists Erasmus and Reuchlin, The relation of humanism to the Reformation will best be revealed by the presentation of a few facts illustrative of the spirit and aims of the humanists of the North, 2 66 THE REFORMATION [§288 Desiderius Erasmus (1467?-! 536) of Rotterdam was the leader of the humanistic movement in the North, as Petrarch was the father of the movement in the South. His celebrated satire entitled Moriae Encomium, or "Praise of Folly" (1509), was directed against the foibles of all classes of society, but particu- larly against the sins of "unholy men in holy orders." A little later (in 1516) Erasmus published his Novum Instrumentum, the Greek text of the New Testament with a Latin version. These publications must be assigned a prominent place among the vari- ous agencies which prepared the minds and hearts of the northern peoples for the Reformation. As was inevitable a conflict soon de- veloped between the theologians — who were the champions of the old Scholasti- cism — and the pro- moters of the new humanistic learning. It was the first phase in modern times of the age-long warfare between Theology and Science. The first blows exchanged by the two parties were given in a con- troversy in which the real principle involved was the freedom of scholars in their investigations and the limits of theological' authority in matters of scholarship. The war raged around the person of the eminent humanist John Reuchlin (1455-1522), the same whom we have seen in the closing years of the fifteenth century trudging over the Alps in order to study Greek at the feet of the Italian masters (sect. 262). "^^-v-"*^ X^ Fig. 56. Erasmus. (After a painting by //f?/*^^/;/) §289] HUMANISM AND RELIGIOUS REFORM 267 Hostilities had arisen in this way. It had been proposed by haters of the Jews that their books should be taken from them and burned, on the ground that these works were unfriendly to Christianity. Reuchlin, who was the best Hebrew scholar of his time, was asked, by the authorities before whom the matter had been brought, for his opinion on the proposal. He advised against it, and embraced the opportunity to say that much of the Jewish literature might be read by Christians with great advan- tage to themselves. This caused Reuchlin to be bitterly attacked by the clerical party. The theological faculties of many of the German universities and that of the University of Paris con- demned his views, while the humanists, among others Erasmus, sent him letters of approval and encouragement. Some of these Reuchlin published under the title of Epistolae Clarorum Virorum, or ''Letters of Illustrious Men." The appearance of this collection suggested to some of Reuch- lin's friends- — the celebrated humanist and picturesque knight- poet, Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523), was among them — the putting out of a work bearing the title Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, ox "Letters of Obscure Men" (1515-1517). This was a collection of fictitious letters, written in "choicest bad Latin" and abounding in all sorts of absurdities, in which the party opposed to Reuchlin was made the subject of rollicking satire and merciless ridicule. To the humanists it was "capital fun," as More wrote to Erasmus. 289. The Humanistic Movement becomes a Religious Re- form. The attacks of the humanists on the theologians had been inspired primarily not so much by religious feeling or moral indig- nation as by a love of sound scholarship and contempt for the ignorance and pedantry of the opposers of the New Learning. The controversy now assumed a more serious phase. It took on the character of a religious debate, became a matter of conscience, also became mixed with political matters, and then finally devel- oped into open war between the two parties. The simple narration of events as they unfolded in Germany will best convey an idea of how special circumstances and, above 268 THE REFORMATION [§290 all, the appearance of a great man with deep convictions and violent passions gave this new trend to the historic movement. 290, Indulgences; Purgatory. Since the subject matter of the debate in its new form was papal indulgences, a word concern- ing these will here be necessary to render intelligible the opening episodes of the great revolution. An indulgence, as understood and defined by German theo- logians of Luther's time, was the remission of that temporal pun- ishment which often remains due on account of sin after its guilt has been forgiven.^ It was granted on the performance of some work of piety, charity, or mercy, which often included an alms to the poor or a gift of money to promote some good work, and took effect only upon certain conditions, among which was that of confession of sin and sincere repentance. Since much of the opposition to indulgences arose from their application to souls in purgatory and to abuses arising in this connection, a word of explanation is here also necessary. According to Catholic teaching, the other world embraces three regions, — hell, purgatory, and heaven. This belief is embodied in the great poem of the mediaeval ages, Dante's Divine Comedy. Purgatory is a place or state intermediate between heaven and hell, where souls destined for eternal bliss are cleansed through suffering. This belief in an intermediate place of punishment came to be of historical significance because, according to Catholic doctrine, souls in this place of purification can be helped and their probation shortened by the prayers and good works of their surviving friends in their behalf. Thus Dante on the terraces of the Mount of Purification met spirits who told him that their 1 The following is the definition given by Johann von Paltz, a contemporary of Luther, in his authoritative treatise on indulgences (Coc///oc/i//a, ed. of 15 ii) : hidiilgcntia est rcmissio pooiac icmporalis dcbitac peccaiis acinalibiis poaiitcnttuni non remissae in ahsobttionc scicramcniali : jacia a praclato ccclcslac yationabiliter et ex taiionabili caitsa : per rccompensationern de poejia tndcbiia justorum. " An indulgence is a remission of that temporal penalty deserved by the actual sins of penitents which has not been remitted in sacramental absolution,- — a remission granted by a prelate of the Church, in rational manner and for rational cause, on the ground of the penalty already paid by the undeserved punishment of the just." By " temporal " punishment is meant penances imposed by the Church and the temporary pains of purgatory, as opposed to the eternal punishment of hell. §291] THE PREACHING OF INDULGENCES 269 allotted time of suffering had been shortened by the mediatorial prayers of their friends. The vast endowments of the mediaeval monasteries were in large part given that Masses might be said for the repose of the souls of the donors. But not only were interces- sory prayers counted capable of releasing souls from purgatory, the indulgence also, granted in virtue of the good works or alms of friends, operated in the same way to free souls from their sufferings. Before the time of the Reformation, indulgences had been frequently granted by various pontiffs, with different objects in view. Thus in the time of the Crusades plenary^ indulgences were offered to all who assumed the cross. Indulgences were also often resorted to as a means of raising money for the con- struction and maintenance of churches, convents, and bridges, and for the promotion of other local undertakings. A great part of the money for the building of St. Peter's at Rome was obtained in this manner. 291. Tetzel and the Preaching of Indulgences. Leo X, upon his election to the papal dignity in 15 13, found the coffers of the Church almost empty, and being in pressing need of money to carry on his various undertakings, among which was work upon St. Peter's, he had recourse to the now common expedient of a grant of indulgences. He delegated the power of dispensing these %ra great part of Germany to Archbishop Albert of Mainz. As his deputy, Albert employed a Dominican friar by the name of John Tetzel. The archbishop was unfortunate in the selection of his agent. Tetzel carried out his commission in such a way as to give rise to a great scandal. The language that he and his subordinates used in exhorting the people to comply with the conditions of gaining the indulgences — one of which was a donation of money — was unseemly and exaggerated. The result was that erroneous views as to the effect of indul- gences began to spread among the ignorant and credulous, many 1 A plenary or full indulgence remits to a penitent the whole of the temporal punishment to which he is liable at the time of receiving the remission. 270 THE REFORMATION [§292 being so far misled as to think that if they only contributed this money to the building of St. Peter's in Rome they would be exempt from all penalty for sins, paying little heed to the other conditions, such as sorrow for sin and purpose of amendment. Hence serious persons were led to declaim against the procedure of the zealous friar. These protests were the near mutterings of a storm that had long been gathering and that was soon to shake all Europe from the Baltic to the Mediterranean. 292. Martin Luther; his Pilgrimage to Rome. Foremost among those who opposed and de- nounced the methods used by Tetzel was Martin Luther, an Augustinian monk and teacher of theology in the Univer- sity of Wittenberg. This great reformer was born in Saxony in 1483. He was of humble parentage, his father being a poor miner. Just as a career planned by his father in the profession of the law was opening before him, he suddenly turned his back upon the world and entered a convent. Before Tetzel appeared in Germany, Luther had already earned a wide reputation for learning and piety. A few years before this (in 1511) he had made, in the interest of his Order, a memorable journey to Rome. His reverence for Rome and the Pope was at that time unimpaired. Rome was in his eyes as sacred as Fig. 57. Martin Luther. (After the portrait by Lucas Cranach^ the elder; Uffizi Gallery, Florence) §293] THE NINETY-FIVE THESES 271 Jerusalem. The Pope he regarded as God's representative on earth. He had no doubts about purgatory; he was almost sorry that his parents were not dead that he might, at the holy places in Rome, pray their souls out of that place of suffering. But the simple German monk saw things at Rome which gave his reverence a rude shock. He had expected to see every one "awed in perpetual reverence by the holy atmosphere of the place." Instead, he found luxury and skepticism, — often open profligacy and irreverence for holy things. All this produced a deep impression upon the serious-minded monk. The seed had been sown which was destined to yield a great harvest. 293. The Ninety-five Theses (i5i7). It was six years after Luther's visit to Rome when Tetzel began in the neighborhood of Wittenberg, where Luther was, the preaching of indulgences in the scandalous manner to which we have just alluded. The people were running in crowds after him. Luther was greatly distressed. Not being able to get any one in authority to inter- vene to put a stop to the scandal, he resolved to take hold of the matter himself. Accordingly he drew up ninety-five theses bearing on indulgences and nailed them upon the door of the castle church at Wittenberg. It was a custom of those times for a scholar thus to post propositions which he was willing to maintain against any and all comers. By means of the press the theses were spread broadcast. They were eagerly read and commented upon by all classes, particularly in Germany. Tetzel issued counter-propositions. Learned theo- logians entered the lists against the presumptuous monk. The air was thick with controversial leaflets. At first Pope Leo had been inclined to make light of the whole matter, declaring that it was "a mere squabble of monks," but at length he felt con- strained to take decisive measures against Luther. The monk was to be silenced by means of a papal bull. 294. Luther's "Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation" (July, 1520). Luther heard that the bull was soon to be launched against him. He anticipated its arrival by the' issuance to the German nobility of a remarkable address, 2 72 THE REFORMATION [§295 which has been called "The Manifesto of the Reformation." This was beyond question the most significant historically of all the productions of this age of theses and counter-theses, of bulls and bans, of manifestoes and appeals. It was practically a German declaration of independence of Rome. Luther demanded, among other things, that payment to the Pope of annates^ should be forbidden by the princes, nobles, and cities, or that they should be wholly abolished; that ''no episcopal cloak and no confirmation of an appointment should be obtained from Rome"; that the Pope should have no power whatever over the Emperor, "save to anoint and crown him at the altar"; and that the secular clergy (ecclesiastics not bound by monastic vows) should be free to marry or not to marry .^ 295. Luther burns the Papal Bull (Dec.io, i52o). At length a copy of the papal bull came into Luther's hands. Forty-one propositions selected from his writings were therein condemned either as "heretical" or as "scandalous," and all persons were for- bidden to read his books, which were ordered to be burned; and he himself, if he did not retract his errors within sixty days, was, together with all his adherents, to be regarded as having "in- curred the penalty due for heresy." Luther now took a startling determination. He resolved to burn the papal bull. A fire was kindled outside one of the gates of Wittenberg, and in the presence of a great throng of doctors, students, and citizens, Luther cast the bull, together with 1 Annates, or first fruits, were the first year's revenue, or some portion of the first year's revenue, of a benefice paid to the Pope by a bishop, abbot, or other ecclesiastic for the papal confirmation in his office. This was a most important source of revenue to the Roman court. The temporal princes naturally regarded these payments by their subjects to the Pope with great jealousy, since in this way immense sums of money passed out of their dominions and into the Roman treasury. Consequently this subject of annates was a source of endless disagreement and controversy between the civil governments of Europe and the Papacy. In England the prohibition of the payment of first fruits to the Pope was one of the earliest steps taken in the separation from Rome (see sect. 335). 2 Luther was not at this time ready to release monks from their vows. Gradually, however, his views changed and he came to regard the celibacy of the monks as opposed to Scripture teachings. In the year 1525, acting upon his maturer views, he married Catherine Bora, a former nun. This violation by Luther of his monastic vows was made the subject of bitter reproach against him by his enemies. §296] THE DIET OF WORMS 273 the papal decretals and some books of his opponents, into the flames. The audacious proceeding raised a terrible storm, which raged "high as the heavens, wide as the earth." Luther wrote a friend that he believed the tempest could never be stilled before the day of judgment. ^ 296. The Diet of Worms (1521). Affairs had now assumed a threatening aspect. All Germany was in a state of revolt. The papal supremacy was imperiled. The papal ban having failed to produce any effect. Pope Leo now invoked the aid of the recently elected Emperor Charles V in extirpating the spreading heresy. He wished Luther to be sent to Rome for trial there. Luther's friends, however, persuaded Charles not to accede to the Pope's request, but to permit Luther to be heard in Germany. Accordingly Luther received an imperial summons to appear at Worms before an assembly of the princes, nobles, and clergy of Germany to be convened for the purpose of deliberating upon the affairs of the country, and especially upon matters touching the great religious controversy. Luther's journey to Worms was a triumphal progress. The eyes of all Germany were upon him. The crowds that lined the streets of the towns through which he passed showed how pro- foundly the German heart had been stirred. At Worms the roofs of the houses along the streets traversed by the monk in his entrance into the city were loaded with his sympathizers.^ When Luther first appeared before the brilliant and august assembly he was visibly embarrassed. But he soon recovered his composure. His books were placed before him, and he was asked whether he would retract what he had written therein. He requested a day's time to consider his answer. The next day, brought again before the Diet, he replied in substance : " To revoke these writings would be to give new force and audacity to the Roman tyranny. I cannot, I will not, retract anything, unless 1 As Luther neared Worms it was whispered to him that treason against him was being planned within the city. His friends, alarmed at this report, tried to dissuade him from exposing his life by going on. It was then he made his famous declaration, " I would go though there were as many devils there as there are tiles on the roofs of the houses." 2 74 THE REFORMATION [§297 what I have written shall be shown to be contrary to Holy Scrip- ture or to plain reason, for to act against conscience is neither safe nor upright." His closing words were impressive: "I can do no otherwise; here I stand, God help me, Amen." Although some wished to deliver the reformer to the flames, the safe-conduct of the Emperor under which he had come to the Diet protected him. So Luther was allowed to depart in safety, but was followed by the ban of the Empire. 297. Luther at the Wartburg (1521-1522). Luther, how- ever, had powerful friends, among whom was his own prince, Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony. Solicitous for the safety of the reformer, the prince caused him to be seized on his way from the Diet by a company of masked horsemen, who carried him to the castle of the Wartburg, where he was kept about a year, his retreat being known only to a few friends. During this period of forced retirement from the world Luther was busy writing pamphlets and translating the Bible. Appeal had been made to the Scriptures, — "Prove it from the Scrip- tures," "There it is written," was the constant challenge of the reformers to their opponents, — hence it was necessary that the Scriptures should be accessible in a language understood by all.^ It was hard work, as Luther put it, to make the old prophets speak German, but he made them speak it in a way which has fixed to this day the attention of the German nation. In giving Germany this translation of the Bible, Luther ren- dered some such service to the German tongue as Dante ren- dered to the Italian through his Divine Comedy. Fixing its literary forms, he virtually created the German language out of a chaos of dialects. 298. The Peasants' War (1524-1525). Before quite a year had passed Luther was drawn from the Wartburg by troubles caused by certain radical reformers whose preaching was occasioning tumult and violence. Luther's sudden appearance at Wittenberg gave a temporary check to the agitation. 1 There had been translations of the Bible into German before this, but the editions had been small and the circulation limited. §299] SECULARIZATION OF CHURCH PROPERTY 275 But in the course of two or three years the trouble broke out afresh and in a more complex and aggravated form. The peas- ants of Suabia and Franconia, stung to madness by the oppres- sions of their feudal lords, stirred by the religious excitement that filled the air, and influenced by the incendiary preaching of their prophets Carlstadt and Miinzer, rose in revolt against the nobles and the priests, — against all in authority.^ Castles and monasteries were sacked and burned and horrible outrages were committed. The rebellion was finally crushed, but not until a hundred thousand lives had been sacrificed, a large part of South Germany devastated, and great reproach cast upon the reformers, whose teachings were held by their enemies to be the whole cause of the ferment.- 299. The Secularization of Church Property. But in spite of all these discrediting movements the reform made rapid prog- ress. Nothing contributed more to win over the lay princes to the views of Luther than his recommendation that the monasteries should be suppressed and their property confiscated and devoted to the maintenance of churches, schools, and charities.^ The lay rulers were quick to act upon this suggestion and to go far beyond it. Within a very few years after the appearance of Luther's address to the German nobility and another treatise of his on monastic vows, wherein he pronounced such vows to be contrary to true Christian principles, there were confiscations of ecclesiastical property in all the German states that had become Protestant. In Sweden, in which country the doctrines of Luther gained an early foothold, almost all the property of the old Church was, by an act of the National Diet, given into the hands of the 1 The demands of the peasants were embodied in a document known as the Twelve Articles. See Translations and Reprbifs (Univ. of Penn.), vol. ii, No. 6. 2 About a decade after the suppression of the Peasants' Revolt the religious excitement of the time brought into existence the so-called New Zion, or Ana- baptist kingdom of Miinster, a sort of theocracy, of which the head was John of Leyden (i5io?-i536). There was in this movement a most startling exhibition of religious fanaticism. Like the rebellion of the peasants, it tended greatly to discredit the genuine reform party. S All such taking over of Church property by the State was called " secularization." 2 76 THE REFORMATION [§300 king, Gustavus Vasa (1524). This wealth contributed greatly to enhance the power and prestige of the Swedish monarchy. In England, King Henry VIII, under circumstances which we shall relate in another chapter, suppressed the monasteries and diverted to secular uses the greater part of their wealth. But the classical instance of the secularizing of Church prop- erty during this period is afforded by the case of the Teutonic Knights (sect. 138). At the beginning of the Protestant revolt these monk knights ruled over from two to three million subjects. When the reform movement began to spread over Germany the Grand Master of the Order ^ turned Protestant and converted the domains of the fraternity into an hereditary principality under the name of the Duchy of Prussia (1525). The knights married and became nobles. Thus was created out of ecclesiastical lands a most important secular state. 300. The Reformers are called Protestants. The rapid progress of the revolution alarmed the upholders of the ancient Church. In the year 1529 there gathered an assembly (the Second Diet of Spires) to consider the matter. The action of the Catholic majority of this body took away from the Protestant princes and cities the right they had hitherto enjoyed of determin- ing what form of religion should be followed in their domafns, and forbade the teaching of certain of the new doctrines until a Church council should have pronounced authoritatively upon them. Six of the German princes and a large number of the cities of the Empire issued a formal protest against the action of the Diet, denying the power or right of a majority to bind the minority in matters of religion and conscience. Because of this protest, the reformers from this time began to be known as Protestants. 301, The Catholic Reaction; its Causes and Agents. Even before the death of Luther, which occurred in the year 1546,- 1 Albert (1490-1568), head of a branch of the family of Hohenzollern. 2 After the death of Luther the leadership of the Reformation in Germany fell to Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560), one of Luther's friends and fellow-workers. Melanchthon's disposition was exactly the opposite of Luther's. He often reproved Luther for his indiscretion and vehemence, and was constantly laboring to effect, through mutual concessions, a reconciliation between the Catholics and Protestants. §302] DISUNION OF THE PROTESTANTS 277 the Reformation had gained a strong foothold in most of the countries of Western Christendom, save- in Spain and Italy, and even in these parts the new doctrines had made some progress. But several causes now conspired to check the hitherto trium- phant advance of Protestantism and to enable the old Church to regain much of the ground that had been lost. Chief among these were the lack of concord among the Protestants, the Counter- Reform in the Catholic Church, the increased activity of the Inquisition, the rise of the Society of the Jesuits, and Spain's zealous championship of Catholicism. 302. Disunion of the Protestants. Very early in their con- test with the Roman See the Protestants became divided into three mutually hostile sects, — Lutherans, Zwinglians, and Calvinists. The creed of the Lutherans came to prevail very generally in North Germany, and was received in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. It also spread into the Netherlands, but there it was soon overshadowed by Calvinism. Of all the Protestant sects the Lutherans made the least departure from the Roman Catholic Church. The Zwinglians, followers of Huldreich Zwingli (i 484-1 531), differed from the Lutherans particularly in their views regarding the Eucharist and in the matter of church organization. Their creed became dominant in the greater part of German Switzer- land, and from there spread into southern Germany. The Calvinists were followers of John Calvin (i 509-1 564), a Frenchman by birth, who, forced to flee from France because of persecution, found a refuge at Geneva,^ which city he made the center of a movement rivaling in extent and historical im- portance that having its point of departure at Wittenberg. We can best remember the wide range of Calvinism and its remarkable 1 Under the influence of Calvin, Geneva became a sort of theocratic state, with the reformer as a Protestant pope. The laws and regulations of this little city-state recall those of the later Puritan commonwealth in England. Calvinism was everywhere the same. It was a sort of revival of the theocracy of the ancient Hebrews. Calvin has been well called the "Prophet of the Old Covenant." His work entitled Instihitcs of the Christiait Religion is a masterly exposition of Calvinistic theology. 278 THE REFORMATION [§302 influence upon the history of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by keeping in mind that the French Huguenots, the Scotch Covenanters, the Dutch Netherlanders (in large part), the EngHsh Puritans, and the Pilgrim Fathers were all Calvinists.^ These great Protestant communions finally broke up into a large number of denominations or churches, each holding to some minor point of doctrine or adhering to some form of wor- ship disregarded by the others, yet all agreeing in the central doctrine of the Reformation, "justification by faith alone." Now, the contentions between these different sects were sharp and bitter. The liberal-minded reformer had occasion to lament the same state of things as that which troubled the Apostle Paul in the early days of Chris- tianity. One said, I am of Luther; another said, I am of Calvin; and another said, I am of Zwingli. Even Luther himself denounced Zwingli as a heretic; and the Calvinists would have no dealings with the Lutherans. The influence of these sectarian strifes and divisions upon the progress of the reform movement was most disastrous. They weakened the Protestant party in the presence of a united and vigilant enemy. They afforded the Catholics a strong and effective argument against the entire movement as tending to uncertainty, and discord. Fig. 58. John Calvix. (After a painting by Holbciii) 1 All these are great names in the histoiy of poliilcal liberty. The undeniably favorable influence of Calvinism upon civil liberty is doubtless to be attributed not so much to its teachings — though the doctrine of the final authority of the individual con- science tended to undermine as well the divine right of kings as the supreme authority of the Pope — as to the democratic constitution of the Calvinistic churches. Each church forms a little democracy, and naturally ecclesiastical democracy has fostered political democracy. §303] THE CATHOLIC COUNTER-REFORM 279 303. The Catholic Counter-Reform; the Council of Trent (1545-1563) ; Carlo Borromeo. x\s we have seen, it was the existence of acknowledged evils and scandals in the old Church that had contributed greatly to undermine its authority and to weaken its hold upon the reverence and the consciences of men. It was the correction of these evils and the removal of these scandals which did much to restore its lost influence and authority. This reform, which even before the rise of Protestantism had already begun within the Roman Catholic Church, was carried out in great measure by the memorable Council of Trent (1545- 1563). This body, the most important Church assembly since that of Nicaea, a.d. 325, with the voice of authority passed upon all the points that had been raised by the reformers. It declared the traditions of the Church to be of equal authority with the Bible; it reasserted the divine character of the Papacy; it con- demned as heresy the Lutheran doctrine of justification by faith alone. It made everything so clear that no one, not even a way- faring man, need err either in doctrine or in duty. It also de- manded that the lives of all priests and bishops should be an exemplification of Christian purity and morality. These measures of the council helped greatly to check the Protestant movement. The correction of the abuses that had had so much to do in causing the great schism smoothed the way for the return to the ancient Church of thousands who had become alarmed at the dangers into which society seemed to drift when once it cast loose from anchorage in the safe harbor of tradition and authority. The spirit in which the Council of Trent had done its work finds illustration in the exalted character and devoted life of the Italian reformer, Carlo Borromeo (153S-1584). In him the reforming spirit of the great council was incarnate. He became Archbishop of Milan, and took as his model the holy Ambrose, who, twelve centtiries before, in the corrupt times of the failing Roman Empire, had won sainthood in that same see. He reno- vated and restored the desecrated and deserted churches, reformed 2 8o THE REFORMATION [§304 the lax and dissolute lives of the clergy, restored discipline in the religious orders, and established schools and colleges. It was due largely to his zealous labors and to the happy contagion of his holy example that a new spiritual life was created in ISIilan and the regions round about, that popular veneration for the ancient Church was again evoked, that the progress of Protestantism in Italy was stayed, that the wavering were held firm in their allegiance to the Papacy, and that many who had already been led away by the Protestant "heresy" were brought back to the ancient fold. 304. The Inquisition. The Roman Catholic Church, having purified itself and defined clearly its articles of faith, demanded of all a more implicit obedience than hitherto. The Inquisition now assumed new activity, and heresy was sternly dealt with. The tribunal was assisted in the execution of its sentences by the secular authorities in all the Romance countries, but out- side of these it was not generally recognized by the temporal princes, though it did succeed in establishing itself for a time in the Netherlands and in some parts of Germany. Death, usually by burning, and loss of property were the penalty of obstinate heresy. Without doubt the Inquisition did much to check the advance of the Reformation in southern Europe, aiding especially in holding Italy and Spain obedient to the ancient Church. At this point, in connection with the persecutions of the In- quisition, we should not fail to recall that in the sixteenth century a refusal to conform to the established worship was regarded by the great majority of Protestants, as well as of Catholics, as a species of treason against society, and was dealt with accordingly. Thus at Geneva we iind Calvin bending all his energies to the trial and execution of Servetus, because he published views that the Calvinists thought heretical; at Rome we see Giordano Bruno burned at the stake because of his disbelief in certain Roman Catholic doctrines, and in England we see the Anglican Protes- tants waging the most cruel, bitter, and persistent persecutions not only against the Catholics but also against all Protestants who refused to conform to the Established Church. §305] SOCIETY OF THE JESUITS 281 305. The Society of the Jesuits; Ignatius of Loyola; Francis Xavier. The Society of the Jesuits, or the Company of Jesus, was another most powerful auxiliary concerned in the reestablishment of the threatened authority of the Papal See. The founder of the fraternity was Ignatius of Loyola (1491- 1556), a native of Spain. Ignatius was the embodiment of Spanish religious zeal. His object was to form a society the devotion and energy of whose members should meet the ardor and activity of the reformers. The new society was instituted by a papal bull in 1 540. Ignatius before he became a priest was a soldier, and it was this circumstance which lent a military cast to his society. In- deed, the military principle so characterizes it that it has been described as "a military organi- zation for religious purposes." This predominance of the mili- tary principle in the society should be borne carefully in mind in any study of the character and the activity of the Jesuits. Like the soldier, each member of the society is required to submit his own will to that of his superior and is taught to regard self-renunciation and obedience as cardinal virtues. It was particularly as educators that the Jesuits made their in- fluence felt upon society. Their aim here was to fill the world with schools and colleges, just as a conquered country might be occupied with military garrisons. Ignatius left behind him a full hundred colleges and seminaries; within a century and a half after his death the Order had founded over seven hundred. As the well-disciplined, watchful, and uncompromising foes of the Protestants, now divided into many and often hostile sects, the Jesuits did so much to bring about a reaction that Macaulay Fig. 59. Ignatius of Loyola (After a painting by Rubens) 2 82 THE REFORMATION [§306 declares, "The history of the Jesuits is the history of the Catholic Reaction." It was largely through their direct or indirect agency that Hungary, Poland, Bohemia, and South Germany, after they had been invaded by Protestantism and in a greater or less degree drawn away from the old faith, were won back to the Roman Catholic Church and again bound by ties stronger than ever to the Papacy. By the end of the sixteenth century this great work of recovery had been in the main accomplished. This regaining of these debatable countries for Catholicism constitutes one of the most important matters in the religious history of Europe. And not only did the labors of the Jesuits contribute thus greatly to the retrieving of the papal fortunes in Europe, but they were also instrumental in extending the authority and spreading the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church into all other parts of the world. Most distinguished of all the missionaries of the society to pagan lands was the saintly Francis Xavier (1506- 1552), known as the "Apostle of the Indies." His labors in India, Japan, and other lands of the Far East were attended with astonishing results. 306. Spain's Zealous Championship of Catholicism. Just as England became the champion and the bulwark of Protestantism, so did Spain become the champion and the bulwark of Catholi- cism. The Spanish sovereigns, as we shall see, constituted them- selves the guardians of Catholic orthodoxy, and put forth all their strength to uproot the reformed faith not only in their own domains but also in other lands. Their strenuous efforts to reestablish the old religious unity caused them to become most important instruments of the Catholic Restoration. 307. The Hundred Years of Religious Wars. The action taken by the Council of Trent made impossible a reconciliation between the two parties. The middle of the sixteenth century had not yet been reached before the increasing bitterness of their controversy led to an appeal to force. Then followed a hundred years of religious wars. During this time neither party laid aside the sword. In this protracted combat Protestantism was fighting §308j rOLITICAL RESULTS OF THE REFORM 283 desperately for the right to live; the Papacy was fighting to put down secession, to force the seceded states back into the old ecclesiastical empire, to restore the broken unity of Christendom. In the chapters immediately following this we shall trace in broad outline the vicissitudes in the fortunes of the rival creeds in the leading European countries. To what we have here said concerning the beginnings of the Revolution we will in a closing section add only a few words touching its results. 308. Political Results of the Reformation: the Separation from Rome and What this meant. The outcome of the Protestant Revolution as a revolution was, very broadly stated, the separation from the Roman Catholic Church of North Ger- many, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, England, and Scotland, along with parts of Switzerland and of the Netherlands, — in the main, nations predominantly Teutonic in race or in language. The great Romance nations, namely, France, Spain, and Italy, to- gether with South Germany, Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, and Ireland, adhered to the ancient Church, or, if for a period shaken in their loyalty, ultimately returned to their old allegiance.^ What this separation from Rome meant in the political realm is well stated by the historian Seebohm: '^It was the claiming by the civil power in each nation of those rights which the Pope had hitherto claimed within it as head of the great ecclesiastical em- pire. The clergy and monks had hitherto been regarded more or less as foreigners, — that is, as subjects of the Pope's ecclesiastical empire. Where there was a revolt from Rome the allegiance of these persons to the Pope was annulled, and the civil power claimed as full a sovereignty over them as it had over its lay subjects. Matters relating to marriage and wills still for the most part remained under ecclesiastical jurisdiction, but then, as the ecclesiastical courts themselves became national courts and ceased' to be Roman or papal, all these matters came under the control of the civil power." 1 It is because the Reformation was espoused so generally by the Teutonic peoples and Catholicism adhered to so generally by the Latin nations that Protestantism is sometimes spoken of as Teutonic Christianity and Catholicism as Latin Christianity. 284 THE REFORMATION [§309 In a word, the secession meant that the nations thus breaking the ties which formerly united them to Rome now became — what they were not during mediaeval times — absolutely inde- pendent or sovereign powers, self-centered and self-governed in their ecclesiastical as well as in their political life. 309. Religious and Moral Results of the Reform Movement. In a spiritual or religious point of view, this severance by the northern nations of the bonds that formerly united them to the ecclesiastical empire of Rome meant a transfer of their allegiance from the Chnrch to the Bible. The decrees of popes and the decisions of Church councils were no longer to be regarded as having divine and binding force; the Scriptures alone were to be held as possessing divine and infallible authority, and, the- oretically, this rule and standard of faith and practice each individual was to interpret for himself. Another important result of the Reformation was a certain impulse given the world towards religious toleration. It is true that the reformer's, in spite of their insistence for themselves upon the right of private judgment in religious matters, did not in practice concede this right to others, and when they had the power became, very inconsistently, most zealous persecutors. They believed with the Catholics that heresy should be punished, only they defined heresy differently. Throughout the sixteenth century intolerance, in the words of the historian Lingard, was " a part of the public law of Christendom." Nevertheless, the proclamation of the principle of private judgment in religious affairs, through a logical necessity, came ultimately to exert a favorable influence upon toleration; for you cannot accord to a man the right to form his own judgment respecting a matter and at the same time affix a penalty to his reaching any save a prescribed conclusion. Consequently among the various agencies, such as modern science, the advance of the world in general intelligence, and closer intercourse among the nations, which during the past three centuries have brought in the beneficent principle of religious toleration, the Reformation of the sixteenth century must be given a prominent place. REFERENCES 285 Selections from the Sources. First Principles of the Reformation (ed. by Wace and Buchheim). Read Luther's "Address to the NobiHty of the German Nation." The address makes a vivid revelation not only of the religious situa- tion in Germany at this time but also of the character of the man who here makes himself the spokesman of the German nation. Whitcomb, M., Lite7-a>y Source-Book of the German Renaissance. Translations a7id Reprints, vol. ii, No. 6, "Period of the Early Reformation in Germany"; and vol. iii, No. 3, "Period of the Later Reformation." Robinson, J. H., Readings in European History, vol. ii, chaps, xxiv-xxvi. Secondary Works. Beard, C., Martin Luther and the Reforniation in Ge7-tnany. KosTLiN, J., Life of Luther. Emerton, E., Desiderius E^-asmus. For a wrider survey, from the Protestant point of view, of the reform move- ment: Fisher, G. P., The Reformation ; H.ausser, L., The Fej-iod of the Refo7-- matio7i ; and Seebohm, F., The Era of the Protesta/tt Revolution. Hulme, E. ]VL, The Rc7iaissa7ice, the Protestant Revolutio/i, a/id the Catholic Refo/i?iaiio/i 171 Continental Etcrope (Rev. Ed.), chaps, x-xxx. For the history of the move- ment from the Catholic side: Spalding, M. J., The History of the Protesta7tt Rcfo 7-771 at io/t. The Ca7nbridge Mode7yi History, vol. i, chap, xix, and vol. ii, chaps, iv-viii. Robinson, J. H., A7i Lntrodicction to the History of Weste7-7t Europe, chaps, xxv and xxvi. Froude, J. A., Lectures 071 the Couticil of Trent. Hughes, T., Loyola a7id the Educational System ofthefesuits. Symonds, J. A., The Catholic Reactio7i, vol. i. Topics for Class Reports, i. Luther at the Diet of Worms : Vedder, H. G., The Refo7-/natio7i /« Gerj7ia7iy, pp. 137-164 ; Freytag, G., Marti7i Luihe7; pp. 50- 59. 2. Erasmus at Oxford: Seebohm, F., The Oxford Reforme7-s, pp. 94-116; Emerton, E., Deside7-itis Eras7nus, chap. iii. 3. The Counter-Reformation : Seignobos, C, History of Alediaval a7id Modern Civilizatio7t, chap. xxi. 4. Luther and the German Bible : Smith, P., The Life and Letters of Marti/i Luther, chap, xxiii. CHAPTER XXI THE ASCENDANCY OF SPAIN ; HER RELATION TO THE CATHOLIC REACTION L REIGN OF THE EMPEROR CHARLES V (1519-1556) 310. Introductory. . In the year 1 500 there was born in the city of Ghent, in the Netherlands, a prince who was destined to play a great part in the history of the sixteenth century. This was Charles, son of Philip the Handsome, Archduke of Austria, and Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, — later to be known to fame as the Emperor Charles V. Charles was the fortunate heir of four royal houses — the houses of Austria, Burgundy, Castile, and Aragon — which had been brought together by politic marriage alliances.^ Before Charles had completed his nineteenth year there were heaped upon his head, through the removal of his ancestors by death, the crowns of the four dynasties. But great as was the number of the hereditary crowns of the young prince, there was straightway added to them (in 15 19), by the vote of the Electors of Germany, the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. After this election he was known as the Emperor Charles V\ hitherto he had borne the title of Carlos I of Spain. 311. The Balance of Power is disturbed by Spain. When Charles VIII of France, just at the close of the Middle Ages, made his memorable invasion of Italy, the other states became alarmed lest France should gain an undue weight in European affairs, and to prevent this formed an alliance to keep France 1 Castile and Aragon were joined by the marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile ; Austria and Burgundy, by the marriage of Maximilian of Austria to Mary, the daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Burgundy ; then these double lines were brought together by the marriage of Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, to Philip, son of Maximilian and Mary. 286 1 •^ttaB-aa EUllOPE ^yr,ois AT THE ACCESSION OF THE EMPEKOR ^ o h CI, OJ P -6 _ "o u §315] WARS BETWEEN FRANCIS AND CHARLES 289 almost incessant warfare with Charles, whose enormous posses- sions now nearly surrounded the French kingdom/ Italy was the field of much of the fighting, as the securing of dominion in that peninsula was a chief aim of each of the rivals.- 315. Results of the Wars between Francis and Charles. The direct and indirect consequences of the protracted combat between Francis and Charles were many and far-reaching. First, Protestantism was given time to intrench itself so firmly in North Germany and in other countries as to render ineffectual all later efforts for its destruction. Second, by preventing united action on the part of the Christian princes, these quarrels were the occasion of the severe losses which Christendom during this period suffered at the hands of the Ottoman Turks. Hungary was ravaged with fire and sword, Rhodes was captured, and the Mediterranean made almost a Turkish lake. Third, these wars, having Italy as their chief theater, were a- frightful scourge to that land and blighted there all the fair promises of the Renaissance; but at the same time the storm wafted the precious seeds of the revived arts and letters beyond the mountains into France and other northern lands. The French Renaissance dates from these Italian wars. 316. Persecution of the Waldenses by Francis (1545). The cessation of the wars between Francis and Charles left each free 1 Before entering upon war with Charles, Francis cast about for an ally. The young king of England, Henry VI 1 1,, seemed the most desirable friend. He accordingly invited Henry to a conference in France, at which was to be considered the matter of an alliance against the Emperor. The two kings, each attended by a magnificent train of courtiers, met near Calais (1520). The meeting is known in history as "The Field of the Cloth of Gold" because of the prodigal richness of the costumes and appointments of the chiefs and their attendants. " Many," says a contemporary writer, " bore thither their mills, their forests, and their meadows on their backs." Nothing came of the interview, and Charles finally won Henry over to his side. " Table of Wars First War (ended by Peace Third War (ended by Truce of Madrid) 1521-1526 of Nice) 1536-1538 Second War — chief event the Fourth War (ended by Peace sack of Rome (ended by of Crespy) ...... 1542-1544 Ladies' Peace) 1527-1529 290 THE ASCENDANCY OF SPAIN [§317 to give his attention to his heretical subjects. And both had work enough on hand; for while the king and the Emperor nad been fighting each other, the doctrines of the reformers had been spread- ing rapidly in all directions and among all classes. The severest blow dealt the heretics of his kingdom by Francis fell upon the Vaudois, or Waldenses/ the simple, inoffensive in- habitants of a number of hamlets in the Alpine regions of Pied- mont and Provence, These people during the later mediaeval time had fallen into what the Church regarded as heretical ways, and just now they were mingling with their own heresies those of the Protestant reformers. Thousands were put to death by the sword, thousands more were burned at the stake. At a later time other persecutions fell upon them, until finally only a miser- able remnant, who found an asylum among the mountains, were left to hand down their faith to modern times. 317. Charles' Wars with the Protestant German Princes. Charles, on his part, turned his attention to the reformers in Ger- many. Inspired by the religious motives and convictions of which we have already spoken, and apprehensive, further, of the effect upon his authority in Germany of the growth there of such an empire within an empire as the Protestant princes and free cities — now united in a union known as the Schmalkaldic League — were becoming, he resolved to crush the whole reform movement. Accordingly, in the very year that Luther died (1546), the Emperor, aided by the German Catholics, attacked the Protestant league. He was at first successful, but in the end the war proved the most disastrous and humiliating to him of any in which he had engaged. Severe defeats of his armies finally constrained him to give up his undertaking to make all his German subjects think alike in matters of religion. 318. The Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555). In the cele- brated Diet of Augsburg, convened in 1555 to compose the dis- tracted affairs of the German states, it was arranged and agreed that every prince should be allowed to choose between the Roman i.So called from the founder of the sect, Peter Waldo, or Pierre de Vaux, who lived in the later years of the twelfth century. §319] . CHARLES' ABDICATION 291 Catholic religion and the Augsburg Confession/ and should have the right to make his religion the religion of his people.- This, it will be noted, was simply toleration as concerns princes or gov- ernments. The people individually had no freedom of choice; every subject must follow his prince, and think and believe as he thought and believed. To this article, however, the Diet made one important excep- tion. The Catholics insisted that ecclesiastical princes, that is, bishops and abbots, on becoming Protestants should surrender to the Roman Catholic Church their offices and revenues; and this important clause, under the name of the Ecclesiastical Reserva- tion, was finally made a part of the treaty. It is important that this Treaty of Augsburg should be kept carefully in mind, for the reason that it was through mutual mis- understandings of its provisions and violations of its articles by both parties that the way was paved for the terrible Thirty Years' War (Chapter XXV). ■319. Charles* Abdication. While the Diet of Augsburg was ar- ranging the religious peace, the Emperor Charles was enacting the part of a second Diocletian. There had long been forming in his mind the purpose of spending his last days in monastic seclusion. The disappointing issue of his contest with the Protestant princes of Germany, the weight of advancing years, together with menac- ing troubles which began 'Uo thicken like dark clouds about the evening of his reign," now led the Emperor to carry this resolu- tion into effect. Accordingly he abdicated in favor of his son Philip the crown of the Netherlands^ (i5S5) and that of Spain and its colonies (1556), and then retired to the monastery of Yuste, situated in a secluded region in western Spain, where he passed the remaining short term of his life. 1 The Augsburg Confession was the formula of belief of the adherents of Luther. The Peace of Augsburg made no provision for the Zwinglians and Calvinists (sect. 302). 2 The free imperial cities were not given this right. Within them each party must tolerate the other. 3 Philip had received the crown of Naples the preceding year (1554), in order that his titular dignity might be the same as that of Queen Mary of England, to whom he was that year united in marriage. The imperial crown went to Charles' brother, the Archduke Ferdinand. 2 92 THE ASCENDANCY OF SPAIN [§320 There is a tradition which tells how Charles, after vainly en- deavoring to make some clocks that he had about him at Yuste run together, made the following reflection: "How foolish I have been to think I could make all men believe alike about religion, when here I cannot make even two clocks keep the same time." This story is probably mythical. Charles seems never to have doubted either the practicability or the policy of securing uni- formity of belief by force. While in retirement at Yuste he expressed the deepest regret that he did not burn Luther at Worms. He was constantly urging Philip to use greater severity in dealing with his heretic subjects, and could scarcely restrain himself from leaving his retreat in order to engage personally in the work of eradicating the "pestilent doctrines" which he heard were spreading in Spain. II. SPAIN UNDER PHILIP 11 (1556-1598) 320. Philip's Character and his Principles of Government. Philip, unlike his father, was a representative Spaniard. He typi- fied and embodied in himself the traits, ideals, and aspirations of the Spanish race, just as Luther typified and embodied those of the German race. His mind was the mind, his conscience was the conscience, of the Spanish people. Like the true Spaniard, Philip possessed a deeply religious nature. He believed as sincerely as ever did the Puritan Crom- well that he was God's chosen instrument for the working out of his eternal designs. But in order that he might do what God would have done in the world, he conceived it to be necessary that he should have absolute power. A necessary basis of this absolute power, in Philip's conception, was religious unity. Dis- union in the Church meant disunion in the State. Hence one of Philip's instruments of government was the Inquisition. He em- ployed it in the suppression of heresy, not simply because he was a sincere Roman Catholic and believed that heresy was willful sin and should be sternly dealt with, but primarily because heresy, in his view, was rebellion against the State. §321] CRUSADE AGAINST THE MORISCOS 293 Philip possessed unusual administrative ability. He was an incessant worker and busied himself with the endless details of government. He left nothing to the discretion of others. He did everything himself. His secretaries were mere clerks. He even regulated, or tried to regulate, the private affairs of his subjects, — told them how to dress, when they might use carriages, and how and where to educate their children. Under this system there was in the kingdom but one brain to plan and one will to direct. All local freedom and all individual initiative were crushed out. This fatally cen- tralized system of government Philip bequeathed to his successors, and thus contributed greatly to determine the unhappy destiny of the Spanish people. As the most important matters of Philip's reign — namely, his war against the revolted Netherlands and his attempt upon England with his "Invincible Armada" — belong prop- erly to the respective histories of England and the Netherlands, and will be treated of in connection with the affairs of those countries, we shall give here very little space to the history of the period.^ 321. Philip's Crusade against the Moriscos (1570-1571). It will be recalled that upon the conquest of Granada in 1492 by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Moors were assured protection in 1 Taking up his father's quarrel with France, Philip defeated the French in two great battles in France (at St. Quentin, 1557, and then at Gravelines, 1557). The war was ended by the Peace of Cateau-Cambresis (1559). The monument built by Philip to commemorate the victory of St. Quentin is strikingly illustrative of his character. Before the battle he vowed to erect to St. Lawrence the most splendid monastery the world had ever seen, if he would but give success to his arms. Philip kept his vow faithfully. A few years after the battle he laid, near the city of Madrid, the foundation of the famous Escorial, — "a palace, a monastery, and a mausoleum." The edifice was built in the form of a gridiron, from the circumstance that St. Lawrence suffered martyrdom by being broiled on such an instrument. It is the Westminster Abbey of Spain ; it holds the ashes of rr(0$t of the Spanish sovereigns from Charles V onward. Fig. 61. Philip II. (After a painting by Titian) 2 94 THE ASCENDANCY OF SPAIN [§322 all civil rights and granted religious freedom. But the Emperor Charles V broke faith with them and compelled them to embrace Christianity. They submitted to baptism, and outwardly con- formed to the requirements of the Church, but secretly they held to their own faith. Philip conceived it to be his duty to impose upon the Moriscos — thus they were called after their conversion — conditions that should thoroughly obliterate all traces of their ancient faith and manners. So he issued a decree that they should no longer wear their native garb or use their native tongue, and that they should give their children Christian names and send them to Christian schools. A determined revolt followed. The uprising was suppressed with cruel severity, and then, because there was danger that if left in these coast regions they might open the gates of the country to the INIoslems of the Medi- terranean, an order was issued which condemned all the Moriscos of Granada to deportation to districts in the center and the north of the peninsula. The order was relentlessly carried out. Men, women, and children, all who were of Moorish blood, were carried off into hopeless exile. 322. Defeat of the Turkish Fleet at Lepanto (1571). At the very moment almost that Philip was dealing Spain a fatal blow by his cruel treatment of his Morisco subjects, he was rendering a great service to Christian civilization at large. This he did by helping to stay the progress of the Ottoman Turks in the Mediter- ranean. They had captured the important island of Cyprus and had assaulted the Hospitalers at Malta, which island had been saved from falling into the hands of the infidels only by the splendid conduct of the Knights. All Christendom was becoming alarmed. An alliance was formed, embracing the Pope, the Venetians, and Philip H. An immense fleet was equipped and put under the command of Don John of Austria, Philip's half brother. The Christian fleet met the Turkish squadron in the Gulf of Lepanto, on the western coast of Greece. The battle was un- equaled by anything the Mediterranean had seen since the naval §323] THE DEATH OF PHILIP 295 encounters of the Romans and Carthaginians in the First Punic War. The Ottoman fleet was almost totally destroyed. Thou- sands of Christian captives, who were found chained to the oars of the Turkish galleys, were liberated. All Christendom rejoiced as when Jerusalem was captured by the first crusaders. The battle of Lepanto holds an important place in history because it marks the turning point of the long struggle between the Mohammedans and Christians, which had now been going on for nearly one thousand years. Though the Moslems had received many checks, there really was no time previous to this great victory when the Mohammedan power, represented first by the Arabs and afterwards by the Turks, did not hang like a threatening cloud along the southern or eastern border of Chris- tendom. The victory of Lepanto robbed the cloud of its terrors. The Ottoman Turks, though they afterwards made progress in some quarters, never recovered the prestige they lost in that disaster, and their power thenceforward steadily declined. '323. The Death of Philip (1598). In the year 1588 Philip made his memorable attempt with the so-called "Invincible Armada" upon England, at this time the stronghold of Prot- estantism. As we shall see a little later, he failed utterly in the undertaking. Ten years after this, death ended his reign. 324. Later Events: the Expulsion of the Moriscos (1609- I610) ; Loss of the Netherlands. From the death of Philip II Spain declined in power, reputation, and influence. This was due very largely to the bigotry and tyranny of her rulers. Thus under Philip III (i 598-1 621) a severe loss, one from which they never recovered, was inflicted upon the manufactures and other industries of the country by the expulsion of the Moriscos. Philip II, it will be recalled, had deported the whole Morisco population of Granada to inland provinces. Now all Spain was to be cleared absolutely of the "evil race." Not one was to be left upon Spanish soil. Philip really believed that this driving out of the misbelievers would be a service pleasing to God, even as was the driving out of the Canaanites from Palestine by the Hebrews. But he was actuated also by other motives in expelling the 2 96 THE ASCENDANCY OF SPAIN [§325 unhappy Moriscos. They were accused, and not without ground, so desperate had oppression and persecution rendered them, of plotting with their co-religionists, the African Moors and the Otto- man Turks, for the invasion of Spain and thus endangering the peace and unity of the land. Accordingly during the years 1609 ^^'^ 16 10 all persons of Moorish descent — more than half a million of the most intel- ligent, skillful, and industrious inhabitants of the peninsula- were driven into exile, chiefly to North Africa. The empty dwellings and jieglected fields of once populous and gardenlike provinces told how fatal a blow Spain had inflicted upon herself. She had achieved religious unity ^ — but at a great price. At the very moment that Spain was being so deeply wounded in the peninsula she received an incurable hurt in her outside possessions. In the so-called Truce of 1609 (sect. 370) she was forced virtually to recognize the independence of the Protestant Netherlands, whose revolt against the tyranny of Philip II has been mentioned. In the secession of these provinces Spain lost her most valuable dependency.^ . 325. Conclusion. Spain now disappears as a power of the first rank from the stage of history. The historian Laurent finely compares her withdrawal from the theater of great affairs to Charles V's retirement into the cloistral solitude of Yuste. "In the sixteenth century," he says, "Spain shone in the first rank among the great powers; she filled the Old and the New World with her name; then she retired into isolation, as Charles V at the end of his agitated life retired within the solitude of a monastery." - 1 The loss of the Netherlands was followed in 1640 by the loss of Portugal. During the latter part of the seventeenth century Spain was involved in disastrous wars with France, and suffered a great decline in her population. After the revolt of her American colonies, in the early part of the nineteenth century, and her cession to the United States of Florida (in 18 ig), Spain was almost shorn — she still held Cuba and a few other patches of territory scattered about the world — of those rich and magnificent colonial possessions which had been her pride in the time of her ascendancy. The last blow to her colonial dominion was given by the .United States in 1898. 2 Etudes sur PHisioire de PHumanite, tome ix, p. 64. § 325] REFERENCES 297 Even the very brief review which we have made of her sixteenth- century history will not fail to have revealed at least two of the main causes of her failure and quick decadence : first, a false imperial policy in Europe which involved her in endless and fruitless wars; and second, political despotism and religious intolerance. Selections from the Sources. Translations and Reprints, vol. iii, No. 3, " Period of the Later Reformation " (contains short selections bearing on several of the matters covered by this chapter). Secondary Works. Robertson, W., History of the Reign of the Emperor Charles the Fifth, 3 vols. Prescott, W. H., History of the Reign of Philip the Second, 3 vols, (this and the preceding work by Robertson are reckoned among the classics of historical literature). Armstrong, E., The Eviperor Charles V, 2 vols. Stirling-Maxwell, W., The Cloister Life of the Emperor Charles the Fifth. Hume, M. A. S., The Spanish People, chaps, ix-xi; Spain: its Greatness and Decay; and Philip II of Spain. Lea, H. C, The Moriscos of Spain: their Convcrsio7i and Expulsion. Topics for Class Reports, i. The abdication of Charles the Fifth: Pres- cott, \V., History of the Reign of Philip the Second, vol. i, chap, i ; Motley, J. L., The Rise of the Dutch Republic, vol. i, chap. i. 2. Causes of Philip's failure : Hume, W. A. S., Philip II of Spain, pp. 1-6. 3. Results of the expulsion of the Moriscos from Spain : Lea, H. C, The Moriscos of Spain, pp. 394-401. CHAPTER XXII THE TUDORS AND THE ENGLISH REFORMATION (1485-1603) I. INTRODUCTORY 326. The Tudor Period. The Tudor period ^ was an eventful and stirring time for the English people. It witnessed among them great progress in art, science, and trade, and a literary out- burst such as the world had not seen since the best days of Athens. But the great event of the period was the Reformation. It was under the sovereigns of this house that England was severed from papal Rome, and Protestantism became firmly established in the island. To tell how these great results were effected will be our chief aim in the present chapter. 327. The English Reformation First a Revolt and then a Reform; its Premonitions. The Reformation in England was, more distinctly than elsewhere, a double movement. First, Eng- land was separated violently from the ecclesiastical empire of Rome, but without any essential change being made in doctrines and in ritual, or in form of worship. This was accomplished under Henry VIII. Second, the English Church, thus rendered independent of Rome, gradually changed its teachings and its ritual. This was effected chiefly under Edward VI. So the movement was first a revolt and then a reform. In so far as it was a secession movement, it was practically merely the culmination of an age-long controversy between Eng- land and the Papacy.- " For three hundred years," in the words 1 The Tudor sovereigns were Henry VII (14S5-1509), Henry VIII (1509-1547), Edward VI (1547-1553), Mary (1553-1558), and Elizabeth (1558-1603). 2 For episodes in this protracted quarrel see The Martyrdom of Thomas Becket (sect. 18S), Pope Innocent III and King John of England (sect. 148), and The Revolt of Germany and England (sect. 152). 298 §328] REIGN OF HENRY VII 299 of the historian Green, " the Pope had been the standing grievance of Englishmen." Time and again the English Parliament had passed acts declaring that the Pope should not do this and should not do that in England. It was this sensitiveness of Englishmen respecting the jurisdiction in England of a foreign potentate that made it so comparatively easy for Henry VIII, during the first stir and excitement of the reform movement, to cut England loose from the papal empire. II. THE REIGN OF HENRY VII (1485-1509) 328. Benevolences. The besetting sins of Henry VII, the first of the Tudors, were avarice and a love of despotic rule. One device adopted by the king for wringing money from his wealthy subjects was what were euphemistically termed "Benevolences." Magna Carta forbade the king to impose taxes without the con- sent of the Common Council. But Henry did not like to convene Parliament, as he wished to rule like the kings of the Continent, guided simply by his own free will. So benevolences were made to take the place of regular taxes. These were nothing more nor less than gifts extorted from the well-to-do by moral pressure. One of Henry's ministers. Cardinal Morton, was particularly successful in his appeals for gifts of this kind. To those who lived splendidly he would say that it was very evident they were quite able to make a generous donation to their sovereign; while to others who lived in a narrow and pinched way he would represent that their economical mode of life must have made them wealthy. This teasing dilemma received the name of " Morton's' fork." 329. Maritime Discoveries. It was during this reign that great geographical discoveries enlarged the boundaries of the world. Columbus announced to Europe the existence of land to the west; Vasco da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and found a water path to the East Indies. In the year of this last enterprise Henry commissioned John Cabot, a Venetian navigator doing business in England, and his sons to make explorations in the western and northern seas. In 300 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§330 his westward voyage Cabot ran against the American continent somewhere in the vicinity of Newfoundland and took possession of the country in the name of the English sovereign (1497), He was probably the first European to look upon the mainland of the New World, for Columbus up to this time had seen only the islands of the Gulf of Mexico and of the Caribbean Sea. Upon this discovery and other alleged discoveries and explora- tions of John Cabot and his son Sebastian the English based their claim to the whole of the American coast from Labrador down to Florida. This claim included the best part of North America, — what was destined to be the third and most spacious home of the Anglo-Saxon race. III. ENGLAND SEVERED FROM THE PAPACY BY HENRY VIII (1509-1547) 330. Cardinal Wolsey. Henry VII died in 1509, leaving his throne to his son Henry, an energetic and headstrong youth of eighteen years. We must here at the opening of the young king's reign' introduce his greatest minister, Thomas Wolsey (1475?- 1530). This man was one of the most remarkable characters of his generation. He was, as Holinshed characterizes him, "very eloquent, and full of wit; but passingly ambitious." Henry elevated him to the office of Archbishop of York and made him Lord Chancellor of the realm; the Pope made him a cardinal, and afterwards papal legate in England. He was now virtually at the head of affairs in both State and Church. Wolsey was a patriot, — the best patriot of his time. But he conceived the great need of England, still feeling the effects of the old feudal turbulency, to be a single, strong, firm hand at the 1 In 1 5 12, joining what was known as the Holy League, — a union against the French king, of which the Pope was the head, — Henry made his first campaign in France. While Henry was across the Channel, James IV of Scotland thought to give aid to the French king by invading England. The Scottish army was met by the Eng- lish force at Flodden, beneath the Cheviot Hills, and completely overwhelmed (1513). King James was killed, and the flower of the Scottish nobility were left dead upon the field. It was the most terrible disaster that had ever befallen the Scottish nation. Scott's poem Mannioit, a Talc of Flodden Field, commemorates the battle. §331] HENRY AS "DEFENDER OF THE FAITH" 301 helm; hence his first aim was to make the royal power supreme and absolute. His second aim was to make England the center of European politics, the mediator between the rival powers of France, Spain, and the Papacy. He attained in a fair measure both these ends; he enabled Henry to rule as well as to reign, and secured for Eng- land great pres- tige in Europe. 331. Henry as the " Defender of the Faith." It was early in the reign of Henry VIII that Martin Luther tacked his famous ninety- five theses upon the door of the chapel at Wit- tenberg. Like all the rest of Western Chris- tendom, England was profoundly stirred. When, a little later, Luther attacked directly the papal power, Henry wrote a Latin treatise refuting the arguments of the audacious monk. The Pope, Leo X, rewarded Henry's Catholic zeal by confer- ring upon him the title of "Defender of the Faith" (1521). This title was retained by Henry after the secession of the Church of England from the Papal See, and is borne by his latest successor to-day, although he is "defender" of quite a different faith from that in the defense of which Henry first earned the title. 332. Henry seeks to be divorced from Catherine. We have now to relate some circumstances which very soon changed Henry from a zealous supporter of the Papacy into a bitter enemy. Fig. 62. Henry VI II. (After a painting by Holbein) 302 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§ 333 Henry's marriage — he married Catherine of Aragon, the widow of his brother Arthur— had been prompted by policy and not by love. Of the five children born of the union, all had died save a sickly daughter named Mary. In these successive afflic- tions which left him without a son to succeed him, Henry saw or feigned to see a sign of Heaven's displeasure because he had taken to wife the widow of his brother. And now a new cir- cumstance arose, if it had not existed for some time previous to this. Henry fell in love with Anne Boleyn, a beautiful and vivacious maid of honor in the queen's household. This new affection so greatly quickened the king's conscience that he soon became fully convinced that it was his duty to put Catherine aside. Accordingly Henry asked the Pope, Clement VII, to grant him a divorce. Clement gave no immediate decision, but after about two years' delay, influenced by the Emperor Charles, he ordered Henry and Catherine both to appear before him at Rome. 333. The Fall of Wolsey; his Death (i53o). Henry's pa- tience was now exhausted. Becoming persuaded that Wolsey was not exerting himself as he might to secure the divorce, he banished him from court. The hatred of Anne Boleyn and of others, for Wolsey had many enemies, pursued the fallen minister. Finally, he was arrested on the preposterous charge of high treason. While on his way to London the unhappy minister, broken in spirit and in health, was prostrated by a fatal fever. As he lay dying in the arms of the kind monks of Leicester Abbey, he uttered these self-censuring words: "Had I served my God as diligently as I have served my king, He would not have given me over in my gray hairs." Wolsey had indeed sunk his priestly office in that of the states- man, and as a statesman he had often stifled the scruples of con- science in obedience to the king's unholy wishes and commands. 334. Thomas Cromwell. After the disgrace of Wolsey an attendant of his named Thomas Cromwell rapidly assumed in Henry's regard the place from which the cardinal had fallen. For the space of ten years this strong but unscrupulous man shaped the policy of Henry's government. What he proposed to § 335] THE BREACH WITH ROME 303 himself was the establishment of a royal despotism upon the ruin of every other power in the State. Man of iron will that he was, Cromwell pursued his aims with such terrible relentlessness that the period during which his power was supreme has been called the English Reign of Terror. The executioner's ax was often wet with the blood of those who stood in his way or who in any manner incurred his or the king's displeasure. It was to the bold suggestions of this man that Henry now lis- tened. Cromwell's advice to the king was to waste no more time in negotiating with the Pope, but at once to renounce the jurisdic- tion of the Roman pontiff, proclaim himself supreme head of the Church of England, and then get a decree of divorce from his own courts. 335. First Acts in the Breach with Rome (1533-1534). The advice of Cromwell was acted upon, and by a series of steps England was swiftly carried out from under the authority of the Roman See. Henry first virtually cut the Gordian knot by a secret marriage with Anne Boleyn, notwithstanding a papal decree threatening him with excommunication should he dare to do so. Parliament, which was entirely subservient to Henry's wishes, now passed a law known as the Act in Restraint of Appeals (1533), which made it a crime for any Englishman to carry a case out of the realm to the court of Rome. This was to prevent Catherine from appealing to the Pope from any decision which might be rendered in her case by an English tribunal. Thomas Cranmer, a Cambridge doctor whom Henry had made Archbishop of Canterbury, now formed a court, tried the case, and declared the king's marriage with Catherine null and void. The following year (1534) Henry procured from Parliament the passage of the important Act of Annates, which forbade abso- lutely the payment to Rome of the first fruits of archbishoprics and bishoprics, and ordered that these should henceforth be paid to the English crown. 336. The Act of Supremacy (1534). At Rome the acts of Henry and his Parliament were denounced as acts of impious 304 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [U37 usurpation. Straightway the Pope issued a bull excommunicating Henry and relieving his subjects from their allegiance to him. Henry now took the final and decisive step. He got from Par- liament the celebrated Act of Supremacy (1534). This statute made Henry "the only Supreme Head in earth of the Church of England," vesting in him absolute control of its offices and affairs and turning into his hands the revenue which had hitherto flowed into Rome's treasury. A denial of the title given the king by the statute was made high treason. Such a break with the past met of course with much disapproval, and many persons were put to death under the statute. The most illustrious victims of this tyranny were John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, and Sir Thomas INIore, who for several years was one of Henry's chief councilors. Both were sent to the block (in 1535) because they refused to admit the validity of Henry's divorce from Catherine and to acknowledge the royal supremacy in religious matters. The execution of Thomas More in particular created widespread condemnation and dismay. 337. The Suppression of the Monasteries (1536-1539). The suppression of the monasteries was one of Henry's early acts as the supreme head of the Church of England. He resolved upon the destruction of the religious houses because, in the first place, he coveted their wealth, which at this time included prob- ably one fifth of the lands of the realm. Further, the monastic orders were openly or secretly opposed to Henry's claims of supremacy in religious matters, and this naturally caused him to regard them with jealousy and disfavor. This was another reason with him for compassing their ruin. In order to make the act appear as reasonable as possible, it was planned to make the charge of immorality its ground. Ac- cordingly commissioners were appointed to inspect the monasteries and report upon what they might see and learn. If we may believe the report, the smaller houses were conducted in a most shameful manner. The larger houses, however, were fairly free from faults. Many of them served as schools and inns, and all distributed alms to the poor who knocked at their gates. ^337] SUPPRESSION OF THE MONASTERIES 305 But the undoubted usefulness and irreproachable character of these larger foundations did not avail to avert ruin from them also. During the years 1537 to 1539 all were dissolved, their possessors generally surrendering the property voluntarily into the hands of the king lest a worse thing than the loss of their houses and estates should come upon them. By an act of Parliament in 1539 all monastic property was given to the crown.' Fig. 63. Ruins of Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, England Altogether there were six hundred and forty-five monasteries broken up. The .monastic buildings were generally dismantled, every scrap of iron or lead being torn from them, and their unpro- tected walls left to sink into picturesque ivy-clad ruins (Fig. 63). The dispossessed monks were given small pensions, which relieved in a measure the suffering and hardship caused by their expulsion. The destruction of the monasteries was a signal for the desecra- tion and pillage of the sacred relics, images, and shrines with which the land was crowded. The destruction of the famous pilgrim shrine of Thomas Becket at Canterbury (sect. 188) is a 1 The carrying into execution of the act of suppression, concurring with other grievances, stirred up a rebellion in the north of England known as the " Pilgrimage of Grace." This uprising was suppressed with unpitying severity. 3o6 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§338 typical case. The saint, because he had upheld the supremacy of the Pope against King Henry II, was solemnly tried for treason and declared a traitor. His bones were then dragged from their receptacle and burned, and the rich adornments and offerings of the shrine — ^great cartloads of jewels and other costly things, probably the real secret of Henry's wrath against the saint — were confiscated to the royal use. A portion of the Vast wealth which came into Henry's hands through all these confiscations was used in founding schools and colleges and in establishing new bishoprics, and a part was devoted to other public purposes; but by far the greater portion of the landed property was sold at merely nominal prices or given out- right to the favorites of the king. Many of the leading English families of to-day trace the titles of their estates from these con- fiscated lands of the religious houses. Thus a new aristocracy was raised up whose interests led them to oppose any return to Rome ; for in such an event their estates were liable, of course, to be restored to the monasteries. 338. Effects upon Parliament of the Suppression of the Monasteries. The effects of the dissolution of the monasteries upon the Upper House of Parliament were, for the time being, most disastrous to the cause of English constitutional liberty. The House of Lords had hitherto often been a check upon the royal power. By the destruction of the religious houses that branch of Parliament, already greatly reduced in strength by the decay of the temporal peerage, was still further weakened through the casting out of the abbots and priors who held seats in that chamber.^ At the same time the spiritual lords who were left, that is, the two archbishops and the bishops, became mere dependents of the king, whom the Act of Supremacy had made head of the English Church without any superior on earth. Thus did the House of Lords almost cease to be a body with a mind and will of its own. Since the House of Commons contained many servile nominees of the king, the English government now became something like an absolute monarchy. 1 Twenty-six abbots and two priors were expelled. §339] ACT OF UNIFORMITY 307 It was only after a tremendous struggle, as we shall see, that the English people were enabled to wrest from their kings the power which thus had come into their hands largely through the circumstances attending the separation from Rome, and to restore to the government its earlier character. 339. Act to secure Uniformity of Belief (1539). In the same year that Parliament gave into Henry's hands the last of the property of the monastic orders, it passed a bill drawn in conformity with his views and called "an act for abolishing diversity of opinions in certain articles concerning Christian religion." By this statute the teachings of the old Church re- specting the real presence in the Eucharist, the celibacy of the priesthood, private Masses, confession to a priest, and other tenets were approved as agreeable to the laws of God, and it was made a crime for any person to hold, to teach, or to practice opinions opposed to any of these dogmas. Death by burning was the penalty for a denial of the doctrine of Transubstantiation, and even for the second offense in other matters covered by the act. What the Church of England should be called under Henry it would be hard to say. It was not Protestant; and it was just as far from being truly Roman Catholic. That it was distinctively neither the one nor the other is shown by the character of the persecutions that took place. Catholics and Protestants alike were harassed and put to death. Thus on one occasion three Catholics who denied that the king was the rightful head of the Church and three Protestants who disputed the doctrine of the real presence in the Eucharist were dragged on the same sled to the place of execution. 340. Henry's Wives. Henry's troubles with his wives form a curious and shameful page in the history of England's kings. Anne Boleyn retained the affections of her royal husband only a few months. She was charged with unfaithfulness and bekeaded, leaving a daughter, who became the famous Queen Elizabeth. The day after the execution of Anne the king married Jane Seymour, who died the following year. She left a son by the name of Edward. 3o8 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§341 The fourth marriage of the king was to Anne of Cleves, who enjoyed her queenly honors only a few months.^ The king becom- ing enamored of a young lady named Catherine Howard, Anne was divorced on the charge of a previous betrothal, and a new alliance formed. But Catherine was proved guilty of misconduct before her marriage, and her head fell upon the block. The sixth and last wife of this amatory monarch was Catherine Parr. She was a discreet woman, and managed to outlive her husband. 341. Henry's Death and Character; his Work. Henry died in 1547. Very diverse views have been held of his character. He was admittedly meddlesome, cruel, arbitrary, and selfish. Even if the English people are indebted to him for the freeing of the Church of England from dependence on Rome, still they owe him for this no gratitude; for what he did here proceeded primarily from the most ignoble impulses and motives and not from regard for the spiritual welfare of his subjects or from sympathy with religious reform. In another sphere, however, Henry accomplished a work which entitles him to the grateful remembrance of a people who pride themselves on their mastery of the sea. He had the vision to dis- cern that England's dominion must be sought not on the Euro- pean continent but on the ocean. Hence he took a deep interest in naval affairs. At a time when the continental sovereigns were creating standing armies, he, as it has been put, created for Eng- land a "standing navy." He brought to perfection the sailing warship and gave it precedence over the oared vessel, which up to this time had held the chief place in the world's war navies. Thus under Henry the English navy, in the words of an eminent naval 1 Thomas Cromwell had arranged this marriage; because it had proved so unsatis- factory to Henry, he withdrew his favor from Cromwell, and very soon, on the charge of his having taken bribes and of other misconduct, sent him to the block (1540). In this, as in similar cases, the king acted under the forms of law. He secured from a sub- servient J^arliament a bill of attainder, which is an act passed like an ordinary statute. Before Cromwell's time the accused had a right to be heard in his own defense. But Cromwell, to please his master, had brought it about that Parliament could venture to condemn a person without a hearing. It was poetic justice that made Cromwell himself a victim of this instrument of tyranny. Because of the misuse by the English Parliament of this power, the framers of the Constitution of the United States, in enumerating the powers of Congress, inserted this clause : " No bill of attainder . . . shall be passed." §342] SIR THOMAS MORE'S UTOPIA 309 authority, "was becoming an entirely new thing, a thing the world had never seen before." The change was somewhat like that effected when the steamship replaced the sailing vessel. 342. Literature under Henry VIII; More's Utopia. The most prominent literary figure of this period is Sir Thomas More. The work upon which his fame as a writer mainly rests is his Utopia, or "Nowhere," a romance like Plato's Republic or Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia. It pictures an imaginary kingdom away on an island in the New World, then just discovered, where the laws, manners, and customs of the people were represented as being ideally perfect. It was the wretched- ness of the lower classes, the religious intolerance, the despotic government of the times which inspired the Utopia. The great rnass of the people were living in miserable mud hovels. Society was simply "a conspiracy of the rich against the poor." The government of Henry and his ministers, in its callous cruelties, resembled an oriental tyranny. It was this state of things that forced from the sensitive soul of More this complaint. "No such cry of pity for the poor," says Green, "had been heard since the days of Piers Ploivman." But More's was not simply such a cry of despair as was that of Langland. He saw a better future; and, with a view of reforming them, pointed out the existing ills of society and their remedy. He did this by telling how things were in "Nowhere," — how the houses and grounds were all inviting, the streets broad and clean ; how everybody was taught to read and write, and no one obliged to work more than six hours a day ; how drinking houses, brawls, wars, and changing parties were unknown ; how the criminal classes were treated with the view of effecting their reformation ; Fig. 64. Sir Thomas More (After the painting by Holbeiit) 310 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§343 how in this happy repubUc every person had a part in the government and was allowed to follow what religion he chose. In this wise way More suggested improvements in social, polit- ical, and religious matters. He evidently did not expect that Henry would follow all his suggestions, — indeed, More himself, before his death, materially changed his views regarding religious toleration,- — for he closes his account of the Utopians with this admission: "I confess that many things in the commonwealth of Utopia I rather ivish than Jiope to see adopted in our own." IV. CHANGES IN DOCTRINE AND RITUAL UNDER EDWARD VI (1547-1553) 343. Accession of Edward VI. In accordance with the pro- visions of a Succession Act passed in Henry's reign, his only son, Edward, succeeded him. The young king was carefully taught the doctrines of the reformers, and many changes were made in the teachings and service of the English Church, which carried it farther away from the Church of Rome. It is these changes in the religion that constitute the matters most worthy of our attention. 344. Changes in the Religion. Under the new regime all pictures and images and crosses were cleared from the churches ; the frescoes were covered with whitewash, and the stained-glass windows were broken in pieces; the robe and the surplice were cast away ; the use of tapers, holy water, and incense was discon- tinued; the veneration of the Virgin and the keeping of saints' days were prohibited; belief in purgatory was denounced as a vain superstition kept up for purposes of gain, and prayers for the dead were interdicted; the real or bodily presence of Christ in the bread and wine of the sacrament was denied; the pro- hibition against the marriage of the clergy was annulled; and the services of the Church, which hitherto — save as to some portion of them during the last three years of Henry's reign — had been conducted in Latin, were ordered to be said in the language of the people. §344] PERSECUTION TO SECURE UNIFORMITY 311 In order that the provision last mentioned might be effectually carried out, the English Book of Common Prayer was prepared by Archbishop Cranmer, and the first copy issued in 1549. This book, which was in the main simply a translation of the old Latin Missal and Breviary, with the subsequent change of a word here and a passage there to keep it in accord with the growing new doctrines, is the same that is used in the Anglican Church at the present time. In 1552 were published the famous Forty-two Articles of Reli- gion, which formed a concise statement of the reformed faith. These articles, reduced finally to thirty-nine, form the present standard of faith and doctrine in the Church of England. 345. Persecutions to secure Uniformity. These sweeping changes and innovations would have worked little hardship or wrong had only everybody, as in ]\Iore's happy republic, been left free to favor and follow what religion he would. But unfortunately it was only away in "Nowhere" that men were allowed perfect freedom of conscience and worship. The idea of toleration had not yet dawned upon the world, save in the happier moments of some such generous and wide-horizoned soul as his that conceived the Utopia. By royal edict all preachers and teachers were forced to sign the Forty-two Articles; and severe laws, known as Acts for the Uniformity of Service, punished with severe penalties any de- parture from the forms of the new prayer book. Even the Prin- cess Mary, who remained a conscientious adherent of the old faith, was harassed and persecuted because she would have the Roman Catholic service in her own private chapel. Many persons during the reign were imprisoned for refusing to conform to the new worship; while two at least were given to the flames as "heretics and contemners of the Book of Common Prayer." Probably a large majority of the English people were at this time still good Roman Catholics at heart. 312 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§346 V. REACTION UNDER MARY (1553-1558) 346, Accession of Mary; Reconciliation with Rome (1554). Upon the death of Edward his sister Mary came to the throne. Soon after her accession she was married to Phihp II of Spain. This marriage had been planned by Philip's father, the Emperor Charles V, in the hope that thereby England might become actually or in effect a part of the Spanish empire. The majority of the English prelates had never in their hearts approved the recent ecclesiastical changes. Their zeal for the ancient Church, allied with Mary's, now quickly brought about the reestablishment of the Roman Catholic worship throughout the realm. Parliament voted that the nation should return to its obedience to the Papal See; and then the members of both Houses fell upon their knees to receive at the hands of the papal legate absolution from the sin of heresy and schism. The sincerity of their repentance was attested by their repeal of all the acts by which the new worship had been set up in the land. The joy at Rome was unbounded. The prodigal had returned to his father's house. But not quite everything done by the reformers was undone. Parliament refused to restore the confiscated Church lands, which was very natural, as much of this property was now in the hands of the lords and commoners. Mary, however, in her zeal for the ancient faith, restored a great part of the property still in the possession of the crown, and refounded many of the ruined monasteries and abbeys. 347. The Martyrs: Latimer and Ridley (1555), and Cranmer (1555). With the reestablishment of the Catholic worship, the Protestants in their turn were subjected to persecution. Alto- gether, between two and three hundred persons suffered death during this reign on account of their religion. The three most eminent martyrs were Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer. Latimer and Ridley were burned at the same stake. As the torch was applied to the fagots, the aged Latimer — he was seventy years old — encouraged his companion with these memorable words: §348] QUEEN ELIZABETH 313 "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we shall this day, by God's grace, light such a candle in England as I trust shall never be put out." Mary should not be judged harshly for the part she took in the persecutions that disfigured her reign. It was not her fault, but the fault of the age, that these things were done. Punishment of heresy was then regarded, by almost all Catholics and Protestants alike, as a duty which could be neglected by those in authority only at the peril of Heaven's displeasure. VI. FINAL ESTABLISHMENT OF PROTESTANTISM UNDER ELIZABETH (1558-1603) 348. The Queen. Elizabeth, who was twenty-five years of age when the death of Mary called her to the throne, was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. She seems to have inherited the characteristics of both parents; hence, perhaps, the inconsist- encies of her disposition. She possessed a masculine intellect, a strong will, admirable judgment, and great political tact. It was these qualities which rendered her reign the strongest and most illustrious in the record of England's sovereigns, and raised the nation from a position of comparative insignificance to a foremost place among the states of Europe. Along with her good and queenly qualities and accomplish- ments, Elizabeth had many unamiable traits and unwomanly ways. She was capricious, treacherous, unscrupulous, and ungrateful. Deception and falsehood were her usual weapons in diplomacy. " In the profusion and recklessness of her lies," declares the his- torian Green, ''Elizabeth stood without a peer in Christendom." Yet, notwithstanding all the faults of this remarkable woman, she was always popular with her subjects, and this largely for the same reason that Philip II was popular in Spain, — because she was in perfect sympathy with her people and represented their ideals and aspirations. Her subjects' strong liking is em- balmed in the familiar title they bestowed upon her, — " Good Queen Bess." 314 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§349 Elizabeth never married, notwithstanding ParUament was con- stantly urging her to do so, and suitors, among whom was Philip II of Spain, were as numerous as those who sought the hand of Penelope. She declared — very late in her reign, however — that on her coronation day she was married to the English realm, and that she would have no other husband. She remained to the very last the " fair Vestal throned by the West." 349. Her Ministers. One secret of the strength and popular- ity of Elizabeth's gov- ernment was the ad- mirable judgment she exercised in her choice of advisers. The cour- tiers with whom she crowded her receptions might be frivolous per- sons; but about her council board she gath- ered the wisest and strongest men of the realm. And yet Eliza- beth's government was really her own. We now know that her advisers did not have as much to do with shaping the policies of the reign as was formerly believed. The most eminent of the queen's ministers was Sir William Cecil (Lord Burghley), a man of great sagacity and ceaseless industry, and a vigilant and prudent administrator. He stood at the head of the queen's council for forty years. Fk;. 65. Queen Elizabeth. (The Ermine Portrait, from the collection of the Marquis of Salisbury, Hatfield House) §350] THE ANGLICAN CHURCH REESTABLISHED 315 350. Reestablishment of the Reformed Church. As Mary undid the work in religion of Henry and Edward, so now her work was undone by Elizabeth, Elizabeth favored the reformed faith rather from policy than from conviction. It was to the Protestants alone that she could look for support; her title to the crown was denied by every true Catholic in the realm, for she was the child of that marriage which the Pope had forbidden under pain of the penalties of the Church. But what doubtless con- tributed most to fix her in the determination to follow Henry's policy as regards the Papacy was her desire to possess supreme authority in ecclesiastical as well as in civil matters. The religious houses which had been refounded by Mary were again dissolved, and Parliament by the two important Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity (1559) reestablished the independ- ence of the Church of England. The Act of Supremacy required all the clergy, and every person holding office under the crown, to take an oath declaring the queen to be the supreme governor of the realm in all spiritual as well as in all temporal things, and renouncing the authority or jurisdiction of any foreign prince or prelate. For refusing to deny the supremacy of the Pope many Catholics during Elizabeth's reign suffered death, and many more endured within the Tower the worse horrors of the rack. The Act of Uniformity forbade any clergyman to use any but the Anglican liturgy, and required every person to attend the Established Church on Sunday and other holy days. The perse- cutions which arose under this law caused many Catholics to seek freedom of worship in other countries. 351. The Protestant Nonconformists; Puritans and Sepa- ratists. The Catholics were not the only persons among Eliza- beth's subjects who were opposed to the Anglican worship. There were Protestant nonconformists — ^the Puritans and Separatists — who troubled her almost as much as the Catholics. The Puritans were so named because they desired a purer form of worship than the Anglican. The term was applied to them in derision; but the sterling character of those thus designated al length turned the epithet of reproach into a badge of honorable 3i6 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§352 distinction. They did not withdraw from the EstabHshed Church but, remaining within its pale, labored to reform it and to shape its discipline to their notions. These Puritans were destined to play a prominent part in the later affairs of England. Under the Stuarts, as we shall see, they became strong enough to overturn State and Church and remold both to suit their own ideas. The Separatists were still more zealous reformers than the Puritans. In their hatred of everything that bore any resemblance to the Roman Catholic worship, they flung away the surplice and the prayer book, severed all connection with the Estab- lished Church, and refused to have anything to do with it. Under the Act of Uniformity they were perse- cuted with great severity, so that mul- titudes were led to seek an asylum upon the Continent. It was from among these exiles gathered in Hol- land that a little later came the pas- sengers of the Mayflower and Speed- well, — the Pilgrim Fathers, who laid the foundations of civil liberty in the New World. 352. Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. A large part of the history of Elizabeth's reign is inter- twined with the story of her cousin, Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, the "modern Helen," "the most beautiful, the weakest, the most attractive, and most attracted of women." She was the daughter of James V of Scotland, and to her in right of birth — according to all Catholics who denied the validity of Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn — belonged the English crown next after Mary Tudor. Upon the death, in 1560, of her husband, Francis II of France, Mary gave up life at the French court and returned to her native Fig. 66. Mary Stuart as Queen of France. (After a contemporary and authentic portrait in the BibUotheque Nationale, Paris ; from Cust's A"o/es on fJie Authentic Por- traits of Mary Queen of Scots) §352] MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS 317 land. She was now in her nineteenth year. The subtle charm of her beauty seems to have bewitched all who came into her pres- ence, save the more zealous of the reformers, who could never forget that their young sovereign was a Catholic. The stern old John Knox made her life miserable. He called her a "Moabite" and other opprobrious names, till she wept from sheer vexation. She dared not punish the impudent preacher, for she knew too well the strength of the Protestant feeling among her subjects. Other things now conspired with Mary's hated religion to alienate entirely the love of her people. Her second husband. Lord Darnley, was murdered. The queen was suspected of hav- ing some guilty knowledge of the affair. She was imprisoned and forced to abdicate in favor of her infant son James. Escaping from prison, Mary fled into England (1568). Here she threw herself upon the generosity of her cousin Elizabeth and entreated aid in recovering her throne. But the part which she was generally believed to have had in the murder of her husband, her disturbing claims to the English throne, and the fact that she was a Catholic all conspired to determine her fate. She was placed in confinement, and for nineteen years remained a prisoner.. During all this time Mary was the center of in- numerable plots on the part of the Catholics, which aimed at setting her upon the English throne. The Pope, Pius V, aided these conspirators by a bull excommunicating Elizabeth and releas- ing her subjects from their allegiance (1570). Finally, a carefully laid conspiracy to assassinate Elizabeth and place Mary on the throne was unearthed. The Spanish king, Philip II, was im- plicated. He wrote, "The affair is so much in God's service that it certainly deserves to be supported, and we must hope that our Lord will prosper it, unless our sins be an impediment thereto." Mary was tried for complicity in the plot, was declared guilty, and after some hesitation, feigned or otherwise, on the part of Elizabeth, was ordered to the block (1587). Even after Eliza- beth had signed the warrant for her execution she attempted to evade responsibility in the matter by causing a suggestion to be made to Mary's jailers that they should kill her secretly. 3i8 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§353 353. The ''Invincible Armada"; "Britain's Salamis" (isss). The execution of Mary Stuart led immediately to the memorable attempt against England by the Spanish Armada. Before her death the Queen of Scots had by will disinherited her son and bequeathed to Philip II of Spain her claims to the English crown. To enforce these rights, to avenge the death of Mary, to punish Elizabeth for rendering aid to his rebellious subjects in the Neth- erlands, and to deal a fatal blow to the Reformation in Europe by crushing the Protestants of England, Philip resolved upon making a tremendous effort for the conquest of the heretical island. Vast preparations were made for carrying out this project, which Philip had long revolved in mind. Great fleets were gath- ered in the harbors of Spain, and a large army was assembled in the Netherlands to cooperate with the naval armament. Pope Sixtus V encouraged Philip in the enterprise, which was thus rendered a sort of crusade. At last the fleet, consisting of about one hundred and thirty ships, the largest naval armament that had ever appeared upon the i\tlantic, and boastfully called the "Invincible Armada," set sail from Lisbon for the Channel. The approaching danger produced a perfect fever of excitement in England. Never did Roman citizens rise more splendidly to avert some terrible peril threatening the republic than the Eng- lish people now arose as a single man to defend their island realm against the revengeful and ambitious project of Spain. The imminent danger served to unite all classes, the gentry and the yeomanry, Protestants and Catholics. The latter might intrigue to set a Mary Stuart on the English throne, but they were not ready to betray their land into the hands of the hated Spaniards. "In that memorable year," says Hallam, in a pas- sage where his usually cold, judicial phrases flame into eloquence, "when the dark cloud gathered around our coasts, when Europe stood by in fearful suspense to behold what should be the result of that great cast in the game of human politics, what the craft of Rome, the power of Philip, the genius of Farnese, could achieve against the island queen with her Drakes and Cecils — in that agony of the Protestant faith and English name, they §353] THE ''INVINCIBLE ARMADA^ 319 stood the trial of their spirit without swerving from their alle- giance. It was then that the Catholics in every county repaired to the standard of the lord lieutenant, imploring that they might not be suspected of bartering the national independence for their religion itself." On July 19, 1588, the Armada was first descried by the watch- men on the English cliffs. • It swept up the Channel in the form of a great crescent, seven miles in width from tip to tip of horn. Fig. (i"]. Spanish and English War Vessels of the Sixteenth Century. (From an engraving) The English ships, about eighty in number, whose light structure and swift movements, together with the superior gunnery of their sailors, gave them a great advantage over the clumsy Spanish gal- leons, almost immediately began to impede their advance, and for seven days incessantly harassed the Armada. One night, as the damaged fleet lay off the harbor of Calais, the English sent fire ships among the vessels, whereby a number were destroyed and a panic created among the others. A deter- mined attack the next day by Howard, Drake, and Lord Henry Seymour inflicted a still severer loss upon the fleet. 320 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§354 The Spaniards, thinking now of nothing save escape, spread their sails in flight, proposing to get away by sailing northward around the British Isles. But the storms of the northern seas dashed many of the remaining ships to pieces on the Scottish and the Irish shores. Barely one third of the ships of the Armada ever reentered the harbors whence they sailed. When intelligence of the woeful disaster was carried to the imperturb- able Philip, he simply said, "God's will be done; I sent my fleet to fight against the English, not against the elements." Well may the great fight in the Channel which shattered the Armada be called "Britain's Salamis"; for like Athens' Salamis it- revealed the weakness and proclaimed the downfall of a vast despotic empire, while at the same time it disclosed the strength and announced the rise of a new free state destined to a great future. But the destruction of the Spanish Armada concerned other than purely English and Spanish interests. It marked the turn- ing point in the great duel between Catholicism and Protes- tantism. It set definite limits to the Catholic reaction. It not only decided that England was to remain Protestant but it fore- shadowed the independence of the Protestant Netherlands and assured, or at least greatly helped to assure, the future of Prot- estantism in Scandinavia and in North Germany. 