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TLbc IRural Science Series 
 
 L. H. BAILEY, Editoe 
 
 2/^ 
 
 THE 
 
 COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY 
 
 OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
Edited by L. H. Bailey 
 
 The Soil. King. 
 
 The Spraying of Plants. Lodeman. 
 
 Milk and its Products. Wing. Enlarged and Revised. 
 
 The Fertility of the Land. Roberta. 
 
 The Principles of Peuit-geowing. Bailey. 20th Edi- 
 tion, Revised. 
 
 Bush-fruits. Card. Revised. 
 
 Fertilizers. Yoorhees. Revised. 
 
 The Principles of Agriculture. Bailey. Revised. 
 
 Irrigation and Drainage. King. 
 
 The Farmstead. Roberts. 
 
 Rural Wealth and Welfare. Fairchild. 
 
 The Principles of Vegetable-gardening. Bailey. 
 
 Farm Poultry. Watson. Enlarged and Revised. 
 
 The Feeding of Animals. Jordan. (Now Rural Text- 
 Book.) iSeries Revised. 
 
 The Farmer's Business Handbook. Roberts. 
 
 The Diseases of Animals. Mayo. 
 
 The Horse. Roberts. 
 
 How to Choose a Farm. Hunt. 
 
 Forage Crops. Voorhees. 
 
 Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. Lipman. 
 
 The Nursery-book. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual Series.) 
 
 Plant-breeding. Bailey and Gilbert. Revised. 
 
 The Forcing-book. Bailey, 
 
 The Pruningbook. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual Series.) 
 
 Fruit Growing in Arid Regions. Paddock a/nd Whipple. 
 
 Rural Hygiene. Ogden. 
 
 Dry-farming. Widtsoe. 
 
 Law for the American Farmer. Green. 
 
 Farm Boys and Giels. UcKeever. 
 
 The Training and Breaking of Horses. Harper. 
 
 Sheep-farming in North America. Craig. 
 
 Cooperation in Agriculture. Powell. 
 
 The Farm Woodlot. Cheyney and Wentling. 
 
 Household Insects. Herrick. 
 
 Citrus Fruits. Coit. 
 
 Principles of Rural Credits. Morman. 
 
 Beekeeping. Phillips. 
 
 Subtropical Vegetable-gardening. Rolfs. 
 
 Turf for Golf Courses. Piper and Oakley. 
 
 The Potato. Gilbert. 
 
 Strawberry-growing. Fletcher. 
 
 Western Live-stock Management. Potter. 
 
 Peach growing. Gould. 
 
 The Sugar-beet in America. Harris. 
 
 Pork-production. Smith. 
 
 The Development of Institutions under Ireiqatiom. 
 Thomas. 
 
 Landscape-gardening. Simonds. 
 
 Commercial Apple Industry of Noeth Amkeica. Folger 
 and Thomson. 
 
 The Sweet Potato. Hand and Cockerham. 
 
THE 
 
 COMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY 
 
 OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 BY 
 
 J^C. FOLGER 
 
 n 
 Assistant Secretary 
 International Apple Shippers' Association 
 
 AND 
 
 S. M. THOMSON 
 
 Formerly Fruit Crop Specialist, United States 
 Department of Agriculture 
 
 Beta gork 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
 1921 
 
 All rights reterved 
 
3b 
 
 
 Copyright, 1921, 
 
 bt the i^iacmillan company 
 
 Set up and electrotyped. Published February, 1921. 
 
 MAR -2 1321 
 
 ^C1.A605971 
 
TO 
 EDWARD H. THOMSON 
 
 WHOSE VISION, ENCOURAGEMENT AND WISE COUNSEL 
 
 HAVE BEEN OF THE GREATEST AID IN THE 
 
 PREPARATION OF THIS WORK 
 
 THE AUTHORS 
 
 INSCRIBE THE BOOK 
 
PREFACE 
 
 In collecting material for this work, the authors have 
 visited practically every important apple-growing county 
 in the United States; first in connection vpith a special 
 investigation of the cost of producing apples in important 
 regions, conducted by the Office of Farm Management, 
 United States Department of Agriculture; and later as 
 Fruit Crop Specialists engaged in organizing a system 
 for estimating important fruit crops and particularly 
 the commercial apple crop of the United States. The au- 
 thors were impressed with a need of this kind of book, as the 
 many published works on the apple have not dealt system- 
 atically with the commercial phase of apple-growing which 
 only recently has become a well defined industry entirely 
 separate from the home orchard. The whole subject of 
 propagation has been omitted, as this is now well treated 
 in separate books. The apple is approached in this book 
 from the point of view of commerce. 
 
 In the preparation of this work, credit is due to Roy E. 
 Miarshall and Fred R. Motz of the Virginia Station for 
 aid in the chapter on pruning; to Prof. W. H. Chandler 
 of Ithaca, New York, for his advice and suggestions; to 
 E. H. Siegler and W. V. Cruess, and to many others 
 both in the Federal Department of Agriculture and the va- 
 rious state schools of agriculture and experiment stations. 
 
 vii 
 
Preface 
 
 For the Canadian material; the authors are indebted to Mr. 
 C W. Baxter, and for the Australian and New Zealand 
 material, to Mr. S. P. Vaughn of Tasmania, P. Val Kerr 
 of Victoria, and K. A. Clayton of !N"ew Zealand. 
 
 The Authobs. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Importance and History of the Apple Industry . . 1-27 
 
 Decline of farm orchards 3-6 
 
 Centralized plantings in favored regions . . . 6-7 
 
 Outlook for the apple industry 7-12 
 
 Favorable factors 9-15 
 
 Increase in population 10 
 
 Movement to the city 10-11 
 
 Development of foreign market ... 11 
 
 Education and advertising 12 
 
 Transportation 12 
 
 Distribution 12-13 
 
 Improved cultural methods 13-14 
 
 Increase in the use of by-products ... 14 
 
 Future production 14^15 
 
 Unfavorable factors 15-19 
 
 Increased commercial crop 16-17 
 
 Poor outlook for unfavored region ... 17 
 
 Danger from boom development . . . 17-18 
 
 Competition with citrus fruit .... 18-19 
 
 Conclusions 19-20 
 
 History of commercial apple-growing in the United 
 
 States 30-26 
 
 Scientific classification 26-27 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 Leading Apple Regions of the United States . . . 28-84 
 
 Western New York 29-32 
 
 Hudson Valley 32-33 
 
Contents 
 
 PAGES 
 
 New England Baldwin belt 33-34 
 
 The Champlain district 35-36 
 
 New Jersey 36-37 
 
 Delaware 37-38 
 
 Shenandoah-Cumberland district 38-40 
 
 Piedmont district of Virginia 40-42 
 
 Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and 
 
 Virginia 42-43 
 
 Mountain region of North Carolina 43—45 
 
 Mountain region of Georgia 45-46 
 
 Ohio 46-48 
 
 Southern Ohio Kome Beauty district . . . 46-47 
 
 Minor regions in Ohio 47-48 
 
 Kentucky . . . 48 
 
 Michigan 49-50 
 
 Illinois 50-54 
 
 Southern Illinois early apple region . . . 51-52 
 
 Mississippi Valley region of Illinois ... 52 
 
 Southeastern Illinois 53-54 
 
 Ozark region 54r-56 
 
 Missouri River region 56-59 
 
 Arkansas Valley of Kansas 59 
 
 Colorado 60-62 
 
 New Mexico 62-63 
 
 Utah 63 
 
 Montana 64 
 
 Washington 64-70 
 
 Yakima Valley 65-67 
 
 Wenatchee North Central Washington district 67-69 
 
 Spokane district 70 
 
 Walla Walla district 70 
 
 Oregon 70-73 
 
 Hood River Valley 70-72 
 
 Rogue River Valley 72-73 
 
 Other apple districts in Oregon 73 
 
 Idaho 74-75 
 
 Payette district 74-75 
 
 Boise Valley 75 
 
Contents 
 
 zi 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Twin Falls 75 
 
 Lewiston section 75 
 
 California 76-79 
 
 Watsonville district 76-77 
 
 Sebastopol apple district ....... 78 
 
 Yucaipa section 78-79 
 
 Wisconsin 79-80 
 
 Minnesota 80 
 
 Early apple regions 80-84 
 
 New York and New England 81 
 
 New Jersey 81-82 
 
 Delaware . 82 
 
 Southern and Middle Atlantic states ... 83 
 
 East North Central states 83 
 
 Southern Illinois 83 
 
 California 83-84 
 
 CHAPTER in 
 
 Commercial Apple Production in Canada, Australia 
 
 AND New Zealand 85-99 
 
 Canada 85-95 
 
 Nova Scotia 86-88 
 
 Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick . 88-89 
 
 Quebec 89 
 
 Ontario 90-92 
 
 British Columbia 92-95 
 
 Australia and New Zealand 95-99 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 llity and Site for the Comimercul Orchard . 
 
 100-132 
 
 Choosing the locality 
 
 100-132 
 
 Western New York 
 
 100-101 
 
 Hudson Valley 
 
 101-102 
 
 Champlain district 
 
 102-103 
 
 New England 
 
 103 
 
 New Jersey-Delaware Peninsula . . . 
 
 104 
 
-"^ii Contents 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Shenandoah-Cumberland region .... 104-105 
 
 Piedmont region of Virginia 105-106 
 
 Southern Ohio Eome Beauty section . . . 106 
 
 Western Michigan 106-107 
 
 Illinois 107 
 
 Ozark region 107-108 
 
 Missouri Eiver region 108-109 
 
 Western Slope of Colorado 109 
 
 Utah 109-110 
 
 Idaho 110-111 
 
 Washington 111-112 
 
 Montana 112 
 
 Oregon 112-113 
 
 California 113-115 
 
 New Mexico 115 
 
 Choosing the site for a fruit-farm . " . . . . 116-132 
 
 Raw versus planted land 116 
 
 Time to buy 117 
 
 Syndicate projects 117-118 
 
 Yields and varieties 118 
 
 Proximity to market 118-119 
 
 Distance from shipping station 119-120 
 
 Bearing age of trees 120-122 
 
 Diseases and insect pests 122-123 
 
 Climatic influences 123-125 
 
 Size of farm 125-126 
 
 Necessary capital 126-128 
 
 Labor conditions 128-129 
 
 Social conditions 129 
 
 Regional developments 130 
 
 Soil 130-132 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 The Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing . 133-143 
 
 Farm organization in relation to the orchard . . 133-140 
 
 Systems of tenantry 140-143 
 
Contents xiii 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Establishing the Apple Orchard 144-154 
 
 Nursery stock 145-147 
 
 Systems of planting 147-150 
 
 Square system 148-149 
 
 Hexagonal system 149-150 
 
 Quincvmx system 150 
 
 Planting distances 150-151 
 
 Time to plant 151 
 
 Setting trees 151-152 
 
 Heading trees 152-153 
 
 Use of fillers and inter-crops 153-154 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 Cultivation op the Orchard 155-171 
 
 Clean cultivation 156-157 
 
 Sod- or grass-mulch 157-158 
 
 Clean cultivation with cover-crops 159-160 
 
 Cover-crops 160-162 
 
 Value of cultivation and methods 162-165 
 
 Implements 165 
 
 The tractor in the apple orchard 165-171 
 
 Truck 171 
 
 CHAPTER Vm 
 
 Irrigation 172-185 
 
 Choosing an irrigated district 177-180 
 
 Irrigating the orchard 181-183 
 
 Quantity of water to supply 181-182 
 
 Time to irrigate orchards 182 
 
 Number of applications 182-183 
 
 Methods of irrigation 183-185 
 
xiv Contents 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard . . . 186-205 
 
 Present practices in fertilizing 187-188 
 
 Value of stable manure 188-189 
 
 Experiments with fertilizers 189-198 
 
 Eesearch work of Kraus and Kraybill . . . 189-191 
 
 Experiments in Pennsylvania 191-195 
 
 Nitrate experiments by Lewis 195-198 
 
 Amount of fertilizer to a tree 198-199 
 
 Needs of irrigated regions 199-200 
 
 Nitrate of soda 200 
 
 Methods of applying fertilizers 200-202 
 
 Pruning with reference to fertilizing .... 202 
 
 Fertilizer tests 202-203 
 
 General summary and specific recommendations . 204-205 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 Diseases and Pests op the Apple and Their Control 206-248 
 
 Important insect enemies of the apple .... 206-216 
 
 The codlin-moth 206-210 
 
 San Jose scale 210-211 
 
 Oyster-shell scale 211 
 
 Apple aphids 211-213 
 
 Plum curculio 213 
 
 Apple red bugs 214 
 
 Apple-tree tent-caterpillar 214 
 
 Round-headed apple-tree borer 214-215 
 
 Cutworms 215 
 
 Bud-moth 215 
 
 The fruit-tree leaf-roller 215-216 
 
 Important apple diseases 216-223 
 
 Apple-scab 216-217 
 
 Apple-blotch 217 
 
 Sooty-blotch and fly-speck 217 
 
 Cedar-rust 218 
 
 Bitter-rot 218-219 
 
Contents xv 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Blister-canker 219-220 
 
 Collar-rot 220-221 
 
 Fire-blight 221-222 
 
 Apple rosette 222-223 
 
 Baldwin-spot 223 
 
 Animal pests of the apple 223-226 
 
 Meadow mice 223-224 
 
 Pine mice 224-225 
 
 Control of mice by poisoning 225-226 
 
 Spraying 226-235 
 
 Cost of spraying 228-230 
 
 Spray equipment 230-232 
 
 Hired sprayers 232-233 
 
 Regional spraying notes 233-235 
 
 Dusting 235-238 
 
 Insecticides 238-247 
 
 For biting insects 239-241 
 
 For sucking insects, contact sprays .... 241-246 
 
 Spreaders for the different insecticides . . . 246-247 
 
 Fungicides 247-248 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 Fruit Setting and Pollination 249-257 
 
 Causes for the failure to set fruit 250-255 
 
 Essentials for a good pollinizer 255-257 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 PRUNma AND Thinning 258-283 
 
 Types of training apple trees 259-268 
 
 Natural form 260 
 
 Central leader system 261 
 
 Open center, or vase-shape 262-264 
 
 The double-headed type 264-265 
 
 The modified leader tree 266-268 
 
 General treatment of young trees 268-270 
 
 After first season 268-269 
 
xvi Contents 
 
 PAGES 
 
 After second season 269 
 
 After third season 269-270 
 
 Vegetative, transitory and fruitage stages . . . 270-276 
 
 Transition period 270-271 
 
 The fruiting period 271 
 
 Fruit-buds 271-272 
 
 Changing system of pruning 272-274 
 
 Bearing trees 274-275 
 
 Distribution and establishment of fruiting 
 
 wood 275-276 
 
 Time of pruning 276-277 
 
 Pruning tools 277-278 
 
 Wound dressings 278 
 
 Thinning 278-283 
 
 Time and method of thinning 281-282 
 
 Cost of thinning . 283 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 Renovation of Old Orchards 284-290 
 
 General treatment 285-286 
 
 Pruning 286-238 
 
 Spraying 288 
 
 Soil management 289-290 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 Handling the Crop 291-312 
 
 Picking 291-296 
 
 Contract picking versus day labor .... 294 
 
 Picking utensils 294-296 
 
 Packing 296-312 
 
 Sorting and packing barreled apples . . . 296-302 
 
 Orchard packing 297-298 
 
 Packing-houses for barreled apples . . 298-302 
 
 Handling the western box apple crop . . . 302-307 
 
 Orchard carriers 303 
 
 Sorting and packing the boxed apples . 303-305 
 
Contents xvii 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Packing-house arrangement and operation 305-307 
 
 Mechanical sizers 307-308 
 
 Community packing-houses 308-312 
 
 Methods of operating community pack- 
 ing-houses 309-310 
 
 Packing-house construction .... 310-312 
 Bulk shipments 312 
 
 CHAPTEE XV 
 
 Marketing and Storage 313-338 
 
 Selling on consignment , . 313-314 
 
 Selling to cash buyers 314-316 
 
 The lump-sum cash buyer 315 
 
 Tree-run cash buyer 315-316 
 
 Cooperative methods of selling 31G-322 
 
 Form of organization for cooperative associa- 
 tions 319-321 
 
 Pooling 321-322 
 
 Purchase of supplies 322 
 
 Distribution 322-325 
 
 Commission-man 323 
 
 The broker 323-324 
 
 Carlot operator 324-325 
 
 Carlot distributor 325 
 
 Field of distribution 325-329 
 
 Foreign markets 325-327 
 
 Improved distribution within the United 
 
 States 327-329 
 
 Physical handling 329 
 
 Grades and standards 329-333 
 
 Standard package 330-332 
 
 Inspection at point of origin ...... 332-333 
 
 Storage 333—336 
 
 Local vs. distance storage 334-335 
 
 Common storage 335-336 
 
 Handling and cultural methods as relating to 
 
 storage 336 
 
xviii Contents 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Government agencies in marketing 336-338 
 
 Crop estimates 337 
 
 Market and storage reports 337-338 
 
 Cooperative vs. individual effort 33t 
 
 CHAPTEE XVI 
 Yields 339-341 
 
 CHAPTEK XVII 
 
 By-Pboducts op the Apple Industry 348-35( 
 
 Evaporators 350-35 
 
 Natural draft evaporators 350-352 
 
 Forced draft evaporators 352-354 
 
 Distillation types of evaporators .... 354-35S 
 
 Canning, jelly manufacturing 355-356 
 
 Cider and vinegar 356 
 
 CHAPTER XVin 
 
 Cost of Production 357-386 
 
 Importance of yields 361-364 
 
 Influence of size of orchard 364-366 
 
 Effect of size and type of farm 366-369 
 
 Effect of climate and soil on cost of production . 369-370 
 
 Influence of varieties 370-371 
 
 Accessibility to market 372 
 
 Cost of materials 372 
 
 Labor and cost production 373-374 
 
 Orchard maintenance 374-379 
 
 Cost of pruning and brush disposal . . . 375-376 
 
 Soil management 376-378 
 
 Thinning 378-379 
 
 Harvesting costs 379-383 
 
 Conclusions 383-38 
 
Contents xix 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 PAGES 
 
 Varieties of Apples 387^57 
 
 Summer varieties 394-395 
 
 Late varieties 395-426 
 
 ..^Baldwin 396 
 
 -yBen Davis 397 
 
 --Winesap . 398 
 
 -'Rhode Island Greening 398-399 
 
 Jonathan 399-400 
 
 York Imperial 400 
 
 Rome 401 
 
 - Northern Spy 401^02 
 
 - Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) . . . 402-403 
 Esopus Spitzenburg 403-404 
 
 ^Grimes Golden 404-405 
 
 .. Stayman 405-406 
 
 ' \ Delicious 406-407 
 
 Gano and Black Ben 407 
 
 Yellow Bellflower 407-408 
 
 Russets 408-410 
 
 Tompkins King 410-411 
 
 ^Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig) .... 411 
 
 •^Wagener 411-412 
 
 /Arkansas Black 412-413 
 
 Willow Twig 413 
 
 White Pearmain (White Winter Pearmain) . 414 
 
 Red Limbertwig 414 
 
 Yates 415 
 
 Stark ■. . . . 415^16 
 
 Hubbardston 416-417 
 
 Tolman Sweet' 417 
 
 Winter Banana 418 
 
 Missouri Pippin 418-t419 
 
 Northwestern Greening 419 
 
 Rambo 419-420 
 
 Ortley 420-421 
 
 Red Canada 421 
 
XX Contents 
 
 PAQES 
 
 Monmouth 421-422 
 
 ^Collins 422 
 
 \ Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Sweet) 422-123 
 
 '•■O'Wolf Eiver 423-424 
 
 " Sutton 424 
 
 \ Ingram 424-425 
 
 VBlack Gilliflower 425 
 
 Lady 426 
 
 Ea^y and fall varieties 426-441 
 
 \ Oldenburg (Duchess) 426-427 
 
 Wealthy 427-428 
 
 Yellow Transparent 428 
 
 ^ Twenty Ounce 429 
 
 , ^Gravenstein 429-430 
 
 Mcintosh 430-431 
 
 Maiden Blush (Lady Blush, Red Cheek) . . 431-432 
 
 \ Fameuse (Snow) 432-433 
 
 Williams (Williams Early ^ed, Williams 
 
 . Favorite) 433 
 
 *«enoni 433-434 
 
 \ Bonum (Magnum Bonum) 434-435 
 
 Bed Astrachan 435 
 
 \, Early Ripe 435-436 
 
 Alexander 436 
 
 ^Starr 436-437 
 
 Red June, (Carolina Red June, Carolina June, 
 
 Carolina Red) 437-438 
 
 Chenango (Chenango Strawberry) .... 438 
 
 Fall Pippin 439 
 
 Status of commercial varieties 441-449 
 
 Age varieties begin to bear 449-451 
 
 Relative productivity of varieties in full bearing . 451-452 
 Relative hardiness of commercial varieties . . . 452-453 
 
 Varieties in greatest demand 453-454 
 
 Export varieties 454 
 
 Varieties for the home orchards 454-457 
 
 Index 459 
 
LIST OF PLATES 
 
 PLA'ra I. — Typical western New York scene. Full bearing 
 
 trees forty to fifty years of age Frontispiece ^ 
 
 FACING 
 PAGE 
 
 Plate II. — Low-headed trees in a Virginia orchard . . 20 '■" 
 
 Plate III. — A typical commercial apple orchard in the 
 Missouri Valley, Kansas. A fifteen-year-old Newtown 
 orchard near Medford, Oregon, in need of water. Red ^ 
 
 Astrachan orchard in Delaware 38 
 
 Plate IV. — Looking across the floor of the Wenatchee Val- 
 ley at Cashmere, Washington 58 
 
 Plate V. — View of the Hood Eiver Valley fruit section . 70 ^ 
 
 Plate VI. — King apples growing in Annapolis Valley, 
 
 Nova Scotia 88 "'" 
 
 Plate VII. — A young irrigated orchard in the Bitter Root 
 Valley of Montana, showing the clean cultivation 
 formerly practiced in the Northwest 108 ^-^ 
 
 Plate VIII. — Eight-foot disk in operation in the Rogue 
 River Valley, Oregon. Spring-tooth harl-ow in use in 
 a northwest orchard 130''" 
 
 Plate IX. — Weeder in use in a Hood River orchard. Type 
 
 of float commonly used at Hood River after cultivation 152 "-"^ 
 
 Plate X. — Irrigating five-year-old Winesap trees in the 
 
 Yakima Valley 174 ^ 
 
 Plate XL — Insect pests of the apple 190 
 
 Plate XIL— San Jose scale 208.- 
 
 Plate XIII. — Insect enemies of the apple 220 
 
 xxi 
 
xxii List of Plates 
 
 VAOIKG 
 ^ PAGE 
 
 Plate XIV.— The woolly aphis 234^ 
 
 Plate XV. — The tent caterpillar. Rosy apple aphis . . 246 ^ 
 
 Plate XVI. — Diseases of the apple 260 ^^ 
 
 Plate XVII. — This tree has produced as high as 20 bar- 
 rels of fine fruit in one season and averages about 10 
 barrels a year 274f^ 
 
 Plate XVIII. — Showing method of picking practiced in 
 
 Virginia 292^ 
 
 Plate XIX.— Packing the fruit 306^ 
 
 Plate XX. — Sizing and grading machines 326'^ 
 
 Plate XXI — A Baldwin tree near Paonia, Colorado . . 346 ^ 
 
 Plate XXII. — A typical yellow Newtown orchard in the 
 
 Watsonville, California, district 368^ 
 
 Plate XXIII. — Seven-year-old Spitzenburg orchard in the 
 
 Northwest 390^'" 
 
 Plate XXIV. — A Nebraska orchard of Missouri Pippin 
 trees 418 
 
THE COiMMERCIAL APPLE INDUSTRY 
 OF NORTH AMERICA 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 IMPORTANCE AND HISTORY OF THE APPLE 
 INDUSTRY 
 
 The object of this work is to deal particularly with 
 the commercial phases of the apple-growing industry with 
 reference to: (1) Distribution of important commercial 
 plantings under which heading will be discussed the ad- 
 vantages and disadvantages of various regions; (2) eco- 
 nomic problems such as cost of production and marketing ; 
 (3) scientific cultural methods. 
 
 In presenting the subject, attention is first given to 
 the geography of commercial apple-growing in the United 
 States and competing foreign countries. It is important 
 to know not only where commercial apples are grown but 
 also the cultural methods employed in different regions. 
 The wide distribution of apple plantings in the United 
 States and the extreme variation in the character of the 
 orchards makes it difficult for one to determine the rela- 
 tive importance of any region, much less to have a definite 
 conception of the conditions which prevail in remote dis- 
 tricts. 
 
 Few agricultural enterprises have experienced the 
 vicissitudes which seem inherent in the frui^-growing in- 
 
The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 1 
 
 dustry. No small factor in bringing about the changing 
 fortunes of the apple-growers has been a lack of definite 
 information regarding the status of the industry in com- 
 peting regions Temporary high prices determined in a 
 large measure the rate of planting in most sections. 
 Census figures giving agricultural, but not commercial, 
 production of apples, have been used in forecasting cycles 
 of either over- or under-planting. In census figures 
 no line was drawn between commercial and agricultural 
 production. Many times when the agricultural produc- 
 tion was decreasing, the commercial production, or that 
 portion of the crop which reaches the market and affects 
 prices, was actually increasing, in some instances very 
 materially. A sharp line must, therefore, be drawn be- 
 tween commercial and non-commercial production if we 
 are to make a correct analysis of the industry and view 
 the future in the proper light. 
 
 It has been only within comparatively recent years that 
 commercial apple-growing in the United States has ex- 
 perienced such a very noticeable change from what might 
 be termed a local, home orchard or semi-commercial enter- 
 prise into a highly specialized and scientific industry of 
 national proportions, centralized in certain favored local- 
 ities, involving intensive and technical methods of culture, 
 and necessitating very complex and intricate methods of 
 distribution and marketing. In other words, the apple 
 crop has been taken from the list of general farm products 
 and has been placed among the foremost specialized crops. 
 In 1919 the apple crop of the United States was valued 
 at $275,463,000. It ordinarily ranks about ninth in the 
 list of farm crops, being exceeded in total value only by 
 wheat, oats, cotton, com, potatoes, barley, hay and tobacco. 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 3 
 
 Some idea of the relative importance of the apple crop 
 may be obtained by a study of the following table : 
 
 Table I. — Estimated Value of Important Crops of the 
 United States, Based on Five- Year Average 1914r-1918 
 
 Corn $2,634,804,000 
 
 Wheat 1,198,737,000 
 
 Hay 1,132,276,000 
 
 Cotton 1,097,039,000 
 
 Oats 773,752,000 
 
 Potatoes 372,239,000 
 
 Tobacco 208,426,000 
 
 Apples 184,774,000 
 
 DECLINE OF FARM ORCHAKDS 
 
 At present commercial apples can be grown successfully 
 only when scientific and intensive cultural methods are 
 employed. The farmer can no longer give his orchard in- 
 different care and expect to compete with the commercial 
 grower. With the advent of new districts, competition 
 has necessitated the adoption of improved methods mark- 
 ing the decline of the farm orchard and the corresponding 
 rise in importance of specialized commercial plantings. 
 
 About 1850, apple-growing began to assume important 
 commercial proportions, but for many years the farm 
 orchards remained an important factor. The demand for 
 apples in the towns and cities was at first supplied from 
 the farm orchards in adjacent territory. No great effort 
 was made to locate distant markets and in years of heavy 
 production most of the crops would remain on the farm. 
 About 1860 certain highly productive sections of western 
 New York demonstrated their superiority in producing 
 high quality fruit and this fruit outsold that from other 
 districts. These inherent advantages overcame the dis- 
 
4 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 tance from market so that the center of commercial apple 
 production was established and has remained in western 
 New York. (See Plate 1.) 
 
 Despite the rapid centralization of commercial plantings 
 in more favored regions, the apple is adapted to a wide 
 variation of soil and climatic conditions, and is widely cul- 
 tivated throughout the United States. A great many- 
 farms produce a few more apples than are needed at home. 
 Many of these go to waste, but sometimes the surplus is 
 pressed into cider, used for other by-products, or in some 
 quantity finds its way into commercial channels during the 
 years when prices warrant. Just how great a part the 
 last factor plays in the commercial apple industry is diffi- 
 cult to determine, but obviously in the aggregate it is of 
 no little importance. Particularly is this true throughout 
 such states as Iowa, Illinois, Ohio and Pennsylvania where 
 apples from farm orchards are hauled to nearby towns and 
 supply the market which might otherwise exist for the 
 so-called " strictly " commercial crop. The line of dis- 
 tinction between commercial and non-commercial produc- 
 tion is being more and more closely drawn, however, so 
 that the strictly commercial crop stands out in sharp con- 
 trast. 
 
 Practically speaking, the spraying operation gives rise 
 to one of the first sharp distinctions between commercial 
 and non-commercial orchards. Insect pests and diseases 
 have exacted a heavy toll from unsprayed orchards and 
 to-day thousands of acres of farm orchards, especially east 
 of the Mississippi Eiver and in such states as Pennsyl- 
 vania, Ohio and Kentucky are slowly dying out. When 
 it is known that more than 90 per cent of the orchards in 
 some states have never been sprayed, the wide disparage- 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 
 
 Table II. — Average Commercul and Average Total Produc- 
 tion OF Apples in United States for Four Years. 
 (1916-1919) 
 
 state 
 
 Commercial 
 Crop 
 Bbls. 
 
 Total Crop 
 Bbls. 
 
 Percentage of 
 total crop 
 which is 
 
 
 
 
 
 commercial 
 
 1. Washington . . . . 
 
 5,062,000 
 
 ( 2) 
 
 L 6,431,000 
 
 78 
 
 2. New York . 
 
 
 
 4,132,000 
 
 ( 1) 
 
 9,106,000 
 
 45 
 
 3. Virginia . . 
 
 
 
 1,785,000 
 
 ( 4) 
 
 3,758,000 
 
 45 
 
 4. California 
 
 
 
 1,246,000 
 
 ( 6) 
 
 2,435,000 
 
 51 
 
 5. Michigan 
 
 
 
 1,133,000 
 
 ( 5) 
 
 2,531,000 
 
 44 
 
 6. Illinois . . 
 
 
 
 1,045,000 
 
 (10) 
 
 1,731,000 
 
 60 
 
 7. Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 988,000 
 
 ( 3) 
 
 4,526,000 
 
 22 
 
 8. Missouri . . 
 
 
 
 916,000 
 
 ( 8) 
 
 2,008,000 
 
 46 
 
 9. West Virginia 
 
 
 
 892,000 
 
 ( 9) 
 
 1,784,000 
 
 50 
 
 10. Oregon . , 
 
 
 
 886,000 
 
 (U) 
 
 1,430,000 
 
 62 
 
 11. Colorado . . 
 
 
 
 683,000 
 
 (21) 
 
 851,000 
 
 80 
 
 12. Ohio . . . 
 
 
 
 629,000 
 
 ( 7) 
 
 2,014,000 
 
 31 
 
 13. Idaho . . . 
 
 
 
 589,000 
 
 (20) 
 
 844,000 
 
 70 
 
 14. Kansas 
 
 
 
 500,000 
 
 (25) 
 
 70.1,000 
 
 71 
 
 15. Now Jersey . 
 
 
 
 493,000 
 
 (23) 
 
 757,000 
 
 65 
 
 16. Arkansas 
 
 
 
 476,000 
 
 (22) 
 
 809,000 
 
 59 
 
 17. Maine . . . 
 
 
 
 441,000 
 
 (12) 
 
 1,334,000 
 
 33 
 
 18. Massachusetts . 
 
 
 
 307,000 
 
 (17) 
 
 940,000 
 
 33 _ 
 
 19. Indiana . . 
 
 
 
 "■ 304,000 
 
 (16) 
 
 974,000 
 
 31 
 
 1^0 Maryland . . 
 
 
 
 279,000 
 
 (24) 
 
 757,000 
 
 35 
 
 21. Vermont . . 
 
 
 
 207,000 
 
 (26) 
 
 588,000 
 
 35 
 
 22. North Carolina 
 
 
 
 186,000 
 
 (13) 
 
 1,232,000 
 
 15 
 
 23. Iowa .... 
 
 
 
 182,000 
 
 (18) 
 
 897,000 
 
 22 
 
 24. Delaware . . 
 
 
 
 169,000 
 
 (36) 
 
 224,000 
 
 75 
 
 25. Nebraska . . 
 
 
 
 164,000 
 
 (32) 
 
 398,000 
 
 44 
 
 26. Tennessee . . 
 
 
 
 161.000 
 
 (15) 
 
 1,173,000 
 
 14 
 
 27. New Hampshire 
 
 
 
 157.000 
 
 (29) 
 
 441,000 
 
 36 
 
 28. New Mexico 
 
 
 
 156.000 
 
 (35) 
 
 298,000 
 
 52 
 
 29. ITtah .... 
 
 
 
 123,000 
 
 (.37) 
 
 214,000 
 
 58 
 
 30. Connecticut . . 
 
 
 
 117,000 
 
 (28) 
 
 446,000 
 
 23 
 
 31. Wisconsin . . 
 
 
 
 117,000 
 
 (19) 
 
 883.000 
 
 13 
 
 32. Kentucky . . 
 
 
 
 115,000 
 
 (14) 
 
 1,208,000 
 
 10 
 
 33. Georgia . . . 
 
 
 
 101,000 
 
 (27) 
 
 474.000 
 
 21 
 
 34. Montana . . . 
 
 
 
 86,000 
 
 (34) 
 
 324,000 
 
 27 
 
 35. Minnesota 
 
 
 
 51,000 
 
 (30) 
 
 423,000 
 
 12 
 
 36. Oklahoma . . 
 
 
 
 35,000 
 
 (33) 
 
 344,000 
 
 10 
 
 37. Texas .... 
 
 
 
 24,000 
 
 (38) 
 
 144,000 
 
 17 
 
 38. Rhode Island . 
 
 
 
 22,000 
 
 (40) 
 
 78,000 
 
 28 
 
 39. Alabama . . . 
 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 (31) 
 
 404,000 
 
 5 
 
 40. Arizona . . . 
 
 
 
 16.000 
 
 (41) 
 
 46,000 
 
 35 
 
 41. South Dakota . 
 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 (30) 
 
 105,000 
 
 4 
 
 U. S 
 
 . 
 
 
 25,001,000 
 
 56,502,000 
 
 44 
 
 1 Figures in parentheses rank states in order of importance in total pro- 
 duction. 
 
The Com,mercial Apple Industry 
 
 .Ml 
 '^1 
 
 ment between the agricultural and the commercial crop 
 not surprising. 
 
 Table II shows the average agricultural and commer- 
 cial apple production in the different states for the period 
 1916-1919 inclusive. It will be seen that of an average 
 total production of approximately 56,000,000 barrels, only 
 25,000,000 are commercial. In other words, about 44 
 per cent of the total production during this period reached 
 commercial channels. 
 
 Apples used for by-products are not included in the com- 
 mercial crop. Allowing for this factor, it would still ap- 
 pear that from 40 to 45 per cent of our total apple crop 
 is either consumed in the county where grown or goes to 
 waste. 
 
 CENTRALIZED PLANTINGS IN FAVORED REGIONS 
 
 The centralization of commercial plantings in favored 
 regions has been an interesting process. The most notable 
 feature in the development of the apple industry has been 
 the rapidly increasing commercial crop from western 
 states, particularly Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Cali- 
 fornia and Colorado. Twenty years ago commercial pro- 
 duction in these states, with the exception of California, 
 was practically negligible. To-day over 40 per cent of 
 the commercial apple crop of the United States is grown 
 in the Far West and at no distant date western production 
 may represent one-half of this total. Although far from 
 the centers of population and markets, millions of dollars 
 have been expended in the development of apple orchards 
 in the irrigated valleys of far western states. Heavy 
 yields and fine market quality have combined to over- 
 come the disadvantages of long shipments to market. 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 7 
 
 Along with the development of the commercial apple 
 industry there has been built up, and particularly in 
 recent years, extensive machinery for the handling, dis- 
 tributing and marketing of apples. Sectional lines have 
 been broken down and this product has become distinctly 
 a national and even international commodity of exchange. 
 Thousands of cars of this fruit move across the entire 
 continent and large cargoes are exported to Europe, Aus- 
 tralia and South America. J^ew and interesting relations 
 between the producer and consumer have been established 
 in an intricate system of marketing. Competition in the 
 production of high quality fruit has worked great changes 
 in cultural methods. Scientific investigation has thrown 
 light on many phases of the industry, all of which will 
 require separate treatment. 
 
 OUTLOOK FOR THE APPLE INDUSTRY 
 
 Apple production does not respond quickly to supply 
 and demand, and for this reason there tends to be less 
 stability in the matter of prices than with other products. 
 It requires several years for trees to come into full bearing, 
 and over-production as the result of excessive planting is 
 not felt for a considerable period. If the production of 
 potatoes, wheat or oats exceeds the demand, the land can 
 be put in other crops. But when it has required ten or 
 fifteen years, and much expense, to bring an apple or- 
 chard to bearing, the owner is loath to pull out his trees 
 and will usually wait several years in the hope that price 
 and production will become adjusted. 
 
 The history of apple production in the United States 
 has run in cycles. In the middle of the past century, 
 when apples first began to be grown commercially, prices 
 
8 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 were good. During the decade 1865 to 18Y5, prices con- 
 tinued high, and during the period 1850 to 1875 over half 
 of the present bearing orchards in western New York 
 were set. Over-production began to be felt in about 1880. 
 !From this time on commercial production increased and 
 prices fell until 1896, when the 76,000,000 barrel crop 
 (agricultural) was grown and the industry reached low 
 price ebb. 
 
 From 1890 to 1896 many growers pulled out their trees, 
 confident that the good prices would never return. Very 
 little planting was undertaken in this period. In about 
 fifteen years prices began to climb back until the crest of 
 another wave was reached between 1907 and 1911. As 
 prices improved, beginning in 1900 and continuing up 
 until 1908-9, there occurred another heavy planting pe- 
 riod which assumed the proportions of a boom in many 
 western states. It was during this period that most of 
 the acreage in such box-apple sections as Yakima, Wen- 
 atchee. Hood River, southern Idaho and Colorado, which 
 in 1919 produced nearly half of the commercial apples 
 in the United States, was set. Five consecutive failures 
 in the Ozark, Missouri, crop, from frost-injury, contributed 
 to this inflation by creating a strong demand for northwest 
 fruit in a territory ordinarily supplied. 
 
 The productiveness of such valleys as the Yakima and 
 Wenatchee in Washington was phenomenal. Trees were 
 young and free from disease, the yields on bearing 
 trees were unusual and the returns to the acre were far 
 greater than had been thought possible from any com- 
 mercial orchard. Gross sales sometimes exceeded $2,000 
 an acre and in some instances orchards sold for as high as 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 9 
 
 $3,500 an acre. The price for raw land reached $500 
 to $1,000 an acre. A reaction in prices followed this 
 period of heavy planting and the country is just now 
 recovering from the effects of the boom. 
 
 While once suffering from inflation, such districts as 
 Yakima, Hood River, Wenatchee and other well known 
 valleys have been and will remain as centers of production. 
 Unfortunately, however, a large acreage of land unsuited 
 to commercial production was set to trees and exploited 
 as apple land, with disastrous results to investors. 
 Projects including thousands of acres of land were laid 
 out and planted to trees in some states only to fall into 
 entire neglect. Thus far there has never been any con- 
 certed movement toward actually pulling out trees. How- 
 ever, to the same effect, many trees receive little or in- 
 different care and never attain full commercial bearing. 
 This is the principle which tends to limit production. 
 Growers slip behind, omit cultivation and spraying and 
 other necessary cultural operations, with the result that 
 their orchards will not produce commercial fruit. It is 
 for this reason that census figures, giving mere number of 
 trees, are very often misleading and need careful analysis 
 without which the industry may be led into periods of 
 over- and under-planting. 
 
 Favorable factors. 
 