354. Maritime and Colonial Enterprises. The crippling of the naval power of Spain left England mistress of the seas. The little island realm now entered upon the most splendid period of her history. These truly were "the spacious times of great Elizabeth." The English people, stirred by recent events, seemed to burn with a feverish impatience for maritime adventure and glory. Many a story of the daring exploits of English sea rovers during the reign of Elizabeth seems like a repetition of some tale of the old Vikings. Among all these sea rovers, half explorer, half adventurer. Sir Francis Drake (about 1 540-1 596) was preeminent. Before the Armada days he had sailed round the globe (1577-1580), bring- ing home with him an immense booty which he had got as ransom §355] DEATH OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 321 from the Spanish cities of Peru and Chile in South America, and for the achievement had been knighted by Queen Elizabeth. One of the favorite enterprises of the English navigators of this period was the search for a Northwest Passage — that is, a passage around the north end of the new continent of America — to the East Indies.^ While hunting for this amidst the ice floes of the Arctic seas, Frobisher and Davis discovered the straits which bear their respective names. Especially deserving of mention among the enterprises of these times are the undertakings and adventures of Sir Walter Raleigh (i552?-i6i8). Several expeditions were sent out by him for making explorations in the New World. One of these, which ex- plored the central coasts of North America, returned with such glowing accounts of the beauty and richness of the land visited that, in honor of the virgin queen, it was named Virginia. Raleigh attempted to establish colonies in the new land (1585- 1590), but the settlements were unsuccessful. The settlers, how- ever, when they returned home, carried back with them the tobacco plant, and introduced into England the habit of smok- ing it.^ It was at this time also that the potato, a native product of the New World, was brought to Ireland. These, together with maize, or Indian corn, were the chief return the New World made to the Old for the great number of domesticated plants and grains which it received thence. 355. The Queen's Death. The closing days of Elizabeth's reign were to her personally dark and gloomy. She seemed to be burdened with a secret griefs as well as by the growing 1 The object of the expedition of CoUimbus was a Western Passage to China. It resulted in the discover}' of the vast continent of America, which bars the way. This barrier, however, might probably be turned, either at the south end or at the north, or at both ; and the search for a Western Passage was thus transformed into a search for a Southwest Passage and a Northwest Passage. The former was discovered by Magellan, a Portuguese in the Spanish service, in 1520. The Northwest Passage remained neglected for half a century longer, and was first sought by the English. — Payne, Voyages of English Seamen, p. S3 2 Some years before this the plant had been carried to Spain and to France, but seems to have been valued mainly for its medicinal qualities. 3 In 160 1 she sent to the block her chief favorite, the Earl of Essex, who had been found guilty of treason. 322 THE ENGLISH REFORMATION [§356 infirmities of age. She died in 1603, in the seventieth year of her age and the forty-fifth of her reign. With her ended the Tudor line of English sovereigns. Literature of the Elizabethan Era 356. Influences Favorable to Literature. The years covered by the reign of Elizabeth constitute one of the most momentous periods in history. It was the age when Europe was most deeply ,^^,^''4' fit M ssss / \? Fk;. 68. Melrose Ar.iiEV. (From a photograph) As the ruins of Fountains Abbey (see Fig. 63) are a memorial of the iconoclasm of the Reformation movement in England, so are the remains of Melrose Abbey a like monu- ment of the iconoclastic phase of the Reformation in Scotland. With the change in doctrines there, the monks of the historic abbey — it was founded in the thirteenth centuiy — were driven out and the beautiful sculptures of the abbey church defaced Stirred by the Reformation. It was, too, a period of marvelous physical and intellectual expansion and growth. The discoveries of Columbus and others had created a New World. The Renais- sance had re-created the Old World, — had revealed an unsuspected treasure in the civilizations of the past. Thus everything con- spired to quicken men's intellect and stimulate their imagination. An age of such activity and achievement almost of necessity gives birth to a strong and vigorous literature. And thus is explained, in part at least, how during this period the English people — for no people of Europe felt more deeply the stir and § 356] REFERENCES 323 movement of the times nor helped more to create this same stir and movement than the English nation — should have developed a literature of such originality and richness and strength as to make it the prized inheritance of all the world. "The greai writers who shine in the literary splendor of the Elizabethar Age," says an eminent critic, "were the natural product of th< newly awakened, thoughtful English nation of that day." To make special mention of all the great writers who adorne( the Elizabethan era would carry us quite beyond the limits o our book. Having said something of the influences under whicl they wrote, we will simply add that this age was the age ot Shakespeare and Spenser and Bacon.^ Selections from the Sources. More's Utopia is the choicest literary prod- uct of the early revival of learning in England. The student should not fail to read it carefully. It lights up at once the social, the political, and the religious world of the time (cf. sect. 342). For a variety of illustrative material, turn t*o Henderson, E. F., Side Lights oti English History, pp. 1-32 ; and Kendall^ E. K., Source-Book, chaps, viii-x. In Payne, E. J., Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen (First Series, Oxford, 1893), read " The Famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake," pp. 196-229. Robinson, J. H., Readings in E^iropean A'/'.f/iJrj/, vol. ii, pp. 135-152, 186-193. Secondary Works. Seebohm, F., The Oxford Reformers (a volume of rare freshness and charm on the fellow-work and influence of the Oxford re- formers, — Colet, Erasmus, and More). The Cambridge Modem History, vol. i, chap. xiv. .Green, J. R., Sho7-t History of the English People, chaps, vi and vii. Froude, J. A., English Seamen in the Sixteenth Centmy and The Spanish Story of the Armada. Gasquet, F. A., Henry I'lII and the English Monasteries, 2 vols., and The Eve of the Reformatio7i (these are the works of an eminent Catholic scholar). Creighton, M., 'Queen Elizabeth and Cardiftal Wolsey. Beesly, E. S., Queen Elizabeth. For concise narrations of the events dealt with in this chapter, see Gardiner's, Montgomery's, Terry's, Coman and Kendall's, Andrews', and Cheyney's textbooks on English history. And for biographical information, turn to the excellent articles in the English Dictionaiy of jVational Biography. Topics for Class Reports, i. Sir Thomas More and his romance Utopia: Seebohm, F., The Oxford Reformers, pp. 346-365. 2. The fall of Wolsey : Creighton, M., Cardinal Wolsey, chap. x. 3. Thomas Cromwell and the "English Terror": Green, J. H., History of the English People, vol. ii, pp. 164-191. 1 William Shakespeare (1564-1616) ; Edmund Spenser (i552?-i509) ; Francis Bacon (1561-1626). Shakespeare and Bacon, it will be noticed, outlived Elizabeth. CHAPTER XXIII THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS; RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC (1572-1609) 357. The Country. The name Netherlands (lowlands) was formerly applied to all that district in the northwest of Europe, much of it sunk below the level of the sea, now occupied by the kingdoms of the Netherlands and Belgium. A large part of this Fig. 69. Typical Dutch Scene: Zaandam. (From a photograph) region is simply the delta accumulations of the Rhine and other rivers emptying into the North Sea. Originally it was often over- flowed by its streams and inundated by the ocean. But this unpromising morass, protected at last by heavy dikes seaward against the invasions of the ocean and by great embank- ments inland against the overflow of its streams, was destined to become the site of the most potent cities of Europe and the seat of one of the foremost commonwealths of modern times. No country in Europe made greater progress in civilization during the mediaeval era than the Netherlands. At the opening of the sixteenth century they contained a crowded and busy popula- tion of three million souls. The ancient marshes had been trans- formed into carefully kept gardens and orchards. The walled cities numbered between two and three hundred. Antwerp rivaled 324 §358] THE NETHERLANDS UNDER CHARLES V 325 even the greatest of the Itahan cities. "I was sad when I saw Antwerp," writes a Venetian ambassador, "for I saw Venice surpassed." 358. The Low Countries under Charles V (1515-1555). The Netherlands were part of those possessions over which the Emperor Charles V ruled by hereditary right. Towards the close of his reign he set up here the Inquisition with the object of sup- pressing the heresy of the reformers. Many persons perished at the stake and upon the scaffold, or were strangled, or buried alive.^ But when Charles retired to the monastery at Yuste the reformed doctrines w§r^, notwithstanding all his efforts, far more widely spread and deeply rooted in the Netherlands than when he entered upon their extirpation by fire and sword. 359. Accession of Philip II. In 1555, in the presence of an august and princely assembly at Brussels, Charles V abdicated the crown whose weight he could no longer bear, and placed it upon the head of his son Philip. What sort of man this son was we have already learned (sect. 320). Philip remained in the Netherlands four years, employing much of his time in devising means to root out the heresy of Protes- tantism. In 1559 he set sail for Spain, never to return. His ar- rival in the peninsula was celebrated by an auto-da-je at Valladolid, festivities which ended in the burning of thirteen persons whom the Inquisition had condemned as heretics. It was not delight at the sight of suffering that led Philip on his home-coming to be a spectator at these awful solemnities. He doubtless wished through his presence to give sanction to the work of the Holy Office and to impress all with the fact that unity of religion in Spain, as the necessary basis of peace and unity in the state, would be main- tained by him at any and every cost. 360. "Long live the Beggars!" Upon his departure from the Netherlands, Philip intrusted the government to his half sister ■^ Charles' persecutions covered the years from 1521 to 1555. The number of martyrs during these years has been greatly exaggerated ; it was put as high as one hundred thousand by the celebrated Dutch jurist, Grotius (d. 1645). Blok believes the number actually suffering the death penalty was less than one thousand. See his History of the People of the Netherlands, vol. ii, p. 3 1 7. 32 6 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS [§361 Margaret, Duchess of Parma, as regent. Under the administration of Margaret (1559-1567) the persecution of the Protestants went on with renewed bitterness. At last the nobles leagued together and resolved to petition the regent for a redress of grievances. When the duchess learned that the petitioners were about to wait upon her, she displayed great agitation. Thereupon one of her councilors exclaimed, "What, madam! afraid of -these beggars?" The expression was carried, to the nobles, who were assembled at a banquet. Straightway one of their number suspended a beggar's wallet from his neck and, filling a w'ooden.bowl/with wine, pro- posed the toast, "Long live the Ijeggars ! '"^ 3^he name was tumul- tuously adopted andbecamp the party designation of the patriot Netherlanders during their long struggle with the' Spanish power. 36L The Iconoclasts (i566). The only reply of the govern- ment to the petition of the nobles for a mitigation of the severity of the edicts concerning heresy was a decree termed the Mod- eration, which substituted hanging for burning in the case of condemned heretics. The pent-up irttiignation of the people at length burst forth in uncontrollable fury. They gathered in great mobs and proceeded to demolish every image they could find in the churches through- out the country. The monasteries, too, were sacked, their libraries burned, and the inmates driven from their cloisters. The tempest destroyed innumerable art treasures, which have been as sincerely mourned by the lovers of the beautiful as the burned rolls of the Alexandrian library have been lamented by the lovers of learning. 362. The Duke of Alva and the "Council of Blood" (i567). The year following this outbreak Philip sent to the Netherlands a veteran Spanish army, headed by the Duke of Alva, a man after Philip's own heart, deceitful, fanatical, and merciless. Alva was one of the ablest generals of the age, and the intelli- gence of his coming threw the provinces into a state of the greatest agitation and alarm. Those who could do so hastened to get out of the country. William the Silent, Prince of Orange,^ one of the 1 He bore also the title of Count of Nassau. Nassau was a little German state, now included in Prussia. Orange was a petty principality on the Rhone, near Avignon. It came into the hands of the family of Nassau in 1530. §363] WILLIAM OF ORANGE 327 leading noblemen of the Lowlands, fled to Germany, where he began to gather an army of volunteers for the struggle which he now saw to be inevitable, Egmont and Hoorn, Catholic noblemen^ of high rank and great distinction, were treacherously seized, cast into prison, and soon afterwards beheadodr. TtiJ&' duchess was relieved of the govern- ment, which was-committed to the tirmer hands of Alva, who, to aid him in the managenjTent of affarfcs, organized a most iniquitous tribunal, known in fiistory as the "Council of Blood." The Inquisiti<3n was now reestablished, and a perfect reign of terror began. The number of Alva's victims during his short rul'e, — he is said to have boasted that he •had put to death over eight- een thousand — might al- most persuade us that he had deliberately purposed the ex- termination of the people of the Netherlands. 363. William of Orange. The eyes of all patriot Neth- erlanders were now turned to the Prince of Orange as their only deliverer. The prince, though never a zealous Church partisan, was a deeply religious man and believed himself called of Heaven to the work of rescuing his country from Spanish tyranny. Up to this time he had been a Catholic, having been brought up as a page in the household of the Emperor Charles V. He now embraced Protes- tantism; but both as a Catholic and as a Protestant he opposed persecution on account of religious belief. His attitude here is worthy of special notice, for it set him apart from the great 1 Many Catholics sympathized at first with the Protestants and acted with them, because they felt that Philip's acts were in direct violation of the chartered rights and privileges of the cities and provinces of the Netherlands. But Egmont and Hoorn had been guilty of no overt acts, and their fate was undeserved. Fig. 70. Silent) William of Orange (The (After a painting by Micre- velt, Amsterdam) 328 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS [§364 majority of his contemporaries, and had a vast influence in shaping the policies and the destinies of the small yet great common- wealth of which he was to be the founder. William of Orange was a statesman rather than a soldier; yet even as a leader in war he evinced talent of a high order. The Spanish armies were commanded successively by the most dis- tinguished generals of Europe; but the prince coped ably with them all, and in the masterly service which he rendered his coun- try earned the title of "The Founder of Dutch Liberties." 364. The Capture of Briel (i572): the Beginning of the Sea Power of the Dutch. It was the nature q^ their country, half land, half water, which enabled th^ Dutch to make such a prolonged and finally successful resistance to the power of Spain. The Dutch triumphed because the sea helped them. The influence that this element was to exert upon the struggle was foreshadowed early in the conflict by a celebrated exploit of Dutch seamen. The circumstances of this exploit were these. Almost at the outset of the war the Prince of Orange had commissioned some sailors as privateers to prey upon Spanish ships and to harass the coast towns which favored the enemy. Soon the sea was swarm- ing with these privateers, — Water Beggars, they were called, — who, out of reach of restraint, became veritable freebooters, and revived the days and emulated the deeds of the Saxon cor- sairs who a thousand years before had put out from these same or neighboring creeks and lagoons. One day a squadron of twenty or more ships of these bucca- neers, expelled from English harbors, made a descent upon the port of Briel (or Brill) in Holland, seized the place, and held it for the Princ^ of Orange. It was a small affair in itself, some- what like the affair at Lexington in the American Revolution, but it stirred wonderfully the people of the Lowlands. Straightway other places opened their gates to the Water Beggars, and thus the rebellion speedily gained a secure basis for regular naval operations. It was the real beginning of the great sea power of the future Dutch Republic, which for two hundred years was to be a potent force in history. § 365] PACIFICATION OF GHENT 329 Having now gained some idea of the causes of the revolt and the nature of the struggle, we must hurry on to the issue of the matter. In so doing we shall pass unnoticed many sieges and battles, negotiations and treaties/ 365. "The Spanish Fury"; the Pacification of Ghent (i576). The year 1576 was marked by a revolt of the Spanish soldiers on account of their not receiving their pay, the costly war having drained Philip's treasury. The mutinous army marched through the land, pillaging city after city and paying themselves with the spoils. The beautiful city of Antwerp was ruined. The atrocities committed by the frenzied soldiers caused the outbreak to be called "The Spanish Fury." The terrible state of affairs led to an alliance between Holland and Zealand and the other fifteen provinces of the Netherlands, known in history as the Pacification of Ghent (1576). The resistance to the Spanish crown had thus far been carried on without concerted action among the several states. 366. The Treaty of Utrecht (1579). With the Spanish forces under the lead of commanders of distinguished ability, the war now went on with increased vigor, — fortune, with many vacil- lations, inclining to the side of the Spaniards. Disaffection arose among the Netherlanders, the outcome of which was the separation of the northern and southern provinces. The seven Protestant states of the North, the chief of which were Holland and Zealand, by the Treaty of Utrecht, drew together in a permanent confeder- ation, known as the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands, with the Prince of Orange as stadtholder. In this league was laid the foundation of the renowned Dutch Republic. The ten Catholic provinces of the South, although they con- tinued their contest with Philip a little longer, ultimately sub- mitted to Spanish tyranny. Portions of these provinces were eventually absorbed by France, while the remainder after varied fortunes finally became the present kingdom of Belgium. With their history we shall have no further concern at present, but turn now to follow the fortunes of the rising republic of the North. 1 Read in Motley's Rise of the Dittch Republic the siege and sack of Haarlem and the relief of Leyden. 330 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS [§ 367 367. The "Ban" and the "Apology" (i580-i58i). William of Orange was, of course, the animating spirit of the confederacy formed by the Treaty of Utrecht. In the eyes of Philip and his viceroys he appeared the sole obstacle in the way of the pacilica- tion of the provinces and their return to civil and ecclesiastical obedience. In vain had Philip sent against him the ablest and most distinguished commanders of the age; in vain had he endeavored to detach him from the cause of his country by mag- nificent bribes of title's, offices, and fortune. Philip now resolved to employ public assassination^ for the removal of the invincible general and the incorruptible patriot. ■ He published a ban against the prince, declaring him an outlaw and "the chief disturber of all Christendom and especially of these Netherlands," and offering any one who would deliver him into his hands "dead or alive" pardon for any crime he might have committed, a title of nobility, and twenty-five thousand crowns in gold or in lands. The prince responded to the infamous edict by a remarkable paper entitled "The Apology of the Prince of Orange," the most terrible arraignment of tyranny that was ever penned. The "Apology" was scattered throughout Europe, and everywhere produced a profound impression. 368. The Declaration of Independence (July 25, 1581). The United Provinces had not yet formally renounced their allegiance to the Spanish crown. They now deposed Philip as their sovereign, broke in pieces his seal, and put forth to the world their memorable Declaration of Independence, a document as sacred to the Dutch as the Declaration of 1776 is to Americans. The preamble contains these words: "Whereas God did not create the people slaves to their prince, to obey his commands, 1 We use the expression " public assassination " in order to indicate a change in Philip's methods. lie had all along tried to get rid of the prince by private or secret assassination. Now his edict of outlawrj' makes the proposed assassination avowedly a public or governmental affair. To comprehend this proceeding we must bear in mind that in the sixteenth century assassination was not looked upon with that utter abhorrence with which we rightly regard it. In the petty states of Italy it was a weapon resorted to almost universally, and seemingly without any compunction of conscience, and even in the North many of the rulers at one time and another had recourse to it. §369] PRINCE OF ORANGE ASSASSINATED 331 whether right or wrong, but rather the prince for the sake of the subjects, to govern them according to equity, to love and support them as a father his children or a shepherd his flock, and even at the hazard of life to defend and preserve them; [therefore] when he does not behave thus, but, on the contrary, oppresses them, seeking opportunities to infringe their ancient customs and privi- leges, exacting from them slavish compliance, then he is no longer a prince, but a tyrant, and the subjects . , . may not only disallow his authority, but legally proceed to the choice of another prince for their defense." This language was a wholly new dialect to the ears of Philip and of princes like him. They had never heard anything like it before uttered in such tones by a whole people. But it was a language destined to spread wonderfully and to become very common. We shall hear it often enough a little later in the era of the Political Revolution. It will become familiar speech in England, in America, in France, — almost everywhere.'^ 369. Assassination of the Prince of Orange. "The ban soon bore fruit." Upon the loth day of July, 1584, after five previous unsuccessful attempts had been made upon his life, the Prince of Orange was fatally shot by an assassin named Balthasar Gerard. Philip approved the murder as "an exploit of supreme value to Christendom." The murderer was put to death with hideous tor- ture, but his heirs received the promised reward, being endowed with certain of the estates of the prince and honored by eleva- tion to the rank of the Spanish nobility, 370. The Truce of 1609 ; Condition of the United Provinces. Severe as was the blow sustained by the Dutch patriots in the death of the Prince of Orange, they did not lose heart but con- tinued the struggle with admirable courage and steadfastness. Prince Maurice, a mere youth of seventeen years, the second son of William, was chosen stadtholder in his place. He proved himself a worthy son of the great chief and patriot. 1 It has been asserted that the Declaration had an influence in shaping the English Declaration of Rights in 16S9 and the American Declaration of Independence in 1776; but there is no evidence that in either of these cases the Dutch Declaration was either known or consulted or that it had the slightest influence. 332 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS [§370 The war now went on with unabated fury. France as well as England became involved, both fighting against Philip, who was now laying claims to the crowns of both countries. To tell of the battles on land lost and won, of the naval combats on almost every sea beneath the skies, would be a story without end. The destruction of the Spanish Armada in 1588 marked the turning point of the struggle, yet not the end of it. Philip II died in 1598, but the losing fight was carried on by his successor, Philip III. Europe finally grew weary of the seemingly interminable strug- gle, and the Spanish commanders becoming convinced that it was impossible to reduce the Dutch rebels to obedience by force of arms, negotiations were entered into which issued in the cele- brated Truce of 1609. This truce was in reality an acknowledg- ment by Spain of the independence of the United Provinces of § 370] CONDITION OF THE UNITED PROVINCES 333 the Netherlands, although the Spanish king was so unwilling to admit the fact of his inability to reduce the rebel states to sub- mission that the treaty was termed simply '^a truce for twelve years." ^ Spain did not formally acknowledge their independence until forty years afterwards, in the Peace of Westphalia, at the end of the Thirty Years' War (1648). Thus ended, after a continuance of over forty years, one of the most memorable contests of which history tells. The memories of these great days, handed down to later generations of Nether- landers, formed a rich and ennobling heritage which, we may believe, entered as an element of strength into the Dutch char- acter; for ''such traditions," as the historian Hausser truly says, "keep a nation upright for centuries." One of the most remarkable circumstances of the war was the vast expansion of the industries and the commerce of the United Provinces, and their astonishing growth in population, wealth, and resources, while carrying on the bitter and protracted strug- gle. Even in a larger sense than was true before this period, the Dutch cities had become the workshops and warehouses of the world. Products for distribution and manufacture from every land beneath the sun were heaped upon their wharves. Their commerce had so expanded that more than one hundred thousand of their citizens found a home upon the sea. Nearly one thousand ships were engaged in the sole industry of the herring fishery, which, it is said, yielded more gold to the little republic than all the mines of the New World poured into the coffers of the king of Spain. It was during this period that the Dutch began the work of replacing the Portuguese in their settlements and trading posts in the East Indies, and of laying in the rich tropic islands of those seas the basis of a splendid colonial empire. The intellectual progress of the people kept pace with their material advance. Colleges and universities were established in 1 During this truce period (1609-1621) the Dutch Republic was filled with discord through the bitter quarrels of religious and political parties within the little state. The most eminent of the Dutch statesmen of the period was John of Barneveld (1549 ?— 1619), See his Life by Motley. 334 REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS [§371 all the leading cities, while common schools were set up every- where in town and country. It was rare to meet a person who could not both read and write. In the natural and mechanical sciences the United Provinces, during the latter part of the six- teenth and the first part of the seventeenth century, gave birth to some of the most distinguished scholars of Europe. 371. Influence of the Establishment of the Dutch Republic upon both the Religious and the Political Revolution. The successful issue of the revolt in the Netherlands meant much for the cause of the reformers. The Protestant Lowlands formed a sort of strategic point in the great fight between Catholicism and Protestantism. The loss of this ground might have proved fatal to the Protestant cause. Its maintenance by the forces of the reformers set limits to the Catholic reaction. The establishment of the Dutch Republic had also great signifi- cance for the Political Revolution. In the seventeenth century it was Holland that was the foremost champion of the cause of political freedom against Bourbon despotism. It was a worthy descendant of the first Prince William of Orange who, at one of the most critical moments of English history, when Englishmen were struggling doubtfully against Stuart tyranny, came to their help and rescued English liberties from the peril in which they lay (sect. 447). Selections from the Sources. Old South Leaflets, No. 72, "The Dutch Declaration of Independence " ; No. 69, " The Description of the New Nether- lands." Robinson, J. H., Readings in European H/siojy, vol. ii, pp. 171-179. Secondary Works. Motley, J. L., T/ie Rise of the Duteh Republic, 3 vols., and I/iilo/y of the United Netherlands, 4 vols. These histories by Motley are classical, but they lack in judicial spirit. They should be read in connection with Blok, J. P., History of the People of the iVetherhDids, 3 vols. YouNG, A., History of the Netherlands. Harrison, F., William the Silent. Putnam, R., William the Silent, 2 vols. For New Netherlands, consult FisKE, J., The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America, 2 vols. Topics for Class Reports, i. Sand dunes, dikes, and "polders" of the Low Countries: see Encyc. Brit., nth ed., under "Holland." 2. The image- breakers: Motley, J. L., The Rise of the Dutch Republic, vol. i, pp. 551-576. 3. How the seventeen provinces were divided into two groups and the basis laid of present-day Holland and Belgium : Harrison, F., William the Silent, chap, xi, pp. 195-202. CHAPTER XXIV THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE (1562-1629) 372. The Reformation in France. Before Luther posted his ninety-five theses at Wittenberg there had appeared in the Uni- versity of Paris and elsewhere in France men who from the study of the Scriptures had come to entertain opinions very like those of the German reformer. The movement thus begun received a fresh impulse from the uprising in Germany under Luther. The new doctrines found adherents especially among the lesser nobility and the burgher class, and struck deep root in the south, — the region of the old Albigensian heresy. 373. King Francis II, Catherine de' Medici, and the Guises. An understanding of the religious wars in France requires that we first acquaint ourselves with the chief earlier actors in the drama. The drama opens with Francis II (i 559-1 560), a Valois king,^ on the French throne. His wife was the young and fascinating Mary Stuart of Scotland. Francis was a weak-minded boy of sixteen years. The power behind the throne was the chiefs of the family of the Guises, who were zealous Catholics, and the king's mother, Catherine de' Medici. Catherine was an Italian. She seems to have been almost or quite destitute of religious convictions of any kind. She was determined to rule, and this she did by holding the balance of power between the two religious parties. When it suited her pur- pose, she favored the Protestants; and when it suited her purpose better, she favored the Catholics. Through her counsels and poh- cies she contributed largely to make France wretched through the reigns of her three sons and to bring her house to a miserable end. 1 The Valois kings of the sixteenth century were Louis XII (1498-15 15), Francis I (1515-1547), Henry II (1547-1559), Francis II (1559-1560), Charles IX (1560-1574), and Henry III (1574-1589). Henry IV, the successor of Henry III, was the first of the Bourbons. 335 336 THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE [§ 374 374. The Huguenot Leaders: the Bourbon Princes and Admiral Coligny. Opposed to the Guises were the Bourbon princes, Antony, king of Navarre, and Louis, Prince of Conde. Next after the brothers of Francis II, they were heirs to the French throne. Gaspard de Coligny, Admiral of France, was " the military hero of the French Reformation." Early in life he had embraced the doctrines of the reformers, and remained to the last the trusted and consistent, though ill-starred, champion of the Protestants. His is the most heroic figure that emerges from the unutterable confusion of the times. The foregoing notice of parties and their chiefs will suffice to render intelligible the events which we have now to narrate. 375. The Massacre of Vassy (i562). After the short reign of Francis II his brother Charles came to the throne as Charles IX. He was only ten years of age, so the queen mother assumed the government in his name. Pursuing her favorite maxim to rule by setting one party as a counterpoise to the other, she gave the Bourbon princes a place in the government, and also by royal edict gave the Huguenots a limited toleration and forbade their further persecution. These concessions to the Huguenots angered the Catholic chiefs, and it was the violation by the adherents of the Duke of Guise of the edict of toleration that finally caused the growing animosities of the two parties to break out in civil war. While passing through the country with a body of armed attendants, at a small place called Vassy the duke came upon a company of Huguenots assem- bled in a barn for worship. His retainers first insulted and then attacked them, killing about forty of the company and wounding many more. Under the lead of Admiral Coligny and the Prince of Conde, the Huguenots now rose throughout France. Philip II of Spain sent an army to aid the Catholics, while Elizabeth of England extended help to the Huguenots. For a half century and more France was distressed, almost without respite, by bitter inter- necine strife. § 376] MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW 337 376. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day (August 24, 1572). Eight years after the massacre of Vassy, Catherine de' Medici, as a means of cementing a treaty which had been ar- ranged between the two parties/ proposed that the Princess Margaret, the sister of Charles IX, should be given in marriage to Henry of Bourbon, the new young king of Navarre. The announcement of the proposed alliance caused great rejoicing among Catholics and Protestants alike, and the chiefs of both parties crowded to Paris to attend the wedding. Before the festivities' which followed the nuptial ceremonies were over, the world was shocked by one of the most awful crimes recorded in history, — the massacre of the Huguenots in Paris on St. Bartholomew's Day. The circumstances which led to this fearful tragedy were these. Among the Protestant nobles who came up to Paris to attend the wedding was Admiral Coligny. Jealous of his influence over her son, Catherine resolved upon the death of the admiral. The attempt miscarried, Coligny receiving only a slight wound from the assassin's bullet. The Huguenots rallied about their wounded chief with loud threats of revenge. Catherine, driven on by insane fear, now deter- mined upon the death of all the Huguenots in Paris as the only measure of safety. By the 23d of August the plans for the mas- sacre were all arranged. On the evening of that day Catherine went to her son and represented to him that the Huguenots had formed a plot for the assassination of the royal family and the leaders of the Catholic party, and that the utter ruin of their house and cause could be averted only by the immediate destruc- tion of the Protestants within the city walls. The order for the massacre was then laid before him for his signature. The young king shrank in terror from the deed, and at first refused to sign the decree; but overcome at last by the representations of his mother, he exclaimed, "I consent, provided not one Huguenot be left alive in France to reproach me with the deed." A little past the hour of midnight on St. Bartholomew's Day (August 24, 1572), at a preconcerted signal, — the tolling of a 1 The Treaty of St. Germain, 1570. 338 THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE [§ zn bell, — the massacre began. Coligny was one of the first victims. For three days and nights the massacre went on within the city. The number of victims in Paris is variously estimated at from one thousand to ten thousand. With the capital cleared of Huguenots, orders were issued to the principal cities of France to purge themselves in like manner of heretics. In many places the decree was disobeyed; but in others the orders were carried out, and frightful massacres took place. The number of victims through- out the country is unknown; estimates differ widely, running from two thousand to a hundred thousand. The massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day raised a cry of execra- tion in almost every part of the civilized world, among Catholics and Protestants alike. Philip II, however, is said to have received the news with unfeigned joy; while Pope Gregory XIII caused a Te Deum, in commemoration of the event, to be sung in the church of St. Mark in Rome. Respecting this it should in justice be said that Catholic writers maintain that the Pope acted under a misconception of the facts, it having been represented to him that the massacre resulted from a thwarted plot of the Huguenots against the royal family of France and the Roman Catholic Church. 377. Reign of Henry III ( 1574-^589). Instead of extermi- nating heresy in France, the massacre only served to rouse the Huguenots to a more determined defense of their faith. Through- out the last two years of the reign of Charles IX and the fifteen succeeding years of the reign of his brother Henry III the coun- try was in a state of turmoil and war. Finally, in 1589, the king, who jealous of the growing power and popularity of the Duke of Guise had caused him to be assassinated, was himself struck down by the avenging dagger of a Dominican monk. With him ended the House of Valois. 378. Accession of Henry IV (i589). Henry of Bourbon, king of Navarre, who for many years had been the most promi- nent leader of the Huguenots, now came to the throne as the first of the Bourbon kings. His accession lifted into prominence one of the most celebrated royal houses in European history. The §379] HENRY IV TURNS CATHOLIC 339 political story of France and, indeed, of Europe, from this time on to the French Revolution, and for some time after that, is in great part the story of the House of Bourbon. Henry did not secure without a struggle the crown that was his by right. The nation, still mainly Catholic, was not ready to acquiesce in the accession to the French throne of a Protestant prince. The Catholics declared for Cardinal Bourbon, Henry's uncle, and France was thus kept in the swirl of civil war. 379. Henry IV turns Catholic (1593). After the war had gone on for about four years the quar- rel was closed, for the time being, by Henry's becoming a Catholic. He was personally liked, even by the Catholic chiefs, and he was well aware that it was only his Huguenot faith that prevented theii" being his hearty supporters. Hence his resolution to remove, by changing his religion, the sole obstacle in the way of their ready loyalty, and thus to bring peace and quiet to distracted France. 380. The Edict of Nantes (1598). As soon as Henry had become the fully acknowledged king of France, he gave himself to the work of composing the affairs of his kingdom. The most noteworthy of the measures he adopted to this end was the pub- lication of the celebrated Edict of Nantes. By this decree the Huguenots were secured perfect freedom of conscience and prac- tical freedom of worship. All public offices and employments were opened to them the same as to Catholics. Moreover, they were allowed to retain possession of a number of fortified towns as pledges of good faith and as places of defense. Among these places was the important city of La Rochelle. Fig. 71. France. Henry IV, King of (From a painting by F. GoUzius) 340 THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE [§ 381 The granting of this edict is memorable for the reason that it was the first formal recognition by a great European state of the principle of religious toleration and equality. Here, for the first time since the triumph of Christianity over paganism in the Roman Empire, a great nation makes a serious effort to try to get along with two creeds in the state. It was almost a century before even England went as far in the way of granting freedom of conscience and of worship. 381. Character of Henry IV's Reign; his Plans and Death. With the temporary hushing of the long-continued quarrels of the Catholics and Protestants, France entered upon such a period of prosperity as she had not known for many years. Henry's paternal solicitude for his humblest subjects secured for him the title of Father of his People. In devising and carrying out his measure of reform, Henry was aided by one of the most prudent and sagacious advisers that ever strengthened the hands of a prince, — the illustrious Duke of Sully (1560-1641). The duke was an author as well as a statesman, and in his Memoirs left one of the most valuable records we possess of the transactions in which he took so prominent a part. Towards the close of his reign Henry, feeling strong in his resources and secure in his power, began to revolve in his mind vast projects for the aggrandizement of France and the weakening of her old enemy, the House of Hapsburg, in both its branches.^ He was making great preparations for war, when the dagger of a fanatic named Ravaillac cut short his life and plans (1610). 382. Louis XIII (1610-I643); Cardinal Richelieu ^and his Policy. The reign of Henry's son and successor, Louis XIII, was rendered notable by the ability of his chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu (i 585-1 642), the Wolsey of France, one of the most remarkable characters of the seventeenth century. For the space 1 In connection with his designs against the House of Hapsburg, Henry is represented in Sully's Alemoirs as having had in mind a most magnificent scheme, — the organization of all the Christian states of Europe into a great confederation or commonwealth, and the abolition of war by the creation of an international peace tribunal. This scheme is known as the " Grand Design." §383] SIEGE OF LA ROCHELLE 341 of eighteen years this ecclesiastic was the actual sovereign of France, and swayed the destinies not only of that country but, it might almost be said, those of Europe as well. Richelieu's policy was twofold: first, to render the authority of the French king absolute in France; second, to make the power of France supreme in Europe. For nearly the lifetime of a generation Richelieu, by intrigue, diplomacy, and war, pursued with unrelenting purpose these objects of his ambition. In the fol- lowing paragraph we shall speak very briefly of the cardinal's dealings with the Huguenots, which feature of his policy alone especially concerns us at present. 383. Siege and Capture of La Ro- chelle (1627-1628) ; Political Power of the Huguenots broken. In order to make supreme and secure the king's authority in his own realms, Richelieu conceived it to be necessary, as one step towards the goal, to break down the political power of the Huguenot chiefs, who, " Protestants first and Frenchmen afterwards," were con- stantly challenging the royal author- ity and threatening the dismemberment of France. Accordingly, he led in person an army to the siege of La Rochelle, which the Huguenots were planning to make the capital of an independent Protestant commonwealth. After a gallant resistance of more than a year the city was compelled to open its gates. The Huguenots maintained the struggle a few months longer in the south of France, but were finally everywhere reduced to submission. The result of the war was the complete destruction of the political power of the French Protestants. A treaty of peace called the Edict of Grace (1629) left them, however, freedom of worship, according to the provisions of the Edict of Nantes. Fig. 72. Cardinal Riche- lieu. (After the painting by Philippe de Chajnpagne) 342 THE HUGUENOT WARS IN FRANCE [§ 384 This treaty properly marks the close of the religious wars which had now distressed France, intermittently, for two generations. 384. Richelieu and the Thirty Years' War. When Cardinal Richelieu came to the head of affairs in France there was going on in Germany the Thirty Years' War. Although Richelieu had just crushed French Protestantism as a political force, he now gave assistance to the Protestant German princes because their success meant the division of Germany and the humiliation of Austria. Richelieu did not live to see the end either of the Thirty Years' War or of that which he had begun with Spain; but his policy, carried out by others, finally resulted, as we shall learn hereafter, in the humiliation of both branches of the House of Hapsburg and the lifting of France to the first place among the powers of Europe. Selections, from the Sources. Duke of Sully, Memoirs (Bohn). For a short account of the contents of this work, consult Historical Sotcrces i)i Schools (Report to the New England History Teachers' Association), pp. 99-102. Translations and Rcpritits, vol. iii, No. 3, extracts under " The Reformation in France." Robinson, J. H., Readings in Eii7vJ>ean Histoiy, vol. ii, pp. 179-185. Secondary Works. Baird, H. M., The Huguenots and Henry of Navarre and Theodore Beza. Besant, W., Gaspa>-d de Coligny- Willert, P. F., Heniy of iVavaiTe.. Hassall, A., The French People, chaps, x and xi. Lodge, R., Richelieit. Parkman, F., Pioneers of Fratice in the iVe7o Jlor/d {ior the Hugue- nots in Florida and Brazil, and Champlain and his associates). See also Fiske, J., A-^e7(' England and A^ew France, chaps, i-iii. Topics for Class Reports, i. Henry TV's renunciation of the Huguenot faith : Willert, P. F., Heniy of Ahivarre, pp. 256-265. 2. The " Grand Design ": Mead, E. D,, The Great Design of Hen>y IV. 3. Settlements of Huguenots in Brazil and Florida : Parkman, F., Pioneers of Fivnce in the A'ew World, pp. 9-179. CHAPTER XXV THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR (1618-1648) 385. Nature and Causes of the War. The long and calamitous Thirty Years' War was the last great combat between Protestant- ism and Catholicism in Europe. It started as a struggle between the Protestant and Catholic princes of Germany, but gradually involved almost all the states of the continent, degenerating at last into a shameful and heartless struggle for power and territory. The real cause of the war was the enmity existing between the German Protestants and Catholics. But if a more specific cause be sought, it will be found in the character of the articles of the celebrated Religious Peace of Augsburg (sect. 318). The Catholics and Protestants did not interpret alike the provisions of that com- promise treaty. Each party by its encroachments gave the other occasion for complaint. The Protestants at length formed for their mutual protection a league called the Evangelical Union (1608). In opposition to the Union, the Catholics formed a confederation known as the Holy League (1609). All Germany was thus prepared to burst into the flames of a religious war. 386. The Bohemian Period of the War (16I8-1623). The flames that were to desolate Germany for a generation were first kindled in Bohemia, where were still smoldering embers of the Hussite wars, which two centuries before had desolated that land (sect. 235). A church which the Protestants, relying on the provisions of a certain royal charter, maintained they had a right to build was torn down by the Catholics, and another was closed. Expostulations addressed by the reformers to the Emperor Matthias, as king of Bohemia, receiving an unsatisfactory reply, a body of Bohemian grandees entered the royal castle at Prague and threw two of the imperial regents out of the window. This 343 344 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR [§387 hasty proceeding was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, — "the source and cause of all our woes," as wrote one who lived in the sad times that followed. The Bohemian Protestants now rose in organized revolt and drove out the Jesuits. The insurrection, however, was soon suppressed by the newly elected Emperor Ferdinand II, who was supported by the Catholic League. The leaders of the revolt were executed, and the reformed faith in Bohemia was almost uprooted. 387. The Danish Period (1625-I629). Protestantism in Ger- many seemed threatened with extinction. The situation filled not only the Protestant German princes but all the Protestant powers of the North with the greatest alarm. Christian IV, king of Denmark, supported by England and the Dutch Netherlands, threw himself into the struggle — which was still being carried on in a desultory manner — as the champion of German Protes- tantism. On the side of the Catholics were two noted com- manders, — Tilly, the leader of the forces of the Holy League, and Wallenstein, a wealthy Bohemian nobleman, who was the commander of the imperial army. What is known as the Danish period of the war now began. The war, in the main, proved disastrous to the Protestant allies,^ and Christian IV was finally constrained to conclude a treaty of peace with the Emperor and retire from the struggle. 388. The Swedish Period (i630-i635). At this moment of seeming triumph Emperor Ferdinand was constrained by rising discontent and jealousies to dismiss from his service his most efficient general, Wallenstein. Only a few months before this, Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, with a veteran and en- thusiastic army of sixteen thousand Swedes, had appeared in North Germany as the champion of the dispirited and leaderless Protestants. Various motives had concurred in leading him thus to intervene in the struggle. He was urged to this course by his strong Protestant convictions and sympathies. Furthermore, 1 Among the important episodes of the war were the defeat of the king of Denmark by Tilly at Lutter (1626) and the unsuccessful siege of Stralsund by Wallenstein (1628). 388] THE SWEDISH PERIOD 345 But the Electors of the city should have the progress of the imperial arms in North Germany was imperil- ing Swedish interests in the Baltic and threatening to establish the supremacy of the Austrian Hapsburgs^ over what was re- garded by the sovereigns of Sweden as a Swedish lake. The Protestant princes' jealousy and distrust of Gustavus now contributed to a most terrible disaster. At this moment Tilly was besieging the city of Magdeburg. Brandenburg and Saxony, from whom received help, would not, or at least did not, cooperate with Gustavus in raising the siege. In a short time the fated city was taken by storm and was given up to sack and pillage. Thousands of the in- habitants perished miserably. Tilly wrote to Ferdinand that since the fall of Troy and Jerusalem such a victory had never been seen. "I am sincerely sorry," he adds, " that the ladies of your im- perial family could not have been present as spectators." The cruel fate of Magde- burg excited the alarm of the Protestant princes. The Electors of Brandenburg and Saxony now united their forces with those of the Swedish king. Tilly was twice defeated, and in his last battle fatally wounded (1632). In the death of Tilly, Ferdinand lost his most trustworthy general. The imperial cause appeared desperate. There was but one man in Germany who could turn the tide of victory that was run- ning so strongly in favor of the Swedish monarch. That man was Wallenstein; and to him the Emperor now turned. Wallenstein agreed to raise an army, provided his control of it should be 1 Emperor Ferdinand was the head of the House of Hapsburg. Fig. 73. Gustavus Adolphus. (From a painting by Vandyke) 346 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR [§ 389 absolute. Ferdinand was constrained to grant all that his old general demanded. Wallenstein now raised his standard, to which rallied the adventurers not only of Germany but of all Europe as well. With an army of forty thousand men obedient to his commands, Wallenstein, after numerous marches and countermarches, finally risked a battle with Gustavus on the memorable field of Liitzen, in Saxony. The Swedes won the day, but lost their leader and sovereign (1632). We ma}^ sum up the results of Gustavus Adolphus' interven- tion in the Thirty Years' War in these words of the historian Gindely: "He averted the overthrow with which Protestantism was threatened in Germany." Notwithstanding the death of their great king and commander, the Swedes did not withdraw from the war. Hence the struggle went on, the advantage being for the most part with the Prot- estant allies. Ferdinand, at just this time, was embarrassed by the suspicious movements of his general, Wallenstein. Be- coming convinced that he was meditating the betrayal of the imperial cause, the Emperor caused him to be assassinated (1634). This event marks very nearly the end of the Swedish period of the war. 389. The Swedish-French Period (i635-i648). Had it not been for the selfish and ambitious interference of France, the woeful war which had now desolated Germany for half a genera- tion might here have come to an end, for both sides were weary of it and ready for negotiations of peace. But Richelieu was not willing that the war should end until the House of Austria was completely humbled. Accordingly, he encouraged the Swedish chancellor Oxenstiern, as he had Gustavus, to carry on the war, promising him the aid of the French armies. The war thus lost in large part its original character of a con- tention between the Catholic and Protestant princes of Germany, and became a political struggle between the House of Austria and the House of Bourbon, in which the former was fighting for existence, the latter for aggrandizement. o -^ 0? ^^ S, i ^ ^ 1 Longitude West V\.^A^« \\3r ) ) L / A l3 1^^^" /Ti^^^r^^-^-An*^ ° ' l'^ .po/ PJiUlf^popolia Vj^v. Adrinnop\e^ alonV^a ^ .c°" Vt o E .>. §390] THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA 347 And so the miserable war went on year after year. It had become a heartless and conscienceless struggle for spoils. The Swedes fought to fasten their hold upon the mouths of the Ger- man rivers, the French to secure a grasp upon the Rhine lands. The earlier actors in the drama at length passed from the scene, but their parts were carried on by others. 390. The Peace of Westphalia (i648). The war was finally ended by the celebrated Peace of Westphalia.^ The chief articles of this important peace may be made to fall under two heads, — those relating to territorial boundaries and those respecting religion. As to the first, these cut short in three directions the actual or nominal limits of the Holy Roman Empire. Switzerland and the United Netherlands were severed from it; for though both of these countries had been for a long time practically independent of the Empire, this independence had never been acknowledged in. any formal way. The claim of France to the three bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun in Lorraine, which places she had held for about a century, was confirmed, and all Alsace, save the free city of Strasburg, was given to her. Sweden, already a great maritime power, was given territories in North Germany — Western Pomerania and other lands — which greatly enhanced her influence by giving her command of the mouths of three important German rivers, — the Oder, the Elbe, and the Weser. But these lands were not given to the Swedish king in full sovereignty; they still remained a part of the Ger- manic body, and the king of Sweden through his relation to them became a prince of the Empire and entitled to a seat in the German Diet. The changes within the Empire were many, and some of them important. Brandenburg, the nucleus of a future great state, especially received considerable additions of territory. She got Eastern Pomerania and also valuable ecclesiastical lands. 1 To facilitate matters the commissioners were divided into two bodies, one holding its sessions at Osnabriick, and the other at Miinster, both Westphalian cities. The articles of the peace were arranged only after four years of discussion and negotiation. 348 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR [§ 391 The different states of the Empire — they numbered over four hundred, counting the free imperial cities — were left virtually independent of the imperial authority. This continued the Em- pire as merely a loose confederation, and postponed to a distant future the unification of the German peoples. The articles respecting religion were even more important than those which established the metes and bounds of the different states. Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists were all put upon the same footing. Every prince, with some reservations, was to have the right to make his religion the religion of his people and to banish all who refused to adopt the established creed; but such nonconformists were to have five years in which to emigrate. This arrangement was known as the princes' "Right of Reformation" and the subjects' "Right of Emigration."^ These were some of the most important provisions of the noted Peace of Westphalia. For more than two centuries they formed the fundamental law of Germany, and established a balance of power between the European states which, though it was disre- garded and disturbed by Louis XIV of France, was in general maintained until the great upheaval of the French Revolution. 391. Effects of the War upon Germany. It is impossible to picture the wretched condition in which the Thirty Years' War left Germany. When the struggle began, the population of the country was thirty millions; when it ended, twelve millions. Two thirds of the personal property had been destroyed. Many of the once large and flourishing cities were reduced to "mere shells." The Duchy of Wiirtemberg, which had half a million inhabitants at the commencement of the war, at its close had barely fifty thou- sand. The once powerful Hanseatic League was virtually broken up. On every hand were the charred remains of the hovels of the peasants and the palaces of the nobility. Vast districts lay waste without an inhabitant. The very soil in many regions had reverted to its primitive wildness. The lines of commerce were broken, and some trades and industries swept quite out of existence. 1 The history of the Palatinate illustrates the workings of this provision of the peace : in the space of sixty years the people of that principality were compelled by their successive rulers to change their religion four times. But this was an exceptional case. § 391] EFFECTS OF THE WAR 349 The effects upon the fine arts, upon science, learning, and morals, were even more lamentable. Painting, sculpture, and architecture had perished. The cities which had been the home of all these arts lay in ruins. Poetry had ceased to be cultivated. Education was entirely neglected. For the lifetime of a generation men had been engaged in the business of war and had allowed their children to grow up in absolute ignorance. Moral law was forgot- ten. Vice, nourished by the licentious atmosphere of the camp, reigned supreme.^ Thus civilization in Germany, which had begun to develop with so much promise, received a check from which it did not begin to recover, so benumbed were the very senses of men, for a generation and more. To all these evils were added those of political disunion and weakness. The title of Emperor still continued to be borne by a member of the House of Austria, but it was only an empty name. By the Peace of Westphalia the Germanic body lost eyen that little cohesion which had begun to manifest itself between its different parts, and became simply a loose assem- blage of virtually independent states. Thus weakened, Ger- many lost her independence as a nation, while the subjects of the numerous petty states became the slaves of their ambitious and tyrannical rulers. And, worse than all, the overwhelming calamities that for the lifetime of a generation had been poured out upon the unfortunate land had extinguished the last spark of German patriotism. Every sentiment of pride and hope in race and country seemed to have become extinct. There was at least one offset to so much evil. The excesses and horrors of the war inspired the eminent Dutch jurist, Hugo Grotius ( 1 583-1 645), to write his great work, The Laws oj War and Peace, a work that has been pronounced by high authority "the most beneficent of all volumes ever written not claiming divine inspiration." A chief aim of the work was to reform the laws 1 Before the close of the war the number of camp followers on both sides had come to exceed that of the fighting men. When on the march the armies resembled the migratory hordes of Goths and Vandals that overran the Roman Empire. After the war the disbanded soldiers became thieves and brigands, and thousands were executed. Germany was pestered by these marauding bands for a full century after the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia. 350 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR [§392 of war, to lessen the atrocities of warfare, and to set limits to the "rights" claimed by the victor. The work has had such a pro- found influence upon the development of the laws of nations that Grotius is regarded as the founder of international law. 392. Cojiclusion. The Peace of Westphalia is a prominent landmark in universal history. It stands at the dividing line of two great epochs. It marks the end of the Reformation period and the beginning of that of the Political Revolution. Henceforth, speaking broadly, men will fight for constitutions, not for creeds. We shall find them more intent on questions of civil government and of political rights than on questions of Church government and of religious dogmas. We shall not often see one nation at- tacking another, or one party in a nation assaulting another party, on account of a difference in religious opinion.^ But in setting the Peace of Westphalia to mark the end of the Era of the Reformation, we do not mean to convey the idea that men had come to embrace the beneficent doctrine of religious toleration. As a matter of fact, no real toleration had yet been reached, — nothing save the semblance of toleration. The long conflict of a century and more and the vicissitudes of fortune, which to-day gave one party the power of the persecutor and to-morrow made the same sect the victims of persecution, had simply forced all to the practical conclusion that they must toler- ate one another, — that one sect must not attempt to put another down by force. But it has required the broadening and liberaliz- ing lessons of the two centuries and more that have since passed to bring men to see, even in part, that the thing they must do is the very thing they ought to do, — to make men tolerant not only in outward conduct but in spirit. With this single word of caution we now pass to the study of the Era of the Political Revolution, a period characterized in particular by the growth of divine-right kingship and by the great struggle between despotic and liberal principles of government. 1 The Puritan Revolution in England may look like a religious war, but we shall learn that it was primarily a political contest, — a struggle against despotism in the state. REFERENCES 351 Selections from the Sources. The student will do well to begin his study of the Thirty Years' War by a careful reading of Historical Leaflets (Crozer Theological Seminary), No. 5, " The Peace of Augsburg." He will here learn how deep-seated and irreconcilable were the differences which divided the religious parties in Germany. Robinson, J. H., Readings in Eufvpean History, vol. ii, chap. xxix. Secondary Works. Gindely, A., History of the Thirty Years' War, 2 vols, (the best history for English readers ; chaps, x and xi of vol. ii, bearing upon the peace negotiations, are of special interest). Fletcher, C. R. L., Gi/stavns Adolphiis and the Struggle of Protestantism for Existence. Gardiner, S. R., The Thirty Years' War. Henderson, E. Y.,A Short History of Germany, vol. i, chaps, xvii and xviii. Bryce, J., The Holy Roriian Etjipire, chaps, xviii and xix. Fisher, G. P., History of the Reformation, chap, xv (summarizes from the Protestant side the results of the Reformation); Balmes, ]., European Civili- zation; Protestantism and Catholicism compared; and Spaulding, M. J., The History of the Protestant Reformation, Parts I and II (contain discussions of the subject from the Catholic point of view). Topics for Class Reports, i. Condition of Germany at the end of the war: Gardiner, S. R., The Thirty Years' Jfiir, pp. 217-221. 2. Hugo Grotius : White, A. D., Seven Great Statesmen, pp. 55-110. 3. Some results of the Reformation: Seebohm, F., The Era of the Protestant Revolution, pp. 118-233. FOURTH PERIOD— THE ERA OF THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION (From the Peace of Westphalia, in 1648, to the Treaty of Versailles, in 1919) /. THE AGE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHY: PREL- UDE TO THE POLITICAL REVOLUTION (1648-1789) CHAPTER XXVI THE DOCTRINE OF THE DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGS AND THE MAXIMS OF THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 393. The Theory of the Divine Right of Kings. Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there was widely held a theory of government which during that period probably had as great an influence upon the historical development in Europe as the theory of the Empire and the Papacy exerted during the Middle Ages. This theory is known as the Divine Right of Kings/ According to this theory the nation is a great family with the king as its divinely appointed head. The duty of the king is to govern like a father; the duty of the people is to obey their king even as children obey their parents. If the king does wrong, is cruel, unjust, this is simply the misfortune of his people; under no circumstances is it right for them to rebel against his authority, any more than for children to rise against their father. The king is responsible to God alone, and to God the people, quietly sub- missive, must leave the avenging of all their wrongs. 1 It was in England and in France that the theory was most logically developed, and it was in these countries that it exerted its greatest influence upon the political evolution. §393] THEORY OF DIVINE-RIGHT KINGSHIP 353 This conception of government is so different from our idea of it that it will be worth our while to listen to two of the ablest champions of the doctrine while they more fully expound it. According to the first of these the family is the germ and pro- totype of the State. "If we compare the natural rights of a father with those of a king/' — it is the old English writer Filmer who speaks/ — "we find them all one, without any difference at all but only in the latitude or extent of them: as the father over one family, so the king, as father over many families, extends his care to preserve, feed, clothe, instruct, and defend the whole commonwealth. His war, his peace, his courts of justice, and all his acts of sovereignty tend only to preserve and distribute to every subordinate and inferior father, and to their children, their rights and privileges, so that all the duties of a king are summed up in an universal fatherly care of his people." Heredity points out the legitimate king: "It is unnatural for the multitude to choose their governors, or to govern or to par- take in the government." The power of the hereditary king is absolute: "For as kingly power is by the law of God, so it hath no inferior law to limit it." The king can neither be corrected nor deposed by his subjects: "For, indeed, it is the rule of Solomon that 'We must keep the king's commandment,' and not say, 'What dost thou?' because 'where the word of a king is there is power,' and all that he pleaseth he will do. . . . Not that it is right for kings to do injury, but it is right for them to go unpunished by the people if they do it. . . . It will be punishment sufficient for them to expect God as a revenger."^ "Kings are the ministers of God" — it is the eloquent Bos- suet, the court chaplain of Louis XIV, who now speaks^ — "and 1 In his PatriarcJia (see Sources at end of chapter). 2 Filmer is here quoting the words of the celebrated English jurist Bracton (d. 1268). All that the people can do when the king misuses his authority is to petition him " to amend his fault " — and " to pray to God." 3 In his Politique tiree des propres paroles de P &criture Sainte (QLuvres completes, vol. xxiii, Paris, 1875), P- 533- 354 DIVINE-RIGHT KINGSHIP [§394 his vicegerents on the earth." "The throne of a king is not the throne of a man, but the throne of God himself. . . . The- per- son of kings is sacred, and it is sacrilege to harm them."^ "They are gods, and partake in some fashion of the divine independence." - With Filmer, Bossuet maintains the subject's duty of passive obedience. He who does not obey his prince is worthy of death as the enemy of society. Rebellion against kings is sacrilege: "The holy anointment is on them and the high office they exer- cise in the name of God protects them from all insult." At first the upholders of this theory of the nature and powers of the kingly office were apt to seek support for it in Biblical texts; but later its defenders came to rely more on pure argu- ment, as is illustrated by Kilmer's syllogism: "What is natural to man exists by divine right; kingship is natural to man; there- fore, kingship exists by divine right." ^ Before the close of the period upon which we here enter, we shall see how this theory of the divine right of kings worked out in practice, — how dear it cost both kings and people, and how the people by the strong logic of revolution demonstrated that they have a divine and inalienable right to govern themselves/ 394. History of the Doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings. This theory that kings rule by divine right has a history well worth tracing. Among primitive peoples, like the early Greeks, we find the king ruling by divine right, — by right of his descent from the gods. In Egypt the Pharaoh was regarded as partaking of the divine nature. In ancient Judea the king was the Lord's anointed, and ruled as his vicegerent on earth. In the days of 1 Bossuet; Politique iircc dcs propres paroles dc PEcrituir, p. 534. 2. Ibid. p. 559. See Psalms Ixxxii. 6. s See Figgis, The Tkeoiy of the Divine Right of Kings, p. 153. ■* There was much in the history of the Middle Ages to convince men that absolute monarchy, if not a divinely appointed form of government, was at least the best form. Every other form had been tried and found wanting, having issued either in tyranny or in anarchy. Witness the intolerable oppression of the aristocratic government of the feudal lords ; witness the tyranny of the theocratic government of the priesthood ; witness the tur- bulence of society under the democratic regime of the Italian cities. Peace and security within the State had been secured only through the growth of the royal power. Hence the political axiom of this age, an age just escaping from feudal anarchy, was that of the Homeric ( i reeks, — " The rule of many is not a good thing ; let there be one leader only, one king." § 395] CHARACTER OF ABSOLUTE SOVEREIGNS 355 the Roman emperors their subjects in the East were prone to regard the head of the Empire as set apart from ordinary men. They built temples in honor of " the divine Caesar." But to trace the origin of the doctrine as applied to kings of modern times, we need not go farther back than to the establish- ment of the mediaeval Papacy. The popes, as we have learned, ruled by what may be termed divine right. All acknowledged their office and authority to be of divine origin and appointment. But when the emperors of German origin got into controversy with the popes in regard to the relation of the imperial to the papal power, then it was that the supporters of the emperors framed the counter theory of the divine origin of the imperial authority. Thus Dante in his De Monarchia argues for the supernatural character of the imperial power, and maintains that the Emperor rules as much by divine right as does the Pope. Then later in the fourteenth century, after the Empire had been practically destroyed by the Papacy and the kings had taken up the fight against the Papal See, their supporters naturally began to preach the doctrine of the divine nature of the royal authority. This was the starting point of the theory in its modern form. When finally the Reformation came and with it even still keener strife between the lay rulers of the revolted nations and the Roman See, then the theory of the divine nature of the royal power received perforce a great expansion. For when the Pope excommunicated a heretic king and exhorted his subjects to take up arms against him, then the royalist writers and preachers pro- claimed more loudly than ever and with passionate fervor the doctrine of the divine right of princes and the wickedness of disobedience and rebellion. Fostered in this way, the doctrine of the sacred character of kingship and the virtue of passive obedience in the subject struck deep and firm root. 395. Character of the Absolute Sovereigns and their Relation to the Political Revolution. What use did the kings make of the vast and unlimited authority with which the circum- stances of history and the growth of political theory had invested them? As a class, they made a betrayal of the great trust. Too 356 DIVINE-RIGHT KINGSHIP [§396 many of them acted upon the maxim of Louis XIV of France, — "Self-aggrandizement is at once the noblest and the most agree- able occupation of kings." They seemed to think that their sub- jects were made for their use; that the public strength and the public revenues might be freely used by them for the attainment of purely personal ends, the promotion of purely personal ambi- tions. War became a royal pastime. A great part of the bloody wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, which centuries may be regarded as covering roughly the age of absolute mon- archy, were wars that originated in frivolous personal jealousies, in wicked royal ambitions, or in disputes respecting dynastic suc- cession. So generally did the wars of this period spring from questions of the latter nature, that by some historians the age is called the Era of Dynastic Wars.^ The teachings of The Prince of Machiavelli ruled the period. Now, all this misuse of royal power, all these unholy wars with their trains of attendant evils, did much to discredit divine-right kingship and to bring in government by the people. " Bad kings help us," Emerson affirms, "if only they are bad enough." Many of the kings of this period were bad enough to be supremely helpful to us. It was during this age of the kings that the forces set loose by the Renaissance and the Reformation engendered the tempest which overwhelmed forever divine-right kingship and its gilded appendage of privileged aristocracy. 396. The Enlightened Despots. But not all the kings of this age were imbecile or wicked. There were among them many wise and benevolent rulers. Especially during the latter part of the eighteenth century did there appear monarchs known as the Enlightened Despots, who, under the influence of the teachings 1 There is need of caution here, however. Not all the wars of this age were frivolous, dynastic, or personal. There were, as we shall see, wars involving great issues and prin- ciples, — questions of systems of government and forms of civilization. The war in Eng- land between the Parliament and the king was the first act in the drama of the Political Revolution; and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a struggle involving as momen- tous questions as were ever arbitrated by the sword. Commercial and colonial interests too were coming to be more generally the concern of governments, and some of the greatest wars of the eighteenth century had their origin in national jealousies touching trade and colonies. §396] THE ENLIGHTENED DESPOTS 357 of French philosophy, came to entertain reasonable views of their duties and of their obligations to their subjects. These sovereigns did not give up the idea that unlimited mon- archy is the best form of government and that the people should have no part in public affairs. They sincerely believed that the power of the king should be unlimited, but they emphasized the doctrine that this power should be exercised solely in the interest of the people. The public revenues should be expended on public works, and public officials should be appointed solely on the ground of their ability and fitness. Thus the idea of the royal power being a trust, the royal office a stewardship, was made prominent. The king became the servant of his people. The great place which the rulers of this disposition held in the history of the century immediately preceding the French Revo- lution is indicated by these words of the historian Professor H. Morse Stephens: "The most characteristic feature in government of the eighteenth century," he says, "was the existence and the work of the enlightened despots." Most prominent of the sovereigns deemed worthy a place among the Enlightened Despots are Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick the Great of Prussia, and Joseph II of Austria. Con- cerning them and their work we shall have something to say in following chapters. It will suffice here if we simply "observe that the issue of this great experiment in government illustrated anew what had been demonstrated by the rule of the Tyrants in the cities of ancient Greece and by that of the Caesars at Rome, — namely, that absolute power cannot safely be lodged in the hands of a single person. It is certain sooner or later to be misused. As it has been well put, absolute power in a single person is a good thing when joined with perfect wisdom and perfect good- ness. But unfortunately these qualifications of the ideal autocrat are seldom found united in the same individual, and still less seldom are they transmitted from father to son. It is at just this point that absolute hereditary monarchy, as a practical form of government, breaks down beyond hope and without remedy. CHAPTER XXVII THE ASCENDANCY OF FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV (1643-1715) 397. Louis XIV the Typical Divine-Right King. Louis XIV of France stands as the representative of divine-right monarchy. He shall himself expound to us his conception of government.^ These are his words: "To attribute to subjects the right of forming resolutions and of giving commands to their sovereign is to pervert the true order of things. It is to the head alone that pertains the right to deliberate and to resolve upon; the whole duty of subjects consists in the carrying into effect of the commands given them."- "Kings are absolute lords; to them belongs naturally the full and free disposal of all the property of their subjects, whether they be churchmen or laymen."^ "For subjects to rise against their prince, however wicked and oppres- sive he may be, is always infinitely criminal. God, who has given kings to men, has willed that they should be revered as his lieu- tenants, and has reserved to Himself alone the right to review their conduct. His will is that he who is born a subject should obey without question."'* The doctrine here set forth Louis is said to have expressed in this terser form: UEtat c'est moi, "I am the State." He may never have uttered these exact words, but the famous epigram at 1 It should be noted that Louis' subjects, at least the great majority of them, also believed in government by one, — and not without reason. They had had sorry experi- ence with government by many, under the regime of the nobles. Of government by all, by themselves, it was not possible for them to have any clear conception, if any conception at all. It needed a hundred years and more of autocratic misrule and oppression to call into existence that revolutionary idea. 2 CEiivrcs de Louis A'/F (Paris, iSo6), tome ii, p. 26. 8 Ibid. p. 121. Louis adds, however, that what kings take from their subjects they should use as wise stewards, — that is to say, for the promotion of the public welfare. 4 Ibid. p. 336, § 398] THE ADMINISTRATION OF MAZARIN 359 least embodies perfectly his ideas of kingship. In his own view he was by divine commission the sole legislator, judge, and execu- tive of the French nation. This theory of government thus expounded by Louis was, in- deed, as we have seen, no novel doctrine to the Europe of the seventeenth century; but Louis was such an ideal autocrat that somehow he made autocratic r government attractive. Other rulers imitated him, and it be- came the prevailing theory that kings have a "divine right" to rule and that the people should have no part at all in government. 398. The Administration of Mazarin (i643-i66i) ; Louis becomes his Own Prime Minister. The religious war in Germany was still in progress when, in 1643, Louis XIII died, leaving the vast authority which his great minister Cardinal Richelieu had done so much to consoli- date and strengthen, as an in- heritance to his.little son Louis, a mere child of five years. During th6 prince's minority the government was in the hands of his mother, Anne of Austria, as regent. She chose as her chief minister an Italian ecclesiastic. Cardinal IVIazarin, who in his ad- ministration of affairs followed in the footsteps of his predecessor, Richelieu, carrying out with great ability the foreign policy of that minister.^ Before his death the House of Austria in both its branches had been humiliated and crippled, and the House of Bourbon was ready to assume leadership in European affairs. 1 See sect. 382. Fig. 74. Louis XIV. (After a paint- ing by Philippe de C/ia/;ipag/ie) 36o FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV [§ 399 Mazarin died in 1661. Upon this event Louis, now twenty- three years of age, calling together the heads of the various departments of the government, said to them that in the future he should himself attend to affairs. He then charged the secre- taries not to sign any paper, not even a passport, without his express commands. From this time on for more than half a cen- tury Louis was his own prime minister. He gave personal atten- tion to every matter, even the most trivial. Probably no wearer of a crown, Philip II of Spain possibly excepted, ever worked harder at " the trade of a king," as he himself designated his em- ployment. He had able men about him, but they planned and worked — and sometimes chafed — under his minute directions and tireless superintendence. 399. Louis' Chief Aims. The history of Louis' long reign will present coherence and unity only as we fix clearly in view the ends towards which his efforts were mainly directed. His first aim was to make himself absolute master in his own kingdom. In his " Instructions to the Dauphin " he says, " The necessary basis of all other reforms was the rendering of my own will absolute." This basis was well laid. Under Louis there was but one will in France, — the will of the king. The nobility, the States-General, all local authorities, the Parlement of Paris,' the Church, — all these classes and bodies were shorn of the last remnants of political influence and power and rendered servilely submissive to the crown. Louis' second aim was to secure for France the headship of Europe. We shall see in how many sanguinary wars Louis in- volved almost all Europe in his efforts to realize this object of his ambition. 400. The Wars of Louis XIV. During the period of his per- sonal administration of the government, Louis XIV was engaged in four great wars: (i) a war respecting the Spanish Netherlands; 1 This was a French court of justice which attempted to assume political functions, — which sometimes seemed to aspire to become for France what the English Parliament was for England. One of its duties was to register the royal edicts, which were given validity only by such registration. Sometimes the court hesitated to register the king's decrees and made remonstrances. Louis ordained that the court should register all de- crees without delay ; it might make remonstrances afterwards. The court was forced to bow to the royal will. § 401] WAR OF THE SPANISH NETHERLANDS 361 (2) a war with the Protestant Netherlands; (3) the War of the Palatinate, or of the League of Augsburg; and (4) the War of the Spanish Succession. All these wars were, on the part of the French monarch, wars of conquest and aggression, or wars pro- voked by his ambitious and encroaching policy. The most in- veterate enemy of Louis during all this period was the Dutch Republic, the representative and champion of liberty. 40L The War concerning the Spanish Netherlands (i667- 1668). Upon the death in 1665 of Philip IV of Spain, Louis laid claim, in the name of his wife, to portions of the Spanish Netherlands and led an army into the country. The Hollanders were naturally alarmed, fearing that 'Louis would also want to annex their country to his dominions. Accordingly they effected what was called the Triple Alliance with England and Sweden, checked the French king in his career of conquest, and forced him to give up much of the territory he had seized. He retained, however, a number of Flemish towns along the French frontier, which he made by extensive fortifications, planned by his cele- brated military engineer Vauban, the strong outposts of his kingdom in that direction. 402. The War with the Protestant Netherlands (i672-i678). The second war of the French king was against the United Netherlands. His attack upon this little state was prompted by a variety of motives. In the first place, the Hollanders' interven- tion in the preceding war had stirred his resentment. Then these Dutchmen represented everything to which he was opposed, — self-government. Protestantism, and free thought. In this war Louis found himself confronted by the armies of half of Europe. For several years the struggle was waged on land and sea, — in the Netherlands, all along the Rhine, upon the English Channel, in the Mediterranean, and on the coasts of the New World. By the terms of the treaty^ which ended the war, Louis gave up his conquests in Holland, but kept a large number of- towns and fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands, be- sides the free county of Burgundy on his eastern frontier. 1 The Peace of Nimeguen, 1678. 362 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV [§ 403 Thus Louis came out of this tremendous struggle with en- hanced reputation and fresh acquisitions of territory. People began to call him the "Grand Monarch"; we shall see directly by what acts he justified their judgment in conferring upon him this title. 403. Louis seizes the City of Strasburg (lesi). Ten years of comparative peace now followed for western Europe. Among the many indefensible acts of Louis during this period there were two which deserve special notice, since, while marking the culmination of Louis' power and illustrating his arrogant and unjust use of that power, they also mark the turning point in his fortunes. The first of these was the seizure of the free city of Strasburg and a score of other important places on the left bank of the Rhine belonging to the Empire. Strasburg was of supreme military importance to Louis on account of her strong forti- fications, which rendered her mistress of the Rhine. The audacity of Louis' procedure so dazed every one that no effective protest was made. Besides, at just this time the Em- peror was preoccupied with the Turks. In 1683 they laid siege to Vienna. All Christendom awaited anxiously the outcome. Fortunately the siege was raised by the celebrated Polish king, John Sobieski, and the House of Austria was saved. But the Turks continued to threaten the eastern territories of Austria, so that it was impossible for the Emperor to intervene in any effec- tive way to prevent Louis from consumm.ating his schemes for the absorption of the Rhenish lands which he needed to round out his dominions in that quarter. 404. The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (less). The second act to which we refer — an act the injustice of which was only equaled by its folly — was the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, the gracious decree by which Henry IV guaranteed religious freedom to the French Protestants (sect. 380). Louis' motives in persecuting his Protestant subjects were essentially the same as those which had led Philip III of Spain to expel from his dominions his Morisco subjects. He believed §405] WAR OF THE PALATINATE 363 the extirpation of heresy to be a service pleasing to God, and he coveted the honor of rooting it out of France. The fateful royal decree revoking the edict of toleration was issued in 1685. By this cruel measure all the Protestant churches were closed, and every Huguenot who refused to embrace the Catholic faith was outlawed. The persecution which the Hugue- nots had been enduring, and which was now greatly increased in violence, is known as the Dragonnades, from the circumstance that dragoons were quartered upon the Protestant families, with full permission to annoy and persecute them in every way ^^short of violation and death," to the end that the victims of these out- rages might be constrained to recant, which multitudes did. Great numbers, however, of the persecuted Huguenots, in brave disregard of the royal prohibition to leave the country, evading the vigilance of the police, made their way out of France to neighboring lands. It is estimated that before the end of the seventeenth century Louis had lost as many as three hundred thousand of the most skillful and industrious of his subjects. The effects upon France of the exodus were most disastrous. Several of the most important and flourishing of the French indus- tries were ruined, while the manufacturing interests of other coun- tries, particularly those of the Protestant Netherlands, England, and Brandenburg, were correspondingly benefited by the energy, skill, and capital which the exiles carried to them. Many of the fugitive Huguenots ultimately found new homes in remote South Africa, and their descendants contributed greatly to the strength of the republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Many others sought refuge in America; and no other class of emigrants, save the Puritans of England, cast Such healthful leaven 'mid the elements That peopled the new world. ^ 405. The War of the Palatinate, or of the League of Augs- burg (1688-1697). The indirect results of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes were quite as calamitous to France as were the 1 See Baird, Histor-y of the Hzigiienot Emigration to America^ 364 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV [§ 406 direct results. The indignation that the measure awakened among the Protestant nations contributed to enable William of Orange to organize a formidable confederacy against Louis, known as. the League of Augsburg. Louis resolved to attack the confederates. Seeking a pretext for beginning hostilities, he laid claim, on the part of his sister-in-law, to properties in the Palatinate, and hurried a large army into the country, which was quickly overrun. But being unable to hold the conquests he had made, Louis ordered that the country be laid waste. Among the places reduced to ruins were the historic towns of Heidelberg, Spires, and Worms. Even fruit trees, vines, and crops were destroyed. LTpwards of a hundred thousand peas- ants were rendered homeless. Another and more formidable coalition, known as the Grand Alliance, was now formed against Louis (1689). It embraced England, Holland, Sweden, Spain, Savoy, the Emperor, the Elec- tor Palatine, and the Electors of Bavaria and Saxony. For ten years almost all Europe was a great battlefield. It was very much such a struggle as that waged a century later by the allied monarchies of Europe against Napoleon, when they fought for the independence of the continent. Both sides at length becoming weary of the contest and almost exhausted in resources, the struggle was closed by the Peace of Ryswick (1697). There was a mutual surrender of conquests made during the course of the war, and Louis had also to give up many of the places he had seized before the beginning of the conflict. He managed, however, to retain, along with some other places, the important city of Strasburg. 406. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). Barely three years had passed after the Peace of Ryswick before the great powers of Europe were involved in another war, known as the War of the Spanish Succession. The proximate circumstances out of which the war grew were these. In 1700 the king of Spain, Charles II, the last male descendant in Spain of the great Emperor Charles V, died, leaving his crown — for he was childless — to Philip, Duke of Anjou, a GtS fi>,a., after tlie Treaties of UTRECHT AND RASTADT 1713-1714 § 407] DEATH OF THE KING 365 grandson of Louis XIV. The duke, a mere lad of seventeen years, assumed the bequeathed crown with the title of Philip V, and thus became the founder of the Bourbon dynasty in Spain. "There are no longer any Pyrenees," is the way in which Louis is re- ported to have expressed his exultation over this virtual union of France and Spain. France, through Spanish favor, might also now easily become powerful in the colonial world and realize her dream of a great colonial empire. The common danger led to the forming of a sec- ond Grand Alliance ^ against France, a main object, of which was to eject Philip from the Spanish throne and to seat thereon an Austrian prince. For thirteen years all Europe was shaken with war.- The struggle was ended by the treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastadt (1714). By the provisions of these treaties the Bourbon prince Philip was left upon the Spanish throne, but on the condition that there should never be a union of the French and Spanish crowns upon the same head. His dominions also were pared away on every side. Gibraltar and the island of ]\Iinorca were ceded to England; Milan, Naples, the island of Sardinia, and the Catholic Netherlands were given to Austria; and Sicily to the Duke of Savoy. Spain was thus shorn of nearly half her territories in Europe. France also suffered in her colonial possessions and claims, being forced to cede Nova Scotia (Acadia) to England and to admit her sovereignty over Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay Territory." 407. Death of the King (1715). It was amidst troubles, per- plexities, and afflictions that Louis XIV's long and eventful reign drew to a close. The heavy and constant taxes necessary to meet the expenses of his numerous wars, to maintain an extravagant court, and to furnish means for the erection of costly buildings, 1 The alliance embraced at first England, the Protestant Netherlands, Austria, and other German states, and later was joined by Portugal and Savoy. 2 The two greatest generals of the allies were the English Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy, who was in the imperial service. 3 For the celebrated clause concerning the " Assiento," see sect. 479. 366 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV [§ 408 had bankrupted the country, and the cries of his wretched sub- jects, clamoring for bread, could not be shut out of the royal chamber. Death, too, had invaded the palace, striking down the Dauphin and also two grandsons of Louis, leaving as the nearest heir to the throne his great-grandson, a mere child. On the morning of September i, 171 5, the Grand Monarch breathed his last, bequeathing to this boy of five years a kingdom overwhelmed with debt and filled with misery, with threatening vices, and dangerous discontent. He seemed at the last moment to be sensible of the mistakes and faults of his reign, for his dying charge to the little prince who was to succeed him was as follows: "Do not follow the bad example which I have set you. I have undertaken war too lightly, and have continued it from vanity. Do not imitate me, but be a pacific prince, and let your chief occupation be to relieve your subjects.'' The tidings of the king's death, instead of being received by his subjects with tears, was received with an outburst of rejoicing. A satirist of the time declared that " the people had shed too many tears during his life to have any left for his death." 408. The Court of Louis XIV. The court of the Grand Mon- arch was the most extravagantly magnificent that Europe has ever seen. Never since Nero spread his Golden House over the burnt district of Rome and ensconcing himself amid its luxurious appointments exclaimed, "Now I am housed as a man ought to be," had prince or king so ostentatiously lavished upon himself the wealth of an empire. Louis had half a dozen palaces, the most costly of which was that at Versailles. Here he created, in what was originally a desert, a beautiful miniature universe of which he was the center, the resplendent sun — he chose the sun as his emblem — around which all revolved and from which all received light and life. Upon the central building and its adjuncts he spent fabulous sums, — what would probably be equal to more than a hundred million dollars with us. Here were gathered the beauty, wit, and learning of France. The royal household numbered over fifteen thousand persons, all living in costly and luxurious idleness at the expense of the people. §409] LITERATURE UNDER LOUIS XIV 367 One element of this enormous family was the great lords of the old feudal aristocracy. Dispossessed of their ancient power and wealth, they were content now to fill a place in the royal house- hold, — to be the king's pensioners and the elegant embellishment of his court. "A military staff on a furlough for a century or more, around a commander-in-chief who gives fashionable enter- tainments, is," says Taine, "the principle and summary of the habits of society under the ancient regime." As can easily be imagined, the court life of this period was shamefully corrupt. Vice, however, was gilded. The most scanda- lous immoralities were made attractive by the glitter of superficial accomplishment and by exquisite suavity and polish of manner. But notwithstanding its insincerity and immorality, the brilliancy of the court of Louis dazzled all Europe. The neighboring courts imitated its manners and emulated its extravagances. In all matters of taste and fashion France gave laws to the continent, and the French language became the court language of the civilized world. 409. Literature under Louis XIV, Although Louis himself was not a scholar, he gave a most liberal encouragement to men of letters, thereby making his reign the Augustan Age of French literature. In this patronage Louis was not unselfish. He honored and befriended poets and writers of every class, because thus he extended the reputation of his court. These writers, pensioners of his bounty, filled all Europe with praises of the great king, and thus made the most ample and grateful return to Louis for his favor and liberality. Almost every species of literature was cultivated by the French writers of this era, yet it was in the province of the drama that the most eminent names appeared. The three great names here are those of Corneille (i 606-1 684), Racine (i 639-1 699), and Moliere^ (162 2-1 673). 1 Among other world-renowned French writers, philosophers, prelates, and orators who adorned the age of Louis XIV were Descartes (1596-1650), the father of modern philosophy; Pascal (1623-1662), the prodigy in mathematics and the author of the famous Provincial Letters; La Bruyere (1645-1696), novehst and unrivaled depicter of character and manners; Madame de S6vigne (1626-1696), the brilliant letter writer, 368 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV [§ 410 410. Relation of the Reign of Louis XIV to the Revolution of 1789. "If it be asked," says the historian Von Hoist, "who did the most towards the destruction of the ancient regime, the correct answer is, beyond all question, Louis XIV, its greatest representative." Louis discredited absolute monarchy by his shameful misuse of his unlimited power. His many wars and his extravagant expenditures on an idle and profligate court weighed France down with crushing and intolerable burdens. It was the vast mass of misery and suff-ering created by his acting on the monstrous doctrine that "the many are made for the use of one" that did much to prepare the minds and hearts of the French people for the great Revolution. 411. Decline of the French Monarchy under Louis XV (1715-1774). The supremacy of the House of Bourbon passed away forever with Louis XIV. In passing from the reign of the Grand Monarch to that of his successor, we pass from the strong- est and outwardly most brilliant reign in French history to the weakest' and most humiliating. Louis XV was a despot without possessing any of the possible virtues of a despot. During his reign the French nation made a swift descent towards the abyss of the Revolution of 1789. For the first eight years of the reign affairs were in the hands of the Duke of Orleans, who was regent during the king's minor- ity. He was a corrupt man, a man absolutely shameless in his vices. Probably Rome in the days of the worst Caesars witnessed nothing in the way of reckless and riotous living to surpass what France witnessed under what is known as the Regency. In 1723 the prince's minority ended and he assumed the gov- ernment. The atmosphere in, which he had been brought up had wholly corrupted a nature seemingly prone to evil. He was com- pletely under the influence of his mistresses, of whom the most notorious was Madame de Pompadour. The loves, the hates, and whose correspondence forms to-day a prized portion of French literature and constitutes a treasure of information for the court historian; Bossuet (1627-1704), the eloquent court preacher and champion of divine-right l o rt s o V o c i c E o o (U U o fc( bfl 2 TS a. ^ o X i ^ i! U w ■"■ ^ >- ^c u 5 c w w o X o u H 1 t-l 3 O b o «+H 3 O CJ o « < ■73 C 01 M 3 a 0) J5 o u > a )-• ^ 4J 2 1> 43 ?5 >. 11 o 4J J= o ^ S Q .s O l2 3 is o c (U C a; a J O J2 1 o 1 1) H X fcO c ^ 72 2 M J2 O •^ "* U) -C u 4) ti (J J3 W) 2 - ^ H E §442] THE COVENANTERS 391 The Five-Mile Act (1665) forbade any nonconformist minister who refused to swear that it is unlawful to take arms against the king under any circumstances, and that he never would attempt to make any change in Church or State government, to approach, "unless only in passing upon the road," within five miles of any city, corporate town, or borough sending members to Parliament, or of any place where he had once ministered. 442. The Covenanters. In Scotland the attempt to suppress conventicles and introduce Episcopacy was stoutly resisted by the Covenanters (sect. 419), who insisted on their right to worship God in their own way. They were therefore subjected to persecu- tions most cruel and unrelenting. They were hunted by English troopers over their native moors and among the wild recesses of their mountains, whither they secretly retired for prayer and wor- ship. The tales of the sufferings of the Scotch Covenanters at the hands of the English Protestants form a most harrowing chapter of the records of the ages of religious persecution. 443. The Plague and the Great Fire. Early in the summer of 1665 London was swept by a woeful plague, the most terrible visitation the city had known since the Black Death in the Middle Ages (sect. 196). Within six months one hundred thousand of the population perished. The plague was followed the next year by a great fire, which destroyed over thirteen thousand houses, eighty-nine churches, and a vast number of public buildings. The disaster was a bless- ing in disguise. The burned districts were rebuilt in a more sub- stantial way, with broader streets and more airy residences, so that London became a more beautiful and healthful city than would have been possible without the fire.^ 444. Charles' Intrigues with Louis XIV; "the Popish Plot" (i678). Charles inclined to the Roman Catholic worship, and wished to reestablish the Catholic Church, because he thought it more favorable than the Anglican to such a scheme of government 1 One of the churches destroyed was St. Paul's Cathedral, which was rebuilt with great magnificence. Its designer was the eminent architect, Sir Christopher Wren, near whose tomb within the building is this inscription : Si t>iomtmentiim rcqtibis, circmnspice, " If you seek his monument, look around." 392 THE STUARTS AND THE REVOLUTION [§ 445 as he aimed to set up in England. To reach his end he entered into secret negotiations with Louis XIV of France. The excited state of the pubUc mind, caused by rumors of the king's intrigues, led to a serious delusion and panic. A report was started that the Catholics had planned for England a St. Bar- tholomew. Each day the rumors of the conspiracy grew more wild and exaggerated. Informers sprang up on every hand, each with a more terrifying story than -"^"^^-^ the preceding. One of these wit- nesses, Titus Oates by name, a most infamous person, gained an extraor- dinary notoriety in exposing the imaginary plot. Many Catholics, convicted solely on the testimony of perjured witnesses, became the un- fortunate victims of the delusion and fraud. 445. The Habeas Corpus Act (i679). The year following the " Popish Plot " Parliament passed the celebrated Habeas Corpus Act. This statute was intended to render more effectual the ancient and _ „ TT .r valued writ of habeas corpus, which Fig. 79. Charles II. (After '■ ' the painting by S/r Peter Lely) ^^s designed to protect the personal liberty of Englishmen, but which the king's courts and sheriffs were rendering well-nigh useless through their evasions and shifts. The law, which is based on articles of Magna Carta, is so carefully and ingeniously drawn that it is almost impossible for its provisions to be evaded in any way. It gives every person almost absolute security against illegal deten- tion in prison, and is the strongest safeguard against the attempts of a despotic ruler upon the liberty of those who may have in- curred his displeasure. It has been the model of all laws of like import throughout the Anglo-Saxon world. §446] JAMES' ACCESSION 393 Reign of James the Second (1685-16 88) 446. James' Accession; his Despotic Course. Charles was followed by his brother James, whose rule was destined to be short and troubled/ Like all the other Stuarts, James held exalted notions of the divine right of kings to rule as they please, and at once set about carrying out these ideas in a most reckless man- ner. Notwithstanding he had given solemn assurances that he would uphold the Anglican Church, he straightway set about the reestablishment of the Roman Catholic worship. He arbitrarily prorogued and dissolved Parliament. The High Commission Court of Elizabeth, which had been abolished by Parliament, he practically restored in a new tribunal presided over by the infamous Jeffreys. The despotic course of the king raised up enemies on all sides. No party or sect, save the most zealous Catholics, stood by him. The Tory gentry were in favor of royalty indeed, but not of tyranny. Thinking to make friends of the Protestant dissenters, James issued a decree known as the Declaration of Indulgence, whereby he suspended all the laws against nonconformists. This edict all the clergy were ordered to read from their pulpits. Almost to a man they refused to do so. Seven bishops even dared to send the king a petition and remonstrance against his uncon- stitutional proceedings. The petitioners were thrust into the Tower, and soon afterward were brought to trial on the charge of "seditious libel." The nation was now thoroughly aroused, and the greatest excitement prevailed while the trial was progressing. Judges and jury were overawed by the popular demonstration, and the bishops were acquitted. 447. The Revolution of 1688 and the Declaration of Rights. The crisis which it was easy to see was impending was hastened 1 James was barely seated upon the throne before the Duke of Monmouth, an ille- gitimate son of Charles II, raised the standard of rebellion. Terrible vengeance was wreaked upon all in any way connected with the movement. The notorious Chief Jus- tice Jeffreys, in what were called the " Bloody Assizes," condemned to death 320 persons and sentenced 841 to transportation. Jeffreys conducted the so-called trials with in- credible brutality. See Colby's Selections from the Sotaxes of English History^ No. 81. 394 THE STUARTS AND THE REVOLUTION [§ 447 by the birth of a prince, as this cut off the hope of the nation that the crown upon James' death would descend to his Protes- tant daughter ]\Iary, now wife of William of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland. The most active of the king's enemies therefore resolved to bring about at once what they had been inclined to wait to have accomplished by his death. They sent an invitation to Prince William urging him to come over with such force as he could muster and take possession of the government, pledging him the united and hearty support of the English nation. William accepted the invitation and straightway began to gather his fleet and army for the enterprise. The moment the ships of the Prince touched the shores of the island, the army and people went over to him in a body. The king was absolutely deserted. Flight alone was left him. The queen with her infant child was secretly embarked for France, where the king soon after joined her. The last act of the king before leaving England was to disband the army and fling the Great Seal into the Thames.^ Almost the first act of the Prince was to issue a call for a con- vention to provide for the permanent settlement of the crown. This convention did not repeat the error of the Parliament that restored Charles II and give the crown to the Prince and Princess without proper safeguards and guaranties for the conduct of the government according to the ancient laws of the kingdom. They drew up the celebrated Declaration of Rights, which plainly rehearsed all the old rights and liberties of Englishmen; denied the right of the king to lay taxes or maintain an army without the consent of Parliament; and asserted that freedom of debate was the inviolable privilege of both the Lords and the Commons. William and Mary were required to accept this declaration and to agree to rule in accordance with its provisions, whereupon they were declared King and Queen of England. In such manner was effected what is known in history as "the Glorious Revolution of 1688." 1 In F"rance the self-exiled monarch and his family were kindly received by Louis, who kept up for tliem the shadow of a court in one of the royal palaces near Paris. §448] THE REACTION FROM PURITANISM 395 Literature of the Restoration 448. The Reaction from Puritanism; Record of this Re- action in the Literature of the Period. The reigns of the restored Stuarts mark the most corrupt period in the Hfe of Eng- lish society. The low standard of morals and the general profli- gacy in manners, especially among the higher classes, are in part attributable to the demoralizing example of a shockingly licentious and shameless court, but in a larger measure, perhaps, should be viewed as the natural reaction from the over-stern, repellent Puritanism of the preceding period. The Puritans undoubtedly erred in their indiscriminate and wholesale denunciation of all forms of harmless amusement and innocent pleasure. They not only rebuked gaming, drinking, and profanity, and stopped bear baiting^ but they closed all the theaters, forbade the Maypole dances of the people, condemned as paganish the observance of Christmas, frowned upon sculpture as idolatrous and indecent, and considered any color or adornment in dress as utterly in- compatible with a proper sense of the seriousness of life. Now all this was laying too heavy a burden upon human nature. The revolt and reaction came, as come they must. Upon the Restoration society swung to the opposite extreme. In place of the solemn-visaged, psalm-singing Roundhead we have the gay roistering Cavalier. Faith gives place to infidelity, sobriety to drunkenness, purity to profligacy, economy to extravagance, Bible study, psalm singing, and exhorting to theatergoing, profanity, and carousing. The literature of the age is a perfect record of this revolt against the "sour severity" of Puritanism and a faithful reflection of the unblushing immorality of the times. The book most read and praised by Charles II and his court, and the one that best repre- sents the spirit of the victorious party, was the satirical poem of Hudibras by Samuel Butler. The object of the work was to sati- rize the cant and excesses of Puritanism, just as the Don Quixote 1 Macaulay humorously insists that the Puritans opposed bear baiting not because it gave pain to the bear but because it gave pleasure to the spectator. 396 THE STUARTS AND THE REVOLUTION [§449 of Cervantes burlesques the extravagances and follies of chivalry. Butler, however, displays a spirit of vindictiveness and hatred towards the object of his wit of which we find no trace in the genial Spanish humorist. So immoral and indecent are the works of the writers for the stage of this period that these authors have acquired the desig- nation of " the corrupt dramatists." Holding a prominent place among them was the poet Dryden. IV. REIGN OF WILLIAM AND MARY (1689-1702) 449. The Bill of Rights (December 16, 1689). The Revo- lution of 1 688 and the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary marks an epoch in the constitutional history of England. It settled forever the long dispute between king and Parliament, — and settled it in favor of the latter. The Bill of Rights, which was substantially the articles of the Declaration of Rights framed into a law, and which was one of the earliest acts of the first Parliament under William and Mary, in effect " transferred sov- ereignty from the king to the House of Commons." By shutting out James from the throne and bringing in William, and by the exclusion of Catholic heirs from the succession, it plainly announced that the kings of England derive their right and title to rule not from the accident of birth but from the will of the people, and that Parliament may depose any king and, excluding from the throne his heirs, settle the crown anew in another family. This uprooted quite thoroughly the doctrine that princes have a divine and inalienable right to the throne of their ancestors, and when once seated on that throne rule simply as the vicegerents of God, above all human censure and control. We shall hear constantly less and less in England of this theory of government which for so long a time overshadowed and threatened the freedom of the English people. The separate provisions of the bill, following closely the language of the Declaration, denied the dispensing power of the crown, — that is to say, the authority claimed by the Stuarts of annulling a § 450] SETTLEMENT OF THE REVENUE 397 law by a royal edict; forbade the king to usurp the functions of the courts of justice, to levy taxes, or to keep an army in time of peace without the consent of Parliament ; asserted the right of the people to petition for redress of grievances and freely to choose their representatives; reaffirmed, as one of the ancient privileges of both Houses, perfect freedom of debate; and demanded that Parliament should be frequently assembled. Mindful of Charles' attempt to reestablish the Catholic wor- ship, the framers of this same Bill of Rights further declared that all persons holding communion with the Church of Rome or uniting in marriage with a Catholic should be " forever incapable to possess, inherit, or enjoy the crown and government of the realm." Since the Revolution of 1688 no Catholic has worn the English crown. All these provisions now became inwrought into the English constitution and from this time forward were recognized as part of the fundamental law of the realm. 450. Settlement of the Revenue. The articles of the Bill of Rights were made effectual by appropriate legislation. One thing which had made the Tudors and Stuarts so independent of Parlia- ment was the custom which prevailed of granting to each king, at the beginning of his reign, the ordinary revenue of the kingdom during his life. This income, with what could be raised by gifts, benevolences, monopolies, and similar expedients, had enabled despotically inclined sovereigns to administer the government, wage war, and engage in any wild enterprise just as individual caprice or ambition might dictate. All this was now changed. Parliament, instead of granting William the revenue for life, restricted the grant to a single year, and made it a penal offense for the officers of the treasury to pay out money otherwise than ordered by Parliament. We cannot overestimate the importance of this change in the English constitution. It is this control of the purse of the nation which has made the House of Commons — for all money bills must originate in the Lower House — the actual seat of govern- ment, constituting them the arbiters of peace and war. 398 THE STUARTS AND THE REVOLUTION [§ 451 451. James attempts to recover the Throne: Battle of the Boyne (i69o). The first years of William's reign were disturbed by the efforts of James to regain the throne which he had abandoned. In these attempts he was aided by Louis XIV and by the Jacobites/ the name given to the adherents of the exile king. The Irish gave William the most trouble, but in the decisive battle of the Boyne he gained a great victory over them. The results of the battle of the Boyne broke the spirit of the revolt, and soon all Ireland acknowledged the authority of William. The Protestant Irish, or Orangemen, as they are called, still keep fresh the memory of the great victory by the celebration, even in the cities of the New W^orld, of the anniversary of the event. 452, Plans and Death of William. The motive which had most strongly urged William to respond to the invitation of the English revolutionists to assume the crown of England was his desire to turn the arms and resources of that country against the great champion of despotism and the dangerous neighbor of his own native country, Louis XIV of France. The conduct of Louis in lending aid to James in his attempt to regain his crown had so enraged the English that they were quite ready to support William in his wars against him, and so the English and Dutch sailors fought side by side against the common enemy in the war of the Palatinate (sect. 405) . A short time after the close of that war, broke out the War of the Spanish Succes- sion (sect. 406). In the midst of preparations for this war William was fatally hurt by being thrown from his horse (1702).- Selections from the Sources. In opposition to Fit.mer, Patriarcha (see Sources for Chapter XXVI), read Milton, The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates. Of the utmost importance for the period of the Civil War and the Common- wealth are The Letters and Speeches of Olii'er Cromwelf with elucidations by Thomas Carlyle (ed. by S. C. Lomas). For additional material, see Henderson, E. F., Side Lights on English History, pp. 33-214; Robinson, J. H., Readings in European History, vol. ii, chap, xxx ; and Kendall, E. K., Source-Book, chaps, xi-xv. 1 From Jacoluis, Latin for "James." - Mary had preceded William, having died in 1694, and as they left no children, the crown descended to the Princess .\nne, Mary's sister, the wife of Prince George of Denmark. REFERENCES 399 Secondary Works. Gardiner, S. R., Histofy of England (1603 -1642), 10 vols. ; History of the Great Civil War, 4 vols. ; History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 4 vols. ; Oliver Cronnvell and The First Tivo Stuarts and the Puritan Revolution. (Dr. Gardiner made this period especially his own. His works are of the highest authority and value.) Macaulay, T. B., Ihe History of England fvm the Accession of James II; also his Essays on Milton and John "Hampden. Morley, J., Oliver Cromwell. Harri.son, F., Oliver Crom- well. Hale, E., The Fall of the Stuarts. Wakeman, H. O., The Church of the Puritans. Trevelyan, G. M., England under the Stuarts. Topics for Class Reports, i. The character and traits of James I: Hen- derson, E. F., Side Lights on English History, pp. 33-42. 2. Trial and execution of Charles I : Henderson, E. F., Side Lights on English History, pp. 85-92. 3. The Irish " Cromwellian Settlement" : Prendergast, J. P., Cromwellian Settle- ment of Ireland. 4. Did Cromwell desire to be king: Lee, G. C, Source-Book of English History, pp. 389-392. CHAPTER XXIX THE RISE OF RUSSIA: PETER THE GREAT (1682-1725) 453. General Remarks. We left Russia at the close of the Middle Ages a semi-savage, semi-Asiatic power, so hemmed in by barbarian bands and hostile races as to be almost entirely cut off from intercourse with the civilized world (sect. 240). In the present chapter we shall tell how her boundaries were pushed out to the sea on every side, — to the Caspian, to the Euxine, and to the Baltic, — and how she was initiated as a member of the European family of nations. The main interest of our story will gather about Peter the Great, whose almost superhuman strength and energy it was that first lifted the great barbarian nation to a prominent place among the Western states. 454. Accession of Peter the Great (1682). The royal line established in Russia by the old Norseman Rurik (sect. 83) ended in 1598.^ Then followed a period of confusion and of foreign invasion, known as the Troublous Times, after which Michael Romanoff, the first of the celebrated family that bears his name, was chosen Tsar (1613). For more than half a century after the accession of the Romanoffs there is little either in the genius or in the deeds of any of the line calculated to draw our special attention. But towards the close of the seventeenth century there ascended the Russian throne "a man of miracles," — a man whose genius and energy and achievements instantly drew the gaze of his contem- poraries, and who has elicited the admiration and wonder of all succeeding generations. This was Peter I, known as Peter the 1 The most noteworthy ruler of this line during the modern era was Ivan the Terri- ble (i|;3;;-i5S4'). He drove out the Tatars (sect. 159) and e.xtended and consolidated the Russian dominions. 400 §455] PETER'S CHARACTER 401 Great, one of the remarkable characters of history. He was but seventeen years of age when he assumed the full responsibilities of government. 455. Peter's Character. And here, as Peter steps upon the stage to play his great part in the drama of history, we must notice what sort of man he was. Like Philip II of Spain, he was the true child of his race. In him all the forces of the Russian race life seem to have been con- centrated. He has been likened to the legendary heroes of the Russian and the Gothic race. He was a man of ele- mental forces and pas- sions. He had fits of Berserker rage, — wild frenzies during which the life of no one about him was safe. He in- dulged in astonishing drinking bouts and de- lighted in buffoonery and coarse jests. But over against Peter's vices were set many virtues. He worked strenuously at his kingly trade, not alone from sheer love of work but because work was to him a duty. He was not without truly royal thoughts, like those of the best of the Enlightened Despots, in regard to the nature of the kingly office. He is said to have uttered this sentiment : '' I am the first servant of my people." And this was not mere sentiment with him, as the following story witnesses. One day he visited a park which he Fig. 80. Peter the Great. (After a painting by Karel de Moor) 402 THE RISE OF RUSSIA [§ 456 had made, and was surprised to find no one in it. "Do the people suppose," he inquired, "that I have set so many hands at work and spent so much money simply for my own benefit?" And then he ordered proclamation to be made that the park belonged to the people and that they were to use it as their own. 456. The State of Russia when Peter assumed the Govern- ment. In order to understand what Peter did for Russia we must acquaint ourselves with the condition of the country when he took into his hands the shaping of its destinies. In the first place, we should note the geographical isolation of Russia. At this time she possessed only one seaport, Archangel, on the White Sea, which harbor for a large part of the year is sealed against vessels by the extreme cold of that high latitude. The Tatars and Turks cut her off from the Black Sea ; the terri- tories of the Swedes and the Poles intervened between her and the Baltic. She looked towards Asia, to which continent she in fact belonged. When in 1648 the European states readjusted their affairs in the great Westphalian peace, Russia had no lot or part in the convention, not simply because she had stood aloof from the Thirty Years' War but also because she v/as not then regarded as forming a part of Europe. In the second place, we should recall how Russia had been actually Asiaticized through her long subjection to the Mongol hordes (sect. 159). That tide of conquest, it is true, had now ebbed. But "the flood receding from the soil had left behind it, like a heavy deposit, all its stable elements, — forms of govern- ment, customs, and habits of thought." The Russia which had emerged was essentially Asiatic and barbarous. 457. Peter's Task. Peter's task was to break Russia's isolation and to undo the work of the Tatar conquerors, — to make again European what they had made Asiatic. Hence one essential part of Peter's programme was to wrest the Euxine from the hands of the Turks and the eastern shores of the Baltic from the grasp of the Swedes. Thus would he gain for Russia her first great need, — access to the sea. Thus would he break that isolation which had done so much to keep the country in the rear of the nations of western Europe in the march of progress. § 458] CONQUEST OF AZOV 403 Another essential article of Peter's policy was the introduction into Russia of the ideas, customs, arts, and industries of western Europe, — in a word, to make Russia in her thoughts, ideals, and institutions a member of the European family of nations. 458. The Conquest of Azov (i696). In 1695 Peter sailed down the Don and made an attack upon Azov, the key to the Black Sea, but was unsuccessful. The next year, however, repeat- ing the attempt, he succeeded, and thus gained his first harbor on the south. No sooner had Peter secured his new harbor than he set in earnest about the construction of a marine fleet, in which enter- prise he was aided by shipwrights whom he had called from Venice and other Western states. So energetically was the work pushed that in less than two years a great fleet of warships was floating upon the streams running to the Sea of Azov. 459. Peter's First Visit to the West' (i697-i698). With a view to advancing his naval projects, Peter about this time sent a large number of young Russian nobles to Italy, Holland, and England to acquire in those countries a knowledge of naval affairs, forbidding them to return before they had become good sailors. Not satisfied with thus sending to foreign parts his young nobil- ity, Peter formed the somewhat startling resolution of going abroad himself and learning the art of shipbuilding by personal experience in the dockyards of Holland. Accordingly, in the year 1697, leaving the government in the hands of three nobles, he set out for the Netherlands. Peter, with his uncouth barbarian suite, made a great sensation as he traveled westward. His passage with his court was like the passage of a horde of untamed Cossacks. Peter himself often acted like a savage and made his entertainers no end of trouble and anxiety. At Konigsberg he asked to see a man broken on the wheel. The authorities explained to him that they were unable to gratify his wish, since there was no criminal at hand condemned to undergo that form of punishment. Peter was astonished that that should stand in the way of his seeing how the instrument worked. "What a fuss about killing a man! " he said. 1 Peter made a second European tour in 1716-1717. 404 THE RISE OF RUSSIA [§459 The palaces in which Peter and his company were lodged were left in a condition that could hardly have been worse had they been subjected to a regular siege. Prudent hosts removed every- thing breakable from the apartments designed for the accommo- dation of the "barbarian court." ^ Upon reaching the Netherlands Peter proceeded to Zaandam, a place a short distance from Amsterdam. After a week's stay here, in order to escape the annoyance of the crowds, Peter left the place and went to the docks of the East India Company at Amsterdam, who set about building a frigate that he might see the whole process of constructing a vessel from the beginning. Here he worked for four months, being known among his fellow- workmen as Baas or Master Peter. It was not alone the art of naval architecture in which Peter interested himself; he attended lectures on anatomy, studied sur- gery, gained some skill in pulling teeth and in bleeding, inspected paper mills, flour mills, printing presses, and factories, and visited cabinets, hospitals, and museums, thus acquainting himself with every industry and art that he thought might be advantageously introduced into his own country. From Holland Master Peter went to England to study her superior naval establishment and to learn "the why" and "the wherefore." Here he was fittingly received by King William HI, who had presented Peter while in Holland with a splendid yacht 1 Wilhelmina, the sister of Frederick the Great of Prussia, who saw Peter and his company at Berlin when the Tsar was on his second visit to the West some years after this, gives in her Memoirs the following amusing account of what happened at the summer palace, near the capital, where Peter and his suite were lodged. Recounting the prudent measures taken by the queen to minimize the inevitable damage, she writes : " In order to prevent the mischief which the Russian gentlemen had done in other places where they had lodged, the queen ordered the principal furniture, and whatever was most brittle, to be removed." And this is what she has to say of the condition of the palace after the Russian guests had left it : " What desolation was there visible ! I never beheld anything like it ; indeed, I think Jerusalem after its siege and capture could not have presented such another scene. This elegant palace was left by them in so ruinous a state that the queen was absolutely obliged to rebuild the whole of it." A similar story comes from England. The English government lodged Peter and his court in the fine residence of the celebrated writer John Evelyn. The owner of the premises felt constrained to ask the government to pay for the injury they had sustained. The damages were carefully assessed and amounted to £^'^0 9s. 6d. § 460] PETER CREATES A NEW ARMY 405 fully equipped, and who now made his guest extremely happy by getting up for him a naval review. Returning from England to Holland, Peter went thence to Vienna, intending to visit Venice; but hearing of an insurrection at home, incited by dislike of his reforms, he set out in haste for Moscow. 460. Peter disbands the Streltsi and creates a New Army after Western Models. The revolt which had hastened Peter's return from the West was an uprising among the Streltsi, a body of militia, numbering twenty or thirty thousand, who formed the nearest thing to a standing Russian army. In their ungovernable turbulence they remind us of the Pretorians of the Roman em- perors or the Janizaries of the later Turkish sultans. The present mutiny had been suppressed before Peter's arrival, so that there was nothing now remaining for him to do save to mete out punish- ment to the ringleaders, of whom a thousand or more were put to death with the crudest tortures. Peter beheaded some of the wretches with his own hands, and compelled the nobles of his court also to help strike off the heads of the condemned. Nothing better illustrates the barbarism of the Russia of Peter's time than the fact that his acting thus as an executioner never shocked his subjects in the least. This revolt settled Peter in his determination to rid himself altogether of the insolent and turbulent Streltsi. Their place was taken by a well-disciplined force trained according to the tactics of the Western nations. 461. Peter's Other Reforms. The reorganization of the Rus- sian military system was only one of the many reforms undertaken by Peter. The variety of these was so great, and Peter's manner of effecting them so harsh and strenuous, that, as one has aptly expressed it, he fairly "knouted the Russians into civilization." As outgrowths of what he had seen or heard or had had sug- gested to him on his foreign tour, Peter issued a new coinage, introduced schools, built factories, constructed roads and canals, established a postal system, opened mines, framed laws modeled after those of the West, reformed the Russian calendar, and changed the government of the towns in such a way as to give 4o6 THE RISE OF RUSSIA [§462 the citizens a voice in the management of their local affairs, as he had observed was done in the Netherlands and in England. Most important in its political as well as religious consequences was Peter's reform in the ecclesiastical system. At this time the Russian Church formed a sort of state within the state. The head of the Church, bearing the title of Patriarch, was a kind of Rus- sian pope. Through his censorship of the temporal authority and his interference in matters secular, he hampered and embarrassed the government. Peter put an end to this state of things. He abolished the patriarchate, and in its place created an adminis- trative body, appointed by himself and called the Holy Synod, to take charge of ecclesiastical affairs. Thus the last restraint upon the authority of the Tsar was destroyed. 462. Charles XII of Sweden; the Swedish Monarchy at his Accession. Peter's history now becomes intertwined with that of a man quite as remarkable as himself, — Charles XII of Sweden. Charles was but fifteen years of age when, in 1697, the death of his father called him to the Swedish throne.^ Sweden was at this time one of the great powers of Europe. The basis of her greatness had been laid during the period of the Reformation. The traditions of the hero Gustavus Adolphus cast a halo about the Swedish throne. The ideal of this great sovereign had been the creation of a state embracing all the lands bordering upon the Baltic. In a certain measure this magnificent ideal had been realized. The Baltic was virtually a Swedish lake, — the Mediterranean of an empire which aspired to be the mistress of the North. But unfortunately Sweden could not maintain such a sea empire without hemming in and cramping in their normal development, territorial or commercial, various neighboring states, — in particu- lar, Russia, Poland, and Denmark. In this situation lay hidden the germ of the long and obstinate so-named Swedish Wars, which were essentially a struggle for the control of the Baltic. 1 The government of Sweden had now become an absolute autocracy. In 1693 the Riksdag, or Diet, had proclaimed the Swedish monarch to be an " all-commanding sovereign-king responsible for his actions to none on earth, but with authority as a Christian king to rule as it seemeth to him best." §463] THE BATTLE OF NARVA 407 The accession to the throne of the young and inexperienced Charles offered to the jealous enemies and watchful rivals of Sweden seemingly too good an opportunity to be lost for pushing her back into the northern peninsula. Accordingly three sover- eigns, Frederick IV of Denmark, Augustus the Strong, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, and Peter the Great of Russia, leagued against him for the purpose of appropriating such por- tions of his dominions as they severally coveted. 463. The Battle of Narva (1700). But the conspirators had formed a wrong estimate of the young Swedish monarch. Not-' withstanding the insane follies in which he was accustomed to indulge, he possessed talent; especially had he a remarkable aptitude for military affairs, though lacking many of the qualities of a great commander. With a well-trained force — a veteran army that had not yet forgotten the discipline of the hero Gustavus Adolphus — Charles now threw himself first upon the Danes,, and in two weeks forced the Danish king to sue for peace; then he turned his little army of eight thousand men upon the Russian forces of twenty thou- sand, which were besieging the city of Narva, on the Gulf of Finland, and inflicted upon them a most ignominious defeat. 464. The Founding of St. Petersburg (1703). After chastis- ing the Tsar at Narva the Swedish king turned south and marched into Poland to punish Augustus for the part he had taken in the conspiracy against him. While Charles was busied in this quarter, Peter, having made good by strenuous exertions his loss in men and arms at Narva, was gradually making himself master of the Swedish lands on the Baltic, and upon a marshy island at the mouth of the Neva was laying the foundations of the city of St. Petersburg (now Petrograd), which he proposed to make the western gateway of his empire. The spot selected by Peter as the site of his new capital was low and subject to inundation,^ so that the labor requisite to make it fit for building purposes was simply enormous. But 1 In selecting such a marshy site for his capital Peter may have been aiming to repro- duce Amsterdam, in which city he had spent so much of his time when abroad. 4o8 THE RISE OF RUSSIA [§465 difficulties never dismayed Peter. He gathered workmen from all parts of his dominions, cut down and dragged to the spot whole forests for piles and buildings, and caused a city to rise as if by magic from the morasses. The splendid capital stands to-day one of the most impressive monuments of the indomitable and despotic energy of Peter. 465. Invasion of Russia by Charles XII; the Battle of Poltava (i709). Having defeated the armies of King Augustus and given his crown to another, Charles was now ready to turn his attention once more to the Tsar. With an army of barely forty thousand men he invaded Russia, and finally laid siege to the town of Poltava. Peter marched to its relief, and the two armies met in decisive combat in front of the place. The Swedish army was virtually annihilated. Escaping from the field with a few followers, Charles fled southward and found an asylum in Turkey.^ 466. Russia's Title to Baltic Land confirmed; Peter's Death and Work. In 1721 the Swedish Wars which had so long dis- turbed Europe were brought to an end by the Peace of Nystad, which confirmed Russia's title to all the eastern Baltic lands that Peter had wrested from the Swedes. The undisputed possession of so large a strip of the Baltic seaboard vastly increased the im- portance and influence of Russia, which now assumed a place among the leading European powers. Peter's eventful reign was now drawing to a close. Four years after the end of the Swedish Wars, being then in his fifty-fourth year, he died of a fever brought on by his excesses and care- less exposures. It was characteristic of his lack of prudence and foresight that he left no will nor any directions regarding the succession to the throne. Probably in the case of no other European nation has any single personality left so deep and abiding an impress upon the national 1 After spending five years among the Turks, during which time he acted in a manner which abundantly justified liis title of the " Madman of the North," Charles returned to Sweden. Soon after his return he was killed in battle. At the time of his death Charles was only thirty-six years of age. Perhaps we can understand him best by regarding him, as his biographer VolUtire suggests, as an old Norse sea king born ten centuries after his time. He was, indeed, " the last of the Vikings." § 467] REIGN OF CATHERINE THE GREAT 409 life and history as Peter the Great left upon Russian society and Russian history. He planted throughout his vast empire the seeds of Western civilization, and by his giant strength lifted the great nation which destiny had placed in his hands out of Asiatic barbarism into the society of the European peoples. 467. Reign of Catherine the Great (i762-i796); the Parti- tion of Poland. From the death of Peter on to the close of the eighteenth cen- tury the throne of Russia was held, for the greater part of the time, by women, most noted of whom was Catherine II, the Great, who was one of the most noted repre- sentatives of the En- lightened Despots of this period (sect. 396). But while a woman of great genius she had most serious faults of character, being un- scrupulous and in- credibly profligate. Carrying out ably the policy of Peter the Great, Catherine extended vastly the limits of Russian dominion and opened the country even more thoroughly than he had done to the entrance of Western influences. She was a genuine admirer of the French philosophers and was at pains to disseminate their teachings in her dominions. Aside from internal reforms, the most noteworthy matters of Catherine's reign were her conquest of the Crimea and her participation in the dismemberment of Poland. It was in the year 1783 that Catherine effected the subjugation and annexation to Russia of the Crimea. The possession of this Fig. 81. Catherine II of Russia. (After a portrait by Rosselin) 410 THE RISE OF RUSSIA [§ 467 peninsula gave Russia a foothold on the Black Sea, which once virtually secured by Peter the Great had been again lost through his misfortunes. This extension of the rule of the Muscovite to the Euxine was a matter of great moment to all eastern Europe; for now, as Freeman says, "the road through which so many Turanian invaders had pressed into the Aryan continent was blocked forever." On the west Catherine succeeded, by intrigue and the most shameful disregard of the law of nations, in greatly extending the limits of her dominions. This she effected at the expense of Poland, the partition of which state she planned in connection with Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria Theresa of Austria. On the first division, which was made in 1772, the royal robbers each took a portion of the spoils. This act of brigandage was con- summated in spite of the efforts of patriotic Poles for reform, the anarchical condition of the Polish state being the pretext of the despoiling sovereigns for their action.^ It is difficult to apportion rightly the blame among the partici- pants in this transaction. Maria Theresa seems to have been the only one connected with the iniquitous business who had any scruples of conscience respecting the act. She justly characterized the proposed partition as downright robbery, for a long time stood out against it, and yielded at last and took her portion only when she realized that she was powerless to prevent the others from carrying out the policy of dismemberment. In 1793 a second partition was made, this time between Russia and Prussia; and then, in 1795, after the suppression 1 The Polish constitution was a survival of the age of mediaeval feudal anarchy. In the struggle here between the royal power and the feudal nobility the aristocracy had triumphed and had reduced the kingly authority to the mere shadow of elective king- ship. One particular source of the anarchical state of things was a provision of the con- stitution which gave to every single member of the Diet the right and power to defeat any measure by his vote cast in opposition {libcrimi veto). Every noble was virtually a king. But it must be added that this anarchical state of the kingdom cannot be pleaded by the dismemberers of Poland in extenuation of their crime, for they in every possible way hampered all schemes of reform and fostered the anarchy because it ser\'ed their interests and furthered their plans to do so. Further, an admirable new constitution was drawn up for Poland in 1791, which might have made it a strong state had a chance been allowed. §468] REFERENCES 411 of a determined revolt of the Poles under the lead of the patriot Kosciuszko, a third and final division among the three powers completed the dismemberment of the unhappy state and erased its name from the map of Europe. The territory gained by Russia in the dismemberment of Poland brought her western frontier close alongside the civilization of central Europe. In Catherine's phrase Poland had become her "doormat," upon which she stepped when visiting the West. By the close of Catherine's reign Russia was beyond question one of the foremost powers of Europe and was henceforward to have a voice in all matters of general European concern. Selections from the Sources. Robinson, J. H., K^adiu^^s in Emvpeaii His- loiy, vol. ii, pp. 301-312. Secondary Works. Rambaud, A., History of Russia, 3 vols. Schuyler, E., Peter the Great, Emperor of Russia (the best biography of the great Tsar). For a shorter, delightfully written life, see Motley, J., Peter the Great. Morfill, W. R., Story of Russia, chaps, v-ix, and Stoiy of Poland, chap, xi (the last for the Partition of Poland). Bain, R. N., Charles XII. Topics for Class Reports, i. Why the battle of Poltava (Pultowa) is given a place among the decisive battles of history : Creasy, E. G., Decisive Battles of the World, chap. xii. 2. The founding of St. Petersburg: Rambaud, A., History of Russia, vol. ii, pp. 101-105. 3. Introduction of Western civilization into Russia : Seignobos, C, History of Conteinporajy Civilization, pp. 17-28. CHAPTER XXX THE RISE OF PRUSSIA : FREDERICK THE GREAT (1740-1786) 468. The Beginnings of Prussia. The nucleus of the Prussian kingdom was a little state in the north of Germany known as the Mark or Electorate of Brandenburg. Early in the fifteenth century it had come under the rule of the Hohenzollerns, a family destined to play a great part in later European history. Soon after the opening of the seventeenth century the importance of the state was greatly increased by the union with it of the Duchy of Prussia, a strong military state, under Polish suzerainty, on the Baltic shore. - 469. The Great Elector Frederick William (i64o-i688). Just before the close of the Thirty Years' War a strong man — Frederick William, better known as the "Great Elector" — came to the throne of the dual state. At the Peace of Westphalia he secured new territory, which greatly enhanced his power and prominence among the German princes. The Great Elector ruled for nearly half a century and left to his successor a strongly centralized authority. He was one of the most ideal representatives of the principle of absolute monarchy then so dominant. Like all absolute rulers, he placed his faith in soldiers and laid the basis of the military power of Prussia by the creation of a standing army. 470. How the Elector of Brandenburg acquired the Title of King of Prussia. Elector Frederick III (1688-1713), son of the Great Elector, was ambitious for the title of King, a dignity that the weight and influence won for the Prussian state by his 1 For the early history of this state see sect. 1 3S. Since 1525 the duchy had been an hereditary possession of a branch of the House of Hohenzollern. 412 § 471] FREDERICK WILLIAM I 413 father fairly justified him in seeking. He saw about him other princes less powerful than himself enjoying this dignity, and he too ''would be a king and wear a crown." It was necessary of course for Frederick to secure the consent of the Emperor, a matter of some difficulty, for the Catholic advisers of the Austrian court were bitterly opposed to having a Protestant prince thus honored and advanced. But the War of tTie Spanish Succession was just about to open, and the Emperor was extremely anxious to secure Frederick's assistance in the coming struggle. Therefore, on condition of his furnishing him aid in the war, the Emperor consented to Frederick's assuming the new title and dignity in the Duchy of Prussia, which, unlike Brandenburg, was not included in the Empire. Accordingly, early in the year 1 701, Frederick, amidst imposing ceremonies, was crowned and hailed as King at Kbnigsberg. Hitherto he had been Elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prussia; now he was Elector of Bran- denburg and King 0} Prussia. Thus was a new king born among the kings of Europe. Thus did the House of Hapsburg invest with royal dignity the rival House of Hohenzollern. The event is a landmark in German, and even in European, history. The cue of German history from this on is the growth of the power of the Prussian kings and their steady advance to imperial honors and to the control of the affairs of the German race. 471. Frederick William I (1713-1740). The son and suc- cessor of the first Prussian king, known as Frederick William I, was a most extraordinary character. He was a strong, violent, brutal man, full of the strangest freaks. He had a mania for big soldiers. With infinite expense and trouble he gathered a regi- ment of the tallest men he could find, who were known as the "Potsdam Giants." Not only were the Goliaths of his own dominions impressed into the service, but tall men in all parts of Europe were coaxed and hired to join the regiment. No present was so acceptable to Frederick William as a tall grenadier. On the other hand, nothing angered him more than any interference with his recruiting service. To the Dutch, who had hanged two 414 THE RISE OF RUSSIA [§472 of his recruiting sergeants and then later wanted from Prussia a famous scholar for one of their universities, he is said to have replied curtly, "No tall fellows, no professor." Rough, brutal tyrant though he was, Frederick William was an able ruler. He did much to consolidate the power of Prussia, and at his death left to his successor a considerably extended dominion and a splendidly drilled army of eighty thousand men. He was, as Carlyle calls him, the first great drillmaster of the Prussian nation. 472. Accession of Frederick the Great (i74o) ; his Youth. Frederick William was followed by his son Frederick II, known in history as Frederick the Great. Around his name gather events of world-wide interest for forty-six years just preceding the French Revolution. It was a rough nurture Frederick had received in the home of his brutal father. His sister Wilhelmina tells incredible tales of her own and her brother's treatment at the hands of their savage parent. He made the palace a veritable hell for them both. He threw plates from the table at their heads and kept them in con- stant fear for their lives. Frederick's fine tastes for music and art and reading exposed him in particular, to use the words of Wil- helmina, to his royal father's "customary endearments with his fist and cane." Frederick had a genius for war, and his father had prepared to his hand one of the most efficient instruments of that art since the time of the Roman legions The two great wars in which Frederick was engaged, and which raised Prussia to the first rank among the military powers of Europe, were the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. 473. War of the Austrian Succession (i740-i748). The very year that Frederick II ascended the Prussian throne the last of the direct male line of the Hapsburgs, the Emperor Charles VI, died. Now not long before his death Charles had bound all the leading powers of Europe to a sort of agreement called the Pragmatic Sanction, by the terms of which, in case he should leave no son, all his hereditary dominions should descend to his §474] THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 415 elder daughter, Maria Theresa.^ But no sooner was Charles dead than a number of princes each laid claim to all or to portions of the Hapsburg inheritance. Before any of these claimants, how- ever, had begun hostilities, Frederick, — whose father had guaran- teed the Pragmatic Sanction, — without any declaration of war, marched his army into Silesia and took forcible possession of that ' country. Frederick's act was an act of pure brigandage. He himself frankly tells posterity that the mixed motives under which he acted were a desire to augment his dominions, to render him- self and Prussia respected in Europe, and to "acquire fame." Almost all Europe was soon in arms. England, the Protestant Netherlands, and eventually Russia were drawn into the war as allies of Maria Theresa. The theater of the struggle came to embrace India and the French and English colonies in the New World. Macaulay's well-known words picture the world-wide range of the conflagration which Frederick's act had kindled: "In order that he might rob a neighbor," he says, "whom he had promised to defend, black men fought on the coast of Coromandel, and red men scalped each other by the Great Lakes of North America." The war went on until 1748, when it was closed by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Carlyle's summing up of the provisions of the various treaties of this peace can be easily remembered, and is not misleading as to the essentials: "To Frederick, Silesia; as to the rest, wholly as they were." 474. The Seven Years' War (1756-1 763). During the eight years of peace which now followed, Maria Theresa was busy form- ing a -league of the chief European powers against the unscrupu- lous despoiler of her dominions. Russia, Sweden, many of the states of the Germanic body, and France all ultimately entered into an alliance with the queen. Frederick could at first find no ally save England, — towards the close of the war Russia came for a short time to his side, — so that he was left almost alone to fight the armies of half the Continent.^ 1 The imperial crown could not of course be worn by her. 2 The population of Prussia at this time was about 5,000,000 ; the aggregate popula- tion of the states leagued against her is estimated at 100,000,000. 41 6 THE RISE OF RUSSIA [§474 The long war is known in European history as the Seven Years' War. At the very outset it became mixed with what in American history is called the French and Indian War. For a time fortune was on Frederick's side. In the celebrated battles of Rossbach, Leuthen, and Zorndorf he defeated successively the French, the Austrians, and the Russians, and startled all Europe into an ac- knowledgment of the fact that the armies of Prussia had at their head one of the greatest commanders of history. But fortune finally deserted Frederick. In sustaining the un- equal contest his dominions became drained of men, and inevi- table ruin seemed to impend over his throne and kingdom. But just at this time a change by death in the government of Russia put a new face upon affairs. In 1762 Empress Elizabeth of that country died, and Peter III, an ardent admirer of Frederick, came to the throne, and immediately transferred the armies of Russia from the side of the allies to that of Prussia. The alliance lasted only a few months, Peter being deposed and murdered by his wife, who now came to the throne as Catherine II. She adopted a neutral policy and recalled her armies; but the temporary alli- ance had given Frederick a decisive advantage, and the year fol- lowing Russia's withdrawal, England and France were glad to give over the struggle and sign the Peace of Paris (1763). Shortly after this another peace (the Treaty of Hubertsburg) was arranged between Austria and Prussia, and one of the most terrible wars that had ever disturbed Europe was over. Silesia was left in the hands of Frederick. The Seven Years' War was one of the decisive combats -of his- tory. Besides the Anglo-French question in India (sect. 483), it settled two other questions of vast reach and signiiicance. First, it settled, or at least put in the way of final settlement, the Austro- Prussian question, — the question as to whether Austria or Prussia should be leader in Germany. It made Prussia the equal of Aus- tria and foreshadowed her ascendancy. Second, it settled the Anglo-French question in America, a question like the Austro- Prussian question in Europe. It decided that North America should belong to the Anglo-Saxon and not to the Latin race. §475] FREDERICK ROUNDS OUT HIS DOMINIONS 417 475. Frederick rounds out his Dominions at the Expense of Poland. It was about a decade after the close of the Seven Years' War that Frederick, as has already been related, joined with Catherine II of Russia and Maria Theresa of Austria in the First Partition of Poland (sect. 467). Respecting the value to Prussia of the territory she received in this transaction, Frederick in his History oj my Own Times comments as follows: "This was one of the most important acquisitions we could possibly make, because it joined Pomerania and Eastern Prussia [see map, p. 414], and by rendering us mas- ters of the Vistula, we gained the double advantage of being able to defend this kingdom and of levying very considerable tolls on the Vistula, the whole trade of Poland being carried on upon that river." But this aggrandizement of Prussia was secured only by just such a cynical disregard of international honesty by Frederick as marked his annexation of Silesia. 476. Frederick's Political Philosophy and Statecraft. As the foregoing sections have disclosed, in all matters concerning foreign states, expediency was Frederick's only guide; he did whatever he thought would aggrandize Prussia and glorify himself, without any regard to truth, honesty, and honor. The following are some of his avowed principles: ''If there is anything to be gained by it, we will be honest; if deception is necessary, let us be cheats." ''The permanent principle for princes is to aggrandize their dominions as far as their power permits them to do so." "Is it better that a people should perish, or that a prince should break his treaty? Where would one find the imbecile who would hesitate in answering this question?"^ "What man of honor would ever wage war if he had not the right to make those rules permitting of plunder, fire, and carnage ? " It was this immoral political philosophy and statecraft, so cynically proclaimed by Frederick the Great, which, inherited and practiced by a later Hohenzollern (Emperor William II), was the fundamental cause of the great world catastrophe of 19 14. 1 Note the answer made to this question by Albert, King of the Belgians, and his Ministers, sect. 707. 4i8 THE RISE OF RUSSIA [§477 477. Frederick as an Enlightened Despot. Frederick in all his relations to his own subjects had a wholly different moral standard from that which he adopted in his dealings with his brother sovereigns. So just and exalted was his conception of his kingly office, and so worthy the use he made of it, that he has been assigned a place among the Enlightened Despots of the eighteenth century. During the intervals of peace between his great wars, and for the half of his, reign which followed the Peace of Hubertsburg, Fred- erick labored to develop the resources of his dominions and to promote the material welfare of his people. He dug canals, con- structed roads, drained marshes, encouraged agriculture and manu- factures, and improved in every possible way the administration of the government. But Frederick's attention was not wholly engrossed with look- ing after the material well-being of his subjects. He was a philoso- pher and believed himself to be a poet, and usually spent several hours each day in philosophical and literary pursuits. It has been said of him that "he divided with Voltaire the intellectual mon- archy of the eighteenth century." He gathered about him a company selected from among the most distinguished authors, sci- entists, and philosophers of the age, among whom was his "co- sovereign" Voltaire, whom Frederick coaxed to Berlin to add brilliancy to his court and to criticize and correct his verses. Frederick felt very proud — for a time — of this acquisition, and rejoiced that to his other titles he could now add that of "the Possessor of Voltaire." But it was an ill-assorted friendship ; the two "sovereigns" soon quarreled, and Voltaire was dismissed from court in disgrace. Frederick was a freethinker. His paganism made him indiffer- ent toward all religions, and hence tolerant. He said in effect, as Carlyle reports him, "In this country every man must get to heaven in his own way." The company which he gathered at Sans Souci, his favorite palace at Potsdam, near Berlin, was a most extraordinary collection of heretics, agnostics, misbelievers, and unbelievers. It was a company very representative of that §477] REFERENCES 419 learned literary and philosophical society of the eighteenth cen- tury whose ideas and teachings did so much to prepare the way for the French Revolution. It was on the very eve of this great political and social upheaval that Frederick died, — in 1786. Carlyle calls him 'Hhe last of the kings." He was of course not the last in name, but he was the last to receive the title of " Great." Only three years after he had been laid in the tomb broke out the revolution which closed the Age of the Kings and ushered in the Age of the People. Selections from the Sources. Memoirs of Frederica Sophia WilhelmiTia (Margravine of Baireuth, sister of Frederick the Great). These memoirs form one of the most graphic and piquant autobiographies ever written. They hold striking portraits of the author's savage father, Frederick William I, of her brother, to whom she was devotedly attached, and of many other distinguished contemporaries. But Wilhelmina's lively imagination and her mischievous if not malicious spirit caused her to overcolor and to exaggerate. Consequently the numerous portraits which she delights in sketching, while always interesting and often amusing, are not to be taken too seriously. Robinson, J. H., Readings itt Ejiropean Histoiy,\o\.\\, pp. 315-328. Secondary Works. Tuttle, H., History of Prussia, 4 vols. (This work was unhappily interrupted at the year 1757 by the death of the author.) Mar- riott, J. A. R., and Robertson, C. G., The Evolution of Prussia, chaps, i-iv. Reddaway, W. F., Frederick the Great and the Rise of Prussia. Carlyle, T., History of Friedrich the Second, 5 vols. (This is one of Carlyle's masterpieces. Like his Fretich Revolution, it will be best appreciated if read after some acquaintance with its subject has been gained from other sources. It deals almost exclusively with Frederick's twenty-three years of war and utterly neg- lects or minimizes the twenty-three of his reign which were years of peace.) Longman, F. W., Frederick the Great and the Seven Veals' War. Bright, J. F., Maria Theresa. Macaulay, T. B., Essay on Frederick the Great. Topics for Class Reports, i. The Teutonic Knights and the beginnings of Prussia: Henderson, E. F., Short Histoiy of Germatiy (ed. 1902), vol. i, chap, viii, pp. 172-181. 2. Frederick the Great's boyhood, character, and political philosophy : Marriott, J. A. R., and Robertson, C. G., The Evolutiofi of Prussia, chap, iv, pp. 113-119. 3. Frederick the Great as an Enlightened Despot : Bourne, H. E., The Revolutionary Period iti Europe, chap, iv, pp. 48-51. CHAPTER XXXI ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 478. The Formula for Eighteenth-Century English History. "The expansion of England in the New World and in Asia/' says Professor Seeley, "is the formula which sums up for England the history of the eighteenth century." This expansion movement was simply the continuation of a maritime trade-development which had begun in the sixteenth century, and which had shaped large sections of the history of England by bringing her into sharp rivalry first with Spain and then with the Dutch Netherlands. Before the close of the seventeenth century England had practically triumphed over both these commercial rivals. Her great and dangerous rival in the eighteenth century was France. "The whole period," says Seeley, referring to the period between 1688 and 181 5, "stands out as an age of gigantic rivalry between England and France, a kind of second Hundred Years' War. To indicate from the viewpoint of English history the chief episodes in this great struggle between the two rivals for suprem- acy in the commercial and colonial world will be our chief aim in the present chapter. W'e shall, however, in order to render more complete our sketch of this century of English history, touch upon some other matters of special interest and significance, though connected in no direct manner with the dominant move- ment of the period. 479. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714). Respect- ing the causes and results of this war we have already spoken in connection with the reign of Louis XIV (sect. 406). Of what was there said we need here recall only the enumeration of the territorial gains which the war brought to England; namely, 420 §480] UNION OF ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND 421 Gibraltar and the island of Minorca in the Old World, and Nova Scotia, together with a clear title to Newfoundland and the Hud- son Bay Territory, in the New. Of special interest in the present connection is that clause of the treaty between England and Spain whereby England took away from the French and secured for English merchants the contract known as the "Assiento," which gave English subjects the sole right for thirty years of shipping annually forty-eight hundred African slaves to the Spanish colonies in America.^ This slave trade was as lucrative a traffic as the old spice trade, and at this time was some such object of rivalry among the com- mercial states of Europe as that had formerly been. The secur- ing of this contract by England made her the chief slave-trading power in the world. At the same time that England got the Assiento contract she secured from Spain the further right to send each year one vessel on a trading voyage to Spanish America. Thus as results of the first war of the eighteenth century Eng- land had got practical control of the INIediterranean, had secured a monopoly of the lucrative slave trade with the Spanish colonies, had made a beginning of wresting from France her possessions in the New World, and had gained mastery of the seas. '^Before the war," says Mahan, "England was one of the sea powers; after it she was the sea power, without any second." 480. Parliamentary Union of England and Scotland (1707). The most noteworthy matter in the domestic history of England during the reign of Queen Anne was the union of the Parliaments of England and Scotland." At this time England, dealing with Scotland as though it were a foreign state, shut out the Scotch traders not only from the English colonies but also from the English home market. 1 The Papal Line of Demarcation (sect. 279) and treaty engagements with the Portu- guese shut the Spaniards out from Africa, and hence they had to depend upon inter- mediaries to fetch them slaves from thence. The Dutch had had the contract before the French. For an account of the Assiento and the economic condition at this time of Spanish America, see Moses, Establishment of Spanish Ride in America, chap. xi. 2 It was only the crowns of the two kingdoms which were united upon the accession of the House of Stuart to the English throne in 1603. 42 2 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY [§481 The feeling in Scotland against England became intense, and there were threats of breaking the dynastic ties which united the two countries. The English government, realizing the danger which lurked in the situation, — for the national sentiment in Scot- land was still strong, — at last met the Scots in a spirit of rea- sonable compromise. It was agreed that the Parliaments of the two countries should be united, that perfect free trade should be established between them, and that all the English colonies should be open to Scotch traders. On this basis was brought about the union of the two realms into a single kingdom under the name of Great Britain (1707). From this time forward the two coun- tries were represented by one Parliament sitting at Westminster. The union was advantageous to both countries, for it was a union not simply of hands but of hearts. England's constant and costly watch of her northern frontiers through ten centuries against raid and invasion could now be intermitted. As to Scot- land, her entrance into England's home and colonial markets and her participation in English manufacturing and commercial enterprises resulted in a wonderful expansion of her energies and resources. Ten years after the union the first Scotch vessel intended for the transatlantic trade was launched on the Clyde. To-day the Clyde is one of the chief centers of the shipbuilding industry, and Glasgow one of the busiest seaports of the world. 481. The Sovereign's Loss of Political Influence; the Prime Minister and the Cabinet. The first Hanoverian king,^ George I (171 4- 1727), was utterly ignorant of the language and the affairs of the people over whom he had been called to rule. On this account he was obliged to intrust to his ministers the practical administration of the government. The same was true in the case of George II. George III, having been born and educated in England, regained some of the old influence of former kings. But he was the last English sovereign who had any large personal influence in shaping governmental policies. 1 The sovereigns of the House of Hanover are George I (1714-1727), George II (i 727-1 760), George III (1760-1S20), George IV (1820-1830), William IV (1830-1837), Victoria (1837-1901), Edward VII (1901-1910), and George V (iqio- ). §482] THE RISE OF METHODISM 423 The power and patronage lost by the crown passed into the hands of the chief minister, popularly called the Prime Minister, or Premier, whose tenure of office was dependent not upon the good will of the sovereign but upon the support of the House of Commons. This transfer of power was not made all at once, but by the middle of the eighteenth century it was practically com- pleted, although this fact was not always gracefully and promptly recognized by the crown. In the English government of to-da}' the Prime Minister is the actual and fully acknowledged execu- tive. The king remains the titular sovereign, indeed, but all real power and patronage are in the hands of the Premier. It was during the administration of Sir Robert Walpole, the first English Prime Minister in the modern sense, that what is known as the Cabinet assumed substantially the form which it has at the present time. This body is practically a committee composed of members of Parliament, headed by the Prime Minister, and de- pendent for its existence upon the will of the House of Commons. The Premier and his colleagues stand and fall together. When the Cabinet can no longer command a majority in the Commons, its members resign, and a new Prime Minister, appointed nomi- nally by the sovereign, but really by the party in control of the House of Commons, forms a new Cabinet. 482. The Religious Revival; the Rise of Methodism. It will be well for us here to turn aside from the political affairs of England and cast a glance upon the religious life of the time. In its spiritual and moral life the England of the earlier Han- overians was the England of the restored Stuarts. The nation was still under the influence of its reaction from the Puritan regime — the hated rule of the "Saints." Among the higher classes there was widespread infidelity; religion was a matter of jest and open scoff. The Church was dead; the higher clergy were neglectful of their duties; sermons were cold and formal essays. The lower classes were stolid, callous, and brutal. Drunk- enness was almost universal among high and low. The nation was immersed in material pursuits and was without thought or care for things ideal and spiritual. 424 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY [§ 482 Such a state of things in society as this has never failed to awaken in select souls a vehement protest. And it was so now. At Oxford, about the year 1730, a number of earnest young men, among whom we find John and Charles Wesley and George Whitefield, formed a little society, the object of which was mutual helpfulness in true Christian living. From their strict and methodical manner of life they were derisively nicknamed Methodists. This Oxford movement was the starting point of a remarkable religious re- vival. John Wesley was the organizer, Whitefield the orator, and Charles Wesley the poet of the movement.^ They and their helpers reached the neglected masses through open-air meetings. They preached in the fields, at the street corners, beneath the trees, at the great mining camps. The effects of their fervid exhortations were often as startling as were those of the appeals of the preachers of the Crusades. The leaders of the revival at first had no thought of estab- lishing a church distinct from the Anglican, but simply aimed at forming within the Established Church a society of earnest, devout workers, somewhat like that of the Christian Endeavor societies in our present churches. Their enthusiasm and their often extravagant manners, however, offended the staid, cold conservatism of the regular clergy, and they were finally Fig, 82. John Wesley. (After a painting by G. Roiiiiuy) 1 Charles Wesley wrote over six thousand hymns, many of which are still favorites in the hymnals of to-day. §483] THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR 425 constrained by petty persecution to go out from the established organization and form a church of their own. The revival, like the Puritan movement of the seventeenth cen- tury, left a deep impress upon the life of England. It is due largely to this movement that in true religious feeling, in social purity, in moral earnestness, in humanitarian endeavor the England of to-day is separated by such a gulf from the Eng- land of the first two Georges. 483. The Seven Years' War (nse- 1763). Just after the middle of the century there broke out be- tween the French and English colonists in America the so-called French and Indian War. This struggle became blended with what is known in European history as the Seven Years' War (sect. 474) , and conse- quently it is from the viewpoint both of Europe and of America that we must regard it. At first the war went disastrously against the English, — Brad- dock's expedition against Fort Duquesne, upon the march to which he suffered his memorable defeat in the wilderness, being but one of several ill-starred English undertakings.^ In the Old World Minorca had been lost, and with it virtually the control of the Mediterranean. Never were Englishmen cast into deeper Fig. 83. William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (After a portrait by Jv. Bronipton') 1 Braddock's defeat occurred in 1755, before the formal declaration of war by either party. 426 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY [§ 483 despair. Never had they so completely lost faith in themselves. The Earl of Chesterfield wrote: "We are undone both at home and abroad. . . . We are no longer a nation." The gloom was at its deepest when the elder William Pitt (later Earl of Chatham), known as ''the Great Commoner," came to the head of affairs in England. Pitt was one of the greatest men the English race has ever produced. Frederick the Great expressed his estimate of him in these words: "England has at last brought forth a man." Pitt's estimate of himself was equally high: "I believe that I can save this country and that no one else can," was the way in which he expressed his belief in his ability to retrieve past misfortunes. The war against France was now pushed not only in America and upon the sea, but also in India and in Europe with renewed energy. The turning point of the struggle, so far as America was concerned, was the great victory gained by the English under the youthful Major General Wolfe over the French under Mont- calm on the Heights of Quebec (1759). The victory gave Eng- land Quebec, the key to the situation in the New World. In India also victory was declaring for the English in their struggle there with the French and their native allies.^ Two years before the battle of Quebec, Colonel Robert Clive, an officer in the employ of the English East India Company, with eleven hundred English soldiers and two thousand sepoys,^ in the memorable battle of Plassey (1757) had put to flight a native army of sixty thousand foot and horse and had thus virtually laid, in the northeastern region of the peninsula, the basis of England's great Indian Empire.^ * 1 The situation here was somewhat similar to that in the New World. Both the French and the English had been long on the ground, but merely as traders, and not as builders of empires. About the middle of the eighteenth century, however, they began to conquer the country and to lay the foundations of territorial dominion. 2 The name given native soldiers in European employ. 3 The prelude to this battle was a terrible crime committed by Siraj-ud-Daula, viceroy of Bengal and other provinces. Moved by anger at the refusal of the English official to surrender certain fugitives, and urged on by French agents, the viceroy attacked the Enghsh fort and factory at Calcutta and, having secured one hundred and forty-six prisoners, thrust them into a contracted guardroom which was provided with only two small grated windows, — what in the story of India is known as "the Black Hole of §484] THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 427 The end came in 1763 with the Peace of Paris. France ceded to England Canada and all her possessions in North America east of the Mississippi River, save New Orleans and a little adjoining land (which, along with the French territory west of the Missis- sippi, had already been given to Spain), and two little islands in the neighborhood of Newfoundland, which she was allowed to retain to dry fish on. She also withdrew from India as a political rival of England.^ England's supremacy in the colonial world and her mastery of the sea were now firmly established. This position, notwithstanding severe losses of which we shall speak immediately, she has maintained up to the present day. 484. The American Revolution (1775-1 783). The French and Indian War was the prelude to the War of American Inde- pendence. The overthrow of the French power in America made the English colonists less dependent than hitherto upon the mother country, since this removed their only dangerous rival and enemy on the continent. Clear-sighted statesmen had pre- dicted that when the colonists no longer needed England's help against the French they would sever the bonds uniting them to the homeland, if at any time these bonds chafed them. And very soon the bonds did chafe. A majority in Parliament, thinking that the colonists should help pay the expenses of colo- nial defense, insisted upon taxing them. The colonists main- tained that they could be justly taxed only through their own legislative assemblies. The British government refusing to ac- knowledge this principle, the colonists took up arms in defense of those rights and liberties which their fathers had won with so hard a struggle from English kings on English soil. The French government seized the opportunity presented by the war to avenge itself upon England for the loss of Canada,^ and Calcutta." During the course of a sultry night all but twenty-three of the unfortunate prisoners died of suffocation. It was in response to the cry which arose for vengeance that Robert Clive was sent by the English officials at Madras to succor Bengal. 1 Pondicherry, a French trading post on the eastern coast of India, was restored to France, and she still remained in the peninsula as a trader ; but her political power was as completely broken there by the war as in America. • There were other and more admirable motives animating many of the individual Frenchmen who, like Lafayette, fought on the side of the American patriots (sect. 503). 42 8 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY [§485 gave aid to the colonists. Spain and Holland also were both drawn into the struggle, fighting against their old-time rival and foe. The war was ended by the Peace of Paris (1783). England acknowledged the independence of the thirteen colonies, — and a Greater England began its separate career in the New World. At the same time England was constrained to restore or to cede various islands and territories to France and to Spain. The magnificent empire with which she had emerged from the Seven Years' War seemed shattered and ruined beyond recovery. Not only England's enemies but many Englishmen themselves believed that her days of imperial rule were ended. But there were yet left to England Canada and India; and only recently Australia had come into her possession (sect. 671). And then England was yet mistress of the seas; her commercial supremacy remained unshaken. There were elements here which might become factors of a new empire greater than the one which had been lost. But no Englishman standing in the gloom of the year 1783 could look far enough into the future to foresee the greatness and splendor of England's second empire which was to rise out of the ruins of the first. 485. Legislative Independence of Ireland (i782). While the War of American Independence was going on, the Irish, taking advantage of the embarrassment of the English government, demanded legislative independence. Since the Norman period Ireland had had a Parliament of her own, but it was dependent upon the English crown, and at this time was subordinate to the English Parliament, which asserted and exercised the right to bind Ireland by its laws. This the Anglo-Irish patriots strenu- ously resisted and drew up a Declaration of Rights wherein they demanded the legislative independence of Ireland. Fear of a revolt led England to grant the demands of the patriots and acknowledge the independence of the Irish Parliament. 486. The Abolition of the Slave Trade. Intimately con- nected with the great religious revival led by the Wesleys and Whitefield were certain philanthropic movements which hold a prominent place in the history of the moral and social life not §487] THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 429 only of England but of humanity. The most noteworthy of these was that resulting in the abolition of the African slave trade. We have noticed how at the opening of the eighteenth century England secured from Spain the contract for providing her Amer- ican colonies with negro slaves (sect. 479). There was then little or no moral disapproval of this iniquitous traffic. But one effect of the religious revival was the calling into existence of much genuine philanthropic feeling. This sentiment expressed itself in a movement for the abolition of the inhuman trade. The leaders of the movement were Thomas Clarkson (1760- 1846) and William Wilberforce (i 759-1833). The terrible dis- closures which were made of the atrocious cruelty of the slave dealers stirred the public indignation and awakened the national conscience. Finally, in 1807, after twenty years of agitation a law was passed abolishing the trade.^ This signaled as great a moral victory as ever was won in the English Parliament, for it was the aroused moral sentiment of the nation which was the main force that carried the reform measure through the Houses.^ 487. The Industrial Revolution. W^e turn now from the political, religious, and moral realms to the industrial domain. In this sphere of English life the latter part of the eighteenth century witnessed a wonderful revolution. It was England's commercial supremacy which had prepared the way for the great industrial development. The outward movement had created a world-wide market for English goods. She had become "the workshop of the world." Naturally manufactures were encour- aged, and inventive genius and ingenuity stimulated to the utmost in devising improved processes in the industrial arts. The result was an industrial revolution such as the centuries known to his- tory had never witnessed before. 1 England had been anticipated by Denmark in the condemnation of the slave trade. That country had abolished the traffic in 1802. In the United States the importation of slaves was illegal after 1S08. Before 1820 most civilized states had placed the trade under the ban. 2 Another important humanitarian movement of the century was that of prison reform. This was effected chiefly through the labors of a single person, the philanthropist John Howard (1726-1790), who devoted his hfe to effecting a reform in prison conditions and discipline. 430 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY [§487 In order that we may get the right point of view here and be able to appreciate the importance of the industrial revolution of which we speak, it is necessary that we should first note the remarkable fact that while civilization during historic times had made great advances on many lines and in many domains, in the industrial realm it had remained almost stationary from the dawn of history. At the middle of the eighteenth century all the industrial arts were being carried on in practically the same way that they were followed six or seven thousand years before in Egypt and Babylonia. Suddenly all this was changed by a few inventions. About 1767 Hargreaves invented the spinning jenny. From the beginning of history, indeed from a period lost in the obscurity of prehistoric times, all the thread used in weaving had been made by twisting each thread separately. The spinning jenny, when perfected,^ with a single attendant twisted hundreds of threads at once. Within twenty years from the time of this invention there were between four and five million spindles in use in England. It was now possible to produce thread in unlimited quantities. The next thing needed was improved machinery for weaving it into cloth. This was soon provided by Cartwright's power loom (1785). The next requisite was motive power to run the new machinery. At just this time James Watt brought out his inven- tion, or rather improvement, of the steam engine (1785). In its ruder form it had been used in the mines; now it was introduced into the factories. The primary forces of the great industrial revolution — the spinning jenny, the power loom, and the steam engine — were now at work. The application, in the first half of the nineteenth century, of the steam engine to transportation purposes gave the world the steam railroad and the steamship. These inventions and discoveries in the industrial realm mark an epoch in the history of civilization. We have to go back to prehistoric times to find in this domain any inventions or dis- coveries like them in their import for human progress. There is 1 It was perfected by Arkvvright and Crompton by 1779. §488] ENGLAND AND THE NEW INDUSTRY 431 nothing between Menes in Egypt and George III in England with which to compare them. The discovery of fire, the invention of metal tools, and the domestication of animals and plants,^ — these inventions and achievements of prehistoric man are alone worthy, in their transforming effect upon human society, of being placed alongside them. 488. Import to England of the Industrial Revolution. In the present connection we can note the bearing of the great industrial revolution upon only one episode in the general historical move- ment. It exerted a determining influence upon the course and issue of the great French Revolution and of the Napoleonic Wars which grew out of it.. It armed England for the great fight and enabled her to play the important part she did in that period of titanic struggle. "It is our improved steam engine," says Lord Jeffrey in his eulogy of Watt (written in 1819), "which has fought the battles of Europe and exalted and sustained through the late treniendous contest the political greatness of our land." It was the steam engine that created the wealth which England used so profusely in carrying on the fight against Napoleon and which did more perhaps than any other force in giving direction to the course of events during the years of his domination.^ 489. Conclusion. With the French Revolution we reach a period in which English history must be regarded from the view- point of France. Indeed, for the space of half a generation after the rise of Napoleon to power, all European history becomes largely biographical and centers about that unique personality. Consequently we shall drop the story of English history at this point and let it blend with the story of the Revolution and that of the Napoleonic Empire. All that we here need notice is that the Napoleonic Wars, in their Anglo-French phase, were essentially a continuation — and the end — of the second Hundred Years' War between England 1 See Ancient History, 2d Rev. Ed., sects. S-io. 2 The Industrial Revolution was effected in England several decades in advance of its invasion of continental Europe, partly because of her commercial supremacy and the world-wide markets open to her manufacturers and partly because of the abundance of her coal and iron supplies. 432 ENGLAND IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY [§489 and France. Napoleon, having seized supreme power in France, endeavored to destroy England's commercial supremacy and to regain for France that position in the colonial world from which she had been thrust by England. But this tremendous struggle, like all the others in which England had engaged with her ancient foe, — save the one in which she lost her American colonies, — only resulted, as we shall see later, in bringing into her hands additional colonial possessions and in placing her naval power and commercial supremacy on a firmer basis than ever before. Selections from the Sources. Henderson, E. F., Side' Li^:^7its on English History, pp. 214-2S3 ; Kendall, li. K., Soinre-Book, chaps, xvi-xviii, particularly Extract No. iii, "A View of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century," by Swift. For the slave trade, see Clarkson, T., T/ic History of the J^ise, Progress, and Accotnplishment of the Abolition of the Slave Trade by the British Parliament. Clarkson was himself a main instrument in bringing about the great reform. Robinson, J. H., Peadi?igs in European Hisioiy, vol. ii, pp. 336-356. Secondary Works. For the most suggestive short work on the period, turn to Sef.i.ey, J. R., The Expansion of England. Written on somewhat simi- lar lines is Caldecott, A., English Colonization a7id Empi7-e, chaps, iii-v. Lecky, W. E. H., History of England in the Eighteetith Century, 7 vols., is the best comprehensive work. Lavell, C. F., and Payne, C. E., Itnpe^-ial England, chaps, iv-vi. For the naval history of the period, see Mahan, A. T., The In- flnenee of Sea Power iipon Histoiy, chaps, v-xiv. Biographies: Morley, J., Walpole; Southey, R., Life of Wesley; Green, W. D., William Pitt, Earl of Chatham ; Harrison, F., Chatham ; Macaulay, T. B., Essays on Horace Walpole, the Earl of Chatham (two essays), Lord Clive, and Warren Hastings. For the growth of the English Cabinet : Blauvelt, M. T., The Development of Cabinet Gove7-nment ifi England; and Jenks, E., Parliamentary England. For the rise of Methodism : Overton, J. H., The Evangelical Revival in the Eighteenth Century. For the French and English in America: Fiske, J., N'etu England and A\";o 7vw;?r^, chaps, vii-x ; and Parkman, Y ., Montcalm and Wolfe, 1 vols. For the conflict between England and her American colonies : Lecky, W. E. IL, The Ame?-ican Revolution (ed. by James Albert Woodburn). For industrial and social England : Cheyney, E. P., An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England, chap. viii. Topics for Class Reports, i. The industrial revolution in England : Bourne, H. E., The Revolutionary Pej-iod in Europe, chap. vi. 2. The struggle between England and France for colonial supremacy : Seignobos, C, History of Con- temporaiy Civilization, pp. 42-46. 3. Extract from speech of Earl Chatham on England's policy towards the American colonies : Kendall, E. K., Source-Book of English Historv, pp. 350-354. CHAPTER XXXII AUSTRIA UNDER THE BENEVOLENT DESPOT, EMPEROR JOSEPH II (1780-1790) 490. Emperor Joseph IPs Ideal and Aim. Most worthy of remembrance among the royal contemporaries of Frederick the Great was Emperor Joseph II, the son of the Empress-Queen Maria Theresa. He became Emperor in 1765, and upon the death of his mother in 1780 succeeded to the sovereignty of the Austrian dominions. He was the best, though not the greatest, of the Enlightened Despots. Joseph IPs aim was to make of the Austrian dominions an ideal state. This, in his conception, was a state possessing geo- graphical and moral unity; that is to say, a state with well- rounded scientific frontiers, with all power concentrated in the hands of the sovereign, with all its provinces ruled alike, and with all its inhabitants using the same language and having the same ideas, customs, and aspirations. 491. His Reforms. Now the Austrian monarchy was just the opposite of all this. Joseph's endeavor was to make it like France, compact geographically and homogeneous in language and cus- toms. He wiped out many of the old divisions based on race, language, and historical antecedents, and in the interest of uni- formity and simplicity of administration divided a great part of the monarchy into thirteen provinces, and each of these again into smaller subdivisions called circles. He abolished serfdom in several of his states. He closed over two thousand monasteries and devoted their property to the establishment of colleges, hos- pitals, and other public institutions. He issued a celebrated Edict of Toleration (1781), giving to all Christian sects equality of rights and privileges. He provided the cities of his dominions 433 434 AUSTRIA UNDER JOSEPH II [§ 492 with schools in which all the pupils were taught exactly the same lessons in exactly the same way. He founded libraries and encouraged research. He softened the harsh punishments of the mediaeval criminal code and made the laws to conform to reason. He fostered manufactures, and by his own laborious life — he is said to have worked more hours each day than any other man in his dominions — set an example of industry to his subjects. 492. His Dealings with the Austrian Netherlands and with Hungary. In the furtherance of his plans Joseph attempted to reduce the Austrian Netherlands, which constituted almost an independent state loosely united to Austria, to the condition of an administrative province of the Austrian monarchy. He dis- regarded the constitution, laws, and customs of the provinces, interfered with the religion of the people, and substituted for the existing system of education a new system conforming to his own ideas of what should be taught the youth. Angered by all this meddling with their affairs, the Netherlanders rose in open revolt and declared themselves independent of the Austrian crown (1790). At the same time Joseph drove his Hungarian subjects to the verge of rebellion by attempting to deal with Hungary in some such arbitrary way as he had dealt with the Netherlands, — in a word, to Germanize the country. The situation became so threat- ening that Joseph, upon his dying bed, was constrained to annul all his reform measures and put everything back as it was, save as regards the serfs, who retained the freedom with which he had dowered them. 493. Causes of the Failure of Joseph II's Attempted Reforms. The Emperor Joseph II is one of the most pathetic figures in history. He died in 1790, a weary, heartbroken man, lamenting that though he had labored his life through to make his subjects contented and happy and to deserve their love, he had simply filled his empire with unrest and unhappiness, and instead of winning the gratitude of his subjects had awakened only their ingratitude. §494] REFORM FROM ABOVE 43 S The most of Joseph's attempted reforms, save those of the abohtion of serfdom and the revision of the laws, had in truth resulted in dismal failures. This was not because much he aimed to do was not in sad need of being done, but because in such matters the good intention is not sufficient without patience and wisdom. Joseph had neither. Frederick the Great said of him, "Joseph is a good man, but he always takes the second step be- fore he takes the first." This lack of patience to begin at the beginning and to wait for results is well shown in his method of creating a park: at great expense he set out full-grown trees instead of saplings. And Joseph lacked that wisdom which recognizes that the reformer must take account of the beliefs, habits, and prejudices of men and of races. As his biographer Paganel comments, "It is only in the hands of God that man is as clay." 494. Reform from Above versus Reform from Below. Jjoseph II was one of the last of the benevolent despots.^ Europe owes much to them. Some of their reforms were permanent and effected great amelioration in the condition of the people in several of the countries of the Continent. But the Enlightened Despots were hampered in their work through being despots. Their theory of government shut out the people from all participation in the work of reform. But all true reform must proceed from below and not from above. As Buckle in his History of Civilization in Eng- land writes, "No reform can produce real good unless it is the work of public opinion, and unless the people themselves take the initiative." Nor should reforms inaugurated be dependent upon a single life. This was a fatal weakness in the movement of reform by the kings themselves. When a benevolent despot died, too often his work ended with his life. 1 A striking phenomenon of the period of the reforming absolute sovereigns was the fall of the Jesuits. In 1759 they were expelled from Portugal; in 1764 they were sup- pressed in France, and three years later were expelled from the country; in 1767 they were driven out from Spain ; and finally, in 1773, the society was abolished by the Pope. (It was reestablished in 1814.) One cause of the fall of the Order was that it stood in the way of the centralizing policy of the absolute sovereigns ; it had come to form a sort of state within the state. 436 AUSTRIA UNDER JOSEPH II [§ 494 The year preceding the death of Joseph II the French Revolu- tion had begun. The people as well as their kings had been study- ing the philosophers and the political economists, and they were now themselves to assume the role of reformers. We shall see with what success they met in their new part. References. Bright, J. F., Joseph IJ (the best short biography of the Emperor in English). CoXE, History of the House of Austria, vol. iii, chaps, cxxiv-cxxxi. Hassall, A., The Balance of Power, iji^-iySg, chap. xiii. Stephens, IT. M., Syllabus of Lectures on Modern European History, lect. xlvii (gives a helpful summary of Emperor Joseph's policies and reforms). Seigno- BOS, C, History of Contemporary Civilization, pp. 75-80. Bourne, H. E., The Revolutionary Period in Europe, pp. 51-55- //. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE NAPOLEONIC ERA (1789-1815) CHAPTER XXXIII THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1799) I. CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION; THE STATES-GENERAL OF 1789 495. Introductory. The French Revolution was a revolt of the French people against royal despotism and class privilege. V Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity" was the motto of the Revo- lution. In the name of these principles great crimes were indeed committed, but these excesses of the Revolution are not to be confounded with its true spirit and aims. The French people in 1789 contended for substantially the same principles that the English people defended in 1642 and 1688, and that the Amer- ican colonists maintained in 1776. It is only as we view them in this light that we can- feel a sympathetic interest in the men and events of this tumultuous period of French history. 496. Causes of the Revolution. Chief among the causes of the French Revolution were the abuses and extravagances of the Bourbon monarchy, the unjust privileges enjoyed by the nobil- ity and the higher clergy, the wretched condition of the poorer classes of the people, and the revolutionary character and spirit of French philosophy and literature. To these must be added, as a proximate cause, the influence of the American Revolution. We will speak briefly of these several matters. 497. The Bourbon Monarchy. We simply repeat what we have already learned when we say that the authority of the French crown under the Bourbons had become unbearably despotic and 437 438 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§498 oppressive. The life and property of every person in France were at the arbitrary .disposal of the king. Persons were thrown into prison without even knowing the offense for which they were arrested. Lettres de cachet, or sealed warrants for arrest, were even signed by the king in blank and given to his favorites to use against their personal enemies. The taxes were imposed by the authority of the king alone. They struck the poor rather than the rich, the nobles and the clergy being practically exempt. In consequence of a miserable and corrupt system of collection,^ not more than one half or two thirds of the money wrung from the taxpayers ever reached the royal treasury. The most oppressive of the various taxes was the salt tax (gabelle), which was a state monopoly. In some districts every family was forced to buy annually seven pounds of salt for each member of the household above seven years of age. The public money thus harshly and wastefully collected was in large part squandered in maintaining a court the scandalous extravagances and debaucheries of which would shame a Turkish sultan. Meanwhile all public works and all national interests, after the reign of Louis XIV, were utterly neglected. Louis XV, it is asserted, "probably spent more money on his harem than on any depart- ment of state." Louis XVI was sincerely desirous of reform. So far as good intentions go, he deserves a place among the best of the benevolent despots. But unfortunately he did not possess the qualities essential in a reformer; he was weak and irresolute. Besides, it was too late. Matters had gone too far. France was already caught in the rapids that sweep down to the abyss of revolution. 498. The Nobility. The French nobility on the eve of the Revolution numbered probably between twenty and thirty thou- sand families, comprising about a hundred or a hundred and fifty 1 A large part of the taxes were farmed ; that is, a body of capitalists were given the contract of collecting them. These farmers, as they were called, paid the government a sum agreed upon ; all over this amount which they collected formed their profits. §499] THE CLERGY 439 thousand persons. Although owning perhaps one fifth of the soil of France and exercising many vexatious feudal rights over much of the land belonging to peasant proprietors, still these nobles paid scarcely any taxes. The higher nobility were chiefly the pensioners of the king, the ornaments of his court, living a great part of the year in riotous luxury at Paris and Versailles. Stripped of their ancient power, they still retained all the old pride and arrogance of their order and clung tenaciously to the shreds of their feudal privileges and exemptions. The rents of their estates, with which they supplemented the bounty of the king, were wrung from their wretched tenants with pitiless severity. The lesser nobles were more generally found on their estates, many of them living in a humble and pinched way not very different from that of the peasants. 499. The Clergy. The upper clergy formed a decayed feudal hierarchy. A third of the lands of France was in their hands, and this immense property was almost wholly exempt from taxation. The bishops and abbots were usually drawn from the ranks of the nobility, being attracted to the service of the Church rather by its enormous revenues and the social distinction con- ferred by its offices than by the inducements of piety. They owed their position to royal appointment, and commonly spent their princely incomes, derived from the Church properties and the tithe exacted from the peasants, in luxurious life at court. The relation of these "patrician prelates" to the people and to the humbler clergy should be carefully noted, otherwise cer- tain im.portant phases of the Revolution will not be understood. Though there were noble exceptions, the most of these dignitaries were narrow-minded and self-seeking, and many of them so shame- lessly immoral that as a class they had lost all credit and authority with the people whose shepherds they ostensibly were. And not only had they discredited themselves, but they had brought the Church and even Christianity itself into disrepute. The hatred the people felt towards them was transferred to the religion which they so unworthily represented. 440 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [^500 The lower clergy, made up in the main of humble parish priests, were drawn largely from the peasant class, and shared their pov- erty. Their salaries were mere pittances compared with the princely incomes enjoyed by the bishops and abbots. Their exemplary lives and their faithfulness in the performance of the duties of their sacred calling presented a reproving contrast to the debaucheries and infidelities of their ecclesiastical superiors. They were naturally in sympathy with the lower classes to which by birth they belonged, and shared their feelings of dislike towards the great prelates on account of their selfish pride and odious arrogance. 500. The Commons, or Third Estate. Below the two priv- ileged orders stood the nonprivileged commons, known as the Tiers Etat, or Third Estate. This class embraced all the nation aside from the nobility and the clergy, — that is to say, the great bulk of the population. It numbered probably about twenty-live million souls. The order was divided into two chief classes: namely, the bourgeoisie, or middle class, and the peasantry. The middle class, which was comparatively small in numbers, was made up of the well-to-do and wealthy merchants, traders, lawyers, and other professional men. It constituted the most intel- ligent portion of the French nation. It was from this class that came most of the leaders of the revolutionary movement during its earlier stages. The peasants constituted the majority of the Third Estate. Though virtually all the French peasantry had long since been emancipated from the personal servitude of mediaeval serfdom, and very many had become the owners of the land they tilled, still the majority of them owed to some feudal lord tolls on the roads and ferries and dues at the market-place. Furthermore, they must grind their grain at the lord's mill, press their grapes at his winepress, and bake their bread at his oven, paying for the use of mill, press, and oven a heavy toll. In early feudal times these things were intended for the advantage of the serf, but now they had become oppressive monopolies and instruments of extortion. §500] THE COMMONS 44i Especially vexatious were the old feudal regulations to which the peasants were subjected in the cultivation of the soil. Thus they were forbidden to fence their fields for the protection of their crops, as the fences interfered with the lord's progress in the hunt;^ they were not allowed to frighten away the game which fed upon their vegetables; and they were even prohibited from cultivating their fields at certain seasons, as this disturbed the nesting partridges. Moreover, they must at all times calmly, en- dure the sight of the lord's hunting party — men, horses, and hounds— sweeping through their crops, and be thankful that they themselves were not the object of the hunt. Being kept in a state of abject poverty, a failure of his crops reduced the peasant to absolute starvation. It was not an un- usual thing to find women and children dead in the woods or along the roadways. The words addressed by Fenelon to Louis XIV in 1693 might with almost equal truth have been addressed to Louis XVI: "Your people are dying of hunger," he said; "instead of money being wrenched from these poor creatures, clothes and food should be given them. France is simply a large hospital, full of woe and empty of food." Another who saw all this misery thus pictures the appearance of the peasantry: "One sees certain fierce animals, male and female, scattered through the fields; they are black, livid, and burned by the sun, and attached to the soil, which they dig up and stir with indomitable industry; they have what is like an articulate voice, and when they rise up on their feet they show a human face, — in truth they are human beings. They retire at night into dens, where they live on black bread and water and roots; they save other men the trouble of sowing and delving and harvesting, and hence deserve not to lack of this bread which they have sown."- 1 A considerable portion of the country was included in great hunting preserves. "The forest around Chantilly, belonging to the Prince of Conde," writes the English traveler Arthur Young, " is immense, spreading far and wide : the Paris road crosses it for ten miles, which is its least extent. They say the captahierie is above one hundred miles in extent ; that is to say, all the inhabitants for that extent are pestered with game, without permission to destroy it, in order to give one man diversion." - La Bruyfere, Lcs Caractercs, " De I'Homme," § cxxviii. 442 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§501 It is true that during the eighteenth century the condition of perhaps the majority of the French peasants had been much improved, and that on the eve of the Revolution their state was much more tolerable than that of the peasantry in the countries of central and eastern Europe. The number of peasant proprie- tors had become large and was steadily increasing, and in many districts at least was greater than at any earlier period. Yet never had a more rebellious spirit stirred in the French peas- antry than at just this time. And the reason of this was not because the system under which they lived was ''more severe, but more odious" than ever before, — more odious because the peasant of 1789, being more intelligent, realized more keenly the wrongs he suffered and knew better his rights as a man than did the ignorant, stolid peasant of the previous century. So true is it, as Hegel affirms, that Revolution is impossible without Renaissance.^ 501. The Revolutionary Spirit of French Philosophy; Representative Authors. French philosophy in the eighteenth century was bold, skeptical, and revolutionary. Its dominant note was one of passionate protest against the inecjualities of the existing system of society and government. The great writers — -Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, and D'Alembert — represent its prevailing spirit and tendency.- 1 The truth of this law underlying the historical development is shown in the ante- cedents of the English Revolution of the seventeenth century and of the American Revolution of the eighteenth. In neither case was it the actual burdens imposed by despotic authority which provoked rebellion. The real cause of revolt in each case was that general intelligence of the people which made even the slightest infringement of their rights seem intolerable. 2 The fountain head of this freedom-loving and skeptical philosophy was in England. From the death of Louis XIV on to the commencement of the Revolution, England was a sort of Mecca for the literary and philosophical French world. Speaking of the results of this worship of the men of France at the English shrine, Buckle writes as follows : " Their determination to search for liberty in the place where alone it could be found, gave rise to that junction of the French and English intellects which, looking at the im- ' mense chain of its effects, is by far the most important fact in the history of the eight- eenth century" (Hisfoty nf Civilization in England, vol. i, chap. xii). Prominent among the English scientists and writers who most deeply influenced French science and phi- losophy were Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727), John T^ocke (1632-1704), Lord .Shaftesbury (1671-1713), and Lord BoHngbroke (1678-1751). Much of Voltaire's work was largely a popularization of the .science of Newton and the philosophy of Locke, § 501] THE SPIRIT OF FRENCH PHILOSOPHY 443 Montesquieu (i 689-1 755) was a great admirer of English institutions. He had passed almost two years of his early life in England and had thus become imbued with English ideas and English love of constitutional government. His most important work was entitled The Spirit of Laws, a work which had a remarkable influence upon the enlightened despots of the latter part of the eighteenth century, and especially upon the French constitution-makers of the revolutionary period, who in their work adopted his fundamental principle that the three functions of government, namely, the ex- ecutive, the legislative, and the judicial, must be separate and independent, that is, in the hands of different sets of officials. Voltaire (1694-17 78) was the very impersonation of the tend- encies of his age. He gave ex- pression, forcible and striking, to what the people were vaguely thinking and feeling. In the use of satire and irony he never had a superior, if a peer. He has been well called " the magician of the art of writing." He had a most marvelous faculty of condensing thought; putting whole philosophies in an epigram, he supplied the French people with proverbs for a century. He loved justice, in Carlyle's phrase, as it should be loved. His aim was to do away with injustice, preju- dices, and superstitions, to establish equality, and to make jus- tice and reason dominant in human affairs. He disbelieved in revealed religion;^ he would have men follow simply their inner sense of what is right and reasonable. His influence upon Fred- erick the Great of Prussia and upon other reforming kings and ministers was very great. In truth his writings stirred all Europe 3 By some of Voltaire's disciples his doctrines were developed into atheism ; but Voltaire hirnself was a deist, combating alike 9theism and Christianity. P'lG. 84. Voltaire. (From a statue by Hoiidoii) 444 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§ 501 as well as all France and did so much to prepare the minds and hearts of men for the Revolution and to determine its course that in one sense there was much truth in his declaration, "I have accomplished more in my day than either Luther or Calvin." Rousseau (171 2-1 778), like Voltaire, had neither faith nor hope in existing institutions. Society and government seemed to him contrivances designed by the strong for the enslavement of the weak: "Man was born free and is everywhere in chains" is the burden of his complaint. Consequently he would do away with all these things. He would have men give up their artificial, complex life in society and return to the simplicity of what he called "a state of nature." He idealized the life of savages and declared that untutored tribes were hap- pier than civilized men. He drew such an idyllic picture of the life of man in a state of nature that Voltaire, after reading his treatise thereon, wrote him that it iilled him with a longing to go on all fours. Rousseau's greatest work was entitled The Social Contract. The State, according to him, is a voluntary association or brother- hood of equals. From this followed the sovereignty of the people and the abolition of inequality and class oppression. The writings of Rousseau had an extraordinary influence upon liberal-minded and generous souls everywhere. The framers of the American Declaration of Rights drew from his works many of their ideas and even phrases. The aid which France extended to the Amer- ican colonists in the War of Independence, in so far as that aid was prompted by a generous enthusiasm for republican ideals, was a direct outcome of the teachings of Rousseau. The idealists and dreamers of the French Revolution were wholly under the Fig. 85. Jean Jacques RoUSSEAtT §502] EFFECTS OF FRENCH PHILOSOPHY 445 spell cast upon the world by the "New Gospel of Humanity" preached so fervently by the author of The Social Contract. Diderot (1713-1784) and D'Alembert (1717-1783) were the chief of the so-called Encyclopedists, the compilers of an im- mense work in twenty-eight volumes. The purpose of this pro- digious compilation was to gather up and systematize all the facts in science and history in possession of the world, in order that this knowledge might be made the basis of a philosophy of life and of the universe which should supersede all the old systems of thought and belief resting simply on authority. 502. The Effects of this Philosophy. The tendency and ef- fect of this skeptical philosophy was to create hatred and contempt for the institutions of both State and Church and to foster dis- content with the established order of things. Nor was it difficult for the theoretical revolutionists to secure the ear of a people proverbially impulsive and imaginative, and suffering to the point of desperation from the unequal and oppres- sive arrangements of a wholly artificial society. The grand ideas of the proposed crusade for the recovery of the rights of man could not fail of appealing powerfully to that imaginative genius of the French people which had led them to be foremost in the romantic expeditions for the recovery of the Holy Sepulcher. This daring, skeptical, revolutionary philosophy, having once taken possession of the minds of the French people, was bound, sooner or later, to find expression in their acts. " Human thought," says Lamartine, "is like the Divine Mind: it makes everything in its own image." We shall soon see this philosophy making history, and making it like unto itself. 