 It is often asked by those who contemplate setting an 
 apple orchard whether it will be a good business proposi- 
 tion or whether there will be over-production in the years 
 to come. A definite reply is impossible. However, a 
 careful study of these points, in the light of present facts 
 
10 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 and conditions, leads to certain probabilities. The fol- 
 lowing factors are favorable to the future of the apple 
 industry. 
 
 1. Increase in population. 
 
 The first point to be considered is the probable increase 
 or decrease in consumption. There may be periods of 
 very heavy planting, but if population and demand in- 
 crease proportionately, an equilibrium is maintained. 
 Obviously the most favorable factor in the outlook is the 
 rapid normal increase in the population of the United 
 States. If the same rate of increase continues, in 1930 
 there will be 130,000,000 people, while in 1940, when 
 many of the apple orchards not yet in bearing will reach 
 their highest productivity, there will be 165,000,000 peo- 
 ple. If the same rate of increase continues until 1950, 
 there will be 210,000,000. Rate of increase in population 
 depends, of course, on a number of factors. 
 
 2. Movement to the city. 
 
 The important factor in the increase in population is 
 that there is a constantly increasing percentage living in 
 cities and towns. For example, in 1790 96 per cent of 
 the inhabitants lived on farms and only 4 per cent lived 
 in towns and did not raise the food they consumed ; in 
 1860 84 per cent lived on farms and 16 per cent in 
 towns; in 1880 44 per cent on farms and 56 per cent in 
 towns; in 1900 35 per cent on farms and 65 per cent in 
 towns and in 1910 30 per cent on farms and 70 per cent 
 in tov^rns. The drift towards the city is distinctly in the 
 orchardist's favor. In fact, this would seem to be the 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 11 
 
 most favorable of all factors in the outlook of the apple 
 industry and a potent influence against over-production. 
 
 3. Develop^ient of foreign market. 
 
 In past years varying quantities, seldom exceeding two 
 million barrels of the best apples, were exported annually. 
 There are great possibilities in the export trade, not only 
 in those countries which at the present time consume large 
 quantities of American apples, but also in undeveloped 
 foreign markets. South America is as yet a market 
 largely undeveloped. 
 
 At present, the United States produces the larger part 
 of the world's commercial apple crop. Most of this is 
 consumed at home. In addition, foreign fruit is im- 
 ported to the value of hundreds of millions of dollars 
 from coiuitries which do not consume apples except in a 
 very limited quantity. The apple is one of the least 
 perishable and at the same time one of the most popular 
 fruits, once a demand is stimulated. At present Eng- 
 land is the leading export market. Other north European 
 countries consume American apples in lesser quantities. 
 When it is considered that in the face of an abundance of 
 other fresh fruits and food stuffs the people of the United 
 States consume over 20,000,000 barrels of commercial 
 apples and export only about 2,000,000 barrels annually, 
 the possibilities of export can be more fully appreciated, 
 particularly as the European countries with their millions 
 of population produce commercial apples only in limited 
 quantities. It must be remembered, however, that by the 
 time a package of high-grade apples reaches the European 
 market, the price is out of the reach of such classes as in 
 this country consume much of our own commercial crop. 
 
12 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 4. Education and advertising. 
 
 There is no doubt that consumption of high-grade fruit 
 has been greatlv stimulated in recent years by judicious 
 advertising. This is particularly true of the northwest 
 apples. Advertising and educational campaigns will con- 
 tinue to increase consumption. The improved quality of 
 commercial apples is unquestionably stimulating the de- 
 mand for this fruit among all classes. The' fruit-stand 
 has played no small part in creating this demand by dis- 
 playing and familiarizing the people of the cities with 
 the superb quality of certain high-grade brands and va- 
 rieties of apples. A large portion of the northwest boxed 
 apple crop is retailed an apple at a time. As the con- 
 suming public becomes more and more familiar with 
 high quality apples, the demand for this fruit becomes 
 more and more pronounced. 
 
 5. Transportation. 
 
 The success of commercial apple-growing in various 
 regions is greatly affected by transportation and railroad 
 facilities. Some of the more southern districts, for ex- 
 ample, have poor transportation facilities and orchards 
 are very often located in hilly sections where hauling the 
 fruit to the shipping point represents one of the principal 
 costs of production. With improved roads and shipping 
 facilities, distance from market and inaccessibility will 
 be largely overcome. 
 
 6. Distribution. 
 
 With the improved storage facilities and the progress 
 already made in distribution, it is not surprising that the 
 domestic markets have been able to absorb the increasinjr 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 13 
 
 commercial apple crop. Should the apple-grower be able 
 to duplicate even in part the distributing methods used 
 in the citrus industry, it becomes apparent that he might 
 share in the increased demand for high-grade fruit. The 
 sale of oranges has increased in recent years more rap- 
 idly than population. Many potential consiuning centers 
 are represented in towns which can no longer depend on 
 good apples from nearby farms, but are as yet scarcely 
 touched by the present system of distribution. These 
 will eventually be supplied and will absorb a large amount 
 of high-grade fruit, even though at the present time a 
 demand for such a product seems relatively slight. 
 
 Storage facilities now established in all large consuming 
 centers have played a most important part in developing 
 city trade. The extension of storage facilities and better 
 methods of distribution represent one of the favorable 
 factors in the outlook for the commercial apple industry. 
 
 7. Improved cultural methods. 
 
 There has been a great improvement in every phase of 
 orchard management. Improved methods of spraying, 
 pruning, cultivating, and the like have made possible the 
 production of high-grade fruit. Orchard management 
 has probably reached its highest development in the 
 Northwest. Careful orchard management is expensive, 
 but there is compensation in increased yield, which is the 
 big factor in reducing cost production a unit. The com- 
 mercial grower has been able to produce high-grade fruit 
 economically, sell it at good prices and outstrip his more 
 careless neighbor or the producer of inferior apples. In 
 other words, keen competition is forcing the home or- 
 chard and semi-commercial fruit off the market. 
 
14 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 8. Increase in the use of by-products. i 
 
 ' One of the most favorable factors in the outlook of 
 apple production is the increasing importance and use of 
 apple by-products. It is only in recent years that the 
 canned apple industry assumed great importance. Dried 
 apples are more in demand than before. With the advent 
 of prohibition, the demand for apple juice products is 
 increasing greatly. Jellies, apple-butter and similar prod- 
 ucts are being manufactured in increasing quantities. 
 The apples required in the manufacture of these by- 
 products will remove from the market much of the low- 
 grade fruit. Enormous by-product plants have been built 
 in the heart of the Shenandoah-Cumberland region of the 
 Aliddle Atlantic states, in western New York, in the Ya- 
 kima and Wenatchee valleys of Washington and in fact in 
 all important apple regions. Numerous breweries and dis- 
 tilleries have been converted into plants for the production 
 of apple bv-products. 
 
 / 
 
 9. Future production. 
 
 It is important to note, in connection with possible 
 future production, that there has been little concerted ap- 
 ple planting in any part of the United States since 1910. 
 This lack of planting can not fail to have effect on the 
 production of the next two decades. In speculating on 
 future production, one instinctively turns to New York 
 State, which until very recently was credited with one- 
 fourth of the normal commercial apple production of the 
 United States. In the Hudson Valley are many new or- 
 chards which will increase materially the production from 
 this region. However, in western N^w York, which is 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 15 
 
 responsible for the bulk of jSTew York apple production, 
 the average bearing orchard is over forty years of age. 
 Although they have had a remarkable record for longevity, 
 production can not be maintained indefinitely on these 
 old orchards which were for the most part planted in the 
 sixties and seventies of the preceding century. Therefore, 
 unless planting proceeds much more rapidly than in the 
 past, no increase and in fact a possible decrease in pro- 
 duction can be expected from western New York. 
 
 New England apple orchards have been going back 
 rapidly the past several years. As a matter of fact, no- 
 where in the eastern states with the exception of the Shen- 
 andoah-Cumberland region, in New Jersey and Delaware, 
 does there seem likely to be any material increase in 
 production. It is a notable fact that a great decrease has 
 occurred in the number of apple trees all through the 
 Middle West and although a revival of interest is serving 
 to hold production at its present point, it does not seem 
 that on the whole this section of the United States will 
 show an increased apple production in the near future. 
 
 The Pacific Northwest will unquestionably show an 
 increased production during the next several years and 
 will be an increasingly important factor in the commercial 
 apple situation. While the Northwest will continue to 
 ship more and more cars of apples, there will be no such 
 relative increase in production as that which occurred in 
 the past ten years. 
 
 Unfavorable factors. 
 
 To mistake hopes for facts in the determination to 
 see only the favorable side, regardless of true conditions, 
 has been too frequent. Production in the western 
 
16 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 states has not yet reached its maximum. Twenty-six 
 per cent of the new planting in the decade 1900 to 1910 
 was in the Pacific Northwest. This region will have a 
 normal increase in production of high quality fruit. It is, 
 to a great extent, commercial, and most of it will reach 
 eastern markets. This will unquestionably be the biggest 
 factor in the apple problem. Even to-day the average ap- 
 ple-grower does not seem to appreciate the importance of 
 the western crop which has gTown so rapidly that it has 
 been difiicult to keep fully informed as to the normal size. 
 
 1. Increased commercial crop. 
 
 It is very evident that there has been an increase in the 
 strictly commercial apple crop of the United States, census 
 figures to the contrary notwithstanding. It is important 
 to be on guard against statistics and figures showing de- 
 creases in acreage. The fraction of the crop which reaches 
 commercial channels is of the greatest importance. Ordi- 
 narily the commercial crop is estimated at approximately 
 40 per cent of the total production. Commercial apples 
 are defined to include only that portion of the crop which 
 reaches strictly commercial channels. All fruit left or 
 eaten on the farm, wasted or used for by-products, was not 
 considered as commercial. The agricultural crop may de- 
 crease, but if there is a greater portion of it directed into 
 commercial channels, the decrease may be more than offset 
 by the increasing commercial crop. In many sections the 
 commercial crop is and has been increasing rapidly during 
 the past few years. 
 
 Even with the expected increase in population and the 
 better distribution discussed as favorable factors, years 
 are likely to occur when bumper crops will cause prices to 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 17 
 
 fall as low as the cost of production. However, unless 
 there is a decided tendency towards new planting, it seems 
 improbable that these years will be successive or very fre- 
 quent. There should always be a margin of safety and 
 these lean years should be considered by prospective apple- 
 growers. 
 
 2. Poor outlook for unfavored region. 
 
 One of the principal factors in lowering cost of produc- 
 tion is increased yields. In other words, high yielding sec- 
 tions have a distinct advantage and sometimes increased 
 cost of production actually reacts in their favor by elim- 
 inating less favored regions, and thereby limiting competi- 
 tion. The great increase in the cost of labor and material 
 has made it necessary to receive a price for fruit consider- 
 ably in advance of that required formerly to pay the costs 
 and leave a profit. Many sections can overcome these in- 
 creased costs by increasing yields and better management. 
 Less favored districts in so-called marginal regions will be 
 the first to sufi'er. The grower who has good yields and 
 manages well will ordinarily be successful. 
 
 3. Danger from boom development. 
 
 During a period of high prices for fruit, there will al- 
 ways be danger of land-selling booms. Promoters will buy 
 up large tracts of land, set them to trees and then en- 
 deavor to unload on unsuspecting city men and farmers 
 not familiar with fruit-growing. Needless to say, the 
 growth of the industry by such methods is unhealthy and 
 honest and intelligent growers and horticulturists should 
 combat such efforts with merciless publicity. This is not 
 
18 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 intended to discourage legitimate investments. Well se- 
 lected farms have been known to pay for themselves in a 
 year. Syndicate farming schemes, however, are always 
 questionable. They sound well, but they seldom work out. 
 Attempts of this kind were numerous a few years ago, were 
 largely discontinued for a time, but may revive following 
 high price years. After a few years of inactivity, " pro- 
 moters " will appear to prey on a new class of investors. 
 Careful investigation on the part of investors should enable 
 them to determine which orchards were set to produce fruit 
 and which were set for speculation. By curbing this spec- 
 ulative influence, a long step will be taken towards pre- 
 venting over-planting. 
 
 Among the favorable factors mentioned in the forego- 
 ing paragraphs are the extension of foreign markets and 
 the increase in exportations to meet this demand. In pass- 
 ing, one should not fail to note that in a certain part of the 
 world there are being developed important apple-produc- 
 ing regions. Notable among these is Tasmania, which has 
 produced as many as 2,000,000 cases of commercial ap- 
 ples and exported as many as 800,000 cases (bushels) to 
 England in one year. Canada will be an increasingly im- 
 portant factor in the apple industry. Many localities are 
 suitable for apple-growing in this country and new regions 
 are constantly being developed. 
 
 4. Competition with citrus fruit. 
 
 In discussing the outlook for the apple industry, some 
 consideration must be given to its relative status in com- 
 parison with the rapidly growing citrus fruit industry. 
 In 1896, when one of the largest apple crops in the his- 
 tory of the industry was harvested, citrus fruit-growing in 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 19 
 
 the United States was comparatively in its infancy. Since 
 1896, citrus production has doubled and trebled in size 
 until during the year 1917 approximately 100,000 carloads 
 of citrus fruits were produced and sold in the United 
 States. Of these, 54,000 carloads were grown in Cali- 
 fornia alone ; the remainder largely in Florida. It is dif- 
 ficult definitely to establish the significance of this growth 
 in relation to the apple industry. In the first place, cit- 
 rus fruits can be grown only within comparatively small 
 areas and their production is thereby limited. Citrus- 
 growers have perfected a better system of distribution and 
 have placed their products in a greater number of markets. 
 This competition may check apple consumption, but on the 
 whole, it seems to indicate that the possibilities of apple 
 distribution have not been as well recognized as they might 
 have been. Citrus production has increased much more 
 rapidly than population and yet distributing agencies have 
 sought out markets, stimulated demand and have disposed 
 of their vastly increased product in most instances at a 
 profit. 
 
 Conclusions. 
 
 On the whole, although our commercial apple produc- 
 tion may increase perceptibly in the next few years, due 
 principally to increased production from such regions as 
 the Pacific JSTorthwest and the Shenandoah-Cumberland, 
 there will be no such relative increases as in the period 
 from 1905 to 1920. 
 
 The population is increasing, with a resulting demand 
 for more fruit. The extension of foreign markets, better 
 means of distribution and wider uses of the apple, com- 
 bine in giving a promising outlook for the apple industry. 
 
20 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 4 
 
 There seems no reason to believe that over a period of 
 years, taking the good with the bad, apples will make any 
 materially better returns than many other farm crops ; 
 yet apple-growing is a specialized industry and will always 
 afford exceptional opportunity for individual effort. 
 
 HISTOEY OF COMMERCIAL APPLE-GROWING IN THE 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 The cultivated apple comes to us from prehistoric time. 
 While several species of native crab-apples were growing 
 wild in the forests at the time of the discovery of this 
 country, these species have never attained commercial im- 
 portance. Practically all the commercial varieties are 
 from the Pyrus Malus stock, which is a native of southwest 
 Asia and adjacent Europe and which has been cultivated 
 since time immemorial. Crab-apples came chiefly from 
 Pyrus baccata, or Siberian crab, which comes from the 
 more northern and eastern parts of Asia. 
 
 At present the apple is the most widely cultivated and 
 important fruit in existence, being grown in practically 
 every country and in every climate. It has reached its 
 greatest cultural development in the United States, which 
 is the principal apple-producing country in the world. 
 
 It is interesting to know that apple-culture in this coun- 
 try developed almost simultaneously with the settling of 
 the early colonies. Early records show that apple trees 
 were being grown in New England within a few years after 
 the founding of the Plymouth colony. In 1648 Governor 
 Endicott exchanged with Wm. Trask 500 apple trees of 
 three years' growth for 200 acres of land. Other frag- 
 mentary information taken from the history of the New 
 England settlements indicates that apples were being 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 21 
 
 grown in that region as early as 1650, and that numerous 
 phiDtings there and elsewhere had been made by 1700. 
 xVniong the early varieties mentioned were Pearmain, Rus- 
 setin, Long Apple and Kreton Pippins. 
 
 The two leading apple regions in New York State, the 
 Hudson Valley and western New York or Lake Shore 
 region, were recognized in the early development of the 
 apple industry in New York. It appears in the early 
 history of the Dutch settlements in the Hudson Valley that 
 apple trees were planted near Kinderhook not long after 
 1700. Plantings also occurred in Long Island at about 
 the same date. 
 
 Pioneers report apple plantings in western New York as 
 early as 1750. It must be remembered that this region 
 was in a much more primitive state of development at this 
 time than the New England and Hudson Valley sections. 
 Legendary history suggests that apple seeds preceded the 
 progress of civilization into western New York and, falling 
 into the hands of Indian tribes, notably the Senecas and 
 Cayugas, were scattered throughout this part of the state. 
 General Sullivan is reported to have found bearing apple 
 trees laden with fruit near Seneca Lake as early as 1779. 
 
 It must not be thought that these early plantings were of 
 commercial importance. They were isolated, small in ex- 
 tent, but nevertheless represented interesting landmarks in 
 the development of apple-culture in this country. Com- 
 mercial apple-growing in New York really dates back to 
 about 1860. Prior to this time A. J. Downing, who was 
 bom in 1802 and later conducted a nursery at Newburgh, 
 had been a very important and influencing factor in the 
 development of the apple industry in the Hudson Valley 
 region. A. J". Downing died in 1852 after having pub- 
 
 X 
 
23 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 lished in 1845 his " Fruits and Fruit Trees of America." 
 Charles Downiuc;, his brother, remained a leading author- 
 ity on apple varieties and apple-growing until 1885. 
 
 In 1840 George Ellwanger and Patrick Barry started 
 the Mt. Hope nurseries at Rochester, N^ew York. Barry- 
 was one of the pioneers in the apple industry and had much 
 to do in making western New York the leading nursery 
 and apple-growing region. 
 
 Jonathan Chapman, or Johnny Appleseed, the name by 
 which he was more commonly known, had much to do with 
 the spread of the apple westward from New York. Chap- 
 man was an eccentric character. It seems that he spent 
 much of the first half of the nineteenth century in roaming 
 through Ohio and Indiana, at that time a wild undeveloped 
 country. By carrying apple seeds about with him and 
 sowing them broadcast, he effected a wide extension in 
 apple plantings throughout this region. Being of an in- 
 tense religious nature, his life and activities have a roman- 
 tic interest which have been the subject of much writing. 
 His descendants are actively interested apple-growers in 
 southern Ohio to-day. 
 
 From the standpoint of historic interest, few regions ex- 
 cel the Piedmont of Virginia. Although the Newtown ap- 
 ple originated on Long Island, it was later introduced into 
 Albemarle County, Virginia, early in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury and has been prominently identified with the develop- 
 ment of the apple industry in this region, under the name 
 of Albemarle Pippin. Albemarle Pippins were exported 
 to England from Virginia as early as 1759. Thomas Jef- 
 ferson was cultivating this variety at Monticello, his coun- 
 try place in Virginia, before the Revolution. It has been 
 authentically stated that so pleased was Queen Victoria 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 23 
 
 with several barrels of Virginia Albemarle Pippins pre- 
 sented to her during the first year of her reigii by the late 
 Arthur Stevenson, American minister to England, that she 
 caused the import tax on apples to be removed. Since that 
 time apple exportations to England have rapidly increased. 
 
 While certain species of wild crabs are native to the 
 prairie states and doubtless isolated plantings occurred in 
 this region prior to the Civil War, it was after 1860, at 
 the time of the influx of many early pioneers, that apple 
 trees were brought into the country west of the Mississippi 
 Eiver. The apple industry in this section did not begin to 
 assume commercial importance until the eighties and the 
 decade following. It was at this time that many of the 
 older orchards were planted in the Ozarks, Missouri River 
 region and southern Illinois. Good prices for apples in 
 the late eighties stimulated planting and it was during the 
 nineties that the heavy commercial apple plantings were 
 made in the Middle West. 
 
 The rapidly increasing importance of the western apple 
 regions attracts considerable attention to the history and 
 development of apple culture of the Ear West. Probably 
 the first apple trees on the Pacific Coast were grown at 
 Fort Vancouver, W^ashington, where employees of the 
 Hudson Bay Company are reported to have planted seeds, 
 carried from England, as early in 1825. 
 
 The Pajaro Valley or Watsonville section of California 
 is the oldest commercial apple region in the Far West. 
 The agricultural history of this region dates back to about 
 1820 when Don Antonia Maria Castro applied to the gov- 
 ernment of Spain for a grant of land along the Pajaro 
 River, which he called Vega del Rio del Pajaro. Several 
 large land grants were given to the Spanish Dons during 
 
24 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 the next twenty years, but all were used for stock- 
 raising. 
 
 In 1853 the first apple orchard planted by an American 
 in this region was set out on the Jesse D. Carr place, now 
 the Sillman homestead. This orchard was about two acres 
 in extent and contained a mixture of fruit. Some of 
 these trees are still in bearing. The second apple orchard 
 in the Pajaro Valley was planted by Wm. F. White in 
 1854. These first two plantings were home orchards. 
 The first commercial orchards in the Pajaro Valley were 
 set out by Isaac Williams and Judge R. F. Peckman in 
 1858. One planted thirteen acres and the other six acres. 
 The early varieties grown were Smith's Cider, Rhode Is- 
 land Greening, Gravenstein, I^ewtown Pippin and Belle- 
 flower. The first shipment of apples from the Pajaro Val- 
 ley was made in 1867 by Isaac Williams who sold his fruit 
 in San Francisco. Increased demand for fruit stimulated 
 apple planting and a large number of the present orchards 
 were set out in the period between 1880 and 1900. 
 
 The output of the Watsonville section was assuming 
 commercial proportions many years before such sections as 
 the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys in the ^Northwest had 
 come into prominence. 
 
 It is generally thought that the oldest apple orchards in 
 the Yakima Valley were planted about 1875 to 1876. 
 Near Fort Simcoe, twenty-seven miles south of North 
 Yakima, stands an orchard planted by an Indian, Klickitat 
 Peter, in 1877. This is probably the oldest apple planting 
 in what was later destined to become one of the premier 
 apple-growing regions. 
 
 In 1888 there were a few family orchards in the Yakima 
 district, but probably the first commercial planting of 
 
 J 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 25 
 
 fruit-trees in Yakima was made in 1888 by H. J. Bicknell, 
 in what is known as Parker Bottom. In the spring of 
 1889, Fred Thompson set out in the same locality what was 
 probably the first commercial apple orchard in the valley. 
 The whole planting consisted of ten acres and included 
 three acres of prunes, three acres of peaches, three acres 
 of Ben Davis apples and one acre of pears. 
 
 In 1888 and 1889 two irrigation companies, one to un- 
 dertake the Selah project and the other what is now the 
 Sunnyside Government project, were organized. At this 
 time a few express shipments of fresh fruit had been sent 
 to the coast from the small home orchards. 
 
 In 1894 the total apple output shipped from the Yakima 
 Valley probably did not exceed twenty-five cars. Fruit 
 was layer packed, but not wrapped, the old sixty-pound 
 box being in common use. In 1896 Fred Thompson 
 shipped from the Yakima Valley what was probably the 
 first car of fruit from this region to be sold east of the 
 Mississippi Eiver. It was in 1894 that the apple planting 
 period really began, and the most extensive plantings were 
 made in the years 1900 to 1908. 
 
 The history and development of the Wenatchee Valley, 
 which is probably the most intensive apple region in the 
 country, was even more recent than the development of 
 the Yakima Valley. The date of the first apple plantings 
 in Wenatchee is given by some as 1873, others 1876. The 
 first fruit-trees were set out by Miller Brothers who later 
 established the first irrigating ditch in this region in 1883. 
 
 Practically the entire Wenatchee Valley was a barren 
 waste until 1896 when the Gunn ditch was built to water 
 600 acres of land. In 1901 W. T. Clark, coming from 
 North Yakima, interested himself in the organization of 
 
26 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 the High Line Canal, designed to water 0000 acres of or- 
 chard land. This ditch was completed to Wenatchee in 
 October, 1903. The completion of the High Line Canal 
 marked the beginning of important orchard development 
 in the Wenatchee Valley. By 1913 there were about 
 20,000 acres of irrigable land under the different ditches 
 established in the Wenatchee Valley. 
 
 The Indians occupied the Grand Valley until 1880, at 
 which time the history of fruit-growing in western Color- 
 ado begins. In the spring of 1883 several hundred root- 
 grafts were put out in the Grand Valley, only a fraction 
 of which lived. The first fruit plantings were made in 
 the lower lands of the Valley about 1885 or 1886. In 
 1882 a farmer living at Paonia, in Delta County, a local- 
 ity of lesser importance than the Grand Valley, purchased 
 twenty-six trees of mixed varieties from Rochester, New 
 York, at one dollar each. Of these, three survived. As 
 in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, principal orchard 
 development occurred in Colorado after 1900. 
 
 From this fragmentary history of apple-culture in the 
 United States, it may be seen that while apple trees have 
 been grown in home orchards for nearly 300 years, it has 
 only been within comparatively recent years that the in- 
 dustry has assumed commercial proportions. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION 
 
 The apple belongs to the important genus Pyrus, of the 
 Eose family (Eosacese). This genus includes the apples 
 and pears. The common apple is Pynis Malus, sup- 
 posed to be native to Europe and Western Temperate Asia. 
 Within this species, as it is commonly broadly accepted, 
 are included the commercial apples, the Paradise and 
 
Importance and History of the Apple Industry 27 
 
 Doucin dwarf forms, so-called bloomless apple, and others. 
 The Siberian crab is Fyrus haccata. The growth is more 
 slender and wir>- than in P. MaJus, twigs and leaves not 
 woolly as in that species, the fruit small, long-s1;emmed, 
 and with the calyx falling away at the blossom end. Hy- 
 brids occur between Pyrus Hldlus and P. haccata. Some 
 of the apples known as " crabs " are only small and acrid 
 fruit-forms of P. Malus. 
 
 Several species of crab-apple are native to ISTorth Amer- 
 ica. One of them is Pyrus ioeTisis, the prairie crab. It 
 is not cultivated for its fruit, but the Soulard, Fluke,- and 
 others are supposed to be hybrids between this species 
 and Pyrus Malus. 
 
 Some botanists separate the pears and apples into dif- 
 ferent genera. Under this disposition, the pears are re- 
 tained in Pyrus and the apples take the generic name 
 Malus. The common apple then becomes Malus com- 
 munis, and the wild or run-wild form of it in Europe is 
 called M. sylvestris. 
 
 A number of oriental species of Pyrus (Malus) are 
 grown for ornament, but they need not be discussed here. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 LEADING APPLE REGIONS OF THE 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 There has been a noticeable tendency in recent years 
 towards the centralization of the commercial apple indus- 
 try in a relatively few intensive regions. A glance at the 
 
 Fig. 1.- 
 
 The principal apple-growing regions in the United 
 
 States. 
 
 outline map showing the principal apple-growing regions 
 reveals this. (See Fig. 1.) It is estimated that approx- 
 imately 80 per cent of the total commercial apple crop of 
 
 28 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 29 
 
 the United States is produced in these relatively few re- 
 stricted districts. In many parts of this country there is 
 scarcely a farm that has not a small home orchard of apple 
 trees. As has been emphasized elsewhere, production 
 from these home orchards is having less and less commer- 
 cial significance and interest centers in a few well-defined 
 regions. 
 
 By describing each important apple region and pointing 
 out its individual characteristics, it is hoped to convey to 
 the reader a mental picture of the commercial apple indus- 
 try as it has been developed in these well-favored regions. 
 
 WESTERN NEW YORK ( PLATE l) 
 
 From the standpoint of quantity production and total 
 acreage, western New York is the most important apple 
 region in the United States. As early as 1860 the produc- 
 tivity of this section became apparent, and the high qual- 
 ity apples outsold those from other localities. Good qual- 
 ity and high yields were sufficient to overcome the ad- 
 vantages which many other regions may have enjoyed from 
 being closer to the Atlantic seaboard cities ; and the center 
 of commercial barreled apple production was established 
 and has remained in western Xew York. 
 
 Previous to 1919, one-fourth of the normal commercial 
 apple crop of the United States was produced in the state 
 of New York, but the Northwest now produces so many 
 apples that this will probably never be true again. Heav- 
 iest plantings are in Niagara, Monroe, Orleans and Wayne 
 counties which border on Lake Ontario. Each of these 
 counties has an apple acreage of 25,000 to 35,000 acres 
 and each is capable of producing from a half to a million 
 barrels of apples annually. Counties of less importance 
 
30 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 included in this region are Ontario, Yates, Seneca, Cajniga, 
 Genesee, Onondaga, Oswego, Wyoming and Tompkins. 
 
 In reality, the world's most important barreled apple 
 region is largely in a ten-mile belt along Lake Ontario, ex- 
 tending from Niagara Falls to Oswego, New York, a dis- 
 tance of about 125 miles. In this section much of the 
 present bearing acreage was planted in the late sixties 
 and in the seventies of the preceding century. In other 
 words, the average age of bearing orchards is over forty 
 years. Probably nowhere else in this country will trees 
 retain such vigor and productivity at forty to fifty years 
 of age as in western Xew York. The old apple orchards 
 along the ridge road from Buffalo to Rochester have with- 
 stood alternate periods of neglect and care, according to 
 the vicissitudes of the apple industry, and yet they remain 
 in most instances vigorous and productive at advanced age. 
 
 The permanency of western New York as a leading 
 apple region may be explained partly by the conservatism 
 of the New- York grower. Instead of devoting himself 
 entirely to apples, the average farmer in western New 
 York has 100 acres or more of farm land of which only 10 
 to 20 acres are in apples. His other crops have main- 
 tained him in poor apple years. The yields on the com- 
 mercial full bearing orchards average from 75 to 100 bar- 
 rels to the acre. 
 
 Some idea of the importance of New York as an apple 
 state may be gained from the fact that the 1918 commercial 
 apple crop was estimated at 5,950,000 barrels, over two- 
 thirds of which came from western New York. Baldwin 
 represents nearly one-half and Rhode Island Greening 
 about 20 per cent of the total production. Northern Spy, 
 Roxbury Russet, Tompkins King, Duchess of Oldenburg, 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 31 
 
 Hubbardston, Wealthy and Twenty Ounce comprise the 
 greater part of the remaining cormnercial production. 
 
 As might be expected, hirge storage plants have been 
 built in nearly all of the apple towns. Some of the more 
 important apple centers are Eochester, Lockport, Medina, 
 Albion, Brockport, Sodus, East Williamson, JS^orth Rose, 
 Canandaigua and Ilolcomb. The barrel is used almost 
 exclusively and very little of the crop moves in bulk. 
 
 A high percentage of the dried apple production of this 
 country comes from the western New York apple region. 
 For many years Wayne County has been the center of 
 dried apple production and in some seasons as much as 40 
 per cent of its crop is used for drying. Nearly every 
 orchardist in this county has his own drier, and the pro- 
 duction comes largely from small home driers rather than 
 from large commercial plants. 
 
 There is considerable variation in the typQS of orchards 
 in western New York. Probably 80 to 90 per cent of 
 the bearing orchards are over twenty years of age and 
 there are many profitable orchards over fifty years old. It 
 is believed that the trees in this region reach their maxi- 
 mum bearing capacity at forty to fifty years. The earlier 
 plantings were set about 33 x 33 which proved too close 
 on account of the large size which the trees attained. New 
 plantings are being made 40 x 40. 
 
 Orchard values in western New York have never reached 
 the high figure attained in some apple regions. Seldom 
 are bearing orchards valued at more than $500 an acre. 
 It is difficult to give orchard values in any region and 
 particularly in western New York where the orchard us- 
 ually goes with the farm and where varying care is given. 
 Some orchards are worth little more than the land they 
 
32 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 occupy. These are the old orchards which have received 
 indifferent care for many years. 
 
 HUDSON VALLEY 
 
 The Hudson Valley is one of the well known eastern 
 regions, the important commercial plantings extending 
 along the Hudson River from Saratoga County south to 
 Westchester County, and including both sides of the val- 
 ley for a width of several miles. The normal production 
 for this region is about 600,000 barrels and originates 
 largely in the counties of Columbia, Dutchess, Greene and 
 Ulster, with lesser amounts in Albany, Saratoga, Rensse- 
 laer, Orange, Putnam and Westchester. The industry is 
 very intensive about the towns of Coxsackie, Ravena, Ger- 
 mantown, Red Hook, Millbrook, Athens, Milton and Ulster 
 Park. 
 
 Much of the land is rough and hard to work and this 
 region is not as well adapted to general farming as western 
 New York. ■ The soil in some instances is more or less de- 
 ficient in fertility. 
 
 The varieties grown are principally Baldwin, Greening, 
 Ben Davis and Spy, with considerable commercial quanti- 
 ties of Mcintosh, Duchess, Gravenstein, Holland Pippin, 
 Fall Pippin, English and Roxbury Russet. 
 
 Trees are much the same in age as in western New 
 York, the orchards in many cases being even older. How- 
 ever, there is a larger proportion of young plantings and 
 orchards coming into bearing in the Hudson Valley than in 
 the western part of the state and particularly is this true of 
 Dutchess and Columbia counties. 
 
 The apples from the Hudson Valley are shipped largely 
 by boat and rail to New York and eastern markets. Many 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 33 
 
 apples are grown here for the fancy trade demand and 
 such varieties usually bring good returns, due to the prox- 
 imity to market. The average annual yields are less than 
 in western New York, due largely to soil conditions. The 
 future of the Hudson Valley fruit industry seems assured 
 on account of its proximity to market. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND BALDWIN BELT 
 
 The intensive apple sections of Maine, New Hampshire 
 and Massachusetts are included in what is known as the 
 New ijngland Baldwin Belt, so called on account of the 
 prominence of the Baldwin variety. Beginning in south- 
 ern Maine, this region extends through southern New 
 Hampshire, Massachusetts, and into Connecticut, includ- 
 ing both the intensive and more scattered and outlying 
 apple plantings in this territory. In Maine the leading 
 apple counties are Oxford, Kennebec, Franklin and Andro- 
 scoggin; in New Hampshire, Kockingham and Hills- 
 boro; while the heaviest apple production in Massachu- 
 setts comes from Middlesex, Franklin and Worcester coun- 
 ties. 
 
 As above stated, Baldwin is the leading New England 
 variety, while Rhode Island Greening, Northern Spy, Mc- 
 intosh, Wealthy, Gravenstein, Tolman, Ben Davis, Porter 
 and Stark have commercial importance. The New Eng- 
 land apple trees, like those of New York, are for the most 
 part old. Great numbers of them have gone out of com- 
 mercial bearing in recent years and especially during the 
 very cold winter of 1917-1918, when it was estimated that 
 over a million Baldwin trees of this section were killed. 
 
 The gipsy moth has done heavy damage to the orchards 
 in New Hampshire, and the commercial production for the 
 
34 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 J^ew England Baldwin bolt has decreased within recent- 
 years. A great number of voimg orchards are coming in, 
 particularly in favored spots of New Hampshire and Mass- 
 achusetts, and these new orchards will tend to make up loss 
 among older trees. Many varieties, such as Wealthy, Mc- 
 intosh and other fall or early winter sorts, are proving 
 profitable. Mcintosh and Wealthy are becoming espe- 
 cially popular in the newer plantings. Such varieties as 
 Stark, Yellow Bellflower, Porter, Tolman Sweet, Russets, 
 and many other old varieties are still found in considerable 
 quantity, but are no longer being planted. 
 
 The orchards of New England for the most part are 
 small in size and come more nearly being farm orchards 
 than do those of any other commercial section. They are 
 in many cases too small to be operated profitably on a 
 strictly commercial basis. 
 
 A large part of the New England apple crop is marketed 
 locally, particularly in Massachusetts where many apples 
 are shipped- in bulk or hauled in trucks to Boston and 
 nearby markets. In normal times New England exports 
 large quantities of apples, particularly of the Baldwin va- 
 riety. The barrel is the standard package for New Eng- 
 land apples when shipped in quantity to outside markets, 
 although for local consumption basket, box or bulk trade 
 predominates. In many cases, strictly high-grade apples 
 are put up in boxes. The normal commercial produc- 
 tion for this region is about 1,250,000 barrels, and it is^ 
 not likely to increase ; in fact, unless planting is stimulated 
 to a greater degree than at present, production will de- 
 crease somewhat on account of the number of old orchards 
 which are dying or are losing their vigor. Production of 
 high-grade fruit will increase. 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 35 
 
 THE CHAMPLAIN DISTEICT 
 
 The Champlain district includes that portion of New 
 York and Vermont bordering on Lake Champh^in and 
 Lake George. It is situated in a very rigorous climate 
 and only hardy varieties will grow there. It is famous 
 for its fine quality fruit which brings high prices on the 
 market. In area the Champlain region is small as com- 
 pared with most other commercial districts. It includes 
 the counties of Grand Isle, Addison, Chittenden and Kut- 
 land, Vermont, and the counties of Clinton and Essex, 
 New York. The bulk of the production originates near 
 the towns of Middlebury, Shelburne, Rutland and Danby 
 in Vermont. From a strictly commercial standpoint, 
 Grand Isle County, Vermont, an island in Lake Cham- 
 plain, is the most important of all the counties in this 
 region. Peru, Plattsburg, Lewis and Crown Point are 
 towns about which the apple industry centers on the New 
 York side. 
 
 The varieties grown in the Champlain region are Mc- 
 intosh, Fameuse, Rhode Island Greening and Northern 
 Spy. Varieties of less importance are Baldwin, Ben 
 Davis and Wealthy. The district is best known for its Mc- 
 intosh, Northern Spy and Fameuse production. 
 
 Champlain orchards are in the main much younger than 
 those " in other parts of Vermont and New York. The 
 Grand Isle plantings, largely Mcintosh, are particularly 
 young. Although great damage was done to the whole 
 Champlain district by the severe winter of 1917-1018, the 
 young plantings will no doubt soon make up for this loss 
 and bring the production up to normal. Mcintosh trees 
 survived the severe winter better than any other variety, a 
 
36 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 fact which will stimulate their planting to an even greater 
 degree. 
 
 NEW JERSEY 
 
 The commercial apple production of New Jersey orig- 
 inates largely in Burlington, Camden and Gloucester coun- 
 ties in the southwestern part of the state and in Monmouth 
 County in the northeast. The southwestern apple counties 
 of New Jersey are all within easy access by truck to Phil- 
 adelphia, while Monmouth County production reaches New 
 York City easily by rail. 
 
 In former years, plantings in the western and north- 
 western part of the state along the Pennsylvania border 
 were responsible for a considerable production of winter 
 apples, but this region has declined in importance in re- 
 cent years. The new orchards in New Jersey are made up 
 largely of summer varieties. The varieties of importance 
 in Monmouth County are Ben Davis, Winesap, Graven- 
 stein, English Codling, Wealthy, Twenty Ounce, Olden- 
 burg and Eed Astrachan. For the counties in the south- 
 western part of the state, Starr, Early Ripe, Williams 
 Early Red and Yellow Transparent predominate, while 
 Winesap and Stayman are favorite late varieties. 
 
 Considerable interest in apple-growing is being taken in 
 the group of counties near Philadelphia, of which Burling- 
 ton, Camden, Gloucester and Cumberland are most im- 
 portant. Considerable planting is being done and much 
 young acreage is to be found in these counties. Riverton, 
 Moorestown and Burlington are towns about which many 
 commercial orchards are located. 
 
 The early apple crop, which makes up such a large por- 
 tion of the New Jersey production, is shipped largely in 
 five-eighths-bushel or bushel baskets. A small part of the 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 37 
 
 crop moves out in barrels, but the five-eighths-bushel basket 
 is popular for winter as vs^ell as summer varieties. The 
 commercial apple production for New Jersey is increasing, 
 due to the greater output from the group of southwestern 
 counties, including Burlington, Camden, Gloucester and 
 Cumberland counties. 
 
 The average commercial production for the state is esti- 
 mated at about 500,000 barrels, of which a considerable 
 percentage is made up of early varieties. The commercial 
 apple sections in New Jersey are very favorably located 
 with respect to markets and the future of the industry in 
 this state seems bright. 
 
 DELAWARE ( PLATE III) 
 
 The apple section in Delaware is really more or less of 
 a continuation of the New Jersey district. Varieties, 
 methods of marketing and even soil conditions are very 
 much the same. The commercial apple orchards of Dela- 
 ware are principally in Kent and Sussex counties. 
 Plantings are intensive about the towns of Wyoming and 
 Bridgeville. The average- production for the state is 
 nearly 200,000 barrels, much of this being made up of 
 early varieties which are entirely off the market by 
 August 1st. 
 
 The early apple industry in Delaware proved profitable, 
 especially during the few years prior to 1919, and at the 
 present time it is experiencing a marked growth. Many 
 new and very large orchards are being set out. Williams 
 Early Red, Red Astrachan, Yellow Transparent and Early 
 Ripe are particularly popular among the early varieties, 
 while Stayman leads among the late varieties. 
 
 Large orchards are not uncommon in Delaware, there 
 
38 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 being several commercial orchards, over 500 acres in' 
 size. For the most part, these large tracts are carefully 
 and systematically managed, although many have not yet 
 attained full bearing. 
 
 Delaware growers ship practically all their early fruit 
 in five-eighths-bushel or bushel baskets, particularly the 
 former, while the late apples are usually barreled. Dela- 
 ware is primarily devoted to the production of early var- 
 ieties and this has brought about its prominence in the 
 commercial apple industry. Much of the acreage is young 
 and an increased production is to be expected. 
 
 SHENANDOAH-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT 
 
 The Shenandoah-Cumberland district is the term applied 
 to that section of Virginia, Maryland, West Virginia and 
 Pennsylvania which is included in the Shenandoah and 
 Cumberland valleys. This region has somewhat recently 
 come into prominence and is yet only approaching its max- 
 imum production. By mentioning Frederick County, 
 Virginia; Berkeley County, West Virginia; Washington 
 County, Maryland; Franklin and Adams counties, Penn- 
 sylvania ; and counties in close proximity to these, a more 
 or less compact region is defined which rivals western 
 irrigated districts in intensity and exceeds New England 
 in normal production. A full or normal crop for the 
 Shenandoah-Cumberland would be over 3,000,000 barrels. 
 
 The two towns about wh-ich the apple industry of this 
 region centers are Martinsburg, West Virginia, and 
 Winchester, Virginia. Other important apple to\vns are 
 Staunton, Virginia, Chambersburg, Biglerville and 
 Waynesboro, Pennsylvania, and Hancock, Maryland. 
 The counties of Berkeley, West Virginia, and Frederick, 
 
Plate III. — (1) A typical commercial apple orchard in the 
 Missouri Valley, Kansas. (2) A fifteen-year old Newtown or- 
 chard near Medford, Oregon, in need of water. (3) Red Astra- 
 chan orchard in Delaware. Trees are too high and diflScult to 
 harvest. 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 39 
 
 Virginia, rank among the highest producing counties in 
 the country. Each is capable of yielding over a half 
 million barrels of high quality fruit in good crop years. 
 Augusta County, Virginia, has an enormous acreage of 
 young trees and will soon rival these counties in produc- 
 tion. Franklin and Adams counties, Pennsylvania, with 
 but 20 to 30 per cent of their trees in bearing, produce a 
 quarter million barrels each annually and their production 
 is rapidly increasing. The same is true of Washington 
 County, Maryland. 
 
 The York Imperial is the leading variety for the Shen- 
 andoah-Cumberland and the Ben Davis is second in import- 
 ance. <jrrimes Golden, Stayman, Black 'Twig, Delicious 
 and Yellow Transparent have been planted extensively. 
 The York Imperial represents fully 40 per cent and Ben 
 Davis about 20 per cent of the regional production. 
 Stayman and Delicious will increase in commercial pro- 
 duction in the upper Shenandoah Valley and particularly 
 in Augusta County. Stayman yields are increasing very 
 rapidly in Pennsylvania, particularly Adams and Frank- 
 lin counties. 
 
 The average orchard in the Shenandoah-Cumberland is 
 fully twenty years younger than those in New York. Most 
 of the orchards have not yet reached maximum bearing; 
 in fact a very large percentage of the trees are not in 
 bearing at all ; particularly is this true for Shenandoah, 
 Rockingham and Augusta counties, Virginia, where enorm- 
 ous acreages are just coming into bearing. 
 
 Taken as a whole, the commercial apple plantings in the 
 Shenandoah-Cumberland represent one of the most promis- 
 ing regions in the country. The trees are young, and rela- 
 tively free from disease; the yields are high; plantings 
 
40 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 are centralized ; and possibilities are strons; for a rapidly 
 increasing production. Practically all of the apples are 
 shipped out in barrels, largely to northern markets. A 
 greater relative increase in production may be expected 
 from this district than from any other outside of the North- 
 west. 
 
 PIEDMOISTT DISTRICT OF VIRGINIA ( PLATE II ) 
 
 In total production several regions excel the Piedmont 
 of Virginia, but in historic interest and beauty it is unsur- 
 passed. The Piedmont region extends from Patrick 
 County in the southern part of Virginia, north along the 
 eastern slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains to the Potomac 
 at Loudoun County. This area includes the famous Albe- 
 marle Pippin and old Winesap district of Virginia, which 
 centers in the counties of Albemarle and Nelson. Other 
 counties of importance are Franklin, Roanoke, Bedford, 
 Amherst, Patrick, Rappahannock, Loudoun and Culpepper. 
 The most intensive plantings are about the towns of Crozet, 
 Afton, Covesville, in the heart of the Piedmont, and also 
 about Roanoke, Salem, and Stuart farther south. 
 
 The Albemarle Pippin plantings for which the Pied- 
 mont is famous are found largely in the old orchards, par- 
 ticularly those in the Rock Fish Valley in Nelson County 
 and about Covesville, Crozet and Charlpttesville in Albe- 
 marle County. Pippin plantings also occur in the eastern 
 part of Nelson County and farther south through Amherst, 
 Bedford, and as far as the Bent Mountain district in Roa- 
 noke County. Most of these Albemarle Pippin plantings 
 of the Piedmont are well advanced in age and only a few 
 young trees are coming on to replace them. 
 
 While the Piedmont has been best known for its Albe- 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 41 
 
 marie Pippins for more than a century and a half, the old 
 Winesap is more widely grown and is produced in greater 
 commercial quantities than any other variety. York Im- 
 perial represents from 15 to 20 per cent of the regional 
 production, while Stayman and Black Twig occur in some 
 commercial plantings. The age of the Piedmont orchards 
 varies from a few years to a century. The oldest trees in 
 profitable bearing are those of the Albemarle Pippin or 
 Newtown variety which was highly prized in the English 
 markets a century ago. On account of late bearing and 
 susceptibility to bitter-rot, this variety is less popular in 
 the newer plantings. Principal commercial plantings 
 average from fifteen to twenty years of age and lean rather 
 strongly to Winesap, Sta;yTnan and York Imperial. A full 
 crop for this region would be about 800,000 barrels but 
 the average is not much over 500,000 barrels. 
 
 Piedmont orchards are distinctly mountainous in char- 
 acter, most of them being situated on hill or mountain 
 sides. They are somewhat difiicult to work and harvesting 
 operations are expensive. Practically all the fruit is 
 barreled and moves to outside markets, there being little 
 home trade. Many of the York Imperials and Albemarle 
 Pippins are exported. While annual yields do not gener- 
 ally equal those of the Shenandoah-Cumberland on the 
 west, higher quality varieties are grown and better prices 
 are received. Among the disadvantages to be considered 
 in this region is the prevalence of bitter-rot. Root-rot has 
 also caused considerable loss and the growers find it impos- 
 sible to control. 
 
 A considerable acreage of young trees will attain full 
 bearing soon after 1920 and the production of this section 
 will doubtless be increased. High quality fruit and a 
 
42 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 progressive spirit among- its growers insures growth and 
 development of the apple industry in the Piedmont. 
 
 MINCE EEGIONS IN PENNSYXVANIA, WEST VIKGINIA 
 AND VIKGINIA 
 
 Aside from the important apple regions described, a 
 number of minor regions throughout Pennsylvania, West 
 Virginia and Virginia are worthy of mention. 
 
 In the northeastern part of Pennsylvania, particularly 
 in Luzerne and Lycoming counties, are considerable com- 
 mercial apple plantings of Baldwin, ]^ortherii Spy and 
 Rhode Island Greening. These conform more to the type 
 of orchards in western New York than to those in Penn- 
 sylvania's leading apple region in the Cumberland Valley 
 district. 
 
 Outside of the eastern Panhandle section included in the 
 Shenandoah-Cumberland region already described, there 
 are no extensive commercial apple plantings in West Vir- 
 ginia except in Hancock County which is situated at the tip 
 of the northern Panhandle which extends northward be- 
 tween Pennsylvania and Ohio. This was originally the 
 most important commercial apple district in West Vir- 
 ginia, but it has long since been eclipsed by the great 
 development in Berkeley and surrounding counties. The 
 important variety grown in Hancock County is the Willow 
 Twig, well known on the Pittsburg markets. The or- 
 chards are for the most part old and increased commercial 
 production seems unlikely. 
 
 In southwestern Virginia there are many commercial 
 orchards. This district is not included in either the 
 Shenandoah-Cumberland or Piedmont region. The var- 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 43 
 
 ieties grown are Winesap, York Imperial, Rome Beauty, 
 Stajman, Lowry, Virginia Beauty and Delicious. 
 
 MOUNTAIN EEGION OF NORTH CAEOLINA 
 
 The mountain district of North Carolina is more or less 
 a continuation of the Virginia Piedmont. Apples have 
 been grown in the mountains of western North Carolina 
 for many years ; it is said that many of the old plantings 
 were for the purpose of producing apples to be used 
 in the manufacture of apple brandy. Certainly a great 
 many of the old orchards are located in relatively inaccess- 
 ible and remote localities. It is doubtful whether more 
 than 5 per cent of the North Carolina apple acreage has 
 ever been sprayed. 
 
 When the manufacture of apple brandy was discon- 
 tinued, it was found that there was a market for apples in 
 their fresh state and at the present time many thousand 
 bushels of fruit produced on the old unsprayed orchards 
 are hauled down the mountain-sides in wagons to find their 
 way to the market in bulk. Improved cultural practices 
 are being adopted more and more each year. 
 
 Apple orchards are planted in the western part of North 
 Carolina, extending from Surry County, bordering on 
 Patrick County, Virginia, on the north, almost to the 
 extreme southwestern corner of the state. North Carolina 
 apple orchards represent two distinct types. While for 
 the most part the older trees are neglected and unsprayed, 
 there are very intensive and strictly commercial plantings 
 in a few localities, such as in Surry County in the vicinity 
 of Mt. Airy in the northwestern part of the state. A little 
 farther south other commercial plantings have been set out 
 
44 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 in the vicinity of Taylorsville and Wilkesboro. The dried 
 apple industry has assumed considerable proportions in 
 this locality. 
 
 The most progressive apple section in North Carolina 
 is in Hayv\70od County near Waynesville. Here a con- 
 siderable number of strictly commercial apple orchards 
 have been set out, which are responsible for the increasing 
 commercial output of this section. A third important 
 commercial region is in Polk and Henderson counties in 
 the vicinity of Saluda and Hendersonville. 
 
 While most of the North Carolina apple crop is handled 
 in bulk, the product from the later commercial plantings is 
 nearly all barreled, and finds a ready sale at good prices 
 in southern markets. In addition to the apple counties 
 already named, some commercial planting is found in 
 Watauga, Madison, Kutherford, Alexander, and Jackson 
 counties. 
 
 The leading variety of the old orchards is the Limber- 
 twig of which there are several^types, including the Royal 
 or Brushy Mountain Limbertwig. Winesap, Stayman, 
 Delicious, and Arkansas (Black Twig) are among the new 
 varieties predominating in the younger plantings. Pro- 
 duction of these varieties will increase materially. The 
 Limbertwig, although a very good apple, owes its early 
 popularity to the fact that it is a late keeper. Better 
 known and higher quality varieties are supplanting the 
 Limbertwig in the younger orchards. It is quite apparent 
 that the strictly commercial production of apples from 
 North Carolina will be increased materially when the 
 young plantings attain full bearing. Surry County in the 
 northwest central part of the state, and Haywood County 
 
 I; 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 45 
 
 in the western part, will be the main centers of commer- 
 cial production. 
 
 A full crop for western North Carolina at this time 
 would not exceed 300,000 barrels of commercial apples, 
 of which the larger part would be sold in bulk. 
 
 MOUNTAIN KEGION OF GEORGIA 
 
 While not as yet representing great commercial pro- 
 duction, an apple region is developing in the extreme north- 
 eastern part of Georgia which is of particular interest 
 since most of its fruit is boxed. Strictly speaking, the 
 commercial apple district in Georgia includes but two 
 counties: Rabun and Habersham, in the extreme north- 
 eastern part of the state. Habersham County is the more 
 important of the two and has experienced a period of 
 heavy planting, which promises a greatly increased com- 
 mercial output. A single orchard in this region ships as 
 many as 40,000 packed boxes of apples in a season, which 
 is a large boxed apple crop for any orchard East or West, 
 but more particularly the East where boxing of apples is 
 little practiced. H. R. State, whose orchard is one of the 
 finest and most profitable for its size in Georgia, had much 
 to do with the early development of this region. The most 
 intensive apple plantings are about the towns of Cornelia, 
 Demorest, Tallulah Falls and Clarksville. 
 
 The leading variety in northeast Georgia is the Yates, 
 which seems particularly adapted to the southern climatic 
 and soil conditions, and has proved very popular on account 
 of its heavy annual bearing habit. Other varieties of 
 commercial importance are Terry's Winter, Stayman 
 Winesap, Black Twig, Shockley and Winesap. Delicious 
 
46 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 appears prominently in newer plantings. The Limber- 
 twig and ISTickajack are found in the older orchards, but 
 are not common in newer ones. A very large percentage 
 of the commercial plantings in both Rabun and Haber- 
 sham counties have been made since 1910. 
 
 This region eni'oys close proximity to the southern 
 markets, and for that reason a good outlet for its fruit is 
 assured. Several very favorable tracts of land have been 
 set to apple trees in northeast Georgia and while for the 
 most part these orchards are promising and well cared for, 
 it is unfortunate that some unworthy promotion schemes 
 have been planned for the exploitation rather than the 
 development of the apple industry in this region. Most 
 of the trees not yet being in full bearing, it is difficult to 
 state the possible output; the largest crop year prior to 
 1919 included over 100,000 bushels of boxed apples, as 
 well as considerable quantities shipped in bulk. A greatly 
 increased production may be expected. 
 
 OHIO 
 
 Southern Ohio Rome Beauty district. 
 
 The Southern Ohio Rome Beauty district is fairly well- 
 defined and centralized and has come into prominence since 
 1910. The most important plantings in this region are 
 in Lawrence, Gallia, Meigs, Athens and Washington coun- 
 ties, bordering on the Ohio River, Lawrence and Washing- 
 ton being particularly noteworthy. Extensive plantings 
 occur about the towns of Marietta, Proctorville and Gal- 
 lipolis. 
 
 Apple land of this region is mountainous in character, 
 and the orchards are very often isolated and more or less 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 47 
 
 inaccessible. On account of the rolling character of the 
 land, orchard operations are somewhat difficult. In many 
 cases terraces have been made to facilitate the operation 
 of power spray outfits. It is common to find the orchards 
 situated on the tops of the hills. Trees are set close 
 together and do not attain the size of those in most eastern 
 regions. Orchards for the most part are under twenty- 
 five years of age. A lack of s^nnmetry is noticeable in 
 some commercial plantings on account of missing and 
 varying sized trees. Much of the fruit is ferried across 
 the Ohio River to Huntington and Parkersburg on the 
 West Virginia side. These cities, together with Marietta 
 in Ohio, are the principal distribution centers for the 
 southern Ohio crop. 
 
 With the exception of some summer varieties which 
 are often sold in bulk in nearby markets, most of the 
 apples are barreled. The commercial production of the 
 region has reached 750,000 barrels in certain years. 
 Rome Beauty, the leading variety, originated in southern 
 Ohio and is especially adapted to this section. Ben Davis, 
 Grimes, York Imperial, Oldenburg and Yellow Trans- . 
 parent are among other important varieties grown com- 
 mercially, of these Ben Davis and Grimes being most 
 widely grown. 
 
 The average annual yields in this region are rather 
 small and unless planting proceeds more rapidly than for 
 the period 1015 to 1919, no greatly increased production 
 can be expected. 
 
 Minor regions in Ohio. 
 
 Columbiana County in the eastern part of Ohio is a 
 rather important apple county with a number of old 
 
48 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 orchards, many of which are not very well taken care of. 
 The leading varieties are Baldwin, Greening, Ben Davis, 
 Hubbardston and Flushing Spitzenburg, the latter known 
 commercially only in this locality. 
 
 In northern Ohio along the lake belt, particularly in 
 Ottawa, Sandusky, Huron and Erie counties, are some- 
 what limited apple plantings consisting largely of Baldwin, 
 Rhode Island Greening, Ben Davis, Northern Spy, Mcin- 
 tosh, and Duchess. 
 
 Farther south in Ohio, about midway between the south- 
 ern Rome Beauty section and Lake Erie is another small 
 apple district consisting of more or less scattered plant- 
 ings about Chillicothe. Early varieties such as Yellow 
 Transparent figure in the production of this locality. 
 
 KENTUCKY 
 
 For many years Kentucky has been credited with a very 
 large apple production. However, this is for the most 
 part non-commercial and originates almost entirely in old 
 neglected orchards. The strictly commercial apple plant- 
 ings of Kentucky are largely in Henderson County on the 
 Ohio River just south of Evansville, Indiana. The apple 
 industry has not attained very great proportions even 
 here, although there are a number of important plantings 
 and the orchards are generally well taken care of. The 
 leading varieties are Winesap, Stayman, and Ben Davis, 
 although there are considerable plantings of early kinds. 
 In some years the total production of this small section 
 reaches 40,000 barrels, although it is more commonly 
 under 30,000 barrels of strictly commercial apples. The 
 industry is being fostered in this section and further 
 growth seems probable. 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 49 
 
 MICHIGAN 
 
 Commercial apple-growing has been an important enter- 
 prise in Michigan for forty years or more. While apple 
 plantings are not confined to any one county or group of 
 counties, they are centralized in the region bordering on 
 the eastern shore of Lake Michigan where the tempering 
 influence of the lake favors the culture of many deciduous 
 fruits. Some of the soils in this region are extremely 
 sandy and are more particularly adapted to peach-growing 
 than to apple-culture. A large portion of land, however, 
 is a sandy clay loam, well suited to apples. 
 
 The region is known as the western Michigan fruit belt 
 and extends from Berrien County on the south to Che- 
 boygan County on the north. The most important apple 
 counties of this region are Van Buren, Allegan, Kent, Ber- 
 rien, Oceana and Grand Traverse. Apple plantings are 
 also found in adjoining counties and widely scattered 
 throughout most of the lower peninsula of Michigan. 
 Some of the oldest orchards in the state are in the south 
 and southeastern counties, but the importance of this re- 
 gion has given way to the newer plantings, particu- 
 larly in the northern end of the western Michigan fruit 
 belt. 
 
 Production for western Michigan in a full crop year 
 would approximate 1,200,000 barrels or about 75 per cent 
 of the total commercial apple production of the state of 
 Michigan. The plantings in the southern part of the belt 
 suffered severe loss from San Jose scale, while those in the 
 northern part are much younger and have experienced less 
 injury from scale. There has undoubtedly been a decline 
 in the production in Michigan as compared with 1910. 
 
50 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 However, with the young orchards just coming into bear- 
 ing and with better care being given to the older trees, it 
 seems highly probable that this loss will be made up within 
 the next few years. 
 
 The leading variety grown in western Michigan is the 
 Baldwin, which comprises over one-fourth of the total pro- 
 duction. Northern Spy and Oldenburg (Duchess) each 
 represents about 14 per cent of the total production. Ac- 
 cording to a recent survey, varieties next in order of im- 
 portance are Wagener, Rhode Island Greening, Wealthy, 
 Ben Davis, and Jonathan ; the last named being prominent 
 in the newer orchards of Van Buren, Allegan and Berrien 
 counties. Ben Davis is outstanding in the older orchards 
 in the southernmost counties. Oldenburg (Duchess) and 
 Wealthy are the leading summer and fall varieties. 
 
 Most of the apples of this region are packed out in 
 barrels and a large proportion of the crop is marketed in 
 Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, and other large cities nearby. 
 Producing communities situated close to cities market 
 much of their apple crop by wagon or truck, crates and 
 bushel baskets figTiring in this movement. An increased 
 interest in the apple industry in western Michigan is 
 evidenced in better cultural and marketing methods. 
 Cooperative associations are increasing in prominence in 
 many localities. 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 Illinois occupies a position of considerable importance 
 in the commercial production of apples. Soil conditions 
 generally throughout the entire state are very well adapted 
 ,to apple-growing, and nearly every county has a consider- 
 able acreage of trees. 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 51 
 
 Strictly commercial areas are largely confined to the 
 southern part of the state. They may be segregated into 
 three fairly well-defined regions: (1) The extreme south- 
 ern portion; (2) the Mississippi Valley region centering 
 about Pike and Calhoun counties; (3) the southeastern 
 part of the state, centering in Marion County. 
 
 Illinois is probably under-estimated from a commercial 
 standpoint. New orchards coming into bearing, and the 
 renovation of old ones have combined in making this the 
 most important middle western apple state. Its central 
 location and proximity to market serve as distinct 
 advantages. 
 
 Southern Illinois early apple region. 
 
 The extreme southern or early apple section in Illinois 
 may be defined to include the eleven southernmost coun- 
 ties, but only Union and Johnson are of great commercial 
 importance. These counties probably comprise one of the 
 most important early apple-producing sections in the 
 United States. J. C. B. Heaton of New Bumside is one 
 of the persons largely responsible for the early develop- 
 ment of this industry. Good returns for apples have 
 stimulated planting and an increasing production may be 
 expected from this region. 
 
 The principal early varieties are Yellow Transparent, 
 Duchess of Oldenburg, Benoni, Red June, Chenango and 
 Sops of Wine. Summer varieties comprise nearly three- 
 fourths of the total production. 
 
 Prominent among winter varieties are Winesap, Ben 
 Davis, Gano, Jonathan, and Rome Beauty. Early apples 
 are shipped in baskets to Chicago, St. Louis and other 
 nearby cities. The shipping season for these apples 
 
52 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 begins the last week in June and is usually over by 
 August first. Winter apples are sold either in bulk or 
 in barrels. 
 
 In some ways this extreme southern portion of Illinois 
 is a continuation of the Ozark uplift. The country is 
 somewhat mountainous and unlike northern Illinois. 
 The soil is rather thin and in general well suited for the 
 quick early growth of summer varieties. 
 
 Mississippi Valley region of Illinois. 
 
 Adams, Pike and Calhoun counties bordering on the 
 Mississippi River are responsible for the heavy produc- 
 tion of apples in western Illinois. Calhoun leads in ton- 
 nage shipped and a large part of its output goes down the 
 Mississippi River by boat. 
 
 Conditions are dissimilar to those in the early apple 
 region in the southern part of the state. With the excep- 
 tion of Calhoun and Pike counties, laud in western 
 Illinois is more typical of the prairie states. Calhoun 
 County apple production is being more than maintained 
 by new plantings. While the total acreage in the other 
 counties may have suffered more or less decrease from 
 1910 to 1918, a greater interest generally is exhibited 
 among the leading and strictly commercial growers. 
 Nearly 90 per cent of the acreage in this section is 
 sprayed, while for the state as a whole it is doubtful 
 whether 25 per cent of the acreage is sprayed. 
 
 Leading varieties for this region are Ben Davis, Gano,] 
 Jonathan, Grimes, Willow Twig and Winesap. Ben] 
 Davis and Willow Twig predominate. Practically all] 
 commercial apples are shipped in barrels. 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 63 
 
 Southeastern Illinois. 
 
 The Marion County district in soiitheast Illinois is 
 sometimes spoken of as the Flora section, since Flora 
 is the principal shipping point and one of the important 
 apple centers in the state. Clay, Richland, Wayne. Ef- 
 fingham and Jasper counties are also included in this 
 general region. Marion County was at one time credited 
 as leading in the state in total number of trees, but in 
 recent years has suffered heavily from loss in trees. 
 Practically all of the orchards are of bearing age and 
 very few trees are coming into bearing to rephice a great 
 percentage which passed out prior to 1918. Neglect, old 
 age, and infection with disease and insects, notably San 
 Jose scale, have exacted a heavy toll. Some commercial 
 growers are maintaining their orchards, but it is doubtful 
 whether over 50 per cent of the total acreage is sprayed 
 at all. Yields throughout this section are generally low. 
 
 Most of the apples are sold in bulk; the remainder in 
 barrels. Ben Davis is the leading commercial variety and 
 represents over half of the total production. Jonathan, 
 Winesap, Rome Beauty and Grimes Golden are less ex- 
 tensively grovni. Of the summer varieties which prob- 
 ably represent 15 per cent of the total production, Benoni, 
 Transparent, Duchess and Wealthy are important. Con- 
 sidered as a whole, Illinois is one of the few if not the 
 only middle western state to maintain its commercial 
 production in the face of a general decline in apple 
 acreage throughout the Middle West during the period 
 1905 to 1918. Of its three commercial apple regions, 
 two are showing increased production. High production 
 is possible with good care and it seems probable that 
 
54 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Illinois will remain the leading apple state of the Middle 
 West for some years to come. 
 
 OZARK REGION 
 
 The Ozark region in southern Missouri and northwest- 
 ern Arkansas is one of the best known apple sections in 
 the United States, although in production it ranks third 
 among the four important Middle West districts. 
 
 Essentially it is a Ben Davis region, since this variety 
 and Gano represent over 65 per cent of its plantings, and 
 an even greater proportion of its production. During the 
 decade 1890 to 1900, the entire Ozark region experienced 
 an era of planting unequalled in any other section of the 
 country. Prices for apples in the late eighties stimulated 
 and encouraged plantings, and the good yields produced 
 by the Ozark orchards then in bearing afforded excellent 
 returns. The over-planting which occurred in the 
 nineties resolved itself into somewhat of a land-selling 
 boom, a repetition of which was experienced in the west- 
 ern states from 1900 to 1910. Thousands of acres of 
 both suitable and unsuitable land throughout the Ozarks 
 have been set to trees, but of this great acreage only 
 a portion has been cared for and much has been neglected^ 
 and abandoned. The Ozark region includes some of thf 
 best and some of the worst orchards in the country, 
 period of late spring frosts in 1900 to 1910, when a. num- 
 ber of consecutive crops were lost or severely damaged, 
 contributed to the lack of care accorded to many of these 
 trees. 
 
 A full crop for the entire Ozark region would probably 
 not exceed 1,000,000 barrels. Arkansas' contribution to 
 the Ozark apple production originates almost entirely in 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 55 
 
 two counties, Benton and Washington, situated in the ex- 
 treme northwestern part of the state. Madison, Boone, 
 Carroll and Crawford counties in Arkansas are of much 
 less importance. Bentonville and Rogers in Benton 
 County, and Springdale and Lincoln in Washington 
 County are important apple centers in Arkansas. 
 
 In Missouri the commercial apple plantings of the 
 Ozarks continue from the extreme southwestern part of 
 the state, along the Frisco Railway to the northeast as 
 far as Crawford County. Lawrence, Greene, followed by 
 iSFewton, Barry, Webster and Howell, are the most impor- 
 tant Missouri counties in the Ozark region. Mariouville 
 in Lawrence County is the center of the best orchard sec- 
 tion in southern Missouri. Orchards in the vicinity of 
 this town illustrate the possibilities to be attained in the 
 Ozark region. 
 
 Probably no other commercial apple district in the 
 United States has suffered such a loss in trees as has 
 the Ozark since 1910, Conservative estimates place the 
 loss at more than 50 per cent, much of which has been 
 due to blister-canker. With such conditions prevailing, 
 one is not surprised in finding two very divergent types 
 of orchards. There are the old, neglected dying orchards 
 which have received practically no care while in some 
 communities a revival of interest has brought many or- 
 chards into a high state of cultivation and profitable bear- 
 ing. In such counties as Texas in the extreme southern 
 part of Missouri are orchards which look almost like virgin 
 forests, branches interlock, trees are unsprayed, unpruned 
 and uncared for. The price of the land is established by 
 its value for general crops, less the cost of removing the 
 neglected trees. 
 
56 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Orchards in the Ozark region vary from a few acres to 
 over 100 in size, many of them being from 30 to 100 
 acres in extent. Large orchards discourage intensive cul- 
 tural methods and yields tend to be low and biennial as 
 trees grow older. In some localities there is a progres- 
 sive element in the farming population, evidenced by 
 greater attention given to orchard management. Despite 
 this revival of interest it is doubtful whether over 35 
 per cent of the trees in the Ozark region are ever sprayed, 
 with a result that not more than 35 per cent of the total 
 acreage can be considered as strictly commercial. 
 
 As stated above, Ben Davis and Gano represent over 65 
 per cent of the Ozark production. Jonathan, Ingram, 
 Maiden Blush, Grimes, York Imperial, Collins and Ar- 
 kansas Black are found in limited plantings, more partic- 
 ularly in younger acreage. 
 
 More than half of the production from this region is 
 shipped in bulk, only the better grades and the higher 
 quality varieties being shipped in barrels. It must be re- 
 membered, however, that the bulk production competes 
 directly with the barreled stock and is frequently not in- 
 ferior in quality. 
 
 MISSOURI RIVER REGIOlSr ( PLATE III) 
 
 Important commercial apple plantings of Iowa, 
 Nebraska, Kansas and northern Missouri are at the in- 
 tersection of these four states, in what is known as the 
 Loess Apple Belt, along the Missouri River in north- 
 western Missouri, southwestern Iowa, southeastern 
 Nebraska, and northeastern Kansas. This section has 
 been placed in a district by itself, since the important 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 57 
 
 plantings are centralized in a well known and fairly well 
 defined commercial region. 
 
 The most extensive apple plantings in the Missouri 
 River region are in Buchanan County in the vicinity of 
 St. Joseph in northwestern Missouri, and across the Mis- 
 souri Eiver in Doniphan County in northeastern Kansas. 
 Iowa and I^ebraska plantings are of less importance 
 although the ]\Iissouri River region properly includes 
 small corners of the above two states. In Nebraska, 
 Nemaha and Richardson are two important counties, while 
 across the Missouri River, Fremont, Mills and Pottawa- 
 tomie counties lead in the commercial production for Iowa. 
 
 All of the counties named border on the Missouri River 
 and with several other counties in close proximity, com- 
 prise a fairly compact region which extends into four states 
 and has a normal production of nearly 2,000,000 barrels, 
 which is greater than can be credited to the Ozark region. 
 Ben Davis and Gano comprise approximately 50 per cent 
 of the production from the Missouri River district, while 
 Jonathan, Winesap, Arkansas (Black Twig) and Missouri 
 Pippin trees have been extensively planted, particularly in 
 the younger orchards. A large part of the crop moves out 
 in bulk as is the case in the Ozarks. 
 
 Doniphan County, Kansas, deserves particular mention 
 as one of the most important and highly commercial 
 counties in the Middle West. Community spirit has 
 stimulated development of the apple industry and extensive 
 plantings are found in the vicinity of Wathena and Troy. 
 A high percentage of the yield of Doniphan County is 
 barreled and more of the trees are sprayed than in prob- 
 ably any other middle western apple section. Carload 
 shipments from Doniphan County alone have amounted 
 
58 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 to more than 1,000 cars for a single season. In most 
 instances the orchards reflect the careful attention which 
 always insures a high state of productiveness. 
 
 Orchards in northwest Missouri are older, have a larger 
 proportion of Ben Davis trees and in the main have re- 
 ceived less attention than those on the Kansas side. 
 Buchanan County on the Missouri River ranks among the 
 foremost, if not the foremost apple county in Missouri, 
 and yet it is doubtful whether 50 per cent of the trees 
 are sprayed. While Buchanan County has been singled 
 cut on account of its central location and relative impor- 
 tance, other counties in northwest Missouri, including 
 ISTodaway, Holt, Jackson and Lafayette, are of almost 
 equal importance. 
 
 The orchards in the Missouri River region are more- 
 uniform in type than those in the Ozarks and are, as sM 
 whole, better cared for. There are many old neglected 
 orchards in northwest Missouri, but these are fast going 
 out and the production from strictly commercial orchards 
 promises to dominate the output of the region. The great- 
 est increase in production may be expected from the young 
 plantings in Kansas, many of which are just coming into 
 bearing. 
 
 Outside of the intensive conmiercial apple regions, the 
 Middle West has suffered a tremendous loss in trees.: 
 However, most of these were in the farm orchards and it 
 is felt that such regions as the Missouri River or loess 
 soil region will serve to maintain the commercial produc- 
 tion of the Middle West at some point near its present fig- 
 ure. It must be remembered that apple-growing along the 
 Missouri River has never reached the intensity of many 
 other regions. General farming with here and there a 
 
 I 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 59 
 
 commercial orchard describes the general farm manage- 
 ment scheme. As may be expected, where apple-growing 
 is only one of a number of enterprises, the general care 
 given orchards is not as highly intensive as in some sec- 
 tions. Commercial production at the present time comes 
 from a comparatively few well-cared-for orchards. 
 
 AKKANSAS VALLEY OF KANSAS 
 
 The Arkansas River Valley in south central Kansas 
 is a distinct region which requires separate treatment. 
 Apple plantings in this valley are confined largely to the 
 sandy loam soil along the river and are in Reno, Sedg- 
 wick, Sumner and Cowley counties. ISTot all the valley 
 land is suited to apples and plantings are spotted. Many 
 of the orchards are irrigated with water pmnped from 
 wells and it is the only section east of Colorado in which 
 irrigation is practiced in the growing of apples. 
 
 Heavy plantings were made in the period 1907 to 
 1910 and this region will be of increasing importance as 
 trees attain full bearing. Winesap and Ben Davis are 
 the leading varieties, while Jonathan, Black Twig, Gano, 
 York Imperial, Grimes and Rome Beauty are of less 
 importance. On account of irrigation and other farm 
 management practices in vogue, the Arkansas Valley has 
 more in common with the western irrigated districts than 
 with the typical Middle West sections. Furthermore, 
 while bulk shipments represent a large portion of the 
 crop, a considerable percentage of the output is marketed 
 in boxes. No barreling is done. A full crop from this 
 region would be equivalent to about 250,000 barrels at 
 present. Increased production may be expected. 
 
60 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 COLORADO 
 
 Colorado stands out prominently as the most important 
 apple state in the inter-mountain district. Practically the 
 entire commercial apple crop of Colorado is produced on 
 the western slope of the Rockies, in the Grand and Gunni-^ 
 son valleys. The Grand Valley, extending in either 
 direction from Grand Junction, in Mesa County, for a 
 distance of ahout twelve miles, is the most highly developed 
 district in the state. This valley is comparable in many 
 ways with typical northwest apple districts, being essen- 
 tially boxed apple-producing, relying on irrigation, and 
 employing northwest methods of culture and farm man- 
 agement. 
 
 Heaviest planting in the Grand Valley was in the 
 period 1905-1910. Practically no planting occurred 
 between 1912 and 1918. In 1918 there were about 
 10,250 acres of apples, of which 7,500 were over ten 
 years of age. Alkali oviteroppings in certain parts of 
 the valley caused a considerable loss in acreage, amounting 
 to probably 2,000 or 3,000 acres. It is possible that 
 further decreases in acreage will occur and yet increased 
 bearing capacity of the remaining acreage will doubtless 
 bring about increased production. The principal ship- 
 ping stations in Mesa County are Grand Junction, Fruita 
 and Clifton. 
 
 The Grand Valley, while primarily an apple section, is 
 not exclusively apple-producing. Nearly half of its fruit 
 acreage consists of other fruits than apples. Peach and 
 pear plantings, with smaller acreages of cherries and 
 plums, represent in the aggregate nearly as extensive 
 acreage as the apple. In the vicinity of Palisades, some 
 
 i 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 61 
 
 ten miles from Grand Junction, is the famous Elberta 
 peach section, which has shipped 1,000 cars of peaches 
 in a single season. 
 
 The Grand Valley did not escape inflation. In fact, 
 difficulties with irrigation systems and outcropping of 
 alkali have brought this district its full share of troubles. 
 In recent years the codlin-moth has become a most serious 
 menace. In one respect, however, notably proximity to 
 markets, Colorado has the advantage of states farther west. 
 It is particularly adapted to the growing of Jonathan 
 apples, which comprise nearly a third of its production. 
 Winesap, Gano, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Eome 
 Beauty are among the other important varieties. The 
 northwest box is used almost exclusively for the packed 
 fruit, although bulk shipments figure more prominently in 
 Colorado than in any other of the leading western apple 
 states. Cooperative marketing has been an important 
 factor in the development of this district. 
 
 The western slope of Colorado includes two other apple 
 districts, one in Delta and the other in Montrose County, 
 both of less importance than the Grand Valley. In Delta 
 County the apple acreage is in Gunnison Valley, with 
 heaviest plantings at Ilotchkiss and Paonia. The Uncom- 
 pahgre, a branch of the Gunnison, supplies water for the 
 orchard plantings in Montrose County which centers about 
 the town of Montrose. Both of these districts are irri- 
 gated and conditions conform largely to those given for 
 the Grand Valley. Varieties are very much the same, 
 although less attention is given to other fruits. 
 
 On the eastern slope, the Canyon City district in Fre- 
 mont County, along the Arkansas Valley, is the only other 
 apple section of importance in the state. A distinctive 
 
62 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 feature of Colorado commercial apple plantings is that 
 they occur at an elevation of 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea 
 level. 
 
 NEW MEXICO 
 
 The Pecos Valley in Chaves County is the coming 
 apple district in Nev^ Mexico, and is one of the important 
 sections of the inter-mountain states. Over half of New 
 Mexico's commercial apple crop is produced in Chaves 
 County. Heaviest plantings are in the vicinity of Ros- 
 well, Greenfield, Dexter and Hagerrnan. The latter lies 
 thirty miles south of Roswoll along the Pecos River. 
 County assessor's figTires indicate about 4,500 acres of 
 trees planted before 1910 and about 2,500 acres planted 
 1910 to 1919. Little planting has been made since 1912. 
 
 Ben Davis and Gano are the principal varieties, with 
 Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Winesap, Black Twig, York 
 Imperial and Arkansas Black among the less important. 
 
 The northwest box is the common package for this 
 district, although bulk shipments are important. Less 
 care is taken in grading and packing the boxed fruit than 
 in the Northwest and much of the crop is jumble packed.! 
 The Texas farming section immediately to the east affordaj 
 an outlet for most of the Pecos apple crop. Jonathansj 
 come on the market earlier than in most sections, anc 
 for that reason Pecos apples have priority in Texas! 
 markets. A marked increase in production may be 
 expected from this section. Heavy frosts are not infre- 
 quent and have checked the normal increase in production. 
 While 600 or 700 cars has been the largest production 
 of this valley to date, a decided increase may be expected. 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 63 
 
 The only distinct apple region in New Mexico outside 
 of the Pecos Valley is known as the Farmington district 
 and is in San Juan County in the extreme northwestern 
 corner of the state. The isolation of this region, com- 
 bined with poor railroad facilities, has checked its develop- 
 ment. Principal varieties are Gano, Jonathan, Rome 
 Beauty and Winesap. 
 
 UTAH 
 
 Commercial apple-growing in Utah is largely confined 
 to irrigated valleys in Boxelder, Weber, Davis, Salt Lake, 
 and Utah counties, which lie along the eastern shores of 
 the Great Salt Lake and Utah Lake, in north central 
 Utah. The most highly commercial districts are near 
 Provo in Utah, which has shipped as high as 300 cars 
 of apples in a year, and also near Tremonton in Box- 
 elder County. Both are irrigated and market their com- 
 mercial apples largely in boxes, although bulk shipments 
 are not uncommon. 
 