503. Influence of the American Revolution. Not one of the least potent of the proximate causes of the French Revolution was the successful establishment of the American republic. "The American Revolution has laid the foundation of another in France, if the government does not take care of itself," wrote Arthur Young just on the eve of the outbreak in France. "Without the successful termination of the American War of Independence," writes Professor H. Morse Stephens, "it may be doubted whether 446 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§504 the French Revolution would have developed as it did, or whether it would have taken place at all." The French people sympathized deeply with the English colonists in their struggle for independ- ence. Many of the nobility, like Lafayette, offered to the patriots the service of their swords ; and the popular feeling, combined with a revengeful wish to see the British Empire dismembered, finally led the French government to extend to them openly the aid of the armies of France. The final triumph of the cause of liberty awakened scarcely less enthusiasm and rejoicing in France than in America. The republican simplicity of the newborn state, contrasting so strongly with the extravagance and artificiality of the court at Versailles, elicited the unbounded admiration of the French people. In this young republic of the Western world they saw realized the Arcadia of their philosophy. It was no longer a dream. They themselves had helped to make it real. Here the rights of man had been recovered and vindicated. And now this liberty which the French people had helped the American colonists to secure, they were impatient to see France herself enjoy. 504. End of the Reign of Louis XV; "After us the Deluge." The long-gathering tempest is now ready to break over France. Louis XV died in 1774. In the early part of his reign his subjects had affectionately called him ''the Well Beloved," but long before he laid down his scepter all their early love and admiration had been turned into hatred and contempt. Besides being overbear- ing and despotic, the king was indolent and scandalously profli- gate. During twenty years of his reign, as we have already learned, he was wholly under the influence of the notorious Madame de Pompadour (sect. 411). The inevitable issue of this orgy of folly and extravagance seems to have been clearly enough perceived by the chief actors in it, as is shown by that heedless phrase attributed to the king and his favorite, — "After us the deluge." And after them the deluge, indeed, did come. The near thunders of the approach- ing tempest could already be heard when Louis XV lay down to die. §505] THE ACCESSION OF LOUIS XVI 447 505. The Accession of Louis XVI (1774) ; Financial Troubles ; the Meeting of the Notables (i787). Louis XV left the tottering throne to his grandson, Louis XVI, then only twenty years of age. He had recently been married to the beautiful and light-hearted Archduchess Marie Antoinette of Austria. The first act of the young couple, upon learning that the burdens of sov- ereignty had descended upon their shoulders, was, it was rumored, to cast themselves upon their knees with the prayer, "O God! guide and protect us; we are too young to govern! " Well, indeed, might they appeal to Heaven; there was no earthly help. How to raise money was the urgent and anxious question with the government. France was on the verge of bankruptcy. The king called to his side successively Turgot, Necker, and other eminent statesmen as his ministers of finance, but their policies and remedies availed little or nothing. The traditions of the court, the rigidity of long-established customs, and the heartless selfishness of the privileged classes rendered reform in taxation and efficient retrenchment impossible. The national debt grew constantly larger. The people charged all to the extravagance of the queen, whom they called "Madame Deficit." In 1787 the king summoned the Notables, a body composed chiefly of great lords and prelates, who had not been called to advise with the king since the year 1626. But miserable coun- selors were they all. Refusing to give up any of their feudal privi- leges, or to tax the property of their own orders that the enormous public burdens which were crushing the commons might be light- ened, their coming together resulted in nothing. 506. The Calling of the States-General; the Elections; the Cahiers. As a last resort it was resolved to summon the united wisdom of the nation, to call together the States-General, the almost-forgotten national assembly, composed of representatives of the three estates, — the nobility, the clergy, and the commons. In December, 1788, the king by proclamation called upon the French people to elect deputies to this body, which had not met to deliberate upon the affairs of France for a period of one hun- dred and seventy-five years. Divine-right royalty had seen no 448 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§507 necessity hitherto of seeking counsel of the people. The summon- ing of the ancient assembly was an acknowledgment that absolute monarchy had failed in France. How complete and irremediable that failure was, was recognized by no one as yet. In connection with the elections there had been made by the king's advisers a momentous decision, one which practically in- volved the fate of the monarchy. The commons, conscious that they formed the overwhelming majority of the nation, insisted upon being allowed double representation, that is, as many deputies as both the other orders. The minister, Necker, yielded to this demand. They were authorized to send up six hundred deputies, while the nobility and the clergy were each to have only three hundred representatives. The electors had been instructed to draw up statements of grievances and suggestions of reform for the information and guidance of the States-General. Very many of these documents, which are known as cahiers, were substantially copies of models drawn up by lawyers and others and widely distributed; never- theless they form a valuable record of the France of 1789, — of the grievances of the people, of their ideas of reform, and of their aspirations. One demand common to them all is that the nation through its representatives shall have part in the government. Those of the Third Estate call for the abolition of feudal rents and services and for the equalization among the orders of the burdens of taxation. In a word, they were petitions for equality and justice. 507. The States-General changed into the National As- sembly. On the fifth of May, 1789, a memorable date, the dep- uties to the States-General met at Versailles. Thither the eyes of the nation were now turned in hope and expectancy. Surely if the redemption of France could be worked out by human wisdom, it would now be effected. At the very outset a dispute arose between the privileged orders and the commons respecting the manner of voting. It had been the ancient custom of the body for each order to deliberate in its own hall, and for the vote upon all questions to be by § 507] THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY 449 orders/ But the commons now demanded that this old custom should be ignored and that the voting should be by individuals ; for should the vote be taken by orders, then their double representa- tion would be a mere mockery, and the clergy and nobility by com- bining could always outvote them. For five weeks the quarrel kept everything in a deadlock. Finally, the commons, emboldened by the tone of public opinion without, took a decisive, revolutionary step. They declared them- selves the National Assembly, and then invited the other two orders to join them in their deliberations, giving them to under- stand that if they did not choose to do so they should proceed to the consideration of public affairs without them. King, nobles, and prelates were alarmed at the bold attitude assumed by the commons. The king, in helpless alarm, suspended the sitting of the rebellious deputies and guarded the door of their hall. But the commons, gathering in the tennis court, a great barnlike building without seats, bound themselves by oath not to separate until they had framed a constitution for France. This act was very much like that of the members of the Long Parliament, who practically opened the English Revolution by resolving that they should not be dissolved without their own consent (sect. 420). Shut out from the tennis court, the representatives of the Third Estate met in one of the churches of Versailles. Here they were joined by two of the nobility and a large number of the deputies of the clergy. It looked as though the three orders would soon coalesce. The court party labored to prevent this. A royal sitting, or joint meeting of the three estates, was held. The king, influ- enced by his advisers, read a speech in which, assuming the tone of an English Stuart, he admonished the commons not to attack the privileges of the other orders, and then commanded the depu- ties of the three orders to retire to their separate halls. The clergy and the nobility obeyed. The commons kept their seats. 1 That is to say, the majority of the representatives of each order decided the vote for that order, and then two of these majority votes registered the decision of the whole body of deputies. 450 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§508 At this juncture the master of ceremonies somewhat pertly said to them, "You heard the king's command?" Thereupon Mirabeau, one of the leaders of the commons, a man of "Jupiter- like" mien and tone, turned upon the messenger with these memorable words: "Go, tell those who sent you that we are here by the command of the people, and here we shall stay until driven out at the point of the bayonet." The poor official "was so frightened at the terrible Mirabeau that he straightway sought the door, withdrawing from the assembly, however, backwards, as he had been wont to do in retiring fro'm the presence of the king. His instincts were right. He was, indeed, in the presence of the sovereign, — the newborn sovereign of France. The triumph of the Third Estate was soon complete. Real- izing that it was futile and dangerous longer to oppose the will of the commons, the king ordered those of the nobles and clergy who had not yet joined them to do so, and they obeyed. The States-General thus became in reality the National Assembly. This union of the three estates in the National Assembly was merely the registering of the result of the silent revolution which through the preceding centuries had been gradually transforming the France of feudal times, made up of the three orders of the clergy, nobility, and Third Estate, into the France of 1789, made up not of orders but of individuals, — of individuals who were already potentially citizens free and equal before the law. II. THE NATIONAL, OR CONSTITUENT, ASSEMBLY (JUNE 17, 1789-SEPTEMBER 30, 1791) 508. Prominent Men in the Assembly. Lamartine declares that the National Assembly was " the most imposing body of men that ever represented not only France but the human race." It was impressive not so much from the ability or genius of its individual members, though the picked men of France were here gathered, as through the tremendous interests it held in its hands. Yet there were in the Assembly a number of men whose names cannot be passed in silence. §508] NOTABLE MEMBERS OF THE ASSfeMBLY 451 Among the nobility was the patriotic, generous-minded La- fayette, who had won the admiration of his countrymen by splendid services rendered the struggling Republic in the New World. His influence at this time was probably greater than that of any other man in France. Belonging by birth to the same order, but sitting now as a deputy of the commons, was Mirabeau, a large-headed, dissolute, unscrupulous man, an impetuous orator, the mouthpiece of the Revolution. But though violent in speech he was moderate in counsel. He wanted to right the wrongs of the people, yet without undermining the throne. He wanted reform but not revolution. A man of great self-confidence, he aspired to be a leader, but no one at first had confidence in him, such had been his past life. Arthur Young said of him, ^'His character is a dead weight upon him." Yet, notwith- standing his lack of private virtues, Mirabeau's qualities of leadership at length gained for him recognition, and he was at one time president of the National Assembly. But his life of dissipation had undermined his constitution. He died in 1791, despairing of the future for France. Also among the deputies of the Third Estate sat another man whom _we must notice, — Robespierre, not much known as yet, but of whom we shall hear enough by and by. Still another most eminent representative of the commons was Abbe Sieyes, a person of wonderful facility in framing constitu- tions. France will have much need of such talent, as we shall see. Sieyes had recently stirred the whole country by a remarkable pamphlet entitled What is the Third Estate? {Qu'est-ce que le Tiers ttat?). He answers, "Everything!" ''What has it been hitherto?" "Nothing!" "What does it wish?" "To be something." Fig. 86. Mirabeau. (After a painting by L. Massard) 452 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§509 509. Origin of the Revolutionary Commune of Paris; the National Guards. During all these weeks the capital was in a seething ferment. The municipal authorities showing themselves irresolute and timid, the leading men of the different sections or wards of the city ousted them and then, forming themselves into a sort of provisional city council, assumed the government of the capital. Thus in this moment of tumult and confusion was born the revolutionary Commune of Paris, a body whose power came to overshadow that of the National Assembly itself. Under the direction of the self-constituted Commune the in- habitants of the capital now formed themselves into a sort of police force. Other cities throughout France imitated Paris and organized their militia. These hastily recruited popular bodies took the name of National Guards, and under that title were destined to act a most conspicuous part in the scenes of the Revolution. 510. Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789). Thus all Paris was ready to burst into conflagration. The news of the dismissal by the king of Necker, a minister in whom the people had great confidence, kindled the inflammable mass. On the morning of July 14 a great mob assaulted the Bastille, the old state prison and, in the eyes of the people, the emblem of royal despotism. In a few hours the fortress was in the hands of the people. The governor and others of the defenders of the place were murdered, their heads placed at the end of pikes, and thus borne through the streets. The walls of the hated old prison were razed to the ground, and the people danced on the spot. The key of the dungeon was sent by Lafayette to Washington " as a trophy of the spoils of despotism." In a letter accompanying the gift, Lafayette wrote: " That the principles of America opened the Bastille is not to be doubted, and therefore the key goes to the right place." ^ The destruction of the Bastille by the Paris mob was the death knell not only of Bourbon despotism in France but of royal tyranny everywhere. The intelligence of the event was received with rejoicing in America and wherever the ideas and principles of self-government were entertained. When the news reached 1 The rusty relic may be seen to-day in a case at Mount Vernon. § 511] THE ABOLITION OF PRIVILEGES 453 England the great statesman Fox, perceiving its signiiicance for liberty, exclaimed, "How much is this the greatest event that ever happened in the world, and how much the best!" Louis XVI regarded the matter with different feelings. When news of the affair was carried to him at Versailles he exclaimed, "What, RebelUonV "No, sire," was the response; "it is Revo- lution." The great French Revolution had indeed begun. 511. The Abolition of Privileges (August 4, 1789). As the news of the storming of the Bastille spread through France the peasantry in many districts, following the example set them by the capital, destroyed the local bastilles and sacked and burned the castles of the nobles. The main object of the peasants was to destroy the title deeds in the archives of the manor houses, since it was by virtue of these charters that the lords exercised so many rights over the lands of the peasants and exacted so many teasing and iniquitous tolls and dues. This terrorism caused the begin- ning of what is known as the emigration of the nobles, that is, their flight beyond the frontiers of France. The storm without hastened matters within the National Assem- bly at Versailles. The privileged orders now realized that, to save themselves from the fury of the masses, they must give up those vexatious feudal privileges which were a main cause of the suf- ferings and the anger of the people. Rising in the tribune, two young and liberal-minded members of the nobility represented that they were willing to renounce all their feudal rights and ex- emptions. A contagious enthusiasm was awakened by this act of patriotic generosity. The impulsiveness of the Gallic heart was never better illustrated. Everybody wanted to make sacrifices for the common good. The nobles and the clergy, crowding to the tribune, strove with one another in generous rivalry to see who should make the greatest sacrifices in the surrender of rents, tolls, fees, and feudal dues.^ Thus in a single night much of the rubbish of the broken-down feudal system was cleared away. 1 Tolls and dues were the lord's rights over roads, ferries, bridges, markets, as well as over grinding grain, pressing grapes, and baking bread (cf. sect. 91). These were abolished without compensation. In lieu of other annoying feudal dues, specified pay- ments by the peasants were substituted. 454 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§512 512. The Declaration of the Rights of Man (August 26, 1789). After the abolition of the feudal system the next work of the National Assembly was the drawing up of a Declaration of the Rights of Man. This was in imitation of what had been done by the American patriots. The dominant notes of the Declaration were (i) the equality of men, — ''Men are born and remain free and equal"; (2) the sovereignty of the people, — "All sovereignty resides essentially in the nation"; (3) the impartial nature of law, — "Law is the expression of the general will ... and should be the same for all"; and (4) the inviolability of personal hberty, — "No person shall be arrested or imprisoned save according to the forms of law." 513. Nationalization of Church Property (November 2, 1789); the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 12, 1790). Shortly after the promulgation of the Declaration of Rights a Parisian mob fetched the king from Versailles to the capital. Their purpose in this was to hold him as a sort of hostage for the good conduct of the nobles and the foreign sovereigns while the new constitution was being prepared by the Assembly. For two years following this there was a comparative lull in the storm of the Revolution. The king was kept a close prisoner in the Tuileries. The National Assembly was making sweeping re- forms in both State and Church and busying itself in framing a new constitution. One of the most important of its measures and one far-reaching in its effects was the confiscation of the property of the Church, — a proceeding similar to that of the Prot- estant reformers of the sixteenth century in Germany and Eng- land.^ Altogether property, consisting largely of lands, worth it is estimated over a billion francs, was by decree made the property of the nation.- 1 See sects. 299, 337. 2 It being found impossible to sell at once and at fair prices so large an amount of real estate, the Assembly, using the nationalized lands as security, issued against them currency notes, called assignais. As almost always happens in such cases, inflation of the currency resulted. Fresh issues of notes were made until they became quite worth- less, as in the case of the Continental notes issued by the Continental Congress in the American War of Independence. §514] ARREST OF THE KING 455 The nationalization of the property of the Church rendered it necessary that the nation should make some provision for the support of the clergy. This was done a little later by a decree known as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which pro- vided for the support of all ministers of religion by reason- able salaries paid by the nation. All the clergy, bishops, and parish priests alike were to be chosen by election, and all were to be required to take oath to support the new constitution. Naturally this conversion of the Church in France into a State Church created a schism in the nation. Out of a hundred and thirty-four bishops only four would take the prescribed oath. From this time on a large section of the French clergy became the bitter enemies of the Revolution. 514. Flight and Arrest of the King (June 20, 1791). The attempt of the king to make his way out of France and join the emigrant nobles now gave an entirely new turn to the course of the Revolution. Under cover of night the royal family in dis- guise escaped from the Tuileries, and by post conveyance fled towards the frontier. When just a few hours more would have placed the fugitives in safety among friends, the Bourbon features of the king betrayed him, and the entire party was arrested and carried back to Paris. The attempted flight of the royal family was a fatal blow to the monarchy. It deepened the growing distrust of the king. Many affected to regard it as equivalent on his part to an act of abdica- tion. The people began to talk of a republic. The word was only whispered as yet; but it was not long before those who did not shout vociferously, ^'Vive la Rcpubliquel" were hurried to the guillotine. 515. The Clubs: Jacobins and Cordeliers. In order to render intelligible the further course of the Revolution we must now speak of two clubs, or organizations, which came into prominence about this time, and which were destined to become more power- ful than the Assembly itself, and to be the chief instruments in inaugurating the Reign of Terror. These were the societies of the 456 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§516 Jacobins and the Cordeliers.' The objects of these clubs were to watch for conspiracies of the Royalists and by constant agitation to keep alive the flame of the Revolution. 516. The New Constitution. The work of the National As- sembly was now drawing to a close. On the 14th of September, 1 79 1, the new constitution framed by the body, which instrument made the government of France a constitutional monarchy, was solemnly ratified by the king. The National Assembly, having sat over two years, then adjourned. The first scene in the drama of the French Revolution was ended. III. THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (OCTOBER 1, 1791- SEPTEMBER 19, 1792) 517. The Membership of the Assembly; the Constitu- tionalists and the Girondins. The new constitution provided for a national legislature to be called the Legislative Assembly. This body was made up of several groups or parties, of which we need here notice only the Constitutionalists and the Girondins. The Constitutionalists, as their name implies, supported the new con- stitution, being in favor of a limited monarchy. The Girondins, so called from the department (the Gironde) whence their most noted leaders came, wanted to establish in France a federal republic like that just set up in the New World. 518. The Temper of the Assembly. Some seemingly trivial matters will serve to illustrate the spirit of the new Assembly. At the very outset the members were much perplexed in regard to how they should address the king and "wound neither the national dignity nor the royal dignity." Some were for using the titles Sire and Majesty, against which others indignantly protested, declaring that "the law and the people are the only Majesty." It was finally decided that Louis XVI should be called simply King of the French. 1 The Jacobins were so called from an old convent in Paris in which their first meet- ings were held ; the Cordeliers were named after a Franciscan convent where they assembled. The Cordeliers formed only a single Parisian club ; the Jacobins, however, organized numerous branch societies scattered throughout France. §519] WAR WITH THE OLD MONARCHIES 457 Another thing which troubled the republican members was the gilded throne in which the king was wont to sit when he visited the Assembly. It was resolved that this article should be removed and an ordinary chair substituted for it, this to be placed in exact line with that occupied by the president of the Assembly. Again there were objections raised to the ceremony of the members rising and standing uncovered in the king's presence. So it was decreed that the members might sit before royalty with their hats on. 519. Beginning of War with Old Monarchies (April 20, 1792). The kings of Europe were watching with the utmost concern the course of events in France. They regarded the cause of Louis XVI as their own. If the French people should be allowed to overturn the throne of their hereditary sovereign, who any longer would have respect for the divine right of kings? The warlike preparations of Austria — which had entered into an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia — awakened the apprehensions of the Revolutionists and led the Legislative As- sembly to declare war against that power. A little later the allied armies of the Austrians and Prussians crossed the frontiers of France. Thus was taken the first step in a series of wars which were destined to last nearly a quarter of a century, and in which France almost single-handed was to struggle against the leagued powers of Europe and to illustrate the miracles possible to enthusiasm and genius. 520. The Massacre of the Swiss Guards (August 10, 1792). The allies at first gained easy victories over the ill-disciplined forces of the Legislative Assembly, and the Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Prussian army, advanced rapidly upon Paris. An insolent proclamation which this general now issued, wherein he ordered the French nation to submit to their king, and threatened the Parisians with the destruction of their city should any harm be done the royal family, drove the French people frantic with indignation and rage. The first outbreak of the popular fury occurred in Paris. The mob of the capital was swollen by the arrival of bands of picked 458 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§520 men from other parts of France. From the south came the "six hundred Marseillais who knew how to die." They brought with them "a better contingent than ten thousand pikemen," — the Marseillaise Hymn, the martial song of the Revolution.^ On the morning of the loth of August the hordes of the city were mustered. The Palace of the Tuileries, defended by several hundred Swiss soldiers, the remnant of the royal guard, was P"iG. 87. The Lion of Lucerne.- (From a photograph) assaulted. The royal family fled for safety to the hall of the Assembly close by. A terrible struggle followed in the corridors and upon the grand stairways of the palace. The Swiss stood "steadfast as the granite of their Alps." But they were over- whelmed at last, and all were killed, either in the building itself or in the surrounding courts and streets.- 1 This famous war song was composed in t7<)2 by Roiiget de Lisle, a young French engineer. 2 The number of Swiss guards slain was over seven hundred. Their fidehty and devotion are commemorated by one of the most impressive monuments in Europe, the so-called " Lion of Lucerne," at Lucerne in Switzerland. In a large recess in a cliff a dying lion, pierced by a lance, protects with its paw the Bourbon lilies. The wonderfully lifelike figure is cut out of the natural rock. The designer of the memorial was the celebrated Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, § 521] THE MASSAORE OF SEPTEMBER 459 521. The Massacre of September ("Jail Delivery"). The army of the allies hurried on towards the capital to avenge the slaughter of the royal guards and to rescue the king, Paris was all excitement. "We must stop the enemy," cried Danton, "by striking terror into the Royalists." To this end the most atrocious measures were now adopted. It was resolved that the Royalists confined in the jails of the capital should be killed. A hundred or more men acted as executioners, and to them the prisoners were handed over after a hasty examination before self-appointed judges. The number of victims of this terrible " September Mas- sacre," as it is called, is estimated at from eight hundred to fourteen hundred,^ Europe had never before known such a "jail delivery." It was the greatest crime of the French Revolution. 522. Defeat of the Allies at Valmy (1792). Meanwhile, in the open field, the fortunes of war inclined to the side of the Revolutionists. The French army in the north was successful in checking the advance of the allies, and finally at Valmy suc- ceeded in inflicting upon them a decisive defeat, which caused their hasty retreat beyond the frontiers of France. The day of this victory the Legislative Assembly came to an end, and the same day the National Convention assembled. IV. THE NATIONAL CONVENTION (SEPTEMBER 20, 1792- OCTOBER 26, 1795) 523. Parties in the Convention. The Convention, consisting of seven hundred and forty-nine deputies, among whom was the celebrated freethinker Thomas Paine, embraced two active groups, the Girondins and the Mountainists, the latter being so named from the circumstance that they sat on the upper benches in the Assembly hall. There were no monarchists; all were republicans. No one now dared to speak of a monarchy. It was the Mountainists who were to shape the measures of the Convention. Their leaders were Danton and Robespierre, deputies 1 Former estimates are now known to have been exaggerated. See Stephens, Ifis/oiy of the French Revolution^ vol, ii, p. 146, 46o THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§524 of Paris. The party was inferior in numbers to that of the Giron- dins, but was superior in energy and daring, and was, moreover, backed by the Parisian mob. Its leaders wanted a strong govern- ment, which they believed should be maintained, if necessary, by a system of terror. 524. The Establishment of the Republic (September 21, 1792) ; Beginning of the Revolutionary Propaganda. Almost the first act of the Convention was to abolish the monarchy. The motion for the abolition of royalty was not even discussed. "What need is there for discussion," exclaimed a delegate, "where all are agreed? Courts are the hotbed of crime, the focus of corruption; the history of kings is the martyrology of nations." All titles of nobility were also abolished. Every one was to be addressed simply as citizen. In the debates of the Convention the king was alluded to as Citizen Capet, and on the street the shoe- black was called Citizen Shoeblack. The day following the establishment of the Republic (Septem- ber 2 2, 1792) was made the beginning of a new era, the first day of the Year I. That was to be regarded as the natal day of Liberty. A little later, incited by the success of the French armies, the Convention called upon all nations to rise against despotism, and pledged the aid of France to any people wishing to secure freedom. This call to the peoples of Europe to rise against their kings and to set up republican governments converted the revolutionary movement in France into a propaganda, and naturally made more implacable than ever the hatred toward the Revolution felt by all lovers and beneficiaries of the old order of things. The declara- tion was a main cause of the fresh coalition formed against the new Republic and of the war of 1793. 525. Trial and Execution of the King (January 21, 1793). The next work of the Convention was the trial and execution of the king. He was brought before the bar of that body, charged with having conspired with the enemies of France, of having opposed the will of the people, and of having caused the massacre of the loth of August. The sentence of the Convention was im- mediate death. On January 21, 1793, the unfortunate monarch, § 526] COALITION AGAINST FRANCE 461 after a last sad interview with his wife and children, was con- ducted to the scaffold. As his head fell beneath the knife of the guillotine, a great shout, ''Vive la RepubliqueV burst from the surrounding multitudes and echoed through the empty halls of the neighboring palace of the Tuileries. 526. Coalition against France; the Counter-Revolution in La Vendee. The regicide, together with the propaganda decree of the preceding year, awakened among all the old monarchies of Europe the most bitter hostility against the French Revolutionists. The act was interpreted as a threat against all kings. A grand coalition, embracing England, Austria, Prussia, the Protestant Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, Tuscany, Naples, and the Holy Roman Empire, was formed to crush the republican move- ment. Armies aggregating more than a quarter of a million men threatened France at once on every frontier. While thus beset with foes without, the Republic was threat- ened with even more dangerous enemies within. The people of La Vendee, in western France, where the peasants were angered at the conscription decrees of the Convention, and where there was still a strong sentiment of loyalty to the Church and the monarchy, rose in revolt against the Revolutionists. 527. Creation of the Revolutionary Tribunal (March 10, 1793) and of the Committee of Public Safety (April 6, 1793). The defeat of the French armies in the north and the advance of the allies caused the greatest excitement among the Parisian popu- lace, who now demanded that the Convention should overawe the domestic enemies of the Revolution by the establishment of a judicial dictatorship, a sort of tribunal which should take cognizance of all crimes against the Republic. Danton, while acknowledging the injustice that the summary processes of such a court might do to many unjustly suspected, justified its establishment by arguing that in time of peace society lets the guilty escape rather than harm the innocent; but in times of public danger it should rather strike down the innocent than allow the guilty to escape. It was on this principle that France was to be governed for one terrible year. 462 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION L§ 528 A little later was organized what was called the Committee of Public Safety, consisting of nine persons, members of the Con- vention. It was invested with dictatorial authority. The vast powers wielded by the committee were delegated to it for a single month only, but were renewed from month to month. We must bear in mind the character of these two bodies in order to follow intelligently the subsequent events of the Revo- lution and to understand how the atrocious tyranny of the Reign of Terror was exercised and maintained. 528. The Fall of the Girondins (June 2, 1793). Still gloomier tidings came from every quarter, — news of reverses to the armies of the Republic in face of the allies, and of successes of the counter-revolutionists in La Vendee. The Mountainists in the Convention urged the most extreme measures. They proposed that the carriages of the wealthy should be seized and used for carrying soldiers to the front, and that the expenses of the govern- ment should be met by forced contributions from the rich. The Girondins opposed these measures. The Parisian mob filled the city with cries of "Down with the Girondins!" "If the persons of the people's representative be violated," warningly exclaimed one of the Girondin orators, "Paris will be destroyed, and soon the stranger will be compelled to inquire on which bank of the Seine the city stood." The Girondins were finally overborne. An immense mob sur- rounded the hall of the Convention and demanded that their chiefs be given up as enemies of the Republic. Thirty-one of their leaders were surrendered and placed under arrest, a pre- liminary step to the speedy execution of many of them during the opening days of the Reign of Terror. Thus did the Parisian mob purge the National Convention of France, as the army purged Parliament in the English Revolution (sect. 426). 529. Charlotte Corday; Assassination of Marat (July 13, 1793). The arrest of the Girondin chiefs marked a turning point in the Revolution. Several escaped and attempted to stir up re- volt in the provinces against the revolutionary leaders in Paris. Civil war was impending. § 530] GREAT COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY 463 At this juncture a maiden of Caen, in Normandy, Charlotte Corday by name, conceived the idea of delivering France from the terrors of proscription and civil war by going to Paris and killing Marat, whom she regarded as the leader of the Moun- tainists. On pretense of wishing to reveal to him something of importance, she gained admission to his rooms and stabbed him fatally. She atoned for the act under the knife of the guillotine. The Reign of Terror (September, 1793-JuLY, 1794) 530. The Great Committee of Public Safety; its Principle of Government. The perilous situation created by domestic in- surrection and foreign invasion demanded a strong executive. It was created. The Convention reorganized the Committee of Pub- lic Safety, which now became what is known as the Great Com- mittee of Public Safety, suspended the constitution, and invested the new board with supreme executive authority. For almost a full year the twelve men — of whom Robespierre was the most conspicuous — constituting this body exercise'd absolute power over the life and property of every person in France. The Com- mittee's principle of government was simple. It governed by terror. Its rule is known as the " Reign of Terror." In order to understand in any measure this passage of French history, we must put ourselves at the viewpoint of the Terrorists, as those responsible for the Terror are called. The most, if not all, of the men constituting the Great Committee were men of character, — some of their agents were unworthy creatures, who, misusing their authority, committed incredible crimes, — men gov- erned by certain principles and ideals which seemed to them right and worthy. They were men who had persuaded themselves that opposition to the Revolution was a crime deserving death, and that France could be saved from anarchy and foreign sub- jection only by the quick and thorough suppression of all oppo- sition at home by the terrifying executions of the guillotine. For the same reasons the majority of the people of France acquiesced in this government by terror which the Committee established. 464 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§ 531 531. The Execution of Marie Antoinette (October 16, 1793). One of the earhest victims of the guillotine under the organized Terror was the queen. The attention of the Revolutionists had been turned anew to the remaining members of the royal family by reason of the recognition by the allies of the Dauphin as king of France ^ and by the recent alarming successes of their armies. The queen, who had now borne nine months' imprisonment, was brought before the terrible Revolutionary Tribunal and con- demned to the guillotine. She was conveyed in a common cart to the same spot where, less than a year before, her husband had suffered. When she first appeared in the chamber of the dread tribunal, with her robes disordered, her hair blanched from anguish, and her face furrowed with sorrow, — so changed from that fair vision of beauty once the center of the brilliant court of Versailles,'- — a wave of pity had rushed over the hearts of all be- holders; but the rising tide of senti- ment had been checked, and now a hideous mob of men and women howled with savage delight around the cart which bore the unhappy queen to the scaffold. We need not speak of the faults of Marie Antoinette, though they were many; her patience, her heroism, and her sufferings were ample atonement for them all. 1 The Dauphin, a mere child of eight years, was recognized as king of France by several of the great powers in January, 1793. He was at this time a prisoner in the Temple. He died in 1795, ^^^ death having been caused or at least hastened by the brutal ill usage he received at the hands of his jailers. 2 It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the queen of France, then the Dauphiness, at Versailles; and surely never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a more delightful vision. I saw her just above the horizon, decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she just had begun to move in, — glittering like the morn- ing star, full of life and splendor and joy. — Burke, Reficctions on the French Revolution, Fk;. 88. The (Guillotine §532] EXECUTION OF THE GIRONDINS 465 532. Execution of the Girondins (October 31, 1793) and of Madame Roland (November 8, 1793). The guillotine was now fed daily with the best blood of France. Two weeks after the execution of the queen twenty of the chiefs of the Girondins, who had been kept in confinement since their arrest in the Convention, were pushed beneath the knife. Hundreds of others followed. Most illustrious of all the victims after the queen was Madame Roland, who was accused of being the friend of the Girondins. An incident at the scaffold is related as a memorial of her. As she was about to lay her head beneath the knife, her eye, it is said, chanced to fall upon the statue of Liberty which stood near the scaffold. "O Liberty!" she exclaimed; "what crimes are committed in thy name!" It has ever been so. The worst crimes that stain the pages of history have been committed in the name of that which is holiest, — in the name of Liberty, or of Justice, or of Religion. 533. The New Calendar. While the Revolutionary Tribunal was clearing out of the way the enemies of the Republic by the quick processes of the guillotine, the Convention was busy re- forming the ancient institutions and customs of the land. They hated these as having been established by kings and aristocrats to enhance their own importance and to enslave the masses. They proposed to sweep these things all aside and give the world a fresh start. A new uniform system of weights and measures, known as the metric,^ had already been planned by the National Assembly; a new mode of reckoning time was now introduced. The months were given new names, names expressive of the character of each. Each month was divided into three periods of ten days each, called decades, and each day into ten parts. The tenth day of each decade took the place of the old Sabbath. The five odd days not provided for in the arrangement were made festival days. 534. Attempt to abolish Christianity (November 7, 1793). The old calendar having been abolished, the Revolutionists next 1 This reform was a most admirable one and must be regarded as one of the good outcomes of the Revohition. 466 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§535 proceeded to abolish Christianity. Some of the chiefs of the Com- mune of Paris declared that the Revolution should not rest until it had "dethroned the King of Heaven as well as the kings of earth." An attempt was made by the extremists to have Chris- tianity abolished by a decree of the National Convention, but that body prudently resolved that all matters of creeds should be left to the decision of the people themselves. The atheistic lead- ers then determined to effect their purpose through the Church itself. They persuaded the Bishop of Paris, Gobel by name, to abdicate his office, and his example was followed by many of the clergy throughout the country. The churches of Paris and of other cities were now closed, and the treasures of their altars and shrines confiscated to the State. Even the bells were melted down into cannon. The images of the Virgin and of the Christ were torn down, and the busts of Marat and other patriots set up in their stead. And as the eman- cipation of the world was now to be wrought not by the Cross but by the guillotine, that instrument took the place of the cru- cifix, and was called the "Holy Guillotine." In many places all visible symbols of the ancient religion were destroyed; all emblems of hope in some cemeteries were obliterated, and over their gates were inscribed the words, "Death is eternal sleep." 535. Inauguration of the Worship of Reason (November 10, 1793). The madness of the people culminated in the worship of Reason. A celebrated beauty, personating the Goddess of Reason, was set upon the altar of Notre Dame in Paris as an object of homage and worship. The example of Paris was fol- lowed generally throughout France. Churches were converted into temples of the new worship. The Sabbath having been abolished, the services of the temple were held only upon every tenth day. On that day the mayor or some popular leader mounted the altar and harangued the people, dwelling upon the news of the moment, the triumphs of the armies of the Republic, the glorious achievements of the Revolution, and the privilege of living in an era when one was oppressed neither by kings on earth nor by a King in Heaven, §536J FALL OF HUBERT AND DANTON 467 536. Fall of Hebert and Danton (March and April, 1794). During the progress of events the Jacobins had become divided into three factions, headed respectively by Danton, Robespierre, and Hebert. To make his own power supreme, Robespierre re- solved to crush the other two leaders. Hebert and his party were the iirst to fall, Danton and his adherents working with Robes- pierre to bring about their ruin. Danton and his party were the next to follow. The last words of Danton to the executioner were, " Show my head to the people ; they do not see the like every day." The grim request was granted. Robespierre was now supreme. His ambition was attained. '' He stood alone on the awful eminence of the Holy Moun- tain." But his turn was soon to come. 537. Worship of the Supreme Being, One of the first acts of Robespierre after he had freed himself from his most virulent enemies was to give France a new religion in place of the worship of Reason. Robes- pierre wished to sweep away Christianity as a superstition, but he would stop at deism. He did not believe that a state could be founded on atheism. "If God did not exist," he declared, "it would behoove man to invent Him." In a remarkable address delivered before the Convention on the 7th of May, 1794, Robespierre eloquently defended the doc- trines of God and immortality, and then closed his speech by offering for adoption this decree: " (i) The French people recog- nize the existence of the Supreme Being and the immortality of the soul; (2) they recognize that the worship most worthy of the Supreme Being is the practice of the duties of man; and (3) they put in the first rank of these duties to detest bad faith and tyranny, to punish tyrants and traitors, to rescue the unfortu- nate, to defend the oppressed, to do to others all the good one can, and to be unjust towards none." The Convention adopted the Fig. 89. Robespierre (From a French print) 468 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§538 resolution with the "utmost enthusiasm." The churches which had been converted into temples of the Goddess of Reason were now consecrated to the new worship of the Supreme Being. 538. The Culmination of the Terror at Paris (June and July, 1794). At the same time that Robespierre was instituting the new worship, the Great Committee of Public Safety, of which he was generally regarded as the controlling spirit, was ruling France by a terrorism unparalleled since the most frightful days at Rome. The prisons of Paris and of the departments were filled with suspected persons, until two hundred thousand prisoners were crowded into these republican bastilles. At Paris the dungeons were emptied of their victims and room made for fresh ones by the swift processes of the Revolutionary Tribunal, which in mock- ery of justice caused the prisoners to be brought before its bar in companies of ten or fifty or more. Rank or talent was an inexpiable crime. "Were you not a noble?" asked the president of the tribunal of one of the accused. "Yes," was the reply. "Enough; another!" was the judge's verdict. And so on through the long list each day brought before the court. The scenes about the guillotine seem mirrored from the In- ferno of Dante. Benches were arranged around the scaffold and rented to spectators, like seats in a theater. The market women of Paris, who were known as "the Furies of the Guillotine," busied themselves with their knitting while watching the changing scenes of the bloody spectacle. In the space of seven weeks (June lo-July 27) the number of persons guillotined in Paris was thirteen hundred and seventy-six, — an average of over twenty- eight a day. 539. The Terror in the Provinces. While such was the fright- ful state of things at the capital, matters were even worse in several of the provinces. Some of the cities which had been prominent centers of the counter-revolution were made a terrible example of the vengeance of the Revolutionists. At Nantes the terror culminated. The agent here of the Great Committee was one Carrier. At first he caused his victims to be shot singly or to be guillotined; but finding these methods too slow, he devised § 540] THE FALL OF ROBESPIERRE 469 more expeditious modes of execution, which were known as fusillades (battues) and noyades (drownings). The fusillades consisted in gathering the victims in large companies and then mowing them down with cannon and musket. In the noyades a hundred or more persons were crowded into an old hulk, which was then towed out into the Loire and scuttled. By these various methods Carrier succeeded in destroying up- wards of five thousand persons in about four months. What renders these murders the more atrocious is the fact that a con- siderable number of the victims were women and little children. 540. The Fall of Robespierre (July 28, 1794) ; Punishment of the Terrorists. The Reign of Terror had lasted about nine months when a reaction came. The successes of the armies of the Republic and the establishment of the authority of the Con- vention throughout the departments caused the people to look upon the wholesale executions that were daily taking place as unnecessary and cruel. They began to turn with horror and pity from the scenes of the guillotine. Robespierre was the first to be swept away by the reaction. The Convention denounced him and his adherents as enemies of the Republic. He was arrested, rescued by the rabble of Paris, rearrested and straightway sent to the guillotine, and along with him several of his friends and the greater part af the members of the Commune of Paris. The reaction which had swept away Robespierre and his asso- ciates continued after their fall. There was a general demand for the punishment of the Terrorists. The clubs of the Jacobins were closed, and that infamous society which had rallied and directed the hideous rabbles of the great cities was broken up. The Christian worship was reestablished. 54L Effects of the Reign of Terror. The effect of the Terror upon France was just what the Terrorists had aimed to produce. It effectually cowed all opposition to the Revolution at home, thereby preserving the unity of France and enabling her to push the foreign foe from her soil. Outside of France the effects of the rule by terror were most unfavorable to the true cause of the Revolutionists. It destroyed 470 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§542 the illusions of generous souls, like Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey in England, and caused among the earlier sympathizers with the Revolutionists a great revulsion of feeling. From being Liberals men became Conservatives and determined foes of all innovation and reform. The Revolution was discredited in the eyes of its best friends. It became identified in men's minds with atheism and terrorism, and to the present hour in the minds of many the French Revolution suggests nothing save foul blas- phemies and guillotine horrors. 542. Bonaparte defends the Convention (October 5, 1795). Experience had shown the defects of the revolutionary govern- ment, particularly in that it united both legislative and executive power in the same hands. The Convention now set about fram- ing a new constitution, which vested the executive power in a body called the Directory, consisting of five persons. It also pro- vided for two legislative bodies, known as the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients. Certain features of the new constitution displeased the Parisian mob. The sections of the turbulent capital again gathered their hordes, and on the 5th of October, 1795, a mob of forty thousand men advanced to the attack of the Tuileries, where the Conven- tion was sitting. As the mob came on they were met by a "whiff of grapeshot," which sent them flying back in wild disorder. The man who trained the guns was a young artillery officer, a native of the island of Corsica, — Napoleon Bonaparte. The Revolu- tion had at last brought forth a man of genius capable of con- trolling and directing its tremendous energies. V. THE DIRECTORY (OCTOBER 27, 1795-NOVEMBER 9, 1799) 543. The Republic becomes Aggressive. Under the Directory the Republic, which up to this time had been acting mainly on the defensive, very soon entered upon an aggressive policy. The Revolution having accomplished its work in France, having there put an end to despotism and class privilege, now set itself about fulfilling its early promise of giving liberty to all peoples (sect. 524). §544J PLANS OF THE DIRECTORY 471 Had not the minds and hearts of the people in all the neigh- boring countries been prepared to welcome the new order of things, the Revolution could never have spread itself as widely as it did. But everywhere irrepressible longings for equality and freedom, born of long oppression, were stirring the souls of men. The French armies were everywhere welcomed by the people as deliverers. Thus was France enabled to surround herself with a girdle of commonwealths. She conquered Europe not by her armies but by her ideas. "An invasion of armies," says Victor Hugo, "can be resisted: an invasion of ideas cannot be resisted." The republics established were, it is true, short-lived; for the times were not yet ripe for the complete triumph of democratic ideas. But a great gain for freedom was made. The reestablished monarchies, as we shall see later, never dared to make themselves as despotic as those which the Revolution had overturned. 544. The Plans of the Directory. Austria and England were the only formidable powers that still persisted in their hostility to the Republic.^ The Directors resolved to strike a decisive blow at the first of these implacable foes. To carry out their design two large armies, numbering about seventy thousand each, were mustered upon the Middle Rhine and intrusted to the command of the two young and energetic generals, Moreau and Jourdan, who were to make a direct invasion of Germany. A third army, numbering about forty-two thousand men, was assembled in the neighborhood of Nice, in southeastern France, and placed in the hands of Bonaparte, to whom was assigned the work of driving the Austrians out of Italy. 545. Bonaparte's Italian Campaign (1796-1797). Straight- way upon receiving his command, Bonaparte, now in his twenty- seventh year, animated by visions of military glory to be gathered on the fields of Italy, hastened to join his army at Nice. He at once aroused all the latent enthusiasm of the soldiers by one of those short, stirring addresses for which he afterwards became so famous. "Soldiers," said he, "you are badly fed and almost 1 I'russia, Spain, and other states had made the Treaties of Basel with tlie Conven- tion, in which they recognized the French RepubHc (1795). 472 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§546 naked. ... I have come to lead you into the most fertile fields of the world; there you will find large cities, rich provinces, honor, glory, and wealth. Soldiers of Italy, will you fail in courage?" If this address be placed alongside the decree of the Conven- tion offering the aid of France to all peoples desiring freedom (sect. 524), it will be realized with how alien a spirit Bonaparte here inspires the armies of republican France. He represents Italy to the imagination of the soldiers of the French Republic merely as a country of rich cities to be despoiled, as a land whence France may draw unlimited tribute. The address marks the beginning of that transformation which in a few years changed the liberating armies of France into the scourge of Europe. Before the mountain roads were yet free from snow Bonaparte set in motion his army, which he had assembled on the coast near Genoa, and suddenly forced the passage of the mountains at the juncture of the Apennines and the Maritime Alps. The Carthaginian had been surpassed. "Hannibal," exclaimed Bona- parte, "crossed the Alps; as for us, we have turned them." Now followed a most astonishing series of French victories over the Austrians and their allies. As a result of the campaign a considerable part of northern Italy was formed into a common- wealth under the name of the Cisalpine Republic. Genoa was also transformed into the Ligurian Republic. 546. Treaty of Campo Formic (October 17, 1767). While Bonaparte had been gaining his surprising victories in Italy, ]\Ioreau and Jourdan had been meeting with severe reverses in Germany. Bonaparte, having effected the work assigned to the army of Italy, now climbed the Eastern Alps and marched toward Vienna. The near approach of the French to his capital induced the Emperor Francis II to listen to proposals of peace. An armi- stice was agreed upon, and later the important Treaty of Campo Formio was arranged. By the^terms of this treaty Austria ceded her Belgian prov- inces to the French Republic, receiving as an offset the Venetian dominions, save the Ionian Islands, which were annexed to the French Republic. Bonaparte was already dazzled by the vision of §547] BONAPARTE'S CAMPAIGN IN EGYPT 473 a French empire in the Orient. The Grecian isles were to constitute a link in the chain which should bind France to her prospective Eastern dependencies. With the treaty arranged, Bonaparte soon set out for Paris, where was accorded him a triumph and ovation such as Europe had not seen since the days of the old Roman conquerors. 547. Bonaparte's Campaign in Egypt (1798-1799). The Direc- tors had received Bonaparte with apparent enthusiasm; but at this very moment they were disquieted by fears lest their gen- eral's ambition might lead him to play the part of a second Caesar. They resolved to engage him in an enterprise which would take him out of France. This undertaking was an attack upon Eng- land, which they were then meditating. Bonaparte opposed the plan of a descent upon the island as impracticable, but proposed the conquest of Egypt. This would enable France to control the trade of the East and cut England off from her East India pos- sessions. The Directors assented to the plan, and with feelings of relief saw Bonaparte embark from the port of Toulon to carry out the enterprise. Evading the vigilance of the British fleet that was patrolling the Mediterranean, Bonaparte landed in Egypt. Within sight of the Pyramids the French army was checked in its march by a deter- mined stand of the renowned Mameluke cavalry. Bonaparte animated the spirits of his men for the inevitable fight by one of his happiest speeches. One of the sentences is memorable. " Sol- diers," he exclaimed, pointing to the Pyramids, " forty centuries are looking down upon you." The battle that followed is known in history as the "battle of the Pyramids." Bonaparte gained a victory that opened the way for his advance to Cairo. He had barely entered that city before the startling intelligence was borne to him that his fleet had been destroyed at the mouth of the Nile by the English admiral Nelson (August i, 1798). In the spring of 1799 the Ottoman Porte having sent a force to retake Egypt, Bonaparte led his army into Syria to fight the Turks there. He finally invested Acre. The Turks were assisted in the defense of this place by the distinguished English 474 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION [§548 commodore, Sir Sidney Smith. All Bonaparte's efforts to carry the place by storm were in vain. "I missed my destiny at Acre," said Bonaparte afterwards. With the ports of Syria secured he might have imitated Alexander and led his soldiers to the foot of the Himalayas. Bitterly disappointed, Bonaparte abandoned the siege of Acre and led his army back into Egypt. 548. Establishment of the Tiberine, the Helvetic, and the Parthenopean Republics (1798-1799). We must turn now to view affairs in Europe. The year 1798 was a favorable one for the republican cause represented by the Revolution. During that year and the opening month of the following one the French set up three new republics. First, they incited an insurrection at Rome, made a prisoner of the Pope, and proclaimed the Roman or Tiberine Republic. Then, intervening in a revolution in Switzerland, they invaded the Swiss cantons and united them into a commonwealth under the name of the Helvetic Republic, A little later the French troops drove the king of Naples out of Italy to Sicily and trans- formed his peninsular domains into the Parthenopean Republic. Thus were three new republics added to the commonwealths which the Revolution had previously created. 549. The Reaction; Bonaparte overthrows the Directory (18th and 19th Brumaire, 1799). Much of this work was quickly undone. Encouraged by the victory of Nelson over the French fleet in the battle of the Nile, and alarmed at the aggres- sions of the government of the Directory, the leading powers of Europe, now including the Tsar of Russia, who was incensed against the French especially for their intrusion into the Orient, which the Russian rulers had ever regarded as their own particular sphere of influence, had formed a new coalition against France. The war began early in 1799 and was waged at one and the same time in Italy, in Switzerland, and in Holland. In the south the campaign was extremely disastrous to the French. They were driven out of Italy and were barely able to keep the allies off the soil of France. The Cisalpine, Tiberine, and Parthenopean republics were abolished. §549] THE REACTION 475 These reverses suffered by the French armies in Italy, though in other quarters they had been successful, caused the Direc- tory to fall into great disfavor. They were charged with having through jealousy exiled Bonaparte, the only man who could save the Republic. Confusion and division prevailed everywhere. News of the desperate state of affairs at home reached Bona- parte in Egypt, just after his return from Syria. He instantly formed a bold resolve. Confiding the command of the army in Egypt to Kleber, he set sail for France, disclosing his designs in the significant words, ''The reign of the lawyers is over." Bonaparte was welcomed in France with the wildest enthusi- asm. A great majority of the people felt instinctively that the emergency demanded a dictator. Some of the Directors joined with Napoleon in a plot to overthrow the government. Meeting with opposition in the Council of Five Hundred, Napoleon with a body of grenadiers drove the deputies from their chamber. . The French Revolution had at last brought forth its Cromwell. Napoleon was master of France. The first French Republic was at an end, and what is distinctively called the French Revolution was over. Now commences the history of the Consulate and the First Empire, — the story of that surprising career the sun of which rose so brightly at Austerlitz and set forever at Waterloo. Selections from the Sources. Young, Arthur, Travels in France (the most valuable contemporary account we have of the condition of France, particularly of the peasantry, on the eve of the Revolution). Burke, E., ReJleciio7is on the Revolution in France. Translations and Reprints, vol. i. No. 5, contains ( i ) " Decree of the National Assembly abolishing the Feudal System," (2) "Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen," and (3) "The Civil Constitution of the Clergy"; vol. iv. No. 5, "Typical Cahiers of 1789." Robinson, J. 11., Readings in European IPisto>y, vol. ii, chaps, xxxiv— xxxvi, and first part of chap, xxxvii. Secondary Works. For the antecedents and causes of the Revolution:' Taine, H. a., The Ancient Regime, and Tocqueville, Alexis de, The Old Regime and the Revolution. Buckle, H. T., History of Civilization in England, vol. i, chaps, xii-xiv (gives an unsurpassed presentation of the philosophical and literary movement of the eighteenth century). Lowell, E. J., The Eve of the Revohition (a series of scholarly and suggestive studies of the various phases of French life and thought during the century preceding the calling of the States-General). 476 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION Short histories: Bourne, H. E., The Revolutionary Period in Europe, chaps, i-xvi ; Stephens, H. Morse, Revolutionary Europe, lySg-iSij, chaps, i-vi. Other excellent short accounts are Morris', Mallet's, Mathews', and Mignet's. Extended histories: Stephens, H. Morse, A ffistoryofike French Revolu- tion, 2 vols. ; Taine, H. A., The French Revolution, 3 vols. ; The Cambridge Modern Histo)y, vol. viii ; and C.\RLVLE, T., The F}-ench Revolution. (The last is another of Carlyle's masterpieces ; " a prose epic " and " pictures in the French Revolution " are good characterizations of it.) Biographies: MoRLEY, J., Rousseau, 2 vols., and Voltaire; WiLLERT, P. F., Mirabeau ; Lamartine, A., History of the Girondists, 3 vols.; Tarbell, I. M., Madame Roland. Topics for Class Reports. i.What the term Ancient Regime stands for: Seignobos, C, History of Contempora?y Civilization, pp. 92-106. 2. Life in Paris under the Reign of Terror : Stephens, H. M., Histor\' of the French Revolution, vol. ii, chap, x, pp. 343-361. 3. "The Reign of Terror as a political experiment " : Mathews, Shailer, The French Revolution, chap. xvi. CHAPTER XXXIV THE CONSULATE AND THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE (1799-1815) I. THE CONSULATE (1799-1804) 550. The Veiled Military Dictatorship. After the overthrow of the government of the Directory, a new constitution — the fourth since the year 1789 — was prepared and, having been sub- mitted to the approval of the people, was accepted by a vote of over three millions to less than two thousand. This new instru- ment vested the executive power in three Consuls, nominated for a term of ten years, the first of whom really exercised all the authority of the board, the remaining two members being simply his counselors. Bonaparte, of course, became the First Consul. The other functions of the government were carried on by a Council of State, a Tribunate, a Legislature, and a Senate. But the members of all these bodies were appointed either directly or indirectly by the Consuls, so that the entire government was actually in their hands, or rather in the hands of the First Con- sul. France was still called a republic, but republican names and forms merely veiled a government as absolute and personal as that of Louis XIV, — in a word, a military dictatorship. 551. Wars of the First Consul. Bonaparte inherited from the Directory war with Austria and England. Offers of peace to both having been rejected, Bonaparte mustered his armies. His plan was to deal Austria, his only formidable continental enemy, a double blow. A large army was collected on the Rhine for an invasion of Germany. This was intrusted to Moreau. Another, intended to operate against the Austrians in Italy, was gathered with great secrecy at the foot of the Alps. Bonaparte himself assumed command of this latter force. 477 47^ THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§552 In the spring of the year 1800 Bonaparte made his memo- rable passage of the Alps, and astonished the Austrian generals by suddenly appearing in Piedmont at the head of an army of forty thousand men. Upon the renowned field of Marengo the Austrian army, which greatly outnumbered that of the French, was completely overwhelmed, and North Italy lay for a second time at the feet of Bonaparte. The Cisalpine Republic was now reestablished. A few months after the battle of Marengo, Moreau gained at Hohenlinden a decisive victory over the Austrians, which opened the way to Vienna. The Emperor Francis II was now constrained to sign a treaty of peace at Lune- ville (1801). The most important part of the treaty was that which provided for the reconstruction of the Germanic body. But as this reorganization of Fig. qo. Napoleon Bonaparte. (After , , „ ^, J ,,. , 7- 7 \ central Europe was not the meaalhon by Isabey) ^ completed until after the battle of Austerlitz, we shall defer explanation of it until we reach that important event (sect. 559). The year following the peace between France and Austria, England signed the Peace of Amiens. 552. Bonaparte as an Enlightened Despot. Peace with Aus- tria and England left Bonaparte free to devote his amazing energies to the reform and improvement of the internal affairs of France. It was his work here which constitutes his true title to fame. He was, in the words of his biographer, Professor Sloane, " one of the greatest social reformers of the world." We shall best understand Bonaparte in his role as a reformer if we regard him as the § 552J BONAPARTE AS AN ENLIGHTENED DESPOT 479 successor of the Enlightened Despots of the eighteenth century. His mission was to carry on and perfect their work and to con- summate the reforms and to organize and make secure the social results of the Revolution. To close the wounds inflicted upon France by the Revolution was one of the first aims of Bonaparte. Already the Royalist exiles had been invited to return. Forty thousand families came back, and many of the old supporters of the Bourbons now entered the service of the First Consul. The prison doors were thrown open. The past was forgotten and forgiven. There were no longer to be parties; all were to be simply Frenchmen. These wise measures of amnesty did much towards restoring confidence and bringing back internal peace and prosperity to France. But the deepest wound given France by the Revolution was the schism created by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (sect. 531). Th^s bad divided the nation into two bitterly opposed parties. Moreover, since 1794 the government had ceased to pay the salaries of the priests, with the result that many communes were wholly without regular religious services. To remedy this state of things Bonaparte entered into an agreement with the Holy See known as the Concordat (i8oi)-. The First Consul was to nominate archbishops and bishops impartially from both parties, that is, the party which had acquiesced in the revolutionary programme and the party which had opposed it, and the state was again to assume as a public charge the salaries of the clergy.^ The Pope was to be recognized as the head of the French Church and was to confirm in their ecclesiastical offices the persons nominated by the government. The Concordat closed the great breach which the Revolution had opened in the French Church, and attached the Catholics to the government of the First Consul, who was acclaimed as "the new Constantine." Not less successful was Bonaparte in his efforts to restore those material interests of the country which had suffered greatly 1 The salaries of all the French clergy, including Protestant ministers and Jewish rabbis, were paid out of the public treasury. This arrangement held good down to the year 1905, when the Concordat was annulled with a complete separation of Church and State (sect. 593). 48o THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§552 during the Revolution. He repaired and constructed roads and bridges, dug canals, opened the rivers to navigation, and improved the seaports of the country. The great military roads which he caused to be constructed over the Alps are marvels of engineering skill, and served as a chief means of communication between Italy and the north of Europe until the mountains were pierced with tunnels. The public buildings and monuments of France had fallen into decay. Bonaparte restored the old and built new ones. He embellished Paris and the other chief cities of France with public edifices and memorial monuments of every description. Many of these works are the pride of France at the present day. Education was not neglected. By the establishment of schools and the endowment of libraries, museums, and art galleries, and by the creation finally of the University of France, Bonaparte gave an impulse to the educational system which is felt at the present time, and which has done much to secure for the French people the preeminent place they hold to-day in the world of art, science, and letters. It is to be borne in mind, however, that in this field the First Consul built upon foundations which had been laid by the Convention. But the most noteworthy, the most enduring, and the most far-reaching in its influence upon civilization of all the works of Napoleon Bonaparte, either as First Consul or as Emperor, was the compilation of what is known as the Civil Code, or Code Napoleon, which has caused his name to be joined with that of Justinian as one of the great lawgivers of history. The compiling of this Code was one of the earliest under- takings of the First Consul. Almost immediately after coming to power he appointed a commission of five eminent jurists to take up the work, which had already been begun by the Con- stituent Assembly and the Convention.^ These experts were 1 It is now recognized that the Code was not so novel a thing as some writers have represented it as being. Code-making was a favorite work of the Enlightened Despots (for example, Catherine the Great of Russia, the Emperor Joseph II of Austria, Frederick the Great of Prussia, etc.). The Civil Code is almost an exact transcript of the Projet du code civil prepared by Cambacer^s for the Convention. § 553] NAPOLEON BECOMES LIFE CONSUL 481 busied with the labor for about four years (1800-1804). Bona- parte himself often met with them and assisted in the work by sagacious criticism and suggestion. The Code was made up of the ancient customs of France, of Roman law maxims, and particularly of the principles and the legislation of the Revolution. This great mass of material was condensed, harmonized, and revised in some such way as the jurists of the Emperor Justinian handled the accumulated mass of law material — old and new, pagan and Christian — of their time, in the creation of the celebrated Corpus Juris Civilis. The influence of the Civil Code upon the development of Liberalism in western Europe was most salutary. It secured the work of the Revolution. It swept away the old unequal, iniquitous, oppressive customs, regulations, decrees, and laws that were an inheritance from the feudal ages. It recognized the equality of noble and peasant in the eye of the law. Either its principles or its direct provisions were soon introduced into half of the countries of Europe. 553. Bonaparte becomes Consul for Life (1802). Through the Senate and the Council of State, in which bodies the majority of the members were wholly subservient to Bonaparte, it was now proposed to the French people that he should be made Con- sul for life, in order that his magnificent projects of restoration and reform might be pursued without interruption. With almost a single voice the people approved the proposal. Thus did the First Consul move a step nearer the imperial throne. II. THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE; THE WAR OF LIBERATION (1804-1815) 554. Napoleon proclaimed Emperor (1804). A conspiracy against the life of the First Consul and the increased activity of his enemies resulted in a movement to increase his power and to insure his safety and the stability of his government by placing him upon a throne. A decree of the Senate conferring upon him the title of Emperor of the French having been submitted to 482 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§ 555 the people for approval was ratified by an almost unanimous vote. The coronation took place in the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris, December 2, 1804, Pope Pius VII having been induced to come from Rome to take part in the ceremonies. The Pope poured the holy oil upon the head of the kneeling Emperor and girded him with the imperial scepter; but when he would have placed the crown upon his head, Napoleon checked him and, taking the diadem from the Pope, crowned himself with his own hands.^ What portion of the spirit of the old divine-right monarchies entered into the new French Empire may be inferred from the doctrines which in less than a year after Napoleon's coronation the subservient French clergy were teaching the youth of France. "The Emperor is the minister and the power of God, and his image on earth," ran the new catechism; "to honor and serve him is to honor and serve God." 555. The Republics created by the Revolution are changed into Kingdoms. The French Republic was now completely trans- formed into an unveiled Empire. Napoleon had taken up his residence in the palace of the Tuileries and was creating a court as much as possible like the old court of the Bourbons. The original Republic having been thus transformed, we may be sure that the cluster of republics which during the Revolution had been raised up around it will speedily undergo a like trans- formation. Within two years from the time that the French government assumed an imperial form, three of the surrounding republics raised up by the revolutionary ideas and armies of France had been transformed into states with monarchical govern- ments dependent upon the French Empire or had been incor- porated with France. In a word, all these states now became practically the fiefs of Napoleon's empire, the provinces and dependencies of a new Rome. Thus the Cisalpine or Italian Republic was changed into a kingdom, and Napoleon, crowning himself at Milan with the 1 From this time on Bonaparte, imitating a royal custom, used only his first name, Napoleon, and it is by this name, which was destined to fill such a great place in history, that we shall hereafter know him. § 556] THE EMPIRE AND THE OLD MONARCHIES 483 "Iron Crown" of the Lombards/ assumed the government of the state, with the title of King of Italy (iMay, 1805). A little later in the same year the Emperor incorporated the Ligurian Republic with the French Empire. Then he remodeled the Batavian Re- public into the kingdom of Holland and conferred the crown upon his favorite brother, Louis. Thus was the political work of the Revolution undone. Political liberty was taken away. "I set it aside," said Napoleon, "when it obstructed my road." Civil equality was left. 556. The Empire and the Old Monarchies. It will not be supposed that the powers of Europe were looking quietly on while France was thus transforming herself and all the neigh- boring countries. The colossal power which the soldier of for- tune was building up was a menace to all Europe. The Empire was more dreaded than the Republic, because it was a military despotism, and as such was an instrument of irresistible power in the hands of a man of such genius and resources as Napoleon. Coalition after coalition, of which England was "the paymaster," was formed by the sovereigns of Europe against the "usurper," with the object at first of pushing France back within her original boundaries and then later of deposing Napoleon as the disturber of the peace of Europe and the oppressor of the nations. From the coronation of Napoleon in 1804 until his final down- fall in 181 5 the tremendous struggle went on almost without intermission. It was the war of the giants. Europe was shaken from end to end with such armies as the world had not seen since the days of Xerxes. Napoleon, whose hands were upheld by a score of distinguished marshals, performed the miracles of genius. His brilliant achievements still dazzle, while they amaze, the world. To relate in detail Napoleon's campaigns from Austerlitz to Waterloo would require the space of volumes. We shall simply indicate in a few brief paragraphs the successive steps by which he mounted to the highest pitch of power and fame, and then trace hurriedly the decline and fall of his astonishing fortunes. 1 Here again Napoleon imitated Charlemagne. He said, " T am Charlemagne, for like Charlemagne I unite the crowns of France and Loriibardy." Compare sect. "j^. 484 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§557 557. Napoleon's Preparations for invading England; the Sale of Louisiana to the United States; the Camp at Boulogne (1803-1805 ). Even before Napoleon's coronation war had been renewed between France and England. One of Napoleon's first acts of preparation for this struggle was the sale (in 1803) to the United States, for fifteen million dollars, of the territory of Louisiana, which he had recently acquired from Spain. He was impelled to do this because his inferiority at sea made it impos- sible for him to defend such remote possessions. The sale and transfer of this immense region of boundless resources was one of the most important transactions in history. Napoleon seems to have realized its significance for the develop- ment of the great American republic. "I have given England a rival," he said, "which sooner or later will humble her pride," As early as 1803 Napoleon had begun to mass a great army at Boulogne, on the English Channel, and to build an immense number of flat-bottomed boats preparatory to an invasion of England. ''Carthage must be destroyed" was the menacing and persistent cry of the French press. "Masters of the Channel for six hours," said Napoleon, "and we are masters of the world." To arouse patriotic enthusiasm by historic memories, he caused the Bayeux Tapestry,^ the famous memorial of the Norman conquest of England, to be brought to Paris. Napoleon's menacing preparations produced throughout Eng- land an alarm unequaled by anything the English people had expe- rienced since the days of the Spanish Armada. The younger Pitt, at this time head of the English government, was untiring in fos- tering a new coalition of the powers against France. Early in the year 1805 England and Russia formed an alliance which was intended to constitute the nucleus of a general European league. Austria and other states soon joined the coalition. 558. Campaign against Austria : Austerlitz (December 2, 1805). Intelligence reaching Napoleon that both the Austrian and the Russian armies were on the move, he suddenly broke up the camp at Boulogne, flung his Grand Army, as it was called, across 1 See page 102, under " Selections from the Sources." § 559] THE REORGANIZATION OF GERMANY 485 the Rhine, outmaneuvered and captured a great Austrian army at Ulm, and then marched in triumph through Vienna to the field of Austerlitz beyond, where he gained one of his most memorable victories over the combined armies of Austria and Russia, number- ing more than eighty thousand men. Austria was now shorn of large tracts of her dominions, including Venetia, which Napoleon added to the kingdom of Italy. 559. The Reorganization of Germany; the Confederation of the Rhine; End of the Holy Roman Empire (isoe). That reconstruction of the Germanic body which Napoleon had begun after the battles of Marengo and Hohenlinden (sect. 551) was now substantially completed, save as regards Prussia and Hanover. Napoleon's guiding principle here was to create in western Ger- many a small number of states which should be bound to himself by selfish interests and strong enough to be useful as allies and which should constitute barrier states between France on the one side and Austria and Prussia on the other. Both of these latter states were to be kept weak and dependent upon France. In pursuance of this plan Napoleon ultimately reduced the three hundred and more states comprising the Germanic system to about forty. It was the ecclesiastical states, the free imperial cities, and the petty states of the minor princes which were the chief sufferers, the lands of most of them being bestowed upon the princes of the states selected for survival. Among the rulers especially favored at this time were the Elector of Bavaria and the Duke of Wlirtemberg, both of whom were made kings and given enough territory to enable them to maintain becomingly this new dignity. The Margrave of Baden was also made a grand duke, and his dominions were enlarged. All these princes formed marriage alliances with the family of Napoleon. These favored states, together with others, — ^sixteen in all, — now declared themselves independent of the old Holy Roman Empire, and were formed into a league called the Confederation of the Rhine, with Napoleon as Protector.^ Emperor Francis II, 1 The Confederation came ultimately to embrace thirty-seven states, with a population of about fifteen millions. 486 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§560 recognizing that his office was virtually abolished, now laid down the imperial crown and henceforth used as his highest title Francis I, Emperor of Austria} Thus did the Holy Roman Empire come to an end, after having maintained an existence, since its revival under Charle- magne, of almost exactly one thousand years. Reckoning from its establishment by Csesar Augustus, it had lasted over eighteen hundred years, thus being one of the longest-lived of human institutions, — if mere existence may be reckoned as life. 560. Trafalgar (October 21, 1805). Napoleon's brilliant vic- tories in Germany were clouded by an irretrievable disaster to his fleet, which occurred on the day following the surrender of the Austrians at Ulm. Lord Nelson having met, near Cape Trafalgar on the coast of Spain, the combined French and Spanish fleets, — Spain was at this time Napoleon's ally, — almost completely destroyed the combined armaments. The gallant English admiral fell at the moment of victory. This decisive battle gave England the control of the sea and relieved her from all danger of a French invasion. Even the "wet ditch," as Napoleon was wont contemptuously to call the English Channel, was henceforth an impassable gulf to his ambi- tion. He might rule the Continent, but the sovereignty of the ocean and its islands was denied him. 561. Campaign against Prussia: Jena and Auerstadt (isoe). Prussia was the next state after Austria to feel the weight of Napoleon's hand. King Frederick William III, following the dic- tates of selfish prudence, had thus far held aloof from the coali- tions against Napoleon and had profited greatly by such a policy. He had remained inactive while Austria was being beaten to the ground; but realizing at last the perfidious character of the man with whom he was dealing, and goaded by insufferable insult, he recklessly threw down the gauntlet to the victor of Austerlitz. Moving with unusual swiftness. Napoleon overwhelmed the Prussian armies in the battles of Jena and Auerstadt, which were 1 He had already assumed this title in August, 1S04, just after Napoleon's coronation as Emperor. § 562] CAMPAIGNS AGAINST THE RUSSIANS 487 both fought on the same day. The greater part of Prussia was now quickly overrun by the French armies. The Prussian generals, at least some of them, exhibited the most incredible incapacity and cowardice. Strong fortresses were surrendered without a blow being struck in their defense. The capital, Berlin, was entered by the French in triumph. The sword of the great Frederick, the famous car of victory over the Brandenburg Gate at Berlin, together with many treas- ures stolen from the museums and art galleries of the city, were carried as trophies to Paris. 562. Campaigns against the Russians: Eylau and Fried- land (1807). The Russian army, which the Tsar Alexander had sent to the aid of Frederick William, was still in the field against Napoleon in the Prussian territories east of the Vistula. Early in the year 1807 Napoleon attacked, on a stormy winter day, the Russian forces at Eylau. The battle was sanguinary and indecisive, each army, it is estimated, leaving over thirty thousand dead and wounded on the snow. During the summer campaign of the same year Napoleon again engaged the Russians in the terrible battle of Friedland and completely overwhelmed them. The Tsar was constrained to sue for peace. 563. The Treaty of Tilsit (1807); the Partition of the World. Napoleon arranged a series of interviews with the Tsar Alexander at Tilsit. The first of the meetings took place on a raft moored mJdway in the Niemen, the frontier river of Russia. These interviews between Napoleon and Alexander mark one of the most dramatic situations in European history. The old order of things had been destroyed and a new order of things was being projected. The subject of converse of the two emperors was nothing less than the partition of the world between them. "Napoleon spread before the eyes of the Emperor of Russia his favorite conception of the reestablishment of the old empires of the East and the West. They were to be faithful allies. France was to be the supreme power over the Latin races and in the center of Europe; Russia was to represent the Greek Empire and to expand into Asia. These grandiose views charmed the 488 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§563 Emperor Alexander, who believed that in adopting them he was following out the policy of Peter the Great and of the Empress Catherine. The one enemy to be feared and crushed, according to Napoleon, was England."^ Thus the modern world was to be made over on the old Romano- Byzantine model. But there were difficulties in remaking the map of central Europe. Particularly in regard to the treatment and disposition of the old Polish territories and Prussia did the interests of the two emperors clash. It would have been to the advantage of Napoleon to restore the dismembered Polish nation, but he could not do this without alienating the Tsar Alexander; so he merely organized the greater part of Prussian Poland into v/hat he named the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and bestowed it upon the vassal king of Saxony.- Thus were the hopes of the Polish patriots sacrificed upon the altar of Napoleon's imperial ambitions. Here was a nation of fifteen million souls which had been partitioned by brigand kings like a herd of cattle. The patriot Poles, who with pathetic devo- tion had followed Napoleon to every battlefield of the Consulate and the Empire, looked to him to unite and restore their nation. He had allowed them to hope that he would do so. Never were hopes more cruelly disappointed. Had Napoleon here acted the part of a real liberator, he would have undone ont of the greatest wrongs of which history knows, and in the gratitude of a redeemed and valiant nation would have raised for himself an enduring monument as one of the greatest benefactors of humanity. As to Prussia, Napoleon was minded to erase it from the map of Europe. The intercession of the Tsar Alexander, however, saved the state from total extinction.^ But neither the Tsar's medi- ation in behalf of his ally, Frederick William III, nor the per- sonal entreaties of the beautiful and patriotic Queen Louisa, who humiliated herself by appearing as a suppliant before Napoleon 1 Stephens, Revolutionary Europe, 1789-1815, p. 240. 2 Napoleon had made the Elector of Saxony a king just after the battle of Jena. 3 Alexander wished to maintain Prussia as a barrier state between Russia and Napo- leon's empire. He viewed with apprehension the advance of Napoleon's frontier towards the western boundaiy of his ovifn domains. § 564] THE CONTINENTAL BLOCKADE 489 at Tilsit, availed to save the monarchy from dismemberment and the deepest abasement. Besides stripping Prussia of her Polish provinces Napoleon took away from her all her territories west of the Elbe, out of which, in connection with some other lands, he made the new kingdom of Westphalia and gave it to his brother Jerome. This kingdom, into the making of which went twenty-four principalities and free cities, Napoleon now added to the Confederation of the Rhine. Prussia thus lost fully one half of her territory. What was left became virtually a province of Napoleon's empire. 564. The Continental Blockade; the Berlin and Milan Decrees (18O6-I807). After the Peace of Tilsit, England was Napoleon's sole remaining enemy. The means which he employed to compass the ruin of this formidable and obstinate foe, the pay- master of the coalitions which he was having constantly to face, affords the key to the history of the great years from 1807 to the final downfall of Napoleon at Waterloo in 181 5. These means were what is known as the Continental Blockade or System. We have seen how the destruction of Napoleon's fleet at Trafalgar dashed all his hopes of ever making a descent upon the British shores (sect. 560). Unable to reach his enemy directly with his arms, he resolved to strike her through her commerce. By two celebrated edicts, called from the cities whence they were issued the Berlin and Milan decrees, he closed all the ports of the Con- tinent against English ships and forbade any of the European nations from holding any intercourse with Great Britain. The policy thus adopted by Napoleon to bring England to terms by ruining her trade was a suicidal one and resulted finally in the ruin of his own empire. 565. The English seize the Danish Fleet (September, 1807). Events of great moment, all connected directly with Napoleon's Continental Blockade, now tread closely one upon the heels of another. A part of the understanding between Napoleon and Alexander at Tilsit was that Napoleon should seize upon Denmark and Por- tugal and appropriate their fleets, in order that he might be able to 490 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§ 566 carry on more effectively his commercial war with Great Britain. In this contemplated action no regard was paid to the fact that both these countries were neutral states. The English ministers got information respecting this secret article of the Tilsit treaty. The situation in the North was already serious for the English. The Directory in taking possession of the Dutch Netherlands had got control of the Dutch trade. Napo- leon's campaign against Prussia had resulted in his getting actual or virtual possession of all the ports of North Germany. Should he now be allowed to seize Denmark he would be able to control absolutely the commerce of the Baltic Sea. The English government resolved to forestall Napoleon by seizing the Danish fleet. An English squadron descended upon the Danish capital, Copenhagen, and demanded of the astonished Danes the surrender of all their ships and naval stores. It was explained by the English officials that the fleet and stores would be held by England merely as a "deposit," and would be given back at the end of the war with France. The Danes indignantly refused to give up their ships. There- upon the English bombarded Copenhagen, destroying over eight- een hundred of the houses of the city, and quickly compelled compliance with their demand. The entire Danish fleet and all the naval stores which could be found were carried off by the English as war booty. The proceeding was admittedly a high- handed one, and probably England lost more by it than she gained; for it aroused against her a feeling of bitter indignation on the Continent and caused Denmark, hitherto neutral, to enter into a close alliance with Napoleon. 566. Beginning of the Peninsular Wars (isos). One of the first results in the south of Europe of Napoleon's Continental Blockade was a conflict with Portugal. The prince regent of that country refusing to comply with all his demands respecting English trade and property. Napoleon sent one of his marshals to take possession of the kingdom. The entire royal family, accom- panied by many of the nobility, fled to Brazil. Portugal now became virtually a province of Napoleon's empire. § 567] THE SPANISH UPRISING 491 567. Napoleon places his Brother Joseph upon the Spanish Throne (isos) ; the Spanish Uprising. Spain was next appro- priated. Arrogantly interfering in the affairs of that country, — the government it must be said was desperately incompetent and corrupt, — Napoleon induced the weak-minded Bourbon king, Charles IV, to resign to him as "his dearly beloved friend and ally" his crown, which he at once bestowed upon his brother Joseph. The throne of Naples, which Joseph had been occupy- ing,^ was transferred to Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law. Thus did this audacious man make and unmake kings and give away thrones and kingdoms. But the high-spirited Spaniards were not the people to submit tamely to such an indignity as Napoleon had inflicted upon them. The entire nation from the Pyrenees to the Strait of Gibraltar flew to arms. Portugal also rose, and England sent to her aid a force under Sir xArthur Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington and the hero of Waterloo. The French armies were soon driven oiit of Portugal and pushed beyond the Ebro in Spain. Joseph fled in dismay from his throne before he had been seated upon it more than eight days. Napoleon, aside from his unfortunate expedition to Egypt, had never before met with such a check. The warning words of his brother Joseph, who had written him, "Your glory will suffer shipwreck in Spain," seemed to have found quick fulfillment. Napoleon realized that he must take the field himself if the prestige of the French arms was to be restored. 568. The Congress of Erfurt (September-October, 1808). Before setting out on this enterprise, however, Napoleon deemed it politic to have an interview with the Tsar Alexander, in order to renew the friendship and cement afresh the alliance entered into between them at Tilsit, — for he was well aware that the Tsar was chafing under the workings of the Continental Blockade. The meeting took place at Erfurt. This celebrated Congress marks the culminating point of Napoleon's extraordinary career. 1 Napoleon had dethroned the Bourbons in Naples in iSo6. 492 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§569 Europe probably had never seen anything in imperial magnifi- cence, in civil and military display, to equal this gathering. Napoleon on this occasion played host to four vassal kings, to scores of princes and ambassadors, and to the greatest poets and men of letters of the time. French actors, brought from Paris, presented night after night to "a parterre of kings" the master- pieces of the French stage. The obsequiousness of all, in particular of the petty German princes, to Napoleon is what most amazes us. The meeting between Napoleon and Goethe and Wieland possesses a painful interest. Both of the great poets seemed dazzled by the genius of the conqueror of Europe and bowed in homage at his feet. Goethe was flattered when Napoleon greeted him with the words, "You are a man"; and both accepted at his hands the cross of the Legion of Honor.^ Amidst festivals, parades, balls, and operas the m^ain purpose of the meeting was not forgotten by Napoleon. The Tilsit alli- ance between him and the Russian Emperor was renewed. In return for being allowed to absorb Finland — Alexander had at this time nearly completed the conquest of that province — and to appropriate the Danubian provinces of the Sultan, the Tsar was to keep Austria quiet while Napoleon was busy in Spain and was to enforce rigorously the blockade against England. 569. Napoleon in Spain (November, 1808-January, 1809). From the Congress at Erfurt Napoleon hastened into Spain. At the head of an army of over a hundred thousand men he marched southward, entered Madrid in triumph, reseated his brother upon the Spanish thfone, and then told the Spaniards that if they did not respect Joseph he would put the crown on his own head and teach them what was becoming conduct in subjects. Napoleon now began the pursuit of a British army which under Sir John Moore had marched from Portugal into Spain. Threat- ening tidings from another quarter of Europe caused him to give 1 Of course, in judging the conduct of the German princes and German men of letters at this Erfurt meeting, we should bear in mind how weak at this time the senti- ment of nationality among the Germans really was. For the attitude of Goethe and other German thinkers towards nationalism, see p. 497, n. 1. § 570] NAPOLEON'S CAMPAIGN AGAINST AUSTRIA 493 over the pursuit into the hands of one of his generals, the distin- guished Marshal Soult/ while he himself hastened back to Paris. 570. Napoleon's Third Campaign against Austria (1809). Taking advantage of Napoleon's troubles in the Iberian penin- sula, Emperor Francis I of Austria had put his army on a war footing and made ready to throw down the gage of battle, — his hopes of regaining what had been lost apparently rendering him forgetful of Austerlitz. "The waters of Lethe and not the waters of the Danube," said Napoleon to a group of foreign ambassadors, "seem to wash the walls of Vienna." The war opened in the spring of 1809. At the end of a short campaign, the most noted engagements of which were the hard- fought battles of Aspern (Essling) and Wagram, Austria was again at Napoleon's feet. She was now still further dismembered. Among other lands taken from her was a long strip of shore land on the Adriatic, which, under the name of the Illyrian Provinces, Napo- leon added to the French Empire. He now had actual or virtual control of the whole of the European coast line from the frontier of Turkey on the Adriatic to the frontier of Russia on the Baltic. 571. Union of the Papal States with Napoleon's Empire (1809). Napoleon's Continental System now brought him into trouble with the Papacy. Pope Pius VII refused to enforce the blockade against England and further presumed to disregard other commands of Napoleon. Thereupon Napoleon declared that the Pope "was no longer a secular prince" and took pos- session of his domains. Pope Pius straightway excommunicated the Emperor, who thereupon arrested him and for three years held him a state prisoner. Napoleon, further, removed the College of Cardinals to Paris. Thither he also transferred all the chief officers of the papal gov- ernment, together with the papal archives. Hundreds of wagon- loads of books and documents were dragged to the French capital. 1 The retreat of Sir John Moore from the heart of Spain before a greatly superior French force is given a place, along with that of the Ten Thousand Greeks, among the memorable retreats in history. Moore was killed in the battle of Corunna (January i6, 1809), on the northern coast of Spain, and the remnant of his army, which his skill and gallantry had saved, were taken on board the English fleet. 494 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§ 572 Napoleon's idea in all this was to get the entire machinery of the papal government under his hand. He had in mind to pre- side over the councils of the Church as Constantine and Charle- magne had done. After his fall he commented as follows upon this part of his plan for setting up a universal autocracy: ''Paris would have become the capital of Christendom, and I should have governed the religious as well as the political world." 572. Napoleon's Second Marriage (isio). Soon after his triumph over the Emperor Francis, Napoleon divorced his wife Josephine in order to form a new alliance with the Archduchess ]\Iarie Louise of Austria.^ Josephine bowed meekly to the will of her lord and went into sorrowful exile from his palace. Napoleon's object in this matter was to cover the reproach of his plebeian birth by an alliance with one of the ancient royal families of Europe and to secure the perpetuity of his government by leaving an heir to be the inheritor of his throne and fortunes. The desire and ambition of Napoleon to found a dynasty seemed realized when, the year following his marriage with the archduchess, a son was born to them, who was given the title of King of Rome. His enemies could now no longer, as he reproached them with doing, make appointments at his grave. He had now something more than "a life interest" in France. The succession was assured. 573. Holland and North German Coast Lands annexed to Napoleon's Empire (isio). During this year of his second marriage Napoleon made two fresh territorial additions to his empire. Louis Bonaparte, — king of Holland, it will be recalled, — dis- approving of his brother's Continental System, which was ruining the trade of the Dutch, abdicated the crown. Thereupon Napo- leon incorporated Holland with the French Empire. A few months later Napoleon also annexed to his empire all the German coast land from Holland to Liibeck in order to be 1 Josephine was divorced December 15, 1809; the marriage to Marie Louise took place April 2, iSio. Josephine retained her title of Empress and was assigned the palace of Malmaison as a residence, with a pension of two million francs a year. To the very last she and Napoleon were good friends. Her death occurred May 29, 1S14. §574] NAPOLEON'S EMPIRE 495 able to close the important ports here, including the old Hanseatic cities of Bremen, Hamburg, and Liibeck, against English trade. 574. Napoleon's Empire at its Greatest Extent (18I1). In these additions the Napoleonic empire received its last enlarge- ment. Napoleon was now, in outward seeming,^ at the height of his marvelous fortunes. Marengo, Austerlitz, Jena, Friedland, and Wagram were the successive steps by which he had mounted to the most dizzy heights of military power and glory. The empire which this soldier of fortune had built up stretched from Liibeck to beyond Rome, embracing France proper, the Netherlands, part of western and northwestern Germany, all western Italy as far south as the kingdom of Naples, together with the Illyrian Provinces and the Ionian Islands. On all sides were allied, vassal, or dependent states. Several of the ancient thrones of Europe were occupied by Napoleon's relatives or his favorite marshals. He himself was king of the kingdom of Italy, Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine, and Mediator of Switzerland. Austria and Prussia were com- pletely subject to his will. Russia and Denmark were his allies. Such were the relations of the once great powers and independ- ent states of Europe to "the Corsican adventurer." Not since the time of the Caesars had one man's will swayed so much of the civilized world. 575. Elements of Weakness in the Empire. But, splendid and imposing as at this moment appeared the external affairs of Napoleon, the sun of his fortunes, which had risen so brightly at Austerlitz, had already passed its meridian. There were many things just now contributing to the weakness of his empire and fore- boding its speedy dissolution. Founded and upheld by his genius alone, its permanence depended solely upon his life and fortunes. Again, Napoleon's Continental System, through the suffering and loss it inflicted, particularly upon the maritime countries of Europe, had caused murmurs of discontent all around the cir- cumference of the Continent. 1 It is probably true that the height of Napoleon's real power is marked by the Treaty of Tilsit (1S07). 496 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§576 Still again, the conscriptions of the Emperor had drained France of men, and her armies were now recruited by mere boys, who were utterly unfit to bear the burden and fatigue of Napo- leon's rapid campaigns. The heavy taxes, also, which were nec- essary to meet the expenses of Napoleon's wars and to carry on the splendid public works upon which he was constantly engaged, produced great suffering and discontent throughout the empire. Furthermore, Napoleon's harsh and unjust treatment of Pope Pius VII had alienated the Catholic clergy and created a resentful feeling among pious Catholics everywhere. At the same time the crowd of deposed princes and dispossessed aristocrats in those states which Napoleon had reconstructed, and in which he had set up the new code of equal rights, were natu- rally resentful, and were ever watching an opportunity to regain their lost power and privileges. Even the large class who at first welcomed Napoleon as the representative of the French ideas of equality and liberty, and ap- plauded while he overturned ancient thrones and stripped of their privileges ancient aristocracies, — even many of these early adher- ents had been turned into bitter enemies by his adoption of impe- rial manners and the formation of a court, and especially by his setting aside his first wife, Josephine, and forming a marriage alliance with one of the old hated royal houses of Europe. 576. The New Force destined to destroy Napoleon's Em- pire: the Nations. But the active force which was to over- whelm Napoleon's empire and to free Europe from his tyranny was the sentiment of national patriotism which was being aroused in the dismembered and vassal states and in those whose inde- pendence was imperiled. Up to the time of his invasion of Spain, Napoleon had warred against the governments of Europe. Those governments he had been able to overturn easily because they were not based on the love and loyalty of their subjects. But now Napoleon, in his ambition to make himself master of all Europe, was contemptuously disregarding the claims of race and nationality. The Empire threatened to become the tomb of the Nations. In the face of this danger national patriotism was § 577] THE REGENERATION OF PRUSSIA 497 being everywhere awakened. We have witnessed the popular uprising in Spain; we shall now witness a similar movement in Germany and in Russia. 