 Principal varieties for the Provo district are Jonathan, 
 Rome Beauty, Winesap, and Lawver; for the Tremonton 
 section Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan and Winesap. The 
 apple acreage in Utah County is approximately 5,000 
 acres, of which two-thirds was planted before 1910. Of 
 the 2,000 acres in apples in Boxelder County, most of 
 the trees were planted between 1906 and 1910. Local 
 consumption and nearby mining camps largely absorb the 
 production of Weber and Davis counties. Limited 
 increase in commercial production may be expected from 
 this state as the acreage increases in age. It is improb- 
 able that commercial shipments will exceed 1,000 cars 
 within the next few years. 
 
64 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 MONTANA 
 
 The Bitter Root Valley, extending south from Missoula 
 to Hamilton, Montana, at one time had an apple acreage 
 amounting to 23,000 acres. Most of this acreage was 
 represented in large projects which have since gone into 
 the hands of receivers and are being neglected. Probably 
 the greatest loss in acreage in any of the western districts 
 has occurred in the Bitter Root Valley. The Mcintosh 
 apple is suited to this region but trees do not attain large 
 size nor is growth rapid. Yields are smaller than in 
 many other irrigated sections. The slump in apple pro- 
 motion struck the Bitter Root Valley at an inopportune 
 time, and as a result much of its acreage will be lost or 
 will not reach full commercial bearing. 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 Interest in apple production west of the Rockies centers 
 chiefly in the Pacific Northwest and particularly in the 
 state of Washington. In 1917 and 1919 Washington 
 was the heaviest commercial apple-producing state in 
 the Union, taking precedence even over New York which, 
 on account of exceedingly light crops, dropped into second 
 place for those years. Washington must be credited with 
 over one-half of the total boxed apple production and in 
 an average year now ranks first in quantity of commer- 
 cial apples produced. 
 
 It is interesting to note the very rapid growth and 
 development of the apple industry in such regions as the 
 Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, which have recently come 
 into prominence and are largely responsible for Washing- 
 ton's heavy production. Although very similar in many 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 65 
 
 respects, these two districts will be discussed separately on 
 account of their importance. 
 
 Yakima Valley. 
 
 The Yakima district is located in the south central part 
 of the state and includes approximately 40,000 acres of 
 apple plantings which are for the most part situated in the 
 valley land lying along the Yakima Eiver and its tribu- 
 tary streams. 
 
 As stated in the history of the Yakima district, the first 
 commercial planting was made in this region about 1888 
 and as late as 1900 the total acreage of all orchard land 
 was not more than 3,000 acres, and the total production 
 did not exceed 200 carloads of fruit. Heaviest planting 
 occurred after 1900 and reached a climax about 1908. 
 
 Apple-growing is the principal industry in the Yakima 
 Valley and, as might be expected, intensive methods of cul- 
 tivation are practiced, every effort being directed at the 
 production of high marketable quality fruit. The average 
 fruit farm is under twenty acres and is devoted almost 
 exclusively to apples. Peaches and pears are grown in 
 lesser quantities and represent approximately 12 per cent 
 of the total fruit acreage of the county. In more recent 
 years greater diversification has been emphasized, with the 
 result that growers with larger acreages are planting sugar- 
 beets, potatoes and other crops. 
 
 The productivity and ideal climatic conditions of the 
 Yakima Valley attracted an unusually high type of settlers. 
 The community spirit and social conditions are unsur- 
 passed by those in any other apple region. Good roads 
 have been constructed and excellent facilities for handling, 
 packing and storing the fruit are available. Probably 
 
66 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 nowhere else in the country have scientific horticultural 
 methods been more assiduously practiced than in the 
 Yakima Valley. 
 
 The productivity of the Yakima orchards is very high. 
 Their annual yields are greater than those in any other 
 region with the exception of the Wenatchee district. 
 
 The average annual rainfall in the Yakima Valley is 
 under twelve inches, and irrigation is necessary. Millions 
 of dollars have been expended in irrigation projects 
 designed to bring water from the mountain streams and 
 fructify the other^vise desert land. A large part of the 
 acreage is watered from canals operated under the United 
 States Reclamation Service, although private projects are 
 also found. Water rights in some instances have cost as 
 high as $175.00 an acre; the average has been much lower, 
 however. Annual maintenance of the irrigation ditches 
 once installed often represents as much as $4.00 an acre. 
 When to these costs are added the high price for raw land 
 and the expense of bringing an orchard into bearing under 
 the most intensive care, some idea may be obtained of the 
 reason for high valuation of western irrigated orchards. 
 Two thousand dollars an acre has not been an uncommon 
 price for full bearing orchards. In some instances 
 unsuited land was planted and the district suffered from 
 over-development of " boom " projects. 
 
 The Yakima Valley is under a severe handicap by its 
 distance from consuming centers. It must rely on large^ 
 annual yields of high marketable apples for its survival. 
 Production has been rapidly increasing and reached 11,500 
 cars in 1919. Less than 25 per cent of the acreage was 
 over ten years of age in 1918 and an increased production 
 may be expected from this region in the next few years 
 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 67 
 
 Winesap is the leading variety and in some years repre- 
 sents as high as one-half of the total production. Heavy 
 plantings have been made of Jonathan, Ben Davis, Rome 
 Beauty, Esopus (Spitzeuburg), Yellow Newtown, De- 
 licious, Stayman, Gano and lesser plantings of Arkansas 
 (Black Twig), Baldwin, Wagener, Grimes Golden and 
 Arkansas Black. Probably in no other region is there a 
 larger list of extensively grown varieties and yet most of 
 those named are good commercial kinds well adapted to the 
 region. 
 
 Wenatchee North Central Washington district (Plate IV). 
 
 The Wenatchee Valley is included in what is commonly 
 spoken of as the North Central Washington fruit region. 
 Although less than fifty miles apart, the Yakima and 
 Wenatchee valleys are separated by a range of mountains 
 and there are no rail connections except by a very circuit- 
 ous route. These two very important fruit regions have 
 grown up almost simultaneously under very similar condi- 
 tions, vicing with each other in the production of high 
 marketable quality apples. 
 
 The Wenatchee Valley proper is in Chelan County, 
 although in speaking of the North Central Washington 
 district one commonly includes apple plantings along the 
 Columbia River and its tributaries, extending northward 
 from Wenatchee into Okanogan County. Annual rainfall 
 varies from eight to fifteen inches and irrigation is neces- 
 sary. 
 
 The principal producing area of this region lies in the 
 Wenatchee Valley in the vicinity of the towns of Wenat- 
 chee, Monitor and Cashmere, and extends as far up the 
 valley as Leavenworth, the latter being situated at the 
 
68 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 base of the Cascades. A very intensive region is in a 
 semi-circular area about the to"wn of Wenatchee. There 
 is a considerable variation of altitude throughout the valley, 
 but most of the orchards are at an elevation of 700 to 1,000 
 feet. 
 
 The Wenatchee Valley is even more intensive and com- 
 ' pact than the Yakima Valley. Its development dates back 
 to about 1900, when the first large irrigation canal, later 
 known as the Wenatchee Highline Canal, was begun. The 
 planting of fruit-trees was more or less correlated with the 
 development of irrigation. The total apple acreage in 
 North Central Washington, including the Wenatchee Val- 
 ley and the upper Columbia, is approximately 40,000 
 acres. Some of this acreage is in Okanogan, Douglas and 
 Grant counties adjoining Chelan County on the east. 
 The shipments reached a maximum in 1919-1920 of 
 12,300 cars of 756 boxes each. 
 
 The farms in general throughout the Wenatchee region 
 are small, most of them averaging not over fifteen acres 
 and many even less. Some large projects embrace as 
 many as several hundred acres each, but the region is not 
 adapted to the extensive type of agriculture. The two 
 predominating limiting factors are the high price of land 
 and the small area of irrigable land. Peaches and pears 
 are grown in limited quantities and there is also a consider- 
 able acreage of alfalfa, but most of the latter occurs as an 
 inter- or shade crop in the apple orchards. 
 
 An intensive survey made by the authors in the Wenat-j 
 chee Valley indicated an average investment to the acre) 
 of nearly $2,000. It may be seen that with such a high 
 valuation only a highly specialized crop like apples canj 
 ever be made to bring a suSicient return on the invest- 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 69 
 
 ment. It seems, then, that the Wenatchee Valley offers 
 less opportunity for diversification than almost any other 
 region in the United States. At the same time it is unsur- 
 passed in productivity and high marketable quality of its 
 fruit. The surveys indicate that of all the apple regions 
 of this country the highest annual yields and the highest 
 percentage of extra fancy and fancy fruit were produced 
 in the Wenatchee Valley. Like the Yakima Valley, the 
 Wenatchee district must rely on heavy yields and high 
 marketable quality fruit to overcome a severe handicap of 
 extreme distance from markets. The possibility for 
 cooperative movement among growers is explained b;;, the 
 intensity of plantings and by excellent community spirit. 
 
 As in Yakima, the most intensive and careful orchard 
 practices are in use. The Wenatchee region is practically 
 free from fungus trouble, and with the exception of the 
 codlin-moth, which is a decided menace, is infested with 
 but few serious insect pests. In their early development, 
 the Wenatchee orchards were almost without exception com- 
 mitted to a practice of entire clean cultivation, without 
 either shade or cover-crops. More recently, as in all irri- 
 gated districts, the use of leguminous shade crops has 
 become common. 
 
 The highest production from the Wenatchee iSTorth Cen- 
 tral Washington district prior to 1919 was the crop of 1917 
 which amounted to approximately 8,500 cars of 756 boxes 
 each. At least 75 per cent of the acreage was under ten 
 years of age in 1918 and an increased production from 
 this region may be expected. Winesap, Jonathan, De- 
 licious, Spitzenburg, Stayman, Rome and Yellow New- 
 Town are listed in the order of their importance. 
 
70 Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Spokane district. 
 
 The third most important apple district in Washington 
 is in Spokane Conntj and is commonly spoken of as the 
 Spokane apple district. Acreage of this county at one 
 time was nearly as great as that in Yakima, but the pro- 
 duction has never apprpached that of the latter. The 
 region was developed after the Yakima and Wenatchee dis- 
 tricts and considerable acreage of unsuited land was set in 
 trees. The most intensive plantings are in the Spokane 
 Valley west of Spokane, extending along theh'iver for a 
 distance of twenty-five miles to the east. Production 
 from the county reached about 1,400 cars in 1920. A con- 
 siderable increase in production may be expected, although 
 it seems probable that much of the acreage originally set 
 to trees, and particularly the trees on non-irrigated land, 
 will never attain full commercial bearing. The principal 
 varieties are Jonathan, Rome Beauty and Wagener. 
 
 Walla Walla district. 
 
 The Walla Walla district is the fourth important section 
 in Washington. It is largely an upland region of rolling] 
 hills. Irrigation is not generally practiced. The produc- 
 tion has reached 1,000 cars in a single season. Much ofj 
 the acreage is not yet in full bearing and increasingly] 
 large crops may be anticipated. 
 
 OBEGON (plates III, v) 
 
 Hood River Valley. 
 
 Oregon apples have come into prominence largely 
 through the production from the very well kno\vn Hood 
 
 f! 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 71 
 
 Kiver Valley, which stands out pre-eminently as the prin- 
 cipal apple-producing region in Oregon, and which must 
 be credited with approximately half of the state's com- 
 mercial production. In many ways the Hood River Val- 
 ley is not comparable with the other western irrigated 
 regions. Instead of a dry arid climate, it has a rainfall 
 equaling that of New York. The trees have a different 
 habit of growth and lower average yields are obtained 
 than in most other apple sections of the ]S[orthwest. 
 Lighter yields are very largely accounted for by the fact 
 that Yellow Newtovm and Esopus (Spitzenburg), well 
 known as high quality but rather shy bearing varieties, 
 predominate. 
 
 The development of the Hood River Valley occurred 
 simultaneously with, or slightly in advance of, that of the 
 Wenatchee and Yakima valleys. The Hood River district 
 lies almost entirely in Hood River County, the latter being 
 situated on the Columbia River at the northern boundary 
 of the state. The valley is narrow, varying from two to 
 eight miles in width, and the cultivated area extends from 
 the town of Hood River, south to Parkdale in the upper 
 valley, a distance of about twenty-four miles. This region 
 is divided into what are known locally as the lower, middle 
 and upper valleys. The lower valley contains the most 
 bearing fruit and the greater percentage of tillable land. 
 
 The Hood River, a fast flowing mountain stream rising 
 at the foot of Mount Hood, divides the valley into the east 
 and west sides. The orchards are located on the benches 
 and rolling land on either side. For the most part, the 
 orchards are small and receive the same cultural treatment 
 which prevails in the Wenatchee and Yakima districts. 
 Irrigation, although not always necessary, has been found 
 
72 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 advisable in the growing of cover-crops and is common 
 among most of the orchards. 
 
 Many persons were attracted by the unusual scenic 
 beauty of this little valley, which lies at the foot of Mount 
 Hood. Unfortunately Hood River did not escape the 
 effects of inflated land values and growers experienced a 
 period of depression for a few years prior to 1917. The 
 region has become widely advertised and known, although 
 its production has never exceeded 2,200,000 boxes and 
 will never approach in quantity that of the Yakima and 
 Wenatchee valleys. Cooperative marketing has featured 
 in the development of this region and the output of the 
 valley commands unusually high prices. As stated above, 
 the production in this region is largely confined to two 
 varieties, the Yellow Newtown and the Esopus (Spitzen- 
 burg) . 
 
 Rogue River Valley. 
 
 The Rogue River "Valley, although now widely known 
 as a pear section, is the second largest apple-producing 
 region in Oregon. The valley is somewhat highly special- 
 ized, although its development has been slower than in most 
 other apple districts in the I*^orthwest. Land values at 
 one time were very high and a large number of easterners 
 were attracted to the valley. A period of drought years, 
 during which the annual rainfall dropped from the normal 
 twenty-two inches to as low as twelve inches, caused great 
 loss and emphasized the need of irrigation, which is now 
 practiced in about a third of the orchards and is being 
 extended to the others. 
 
 The fruit acreage lies almost wholly in Jackson County 
 and plantings are centralized in Stewart Creek and Rogue 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 73 
 
 River valleys, about the towns of Medford, Ashland, Tal- 
 ent and Phoenix. Of the approximate acreage of 23,000 
 acres of commercial fruit plantings, about 13,000 acres 
 are in pears and 10,000 in apple trees. In the apple acre- 
 age, Yellow JSTewtowus, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Jonathan, 
 and Ben Davis are the predominating varieties. Prob- 
 ably 75 per cent of the present production consists of 
 Yellow Newtowns. As in other northwest districts, the 
 summer apple is an alijiost negligible factor. Approx- 
 imately half of the apple acreage of this region was ten 
 years of age or over in 1918. 
 
 The prevalence of spring frost-injury led to a rather 
 wide use of oil-heaters, particularly in the orchards on the 
 floor of the valley. Foothill orchards are less subject to 
 frost and as a rule are not smudged. Despite the dry 
 atmosphere, the apple-scab is more or less prevalent and 
 requires summer spraying. Fire-blight, particularly 
 among the pear trees and Esopus (Spitzenburg) apple 
 trees, caused great loss in the years 1913-1915. 
 
 The droughts between 1914 and 1918 checked the normal 
 increase in production. The largest crop of apples prior 
 to 1919 was harvested in 1917 and consisted of about 700 
 cars. Practically all of the marketable apples are packed 
 out in boxes. 
 
 Other apple districts in Oregon. 
 
 In addition to the apple plantings in the Hood and 
 Rogue River valleys are some very promising apple 
 orchards in the Willamette Valley and Roseburg section; 
 and also in the ]VIilton-Freewater district in the north- 
 eastern part of the state. Commercial projects are also 
 found in Wasco County. 
 
74 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 IDAHa 
 
 The following four fairly well defined, yet more or less 
 isolated, apple sections are found in Idaho: Payette Val- 
 ley, Boise Valley, Lewiston district and Twin Falls dis- 
 trict. Idaho was somewhat behind Oregon and Washing- 
 ton in the time of the development of its fruit industry 
 and probably has a greater proportion of young trees 
 than either of the other two. The commercial production 
 of Idaho exceeded 3,600 cars in 1919, 
 
 Payette district. 
 
 The apple acreage of the Payette district is largely in 
 the Payette Valley, with extensive plantings in the vicin- 
 ity of Fruitland, Payette, Weiser and New Plymouth. 
 This district represents the heaviest producing area in the 
 state. Its production has exceeded 2,000 cars in a single 
 season and an even greater output is promised on account 
 of the new acreages just coming into bearing. 
 
 As in all of Idaho's plantings, the Jonathan grows to 
 perfection and is the predominating variety. Other 
 important varieties of the Payette are Rome Beauty, Gano, 
 Ben Davis, and Winesap. The northwest box system of 
 packing and general orchard management is used through- 
 out this region, although there is not the intensity of cul- 
 tural methods, nor quite the high state of specialization, 
 as in the Yakima and Wenatchee districts. Severe frost- 
 injury has destroyed the crop in certain years and frost 
 liability has somewhat deterred the development of the 
 region. The Payette district was known as a hay and 
 stock raising country long before an impetus was given to 
 its apple industry. Although the orchards are small, com 
 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 75 
 
 siderable fertile land unplanted to trees offers oppor- 
 tunity for diversification. 
 
 Boise Valley. 
 
 Much the same conditions obtain in the Boise Valley 
 as in the Payette district, these two sections being only 
 a few miles apart and having been developed under much 
 the same conditions. Plantings in the Boise Valley are 
 much more limited than in the Payette district. 
 
 Twin Falls. 
 
 In the extreme southern part of Idaho and in the vicin- 
 ity of Twin Falls is an irrigated region which has intensive 
 apple plantings, amounting to 4,000 or 5,000 acres, most 
 of which have not attained full bearing and considerable 
 of which have been taken out to provide for more general 
 farming. The production in 1919 reached approximately 
 500 cars and the output of the region may be expected 
 to increase. Varieties and general orchard conditions 
 are much the same as in the Payette district. 
 
 Lewiston section. 
 
 ISTear Lewiston in Xez Perce County, an irrigated pro- 
 ject of 6,000 acres was planted largely in the period 1906 
 to 1910. This was developed by a single company and 
 was sold out in small tracts to investors who in some 
 instances have taken up their residence and are develop- 
 ing the subdivisions. Very few orchards have reached 
 full bearing, and although they were planted and have 
 been cared for on a strictly commercial basis, the future 
 of the region can not be definitely determined at this time. 
 
76 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 Watsonville district. 
 
 The Pajaro Valley, centering about Watsonville, is the 
 oldest and from the standpoint of total past production, 
 one of the most important of the western apple regions. 
 In later years, however, both the Yakima and Wenatchee 
 valleys of Washington have far outstripped it in produc- 
 tion. With the possible exception of the Wenatchee Val- 
 ley, it is doubtful whether any apple region in the country 
 exceeds the Watsonville district for intensity of planting. 
 The most important orchards are included in an area of 
 five by ten miles about the town of Watsonville. This 
 limited area is responsible for nearly two-thirds of Cal- 
 ifornia's commercial apple crop, and has a production 
 record of almost 3,300,000 boxes of apples for a single 
 season. 
 
 Apple plantings were known to have been made in 
 the Pajaro Valley in the early fifties. Commercial or- 
 chards existed as early as 1870. The period of greatest 
 commercial growth occurred in the decade 1890-1900. 
 Crop failures are uncommon in the Pajaro and this valley 
 has a very high record for annual production. Irriga- 
 tion is little practiced, the normal annual rainfall of 
 forty inches being sufiicient to insure heavy annual pro- 
 duction. Yellow Xewtown is the leading variety and 
 comprises over 50 per cent of the regional production.. 
 Yellow Bellflower is next in importance while both Eedf ' 
 and White Winter Pearmain, Langford Seedling and 
 Missouri Pippin are grown in limited quantities. Red 
 varieties, however, are not adapted to this region. 
 
 A most peculiar system of handling the crop prevails 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 77 
 
 in the Watsonville section. A large colony of Slavonians 
 has for many years been closely identified with the indus- 
 try in the buying and packing of apples. A large per- 
 centage of the growers sell the fruit on the trees for a lump 
 siun to these Slavonian packers, who care for the orchard, 
 do such spraying, thinning and propping as is practiced, 
 later harvesting and packing the fruit. Seasonal contracts 
 are very often made at blooming time, although some 
 growers contract their crops for a period of several years 
 in advance. The speculative side of siTch transactions 
 need not be emphasized. Disastrous crop failures may 
 mean ruin for the buyer, while high prices very often 
 mean large profits. The Slavonians assume the growers' 
 risk and naturally require a margin commensurate with 
 the risk. 
 
 Despite many natural advantages, the Watsonville dis- 
 trict has been slow to adopt high standards for the grade 
 and pack of its fruit, and as a result it has not kept pace 
 with northwest production in this respect. Cooperative 
 handling and marketing has been developed to a limited 
 extent among the progressive growers. Until recently, 
 the California box (91/2^11x22), a slightly larger and 
 longer box than that used in the Northwest, has been in 
 most common use, as has also the straight line pack in- 
 stead of the northwest diagonal pack. More recently a 
 state law has sought to make the northwest box the stand- 
 ard. Export trade normally absorbs a large portion of 
 the Yellow Newtown production. The Yellow Bell- 
 flowers are largely sold in domestic markets, many in 
 California. 
 
78 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Sehastopol apple district. 
 
 The Sehastopol apple district is considerably less 
 important than the Pajaro Valley or Watsonville section 
 and yet it is the second region in California. The most 
 extensive plantings are in the vicinity of Sehastopol 
 which is situated in Sonoma County about sixty miles 
 north of San Francisco. This is the only distinctive early 
 apple section in the West and has come to prominence 
 largely through its production of Gravensteins, 
 
 In normal years the shipments of fresh apples from 
 this region seldom have exceeded 600 cars and most of 
 these have been Gravensteins. The apple plantings are 
 much more recent than those near Watsonville and an 
 increased production may be expected. Sehastopol 
 deserves mention as a dried apple center. In normal 
 years more of its crop is dried than is shipped fresh. This 
 section has produced as high as 2,000 tons of dried apples 
 in a season. Among the winter varieties, Esopus (Spitz- 
 enburg), Baldwin, Yellow Newtown, Yellow Bellflower, 
 and I\ome Beauty are more or less prominent. A large 
 part of the production of the latter varieties is dried. 
 
 There is little similarity between the t}'pe and charac- 
 ter of the Sehastopol orchards and those of the more 
 important Watsonville section. In the former, the or- 
 chards conform more to the mountain type and are of al- 
 most entirely different varieties than at Watsonville., 
 Irrigation is not practiced. 
 
 Yucaipa section. 
 
 A third apple region has more recently developed in 
 California in San Bernardino and Riverside counties in 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 79 
 
 the extreme southern part of the state. The Yucaipa sec- 
 tion, as it is knovvTi, consists largely of young more or less 
 mountain plantings which, although limited in extent, are 
 somewhat intensively cared for and will doubtless be 
 responsible for an increasingly large production. Already 
 this region has shipped as many as 200,000 boxes of apples 
 in a season. 
 
 Table III. — Average Production of the Leading Apple Dis- 
 tricts OF THE West 
 
 Average 
 Districts. Production 
 
 1916-1919. 
 Packed Boxes. 
 
 Wenatchee, Wash 6,686,675 
 
 Yakima, Wash 6,015,250 
 
 Watsonville, Cal 2,787,500 
 
 South Idaho 1,894,750 
 
 Western slope Colorado 1,492,500 
 
 Hood River, Ore 1,625,000 
 
 WISCONSIN 
 
 Apples are grown largely in home orchards, most of 
 which are distributed throughout the southeastern part of 
 the state and particularly in the counties bordering Lake 
 Michigan. Taking the state as a whole, Fameuse, Mcin- 
 tosh, Oldenburg, Northwestern Greening, and Wealthy are 
 the principal varieties. Harvesting period is somewhat 
 later there than in some states. 
 
 There are three limited commercial areas in the state: 
 (1) The Sturgeon Bay district in Door County on Lake 
 Michigan, in which heaviest plantings are about Sturgeon 
 Bay, Egg Harbor, and Ephraim on the west shore of the 
 peninsula; (2) limited plantings, chiefly about Richland 
 Center in Richland County, Gays Mills in Crawford 
 County and Baraboo in Sauk County in the southwestern 
 
80 Tlie Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 part of the state; (3) Eaii Claire district in which limited 
 plantings are found in Eau Claire, Chippewa, and Trem- 
 pealeau counties. Duchess of Oldenburg and Wealthy 
 are the leading varieties. 
 
 MINNESOTA 
 
 Minnesota is even less important commercially than 
 Wisconsin, although there are many scattering home 
 orchards through the south and particularly southeastern 
 part of the state. In the vicinity of Lake Minnetonka, 
 Long Lake and Howard Lake, in Hennepin, Meeker and 
 Wright counties, are commercial plantings in which 
 Wealthy, Patten's Greening, Hibernal, and the following 
 crabs are grown: Llorence, Whitney, and Lyman's Pro- 
 lific. Some of these apples are jumble packed in boxes 
 and others shipped in baskets. Another very limited com- 
 mercial area is in Houston and Winona counties, in the 
 extreme southeastern part of the state. In addition to 
 the varieties named above, Wealthy, Northwestern Green- 
 ing, and Wolf River are common for Minnesota. Crabs 
 are widely grown. 
 
 EAELY APPLE REGIONS 
 
 Only a few counties in the United States produce earl 
 apples in quantity for commercial purposes. Early 
 apples are grown to a greater or less extent in nearly all 
 important apple regions and in nearly every farm orchard. 
 By far the larger part of this production, however, is not 
 strictly commercial, but is used only for local or home 
 consumption. In this discussion particular attention wi 
 be given to the few specialized early apple regions. 
 
 I 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 81 
 
 New York and New England. 
 
 Although New York is not commonly considered a spe- 
 cialized early apple region, there is a heavy production of 
 such varieties as Oldenburg (Duchess), Twenty Ounce 
 and Wealthy in the western part of the state. Alexander 
 and Yellow Transparent are grown in more limited quan- 
 tities. The plantings of Oldenburg (Duchess) and 
 Wealthy are found particularly in Niagara County while 
 Twenty Ounce is grown extensively in Monroe County, 
 about the town of Hilton. Scattered plantings of 
 Wealthy, Gravenstein, Oldenburg (Duchess), and Will- 
 iams Early Eed are grown in the Hudson Valley, particu- 
 larly near the Hudson Kiver in Dutchess, Columbia, 
 Ulster, and Greene counties. Very few apples are moved 
 out of New York prior to August 1st. With a good 
 crop, however. New York has shipped as many as 
 300,000 barrels of commercial early apples prior to 
 September 15th, most of which originated in western 
 New York. 
 
 Early apple varieties for New England are largely the 
 same as those given for the Hudson Valley, the most 
 extensive plantings being in Worcester, Middlesex and 
 Eranklin counties of Massachusetts. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 New Jersey, and particularly Monmouth County, has 
 long been known as one of the most intensive early apple 
 regions. Important early varieties for Monmouth County 
 arc English Codling, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Gra- 
 venstein, Red Astrachan and Twenty Ounce. New Jersey 
 has still another intensive and even more important early 
 
83 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 apple district which includes the counties of Burlington, 
 Camden, Gloucester and Cumberland in the southwestern 
 part of the state. The most intensive plantings of this re- 
 gion are about the towns of Moorestown, Eiverton and 
 Burlington, not far from Philadelphia. The leading va- 
 rieties are Starr, Williams Early Red, Yellow Transparent 
 and Wealthy, with lesser quantities of Red Astrachan, 
 Oldenburg (Duchess), and Early Ripe. 
 
 New Jersey as a whole is one of the leading early 
 apple states of the Union. Its commercial production 
 comes largely from the two regions described and has 
 amounted to the equivalent of approximately 200,000 
 barrels in a good crop year. 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 Delaware is the most intensive early apple state in this 
 coimtry and at the present time 150,000 barrels of early 
 apples would not be an excessive crop for the state as a 
 whole. The most intensive plantings are in Kent and 
 Sussex counties, about the towns of Wyoming, Bridge- 
 ville and Seaford. Yellow Transparent, Williams Early 
 Red, Wealthy and Early Ripe are leading varieties. 
 Twenty Ounce, Red Astrachan and Oldenburg (Duchess) 
 are grown to a more limited extent. The early apple 
 industry in Delaware is showing a marked growth at 
 present. It is the only important region outside of ISTew 
 Jersey and southern Illinois which is able to put its fruit 
 on the market in any great quantity prior to August first. 
 The favorite method of marketing the fruit is in %-bushel 
 baskets. The Delaware early apple district extends into 
 the eastern shore of Maryland. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
Leading Apple Regions of the United States 83 
 
 Southern and Middle Atlantic states. 
 
 Yellow Transparent is the leading variety in the more 
 southern districts. Early apple plantings, however, are 
 more or less scattered and limited in extent. The produc- 
 tion of Yellow Transparent in the vicinity of Bowling 
 Green, Kentucky, and central Tennessee is increasing. 
 
 East North Central states. 
 
 Along the north side of the Ohio River in Ohio and 
 Indiana are considerable plantings of early varieties, par- 
 ticularly of Oldenburg (Duchess) and Yellow Transpar- 
 ent. Large commercial plantings of the latter variety are 
 also found in central Ohio. 
 
 In Michigan and Wisconsin the Oldenburg (Duchess) 
 and Wealthy are prominent varieties. Their maturity, 
 however, is greatly delayed in these regions with the result 
 that they enter the market too late to be classed as distinctly 
 early varieties. 
 
 Southern Illinois. 
 
 One of the most intensive early apple regions in the 
 country is in the extreme southern part of Illinois. Union 
 and Johnson are the leading counties and include extensive 
 plantings of Benoni, Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg 
 (Duchess), Sops of Wine, Red June, Chenango, and 
 Cornell Red Streak. This region has produced as many 
 as 800 cars of early apples in a season. Production is 
 likely to increase. 
 
 California. 
 
 Scattered plantings of early apples are found throughout 
 
84 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 the western states, but they are relatively limited and 
 unimportant commercially with the exception of the Sebas- 
 topol region of Sonoma County, California. This region 
 has become well known through its production of Graven- 
 steins, shipping over 500 cars of this variety in a single 
 season. 
 
 ■^1 
 
CHAPTEE III 
 
 COMMERCIAL APPLE PRODUCTION IN 
 
 CANADA, AUSTRALIA AND 
 
 NEW ZEALAND 
 
 United States is far ahead of any other country in the 
 production of commercial apples. Only in some of the 
 British Dominions has apple-growing attained commercial 
 proportions on an organized scale. England, France, Ger- 
 many, Russia and many parts of Europe have enormous 
 numbers of apple trees but most of the fruit does not enter 
 the world market, and in France nearly 90 per cent of the 
 crop is used for cider or beverage purposes. Europe 
 depends on United States, Canada, Australia and New Zea- 
 land for its supply of high grade fruit. South Africa is 
 developing commercial apple-growing but as yet the pro- 
 duction is not a factor in the world's markets. 
 
 CANADA 
 
 Canada at present (1920) will normally produce from 
 18 to 20 per cent as many commercial apples as the United 
 States. The last decennial census (1911) credited Canada 
 with 16,217,176 trees, about 60 per cent of which were 
 then bearing. Apples are grown commercially in British 
 Columbia, Ontario, Nova Scotia, Quebec, New Brunswick 
 and Prince Edward Island, but the principal commercial 
 sections are in the first three provinces. The commercial 
 
 85 
 
86 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 crop in 1912 was estimated at 5,000,000 barrels. An 
 estimate of 3,568,000 barrejs was made for 1918, of which 
 British Columbia produced 459,300, Xova Scotia 808,600, 
 Quebec and New Brunswick perhaps 100,000, leaving 
 Ontario with an estimated production of 2,200,000 barrels. 
 In 1919, the Canadian crop amounted to 1,500,000 barrels 
 in Nova Scotia alone. 
 
 The exports of apples from Canada for the past eleven 
 years have been as follows : 
 
 Table IV. — Apple Exports from Canada 
 
 1909 1,604,477 
 
 1910 523,658 
 
 1911 1,664,165 
 
 1912 1,324,769 
 
 1913 947,382 
 
 1914 1,117,336 
 
 1915 557,451 
 
 1916 570,854 
 
 1917 103,626 
 
 1918 405,058 
 
 1919 591,805 
 
 For the five years from 1909 to 1913, the average export 
 was 1,212,000 barrels, while the average for the years 
 1914 to 1918 was only 510,865. This, of course, is partly 
 due to the British embargo on apples in 1917. About 90 
 per cent of the Canadian exports are to Great Britain 
 under ordinary circumstances. 
 
 Nova Scotia (Plate VI). 
 
 The commercial apple-growing district embraces a com- 
 paratively small area, roughly described as the Annapolis 
 Valley, about one hundred miles long and from six to eleven 
 miles wide. The principal apple-growing counties are 
 Kings, Annapolis and Hants, which produce about 75 per 
 
Canada, Australia and New Zealand 87 
 
 cent of the total crop. The commercial production in 
 JX^ova Scotia for the years 1911 to 1919 inclusive, together 
 with the exports, are as follows : 
 
 Table V. — Production and Exports of Apples in Nova Scotia 
 
 Commercial 
 Tear. Production. Exports. 
 
 (Bbls.) (Bbls.) 
 
 1911 1,734,876 1,408,700 
 
 1912 993,523 801,000 
 
 1913 651,390 519,582 
 
 1914 981,437 752,500 
 
 1915 613,882 416,500 
 
 1916 681,470 416,808 
 
 1917 744,730 13,700 
 
 1918 808,600 271,170 
 
 1919 1,500,000 492,180 
 
 During the past five war years, production has undoubt- 
 edly suffered through lack of care and it is probable that 
 planting in ISTova Scotia in the last ten years has not been 
 more than sufficient to take care of the average annual 
 mortality. Some fairly large orchards, however, are only 
 now coming into bearing, and it seems reasonable to expect 
 an annual commercial crop in I^ova Scotia for the next 
 decade of about 1,000,000 barrels. 
 
 The leading commercial varieties of this district are the 
 King, Gravenstein, Golden Russet, Roxbury Russet, 
 Blenheim Orange, Ribston, Baldwin, Bishop Pippin (Bell- 
 flower), Stark and Ben Davis. The Nova Scotian Grav- 
 enstein, King, Blenheim and Russet are particularly well 
 and favorably known on the English markets. The Grav- 
 enstein is undoubtedly the outstanding variety. 
 
 The climatic conditions are particularly favorable inas- 
 much as the apple area is practically an island, preventing 
 extremes of temperature, and irrigation is, of course, 
 unnecessary. Clean cultivation is the general rule, about 
 
88 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 50 per cent of the orchards depending almost solely on 
 commercial fertilizers. 
 
 For many years xsTova Scotia has shipped her surplus 
 crop to Great Britain, principally to London. Her ship- 
 pers are particularly well situated to take advantage of 
 this trade as they are all within a few hours of the ports 
 of Halifax and St. John. 
 
 The chief disadvantage of the district is its comparative 
 isolation from the large home markets. In order to com- 
 pete with Ontario fruit on the large consuming markets of 
 the northwestern provinces, ]Nova Scotian shippers start 
 with a handicap of a rail haul of over twenty-four hours. 
 With the European market open, this is not serious inas- 
 much as this market is capable of some extension. 
 
 Prince Edward Island and New Brunswich. 
 
 Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick do not grow 
 enough apples for home consumption at the present time. 
 Both these provinces, however, possess large areas with a 
 soil and climate well adapted to the commercial production 
 of the hardier varieties. Prince Edward Island has suf- 
 fered in the past from the poor transportation between the 
 island and the mainland but this has improved of lateJi 
 and the apple industry should consequently be encouraged.* 
 
 The St. John Valley of New Brunswick has excellent 
 prospects as a commercial apple-growing district, and it is 
 probable that the next ten years will show a very marked 
 increase in the production in this province, which during 
 the past decade ranged from 75,000 to 100,000 barrels. 
 Fairly low temperatures are experienced in the winter, 
 and the leading varieties are the Duchess, Fameuse, Alex- 
 
Canada, Australia and New Zealand 89 
 
 ander, Mcintosh Red, Wolf River and Bethel. Most of 
 the orchards are in sod. Transportation facilities are 
 good from the St. John Valley, and its nearness to the sea- 
 board would be a decided advantage when the production 
 is sufficient to make an export trade desirable. 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 Apples have been grown in Quebec longer perhaps than 
 in any other district in Canada, with the exception of Nova 
 Scotia, records showing that they were produced in this 
 province as early as 1663. The industry, however, has not 
 developed to any great extent. The Fameuse is claimed 
 to have originated in Quebec, and it and other varieties of 
 the same type (Wealthy, Mcintosh Red, St. Lawrence) 
 reach a very high state of perfection. Pomme Grise, or 
 French Russet, as it is sometimes called, has long been 
 grown in Quebec. The commercial production is confined 
 largely to the Island of Montreal, Como, LaTrappe, St. 
 Joseph du Lac, Hemmingford and Covey Hill, Chateau- 
 guay, St. Hilaire, Rougemont and Abbotsford districts. 
 The Census of 1911 gave the production of Quebec as over 
 400,000 barrels, but it is not probable that the average 
 annual commercial production of the past two or three 
 years has been more than 100,000 barrels. The orchards 
 are principally in sod, many of them have not received 
 proper attention and, in addition, it is estimated that fully 
 40 per cent of the trees were destroyed by the severe win- 
 ter of 1917. There is evidence, however, of a revival in 
 apple-growing, and some of the highest average returns for 
 Canadian apples, in late years, have been made by Quebec 
 orchardists. 
 
90 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 Ontario still produces considerably over 50 per cent of 
 the crop of apples in Canada, but only in limited areas is 
 the industry specialized as it is in ^ova Scotia and British 
 Columbia. The exports in the past ten ye^ars have not 
 been nearly so great as those of Xova Scotia, but this is 
 due to the many large markets within the province, to the 
 greater ease with which the Ontario shippers can reach the 
 markets of the N"orthwest, which have been tremendously 
 developed during the past decade, to the fact that the ports 
 of export are not as convenient to Ontario shippers as to 
 those of Nova Scotia and, particularly in the past four or 
 five years, to the great risk and uncertainty attending ocean 
 transportation. In the eastern part of the province, along 
 the St. Lawrence and Ottawa rivers, are some very fine 
 orchards of the Duchess, Wealthy, Mcintosh Red and 
 Fameuse type. The Mcintosh Red, which for some years 
 has been the highest priced apple on the Canadian markets, 
 was originated at the town of Dundela in the County of 
 Dundas in this district in 1830. 
 
 The largest orchards of Ontario are between Kingston 
 and Toronto in what is commonly known as the Lake 
 Ontario district. Prince Edward County, the southern 
 part of Hastings, Northumberland, Durham and the south- 
 ern part of the County of Ontario, grow all the standard 
 varieties, and ship thousands of cars of apples annually to 
 the large eastern markets and to the markets of Canadian 
 Northwest. In addition, this section does a large export 
 trade with Great Britain. The leading varieties for export 
 are the Baldwin, Spy, King, Russet, Ontario, Pewaukee, 
 Stark and Ben Davis, but large quantities of Duchess, 
 
Canada, Australia and New Zealand 91 
 
 Wealthy, Fameuse, Wagener, Rhode Island Greening, Tol- 
 man, Canada Red, and Cranberrj, are also produced. 
 Many of the orchards in this district are more than a hun- 
 dred years old, and the apple industry is perhaps more spe- 
 cialized and better organized than in any other part of On- 
 tario. An outstanding feature of the apples grown here is 
 their keeping quality. The climatic conditions are such 
 that the trees do not start into growth as early as in south- 
 ern Ontario and yet the season is sufficiently long for the 
 best varieties to mature. Consequently the apples are just 
 ready to pick at the approach of freezing weather and, 
 when stored in ordinary warehouses, go into a natural cold 
 storage where they retain their keeping qualities until the 
 following spring. This saves the cost of cold storage, giv- 
 ing the shippers of this district a considerable advantage 
 over more southern regions. Large storehouses have been 
 erected along the railway lines at such points as Belleville, 
 Trenton, Brighton, Colbome, Grafton, Port Hope, N^^ew- 
 castle, Bowmanville, Oshawa and Whitby. Colborne, for 
 example, has over a dozen warehouses, with a capacity of 
 more than 100,000 barrels. 
 
 In southwestern Ontario (including the Niagara 
 Peninsula), while apples of high quality are produced in 
 considerable quantities, the industry is not specialized, 
 except in a few localities, such as Norfolk and Lambton 
 counties. This district, however, has one great advantage 
 as it is able to get its early apples on the market about two 
 weeks earlier than an;y other part of eastern Canada. 
 
 Throughout western Ontario, particularly along the 
 shores of Lake Huron and Georgian Bay, large quantities 
 of apples of the standard varieties are grown. In the 
 Georgian Bay district, the conditions are very similar to 
 
92 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 those in the region north of Lake Ontario, and orcharding 
 is carried on as a special industry, but in the greater part 
 of western Ontario the apple orchard is usually a side line 
 to general farming, and consequently the same attention is 
 not given to the details of spraying, pruning, cultivating, 
 packing and marketing as in the districts where apple- 
 growing is the main industry. In the aggregate, however, 
 the crop of western Ontario has a very marked influence on 
 the commercial production of the province. The leading 
 varieties are the Spy, Baldwin, King, Greening, Ben 
 Davis and other standard sorts but as the distance from 
 Lake Huron and Georgian Bay increases, the earlier and 
 hardier varieties are more in evidence. 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 The apple industry in this province is comparatively 
 new, but has developed rapidly and along highly specialized 
 lines, so that it is now a considerable factor in the market- 
 able crop of Canada. The Dominion Census of 1901 
 credited British Columbia with 220,000 bearing and 170,- 
 960 non-bearing apple trees, while in 1911 the figures were 
 510,763 bearing and 1,465,622 non-bearing trees; and the 
 increase in the last nine years has probably been fully 50 
 per cent. Following is a statement of the commercial pro- 
 duction for the years 1911 to 1919 inclusive: 
 
 Table VI. — Production of Apples in British Columbia 
 
 Year. Boxes. 
 
 1911 225,100 
 
 1912 386,640 
 
 1913 456,380 
 
 1914 615,600 
 
 1915 993,060 
 
 1916 1,376,310 
 
Canada, Australia and New Zealand 93 
 
 Year. Boxes. 
 
 1917 1,785,405 
 
 1918 1,378,005 
 
 1919 •. 2,500,000 
 
 Many thousands of acres have just come into bearing 
 within the past two or three years, while a considerable 
 acreage is still not bearing commercial crops, and there 
 will undoubtedly be a steadily increasing production for 
 the next decade. To offset this, however, consideration 
 should be given to the fact that there has been very little 
 planting in the past iive years and in addition the orchards 
 of British Columbia have in some cases suffered through 
 lack of care. 
 
 The most noted section is the Okanogan Valley, where 
 the Coldstream Ranch, consisting of some 600 acres o-f 
 orchard in various stages, is located ; this was established 
 about tTventy years ago by Lord Aberdeen when Governor 
 General of Canada, and is one of the oldest commercial 
 orchards in the province. While the Okanogan is the 
 largest section, in point of acreage devoted to apple-grow- 
 ing, thousands of acres of orchard have been planted during 
 the past ten or twenty years in the Arrow Lakes, Kootenay 
 and contigTious districts, along the Thompson and Fraser 
 rivers to the Coast, and also on the Island of Vancouver. 
 
 The climatic conditions are very varied, both dry and 
 wet growing seasons being found in the different fruit 
 regions. In the Okanogan, a very extensive system of 
 irrigation is in operation. The district being new, it has 
 not yet suffered to any serious extent from the insect pests 
 and diseases common to the more established fruit sections. 
 In addition, a very rigid system of inspecting imported 
 nursery stock has been in force for many years. The 
 
94 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 apples are generally large in size, possibly owing to the 
 fact that most of them are produced on young trees, are 
 usually very highly colored and of high quality and, 
 packed in boxes, reach the market in excellent condition. 
 
 Practically all the standard varieties of the East 
 (Wealthy, Duchess, Mcintosh Red, Spy, Wagener) are 
 produced in large quantities in British Columbia, but in 
 addition the Jonathan, l^evrtown, Rome Beauty, Winesap, 
 Ontario, Grimes Golden, Winter Banana and Esopus 
 (Spitzenburg) are grown to perfection. The crop is mar- 
 keted principally within the province and throughout 
 Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. When there are 
 light crops in eastern Canada, comparatively large quan- 
 tities of British Columbia apples have been shipped to 
 Toronto, Montreal and Quebec and as far east as St. John, 
 New Brunswick. Up to the present time, the largest ex- 
 port trade has been with Australia and New Zealand, the 
 following table showing the exports to these countries 
 during the years 1913 to 1917 inclusive: 
 
 Table VII. — Exports to Australia and New Zealand 
 
 Year. Boxes. 
 
 1913 31,127 
 
 1914 40,816 
 
 1915 54,592 
 
 1916 70,000' 
 
 1917 76,000 
 
 In 1918, owing to the Australian embargo on apples, 
 there were no exports to that country, and only some 
 15,000 boxes to New Zealand. 
 
 British Columbia apples have also been exported to the 
 markets of Great Britain, South America, the West Indies 
 and South Africa, and an outlet is, therefore, being pre- 
 
Canada, Australia and New Zealand 95 
 
 pared to takq care profitably of the anticipated increase in 
 production. 
 
 AUSTRAI.IA AND NEW ZEALAND 
 
 Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand have claimed 
 attention in the commercial apple world only within recent 
 years. Outside of North America, these countries are now 
 the most important commercial apple regions in the world. 
 The area in bearing apple trees is about 50,000 acres in 
 Australia mainland, 25,000 acres in Tasmania and 15,000 
 acres in New Zealand and in all cases the acreage is increas- 
 ing. The acreage of New Zealand is strictly commercial 
 while some of that of Australia and Tasmania is not. The 
 export to foreign markets amounts to several million boxes, 
 and promises to increase. The commercial production of 
 Australia, New Zealand and Tasmania is now about one- 
 half that of Canada and one-tenth that of United States. 
 
 On the mainland of Australia, the orchard areas are 
 principally along the coast, the larger portion being in 
 the southern states and along the southwest coast of west 
 Australia. In Tasmania the plantings are general and 
 the only sections unsuitable for fruit-culture are the mid- 
 lands along the west coast. In New Zealand the distribu- 
 tion is fairly general in both north and south islands except 
 on the west coast. The main commercial plantings, how- 
 ever, are in the Nelson-Auckland districts. 
 
 The bulk of the crop in Australia, Tasmania and New 
 Zealand is at the present time consumed locally, the annual 
 foreign exports amounting to about one-fourth of the pro- 
 duction. The principal outlet or foreign markets for these 
 apples have been England and Germany, and the export 
 trade prior to the war was increasing very rapidly. 
 
96 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 From about 1910 to 1915, the plantings were very 
 heavy but owing to war conditions and the consequent 
 dislocation of markets, there has been very little increase 
 in areas in trees since that date. However, with the re- 
 turn to normal conditions one may expect to see a decided 
 spurt in planting. The tendency is to specialize in small 
 holdings in order to overcome labor difficulties, and in some 
 districts apple-growing is combined with general farming. 
 The average orchard has from fifteen to twenty-five acres, 
 so that most individual plantings are small. In this re- 
 spect it is more like the northwestern orchards than the 
 barreled apple sections of eastern United States. 
 
 The harvest season for Australian apples is a long one. 
 Trees are picked over for the largest fruit about every 
 two weeks from the middle of February to the middle of 
 April, for export to England and foreign markets. The 
 remainder of the crop and those varieties maturing too 
 late for export are picked and stored either in packing- 
 houses, in orchards, or in common storage and are then 
 packed out at the o^vner's discretion. This means that 
 fruit is being packed out nearly all the year. Picking and 
 packing is nearly all by day labor. The fruit is wrapped 
 and packed in a similar manner to the northwestern 
 method. No standardization of grades has thus far been 
 attempted, each individual grower making his own grades. 
 The bulk of the Australian apples is harvested from Feb- 
 ruary to May and reaches the foreign markets during April, 
 May and June. They could be placed on American mar- 
 kets from March to August. In shipping the fruit, it is 
 usually packed in bulk or boxes containing one imperial 
 bushel or half bushel. Many canning factories buy fruit 
 by weight. The general export varieties of Australia, 
 
Canada, Australia and New Zealand 9?" 
 
 Tasmania and New Zealand are quite different from the 
 sorts grown in the United States, although in many cases 
 the more important Australian varieties are very important 
 commercially in this country. The following gives the 
 general export varieties somewhat in order of their im- 
 portance : 
 
 VicTOBiA Tasmania New Zealand 
 
 Jonathan Sturmer Dunn's 
 
 Ortley (Cleopatra) Ortley Coxe's Orange Pippin 
 
 Dunn's Scarlet Nonpareil Sturmer 
 
 Reinette Jonathan Jonathan 
 
 Coxe's Orange Pippin Coxe's Orange Pippin Yates 
 
 Sturmer Ribston 
 
 Emperor Alexander Worcester 
 
 London Pippin 
 
 These varieties are among the more important, although 
 others are constantly increasing. Jonathan is increasing 
 everywhere on account of its good bearing qualities and 
 relative freedom from diseases. Delicious is still in its 
 infancy, but is taking well with both producer and con- 
 sumer, and promises to increase rapidly. Esopus (Spitz- 
 enburg) is going out of favor as it is very subject to scab 
 and is a biennial bearer. The Stayman is coming into 
 favor' in New Zealand. 
 
 In the care of the orchard, much the same method is 
 followed as in the northwestern orchards, although very 
 few sections are irrigated. 
 
 The trees are pruned on similar lines in Australia, Tas- 
 mania and New Zealand. They are usually cut back very 
 severely for the first five years, and growers favor a strong 
 frame-work of twelve to sixteen limbs, at as nearly equal 
 distances from each other as possible; thereafter lighter 
 pruning is practiced as trees come into bearing. The trees 
 
98 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 \ 
 
 are formed with an open center to admit light, thus en- 
 couraging fruiting, particularly in the lower part of the 
 tree. Strong fruit-spurs on the main limbs are preferred, 
 but laterals are used on some varieties, notably the Jona- 
 than, in order to bring extra vigorous growers into earlier 
 bearing. Most trees are planted from sixteen to twenty 
 feet apart, and the orchards are kept more compact than 
 in the Northwest. Australian growers claim that this 
 gives greater efficiency in the orchard operations. The 
 ladder is seldom needed for picking or pruning for the 
 first ten years. The closer planting makes the yield to 
 the acre equal to that of America. No doubt when these 
 orchards obtain considerable age, the disadvantages of this 
 closer planting system will be brought out. 
 
 The orchards are cultivated much the same as in 
 America, and commercial fertilizers are used very exten- 
 sively. It is also a common practice to sow cover-crops. 
 Thinning the fruit is not a general practice and many 
 growers try to combat over-cropping by systematic bud or 
 spur thinning, Australian growers have not found that 
 thinning has any marked effect in making annual bearers 
 of those varieties given to biennial bearing. i| 
 
 Many of the same diseases and insects are prevalent as 
 in America. The black-spot or scab is the worst disease 
 with which the Australian growers have to contend. 
 Woolly aphis (Australian blight) comes next, closely fol- 
 lowed by the codlin-moth. In some of the more humid 
 districts, mildew seriously affects many varieties. Bitter- 
 pit has been especially bad on young trees. Fire-blight is 
 not yet known. 
 
 Cooperative marketing is as yet little in evidence ex- 
 cept in the direction and management of cold-storage 
 
Canada, Australia and New Zealand 99 
 
 houses. Such propositions as these were formerly in the 
 hands of the government, but under the cooperative man- 
 agement the charges have been reduced. Cooperation in 
 this respect is increasing rapidly, especially in Victoria 
 on the mainland. The Northwest in the United States is 
 far ahead of Australia in cooperative methods of handling 
 and distributing. 
 
 The Australians are agreed that they may learn much 
 from America in the equipment of packing-houses, es- 
 pecially on labor-saving devices. Many Australians are 
 particularly proud of their pruning methods and in this 
 respect they are convinced that the American orchardist 
 might learn something from them. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 LOCALITY AND SITE FOR THE COMMERCIAL 
 ORCHARD 
 
 Before investing in an apple orchard, both the locality 
 and specific sit© should be carefully considered. Cir- 
 cumstances may often prevent the free choice of a locality, 
 but the site of the orchard is usually within the direct 
 control of the grower, and may determine largely the suc- 
 cess of the enterprise. 
 
 CHOOSING THE LOCALITY 
 
 The fruit-grower should know the advantages and dis- 
 advantages of the different apple-producing regions ; there- 
 fore, each important apple region will be discussed briefly 
 and some of the factors of interest in this connection set 
 down. In Chapter V will be discussed the factors which 
 govern the proper selection of the site for an orchard 
 within a given region. 
 
 WESTERN NEW YORK 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Western New York is an established, well developed ani 
 productive apple region, prominent in the apple industry for 
 over a century. 
 
 2. Land values have been reasonable in comparison with those 
 in other apple regions. 
 
 3. The bulk of the production is of standard commercial 
 varieties well adapted to the section. 
 
 100 
 
 I 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 101 
 
 4. Western New York is a stable progressive region, where 
 land booms do not flourish and where there is not over-special- 
 ization of any particular crop. 
 
 5. It enjoys proximity to market and has excellent facilities 
 for storing and handling fruit. 
 
 6. The land is easily worked and the maintenance cost is not 
 excessive. 
 
 7. This region is rather densely populated and sufficient labor 
 is usually available from the nearby towns and cities during 
 harvest time. 
 
 8. Good yields. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. The varieties, Baldwin and Greening, for which this sec- 
 tion is best known, are not of the highest quality and as a rule 
 under-sell such varieties as Winesap, Jonathan and Grimes. 
 
 2. Orchards are susceptible to scab and in many cases the 
 crop has been practically ruined and the percentage of high- 
 grade fruit cut to a minimum on account of this disease. 
 
 3. The average orchard in western New York does not receive 
 the highly intensive care which characterizes some other regions. 
 This disadvantage can be remedied by the individual owner, 
 however, and is not inherent to the region. 
 
 4. Bearing orchards are well advanced in years and do not 
 as a rule bear the high percentage of fancy fruit which may be 
 expected from young trees. 
 
 5. Trees are slow coming into bearing. 
 
 6. Rigorous winters are common. 
 
 HUDSON VALLEY 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. The Hudson Valley enjoys the distinct advantage of close 
 proximity to market. The growers in this region are enabled 
 to keep in intimate touch with trade conditions in New York 
 City and are able to place their fruit on the market within a 
 few hours from the time it is shipped. 
 
 2. Fancy trade varieties of apples can be grown profitably and 
 
103 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 marketed successfully by catering to specialized trade. Such 
 varieties as Mcintosh, Northern Spy, Oldenburg (Duchess), 
 Gravenstein, Wealthy and Fall Pippin, which are adapted to 
 this region, lend themselves well to the development of sucli 
 trade. 
 
 3. Land values have been very reasonable in the Hudson 
 Valley. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. The annual yields of the Hudson Valley are smaller than 
 those of western New York; also smaller than the Shenandoah- 
 Cumberland region. 
 
 2. On the whole the soil is not as rich as in western New 
 York and, although adapted to many varieties, requires con- 
 siderable fertilization in some instances to secure good annual 
 crops. ' 
 
 3. Orchards are not entirely free from occasional severe 
 winter injury. 
 
 4. Land does not lend itself so well to general farming and is 
 in places quite rolling. 
 
 5. Rigorous winters are common. 
 
 CHAMPLAIN DISTRICT 
 
 Advantages. ^fl 
 
 1. The Champlain district, bordering Lake Champlain and 
 Lake George in New York and Vermont, is especially adapted 
 to such high quality varieties as Northern Spy and Mcintosh. 
 
 2. The high prices for its fruit, fair yields and reasonable 
 proximity to irnportant markets argue in favor of this region. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Trees in this region are rather slow growing, seldom attain 
 the size, and do not as a rule produce the high annual crops 
 common to western New York. 
 
 2. Although Mcintosh seems to be reasonably safe from 
 winter-injury, other varieties occasionally suffer severely from 
 winter-killing. 
 
 il 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 103 
 
 3. This locality is not of sufficient size to warrant the com- 
 petition among the buyers which is generally found in the larger 
 districts. 
 
 4. The region is less accessible than such districts as the 
 Hudson Valley. 
 
 6. Rigorous winters are common. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. The outstanding advantage of New England orchards is 
 their proximity to centers of consumption such as Boston and 
 other large cities. 
 
 2. Foreign export trade draws rather heavily on New England 
 production, particularly has it been partial to Maine Baldwins. 
 
 3. Land values are reasonable. 
 
 4. The revived interest in apple-growing is serving to bring 
 to prominence a number of specialized districts which are capa- 
 ble of producing exceptionally fine fruit. An instance is the 
 Wilton district in southern New Hampshire. 
 
 5. Particular localities in New England are suited for growers 
 who desire to specialize on such fancy varieties as Mcintosh and 
 Wealthy for which a special trade can be built up. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. In general, New England orchards are small, rather 
 scraggy, and include relatively few highly commercial and in- 
 tensive plantings such as are found in western New York and 
 the Shenandoah-Cumberland region. 
 
 2. Scattered plantings and limited production from any par- 
 ticular region naturally limit the possibility of cooperative effort 
 among growers in marketing their fruit at the highest prices. 
 
 3. The industry and production of New England as a whole 
 has declined very materially in the ten years prior to 1919. The 
 future of apple-growing in this region probably depends on the 
 development of small specialized projects rather than on large 
 or general commercial planting. 
 
 4. Rigorous winters are common. 
 
104 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 NEW JERSEY-DELAWARE PENINSULA 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. This region enjoys an almost unequaled advantage of close 
 proximity to New York and Philadelphia markets. 
 
 2. It is adapted to the production of varieties such as Yellow 
 Transparent, Wealthy, Williams, Early Ripe and Starr. South- 
 ern New Jersey is particularly suited to the production of 
 Yellow Transparent, Williams, Early Kipe and Starr, while 
 English Codling, Gravenstein, Duchess, Twenty Ounce and 
 Wealthy are well suited to Monmouth County. 
 
 3. Orchards in this region respond to good care, and, although 
 fertilization is sometimes necessary, are generally productive. 
 
 4. Cost of production in this section has not been excessively 
 high and good prices have made the orchards profitable as a 
 rule. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Orchard diseases and pests present a somewhat difficult 
 problem for the commercial grower. Late attacks of codling- 
 moth are occasionally very destructive. 
 
 2. This region is not as well adapted to the growing of winter 
 varieties as some of the other eastern districts. 
 
 SHENANDOAH-CUMBERLAND REGION 
 
 Included in this region are the following important apple 
 counties of southern Pennsylvania : Adams, Franklin and 
 York; also Washington County, Maryland; Berkeley and ad- 
 joining Panhandle counties of West Virginia, and the Shenan- 
 doah Valley of Virginia. 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. A large part of the apple acreage of this region is just 
 coming into bearing and an increased production of high-grade 
 fruit may be expected from this young and well-cared-for 
 acreage. 
 
 2. The leading varieties, York Imperial, Ben Davis, Stay- 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 105 
 
 man and Grimes, comprise the bulk of the production and are 
 well known as profitable varieties. 
 
 3. Yields average with those of the best eastern orchards. 
 
 4. The region enjoys reasonable proximity to markets. 
 
 6. Centralization and intensity of plantings offer excellent 
 opportunity for cooperation and regional development. 
 6. Fairly cheap labor is ordinarily available. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Although one of the most promising eastern apple regions, 
 the Shenandoah-Cumberland is not entirely free from certain 
 disadvantages. Cedar rust is severe in some parts of this region 
 on York Imperial and Ben Davis trees; pine and meadow mice 
 have been doing considerable damage to many of the trees and 
 root-rot occurs in some localities. 
 
 2. Land values at this time are relatively high, and for that 
 reason the prospective investor would need considerable capital 
 to get started. 
 
 3. Hail injury is not uncommon. 
 
 PIEDMONT REGION OF VIRGINIA 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. For scenic beauty this region is unexcelled. 
 
 2. Land is cheap and plentiful. Orchard values have been 
 fairly reasonable. 
 
 3. Good transportation facilities. 
 
 4. Labor conditions are generally satisfactory throughout the 
 region. 
 
 5. High-grade varieties such as Winesap and Yellow New- 
 town (Albemarle Pippin) predominate and sell for high prices. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Bitter-rot is particularly injurious in certain seasons. 
 
 2. Yields are lighter than in the Shenandoah-Cumberland or 
 western New York regions. . 
 
 3. The orchard land is generally mountainous and somewhat 
 hard to work. 
 
106 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 4, Very poor roads occur in some localities and some of the 
 best apple land is relatively inaccessible. 
 
 5. Hail damage is very common, particularly on higher ele- 
 vations, and unfavorable conditions are often present at bloom- 
 ing time, rendering the crop uncertain. 
 
 SOUTHERN OHIO ROME BEAUTY SECTION 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Land values have been relatively reasonable in price. 
 
 2. The region is fairly close to important markets. 
 
 3. Quality of fruit, particularly that of the Rome Beauty, 
 is good. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Yields are generally lower than in western New York or 
 most other eastern districts. 
 
 2. The land is rough and mountainous and the orchard plant- 
 ings are somewhat isolated. 
 
 3. Much of the fruit has to be ferried across the Ohio River. 
 
 4. Frost-injury does occasional damage in the spring. 
 
 5. The soil is naturally poor and requires considerable fertil- 
 ization, particularly in the form of nitrates. 
 
 WESTERN MICHIGAN 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Western Michigan is an established, well developed and 
 productive apple region, prominent in the apple industry for 
 many years. 
 
 2. Land values have been reasonable. 
 
 3. It enjoys proximity to important markets in large central 
 west cities. 
 
 4. Yields are good. 
 
 5. Higher quality varieties are grown in Michigan than in 
 most other middle western states. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 1. Frost-injury is not uncommon. 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 107 
 
 2. There are many old and rather neglected orchards, partic- 
 ularly in the south and southeastern part of the state which 
 lower the quality of the general output from the state. 
 
 3. Michigan orchards are susceptible to apple-scab and in 
 some cases the crop has been severely injured on account of 
 prevalence of this disease. 
 
 4. Winter-injury to trees is not uncommon. 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Proximity to markets. 
 
 2. Relatively good yields in western Illinois, but rather light 
 yields in southern part of the state. 
 
 3. Orchard values have been relatively low in comparison with 
 land values. 
 
 4. Early apple section in extreme southern Illinois is partic- 
 ularly adapted to the production of early varieties. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Fungous diseases are more or less prevalent and blister- 
 canker has caused considerable loss among Ben Davis and Gano 
 plantings. 
 
 2. Apple plantings are less centralized than in most commer- 
 cial districts and community interest is lacking in some 
 instances. 
 
 3. Quality of fruit is variable. Such low-grade varieties as 
 Ben Davis and Willow Twig predominate in many regions. 
 
 4. Unfavorable climatic conditions at blooming time are not 
 uncommon. 
 
 OZARK REGION 
 
 This region includes intensive apple plantings in northwest 
 Arkansas and southwest Missouri. 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Labor conditions usually favorable. 
 
 2. Possibility for the renovation of old orchards. 
 
108 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 3. Yield and quality in well-cared-for orchards good in certain 
 years. 
 
 4. Land values reasonable. 
 
 Disadvcmtages. 
 
 1. The region has many old and neglected orchards which 
 decidedly detract from community spirit and progressiveness 
 and lower the quality of the output from the region as a whole. 
 
 2. Ben Davis and Gano plantings which predominate are 
 particularly susceptible to very serious attacks of blister-canker. 
 
 3. Unfavorable weather at blooming time often prevails and 
 crop failures are not uncommon. 
 
 4. Average yields low. 
 
 5. System of bulk handling of a large part of the crop is 
 not conducive to close grading and the maintenance of high 
 commercial standards. 
 
 MISSOURI RIVER REGION 
 
 In this region are included the intensive commercial apple 
 districts of northwestern Missouri, northeastern Kansas, south- 
 eastern Nebraska, and southwestern Iowa, in what is sometimes 
 called the loess soil apple region. 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. A progressive* spirit prevails to a greater extent than among 
 most other middle western regions. 
 
 2. The loess soil of this region is exceptionally fertile and 
 exceptionally productive. 
 
 3. Yields are good on the well-cared-for orchards. 
 
 4. Although Ben Davis and Gano predominate, considerable 
 importance is being given to Jonathan and Winesap plantings 
 which do very well in this region. 
 
 « 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Fungous diseases are more or less prevalent. 
 
 2. Unfavorable weather conditions at blooming time are not 
 uncommon. 
 
I 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 109 
 
 3. The region is not entirely free from many old and neglected 
 orchards, particularly throughout northwestern Missouri. 
 
 4. The bulk handling of a large part of the crop does not 
 encourage high uniform grades. 
 
 WESTERN SLOPE OF COLORADO 
 
 In this region are included Mesa, Montrose and Delta counties. 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. This enjoys the advantage of being closer to eastern 
 markets than the other boxed apple regions. 
 
 2. Although the orchard land is somewhat spotted, high qual- 
 ity fruit and good yields are possible in favorable seasons. 
 
 3. Facilities for handling and marketing the crop are fairly 
 well developed. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Much unsuitable land has been planted and exploited to 
 the disadvantage of the incautious investor. 
 
 2. This region includes some very fine orchards and at the 
 same time some very poor ones, making generalities very difficult. 
 
 3. The average yields are not as high as in the Northwest. 
 
 4. Frost-injury in the spring occasionally causes heavy loss, 
 particularly in the Grand Valley. The menace of the codlin- 
 moth is another factor which should be considered by the pros- 
 pective investor. 
 
 5. Alkali seep has destroyed entire areas of orchard lands in 
 certain localities, particularly in parts of the Grand Valley. 
 
 6. Distance from market. 
 
 UTAH 
 
 Commercial apples in Utah are produced almost entirely in 
 the irrigated valleys along the western slope of the Wasatch 
 Mountains. Important counties are Boxelder, Weber, Davis 
 and Ftah, which include many commercial apple plantings. 
 Conditions are somewhat variable, but in the main the advant- 
 ages are: 
 
110 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 1. A somewhat greater local demand for apples than occurs in 
 the Northwest. 
 
 2. Lower orchard values. 
 
 3. Good quality fruit and considerable young acreage. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. In some instances unsuited land has been set to apple trees 
 and conditions are variable. 
 
 2. Annual yields, although very good, are somewhat less than 
 in the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys. 
 
 3. The limited size of the industry does not permit of the 
 development of marketing facilities such as may prevail in 
 heavier producing regions. 
 
 4. Frost damage is occasionally severe. 
 
 roAHo 
 
 Heaviest commercial apple plantings in Idaho are in the 
 Payette and Boise valleys, tributary to such towns as Payette, 
 Fruitland, Caldwell and Boise. The advantages of this region 
 are: 
 
 1. Young acreage, very little of which has attained full bear- 
 ing and most of which is relatively free from insects and 
 diseases. 
 
 2. Quality of the fruit is excellent, particularly Jonathan, 
 which is the leading variety. 
 
 3. Yields are good, but somewhat lower than in the Yakima 
 and Wenatchee regions. 
 
 4. Orchard values are somewhat lower than in some of the 
 other northwestern orchard sections. The region described is 
 a very good general farming section, having a rich soil which 
 responds well to irrigation, a universal practice. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Some unsuited land was developed and exploited with apple 
 plantings. 
 
 2. Frost damage has almost entirely destroyed the crop of 
 this region in certain years. 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 111 
 
 3. Distance from market is a severe handicap. 
 
 4. Some alkali trouble in the lower lands. 
 
 The Twin Falls irrigated region in the extreme southern part 
 of the state is a very fertile general farming country, with con- 
 siderable apple plantings, some of which have been pulled out 
 in recent years. Apple-growing as a specialized industry is 
 being supplanted by greater diversification. 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 Yakima Valley 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Exceptionally high annual yields of fine marketable fruit. 
 
 2. The prevalence of good commercial and heavy bearing 
 varieties. 
 
 3. Ideal climatic conditions. 
 
 4. Highly centralized plantings, with exceptional facilities 
 for handling and storing fruit. 
 
 5. Greater possibilities for diversification than in the Wen- 
 atchee Valley. 
 
 6. Good roads. 
 
 7. Freedom from fungous diseases. 
 
 8. Exceptionally high class of people engaged in the fruit 
 industry, with exceptionally good social conditions. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Land values very high. 
 
 2. Irrigation necessary. 
 
 3. Excessive distance to market. 
 
 4. Heavy infestation of codlin-moth. 
 
 5. Fire-blight prevalent, particularly among Esopus (Spitz- 
 enburg) trees. 
 
 6. Many farms do not permit of any diversification. 
 
 Wenatchee 
 
 Advantages and disadvantages in the Wenatchee Valley are 
 in the main identical with those in the Yakima Valley. Yields 
 in Wenatchee are somewhat higher and the percentage of extra 
 
112 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 fancy and fancy fruit will run somewhat higher. On the other 
 hand, the limited area in the Wenatchee district will not permit 
 of the diversification possible in the Yakima Valley. Fire- 
 blight has not caused serious loss to the Wenatchee growers. 
 In general, land values for the Wenatchee Valley are somewhat 
 higher than in Yakima. Frost damage at blooming time in the 
 Wenatchee Valley is almost unknown and heavy annual crops 
 are fairly certain. Considerable difficulty is often experienced 
 in getting the fruit to market in the fall. 
 
 Spokane district 
 
 Many of the same advantages and disadvantages prevail in the 
 Spokane district as in the Yakima and Wenatchee. However, a 
 greater proportion of unsuited land is planted to trees in 
 Spokane County than in either the Yakima or the Wenatchee 
 district; the yields are generally lower and more uncertain; 
 frost-injury is more frequent; and fungous diseases are more 
 prevalent. While nearly as many acres have been set in 
 Spokane County as in Yakima County, a considerable percent- 
 age of this acreage was planted on non-irrigated and less pro- 
 ductive soil than is in the Yakima and Wenatchee Valleys. 
 
 MONTANA 
 
 Commercial plantings in Montana were largely centralized 
 in the Bitter Koot Valley which suffered considerable over- 
 development. Many boom projects were planted which never 
 attained commercial bearing. The region is adapted to growings 
 of Mcintosh apples ; the elevation is high ; frosts are not uncom-f I 
 mon and the trees do not attain the size, nor do they produce 
 the high annual crops that are common in many of the other 
 northwest irrigated regions. 
 
 OREGON 
 
 Hood River 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. High-grade varieties such as Yellow Newtown and Esopus 
 (Spitzenburg) predominate. 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 113 
 
 2. A high class of persons is engaged in fruit-growing; 
 climate is delightful; scenery beautiful and social conditions 
 good. 
 
 3. Centralized planting. 
 
 4. Good storage and shipping facilities. 
 
 5. Fruit very well known and widely advertised. 
 
 6. Prices received for output relatively high. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. High land values. 
 
 2. Little opportunity for diversification. 
 
 3. Yields much lower than the average for the Wenatchee and 
 Yakimai valleys. 
 
 4. Apple-scab bad in certain years. 
 
 5. Distance from market. 
 
 Rogue River Valley 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Climatic and social conditions ideal; beautiful scenery. 
 
 2. Good roads and centralized planting. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Drought has greatly reduced the crop in certain years, 
 although irrigation is being adopted in some sections. 
 
 2. Land values relatively high. 
 
 3. Adapted to pear- rather than apple-growing. 
 
 4. Frost-injury occasional. 
 
 5. Yields low. 
 
 6. Distance from market. 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 Watsonville district (Santa Cruz and Monterey counties). 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Heavy annual yields, particularly where orchards have been 
 grown in the heavy " redwood " soils. 
 
114 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 2. Marketable quality of fruit good, but lower than in the 
 Northwest. 
 
 3. Good shipping and storing facilities, also good roads. 
 
 4. Very centralized planting, practically all within ten miles 
 of Watsonville. 
 
 5. Cost production of apples relatively low. 
 
 • 6. Good varieties grown, consisting almost exclusively of 
 Yellow Newtown and Yellow Bellflower. 
 
 7. No irrigation required. 
 
 8. Highly developed dried apple industry. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Internal browning, a physiological disease, prevalent in 
 Yellow Newtown apples in certain years, detracts from storing 
 qualities of this leading variety. 
 
 2. Cooperative movement among growers working for high 
 grades and better marketing facilities has not been as great as 
 in many of the northwest apple-growing regions. 
 
 3. Lack of eifort towards establishment of high grades has 
 resulted in a lower price received for the fruit than for the same 
 variety grown in such regions as the Hood River Valley. 
 
 4. Rural social conditions are inferior to those found in the 
 newer regions of the Northwest. 
 
 5. Distance from eastern markets. 
 
 Sebasto'pol section (Sonoma County) 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Particularly adapted to the production of Gravenstein, a 
 profitable variety. 
 
 2. Relatively free from serious insect and disease injury. 
 
 3. Local demand for output tends to offset the great distance 
 from eastern markets. 
 
 4. Highly developed dried apple industry 
 
 5. Cooperative and community spirit apparent in most of the 
 apple-growers. 
 
 i 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 115 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Yields more uncertain and somewhat lighter than in the 
 Watsonville section. 
 
 2. Distance from eastern markets. 
 
 NEW MEXICO 
 
 Although some commercial apple plantings are foimd in the 
 Rio Grande Valley and in the Farmington district in San Juan 
 County in the extreme northwestern part of the state, interest 
 in New Mexico centers chiefly in the Pecos Valley where the 
 heaviest apple plantings are in Chaves County in the vicinity of 
 Roswell. The advantages of this county are: 
 
 1. Acreage is young, in many cases well cared for and capable 
 of producing high quality fruit in favorable seasons. 
 
 2. Proximity to Texas markets, particularly advantageous for 
 the Jonathan crop which matures earlier than in the Northwest. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Occasional frost-injury which destroys large portions of the 
 crop. 
 
 2. Lighter yields than in many of the northwest irrigated 
 sections. 
 
 3. Region difficult of access. 
 
 The above discussion of some of the advantages and 
 disadvantages common to the more important apple re- 
 gions will serve in a general way to outline briefly the 
 conditions to be expected in different parts of the United 
 States. It is not to be considered complete and is un- 
 doubtedly inapplicable to many individual cases. 
 
 The purchase of a farm is one which requires more in- 
 tensive study and consideration than such generalizations 
 as have been given. The long period of years required 
 to bring an orchard to full bearing signifies a long term of 
 ownership. Fruit-gTowing is not entirely comparable with 
 
116 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 general farming and as is the case with all specialized 
 industries the inexperienced individual is at somewhat of 
 a disadvantage in passing on the relative merits of dif- 
 ferent investments. 
 
 CHOOSING THE SITE FOR A FEUIT-FABM 
 
 In the purchase of a fruit-farm, the prospective in- 
 vestor should keep many points in mind. In the following 
 discussion, the more important points will be considered 
 in the purchase or selection of a site for an apple orchard. 
 
 Raw verms planted land. 
 
 The first problem is whether to purchase a bearing 
 orchard or to buy raw land and set trees. The relative 
 cheapness of undeveloped land is usually a most attrac- 
 tive feature and the investor very often overlooks the fact 
 that it requires from eight to ten years in irrigated sec- 
 tions and from twelve to fifteen years in non-irrigated 
 districts for an apple orchard to attain real commercial 
 bearing. If the investor has other income or can afford 
 to wait for returns, the planting of an orchard in a favor- 
 able locality will usually prove profitable. 
 
 Buying raw land in the hope of paying for its develop- 
 ment and of making a living at the same time by farming 
 between the rows is seldom feasible. No definite recom- 
 mendations can be made to fit all cases, but as a rule 
 the more profitable ventures result from the investment of 
 at least a part of the available capital in bearing orchard. 
 Very often adjoining raw land may be purchased which 
 can be set to trees if the owner desires to extend his 
 plantings. 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 117 
 
 Time to buy. 
 
 The time to buy is usually when every one wants to 
 sell, although this does not determine the relative merits 
 of the different purchases. The place to buy is in a rec- 
 ognized fruit region. Apple-growing is an established 
 industry and one which will prove profitable over a long 
 period of years, but which may not pay for a short period. 
 No farming enterprise has experienced the ups and downs 
 of fruit-growing. The men who made money were those 
 who, through far-sightedness or good fortune, invested 
 when the tide was low and who remained in the business. 
 A period of good years will always follow one of poor 
 years, and the fact that apple production is not highly 
 sensitive to demand protects the man who invests at the 
 proper time. For example, the total acreage set to apple 
 trees in the decade 1910 to 1920 has been small con- 
 sidering the United States as a whole. It would appear 
 from this that the present apple-growers are approaching 
 a period of prosperity. The cyclic tendencies of apple- 
 growing are exceedingly important from the investor's 
 standpoint, and much depends on the particular time 
 that an investment is made. 
 
 Syndicate projects. 
 
 Investment in syndicate farms or large orchard pro- 
 jects has been discussed elsewhere. It has been the obser- 
 vation of the writers that syndicate farming of any kind, 
 on any type of soil where the owner does not directly over- 
 see the operations, is seldom successful. The same is 
 true to a great extent for large orchard projects. Pros- 
 pective investors would do well to avoid strictly all so- 
 
118 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 called orchard projects, particularly those in which the 
 tracts are to be managed by promoters and turned over 
 to the purchaser after a period of years. The purchase 
 of slightly run-down orchards at reasonable prices has 
 often resulted in good returns, particularly when the 
 trees are of good varieties. The question of renovation 
 will receive separate treatment. 
 
 Yields and varieties. 
 
 Separate chapters are devoted to the discussion of yields 
 and to the selection of varieties. Before choosing a farm, 
 both of these points should be carefully considered. Re- 
 liable performance records over a period of five years 
 will indicate the relative productivity of different varieties 
 on typical orchards of any given region. This is a far 
 more reliable guide than to judge productivity by the 
 apparent size and vigor of the trees. A few well-known 
 commercial varieties adapted to the district are always 
 to be desired. Phenomenal yields occur at times in nearly 
 every region, therefore the average rather than the maxi- 
 mum should be sought as a basis for calculation. The 
 biennial bearing is fairly well pronounced in most regions 
 and the lean years must always be considered. 
 
 Proximity to market. 
 
 In years of low prices the marginal regions or those 
 remote from market suffer most keenly, since freight rates 
 consume an inordinate proportion of the returns. This 
 should not be overlooked when one contemplates buying 
 an orchard at a great distance from market. Exception- 
 ally high yields and excellent quality of the fruit may 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 119 
 
 overcome in a measure the burden of heavy freight charges. 
 Thus two of the most extensive apple-growing regions in 
 the United States have developed in Washington, many 
 hundreds of miles from the primary apple markets. The 
 freight on apples from the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys 
 represents a very considerable item. Granting such no- 
 table exceptions, great distance from market must always 
 be viewed as a decided handicap. Losses incident to car 
 shortage, damage in shipment and difficulties due to long 
 range business transactions are always emphasized under 
 such conditions. Railroad facilities, advantages of com- 
 petitive systems, and the possibility of boat shipping are 
 worthy of careful consideration. 
 
 Distance from shipping station. 
 
 Improved roads and automobile trucks are making long 
 hauls more economical and yet the distance from the or- 
 chard to the shipping station is a most important factor 
 in determining the price of land. The investor can af- 
 ford to pay considerably more for orchard land near a 
 shipping station. Investigations in 1914 on 179 farms in 
 the Hood River Valley and in western Colorado indicate 
 that the average cost of hauling the shooks to the farm 
 and the packed fruit to the station represents approxi- 
 mately one cent a bushel for each mile. The cost to-day, 
 . however, is about two cents. 
 
 ; Taking this present figure in considering an orchard 
 i yielding 225 bushels or 75 barrels to the acre, each addi- 
 2 tional mile in the distance from the shipping station 
 - would represent in these two items alone an annual cost of 
 ^ $4.50 an acre, or $45 an acre where the distance was ten 
 miles. The cost of hauling other supplies has not been 
 
120 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 considered, nor the social proximity to towns and cities. 
 Furthermore, possible injury to fruit subjected to exces- 
 sively long hauls over rough roads is not an unimportant 
 feature. 
 