577. The Regeneration of Prussia. It was in Prussia that this patriotic movement found most passionate expression. After the crushing defeat at Jena, Prussia, as we have seen, had been subjected by Napoleon to every indignity and forced to drain to the dregs the cup of humiliation. This had for a result the call- ing into life in the nobler souls among the Germans of the dormant sentiment of national patriotism. The growth of the new feeling was stimulated and directed by various agencies. Among these were the stirring patriotic songs of the poets Korner, Schiller, and others, which kindled in thousands of German hearts an unwonted fervor of enthusiasm for the Fatherland. Education became another of the means of national quickening and regeneration. In the year 1808 the philosopher Fichte de- livered before Berlin audiences a remarkable course of lectures entitled "Addresses to the German Nation." No such appeal had been made to the German mind and heart since Luther published his "Address to the German Nobility" (sect. 294). Fichte's idea was that public education was the only hopeful agency for the moral and political regeneration of the German nation. The German youth must be taught the duty of unselfish devotion to the public welfare and must be made to realize the joy of making sacrifices for the Fatherland. Thus was a wholly new spirit breathed into German education and German phi- losophy.^ Thousands of German youths were stirred by a senti- ment they had never felt before, — ardent love for the German name and the German land. 1 Hitherto the greatest thinkers and writers of Germany had insisted that the indi- vidual seek culture simply for his own sake. The State was the thing of last concern with the great poet Goethe. National patriotism he regarded as a narrow sentiment unworthy of a great mind. The poet Lessing declared patriotism to be "a heroic weakness," and love of fatherland a sentiment which he had never felt. Equally free from this " heroic weakness," as related to a Geitnan fatherland, was the philosopher Hegel. The idea with all these great poets and philosophers was that Cosmopolitanism is a nobler thing than Nationalism, — that men should regard themselves not as citizens of a paltry state but as citizens of the world. 498 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§ 577 At the same time that the poets, philosophers, and teachers were creating by their appeals and methods a new spirit in Prussian society, the masses of the people were being reached and awakened by the social and economic reforms carried out by the eminent patriot statesmen Baron vom Stein and Prince von Hardenberg. Two thirds of the population of Prussia were at this time serfs. Now, Stein's controlling idea was that the strength of a state depends upon the patriotism of the people ; but his insight revealed to him the truth that "patriots cannot be made out of serfs." Hence his policy of enfranchisement. By a celebrated Edict of Eman- cipation serfdom was abolished. This decree, by reason of its far- reaching consequences, deserves a place along with the Emancipation Proclamation of Abraham Lincoln and the Edict of the Emperor Alex- ander II which liberated the Russian serfs. Along with serfdom, class privi- leges and distinctions, which had divided the population pf Prussia into classes separated by almost impassable lines, were now swept away. The towns were given a measure of local self-government, which was to prepare the way for the representatives of the people to participate in the national government. While Stein and Hardenberg were effecting these reforms in the civil realm, Scharnhorst, the Minister of War, was reorganiz- ing the army on the model of that of France. The old army, which had gone to pieces so disgracefully on the field of Jena, was made up of conscripted peasants, officered by incompetent and insolent nobles. Flogging was the punishment for even the most trivial offenses. The new army was an army of self-respecting citizens, a truly national army, based on universal military service. Fkj. 91. Baron vom Stein (From an engraving by Roffc) § 578] NAPOLEON'S INVASION OF RUSSIA 499 The effect of these reforms upon the spirit of the people was magical. They effected the political and moral regeneration of Prussia. Prussia regenerated became the leader of the German nation in the memorable War of Liberation, which we are now approaching. This uprising of the Prussian nation against Napo- leon forms one of the most dramatic passages in the history of the German people. 578. Napoleon's Invasion of Russia (1812-I813). The sig- nal for the general uprising of Germany and the rest of Europe was the terrible misfortune which befell Napoleon in his invasion of Russia. Various circumstances had concurred to weaken the friendship and break the alliance between the Russian Emperor and Napoleon, but the main cause of mutual distrust and aliena- tion was the Continental Blockade. This had inflicted immense loss upon Russian trade, and the Tsar had finally refused to carry out Napoleon's decrees, and entered a coalition against France. Napoleon resolved to force Russia, as he had the rest of con- tinental Europe, to bow to his will. Gathering contingents from all his vassal states, he crossed the Russian frontier at the head of what was proudly called the Grand Army, numbering upwards of four hundred thousand men. After making a single stand at Smolensk, the Russian army avoided battle and, as it retreated into the interior, devastated the country in front of the advancing enemy. Finally, at Borodino, seventy miles from Moscow, the Russians halted and offered battle to cover the city, but in a ter- rible bloody struggle, in which the aggregate loss in killed and wounded of the two armies was upwards of seventy thousand men, their resistance was broken and the invaders entered the ancient capital in triumph. To his astonishment Napoleon found the city practically de- serted by its inhabitants; and two days after he had established himself in the empty palace of the Tsar (in the Kremlin), fires, started in some unknown way, broke out simultaneously in dif- ferent quarters of the city. The conflagration raged for five days, until the greater part of the city was reduced to ashes. 500 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§ 578 Napoleon's situation was now critical. He had thought that as soon as the French army was in Moscow the Emperor Alexander would sue for peace. But to Napoleon's messages Alexander made reply that he would not enter into negotiations with him so long as a single French soldier stood upon Russian soil. In the hope that the Tsar would abandon his heroic resolve, Napoleon lingered about the ruined city until the middle of October and then finally gave orders for the return march. This delay was a fatal mistake and resulted in one of the greatest tragedies in history. Before the retreating French columns had Fig. 92. The Kremlin of Moscow. (From a photograph) covered half the distance to the frontier, the terrible Russian winter was upon them. The sufferings of the ill-clad soldiers were intense. Thousarids were frozen to death. The spot of each bivouac was marked by the circle of dead around the watch fires. Sometimes in a single night as many as two or three hundred perished. Thousands more were slain by the peasants and the wild Cossacks, who hovered about the retreating columns and harassed them day and night. The passage of the river Beresina was attended with appalling losses. Soon after the passage of this stream Napoleon, conscious that the fate of his empire de- pended upon his presence in Paris, left the remnant of the army in charge of his marshals and hurried by post to his capital. The loss by death of the French and their allies in this disas- trous campaign is reckoned at upwards of two hundred and fifty thousand men, while that of the Russians is estimated to have been almost as large. § 579] THE WAR OF LIBERATION 501 579. The War of Liberation; the Battle of Leipzig, the "Battle of the Nations" (October 16-19, 1813). Napoleon's fortunes were buried with his Grand Army in the snows of Russia. His woeful losses here, taken in connection with his great losses in Spain, encouraged the European powers to think that now they could crush him. A sixth coalition was formed, embracing Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, and later Austria. Napoleon made gigantic efforts to prepare for the final struggle. By the spring of 18 13 he was at the head of a new army, number- ing eventually over three hundred thousand men, — boys we should say, so extremely young were a large number of the fresh recruits. Falling upon the allied armies of the Russians and Prussians, first at Liitzen and then at Bautzen, Napoleon gained a decisive victory upon both fields. Austria now appeared in the lists, and at Leipzig, in Saxony, Napoleon was attacked by the leagued armies of Europe. So many were the powers represented upon this renowned field that it is known in history as the "'Battle of the Nations." The combat lasted three days. Napo- leon was defeated and forced to retreat into France. The armies of the allies now poured over all the French fron- tiers. Napoleon's tremendous efforts to roll back the tide of inva- sion were all in vain. Paris surrendered to the allies (March 31, 1814). As the struggle became manifestly hopeless, Napoleon's most trusted officers deserted and betrayed him. The French Senate, acting under the inspiration of the celebrated Talleyrand, who had earlier served Napoleon as his Minister of Foreign Affairs, issued a decree deposing the Emperor and restoring the throne to the Bourbons. Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was ban- ished to the little island of Elba in the Mediterranean, being permitted to retain his title of Emperor and to keep about him a few of his old guards. But Elba was a very diminutive empire for one to whom the half of Europe had seemed too small, and we shall not be surprised to learn that Napoleon was not content with it. 580. "The Hundred Days" (March 20-June 29, 1815). Upon invitation of the French Senate the brother of Louis XVI now assumed the crown with the title of Louis XVIII. With this 502 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§ 580 new Bourbon king the allies arranged a treaty,^ the shifty Talley- rand acting as Louis' representative. This treaty gave France the frontiers she had in 1792. In accordance with a promise he had made, Louis gave France a constitution. Notwithstanding, he acted very much as though his power were unlimited. He styled himself "King of France and Navarre by the Grace of God.'' He always alluded to the year in which he began to rule as the nineteenth year of his reign, thus affecting to ignore wholly the government of the Republic and the Empire. This excited alarm, because it seemed to ques- tion the validity of all that had been done since the dethronement and execution of Louis XVI. Some, fearing lest all the work of the Revolution would be undone, began to desire the return of Napoleon, and the wish was perhaps what gave rise to the report which was spread about that he would come back with the spring violets. In the month of March, 181 5, as the commissioners of the various powers were sitting at Vienna rearranging the landmarks and boundaries obliterated by the French inundation, news was brought to them that Napoleon had escaped from Elba and was in France. At first the members of the Congress were incredu- lous, regarding the thing as a jest, and were with difficulty con- vinced of the truth of the report. Taking advantage of the general dissatisfaction with the rule of the restored Bourbons, Napoleon had resolved upon a bold push for the recovery of his crown. Landing with about eight hundred guardsmen at one of the southern ports of France, he aroused all the country with one of his stirring addresses, and then immediately pushed on towards Paris. His journey to the capital was one continuous ovation. One regiment after another, forgetting their recent oath of loyalty to the Bourbons, hastened to join his train. His old generals and soldiers embraced him with transports of joy.- Marshal Ney, sent to arrest the Emperor, 1 First Treaty of Paris, May 30, 18 14. 2 Napoleon's return was welcomed hy the army, especially by the returned prisoners from Russia and Germany, but it was not welcomed by the French people generally. §580] "THE HUNDRED DAYS" 503 whom he had promised to bring to Paris in a cage, at the first sight of his old commander threw himself into his arms and pledged him his sword and his life. Louis XVIH, deserted by his army, was left helpless and, as Napoleon approached the gates of Paris, fled from his throne. Napoleon desired peace with the sovereigns of Europe; but they did not think the peace of the continent could be main- tained so long as he sat upon the French throne. For the seventh and last time the allies leagued their armies against "the dis- turber of the peace of Europe." Hoping to overwhelm the armies of the allies by striking them one after another before they had time to unite, Napoleon moved swiftly into Belgium with an army of one hundred and thirty thousand in order to crush there the English under the Duke of Wellington and the Prussians under Bliicher. Fie first fell in with and defeated the Prussian army and then faced the English at Waterloo (June 18, 181 5). The story of Waterloo need not be told, — how all day the French broke their columns in vain on the English squares; how, at the critical moment towards the close of the day when Wellington was wishing for Bliicher or for night, Bliicher with a fresh force of thirty thousand Prussians turned the tide of battle; and how the famous Old Guard, which knew how to die but not how to surrender,^ made its last charge and left its hitherto invincible squares upon the lost field. A second time Napoleon was forced to abdicate,- and a second time Louis XVHI ascended his unstable throne.^ Napoleon made his way to the coast, purposing to take ship for the United States; but the way was barred by British watchfulness, and he was constrained to surrender to the commander of the English 1 General Cambronne, the commander of the Guard, when summoned to surrender, is said to have returned this reply : " The Guard dies, but never surrenders." There is doubt concerning the origin of the famous phrase. 2 His abdication was in favor of his little son, whom he proclaimed " Napoleon II, Emperor of the French." 3 The allies now signed with Louis what is known as the Second Treaty of Paris (November 20, 18 15). France had now to accept the frontiers which were hers in 17S9, and to pay an indemnity of 700,000 francs. 504 THE NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE [§ 580 warship Bellerophon. "I come, like Themistocles," lie said, "to throw myself upon the hospitality of the English people." But no one believed that Napoleon could safely be left at large, or that his presence, even though he were in close confinement, anywhere in Europe would be consistent with the future secu- rity and repose of the continent. Some even urged that he be given up to Louis XVIII to be shot as a rebel and an outlaw. The final decision was that he should be banished to the island of St. Helena, in the South Atlantic. Thither he was carried by the English and closely guarded by them until his death in 182 1. The story of these last years of Napoleon Bonaparte, as gath- ered from the companions of his exile, is one of the most pathetic in all history. At the time of his death he was in his fifty-second year. As a military genius and commander he left a deeper impress upon the imagination of the world and fills a larger place in history, probably, than any other man who ever lived. " He was as great as a man can be without virtue" (De Tocqueville). Selections from the Sources. Bourrienne, Memoirs of Napoleoti Bona- parte. (Bourrienne was Bonaparte's schoolfellow and comrade, and then his private secretary from 1796 to 1S02.) Tarbell, I. M., The Words of Napoleon (contains interesting selections from Napoleon's addresses and letters). Secondary Works. Bourne, H. E., The Re-t'olutionary Period in Fratice, chaps, xvii-xxvii. Among the numerous biographies of Napoleon the follow- ing possess special merit and authority: Fournier, A., Napoleon the First \ Johnston, R. M., Napoleon; Rose, J. H., The Life of Napoleon /, 2 vols.; Sloane, W. M., Life of Napoleon Bonaparte, 4 vols.; Lanfrey, P., The History of Napoleon the First, 4 vols, (left incomplete by the death of the author) ; Seeley, J. R., Napoleon the First; and Ropes, J. C, The First Napoleon. (Lanfrey makes the Emperor the subject of bitter reproach.) One of the best extended histories of the Napoleonic period is Thiers, L. A., History of the Consulate and the Empire, 1 2 vols. Works dealing with special phases of the history of the period : Mahan, A. T., The Infitence of Sea Pozver upon the French Revolution and Empi^-e, 2 vols. ; Seeley, J. R., Life and Times of Stein, 2 vols. ; and Marriott, J. A. R., and Robertson, C. G., The Evolution of Prussia, chaps, v-vii. Topics for Class Reports, i. The sale of Louisiana to the United States: Roosevelt, Theodore, The Winning of the West (1905-1908 ed.), vol. iv, pp. 184-212 ; Oilman, D. Q,., James Monroe (American Statesmen), pp. 74-93 ; Hosmer, J. K., History of the Louisiana Purchase. 2. Napoleon at St. Helena: Lord Rosebery, Napoleon : the Last Phase. ///. FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE TREATY OF VERSA HIES (1815-1920) CHAPTER XXXV THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND METTERNICH 581. Ideas bequeathed by the French Revolution. The social and political history of Europe since the overthrow of Napoleon is a continuation of the history of the great social and political upheaval which we have been witnessing. The dominant forces at work throughout this period have been the ideas or principles inherited from the French Revolution. There were three of these principles which, as revolutionary forces in history, have already become familiar to us in tracing the story of the Revolution and the Empire. The first was the principle of equality, the principle that all men are equal before the law. The Revolutionists proclaimed this doctrine with religious fervor. It was spread broadcast over Europe. The French army, as it has been tersely expressed, was " equality on the march." The Code Napoleon, as we have seen, embodied this principle of equality, and wherever it was set up, — in the Netherlands, in the West German states, in part of Poland, in Switzerland, and in Italy, — it exerted the same leveling influence that it had in France. As Christianity brought in equality before God, so did the Revolution bring in equality before Caesar. The one made all men equal in the religious realm, the other made all men equal in the civil realm. The second principle promulgated by the Revolution was that of popular sovereignty. According to this doctrine, governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. The 50s So6 CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND METTERNICH [§ 582 laws should be the expression of the will of all. The people either directly or through their representatives should have part in the government. All rulers and magistrates are the servants of the people and are responsible to them. The third principle that underlay the Revolution was that of nationality. This principle requires that every people shall be free to choose its own form of government and to manage its own affairs in its own way. This idea worked itself out during the course of the Revolution. It was evoked, as we have seen, in great measure by Napoleon's cynical disregard of national senti- ment and his wanton violation of national rights, 582. How these Principles have worked as a Creative Force in the World. These principles or ideas, as we have said, were the precious political heritage which the nineteenth century received from the Revolution.^ They were full of vitality and energy. Their outworking, their embodiment in social institutions, in law, in government, makes up a large part of universal history since the downfall of Napoleon. Throughout the period that generous sentiment of '89, that all men are born and remain free and equal in rights, has been at work emancipating and elevating the hitherto unfree and down- trodden orders of society, and in removing civil and religious and race disabilities from disqualified classes in the state. The period is especially rich in emancipation edicts and statutes. Slavery and serfdom and every form of mediaeval feudal inequality, under the influence of the new spirit of equality, have disappeared or are fast disappearing from the civilized world. The doctrine of the sovereignty of the people has likewise been a potent force in shaping the events of the period. A chief feature of the history of the time has been the substitution of representa- tive government for autocratic monarchy. It is this cause of democracy, of self-government, that has enlisted the efforts and inspired the self-sacrifice of the noblest spirits of the age. The 1 Of course these ideas were not novel doctrines promulgated now for the first time. All that is meant by calling them the ideas of the French Revolution is that by the Revolution they were invested with new authority and were given new course in the world. §583] THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA 507 people of every country where any considerable degree of en- lightenment has come to prevail have passionately espoused this principle and have fought for its establishment as the best hope for a better future for themselves and for their children. Equally powerful as a revolutionary force has been the sentiment* of nationality. This has been at once a creative and a disruptive force. It has called into existence many nation states ; under the strain of a world war it has dismembered, wholly or in part, great historic empires and has remolded or is remolding their elements in accord with racial affinities. In a word, it has in large meas- ure reconstructed the European state system and given a wholly new appearance to the political map of Europe and western Asia. But these ideas, as we have intimated, have not had free course. Their embodiment in social institutions and in political forms has, in most countries, been a process violent and revolu- tionary in character. This has resulted from these liberal prin- ciples coming into conflict with certain opposing conservative doctrines with which they have had to struggle for supremacy. And this brings us to the starting point of the history of the last century, — the celebrated Congress of Vienna. 583. The Congress of Vienna (September, 1814- June, 1915). After the first abdication of Napoleon, as we have seen, the European sovereigns, either in person or by their representatives, met at Vienna to readjust the affairs of the Continent. As we shall hereafter, in connection with the history of the separate European countries, have occasion to say something respecting the relations of each to the Congress, we shall here say only a word regarding the spirit and temper of the assembly and the general character of its work. The Vienna commissioners seemed to have but one thought and aim, — to restore everything as nearly as possible to its con- dition before the Revolution. They had no care for the people; the princes were their only concern. The principle of nationality was wholly ignored, while that of the sovereignty of the people was, by most of the plenipotentiaries, looked upon as a principle of disorder to be repressed in every possible way. The Congress 5o8 CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND METTERNICH [§ 583 was concisely and truthfully characterized by a liberal statesman of the time as " an auction of nations and an orgy of kings." The first principle adopted by the Congress was that of legiti- macy. According to this principle a throne is to be regarded like ^any ordinary piece of property. Long possession gives a good and indefeasible title. Under this rule all the new usurping families set up by Napo- leon were ejected without ceremony, and the old exiled dynasties were restored. The most important of these restitutions, effected either by the direct action of the Congress or already consum- mated by events and confirmed by it, were those which brought back the banished Bourbon dynasties in France, Spain, and Naples. The principle was applied only in the case of hereditary lay rulers. It was not applied to the republican or semirepublican governments of city-states like Venice or the free cities of Ger- many, nor to ecclesiastical states. The crowd of ecclesiastical German princes whom Napoleon had dispossessed of their ter- ritories were not reinstated. The Pope, however, was made an exception to this exception. Pius VII was given back the Papal States. These formed now the only ecclesiastical state left in Europe. Another exception in the application of the principle was in the case of the hundreds of petty German rulers whose territories Napoleon in his reorganization of Germany had given to the larger states. These princelets were not restored. This question of legitimacy having been settled, the next ques- tion was how the territories recovered from Napoleon should be distributed among the dynasties recognized as legitimate. For most of the sovereigns this was the subject of chief interest. "The real purpose of the Congress," frankly wrote one of the plenipotentiaries, "was to divide amongst the conquerors the spoils taken from the vanquished." In making the distribution no thought whatever was taken of the rights and claims of race or nationality. The inhabitants of the countries available for division were apportioned among the different sovereigns exactly §583] THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA 509 as a herd of cattle might be divided up and apportioned among different owners. The following territorial settlements were among the most important. The Belgian and Dutch provinces were united into a single state, which, under the name of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, was given to a prince of the House of Orange. The purpose of this was to create on this side of France a strong barrier against ^/\.^^ V>j \ w [im^^^ Fig. 93. The Congress of Vienna, 1814-1815. (After the painting by Jean Baptiste Isabey) possible French aggression in the future. The fact that the Dutch and the Belgians, by reason of differences in race, in reli- gion, and in industrial development, formed really two distinct nations was wholly ignored. A great part of what had been Poland was made into a subject kingdom of the Russian Empire. The Poles were informed that they must give up all thought and hope of the restoration of their national independence.^ 1 Sweden was confirmed in the possession of Norway, which Denmark lost as a con- sequence of her alhance with Napoleon. The two countries were to form a dual monarchy, each having its own Parliament, or Diet, but united under a single crown. This arrange- ment subsisted until 1905, when Norway declared the union dissolved, and, choosing Prince Charles of Denmark' as king, became an independent kingdom. 510 CONGRESS OF VIENNA .'\ND METTERNICH [§583 Prussia was given about half of the kingdom of Saxony, exten- sive territories on both sides of the Rhine, and other lands, which gave her a more preponderant position in Germany than she had before the Revolution. Lombardy and Venetia in Upper Italy, along with other lands, were given to Austria. This extension of Austrian rule over Italian lands was one of the grossest violations of the principles of nationality of which the Congress was guilty, and was to be sig- nally avenged when the hour for Italian unity and independence arrived. In Germany the Congress built upon the basis laid by Napo- leon. Thirty-nine of the forty-two sovereign states, including Prussia and Austria, to which he had reduced the hundreds of states constituting the old Germanic system, were organized into a confederation modeled upon the Confederation of the Rhine.^ In Italy, on the other hand. Napoleon's work was undone and the old order of things was reestablished. With the exception of the provinces in the north, which, as we have seen, were given to Austria, the peninsula was divided into independent states, such as had existed before the Revolution. Great Britain's acquisitions were in keeping with the mari- time and colonial interests she had at stake in the great struggle with Napoleon. Of the islands and coast lands which she had wrested from France and her allies she kept, in the Mediterranean and in the East, Malta and Mauritius, snatched from the French, and the Cape of Good Hope and a part of Guiana, taken from the Dutch. She also secured the protectorate of the Ionian Islands, which gave her control of the Adriatic Sea. In the West Indies she retained two little islands (Tobago and St. Lucia) taken from France. - A third matter which occupied the attention particularly of the committee on German affairs was the granting of constitutions 1 For further details concerning the reorganization of Germany, see sect. 633. 2 The little island of Helgoland, which commands the mouth of the Elbe, was at this time ceded to Great Britain by Denmark. In 1S90 Great Britain ceded the islet to the new German Empire. §583] THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA 511 to their subjects by th'e different sovereigns. In spirit and in temper the restored rulers were for the most part the old pre- revolutionary despots come into their own again, but thoroughly frightened by what had happened. Their desire was to rule in the old arbitrary way; but there were those among them who recognized that a change had come over the world, and that the old absolutism could not with safety be reestablished. The Tsar Alexander seemed to entertain some genuine liberal ideas. Consequently constitutions were talked about. Louis XVIII had been required by the terms of the treaties of Paris to give France a constitution, the allies understanding perfectly that if the restored Bourbons should attempt to rule as absolute sover- eigns there would be trouble again which would unsettle everything in Europe. And now the Congress recommended to the German princes that representative bodies ("Assemblies of Estates," they were called; the use of the word constitution was carefully avoided) be established in each state. The only states, besides France, which at this time actually received constitutions were the Netherlands, Switzerland, Poland, and Norway.^ And even where constitutions already existed or were now granted, these charters gave the people very little share in the government. They were constitutions of the aristocratic type; that is, they placed the government, where its form was monar- chical, in the hands of the sovereign and a very small body of voters. Practically the old regime of absolutism was almost every- where reestablished." The world was made safe for autocracy. But the Revolution had impaired beyond restoration reverence for the divine right of kings. An attempt to restore autocratic 1 Hungary, like England, had a constitution which had taken form during mediaeval times. Sweden also had a constitution dating from the revolutionary period. 2 Besides reconstituting the state system of Europe, the Congress dealt with several other subordinate matters of general concern, such as the navigation of rivers, the rights of aliens, and the slave trade. In this latter matter the Congress, under the influence of Great Britain, made a distinct recognition of the principles of equality and personal liberty promulgated by the Revolution. It issued a declaration condemning the slave traffic, and the several powers agreed to use their best endeavors in its suppression. This was almost the only action of the Congress in which it put itself in line with the social and moral forces which were to mold the history of the century then opening. 512 CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND METTERNICH [§584 government in Europe was an attempt to restore an outgrown cult, — to set up again the fallen Dagon in his place. Notwith- standing, the commissioners at Vienna, blind to the spirit and tendencies of the times, did set up once more the broken idol, — only, however, to see it flung down again by the memorable political upheavals of the next century. The kings had had their Peace Congress ; one hundred years later the peoples were to have theirs — the Peace of Versailles. 584. Prince Metternich. The spirit of the monarchical restora- tion of 1815, the spirit which con- trolled the Congress of Vienna, was incarnate in the celebrated Austrian minister. Prince Metternich. He hated the Revolution, which to him was the spirit of evil let loose in the world. The democratic spirit he declared to be the spirit of disorder which could not fail " to change daylight into darkest night." The demand of the people for a share in government he regarded as presumptuous, and he' was wholly convinced that any concession to their demands could result in nothing save horrible confusion and bloodshed. He believed that the only hope of the world was the old divine-right absolutism. Metternich's system, therefore, was a system of repression. His maxim was, "Let nothing be changed." A diplomatist of wonder- ful astuteness, of wide experience, and possessed of an intimate knowledge of the public affairs of all Europe, Metternich ex- erted a vast influence upon the history of the years from 181 5 to 1848. This period might appropriately be called the Age of Metternich. It was due largely to the Prince that during this period the old autocratic form of government prevailed so gen- erally in Europe, Fig. 94. Prince Metternich (From a painting by Si'r TJiomas Lawrence) §585j METTERNICH AND THE HOLY ALLIANCE 513 585. Metternich and the Holy Alliance. The activity of Met- ternich during the earlier portion of the period of his ascendancy was so closely connected with a celebrated league known as the Holy Alliance that we must here say a word respecting the origin of this association. The Holy Alliance was a league formed just after the fall of Napoleon by the Tsar Alexander and having as its chief members Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The ostensible object of the league was the maintenance of religion, peace, and order in Europe and the reduction to practice in politics of the teachings of Christ. The several sovereigns entering into the union promised to be fathers to their people, to rule in love and with reference solely to the promotion of the welfare of their subjects. All this had a very millennial look. But the Holy Alliance very soon became practically a league for the maintenance of absolute principles of government, in opposition to the liberal tendencies of. the age. Under the pretext of maintaining religion, justice, and order, the sovereigns of the union acted in concert to sup- press every aspiration for political liberty among their subjects. 586. Other Principles, Movements, and Interests. Lest the foregoing sections should create in the mind of the reader a wrong impression of post-revolutionary history, we must here remind him of what we have said repeatedly; namely, that no single formula will suffice to sum up the history of any age. History is ever very complex, for many ideas and many forces are always simul- taneously at work shaping and coloring events. The history of the period since the Congress of Vienna presents a special complexity. While the great ideas transmitted to the age as a bequest from the Revolution were forces that have given the age its chief features, still throughout the era various other ideas, principles, and interests have contributed greatly to fill particularly the later years of the period with a vast complexity of move- ments, — intellectual, religious, industrial, and colonial. The spirit of the Renaissance has been in the society of the period a pervasive and powerful influence. Intelligence has be- come ever more diffused, and modern science, a special product 514 CONGRESS OF VIENNA AND METTERNICH [§586 of the revival, has constantly revealed fresh wonders of the uni- verse and armed man with new instruments of research and of mastery over nature. The true spirit of the Reformation, too, has been at work. As the years have passed, creeds have grown more liberal, and the beneficent sentiment of toleration in religion, which has been declared to be " the best fruit of the last four centuries," ^ has made rapid progress in the world. I Furthermore, the era has witnessed an unparalleled industrial development resulting from fortunate discoveries, ingenious me- chanical inventions, and a great variety of other causes. To a brief review of this world-transforming movement we shall give a special chapter. The period has also been marked by a wonderful expansion movement of the European peoples, a movement which has given the world very largely into the possession, or brought it under the control, of the bearers of the new and higher civilization created by the revolutions of the last three centuries in the homeland of Europe. To this significant movement we shall also devote a separate chapter under the heading "The Expansion of Europe." The period was closed by the greatest war of all times, a war whose ultimate results must inevitably be so profound and far- reaching that it may well mark the opening of a new epoch in universal history. A review of the deeper causes of this stupendous conflict, a summary of its outstanding events, and a brief survey of the changed world which emerged from the overwhelming catastrophe will be all our prescribed space will permit. Selections from the Sources. Memoirs of Prince Metternich (trans, by Mrs. Alexander Napier), vol. ii, pp. 553-599, and vols, iii-v. (These volumes cover the years from 1815 to 1S29. They are of the first importance for this period.) A Peace Congress of Intrigue (composed of the personal memoirs of its important participants ; compiled by Frederick Freksa and translated by Harry Hansen). Ford, C, Life and Letters of jMaJame A'riidener. (This work lights up a remarkable passage in the life of the Russian Emperor Alexander I, and reveals the genesis of the Holy Alliance.) 1 The inscription written by President Charles W. Eliot for the Water Gate of the World's Columbian E.xposition at Chicago in 1S93. REFERENCES 515 Secondary Works. Among the great number of works covering the cen- tury between the Congress of Vienna and the World War the following present in brief survey the whole or some part or phase of the history of the period : Fyffe, C. A., A History of Mode7ti Europe, lygs-iSyS (Popular Edition) ; Phillips, W. A., Modem Europe, iSij-iSgg ; Andrews, C. M., The Historical Developtnent of A/ode rn Europe, 2 vols.; Seignobos, C, A Political History of Eicrope since 1814 ; Hazen, C. D., Modem European Histoiy, chaps, xii-xxviii ; Hayes, C. J. H., A Political and Social Histo9y of Modern Europe, vol. ii ; Lowell, A. L., Governments and Parties iti Continental Europe, 2 vols.; and Rose, J. II., T/ie Development of ike Eicropean .Vations, 2 vols. Topics for Class Reports, i. Prince Metternich and Napoleon: Malleson, G. B., Life of Prince Metternich, chap. ix. 2. The theory of absolutism and the theory of constitutionalism in 1S15: Seignobos, C, History of Contemporary Civilization, pp. 204-207, CHAPTER XXXVI FRANCE SINCE THE SECOND RESTORATION (1815-1914) 587. The Reign of Louis XVIII (i8i5[i4l-i824). "Your king, whose fathers reigned over your fathers for more than eight centuries, now returns to devote the rest of his days to defend and to comfort you." Such were the words used by Louis upon his second return to his people after Waterloo. The events of the Hundred Days had instructed and humbled him. Profiting by his experience, Louis ruled throughout a great part of the remainder of his reign with reasonable heed to the changes effected by the Revolution. But as he grew old and infirm he yielded more and more to the extreme Royalist party, which was again raising its head, and the government entered upon a course looking to the restoration of the old order of things. 588. The Reign of Charles X (i824-i83o); the Revolution of 1830. Upon the death of Louis in 1S24 and the accession of Charles X this reactionary policy soon became more pro- nounced. The new king seemed utterly incapable of profiting by the teachings of the past. It was particularly his blind, stub- born course that gave point to the saying, "A Bourbon learns nothing and forgets nothing." It is not necessary for our purpose that we rehearse in detail what Charles did or what he failed to do. His aim was to undo the work of the Revolution, just as it was the aim of James II in England to undo the work of the Puritan Revolution. He dis- regarded the constitution, restored the clergy to power, reestab- lished a strict censorship of the press, and changed the laws by royal proclamation. He seemed bent on restoring divine-right monarchy in France. He declared that he would rather saw wood for a living than rule after the fashion of the English kings. S16 §589] THE ''JULY REVOLUTION" 517 The outcome of Charles' course might have been foreseen. Paris rose in revolt; the streets were blocked with barricades; Charles was escorted to the seacoast, whence he took ship for England. France did not at this time think of a republic. She was in- clined to try further the experiment of a constitutional monarchy. Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, who represented the younger branch of the Bourbon family, was placed on the throne and the constitution was revised. In the charter which Louis XVIII had granted he had styled himself "King of France by the grace of God." The new constitution declared Louis Philippe to be "King of the French by the grace of God aitd by the will of the nation." The first principle of the Revolution — the sovereignty of the people — was thus embodied in the fundamental law of France. 589. Effect upon Europe of the "July Revolution" of 1830; Origin of the Kingdom of Belgium. France has been called the Enceladus of Europe. There is sufficient instruction in the sug- gested parable to make it worth our while to recall the myth to memory. As fable has it, Enceladus was one of the giants who made war upon Oh^mpian Jove. In the route of the giants, Minerva, helping Jove, disabled Enceladus by throwing .^tna on top of him and pinning him forever to the earth. The stability of things in Sicily was thereby endangered, for as often as the giant turned his weary sides the whole island was convulsed. France, having made war upon the Olympian hierarchy ot divine- right kings, is by them worsted in battle and then pinned to the earth with the weight of Bourbonism. As often as the giant turns his weary sides there is an eruption, and the whole continent, like Trinacria of old, trembles to its remotest verge. The convulsion in Paris shook all the restored thrones, and for a moment threatened to topple into ruins the whole fabric of absolutism that had been so carefully upreared by Metternich and the other political restorationists of the Congress of Vienna.^ In 1 A wave of hope shot through Poland ; the people arose and drove out the Russian garrisons. The armies of the Tsar, however, were quickly on the spot, and before the close of the year 1831 the Polish patriots were once more under the foot of their Rus- sian master. It was a hard fate that awaited the unhappy nation. Their constitution was taken away and Poland was made a mere province of the Russian Empire (1832). 51,8 FRANCE SINCE THE RESTORATION [§590 the Netherlands the artificial order established in 1815 (sect. 583) was wholly destroyed. The Belgians arose, declared themselves independent of Holland, adopted a liberal constitution, and elected Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as their king (1831). Thus came into existence the separate kingdom of Belgium. The independence and neutrality of the little state was guaranteed by all the great powers. 590. The Revolution of 1848 and the Establishment of the Second Republic. The reign of Louis Philippe up to 1848 was very unquiet, yet was not marked by any disturbance of great importance. But during all this time the ideas of the Revolution were working among the people, and the democratic party was con- stantly gaining in strength. Finally, there came a demand for the extension of the suffrage. At this time there were only about two hundred thousand voters in France, the possession of a certain amount of property being required as a qualification for the fran- chise. The government steadily refused all electoral reforms. Guizot, the king's chief minister, declared that "this world is no place for universal suffrage." Enceladus at last turned his weary sides. There was a convul- sion like that of 1830. The center of this disturbance of course was Paris. Louis Philippe, thoroughly frightened by the prodigy, fled to England. After his departure the Paris mob dragged the throne out of the Tuileries and made a bonfire of it. The Second Republic was now established. A new constitution established universal suffrage. An election being ordered, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, a nephew of the great Napoleon, was chosen President of the New Republic (1848). The Paris "February Revolution," as it is called, lighted the beacon fires of liberty throughout Europe. "It is scarcely an exaggeration to say that, during the month of March, 1848, not a single day passed without a constitution being granted some- where." France had made another of her irresistible invasions of the states of Europe, — "an invasion of ideas." 591. The Second Empire (]852-i87o). The hfe of the Sec- ond Republic spanned only three years. By almost exactly the §591] THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 519 same steps as those by which his uncle had mounted the imperial throne, Louis Napoleon now also ascended to the imperial dignity, crushing the Republic as he rose. A contest having arisen between the President and the National Assembly, the President planned a coup d'etat, — a second Eight- eenth Brumaire (sect. 549). He caused the arrest at night of the most prominent of the deputies opposed to him in the Assembly and dissolved that body. His ap- peal to the people to indorse what he had done met with a most ex- traordinary response. By a ma- jority of almost seven million votes the nation approved the Presi- dent's coup d'etat and rewarded him for it by extending his term of office to ten years. This was in effect the revival of the Consulate of 1799. The next year Louis Napoleon was made Emperor, and ■ took the title of Napoleon III (1852). The secret of Louis Napoleon's success in his coup d'etat was in part the fear that prevailed of the renewal of the Terror of '93, and in part the magic power of the name he bore. At just this time the name Napoleon was in France a name to conjure with. There had been growing up a Napoleonic legend. Time had idealized the founder of the First Empire. As the Second and the Third Republic were simply revivals and continuations of the First Republic, so was the Second Em- pire merely the revival and continuation of the First Empire. It was virtually the same in origin, in spirit, and in policy. Louis Napoleon had declared that the Empire meant peace. But it meant anything except that. The pages of its history are filled with the records of wars. There were three important ones in which the armies of the Empire took part, — the Crimean War Fig. 95. Napoleon III. (After a portrait by F. Wiiiterhaltei-) 520 FRANCE SINCE THE RESTORATION [§592 (1853-1856), the Austro-Sardinian War (1859), and the Franco- Prussian War (1870-1871). The first two of these wars need not detain us at this time, since we shall speak of them later in connection with Russian and Italian affairs.' All that need be said here is that in each of them Louis Napoleon greatly enhanced his prestige throughout Europe. Respecting the causes of the third war, — the one between Prussia and France, — something will be said in connection with the rise of Germany as an imperial power (sect. 644) ; therefore only the chief events relating to the war itself will be given here. Upon the opening of the war three immense German armies swept into France. One large French army was defeated in the memo- rable battle of Gravelotte and shut up in Metz. Then followed the surrender at Sedan, where eighty-three thousand men, includ- ing the Emperor himself, gave themselves up as prisoners of war.- The German columns now advanced to Paris and began the investment of the city (September 19, 1870). All reasonable hope of a successful defense of the capital was soon destroyed by the surrender to the Germans of Marshal Bazaine at Metz. One hundred and seventy-three thousand soldiers and six thousand officers became prisoners of war, — the largest army that up to that time had ever been taken captive. But Paris held out stub- bornly, with great suffering from cold and hunger, three months longer; and then, all outside measures for raising the siege having failed, capitulated. 592. Treaty of Frankfort (i87i). By the terms of the treaty which followed the surrender of Paris, France was required to pay an indemnity of five billion francs^ ($1,000,000,000), and cede to Germany the Rhenish province of Alsace and part of Lorraine.* 1 See sects. 651 and 626. 2 After the war Louis Napoleon found an asylum in England. He died January 9, 1873. 3 The last installment was paid in 1873, and the last unit of the German army of occupation was then withdrawn. ■1 The Red Republicans, or Communists, of Paris, indignant at the terms of the treaty, organized a Committee of Public Safety in imitation of that of 1703, and called the population of the capital to arms. The government finally succeeded in suppressing the insurgents, though only after the destruction by fire of many public buildings and frightful slaughters in the streets and squares of the city. §592] TREATY OF FRANKFORT 521 The tearing away from France of these provinces was a gross violation of the principle of nationality, since the inhabitants of the ceded territories, though not wholly French in blood, were passionately French in sympathy and attachment. Against the "odious abuse of force" of which they were the unhappy victims, their delegates in the National Assembly at Bordeaux, on their withdrawal from the con- vention chamber, made the following solemn and prophetic protest: "Europe cannot permit | or ratify the abandon- % ment of Alsace and Lorraine. The civilized nations, as guardians of justice and national pights, cannot remain in- different to the fate of their neighbors under pain of becoming in their turn victims of the out- rages they have tolerated. Modern Europe cannot al- low a people to be seized like a herd of cattle; she cannot continue deaf to the repeated protests of threatened nationalities. . . . We declare once for all null and void an agree- ment which disposes of us without our consent. ... In the mo- ment we quit this hall, the supreme thought we find in the bottom of our hearts is a thought of unutterable attachment to the land from which in violence we are torn. Our brothers of Alsace and of Lorraine, separated at this rnoment from the common family, will preserve to France, absent from their hearthstones, an af- fection faithful to the day when she shall return to take her place again," ^ 1 Jordan, A/sace-Lorralnc, pp. 20-22, Fig. 96. Louis Adolfme Thiers. (First president of the Third French Republic) 52 2 FRANCE SINCE THE RESTORATION [§593 593. The Third Republic (i870- ). The form of govern- ment which replaced the Empire was repubhcan.^ The current of political events under the Republic up to the outbreak of the War of 1914 ran somewhat turbulently. There were many changes of presidents' and of ministries, and much party rancor was dis- played; yet in spite of all untoward circumstances the cause of the Republic steadily advanced, while that of the Monarchy and of the Empire as steadily went backward. Bourbons and Bonapartes, like Stuarts, went into an exile from which there was no return. Many of the difficulties and problems which confronted the Republic were legacies to it from the Monarchy and the Empire. The most fate-laden legacy of the war that destroyed the Empire was the Alsace-Lorraine matter. The deep resentment felt towards Germany for this dismemberment of France, together with the fear of further German aggression, caused the French government, in 1 89 1, to enter into an alliance with Russia, — an alliance which, as we shall see, was freighted with momentous consequences.-'' A second legacy to the Republic was influential parties of Monarchists and Imperialists, who endeavored in every way to discredit the republican regime, and who watched for an oppor- tunity to set up again either the Monarchy or the Empire. The dangerous intrigues of these parties led in 1886 to the ex- pulsion from France of all the Bourbon and Bonaparte claimants of the throne and their direct heirs. A third bequest from the ancient regime was the educational problem, — for education of the people is the corollary of govern- ment by the people. Before the Revolution, education in France 1 The Constitution of the Republic is not, hke our own, a single document, but con- sists of a series of laws passed at different times. It provides for a legislature of two chambers, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, a President elected for seven years by the chambers in a joint meeting, and a Cabinet responsible to the legislature. The suf- frage is universal. 2 These are the presidents of the Republic since the resignation in 1873 of M. Thiers, the historian, who was the first president: Marshal MacMahon (resigned), 1S73-1S79; M. Grevy (resigned), 1879-1S87; M. Carnot (assassinated), 1887-1S94; M. Casimir-Perier (resigned), 1894-1895; M. Felix Faure (died in office), 1S95-1S99; M. Loubet (1899- 1906) ; M. Fallieres (1906-1913) ; M. Poincare (1913-1920) ; M. Deschanel (1920- ). 3 This dual alliance became in 1907, through the adhesion of England, the great Triple Entente. §593] THE THIRD REPUBLIC 523 was mainly in the hands of the religious orders. The Revolution swept away these bodies and secularized the educational system. The restoration of the Monarchy brought about also the restora- tion of the religious orders. The system of education was now mixed, being in part lay and in part clerical. Among the Liberals a strong section demanded the suppression of the clerical schools and the complete secularization of education. The final outcome of this fight against clerical influence in education and civil mat- ters was a complete separation of Church and State in 1895. This meant the disestablishment of the Roman Catholic Church (and of the Protestant and Jewish churches as well), and the annul- ment of the Concordat entered into between Napoleon and the Pope in 1802^ (sect. 552). The Republic has also had troubles which can in no sense be regarded as an inheritance from the ancient regime. During the years 1 889-1 892 all France was shaken by a great scandal arising from the gross mismanagement and failure of a company organ- ized by Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had won great fame by the successful construction of the Suez Canal, for the digging of a similar canal at the Isthmus of Panama. After the expenditure of upwards of $260,000,000, with the work in a very unsatisfac- tory condition, the company became bankrupt. It then developed that bribery and corruption on a scale as gigantic as the under- taking itself had been resorted to by the promoters of the enter- prise. Prosecutions followed. Among those condemned to severe punishment was Ferdinand de Lesseps himself. He was already dying from age and worry when this final blow fell upon him. It was a pathetic ending of a career which, aside from this last de- plorable incident, is one of the most illustrious in modern French history.^ 1 With the severance of all connection between' Church and State, the payment of the salaries of the clergy by the government ceased. The use of the churches is left free to the Catholics, but the palaces of the bishops and other ecclesiastical buildings are now devoted to educational and nonreligious purposes. 2 Another unfortunate affair belonging to this period is the case of Alfred Dreyfus, a young Jewish captain of artillery in the French army, who became the victim of a shameful conspiracy and of a cruel and unjust sentence by a military court. The story is too long for recital here. 524 FRANCE SINCE THE RESTORATION [§593 As to the part taken by France in the wonderful industrial development of the period under review, and in recent colonial enterprises, particularly in the opening up to civilization of the continent of Africa, we shall find it more convenient to speak in another connection.^ With the opening of the World War of 19 14, the history of France merges for a time with that of Europe and of the world at large.- Selections from the Sources. Forbks, A., My Expe7-ie}ice of the War betioeen France and German v. Robinson, J. li., Readings in European History, vol. ii, chap, xxxix, pp. 536-542. For material for a systematic study of the period, the special student should turn to Anderson, F. ]VI., Consiitntions and Other Select Documents. Secondary Works. In most of the works cited for the preceding chapter will be found chapters and sections dealing with French affairs during the period under review. To these authorities add the following: Martin, II., A Popular Ilistorv of France, vols, ii (last part) and iii ; Dickinson, G. I,., Revolution- and Reaction in Modern France; and Lebon, A., and Pelet, P., France as it Is. For the Second Empire: P^trbes, A..,'77ie Life of Napoleon ilie T/iird. For brief summaries of the events of the period : Lebon, A., ISIodei'ii France, chaps, viii-xvi ; Adams, G. B., T/ie Gro7vth of the French iVation, chap, xviii ; and Hassall, A., The French People, chaps, xviii-xxi and xxiii. Topics for Class Reports, i. The Dreyfus case: Hazen, C. D., Modern European Histoiy, pp. 396-400. 2. The separation of Church and State : Hazen, C. D., Modern European History, pp. 400-403. 3. Part taken by France in nineteenth-century progress: Seignobos, C, History of Contemporary Civilization, pp. 437-441. 1 See Chapter XLII. - See Chapter XLIV. CHAPTER XXXVII ENGLAND FROM THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO TO THE WORLD WAR (1815-1914) 594. The Four Chief Matters. English history during tlie hundred years between the battle of Waterloo and the outbreak of the World War embraces a multitude of events. A short chapter covering the entire period will possess no instructive value unless it reduces the great mass of facts to some sort of unity by placing events in relation with their causes, and thus shows how they are connected with a few broad national movements or tendencies. Studying the period in this way, we shall find that very many of its leading events may be summed up under the four follow- ing heads: (i) progress towards democracy; (2) extension of the principle of religious equality; (3). England's relations with Ireland; and (4) the growth of the British colonial empire. We shall attempt nothing more in the present chapter than to indicate the most prominent matters that should claim the stu- dent's attention along the first three lines of inquiry, reserving for later sections the consideration of England's colonial affairs. L PROGRESS TOWARDS DEMOCRACY 595. Introductory. The English Revolution of 1688 trans- ferred authority from the king to the Parliament. The elective branch of that body, however, rested upon a very narrow elec- toral basis. Out of upwards of five million Englishmen who should have had a voice in the government, less than two hundred thou- sand were voters, and these were chiefly of the rich upper classes. The political democratizing of England during the century under 525 52 6 ENGLAND AFTER WATERLOO [§596 review consists in the widening of the electorate, — in the giving to every intelligent and honest man a right to vote, to participate in the government under which he lives. 596. Effects of the French Revolution upon Liberalism in England; Reform versus Revolution. The French Revolution at first gave a fresh impulse to liberal tendencies. The English Liberals watched the course of the French Republicans with the deepest interest and sympathy. It will be recalled how the states- man Fox rejoiced at the fall of the Bastille, and what auguries of hope he saw in that event (sect. 510). The young writers Cole- ridge, Wordsworth, and Southey were all infected with demo- cratic sentiments and inspired with a generous enthusiasm for political liberty and ecjuality. But the wild excesses of the French levelers terrified the English Liberals. There was a sudden revul- sion of feeling. Liberal sentiments were denounced as dangerous and revolutionary. But in a few years after the downfall of Napoleon the terrors of the French Revolution were forgotten. Liberal sentiments began to spread among the masses. The people very justly complained that, while the English government claimed to be a government of the people, they had no part in it. Now, it is instructive to note the different ways in which Liberalism was dealt with by the English government and by the rulers on the Continent. In the continental countries the rising spirit of democracy was met by cruel and despotic repres- sions. The people were denied by their rulers all participation in the affairs of government. We have seen the result of this policy in France, and later shall see the outcome of it in other continental countries. Liberalism triumphed indeed at last, but triumphed only through revolution. In England the government did not resist the popular demands to the point of revolution. It made timely concessions to the growing spirit of democracy. Hence here, instead of a series of revolutions, we have a series of reform measures which, gradually popularizing the House of Commons, at last rendered the English nation, not alone in name but in reality, a self-governing people. §597] THE REFORM BILL OF 1832 52? 597. The Reform Bill of 1832. The first Parliamentary step in reform was taken in 1832. To understand this important act a glance backward becomes necessary. When, in 1265, the Commons were first admitted to Parlia- ment, members were called only from those cities and boroughs whose wealth and population fairly entitled them to representa- tion. In the course of time some of these places dwindled in population and new towns sprang up; yet the decayed boroughs retained their ancient privilege of sending members to Parlia- ment, while the new towns were left entirely without represen- tation. Thus Old Sarum, an ancient town now utterly decayed and without a single inhabitant, was represented in the Commons by two members. Furthermore, the sovereign, for the purpose of gaining influence in the Commons, had, from time to time, given unimportant places the right of returning members to the Lower House. It was inevitable that elections in these small places ("pocket boroughs," as they were called) should almost always be determined by the corrupt influence of the crown or of the great landowners. The Lower House of Parliament was thus filled with the nominees of the king, or with persons who had bought their seats, often with little effort at concealment. At the same time, such large, recently grown manufacturing towns as Birmingham, Leeds, and Manchester had no representation at all in the Commons. Agitation was begun for the reform of this corrupt and farcical system of representation. The movement was greatly aided and given a more popular character than any earlier reform agitation by the great newspapers which had come into existence during the latter part of the eighteenth century. The contest between Whigs and Tories, or Liberals and Conservatives, was long and bitter, the Conservatives opposing all reform and denying that there was any necessity for it. At last public feeling became so strong and menacing that the Lords, who were blocking the measure in the Upper House, were forced to yield, and the Reform Bill of 1832 became a Jaw. By this act the English electoral sys- tem was radically changed. Eighty-six of the " rotten boroughs " 528 ENGLAND AFTER WATERLOO [§598 were disfranchised or semi-disfranchised, and the hundred and forty-two seats in the Lower House taken from them were given to different counties and to large towns hitherto unrepresented. The bill also somev^hat increased the number of electors by ex- tending the right of voting to all persons in the towns owning or leasing property of a certain value, and by lowering the prop- erty qualification of voters in the counties. The importance of this reform bill can hardly be exaggerated. It is the Magna Carta of English political democracy.^ 598. The Municipal Reform Act of 1835. The government of the English towns of this period needed reform as urgently as had the British Parliament. This municipal system was a system inherited from the Middle Ages. Most of the towns were ruled by corrupt oligarchies. Long agitation for their overthrow resulted in the passing of the Municipal Reform Act of 1835. This act accomplished for the government of the cities what the Reform Bill of 1832 had effected for the general government of the kingdom. 599. Chartism : the Revolutionary Year of 1848. Although the Reform Bill of 1832 was almost revolutionary in the princi- ple it established, still it went only a little way in the application of that principle. It admitted to the franchise the middle classes only. The great laboring class were given no part in the govern- ment. They now began an agitation characterized by much bit- terness, and known as Chartism, from a document called the " People's Charter," which embodied the reforms they desired. Among these were universal suffrage and vote by ballot. 1 The reform of the House of Commons gave an impulse to legislation of an humani- tarian or popular character. In 1833 an act was passed in the British Commons for the abolition of slavery. Nearly 800,000 slaves, chiefly in the British West Indies, were freed at a cost to the English nation of ^20,000,000. This same year (1833) the first effective Factory Act was passed. This was the beginning of a long series of laws which gradually corrected the almost incredible abuses, particularly in connection with the employment of children, that had crept into the English factory system. A similar series of laws regulated labor in the mines. Also this same year Parliament voted an annual grant of ^20,000 to aid in the erection of schoolhouses. This was the first step taken by the English government in the promotion of public education. In 1S46 England, by the repeal of her " corn laws," abandoned the commercial policy of protection, which favored the great landowners, and a'dopted that of free trade. The chief advocates of this impor- tant measure were Richard Cobden and John Bright. The enactment of the law was hastened by the blight of the potato crop in Ireland and consequent famine in the island. V 600] THE REFORM BILL OF 1867 529 The agitation went on with more or less violence until 1848, in which year, encouraged by the revolutions then shaking almost every throne on the European continent, the Chartists indulged in riotous demonstrations, which frightened the law-abiding citi- zens and brought discredit upon themselves. Their organization now fell to pieces. The reforms, however, which they had labored to secure, were, in the main, desirable and just, and the most important of these re- forms have since been adopted and made a part of the Eng- lish constitution. 600. The Reform Bill of 1867 and the Education Act of 1870. The Reform Bill of 1867 was simply another step taken by the English govern- ment in the direction of the Reform Bill of 1832. Like that measure, it was passed only after long and violent agitation both without and within the walls of ParHa- ment. The main effect of the bill was the extension of the right of voting, — the enfranchisement of the great "fourth estate." As after the Reform Bill of 1832, so now the attention of Par- liament was directed to the matter of public instruction; for all recognized that universal education must go along with universal suffrage. Three years after the passage of this second reform bill Parliament passed an education act (1870) which aimed to provide an elementary education for every child in the British Isles by investing the local authorities with power to establish and maintain schools and compel the attendance of the children. 601. The Reform Bill of 1884. One of the conservative leaders, the Earl of Derby, in the discussions upon the Reform Bill of 1867, said, ''No doubt we are making a great experiment, Fig. 97. Queen Victoria as a Young Woman. (After a painting by Patridge) 530 ENGLAND AFTER WATERLOO [§ 602 and taking a leap in the dark." Just seventeen years after the passage of that bill the English people were ready to take another leap. But they were not now leaping in the dark. The wisdom and safety of admitting the lower classes to a share in the govern- ment had been demonstrated. In 1884 Mr. Gladstone, then Prime Minister, introduced and pushed to a successful vote a new reform bill more radical and sweeping in its provisions than any preceding one. It increased the number of voters from about three millions to live millions. The qualification of voters in the counties was made the same as that required of voters in the boroughs. Hence its effect was to enfranchise the great agricultural classes.^ 602. The Reform of Rural Local Government. Parliament and the government of the municipalities were now fairly democ- ratized. The rural districts were the last to feel the influence of the liberal movement that was so profoundly reconstructing in the interest of the masses the governmental institutions of the United Kingdom. But the movement finally reached these, and the work of democratic reconstruction has been rounded out and completed by different acts of Parliament, which have put more directly into the hands of the people of each of the smaller sub- divisions of the realm the management of their local affairs. 603. The "Veto" of the House of Lords abolished (i9ii). The most radical change in the English constitution since the Reform Bill of 1832 was affected in 191 1 by an Act whereby the legislative power of the House of Lords was limited, and thus its power permanently to defeat measures approved by the lower chamber taken away.^ The veto power, as it may be termed, 1 The democratization of the electorate was completed, under the stress of the World War, by the Representation of the People Act, in 191S. This was an electoral law which went further than any earlier similar measure. It established substantially manhood suffrage, the property basis for men being virtually abandoned, and gave the vote to every woman thirty years of age or over "who occupies a home, without regard to value, or any landed property of the annual value of /$, of which she or her husband is the tenant." These measures doubled the electorate, adding 8,000,000, of whom 6,000,000 were women, to the body of voters. In 1919 a woman (Lady Astor), the first in the history of the English Parliament, took a seat in the House of Commons. 2 The act, which, like the Reform Bill of 1832, received the sanction of the Upper House only through a threatened creation of peers, provides that bills (other than certain §604] RELIGIOUS FREEDOM AND EQUALITY 531 of the Lords was annulled because it had been used by them to obstruct or defeat reform legislation initiated by the Liberals of the House of Commons. The particular action of the Lords which created the crisis was their rejection of a budget introduced by Lloyd George, Chancellor of the Exchequer. Increased revenue being needed to meet the cost of a newly inaugurated old-age pension policy and a larger navy, the budget provided for new and special taxes on land, inheritances, and large incomes. Passed by the Commons, the budget was rejected by the House of Lords. This action of the Lords was denounced by the Liberals as a vio- lation of the Constitution, it being held that money bills and taxation were matters pertaining exclusively to the jurisdiction of the Commons. After a bitter debate and an appeal by the Government to the people in a new election, the Lords finally yielded and passed the budget. But their action in venturing to obstruct the bill had so angered the Liberals of the Commons that they now resolved to curb effectually the power of the Lords over legislation, which end was reached by the act mentioned. This reform makes the will of the English people as expressed through their representatives in the House of Commons supreme and independent, since the veto power of the Crown fell into disuse more than a century ago, and the royal assent is now never with- held from a bill that has the sanction of Parliament. II. EXTENSION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF RELIGIOUS EQUALITY 604. Religious Freedom and Religious Equality. Alongside the political movement traced in the preceding section ran a similar one in the religious realm. This was a growing recognition by the English people of the true principle of religious toleration. At the opening of the nineteenth century there was in England religious freedom, but no religious equality. That is to say, one bills specified) if passed by the House of Commons in three successive sessions, — a certain order of procedure being observed, — shall become law without the concurrence of the Lords. By this same act the maximum duration of Parliament was limited to five years instead of seven. 532 ENGLAND AFTER WATERLOO [§ 605 might be a Roman Catholic or a Protestant dissenter without fear of persecution. Dissent from- the Established Church was not un- lawful; but one's being a Roman Catholic or a Protestant non- conformist disqualified him from holding certain public offices. Where there exists such discrimination against any religious sect, or where any one sect is favored or sustained by the government, there of course is no religious equality, although there may be religious freedom. Progress in this direction, then, will consist in the growth of a really tolerant spirit, which shall lead to the removal of all civil disabilities from Catholics, Protestant dissenters, and Jews, and the placing of all sects on an absolute equality before the law. 605. Methodism and its Effects upon Toleration. One thing that helped to bring prominently forward the question of emanci- pating nonconformists from the civil disabilities under which they were placed was the great religious movement known as Metho- dism (sect. 482). By vastly increasing the body of Protestant dissenters, Methodism gave new strength to the agitation for the repeal of the laws which bore so heavily upon them. So now began a series of legislative acts which made a more and more perfect application of the great principle of religious equality. We shall simply refer to two or three of the most important of these measures. 606. Disabilities removed from Protestant Dissenters (i828). One of the earliest and most important of the acts of Parlia- ment in this century in recognition of the principle of religious equality was the repeal of the Corporation and Tests acts, in so far as they bore upon Protestant dissenters. These were acts passed in the reign of Charles II, which required every officer of a corporation, and all persons holding civil and military positions, to take certain oaths and partake of the communion according to the rites of the Anglican Church. It is true that these laws were not now strictly enforced ; nevertheless, the laws were invidious and vexatious, and the Protestant dissenters demanded their repeal. Those opposed to the repeal argued that the principle of reli- gious toleration did not require it. They insisted that, where § 607] CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION 533 every one has perfect freedom of worship, it is no infringement of the principle of toleration for the government to refuse to employ as a public servant one who dissents from the State Church. The result of the debate in Parliament was the repeal of such parts of the ancient acts as it was necessary to rescind in order to relieve Protestant dissenters. 607. Disabilities removed from Roman Catholics (1829). The bill of 1828 gave no relief to Catholics. They were still excluded from Parliament and various civil offices by the decla- rations of belief and the oaths required of officeholders, — ; decla- rations and oaths which no good Catholic could conscientiously make.^ They now demanded that the same concessions be made them that had been granted Protestant dissenters. A threat- ened revolt on the part of the Irish Catholics hurried through Parliament the progress of jvhat was known as the " Catholic Emancipation Act." This law opened Parliament and all the offices of the kingdom, below the Crown, — save that of Regent, of Lord High Chancellor of England and Ireland, of Lord Deputy of Ireland, and a few others, — to the Catholic subjects of the realm. 608. Disabilities removed from the Jews (isss). Persons professing the Jewish religion were still laboring under all the disabilities which had now been removed from Protestant dis- senters and Catholics. In 1858 an act (Jewish Relief Act) was passed by Parliament which so changed the oath required of a person taking office — the oath contained the words, "Upon the true faith of a Christian" — as to open all public positions, except a few special offices, to persons of the Jewish faith. 609. Disestablishment of the Irish Church (1869). Forty years after the Catholic Emancipation Act the English govern- ment took another great step in the direction of religious equality by the disestablishment of the State Church in Ireland. The Irish have always and steadily refused to accept the religion which their English conquerors have somehow felt constrained to 1 In England Roman Catholics were excluded from the privilege of voting as well as from the holding of office. 534 ENGLAND AFTER WATERLOO [§609 try to force upon them. The vast majority of the people are to-day, and ever have been, Catholics; yet up to the time where we have now arrived these Irish Catholics had been compelled to pay tithes and fees for the maintenance among them of the Anglican Church worship. .^\fj Meanwhile all their own churches, in which the great masses were instructed and cared for spiritually, had to be kept up by voluntary contributions. The rank injustice in thus forcing the Irish Catholics to support not merely a Church , in which they did not believe but a Church which they re- garded with special aversion and hatred as the symbol of their subjection and perse- cution, was perceived and declaimed against by not a few even among the English Protestants themselves. The proposal to do away with this grievance by the disestablishment of the State Church in Ireland was bit- terly opposed by the Con- servatives, headed by Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli; but at length, after a memorable debate, the Liberals, under the lead of Bright and Gladstone, the latter then Prime Minister, carried the measure. This was in 1869, but the actual disestablishment was not to take place until the year 1 87 1, at which time the Irish Church, ceasing to exist as a state institution, became a free Episcopal Church. An ancient wrong was thus undone. Fig. 9S. Lord Beacoxsfield (Dis- raeli), " The Courtier Premier " (From the monument in Westminster Abbey) §610] DISESTABLISHMENT OF STATE CHURCH 535 610. Proposed Disestablishment of the State Church in Eng- land, Scotland, and Wales. The principle of religious equality demands, in the opinion of many Liberals, the disestablishment likewise of the State Church in England, Scotland,^ and Wales. They feel that for the government to maintain any particular sect is to give the state a monopoly in religion. They would have the churches of all denominations placed on an absolute equality. Especially in Scotland and Wales is the sentiment in favor of disestablishment very strong.^ III. ENGLAND'S RELATIONS WITH IRELAND 611. Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland (isoo). The history of Ireland in the nineteenth century, like her history in all preceding centuries, is in the main a story of Irish grievances against England. These grievances have for the most part arisen out of three distinct yet closely related subject-matters, — religion, Home Rule, and the land. Concerning the religious grievances of the Irish and their redress we have already spoken in connec- tion with the general religious emancipation movement in Eng- land. For an understanding of the subject of Irish Home Rule a glance backward at Irish parliamentary history is necessary. Ireland, it will be recalled, secured legislative independence of England in 1782 (sect. 485). When, a little later. Napoleon came to the head of affairs in France, there was apprehension on the part of English statesmen lest he should utilize Irish discontent to secure a foothold in the islands. As a measure of precaution the English government resolved to get rid of the Irish Parliament. By wholesale bribery its members were induced to pass a sort of self-denying ordinance whereby the Parliament was abolished, or rather merged with that of Great Britain, Ireland being given repre- sentation at Westminster. The two islands were henceforth to bear the name of "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland." 1 The Established Church in Scotland is the Presbyterian. 2 In 1914, just before the outbreak of the World War, the British Parliament passed a bill disestablishing the Church in Wales, but the carrying into effect of the bill was post- poned until after the end of the war. 536 ENGLAND AFTER WATERLOO [§ 612 612. Agitation for the Repeal of the Union. The great body of Irish patriots did not at the time of these transactions admit, nor have they at any time since admitted, the validity of the Act of Union whereby their Parliament was taken from them. In the early forties the agitation for the repeal of the Union and the reestablishment of their native legislature assumed, under the in- citement of the eloquence of the Irish patriot Daniel O'Connell, almost the character of a rebellion. Some years later, in the sixties, the agitation was carried to the point of actual insurrec- tion, but the movement was quickly suppressed and its leaders punished. 613. Gladstone and Home Rule for Ireland. It was not long before the Irish question was again to the front. In i886 Wil- liam Ewart Gladstone became for the third time Prime Minister. Almost his first act was the introduction in the Commons of a Home Rule bill for Ireland. The main feature of this measure was an Irish legislature sitting at Dublin, to which was to be intrusted the management of all exclusively Irish affairs. The chief arguments urged by the opponents of the bill were that an Irish legislature would deal unfairly with English landlords in Ireland, would oppress the Protestant portion of the population, and, above all, in time of national distress would sever Ireland from the British Empire. After a long debate the bill was rejected by the Commons. In 1893 Gladstone, being then Premier for the fourth time, brought in a new Home Rule bill, which in its essential features was like his first. There followed a long and bitter debate between the partisans of the measure and its opponents. The bill passed the Commons, but was rejected by the House of Lords by an almost unanimous vote. The following year, owing to the infirmities of advanced age, Gladstone laid down the burdens of the premiership and retired from public life. He died in 1898 at the age of eighty-eight, and, amidst unusual demonstrations of national grief, was buried in Westminster Abbey. His name has a sure place among the great names in English history. §614] AGRARIAN LEGISLATION 537 614. Agrarian Troubles and Agrarian Legislation. Before the relief legislation, of which we shall speak directly, very much of Irish misery and discontent arose from absentee landlordism. A great part of the soil of Ireland was owned by a few hundred English proprietors, who represented in the main, either as heirs Fig. 99. William Ewart Gladstone. (A_ Lenbach) or as purchasers, those English and Scotch settlers to whom the lands taken away from the natives were given at the time of the Cromwellian and other Protestant "settlements" of the island. It was often the case that the agents of these absentee landlords dealt harshly with their tenants and exacted as rent every penny that could be wrung from their poverty. If a tenant made im- provements upon the land he tilled, and by ditching and subduing it increased its productive power, straightway his rent was raised. 538 ENGLAND AFTER WATERLOO [§ 615 If he failed to pay the higher rent, he was evicted. The records of " eviction " form a sad chapter in the history of the Irish peasantry. A long series of Irish land laws marks the efforts of the British Parliament to alleviate the distress of the Irish tenant farmers. In 1903 an Irish land-purchase bill, more sweeping and liberal than any preceding measure, was enacted into a law. This law differed from earlier ones in the provision that peasants desiring to buy their holdings should be aided, not merely by a government loan on long time and low interest, but further by the govern- ment's paying a part of the purchase price. This liberal measure, gradually carried into effect during the earlier years of the twentieth century, has converted the great body of Irish tenants into proprietors, and thus has revolutionized the relation of the Irish peasantry to the Irish soil. 615. The Third Irish Home Rule Bill (1914). But land reforms, together with other measures of relief, proved ineffectual to quiet the agitation for a separate Irish Parliament. In the early years of the twentieth centurj' the subject was again before the Commons, and a third Home Rule bill was framed and intro- duced (1912). The "veto" power of the Lords, the rock on which Gladstone's last Home Rule bill had been wrecked, had been abolished (sect. 603), but an even greater obstacle to the success of the measure now was the stubborn opposition of the Protes- tants of Ulster, in northeast Ireland. They even threatened to revolt if any attempt were made to put them under the rule of an Irish Parliament. On the other hand, the majority of the people of Ireland objected strenuously to any sort of Home Rule which did not apply alike to all Ireland. Finally, after bitter debate, the bill, having been passed in three successive sessions of the Commons (being each time re- jected by the Lords), received the signature of the king;^ but be- fore the law became operative, the great European conflict had begun, and the establishment of the new regime was postponed until after the war.- But as the war dragged on into the third 1 See p. 530, n. 2. 2 This delay caused great bitterness in Ireland, which in the second year of the war found expression in an armed uprising, that, however, was quickly suppressed. § 615] REFERENCES 539 year the settlement of the question became urgent and the British government, ready to acquiesce in any plan — short of the absolute independence of Ireland — that the Irish themselves could agree upon, committed to a convention composed of representatives of the various parties and bodies of Irish opinion the responsibility of devising some scheme of government that would satisfy all factions and interests. The convention failed to formulate any plan which all Irish parties would accept, and consequently the end of the war found the troublesome Irish question as far as ever from settlement. Selections from the Sources. Lee, G. C, Sotnxe-Book, pp. 4S3-541 ; Ken- dall, E. K., Source-Book, chaps, xx and xxi ; and Colby, C. W., Selections, Nos. 113-117. The most important documents for the period will be found in Adams, G. B., and Stephens, H. M., Select Documents of English Constitutional Histoiy, pp. 497-555- Secondary Works. For Parliamentary reform : May, T. E., The Constitu- tional History of England, 2 vols.; Gammage, R. G., History of the Chaitist Move?nent, i8jy-i8s4; McCarthy, J., The Epoch of Reform; Carlyle, T., Chartism.; and Dickinson, G. L., The Development, of Parliatnent during the Nifieteenth Centuiy. For Irish matters : Lecky, \V. E. H., History of Ireland in. the Eighteenth Century, vol. v, chaps, xii and xiii (for the legislative union of England and Ireland) ; Two Centuries of Irish History, ibgi-iSjo, by different writers, with an Introduction by James Bryce ; Dicey, E., England^s Case against Home Rule; McCarthy, J. H., Ireland since the Union; and King, D. B., The Irish Question. Biographies : Morley, J., The Life of Richard Cobden, 2 vols., and The Life of William Ewait Gladstone, 3 vols. In the last biography (vol. i, pp. 635-640) read the remarkable letter of young Gladstone to his father on the choice of a profession. Brandes, G., Lord Beaconsfield. For the social, intellectual, and industrial life of the period : Traill, H. D., Social England, vol. vi ; and Cheyney, E. P., An Introdicction to the Industrial and Social History of England, chaps, viii-x. For a general review of the events of the period : McCarthy, J., History of Our Own Ti7nes (various editions). Topics for Class Reports, i. Irish problems — church, land, and Home Rule : Lavell, C. F., and Payne, C. E., Impetial England, chap. xiii. 2. Factory legislation regulating the employment of children and women : Cheyney, E. P., An Introduction to the Industrial and Social Histoty of England, pp. 244-260. 3. Darwin, and the establishment of the theory of evolution ("one of the greatest, if not the greatest scientific achievement of the nineteenth century") : Wallace, A. R., The IVonderfil Century, chap. xiii. CHAPTER XXXVIII THE LIBERATION AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY 616, Italy at the Downfall of Napoleon. The Italian peoples, as being the most dangerously infected with the ideas of the Revo- lution, were, by the reactionary Congress of Vienna, condemned to the most strict and ignominious slavery. The former republics were not allowed to restore their ancient institutions, while the petty principalities were handed over in almost every case to the tyrants or to the heirs of the tyrants who had ruled them before the Revolution. Austria, as has been stated, appropriated Venetia and Lom- bardy, and from northern Italy assumed to direct the affairs of the whole peninsula. Tuscany, IVIodena, Parma, and Lucca were given to princes of the House of Hapsburg. Naples was restored to its old Bourbon rulers. The Pope and Victor Emmanuel I, king of Sardinia (Piedmont), were the only native rulers, but they also were absolutists. The little republic of San Marino, whose very insignificance had protected it during the changes of the Revolu- tion, was the only patch of free population left in the entire pen- insula. The Italians had become a "Helot nation." Italy, in the words of Metternich, was merely "a geographical expression." But the Revolution had sown the seeds of liberty, and time only was needed for their maturing. The Cisalpine, Ligurian, Parthe- nopean, and Tiberine republics, short-lived though they were, had awakened in the people an aspiration for self-government; while Napoleon's kingdom of Italy, though equally delusive, had never- theless inspired thousands of Italian patriots with the sentiment of national unity. Thus the French Revolution, disappointing as seemed its issue, really imparted to Italy her first impulse in the direction of freedom and national organization. 540 § 617] ARBITRARY RULE OF THE PRINCES 541 617. Arbitrary Rule of the Restored Princes. The setting up of the overturned thrones meant, of course, the reinstating of the old tyrannies. The restored despots came back with an implacable hatred of everything French. The liberal constitutions of the revo- lutionary period were set aside, and all French institutions that were supposed to tend in the least to liberalism were swept away. In Sardinia, King Victor Emmanuel I, the " royal Rip Van Winkle," instituted a most extreme reactionary policy. Nothing that bore the French stamp, nothing that had been set up by French hands, was allowed to remain. The monks were given back their monasteries, which had been converted into factories, colleges, and hospitals. Even the French furniture in the royal palace at Turin was thrown out of the windows, and the French plants in the royal gardens were pulled up root and branch. Travel over the Mont Cenis road, constructed by Napoleon, was dis- couraged, in order that this monument of French genius might be forgotten. 618. The Carbonari: Uprising of 1820-1821. The natural result of the arbitrary rule of the restored princes was deep and widespread discontent. An old secret organization, the members of which were known as the Carbonari (charcoal burners), formed the nucleus about which gathered the elements of disaffection. In 1820, incited by the revolution in Spain, the Carbonari raised an insurrection in Naples and forced King Ferdinand to grant his Neapolitan subjects a constitution. But Prince Metter- nich interfered to mar their plans. Sixty thousand Austrian troops were sent to crush the revolutionary movement; the liberal con- stitution was suppressed, Ferdinand reinstated, and everything put back on the old footing. Meanwhile a similar revolution was running its course in Pied- mont. King Victor Emmanuel I, rather than yield to the demands of his people for a constitution, gave up his crown and was suc- ceeded by his brother Charles Felix, who, by threatening to call to his aid the Austrian army, compelled his subjects to cease their clamor about kings ruling not by the grace of God but by the will of the people. 542 LIBERATION AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY [§ 619 The suppression of the Hberal uprisings seemed to Metternich the sure pledge of divine favor. He writes exultantly: "I see the dawn of a better day. . . . Heaven seems to will that the world should not be lost." 619. The Revolution of 1830-1831. For just ten years all Italy lay in sullen vassalage to Austria. Then the revolutionary years of 1 830-1 831 witnessed a repetition of the scenes of 1820- 182 1. The center of the revolution was the Papal States. But the presence of Austrian troops, who, " true to their old prin- ciple of hurrying with their extinguishers to any spot in Italy where a crater opened," had poured into central Italy, resulted in the speedy quenching of the flames of the insurrection. 620. The Three Parties. Twice now had Austrian armies defeated the aspirations of the Italians for national unity and freedom. Italian hatred of these foreign intermeddlers who were causing them to miss their destiny grew ever more intense, and "Death to the Germans!" as the Austrians were called, became the watch cry that united all the peoples of the peninsula. But while united in their fierce hatred of the Austrians, the Italians were divided in their views respecting the best plan for national organization. One party wanted a confederation of the various states; a second party wished to see Italy a constitutional monarchy with the king of Sardinia at its head; while still a third, known as "Young Italy," wanted a republic. 621. Joseph Mazzini, the Patriot and Prophet. The leader of the third or republican party was the patriot Joseph Mazzini. Mazzini was not a narrow nationalist. He recognized the uni- versal character of the democratic revolution. The people were oppressed not only in Italy but in Spain, in Portugal, in Hungary, in Poland, in Russia, in Turkey, — almost everywhere, in truth. Their cause was a common cause. In opposition to the Holy Alliance of the princes formed with aim to oppress, there must be a Holy Alliance of the peoples formed with aim to emancipate. The French Revolution, he said, had proclaimed the liberty, equality, and fraternity of individual men; the new revolution should proclaim the liberty, equality, and fraternity of nations. §622] THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 543 In this great work of the emancipation and unification of the world, Italy was to be head and guide of the nations. To her this post of leadership was assigned by virtue of her leadership in the past. Once pagan Rome organized and ruled the world. Then papal Rome organized and ruled it for a thousand years. Now a third world union was to be formed, and of this union of the free and federated nations Italy, Italy as a republic, was to be center and head. The first Rome was the Rome of the Caesars; the second was the Rome of the Popes; the third was to be the Rome of the Italian People. Such was Mazzini's interpretation of the drama of world history. Such was his splendid ideal. Through kindling the enthusiasm of the Italian youth, awakening the sentiment of patriotism, and keeping alive the spirit of insurrection Mazzini ren- dered a great service to the cause of Italian liberation and union. 622. The Revolution of 1848-1849. After the suppression of the uprising of 1830 until the approach of the memorable year 1848, Italy lay rest- less under the heel of her oppressor. The republican movements throughout Europe which characterized that year of revolutions encouraged the Italian patriots in another attempt to achieve independence and nationality. Everywhere throughout the pen- insula they rose against their despotic rulers. But through the intervention of the Austrians and the French this third Italian revolution was brought to naught. This interference by the French in Italian affairs was prompted by jealousy of Austria and the desire of Louis Napoleon, by upholding the Pope, to win the good will of the Roman Catholic clergy in France. Much, however, had been gained. The patriots had been taught the necessity of united action. Henceforward all were more \ Fig. 100. King Victor Em- manuel II 544 LIBERATION AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY [§623 inclined to look upon the constitutional kingdom of Sardinia^ as the only possible basis and nucleus of a free and united Italy. 623. Victor Emmanuel II, Count Cavour, and Garibaldi. Sardinia was a state which had gradually grown into power in the northwest corner of the peninsula. The throne was at this time held by Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878), the only constitutional ruler in Italy. To him it was that the hopes of the Italian patriots now turned. Nor were these hopes to be disappointed. Victor Emmanuel was the destined liberator of Italy, or perhaps it would be more correct to say that his was the name in which the achievement was to be effected by the wise policy of his great minister Count Cavour and the reck- less daring of the national hero Garibaldi. Count Cavour was one of those great men who during this formative period in the life of the European peoples have earned the title of Nation Makers. He was lacking in oratorical and poetic gifts. "I can- not make a sonnet," he said, '^but I can make Italy," — an utterance sug- gested doubtless by that of the Athenian statesman (Themistocles) who boasted that though '' he knew nothing of music and song, he did know how of a mean city to make a great one." Cavour was the real maker of modern Italy. Garibaldi, "the hero of the red shirt," the knight-errant of Italian independence, was a most remarkable character. Though yet barely past middle life, he had led a career singularly crowded with varied experience and romantic adventures. Because of his violent republicanism he had already been twice exiled from Italy. 624. Sardinia in the Crimean War. In 1855, in pursuance of a far-sighted policy, Cavour sent a Sardinian contingent to aid 1 Sardinia had received a constitution in 1848. Fig. 1 01. Count Cavuuk (From an engraving) § 625] CAVOUR AND THE WAR WITH AUSTRIA 545 England and France against Russia in the Crimean War (sect. 651), with the two chief aims of giving Sardinia a standing among the powers of Europe, and of earning the gratitude of England and France, so that the Italians in their future struggles with Austria should not have to fight their battles alone. A little incident in the trenches of the allies before Sevastopol shows in what spirit the Sardinians had gone to the war. A soldier, covered with mud and wearied with the everlasting digging, com- plained to his superior officer. "Never mind," was the consoling reply; "it is with this mud that Italy is to be made." At the Treaty of Paris, which closed the Crimean War, the representatives of Sardinia sat for the first time as peers among peers at a congress of the European states. Nothing was actually done for Italy by the Paris commissioners ; nevertheless, much had been gained. Cavour's bold policy had called the attention of Europe to the intolerable situation of things in the peninsula, and had, moreover, secured for Sardinia the right to speak for the whole of Italy. All this foreshadowed the time, now near at hand, when Italy, free and united under the constitutional crown of Sardinia, should be counted among the great powers of Europe. 625. Cavour prepares for War with Austria. After the Peace of Paris, Cavour continued the vigorous domestic policy which he had adopted for Sardinia with the aim of developing her mate- rial resources and thus preparing her for great exertions. The most notable undertaking which he persuaded the Sardinian gov- ernment to enter upon was the tunneling of the Alps beneath Mt. Cenis, in order that Sardinia might be brought into commercial intercourse with the north of Europe. "If we are to become great," he said, "we must do this. The Alps must come down." Another part of Cavour's policy was to cultivate the friendship of the French Emperor Napoleon III. In a secret meeting with the Emperor he received from him a promise that a French army would, when the favorable moment arrived, aid the Sardinians in driving the Austrians out of Italy. In this proffer of help the French Emperor was actuated less by gratitude for the aid of the Sardinian contingent in the Crimean War than by a desire to 546 LIBERATION AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY [§ 626 lessen the power of Austria in Italy and to replace it by French influence, and to secure Savoy and Nice, which were to be France's reward for her intervention in Sardinia's behalf. 626. The Austro-Sardinian War (i859-i86o). Sardinia now began to arm. Austria, alarmed at these demonstrations, called upon Sardinia to disarm immediately upon threat of war. Cavour eagerly accepted the challenge. The French armies joined those of Sardinia. The two great victories of Magenta and Solferino^ drove the Austrians out of Lombardy and behind the famous Quadrilateral, consisting of four strong fortresses, which sheltered Venetia. Just at this juncture the menacing attitude of Prussia and other German states, which were alarmed at the prospective aggrandizement of France, and the rapid spread of the revolu- tionary movement in Italy, which foreshadowed the union of all the states of the peninsula in a single kingdom (something which Louis Napoleon did not wish to see consummated),- — ^this new situation of things, in connection with other considerations, caused the French Emperor to draw back and to enter upon negotiations of peace with the Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph at Villafranca. The outcome was that Austria retained Venice but gave up to Sardinia the larger part of Lombardy. The Sardinians were bit- terly disappointed that they did not get Venetia, and loudly ac- cused the French Emperor of having betrayed their cause, since 1 It was an impulse from the battlefield of Solfeiino that brought into existence the Red Cross organization. A French-Swiss gentleman named Henri Dunant, whom chance brought to the field after the battle, was so deeply impressed by the sufferings of the wounded, many of whom from lack of surgeons and nurses lay for days on the field without attention, that he was moved to devote himself to rousing public opinion and forming an organization to care for the stricken in battle. Through his efforts twelve nations were brought to sign what is known as the Geneva Convention of 1864, which marks the definite founding of the Red Cross Society. Its emblem is a red cross on a white ground. The society now renders humanitarian ser\'ice not only in time of war but also in time of peace, giving relief in cases of fire, flood, pestilence, famine, earth- quakes, and other emergencies of every kind. Henri Dunant received the Nobel prize in 1901. He died in 1910. 2 Napoleon III did not wish for a united Italy any more than he wished for a united Germany. His aim was to create a kingdom in northern Italy which would exclude Austria from the peninsula and then to bring about a confederation of all the Italian states under the presidency of the Pope. Italy thus reconstructed would, he conceived, be fain to look to the French Emperor as her champion and patron. § 627] ACCESSIONS TO SARDINIAN KINGDOM 547 at the outset he had promised them that he would free Italy from the "Alps to the Adriatic." But Sardinia found compensa- tion for Venice in the accession of Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna, the peoples of which states, having discarded their old rulers, besought Victor Emmanuel to permit them to unite themselves to his kingdom. Thus, as the result of the war, the king of Sardinia had added to his subjects a population of seven millions. A long step had been taken in the way of Italian unity and freedom. But while the Sardinian kingdom was thus vastly extended to the east and to the south, it was cut away a little on the west. Savoy and Nice, the former "the cradle of the Savoyard House," were given, according to previous agreement, as the price of her services, to France. The Italian patriots mourned the loss of these provinces as the French mourned the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. 627. Sicily and Naples, with Umbria and the Marches, added to Victor Emmanuel's Kingdom (1860). The adven- turous daring of the hero Garibaldi now added Sicily and Naples, and indirectly Umbria and the Marches, to the possessions of Victor Emmanuel, and changed the kingdom of Sardinia into the kingdom of Italy. These momentous events took place under the following cir- cumstances. In i860 the subjects of the Bourbon Francis II, king of the Two Sicilies, rose in revolt. Victor Emmanuel and his minister Cavour were in sympathy with the movement, yet dared not send the insurgents aid through fear that such action would arouse the jealousy of Austria and of France. But Gari- baldi, untrammeled by any such considerations and favored by the connivance of the Sardinian government, having gathered a band of a thousand volunteers, set sail from Genoa for Sicily, where upon landing he assumed the title of Dictator of Sicily for Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, and quickly drove the troops of King Francis out of the island. Then crossing to the mainland he marched triumphantly to Naples, whose inhabitants hailed him tumultuously as their deliverer. 548 LIBERATION AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY [§ 628 Count Cavour saw that the time had now come for the Sar- dinian government to assume guidance of the revolutionary move- ment. The papal territories of Umbria and the Marches were accordingly occupied by a Sardinian army. Meanwhile, a plebis- cite, or popular vote, having been ordered, Umbria, the Marches, Naples, and Sicily voted almost unanimously for annexation to the Sardinian kingdom. Thus was another long step taken in the unification of Italy. Nine millions more of Italians had become the subjects of Victor Emmanuel. There was now wanting to complete the union only Venetia and Rome, to- gether with some Italian lands on the north and at the head of the Adriatic. 628. Venetia added to the Kingdom (isee). The Seven Weeks' War (sect. 642), which broke out between Prussia and Austria in 1866, afforded the Italian patriots the opportu- nity for which they were watch- ing to make Venetia a part of the Italian kingdom. Victor Emmanuel formed an alliance with the King of Prussia, one of the conditions of which was that no peace should be made with Austria until she had sur- rendered Venetia to Italy. The speedy issue of the war added the coveted territory to the dominions of Victor Emmanuel. 