 In considering long hauls to shipping stations, it is 
 interesting to note that in the Piedmont section of Virginia 
 not infrequently a load of Albemarle Pippins may be 
 hauled thirty miles over rough mountain roads. In the 
 mountains of North Carolina and Georgia one may see a 
 mountain schooner laden with apples en route to a town 
 some seventy-five miles distant. The latter somewhat 
 commonplace occurrence is usually in complete disregard 
 of any existing railroad facilities. In many of these more 
 remote regions oxen furnish the motive power. In such 
 regions a three- or four-day trip to town with a load of 
 apples takes more the form of an outing and cost produc- 
 tion is irrelevant. 
 
 Unfortunately, long hauls and poor roads commonly 
 go together. As roads improve and automobile trucks 
 come into more common use, distances to stations will as- 
 sume less importance. At present the prospective investor 
 should consider it highly desirable to have less than a 
 six-mile haul. 
 
 Bearing age of trees. 
 
 In considering the purchase of a very young orchard, 
 one should not be misled by exaggerated accounts of early 
 bearing. The age at which trees come into full bearing is 
 somewhat variable, depending on the variety and the 
 region. Statements regarding the large annual yields 
 which may be expected from five- and six-year-old trees 
 are largely untrue. Occasionally trees of this age bear 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 121 
 
 considerable fruit, but in buying young acreage one should 
 seldom figiire that an orchard will attain even fair com- 
 mercial bearing before eight years for irrigated sections 
 or ten to twelve years for non-irrigated districts. The age 
 at which trees cease to be profitable depends somewhat on 
 the region, but more on the care and variety. Most of the 
 bearing orchards in western New York are forty or more 
 years old and some remain profitable at fifty and even 
 sixty years. These trees have received moderately good 
 care. Those which have been allowed to break down, to 
 become infected with disease and insect pests, and which 
 have not received proper cultural treatment have long since 
 passed out of profitable bearing. 
 
 The matter of longevity is often brought up in con- 
 nection with investment in irrigated orchards. The 
 question is asked whether irrigated trees forced into early 
 bearing will be profitable at the end of fifty years as is 
 the case with some New York orchards. Early maturity 
 usually indicates shorter life. If the western growers 
 would maintain fertility by cover-crops and by the appli- 
 cation of fertilizer in quantities commensurate with crop 
 production, the drain on soil fertility would be largely 
 offset. Greater care and protection given the trees 
 against insects and diseases will also have an important 
 influence on the life of the trees in these intensive regions. 
 Since practically all the commercial orchards on irri- 
 gated land have been set out in the past twenty-five years, 
 there are no concrete examples as a basis for comparison. 
 In speculating on the longevity of the irrigated orchards, 
 . it is safe to say that the present plan of close planting 
 - must be greatly modified to meet the increased size of 
 i the trees. At present the average planting distance is 
 
122 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 under thirty feet. An ultimate removal of one-third to 
 one-half of the trees seems almost unavoidable. Even 
 under such circumstances it hardly seems probable that 
 the western irrigated orchards will remain in profitable 
 bearing as long, for example, as the western New York 
 orchards, the reason being not the longevity of the trees 
 so much as the necessity for producing the highest grade 
 fruit. The success of western irrigated orchards has been 
 in the marketable superiority of its fruit. High quality 
 fruit is more easily produced on young trees and it seems 
 probable that the western grower will be inclined to aban- 
 don older orchards and set new trees which quickly come 
 into bearing under his system of orchard management. 
 
 Diseases and insect pests. 
 
 Several commercial apple regions have entirely passed 
 out of existence on account of the prevalence of certain 
 insects and diseases. A bewildering list of insects and 
 diseases might be suggested to the prospective investor 
 since each locality has a special number of pests which 
 are more or less serious. This subject is treated more 
 fully in Chapter X. 
 
 In most regions spraying enters very materially into 
 the cost of production, representing in some cases over 
 12 per cent of all costs. This figure, however, is only 
 an item of expense. It in no way indicates the loss in 
 fruit or injury to trees which may result from the depre- 
 dation of prevalent orchard pests. 
 
 The prospective investor would do well to study the 
 spraying program of the locality which he is considering 
 and inform himself as to the number and character of the 
 applications necessary to the production of high marketable 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 123 
 
 quality fruit. There may be a great variation even among 
 orchards in the same locality. Once pests have gained a 
 foothold in an orchard, their eradication may be an ex- 
 pensive process. Newly developed regions with young 
 trees are as a rule singularly free from insects and disease. 
 They are not guaranteed immune, however, for sooner or 
 later the pests which might be expected to thrive under 
 such conditions usually appear. Vigilance in controlling 
 early infection will very materially reduce later loss. 
 
 Some pests are very much more expensive to control 
 than others. Apple-scab, apple-blotch, and bitter-rot are 
 serious fungous diseases which the prospective purchaser 
 should keep in mind, not that they should be absolutely 
 avoided, for one or more appears in many very important 
 regions, but that their degree of prevalence should be con- 
 sidered. It makes a difference whether one or two fun- 
 gicide applications will suffice for their control or whether 
 five or six may be necessary. In some regions one spray 
 controls codlin-moth, in others six to seven applications 
 may be required. 
 
 A careful inspection of an orchard at harvest time will 
 usually reveal the loss in fruit which may be expected 
 from insects and diseases, although in some instances and 
 particularly with fungous diseases, the extent of the in- 
 jury varies widely in different seasons. 
 
 Climatic influences. 
 
 Climatic influences should be carefully considered in 
 relation to the purchase of a fruit-farm. The critical 
 period for the apple crop is at the time the trees are in 
 bloom. Frost-injury to the blossoms or damp rainy 
 weather to prevent pollination are the most frequent 
 
124 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 causes of crop failures. Official weather reports will as- 
 sist the investor in determining whether damp rainy 
 weather and days of low temperature are common during 
 the blooming period. A commercial project embracing 
 several thousand acres of orchard land has developed in 
 a region where frost occurs in practically every month of 
 the year and where the minimum temperature during the 
 blossoming time clearly indicates that frost-injury is un- 
 avoidable. An occasional dip in temperature to a point 
 slightly below freezing does not necessarily signify exces- 
 sive frost-injury, but recurring temperature at this criti- 
 cal period of 27° F. or lower is significant of probable 
 injury. 
 
 The question of a particular site within a given region 
 very often has an important bearing on susceptibility to 
 frost-injury. A north or northeastern slope is usually 
 preferred on account of its tendency to retard growth in the 
 spring until danger has passed. Frost-injury is extremely 
 erratic at times, striking here and there in an almost in- 
 explicable manner. A fatal temperature on one occa- 
 sion may result in very slight damage at other times. 
 Other things being equal, higher elevation is preferable 
 on account of better air drainage, and also soil drainage. 
 The tendency of cold air to settle from high to lower land 
 makes pockets and valleys without broad outlets compara- 
 tively dangerous. An example is afforded in the Rogue 
 River Valley near Medford, Oregon. The orchards on the 
 higher land, known as the foothill orchards, are much less 
 susceptible to frost-injury than those on the floor of the 
 valley ; sufficiently so that the practice of smudging, still 
 common in the latter orchards, has been largely discon- 
 tinued on the foothills. 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 125 
 
 Damp rainy weather at blossoming time may be even a 
 more serious factor than frost, since it prevents insect 
 activity in pollination; furthermore, it interferes greatly 
 with necessary spraying operations. Such unfavorable 
 weather conditions often exist throughout the Middle 
 West at blooming time. Hail injury and loss by heavy 
 windstorms are much more prevalent in certain regions 
 than in others. While personal investigation of the im- 
 portant points is necessary, reference to official weather 
 records will prove an invaluable guide. Meteorologists 
 agree that climate does not change, but state that it may 
 run in cycles. A study of a several year period is, there- 
 fore, advisable. 
 
 Size of farm. 
 
 The size of farm to buy depends on whether apple-grow- 
 ing is to be the sole or only one of several important enter- 
 prises. A discussion of farm organizations has been given 
 elsewhere. An orchard of less than fifteen acres even in 
 the most intensive regions seems hardly advisable, since 
 the overhead for equipment and general supervision would 
 scarcely permit economical management of a smaller 
 acreage; furthermore, the gross income would necessarily 
 limit very large returns. The average farm in the inten- 
 sive irrigated sections is scarcely over ten acres and twenty 
 acres is often considered more than one man can handle. 
 There is a surprising relation between the maximum yields 
 and limited acreage, particularly for the farmer who 
 diversifies. In other words, a small acreage well cared 
 for very often gives a greater total production than a much 
 larger acreage. For the intensive apple-grower, an annual 
 production of at least 5,000 bushels is necessary to insure 
 
126 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 a fair labor income. The acreage will of course vary with 
 the regions. For the more general farmer, the size of 
 the orchard shonld be goveraed by the acreage to which 
 careful attention can be given. Ten acres or even less may 
 be advisable since an orchard very often suffers from a 
 pressure of other farm work. The day of poorly cared 
 for commercial orchards has passed. 
 
 • Necessary capital. 
 
 All available capital should not be invested^ in raw land 
 for planting or in non-bearing orchards. The more or 
 less hazardous nature of specialized farming emphasizes 
 the need for sufficient capital to tide the farmer over the 
 poor years. The fruit-grower must follow a far-sighted 
 policy if he is to maintain his orchard in a high state of 
 productivity. Such a policy requires considerable expen- 
 diture at times when there may be no returns. If the 
 trees are allowed to suffer one year, the effect may be 
 noticeable for many years to come. Neglected orchards 
 are explained in many instances by the owners not actually 
 having available capital to meet necessary expenses. It 
 is not because they fail to recognize the wisdom and im- 
 portance of careful spraying, pruning and the like, but 
 rather because immediate needs for living expenses must 
 receive first consideration. 
 
 Specialized apple-growing can not be undertaken suc- 
 cessfully on the small margin which suffices for general, 
 farming. In other words, the investor who expects toj 
 devote himself exclusively to apple-growing should have! 
 several thousand dollars or outside income in order that he 
 may safely buy and operate a farm sufficiently large to 
 yield a good labor income. Nothing less than a 50 per 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 127 
 
 cent payment should be considered as a safe margin in 
 buying a full bearing orchard. For a non-bearing orchard, 
 the buyer must carefully figure the outlay required to 
 bring the trees to full bearing and also his living expenses 
 for the meantime. Inter-crops may help to defray some 
 of the running expenses, although there is a tendency to 
 over-estimate income from this source. 
 
 This leads to a discussion of the amount of money which 
 the investor may expect to borrow when apple land is 
 given for security. Attractive terms often may be se- 
 cured at the time of purchase, particularly when the 
 owner is anxious to sell or is getting a good price for his 
 land. In such cases the purchaser may not require addi- 
 tional capital beyond his first payment. However, if he 
 is obliged to seek credit from a banker, he may be sur- 
 prised to learn that apple trees are not always considered 
 a permanent improvement and in such cases appraisals for 
 loans are based on the value of the land for general 
 crops. Such has been the decision rendered by the Fed- 
 eral Loan Board in establishing a basis for loans on fruit 
 lands throughout the country. Individuals may of course 
 show a different attitude, considering that although the 
 fruit-trees may not be considered permanent improvement, 
 the land may have a greater value on account of its 
 ability to produce exceptionally fine fruit. Credit will 
 always retain much of the personal element and will 
 vary with the prosperity of the apple industry. Further- 
 more, cooperation among growers and the influences tend- 
 ing to stabilize the industry may be expected to reflect 
 materially on credit and current interest rates. 
 
 For the farmer with less than several thousand dol- 
 lars' capital or who does not wish to devote himself ex- 
 
128 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 clusively to apple-growing, the selection of a more general 
 farm in a recogiiized apple section where land values are 
 not too high, will afford an opportunity of gradually work- 
 ing into the apple industry. A small bearing orchard 
 would serve as a nucleus and the returns from it could be 
 used in developing additional plantings, rurthermore, 
 the experience gained from caring for the older orchard 
 would be profitable as a guide for the development of more 
 acreage. A 100- to 200-acre farm with five to twenty 
 acres of well-cared-for apple trees is a good arrangement 
 and one which would have the advantage of safety, better 
 credit and lower interest rates. The farmer's living ex- 
 penses could be secured from the general farm land, leav- 
 ing him independent of his apple crop in years of failure. 
 
 Labor conditions. 
 
 Labor conditions may affect greatly the advisability of 
 choosing a fruit-farm in certain localities. Labor costs 
 in some instances exceed 50 per cent of the total cost of 
 producing apples, exclusive of interest on investments. 
 Much of this labor is performed by the grower himself, 
 although at hai-vest time and with such intensive opera- 
 tions as spraying and thinning, the character and price 
 of available labor is very important. A study of the scale 
 of wages for orchard labor reveals a disparagement of 50 
 per cent between different regions. Beginning with the 
 low wage scale in southern states, labor rates increase 
 and are at their highest in the Northwest. 
 
 The amount of work done in a day enters into all cal 
 culations and cheap labor may be the most expensive 
 in the end. For example, the average picker in the North- 
 west picks about twice as many apples as the average 
 
 f 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 139 
 
 southern laborer. The losses incident to a scarcity of 
 labor at harvest time, when all the fruit may be lost if 
 not picked and disposed of within proper season, need not 
 be emphasized. The subject of available local labor sup- 
 ply should receive careful attention by the investor. 
 
 Social conditions. 
 
 A factor which has entered very materially into the 
 development of most commercial apple regions is the ques- 
 tion of social advantages. One should carefully consider 
 social conditions before investing in fruit land. Fruit- 
 growing is usually looked on as a pleasurable and inter- 
 esting pursuit. Furthermore, intensive fruit regions are 
 necessarily thickly settled and provide social advantages 
 superior to those in the average rural communities. The 
 desire to live among educated persons and to have the 
 advantages of excellent schools and churches and means of 
 social recreation is strong. A farm in a community where 
 such conditions prevail unquestionably has an added com- 
 mercial value. 
 
 Fruit-growing has always attracted city people, and in 
 specialized fruit regions to-day are many who, after re- 
 tirement from business, sought fruit-growing as a health- 
 ful vocation and yet one which might be expected to offer 
 fair returns on investment. If one seeks an isolated loca- 
 tion for a fruit-farm, opportunities for converting the 
 property into cash in case it is desirable to sell will be few, 
 since the class of persons attracted to fruit-growing vnll 
 look particularly for favorable social conditions. Social 
 advantages should not completely sway one's business 
 judgment, however, and should enter into consideration 
 as only one of a number of important factors. 
 
130 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Regional developments. 
 
 Closely allied with social conditions as a factor in influ- 
 encing choice of a farm is the question of regional devel- 
 opment. The advantages of a centralized industry where 
 all are interested in a common end need scarcely be 
 enumerated. Within this category will come all the bene- 
 fits resulting from cooperation and community effort. 
 Shipping and storage facilities, sales organizations and 
 availability of skilled labor may be mentioned as largely 
 dependent on the state of regional development. Buyers 
 are attracted to the regions where fruit may be purchased 
 in considerable quantities. The reputation of a region for 
 shipping high class fruit has much to do with the selling 
 price of the individual's crop. Western New York, Shen- 
 andoah and Hood River are names which immediately 
 summon to the buyer's mind a fairly well defined idea of 
 the quality and variety of apples grown in each respective 
 region. The dijfficulties in keeping an orchard free from 
 pests and diseases are greatly increased in a community 
 where neglected orchards abound. Furthermore, if the 
 region has the reputation of shipping rather poor quality 
 fruit, the grower will encounter an inherent prejudice 
 against all fruit from that particular section. 
 
 8oa. 
 
 No other item should receive more careful consideration] 
 in choosing a fruit-farm than the question of soil. Soil! 
 requirements for the apple vary somewhat with the variety^l 
 but practically all authorities agree that a deep, friable, 
 loamy soil with good water drainage, describes briefly the 
 soil condition to which the apple is best adapted. This 
 
Plate VIIT. — Upper, Eight-foot n.-i^ .. operation in tlie 
 Rogue River Valley, Oregon, showing a common method of culti- 
 vation. Lower, Spring-tooth harrow in use in a northwest or- 
 chard. This implement is very generally used Avhere clean culti- 
 vation is practiced. 
 
Locality and Site for the Commercial Orchard 131 
 
 somewhat general description will imply that the apple 
 might find a suitable soil habitat in almost all of our 
 better general farming regions, and this fact is attested by 
 the very wide distribution of apple plantings throughout 
 the United States. 
 
 Good drainage and soil depth are prime soil requisites 
 for apple land. Natural drainage is essential since the 
 apple tree does not thrive with wet feet. A subsoil depth 
 of at least six or eight feet is necessary to insure proper 
 root development and a sufficiently large water reservoir. 
 The presence of hardpan, ledges of rock, or similar strata, 
 within a few feet of the surface tends to obstruct root 
 growth and the capillary movement of soil-moisture, and 
 for this reason is highly undesirable, if not prohibitive. 
 Deep-rooted leguminous crops such as alfalfa may remedy 
 soil defects of this nature, while dynamiting tree holes be- 
 fore planting can be depended on to loosen up the subsoil 
 to a greater or less extent. It is much safer, however, 
 to avoid all shallow soils or those with the objectionable 
 subsoil strata. In one widely advertised apple region, 
 dynamiting all tree holes before planting was recom- 
 mended and universally practiced. All the trees grew 
 well until they attained four or five years of age, at which 
 time the root system began to permeate soils unaffected 
 by the dynamite and the result was a greatly checked 
 growth. It would, therefore, seem advisable to select a 
 soil in which dynamiting is not necessary, although the 
 practice may be beneficial in some instances. 
 
 In non-irrigated sections, soil depth has an even greater 
 significance, namely in the conservation of soil-moisture 
 against drought. The importance of an upward movement 
 of moisture by capillarity is well known. If an imperme- 
 
133 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 able stratum obstructs this movement, the water-holding 
 capacity of a particular soil may be very greatly reduced. 
 Furthermore, when heavy rains occur in the spring, this 
 same stratum will prevent the downward course of the 
 moisture and cause the condition known as wet feet. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 TEE FARM-MANAGEMENT PHASES OF APPLE- 
 GROWING 
 
 The problem confronting the farmer who would pro- 
 duce apples is not alone to raise the fruit successfully. 
 The enterprise must pay, and this depends on many con- 
 siderations aside from good crops of apples and good 
 markets for them. He must maintain a farm enterprise, 
 or an establishment. What some of these considerations 
 are, we may now discover. 
 
 FARM ORGANIZATION IN RELATION TO THE ORCHARD 
 
 The relation which the apple orchard bears to other 
 farm enterprises differs greatly in the various states and 
 regions. It varies from a subsidiary or secondary under- 
 taking in many of the eastern states to a highly specialized 
 and major enterprise in the Pacific Northwest regions. 
 
 The type of orchard which is fast taking the lead in 
 production of high quality commercial fruit is the spe- 
 cialized planting operated by the individual farmer or his 
 manager. This type is prevalent in the box-apple-produc- 
 ing sections and is also found, to a large extent, in Vir- 
 ginia, northwest Arkansas, parts of western New York, 
 southern Pennsylvania, and many other limited localities. 
 In fact, in all the well-defined commercial areas, the apple 
 
 orchard is usually the main enterprise on the farm. 
 
 133 
 
134 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 There are many obvious advantages in this system. If an 
 orchard is the main enterprise, it will usually be given the 
 care and detailed attention necessary to insure its success 
 as a separate proposition. 
 
 However, highly specialized orcharding leaves out two 
 very important points which must be considered — the 
 danger of low prices and the difficulty in employing labor 
 effectively. There is always the possibility of a period 
 of low fruit prices, in which case the old adage " Do not 
 have all your eggs in one basket," holds true. One-crop 
 farming is successful from the standpoint of heavy yields 
 and high quality production, but the average grower or 
 farmer needs an income every year to meet his current 
 expenses. If some year the frost takes his crop or prices 
 are so low as to be below cost of production, he has nothing 
 for his investment or year's labor, and in the case of two 
 or three successive failures, such as have occurred in many 
 sections, it. is only the exceptional grower who can survive. 
 Such conditions actually force farmers into diversification. 
 It is much better for a grower to plan originally for a 
 sufficient degree of diversification to insure his living in 
 case of crop failure, for if he is later forced to adjust his 
 business, extra land may not be available and the future 
 of his whole farm organization may be seriously impaired 
 and disrupted. In many cases, orchard enterprises which 
 would have been successful had they been connected with 
 general farms, failed for lack of income in poor years. 
 
 Another principal advantage in diversification is that it 
 insures better distribution of labor. Help may be hired 
 and profitably employed by the month or year. In the 
 same way, the owner or operator may engage himself in 
 productive labor on the farm throughout the entire year. 
 
Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 135 
 
 It is important to recognize, however, that the diversi- 
 fied fruit-farm may become so varied that the operator is 
 giving practically all of his attention to other crops and 
 is neglecting the orchard. 
 
 In low price years, diversification was urged in the 
 Pacific N^orthwest and elsewhere, since orchards often did 
 not pay interest on the high-priced land. If the invest- 
 ment i;5 already in the land, it does not follow that apples 
 should not be grown when they do not pay interest on the 
 investment. They may pay a better rate of interest than 
 would any other crop. In sections in which trees are 
 capable of high production, and land is held at such fig- 
 ures as $1,500 to $2,500 an acre, diversification cannot be 
 recommended beyond a limited degree sufficient to provide 
 home garden truck for the family and feed for the work 
 horses. In districts such as Wenatchee and Yakima, the 
 prevailing labor is by the day, employed when needed. 
 This form of employment obviates the necessity for the 
 grower to find work for his men outside of the busy season. 
 
 The advantages of a highly specialized and cultivated 
 orchard located in a specialized district are: (1) The as- 
 surance that the orchard will be given detailed care and 
 attention since the operator depends directly on it for 
 a living. (2) Labor is likely to be more skilled and 
 more expert if employed only in fruit-growing and not 
 in the cultivation of other crops. (3) Growers are forced 
 to cooperate and work in harmony in order that the fruit 
 may be marketed successfully. (4) Standardization is 
 emphasized and encouraged, both in scientific methods of 
 management and in handling and putting up the fruit for 
 the market. (5) The best varieties survive and the poor 
 ones are soon eliminated under keen competition. (6) 
 
136 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 The specialist is nearly always more thorough, more ef- 
 ficient, and produces a better quality of product. 
 
 The outstanding advantages of a modified system of 
 diversified farming, with the orchard still the main en-J 
 terprise, are: (1) There is an assurance of more profit- 
 able distribution of labor throughout the season. (2) 
 Month labor can usually be employed, thus effecting con- 
 siderable saving in labor rates, and insuring a constant 
 supply. With a specialized orchard, unless it is very 
 large, only day labor may be employed profitably. (3) 
 The grower is protected against years of poor fruit prices 
 by having sufficient crops and diversification to insure a 
 living. (4) When live-stock is kept on farms, a part of 
 the manure thus produced may be used to build up the fer- 
 tility of the orchard. (5) The orchard is a long-time 
 investment, and unless supported by a diversified farm 
 requires much capital to bring to full bearing age and 
 productivity. 
 
 Many instances might be cited to emphasize the im- 
 portance of diversification in connection with fruit-grow- 
 ing. Ninety-nine mortgages are said to have been fore- ^ 
 closed in a certain western fruit district in one day. 
 These failures resulted from paying a high price for 
 land when the purchaser had insufficient capital to wait for 
 the orchard to come into profitable bearing. Low prices 
 for fruit added to the number of failures. Much the same 
 occurred in several districts, particularly in the Eogue 
 River Valley, Oregon, Grand Valley, Colorado, the Bitter 
 Root Valley, Montana, and parts of Idaho and Washington. 
 These failures were in most cases due to false advertising 
 stating that fortunes were to be made in the apple busi- 
 ness with profitable crops when the trees were five years 
 
Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 137 
 
 old. These failures do not necessarily argue against the 
 regions themselves but against specialized farming with too 
 little capital in sections not adapted to that type of enter- 
 prise. 
 
 The Bitter Eoot Valley, Montana, one of the finest gen- 
 eral farming, grain and stock localities, is hardly adapted 
 to specialized fruit-growing. Of localities in the United 
 States probably best adapted to high specialization in ap- 
 ples are the Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, Washington, 
 Hood Eiver Valley, Oregon, and Pajaro Valley, Califor- 
 nia. There are sections in the East where specialized ap- 
 ple-growing may be justified even to the extent of ignor- 
 ing all other types of farming. However, it must be con- 
 ceded that some diversification is usually advisable for 
 the man with limited capital. 
 
 A third type of farm organization is common in non- 
 commercial districts, and even in the heart of such com- 
 mercial regions in New York and the central west states. 
 This third type is seen on the general farm where the 
 orchard is of secondary importance, too large for a family 
 or home orchard, yet too small and poorly cultivated to 
 be classed as commercial. In practice, orchards, when 
 made a secondary or an incidental enterprise, are seldom 
 a financial success. When orchards of this type are elim- 
 inated or put on a first-class commercial basis, the com- 
 mercial industry of the Central West and East will assume 
 new vigor. Production will be more standardized and will 
 enable eastern growers to hold their markets against fruit 
 from other regions. 
 
 Semi-commercial orchards of this type, partly or wholly 
 neglected, occur on thousands of farms in the East to-day. 
 A visit to Genesee or Oswego County, ^ew York, will 
 
138 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 { 
 
 reveal striking illustrations of such conditions. Genesee 
 County is interested in potatoes and beans; Oswego in 
 growing pears, dairying, and other kinds of farming. In 
 these counties the average orchard is decidedly a side- 
 line. Some of the orchards might be renovated profitably 
 but this is only advisable when the owners intend to give 
 their trees continual attention. It is impossible to pro- 
 duce strictly commercial fruit if careless methods are em- 
 ployed. A neglected orchard which is not a source of 
 profit should be cut down rather than be allowed to breed 
 disease and insect pests to attack good trees in the neigh- 
 borhood. The semi-commercial orchard was the prevail- 
 ing type in the past but it is rapidly giving way under 
 competition. 
 
 The family orchard need not be discussed here, other 
 than to say that it fits in well with nearly any farm organi- 
 zation. It serves an entirely different purpose and is notj 
 considered from a purely profit-making standpoint. f ' 
 
 The fourth type of farm organization to be discussed in 
 relation to apple-growing is the stock company or cor- 
 poration. It is often spoken of as " syndicate farming." 
 Much depends on the motive behind such corporations. 
 As a rule, they are merely stock-selling schemes. The 
 record of such organizations in various parts of the 
 country has been one of conspicuous failures, particularly 
 with those which capitalized orchard land at so much an 
 acre in an endeavor to sell stock or bonds to a large num- 
 ber of investors. This type of promotion lends itself to I 
 fraud and misrepresentation since it flourishes in times { 
 of prosperity and in good fruit years when profits are 
 large. Glittering prospects are held out to investors and 
 appeals are made to a class of persons unfamiliar with 
 
Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 139 
 
 any type of farming. Fruit-growing is essentially a 
 specialized one-man enterprise. 
 
 Following are listed some of the advantages and disad- 
 vantages of so-called " syndicate farming " where the or- 
 ganization is legitimate and well managed : 
 
 Advantages: (1) Economy in the purchase of sup- 
 plies; (2) possibility for more effective marketing of the 
 produce; (3) improved standardization of grade and 
 pack. 
 
 Disadvantages: (1) Possibility that overhead in the 
 way of salaries and other expenses will become excessive 
 and disastrous in poor years. The farmer can retrench 
 but fixed and overhead expenses of a syndicate are not 
 easily lowered. (2) Lack of personal interest in super- 
 vision and labor. Farming is not comparable with man- 
 ufacturing plants in this respect. There can not be the 
 organization and division of labor as in a factory. In 
 an orchard, men are being constantly shifted from one 
 task to another with the accompanying tendency to saun- 
 ter. The hired employee is more wasteful of material and 
 careless with equipment if not immediately supervised by 
 the owner. (3) The possibilities of greatly increasing 
 production in order to meet expensive overhead are lim- 
 ! ited. A frost may offset the most scientific and carefully 
 . prepared program. 
 
 : Syndicate farming sounds plausible but seldom works 
 . out. If land is purchased at reasonable figures, very often 
 ^ profit is made on increased values. As a type of farm or- 
 fganization, however, it has not been precedented with 
 general success. 
 
 !i The foregoing discussion relating to farm organiza- 
 ji;tion must of necessity apply to average conditions and to 
 
140 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 the average individual. The individual must adapt the 
 organization of his plans to the economic conditions as they 
 exist in his particular community. He must take advan- 
 tage of the favorable, conditions in order to combat the 
 unfavorable ones. It must be recognized that commercial 
 orcharding is seldom successful as a side-line enterprise 
 and, while it is important that there should be diversifi- 
 cation in order to provide some outside income, the or- 
 chard should always remain a leading if not specialized 
 undertaking. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF TENANTEY 
 
 The problem of renting enters less- into the apple-grow- 
 ing industry than into almost any other type of farming. 
 It is seldom profitable to entrust the care of an orchard to 
 the tenant system and this has discouraged the practice of 
 renting among the owners of friiit-land generally. In 
 years of crop failure, the tenant will not and can not be 
 expected to devote himself to the intense care which might 
 result in a profitable, crop after his lease has expired. 
 Obviously a long-term lease with detailed specifications as 
 to the number and character of sprays to be applied, the 
 amount of pruning and cultivation to be given, and a. com- 
 plete understanding as to the harvesting methods, would 
 have many advantages over a short-time lease. And yet 
 even with such specifications, it is almost impossible to se- 
 cure the personal attention which is the secret of success. 
 
 The basis for renting apple orchards depends largely 
 on the individual orchard and also varies considerably in 
 different regions. A system in which the owner has sup- 
 ervision is obviously desirable from the owner's standpoint. 
 A number of systems of tenantry will be discussed briefly. 
 
Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 141 
 
 System I. 
 
 Kenter furnishes': Owner furnishes: 
 
 1. Half of all labor and material 1. Half of all labor and material 
 
 costs. costs. 
 
 2. Half of all equipment and 2. Half of all equipment and 
 
 live-stock. live-stock. 
 
 3. Dvpelling for tenant. 
 Renter takes: Owner takes: 
 
 1. One-third of packed fruit. 1. Two-thirds of packed fruit. 
 
 Under the above system, the owner and tenant enter into 
 a straight partnership to operate the fruit-farm, first set- 
 ting aside one-third of the packed fruit to go to the owner 
 for rental on his farm. When the tenant works alone he 
 receives half wages. If one additional man is needed, his 
 services are paid for by the owner to offset the labor of the 
 tenant. Under this plan a desirable man with little capi- 
 tal would be able to get a start, while the owner would 
 be protected by having a direct voice in the operation of 
 his orchard. 
 
 System II. 
 
 Renter furnishes: Owner furnishes: 
 
 1. All labor, material, and equip- 1. Farm and suitable dwelling. 
 
 ment with the exception of 2. All of the fertilizer and mate- 
 fertilizer and material for rial for the winter spray, 
 
 the winter spray. 3. One-half of the barrels or 
 
 2. One-half of the barrels or boxes. 
 
 boxes. 
 
 Renter takes: Owner takes: 
 
 1. Half of packed fruit and de- 1. Half of the packed fruit- 
 livers the other half to the 
 warehouse. 
 
 In western New York where very often the orchard is 
 only one of several enterprises on a general farm, the 
 above system of tenantry is common. Under this system 
 the owner exercises an appreciable, yet less far-reaching 
 influence in the management of his orchard than under 
 
142 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 plan No. I. The second plan affords the owner an at- 
 tractive contract, since it gives to him a large part of the 
 crop with little cash outlay. On the whole, the system 
 is fairly equitable, although in years of low prices the 
 tenant might be put at a relative disadvantage. The 
 owner furnishes the fertilizer, since that is somewhat in 
 the nature of a permanent improvement. He also fur- 
 nishes material for winter spray, an expensive item which 
 the tenant could ill afford to bear fn years of total crop 
 failure, and yet one which the owner cannot venture to 
 omit if he values the vigor of his trees. 
 
 System III. 
 Renter furnishes: Owner furnishes: 
 
 1. All labor, material, and equip- 1. Farm and suitable dwelling, 
 ment. 
 
 Renter takes: Owner takes: 
 
 1, Three- fifths of crop. 1. Two-fifths of crop, delivered 
 
 in town and packed out in 
 barrels. 
 
 System IV. 
 
 Renter furnishes: Owner furnishes: 
 
 1. Equipment, all labor and ma- 1. Farm and suitable dwelling, 
 
 terial costs up to harvest. 
 
 2. Labor and material costs for 2. One-half of picking labor. 
 
 picking, packing and han- 
 dling one-half of the fruit. 
 
 Renter takes: Owner takes: 
 
 1. One-half of picked fruit, packs 1. One-half of picked fruit, packs 
 and handles it according to and handles it according to 
 
 his own judgment. his own judgment. 
 
 Under the above system, the owner is allowed the privi- 
 lege of grading and packing out his own fruit while the 
 same privilege is reserved for the tenant. A modified 
 
Farm-Management Phases of Apple-Growing 143 
 
 form of the above is seen when the owner furnishes half 
 of the picking labor and half of all labor and material 
 costs incident to the harvesting of the fruit, taking one- 
 half of the crop, but allowing the tenant entire supervision 
 of the orchard operations. 
 
 A study of an equitable basis for tenantry has revealed 
 that when the tenant is furnishing all the labor he is en- 
 titled to a larger proportion of the crop in years of exceed- 
 ingly heavy production. Otherwise the owner reaps prac- 
 tically all the benefits of a large crop. Unfortunately, 
 low prices prevail in heavy crop years. With straight 
 share rentals in such years, the owner obtains a large 
 amount of fruit which even at low prices makes good re- 
 turns. If the tenant, however, receives low prices for his 
 fruit, he has insufficient margin to cover the heavy ex- 
 penditure in harvesting the landlord's portion of the 
 crop. Some division of the labor and handling costs at 
 harvest time would seem more equitable. 
 
 Occasionally a long-term cash lease at a reasonable figure 
 can be secured on somewhat run-down orchards in a fav- 
 orable locality. Frequently such an orchard is making 
 little or no returns and a cash offer will be attractive to the 
 owner. For the experienced man with little capital, a 
 long-term lease with a view to building up and increasing 
 the yields from such an orchard sometimes proves a profit- 
 able venture, particularly when the owner considers that 
 his orchard will be improved and for such a reason grants 
 an otherwise low cash rental figure. Some special induce- 
 ment must be offered to a tenant, otherwise he can not 
 afford to devote his best energy towards building up a suc- 
 cessful orchard from which another will reap the ultimate 
 reward. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 ESTABLISHING THE APPLE ORCHARD 
 
 Thorough preparation of the land before planting is 
 exceedingly important if the apple orchard is to be well 
 established. Very often orchards are planted on pasture, 
 timbered, or sage-brush land where the soil has been un- 
 tilled. Timbered land, once cleared of stumps and brush, 
 usually lends itself well to early planting because of an 
 abundance of humus available for young trees. It is best 
 in nearly all cases, however, to anticipate planting by a 
 year or two in order thoroughly to subjugate the soil by 
 the growing of tilled or cover-crops. Soils which have 
 been depleted in fertility or which are low in humus-con- 
 tent may be built up by the growing of such legumes as 
 alfalfa or clover. In the case of arid or sage-brush lands 
 reclaimed for irrigation, the soil is usually low in humus- 
 content. In such instances the growing of alfalfa for one 
 or two seasons will usually repay the orchardist for delay 
 in planting. 
 
 Deep plowing should precede planting in every case, 
 for once the trees are established, deep cultivation is likely 
 to injure the rooting system. Dynamiting is sometimes 
 recommended when a hardpan or thin stratum of rock 
 occurs near the surface, but ordinarily this practice is not 
 to be advised and such soils should be avoided. When 
 spring planting is to be employed, fall plowing is recom- 
 
 144 
 
Establishing the Apple Orchard 145 
 
 mended, since it exposes the soil to the ameliorating in- 
 fluences of the winter and causes the destruction of many 
 insect pests and rodents. In the case of sod land, it is best 
 to plow and cross-plow in the fall, leaving the land rough 
 throughout the winter, working it up thoroughly with the 
 disc and harrow the following spring. When cover-crops 
 are grown to improve the soil, plowing is usually deferred 
 from fall until spring. 
 
 Land which is to be irrigated should be leveled and care- 
 fully laid off with irrigation ditches prior to planting, 
 since it is not easy to effect changes in the contour once 
 trees have been set. 
 
 NURSEEY STOCK 
 
 Apple trees are propagated either by grafting or bud- 
 ding, the former being the most common method, l^o 
 attempt will be made to discuss methods of propagation 
 since it is usually advisable for the orchardist to buy his 
 trees from a reliable nurseryman rather than to propa- 
 gate them himself. 
 
 The purchase of nursery stock should receive most 
 careful attention. The grower should consult with state 
 or government horticulturists or with successful growers 
 in order to establish the integrity of the firm with which 
 he proposes to deal. The orchardist should buy only the 
 best trees, dealing directly with the nursery and avoiding 
 tree peddlers. The nurchase of inferior stock is always 
 poor economy. 
 
 All horticulturists do not agree as to the proper age of 
 trees to plant. However, the one-year whip is usually 
 most desirable, since it can be trained properly and has 
 
146 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 more fibrous roots. Trees older than one year are often 
 poorly shaped. 
 
 It is advisable to purchase nursery stock well in advance 
 of planting in order than one may secure stock of desired 
 variety and quality. If trees are to be planted in the 
 spring, they may be purchased safely in the preceding fall 
 and " heeled-in " by the grower himself. On arrival, all 
 trees should be carefully inspected for disease, attention 
 being given particularly to infestation of scale or woolly 
 aphis, or the presence of crown-gall. If possible, a com- 
 petent inspector should pass on the stock to see that the 
 trees are healthy,- vigorous, and of smooth bright bark. 
 One-year old whips should be about 5 feet tall and ^ inch 
 in diameter at the base. 
 
 The subject of varieties is thoroughly discussed in 
 Chapter XIX. Selection should be confined to three or 
 four standard varieties for commercial planting. 
 
 Immediately on arrival, all trees should either be 
 planted or" " heeled-in." If trees arrive in freezing 
 weather, they should be left in the original package and 
 kept in a cool damp place until thawed out. Ordinarily, 
 however, the grower should avoid leaving the trees in the 
 original package lest they become seriously injured or 
 entirely worthless from drying out. 
 
 When planting is not to be done immediately, the 
 bundles should be cut open and the trees unpacked and 
 " heeled-in " singly. Too much emphasis can not be 
 placed on the importance of " heeling-in " the trees on 
 their arrival. In this operation, a trench is dug about 18 
 inches deep and the trees placed in the trench with their 
 tops slanting to the south at an angle of about 45 degrees. 
 Moist soil should be carefully worked in about the roots of 
 
Establishing the Apple Orchard 147 
 
 the trees so that they will not dry out. Care must be taken 
 in order that the varieties will not become mixed. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF PLANTING (fIG. 2 ) 
 
 The following are the three best-known planting 
 systems : 
 
 (1) In the square planting system, the rows run at right 
 angles and the trees are the same distance apart each 
 way. This method facilitates cultivation, spraying, har- 
 vesting, and other cultural operations. 
 
 (2) In the hexagonal system the trees are equally dis- 
 tant in every direction, being set in equilateral triangles 
 or alternate rows, so that the space between each group of 
 four trees is diamond-shaped. The hexagonal system does 
 not lend itself well to the use of fillers, but since all the 
 trees are equidistant there is an equal distribution of air, 
 light and soil. This system provides for about 15 per 
 cent more trees to the acre than could be planted on the 
 square plan at the same planting distance. 
 
 (3) With the quincunx system, the trees are set in 
 squares with a tree in the center. This latter plan is 
 adapted to plantings where fillers are used, it being possi- 
 ble to remove the tree in the center of the square without 
 disturbing the permanent planting system. 
 
 The symmetry of the orchard depends to a large ex- 
 tent on the evenness of the rows. "Wlien a large orchard 
 is being set, it may pay to employ the use of a transit so 
 that the trees may be spaced with utmost accuracy. 
 This is not absolutely necessary, however, since more sim- 
 ple methods may be practiced, particularly with more 
 limited plantings. Whatever system of planting is fol- 
 lowed in laying out the orchard, the first trees should be 
 
148 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 PECTANGULfIR 
 
 Hex.AaONHU 
 
 •w 
 
 -r 
 / \ 
 
 / \ / V / \ / \ / \ 
 
 ^ / \ / \ / \ ' \ / 
 
 \ , \/ V N/ V_ 
 
 / \ / \ ' \ / \ / ^. 
 
 k. — « ^ Ak- — • i 
 
 \ ' \ / ^ ' \ / ^ ' 
 
 ' ^ / \ / \ / \ / \ 
 
 \ / \ / \ / 
 
 OUINCUNX 
 
 ^-^^r— ^t 
 
 ^ — i^ — ^^ — i^^ 
 
 
 /^ 
 
 (—:'' 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 \ > yf^ -^ ^ ^ 
 
 X' 
 
 s 
 
 
 V 
 
 Fig. 2. — The rectangular or square, the hexagonal or equilateral 
 triangle and the quincunx systems of planting. Planting-board of 
 type often used in setting illustrated at bottom of figure. 
 
 from 20 to 25 feet from the fence in order to afford room 
 for turning a team or tractor engaged in orchard operations. 
 
 Square system. 
 
 By laying off the base line parallel with the fence on 
 one side of the field and by placing stakes at regular in- 
 
Estahlisliing the Apple Orchard 149 
 
 tervals in this line, it will be possible to establish the 
 position of the trees in this first row. By establishing 
 another line at right angles to the first, it will be possible 
 with the use of stakes to sight across and establish par- 
 allel lines which will serve as guides in lining up the rows. 
 It is usually advisable to set a stake at the place for eacb 
 tree. Then after sighting across from the base lines, 
 it will be possible to determine the stakes which are not in 
 alignment. Figure 2 shows the three important systems 
 for laying out commercial plantings. Table VIII indi- 
 cates the number of trees to the acre under different plant- 
 ing distances and systems. 
 
 Table VIII. — Number of Trees to the Acre 
 
 Distance Apart 
 
 Square 
 
 Hexagonal 
 
 Quincu 
 
 16x16 
 
 170 
 
 196 
 
 303 
 
 18x18 
 
 134 
 
 154 
 
 239 
 
 20x20 
 
 108 
 
 124 
 
 129 
 
 22x22 
 
 90 
 
 104 
 
 148 
 
 24x24 
 
 76 
 
 87 
 
 132 
 
 25x25 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 125 
 
 26x26 
 
 64 
 
 74 
 
 114 
 
 28 x 28 
 
 56 
 
 64 
 
 100 
 
 30x30 
 
 48 
 
 55 
 
 85 
 
 32x32 
 
 43 
 
 49 
 
 76 
 
 33x33 
 
 40 
 
 46 
 
 71 
 
 35x35 
 
 35 
 
 41 
 
 65 
 
 36x36 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 60 
 
 40x40 
 
 27 
 
 32 
 
 48 
 
 45x45 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 39 
 
 Hexagonal system,. 
 
 The use of a wire triangle is recommended for planting 
 trees under the hexagonal system. Each side of the tri- 
 angle should represent the distance between the permanent 
 trees. The wires should be connected at each angle by 
 means of rings. The triangle is then carried about by 
 
150 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 three workmen, and if kept tightly drawn and held level, 
 stakes marking the exact site of the trees may be located 
 after the first base line along the side of the orchard has 
 been laid off. 
 
 Attention is called to the fact that in laying off planting 
 distances on uneven land, care must be taken in keeping 
 the measuring line level so that the distance between trees 
 does not include the slope of the land. 
 
 Quincunx system. 
 
 The quincunx being a modification of the square system, 
 may be laid off in the same manner as the latter. The 
 location of the center tree may be estaWished by placing 
 an additional stake midway between the tree stakes in the 
 base line. 
 
 PLANTING DISTANCES 
 
 Close planting is a common tendency in laying out 
 commercial apple orchards. While planting distances 
 vary with the variety and with the region, it is seldom 
 advisable to space permanent trees closer than 30 feet 
 apart. Spreading trees such as Baldwin, Ehode Island 
 Greening and Arkansas (Black Twig) should be planted 
 at greater distances, not closer than 40 feet apart when 
 growth is vigorous. A great mistake was made in plant- 
 ing New York orchards closer than 40 feet. Varieties 
 such as Wagener, Yellow Transparent, and Twenty Ounce, 
 which have an upright habit of growth, do not require 
 extreme distances and may be planted as close as 30 feet. 
 In regions in which trees attain smaller size, the planting 
 distances of these upright growing trees may be reduced 
 
 A 
 
Establishing the Apple Orchard 151 
 
 to 28 or even 25 feet. Orchardists should bear in mind, 
 however, that trees set too close together very seriously 
 handicap orchard operations, for branches interlock when 
 full growth is attained. 
 
 TIME TO PLANT 
 
 The time of planting depends entirely on local condi- 
 tions. Fall plantings may offer one distinct advantage if 
 the trees become established before winter sets in and are 
 able to start growth early in the spring. However, if the 
 winter is cold, dry, or otherwise unfavorable, the fall 
 planted trees may be seriously checked in their early 
 growth. For this reason spring planting is preferred in 
 most northern regions. In the southern latitudes, late fall 
 or early winter is usually considered safe. 
 
 If there is any question, it is safer to plant in the 
 spring as soon as the soil can be placed in good tilth. 
 Trees should be kept dormant until setting. 
 
 SETTING TREES 
 
 The use of the planting-board is important in securing 
 perfect alignment. (See Fig. 2-.) Such a board is usu- 
 ally 4 or 5 feet long, 6 inches wide and 1 inch thick with 
 a notch in one side at the center and a hole in each end. 
 m using this device, the notch in the center is first placed 
 tightly against the stake which stands where the tree is 
 to be set. Other stakes are then driven through the holes 
 in either end and the board is later removed to permit the 
 digging of the hole. After the hole is dug, the board may 
 be placed over the pins and the tree set so as to occupy the 
 same position in the notch as did the original stake. 
 
152 IVie Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 A four-man crew is efficient when a large number of 
 trees are to be planted. Holes should be dug large enough 
 to accommodate the root system without crowding or 
 bunching the roots, also sufficiently deep to permit the 
 planting of the tree two or three inches deeper than it 
 stood in the nursery row. It is important that all broken, 
 bruised or interlacing roots be cut away at the time of 
 transplanting. Long roots should be cut back to about 
 six inches. After the tree has been located with the aid of 
 the planting-board, rich soil from the surface should be 
 worked tightly under and among the roots with the fingers. 
 The hole should then be filled about half full of dirt and 
 tramped. Hard lumpy soil should be avoided since it 
 dries out easily. The remainder of the hole should be 
 filled and the earth carefully tamped about the roots. A 
 few shovelfuls of loose dirt or a few forkfuls of loose 
 manure thrown about the tree is a last precaution to pre- 
 vent the loss of moisture and completes the operation of 
 planting. When strong winds prevail as in many local- 
 ities, it is important that the tree be leaned strongly 
 against prevailing winds. When large numbers of trees 
 are being planted, the roots should be covered with saw- 
 dust or placed in a tub of loamy soil mixed with water. 
 This precaution will prevent drying out of the trees when 
 they are being distributed for planting. 
 
 HEADING TREES 
 
 In transplanting, a large part of the root system of the 
 young tree is removed. In order to preserve the proper 
 balance between the top and the roots, it is necessary that 
 the former be cut back as severely or even more so than the 
 
[ Pi.ATE IX. — Upper, Weeder in use in a Hood River orchard. 
 Lower, Type of float commonly used at Hood River after cultiva- 
 >' tion. 
 
Establishing the Apple Orchard 153 
 
 root system. Not only does this maintain the proper bal- 
 ance between root and top, but it permits the proper head- 
 ing of the tree. While no definite height is given for 
 heading, it is suggested that one-year apple whips should 
 be cut to about 24 inches at time of planting in order that 
 the proper shaped trees may be developed. Emphasis is 
 laid on the advantages of low-headed trees. Such opera- 
 tions as spraying, pruning, thinning and harvesting can 
 be done more economically and effectively when the bear- 
 ing surface is close to the ground. 
 
 USE OF FILLEES AND INTER-CKOPS 
 
 The practice of planting " fillers " to utilize the land 
 between young trees is common and may have the advant- 
 age of bringing early returns before the permanent orchard 
 attains bearing. Peaches or early bearing varieties of 
 apples such as the Yellow Transparent are used most com- 
 monly as fillers. The grower usually makes the mistake 
 of allowing these temporary trees to remain too long, with 
 the result that the permanent trees are crowded and their 
 productivity jeopardized. If the orchard is favorably sit- 
 uated for the production of peaches, the grower will find 
 that this fruit lends itself well to a system of fillers. Va- 
 rieties of apples such as Mcintosh, Wealthy, Wagener, 
 Duchess and Yellow Transparent, which come into bear- 
 ing early, are adapted for use as fillers. 
 
 The growing of small-fruits between the rows, such as 
 strawberries, blackberries and raspberries, has been very 
 profitable in some regions. Notable among such instances 
 is the Hood Eiver Valley, well known for its strawberries 
 produced as an inter-crop in the young apple orchards. 
 
154 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Cultivated crops such as potatoes and tomatoes may prove 
 profitable as inter-crops, although care must be taken not 
 to encroach on the soil and water requirements of the young 
 trees. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 CULTIVATION OF THE ORCHARD 
 
 In this chapter will he discussed methods of tillage and 
 systems involving the use of cover-crops and sod-mulch, and 
 the use of the tractor in orchard cultivation. 
 
 No hard and fast rules can be laid down for soil man- 
 agement since conditions vary greatly in different regions, 
 but a number of principles should be followed everywhere. 
 Usually the correct system is worked out eventually by the 
 most successful grower in any community and it is by 
 following in a general way methods which by demonstra- 
 tion have established their efficiency that one may hope 
 for the best results. 
 
 In reacting from the neglectful practices of soil man- 
 agement which prevailed in many eastern orchards, the 
 western apple-growers for a period of years adopted a pro- 
 gram of intensive and absolutely clean cultivation. (See 
 Plate VII.) Conservation of moisture and stimulation of 
 tree growth were the two principal reasons for such a pro- 
 gram. Until 1915 absolutely clean cultivation was the 
 practice in all of the leading apple regions of the Pacific 
 Northwest. As the trees grew older, greater demands 
 were made on the soil and it became apparent that this 
 system of soil management led to a depletion of fertility 
 and failed particularly in maintaining the necessary hu- 
 mus-content. A rapid change occurred in the system of 
 soil management and at present a cover- or shade-crop sys- 
 
 155 
 
156 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 tern has come into common use. Alfalfa seems best suited 
 to the irrigated orchard land of the West and although it 
 is spoken of there as a cover-crop, it is more properly either 
 an inter-crop or a sod-mulch, for it remains in the orchard 
 for several years and as a rule one or two cuttings are taken 
 off in the form of hay. 
 
 CLEAN CULTIVATION 
 
 Clean cultivation has many evils which are not at once 
 apparent. The most striking example occurred in the 
 Hood River Valley, Oregon, where clean cultivation was 
 practiced until about 1915 when the bearing orchards 
 began to show marked signs of lack of vigor, evidenced by 
 pale foliage, light yields of small fruit and poor annual 
 growth. The Hood River orchards made a marked recov- 
 ery in the next two or three years, following wider use of 
 irrigation in growing leguminous cover-crops and on appli- 
 cation of nitrate of soda. 
 
 Except in special cases, continued clean cultivation can 
 have only disastrous results. Where there is sufficient 
 nitrogen and humus in the soil, there is no particular 
 objection to clean cultivation for a limited period of years. 
 Clean culture for a time unquestionably stimulates tree 
 growth and increases yields. It has been observed that 
 this practice is followed continuously in some of the best 
 paying and finest apple orchards in the United States. 
 Invariably, however, in such instances the original soil was 
 unusually rich in humus and other plant-food and this 
 reservoir has not been exhausted. It is better to maintain 
 fertility, for once depleted its restoration is difficult. 
 
 In starting young orchards, clean cultivation is not 
 harmful for the first three or four years. In fact, it may 
 
Cultivation of the Orchard 157 
 
 be very beneficial and is probably advisable when inter- 
 crops are not particularly profitable. In certain seasons 
 and in certain regions, lack of sufficient moisture is a crit- 
 ical factor. Obviously the only method to follow in dry 
 years is to practice intensive cultivation in order to pre- 
 serve the soil-mulch so necessary for moisture conserva- 
 tion. Ordinarily regions in which such an extreme short- 
 age of moisture might take place would hardly be recom- 
 mended for apples, although dry years are likely to occur 
 in almost every section. 
 
 When clean cultivation is practiced, humus should be 
 supplied. Barnyard manure, when available, is the most 
 suitable form, since it not only supplies humus but nitrogen 
 and other elements of plant-food as well. Straw, shredded 
 cow fodder, or stubble clippings when scattered under trees 
 and incorporated in the soil, increase the humus-content. 
 Applications of the latter materials at the rate of 50 to 75 
 pounds each for trees under six years and from 75 to 150 
 pounds each for trees six to ten years will prove beneficial. 
 
 SOD- OR GRASS-MULCH 
 
 Many apple orchards of the United States are allowed 
 to remain in sod- or grass-mulch. The sod-mulch system 
 offers the line of least resistance and represents the least 
 expenditure of time and effort. It is pai'ticularly common 
 throughout eastern and middle west orchards. Its possi- 
 ble advantages are: (1) increased color of fruit; (2) 
 reduced cost an acre ; ( 3 ) prevents hilly or mountainous 
 soils from washing. 
 
 The sod-mulch is probably the only practicable system 
 for certain hilly districts in New England and throughout 
 the Piedmont region in Virginia where the orchard land 
 
158 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 is too steep to cultivate and where clean cultivation would 
 result in bad washing. The natural vegetative growth 
 supplemented bj fertilization in some instances and occa- 
 sional cultivation about trees serves to maintain the fertil- 
 ity of these soils. 
 
 The disadvantages of the sod-mulch system are: (1) 
 reduces yields; (2) reduces vitality and tree growth; (3) 
 provides harbor for mice, insects and diseases; (4) has 
 tendency to encourage general neglect; (5) reduces soil 
 aeration; (6) sheds rain. 
 
 In all cost-production studies, the question of yield 
 appears as the critical factor. It is not the acre cost of 
 operation, but the barrel or box cost of production that 
 determines profit. If the yield can be increased, the cost 
 of production is usually materially decreased. Records 
 taken by the writers show that in- general yields are re- 
 duced under the sod-mulch system. 
 
 While the sod-mulch may be depended on to return 
 humus to the soil and commercial fertilizer may maintain 
 fertility, the lack of cultivation will undoubtedly be felt, 
 and as a general rule trees in sod-mulch have less vitality 
 and make less growth than those which are cultivated. 
 
 Some growers, notably one very successful grower in 
 western New York and many in southern Ohio, use the 
 sod-mulch system very profitably. It can not be con- 
 demned under all conditions but it unquestionably tends 
 to encourage general neglect of the orchard. The grower 
 with the sod orchard is not brought into such intimate 
 touch with his trees as the one who practices more intensive 
 culture and who is working about among his trees every 
 few days. Furthermore, the sod furnishes a harbor for 
 mice, insects and diseases. 
 
Cultivation of the Orchard 159 
 
 CLEAN CULTIVATION WITH COVER-CROPS 
 
 The best general method o£ soil management for all 
 commercial apple regions, with two possible exceptions, is 
 clean cultivation with the use of a cover-crop. The two 
 general exceptions are: (1) western irrigated orchards 
 which at present are committed largely to the system of 
 leguminous inter-crop or perennial cover-crop; and (2) 
 orchards which are too hilly to permit of cultivation, such 
 as have been described for parts of New England and 
 Virginia. 
 
 The term " cover-crop " is correctly applied to a crop 
 sown in the late summer months, usually in July or 
 August, which is plowed under the following spring. By 
 cultivating the orchard until late summer, the grower is 
 using the best method for conserving the moisture and is 
 insuring other benefits to be derived from cultivation. 
 
 In sowing the cover-crop in the summer or fall, the 
 orchardist can check the growth of his trees and insure the 
 hardening of their growth before winter without robbing 
 them of the plant-food necessary to mature tlie crop. The 
 cover-crop acts as a protection during the winter months 
 and when plowed under in the spring increases \he supply 
 of humus, improves the physical condition of the soil and 
 makes more plant-food available. This system of soil 
 management is most common in western New York where 
 mammoth red clover and vetch are the best suited 
 leguminous cover-crops and rye, buckwheat, oats, barley, 
 rape and cow-horn turnips are the widely grown non- 
 leguminous cover-crops. Leguminous cover-crops are 
 usually more desirable since they not only add humus, but 
 make more nitrogen available. 
 
160 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 By combining cover-crops with cultivation, it is possible 
 to secure nearly all of the benefits to be derived from the 
 varying methods of soil treatment. Such a system is 
 designed to preserve and promote permanent soil fertility. 
 
 COVEK-CEOPS 
 
 There are two important kinds of cover-crops: (1) 
 leguminous, such as alfalfa, clover, peas, vetch and beans ; 
 (2) non-leguminous, such as rye, rape and buckwheat. 
 These crops may be further subdivided into those which 
 live over the winter, such as clover, vetch and rye, and 
 those like rape, buckwheat and peas which die down in the 
 fall. Leguminous crops are recommended at least once in 
 three years or more often, especially when trees are not 
 making sufficient annual growth and when foliage is pale. 
 As a general rule, they are preferable to non-leguminous 
 crops since they add nitrogen to the soil. Cover-crops 
 which live . through the winter protect the trees against 
 winter-injury in the absence of snow and also prevent 
 the washing and leaching of soluble plant-foods. 
 
 Alfalfa is by far the most popular cover-crop in western 
 irrigated orchards where it has largely supplanted the 
 clean culture system. Vetch, clover and other cover-crops 
 are also recommended. Although alfalfa is known in the 
 West as a cover-crop, a distinction should be made between 
 the eastern cover-crop planted in the fall and plowed under 
 the following spring and the western cover-crop which is 
 left in the orchard for several years. In reajity the west- 
 ern cover-crop is an inter-crop, but since its purpose is 
 primarily to benefit the orchard rather than to provide 
 immediate returns to the grower, the word cover-crop has 
 been retained. 
 
Cultivation of the Orchard 161 
 
 The benefits of a leguminous cover-crop as grown in the 
 West (alfalfa most common) are as follows: (1) supplies 
 nitrogen and humus — both limiting factors in the western 
 desert soils which have been reclaimed by irrigation ; (2) is 
 thought to have beneficial effect in controlling apple-rosette, 
 a physiological disease somewhat common in the West ; ( 3 ) 
 provides a source of income — usually two cuttings of hay 
 are removed, the third being left. Whether this is the 
 best practice remains to be proved. Some investigators 
 maintain that the taking of two cuttings of hay removes 
 too much nitrogen. Much depends on what disposition is 
 made of the hay : whether it is fed and returned in form 
 of manure or sold off the farm; (4) improves texture of 
 soil; (5) promotes aeration of subsoil after plants are 
 killed and the roots decay; (6) permits of deeper penetra- 
 tion of the roots. 
 
 Disadvantages of leguminous shade-crop system may be 
 summed up as follows: (1) shade-crops may rob trees of 
 water and other plant-food ; alfalfa is particularly a close 
 feeder, likely to crowd young trees ; it should be grown 
 only where water supply is ample and strip cultivation is 
 practiced among young trees; (2) alfalfa if once started 
 is difficult to eradicate; (3) in some regions, particularly 
 in the East, alfalfa is costly and difficult to start. 
 
 With alfalfa as a perennial cover-crop, soil management 
 includes a thorough discing in the spring. Time of seed- 
 ing varies with the region and should follow established 
 precedent. In passing from clean cultivation to shade 
 crops, the western apple-grower may swerve to the other 
 extreme and allow alfalfa or other crops to remain in his 
 orchard too long. Clover lends itself to short rotations 
 better than alfalfa, although it is less profitable. In any 
 
163 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 event, shade-crops should seldom be allowed to remain 
 more than four or five years. Cultivation for a year or 
 two will preserve a judicial balance. 
 
 The quantity of seed to the acre for cover-crops may vary 
 somewhat with the region. However, the following table 
 will serve as a rough guide : 
 
 Table IX. — Quantity of Seed to the Acre 
 
 Mammoth clover 10 pounds 
 
 Common red clover 10 
 
 Alsike clover 8 
 
 Crimson clover 15 
 
 Alfalfa 20 
 
 Cowpeas 75 
 
 Soybeans 75 
 
 Hairy or vrinter vetch 50 
 
 Summer vetch 60 
 
 Canada peas 90 
 
 Rye 75 
 
 Buckwheat 60 
 
 Rape 6 
 
 Turnips 1 pound 
 
 VALUE OF CULTIVATION AJSTD METHODS 
 
 The philosophy of tillage and its absolute necessity in 
 maintaining soil fertility need as much emphasis in apple- 
 growing as in any other phase of agriculture. Above all, 
 tillage is the principal determining factor in moisture con- 
 servation. It increases the availability of plant-food by 
 promoting the decomposition of organic matter ; it fines the 
 soil and thereby increases the feeding surface for the roots 
 and it promotes many favorable chemical and biological 
 activities. 
 
 Hard, lumpy, untilled soil will no more produce profit- 
 able apple trees than any other crop. The bad effects of 
 continued clean cultivation have been emphasized, but the 
 
Cultivation of the Orchard 163 
 
 entire omission of tillage will be even more injurious than 
 too much cultivation. 
 
 Plowing every year or every other year is highly recom- 
 mended for all orchards except those in shade-crops or on 
 land unsuited for cultivation. The operation may be per- 
 formed either in the fall or spring. The only danger in 
 plowing is too great disturbance of root systems. For that 
 reason regular plowing is more advisable than plowing at 
 intervals of several years. Most commercial apple-growers 
 plow from 4 to 6 inches deep. The general use of cover- 
 crops makes spring plowing more common. Very often 
 discing is the first operation in the spring since it may be 
 done earlier than plowing. When clover or alfalfa is 
 grown in the orchard, plowing may not be advisable of tener 
 than every three years. 
 
 Early cultivation is essential to moisture conservation 
 and the soil should be worked as early in the spring as 
 possible. When water is not a critical factor and when a 
 cover-crop is grown, it is sometimes permissible to allow 
 the cover-crop to get a good start in the spring before turn- 
 ing it under. In plowing, the orchardist should plow 
 toward the tree one year and away from the tree in the 
 next in order to prevent the tendency toward ridging. As 
 stated above, when perennial shade-crops such as alfalfa 
 are being grown, plowing of course is not practiced. A 
 thorough discing in the spring is recommended, however, 
 for shade-crops and may take the place of plowing. (See 
 Plate VIII.) 
 
 After the first discing or plowing, frequent cultivation, 
 preferably every two weeks, is the program followed by 
 most successful apple-growers. By preserving a soil- 
 mulch until August, the critical drought period usually 
 
164 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
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Cultivation of the Orchard 165 
 
 can be passed successfully. By that time it is difficult to 
 cultivate among laden trees. Furthermore, cover-crops 
 are usually sown in July and August and as early as June. 
 The various soil management systems are summed up 
 in Table X. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS ( PLATE IX ) 
 
 Various tools are employed by the successful apple- 
 grower. For plowing, a twelve- to fourteen-inch plow, 
 either single or with two or more bottoms, is a necessary 
 part of orchard equipment. For stony land the spade disc 
 is popular, although the cutaway is more generally used. 
 For late cultivation, various tools are employed. Spike 
 and spring-tooth harrows, drags and weeders of various 
 description are commonly utilized. In the West a light 
 spring-tooth harrow is very popular. The latter is an 
 excellent tool, stirs the soil well, and has many advantages. 
 Clod-mashers, drags or harrows may be equally effective 
 in pulverizing the soil. Special care and precaution 
 should be taken in working among trees to prevent injury. 
 
 THE TKACTOR IN THE APPLE ORCHAKD 
 
 While the tractor has grown rapidly in popularity, use- 
 fulness and value for general farm operations during the 
 past decade, there is probably no other type of farming 
 for which it has proved more universally satisfactory and 
 profitable than for commercial fruit-growing when the 
 acreage is of sufficient size to warrant the investment. 
 There seems no question but that the tractor will event- 
 ually be used in nearly all of the large orchards and in 
 fact is being used in a great many to-day. In comparing 
 the efficiency of the tractor with horse labor, the tractor 
 has the following advantages: 
 
166 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 1. The tractor does work more rapidly. Cultivation, 
 which comprises the major part of the work for which 
 draft power is required on the fruit-farm, is ordinarily 
 restricted to a comparatively limited period. As a tractor 
 works much more rapidly than a team, the orchard may be 
 thoroughly disced and harrowed in a comparatively short 
 time. The number of acres which a tractor will cover in 
 a day will vary greatly. It depends entirely on the make 
 and horse-power of the tractor, the skill with which it is 
 handled, the amount of turning necessary and the time lost 
 due to breakdowns, and the like. However, on the aver- 
 age, a tractor will till many times the area covered by a 
 team and do it much more thoroughly. 
 
 The tractor ordinarily does not move any faster than a 
 team, but it draws a much wider disc, harrow or other 
 tool. A good two-plow tractor will pull an eight-foot 
 double disc at the same rate that a four-horse team will 
 draw an eight-foot single disc. The tractor is, therefore, 
 doing the work of six to eight horses. 
 
 2. A maximum of work may be done at rush seasons by 
 use of the tractor. Since certain work must be done within 
 limited periods, there is frequently more or less difficulty 
 in obtaining the necessary help just when it is needed. 
 It is, therefore, desirable that the power plant be large 
 enough to permit one man to do a large amount of work 
 in a day and thereby reduce to a minimum the extra help 
 required. It is difficult to use more than a two-horse team 
 in an orchard, as a larger team usually proves unhandy 
 and unsatisfactory among the trees. In the case of large 
 acreages where no tractor is employed, it is often necessary 
 to keep a large number of men and horses at considerable 
 
 
Cultivation of the Orchard 167 
 
 expense, in order to permit rapid work in the proper 
 season. 
 
 3. The tractor has only overhead expense when not 
 in use, while it is necessary to keep and feed horses whether 
 or not they are working. Interest and depreciation on the 
 tractor, however, are no small items of expense. If the 
 whole farm is in orchard, a larger percentage of the draft 
 work can be done with the tractor than is usually the case 
 on general farms. When the orchardist buys a tractor, he 
 can dispose of a larger percentage of his horses than can 
 the general farmer. 
 
 4. The tractor permits thorough work. Since the 
 tractor has so much more motive power than a team, it 
 can draw tools which will cultivate much more deeply and 
 thoroughly. When thorough and deep discing is desired, 
 tractors are particularly advantageous. Many tractors 
 draw both a disc and harrow at the same time, the disc 
 following the harrow or vice versa as the grower may 
 desire. This is not feasible when a two-horse team, is used. 
 
 5. Less injury is caused the trees with tractor. There 
 is a greater danger of injuring the fruit on the lower limbs 
 in cultivating with teams than with tractors. Fruit- 
 growers who have used the tractor emphasize that it may 
 not only be more economical in cultivation, but that it is 
 superior to horses for work in large orchards. They claim 
 that the tractor does less damage to the branches and trees 
 than horses, partly because fewer trips are required to 
 accomplish a given amount of work and partly because the 
 greater width of the implement pulled by the tractor makes 
 it unnecessary to travel as close to the trees as when horses 
 are used. 
 
168 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 6. A tractor may work close to trees. The tractor can 
 easily cultivate close to the tree row. In many cases prac- 
 tically all the work of cultivation can be done when the 
 tractor travels in the center of the row. It is sometimes 
 necessary that the motive power, whether horses or tractor, 
 must pass under the limbs and close to the trees, but even 
 in such cases the tractor does considerably less damage 
 than horses. A suitable type of tractor is not as high as 
 horses and furthermore may be equipped with guards to 
 raise the limbs gently while the machine passes underneath 
 without breaking the limbs or jarring oif the fruit. 
 
 7. The tractor may be useful in doing other work than 
 cultivating. The usefulness of the tractor in many 
 orchards is not confined to cultivation. Growers who have 
 used tractors state that they save much time and expense 
 in pulling out trees which need to be removed because of 
 disease or crowding. A medium-sized tractor will pull 
 most trees without difficulty if a 'chain is fastened well up 
 on the stump or on some of the heavy limbs and then 
 hitched to the tractor. Some growers use the tractor in 
 the orchard for hauling manure, lime, spray materials, and 
 the like, and in rare cases the spray outfit. While the full 
 possibilities of the tractor have not been realized, it must 
 be remembered that if there are idle horses on the farm it 
 will not usually be profitable to employ the tractor for 
 work which two or three horses could do. 
 
 Tractors have proved popular and highly profitable with 
 most orchardists who have used them. It is well to state, 
 however, that there are some disadvantages which many 
 growers have found and which should be given fully as 
 much weight as the advantages. 
 
 1. The tractor is feasible only on a large farm. An 
 
Cultivation of the Orchard 169 
 
 ordinary tractor at present is not adapted for use on the 
 small farm, particularly a small intensive fruit-farm. It 
 is not necessary that the orchard be large, but if the fruit 
 acreage is small a tractor will not be profitable unless con- 
 siderable general farm land is being operated in conjunc- 
 tion with the orchard. Orchards of less than 30 to 40 
 acres, unless connected with a general farm, will hardly 
 warrant the purchase of a tractor at present prices. There 
 should be at least twenty days' work a year for a tractor in 
 order that it may be profitable. Four to 5 acres of plow- 
 ing or 18 to 20 acres of double discing may be considered 
 a day's work for the average tractor. A two-horse team 
 will plow about 1^/^ acres a day in the orchard and disc 
 from 6 to 7 acres. 
 
 2. A tractor represents a considerable investment. On 
 account of the initial cost of a good tractor, efiiciency is 
 necessary if sufficient returns are made to pay such over- 
 head charges as interest, depreciation, upkeep, and the 
 like. A man of limited capital, particularly if he is oper- 
 ating a young orchard from which there is little cash 
 return, is likely to find a tractor a rather heavy burden 
 on his working capital. 
 
 3. Experienced labor is necessary to operate and care 
 for a tractor. While the use of such a machine may save 
 the labor of one or two additional men, it is important to 
 realize that the man who operates a tractor should be exper- 
 ienced and have some knowledge of machinery. When 
 traced back to their origin, it has been found that a great 
 number of complaints with reference to the use of tractors 
 are primarily due to the lack of experience and mechanical 
 knowledge on the part of the operator. 
 
 4. There is a heavy depreciation when tractors are care- 
 
170 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 lessly handled. When an expensive machine is operated 
 by men who have little interest in their work, it will rapidly 
 depreciate in value. Careless handling will ruin a good 
 tractor in a single season or even in a day. It is exceed- 
 ingly important, therefore, that care should be taken to 
 keep the machine properly oiled, and in good working 
 order. 
 
 5. When a tractor gets out of order, considerable time 
 may be lost. Even with experienced operators, break- 
 downs may occur, and if a part breaks which can not be 
 replaced short of the factory, days may be lost. The prin- 
 cipal criticism which many growers have against the trac- 
 tor is that some part is always breaking and that it requires 
 considerable time and expense for repairs. There is no 
 doubt that the average tractor has given considerable 
 trouble in this regard, especially when handled by inex- 
 perienced men. 
 
 6. Where the fences are near the trees, turning at the end 
 of the row is rather difficult on account of the wide culti- 
 vating implements commonly drawn by a tractor. This is 
 more particularly true of the early tractors than of the 
 modern machines recommended for orchard work. In 
 most cases, if the tractor is properly hitched to the imple- 
 ment, the turn can be made into the next row of trees. It 
 is seldom necessary, however, that the turn be made into 
 the adjoining row, since the work of cultivation can nearly 
 always be carried on just as well by turning into the second 
 or third row each time, following the same method as is 
 frequently used in cultivating corn in order to avoid short 
 turns. Of course in terraced orchards or those planted in 
 irregular rows, this plan can not be followed. There is 
 
 
Cultivation of the Orchard 171 
 
 nearly always a way to manage the turning if a little ingen- 
 uity is exercised. 
 
 In conclusion it may be said that the uses of the tractor 
 in fruit-growing have not yet been fully determined or 
 appreciated. At present tractors are being used in some 
 of the larger orchards of the Middle West, Northwest and 
 middle Atlantic states. They are becoming more and 
 more popular in connection with the operation of orchards 
 and on general farms of western 'New York. It seems 
 only a question of time until the tractor will largely dis- 
 place the team in cultivating the commercial orchard. 
 
 TEUCK 
 
 The use of the motor truck in connection with apple- 
 raising is growing in popularity as rapidly as that of the 
 tractor. When long hauls are necessary and the tonnage 
 of fruit is large, the motor truck has found great favor. 
 In general, the use of a truck will be profitable wherever 
 the purchase of a tractor is warranted and in many cases 
 in which a tractor is not profitable. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 ' ^ IRRIOATION 
 
 Irrigation is tlie process of watering land by artificial 
 means and is widely practiced in the arid and semi-arid 
 apple regions throughout the western states. 
 
 The history of irrigation dates from the earliest times. 
 Egyptian and Babylonian records show clearly that irriga- 
 tion was known several thousand years b. c. Irrigation 
 in America was practiced in prehistoric times by Indian 
 tribes of the Southwest, but the first irrigation by English 
 speaking people of the United States was by the Mormons 
 near Salt Lake City, Utah. Under the g-uidanee of Brig- 
 ham Young, the Mormons succeeded in turning the waters 
 from the canyons and streams into the desert and first 
 proved the possibilities of western irrigation. The history 
 of the western fruit regions in nearly every case dates 
 from the time that water was put on the land. The Wen- 
 atchee district as recently as 1900 was largely a barren 
 desert. Now it is one of the leading apple regions of the 
 world, producing 12,000 cars of box apples in 1919. 
 
 Irrigation as a factor in the commercial apple industry 
 of North America is confined to the apple-growing regions 
 west of the Mississippi and the Okanogan district of 
 British Columbia. It is most widely practiced in the 
 Pacific Northwest. Practically all of the Idaho, Wash- 
 ington, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico and much of the 
 
 172 
 
Irrigation 173 
 
 Oregon commercial apple crop is grown under a system of 
 intensive irrigation. 
 
 The Hood River Valley of Oregon, while not an arid 
 region, employs irrigation in many of its orchards. The 
 Rogue River or the Medford district in Oregon was form- 
 erly a non-irrigated section but continued drought com- 
 pelled the practice of irrigation when possible. The only 
 important non-irrigated apple regions in the West are the 
 Watsonville and Sebastopol sections of California located 
 within a few miles of the coast. 
 
 The irrigated fruit regions differ in many ways from the 
 apple sections of the Central West and East. Some of 
 their most outstanding characteristics are : 
 
 1. Compactness. All irrigated fruit districts are very 
 intensive and compact. They are generally confined 
 within a certain limited and well defined area. The typ- 
 ical farms are small and the orchards average only about 
 ten to twenty acres. Often the orchard of one grower 
 borders directly on that of his neighbor, so that the plant- 
 ings in an irrigated valley appear as one large orchard 
 with but few breaks of land not in trees. 
 
 2. Productivity. Orchards in irrigated sections free 
 from frequent frost-injury bear larger annual crops, partly 
 because the water supply is largely under control. 
 
 3. Rapid tree growth. Trees in irrigated districts grow 
 very rapidly and attain maturity early. Often trees at 
 ten years of age are practically in full bearing and in many 
 cases even at seven or eight years of age they bear very 
 heavily. Trees in the Wenatchee Valley attain maturity 
 in about one-half the time required for the same varieties 
 in the East. 
 
 4. Trees are set close together. The trees in the irri- 
 
174 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 gated districts usually will average twice as many to the 
 acre as under the same conditions in the East; that is, a 
 ten-year-old orchard in Wenatchee will have from 80 to 
 100 trees to the acre, while in N'ew York 40 to 50 trees 
 would be considered sufficient. A fully matured orchard 
 in the northwestern regions will usually contain as many 
 as 75 trees to the acre, while the New York growers claim 
 that 30 trees is sufficient. Thus the trees of the North- 
 west do not attain such large size although they grow more 
 rapidly and attain maturity more quickly. 
 
 5. Trees of the irrigated regions have a shorter life 
 than those under natural or un-irrigated conditions. 
 Although niost irrigated sections are as yet young, there 
 are definite evidences that the irrigated orchard is much 
 shorter lived than the eastern plantation. Trees that 
 attain maturity at such an early age under artificial condi- 
 tions cannot continue to maintain vegetative vigor and 
 health indefinitely.' As yet it cannot be said just what 
 the life of an irrigated orchard under good management 
 may be, but from present indications it would seem that 
 thirty years would about mark the life of the average irri- 
 gated orchard. It is certain that trees are ordinarily most 
 profitable and at their best under irrigated conditions 
 between the ages of ten and twenty years. 
 
 6. Irrigated regions are usually free from fungus. Se- 
 rious trouble only appears in the semi-irrigated regions like 
 Hood River Valley where the rainfall is as great as that in 
 western New York, but where orchards generally are under 
 irrigation, due to the rainfall coming at the VTrong season 
 of the year. There is little fimgus difficulty in the 
 famous Yakima and Wenatchee valleys of Washington or 
 in the irrigated districts of Idaho, Colorado, Utah and 
 
Irrigation 175 
 
 New Mexico. In this connection, however, it might be 
 well to say that the codlin-moth is generally very much 
 more active and difficult to control than under eastern con- 
 ditions and particularly has this been true of late years. 
 
 7. Trees in irrigated regions require detailed care every 
 year. A grower in an irrigated district must pay strict 
 attention to his orchard if it is to survive or he is to 
 secure any profit out of it. It is absolutely necessary that 
 it be irrigated and if this highly important operation is 
 neglected for a single season, the orchard is ruined. Fur- 
 thermore, if the irrigating is left to inexperienced hands, 
 the trees are likely to be over-irrigated or under-irrigated 
 to such an extent that they will be injured permanently. 
 Great care also is necessary to s'ee that the water is not 
 allowed to stand on the land or applied at the wrong time. 
 Under eastern conditions, none of these things is necessary, 
 so that orchards which have been neglected not for one 
 year but perhaps several, may often be brought back to 
 profitable bearing. This, however, cannot happen in the 
 Northwest. This partly accounts for the fact that the 
 average northwestern grower is as a rule more thorough 
 and scientific than the average eastern grower. The north- 
 western owner must be thorough or hiis orchard will not 
 live. The orchard under eastern conditions can usually 
 survive even if somewhat neglected. 
 
 8. In irrigated regions the fruit is usually graded, 
 packed, wrapped and boxed very carefully, while apples 
 under non-irrigated conditions, as a general rule, are not 
 graded or packed as carefully and are seldom wrapped. 
 With the exception of California, fruit in non-irrigated 
 regions is not boxed to any great degree. Fruit is never 
 barreled in irrigated regions. It may be said that in 90 
 
176 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 per cent of all cases, irrigated regions produce boxed fruit 
 and non-irrigated regions barreled or bulk fruit. 
 
 9. Land in irrigated regions is expensive and the fixed 
 costs or overhead charges are high. Bearing orchard land 
 in the Wenatchee Valley is capitalized at nearly $2,000 an 
 acre. In fact, land in bearing orchards in nearly all irri- 
 gated districts is valued at $1,000 an acre or more. Fur- 
 thermore, interest rates in the Northwest, where these irri- 
 gated regions are located, are higher than in the East, 
 From 7 to 8 per cent in the JSTorthwest is a common interest 
 rate which growers have to face. Thus it is important to 
 realize that orchards in irrigated districts, even though the 
 acreage is small, are often valued and actually capitalized 
 at a much larger figure than those of the Central West and 
 East which may be from two to three times their acreage. 
 