629. Rome becomes the Capital (i87o). After the liberation of Naples and Sicily the city of Turin, the old capital of the Sar- dinian kingdom, was made the capital of the new kingdom of Italy. In 1865 the seat of government was transferred to Flor- ence. But the Italians looked forward to the time when ^Rome, the ancient mistress of the peninsula and of the world, should be their capital. The power of the Pope, however, was upheld by Fig. 102. Garibaldi. (From an engraving) § 630] END OF TEMPORAL POWER OF PAPACY 549 the French, who maintained a garrison in the Papal States from 1849 to 1870, and this made it impossible for the Italians to have their will in this matter without a conflict with France. But events soon gave the coveted capital to the Italian govern- ment. In 1870 came the sharp, quick war between France and Prussia, and the French troops at Rome were hastily summoned home. Upon the overthrow of the French Empire and the establishment of the republic, Victor Emmanuel was informed that France would no longer sustain the papal power. The Italian government at once gave notice to the Pope that Rome would henceforth be considered a portion of the kingdom of Italy, and forthwith an Italian army entered the city, which by a vote of almost a hundred to one resolved to cast in its lot with that of the Italian nation. July 2, 1871, Victor Emmanuel himself en- tered Rome and took up his official residence there. Since then the Eternal City has been the seat of the national government.^ . 630. End of the Temporal Power of the Papacy. The occu- pation of Rome by the Italian government marked the end of the temporal power of the Pope, and the end of an ecclesiastical state, the last in Europe, which from long before Charlemagne had held a place among the temporal powers of Europe, and during all that period had been a potent factor in the political affairs not only of Italy but of almost the whole continent. The papal troops, with the exception of a few guardsmen, were dis- banded. The Vatican palace and some other buildings with their grounds were reserved to the Pope as a place of residence, to- gether with a yearly allowance of 3,000,000 lire (about $600,000). By a statute known as the Law of the Papal Guarantees (1871), the Pope was secured in the free exercise of his spiritual functions. These arrangements have subsisted down to the present time (1919). Under them the Pope is not to be regarded as a subject of the Italian government but rather as a sovereign residing in Rome. Like a sovereign he has the right to send and to receive 1 Victor Emmanuel II died in 1878, and his son came to the throne with the title of Humbert I. He was assassinated in 1900, and was succeeded by his only son, Victor Emmanuel III. 550 LIBERATION AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY [§ 631 embassies. His person is inviolable. No Italian officer may enter the Vatican or its grounds, which the Italian government respects the same as though they were foreign territory.^ 631. The Vatican and the Quirinal:-^ the Roman Question. The popes" have steadily refused to recognize the legitimacy of the act whereby they were deprived of the temporal government of Rome and the Papal States, and have protested against it by refraining from setting foot outside the gardens of the Vatican, by refusing to accept the annuity provided for them, and in various other ways. The partisans of the Papacy maintain that the act of 'dispos- session was an act of impious spoliation, and that there can be no settlement of the "Roman Question" save through the restora- tion of the Pope to his former status as an independent temporal sovereign. They contend that only through the possession of temporal power can the Pope be secure in his independence as the spiritual head of Roman Catholic Christendom. They de- mand, therefore, the retrocession to the Holy See of at least the city of Rome, — maintaining that either Turin or Florence or Venice or Naples would serve as well as Rome for the seat of the Italian government. To these censures and demands of the papal party the friends of the monarchy reply that the extension of the authority of the Italian government over Rome and the papal territories was justified by the modern principle of nationality, which recognizes in every people the right to choose their form of government 1 It is a matter worthy of note that just a few months before the loss of his temporal sovereignty a great ecumenical council of the Catholic Church (the Vatican Council of 1869-1S70) had by a solemn vote proclaimed the doctrine of papal infallibility, which declares the decisions of the Pope, when speaking rx cathedra^ " on questions of faith and morals," to be infallible. 2 The Palace of the Quirinal at Rome contains the oiTices of the Italian government, and thus the term Qiih-hial typifies the secular as the term Vatkatt typifies the spiritual power in Italy. 8 Pius IX died in 1S7S and was followed in the pontificate by Leo XIII, who died July 20, 1903, at the patriarchal age of ninety-three, after having won a place among the greatest and the best of the popes. The College of Cardinals elected as his successor Cardinal Joseph Sarto, Patriarch of Venice, who assumed the title of Pius X. He died in 19 14 and was succeeded by Benedict XV. § 632] REFORM AND PROGRESS 5SI and to shape their own destiny. As to the removal of the seat of the Italian government from Rome to some other city of the peninsula, they maintain that the force of unique historical associations, and precious race traditions and memories, make Rome the logical and inevitable capital of a united Italy. 632. Reform and Progress. The antagonism between the Vatican and the Quirinal, in connection with other hin- drances, has tended to retard Italy's progress under the new regime. Yet very much has been accomplished since the winning of independence and nationality. Brigandage, an element of the bad heritage from the time of servitude, op- pression, and disunion, has been in a great degree sup- pressed; railways have been built; the Alps have been tun- neled; the healthfulness of the Campagna and other districts has been increased by exten- sive systems of drainage, and regions long given over to deso- lation have been made habit- able and productive; the dense ignorance and the deep moral degradation of the masses, particularly in the southern parts of the peninsula, — another element of the evil inheritance from the past, — have been in a measure overcome and relieved by a public system of education; and Rome has been rebuilt, and from the position of a mean provincial town raised to a place among the great capitals of modern Europe. As to the progress made during the last fifty years in the development of the sentiment of nationality, upon the strength Fig. 103. Pope Benedict XV (From a photograph by Rtischin) 552 LIBERATION AND UNIFICATION OF ITALY [§632 of which depends the peace, permanency, and prosperity of the new kingdom of Italy, a comparatively recent disaster furnishes a milestone by which to measure advance. In 1902 the great historic campanile which dominated St. Mark's in Venice fell in a pathetic heap of ruins. Every city of the peninsula, says a chronicler of the event, mourned just as if the tower had been its own, — " and then they opened a subscription." Had the catastrophe happened a few decades earlier Venice would have had to restore her own bell tower; but Italy is to-day a Nation, and the misfortune which befalls any Italian city afflicts all alike.^ In 191 5 Italy was drawn into the maelstrom of the World War then raging, so that here her story properly becomes a part of the story of that tremendous struggle. Selections from the Sources. Mazzini, Life a)id Writings (should be read by all those whose souls, to use one of Mazzini's own phrases, need to be retempered in abhorrence of tyranny). Della Rocca, The Autobiography of a Vete?-an, iSoy—iSgj (a narrative of simplicity and charm). Dunant, H., The Origin of the Red Cross (" Un Souvenir de Solferino"). Robinson, J. H., JieaJiiigs ill European History, vol. ii, pp. 572-580. Secondary Works. Probyn, J. W., Italy : from the Fail of iVafoleon /, /;/ iSi^, to the Year i8go, and Stillman, W. J., The Union of Italy, iSij-i8gs- (The first of these affords the best short account for young readers; the second is the best for a careful study.) Martinengo Cesaresco, The Libera- tion of Italy, iSi^-iSyo ; also by the same writer, Cavour. Thayer, W. R., The Dazvn of Italian Independence, 2 vols. Mazade, Charles de. Life of Cavour. DiCEY, E., Victor Enimaiiuel. King, B., Mazzini. Topics for Class Reports, i. The political reaction in Italy and Count Cavour: White, A. D., Seven Great Statesmen, pp. 319-388. 2. The alliance between Italy and France : Latimer, E. W., Italy in the Alneteenth Centuiy, chap. X. • 1 In 190S the most destructive earthquake that has visited Europe since the Lisbon earthquake of 1755 occurred in Calabria and Sicily, resulting in the estimated loss of over 70,000 lives. The Sicilian city of Messina was wholly destroyed, a great part of its inhabitants being buried in its ruins. CHAPTER XXXIX THE MAKING OF THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE 633. Formation of the German Confederation (1815). The creation of the new German Empire was the most important matter in the nineteenth-century history of Europe, although it was not until illumined by later events that the fateful significance of the rise of this new state among the European states was dis- cerned even by the most far-seeing statesmen. The story of the making of this new nation and imperial power, so far as it will be narrated in the present chapter, begins with the Congress of Vienna.^ That body reorganized Germany as a Confederation, with the Emperor of Austria as President of the league. The union consisted of the Austrian Empire and the four kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirtemberg, besides various principalities and free cities — in all, thirty-nine states. A Diet formed of delegates from the several states, and sitting at Frankfort-on-the-Main, was to settle all questions of dispute arising between members of the Confederation, and to determine matters of general concern. The articles of union, in a spirit of concession to the growing sentiment of the times, provided that all sects of Christians should enjoy equal toleration, and that every state should establish a representative form of government. 634. Defects and Weaknesses of the Confederation. The ties uniting the various states of this Confederation could hardly have been more lax. In this respect the league resembled that first formed by the American states under the Articles of Confedera- tion. One chief defect of the constitution of the league lurked in the provisions concerning the Federal Diet. The unwillingness of ^ For a word as to how Napoleon's reconstruction of the Germanic body laid the basis of German unity, see sect. 559. 553 554 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE [§635 the several states to surrender any part of their sovereignty had led to the insertion of the rule that no measure of first importance should be adopted by the Diet save by a unanimous vote. The inevitable result of this provision was that no measure of first importance was ever passed by the assembly, which became throughout Europe a byword for hopeless inefficiency. Another defect in the federal government was that, as in the case of the American Federation, there existed no effective machinery for carrying out the acts of the Federal Diet. These amounted practically to nothing more than recommendations to the rulers of the several states, who paid no heed whatsoever to them unless they chanced to be in line with their own policies or inclinations.^ But what contributed more than all else to render the federal scheme wholly unworkable was the presence in the league of two powerful and mutually jealous states, Austria and Prussia, neither of which was willing that the other should have predominance in the affairs of the Confederation. Of these two rival states Prussia, though at first she yielded nominal precedence to Austria, which had a great past and enjoyed a vast prestige at the European courts, was in reality the stronger state. Her strength lay par- ticularly in the homogeneous, essentially German, character of her population. Austria was inherently weak because of the mixed non-German character of most of the territories that had been gradually united under the rule of the Hapsburgs. The greater part of their lands lay outside of the German Confeder- ation and contained nearly twenty-five million Slavs, Magyars, Italians, and other non-German subjects. This difference in the character of the populations of Prussia and the Austrian Empire foreshadowed their divergent destinies, — foreshadowed that Austria should lose and that Prussia should gain the leadership in German affairs. 635. The Dual Movement towards Freedom and Union. For a half century after the Congress of Vienna the history of Germany is the history of a dual movement, or perhaps it would be better to say two movements, one democratic and the other § 636] THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1830 555 national in character. The aim of the first movement was the estabHshment -of representative government in the different states of the Confederation; the aim of the second was German unity. These movements were essentially the same as those which we have seen creating in the Italian peninsula a free and united Italy. By what methods they were carried on here in Germany and in what measure their aims were attained will appear in the following pages. 636. The Revolutions of 1830; Some Gains for Constitu- tional Government. There were a few liberal-minded princes among the German rulers; but in general the faces of these princes were turned towards the past. They opposed all changes that would give the people any part in the government, and clung to the old order of things. We have seen what were the consequences of the reactionary policy of the Bourbons in France and of the despots in Italy. Events ran exactly the same course in Germany. When the news of the July Revolution in Paris (sect. 589) spread beyond the Rhine, a sympathetic thrill shot through Ger- many, and in places the Liberal party made threatening demon- strations against their reactionary rulers. In several of the minor states constitutions were granted. Thus a little was gained for free political institutions, though after the flutter of the revolu- tionary years the princes again took up their reactionary policy, and under the influence of Metternich did all in their power to check the popular movement and to keep governmental matters out of the hands of the people. In some instances the constitu- tions already granted were annulled or their articles were dis- regarded. 637. Formation of the Customs Union; First Step towards German Unity (i828-i836). It was just at this revolutionary epoch that the first step was taken in the formation of a real German nation through the creation of what is known as the Customs LTnion. This was a sort of commercial treaty binding those states that became parties to it — by the year 1836 almost all the states of the Confederation save Austria had become mem- bers of the league ^ — to adopt among themselves the policy of 556 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE [§638 free trade; that is, there were to be no duties levied on goods passing from one state of the Union to another belonging to it. The greatest good resulting from the Union was that it taught the people to think of a more perfect national union. And as Prussia was the promoter of the trade confederation, it accus- tomed the smaller states to look to her as their head and chief. 638. The Uprisings of 1848 ; Fateful Consequences of the Failure of the Lib- eral Movement. In 1848 news flew across the Rhine of the uprising in France against the reactionary gov- ernment of Louis Philippe. The intelligence kindled a flame of excitement through- out Germany. The Liber- als everywhere arose and demanded constitutional gov- ernment. Especially in Aus- tria did affairs assume a most threatening aspect.^ Metternich was obliged to flee the country, so intense was the feeling against him. The Emperor Ferdinand I abdicated in favor of his nephew Francis Joseph, who granted the people a constitution. At the Prussian capital Berlin there was serious fighting in the streets between the people and the soldiers, and the excitement was not quieted until the king, Frederick William IV, assured the people that their demands for constitutional government should be granted. In fulfillment of this promise the king granted Fig. 104. Louis Kossuth 1 The most serious trouble was in Hungary. Led by the distinguished statesman and orator Louis Kossuth, the Hungarians rose in revolt and declared their independ- ence of the Austrian crown (April 14, 1S49). They made a noble fight for freedom, but were overpowered by the united Austrian and Russian armies. § 638] THE UPRISING OF 1848 557 a constitution, which provided for a parliament of two chambers, and took an oath to rule in accord with its provisions (1850). Thus the Revolution of 1 848-1 849 seemed on the whole to have secured distinct gains for popular government in Germany. These gains, however, proved to be either impermanent or illusive. After the excitement of the revolutionary movement had passed away, many of the lesser princes annulled wholly or in part the constitutions they had granted. The Austrian constitution was withdrawn in 1851. The Prussian constitution was so framed as to leave Prussia, though now in form a constitutional state, still in reality an absolute instead of a limited monarchy.^ In 1856 the Hohenzollern Frederick William, who had granted the constitution, was a plaintiff in a Missouri court (U. S.). In the statement of his case he makes the following declaration of his status as king of Prussia: ''The plaintiff states that he is absolute monarch of the kingdom of Prussia, and as king thereof is the sole government of that country; that he is unrestrained by any constitution or law, and that his will, expressed in due form, is the only law of that country, and is the only legal power there known to exist as law."- The failure of the democratic movement of the revolutionary years 1848- 1849 ^^'^ the virtual triumph of autocracy in Prussia and Austria had momentous consequences for Europe.^ It created 1 The grant of universal suffrage was rendered futile by an astutely devised electoral system based on property, known as the three-class system of voting, which gave the small wealthy class, always zealous supporters of the pretensions of the Crown, more than half of the seats in the lower house of the national assembly (the La7tdtag). 2 King of Prussia -'. Kuepper's Admr., 22 Missouri Reports (1S56), p. 550; quoted by Scott, A Sii7~c'cy of Iniernational Relations betivecn the United States and Getinany (1917), p. xlii. 3 The failure of the liberal constitutional movement in the separate German states was rendered more complete by the failure at this same time of the movement to bind the various states in a closer national union with a genuinely liberal constitution. To this end there had met in Frankfort, May 18, 1848, an assembly, like the Constituent Assembly of 1789 in France, charged with the duty of framing a national constitution for Germany. Unfortunately nothing was accomplished by the meeting. This made hopeless the outlook for liberalism in Germany. Many of the leaders of the popular movement found in America an asylum from the tyranny at home. It is worth noting that just at this time, when the German states were endeavoring to form a real national union, Switzerland became a true federal state. The Congress of 558 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE [§ 639 a fatal schism and left the continent — half democratic, half auto- cratic — a house divided against itself. This cleavage foreshadowed the great tragedy which overwhelmed Europe in 19 14. 639. Bismarck, the Unifier of Germany. In the year 1861 Frederick William IV of Prussia died, and his brother, already an old man of sixty-three yet destined to be for almost a generation the central figure in the movement for German unity, came to the Prussian throne as William I. He soon called to his side Otto von Bismarck as Premier and Minister of Foreign Affairs. Bis- marck was a man of great genius, but he was autocratic in his ideas and methods, and — as revealed especially in his Rcminis- cences, dictated by himself after his dismissal from office by Em- peror William II — thoroughly unscrupulous. His appearance at the head of the Prussian government marks an epoch in history. Bismarck held that it was Prussia's mission to effect the uni- fication of the German Fatherland. This work he was convinced could be accomplished only through the Prussian royal house. He believed that to allow the royal power in Prussia to be re- duced to the condition of the royal power in England would be to destroy the sole instrument by means of which German unity could be wrought out. This conviction determined Bis- marck's attitude towards the Prussian Parliament when it came in conflict with the royal power. He flouted it and trampled it under foot. He was known as the " Parliament tamer." Naturally he was distrusted and hated by the Liberals. As to the vexed question between Austria and Prussia, Bismarck had a fixed idea as to how that should be settled, — " by blood and Vienna had reconstructed the Swiss Confederation in such a way as to leave the cantons united by lax federal ties, like those of the German Confederation. As in Germany, so here, there arose a party whose ideal was Swiss unity; that is to say, a stronger and more centralized federal government. To prevent this proposed centralization of power and to preserve cantonal sovereignty seven of the Catholic cantons formed an alliance knovi'n as the Sondcrbitnd, or Separate League. Civil war followed (the war of the Sonder- bund, 1847). The Catholic party was defeated, and the federal constitution was revised so as to convert the loose confederation of cantons into a strong federal state, which in some respects is like that of the United States. This made Switzerland a real nation, one of the most typical and interesting of the federal states of the world. In 1874 a new constitution was framed, which still further increased the power of the federal government. § 640] REFORM OF THE PRUSSIAN ARMY 559 iron." Austria's power and influence must be destroyed and she herself forcibly expelled from Germany before the German states could be remolded into a real national union. 640. The Reform of the Prussian Army; Bismarck's Con- flict with the Prussian Parliament. It had been King William's policy to reform and strengthen the Prussian army. He had selected Bismarck as his prime minister because he knew he would carry out this policy in the face of the opposition of the Prussian House of Representatives. That body would not vote the necessary taxes. Bismarck held that it was their duty to make the necessary appropriations for the army and when they persisted in withholding grants of money he, backed by his sovereign and the House of Peers, raised without parliamentary sanction what money he needed for his army reforms. It was ^ bold and dangerous procedure, and has been likened to that followed by Charles I and Strafford in England. For- tunately for King William and his imperious minister the policy proved highly successful, issuing in Prussia's military predomi- nance in Germany and in German unity, — and the "Parliament tamer" and his master escaped the fate of the English king and his minister. But there were remote evil results of Bismarck's action which no one at that time could have foreseen. It fixed definitely the autocratic character of German Imperialism, which was to be- come the scourge of Europe; for when a little later the German Empire was established, it was this Prussian system of government that was the pattern after which the Imperial Government was molded. 641. The Danish War (i864). The weapon which Bismarck had forged was used in three wars. The first of these, the Schleswig-Holstein, or Danish, War, grew out of rival Danish and German claims to two duchies attached to the kingdom of Den- mark. The dispute, adroitly handled by Bismarck, soon led to a declaration of war by Prussia and Austria against the little Danish kingdom. Denmark was, of course, quickly overpowered and forced to resign her claim to the duchies. 56o THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE [§ 642 Straightway the duchies became a bone of contention between Austria and Prussia. Bismarck was bent on annexing them to Prussia, since they would be a most valuable possession for her as a prospective sea power, giving her as they would the harbor of Kiel and control of a proposed canal uniting the Baltic and the North Sea. Austria was determined that her rival should not get them unless she received compensation in some form, — a bit of Silesia, and the promise of Prussia's help in case she had difficulty with her troublesome non-German provinces. There was endless controversy over the matter, Bismarck realized that Prussia could secure the coveted prize only through war with Austria, and to this extreme he was ready to go since a war would settle not only the question respecting the owner- ship of the duchies but also the larger question as to Austrian or Prussian predominance in Germany. The hopelessly "entangled Gordian knot was to be cut by the sword. 642. The Austro-Prussian, or Seven Weeks', War (isee). Both Austria and Prussia began to arm. Bismarck secured the neutrality of France by permitting the Emperor Napoleon to believe that if Prussia secured additional territory by the war, France would be allowed to appropriate Belgium or some Rhenish lands as a compensation. He also made a ready ally of Italy by engaging that in the event of a successful issue of the war the new Italian kingdom should in return for its alliance receive Venetia (sect. 628). Bids in the form of various proposals and promises were also made by Bismarck for the alliance of the smaller German states; but almost all ranged themselves on the side of Austria, so that in spite of the Italian alliance it seemed like an unequal contest into which Prussia was venturing, since her population was not more than a third of that of the states which were likely to be arrayed against her. The war began in the early summer of 1866. On the 3d of July of that year was fought the great battle of Sadowa, or Konig- gratz, in Bohemia. This was one of the decisive battles of his- tory. It was Austria's Waterloo. The Prussians pushing on § 643] THE NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION 561 towards Vienna, the Emperor Francis Joseph was constrained to sue for peace, and on the 23d of August the Treaty of Prague was signed/ The long debate between Austria and Prussia was over. By the terms of the treaty Austria consented to the dissolution of the old German Confederation and agreed to allow Prussia to reorganize the German states as she might wish. At the same time she surrendered Venetia to the Italian kingdom. The hin- drances she had so long placed in the way both of German and of Italian unity were now finally removed. 643. Establishment of the North German Confederation (i867). Now quickly followed the reorganization, under the presidency of Prussia, of the German states north of the Main into what was called the North German Confederation. There were twenty-one states in all, reckoning the three free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck. The domains of Prussia were enlarged by the annexation of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, the free city Frankfort, and the duchies of Schleswig and Hol- stein. These annexations gave the Prussian king nearly five mil- lion new subjects and united into a fairly compact dominion his heretofore severed and scattered territories. A constitution was adopted which provided that all matters of common concern should be committed to a Federal Parliament, or Diet, the members of the lower house of which were to be chosen by universal suffrage. The Prussian king was to be the hereditary executive of the Confederation, and the commander-in- chief of all the military forces of the several states composing the league. Thus was a long step taken towards German unity. But there still remained much to be desired. The states to the south of the Main — Baden, Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Hesse-Darmstadt — were yet wanting to complete the unification of the Fatherland. 1 The fear of French intervention hastened the negotiations on the part of the Prussian court. Since the Emperor Napoleon as the price of his consent to Italian unity had received Savoy and Nice (sect. 625), so now he thought to wring from Germany some Rhine lands as the price of his consent to German unity. 562 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE [§ 644 644. The Franco-Prussian War (i87o-i87i) and the Proc- lamation of the New German Empire. There were two obstacles in the way of the completion of the union. First, the South Ger- man states were averse to entering a confederation dominated by Prussia. Second, there was the opposition of the imperial and military French party, who viewed with ill-concealed jealousy the rise of this new Prussian power that threatened to push France from her historic position as arbiter of continental Europe. All France's traditional jealousy of the House of Hapsburg was now transferred to the rising House of Hohenzollern. The means which Bismarck used to remove the reluctance of the southern states to join the Confederation, and to overcome French hostility to the consummation of German unity under Prussian headship, were a deliberately provoked war with France. The situation of which he took advantage to bring about the war was this: In 1869 the Spanish throne became vacant. It was offered to Leopold, a member of the Hohenzollern family. To the French Emperor Napoleon III this appeared to be a scheme on the part of the House of Hohenzollern to unite the interests of Prussia and Spain, just as Austria and Spain were united, with such disastrous consequences to the peace of Europe, under the princes of the House of Hapsburg. Even after Leopold, to avoid displeasing France, had declined the proffered crown, the Emperor Napoleon demanded of King William assurance that no member of the House of Hohenzollern -should ever with his consent become a candidate for the Spanish throne. This demand was made of King William by the French am- bassador Benedetti at the little watering place of Ems. The king courteously refused the demand and then sent a telegram to Bismarck informing him of what had occurred, at the same time giving him permission to make such use of the message as he saw fit. Bismarck edited the telegram in such a way as to make it appear to the French that their ambassador had been insulted and rudely dismissed by King William, and to the Germans that the French government had in an arrogant manner insisted upon § 645] THE IMPERIAL CONSTITUTION 563 an impossible demand. Then he gave out the falsified telegram for publication. War was now inevitable.^ The astonishing successes of the German armies on French soil (sect. 591) created among Germans everywhere such patriotic pride that all the obstacles which had hitherto prevented any- thing more than a partial union of the members of the Germanic body was now swept out of the way by an irresistible tide of national sentiment. While the siege of Paris was progressing, commissioners were sent by the southern states to Versailles, the headquarters of King William, to represent to him that they were ready and anxious to enter the North German Union. Thus in rapid succession Baden, Hesse, Wiirtemberg, and Bavaria were received into the Confederation, the name of which was now changed to that of the German Confederation. Scarcely was this accomplished when, upon the suggestion of the king of Bavaria, — who had been coached by Bismarck, — King William, who now bore the title of President of the Con- federation, was given the title of German Emperor, which honor was to be hereditary in his family. On the i8th of January, 1871, within the Palace of Versailles, — the siege of Paris being still in progress, — amidst great enthusiasm the imperial dignity was formally conferred upon King William, and Germany became a federated Empire.^ 645. Character of the Imperial Constitution. The Empire^ received a constitution. Though seemingly liberal, its articles were so adroitly drawn as to conceal the real absolutism of the government created. It provided for a parliament or legislature 1 Bismarck had further inflamed German feeUng against the French government by making public Napoleon's request for Hesse and Rhenish Bavaria at the time of the Austro-Prussian War. These revelations had created a tremendous sentiment against France not only in the South German states but throughout all Germany. 2 For the essential provisions of the Treaty of Frankfort (187 1) which ended the war, see sect. 592. 3 The Empire consisted of twenty-six states, counting the imperial territory of Alsace- Lorraine. An outstanding fact of the Union was the preponderance of Prussia. The census of 1910 gave the population of Prussia as 40,165,219 ; that of all the other states as 24,760,770. 564 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE [§ 645 comprising two bodies, a Federal Council {Bundesrath) and an Imperial Diet (Reichstag). The Federal Council, which formed the upper chamber of the legislature, was composed of sixty-one members, who were appointed by the princes of the federated states. Of the whole number of delegates the Emperor, as king of Prussia, appointed seventeen. The members of the Council voted as instructed by the governments or rulers whom they represented. The Imperial Diet, which formed the lower chamber of the legislature, comprised about four hundred members elected by practically universal manhood suffrage. The original apportion- ment was one member for every twenty thousand of the popu- lation of the federated states. We have here the forms of a constitutional parliamentary gov- ernment. These forms, however, as we have said, merely masked the practically absolute powers of the Emperor. As the one who appointed and controlled the vote of the seventeen Prussian mem- bers of the Federal Council (in addition to these he also controlled the vote of the three delegates representing the imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine), he dominated that body. On all really vital matters it merely registered his will. As to the apparent powers of the Diet, there were provisions of the constitution which rendered these wholly illusory and left to this body nothing more than the semblance of authority. It had, it is true, the right to originate bills, though as a matter of fact most bills, and particularly the important ones, were framed by the Federal Council; but this right signified very little, since the Federal Council might veto any measure, and this veto could be overcome in no possible constitutional way. Then, again, the Diet could be dissolved at any time by the Federal Council, which meant virtually by the Emperor. When- ever it refused to act in accord with the imperial will its members were sent home and a new election ordered, and by this means a new and usually more tractable body was secured. Furthermore, the Diet had no part in shaping the policies of the government or any control over the administration of affairs. The Imperial Chancellor, who corresponded in his position in the § 646] BISMARCK AS IMPERIAL CHANCELLOR 565 government to the British Premier, was responsible not to the Diet but to the Emperor, who appointed and dismissed him at will. He could disregard with impunity and treat with contempt a vote of lack of confidence by that body, so long as his master, the Emperor, supported him. Finally, the Diet had practically no control over matters of war and peace. The Emperor could declare a defensive war with- out the advice or consent of that body, and since the Imperial Government did not scruple to falsify the truth and proclaim a purely offensive war as a defensive one, the Diet was without power or authority in this important domain.^ These various provisions of the constitution left to the Diet merely the shadow of power and authority, and made it, what it has been called, little more than an official debating club. Thus the constitution given the Empire by Bismarck, instead of creat- ing a truly representative parliamentary government, created (or rather perpetuated) "an autocratic system of government adorned with a democratic fagade." 646. Bismarck as Imperial Chancellor; the Triple Alliance. For nearly twenty years after the close of the Franco-Prussian War the affairs of the new Empire were directed by Bismarck as the first Imperial Chancellor. In his foreign policy, which alone we can notice here, Bismarflk's greatest achievement was the formation of what is known as the Triple Alliance (Dreibund) between the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.- This compact, in its inception and as designed by Bismarck, was a defensive alliance against Russia and France. The creation of this alliance was one of the most significant matters in the history of the closing years of the nineteenth century. For a decade and more it was a force making for the peace of Europe, but later, with growing Prussian predominance and arrogance, it became a menace 1 Thus the war of 1914, though it was a war of criminal aggression on the part of Germany, was proclaimed by the Emperor as a war in defense of the Fatherland, and was started by him and his military advisers, the Reichstag not being officially informed of the beginning of hostilities till four days later. 2 The beginning of the alliance was a pact between Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879; it was completed by the adhesion of Italy in 1882. 566 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE [§ 647 to the freedom and independence of neighboring states, and thus a decisive factor in bringing on the great World War of 1914. 647. Germany under Emperor William II up to the World War. In 1888 Emperor William I died, at the venerable age of ninety-one. He was followed by his son Frederick, who at the time of his accession was suffering from a fatal malady. He died after a short reign of three months, and his son came to the throne as Emperor William II (1888). It was generally thought that the young sovereign — he was twenty-nine years of age — would be completely under the in- fluence of Bismarck. But soon the Emperor disclosed a very imperious will of his own. His relations with Bismarck became strained and the aged Chancellor was brusquely dismissed.^ Many felt that the youthful Emperor had treated the creator of the Empire and the maker of the imperial fortunes of the House of HohenzoUern with gross ingratitude. After his dismissal of Bis- marck, the Emperor's rule was a very personal one." The wonderful commercial and industrial development of Ger- many, and the remarkable growth, in spite of the bitter opposition of the government, of the party known as the Social Democrats,^ who advocate an extreme programme of social and industrial re- form and more democratic methods in government, are two of the most noteworthy facts in the domestic history of the Empire before the opening of the tremendous conflict of 1914. An outstanding feature of the foreign policy of William II was his cultivation of the friendship of the Sultan of Turkey. His purpose here was to secure from the Ottoman government 1 March i8, 1890. In his retirement at Friedrichsruh, an estate which was a gift to him from the grateful Emperor William I, Bismarck played the part of a "German Prometheus.'' He hurled defiance at all his enemies, and did not scruple to subject the policies of the Emperor and his ministers to the most caustic criticism. The ex- Chancellor died in 189S, being in his eighty-fourth year. 2 There served under him five Chancellors of the Empire: Count Caprivi (1890- 1894); Prince Hohenlohe ( 1 894-1 900) ; Prince von Biilow (1900-1909) ; Bethmann- Hollweg (1909-1917) ; Dr. George Michaelis (1917) ; Count von Hertling (1917-1918) ; Prince Maximilian (1918). 8 In 1S7 1 this party cast a vote of about 124,000; in 1903 the vote was over 2,911,000 ; and in 1912 it rose to 4,250,399. §648] AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AFTER 1866 567 privileges for German traders and settlers in Asiatic Turkey, and especially concessions for a German-built railway running from Constantinople to Bagdad and the Persian Gulf. But these mat- ters are related to the ambitious scheme of the Emperor and the Prussian military caste for world domination, and of this as the fundamental cause of the World War we shall find it more convenient to speak in another connection.^ 648. Austria-Hungary after 1866. The disaster of Sadowa did in a measure for Austria what the disaster of Jena did for Prussia (sect. 577), — brought about its political reorganization. ^Wi '" Fig. 105. The Parliament Building at Budapest (From a photograph) The first step and the most important one in the process of reorganization was the recognition by the Austrian court of the claims of the Magyars to the right of equality in the monarchy with the hitherto dominant German race. By an agreement known as the Ausgleich, or Compromise, the relations of Austria and Hungary in the reconstituted state were defined and regu- lated. It provided for the division of the old empire into two parts, designated as the Austrian Empire and the Hungarian Kingdom.- Each state was to have its own parliament, the one sitting at Vienna and the other at Budapest, and each was to have complete control of its own internal affairs. Neither was to have the least precedence over the other. 1 See Chapter XLIV. 2 The official designation of the dual state was the Austro-H7oigariaH Monarchy. S68 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE [§ 648 The common interests of the two states — those embracing for- eign affairs, the army, and finances — were to be regulated by a third peculiar body, the so-called ''Delegations," composed of sixty delegates from each of the other two parliaments. The hereditary head of the Austrian state was to be also the constitu- tional king of Hungary. This celebrated compact was duly rati- fied by the parliaments of Hungary and Austria, and the long struggle between the Magyars and the House of Hapsburg was virtually at an end. At the same time that the Compromise was arranged, the Austrian division of the monarchy was given a liberal constitution and the Hungarian constitution, suspended in 1848, was restored. From this time forward until its break-up at the end of the World War in 19 18, Austria-Hungary was in form and theory a constitutional, parliamentary state; but the government remained in temper and spirit, and largely in prac- tice, an autocratic despotism. The Compromise, it will be noted, made no recognition what- soever of the historic rights and liberties of the other races or nationalities of the monarchy, of which there were many. It was no mere figure of speech which characterized the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy as a " European Tower of Babel." In the Austrian Parliament the oath was administered to the members in eight different languages. Now in the eastern half of the monarchy the Magyars, who formed less than one half of the population of the Hungarian kingdom,^ were holding all the non-Magyar races of the kingdom — with the exception of the Slavs of Croatia, who had secured some measure of self-government — in just such political serfdom as they themselves were subjected to before their emancipation by the events of 1866-186 7. Their aim was to denationalize these peoples by forcing them to give up their own customs and language and to adopt Magyar customs and the Magyar language, to the end that Hungary should become a compact homogeneous Magyar nation. 1 The census of 1910 gave the total number of inhabitants of Hungary as 20,886,487, of whom only 10,050,575 were returned as being of Hungarian speech. § 648] AUSTRIA-HUNGARY AFTER 1866 569 It was the same in the other half of the monarchy. There a German minority^ was holding the Czechs in Bohemia and the Poles in Galicia in a state of subjection similar to that in which the Magyars were holding the non-Magyar races of Hungary. Now these dependent nationalities claimed that they had as good a right to self-government as had either the Germans or the Magyars. The former relations of Ireland to England, and the resulting agitation on the part of the Irish people for Home Rule, will convey some idea of this situation of things in the dual monarchy, and of the turbulence created in the state by the struggles for autonomy of these subject races. In short, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy had half a dozen Irish problems. It was easy to forecast that, if these contentions did not end in the recognition by the two dominant races of the justice of the claims of these dependent peoples, and the conversion of the dual monarchy into a federal union in which the various racial groups should enjoy equality of rights and privileges, then the only possible outcome of the situation would be the disruption of the monarchy — probably in some time of stress and strain. The affairs of Austria-Hungary were almost as much a matter of European concern as were those of the Ottoman Empire. This was so for the reason that the dependent ethnic groups within the monarchy were merely detached areas of larger bodies of kindred peoples in adjoining lands, and because there was a tendency in these small groups to gravitate towards the larger masses of their kin in these neighboring countries. Thus the Italians in Trieste and the Tyrol were drawn towards the Italian kingdom; the Rumanians of Transylvania towards the principality of Rumania; the Slavs of the south towards the Slav state of Serbia. In a later chapter we shall learn how these racial problems became a contributory cause of the World War of 19 14, and a determining factor in its issues in so far as these involved the fate of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. 1 The total population of Austria according to the census of 1910 was 28,571,934; the number of Germans (on basis of language), 9,950, 2'^)C^. 570 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE Selections from the Sources. Translatio)!s and Reprints, vol. i, No. 3, for " The Act of Confederation "' and other documents. Bismarck, the Alan and the Statesman (reminiscences of Otto Prince von Bismarck, written and dictated by himself after his retirement from office; ed. by A. J. Butler). Robinson, J. H., Readings in European Histoiy, vol. ii, pp. 543-558, 564-572, and 5S0-596. Secondary Works. Sybel, H. von, The Founding of the German Empire, 7 vols. Andrews, C. M., The Historical Developmettt of Modern Europe, vol. i, chaps, vi, ix, and x; vol. ii, chaps, v and vi-xii. Henderson, E. F., A Short History of Gerniany, vol. ii, chaps, viii-x. Lowe, C, Prince Bismarck and The German Emperor, IVi/Iiam II. Headlam, J. W., Bisfnarck and the Foicnding of the German Empire. BuscH, M., Our Chancellor. Lowell, A. L., Governments and Pafiies m Continental Eiirope, vol. i, chaps, v and vi ; vol. ii, chaps, vii-x. CooLiDGE, A. C, Origins of the T?-iple Alliance. Marriott, J. A. R., and Robertson, C. A., The Evolution of Prussia, chaps, viii-xiv. Hazen, C. D., Modern European History, chaps, xix-xxi, xxiv. Topics for Class Reports, i. The Prussian three-class system of voting: Hazen, C. D., Modern European History, pp. 31 1-3 12. 2. The Frankfort Par- liament and the results of its failure : Marriott, J. A. R., and Robertson, C. G., The Evolution of Prussia, pp. 322-327. CHAPTER XL RUSSIA FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE WORLD WAR (1815-1914) 649. Preliminary Statement. The story of Russia since the fall of Napoleon is crowded with matters of great moment and interest. We can, however, in the present chapter, speak very briefly of only three things, — her part in the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire, the emancipation of her serfs, and the Liberal movement. In later chapters we shall find place to say something of Russia in Asia and of her part in the World War. I. RUSSIA'S WARS AGAINST TURKEY AND HER ALLIES 650, The Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829. In the course of the nineteenth century Russia waged three wars against the Ottoman Porte, which resulted in the expulsion of the Turks from a large part of their conquests in Europe. But the jealousy of the other great powers of Europe prevented Russia from appro- priating the fruits of her victories, so that the outcome of her efforts was the establishment of a number of independent, or prac- tically independent. Christian principalities on the land recovered. The first of these wars began in 1828. In that year, taking advantage of the embarrassment of the Sultan through a stubborn insurrection in Greece,^ Tsar Nicholas- declared war against the 1 This was the struggle known as the War of Greek Independence (1S21-1829). This war was a phase of the Hberal and national movement which in the revolutionary year of 182 1 agitated the Italian and Iberian peninsulas. Lord Byron devoted his life and fortune to the cause of Greek freedom. He died of fever at the siege of Missolonghi (1824). England, France, and Russia finally intervened. The Turko-Egyptian fleet was destroyed by the fleets of the allies in the bay of Navarino (1827). The year after this event began the Russian campaign in the Danubian provinces, as narrated in the text. 2 Tsars of the nineteenth century and after: Alexander I, 1801-TS25 ; Nicholas I, 1825-1855 ; Alexander II, 1855-1881 ; Alexander III, 1S81-1894 ; Nicholas II (deposed and murdered), 1894-1917. 57 1 572 RUSSIA UNDER THE LATER TSARS [§651 Ottoman Porte. The Russian troops crossed the Balkans with- out serious opposition, and were marching upon Constantinople when the Sultan sued for peace. The Treaty of Adrianople brought the war to a close (1829). The Turkish provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia (now Rumania) were rendered virtually independent of the Sultan. All Greece south of Thessaly and Epirus was liberated, and along with most of the islands of the ^gean was formed into an inde- pendent kingdom under the joint guardianship of England, France, and Russia. Prince Otto of Bavaria accepted the crown, and became the first king of the little Hellenic state ^ (1823). 651. The Crimean War (i853-i856). A celebrated parable employed by the Tsar Nicholas in conversation with the English minister at St. Petersburg throws a good deal of light upon the circumstances that led to the Crimean War. "We have on our hands," said the Tsar, "a sick man — a very sick man; it would be a great misfortune if he should give us the slip some of these days, especially if it happened before all the necessary arrange- ments were made." Nicholas thereupon proposed that England and Russia shquld divide the estate of the " sick man," by which phrase Turkey of course was meant. England was to be allowed to take Egypt and Crete, while the Turkish provinces in Europe were to be taken under the protection of the Tsar. A pretense for hastening the dissolution of the sick man was not long wanting. A quarrel between the Greek and Latin Christians at Jerusalem was made the ground by Nicholas for demanding of the Sultan the recognition of a Russian protectorate over all Greek 1 In 1864 the little kingdom was enlarged through the cession to it of the Ionian Islands by England, in whose hands they had been since the Congress of Vienna. In 1 88 1 it received Thessaly and a part of Epirus by cession from Turkey, but in 1897, as the result of an unfortunate war with the Sultan, was forced to accede to a treaty which gave back to the Ottoman Porte a strip of Northern Thessaly. As a result of the Balkan Wars (sect. 706), it received additional territory on the mainland together with a number of TEgean islands. Under the regime of freedom, substantial progress was made prior to the war of 19T4. The population of the little kingdom rose from 612,000 in 1832 to about 4,800,000 (estimated for old and new territory) in 191 3. Industry, trade, and commerce revived. The Isthmus of Corinth was pierced by a canal. Railroads were built. Athens took on the appearance of a modem capital. Its two universities in 1912 had an attendance of over 3000 students. §652] THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR 573 Christians in the Ottoman dominions. The demand was rejected, and Nicholas prepared for war. The Sultan appealed to the Western powers for help. England and France responded to the appeal, and later Sardinia joined her forces to theirs (sect. 624). The main interest of the struggle centered about Sevastopol, in the Crimea, Russia's great naval and military station in the Black Sea. The siege of this place, which lasted eleven months, was one of the most memorable in history. The Russian general Todleben earned a great reputation through his masterly defense of the works. The French troops, through their dashing bravery, brought great fame to the emperor who had sent them to gather glory for his throne. The English "Light Brigade" won immortal- ity in its memorable charge at Balaklava. And along with the story of the Light Brigade will live in English annals, " through the long hereafter of her speech and song," the story of Florence Nightingale, whose labors in alleviating the sufferings of the sick and wounded in the trenches and the base hospitals forms the most inspiring chapter in the history of humanitarian endeavor.^ The Russians were at length forced to evacuate their stronghold. The war was now soon brought to an end by the Treaty of Paris. The keynote of this treaty was the maintenance in its integrity of the Ottoman Empire as a barrier against Muscovite encroach- ments. Russia was given back Sevastopol, but was required to abandon all claims to a protectorate over any of the subjects of the Porte, and to agree not to raise any more fortresses on the Euxine nor keep upon that sea any armed ships, save what might be needed for police service." 652. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Anxiously as the Treaty of Paris had provided for the permanent settlement of the Eastern Question, barely twenty-two years had passed before it was again up before Europe. The Sultan could not or would not give his Christian subjects that protection which he 1 Read Longfellow's poem Saittci Filoittcna. - Russia repudiated this article of the treaty during the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. She then restored the fortresses of Sevastopol and before the opening of the war of 1914 was maintaining a strong fleet of warships on the Black Sea. 574 RUSSIA UNDER THE LATER TSARS [§653 had solemnly promised should be given. In 1876 there occurred in Bulgaria what are known as the '' Bulgarian atrocities," — massacres of Christian men, women, and children more revolting perhaps than any others of which history up to that time had made record. Fierce indignation was kindled throughout Europe. The Rus- sian armies were soon in motion. Kars in Asia Minor and Plevna in European Turkey, the latter after a memorable siege, fell into the hands of the Russians, and the armies of the Tsar were once more in full march upon Constantinople, with the prospect of soon ending forever Turkish rule on European soil, when England intervened, sent her fleet through the Dardanelles, and arrested the triumphant march of the Russians. 653. Treaty of Berlin (i878). The Treaty of Berlin,^ the articles of which were arranged by the great powers, adjusted once more the disorganized affairs of the Sublime Porte and bol- stered up as well as was possible the "sick man." But he lost a considerable part of his estate, for even his friends had no longer any hope either of his recovery or of his reformation. Out of those provinces of his dominions in Europe in which the Christian population was most numerous, there was created a group of wholly independent or half-independent states.- Bosnia and Herzegovina were given to Austria-Hungary to administer, but were not actually severed from the Ottoman Empire. The island of Cyprus, by a secret arrangement between the Ottoman Porte and the English government, was ceded to Eng- land " to be occupied and administered." In return England guaranteed the integrity of the Sultan's possessions in Asia. 1 In this treaty the great powers revised the Treaty of San Stefano which Russia had concluded with Turkey. This treaty practically expelled the Ottoman Porte from Europe and created an enlarged Bulgaria at the expense of the Serbian and Greek races. '^ The absolute independence of Rumania (the ancient provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia), Serbia, and Montenegro was formally acknowledged; Bulgaria, greatly reduced from the extension given it by the Treaty of San Stefano, was to enjoy self- government, but was to pay tribute to the Porte ; Eastern Rumelia was to have a Christian governor, but was to remain under the dominion of the Sultan. In 1885 Eastern Rumelia united with Bulgaria. Bessarabia, whose population was almost wholly Rumanian in race, was taken from Rumania and given to Russia. § 654] ♦ EMANCIPATION OF RUSSIAN SERFS 575 Turkey thus lost much of her former territory. There were, however, still left in Europe under the direct authority of the Sultan five million or more subjects of whom at least half were Christian in religion and non-Turkish in race. The interests of these peoples were thus sacrificed to the rival ambition^ and mutual jealousies of the great powers. Time brought retribution for the great crime. It was the evil rule of the Turk in these regions — the great powers weakly allowing him to ignore all his promises of reform^ — -which was one of the direct causes of the Balkan wars of 1912-1913, the prelude to the cataclysm of 1914. II. THE EMANCIPATION OF THE SERFS, AND THE LIBERAL MOVEMENT 654. Emancipation of the Russian Serfs (1861). The name of Tsar Alexander II (1855-1881) will live -in history as the Emancipator of the' forty-six millions of Russian serfs. In order to render intelligible what emancipation meant for the serfs, a word is needed respecting the former land system in Russia and the personal status of the serf. As to the first, the estate of the lord was divided into two parts, the smaller of which was reserved by the proprietor for his own use, the larger being allotted to his serfs, who formed a village community known as the Mir} Besides working the village lands, the fruits of which were enjoyed by the serfs, the village^ were obliged to till'iihe lands of the lord, three days in a week being the usual service required. The serfs were personally subject to the lord to the extent that he might flog them in case of disobedience, but he could not sell them individually as slaves are sold; yet when he sold his estate the whole community of serfs passed with it to the new proprietor. 1 This social and economic group affords the key to much of the history of the Russian people. It is the Russian counterpart of the village of serfs on the mediaeval manor of western Europe. It is a cluster of a dozen or perhaps a hundred families, — a clan settled down to agricultural life. At the time of Peter the Great ninety-nine out of every hun- dred Russians were members of ATiis. At the end of the nineteenth century about nine tenths of the people were living in these little villages. 576 RUSSIA UNDER THE LATER TSARS [§655 The Emancipation Code, " the Magna Carta of the Russian peasant," which was promulgated in 1861, required the masters of the peasant serfs to give them the lands they had farmed for themselves, for which, however, they were to make some fixed return in labor or rent/ The lands thus acquired became the common property of the village. All other serfs, such as house servants and operatives in factories, were to gain their freedom at the end of two years' additional service, during which time, how- ever, they were to receive fair wages. As in the ca^e of the emancipation of the slaves in our South- ern States, the emancipation of the Russian serfs did not meet all the hopeful expectations of the friends of the reform. One cause of the unsatisfactory outcome of the measure was that the villagers did not get enough land, save in those districts where the earth is very rich, to enable them to support themselves by its tillage. Hence many of them left their allotments and went to the cities, and others fell into debt and became the victims of heartless usurers. 655. The Liberal Movement in Russia ; Nihilism and Terrorism. From 181 5 onward there was a growing protest in Russia against the despotic government of the Tsar. This move- ment was nothing else than the outworking in Russia of the ideas of the French Revolution. If some definite beginning of the move- ment be sought, this may be found in the events of 18 13-18 15. In those years, as it has been put, the whole Russian army, like the great Tsar Peter, went on a pilgrimage to the West, and, like Peter, they got some new ideas. This was simply a repeti- tion of what had occurred in the case of those Frenchmen who in 1776 went to America to take part in the War of American Independence (sect. 503). Those carrying on this propaganda of Liberalism were known as Nihilists. They were found especially in the faculties and 1 The serfs on the crown and state lands, about 23,000,000 in number, had already been freed by special edicts (the first issued in July, 1S58). They were given at once, without any return being exacted, the lands they had so long tilled as nominal bondsmen. We say nominal bondsmen, since this class labored under only a few restrictions and were subject to the payment merely of a light rent. § 656] THE CALLING OF THE DUMA 577 among the students of the universities. Their fundamental de- mands were for constitutional representative government, the re- form of the judicial system, and the removal of the restriction upon free discussion of public matters. In a word, they demanded that the Russian people should have all those rights and immu- nities which the peoples of western Europe were enjoying. At the time of the Russo-Turkish War of 1878-1879 the Liberal movement assumed a violent phase, — just as the Revolution in France did in 1793, — being then transformed into what is known as Terrorism. Nihilism took this form under the persecutions and repressions of the government. The principle of the extreme Nihilists, or Terrorists, that assassination is a righteous means of political reform was now acted upon. The Tsar, Alexander II, was assassinated (1881). After that event the government be- came even more cruelly despotic and repressive than before. Finland particularly was the victim of this ruthless and irre- sponsible despotism. This country was ceded to Russia by Sweden in 1809. It formed a grand duchy of the Russian Empire. It had a liberal constitution which the Tsars had sworn to main- tain and which secured the Finns a full measure of local self- government. Under their constitution the Finns, who number about two million souls, were a loyal, contented, and prosperous people. During the years 1 899-1902 the Tsar Nicholas II by a series of imperial decrees practically annulled the ancient Finnish con- stitution and reduced the country to the condition of an adminis- trative district of the empire. In a word, Finland was made a second Poland. 656, The Calling of the Duma (1905). There could of course be but one outcome to this contest between the "Autocrat of all the Russias"^ and his subjects. The Tsar of Russia was simply fighting the hopeless battle that has been fought and lost by so 1 It was only theoretically that the Tsar was the autocratic ruler of Russia. The power behind the throne, the actual ruler, was the hierarchy of officials, w-ho constituted what is known as a bureaucracy. This body of narrow-minded, selfish, and corrupt officials has been well likened to the monster in Mrs. Shelley's romance Frankenstem. Like that, monster it got beyond the control of its creator and committed wanton and revolting crimes. 578 RUSSIA UNDER THE LATER TSARS [§ 656 many despotic sovereigns, a battle which has ever the same issue, — the triumph of liberal principles and the admission of the people to participation in the government. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904- 190 5, by utterly discrediting the corrupt, unscrupulous, and incapable government of the autoc- racy, brought matters to a crisis. The people, forced to make unheard-of sacrifices of life and treasure to carry on a disastrous war in which they had neither voice nor interest, arose in virtual insurrection. The Tsar, finally constrained to promise the people a share in the government, convened in 1905 a body called the Duma,^ or National Assembly, composed of representatives elected by the people. Although the Duma was at first really nothing more than a consultative body, it soon gained legislative powers and gradually acquired such a position in the government as enabled it, in the midst of the stress of the great European war, to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic (1917). The story of this momentous revolution forms a part of the history of the World War, being one of the outcomes of that titanic struggle.- Selections from the Sources. The European Concert in the Eastern Question (ed. by Thomas Erskine Holland; contains the text of all the important treaties affecting the relations of Russia and the Ottoman Empire since 1826). Hamley, E. B., The Sio>y of the Campaign. (This is a graphic account of the Crimean War, " written in a tent in the Crimea," by an English officer.) Secondary Works. Rambaud, A., History of Russia, vol. iii. Leroy- Beaulieu, a., The E}npire of the Tsars and the Russians, 3 vols. Morfill, W. R., The Story of Russia, chaps, x and xi. Stepniak (pseudonym), The Russian Peasantry. NOBLE, E., The Russian Revolt and Russia and the Russians. Seignobos, C, A Political History of Europe, pp. 63S-670. Topics for Class Reports, i. The Russian Mir and the effects upon the serfs of the emancipation measure : Wallace, D. M., Russia (new ed., 1905). (Consult Table of Contents.) 2. Siberia and the Exile System: Kennan, G., Siberia and the Exile System ; Noble, E., Russia and the Russians, chap. xi. 1 The Duma constituted the lower chamber of a National Parliament, the upper chamber being formed by a preexistjng body called the Council of the Empire, which in 1906 was given legislative power. 2 Another matter of great interest in Russian history during the nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth is the expansion of the Russian Empire in Asia and the resulting conflict with Japan. Concerning this important phase of Russian history and of Russia's part in the war of 1914 we shall speak in following chapters. CHAPTER XLI THE NEW INDUSTRIALISM 657. The Physical Basis of the New Industrialism. We have already noted the beginnings in England of the new indus- trialism created by the great inventions which marked the latter part of the eighteenth century (sect. 487). In the decade between 1830 and 1840 the industrial development thus initiated received a great impulse through the bringing to practical perfection of several of the earlier inventions and by new discoveries and fresh inventions. Prominent among these were the steam railway, the electric telegraph, and the ocean steamship. In the year 1830 George Stephenson exhibited the first really successful locomotive. In 1836 Morse perfected the telegraph. In 1838 ocean steamship navigation was first practically solved. In their relation to the new industrial epoch, these inventions may be compared to the three great inventions or discoveries (printing, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass) which ushered in the Modern Age (sect. 274). Somewhat later, to these parent inventions were added the elec- tric engine, which brought in the trolley car; the gasoline motor, which gave the world the automobile and the airplane; and in- numerable other inventions and mechanical appliances of science. These form the physical basis of the new industrialism. They have quickened, intensified, and transformed all the industrial arts and trades. 658. Characteristics of the New Industrialism. First, the new industrialism substituted machine production for hand pro- duction. This meant for one thing an enormous increase in the quantity of articles manufactured for human use. Second, the new industrialism transferred the chief industries from the home to the factory. This, as we shall see, has had a profound and far-reaching influence upon the family group, especially upon the women members of it. 579 58o THE NEW INDUSTRIALISM [§ 659 Third, the new industrialism, hastening a development already in progress, brought in the capitalistic system of industry. Under this system those engaged in the industrial life of society are divided into two chief classes : namely, capitalistic employers, a comparatively small class who furnish the large amount of capital needed to carry on manufacturing and other enterprises in the large way required by the new industrialism; and workmen, com- prising the larger part of the industrial population, who sell their labor to the capitalistic employers for a certain wage. 659. Gradual Spread of the New System. Besides bearing in mind these important features of the new industry, we should also note the fact that it was only gradually that the new method of manufacturing was introduced into the different countries. As we have learned, the revolution began in England in the latter half of the eighteenth century and before the outbreak of the French Revolution had transformed the chief national manufac- tures, particularly the production of hardware and of cotton and woolen goods. Two or three decades later the industries of. the leading countries of western continental Europe were transformed. In Russia the revolution was only fairly under way at the opening of the war of 19 14. China was only just beginning to feel the effects of the new mode of production. In the course of time the revolution must inevitably penetrate all the countries of the world, for the old hand processes of manufacture cannot compete with the new power-machine methods of production. In the following sections we shall note how powerfully the new industrialism has reacted upon the political, the social, and the economic life of the peoples that have come under its transforming influence. 660. Political Results of the New Industrialism. The new industrialism has furthered greatly the Political Revolution, that democratic movement of the last two centuries which we have been following. It has done this largely by developing city life. The factory system of manufacturing requires the concentration of the working population at the great industrial centers. Hence the population of the countries that have come under the influence § 661] THE WOMAN'S MOVEMENT 581 of the new industry, from being predominantly rural and agricul- tural, has become predominantly urban and industrial. Now, city life fosters democracy. Through daily contact with one another, through exchange of ideas, through increased opportu- nities for collective action, the dwellers of the city become less conservative than country people and more ready to engage in political activities and projects of reform/ Hence the new indus- try, through the concentration of the population of the industrial nations in large cities, has given a great impulse to the develop- ment of government by the people. Another important political result of the new industrialism has been the intensifying of international rivalries. The increased production of the great factories, mills, and workshops of the new industry has impelled the manufacturers to seek foreign and distant markets for their surplus goods. This has intensified the competition among the great industrial nations for the control of the world's markets, and has led governments to establish protectorates, acquire dependencies, and even to seek to get com- plete political control of the lands of backward, semicivilized, and decadent peoples, in order thereby to gain new outlets for the surplus manufactures of the national industries, or to secure the native products of these overseas countries for use as raw material in the home industries and arts. This sharp international competition thus induced has been one of the most important factors in the history of the last two or three decades. It was one of the contributory causes of the World War, which will be the subject of a later chapter. 661. Relation of the New Industrialism to the Woman's Movement. The new industrialism, as we have seen, has trans- ferred various of the industries and arts formerly carried on in the home, and largely by the women members of the family, from the home to the factory. The women have followed the work, and thus have entered into industrial competition with the men. Naturally, this new place and role in the industrial life of society ' It will be recalled how the mediaeval towns were the birthplace of political freedom (of, sect. 174). 582 THE NEW INDUSTRIALISM [§ 662 has led them to seek emancipation from the various disabilities under which they have labored from time immemorial, and to demand the right of suffrage, and equal participation with men in the making of laws and in the conduct of the government under which they live. This woman's movement is undoubtedly one of the most significant which the new industrialism has created, or to which it has given fresh force and urgency. 662. The Labor Problem. The new industrialism has created many problems of an economic nature. Beyond question the one most deeply charged with grave import for society is the so-called Labor Problem. This problem, viewed in its most important aspect, may be stated thus: How are the products of the world's industry to be equitably distributed? The condition of things is this: Through the employment of the forces of nature and the use of improved machinery, economic goods, that is, things which meet the wants of men, can be produced in almost unlimited quantities. But this increase in society's efficiency in industrial production has not entirely solved our economic problems, for there are still many who are very poor despite the enormous total wealth of the world. Under the pres- ent mode of distribution, in which the total product of the com- bined effort of capital and labor is apportioned as rent, interest, wages, and profit, the few secure a disproportionate share of the output of the new industry. Great monopolies or trusts have been created and fabulous fortunes have been amassed by a few individuals, while the great majority of the unskilled laborers for wages have had their toil lightened and their remuneration increased by far less rapid stages. This slowness 'with which we have progressed toward the equi- table distribution of wealth, of material well-being, and of the benefits and enjoyments of modern civilization has created dangerous discontent in the ranks of the manual workers, espe- cially of those who are least educated and so least familiar with the slow steps by which substantial and enduring progress has usually been made. This discontent finds expression in strikes and agita- tion for the more rapid improvement of their economic condition. § 663] SOCIALISM AND INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACY 583 663. Socialism and Industrial Democracy. Among many, proposed solutions of the labor problem, such as profit-sharing, and boards of conciliation to adjust disputes between employers and employed about wages, hours of employment, and general conditions of labor, the one that has provoked most discussion and assumed greatest historical significance is that offered by the socialists/ The core or essence of true socialism is common ownership and management of all industrial instruments and enterprises. Just as our government — ^ local, state, or national — now owns schoolhouses and controls education, owns and conducts the post office, municipal waterworks, and other public utilities, so would the socialists have all governments, by the more or less gradual extension of their functions, assume possession and control of the railways, the telegraph and telephone systems, the mines, the mills, the factories, the land — in a word, all industrial instruments and undertakings. They would thus do away with the present wage sys- tem and private capital, but not with private or individual property. The programme of the socialists has, however, made slow prog- ress in Great Britain and America. In both lands it is usually viewed as involving too fundamental a change in the present system of industry to be adopted as a whole in the near future. Indeed, recent experiences in government control of industry during the emergency of war have led many progressive thinkers among both employers and employed to fear greater evils under a system of socialism than those that we now endure. They point, on the one hand, to the frightful conditions to which communism — an ex- treme form of socialism — has led in Russia and elsewhere and, on the other, to the slow but certain progress that the present system is making toward a fairer division of the returns from all industry. References. Schaeffle, A. E. F., The Quintessence of Socialism. Ely, R. T., Socialism and Social Reform. Spargo, J., Socialism, a Summary and Interpre- tation of Socialist Principles. Seignobos, C, History of Cojttemporary Civiliza- tion, pp. 425-436. Cunningham, W., Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects (Mediizval and Modem Times), pp. 225-267. 1 The father of German sociahsm, which is the most influential body of socialistic doctrine in the world, was Karl Marx (1818-1883). CHAPTER XLII EUROPEAN EXPANSION IN THE NINETEENTH AND THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY I. CAUSES AND GENERAL PHASES OF THE EXPANSION MOVEMENT 664. Significance of the Expansion of Europe into Greater Europe. In speaking of the establishment of the European colonies and settlements of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- turies we likened this expansion of Europe into Greater Europe to the expansion in antiquity of Greece into Greater Greece and Rome into Greater Rome. We have now to say something of the later phases of this wonderful outward movement of the European peoples. In the first place we should note that it is this expansion move- ment which gives such significance to that intellectual, moral, and political development of the European peoples which we have been studying. This evolution might well be likened to the religious evolution in ancient Judea. That development of a new religion was a matter of transcendent importance because the new faith was destined not for a little corner of the earth but for all the world. Likewise the creation by Renaissance, Reformation, and Revolution of a new, rich, and progressive civilization in Europe is a matter of vast importance to universal history because that civilization has manifestly been wrought out not for a single continent or for a single race but for all the continents and for all mankind. We are now to see how the bearers of this new culture have carried or are carrying it to all lands and are communicating it to all peoples, thereby opening up a new era not alone in the history of Europe but in the history of the world. 5^4 § 665] LOSS OF EARLIER COLONL\L EMPIRES 585 665. The Fate of the Earlier Colonial Empires; Decline and Revival of Interest in Colonies. The history we have narrated has revealed the fate of all the colonial empires founded by the various European nations during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The magnificent Portuguese Empire soon became the spoil of the Dutch and the English; France lost her colonial possessions to England ; a great part of the colonies of the Dutch also finally fell into English hands; before the end of the eight- eenth century England lost through revolution her thirteen colo- nies in North America ; and in the early part of the nineteenth century Spain in like manner lost all her dependencies on the mainland of the New World. After these discouraging experiences with their colonies the governments of Europe lost interest for a while in possessions beyond the seas. Statesmen came to hold the doctrine that colonies are "like fruit, which as soon as ripe falls from the tree." The English minister Disraeli, in referring to England's colonial possessions, once used these words: "Those wretched colonies are millstones about our neck." Before the close of the nineteenth century, however, there sprang up a most extraordinary revival of interest in colonies and dependencies, and the leading European states began to compete eagerly for over-the-sea possessions. 666. Causes of the Revived Interest in Colonies. A variety of causes concurred to awaken or to foster this new interest in colonies. One cause is to be found in the rapid increase during the nineteenth century of the people of European stock. At the beginning of the century the estimated population of Europe (excluding Turkey) was about one hundred and sixty millions; at the end of the century it had risen to four hundred and thirty- six millions. During this same period the number of people of European stock in the world at large rose from about one hundred and seventy millions to over five hundred millions.^ This 1 These earlier numbers must be regarded as mere approximations. We have no reliable figures for the beginning of the centurj'. Census-taking is practically a nineteenth- centur)' innovation, save in two or three countries. 586 EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§ 666 increase in numbers of the European peoples is one of the most important facts in modern history. It has caused Europe to overflow and to inundate the world. It has made the smallest of the continents the mother and nursery of nations.' The political significance of this great outward movement, which almost unnoticed for a long time by European statesmen was creating a new Europe outside of Europe and shifting the center of gravity of the world, at last attracted the attention of the European governments and awakened an unwonted interest in colonies and dependencies. A second cause is to be found in that industrial revolution which began in England towards the end of the eighteenth cen- tury and which gradually transformed the industrial life of all the more advanced nations. The enormous quantity of fabrics and wares of every kind which the new processes of manufacture created led, as we have seen, to sharp competition among com- mercial classes in the different nations for the control of the markets in the uncivilized or semicivilized lands. In order to secure a monopoly of these markets for their subjects it was thought necessary by the European governments to take pos- session of these lands or to establish protectorates over them.- A third cause, one which tended to give a general character to the colonial movement, was the manifest advantage that Eng- land was deriving from her colonial possessions, especially as re- vealed on the occasions of Queen Victoria's Golden and Diamond 1 The great tide of emigration which during the past century has flowed from Europe into the unoccupied places of the world was not set in motion by any single cause. With the pressure arising from the growing population of Europe, which may be regarded as'the primary cause of the movement, there concurred a great variety of other causes, political, religious, and economic in their nature, such as have always been inciting or fostering causes in every great migration and colonization movement known to history. " This was done in accordance with the theory that " trade follows the flag." .And in a measure this is true. It is the manufactuiers, traders, bankers, engineers, and pro- moters of the country which has secured political control of a semicivilized overseas land that are quite sure — even though the ''open door" policy, that is, equal opportunity to the traders of all nations, be guaranteed by treaties — to secure the most of the con- cessions for industrial exploitation, for working the mines, for constructing railroads, and for making loans to the native rulers. §667] STANLEY'S DISCOVERIES 587 Jubilees in 1887 and 1897, when there passed along the streets of London imposing processions of representatives of all the races of the British Empire. This spectacle, unparalleled in modern times in its suggestions of imperial riches and power, produced a profound impression upon the witnessing nations. It stirred in them a spirit of emulation and made them eager to secure colonial possessions and dependencies that they too, like England, might rule over many lands and races. Thus it came about through these and other influences that during the last fifteen or twenty years of the nineteenth century almost all the old colonizing peoples of Europe were exerting themselves to the utmost to build up new empires to take the place of those they had lost, while other nations that had never pos- sessed colonies now also began to compete eagerly with those earlier in the field for overseas possessions. 667. Stanley's Discoveries open up the "Dark Continent." By the time, however, of this awakening of the governments of Europe to the importance of colonies, almost all the lands outside of Europe suited to European settlement were closed against true colonizing enterprises by having been appropriated by England, or through their being in the control of independent states that had grown out of colonies planted by immigrants of European speech and blood. The makers of new empires had no longer the whole world before them from which to choose. Africa, however, was still left. For a century intrepid explorers had been endeavoring to uncover the mysteries of that continent. Among these was the missionary-explorer David Livingstone. He died in 1873. His mantle fell upon Henry M. Stanley, who a short time after the death of Livingstone set out on an Fig. 106. Henry M. Stanley (From a photograph) 588 EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§668 adventurous expedition across Africa^ (1874-1877), in which journey he discovered the course of the Congo and learned the nature of its great basin. Not since the age of Columbus had there been any discoveries in the domain of geography comparable in im- portance to these of Stanley. Stanley gave the world an account of his journey in a book bearing the title Through the Dark Conti- nent. The appearance of this work marks an epoch in the history of Africa. It inspired innumerable enterprises, political, commer- cial, and philanthropic, whose aim was to develop the natural resources of the continent and to open it up to civilization. 668. The Founding of the Congo Free State (isss). One immediate outcome of the writings and discoveries of Stanley was the founding of the Congo Free State. Through the efforts of King Leopold II of Belgium an International African Associa- tion was formed, under whose auspices Stanley, after his return from his second expedition, was sent out to establish stations in the Congo basin and to lay there the foundation of European order and government. The Association had found in Stanley a remarkably able lieu- tenant. His work as an organizer and administrator was carried on almost continuously for five years (1879-1884), "long years of bitter labor," as he himself speaks of them. He made treaties with over four hundred and fifty native chiefs, who ceded to him their sovereign rights over their lands. He founded numerous stations along the banks of the Congo and its tributaries. By these and like herculean labors Stanley — Stanley Africanus, it has been suggested, should be his ennobled name — became the real founder of the Congo Free State and earned a place among the great administrators and state builders of modern times." 1 Stanley had made an earlier expedition (1S71-1872) in search of Livingstone. 2 From 1882, the year of the actual founding of the state, until 190S the country was merely an appanage of the Belgian crown. In 190S King Leopold ceded the state to Belgium. Important products of the country are rubber, palm nuts, and cocoa. Cotton and tobacco are successfully cultivated. Recent estimates of the population of the colony vary from 9,000,000 to 15,000,000. A railroad projected by Stanley, two hundred and fifty miles in length, has been built around the falls of the Congo. This enterprise has brought into touch with civilization a vast region which throughout all the long period of history up to the time of Stanley's achievement had been absolutely cut off from communication with the civilized races of mankind. § 669] THE PARTITION OF AFRICA 589 669. The Partition of Africa. The discoveries of Stanley and the founding of the Congo Free State were the signal for a scram- ble among the powers of Europe for African territory. England, France, and Germany were the strongest competitors and they got the largest shares. In less than a generation Africa became a dependency of Europe. The only native states still retaining their independence at the beginning of the war of 19 14 were Abyssinia and the negro republic of Liberia. The government of the latter was in the hands of American freedmen or their descendants. This transference of the control of the affairs of Africa from the hands of its native inhabitants or those of Asiatic Moham- medan intruders to the hands of Europeans is without question the most momentous transaction in the history of that continent, and one which must shape its future destiny. In the following sections of this chapter, in which we propose briefly to rehearse the part which each of the leading European states has taken in the general expansion movement, we shall necessarily have to speak of the part which each played in the partition of Africa and tell what each secured. II. THE EXPANSION OF ENGLAND 670. England in America; the Dominion of Canada. The separation of the thirteen American colonies from England in 1776 (sect. 484) seemed to give a fatal blow to English hopes of establishing a great colonial empire in America. But half of North America still remained in English hands. Gradually the attractions of British North America as a dwelling-place for settlers of European stock became known. Im- migration, mostly from the British Isles, increased in volume, so that the growth of the country in population was phenomenal, rising from about a quarter of a million at the beginning of the nineteenth century to over seven millions (estimated) in 19 14. One of the most important matters in the political history of Canada since the country passed under British rule is the granting 590 EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§670 of responsible government to the provinces in 1841. Up to that time England's colonial system was in principle like that which had resulted in the loss to the British Empire of the thirteen colonies. The concession marked a new era in the history of English colonization. The Canadian provinces now became in all home matters absolutely self-governing.^ The concession of complete self-government to the provinces was followed, in 1867, by the union of Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick in a federal state under the name of the Dominion of Canada.- The constitution of the Dominion, save as to the federal principle, is modeled after the British, wherein it differs from the recently framed Australian constitution, which follows closely that of the United States. The political union of the provinces made possible the success- ful accomplishment of one of the great engineering undertakings of our age. This was the construction of a transcontinental railroad (the Canadian Pacific Railway) from IVIontreal to Vancouver. This road has done for the confirming of the federal union and for the industrial development of the Dominion what the building of similar transcontinental lines has done for the United States.^ In the World War of 1914-1919 the Dominion was stanchly loyal to the motherland, sending more than four hundred thousand soldiers to fight by the side of the soldiers of Great Britain and of her other overseas dominions. By reason of its vast geographical extent, — its area is more than thirty-five times as great as that of the British Isles, — its inexhaustible mineral deposits, its unrivaled fisheries, its limitless forests, grazing lands, and wheat fields, its bracing climate, and, above all, its free institutions, the Dominion of Canada seems marked out to be one of the great future homes of the Anglo- Saxon race. ^ The treaty-making power and matters of peace and war were left in the hands of the British government. - Later the confederation was joined by British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, and other provinces. Newfoundland has steadily refused to join the union. 3 In iqi4 a second continental line (the Trunk Pacific Railway), running from a point in New Brunswick to Prince Rupert, British Columbia, was completed. Longitude 20 West a^ Cape TownW" O. of Qooi floj>«S § 671] ENGLAND IN AUSTRALASIA 591 671. England in Australasia;^ the Proclamation of the Com- monwealth of Australia (1901). About the time that England lost her American colonies the celebrated navigator Captain Cook reached and explored the shores of New Zealand and Australia (1769-1771). Disregarding the claims of earlier visitors to these lands, he took possession of the islands for the British crown. The best use to which England could at first think to put the new lands was to make them a place of exile for criminals. The first shipload of convicts was landed at Botany Bay in Australia in 1788. But the agricultural riches of large districts of the new lands, — the interior of Australia is a hopeless desert, — their adaptability to stock raising, and the healthfulness of the climate soon drew to them a stream of English immigrants. In 1851 came the announcement of the discovery in Australia of fabulously rich deposits of gold, and then set in a tide of immigration such as the world has seldom seen. Before the close of the nineteenth century five flourishing colonies (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Aus- tralia, and West Australia), with an aggregate population, includ- ing that of the neighboring island of Tasmania, of almost four millions (by 1914 this number had increased to about five mil- lions), had grown up along the fertile well-watered rim of the Australian continent and had developed free institutions similar to those of the mother country. The chief political event in the history of these colonies before the beginning of the World War was their consolidation, just at the opening of the twentieth century (1901), into the Common- wealth of Australia, a federal union similar to our own." 1 Australasia, meaning " south land of Asia," is the name under which Austraha and New Zealand are comprehended. Here, as in South Africa, in Canada, and in India, England appeared late on the ground. The Spaniards and the Dutch had both preceded her. The presence of the Dutch is witnessed by the names New Holland,' (the earlier name of Australia), Van Diemen's Land (the original name of Tasmania), and New Zealand, attaching to the greater islands. 2 New Zealand was not included in the federation. It, together with some neigh- boring islands, constitutes a self-governing Dominion. It has a population, exclusive of natives, of slightly over a million (census of 191 1). It has advanced farther towards State Socialism than any other country. 592 EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§ 672 Like Canada, Australia made great sacrifices in blood and treasure to uphold the cause of the motherland and her allies in the tremendous contest that began in Europe in 19 14. The vast possibilities of the future of this new Anglo-Saxon commonwealth in the South Pacific — the area of Australia is only a little less than that of the United States — has impressed in an unwonted way the imagination of the world. It is possible that in the coming periods of history this new Britain will hold some such place in the Pacific as the motherland now holds in the Atlantic.^ 672. England in Asia. We have noted the founding of the British Indian Empire (sect. 483). Throughout the nineteenth century England steadily advanced the frontiers of her dominions here and consolidated her power until by the close of the century she had brought either under her direct rule or under her suze- rainty over three hundred millions of Asiatics,'- — the largest number of human beings, so far as history knows, ever united under a single scepter. We must here note how England's occupation of India and her large interests in the trade of southern and eastern Asia involved her during the nineteenth century in several wars and shaped in great measure her foreign policies. One of the earliest of these wars was that known as the Afghan War of 1 838-1 842, into which she was drawn through her jealousy of Russia.^ At the same time England became involved in the so-called Opium War with China* (1839- 1842). As a result of this war 1 A recent writer makes the following noteworthy comment on the unmixed char- acter of the population of Australia : " Australia is the only continent which the Anglo- Saxon possesses — the only continent which any one nation possesses — also the only continent on record which has ever had one race, one language, and one government." 2 By the census of 1901 the population of the British Indian Empire (this includes the feudatory states) was 294,46:, 056 ; by the census of ion it was 315,156,396. 8 England's endeavor here was to maintain Afghanistan as a buffer state between her Indian possessions and the expanding Russian Empire. The war was marked by a great tragedy, — the virtual annihilation in the wild mountain passes leading from India to Afghanistan of an Anglo-Indian army of 16,000 men. There was a second Afghan War in 1879-1SS0. 4 The opium traffic between India and Chma had grown into gigantic proportions and had become a source of wealth to the British merchants and of revenue to the § 672] ENGLAND IN ASIA 593 England obtained by cession from China the island and port of Hongkong, which she has made one of the most important com- mercial and naval stations of her Empire. Scarcely was the Opium War ended before England was in- volved in a gigantic struggle with Russia, — the Crimean War, already spoken of in connection with Russian history (sect. 651). From our present standpoint we can better understand why Eng- land threw herself into the conflict on the side of Turkey. She fought to maintain the integrity of the Ottoman Empire in order that her own great rival, Russia, might be prevented from seizing Constantinople and the Bosphorus, and from that point con- trolling the affairs of Asia through the command of the eastern Mediterranean. The echoes of the Crimean War had scarcely died away before England was startled by the most alarming intelligence from the country for the secure possession of which English soldiers had borne their part in the fierce struggle before Sevastopol. In 1857 there broke out in the armies of the East India Company what is known as the Sepoy Mutiny.^ Fortunately many of the native regiments stood firm in their allegiance to England, and with their aid the revolt was speedily crushed. As a consequence of the mutiny the government of India was by act of Parliament taken out of the hands of the East India Company and vested in the English crown. Indian government. The Chinese government, however, awake to the evils of the growing use of the narcotic, resisted the importation of the drug. This was the cause of the war. The Chinese government was compelled to acquiesce in the continuance of the nefarious traffic. 1 The causes of the uprising were various. The crowd of deposed princes was one element of discontent. A widespread conviction among the natives, awakened by different acts of the English, that their religion was in danger was another of the causes that led to the rebellion. There were also military grievances of which the native soldiers com- plained. The mutiny broke out simultaneously at different points. The atrocities com- mitted by the rebels at Cawnpur sent a thrill of horror throughout the civilized world. Nana Sahib had slain the garrison and crowded about two hundred English women and children into a small chamber. Fearing that the English forces, advancing by forced marches under General Henry Havelock, would effect a rescue of the prisoners, Nana Sahib employed five assassins to go into the room and kill them all. Then the bodies were dragged out and flung into a neighboring well, where they were found by the rescuing party, which arrived just too late to prevent the tragedy. 594 EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§673 There are without question offsets to the indisputably good results of English rule in India; nevertheless it is one of the most important facts of modern history, and one of special import as bearing on our present study, that over three hundred millions of the population of Asia should thus have passed under the rule and wardship of a European nation. 673. England in South Africa; Boer and Briton. England has played a great part in the partition of Africa. Her first appearance upon the continent, both in Egypt and at the Cape, was brought about through her solicitude for her East India pos- sessions and the security of her routes thither. Later she joined in the scramble of European powers for African territories for their own sake. The Dutch had preceded the English in South Africa. They began their settlement at the Cape about the middle of the seven- teenth century, in the great days of Holland. During the French Revolution and again during Napoleon's ascendancy the English took the Dutch colony under their protection. After the down- fall of Napoleon in 1814 the colony was ceded to England by the Netherlands.^ The Dutch settlers refused to become reconciled to the English rule. In 1836 a large number of these aggrieved colonists took the heroic resolve of abandoning their old homes and going out into the African wilderness in search of new ones. This was a resolution worthy of their ancestry, for these African Pilgrims were descendants of those Dutch patriots who fought so hero- ically against Philip II, and of Huguenot refugees who in the seventeenth century fled from France to escape the tyranny of Louis XIV (sect. 404). This migration is known as "The Great Trek."- The immi- grants journeyed from the Cape towards the northeast, driving their herds before them and carrying their women and children 1 After the loss of the Cape Settlement, the island of Java was the most important colonial possession remaining to the Dutch. Gradually they got possession of the greater part of the large island of Sumatra. These two islands form the heart of the Dutch East Indies of to-day, which embrace a native population of about 36,000,000. 2 Ttek is Dutch for " migration "' or " journey." § 673] ENGLAND IN SOUTH AFRICA 595 and all their earthly goods in great clumsy oxcarts. Beyond the Orange River some of the immigrants unyoked their oxen and set up homes, laying there the basis of the Orange Free State; the more intrepid 'trekked" still farther to the north, across the Vaal River, and established the republic of the Transvaal. Two generations passed, a period filled for the little republics, surrounded by hostile African tribes, with anxieties and fighting. Then there came a turning point in their history. In the year 1885 gold desposits of extraordinary richness were discovered in the Transvaal. Straightway there began a tremendous inrush of miners and adventurers from all parts of the globe. A great portion of these newcomers were English-speaking people. As aliens — Uitlanders, "outlanders," they were called — they were excluded from any share in the government, although they made up two thirds of the population of the little state and paid the greater part of the taxes. They demanded the fran- chise. The Boers, under the lead of the sturdy President of the Transvaal, Paul Kriiger, refused to accede to their demands, urg- ing that this would mean practically the surrender of the inde- pendence of the Republic and its annexation to the British Empire. The controversy grew more and more bitter and soon ripened into war between England and the Transvaal ( 1899) . The Orange Free State joined its little army to that of its sister state. ^ After the maintenance of the struggle for over two years the last of the Boer bands surrendered (1902). As the outcome of the war both of the republics were annexed to the British Empire under the names of the Transvaal Colony and the Orange River Colony. Only a few years had passed after the close of the war when the British government very wisely granted the two colonies self-government.- Straightway these states and Cape Colony with Natal joined in the creation of a federal commonwealth under the 1 The total European or white population of the two little republics that thus threw down the gage of battle to the most powerful empire of modern times was only a little over 300,000. 2 Responsible government was granted to the Transvaal in 1906 and to the Orange Free State in 1907. 596 EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§ 674 name of the Union of South Africa' (1910). Thus was consum- mated the favorite project of the South African statesman Cecil Rhodes (i 853-1902), the "empire builder," one of the most masterful men of his generation. The act of the British government in intrusting the Boers with a responsible government won in such measure their loyalty to the Empire that at the outbreak of the great European war in 1 9 14 they rallied — though not quite unanimously — to the support of England, and in the name of the Empire conquered German Southwest and German East Africa. One of the most important enterprises of the English in Africa is the building of a Cape-to-Cairo railroad. This, like the political scheme of a federation, was also a favorite project of Cecil Rhodes. Already his dream has been in great part realized. This railway when completed, as without doubt it will be at no remote date, will be a potent factor in the opening up of the Dark Continent to civilization. 674. England in Egypt. In 1876 England and France estab- lished a joint control over Egypt in order to secure against loss their subjects who were holders of Egyptian bonds." Six years later, in 1882, there broke out in the Egyptian army a mutiny against the authority of the Khedive. France declining to act with England in suppressing the disorder, England moved alone in the matter. As a result the Anglo-French control became a sole British control.'^ No part of the world has benefited more by European control than Egypt. When England assumed the administration of its affairs it was in every respect one of the most wretched of the "lands under the rule, actual or nominal, of the Turkish Sultan. The country is now more prosperous than at any previous period 1 The population of the Union according to the census of 191 1 is about 7,000,000, of which about 1,250,000 are of European stock and the rest native or colored. Gold and diamond mining is the leading industry. - Egypt was at that time nominally an hereditary principality under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Porte. ■^ The great European war brought to an end the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Porte over Egypt. Turkey having entered the war on the side of Germany and her allies. Great Britain declared an actual protectorate over the country (1914). § 675] FRANCE IN AFRICA 597 of its history, not excepting the time of the rule of the Pharaohs. This high degree of prosperity has been secured mainly through England's having given Egypt the two things declared necessary to its prosperity, — "justice and water." The construction of the great irrigation or storage dam across the Nile at the First Cataract (at Assuan) is one of the greatest engineering achievements of modern times. The dam retains the surplus waters of the Nile in flood times and releases them grad- ually during the months of low water. This constant supply of water for irrigation purposes will, it is estimated, increase by a third the agricultural capabilities of Egypt not only by greatly augmenting the area of fertile soil but by making it possible on much of the land to raise two and even three crops each year. III. THE EXPANSION OF FRANCE 675. France in Africa. At the opening of the nineteenth century France possessed only fragments of a once promising colonial empire. From the long Napoleonic Wars she emerged too exhausted to give any attention for a time to interests out- side of the homeland. When finally she began to look about her for over-the-sea ter- ritories to make good her losses in America and Asia, it was the North African shore that, on account of proximity, climate, and products, naturally attracted her attention. This region possesses great agricultural resources. In ancient times it was one of the richest grain-tribute-paying provinces of the Roman Empire. Its climate is favorable for Latin-European settlement. It is really geographically a part of Europe, "the true Africa beginning with the Sahara." France began the conquest of Algeria as early as 1830. The subjugation of the country was not effected without much hard fighting with the native tribes and a great expenditure in men and money. In the year 1881, assigning as a reason for the step the necessity of defending her Algerian frontier against the raids of the mountain tribes of Tunis on the east, France sent troops 598 EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§675 into that country and established a protectorate over it. This act of hers deeply offended the Italians, who had had their eye upon this district, regarding it as belonging to them by virtue of its geographical position as well as its historical traditions/ In 191 1 France established a protectorate over Morocco. The international dispute, stirred up by Germany, which arose over this matter was one of the antecedents of the war of 1914-1919. In a later chapter, where we shall speak of the underlying causes of this tremendous conflict, we shall give a more detailed account of this controversy. These North African territories form the most promising por- tion of France's new colonial empire.' The more sanguine of her statesmen entertain hopes of ultimately creating here a new home for the French people, — a sort of New France. In any event it seems certain that all these shore lands, which in the seventh cen- tury were severed from Europe by the Arabian conquests, are now again permanently reunited to that continent and are henceforth virtually to constitute a part of the European world. Besides these lands in North Africa, France possesses a vast domain in the region of the Senegal and lays claim to all the Sahara lying between her colony of Senegal and Algeria. She also holds extensive territories just north of the Congo Free State, embracing part of central Sudan, besides less important patches of territory in other parts of the continent.^ The great island of Madagascar also forms a part of the French-African empire. 1 Disappointed in not getting Tunis, the Italians sought to secure a foothold on the Red Sea coast. They seized here a district and organized it under the name of the Colony of Eritrea. To the southeast they also took possession of a long strip of coast land (Somaliland). But they had hard luck almost from the first. The coast is hot and unhealthy, and inland is the kingdom of Abyssinia. Over this the Italians attempted to establish a protectorate ; but unfortunately for them Abyssinia does not regard herself as one of the uncivilized or moribund states over which it is necessary for Europeans to extend their protection. King Menelik of that country inflicted upon the Italian army a most disastrous defeat (i8q6). The matter of the seizure by the Italians of Tripoli in northern Africa will be touched upon in another connection (see sect. 706). 2 In Algeria and Tunis the vine and olive culture is being developed in a wonderful manner. 3 The French were anxious to extend their authority eastward to the Nile, and in order to secure a claim to that region an expedition under Major Marchand made an § 676] FRANCE IN ASIA 599 676. France in Asia. In the year 1862 France secured a foothold near the mouth of the Cambodia River in Indo-China and then steadily enlarged her possessions until by the close of the nineteenth century she held in those quarters territories which exceeded in extent the homeland. A chief aim of the French in this region is to secure the trade of southern China. With these ample African and Asiatic territories France feels in a measure consoled for her losses in the past, and dreams of a brilliant career as one of the great colonizing powers of Europe. France has, however, one great handicap as a colonizing state. She has not, what England has, a rapidly increasing population. Nor have her citizens that restless, adventurous spirit of the Anglo-Saxons which has driven them as conquerors and settlers into the remotest parts of the earth and made England the mother of innumerable colonies and states. IV. THE EXPANSION OF GERMANY 677. German Emigrants lost to Germany. No country of Europe during the expansion movement which we are following supplied a greater number of emigrants for the settlement of transoceanic lands than Germany. But Germany did not until late in the nineteenth century possess under her own flag any over-the-sea territories, and consequently the vast number of emigrants she sent out sought homes in the United States, in the different English colonies, in the Spanish and Portuguese republics of South America, and even in the Asiatic provinces of the Otto- man Empire. Thus it happened that although Germany during the earlier expansion period sent out swarms of emigrants no true Greater Germany grew up outside of Europe. adventurous march through central Africa to the Nile and raised the French flag at Fashoda. But French ambition here crossed English interests. France established on the Upper Nile would be in a position to menace the security of Egypt, while a French land route across equatorial Africa, such as the French had in mind, would be an obstruc- tion to England's projected Cape-to-Cairo road. After some sharp diplomatic exchanges between the French and English governments the French gave up all claim to any part of the Nile valley, and the " Fashoda incident," as it was called, was closed. 600 EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§678 But stimulated by the war of 1870-187 1 against France, and the consolidation of the German Empire, German statesmen began to dream of making Germany a world power. To this end it was deemed necessary to secure for Germany colonies where the German emigrants might live under the German flag and, instead of contributing to the growth and prosperity of other states, should remain Germans and constitute a part of the German nation. 678. Germany in Africa and in Asia. Consequently when in the last quarter of the nineteenth century the competition began for African territory, Germany entered into the struggle with great zeal and got a considerable share of the spoils. In 1884 she declared a protectorate over a large region of the southwest coast of the continent just north of the Orange River, and thus lying partly in the temperate zone.^ This colony was known as German Southwest Africa. At about the same time Germany established two smaller protectorates on the west coast, near the equator. On the eastern coast of the continent she took possession of a great territory, twice as large as Germany itself, embracing a part of the celebrated Lake District, a region well adapted to European settle- ment. This territory was named .German East Africa. In 1897 Germany, on the pretext of protecting German mis- sionaries in China, seized the port of Kiau-chau and forced its practical cession from the Chinese government. This is a spot of great importance commercially and politically. The German gov- ernment aimed to make this colony a true German settlement and the outgoing point of German power and influence in the Far East.- Such was the position of Germany in the colonial world at the opening of the World War. How that conflict affected her colonial aspirations and expansion projects will appear in a later chapter. 1 In 1904 the German government was forced to face a serious revolt of some of the native tribes of the protectorate, which was suppressed only after three years of cruel warfare. The natives were virtually exterminated. The number of German colonists in the territory at the beginning of the war of 1914 was about 10,000. '- Besides the colonial possessions we have named, Germany, before the war of 1914, held a number of islands and groups of islands in the Pacific. She had also secured such predominant industrial and political influence in Asian Turkey as to make the Ottoman Empire almost a (lerman dependency, a matter which will best be considered when we come to examine the causes and antecedents of the World War. § 679] RUSSIAN EXPANSION IN ASIA* 6oi V. THE EXPANSION OF RUSSIA 679. Russian Expansion in Asia. Russia has large and numerous inland lakes and seas and vast rivers, but she lacks seaboard. Her efforts to reach the sea in different directions is, as we have learned, the key to much of her history. It is this which has given a special character to Russian expansion, — which has made it a movement by land instead of by sea, as in the case of all the other European states that have had a part in the great expansion movement. Russia made no material territorial gains in Europe, aside from the acquisition of Finland and part of Prussian Poland, during the nineteenth century, although, as we have seen, she fought in three great wars for this end and shattered into frag- ments the Turkish Empire, which lay between her and the goal of her ambition, — Constantinople. But in Asia the additions which, during this period, she made to her empire were immense in extent. By the middle of the century she had absorbed a great part of the Caucasus region, encroaching here upon both Persia and Turkey in Asia. During the latter half of the century she steadily pushed forward her boundaries in central Asia. She conquered or conciliated the tribes of Turkestan and advanced her frontier in this quarter far towards the south, — close up against Afghanistan. In the very heart of the continent her out- posts were established upon the lofty table-lands of the Pamirs, the "Roof of the World." In the extreme eastern part of Asia she obtained from China, under circumstances which will be ex- plained a little farther on (sect. 687), the lease of Port Arthur, one of the most important Asiatic harbors on the Pacific, and occupied the large Chinese province of INIanchuria. Thus by the opening of the twentieth century Russia in her expansion had not only subjugated the nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes of central Asia but had also won territories from the three semicivilized or backward states of the continent, — Turkey, Persia, and China, — and was crowding heavily upon all those countries. 6o2 ' EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§ 680 680. The Trans-Siberian Railway. Russia's most note- worthy undertaking during the nineteenth century in connection with her Asiatic empire was the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which unites Petrograd with the Pacific ports of Vladi- vostok and Port Arthur (since 1905 in possession of Japan). The construction of this road has made accessible to Russian settlers the vast fertile regions of southern Siberia, and before the great European war paralyzed Russian life was fast making that country a part of the civilized world; for though it may be true as to the past that "civilization has come riding on a gun car- riage," now it comes riding on a locomotive. VI. THE EXPANSION OF THE UNITED STATES 681. The Growth of the United States a Part of the Great European Expansion Movement. At first view it might seem that the growth of our own country should not be given a place in the present chapter. But the expansion of the United States is as truly a part of European expansion as is the increase of the English race in Canada, or in Australasia, or in South Africa. The circumstance that the development here has taken place since the severance of all political ties binding this country to the motherland is wholly immaterial. The Canadian, Australian, and African developments have also, as a matter of fact, been expansion movements from practically secondary and independent centers of European settlement. Hence to complete our survey of the movement which has put in possession or in control of the European peoples so much of the earth, we must note — we can simply note — the expansion during the past century of the great American Commonwealth. 682. How the Territorial Acquisitions of the United States and its Growth in Population have contributed to assure the Predominance of the Anglo-Saxon Race in Greater Europe. Seven times during the nineteenth and the early twentieth century the United States enlarged her borders.^ These gains in territory 1 The last increase in territory was in 19 17, when the United States secured by pur- chase the Danish West Indian islands — St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John. 120 Lonnilude 100 W>,1 from 80 Greenwich 60 ANGtO-SAXOX : Great Gritain tATIN : France, Italy, Spain ete. Indep't Latin Countries, I ] SLAVOMC ! Russia, I Germany, I 1 Other European Countries and their Colonies, CTa This Map is intended to show : First, how pxeat a portion of the world has come to be occupied or to be dominated by peoples of European descent ; and, second, to indicate particulaily the relative areas held by Saxon. Latin, and Slav. 60 Lonjilude 80 Eiae from 100 Greenwich 120 § 683] SHALL CHINA BE PARTITIONED ? 603 were in the main at the expense of a Latin race, — the Spanish, They have not therefore resulted in an actual increase in the possessions of the European peoples, but have simply contributed to the ascendancy, in this new-forming European world, of a people predominantly Anglo-Saxon in race. Of even greater significance than the territorial expansion of the United States during the last century is the amazing growth of the Republic during this period in population and in material and intellectual resources. At the opening of the nineteenth cen- tury the white population of the United States was a little over four millions; by igio it had risen to over eighty-one millions. This is the largest aggregate of human force and intelligence that the world has yet seen. Even more impressive than its actual are its potential capacities. With practically unlimited room for expansion, it is impossible adequately to realize into what, during the coming centuries, the American people will grow. This remarkable growth of an English-speaking nation on the soil of the New World has contributed more than anything else, save the expansion of Great Britain into Greater Britain, to lend impressiveness and import to the movement indicated by the expression "European expansion." VII. CHECK TO EUROPEAN EXPANSION AND AGGRESSION IN EASTERN ASIA 683. Shall China be partitioned? Before the close of the nineteenth century the outward movement of the European peoples, which we have now traced in broad outlines, had created a great crisis in the life of the peoples of the Far East. It had imperiled the independence of one of the great races of mankind, the Yellow, or Mongolian, Race, comprising perhaps one third of the population of the earth. It had raised the question. Shall China be partitioned ? Shall the Mongolian peoples of the Far East be dominated and their destinies shaped by the European powers? An unexpected answer to these questions was given by Japan. 604 ^ EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§684 684. The Awakening of Japan. As late as the middle of the nineteenth century Japan was a hermit nation. She jealously ex- cluded foreigners and refused to enter into diplomatic relations with the Western powers. But in the year 1854 Commodore Perry of the United States secured from the Japanese govern- ment concessions which opened the country to Western influ- ences, under which Japan soon awoke to a new life. In the course of the half century following this change in Japanese policy, the progress made by Japan on all lines, polit- ical, material, and intellectual, was something without a parallel in history. She transformed her ancient feudal divine-right gov- ernment into a constitutional system modeled upon the political institutions of the West. She adopted almost entire the material side of the civilization of the Western nations and eagerly absorbed their sciences. But what took place, it should be carefully noted, was^ not a Europeanization of Japan. The new Japan was an evolution of the old. The Japanese to-day in their innermost life, in their deepest instincts, and in their modes of thought are still an oriental people. 685. The China- Japan War of 1894 ; a Mongolian Monroe Doctrine. In 1894 came the war between Japan and China. A chief cause of this war was China's claim to suzerainty over Korea and her efforts to secure control of the affairs of that country. But under the conditions of modern warfare, and par- ticularly in view of the Russian advance in eastern Asia, the maintenance of Korea as an independent state seemed to Japan absolutely necessary to the security of her island empire. The situation is vividly pictured in these words of a Japanese states- man. "Any hostile power," he says, "in occupation of the penin- sula might easily throw an army into Japan, for Korea lies like a dagger ever pointed toward the very heart of Japan." Still again, realizing that greed of territory would lead the Euro- pean powers sooner or later to seek the partition of China and the political control of the Mongolian lands of the Far East, Japan wished to stir China from her lethargy, make herself her adviser § 686] THE BOXER UPRISING 605 and leader, and thus get in a position to control the affairs of eastern Asia. In a word, she was resolved to set up a sort of Monroe Doctrine in her part of the world, which should close Mongolian lands against European encroachments and preserve for Asiatics what was still left of Asia. The war was short and decisive. It was a fight between David and Goliath. China with her great inert mass was absolutely help- less in the hands of her tiny antagonist. With the Japanese army in full march upon Peking, the Chinese government was forced to sue for peace. China now recognized the independence of Korea, and ceded to Japan Formosa and the extreme southern part of Manchuria, including Port Arthur. But at this juncture of affairs Russia, supported by France and Germany, jealously intervened. These powers forced Japan to accept a money indemnity in lieu of territory on the continent. She was permitted, however, to take possession of the island of Formosa. - 686. China yi Process of Dismemberment; the Boxer Up- rising (i9oo). The march of the little Japanese army into the heart of the huge Chinese Empire was in its consequences some- thing like the famous march of the Ten Thousand Greeks through the great Persian Empire. It revealed the surprising weakness of China, — a fact known before to all the world, but never so per- fectly realized as after the Japanese exploit, — and marked her out for partition. The process of dismemberment began without unnecessary delay. Germany, Russia, England, and France each demanded and received from China the cession or lease of a port. The press in Europe and America began openly to discuss the impending partition of the Chinese Empire and to speculate as to how the spoils would be divided. Suddenly the whole Western world was startled by the intelli- gence that the legations, or embassies, of all the European powers at Peking were hemmed in and besieged by a Chinese mob aided by the imperial troops. Then quickly followed a report of the massacre of all the Europeans in the city. Strenuous efforts were at once made by the different Western nations, as well as by Japan, to send an international force to the 6o6 EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§687 rescue of their representatives and the missionaries and other Europeans with them, should it chance that any were still alive. Not since the Crusades had so many European nations joined in a common undertaking. There were in the relief army Russian, French, English, American, and German troops, besides a strt)ng Japanese contingent. The relief column fought its way through to Peking and forced the gates of the capital. The worst had not happened, and soon the tension of the Western world, which had lasted for six weeks, was relieved by the glad news of the rescue of the beleaguered little company of Europeans. All which it concerns us now to notice is the place which this remark- able passage in Chinese history holds in the story of European expansion which we have been rehearsing. The point of view to which our study has brought us discloses this at once : The insurrection had at bottom for its cause the determination of the Chinese to set a limit to the en- croachments of the Western races, to exclude all foreign influences, to prevent the dismemberment of their country, to preserve China for the Chinese. All the various causes that have been assigned for the uprising are included in this general underlying cause. 687. The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Early in the year 1904 war opened between Japan and Russia. Respecting the fundamental cause of this conflict, little need be added to what has already been said in the preceding pages. Soon after Russia Fig. 107. Field Marshal Oyama. (From stereograph, copyright, 1904, by the H. C. White Company, New York) Scale of "111168 § 687] THE RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 607 had forced Japan to give up Port Arthur and the territory in Manchuria ceded to her by the terms of the treaty with China after the Chino-Japanese War of 1894 (sect. 685), she herself secured from China a lease of the most ''strategic portion" of this same territory, and straightway proceeded to transform Port Arthur into a great naval and military fortress, which was to be the Gibraltar of the East. Moreover, she occupied the whole of the great Chinese province of Manchuria. Notwithstanding she had given solemn pledges that the occupation of this territory should be only temporary, she not only violated these pledges but made it evident by her acts that she intended, besides mak- ing Manchuria a part of the Russian Empire, also to seize Korea. But Russian control of this stretch of seaboard and command of the Eastern seas meant that Japan would be hemmed in by a perpetual blockade and her existence as an independent nation imperiled. It would place her destiny in the hands of Russia. Japan could not accept this fate, and drew the sword. The sanguinary war was signalized by an unbroken series of astonishing victories for the Japanese on land and on sea. They assumed practical control of Korea, and under Field Marshal Oyama wrested from the Russian armies under Kuropatkin the southernmost portion of Manchuria. Port Arthur, after one of the longest and most memorable sieges of modern times, was forced to capitulate.^ The strong Russian fleet in the Eastern waters at the beginning of hostilities was virtually destroyed. A second great fleet sent out from the Baltic Sea was met in the Korean Straits by the Japanese fleet under Admiral Togo, and the greater part of the ships were sunk or captured. - Through the mediation of President Roosevelt peace envoys of Russia and Japan were now brought together at Portsmouth, ^ January ii, 1905. The siege was conducted by General Nogi and Admiral Togo; the defense of the place was made by General Stoessel. A little later this same year was fought the great battle of Mukden, in which the Japanese were victors. 2 In the sea fight of Tsushima, May 27-29, 1905. The Russian fleet was commanded by Admiral Rojestvensky. 6o8 EUROPEAN EXPANSION [§ 688 in the United States, and the war was brought to a close by the signing of what is known as the Peace of Portsmouth/ 688. Some Results of the War; Establishment of the Chinese Republic. The war had momentous results. It lifted Japan to the position of a great power. It set limits to European encroachments in eastern Asia, and established the doctrine of "Asia for the Asiatics." It gave assurance that the Yellow Race should not, like the Red and Black Races, become subject to the White Race, but should, in self-determined and self-directed activity, play an independent part in the history of future times. Especially important were the consequences of the war for the Chinese Empire. The effect upon China of Japan's triumph over the giant Russian Empire was electric. A national conscious- ness was awakened, and important educational, moral, and govern- mental reforms were set on foot. The old system of education was done away with, and the sciences of the West were substituted for the ancient classics. Thousands of the Chinese youth sought the new knowledge in the schools of Japan, the United States, and Europe. In 191 2 the Manchu dynasty, now weak, corrupt, and discredited by the circumstances of the Boxer trouble, was over- thrown, the ancient monarchy abolished, and a Republic, molded on that of the United States, proclaimed.- Even more fateful was the war in its reaction upon Europe. In a way that has already been explained (sect. 656), it gave a great impulse to the Liberal movement in Russia. "Above all it [the Russian defeat] increased the self-confidence of Germany, and inspired her rulers with the dangerous conviction that the opposing forces with which they would have to deal in the ex- pected contest for the mastery of Europe could be more easily 1 The treaty was signed September 5, 1905. Among the important articles of this treaty were the following : (i) permission to Japan to make Korea her ward (the country was annexed to the Japanese Empire in 1910) ; (2) the evacuation of Manchuria by both the Russians and the Japanese ; (3) the transfer to Japan by Russia of all her rights at Port Arthur and Dalny ; (4) the division of the Manchurian railway between Japan and Russia ; (5) the cession by Russia to Japan of the southern part of the island of Saghalien. 2 The first president was Yuan Shih-K'ai (1912-1916). In 1915-1916 there was a con- spiracy to restore the monarchy, but the movement was defeated by a revolt in several of the province's. REFERENCES 609 overcome than they had anticipated. To the Russian defeat must be attributed the blustering insolence of German policy during the next ten years, and the boldness of the final challenge in 1914."^ References. In citing references for the present chapter and the two following ones no attempt has been made to distinguish between primary and secondary authorities, for the reason that many of the works, since the writers are dealing chiefly with contemporary events and often with events of which they were a part, are of a mixed character. Works of a general character: Mokris, II. C, The Hisio/y of Colotiiza- tioti, 2 vols, (has a good bibliography). Ireland, A., Tropical Colonization. Bryce, J., The Relations of the Advanced and the Backward Races of Mankind. Gibbons, H. A., The New Map of Africa and The A^ew Map of Asia. Muir, R., The Expansion of Eitrope. Hayes, C.J. H., A Political and Social -History of Modern Europe, vol. ii, chaps, xxvii-xxx. For the British Colonial Empire : Seeley, J. R., The Expansion of England. Caldecott, a., English Colonization and Empire. BoURINOT, J. G., Canada nnder British Rule, lybo-igoo. ]'S.^V.'i,Y.., History of the Australasian Colonies. Bryce, J., Impressions of South Africa. Lavelle, C. F., and Payne, C. E., Imperial Englatid, chaps, vii-xii. For Europe in Africa: Johnston, H. H., A History of the Colonization of Africa. Stanley, H. M., Thi-ough the Dark Contiftent, 2 vols., and The Congo and the Founding of its Free State. Keltie, J. S., The Partition of Africa. Milner, a., England in Egypt. Hughes, T., Livitigstone. Hazen, C. D., Modem European Histoiy, chap, xxviii. For Russia in Asia : Kennan, G., Siberia and the Exile System, 2 vols. Skrine, F. H., The Expatision of Russia, 181J-1QOO. For the Far East: Griffis, W. E., The Mikado's Empire, 2 vols., and The fapanese Nation in Evolution. AsAKAWA, The Russofapanese Confict. Reinsch, p. S., IVorld Politics at the End of the Nineteenth Century as influenced bv the Oriental Situation. Topics for Class Reports, i. The relation of the later European expan- sion to the new industry: Muir, R., The ILxpansioti of Europe, pp. 145-149. 2. Liberia and Abyssinia: Gibbons, H. A., The New Map of Africa, chap. iv. 3. The economic resources of South Africa: Bryce, J., Impressions of South Africa, chap. xxvi. 1 Muir, The Expansion of Europe, p. 239. CHAPTER XLIII EVOLUTION TOWARD WORLD FEDERATION For I dipt into the future, far as human eye could see, Saw a Vision of the world, and all the wonder that would be ; Till the war-drum throbb'd no longer, and the battle-flags were furl'd In the Parliament of Man, the Federation of the World. — Tennyson 689. Introductory. "It is a favorite maxim of mine," writes Professor Seeley in his Expansion of England, "that history, while it should be scientific in its method, should pursue a prac- tical object. That is, it should not merely gratify the reader's curiosity about the past but modify his view of the present and his forecast of the future. Now if this maxim be sound, the his- tory of England ought to end with something that might be called a moral. Some large conclusion ought to arise out of it; it ought to exhibit the general tendency of English affairs in such a way as to set us thinking about the future and divining the destiny which is reserved for us." The inspiring destiny for England which Professor Seeley reads in her past and present history is Imperial Federation, — that is, a great federal union embracing the motherland and her colonies, organized after the model of the United States of America. Professor Seeley's maxim must needs be applied to universal history if its study is to issue in anything really worthy and practical. We must try to discover the tendency of the historic evolution, to discern the set of the current of world events, and to divine the destiny reserved for the human race. Only thus shall we be able to form practical ideals for humanity and strive intelligently and hopefully for their realization. 690. The Movement toward World Unity. Now, there is no tendency in universal history, broadly viewed, more manifest 6io §690] MOVEMENT TOWARD WORLD UNITY 6ii than the tendency toward world union. From the first appearance of man on the earth, the trend of human evolution has been toward a united world, a world organized for common effort and common achievement. In the beginning, the largest independent group was the clan. Abraham wandering over the lands of the East and waging war with a handful of kinsmen and servants is typical of this stage of human development. Then came the tribe, a group of clans; and then, in those regions where civilization made its first gains, appeared the city-state, as we find it in the Mesopotamian lands, in Syria and Palestine, in Greece and Italy, at the dawn of the historic age. For upwards of a thousand years the city-state was the ultimate political unit in the Mediterranean lands, which before the rise of the Macedonian power and the great extension of the Roman authority were the seat of hundreds of these little independent political communities. Then, if we disregard purely artificial unions, unions created and maintained by force, such as the Roman Empire, came the great nation-states of modern times, which since the break-up of the Roman Empire have been slowly created through the unification of tribes, cities, and petty principalities. During the past century a state of an essentially new type has arisen among these nation-states, — the federal state, of which our Union, consisting of forty-eight states, and the Swiss Confederation are typical. The formation of unions of this kind is such a marked characteristic of the last hundred years that this period has been called the Federal Age. Especially significant is it that during this time the British Empire, through the federalization of Canada, Australia, and British South Africa, and the new relation that England has assumed towards the various elements of her widely extended dominions, has lost the characteristics of an "Empire" and has become, or is becoming, what may rightly be called a Federal Commonwealth. The significant thing about this federal movement is that the natural and logical issue of national federalism is international federalism. The United States of America foreshadows the United States of the World. 6i2 EVOLUTION TOWARD WORLD FEDERATION [§ 691 69L Preparations in Different Domains for a Universal League of Nations. In truth, during the century preceding the World War, in different realms, the required conditions for a federation of all the nations of the earth had been largely created by humanity's advance and achievements. In the political realm all that the age-spirit had accomplished would seem to have had for its ultimate aim the preparing of the way for international feder- ation. More than a century ago Immanuel Kant, in his essay on Perpetual Peace, affirmed that a prerequisite for the federation of the world was the establishment by all the nations of a repub- lican form of government. If we recall what the union of the autocratic governments of Europe in the Holy Alliance meant (sect. 585), we shall understand Kant. A world union of des- potic governments would be the tomb of liberty, individual and national, — a world-wide autocratic despotism. When Kant wrote his plea for peace, autocratic government prevailed almost everywhere in Europe. We have seen how during the century following the Congress of Vienna the democratization of governments not only on that continent but almost everywhere went on apace, bringing the management of public affairs more or less completely into the hands of the people. Thus before the outbreak of the great war of 19 14 the first required condition of a universal league had been largely met in the case of a great part of the nations and communities of the civilized world. A second significant preparation, during the period under review, for world organization was the federation movement, of which we spoke in the last section, for federalism supplies the principle which may be applied to international organization without en- dangering the principle of home rule and legitimate national sovereignty, since it deprives the uniting states, as exemplified in our Union, of nothing save that lawless freedom which they have used to do one another hurt and harm. While the basis of a universal federation was thus being laid in the political domain through the incoming of democracy and federalism there was going on in the moral world an even more important preparation for world union. There was growing up § 691] PREPARATIONS FOR LEAGUE OF NATIONS 613 what has been called the international mind; men were begin- ning to think in world terms. There was, further, a deepening and strengthening, not universally, as we shall learn, but gen- erally and in the world at large, of the sentiment of human kinship, of international jus- tice and solidarity. There was developing, too, a new inter- national conscience, a con- science which, affirming the universality of the moral law, recognized that the principles of morality are the same for nations as for individuals. In this moral movement there was the promise and guarantee of a new world order. At the same time that these movements, so significant for world unity, were going on in the political and moral realms, in the physical domain won- derful discoveries and inven- tions, — the steam railway, the steamship, the telegraph, the telephone, wireless telegraphy, the airship, and a hundred others, — through the practical annihilation of time and space, were drawing the once isolated nations close together, and thus were making not only possible but increasingly necessary and inevitable international organization. 1 In 1903 the South American republics of Chile and Argentina, having happily settled by arbitration a long-standing boundary controversy which threatened to involve the two countries in war, mutually bound themselves by treaty to reduce their military and naval armaments and for a stated period to submit every matter of dispute arising between them to arbitration. Upon one of the highest boundary ranges of the Andes the two nations have erected a colossal bronze statue of Christ as the sacred guardian of the peace to which they are pledged. The statue was unveiled March 13, 1904. Fig. 108. The Christ of the Andes.^ (From a photograph by Carolina Huidobro) 6i4 EVOLUTION TOWARD WORLD FEDERATION [§692 692. The First Hague Conference (i899). Even prior to the World War more had been accompHshed in the way of the creation of the machinery of a World State than is generally realized. Just as the nineteenth century was closing the Tsar Nicholas surprised the world by proposing to all the governments having representatives at the Russian court the meeting of a conference "to consider means of insuring the general peace of the world and of putting a limit to the progressive increase of arma- ments which weigh upon all nations." All the governments addressed, twenty-six in number, accepted the proposal and on the i8th of May, 1899, the Convention met in the famous " House in the Woods " at The Hague, in the Nether- lands. Owing to the opposition of Germany any action looking toward the general limitation of armaments was prevented.^ But the Convention did succeed in the establishment of a permanent International Court of Arbitration to which all nations might have recourse for the settlement of interstate disputes.- The Confer- ence also made provision for International Commissions of In- quiry, which were intended to ascertain the real facts in cases of threatening international controversies.^ 693. The Second Hague Conference (1907). A second inter- national conference met at The Hague in 1907. Forty-four of the fifty and more sovereign and independent nations of the world were represented. One of the important achievements of the con- ference was the adoption of a proposal made by the delegates of the United States for the establishment of an International Court 1 Germany was opposed to the proposal because she was better prepared for war than her neighbors and had in mind to use force, if need be, for the attainment of her ambitious projects. As has been affirmed, '' The conflict between Germany and the world began in 1899 at the First Hague Conference." 2 Andrew Carnegie, recognizing the importance of the work of the Convention, made a gift of 1.1,500,000 for the erection at The Hague of a permanent home for the Court. The imposing structure is known as the "Temple of Peace." Prior to 1914 a number of international disputes which might have led to war were adjusted by the Court. 3 It was through such a commission that a serious dispute between Great Britain and Russia, which arose out of an attack upon some English fishing smacks off the Dogger Bank in the North Sea, by ships of the Russian fleet on its way to Japan at the time of the Russo-Japanese War, was settled peacefully. §693] THE FIRST HAGUE CONFERENCE 615 of Arbitral Justice, as a genuine court of law with permanent judges, to stand by the side of the Court of Arbitration created by the First Hague Conference. The jurisdiction and rules of procedure of the court were agreed upon, but unfortunately no agreement as to the number and mode of selection of the judges could be reached. However, a long step had been taken in the judicial organization of the world. Had the court been fully constituted and the submission to it of international disputes been made obligatory, — again it was the stubborn opposition of Ger- many that thwarted every effort to this end, — it is possible that the great tragedy which overwhelmed Europe in 19 14 would have been averted. The action of the conference respecting the periodic meeting of representatives of the nations was as follows: "The conference recommends to the powers the reunion of a third peace conference, which shall take place within a period analogous to that which has elapsed since the preceding conference, at a date fixed by common agreement among the powers." A true world legislature was in process of formation. Seven years after the close of the sessions of the Second Hague Convention the evolutionary movement towards world organi- zation was, in a way that could hardly have been foreseen, — through the agency of the most titanic and destructive war in all history, — given a great impulse, and thereby the goal of a federated world brought measurably nearer. This amazing and dramatic passage in universal history we shall briefly summarize in the next chapter. References. Fiske, J., American Political Ideas, lect. iii, " Manifest Destiny." Marburg, T., League of iVations. Holls, F. W., The Peace Conference at The Hague (a record of the Conference of 1S99). White, A. D., The First Hague Conference. Hull, W. I., The Two Hague Conferences. Choate, J. H., The Two Hague Conferences. ScoTT, J. B. (Ed.), American Addresses at the Second Hagtie Peace Conference. Bridgman, R. L., World Organization and The First Book of World Law. Minor, R. C, A Repttblic of Nations. Lawrence, T. J., The Society of Nations. CHAPTER XLIV THE WORLD WAR (1914-1918) I. CAUSES OF THE WAR AND TRAIN OF EVENTS LEADING UP TO IT 694. The War's Place in History. In the midsummer of 19 14 — henceforth one of the memorable dates of history — there broke out in Europe a war which at once involved five of the great powers of that continent and ultimately almost the whole of the civilized world. It will help us to realize the significance of this titanic struggle and to assign it its true place in history if we first note its relation to that revolutionary movement which began in England in the seventeenth century and of which the outstanding fact before this last convulsion was the French Revolution ; for it was this great drift in the life current of the race, despite dynastic interests and the personal ambitions of those upon whom rests the chief responsibility for the war, which gave the conflict its profoundest meaning and its world-wide range. As we have seen, two of the fundamental principles proclaimed by the Revolution were the principles of popular sovereignty, or government by the people for the people, and the principle of nationality, or the right of every nation to be master of its own destiny (sect. 581). Now, these basic principles of the Revolution were, as we shall see, the essential principles for which the nations fighting against Germany and her allies in the World War contended. This de- termines the place in history of the great conflict. It was the last act in the drama of what we have called the Political Revolution. This place in history which we assign the war will be seen to be its real place if we look more closely, as we shall now proceed to db, at some of the fundamental causes of the great war. 616 §695] DIVINE-RIGHT KINGSHIP AGAIN 617 695. Divine-Right Kingship again and the Democratic Movement. During the nineteenth century the revolutionary idea of government by the people made conquest, as we have learned, of a great part of the world. Unhappily there were in Central Europe two states, Prussia and Austria, which repudiated the liberal principles of the Revolution and, under the mask of constitutional and parliamentary forms, remained the upholders of the old discredited regime of autocratic government. Of these two states Prussia alone, as the dominant power, need be noticed by us here. In an earlier chapter we saw how the royal Prussian House of Hohenzollern was raised by Prince Bismarck, through a policy of " blood and iron," first to the headship of Germany and then to the Imperial dignity.^ We also saw how the young Emperor William II, the third of the Hohenzollerns to wear the Imperial crown, shortly after the beginning of his reign, brusquely dis- missed the Imperial Chancellor, Prince Bismarck, and then began a very personal rule. The following utterances of the Emperor reveal the spirit and temper of his government : " I alone am master here; who opposes me I shall crush" (a sentiment ex- pressed by the young Emperor at the time he " dropped his pilot," Prince Bismarck). "We Hohenzollerns take our crown from God alone, and to God alone we are responsible in the fulfillment of duty." - " The spirit of the Lord has descended upon me because I am the Emperor of the Germans. I am the instrument of the Almighty, his sword, his agent. Woe and death to all those who oppose my will."^ Now, this is exactly the language of the divine-right Stuarts of England and the pre-revolutionary Bourbons of France,^ whose arrogant assumptions and unbearable tyranny did so much to 1 See Chapter XXXIX. 2 This was not merely Emperor William's personal interpretation of the German Con- stitution. The eminent German historian Eduard Meyer had said, "The power of Ger- many's monarchs must be unlimited, and they cannot therefore be responsible to man but to God alone." 3 Proclamation by the Emperor to the army of the East at the beginning of the great war. ^ Cf. sects. 397, 412. 6i8 THE WORLD WAR [§ 696 provoke the English and the French Revolution. The ideal of government, the mode of thinking, shown by these declarations was one of the deeper causes of the World War — for civilization cannot exist half autocratic and half democratic — and was what made it possible for President Wilson, when, in the third year of the unprecedented conflict, the United States entered the war, to define it as fundamentally a struggle between democracy and autocracy and to declare our aim and purpose in entering the war to be "to make the world safe for democracy."^ In doing this we were but carrying on toward completion the work so far advanced by the men of 1789. 696. German Imperialism and the Nationalist Movement. It was not only the spirit of democracy but also the spirit of nationalism that was at work in the world at large during the hundred years and more preceding the great war. This period witnessed the rise and establishment of many nation-states, large and small. But while the world, broadly viewed, was being recon- structed in accordance with this great principle of nationalism and was advancing towards true democratic internationalism, towards a world-wide federation of free and equal nations, Germany, under Prussian influence and dominance, was relapsing into archaic imperialism and scheming for world dominion. " I hope it will be granted to our German Fatherland," these are the words of Emperor William II, " to become in the future as closely united, as powerful, and as authoritative as once the Roman world-empire was, and that, just as in old times one said, ' I am a Roman citizen,' hereafter, at some time in the future, one will say, 'I am a German citizen.' "- This dream of a world-empire was not the dream of the Hohen- zollerns alone ; it was the dream of an influential party in Ger- many made up of militarists, junkers, professors, publicists, and 1 That this was the real character of the war was at first obscured by the fact that autocratic Russia was an ally of the liberal governments of western Europe ; but when, in 1917, the Romanoff dynasty was overthrown and Russia proclaimed a republic, though the republic was short-lived, the real issues involved became clear. 2 Address of the Emperor at the laying of the comer stone of the Imperial Limes Museum at Saalburg, 1900. Longitude Yfeatjrom OreeDi^icb Longitude East icom Qxeenwlcli JO §697] GERMAN PRE-WAR IDEAS AND DOCTRINES 619 industrial magnates, known as Pan-Germans, the maxim of many of whom at least was "World power or downfall."^ That the war was a supreme struggle between militaristic im- perialism and nationalism was not at first clearly perceived by those remote from its arena. But as the war progressed, the real issues involved were more and more clearly revealed, so that when, finally, the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies, President Wilson could declare its object to be " to deliver the free peoples of the world from the menace and the actual power of a vast military establishment controlled by an irre- sponsible government which, having secretly planned to dominate the world, proceeded to carry out the plan without regard either to the sacred obligations of treaty or the long-established prac- tices and long-cherished principles of international action and honor." ^ In a word, the war was a tremendous conflict in which the free peoples of the world fought to prevent the setting up of a revived Roman Empire that threatened to become, like Napoleon's em- pire, the tomb of the nations. So here again, in its relation to nationalism, is disclosed the relation of the World War to the Political Revolution. 697. Some German Pre-War Ideas and Doctrines. But the war was something more than a conflict between autocracy and democracy, something more than a conflict between imperialism and nationalism. It was, further, a conflict of ideals, of irrecon- cilable philosophies of life and history, in which were imperiled the moral gains of centuries of human progress. This statement calls for an examination of some German pre-war ideas and teachings. We have seen how profound an influence philosophic id^s exerted upon the inception and the course of the French Revo- lution (sect. 501). Even more determinative in precipitating and 1 A slogan drawn from the writings of a distinguished militarist, General Friedrich von Bernhardi, whose work entitled Genua?!}' and the Next War, published in 191 1, had a great influence in arousing an aggressive war spirit in Germany. 2 Reply to the Pope's Peace Proposals, August 27, 1917. 62 THE WORLD WAR [§ 697 giving character to the great war of 19 14 were certain doctrines of a semi-scientific, political, and philosophical nature inculcated by pre-war German militarists, publicists, and leaders in German thought. Among these ideas was the conception that the German people are a superior race ordained to world dominion. Now this idea of an elect race is found commonly enough among primitive peoples; but no modern-minded person dreamed that this naive notion could find a place in the sober thoughts and reasoned con- victions of a civilized people of to-day. However, during the dec- ades following the Franco-Prussian War of 1 870-1 871 this notion did actually become a fixed element in the stock of ideas of an influential section of the German people. Here are some utter- ances of Emperor William II: "We are the chosen people"; "God created us that we might civilize the world"; "W^e are the salt of the earth." And thus speaks Rudolf Euchen, distinguished professor of philosophy at Jena : " We have the right to say that we form the soul of humanity, and that the destruction of the German nature would rob the world of its deepest meaning." With like assurance Ludwig Woltmann, a distinguished German scien- tist, declares, "The Teutons are the aristocracy of humanity; . . . the Teutonic race is called to circle the earth with its rule." These utterances are significant because they are commonplaces ; that is, merely typical expressions of ideas and sentiments that formed a characteristic element of a considerable part of the body of German thought of the two or three decades preceding the outbreak of the great war. What made this notion of German superiority in race and civilization a menace to the security and peace of the world was that those entertaining this idea conceived it to be the mission of the German people to spread the superior German Kultur^ over the earth by force of arms if necessary, and thus to make Germany the "mother country of the future civilization of the world." 1 The term KiiHitr (kool-toor') cannot be translated by our word ciiliine. By it is meant the whole body of German institutions and the German way of thmlving and "doing things." §697] GERMAN PRE-WAR IDEAS AND DOCTRINES 621 Another dangerous German teaching was that war is a necessary and divinely ordained factor in human history. '' War," said the militarist Friedrich von Bernhardi, " is not only a biological law but a moral obligation, and as such an indispensable factor in civilization." "War," said Marshal von Moltke, "is an element of the order of the world established by God. . . . Without war the world would stagnate and lose itself in materialism." It was this philosophy of war which, blinding the German people to the insanity and criminality of aggressive war, had much to do in letting loose upon Europe the immeasurable calamity of the World War. Still another sinister doctrine taught by many German pre- war philosophers was that the state in its relation to other states is not bound by the ordinary rules of morality. " Right and wrong," says an eminent German authority, "are notions needed in civil life only." "It will always conduce to the glory of Machiavelli," said the famous historian Treitschke, professor of history at the University of Berlin, at whose feet multitudes of Ger- man youth for many years received instruction in history and imbibed ideas of public morality, "... that he has freed the state and its morality from the precepts of the Church."^ This means that war may be waged without regard to treaties or inter- national law, without sentiment, pity, or mercy. Translated into practice in the great European war by the German militarists, this monstrous doctrine that war may be waged without regard to the restraints of law, humanity, or conscience produced that German policy of " frightfulness " which more than any other one thing aroused and arrayed against the Imperial German Gov- ernment the greater part of the civilized world and made the war on the part of the allied and associated powers a fight not only for democracy and nationalism but also for the preservation of the precious moral heritage of civilization. Having now indicated the place in universal history of the great war, pointed out its deeper causes, and noticed some German ideas and teachings which lay at the bottom of the lawless and 1 See sect. 243. 62 2 THE WORLD WAR [§ 698 inhuman methods of the German military authorities in the con- duct of the war, we will next trace the course of events that, during the early years of the twentieth century, marked the drift of Europe towards the abyss of the great catastrophe. 698. "Central Europe" {Mittel-Europa) and the Berlin- Bagdad Railway. We have spoken of the Pan-Germanists' dream Asian Turkey and the Bagdad Railway of world domination. For the realization of this dream the Pan- Germanists, long before 19 14, had formed a definite and far- visioned plan. The leading feature of this plan was a projected union or federation of states embracing Germany, Austria- Hungary, and the Balkans, — a great wedge of lands dividing Europe into two parts and, with the Turkish Empire as an Asian extension, stretching from the North Sea to the Persian Gulf.'^ An important part of this stupendous project was the construc- tion of a railway from Constantinople across Asia Minor and Mesopotamia to Bagdad, and thence to some point on the Persian 1 See map, p. 646 § 699] GERMANY BECOMES A SEA POWER 623 Gulf. Concessions for the building of this road were secured by Germany just at the opening of the twentieth century. The road was far advanced toward completion by 19 14. The line was known as the Bagdad Railway. In connection with lines in Europe the road was to give rail communication between Berlin and Bagdad, and hence the entire project was known as the Berlin-Bagdad Railway. The realization of the project required, of course, the friendly cooperation of the Turkish government and the good will of the Mohammedan world. In this is found an explanation of the un- natural alliance between Germany and Turkey. In 1898 Emperor William II undertook a pious pilgrimage to Palestine. In a famous address made at Damascus he said : " May his Majesty the Sul- tan, as well as the three hundred million Moslems who venerate him as their Khalif, be assured that the German Emperor is their friend forever." Thus were the Mohammedans of Egypt, India, central Asia, and North Africa, restless perhaps under British or Russian or French rule, told to whom they should look as a friend and deliverer. The location of the Asian stretch of the Berlin-Bagdad Rail- way should be carefully noted. It follows closely the ancient mili- tary and trade route between the East and the West. Control of this highway gives control of Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. Controlled by Germany, it menaced not only British authority in Egypt and India but also Russian in- terests in Persia and Asia Minor. It was this which made the German project a matter of such international concern and ren- dered it such a factor in bringing on the World War and in extend- ing the operations of the war into Mesopotamia and Palestine. As the conflict deepened, the important relation of this railway project to the German plan for world domination became more and more plainly revealed. 699. Germany becomes a Sea Power. Even before the close of the nineteenth century Germany, already the greatest military power in Europe, turned her attention toward the sea. The kaiser declared : " Our future lies on the water. . . . The trident must 624 THE WORLD WAR [§ 700 pass into our hands." A great German merchant marine was created, and a vast and lucrative overseas trade developed. To protect her extended commerce in the event of war and to further her ambitious world policy, Germany began the creation of a navy. At the opening of the twentieth century her war fleet was second only to that of Great Britain.^ The British government became alarmed. The insular security of Great Britain seemed to be menaced, for, with only a small army, she must hold com- mand of the seas to be safe. A keen competition between the two nations in the construction of warships began. In this rivalry there was a distinct menace to world peace, since Germany re- pelled every proposal made by Great Britain for mutual limitation of naval armaments. 700. The Triple Entente, or Good Understanding, between Great Britain, France, and Russia. Germany's constant increase of her navy, and her ambition for world domination as disclosed by the utterances of the German militarists and ruling classes, deepened the fears of Great Britain and caused her to abandon her policy of keeping aloof, in "splendid isolation," from conti- nental alliances, and to enter into what was in effect, though not in name, a defensive alliance with France and Russia. In 1904 she settled all her long-standing troubles with France and reached a cordial understanding with her. Three years later Great Britain effected with Russia a like adjustment of all their conflicting interests in Persia, central Asia, and elsewhere. Great Britain now gave up all opposition to Russia's ambition to secure control of the waterways of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. It was Germany now, with her am- bitious, far-reaching projects in Asian Turkey and her Bagdad Railway, that seemed to menace British possessions in both Egypt and India. Hence Great Britain's earlier opposition to Russian purposes was now directed against German plans of expansion eastward. These settlements and arrangements completed what is known as the Triple Entente, or good understanding, between Great 1 The Kiel Canal was opened in 1895. § 701] FIRST MOROCCAN CRISIS 625 Britain, France, and Russia/ This accord between these ancient rivals was a matter of world-wide importance, for though it was purely a measure of defense against the German menace, Germany saw, or affected to see, in it only evidence of unfriendly inten- tions and a plot for her '' encirclement " and destruction. Hence- forth her hatred of Great Britain became ever more fixed and implacable. The six great powers- were now aligned in two groups, the members of each group so bound together by alliances or under- standings that a conflict arising between any two states of the opposing groups was almost certain to bring on a general Eu- ropean war. This is what helped to make so extended and so colossal the disaster that overwhelmed Europe in 19 14. 701. First Moroccan Crisis (1905). Simultaneously with the formation of the Triple Entente, IVIorocco, a " decadent " state which, like Persia and Turkey, seemed marked out for commercial penetration or political control by its more vigorous and enter- prising neighbors, became the subject of a serious international controversy. The collision of interests here was between Germany on the one hand and France and Great Britain on the other. France had set her heart on the possession of this country in order to round out her African empire.^ When, in 1904, Great Britain and France entered into a mutual good understanding, this was one of the things settled. An agreement was reached whereby France gave Great Britain a free hand in Egypt in return for a free hand for herself in Morocco. The next year the German Emperor landed in his yacht, the Hohenzollern, at the Moroccan port of Tangier and made ad- dresses to the German traders and merchants there which were •meant for other ears besides theirs. His utterances were notice to Great Britain and France that in all arrangements and conven- tions respecting the remaining free states of the world Germany must be consulted. This was merely a reaffirmation of a previous 1 France and Russia had drawn together and formed in 1891 a defensive alliance known as the Dual Alliance. 2 xhe Triple Alliance, it will be recalled, embraced Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (see sect. 646). 3 .See sect. 675 and map after page 58S. 62 6 THE WORLD WAR [§ 702 declaration that nothing of importance in the world at large should be arranged without the consent of Germany and the German Emperor. France, — though she felt that Germany's intervention was un- justifiable, — being uncertain of the armed support of Great Britain and knowing that her other ally, Russia, because of the defeat she had just suffered at the hands of Japan (sect. 687) was powerless to help her, made humiliating concessions to Germany ^ and agreed to the calling of an international convention to review the whole matter. The outcome of this meeting- was favorable for France. The representatives of the nations recognized her special and superior interest in Morocco and commissioned her to maintain order in that country. This Moroccan affair is a landmark in history, one of the outstanding facts of the decade preceding the outbreak of the great war. The crisis created by Germany's manner of interven- tion had, it is true, been passed safely, but important conse- quences resulted from her action. The good understanding between Great Britain, France, and Russia was cemented. It now became something like a real alliance. On the other hand, Ger- many's prestige had received a severe blow, and this caused her hatred of Great Britain, which had taken the side of France in the international convention, to become more intense and bitter. 702. Some Factors of the Balkan Problem. Our attention is now directed to southeastern Europe, where was laid the train which started the frightful conflagration of the World War. The situation here at the opening of the twentieth century was be- wildering in the variety of the motives, interests, and aspirations of the peoples and governments concerned, but it will become in a measure intelligible if we bear in mind the following dominant' facts : First, the situation was one which concerned the relations of the several small Balkan states to Turkey. The Turkish provinces 1 The French Premier, Delcasse, who had carried on the negotiations with the British government, was by Germany's threat of war forced to resign. 2 The Convention of Algeciras, 1906. It was suggested by President Theodore Roosevelt. W O » g c e 92 J 1 C ^ 1 a 1 5 gSi- Mfc; ■>>oei;'5Si<) w § 702] FACTORS OF THE BALKAN PROBLEM 627 adjoining these little states contained more than two million Chris- tian Greeks, Bulgarians, and Serbians who longed for liberation from Ottoman oppression and for union with their emancipated brethren. Racial and religious antagonisms among the Christians themselves, especially in Macedonia, aggravated the disorder and wretchedness. Second, the situation was one which concerned more or less closely several of the great powers. Russia's old ambition to con- trol the waterways leading from the Black Sea to the iEgean was not only still active but was now more urgent than ever before, because her defeat by Japan had denied her a warm-water port on the Pacific. Great Britain no longer barred her way, but Germany was now interested in keeping these waterways out of her hands, since the Muscovite seated on the Bosphorus would imperil Ger- man interests in Asia Minor and defeat the great German project of a Berlin-Bagdad Railway. 'Then the ambition of the Slav state of Serbia to unite all the people of Serbian race in a Greater Serbia, with outlets on the Adriatic and the ^gean, was a menace to the integrity of Austria- Hungary, for the neighboring provinces of the monarchy were largely Serbian in blood, in language, and in sympathies and would inevitably gravitate towards an enlarged and prosperous Serbia. In a word, Serbia was just such a present danger to Austria in the Balkans as Sardinia had been to her possessions in northern Italy in the nineteenth century.^ Just as Sardinia drew to herself the Italian subjects of Austria, so now Serbia threatened to draw to herself all the Serbian subjects of Austria-Hungary. Thus a Greater Serbia threatened the dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Moreover, the establishment of a powerful Serbian state meant that Austria's coveted way to the ^gean would be barred ; for after Austria's expulsion from northern Italy, which had been for centuries the pathway of her Mediterranean trade, she had turned towards the East and had sought to secure an outlet across Macedonia to Saloniki on the i5*^gean. 1 Cf. sects. 622-628. 628 THE WORLD WAR [§ 703 Besides the several interests of Russia, Germany, and Austria- Hungary in the Balkan problem, still another of the great powers, Itah^, was deeply concerned. Italy desired possession of Italia irredenta, "unredeenied Italy," which embraced lands on her northern Alpine frontier and about the head of the Adriatic, of which the population was largely Italian, but which were held by Austria just as once she held Lombardy and Venetia. Further- more, Italy was watchful to see that, with the Turks driven out of Europe, Austria should not appropriate Albania as her part of the booty and .thus get possession of the eastern shore of the Adriatic and make of that sea an Austrian lake. These mutual jealousies, rival ambitions, and conflicting inter- ests of the great powers created the Balkan problem in so far as it was an international question concerning Europe at large. 703. The Young Turks; the Turkish Revolution (iqos). The situation in the Balkans being such as is portrayed in the preceding section, a remarkable movement in the Turkish Em- pire became the prelude to events of world import. In 1908 a revolution inaugurated by a party calling themselves Young Turks broke out in European Turkey. The leaders of this movement were men many of whom had been educated in western Europe and had there become imbued with the spirit of modern liberalism. Gaining control of the Balkan army, they demanded and secured from the Sultan Abdul Hamid a constitution^ which created a parliament and gave to all the subjects of the Sultan equal civic rights and complete religious liberty. The news of the granting of a constitution was received by the subjects of the Sultan first with utter incredulity, and then, when the news was con- firmed, with unparalleled demonstrations of joy. The world looked on with amazed and sympathetic interest. To the first Turkish parliament which convened under the constitution the American Congress sent good wishes and congratulations, while the leading members of the British House of Commons sent an address headed, "From the Oldest of Parliaments to the Youngest." 1 This was a revival of a constitution that had been granted in 1S76 and later revoked. § 704] THE BOSNIAN CRISIS 629 For a few years the Young Turks administered affairs with such a measure of success as to awaken high hopes everywhere that the regeneration of Turkey was now really to be effected and the eternal Eastern Question thus given a final solution. But un- fortunately there was a lack of capable leaders in the party of reform. The promise of equal rights to all was not kept. The Young Turks could not give up their position as the dominant and privileged race of the empire. They set about the forcible " Turki- fication" of all the non-Turkish peoples — the Greeks, the Arme- nians, the Albanians, the Bulgarians, and the Arabs — of the Ottoman dominions. Meanwhile the treacherous Abdul Hamid broke faith with the revolutionists and worked secretly to get rid of the constitution and to regain his despotic power.'^ 704, The Bosnian Crisis (1908). But an even more serious obstacle in the way of the success of the reform movement than these internal weaknesses and dissensions was the sordid greed of s.everal of the great powers, who saw in a regenerated Turkey the ruin of all their hopes of ultimately inheriting coveted portions of the ''sick man's" estate. His recovery was the very last thing they desired. Austria, fearing that if the Young Turks suc- ceeded in establishing a reformed and strong government she would lose control of Bosnia and Herzegovina, of which Turkish provinces she had been made administrator by the Treaty of Berlin, annexed the provinces to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1908). This was a gross violation of the terms of the Berlin treaty and the direct beginning of the great tragedy of 19 14. Serbia, who had hoped that the provinces, their population being largely Serbian in race and language, would fall to her on the passing of the " sick man," felt grievously injured by Austria's act, and made vigorous protest, but unavailingly ; for when Rus- sia and Great Britain also protested, Emperor William took his stand, in " shining armor," - by the side of Austria and upheld her 1 Abdul Hamid, after having instituted atrocious massacres of the Christians at Adana and other places in Asian Turkey, was deposed, and his brother was placed on the throne (igog). 2 A phrase used by the kaiser in a later speech. 630 THE WORLD WAR [§ 705 in her wrongful procedure. Neither Russia nor any other of the great powers being ready to risk precipitating a general European war through intervention by force of arms, the provinces remained in Austria's hands. Another great crisis had been passed, but not without Europe's being drawn nearer to the abyss. By a gesture of the " mailed fist" Emperor William had settled to his own and his ally's ad- vantage a matter of European concern. But there was danger in settling matters of that kind in such a manner. 705. The Second Moroccan Crisis (i9ii). We have seen how at the time of the first Moroccan crisis France was commissioned by the powers to preserve order in the country. Unfortunately the native government was inefficient and corrupt, hence the inevitable happened. The country fell into anarchy. A French army was soon at the capital Fez, and one of the rival contest- ants for the crown placed himself under French protection. This meant, of course, that Morocco's existence as an independent state was ended.^ At once a German warship, the Panther, appeared at one of the country's ports," and the German Emperor asked France what compensation she would allow Germany in return for a free hand in Morocco. After long and heated "conversations"- — Great Britain with her navy ready for action supporting France, since she could not permit Germany to secure a foothold on the shore oppo- site Gibraltar — the Emperor consented to the establishment of a protectorate over Morocco by France in return for the cession to Germany of portions of the French possessions in equatorial Africa. Thus by threat of war Germany had enlarged her African pos- sessions, but her relations with France had been greatly embittered, for the French denounced her action as blackmail, holding that German interests in Morocco were not of a nature to justify the intervention of Germany in the matter. Furthermore, the relations of Germany and Great Britain had been rendered still more tense, for many Germans were dissat- isfied with the settlement and felt that had it not been for the 1 The country became a French protectorate in 1912. 2 Agadir, 191 1. § 706] THE BALKAN WARS 631 support which the British government gave France, Germany might have secured larger concessions from her^ — perhaps have got a part of Morocco itself. 706. The Balkan Wars (1912-1913). The example set by Austria in 1908 in the seizure of the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina was shortly followed by Italy .^ A regenerated Turkey threatened to make an end of the long-cherished hope of the Italians that Tripoli and Cyrenaica in North Africa would fall to them as ripened fruit on the dissolution of the Ottoman Em- pire. So the Italian government resolved to seize at once the coveted prize, justifying this action on the ground that the Young Turks were treating unfairly Italian settlers and traders in the country. x\n expedition was launched, and the provinces were seized and annexed to Italy (1911). The Austrian and Italian attacks upon the integrity of the Ottoman Empire naturally excited the small Balkan states and helped to bring them to an epoch-making decision. Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece formed an alliance (the Balkan League), the aim of which was to make an end of the Turkish power in Europe. The adventure turned out beyond all expecta- tion. To the amazement of the world the armies of the little states in a few weeks drove the Turks from almost all their possessions on the European continent — thus accomplishing what the great powers, because of their mutual jealousies, had been unable in centuries of war and diplomacy to effect. The marvelous success of the allies put into their hands much greater spoils in the way of territory than they had expected, and all probably would have gone well in the distribution of these had it not been for the intervention of the great powers, the interests of more than one of which were menaced by the proposed settle- ment. Austria, supported by Italy, demanded that no part of Albania should be allowed to go to Serbia, but that this territory 1 Other states had earlier followed her example. Two days after Austria had an- nounced her decision to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria proclaimed her com- plete independence from the suzerainty of the Ottoman Porte. Straightway the island of Crete, still under nominal Turkish suzerainty, declared for union with Greece (1908). Crete's union with Greece was sanctioned by the Treaty of London, 191 3. 632 THE WORLt) WAR [§ 707 should be made into an independent state. This was to keep Serbia from the Adriatic. Thus pushed back from her coveted outlet on these waters, Serbia turned towards the ^gean. She asked Bulgaria to consent to a revision of the original agreement regarding the division of the lands wrested from the Turks, and permit her to retain possession of a part of Macedonia. Bulgaria refused and insisted upon a division of the conquered lands in accordance with the terms of the original agreement. The Tsar of Russia in vain begged the disputants to submit the matter to him as arbiter. Instead of doing this Bulgaria suddenly attacked Serbia, being incited to this act by Austria, and thus precipitated the Second Balkan War. In this lamentable struggle Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Rumania were united against Bulgaria. The Turks seized the opportunity to retake a portion of the ter- ritory wrested from them in the first war. Beset on every side, Bulgaria was soon forced to give over the struggle. By the Treaty of Bucharest (191 3) there was made a new map of the Balkans. All that we need note here is the territorial aggrandizement of Slavic Serbia. This meant, of course, the enhancement of Rus- sian inlluence in the Balkans, since racial sentiment and sym- pathies would naturally cause Serbia to draw towards the great mother Slav state. On the other hand, a Greater Serbia was a menace to Austria, for a powerful Serbia would not only block her way to the ^gean but would naturally draw away or make more restless Austria's subjects of Serbian race, thereby tending to bring about the dis- integration of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Furthermore, an enlarged and powerful Serbia under Russian influence and protection was something that the German Emperor could not brook, since it lay across the Berlin-Bagdad Railway and was a menace to that project and thus to the whole Pan- German scheme for the commercial and political domination of western Asia. 707. Assassination of the Crown Prince of Austria; "the Fateful Twelve Days." It was inevitable that, in the circum- stances which we have described, Austro-Serbian relations should § 707] "THE FATEFUL TWELVE DAYS" 633 become strained to a dangerous tension. Events moved rapidly. While visiting the recently annexed province of Bosnia, the Aus- trian crown prince — the Archduke Francis Ferdinand — and his wife were assassinated.^ Austria, charging that Serbian officials were accomplices of the assassins, addressed to Serbia an ulti- matum,- some of the demands of which were incompatible with the rights of Serbia as a sovereign and independent state. An answer was demanded in forty-eight hours. Serbia returned a con- ciliatory reply, acceding to most of the demands and offering to submit either to the International Tribunal at The Hague or to the judgment of certain of the great powers the points to which she could not give unqualified assent. The reply was pronounced unacceptable, and Austria, supported in her course by Germany, declared war against Serbia.^ The action of Austria created alarm in every European capital. Strenuous efforts were made by Great Britain, France, and Russia to stay Austria's hand and to have the whole question brought before a conference of the great powers not directly interested or carried to the Hague Tribunal, for nothing was more certain than that an attack by Austria upon Serbia would precipitate a gen- eral European war, because Russia would not and could not stand aloof and see the little Serbian nation crushed, since this would mean German supremacy in the Balkans. But Germany, re- jecting all proposals, insisted that the matter concerned Austria and Serbia alone and that there should be no intervention by any of the other powers. Austria having actually attacked Serbia, Russia began to mobi- lize her armies against the Dual INIonarchy. Germany thereupon sent an ultimatum to Russia demanding that she demobilize within twelve hours. Russia giving no response, Germany declared war against her.* At the same time Germany asked the French Premier, Viviani, whether in the event of a Russo-German war France would remain neutral. His reply was that " France would take such action as her interests might require." Almost immediately the German 1 At Sarajevo, June 28, 1914. ^ July 23, 1914. ^ July 28, 1914. "• August 1, 1914. 634 THE WORLD WAR [§ 707 troops crossed the French frontier/ On August 2 Germany pre- sented an ultimatum to Belgium, declaring it to be her purpose to march across Belgian territory to attack France and promising, if the passage of the German troops was not opposed, to guarantee, upon the conclusion of peace, the independence and integrity of the Belgian kingdom, but at the same time warning the Belgian government that if the ad- vance of the German forces was impeded in any way, the German government would deal with Belgium as an enemy. King Albert, sup- ported in his heroic decision by his ministers, first remind- ing Germany that she herself had solemnly promised to re- spect Belgian neutrality, re- fused to consent to the passage of the German army, saying that the Belgian government " by accepting the proposal would sacrifice the honor of the Belgian nation while at the same time betraying its duties towards Europe." The Ger- man troops at once swept into Belgium. The violation of Belgium brought Great Britain into the war." On August 4 the British ambassador at Berlin received instruc- tions to inform the Imperial German Government that if assur- ance was not given by twelve o'clock that night that the German 1 Germany declared war on France August 3, 1914. 2 Though the invasion of Belgium by the Germans actually brought Great Britain into the war, it is certain that she would, as the ally of France, have taken part in it even if the neutrality of Belgium had not been violated. She could not have stood aside while Germany was striking down France, robbing her of her colonies, and making of her a vassal state. Harris & Hwing Fig. 109. Albert, King of the Belgians. (From a photograph) § 708] THE VIOLATION OF BELGIUM 635 advance into Belgium would be stopped, the British government would " take all steps in their power to uphold the neutrality of Belgium and the observance of a treaty to which Germany was as much a party as themselves." The German Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg, greatly agitated, expressed pain and surprise that the British government should take such a resolve "just for a word, 'neutrality' — just for a scrap of paper." The Imperial German Government's reply to the British ulti- matum being that it was absolutely necessary that the German armies should advance into France "by the quickest and easiest way, so as to be able to get well ahead with their operations and endeavor to strike some decisive blow as early as possible," Great Britain at once drew the sword. Thus by the close of August 4, only twelve days after Austria's ultimatum to Serbia had become known to the English, French, and Russian governments, five of the great powers were at war. The curtain had lifted on " the most tragic drama of human history." IL OUTSTANDING EVENTS OF THE WAR 708. The Violation of Belgium. The German plan of cam- paign was simple. With a swift blow France was to be struck down before her allies could come to her aid ; then Russia, whom Austria was to hold in check while the German armies were over- running France, was to be put out of the war. But the French frontier toward Germany, running from Switzerland to Luxem- burg, was strongly fortified, and the reduction of these defenses would delay for at least several weeks the advance into France of the German troops ; hence the proposal made by Germany to the Belgian government for an unobstructed passage of the German armies through Belgium. We have seen how, upon the indig- , nant rejection of this dishonorable proposal, the German troops were flung across the frontier in utter disregard of treaty obliga- tions and of international law. The crime was confessed in self- inditing words by the German Chancellor, Bethmann-Hollweg. In announcing to the Reichstag the invasion of Belgium, he said : 636 THE WORLD WAR [§ 708 " Gentlemen, we are now in a state of necessity, and necessity knows no law. Our troops have occupied Luxemburg and per- haps are already on Belgian soil. Gentlemen, that is contrary to the dictates of international law. . . . The wrong — I speak openly — that we are committing we will endeavor to make good as soon as our military goal has been reached."^ The first obstacle to the advance of the German forces was the strongly fortified city of Liege. In a few days the defenses of the place, which had been thought impregnable, were pounded into dust by the monstrous siege guns of the enemy. The resistance of the Bel- gians roused a fury of rage in the Germans, who now began a campaign of " frightfulness " {SchreckUchkcit) , the purpose of which was to terrorize the people and make them submis- sive to the German will. Vil- lages and cities, individual citizens of which it was alleged had fired upon the German soldiers, were sacked and burned, and hundreds of non-combatants --men, women, and children — were indiscriminately slain. Hostages were shot for the alleged acts of persons over whom they had no control. Priests were killed. The famous university and library of Louvain were wantonly destroyed and a large part of the city itself laid in ashes. The world stood aghast at these crimes, for it had been believed that the time was past when the armies of any civilized government would commit such atrocities, to which there is no parallel in history since the Thirty Years' War. 1 This speech was made August 4, 1914. Harrii, &: Hwing Fk;. 1 10. Cardinal Mercier of Belgium. (From a photograph) § 709] "THE MIRACLE OF THE MARNE" 637 The brave resistance of the Belgians to the passage of the German armies had momentous consequences. The delay, short though it was, that it caused the Germans not only gave the French time to concentrate their forces and throw them to the north between the invaders and Paris but it also gave England time to come to the aid of her ally with a small but efficient force. It thus made pos- ; - sible the great victory of . " the Marne. 709. "The Miracle of the Marne" (September 5-9, 1914). Along the Franco-Belgian frontier the German invaders were met by the French and British armies. Their stubborn re- sistance to the German ad- vance, however, was broken, and the victorious Germans pushed on towards Paris. The French government fled to Bordeaux. It seemed as though the story of 1870 was to be repeated. But with the enemy almost within sight of the capital, the French general, Joffre, halted the retreat of his forces along the southern banks of the river Marne, and there, near the region where, more than fourteen hundred years before, the savage hordes of Attila were turned back by the Franks and their confederates,^ inflicted a memorable and disastrous defeat upon the invaders. The Germans retreated to the river Aisne, nearly halfway to the Belgian frontier, and there intrenched themselves. Used Ijy perniisbion of the Proprietors of Lontlun Pu7uh Fig. III. The Kaiser. So you see — you've lost everything. Albert, King of the Belgians. Not my soul. 1 See Ancient Hisfory, 2d Rev. Ed., sect. 544. 638 THE WORLD WAR [§710 The battle of the Marne is rightly given a place — perhaps it should be the first place — among the decisive battles of the world. It saved not only France but all continental Europe from German domination, for nothing is more certain than that if France had lost at the Marne, Russia would have been quickly overrun by the German armies and German military and political control of the Continent firmly established. 710. The Struggle for the Channel Ports, The Germans had failed in their plans to reach Paris and put France out of the war. They now made a supreme effort to reach the sea and get control of the Channel ports on the shore opposite Eng- land. With these ports in the hands of the enemy the safety of England would, of course, have been imperiled. Strenuous efforts were made to prevent such a calamity. British, French, and Belgian forces were quickly thrown between the Germans and the coveted prize. These land forces were aided by the British fleet, which patrolled the coast. In the Flanders region the sluices were opened and wide tracts of the land flooded — an old device for defense in these low-lying lands. The struggle was long and bitter. Some of the bloodiest battles of the war were fought here.^ The British army, " a contemptible little army," as it was characterized by the German Kaiser, after deeds of valor which made of the epithet of scorn a badge of immortal honor,- was virtually annihilated. Though the Germans reached the sea at Ostend and gained Fig. 1 12. GexkralJoffre. (From a painting by J. F. Bouchor, Official Painter to the French Armies) 1 The most important were the battle of the Vser and the first battle of Ypres. 2 The survivors of this expeditionary army proudly accept the title of " The Contemptibies."' § 711] THE WESTERN BATTLE FRONT 639 control of a strip of the Belgian coast, they were thwarted in reach- ing their main objective — the ports of Calais and Boulogne, at the narrowest part of the Channel. 711. The Western Battle Front. After the battle of the Marne and at the end of the struggle for the Channel ports, the Germans, still standing in the main on French and Belgian soil, intrenched themselves along a line about four hundred and seventy miles in length, running from Switzerland to the North Sea. Facing the German trenches were drawn the trenches of the Allies. Never before in history was there such a far-flung battle line. Between the opposing lines of ditches, dugouts, and wire entanglements ran a strip of ground varying in width from a few hundred yards in some places to several miles in others, known as " No Man's Land" — a name which suggests much of the tragedy of the great war. For about a year and a half the French, aided by a small num- ber of British and Belgian troops, held back the German masses along this extended line, while a new British army, numbering sev- eral millions, was being raised, trained, and equipped ; and then for another like period the Anglo-French-Belgian forces manned the trenches until the United States, which early in 191 7 had entered the war, was mustering, drilling, and transporting to France a great army of over two million men. During these three years the fighting along this Western Front was in the nature of siege operations. Hundreds of cannon, large and small, were constantly pouring showers of shell into the trenches of the enemy, until in many places "No Man's Land" was so plowed up and so pitted with shell holes that a photograph of it from an airplane resembled a photograph of the crater-pitted face of the moon. Many offensives, or drives, were launched by both the Germans and the Allies in efforts to push back or break through the opposing line, but at the end of the three years the lines, though in some places they had been bent and pushed towards Germany, in general ran substantially as at the beginning of the period. The story of this trench warfare on the Western Front belongs to the military records of the war and cannot be dwelt upon here. 640 THE WORLD WAR [§ 712 We shall merely, a little later, preserving the chronological order of our narrative, speak briefly of one of the offensives undertaken by the Germans and mention another launched by the British, which were such supreme efforts as to make them of epochal importance.^ 712. The Eastern Front ; Russian Victories and Reverses (1914-1915). We must now turn our attention to the Eastern Front. Just at the moment when the Germans were threatening Paris, the Russians came to the aid of their French ally by sending two armies into East Prussia and menacing Berlin. One of the invading armies was met and almost annihilated by the German general, Hindenburg.'- The other army then drew back to the frontier. This defeat of the Russians in East Prussia was offset by their victories over Austria in Galicia.^ Three great Austrian armies were routed and three hundred thousand prisoners taken. The military power of Austria seemed on the point of absolute col- lapse. But with the coming of Germany to the rescue of her ally, the tide was quickly turned. A great victory for the Central Powers* saved Austria and crippled seriously the military power of Russia. A wide strip of western Russia, including Poland, fell into the hands of the Germans. As earlier in the west so now here in the east there resulted finally a deadlock, and the contend- ing armies settled down to trench warfare. Thus Germany at the end of campaigns covering about a year and a half had failed as to her main purpose both in the west and in the east.'^ Neither France nor Russia, though each had received a terrible blow and lost much territory, had been put out of the war. 1 See sect. 716 and p. 644, n. 2. 2 At the battle of Tannenberg, August 3, 1914. Early the next year in the battle of the Mazurian Lakes, East Prussia, General Hindenburg inflicted upon the Russians a second decisive defeat with immense losses in killed and prisoners. 3 Lemberg was taken by the Russians about September 1, 1914; Przemysl fell into their hands in early March, 191 5, with 125,000 prisoners. ^ The battle of the Dunajec, early May, 1915 ; as decisive a victor}' for Germany as the battle of the Mame was for France. 5 She was more successful in the southeast (see sect. 715). § 713] THE SINKING OF THE LUSITANIA 641 713. The Sinking of the Lusitania (May 7, 1915). On February 4, 191 5, the German government announced that every merchant vessel of the AlHes entering a designated zone around, the British Isles would be destroyed, "without its being always possible to avert the dangers threatening the crews and passengers." This meant that such vessels would be sunk without warning. Now, to do the thing the German government announced it was going to do would be not only to violate the principles of humanity but to disregard the law of nations, which forbids the destruction of passenger or merchant ships under any circumstances before the crews and passengers have been put in a place of safety. Notwithstanding a solemn warning from President Wilson that the United States government would hold the German government to a " strict accountability " if such action as it purposed to take should result in the death of any American citizens, the German submarines straightway proceeded to sink merchant vessels with- out warning, and in several instances destroyed the lives of Ameri- can citizens. Then on May i, 19 15, there appeared in American newspapers an advertisement issued by the German Embassy in Washington, in which all persons were warned against taking passage on the British steamship Lusitania, which was about to sail from New York for an English port, it being intimated that every effort would be made by German submarines to sink the liner. No attention was paid to the warning, as no one believed that any civilized government would do the thing that the Im- perial German Government threatened to do. On the evening of May 7, 1915, as the Lusitania, with crew and passengers numbering about two thousand, neared the Irish coast, she was torpedoed without warning, and more than a thou- sand persons, among them many women and little children, were drowned. This awful crime created horror and indignation throughout the civilized world. The United States demanded of the German government a disavowal of the act and assurance that the opera- tions of its submarines would in the future conform to the re- quirements of international law. But it was only after a long 642 THE WORLD WAR [§ 714 delay and the exchange of numerous notes that the German gov- ernment finally gave the following pledge : " Liners will not be sunk by our submarines without warning and without providing for the safety of the lives of non-combatants, provided that the liners do not try to escape or offer resistance."^ It was the withdrawal of this solemn pledge by the Imperial German Government that, as we shall learn, was the immediate cause of the United States entering the war early in 191 7 on the side of the Allies. 714. Italy enters the War (May 23, 1915). Although a mem- ber of the Triple Alliance, Italy did not join Germany and Austria in the war, because she was convinced that the war against Serbia was an act of aggression on the part of Austria, and since the alliance of which she was a member was merely a defensive, and not an offensive, alliance, she was not bound to come to the aid of her allies. In truth Italy's alliance with Austria was an altogether un- natural one, for Austria was the hereditary enemy of the Italian people." Instead of fighting for the extension of Austrian rule and the enhancement of Austria's influence and power in the Balkans, the Italians were rather minded to take advantage of her embarrassment and fight for the liberation of the still un- redeemed Italian lands ^ {Italia irredenta). Negotiations were begun by the Italian government with Austria for her withdrawal from these districts. But no agreement could be reached, and Italy entered the war on the side of the Allies. A new battle front was thus created. For the next two years and more this front was the scene of much hard mountain fighting, in which the Italian armies wrested from Austrian control much of the coveted lands.^ Then came a great disaster, of which we shall speak later, and the loss to the enemy of all that had been gained, and much besides. 715. The War in the Southeast in 1915 ; Serbia and Turkey. We have noted how the close of the year 19 15 saw Germany's main war aims both in the west and in the east unattained 1 This pledge was given September i, 1015. 2 See Chapter XXXVIII. 3 The Trentino and Trieste. 4 Embracing the important city of Gorizia, which was taken August S, 1916. § 7l5j THE WAR IN THE SOUTHEAST 643 (sect. 712). In the southeast, however, by the end of the year Germany had completely realized her plans. What she wanted here was to secure Austro-German supremacy in the Balkans and to keep unobstructed her railway route to the Persian Gulf. All this she achieved in a terrible drive against Serbia and through aiding Turkey in the defense of the Dardanelles. The Serbian situation at the beginning of this offensive was as follows : At the opening of the war in 19 14 Austria had in- vaded Serbia and taken the capital, Belgrade. After severe fighting the Serbians had retaken their capital and driven the Austrians from Serbian soil. Germany then came to the aid of her ally, and a strong Austro-German army in cooperation with a large Bul- garian force — Bulgaria having joined the Central Powers — quickly overcame all Serbian resistance.^ The Serbian army, in one of the most distressful retreats in history, fled southward over the x'Mbanian mountains, amidst the snows of a bitter winter, and the remnant who escaped capture or death from exposure found a refuge in the island of Corfu. Serbia was made a second Bel- gium. Montenegro, which fought with Serbia, was involved in Serbia's ruin. There were still other misfortunes to deepen the gloom that darkened for the Allies the close of the year 191 5. An attempt made early in the year by an Anglo-French fleet to reach Constan- tinople by forcing the Dardanelles^ had ended in disaster. This failure of the fleet was followed by an equally ill-fated land attack,^ in which Australian and New Zealand troops won special distinction. After having suffered great privation and tragic losses, the allied forces were withdrawn."* Thus "for the moment Germany had realized the German dream of expansion to the Near East, the conception of a Central Empire, a Mittel-Europa, fronting the Baltic and the Adriatic, 1 An Anglo-French army which had been gathered at the Greek port of Saloniki was outmatched and, hampered by the fear of Greek treachery in its rear, was unable to render the Serbians any effective aid. 2 Turkey had entered the war in November, 19 14, on the side of the Central Powers. Her action was motived, in part, by fear of her hereditary enemy, Russia, in the event of the triumph of the Allies. 3 On the peninsula of Gallipoli. ■* In January, 1916. 644 THE WORLD WAR [§ 716 overflowing the Sea of Marmora into Asia Minor, and bound by the German-built railway uniting Berlin, Vienna, and Constanti- nople with Bagdad, and Hamburg and Antwerp with Suez and the Persian Gulf. Here at last was a solid gain, a real victory, after two great disappointments" (Simonds). 716. Verdun — "They shall not pass." The event of greatest military importance in 191 6, the third year of the war, was the German offensive — really a trench battle that lasted nearly a year — against Verdun, on the west front/ Russia having been de- feated and the German situation in the Balkans made secure, Germany now turned to strike another blow at France in the hope oit breaking either the French line or the French spirit and thus putting France out of the war before Great Britain's new army was drilled, equipped, and in the field. The blow was aimed at Verdun, an ancient French fortress. The attack began early in the year. The stout watchword of the French was, " They shall not pass." The Germans, after the first rush, made for several months only slow foot-by-foot advances ; and then the French, taking the offensive, quickly drove them from practically all the ground which they had occupied. The losses of the Germans in killed, wounded, and prisoners are esti- mated to have exceeded a quarter of a million. This French victory was second only to that of the Marne.- 1 The matter of supreme naval importance was the battle of Jutland, in the North Sea (May 31), a fight between the British and German battle fleets, " the greatest conflict in naval history" (Simonds). The issue confirmed England's mastery of the sea. 2 At the same time that the Germans launched their great offensive at Verdun the Austrians made a menacing attack through the Trentino. To relieve the pressure on their allies, Russia and Great Britain started offensives. Russia, having recovered more quickly than was thought possible from her defeat in 191 5, attacked Austria and took 400,000 prisoners. This forced the Austrians hastily to withdraw their troops from Italy for the defense of their eastern frontier. In Asia Minor the Grand Duke Nicholas set on foot a campaign against the Turks, overran Armenia, and captured the important cities of Erzerum and Trebizond. The British, or rather Franco-British, drive is known as the first battle of the Somme. This was one of the great battles of the war — a trench battle, which lasted from July i to November 30, 1916. The enemy's lines were so shaken that the Germans were forced to retreat to what is known as the Hindenburg Line. This movement, however, was not made until the spring of 191 7. The territory given up was wantonly and ruthlessly devastated by the retreating Germans. § 717] RUMANIA ENTERS THE WAR 645 717. Rumania enters the War and is ruined. Midsummer of the year 19 16 saw the fortunes of the Central Powers at their lowest ebb. The German attempt to break the French front at Verdun had failed ; the British and French had gained the victory of the Somme ; Italy had repelled the Austrian invasion of the Trentino and had made important gains in the region between the Julian x-Mps and the sea. It seemed as though the ultimate defeat of the two empires was certain. At this important juncture Ru- mania entered the war/ making the seventh nation arrayed against the Central Powers. Her aim in throwing herself into the struggle was to realize national unity for the Rumanian race by the lib- eration from the Austro-Hungarian yoke of the several million Rumanians of Transylvania and other territories. Rumania's action simply added another to the many tragedies of the great war. Betrayed by pro-German sympathizers among Russian officials, which left her without such support as she should have received from Russia, the little state was quickly crushed by the German armies and a great part of its territory occupied.- The tragic collapse of Rumania gave an entirely different aspect to the German situation and prospects. Germany's mastery of the continent seemed now assured (see map, p. 646). 718. A German Peace Offer ; President Wilson's Address to the Senate (January 22, 1917). The overshadowing events of the year 191 7 were the Russian Revolution, with its aftermath of the collapse of Russia, and the entrance into the war of the United States of America. But before proceeding to speak of these matters we must note certain discussions respecting terms of peace and the war aims of the belligerents which marked the close of the year 19 16 and the opening of the year upon which" we here enter. These peace discussions were opened by the Central Powers. Adopting the tone of victors, they proposed a meeting for peace negotiations of all the nations at war. The Allies refused to enter into such a conference until Germany and Austria had stated the conditions upon which they were ready to conclude peace. 1 August 27, 1916. 2 The campaign was not completed until 191 7. 646 THE WORLD WAR [§ 717 About the same time President Wilson, acting independently of the overtures of the Central Powers, asked all the nations at war to state definitely "their respective views as to the terms upon which the war might be concluded, and the arrangements which would be deemed satisfactory as a guarantee against its renewal or the kindling of any similar conflict in the future." - Petrograd - -OhTH . -. y ^. l^y if ^ I IK N>nKK 3 s't'T J ' '•"'! ^,. Berlin^ >' '^ \ . R/ U S S I A MiTTEL-EUROPA AND TURKISH AxXEX Territories occupied or virtually controlled by Germany at the beginning of 1917- The Pan-German project of a Mittel-Europa (sect. 69S) is here actually realized To this appeal the Central Powers made only a very brief reply, which contained no statement as to the terms on which they would be willing to conclude peace. The allied governments, however, replying at greater length, stated concretely the objects they sought in the war, declaring these to be " the restoration of Bel- gium, of Serbia, of Montenegro, and the indemnities which are due them ; the evacuation of the invaded territories of France, of Russia, and of Rumania, with just reparation ; . . . the restitu- tion of provinces or territories wrested in the past from the Allies by force or against the will of their populations, the liberation of § 717] A GERMAN PEACE OFFER 647 Italians, of Slavs, of Rumanians, of Czechs, and of Slovaks from foreign domination ; the enfranchisement of populations subject to the bloody tyranny of the Turks ; . . . and the liberation of Europe from the brutal covetousness of Prussian militarism." Then on January 22, 19 17, President Wilson, in an historic address to the Senate, set forth the principles that must form the basis of any peace which would have any prospect of permanency, and which the United States would be ready to join other nations in guaranteeing. Among the principles and the conditions of peace were these : ( i ) " The principle that governments derive all their just powers from the consent of the governed, and that no right anywhere exists to hand peoples about from sovereignty to sov- ereignty as if they were property." (2) "That no nation should seek to extend its policy over any other nation or people, but that every people should be left free to determine its own policy, its own way of development, unhindered, unthreatened, unafraid, the little along with the great and powerful." (3) Limitation of war navies, of armies, and of all naval and military preparations for war ; and a league of the civilized nations of the world to guarantee peace and the rights of all nations.^ This setting forth by the Allies and President Wilson of what should be the terms and principles of a just and permanent peace was at the same time a disclosure of the real issues involved in the great war, and thus a revelation of the deeper causes of the un- paralleled conflict ; for in the terms of settlement of a war, if the settlement be a just, adequate, and final settlement, are dis- closed the real causes of the struggle that it brings to a conclusion. Dwelling upon the suggestion of a league of nations for main- taining the peace of the world, President Wilson said impressiyely : "It is inconceivable that the people of the United States should play no part in that great enterprise. They cannot, in honor, with- hold the service to which they are now about to be challenged. . . . That service is nothing less than this — to add their authority and their power to the authority and force of other nations to guarantee peace and justice throughout the world." 1 This passage is slightly condensed. 648 THE WORLD WAR [§ 719 President Wilson at this time apparently believed that the people of the United States would be called upon only to take part, after the war, in the formation of a union or federation of the nations to maintain the future peace of the world and to preserve the liberties of all nations, great and small. But it was a vastly greater and more self-sacrificing service to which they were soon to be challenged. 719. The German Government announces its Purpose to resume Unrestricted Submarine Operations (January 31, 1917). We have noted the submarine controversy between the United States and Germany (sect. 713). The pledge given the United States by the German government not to torpedo liners without first caring for the safety of crew and passengers was only par- tially kept for about a year and a half. Then Germany gave notice to the United States government that it would immediately do away with the restrictions which up to that time it had impressed upon its use of its submarines. This meant that all ships, those of neutrals as well as those of the enemy, entering designated areas in the Mediterranean or a zone drawn around the British Isles, would be sunk on sight and without regard to the safety of the persons they carried.^ The answer of the United States government to this amazing announcement was to hand the German ambassador, Bernstorff, his passports.- This meant the severance of all diplomatic rela- tions with the Imperial German Government. In an address of great dignity and earnestness President Wilson informed the Con- gress of the step he had taken. The address was in effect a warn- ing to the Imperial German Government not to do the thing it had threatened to do. 1 720. Germany seeks Alliance with Mexico against the United States. The feeling of intense indignation aroused in the people of the United States against the Imperial German Govern- ment by its criminal submarine policy was just at this time greatly 1 Permission was given to the United States to send one passenger liner a week to Great Britain, provided that it was marked in a certain way with stripes, departed on a specified day, and made the port of Fahnouth in England its destination. " February 3, 1917. § 721] THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 649 intensified by the publication of a letter of instructions from the German Minister of Foreign Affairs, Zimmermann, to the German minister in Mexico, dated January 19, 19 17, and running as fol- lows : " On the first of February we intend to begin submarine warfare unrestricted. In spite of this, it is our intention to en- deavor to keep neutral the United States of America. If this attempt is not successful, we propose an alliance on the following basis with Mexico : That we shall make war together and to- gether make peace. We shall give general financial support, and it is understood that Mexico is to reconquer the lost territory in New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona. You are instructed to inform the President of Mexico of the above in the greatest confidence as soon as it is certain that there will be an outbreak of war with the United States, and suggest that the President of Mexico, on his own initiative, communicate with Japan suggesting adhesion at once to this plan. . . . Please call to the attention of the President of Mexico that the employment of ruthless submarine warfare now promises to compel England to make peace in a few months." The publication of this astounding letter, taken in connection with the German announcement of the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, made inevitable the entrance of the United States into the war on the side of the Allies. 721. The Russian Revolution (March 15, 1917). While the United States, on the verge of war, was awaiting events, the at- tention of the world was arrested by one of the most remarkable revolutions in history. On March 15, 1917, Tsar Nicholas II, the reigning representative of the House of Romanoff, which had ruled despotically in Russia for over three hundred years, was forced to abdicate, and a provisional government was set up.^ Amnesty was granted for all political and religious offenses. Tens of thousands of exiles in Siberia and in the prison fortresses of 1 The immediate cause of the revolution, aside from the widespread suffering of the people and general war-weariness, was the incompetence shown by the government in the conduct of the war, and the popular belief, which was well founded, that the defeats which the Russian armies had suffered were the result of treachery on the part of Russian officials of pro-German sympathies. 650 THE WORLD WAR [§ 722 Russia were set free. Liberty of speech and of the press was pro- claimed. Universal suffrage was decreed. A constituent assembly was to be called to draft a constitution. The news of the revolu- tion was received by liberals everywhere with unbounded en- thusiasm. The United States straightway rec- ognized the new gov- ernment and welcomed Russia as a member of the family of free nations. Unfortunately the draught of liberty was too strong. The Russian people, suddenly freed from autocratic tyranny, were intoxicated. They were in a state of be- wilderment. Hundreds of German agents crossed the frontier and incited sedition, disorder, and treason. The provisional government made heroic but unavailing efforts to hold back the country from anarchy. The army fell into a state of dis- order and confusion. Of this collapse of Russia and her practical elimination as a military factor from the war we shall speak later. 722. The United States enters the War (April 6, 1917). On the second day of April, 191 7, President Wilson addressed both Houses of Congress, called in extraordinary session, on ttie results of the unrestricted operations of the German submarines resumed Fig. 113. The Last of the Romanoffs (From a photograph) After his abdication the ex-Tsar Nicholas II became a prisoner of the Russian revokitionary government. He was finally taken to Siberia, where he and his wife and children were murdered by the Bolshevists, who had seized supreme power. His seat here is the stump of a tree which he has just felled § 722] THE UNITED STATES ENTERS THE WAR 651 two months before. "The new policy," he said, "has swept every restriction aside — vessels of every kind, whatever their flag, their character, their cargo, their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom without warning and without thought of help or mercy for those on board. . . . Even hospital ships and ships carrying relief to the sorely bereaved and sorely stricken people of Belgium , . . have been sunk with the same reckless lack of compassion or of principle. . . . The present German sub- marine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankind." The President then advised the Congress that it "declare the recent course of the Imperial German Government to be in fact nothing less than war against the government and people of the United States [and] that it formally accept the status of belliger- ent which has thus been thrust upon it." "We are glad," he continued, "now that we see the facts with no veil of false pretense about them, to fight thus for the ultimate p,eace of the world and for the liberation of its people, the German people included ; for the rights of nations, great and small, and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way of life and of obe- dience. The world must be made safe for democracy." The Congress and the country were profoundly moved. Four days later, on the sixth of April, the House of Representatives by an overwhelming vote accepted a joint resolution, which had al- ready been passed by the Senate, and which declared that a state of war existed between the Imperial German Government and the government and the people of the United States. Thus was the momentous decision made, and the great American republic, without enthusiasm but with grave determination and with a good conscience, entered the World War. To the allied countries the action of the United States was a heartening affirmation of the righteousness of their cause and a sure guarantee of ultimate victory. On receipt of the news in England the Stars and Stripes were flung out alongside the Union Jack of Great Britain from the high tower of the Parliament Building at Westminster — "the first time," it is said, "that a foreign flag was ever displayed from that eminence." 652 THE WORLD WAR [§ 723 A few weeks later the first troops of an expeditionary force from the United States, under General Pershing, landed in France.^ They were received by the war-worn French people with frantic demonstrations of joy and gratitude. 723. Other Events of the Year 1917. After the decision of the United States government, in early April, to accept the status of a belligerent forced upon it by the acts of the Imperial German Government, the remaining months of the year 191 7 were spent by it in preparations for actual participation in the war. The best part of its navy was sent to European waters. Ten million men between twenty-one and thirty-one years of age were regis- tered, from which by selective draft a great army in successive instalments of half a million or more was to be created, equipped, and drilled. Sixteen cantonments, each a veritable city capable of accommodating about forty thousand soldiers, were constructed and made ready for the new recruits by early autumn. To meet the cost of these preparations and the expense of building a great mercantile fleet of hundreds of vessels to replace those destroyed by the German submarines, and of constructing thousands of air- ships, as well as to provide for great loans to our allies. Congress voted sums of money reckoned by billions. These enormous amounts were raised by increased taxation and by the sale of bonds. In Europe the summer and fall months of the year witnessed military operations on all the battle fronts. In the west there was practically continuous trench warfare, with hard-fought and costly offensives by both the French and the British armies, but the enemy lines were not broken through, and the year ended without any military decision on this front having been reached. In the east the Russian collapse became complete by midsum- mer. The army simply fell to pieces. Liberty had been pro- claimed, and to the simple peasant soldiers that meant that every one was free I0 do as he liked. Thousands left the trenches and returned to their homes. The empire disintegrated like the army. Finland, the Ukraine, and other districts or nationalities severed 1 June 26, 1917. § 722,] OTHER EVENTS OF THE YEAR 1917 653 all relations with Petrograd and set up as independent republics. The provisional government established at Petrograd was over- thrown, and the reins of power passed into the hands of radical communists (Bolsheviki), who instituted a regime similar in some respects to that of the extremists of the French Revolution. The leaders of this counter-revolution, Lenine and Trotzky, now opened peace negotiations with the Central Powers/ The principles they proclaimed were ''no annexations, no indemnities, and self- determination of peoples." The year ended with these negotia- tions still in progress. The Russian collapse had serious results for the Italians. It allowed the Central Powers to transfer considerable forces from the eastern to the Italian front. A great offensive against the Italians resulted in the breaking of the Italian lines, which neces- sitated a retreat to the Piave River and the abandonment of all the ground that the Italian armies had gained in two years of arduous mountain campaigning. A part of Venetia also was lost to the invaders. - In Asian Turkey the British forces made important advances during the year. In the early spring they captured the city of Bagdad, on the Tigris River,^ and thus gained control of lower Mesopotamia. Towards the end of the year they wrested from the Turks the city of Jerusalem. The Holy City was thus restored to the Christian world after having been in the hands of the Moslems since its capture by the Saracens in the year 637, ex- cepting the short period in the twelfth century when it was held by the crusaders. On the sea the German ruthless warfare against the merchant ships of the world was the matter of chief importance. Hundreds of ships of the Allies and of neutrals alike were sunk and thou- sands of lives of non-combatants destroyed. But this inhuman and lawless method of warfare resulted in much greater injury 1 In December, at Brest-Litovsk. 2 October and November, 1917. 3 March 11, 1917. An earlier attempt to take the city had ended in failure and the capture of the entire British army of 10,000 men at Kut-el-Amara, below Bagdad on the Tigris River (April 29, 1916). 654 THE WORLD WAR [§ 724 to Germany than to her foes. Shocking as it did the universal conscience, it turned virtually the whole civilized world against her, 724. Events of the Year 1918 ; the Armistice, November 11. The peace negotiations which the close of the year 19 17 saw in progress between Germany and the revolutionary leaders in Rus- sia left the once mighty Russian Empire, now fallen to pieces, entirely helpless in the hands of her conquerors/ With the pres- sure on the Eastern Front thus removed, the German high com- mand immediately transferred large bodies of troops from Russia to the Western Front, in hopes of gaining a military de- cision there before the United States could come with effective forces to the aid of her allies. With her armies in France thus strengthened, the Germans, late in March, launched their long- expected drive for Paris and the Channel ports. At the same time they began the bombard- ment of Paris with a monstrous long-range cannon, which was located seventy-five miles from Fig. 114. General Pekshixg (From a painting by J. F. Bouchor, Official Painter to the French Armies) the capital. A few days later a bomb from the huge gun fell upon a Paris church, where a large congregation was gathered at a Good Friday service, killing seventy-five persons and wounding ninety others. Under the terrific onset of the German armies the Franco- British lines were bent back with heavy losses, but were not broken. The situation was most critical. All the American 1 The Brest-Litovsk Treaty, dictated by Germany, was signed by the representatives of the Bolshevik government of Lenine and Trotzky on March 2, 1918. The Allies refused to recognize the treaty, regarding it as a-settlement of violence and injustice, and one which laid all Asia open to German conquest and domination. t flfft ;^vp|it^ III.. 'I il fV uutsa^ 'J: The Rheims Cathedral of To-day. (From a photograph) "The most majestic and revered memorial of the Great War." The small insert shows the fallen roof and the wrecked interior, viewed from the apse and looking towards the towers § 724] THE ARMISTICE 655 soldiers in France, under General Pershing, were offered to Gen- eral Foch — who was invested with the supreme command of the armies of the Allies — to be used as he should deem best. At the same time urgent appeal was made to the United States gov- ernment to hurry to France all the reenforcements possible. In response to this call the shipping of troops across the sea was hastened. A steady flow of about a quarter of a million men each month was maintained until the close of the war, when the United States had in France a great army of over two millions. The transportation overseas of such a vast army was an un- precedented achievement, an achievement made possible only by the aid of British transports and the vigilant patrol of the seas against submarines by the British royal navy, now reenforced by the United States war fleet. Throughout the spring and early summer months the Germans renewed their offensive at intervals and made further gains. But hy the middle of July the drive had spent its force. The American army had by this time been so greatly augmented that the superi- ority in numbers was now on the side of the Allies. The tide of battle turned. A great counter-offensive was launched. The Ger- mans were hurled back across the Marne. The so-called Hinden- burg Line, a system of strong defenses, was broken, and the German armies began a general retreat from France towards the Belgian frontier. With the tide of battle on the Western Front thus running against the Germans, disaster was befalling their allies on other fronts. In Palestine the British forces under General AUenby, on the historic field of Armageddon, almost annihilated the Ottoman armies. The important cities of Damascus and Beirut fell into the hands of the British (October 2-9). At about the same time, on the Macedonian front, the Franco-Serbian forces inflicted upon the Bulgarian armies a defeat which, before the end of September, forced Bulgaria to sue for peace. This was granted on terms which meant a complete military surrender. The withdrawal of Bulgaria from the war, along with the re- verses in Syria and the critical situation on the Western Front, 6S6 THE WORLD WAR [§ 724 caused Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey simultaneously to ask through President Wilson for a general armistice '' on land and water and in the air" (October 5). The armistice was to be the forerunner of peace negotiations based on fourteen propositions, central among which was that of the self-determination of peoples, which President Wilson had formulated in various addresses. After an exchange of notes between President Wilson and the Central Powers, the matter was given over into the hands of the Supreme War Council of the Allies in France. Events now moved rapidly. Before the end of the month Turkey, hopelessly defeated, signed an armistice which amounted to unconditional surrender (Oc- tober 30), and four days later Austria-Hungary, with her armies in Italy routed and the monarchy rapidly dissolving into its various racial elements, sought and obtained an armis- tice on like conditions. At the same time the terms on which Germany might be granted a cessation of hostilities were formulated by the War Council of the Allies at Versailles, and the German government was in- formed that Marshal Foch would receive accredited represent- atives and communicate to them the conditions of an armistice. On Friday, November 8, a Gemian delegation reached the headquarters of Marshal Foch and were handed the armistice terms for acceptance or rejection by eleven o'clock on the follow- ing Monday. A few hours before the expiration of the time limit the armistice was signed by the German envoys. Among its con- ditions were these : ( i ) immediate evacuation by the German Fk;. 115. Marshal Foch. (From a photograph) § 725] THE UNITED STATES IN THE WAR 657 armies, without harm to persons or destruction of property, of all invaded countries, and withdrawal across the Rhine to a line about six miles from the right, or east, bank of that river ; (2) the surrender of all submarines and certain other ships of the German navy;^ (3) renunciation of the treaties of Bucharest and Brest- Litovsk ; and (4) the immediate repatriation of allied prisoners and deported civilians, the restitution of property wrongfully taken from invaded countries, and reparation for damage done in occupied territories. These conditions were in effect equal to full and unconditional surrender, and were such as to make it impossible for Germany, at the expiration of the truce period, to renew hostilities. Shortly before the signing of the armistice Emperor William, his mad dream of world dominion shattered, sought an asylum in Holland. He left Germany the scene of turmoil, revolution, and threatened anarchy.- - 725. The United States in the War in 1918. We have seen how, as the German offensive in the early spring of 19 18 assumed a menacing aspect, all the United States troops in France were put by General Pershing at the disposal of Commander-in-chief Foch. On May 27 the Germans launched their third drive and made a gain of ten miles, capturing Chateau-Thierry, on the north bank of the river Marne. They were now within about forty miles of Paris. A further advance of a few miles would put the city within reach of their guns. The situation was desperate. The American troops were hurried to the battle front. The yielding French lines were stiffened, and the German drive was checked. This marked the turn of the tide. The menace to Paris was removed. 1 There was a total of seventy-one ships, including nine battleships. They were interned in Scapa Flow, Orkney Islands, Scotland, where, in violation of the obligations of the armistice, they were scuttled by their German crews, June 21, 1919. 2 The German Revolution began at Kiel a few days before the signing of the armi- stice. For a moment it looked as though affairs would fall into the hands of the com- munists, or " Reds," as had happened in Russia. These extremists, however, were soon suppressed, and a constitution formed by a National Constituent Assembly, — which transformed, nominally at least, the German Empire into a "German Republic," — was adopted July 31, 1919. 658 THE WORLD WAR [§ 725 A few days later (June 6) a comparatively small body of Amer- icans, marines and soldiers, made an attack upon a forest tract, known as Belleau Wood, near Chateau-Thierry, which the Ger- mans had made into a veritable machine-gun nest. Only after three weeks' bitter fighting did they succeed in clearing the forest From McMurry's I rapliy of the Great War, published by The Macmillan Company of the enemy. This was almost wholly an American accomplish- ment, and in recognition of the achievement the French govern- ment renamed the forest Marine Brigade Wood.^ While the x\merican soldiers on the battle front were thus help- ing to stop the German drive, back of the lines great preparations, under the direction of American engineers and experts of every kind, were being made for the reception, training, and equipment 1 This was not the first American offensive. A Httle before this operation (on May 28, 1918) a division made up of units of the Regular American Army had made, with con- spicuous gallantry, a successful attack upon a strong enemy position at Cantigny, near Montdidier. § 725] THE UNITED STATES IN THE WAR 659 of the greater armies yet to come from overseas. At selected base ports immense docks, warehouses, and storage plants were being hurriedly constructed ; at points farther inland great supply de- pots and acres of barracks were being erected ; artillery, aviation, and tank schools were being established ; training camps of every kind were being laid out, and immense hospitals with thousands of beds constructed and equipped ; hundreds of miles of spur rail- ways connecting the base ports and the multitude of camps, supply stations, and repair shops with the French system of railroads and with the long battle front were being laid out and pushed with feverish energy to completion ; in the French forests timber was being cut by American foresters ; and everywhere motor roads were being repaired and thousands of miles of telegraph and tele- phone wires were being strung. At the same time that all this was going on in France, the United States government, in response to the urgent appeals from the Allies for help, was, as we have seen, straining every resource to hasten the movement of troops from the training camps to over- seas. To refill the depleted home camps, a new registration of all men between eighteen and forty-five years of age was ordered (September 12). There were over twelve million registrants. "We solemnly purpose," proclaimed President Wilson, "a decisive victory of arms, and deliberately devote the major part of the military man power of the nation to the accomplishment of that purpose." The plan was to put in France by the early summer of 19 19 an army of four million men, with a reserve of over a million in the home camps ; for at this time there was no expectation on the part of the Allies of bringing the war to a successful end in 19 18. The best that they dared hope for was that they would be able to hold their lines through the summer and fall. The gathering and training of the man power of the nation — "the making of soldiers" — was but a small part of America's work of preparation for the stern task ahead ; for although only a small proportion of the men of military age were actually partici- pating in the fighting, a large part of the population was engaged in one way or another with activities that were closely associated 66o THE WORLD WAR L§ 725 with the war. This was so because modern warfare, besides requir- ing incredible quantities of miUtary munitions such as powder and shells, calls for artillery, machine-guns, tanks, aircraft, engines, automobiles, motor trucks, and supplies and eciuipment of every kind without limit. Accordingly the greater part of the industrial factories and manufacturing plants of the United States were now turned to the making of these things for the use of the vast armies that were being gathered and trained. It was a knowledge of the colossal scale of these preparations in America for the prosecution of the war to a successful issue, and the rapid transport, in spite of the submarine menace, of American soldiers by the hundreds of thousands to France, that doubtless, next to the successes of the armies of the Allies on the battle fronts, had most to do in breaking the German morale and thus causing the collapse of the German war-machine. On July 15 the Germans renewed their offensive — making their fifth and last drive — at the point on the Marne where they had been checked by the French and Americans in early June. They succeeded in crossing the Marne at some points, and gaining a foothold on the south bank of the river. But the Americans were now on or near this battle front, between Paris and the enemy, three hundred thousand strong. The Gerrrian drive was stopped, and then, on July 18, the Franco-American troops started a counter-offensive. The Germans were driven back across the Marne, and Chateau-Thierry, on its northern bank, was wrested from them. By August 5 the enemy had been pushed back all the way from the Marne to the Vesle, and the menacing Marne salient had been completely wiped out. The battle front now ran in a straight line between Rheims and Soissons. The flattening of the Marne salient was followed by the wiping out of the famous St. Mihiel salient, on the border of Lorraine, near the great fortress of Metz. This was the last menacing German wedge on the Western Front. The Germans had held this salient ever since their first advance in 1914. They had fortified it in every possible way, so that it was deemed impregnable. The capture of this salient was the first great military undertaking of § 725] THE UNITED STATES IN THE WAR 66 1 the Americans acting alone. The operation was carried out by the First American Army, the largest American force — it numbered about five hundred thousand — '' that had ever before taken part in any single battle in American history." In less than two days after the offensive was launched (September 12) the salient was cleared of the enemy, of whom more than fifteen thousand were taken prisoners. The moral effect of this achievement was tremendous, and it was hailed by the Allies, and especially by the French, with un- bounded enthusiasm. It meant the speedy liberation of France. Two weeks after the capture of the St. Mihiel salient, Franco- American forces launched another offensive (September 26), which had for one of its objectives a wooded plateau, known as the Ar- gonne Forest, lying between the Aisne and the Meuse, in the Champagne region, noted for its wines. This forest, which is over thirty miles long, had been made one of the strongest positions on the Western Front. The whole region was a perfect maze of trenches and wire entanglements with innumerable machine-gun nests. The Hindenburg Line ran through the forest. The defenses were held by the pick of the German troops. For over three weeks the Americans fought their way foot by foot through the tangled wood. At the end of this time the whole forest was in their hands. The capture of the Argonne Forest was the most notable achievement of the Americans during the war. The possession of this ground gave the Allies control of one of the two main German railway lines furnishing communication with Germany. This helped to make the German military situation impossible, and to force the acceptance by the German staff of the humiliating conditions of the armistice of November 11.^ To the foregoing brief recital of the part played by the United States in the war activities of 19 18 a word must be added re- specting the work carried on by the American Red Cross, the 1 American forces were engaged in less important operations on other sectors of the Western Front. There were also units of the American troops in northern Russia, in eastern Siberia, and in Italy. As officially reported February 6, 1920, the revised list of American casualties showed a total of 293,067, of which number 215,423 were wounded, 34,844 killed in action, and 42,800 died from wounds, disease, and accidents. 662 THE WORLD WAR [§ 726 Young Men's Christian Association, the Knights of Columbus, the Jewish Welfare Board, the Salvation Army, and numerous other organizations of like spirit and of similar purpose. These societies, generously supported by public subscriptions,^ not only rendered services of every kind to our soldiers in the training camps, on the battlefield, in the trenches, and in hospitals, but also gave relief to the civilian population of the countries where there were want and suffering caused by the war. 726. Canada's Part in the War.- All the self-governing do- minions of the British Empire — ^ Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa — made notable records in the World War. None, however, played a nobler and more self-sacrificing part than the Dominion of Canada. Immediately upon the outbreak of the war, Canada, realizing the supreme issues involved in the conflict that Germany had precipitated, began to make hurried preparations for placing her contingents alongside the Imperial British forces on the battle lines. By the early spring of 191 5 Canadian troops were in the trenches on the Western Front, and at the second battle of Ypres, where the Germans treacherously made their first poison gas at- tack, they held the shaken lines with heroism beyond praise, and thereby saved the imperiled Channel ports, but only at the terrible cost of eight thousand killed and wounded. During the following year (19 16) the Canadian troops partici- pated in all the chief operations on the sector of the Western Front held by the British. They played a specially brilliant part, along with Australians and New Zealanders, in the long, bitterly contested first battle of the Somme (July-November) and helped to write that " enduring page in Anglo-Saxon history." In the early days of 19 17 the Canadian troops achieved added fame by their gallant storming, in the course of the operations of 1 The American Red Cross alone received over ^400,000,000 in money and supplies, besides uncounied contributions of personal service, " by far the largest voluntary gifts of money, of hand and heart, ever contributed for the relief of human suffering." 2 The statements of this section are based in large part on a report entitled "Canada's War Effort," by Sir Robert Laird Borden, Prime Minister of Canada (Simouds, History of the World il'ar, vol. iv, pp. 396-401). § 12T\ THE BRITISH NAVY IN THE WAR 663 the third battle of Ypres, of Vimy Ridge, a commanding height on the Belgian front. The capture of this position has been pronounced "one of the finest achievements of the whole war," Later in the year, on the same Belgian sector, the Canadians wrested from the enemy the strategically important high ground of Passchendaele Ridge. Throughout the last year of the war the Canadian Corps bore a full share in all the operations of the Allies in defense and at- tack. They aided in checking and holding down the great German drives during the early critical months of the year, and then, when through the arrival of United States troops in force the initiative had passed from the enemy, they participated in the general at- tack and advance of the Allies which resulted in the breaking of the Hindenburg Line, the iinal retreat of the German armies, and the liberation of the French and Belgian territories which the Germans had so long occupied and devastated. - Nothing, however, so impressively summarizes the greatness of Canada's effort and of her contribution to the winning of the war, or speaks so eloquently of the fortitude and gallantry of the Canadian Corps, as the figures of Canadian casualties during the four years of the conflict. Out of the more than four hundred and eighteen thousand men that Canada sent overseas nearly a hundred and fifty-six thousand were wounded and fifty-seven thousand lost their lives. And these were the flower of Canada's young manhood. 727. The British Navy in the? War. The part played by the British navy in the World War affords an impressive illustration of the importance of sea power in history, for British command of the sea was undoubtedly the most vital factor in the great struggle. Without that command the war could not have been won by the Allies. At the outbreak of the war the British grand fleet was hurried to its chief observation station in northern Scotland. The German fleet was thus barred from the Atlantic and, by what might be called a long-distance blockade, was virtually shut up in its home ports. The few German cruisers at large were in a few months 664 ' THE WORLD WAR [§ 728 run down or driven to shelter.^ In this work the British navy was aided by the French and Japanese fleets. At the same time that the seas were freed from German raiders they were cleared of German merchant ships. Immediately upon the opening of hostilities these hurriedly sought refuge in home ports or in the harbors of neutral countries, where they were in- terned during the war. This closing of the seas to German ships and the keeping of them open to the ships of the Allies and of neutrals gave the powers fighting Germany a decisive advantage in the great struggle. '' It made the world the arsenal and granary of the Allies." With the seas once cleared of enemy ships, the services of the British navy, rendered throughout the dragging years of the war with traditional British heroism and tenacity, consisted in the patrol of the North Sea, in an unremitting watch upon the German grand fleet, in the maintenance of the blockade of the German ports, in clearing the seas of the mines laid by enemy submarines, and in the transport of millions of soldiers from all parts of the world to the battle areas in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In render- ing these and other like services the British navy during the first two years of the war — that is, before the British armies had become a real factor on the battle lines — made to the cause of the Allies a contribution without which the war would inevitably have been won by Germany.- 728. German Submarine Warfare and its Results. There is a striking parallel between the policy of ruthless submarine warfare adopted by the Germans in the World War and Napoleon's arrogant Continental Blockade, which it will be worth our while to note here, particularly because of its relation to the subject of sea power. 1 Two German cruisers, the Goebcn and the Breslau, in the Mediterranean, unfor- tunately escaped into the Dardanelles and became an important factor in drawing Turkey into the war on the side of the Central Powers. At the Falkland Islands, in the South Atlantic, the only German squadron on the seas was destroyed by the British, December 7, 1914. 2 The single great battle fought during the war between considerable portions of the British and German grand fleet-s was the encounter off Jutland, May 31, 1916, which has already been noted (p. 644, n. i). § 728] GERMAN SUBMARINE WARFARE 665 It will be recalled how Napoleon, unable to reach his chief enemy, England, intrenched behind her navy-guarded island home, adopted the policy of a blockade of the Continent against British commerce, and how this policy, leading him on from one aggression to another and finally to the fatal campaigns against Spain and Russia, resulted at last in his undoing (sect. 564). Now, in like manner, Germany, unable to reach directly her formidable enemy England, adopted her illegal submarine policy, which, rousing against her the whole world and ultimately drawing the United States into the war on the side of the Allies, brought about her downfall and ruin/ It was in the third year of the war, it will be recalled, that Germany, now equipped with a large number of submarines, cast- ing aside all moral considerations, entered upon unrestricted sub- marine operations. During February and March the German U-boats sank over eight hundred vessels, both allied and neutral. A continuance of this rate of sinkings would have forced Great Britain to give up the struggle by September, leaving German power dominant in the world. "The submarine campaign of 191 7 in its early months," asserts Simonds, ''came nearer to winning the war for Germany than the first campaign of the Marne or the colossal offensive of 1918."- The terrible menace was met and overcome in various ways. Among the means employed were the convoy system — that is, the sailing of merchant vessels in groups guarded by warships, a system impossible of effective adoption before the United States entered the wai* because of the lack of anti-submarine craft ; the use of depth bombs — bombs so timed as to explode only after reaching a certain depth in the water ; and the employment of observation airplanes, those " eyes of the army," which now used as eyes for the navy revealed the lurking submarines even when lying far beneath the surface of the ocean. By November of 191 7 1 See Simonds, History of the World War, vol. ii, pp. 37-40. - The sinkings for each year of the war were as follows : 1914 .... 314,694 tons 1917 .... 6,187,700 tons 1915 .... 1,298,748 tons 1918 .... 2,675,520 tons 1916 .... 2,291,437 tons 666 THE WORLD WAR [§ 729 the crisis was past. The sinkings fell from nearly a million tons in April of that year to less than three hundred in September. The peril from the submarine activities was finally so reduced as to become almost negligible by the laying of a mine barrage from Scotland to Norway, which effectually closed the North Sea and prevented the enemy submarines from passing out into the Atlantic. The laying of this obstruction was one of the greatest engineering feats of the war. It was largely an achieve- ment of the American navy, aided by the British fleet. The barrage consisted of several lines of mines stretching from coast to coast, a distance of two hundred and thirty miles. It required the laying of over seventy thousand mines, of which about four fifths were laid by United States ships. The obstruction became effective in the early summer of 191 8, there being evidence that, in attempting to pass the barrier, more than a score of the German U-boats were destroyed. The construction of this barrage, destroying as it did the last hope of the Germans of winning the war with their submarines, helped materially in bringing the terrible struggle to an end. 729. The Peace Convention at Paris and the Treaty of Versailles. Immediately upon the conclusion of the armistice the German government began the withdrawal of its armies from the ground on which they still stood in France and Belgium.^ At 1 The demobilization of the armies of the Allies was now begun. By September 30, 1919, the great United States army in Europe as well as the forces in the home camps (altogether about 4,000,000 men) had been returned to civil life, leaving overseas only a few thousand troops. (© Harris &: twing Fig. 116. Premier Clemenceau OF France. (From a photograph) y. V § 729] THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES 667 the same time arrangements were being made for the meeting of the delegates of the allied and associated powers for framing a general treaty of peace. The Convention opened at Paris Janu- ary 18, 1919. Twenty-seven nations were represented in it. Presi- dent Wilson was the head of the delegation from America. Premier Clemenceau of France was president of the Convention. The work of the congress embraced a bewildering variety of matters, among which were (i) the drawing of the articles of definitive peace treaties ; (2) the settlement of the boundaries of Germany and of the new states created by the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and the Russian and Turkish empires; and (3) the framing of a covenant for a League of Nations. The work was divided among a great number of com- mittees or commissions, who were aided in their task by more than a thousand histor- ical, ethnological, geographical, and diplomatic experts. The work of framing the League of Nations covenant was first completed. The tentative draft of the epoch-making document was published February 14, 1919, and immediately became the subject of a world-wide discussion. The articles of the covenant were interwoven with and made a part of the treaty with Germany, and likewise a part of each of the separate treaties made with her allies. On June 28, 1919, in the famous Hall of Mirrors in the Trianon Palace at Versailles — the very hall in. which King William I, amidst imposing ceremonies, was proclaimed German Emperor in 187 1 — the treaty with Germany, which was the first completed. © Harris & Ewing Fig. 1 1 7. Premier David Lloyd George of Great Britain. (From a photograph) 668 THE WORLD WAR [§ 729 was signed by the representatives of the allied and associated powers on the one side and the delegates of Germany on the other. The important territorial readjustments that directly concerned Germany were as follows : Alsace-Lorraine were restored to France to redress the wrong done by Germany in 1871. The Saar basin, a rich German coal and iron region, was temporarily inter- nationalized and the mines of the district were ceded in full ownership to France as com- pensation for the wanton de- struction of French mines in the territories occupied by the German armies. To undo the wrong done to Denmark by Prussia in 1864, such parts of Schleswig were to be reunited to Denmark as the inhabitants of these parts by free and secret vote should determine. On the East, Germany ceded Posen, West Prussia on the left bank of the Vistula, and parts of Silesia to the new Poland. These cessions were mainly restitutions of lands acquired by Prussia through the greatest international crime in the records of modern Europe prior to the violation of the neu- trality of Belgium by the Germans in 1914.^ Danzig, the Baltic port of old Poland, was made a free city and placed under the protection of the League of Nations. Germany was further required by the terms of the treaty to recognize the full sovereignty of restored Belgium and the inde- pendence of German Austria and of the new states of Czecho- slovakia and Poland, and to renounce all rights and privileges in 1 See sects. 467, 475. © Harris & Ewinu Fig. 118. President WooDROW Wilson. (From a photograph) § 729] THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES 669 her African colonies and other possessions outside of Europe in favor of the collective or individual allied and associated powers.^ The provisions of the treaty in regard to the German army, navy, and armament factories were of such a nature as to render Germany incapable of launching another war of aggression. They required that the army be reduced to one hundred thousand men ; that all factories for the manufac- ture of war munitions (save a few specifically excepted) should be closed; that the manufacture of poisonous gases should cease; that all military schools should be abol- ished; that no armed forces be maintained in a prescribed zone east of the Rhine; that all fortifi- cations and military establishments on the island of Helgoland, the "German Gibraltar," be destroyed ''under the supervision of the Allies by German labor and at Germany's expense." In respect to responsibility for the war a special article of the treaty arraigned the kaiser in these words : " The allied and asso- ciated powers publicly arraign William II of Hohenzollern, for- merly German Emperor, for a supreme offense against international morality and the sanctity of treaties." His surrender was to be requested of Holland for trial before an international tribunal. All other persons who had committed acts in violation of the laws of war were to be given up by Germany for trial and punishment.^ © Harris & Ewing Fig. 119. Premier Orlando OF Italy. (From a photograph) 1 Germany renounced in favor of Japan all rights, titles, and privileges that she had acquired in the province of Shantung by treaty or through "other arrangements" with China. 2 By note dated January 15, 1920, the Supreme Council of the Peace Conference de- manded of the Netherlands government the extradition of the former Emperor William. The demand was refused by the Dutch government. 670 THE WORLD WAR [§ 729 By additional articles of the treaty Germany accepted the responsibility of herself and her allies for the war and bound her- self to restore the cars, industrial machinery, works of art, and other articles she had carried away from the countries she had overrun, and to pay such sum in reparation for damages inflicted as a commission might decide to be just and within her power. Concluding sections of the treaty provided that it should come into force as soon as ratified by Germany on the one hand and by three of the principal allied and associated powers on the other. By January 10, 1920, these requirements had been met, and on that date the treaty, through exchange of ratifications between Germany on the one part and France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Guatemala, Peru, Poland, Siam, Czecho- slovakia, and Uruguay on the other part, became effective between the powers that had ratified it. This left the United States the only great power still nominally at war with Germany, the Senate of the United States having up to this time refused to ratify the treaty. Two days later President Wilson in compliance with a provision of the covenant of the League of Nations issued a call for the first meeting of the Council of the League in Paris on January 16, 1920. In transmitting this summons to the governments con- cerned, President Wilson suggested the deep significance of the meeting in these words : "It will mark the beginning of a new era in international cooperation and the first great step toward the ideal concert of nations." On the day named in the call the Council met in Paris, and the League of Nations thus came into real and active being. Into what it may grow is hidden in the times to come.^ 1 About two months after the signing of the treaty with Germany there was signed at St. Germain (September lo, 19 19) a treaty, similar to it in essentials, between the allied and associated powers and Austria, which was now merely a pitiful fragment, with a population of about 7,000,000, of the old Austria-Hungary. By the terms of this treaty Austria was required to cede to Italy the Trentino and Trieste, and acknowledge the independence and sovereignty of the new states — Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Jugo- slavia — which had been formed in whole or in part out of provinces of the disrupted Austro-Hungarian monarchy. She was further required to assume the title of Republic of Austria, and was forbidden to unite with Germany without the consent of the Council 30 Longituae 20 Wost 10 Longitude 10 East Loncritude Settled boundaries Unsettled boundaries ^^M^S^^E [^ =^i Greenwich 40 vereignty to be determined by popular vote Areas under control of the League of Nations § 730] SOME RESULTS OF THE WORLD WAR 671 730. Some Assured Results of the World War. Not until sufficient time has elapsed to prove the stability of the work of the Paris Peace Conference will it be possible to make anything like a complete appraisal of the results of the World War. How- ever, there are already certain assured outcomes of the fateful struggle of which we should here make note because of their rela- tion to the democratic, nationalistic, and world- federative move- ments, — those great drifts in universal history which it has been a chief purpose of ours to portray in the foregoing pages. First, the war has imparted a fresh impulse to the democratic movement. This it has done by discrediting irretrievably auto- cratic, militaristic government and demonstrating the strength and superiority of government based on individual freedom and popular sovereignty. It has brought definitely to an end government by divine-right kings and established practically everywhere govern- ment by the people. It has called into existence more than a dozen new republics. It has " made the world safe for democracy." Second, the war has greatly promoted the nationalistic move- ment. Precipitated by a great imperial power whose aim was world dominion, this challenge to the spirit of nationality has resulted in the overthrow and destruction of every oppressive imperialistic power remaining in the world — Hohenzollern, Hapsburg, Roman- off, and Ottoman — and has brought about the regrouping of their liberated peoples in accordance with the aspirations of race and the spirit of nationalism. If the war had had no other result than the creation of these nation-states, — Finland, Poland, Czecho- slovakia, Jugoslavia, and the rest, — that alone would go far to compensate humanity for the unmeasured losses and sacrifices of the titanic war. Third, the war has given a great impulse to the historic trend toward the definite organization of the world. This is doubtless historically the most significant outcome of the great struggle, for the formation of the League of Nations, although the federation of the League of Nations. The treaty between the Allies and Bulgaria was signed on November 27, igig. Neither the treaty with Hungary nor that with Turkey had been completed at this date. 672 THE WORLD WAR [§ 730 as yet embraces only a part of the sovereign and independent nations of the world, carries the pledge and promise of the ultimate consummation of that age-long movement towards world union which, in the grouping of warring clans and tribes into city-states and petty kingdoms, began in the obscurity of prehistoric times. References. On the background and causes of the war: Bernhardi, Friedrich von, Germany and the Xc.xt War. Smith, T. F. A., The Soul of Gervmiiy- UsHER, R. G., Pan-Gerniaiiisni. Cheradame, A., The Pan-Gennan Plot Unmasked. Gerard, J. W., My Four Years in Germany. W^OODS, H. C, The Cradle of the War. Jastrow, M., The War and the Bagdad Raihvay. Seymour, C, The Diplomatic Background of the liar. Stowell, E. C, The Diplomacy of the War of igi 4. '&CY^^5K^^^^s,]. Ox., The Balkan Wars. Gibbons, H. A., The N'eiv Map of Europe. Davis, S. D. (with collaborators). The Roots of the War. Beck, J. M., The Evidoice in the Case. Lichnowsky, Prince Karl, The Guilt of Germany. Grelling, R., / Accuse! (published anony- mously during the war). The text of the official documents (the " British White Paper," the " German White Book," the " French Yellow Book," etc.) of the belligerent governments bearing on the outbreak of the war will be found in convenient form in the pamphlets issued by The American Association for International Conciliation, 407 West 117th St., New York City. On the years of the war : Whitlock, B., Belgium jinder German Occupa- tion. 2 vols. MoRGENTHAU, IL, Ambassador Morgenthau's Stoty. Bassett, J. S., Our War with Germany. McMaster, J. B., The United States in the World War. U.sher, R. G., The Stoiy of the Great War (for young readers). SiMONDS, F. H., History of the World JVar, 5 vols, (only four volumes issued at this writing, April, 1920). The A'eiv York Times Current History; The European War, 20 vols. The war-time Committee on Public Information having discon- tinued its activities its publications (" The President's Flag Day Address," " Con- quest and Kultur," " German War Practices," " The War Message and the Facts behind It," etc.) are now distributed, without cost, except for carriage, while the supply lasts, by The World Peace Foundation, 40 Mt. Vernon St., Boston. INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY Note. In the case of words whose correct pronunciation has not seemed to be clearly indicated by their accentuation and syllabication, the sounds of the letters have been denoted thus: a, like a \xigray; a, like a, only less pro- longed ; a, like a in have; a, like a m.fdr\ a, like a in all; e, like ee in meet; e, like e., only less prolonged; e, like e in end\ e, like e in there ', e, like e in err; i, like / xvipine; i, like i m. pvi ; 5, like o in note; 6, like o, only less pro- longed ; 6, like o in 7tot ; 6, like o in orb ; oo, like oo in wc>t);; ; 66, like oo in hood; u, like ?/ in use ; ii, like the French ti ; c and ch, like k ; 9, like s ; g, like gmget; g, like/; s, likes; ch, as in German t Em- pire Cabinet, English, 423 Cab'ot, John, 299 Cabot, Sebastian, 300 Caed'mon, poet-monk, 20 Cahiers (ka ya'), 448 Calcutta, Black Hole of, 426 n. 3 Calendar, French Revolutionary, 465 Caliphate of Bagdad, established, 53 ; Golden Age of, 53 ; dismember- ment of, 53, 54 676 INDEX Calmar, Union of, 221 ■Calvin, John, at Geneva, 277 n. i ; burns Servetus, 280 Calvinists, 277 Cam ba lu', Mongol capital, 146 Cam bo'di a River, 599 Cambronne (kon bron'), 503 n. i Campagna (kam pan'ya), 551 Campo Formio (kam'po for'me d). Treaty of, 472 Canada, under Louis XIV, 365 ; ceded to England, 369 ; Dominion of, 589, 590 ; her part in the World War, 662, 663 Ca nos'sa, Henry IV's humiliation at, 108 Can ta'bri a, 204 Cantigny (koii'ten'ye"). 658 n. i Ca niite', king of England, 73 Ca'pet, Hugh, king of France, 197 Capetians. See France Cape-to-Cairo Railway, 596 Capitularies of Charlemagne, 64 Car bo na'ri, 5^ i Carnar'von, castle,. 1S3, 1S4 Carnot (kar no'), Sadi, 522 n. 2 Car o lin'gi an family, beginning of, 60 Carrier (kiirya'), 46S Cartwright, 430 Casimir-Perier (kazi mer'-parya'), 522 n. 2 Cas'si o d5"rus, Theodoric's minister, 8 Castile (kaster),the name, 204 ; union with Aragon, 204 Castles, feudal, 83 Cateau-Cambresis (ka to'-koh bra ze'). Peace of, 293. n. i Cathedral building, 163, 164 Catherine II the Great, reign, 409- 411 Catherine de' Medici (de ma'de che), 335' 337 Catholic Emancipation Act, 533 Cavaliers, 379 Cavour (kii voor'), Count, 544, 545, 546, 548 Caxton, William, 196 Cecil, William. See Burghley Celibacy of the clergy, 105 Celtic Church, 18, 19 Celts, at opening of the Middle Ages, 6; Christianity among, 17-19; con- version of Irish Celts by St. Patrick, 17 Cenis (se ne'), Mount, tunnel, 545 Cer van'tes, 93 Champagne (sham pan'), 661 Channel ports, struggle for, in World War, 63S _ Charlemagne (shar'le man), king of Franks, 59-66; his wars, 60, 61; restores the Empire in the West, 62 ; as a ruler, 63 ; his Palace School, 65 ; his death, 65 ; results of his reign, 65 ; division of his dominions, 66 Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, 201 . Charles Martel, at battle of Tours, 54, 59 Charles the Simple, king of the Western Franks, 73 Charles I, king of England, reign, 374-382; II, reign, 390-392 Charles IV, king of France, 187 ; VI, 189 ; VII, 190 ; VIII, 201 ; IX, 336, 337; X, 516 Charles V, Emperor H. R. E., com- missions Magellan, 254 ; at Diet of Worms, 273 ; narrative of reign, 286-292 ; his abdication, 291 -Charles XII, king of Sweden, 406, 407, 408 Chartism, 528 Chateau-Thierry (sha to'-te ar're"),657 Chatham. See Pitt Chaucer, Geoffrey, 193 Chev'i ot (or chiv'i ot) Hills, 300 n. i Chil'de ric, last Merovingian king, 60 Children's Crusade, the, 125 China, question of partition of, 603 ; war with Japan, 604 ; dismember- ment of, 605 ; Boxer uprising, 605 ; republic of, 608 Chivalry, origin of, 88 ; its universal- ity, 89 ; training of the knight, 89 ; ceremony of knighting, 90; the tournament, 90, 91 ; character of the knight, 91 ; decline of the sys- tem, 93 ; good in the system, 93-95 Christian IV, king of Denmark, 344 Christianity, as factor in mediseval history, 4 ; introduced among the Teutonic tribes, 14-21 ; progress of, before the fall of Rome, 1 5 ; introduced into Russia, 21 ; reacted upon by paganism, 22 ; in French Revolution, abolished, 465 Chronicle, Anglo-Saxon, 72 n. i INDEX 677 Church, early constitution of, 28 ; separation of the Eastern from the Western or Latin Church, 32. See Papacy _ Church Councils: Council of Nicaea, 1 5 ; of Pisa, 1 4 1 ; of Constance, 141; of Trent, 279; Vatican (i 869-1 870), 550 n. I Church property, in France, nation- alized, 454 Cid, poem of the, 207 Cimabue (che ma boo'a), 240 n. 2 Cisalpine Republic, first, 472; second, 478, 482 Civil Code, 480 Civil Constitution of Clergy, in French Revolution, 454 Civil War (i 642-1 649), in England, 379-382 Clarendon, Constitutions of, 178 Clarkson, Thomas, 429 "Clemenceau (Eng. pron. clem en s5'), French Premier, 667 _ Clermont (kler moh'), Council of, 118 - Clive, Robert, 426 -Clo'vis, king of the Franks, 9, 10 ; his conversion, 15 Cluny (klii ne'), monastery of, 26; center of reform, 26 Cobden, Richard, 528 n. i Codes : Justinian Code, 43, 44 ; Code Napoleon, 480 -Coligny (ko len ye'), Gaspard de, 336, 338 Colonization, European, 585-587. See national titles such as English Colonies Columbus, Christopher, importance of his achievement, 250-252 Commons, English House of, origin, 181-183. See Parliainent, English Commonwealth of England, 382-385 Commune, Revolutionary, of Paris, 452 Compass, invention of, 249 n. i "Concordat, French, of 1801, 479; annulled, 523 Conde (koh da'), Prince of, 336 Confederation of the Rhine, 485 Congo Free State, 588 Conrad III, Emperor H. R. E., 122 Constance, Church Council of, 141 Con'stan t!ne VI, Eastern emperor, 62 Constantinople, besieged by Sara- cens, 51 ; captured by crusaders. 123-125; captured by Ottoman Turks, 148 Constituent Assembly, French, 450- 456 Constitutions: Austria (1849), 55^, 557; (1867), 568; England, 385; France (1791), 456; (1795), 47°; (1799). 477; (1814). 502; (1848), 518; Hungary (1867), 568; Nether- lands (1814), 511; Norway (1814), 511; Prussia (1850), 557; Sardinia (184S), 544 n. I ; Turkey, 628 n. i Consulate, French, 477-481 " Contemptibles," the, 638 n. 2 Continental Blockade, 489 Conventicle Act, 390 Convention, French National, 459-470 Cook, James, Captain, 591 Copenhagen bombarded, 490 Co per'ni cus, Nicholas, 248 n. i ~ Cor day', Charlotte, 462 Cordeliers (Eng. pron. kor'de lers"), Club, 455 Cor'do-va, 52 "Corn Laws repealed, 528 n. i Corneille (kor nay'), 367 Cor 6 man'del, 415 •Corporation Act repealed, 532 Cor'pits Jii'ris Civi'lis, 43 Correggio (kor red'jo), 240 n. 2 Cortes (kor'tes), Spanish, 165 n. i Cortes (Span. pron. kor tas'), Her- nando, 258 Co riin'na, battle of, 493 n. i Coster of Haarlem, 235 n. i Council of the North, 376 n. i Counter-Reform, Catholic, 279-2S2 Coup d'Etat (koo da ta') of Brumaire, 474 Court of Arbitration, International,6i 5 Covenanters, 377 ; persecution of, 391 Cranmer, Thomas, 312 Crecy (Eng. pron. kres'se), battle of, 187 Crimean War, 572 Crompton, 430 n. i Cromwell, Oliver, parliamentary general, 379-385; Protector, 385- 387; treatment of body, 390 Cromwell, Richard, 387 Cromwell, Thomas, 302 ; death, 308 n. I Crusades, enumerated, no; causes of, 110-116; circumstances favoring, 116; legend of Peter the Hermit, 678 INDEX 117; Councils of Piacenza and Clermont, 118; narrative of the Crusades in the East, 1 19-1 27 ; Cru- sades in Europe, 127-129; their re- sults for European civilization, 130- 133. See Contents Curfew, the, 100 Customs Union, German, 555 Cuzco (kobz'kd), 260 Cyprus, ceded to England, 574 Cyrenaica (sir e na'i ka), seized by Italy, 631 Czechoslovakia (chek'o slo viik'i a), 670 n. I Czechs (chechs or cheks), 569 Danes. See Sca^idinavians Danish Wars, 559 Dante, Alighieri (a le ge a're), pre- cursor of the Renaissance, 225, 226; his ComnieJia, 226 Dan'ton (Fr. pron. don ton'), in Con- vention, 459 ; death, 467 Danzig' (dant'zich), made a free city, 668 Dardanelles (dar da nelz'), attempt to force by Anglo-French fleet (1915), 643 Dark Ages, the, character of, i, 2 Darnley, Henry Stuart, Lord, 317 Declaration of Indulgence, 393; of Rights, 394 ; of the Rights of Man, 454 Delhi (del'liT), 146 Demarcation, Papal Line of, 253 Denmark, in Thirty Years' War, 344 ; Continental Blockade, 489 ; loses Norway, 509 n. i ; Schleswig- Holstein War, 559. See Calntar, Union of Descartes (da kiirt'), 367 n. i Deschanel (da sha nel'), M., 522 n. 2 Des 1 de'ri us, king of the Lombards, deposed by Charlemagne, 61 Dias (de'as), Bartholomew, 250 Diderot (de dro'), 445 Directory, French, 470-475 Disestablishment, in Ireland, 533 ; proposed in England, Scotland, and Wales, 535 Disraeli (diz ra'li), 534 Divina Commctlia (de ve'na kom ma'- de a), 226 Divine Right of Kings, the theory, 350-357 ; expounded by Louis XIV, 35S; expounded by James I, 370; expounded by Emperor William II, 617 Doge (doj), the name, 158 Dogger Bank, 614 n. 3 Domesday Book (dobmz"da'), 99, 100 Dominicans, order of the, 136-138 Don Quixote (Sp. pron. don ke ho'te), 93 Don a tel'lo, 239 n. 3 Donation of Constantine, 32 n. 2 ; its unhistorical character shown by Valla, 245 Dragonnades (drag o nadz'), 363 Drake, Francis, 320 . Dreyfus (drl'fus), Alfred, 523 n. 2 Drogheda (droch'e da), 383 Dual Alliance, the, 625 n. i .Duma, Russian, 577, 578 Dunajec (doo na'yets), battle of the, 640 n. 4 Dunant (dli non'), Henri, 546 n. i Dunbar, battle of, 384 Duquesne (dii kan'). Fort, 425 Dutch. See lYetherlanJs Dutch colonies, 444 ; at the Cape, 594 ; in East Indies, 594 n. i East India Company, English, 373, 593 Eastern Empire, sketch of history, 43-46; becomes Creek, 45; serv- ices of, to European civilization, 45 ; effects upon, of Crusades, 130 _ Eastern Rumelia (roo me li a), 594 n. 2 Ebro (a'bro), river, 491 Ecclesiastical Reservation, 291 Edda, the, 71 E des'sa, 121 I'-dict, of Nantes, 339 ; revoked, 362 ; of Grace, 341 ; of Emancipation in Prussia, 498 ; Emancipation Code in Russia, 575 Education, English act, 529 ; ques- tion in France, 522, 523 Education, reformed by the New Learning, 243 Edward, the Confessor, king of Eng- land, 73; his death, 97; I, 183, 185 n. 2; II, 1S5; III, 186; V'l, reign, 310, 31 1 Eg'bert, king of Wessex, 12 Egmont, 327 Egypt, conquest of, by Saracens, 51 ; England in, 596 INDEX 679 Einhard (In'hard), secretary of Charlemagne, 64, 67 Elba, 501 Elbe (elb ; Ger. pron. el'be), river, 347 Electors, the Seven, of Germany, 210 Elizabeth, queen of England, reign, 313-322 Elizabeth, tsaritsa, 416 Ems dispatch, the, 562 En cel'a dus, legend of, 517 Encyclopedists, 445 England, origin of name, 12 ; Anglo- Saxon conquest of, 11; Christian- ity in, 16; results of conversion of Anglo-Saxons, 16; reign of Alfred the Great, 72 ; Danish conquest, 73 ; Saxon line restored, 73 ; Norman conquest and rule, 97-102 ; under the houses of Plantagenet, Lan- caster, and York, 177-196; loss of possessions in France, 179; con- quest of Wales, 183; wars with Scotland, 1S4-186; Hundred Years' War, 186, 187 ; Wars of the Roses, 192; under the Tudors, 29S-323 in seventeenth century, 370-398 in eighteenth century, 420-432 since Waterloo, 5-5-539- See Con- tents Enlightened Despots, the, 356, 357 ; exemplified by Catherine II, 409; by Frederick II, 418; by Joseph II, 433-435 ; by Napoleon, 478-4S1 Episcopate, the, 28 E ras'mus, Desiderius, 266 Er'furt, Congress of, 491 Eritrea (a re tra'a), 598 n. i Erzerum (erz room'), 644 n. 2 Eschenbach (esh'en bach). Wolfram of, 215 n. 2 Es co'ri al, the, 293 n. i Essenes (es senz'), the, 23 n. i Estates-General. See States- General Eugene of Savoy, Prince, 365 n. 2 Ev'e lyn, John, 404 n. i Excommunication, effects of, 107 Eylau (i'lou), battle of, 487 Fa bi'o la, 27 n. i 'Factory Act, English, 528 n. i Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 380 False Decretals, the, 32 n. 2 Fashoda (fa sho'da) incident, the, 598 n. 3 Faure (for), Felix, 522 n. 2 Faust, printer, 235 Faustus, legend of, 240 n. i Federalism, 61 1 Fenelon (fan lori'), 367 n. i Ferdinand of Aragon, marriage to Isabella of Castile, 205 ; sets up the Inquisition, 206; his death, 207 Ferdinand II, Emperor H.R. E., 344 Ferdinand, Francis, Austrian Crown Prince, assassinated, 632, 633 Feudalism, defined, 75; subinfeuda- tion, 75 ; ceremony of homage, 77 ; relation of lord and vassal, — reliefs, fines, aids, etc., 78 ; manorial serfs, 79, 80 ; development of the feudal system, 81 ; castles of the nobles, 83 ; sports of the nobles, 83 ; causes of decay, 84 ; extinction of, in dif- ferent countries, 85n. i; defects of the system, 85 ; good results of the system, 86-88 ; effects upon, of Crusades, 131 Fich'te, 497 Field of Cloth of Gold, 2S9 n. i Filmer, quoted, 353 n. 2 Fine arts, revival of the, 237-240 Finland, Russianization of, 577 ; be- comes a republic, 652 Finns, the, 22 Fire-worshipers, 51 n. 2 Plsher, John, bishop of Rochester, 304 Five Mile Act, 391 Flag'el lants, the, 188 n. i Flodden Field, battle of, 300 n. i Florence, sketch of history, 160 Foch (fosh). Marshal, 657 Forest laws of the Normans, 100, loi For mo'sa, 605 Era An gel'i co, 240 n. 2 France, beginnings of French king- dom, 196; the Capetian period, 197-200; table of Capetian kings (direct line), 197 n. i ; in the Cru- sades, 198; effectsupon, of the Hun- dred Years' War, 200 ; under the mediaeval Valois, 200-202 ; wars with Charles V, 288, 289 ; under the later Valois kings, 335-338 ; under Henry IV, 338-340 ; under Louis XIII, 340-342 ; gains in Treaty of Westphalia, 347 ; under Louis XIV, 358-368 ; Louis XV, 368 ; the Rev- olution, 437-475 ; under Louis XVI, 447-461; the Consulate, 477-481; the First Empire, 481-504; the 68o INDEX Second Empire, 518-520; the Third Republic, 522-524; in the World War, 637-639, 644, 668 Francis II, Emperor H. R. E., makes Treaty of Campo Formio, 472 ; as Francis I, P^mperor of Austria, 485 Francis I, king of France, rival of Charles V, 288 ; wars with Charles V, 289 ; persecution of Waldenses, 289; II, reign of, 335 Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria, accession, 556; makes Peace of Prague, 561 ; grants reforms to Hungary, 567 Franciscans, order of the, 136-138 Franco-Prussian War, 520, 562 Frankfort (Ger. Frankfurt), Treaty of (187 1 ), 520, 521; Constituent As- sembly at, 557 n. 3 Franks, the, under the Merovingians, 9; their conversion, 15; importance of conversion, 15 Frederick I, Barbarossa, E^nperor H. R.E., in Third Crusade, 122; quarrel with Pope Alexander III, 134 ; represents German nationality, 209 Frederick IV, king of Denmark, 407 Frederick (III) I, king of Prussia, 412, 413; II,* the Great, 414-419; in partition of Poland, 417 Frederick William, Great Elector of Brandenburg, 412 Frederick William I, king of Prussia, 413 ; III, campaign of Jena, 486 ; at Tilsit, 48S ; IV, grants Constitution, 556; plaintiff in Missouri court, 557 Free Imperial Cities, 211, 212 French and Indian War. See Servii Years'' IVar French colonies, at close of nine- teenth century, 597-599 Friedland (fret'lant), battle of, 487 Froissart (frwa-sar'), 203, 204 Fusillades (fiis e yad'), 469 Gabelle (ga bel'), 438 Ga'len, 170 Gahleo (gal i le'o), 248 n. i Gallipoli (gal lep'6 le), peninsula of, 643 n. 3 Ga'ma, Vasco da, 252 Garibaldi (ga re biil'de), 544 ; in Sicily and Naples, 547 Gas'cons, the, 61 n. i Geiseric, king of the Vandals, 9, 30 Geneva Convention of 1864, 546 n. i Gen'o a, 160 Geography, knowledge of, in fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 249-256 George I, king of England, 422 ; II, 422; 111,422 George, Lloyd, 531 Gerard (zha rar'), Balthasar, 331 German colonies, 599, 600 German Confederation, 553-561 German East Africa, 600 German Empire, New, formed, 563 ; history of, up to World War, 563- 567 ; becomes a sea power, 623 ; seeks alliance with Mexico against the United States, 648 ; transformed into a republic, 657 n. 2. See IVorlii War German imperialism, 6i8 German Southwest Africa, 600 German tribes. See Teutons Germany, conversion of German tribes, 14-21 ; beginnings of the kingdom of, 208 ; renewal of the empire by Otto the Great, 208 ; under the Hohenstaufen, 209 ; the Electors, 210; the Interregnum, 210; the Free Imperial Cities, 21 1 ; under the Hapsburgs, 212-214; humanism in, 265-267 ; reforma- tion in, 263-284 ; Thirty Years' War in, 343-350; Peace of West- phalia, 347 ; effects of Thirty Years' War upon, 348-350 ; reorganized by Napoleon, 485 ; reorganized by Congressof Vienna, 510; Confeder- ation, 553-563 ; Customs Union, 555; Revolution of 1848 in, 556- 558; North German Confederation, 561 ; German Empire formed, 563 ; the Imperial Constitution, 563-565. See Genii an Empire, New Ghent, Pacification of, 329 Ghiberti (ge ber'te). sculptor, 239 n. 3 Gibbon, the historian, mentioned, 5 Gibraltar, 365 Gilds, the, 154 Giotto (jot'to), 240 n. 2 Girondins (ji ron'dinz), in Legislative Assembly, 456; in Convention, 460 ; fall and execution of, 462, 465 Gladstone, William Ewart, his Reform Bill of 1884, 530; advocates Irish Home Rule, 536; death, 536 INDEX 68i Godfrey of Bouillon (god'fri boo yon'), 119; made head of Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, 121 Goethe (ge'te), at Erfurt, 492 ; cos- mopolitanism of, 497 n. I , Good Hope, Cape of, 250 Gorizia (g5 ret'se a), captured by Italians, 642 n. 4 Goths. See Ost7vgot/is and Visigolks Granada, conquest of, 205 Grand Alliance, of 16S9, 3^4; of 1701, 365 Grand Design of Henry IV, 340 n. i Gravelines (grav len'), battle of, 293 n. I Gravelotte (grav lot'), battle of, 520 Great Britain, the name, 422. See England Great Fire, the, at London, 391 Great Moguls, the, 146 Great Schism, the, 140 Greece, since 1864, 572 n. i Greek Church, the, 31, 32 Greek Empire. See Eastern Empire Greek Independence, War of, 571 n. i • Greenland, discovered by the North- men, 71 Grevy (gra ve'), 596 n. 10 Grotius (gro'shius), Hugo, 254 n. 2, 349 .. _ Guadalquivir (guadalkever'), river, 54 Guebers (ge'bers). See Fire- worshipers Guillotine, the, 464 ■ Guiscard (ges kar'), Robert, 97 n. i -Guise (giiez), Francis, second duke of. 336 Guizot (ge zo'), 518 Gunpowder, effects of use in war, 85 Gustavus I, Vasa, king of Sweden, 276 ; II, Adolphus, in Thirty Years' War, 340, 3j^5, 346 Gutenberg (goo'ten hero), John, 235 Habeas Corpus Act, 392 Hague (hag). Conference, First, 614; Second, 614 Hamburg, 1 55 Hampden, John, 376 Hanover, House of, in England, 422 n. I Hanover, Prussia annexes, 561 -Hanseatic League, 155-157 -Hapsburg, House of. See Austria, House of Hardenburg, Prussian minister, 498 - Hargreaves (har'grevz), 430 Harold, king of England, 97, 98 Harun-al-Rashid (ha robn'-al- rash"id), caliph, 53 Hassan (ha'sen), 53 n. i -Hastings, battle of, 97 Hebert (a ber'), 467 Hegira (he jT'ra or hej'i ra), the, 49 Heidelberg (hi'del berc), 364 Helgoland (hel'go lant) ceded to Great Britain, 510 n. 2; to New German Empire, 510 n. 2; dis- mantled, 669 Heloise (a 16 ez'), pupil of Abelard, 172 Helvetic Republic formed, 474 - Henry I, king of England, ^loi n. 2 ; II, 179; III, iSi; VII,at*Bosworth Field, 192 Henry IV, Emperor H.R. E., 107; VI, 123, 210 Henry VII, king of England, reign, 299; VIII, reign, 300-310 Henry III, king of France, 338 ; IV, marriage, 337 ; reign, 338-340 Henry of Bourbon, king of Navarre, 338 Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 250 Hep'tar chy, Saxon, 12 Her'i ot, the, 80 " Hermits, 22, 23 Herzegovina (hert se go ve'na), ad- ministered by Austria-Hungary, 574. 629 Hesse-Cassel (hes'-kas'el) annexed to Prussia, 561 Hesse-Darmstadt (hes'darm'stat), 561 High Commission Court, 376 n. i Hil'de brand. See Pope Gregory VII Hindenburg Line, the. 655 ; broken, 663 - Hindenburg, Von, 640 n. 2 Hip poc'ra tes, 170 Hohenlinden, battle of, 478 _ Hohenstaufen (h6"en stow'fen), House of, Germany under, 209, 210 "Hohenzollern (ho'en tsol lern), House of, in Brandenburg, 412; in Prussia, 412 n. i. See Prussia Holland, kingdom of, created, 483 ; annexed to France, 494. See Netherlands Holstein (hols'stin), duchy of, 559; annexed to Prussia, 561 682 INDEX -iloly Alliance, 513 Holy League of 1609, 343 Holy Office. See hujuisttion Holy Roman Empire, name attaches to Western Empire, 67 ; relations of, to the Papacy, 103-105 ; under Henry IV, 107, loS; Concordat of Worms, 109; results for Germany of the renewal of the imperial authority, 20S; election of Charles V, 286; end of the Empire, 485, 486 Holy Synod established in Russia, 406 Holy Wars. See Crusades Homage, ceremony of, 77 -Home Rule, Irish, 536-538 Hoorn (horn), count of, 327 Ho sain',. 53 n. i Hos'pi tal ers, order of the, origin of, 121 n. I Howard, Catherine, 308 Howard, John, 429 n. 2 Hubertsburg, Treaty of, 416 Hudson Bay territory, 421 --Huguenots (hu'ge nots), in religious wars, 335-342 ; struggle with Riche- lieu, 341 ; after Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 363 -Humanism, defined, 22S ; Petrarch, first of the humanists, 228-230 Chrysoloras, Creek teacher, 231 search for ancient manuscripts, 232 patrons of the New Learning, 233 fall of Constantinople gives impulse to, 234 ; invention of printing in relation to the revival, 234-236; humanism in the North, 236 ; effects of the classical revival upon vernac- ular literatures, 243; in Germany, 265-267. See A't'itaissaiice - Humbert I, king of Italy, 549 n. i Hundred Days, the, 501-504 ' Hundred Years' War, 186-191 ; re- sults for France, 200 Hungarians, conversion of, 116 Hungary, beginnings of, 143 ; under Joseph II, 433-436; Revolution of 1S48 in, 556 n. I ; in Austro- Hungarian monarchy, 567-569 - Huss, John, 141 n. i, 214 Hussites, the, 213, 214 Hutten (hoot'ten), Ulrich von, 267 Iceland, settled from Norway, 71 - Iconoclastic controversy, 31, 32 Iconoclasts, in Netherlands, 326 Incas, 259 Independents, English religious party (known at first as Separatists), in • Civil War, 379 India, English in, 373, 426, 592-594 ; French in, 426 n. i, 427 Indians, American, origin of name, 252 Indulgences, defined, 268 n. i ; his- tory of, 268, 269 ; granting of, by Tetzel, 269 ; Luther's theses on, 271 Industrial Revolution in England, 429-43' Industrialism, the New, 579-583 Inquisition, the, in Languedoc, 129; in Spain, 206; procedure of, 280; in Netherlands, 325 n. i Instrument of Government (l'",nglish), 38s Interdict, effects of, 107 Interregnum, the, in German history, 210 Investiture, contest respecting, 107- 109 lona (I n'na or e n'na), monastery of, 17 Ionian Islands, annexed to France, 472 ; ceded to Greece by England, 572 n. I Ireland, conversion of, 17; under 'James I, 373; Cromwell in, 383; William III in, 398; legislative independence, 428; disestablish- ment of Church in, 533 ; the Union, 535; in nineteenth century and after, 535-539 Irene (i re'ne or I ren'). Eastern empress, 62 Ire'ton, 390 Iron Crown of Lombards, 11, 61,483 " Ironsides," Cromwell's, 379 Isabella, queen of Castile, marriage to Ferdinand of Aragon, 205; sets up the Inquisition, 206; death, 207 Islam. See MoItanimeJaiiism Italian city-republics, general account of, 1 57-161 ; causes of their early growth, 157; dissensions among, 157 ; despots in, 157 ; Venice, 158- 160; Genoa, 160; Florence, 160 Italian colonies, 598 n. i Italian Renaissance. See Kcnais- sance INDEX 683 Italy, results of Lombard conquest, II ; recovery of, by Justinian, 43; Renaissance in, 219; invaded by Charles VIII, 201 ; at Congress of Vienna, 510, 540; since Congress of Vienna, 540-552; kingdom of, formed, 546, 547 ; relations of king- dom of, with Papacy, 550; Italia irredenta, 642 ; enters the World War, 642 ; acquires Trieste and the Trentino, 670 n. i . See Italian city- republics and Renaissance Ivan (e van') IV, the Terrible, 400 n. i - Jacobin Club, origin, 455 ; closed, 469 Jacobites support James II, 398 .James I, king of England, reign, 370-374; II, reign, 393, 394; attempt to recover throne, 398 Jamestown, 372 Jan'i za ries, the, 148 _Japan, awakening of, 604 ; war with China, 604; war with Russia, 606- 608 Java, Dutch possession, 594 n. i 7effreys, Chief Justice, 393 n. i Jena (ya'nii), battle of, 486 Jenghiz Khan (jen'gis khan), 144 Jerome of Prague, 214 Jerusalem, captured by crusaders, 120; Latin Kingdom of, 120; cap- tured by Saladin, 122 ; captured by the British (1917), 653 Jesuits, Society of the, 281 ; expelled from various countries, 435 n. i -Jews, expelled from Spain, 206 ; polit- ical disabilities removed in Eng- land, 533 .Joan of Arc, 190 -Joffre (zhofr). Marshal, 637 John, king of England, quarrel with Pope Innocent III, 135; becomes vassal of the papal see, 136; for- feits lands in France, 180; grants Magna Carta, 180 John of Austria, Don, at Lepanto, 294 John of Leyden, 207 n. 2 John Sobieski, king of Poland, 362 -Joseph II, Emperor H. R. E., 433-436 Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, 491 Josephine, Empress, 494 n. i Jourdan (zhoordoh'), campaign of 1796,471,472 _ Juan Ponce de Leon (pon tha da la on'), 258 n. 1 Jugoslavia (yoo'go slav"i a), 670 n. i -Justinian, his reign, 43-45; his code, 44 Jutes, the, 12 Jutland, naval battle of, 644 n. i Kaaba (ka'ba), the, 47 Kant (kant), Immanuel, quoted, 612 Ker man', 51 n. 2 Khedive (kedev'), 596 Kiel (kel) Canal, the, 624 n. i Knighthood. See Ckivahy ■ Knox, John, 317 Koniggratz (ke'nich grets), battle of, 560 Konigsberg (ke'nichs berG), 128 Ko'ran, the, origin of, 50 ; contents of, 50 Ko re'a, 604, 605 Koreish (ko rish'), Arab clan, 48 Kosciuszko (kos i us'ko), 41 1 Kossuth (kosh'oot), Louis, 556 n. i Kremlin, the, 499 Kriig'er, Paul, 595 Kublai Khan (kobb'lT khan), 146 Kultur (kool toor'), 621 n. i Ku ro pat'kin, Russian general, 607 Kut-el-Amara (koot-el-a ma'ra), 553 n-3 'Labor Problem, the, 582 La Bruyere (la brii yer'), 367 n. i^ Lafayette (la fa yet'), 451 Lancaster, House of, 177 n. i. See Roses, Wars of the Langland, William, 194 Langton, Stephen, 136 Languedoc (lang'gwe dok), 129 Langiie cVOc (larig'dok"), French dialect, 202 Langtie if Oil (laiig'dwel"), French dialect, 202 Lapps, the, 22 -La Kochelle (la r5 shel'). Huguenot stronghold, 339; siege of, 341 Las Ca'sas, 260 n. i Latimer, bishop, 312 Latin Empire of Constantinople, 124 Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, founded, 120 ; end of, 127 Laud, William, 375 . I-eague of Nations, preparations for, 612; covenant of, 667; first meet- ing of Council of the League, 670 Leicester (les'ter) Abbey, 302 684 INDEX Leipzig (llp'tsic), battle of (1813), 501 Lemberg (lem'berG), taken by the Russians, 640 n. 2 - Lenine (len'in), 653 Leo the Isaurian, 32 -Leonardo da Vinci (la o niir'do da vTn'che), 239 Leopold I, king of the Belgians, 51S ; II, 5S8 n. 2 Leopold of Hohenzollern offered Spanish crown, 562 Le pan'to, battle of, 294 Les'seps, Ferdinand de, 523 Lessing, 497 n. i Leltrcs de cachet (let'r de ka sha"), 438 Leuthen (loi'ten), battle of, 416 Lew'es, battle of, 182 Lewis I, the Pious, king of the Franks, 66 Libraries, founding of, 233 Liege (Ig azh'), siege of (1914), 636 " Light Brigade," the, 573 Ligurian Republic, formed, 472 ; annexed to France, 483 Lisbon, captured by crusaders, 128 Literature, F^nglish, Old English pe- riod, 19, 20; later mediaeval period, 193-196; under Henry VIII, 309; under Elizabeth, 322 ; of the Puritan period, 389 ; of the Restoration, 395 Literature, French, beginnings of, 202-204 ; under Louis XIV, 367 ; in eighteenth century, 442-445 Literature, German, beginnings of, 214, 215 Literature, Spanish, beginnings of, 207 Literatures, vernacular, beginnings of, 224; development fostered by classical revival, 243 Livingstone, P)avid, 587 Llewellyn (loo el'in) III, Welsh prince, 183 Local Government Act, England, 530 Locke, John, 442 n. 2 Lol'lards, the, 195 Lombards, kingdom of the, 10; de- stroyed by Charles the Great, 61 Lombardy, ceded to Austria, 510 ; to Sardinia, 546 Loom, power, invented, 430 Lords, House of (English), veto power abolished, 530 Lorraine (16 ran'), part of, ceded to German Empire, 520, 521 ; restored to France, 668 Lo thair'. Emperor H. R. E., 66 Loubet (loo ba'), 522 n. 2 Louis I, Prince of Conde (koh da'), 336 Louis VII, king of France, 122 ; IX, 126 n. I ; XI, 200; XIII, 340; XIV, reign, 358-368; XV, reign, 368; death, 446; XVI, 447, 455, 460; XVII (dauphin), 464 n. i ; XVIII, accession, 501 ; reign, 502, 516 Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, 483 ; abdication of, 494 "Louis Napoleon Bonaparte. See iVapoleoi! HI «Louis Philippe, king of the French, 517,5'S Louisa, queen of Prussia, 4S8 Louisiana, ceded to France, 484; to United States, 484 _,Louvain (loo van'), university and li- brary of, destroyed, 636 Low countries. See A'^ethei-lands, Bels^iiim L6 yo'la, Ignatius of, 28 1 Lii'beck, 155 Lucerne, Lion of, 458 n. 2 Luneville (hi navel'). Peace of, 478 -Luther, Martin, his pilgrimage to Rome, 270 ; his ninety-five theses, 27 1 ; his address to the Christian no- bility of the German nation, 271 ; burns the papal bull, 272 ; at the Diet of Worms, 273 ; at the Wart- burg, 274; his death, 276 n. 2 Lutherans, 277 Lutter (lobt'ter), battle of, 344 n. i Liitzen (liit'sen), battle of (1632), 346 ; (1813). 501 Lusitaii/a, sinking of the, 641 Luxemburg (liik'sem berg) occupied by German troops, 636 Machiavelli (mak e a vel'le), Nicholas, 219; his Prince, 219 Madagascar, French in, 598 Magdeburg (mag'de boorr,), sack of, by Tilly, 345 Magellan, Ferdinand, his circum- navigation of the globe, 254-256; results of the achievement, 255 Ma gen'ta, battle of, 546 Magna Carta, 181 Magyars (mod'yorz). See Hungary Mainz (mints), 235 Mam'e luke, 473 INDEX 685 Man chu'ri a, Chinese province, oc- cupied by Russia, 607 Manuscripts, search for, by human- ists, 232 Marat (ma ra'), 4^3 Marco Po'lo, mentioned, 132; at Mongol court, 146 Ma ren'go, battle of, 478 Margaret of Denmark, 221 Margaret, Duchess of Parma, 325, 326 Margaret of Valois, 337 Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary, in partition of Poland, 410 ; in War of Austrian Succession, 415; in Seven Years' War, 415 Marie Antoinette (mar'i antoinet'), marriage, 447 ; death, 464 Marie Louise of Austria, 494 Marienburg (ma re'en boorc), 128 Marlborough, Duke of, 365 n. 2 Marne (marn), first battle of the, 637 Marseillais (marseya'), the six hun- dred, 458 Marseillaise (mar se yaz'), the, 4 58 n. i Marseilles (mar-salz'), 126 Marston Moor, battle of, 379 n. i Mary I, queen of England, reign, 312; II, 396 Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, 316, 317 Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, 108 Matthias (ma thl'as). Emperor H.R.E., 343 Maurice, stadtholder, 331 Max i mil'ian I, Emperor H.R.E., 214 Mayors of the Palace, 10 Maz'a rin, French minister, 359 Mazurian Lakes, battle of the, 640 n. 2 Mazzini (mat se'ne), Joseph, 542 Mec'ca, 47 Medici (med'e che), Cos'i mo de', 161 n. I ; Lorenzo de', 161 n. i Medina (me de'na), 49 Melanchthon (me langk'thon), 276 n. 2 Mendicant friars. See Dominicans and Franciscans Menelik, king of Abyssinia, 598 n. i .Merovingians, Franks under the, 9, 10 Mer'o wig, 10 n. i Messina (mes se'na), destroyed by earthquake, 552 n. i Methodists, rise of. 423-425 ; demand religious equality, 532 Metric system, 465 •; Met'ter nich. Prince, at Congress of Vienna, 512; influence in Germany, 555 ; overthrow of, 556 - Metz, ceded to France, 347 ; siege of, 520 - Meuse (muz), river, 66, 661 Mexico, conquest by Spain, 257-259 Michael Angelo, 240 - Mi Ian' Decree, 489 Military and Religious Orders. See Hospitalers and Templars Milton, John, 389 Min"ne sing'ers, 215 Mir, the Russian, 575 n. i Mirabeau (me ra bo'), 450, 451 Missolonghi (mis so long'ge), 571 n i. Mittel-Enropa, Pan-Germanists' plan of, 622 ■ Mo'de na, restoration in, 540 ; union with Sardinia, 547 Mohammed, 4S-51 Mohammed II, sultan of the Otto- mans, 148, 149 Mohammedanism, rise of, 47-57 ; doctrines, 50 ; under earlier ca- liphs, 51-54; its law system, 54; polygamy under, 57 n. i ; slavery, 57 Mol da'vi a, 574 n. 2 Moliere (mo Iyer'), 367 Mo luc'cas, the, 254 Monasteries, suppression of, in Eng- land, 304-306 Monasticism, defined, 22 ; its origin, 23 ; in the West, 24 ; the Benedic- tine monks, 25 ; monastic reform, 26; services, rendered by, to civili- zation, 26, 27 Mongols, general account of their conquests, 144-148; their invasion of Russia, 145, 147 Monk, George, English general, 387 Monks. See Monaslicisin Montcalm (mont kam'). General, 426 Monte Cassino (mon'ta kiis se'nn), monastery, 25 Montenegro (mon te na'gro), 643 Montesquieu (mon tes kye'), 443 Montezuma (mon te zoo'ma), 258 Montfort (mon for'). Simon de. leader of the Albigensian crusade, 129 Moore, Sir John, 493 n. i Moors, the, 205 ' More, Sir Thomas, 304 ; his Utopia, 309 686 INDEX Moreau (mo ro') in campaign of 1796, 471. 472 Mor gar'ten, battle of, 212 n. 2 Moriscos, the, 20s; under Charles V, 294; under Philip II, 294; expul- sion of, 295, 296 Morocco, becomes a French protecto- rate, 59S ; the first Moroccan crisis (1905), 625 ; the second crisis (1911), 630 Morton, Cardinal, 299 Moscow (mos'ko or mos'kow), Napo- leon in, 499, 500 Mountainists, the, 459 Mukden (mook den'), battle of, (J07 n. i Municipal Reform Act, 528 Miin'ster, Anabaptists at, 275 n. 2 Murat (mil rri'), Joachim, 491 Mus'co vy, 216 Niifels (na'fels), battle of, 212 n. 2 Nii'na Sa'hib, 593 n. i -Nantes (nants ; Fr. pron. noiit). Indict of, 339 ; revocation of, 362 Naples, kingdom of, founded by Normans, 97 n. 1 ; laid claim to, by Charles VIII, 201 ; becomes part of the kingdom of Italy, 547, 54S Napoleon I, Bonaparte, guards Con- vention, 470; campaign in Italy, 471 ; campaign in Egypt, 473 ; over- throws Directory, 474 ; First Con- sul, 477-4S1 ; Emperor, 4,Si-504; at Elba, 501 ; the Hundred Days, 501-504; at St. Helena, 504; II. (King of Rome), born, 294; pro- claimed, 503 n. 2; III, reign, 51S- 520 ; aids Sardinia, 545 ; in Franco- Prussian War, 520, 562 Nar'vii, battle of, 407 Naseby (naz'bi), battle of, ^So Nassau, German state, 326 n. i Nji taP, 595 National Guards, French orcjanized, 452 Nationality, principal of, 506, 507 Navarino (nii vii re'nu), battle of, 571 n. I Navarre, king of. See Antony of Boio-bon, Ilciny IV Neck'er, French minister, 447 Nelson, Admiral, at Abukir Bay, 473; at Trafalgar, 486 Netherlands, the, the country, 324 ; under Charles V, 325 ; under Philip II, 325; War of Independence, 326-333 ; submission of Catholic provinces (see Belgium), 329; in- dependent union of seven Protes- tant provinces, 329 ; their Declara- tion of Independence, 330 ; Truce of 1609 with, 331 ; independent of Holy Roman Empire, 347 ; wars with Louis XIV, 361 ; annexed to France, 494 ; kingdom of, formed, 509 Netherlands, Austrian, Catholic, Spanish. See Belgium Netherlands, Protestant, United. See Xctherlainls Newfoundland, 590 n. 2 New France. See Canada New Learning. See IIuma)iistn " New Model " army formed, 380 New South Wales, 591 Newton, Sir Isaac, 442 n. 2 New Zealand, 591 n. 2; in the World War, 643, 662 Ney (na). Marshal, S02 Nibelungenlicd (ne'bel ung'en let'), 214 Ni ^ae'a. Church Council of, 15 Nice (nes), ceded to France, 547 -Nicholas I, Tsar, 571; II, 577; calls the First Hague I'eace Conference, 614; his abdication, 649; his death, 650 Nicholas, Grand Duke, 644 n. 2 Niemen (nc'men), river, 487 Nihilists, 576 Nimeguen (nim'a gen). Treaty of, 361 n. I Nn'gi, Japanese general, 607 n. i " No Man's Land," 639 Norman C/onquest of England, 96- 102 ; political and social results for England, loi, 102; effects upon P2nglish language and literature, •93 Normandy, in P"rench history, 73 Normans, in Italy and Sicily, 97 n. i ; in England, 96-102 ; as crusaders, 115. See yA (';-/// W(V/ North German Confederation, 561 Northern countries, the. See Scan- dinavians and Cal»iai; Vnio)i of Northmen, 69-74. See Scandinavians Northwest Passage, the, 321 n. i Norway, 583. See Cabnai\ Union of Notables, Assembly of, 447 INDEX 687 Notre Dame (no'tr dam), Paris, worship of Reason in, 466 No va'ra, battle of, 624 Nova Scotia ceded to England, 365 Nov'go rod, 156 A^oyades (nwa yad') 469 Nystad (nii'stad), Peace of, 40S Gates (ots), Titus, 392 Ocean Epoch, 257 n. i O'Connell, Daniel, 536 Odoacer, 7 Oktai (ok'tl), Mongol conqueror, 145 Old Sa'rum, 527 O'mar, caliph, 51 n. i Ommiads (6 mi'adz), 53 n. i Opium War, 592 Orange Free State, 595 Orange River Colony, 595 Orangemen, 398 Ordeals, among the Teutons, 30-40 Orellana (o ral yii'nii), Francisco de, 258 n. I Or'le ans (Fr. pron. or la on'), relief of, by Joan of Arc, 191 Ojrleans, Philippe, Duke of, regent, 368 Osnabriick, 347 n. i Ostend (os tend'), 63S Ostrogoths, kingdom of the, 7 ; de- stroyed by generals of Justinian, 8 Oswy, king of Northumbria, 18 Oth man', caliph, 51 n. i Othman I, Ottoman prince, 148 n. i O tran'tS, 120 Otto I, the Great, restores the Em- pire, 67 Ottomans. See Turks Oxenstiern (oks'en stern), 346 O yii'ma. Field Marshal, 607 Paine, Thomas, 459 ■Palatinate, "War of the, 363 ; devasta- tion of, 364 Pal'imp sests, 233 n. i Pamirs (pii merz'), 601 Pan a mii' Canal, 523 Papacy, origin of its temporal au- thority, 60 ; claims of primacy by the Roman bishops, 28; circum- stances that favored growth, 28-33; Concordat of Worms, loS ; re- lations of, to the H. R. E., 103-109 ; under Gregory VII, 105-108; under Alexander III, 134, 135; under Innocent III, 135; under Boniface VIII, 138; removal of papal seat to Avignon, 139; the Great Schism, 140; reforming Church Councils, 140, 141 ; is still a spiritual theocracy, 141 ; end of temporal power of, 549 ; relations with Italian government, 550; in- fallibility of, 550 n. I. See Popes Papal States, annexed to France, 493; annexation to kingdom of Italy, 549. See Papacy Paraphrase of the Scriptures, 20 Paris, Peace of (1763), 427; {1783), 428; (1814), 502 n. i; (1815), 503 n. 3; (1856), 573 Paris, siege of (1870), 520 Parliament, English, creation of House of Commons, 181-183; Model Parliament, 182 n. i ; effects upon, of Hundred Years' War, 191 ; the Long Parliament, 378 ; the Little Parliament, 385; Convention, 394 ; union of English and Scotch Parliaments, 421 Parr, Catherine, 308 Par'sees, the. See Fire-u'orshipei's Pa7-sifal (par'se fal), poem of, 215 Par"the no pe'an Republic, 474 Pascal, 367 n. i Passchendaele (piis ken dii'lc) Ridge, 663 Patriarch, Russian, office abolished, 406 Patricius (pa trish'ius). See St. Patrick Pax Rom ait a, I 13 Peace Conference at The Hague, First, 614 ; Second, 614 Peace Convention at Paris (1919), 666-670 Peace of God, 114 Peasants' Revolt in England, 188, 189 Peasants' War, 274 Pe king', siege of embassies at, 605 Peninsula Wars, 490, 491 Perry, Commodore, 604 Pershing, General, 652, 655, 657 Persia, conquest of, by Saracens, 51 Peru, Spanish conquest of, 259, 260; Spanish oppression of natives in, 260 n. I Pestilence, the Great. See Black Death Peter I, the Great, Tsar, 400-409 ; III, 416 688 INDEX Peter the Hermit, legend of, 117; heads an expedition, 120 n. i Peter of Lombard, Schoolman, 173 n. I Petition of Right, 374, 375 Petrarca (pa trjir'ka), Francesco. See Petrarch Petrarch, as a humanist, 22S-231 ; his feeling for the ruins of Rome, 230 ; his ascent of Mount Ventoux 231 n. I Petrograd (pye tro grat'), 407 Philip II, king of Spain, reign, 292- 295; III, expels Moriscos, 295,296 Philip II, Augustus, king of France, in Third Crusade, 122 ; his quarrel with Pope Innocent III, 135 ; seizes English possessions in France, 198; IV, the Fair, his quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII, 138; sum- mons the commons to the National Assembly, 19S, 199; destroys the order of the Templars, 199 Philippines discovered, 255 Philosophy, French, in eighteenth century, 442-446 Piacenza (pea chen'tsa), Church Coun- cil at, 118 Piave (pe a'va), 653 Piedmont. See Sardinia Pilgrim Fathers, 316 Pilgrimage of Grace, 305 n. i Pilgrimages, 1 1 1 Pippin III, king of the Franks, 59 Pisa (pe'za), 160 n. i ; Church Coun- cil of, 140 Pitt, William, Earl' of Chatham, 426 Pi zar'ro, Francisco, 259 Plan tag'e net. House of, 177 n. i Plassey, battle of, 426 Plev'na, siege of, 574 Poison gas, first use of, by the Ger- mans, 662 Poitiers (pwa tya'), battle of (1356), 188 n. 2 Poland, receives religion from Rome, 21 n. I ; partitions of, 410; under Napoleon, 488 ; Russian kingdom of, 509 ; revolt in, 517 n. I Poltava (pol ta'vii), battle of, 408 Pom e ra'ni a. Western, ceded to Sweden, 347 ; Eastern, ceded to Brandenburg, 347 Pompadour (poh pa door'), Madame de, 368 Pondicherry (pon di sher'i), captured by English and restored, 427 n. i Popes : Gregory I, 16, 30 n. 3 ; Leo I, the Great, 28, 29; Nicholas I, 28; Stephen II, 60; Leo III, 62; Gregory VII, io5-i^O,Urban II, 1 17-1 19; Innocentlll, 135; Alexan- der III, 134; Boniface VIII. 13S; Martin V, 141; Nicholas V, 233; Julius II, 233; Leo X, 233, 269; Alexander VI, 253; Clement VII, 302 ; Gregory XIII, 338 ; Sixtus V, 318 ; Pius VII, at Napoleon's coro- nation, 482 ; prisoner, 493 ; Pius IX, 550 n. 3; Leo XIII, 550 n. 3 ; Pius X, 550 n. 3; Benedict XV, 550 n- 3. 55' • See Papacy Popish Plot, the, 391 Popular sovereignty, principle of, 505 Port Arthur, ceded to Japan, 605 ; leased to Russia, 607 ; siege of, 607 Portugal, kingdom of, its beginnings, 128 Portuguese colonies, early explora- tions, 250; in India, 253; in Brazil, 253 n. 2 Posen (po'zen), given to the new Poland, 668 Potato introduced into Europe, 321 Pragmatic Sanction, 415 Prague (prag), Treaty of (1S66), 561 Prayer, Book of Common, 311 Pride's Purge, 381 Prime Minister, origin of, in Eng- land, 422, 423 Prince, the, by Machiavelli, 219 Printing, invention of, 234-236; in China, 235 Privileges, abolition of, in France, 453 Protectorate in England, 385-387 Protestant Netherlands, War of the, 361 Protestant Revolution defined, 263. See Reformation Protestants, origin of name, 276 ; divisions among, 277 Protestation, the Great, 372 Proven9al (pro'vaii'sal") speech, 202 Provence (pro'vons"), 201 Prussia, foundations of, laid by Teutonic Knights, 128, 129; under the Great Elector, 412 ; becomes a kingdom, 412,413; in eighteenth century, 412-419 ; war with French INDEX 689 Revolution, 457; warwith Napoleon, 4S6; regeneration of, 497-499; gains at Congress of Vienna, 510; in Holy Alliance, 513 ; in Germanic Confederation, 510, 553; in Cus- toms Union, 555 ; Revolution of 1848 in, 556-558; war with Den- mark, 559; with Austria, 560; with France, 520, 521, 562-563; forms North German Confederation, 561 ; head of new German Empire, 562-567 Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, 32 n. 2 Purgatory, 268 Puritans, under Elizabeth, 315; rule of, 382-390; customs of, 3S8 Pym, John, 378 Pyramids, battle of the, 473 Quebec, battle of, 426 Quir'i nal, the, 550 n. 2 Quito (ke'to), 260 Racine (ra sen'), 367 Raleigh (ra'li). Sir Walter, 321, 337 Raphael (raf'a el), 240 Rastadt, Treaty of, 365 Ravaillac (rii vji yak'), 340 Raymond IV, count of Toulouse, 1 19 ; VI, 129; VII, 129 Reason, worship of, 466 Red Cross Society, founding of, 546 n.i ; in World War, 661, 662 n. i Reform Bill, English, of 1832, 527; of 1867, 529; of 1884, 529 ■Reformation, defined, 263 ; causes of, 263-265 ; precursors of, 265-267 ; question of indulgences, 268 ; Luther, 270-274 ; reaction from, 276-282 ; results of, 283, 284. See Contents Reichstag (richs'tag), 564 Renaissance {xe na'saiis" : the italic e here has the obscure sound of e in " novel"), the, defined, 223; causes and antecedents, 223-226; the revival in Italy, 227-246; human- ism, 228; the artistic revival, 237- 240; general effects, 241-246; re- lation to religious reform, 245. See Hiimanisin Restoration, English, 387 ; French, 501, 516 Reuchlin (roich len' or roich'lTn), humanist, 237, 266, 267 Revenue of English crown settled, . 397 Revival of Learning. See Renaissance Revolution, Protestant, 263 ; Puritan, 382-390; of 1688, 393; American, 427; Industrial, 429-431; French, of 1789, 437-475; of July, 1830, 517; of February, 1848, 518; Bel- gian, of 1830, 518; Italian, of 1820, 541; of 1830, 542; of 1848, 543 ; German, of 1830, 555 ; of 1848, 556-558; Russian, of 1917, 649 Revolutionary Tribunal, French, es- tablished, 461 ; work of, 468 Rheims (remz), the Dauphin Charles crowned at, as Charles VII, 191 ; the cathedral (plate), 654 Rhodes, Cecil, 596 Richard I, king of England, 122, 123; III, 192 Richelieu (resh lye'), Cardinal, 340-342 Ridley, 312 Rienzi (re en'ze), tribune of Rome, 217-219 Rights, English Bill of, 396 Rimini (re'me ne), 62 River Epoch, 256 Robert the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy, 1 19 Robespierre (ro bes pyer'), in Con- stituent Assembly, 451 ; in Con- vention, 459, 467 ; death, 469 Rois faineants (rwa fa na oh'), 10 Rojestvensky(rozhest'venski),6o7n.2 Roland (ro Ion'), Madame, 467 Ro'land, paladin, 61 n. i Rollo, Scandinavian chief, 73 Romagna (ro man'yii), the, united with the Sardinian kingdom, 547 Roman Empire, restored in the West, by Charlemagne, 62 ; renewed by Otto the Great, 67. See Eastern Empire and Holy Roman Empire Roman law, revival of, 41 ; Justinian Code, 43, 44 Roman Republic, 474 Romance languages, 36 Romance nations, 35 Ro ma'noff, House of, 400 Rome, relation of the fall of, to world history, 3 ; its bequest to civiliza- tion, 4 ; capital of Italy, 548, 549 Roncesvalles (ron se val'les ; Sp. ron- thes val'yes). Pass of, 61 n. i Roses, Wars of'the, 192 690 INDEX Ross'bjich, battle of, 416 Rouen (roo on'), 73 Rouget de Lisle (rob zha' de lei), 458 n. I Roundheads, 379 Rousseau (roo so'), 444 Rumania or Roumania (rob ma'ni a), 574 n. 2 ; in the World War, 645 Rumelia or Roumelia (rob me'li a). Eastern, 574 n. 2 Runnymede (riin'i med), iSo Ru'rik, Scandinavian chief, 71 Russia, introduction of Christianity into, 21 ; receives elements of civilization from Constantinople, 46; the Mongol invasion, 216; rise of Muscovy, 216; freed from the Mongols, 216; under Ivan the Terrible, 400 n. i ; under Peter the Great,400-409; under Catherine the Great, 409-411; war with Napoleon, 499 ; from French Revo- lution to the World War, 571-57S; in the World War, 640, 644 n. i, 649, 652 ; Asiatic expansion of, 607 Russo-lapanese War, 578, 606 Russo-Turkish War, of 182S-1S29, 571 ; of 1877-1878. 573-575 Rys'wick, Treaty of, 364 Saar (zar) basin, mines of, given to France, 668 Sadowa (sa'do vii), battle of, 560 St. Anthony, 24 St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, 337 St. Benedict, 25 St. Ber'nard, preaches crusade, 122; controversy with Abclard, 172 St. Boniface (bon'e fass). See H'ni- frid St. Co lum'ba, 17 St. Dom'i nic, 136, 137 St. Francis, 136, 137 St. Gall, monastery of, iS n. i St. Germain (san' zher'mah'). Treaty of (1919), 670 n. I St. Helena, 504 St. John, Knights of. See Hospitalers St. Louis, 126 n. I St. Mihiel (sah me yel') salient, 660 St. Patrick, 17 St. Paul's Cathedral, London, 391 n. i St. Peter, 28 St. Peter's, Rome, 269 St. Petersburg founded, 407 St. Quentin (sah' koh'tan), battle of, 293 n. I St. Sim'e on Sty li'tes, 24 St. Wil'frid, 18 Sal'a din, 122, 123 Sa ler'no, 108 Salisbury, Gemot of, 98 Saloniki (sa 16 ne'ke), 643 n. i San Marino (ma re'no), 540 San Stef'ii no. Treaty of, 574 n. i Sans Souci (son sob se'), 418 Saracens, name, 47 ; their conquests, 51-53; their civilization, 54-57. See Arabs and RIcors Sarajevo (sa ra ya'vo), 633 n. i Sardinia, kingdom of, revolution of 1820 in, 541 ; revolution of 1848 in, 543 ; in Crimean War, 544 ; war with Austria, 546; annexations of territory, 547, 548; becomes king- dom of Italy, 547 vSa vo na ro'la, Girolamo (je ro'la mo), 220 Savoy ceded to France, 547 Saxons, continental, subjugated by Charlemagne, 61. See A)i,^lo-Saxons Saxony, becomes a kingdom, 4S8 n. 2 ; part ceded to Prussia, 510 Scandinavians, conversion of, 21 ; as pirates and colonizers, 69; col- onization of Iceland and Green- land, 71 ; discovery of America by, 71 ; saga literature of Iceland, 71 ; in Russia, 71 ; Danes in England, 71-73 ; Northmen in Gaul, 73; trans- formation of, 73 ; Norse factor in French history, 73. See Calmar, Uiiioi of Scharn'horst, 498 Schleswig (shlas'vic) or Sleswick, duchy of, 559; annexed to Prussia, 561 ; part of, subject of a plebiscite, 668 Schleswig-Holstein War, 559 Schmalkaldic League, 290 Scholasticism in conflict with hu- manism, 265-267. See Schoolmen Schoolmen, nature of their task, 171 ; Abelard, 171; the Schoolmen of the thirteenth century, 172 ; Albert the Great, 173; Thomas Aquinas, 173 ; Roger Bacon, 173 ; last of the Schoolmen, 174; their services to intellectual progress, 174, 175 INDEX 691 Schwyz (shvlts or shvTts), 212 Scone (skoon), Stone of, 184, 185 Scotland, wars with England, 1S4- 186; union of Scottish and Eng- lish crowns, 186, 370; union of their parliaments, 421 Scriptorium, 27 Scutage (sku'taj) defined, 181 n. i Sea Epoch, 256, 257 Secularization, of Church property, 275 ; in France, 454 Sedan (se doii'), capitulation of, in Franco-Prussian War, 520 Seeley, Professor J. R., quoted, 610 Seine (san), river, 73 Self-denying ordinance, 3S0 Sempach (sem'pak), battle of, 2 1 2 n. 2 Sen e gal', 598 Separatists, 316 Sepoy Mutiny, 593 n. i Sepoys, 426 n. 2 Serbia, independence of, 574 n. 2 ; its relations to Austria-Hungary, 627 ; in the World War, 643 Serfs, under feudal system, 79, 80 ; Russia emancipates, 575-576 Ser ve'tus, 280 Se vas'to pol, siege of, 573 Seven bishops, trial of the, 593 Seven Weeks' War, 560 Seven Years' War, 415, 416 Sevigne (savenya'), Madame de, 367 n. I Seville (sev'il), 52 Seymour, Jane, 307 Shakespeare, 323 Shiahs (she'az), Moslem sect, 53 n. i Ship money, 376 Siberia, Russia in, 602 Sicilian Vespers, 210 n. i Sicily, kingdom of. See A'aples^ ^-''f'g- dom of Siegfried (seg'fred), 215 Sieyes (se a yas'), 451 Si le'si a, seized by Frederick the Great, 415; part of, given to the new Poland, 668 Silk industry introduced into Europe, 44 Sim'o ny, 105-107 Siraj-ud-Daula (se raj'-ood-dow'la), 426 n-3 Slave trade, African, beginning of the, 250; the Assiento, 421 ; Eng- land abolishes, 428 Slavery abolished in English col- onies, 528 n. I Slaves, number in Middle Ages, 79 n. 2 Slavs at opening of the Middle Ages, 6. See Russia Smo lensk', 499 Sobieski (so'bye ske), John, 362 Social Democrats, German, 566 n. 3 Socialism, 5S3 Soissons (swas'soh"), battle of, 9 Solferino (sol fe re'nd), battle of, 546 n. I Sol'y man, the Magnificent, Sultan, rival of Charles V, 288 Somme (som), first battle of the, 644 n. 2 So'to, Hernando de, 258 n. i South Africa, England in, 594-596 ; Union of, 596 ; in the World War, 596, 662 Spain, conquest of, by Saracens, 52 ; early history, 204-207 ; union of Castile and Aragon, 204; conquest of Granada, 205 ; influence upon national character of the Moorish domination and wars, 206; the In- quisition under Ferdinand and Isa- bella, 206; under Charles V, 286- 292; under Philip II, 292-295; under Philip 1X1,295; war with Eng- land, 318-320; war with the Nether- lands, 324-334 ; in the Napoleonic Era, 491, 492 Spanish colonies, beginnings, 260 Spanish Fury, the, 329 Spanish Netherlands, War of the, 361 Spanish Succession, War of the, 364 ; England's gains in, 421 Spenser, Edmund, 323 Spinning jenny invented, 430 Stanley, Henry M., 5S7, 588 Star Chamber, court of, 376 n. i States-General, French, 199; of 1789, 447 Statute for the Burning of Heretics, 195 Statute of Laborers, 189 Stein (stin). Baron vom, 498 Stephen of Blois (blwji), king of England, loi n. 2 Stephenson, George, 579 Stirling, battle of, 185 n. i Stoessel (stes'sel), Russian general, 607 n. I 692 INDEX Strafford (Thomas Wentworth), Earl of, 375. 377. 378 Striil'sund, siege of, 344 n. i Strasburg (Ger. Strassburg; Fr. Stras- bourg), seized by Louis XIV, 362 Strassburg (stras'biirc), oath of, 66 n. I Streltsi, the, disbanded, 405 Stuart, House of, in England, 370 Stylites (sti ll'tes, Simeon, 24 Submarine warfare, German, 641, 648, 664-666 Suevi (swe vi), 15 Suez Canal, 523 Sully (sul'i), Duke of, 340 Siin'na, the, 50 Sun'nites, Moslem sect, 53 n. i Supremacy, Act of, under Henry VIII, 304; under Elizabeth, 315 Supreme Being, worship of, 467 Surat (&00 rat'), English at, 373 Sweden, in Thirty Years' War, 344- 347 ; gain in Peace of Westphalia, 347; under Charles XII, 406; union with Norway, 509 n. i. See Calmar, Union of Swiss Confederation, the, rise of, 212 ; French intervention in, 474 ; as a federal state, 557 n. 3 Swiss Guards, of Tuileries, 457, 458 Switzerland. See Swiss Confedera- tion Syagrius (sT a'gri us), 9 Syria, conquest of, by Saracens, 51 Taj Mahal (fazh ma hal'), the, 146 Talleyrand (tal'i rand), at the Resto- ration, 501 Tam er lane'. See Tinni7- Tancred (tang'kred), 120 Tannenberg (tan'nen beru), battle of, 640 n. 2 Tell, William, legend of, 213 Templars, order of the, origin, 121 n. I ; abolition of, 199 Temple of Peace, the, 614 n. 2 Terror, Reign of, 463-470 Test Act, 532 Tetzel, John, 269, 270 Teutonic Knights, order of the, origin, 121; in Baltic region, 128; prop- erty secularized, 276 Teutons, capacity for improvement, 4; kingdoms established by, 7-13; their conversion, 14-22; fusion with the Latins, 35-42; person- ality of Teutonic laws, 37 ; ordeals among, 38-40 The od o nc, king of the Ostrogoths, 7,8 Thessaly, 572 n. i Thiers (tyer), M., French president, 522 n. 2 Third Estate, the, beginnings of, in the towns, 164; French, under the Bourbons, 440-442 ; in States- General, 447-450 Thirty Years' War, the, 343-350 Thomas Becket, 177-179; shrine destroyed, 305 Thor, German deity, 16 Thorvaldsen (tor'viild zen), 458 n. 2 Tiberine Republic of 1798, 474 Tiers Etat (tyar'za'ta"). See Third Estate Tilly, 344, 345 Tilsit, Treaty of, 4S7-4S9 Timur (te moor'), Mongol conqueror, 146 Tintoretto (tin t5 ret'to), 240 n. 2 Titian (tish'an), 240 Tobacco introduced into Europe, 321 n. 2 Todleben (tot'la ben), 573 To'go, Japanese admiral, 607 n. i Toleration, religious, influence upon, of the Protestant Reformation, 284 Toul (tool), 347 Tournament (toor'na ment), the, 90 Tours (tobr), battle of, 52, 53 Tower of London, 99 Towns, effects upon, of Crusades, 130, 131 ; suffer from barbarian in- vasion, 151 ; rapid growth in tenth and eleventh centuries, 151, 152; status of the chartered towns, 153, 154 ; their industrial life, 154 ; they enter the feudal system, 152-154; their revolt, 153; towns in Ger- many, 155-157; in Italy, 157-161; their services to civilization, 161- 165; their representatives in national assemblies, 164, 165 n. i ; centers of new intellectual life, 165. See Hanseatic League and Italian eity-repiiblics Traf al giir', naval battle of, 4S6 Trans-Siberian Railway, 602 Transvaal, the, 595 ; becomes Trans- vaal Colony, 595 -r INDEX 693 Tran syl va'ni a, 645 Treb'i zond, 644 n. 2 Treitschke (trltsh'ke), Professor, quoted, 621 Trek, The Great, 594 Trent, Church Council of, 279 Trentino (tren te'no) ceded to Italy, 670 n. I Trianon (tre a nofi') palace, 667 Trieste (tre est') ceded to Italy, 670 n. I Triple Alliance, of 1882, 565 Triple Entente (oii toht'), the, 624 Trip's li, seized by Italy. 631 Trou'ba dours, the, 202-204 Trouveurs (trob'ver"), the, 203 Troyes (trwa), Treaty of, 190 n. i Truce of God, 113, 114 Truce of 1609, ;^2i^ Tudor, House of, 298 n. i Tudor, Owen, 183 Tuileries (twe'le riz), 461 Tunis, French protectorate, 597-598 Turanians. See Jl/ongo/s and Tiii-ks Turgot (tiir go'), 447 Turks, Ottoman, beginnings of their empire, 148; they capture Con- stantinople, 162; wars with Russia (1828-1829), 570; (1853-1856), 572 ; (1877-1878), 573-575; in the World War, 643 n. 2 Turks, Seljuk, 1 1 1 ; power broken, 117 Two Sicilies. See xVaples, Kitigdotn of Uitlanders (oit'land erz), 595 Ukraine (u'kran), 652 Ul'fi las, apostle of the Goths, 14 Ulm (oolm), 4S6 Ulster, plantation of, 373 Uniformity, Act of, under Edward VI, 311 ; under Elizabeth, 315 Union (parliamentary) of England, with Scotland, 421; with Ireland, 535 United Provinces. See A'eiherlands United States, independence of, 427 ; expansion of, 602, 603 ; purchases Danish West Indian islands, 602 n. I ; enters the World War, 650- 652 ; preparations during 1917, 652 ; her effort in 1918, 657-660 Universities, rise of the, 166, 167 ; faculties, 167 n. i ; "Nations" in, 167 ; students and student life, 168; studies and methods of instruction, 169-17 1. See Schoolmen Unterwalden (oon'ter val"den), 212 Uri (ob'ri), 212 U to'pi a, More's, 309 Utrecht (ii'trekt). Treaty of, 329 ; Peace of, 365 Val'la, Laurentius, 245 Valmy (viil me'), battle of, 459 Valois (val wa'). House of, 200 n. i ; history of France under the mediae- val Valois sovereigns, 200-202 Vandals, kingdom of the, 9; destroyed by Belisarius, 9 Vane, Sir Henry, 382 ; death, 390 Vassy (va se'), massacre of, 336 •Vat'i can, the, 550 Vaudois (vo dwa'), 290 Vaux (v6), Pierre de, 290 n. i Vendee (von da'). La, 461 Ve ne'tia, ceded to Austria, 472 ; joined to Napoleon's kingdom of Italy, 485 ; becomes part of the new kingdom of Italy (1866), 548 Venice, takes part in Fourth Crusade, 123, 124; sketch of history, 158- 160; ceremony of wedding the Adriatic, 158, 159; her "Arsenal," 159 Venice, Peace of, 135 Ventoux (von too'). Mount, 231 n. i Ver duii'. Treaty of, 66; German siege of (1916), 644 Veronese (va ro na'za), 240 n. 2 Versailles (ver salz' ; Fr. pron. ver- say'), palace of, 366; Treaty of (1919), 666-670 Vesle (val), river, 660 Vespucci, Amerigo (ves poot'che, a ma re'go), 252 Victor Emmanuel I, king of Sardinia, reactionary policy of, 541 ; abdica- tion of, 541 ; II, 544 ; king of Italy, 546, 547 ; III, 549 n. I Vienna (vi en'a), siege of (1683), 362 ; Congress of, 505-512 Villafranca (vel la frang'ka), Peace of, ^.546 Villain. See Se7-fs Vimy Ridge, 663 Virginia, origin of name, 321 Visigoths, kingdom of the, 8 Vlad'i mir the Great, of Russia, 21 Vladivostok (via de v5s t5k'), 602 694 INDEX Vogelweide (fo"gel vl'de), Walther von der, 215 n. i Voltaire (vol ter'), 443 Wager of battle. See Ordeals Wagram (va'gram), battle of, 493 Wal den'ses, 2S9 Waldo (val d5'), Peter, 290 n. i Wales, conquest of, 183 Wallace, Sir William, 185 Wallachia (wo la'ki a), 474 n. 2 Wallenstein (wolenstln; Ger. pron. val'len stin), 344, 345, 346 Walpole, Sir Robert, 423 Walter the Penniless, 120 n. i Wardship, feudal right of, 78 n. i Warsaw, Grand Duchy of, 488 Wartburg (vart'boorc), Luther at, 274 Waterloo, battle of, 503 Watt, James, 430 Wed'more, Treaty of, 72 Wellesley, vSir Arthur. See IJ^elluig- i07t Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, in Portugal, 491 ; at \\'aterloo, Wentworth, Thomas. See Strafford W^eser (va'zer), river, 347 Wesley, Charles, 424 Wesley, John, 424 Western Empire (Teutonic). See Charlemagne and Holy Roman Empire Westphalia, kingdom of, 489 ; Peace of, 347 West Prussia, given to the new Poland, 668 Whigs, representatives of Liberalism, 527 Whitby, Council of, iS Whitefield (hwit'feld), George, 424 Wieland (ve'lant), 492 Wilberforce, William, 429 Wilhelmina, of Bayreuth, on Peter the Great, 404 n. i William I, the Conqueror, king of England, prepares to invade Eng- land, 97 ; victory at Hastings, 97 ; his reign, 98-101 ; 11, the Red, lor n. 2; in, 396-398 William I of Orange, the Silent, stadtholder, mentioned, 326; his character, 327; his "Apology," 330; his death, 331 ; IH, invited to Eng- , .^ land (1688), 394; his reign as king T of England, 396-398 ■■ William L German Emperor, as king of Prussia, 558 ; Emperor, 563 ; death, 566; IL accession, 566; reign up to the World War, 566, 567; utterances of, 617, 618; ex- tradition of, demanded of Holland by the Allies, 669 n. 2 Wilson, President, address to Senate (January 22, 1917), 649; address to Congress (April 2, 1917), 650 Windmills introduced into Europe by Crusades, 130, 131 n. i Win'frid, apostle of Germany, 20 Wink'el rled, Arnold of, 212 n. 2 Wisby (wiz'bT), 156 Wit'an, the, 97 n. 2 ; becomes the English Parliament, 102 Wit"e na ge mot'. See IVitan Wo'den, German god, 16 Wolfe, James, 426 Wolsey, Cardinal, minister of Henry Vni, 300; death, 302 Worcester, battle of, 384 World War, the, 616-672 Worms (vorms). Concordat of, 108; Diet of, 273 Wren, Sir Christopher, 391 n. i Wiirtemberg (viirt'tem berc), king- dom of, 485 ; in German Empire, 553 Wycliffe (wTk'lif), John, 195 Xavier (zav'i er), Francis, 282 Yezd, city, 51 n. 2 \'ork. House of, 177 n. i. See Roses, Wars of the Young Turks, the, 628 Yser (e'zr), river, 638 n. i "S'uste (yoos'ta), 291 Zaandam (zan dam'), 404 Zend-Avesta, the, 51 Zimmerman, German foreign minis- ter, 649 Zorn'dorf (tsorn'dorf), battle of, 416 Zwingli (zwing'le), Huldreich, 277 Zwinghans, 277