 10. Irrigated districts are as yet somewhat isolated, 
 while non-irrigated localities are close to important 
 markets. The great bulk of the fruit from irrigated 
 regions has to travel from 1,000 to 3,000 miles to market. 
 Only a very high grade of fruit of superior marketable 
 quality can hope to compete successfully with fruit grown 
 in eastern districts. At present the northwestern grower 
 puts his fruit up in such good condition that he can put it 
 on the market in the heart of the barreled producing sec- 
 tion and sell it quite readily even if there is great barreled 
 competition. The difficulty of moving the fruit, due to car 
 shortages, has been a drawback to the Northwest fruit in- 
 dustry the past few years. 
 
 The above points are important in differentiating 
 between the characteristics of the irrigated and non-irri- 
 gated regions of the United States. There are many minor 
 ones, such as systems of orchard management which are 
 
 I 
 
Irrigation 177 
 
 practiced in irrigated regions and which differ somewhat 
 from eastern conditions, but in general the above differ- 
 ences define quite clearly the characteristics of the two 
 types of orcharding. 
 
 CHOOSING AN IKEIGATED DISTRICT 
 
 Certain points are important to remember when selecting 
 an irrigated district. When the great orchard irrigation 
 projects of the West were widely advertised, men from 
 middle west and eastern farms and cities flocked to the 
 West and bought orchard land indiscriminately. They 
 paid, at first, too much attention to scenery and the adver- 
 tising pamphlets of the promoters. It did not seem to 
 enter their minds that such things as liability to frost 
 damage, air drainage, priority of water right and the loca- 
 tion of the land, as to whether it could be economically 
 irrigated or not, were of great importance. One of the 
 greatest mistakes which early investors made was in locat- 
 ing on land liable to seepage, that is, land on which alkali 
 showed up after a few years of irrigation, caused either by 
 direct irrigation of that particular plot of land or some- 
 times by the water seeping down from the tracts of land 
 higher up. 
 
 The definite points to consider when locating in the irri- 
 gated regions are : 
 
 1. The history of the region as regards frosts should be 
 studied. Frosts have been the limiting factor in success- 
 ful production in many parts of Colorado, New Mexico, 
 Utah, and Idaho. More orchardists have failed through 
 frost damage in successive years than from any other single 
 factor affecting production. Certain parts of western 
 Colorado are so liable to frost damage as to render profit- 
 
178 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 able fruit-growing impossible. Frosts seem to be very- 
 local in these irrigated regions, that is, certain mesas or 
 limited areas are much more liable to damage than others. 
 The most notable example of how important it is to note 
 the liability to frost in these irrigated districts occurs in 
 the Grand Valley. A few miles above the town of Grand 
 Junction is located the town of Palisades, about which is 
 grouped a very intensive and highly specialized peach in- 
 dustry. Palisades lies in a very narrow part of the Grand 
 Valley on either side of which are large cliffs known as 
 the Book Cliffs. These radiate heat during the night which 
 together with better air drainage combine so that frosts 
 in the blooming season are rare. A few miles down the 
 valley and about Grand Junction itself, frosts are so com- 
 mon that fruit-growers have become somewhat discouraged. 
 Peach-growing on this account has been entirely elim- 
 inated. Destructive frosts seldom occur in the Wenatchee 
 Valley of Washington and rarely in the Hood River Valley 
 of Oregon. They occur very frequently in most of the 
 irrigated districts of Colorado, N^ew Mexico, Idaho, Utah 
 and Montana and in some of the irrigated sections of 
 Oregon and Washington. 
 
 2, Land not liable to seepage should be chosen. In some 
 districts alkali has appeared on the surface of the soil and 
 the trees have lost their vigor and died. Thousands of 
 acres of land have been lost in the Grand Valley of Colo- 
 rado through this cause alone and many have become bank- 
 rupt who started out with the rosiest prospect. Land in 
 trees which has gone to seep is hardly worth trying to re- 
 claim as far as saving the orchard is concerned. 
 
 It is extremely important that irrigated lands be well 
 drained so that water cannot stand on them for indefinite 
 
Irrigation 179 
 
 periods. It is also important that these lands lie so that 
 waste water from orchards which may be higher up or 
 nearer the irrigation canal does not continually seep down 
 on to the land at lower levels. 
 
 To go fully into a discussion of alkali and the danger 
 and causes of its appearance would require a book in itself. 
 It is sufficient to state here that too great emphasis cannot 
 be placed on the problem of alkali soil and it is very im- 
 portant that the fruit-growers strive to avoid orchard sites 
 where it is present. Enough is known about the liabilities 
 of soils to seep at the present time so that any engineer 
 or topography expert familiar with the particular region 
 should be able to state quite definitely the relative danger 
 in this regard. Narrow valleys are much less liable to 
 be troubled with alkali than the broader and larger valleys. 
 There is no alkali in the Hood River Valley of Oregon 
 and the Wenatchee Valley of Washington and very little in 
 the Yakima Valley. 
 
 3. The third important point to be remembered in select- 
 ing soil for irrigation is to see that the land can be irrigated 
 economically. In numberless instances, orchards have 
 been set out on land above the main irrigation canal or on 
 land near no canal and dependence put entirely on pump- 
 ing systems or small private irrigation systems. In many 
 cases orchards irrigated in this way have succeeded; 
 however, in most cases irrigation is so expensive and 
 water has so often been difficult to obtain at the proper 
 time, that in years of poor prices or light crops the grower 
 has not been able to compete with orchards under system- 
 atically installed and bonded irrigation systems. In cer- 
 tain limited sections, the annual water rent charge is as 
 high as $25 an acre. This is prohibitive. In most dis- 
 
180 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 tricts it is between 50 cents and $2.50 an acre; $1,50 is 
 about the average annual charge. Aside from this, how- 
 ever, the original water right usually costs around $75 an 
 acre under private irrigation projects. Therefore, it is 
 extremely important when purchasing land to see that it 
 can be- irrigated economically and that the annual water 
 rent charge is not prohibitive, or if it is necessary to pump 
 the water one should carefully determine whether or not 
 this is feasible. There are of course artesian wells in some 
 of the more southern sections, but as they occur in so few 
 of the fruit districts they hardly enter the discussion here. 
 
 4. It is important to consider the priority of water right. 
 It often happens that growers are located at the end of 
 the irrigating system or canal and in cases in which the 
 water supply is scarce they sometimes have insufficient 
 water for their orchards. This has happened sometimes 
 in the Wenatchee Valley of Washington, where growers in 
 the lower part of the valley were insufficiently supplied 
 with water" at the critical time. In other valleys of the 
 Northwest, many instances might be cited where the 
 grower has been forced to use the waste water from the 
 orchard of his neighbor in order to secure sufficient to 
 supply his own land. The buyer unacquainted with irri- 
 gation and irrigating systems, therefore, should look care- 
 fully into the probability of having guaranteed water 
 rights. One year without irrigation in most sections will 
 usually mean the destruction of the trees. There are many 
 other points to be considered, such as the proper slope for 
 easy irrigation. 
 
 It is impossible here to enter into the engineering fea- 
 tures of irrigation and one should have the advice of a 
 competent engineer in laying out the main laterals. 
 
 I 
 
Irrigation 181 
 
 lEEIGATING THE ORCHAED 
 
 In the discussiou of orchard irrigation, so many factors 
 enter into the problem, each of which is modified to a great 
 degree, depending on the soil, ages of trees and various 
 other conditions, that no set of rules can be laid down. 
 The three problems to consider in actually irrigating an 
 orchard are : amount of water to apply, when to apply it, 
 and the means of application. 
 
 Quantity of water to supply. 
 
 When water is abundant, there is always a tendency to 
 over-irrigate. It should be borne in mind that irrigation 
 is only supplemental to natural precipitation and every 
 effort should be made to conserve the natural moisture. 
 Excessive irrigation causes leaching of plant-food and is 
 injurious to the soil. The basis of water distribution is 
 variable. In general it may be said to vary from 35 to 
 100 acres to a second-foot. Expressed in acre-inches, the 
 average amount used in a year would cover each acre to a 
 depth of about 36 inches. This is augmented by the 
 normal precipitation which in mopt irrigated districts does 
 not exceed 10 to 12 inches per annum. The common unit, 
 for instance, for water distribution in the Wenatchee Val- 
 ley is the miner's inch (one-fiftieth of a cubic foot a second). 
 The prevailing rate of distribution in this region is one 
 miner's inch to two acres. 
 
 The water requirement of different soils is somewhat 
 variable. With a rich soil the water requirement is rela- 
 tively low, while with a leached soil it is high. The prac- 
 tice of growing leguminous shade or cover-crops in irrigated 
 orchards (usually alfalfa) has appreciably increased the 
 
182 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 water requirements. The Hood Eiver Valley, with an 
 average rainfall of about 35 inches per annum, found 
 irrigation necessary, whenever cover-crops were grown. 
 
 Time to irrigate orchards. 
 
 In practice, the fruit-grower recognizes the need of 
 applying water by a slight change in the color and rigidity 
 of the foliage. It is unwise to wait until the trees begin 
 to show signs of wilting, since this delay may prove injur- 
 ious. It is equally unwise to pour on water just because 
 it is available. Over-irrigation should be guarded against. 
 
 It is generally thought that the amount of free water in 
 the upper three or four feet of soil should range between 
 6 to 10 per cent. For the inexperienced, the following 
 simple test is suggested : Soil samples should be taken from 
 a depth of about 3 feet. Measure out 6 pounds and 4 
 ounces (100 ounces) of soil, expose this to a bright sun for 
 the greater part of a day, and then re-weigh. The number 
 of ounces lost will correspond to the percentage of free 
 water. If the loss is less than 6 ounces the soil probably 
 should be irrigated. More than 10 per cent loss will indi- 
 cate a super-abundance of water. 
 
 Number of applications. 
 
 ' In the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys, the first irriga- 
 tion is usually given about the first of May, depending 
 on the soil, the slope, and amount of winter rains. A south 
 slope requires water probably two or three weeks earlier 
 than heavy soil or a steep north slope. In Idaho, the 
 first application of water is usually about the first of June, 
 while in Hood River the water is turned on between June 
 first and fifteenth. 
 
Irrigation 183 
 
 Correct timing of the first irrigation is exceedingly 
 important and will depend somewhat on the amount of 
 winter rains. It is thought that early irrigation tends 
 materially to reduce the June drop. If the trees are kept 
 growing vigorously, they will not usually suffer excessive 
 drop. The spraying operations must be considered in rela- 
 tion to the time of irrigation in order that the soil may be 
 sufficiently dry to permit the hauling of the spray outfit. 
 It is desirable that the water supply be continuous rather 
 than intermittent in order that the grower may definitely 
 plan his work and not be kept waiting for water at critical 
 times. 
 
 The number of irrigations varies but will average from 
 four to five in a season, being made at intervals of twenty 
 to thirty days. A light sandy soil which is not retentive 
 of moisture must be irrigated every two or three weeks. 
 
 There is a noticeable tendency in late irrigations to 
 swell the size of the fruit. This practice detracts from its 
 keeping qualities and flavor. Excessively large apples 
 tend to go down in storage. Heavy late irrigations, fur- 
 thermore, increase loss from scald and bitter-pit. It is 
 best to irrigate heavily up until about August fifteenth 
 and then gradually taper off. Ordinarily no irrigation 
 should be made after September fifth. 
 
 METHODS OF IRRIGATION 
 
 Originally water was supplied to the western apple 
 orchards through earthen ditches. With the increasing 
 scarcity of water, there has been a pronounced tendency 
 towards lining the main canals in order to make them 
 water-tight and to install underground piping to distribute 
 water to the highest point in the orchard or along the high- 
 
184: The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 est ridge. The use of concrete or other "underground 
 piping, together with standpipes, for carrying the water 
 to the upper end of the furrows is unquestionably the most 
 efficient system of distribution. Whether such an invest- 
 ment will prove economical depends on the scarcity of 
 water and the returns obtained from the land. The 
 earthen ditch or cheap wooden flume may be the more 
 economical. 
 
 The actual application of water to the soil is usually 
 accomplished by means of furrows or rills. The length 
 of the rills ordinarily varies from 200 to 600 feet, depend- 
 ing on the slope and character of the soil. With sandy 
 soils or steep slopes, the rills should be short and narrow 
 at the bottom in order that washing will not occur or over- 
 irrigation of the upper end of the tract at the expense of 
 the lower lands. With gentler slopes and heavy soil, the 
 furrows may be very much longer and also wider at the 
 bottom, in order to promote percolation. The depth of 
 furrows usually varies from four to six inches, although 
 there is a tendency towards deeper rilling, eight inches 
 being recommended by some in order that the first few 
 inches of surface soil may be kept partially dry. When 
 the top of the soil is moist, there is excessive loss through 
 evaporation. If the land is very steep, a very small stream 
 is necessary in order to prevent washing. With light 
 porous soils the furrows are made shallow, narrow at the 
 bottom and relatively close together, the water being run 
 through quickly and under a heavy head of water. 
 
 The number of furrows in a tree row varies from two 
 to six, five being the most common. (See Plate X.) The 
 irrigator tries to get the first row within three feet of the 
 tree row and spaces the remaining ones at a distance of 
 
Irrigation 185 
 
 three to four feet apart. Shallow rills require closer spac- 
 ing. With very young trees, a furrow on either side of 
 the tree row is usually sufficient. This plan is also fol- 
 lowed with mature trees where a shortage of water occurs 
 in order to get over as much land as possible. Ordinarily 
 with full bearing trees, the entire surface of the land is 
 watered. 
 
 The most common implements for making furrows are 
 the six-foot cultivator, with the three shovels attached and 
 the single shovel plow. The latter implement is frequently 
 used for making the furrows close to the tree rows. A 
 single furrowing during a season usually suffices when the 
 orchards are in alfalfa, although occasionally the orchardist 
 finds it necessary to open up the rills late in the season. 
 Cultivation between irrigations entails the replacing of the 
 rills. 
 
 The operation of turning the water on the land is termed 
 a " set." It is usually necessary to make several sets if 
 the orchard is large. The irrigator turns his entire head 
 of water into a few furrows and allows it to run from 
 twelve to seventy-two hours, varying with the type and 
 condition of the soil. The water is allowed to run, until 
 by a slow lateral movement it saturates the soil between 
 the furrows. When the orchardist finds that sufficient 
 saturation has taken place, he turns the water into another 
 portion of the orchard and so on until the entire area is 
 irrigated. 
 
 Flooding is practiced in a limited way and under this 
 system the water seeks its own course over a strip usually 
 a few tree rows wide. This practice has been largely 
 superceded by furrowing. 
 
CHAPTEE IX 
 
 FERTILIZING THE COMMERCIAL 
 APPLE ORCHARD 
 
 Fertilizing is one of the many important orchard oper- 
 ations and one about which much has been said and writ- 
 ten, and yet few definite conclusions have been published. 
 Many state experiment stations and individuals have exper- 
 imented with orchard fertilizing from time to time and 
 much has been written about the values of different sys- 
 tems. In many cases, however, erroneous conclusions have 
 been drawn because of outside influences which intervened 
 to destroy the value of the experiment. For that reason 
 increased or decreased yields have been attributed to the 
 use of certain fertilizers, when as a matter of fact they 
 were due to other causes. As a result of the many contra- 
 dictory statements published on fertilizing, this important 
 orchard operation is the one practiced least systematically. 
 
 The wide difference in soil conditions complicates much 
 of the experimental data on this subject. Means and 
 methods of application practiced in the different regions 
 are also variable. In all experimental reports there are 
 some definite conclusions on which most investigators 
 agree. One point definitely brought out is the great value 
 of such nitrogenous fertilizers as nitrate of soda and stable 
 manure to nearly all orchard sections. 
 
 A prominent investigator of orchard fertilization is J. 
 P. Stewart, and long-standing and interesting experiments 
 
 186 
 
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orohard 187 
 
 have been conducted bj the Pennsylvania State College 
 under his direction. The results of his work in general 
 are of great interest and are more applicable to the 
 eastern conditions under v^^hich they were obtained. Other 
 important experiments have been made by various state 
 experiment stations, particularly those of Ohio and Oregon. 
 C. I. Lewis and E. J. Kraus of Oregon have offered valu- 
 able contributions on this subject. Thorough investiga- 
 tions have been conducted by experiment stations in Ohio, 
 Kew York, New H-ampshire, Virginia, Indiana and other 
 states. 
 
 PEESENT PKACTICES IN FEKTILIZING 
 
 Before discussing the results and conclusions arrived 
 at by these and other investigators, it is of interest to note 
 the general practices followed throughout the different 
 commercial areas and the attitude of the average com- 
 mercial grower toward fertilizing. It is only within recent 
 years that the grower has given any great degree of atten- 
 tion to this important subject. However, as with spray- 
 ing, fertilizing is becoming more and more general and 
 necessary. As yet, however, great numbers of growers 
 do not realize its value. Many are- content to allow their 
 orchards to bear very small or medium-sized crops when a 
 few dollars expended in the purchase and application of 
 stable manure or commercial fertilizers would greatly in- 
 crease their returns at a minimum price a barrel or box. 
 It is only a question of time until the fertility of soils will 
 become depleted. It remains, therefore, for the minority 
 of growers, those few who use fertilizer, to convince or- 
 chardists generally of the great value and increased profit 
 to be derived from judicious use of variousr fertilizers. 
 
188 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Throughout the East and Middle West it is rather a 
 common practice to apply stable manure to the orchard. 
 This is particularly the case in western I^ew York where 
 considerable stable manure is available for this purpose,*^ 
 and where its valuer seems to be appreciated as much orl 
 more than in any. other section. The value of stable 
 manure is recognized to a greater or less extent in most 
 of the important apple regions of the East and fruit- 
 growers usually apply to their orchards all the manure 
 which is readily available. As yet, however, many grow- 
 ers hesitate to go to any considerable expense in buying 
 manure from the cities in carload lots. In general, those 
 who have adopted the latter practice have found that it is 
 highly profitable. 
 
 In the Far West, the practice of using stable- manure is 
 not general. The orchards are small, highly intensive and 
 do not permit the keeping of much live-stock. For this 
 reason manure is not readily available. In western 
 orchards the general method of securing nitrogenous fertil- 
 izer is by growing leguminous shade and cover-crops. The 
 Hood Eiver region in Oregon has probably used more 
 commercial fertilizer than any other western section. 
 
 In the southern Ohio Rome Beauty district, nitrate of 
 soda is employed extensively as an orchard fertilizer. 
 Annual applications vary from 3 to 9 pounds to a tree. 
 Nitrate of soda is used to a greater or less extent in various 
 other eastern districts, but in no section is* its application 
 so general as the Rome Beauty district of southern Ohio. 
 
 VALUE OF STABLE MANURE 
 
 Kearly all growers agree that the beneficial effects of 
 stable manure are apparent in increased tree growth and 
 
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 189 
 
 fruit production. Stable manure not only supplements 
 the available plant-food, but has the additional advantage 
 of keeping the soil " alive " and of adding to its capacity 
 to conserve moisture. It makes the food already in the 
 soil more available and permits freer circulation of air. 
 
 It may be definitely stated that stable manure has given 
 uniformly excellent results in the various commercial dis- 
 tricts throughout the country. (Other fertilizers have not 
 been so widely tested.) Annual application, of 8 to 10 
 tons to the acre in a well-managed orchard is usually suffi- 
 cient to secure good annual crops, although a less amount 
 is very beneficial. Some growers prefer to make heavy 
 applications every three or four years, applying from 25 
 to 30 tons to the acre, or from 15 to 20 tons every other 
 year. A few ]^ew York growers are the most common 
 practitioners of this method. New York orchards with 
 their large and old trees can utilize profitably a very large 
 amount of plant-food. 
 
 Careful cost-accounting records taken on about 400 farms 
 in the western New York apple belt show that orchards 
 which are given annual applications of manure, and in 
 which legTiminous cover-crops are grown, give the highest 
 annual yields and are the most profitable. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH FEETELIZERS 
 
 Research work of Kraus and Krayhill. 
 
 A discussion of fertilizing would not be complete with- 
 out a consideration of the work of Kraus and Kraybill, 
 who have made the most exhaustive research investigation 
 regarding the relation of plant vigor to cultivation and 
 nitrogenous fertilizer. 
 
190 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 These investigators found that by dividing plants into 
 three groups a certain definite relation is brought out 
 between the nitrogen and carbohydrates present in the 
 different groups. These groups are. divided as follows : 
 
 Group 1. Those plants which seem to be extremely vig- 
 orous but rarely bloom, and if they do bloom, set but little 
 fruit. 
 
 Group 2. Those plants which make a very fair growth 
 and seem to be in good vigor, bear very abundantly and 
 produce a large number of clusters, the blossoms of which 
 readily set fruit. 
 
 Group 3. Those plants which are less vigorous than the 
 second group, bloom profusely, but set fruit very sparingly. 
 
 A chemical analysis of the plants in these groups shows 
 that: (1) those of the first group always contain an abund- 
 ance of moisture and nitrogenous compounds; (2) those 
 in the second contain a relatively smaller amount of nitro- 
 genous compound as compared with the carbohydrates 
 (sugars and starches) ; (3) the plants of the third, group 
 contain still less of the nitrates and proportionately much 
 more of the carbohydrates than the second group. It is 
 shown rather conclusively from these experiments that 
 there must be a certain mathematical relation between the 
 nitrates and the carbohydrates in order to secure the best 
 results. 
 
 The results of these studies directly apply to the apple. 
 Examples of the first group are commonly found in trees 
 from one to seven years of age which have a great abund- 
 ance of nitrogen as compared with the amount of carbo- 
 hydrates, such a condition being encouraged by intensive 
 tillage, severe heading of trees or use of nitrogenous fertil- 
 izers. As a result, considerable wood growth but little 
 
Plate XI. — Insect pests of the apple. Upper, On left, apples 
 in proper condition for first codlin-moth spray : on the right too 
 late for effective spraying. Middle, Work of codlin-moth or 
 common apple worm in the apple. Lotoer, Young apples injured 
 by the fruit-tree leaf-roller, an insect prevalent in Fremont 
 County, Colorado, and often in New York and other barreled 
 sections. 
 
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 191 
 
 fruit is secured. It is found by reducing tillage, pruning 
 and other stimulating operations, that one automatically 
 reduces the relative proportion of raw sap and nitrogen 
 and allows the increased leaf areas to manufacture more 
 concentrated food, such as sugars and starches. As a 
 result, such trees begin to form buds, produce fruit and 
 thereby pass into the second class. 
 
 In the third group or class of trees, the nitrates have 
 become much reduced in proportion to the carbohydrates. 
 As a result, the leaves become yellow and thin, the spurs 
 begin to die and the set of fruit is poor. The trees are 
 starving for nitrates amid plenty of sugars and starches. 
 This explains how a relatively small amount of nitrate 
 added in the spring often produces such remarkable results. 
 It once more restores the balance between the carbohydrates 
 and the nitrates. When a proper balance is seemingly 
 reached between these two, the proper vegetative growth 
 and fruitfulness is secured. Such trees then would be 
 classed in Group 2 and, therefore, approach the ideal con- 
 dition for fruitfulness. Every effort should be made to 
 maintain them in this condition. Good cultivation, the 
 growth of legumes or moderate applications of nitrate of 
 soda will usually serve to maintain the proper balance 
 between the nitrates and carbohydrates. Acid phosphates 
 may also be necessary. 
 
 Experiments in Pennsylvania. 
 
 In a series of experiments carried out under the direc- 
 tion of J. P. Stewart in Pennsylvania, the following con- 
 clusions seemed to be more or less definitely established: 
 
 1. It was found that nitrogen, of all food elements, was 
 
192 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 the most influential in improving both annual yield and 
 growth, 
 
 2. In order to dispel any apprehension of great expense 
 involved in applying nitrate of soda, it may be stated that 
 during a ten-year period nitrate of soda was applied at a 
 cost of 9 cents a bushel of fruit produced, or 27 cents a 
 barrel ; and as nitrate was figured at a war time cost of 
 $100 a ton, this shows that even with a very high price the 
 great increase in yield would soon pay for the fertilizer. 
 In these experiments, nitrate of soda was applied at the 
 rate of 4 to 8 pounds to a tree. 
 
 ^ 3, " It was found that nitrogen from commercial 
 sources or from stable manure proved more effective than 
 that from cover-crop as a rule." Nitrogen from commer- 
 cial fertilizers and from stable manure was particularly 
 effective when accompanied with the proper cultural 
 methods. 
 
 4. " The addition of phosphorus or potash to nitrogen 
 applications has usually given larger returns than nitrogen 
 alone. The nitrogen and phosphorus combination has pro- 
 duced an average increase over the normal yields in two 
 experiments of 265 and 308 bushels per acre annually dur- 
 ing 9- and 10-year periods. This combination is also 
 proving important in one of the experiments in young 
 orchards. In at least three of the other bearing orchards, 
 however, the addition of phosphorus has resulted in no 
 important benefit." 
 
 5. " Neither phosphorus nor lime, when used alone, has 
 shown any important influence on either yield or growth 
 in apples. Lime may often have some indirect value, how- 
 ever, through its favorable influence on leguminous covers 
 
 1 Quotations from State Coll. Bull., No. 153. 
 
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 193 
 
 or intercrops, and possibly as an accompaniment of fertil- 
 izer applications. In the latter relation its chief effect 
 has been on growth. Phosphorus is also generally valu- 
 able in connection with leguminous covers." 
 
 6. Potash, when applied alone, gave an increased yield 
 in some experiments, a material increase in a few, but in 
 some instances had an injurious effect. On account of the 
 impossibility of defining just what the soil ne'eds without 
 experimentation, it is better to defer general use of potash 
 until definite evidence of its value is secured. This can 
 be done through a home experiment as outlined later in 
 this chapter. 
 
 7. " The red color in apples can not be increased mate- 
 rially by any kind of fertilization, although potash and 
 possibly phosphorus may sometimes assist very slightly. 
 These colors are directly dependent on sunlight and matur- 
 ity, with the latter occurring preferably on the tree. 
 Hence such influences as normal development, late picking, 
 light soils, open pruning, and mildly injurious or defoliat- 
 ing sprays are the chief practical means of increasing the 
 reds in fruits, while opposite conditions tend to decrease 
 them." 
 
 8. " The distinctly retarding influence of nitrogenous 
 fertilizers and manure on color is simply due to delayed 
 maturity, and is often an advantage in the case of the more 
 northern varieties, such as Baldwin, Hubbardston and 
 Mcintosh, when grown in Pennsylvania. In such varie- 
 ties, the color reduction is readily overcome by deferring 
 the picking. With the York Imperial and similar, long- 
 seasoned varieties, however, it may also be necessary to use 
 nitrogen more sparingly and to utilize the other direct 
 aids to color as much as possible." 
 
194 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 9. " In these experiments, fertilization has usually had 
 very little influence on the average size of the fruit. This 
 is apparently because it acted primarily in increasing the 
 total amount of fruit and foliage on the tree, both of which 
 influences tended to decrease the average size of the fruit. 
 Manure, however, usually secured a fair increase in size, 
 probably chiefly because of its moisture-conserving effect. 
 The importance of moisture is evident from the fact that 
 water forms about 85 per cent of the average fruit. The 
 chief means of increasing the size of the fruit, therefore, 
 are proper thinning and moisture conservation." 
 
 10. " Evidence elsewhere indicates that the time of ap- 
 plication is important, especially for nitrogen. It ap- 
 pears that nitrogen carried in nitrate of soda may often 
 distinctly increase the crop of the current season if the 
 application is made at the right time. This time seems to 
 be about when the buds are beginning to open in the spring, , 
 or slightly later. When the applications are made much 
 later than this, or when the slower-acting carriers of nitro- 
 gen are used, such as dried blood or manure, no important 
 effects should be expected before the following year. The 
 later applications, however, are often used in steadying the 
 yields from year to year and hence should not be 
 neglected." It should be borne in mind that the above 
 conclusions are more applicable to the East. 
 
 There is a variance in opinion among experimenters as 
 to how soon an appreciable influence is derived from 
 application of nitrate of soda. Some feel that if applied 
 well in advance of the bloom, it will materially increase the 
 set of blossoms the same season. It is more commonly 
 thought that siDce the morphology of the bud is determined 
 in the preceding season, the application of nitrate can have 
 
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 195 
 
 little or no effect on the set of blossoms of the current 
 season. 
 
 It has been found that many failures with potash and 
 phosphorus are due to a deficient nitrogen supply. It is 
 quite a common belief that if fertility is low all the ele- 
 ments of plant-food are needed, when very often the soil 
 is deficient only in one or two elements. Potash and phos- 
 phorus, if not actually required, may tend to check or bal- 
 ance any ill effects of nitrogen. Therefore, it is generally 
 recommended by Stewart that for the average orchard, 
 an application of 500 pounds to the acre of 6-8-5 fertilizer 
 be employed. This means a fertilizer carrying 6 per cent 
 of nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphorus and 5 per cent potash. 
 If commercial fertilizer is not used and stable manure is 
 available, it is recommended that about 8 tons of the latter 
 be applied annually to an acre, especially when the trees 
 indicate the immediate need of fertilizing. Commercial 
 nitrogenous fertilizer, especially nitrate of soda, is quicker 
 in action than manure, and the same is claimed for sul- 
 fate of ammonia. It is generally concluded that in case 
 of young trees stable manure is more satisfactory, as it 
 usually furnishes all deficient elements of plant-food 
 needed for growth. A good system for mature trees, under 
 middle western and eastern conditions, is to apply nitrate 
 of soda, 4 to 8 pounds, acid phosphate, 6 to 8 pounds, and 
 muriate of potash, 2 or 3 pounds to a tree. Of these fertil- 
 izers, nitrogen is the most important and likely to be most 
 needed. 
 
 Nitrate experiments hy Lewis. 
 
 The Oregon experiments by Lewis have brought out 
 some additional conclusions with regard to the application 
 
196 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 of nitrogen and at the same time have confirmed several 
 of the results obtained elsewhere. While Stewart recom- 
 mends 4 to 8 pounds of nitrate of soda to a tree, Lewis 
 advises 3 to 4 pounds. This difference in opinion, how- 
 ever, may be accounted for by the variance in conditions. 
 The Lewis recommendations refer to northwestern condi- 
 tions where the trees are much smaller than those of the 
 East, while Stewart's findings are more applicable to the 
 older and larger trees of the East. The recommendations 
 and results emphasized by Lewis as applying particularly 
 to the northwestern conditions are as follows: 
 
 1. An application of 5 pounds of nitrate of soda quickly 
 restored devitalized trees. 
 
 2. The benefits of nitrate application were quickly 
 apparent, as shown in the dark green foliage. 
 
 3. Nitrates stimulated the wood growth. 
 
 4. Nitrate of soda produced much more attractive blos- 
 soms and a much better set, even in the current season 
 when application was made a month in advance of the 
 bloom. (Some experimenters disagree.) 
 
 5. A much larger percentage of the bloom set fruit on 
 fertilized trees than in the case of trees which had not 
 received this treatment. 
 
 6. There is a greater tendency for the fertilized tree to 
 bloom more annually and evenly. 
 
 7. It was shown very conclusively that nitrate of soda is 
 the cause of greatly increased yields. 
 
 8. Nitrate has a direct effect on the marketable quality 
 of the fruit, causing the specimens or individual apples to 
 become much larger than those on unfertilized trees. 
 This is somewhat at variance with Stewart's conclusions 
 
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 197 
 
 which were to the effect that the size of the fruit is little 
 affected by fertilizer. 
 
 9. The degree of color on red varieties receiving nitrate 
 was not as high on the whole as those which received none, 
 but good commercial color was easily secured unless 
 amounts of nitrate used were excessive. 
 
 10. It was found that up to a certain amount, the 
 response to nitrate of soda was in direct proportion to the 
 quantity of fertilizer used. However, 3 to 5 pounds to a 
 tree under normal conditions was more satisfactory than 
 larger amounts. Some applications in excess of 5 pounds 
 to a tree, although increasing the total fruit produced, 
 lowered the color to a point seriously detracting from the 
 commercial quality. 
 
 11. It was found that the influence of nitrate was more 
 marked in heavy crop years than in years of light produc- 
 tion. 
 
 12. The benefits from the use of nitrate extended over 
 a period including two seasons from the date of applica- 
 tion. 
 
 13. The greatest benefit came from applying nitrate to 
 devitalized trees which had received continuous clean 
 tillage. 
 
 14. Best results were obtained when nitrate was applied 
 about a month before the tree bloomed. 
 
 It was found at the Oregon station that Yellow New- 
 town trees which received early fertilizing averaged 7.9 
 boxes to a tree while late fertilized trees averaged much 
 less. In the case of the Esopus (Spitzenburg), the early 
 fertilized trees averaged 10.83 boxes to a tree while the 
 late fertilized trees averaged much less. The results of 
 
198 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 this experiment indicate that application must be made 
 early if appreciable effects are to be obtained the current 
 season. By comparing such experimental data as is avail- 
 able at the present time and from data secured froni indi- 
 vidual growers in various parts of the country, the authors 
 recommend early application of nitrate of soda, preferably 
 a month before blooming. This recommendation applies 
 to both eastern and western conditions. 
 
 ' AMOUNT OF FEETILIZEK TO A TEEE 
 
 The amount of fertilizer to be applied must necessarily 
 vary with the size, age and vigor of the tree. Although 
 nitrogen is likely to be the most needed element, if orchard 
 soils show general depletion, an application of acid phos- 
 phate 6 to 10 pounds to a tree and muriate of potash 2 to 
 3 pounds to a tree, as well as nitrate, is usually advisable. 
 Under northwestern conditions, 5 pounds of nitrate of soda 
 to a bearing tree is probably sufficient to restore fertility. 
 Under eastern conditions where trees are older and fruit- 
 ing surface is greater, larger amounts are advisable, 6 to 8 
 pounds of nitrate of soda to a tree being usually recom- 
 mended. These amounts are for trees which show a dis- 
 tinct need of fertilization. Lesser amounts will suffice 
 where need is not so evident. If trees are healthy, but 
 are still making onl}^ small annual growth, if foliage tends 
 to be pale green or yellow and also sparse in the late sum- 
 mer or fall, and if crops are only medium to light, it is 
 highly probable that fertilization will be profitable and 
 particularly the application of nitrate of soda. To deter- 
 mine the needs of the soil, some actual test should precede 
 any wide general treatment. As a rule, young healthy 
 orchards do not require fertilizing. Older orchards will 
 
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 199 
 
 usually respond to moderate applications of nitrate of 
 soda, even though they may have no clear indication of the 
 need. In such cases, the amounts to be applied should 
 be reduced. 
 
 NEEDS OF IRRIGATED REGIONS 
 
 The importance of nitrogen as the limiting element of 
 plant-food is emphasized under western irrigated condi- 
 tions where the nitrogen-content of the soil is soon 
 exhausted unless replenished by the growing of legumes or 
 by application of manure or commercial fertilizer. The 
 system of clean culture with irrigation, practiced so exten- 
 sively at one time in the Northwest, caused more or less 
 rapid depletion of humus and nitrogen. The results of 
 this harmful practice became very evident in the famous 
 Hood River Valley of Oregon. In about 1915, the 
 orchards of this well-known region were producing rather 
 small annual crops; the foliage was beginning to take on 
 a yellow appearance, particularly in the non-irrigated 
 orchards where no leguminous shade-crops were grown. 
 It became apparent that some change in orchard manage- 
 ment was necessary to bring back the yields and vigor of 
 the trees to normal. It was in these circumstances that the 
 value of nitrate of soda was demonstrated. While the 
 importance of nitrates as commercial fertilizers is recog- 
 nized in the Pacific Northwest, and particularly in Ore- 
 gon, the value of acid phosphate and potash commonly 
 recommended in the East in conjunction with nitrates has 
 I not been established in the irrigated regions. In other 
 ^ words, eastern orchards more commonly require general 
 .jfertilization, while northwestern plantings are not likely 
 
300 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 to require anything but nitrogen. This need is being sup- 
 plied in part by the quite general practice of growing 
 leguminous shade-crops. 
 
 NITEATE OF SODA 
 
 Nitrate of soda as a fertilizer will be more and more 
 widely used. At first the commercial apple-growers looked 
 askance at this means of maintaining soil fertility, there 
 being a theory that once given nitrate of soda treatment a 
 tree would require continual stimulation. This theory has 
 been disproved, however, and a single application of nitrate 
 of soda may prove beneficial whether later applications are 
 made or not. Continued moderate application at intervals 
 of about two years may prove desirable, however. 
 
 Hood River, Oregon, has been mentioned as one region 
 in which this form of fertilization has proved profitable. 
 The value of nitrate of soda is also recognized in the 
 Ozarks, southern Indiana, western Michigan, in Virginia 
 and particularly in southern Ohio. Wherever the soil 
 is naturally deficient in nitrogen or where the nitrogen 
 has been exhausted through the planting of other crops, 
 this deficiency can and should be quickly remedied. 
 
 METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZEKS 
 
 It may not always pay to apply commercial fertilizers 
 indiscriminately to all trees in an orchard. In other 
 words, one may profitably single out trees which are in need 
 of treatment and omit others. In the average orchard, 
 there will be many trees which are growing vigorously and 
 fruiting well. At the same time, there are likely to be 
 
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 201 
 
 trees which are growing indifferently and not bearing well. 
 These latter are in need of fertilization. It is, therefore, 
 a good plan to go through the orchard and tag such trees 
 in the summer so that they may be manured or fertilized 
 the following spring according to their individual needs. 
 
 The common method of applying commercial fertilizer 
 is simply to scatter it broadcast under the trees from two 
 weeks to a month before bloom, care being taken not to 
 get it too close to the trunk. Application should extend 
 well out beyond the spread of the branches in order to 
 conform more closely with the usual distribution of the 
 feeding roots. Heaviest application should be made over 
 the area covered by the outer two-thirds of the branches. 
 Fertilizer may be left on the surface to be carried down by 
 the rain or it may be harrowed or lightly plowed into the 
 soil. Barnyard manure may be applied at almost any 
 time, although applications late in the growing season are 
 likely to over-stimulate wood growth. Winter dressings 
 are most common. 
 
 With nitrate of soda good results have been secured by 
 dividing the amounts to be applied into two parts, making 
 the first application about a month in advance of the bloom 
 and the second about a month after the fruit has set. 
 Favorable responses have been obtained from second ap- 
 plications as late as July. The rate of the second appli- 
 cation may vary, according to the size of the crop which 
 the tree is carrying, heavier application being profitable in 
 full crop years. The double application of nitrate of 
 soda is credited with a tendency toward steadying and 
 maintaining annual yield. In most regions this fertilizer 
 is scattered broadcast in dry form, largely on the area cov- 
 
202 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 ered by the outer two-thirds of the branches. In a few 
 regions where spring rains are infrequent, liquid applica- 
 tions have proved advisable. 
 
 PEUNING WITH REFERENCE TO FERTILIZING 
 
 In connection with fertilizer studies, it has been found 
 that efforts toward building up the soil and improving 
 fruitfulness should be accompanied by regular and moder- 
 ate pruning throughout the entire tree. Excessive head- 
 ing back or heavy thinning of branches should be avoided 
 unless the trees have entered such a decline as to necessi- 
 tate the encouraging of heavy wood growth. 
 
 FERTILIZER TESTS 
 
 It is concluded from the foregoing discussion that soil 
 fertility is of utmost importance and should be carefully 
 maintained. Careful orchard management and the use of 
 commercial fertilizer when necessary should forestall the 
 depletion of plant-food. It has been emphasized that the 
 critical factor in soil fertility of leading apple regions is 
 available nitrogen supply. In regions in which yields are 
 low and trees show pale foliage and lack of vigor, it is 
 highly probable that the application of nitrogen fertilizer 
 will be profitable. It is simple to conduct a test with a 
 few trees and the results are quickly apparent. In many 
 instances the increased yields will cover the added cost of 
 the fertilizer many times over. It is anticipated that 
 nitrogen fertilizer will become more and more popular 
 among commercial apple-growers. 
 
 A good orchard test is suggested by Stewart, although 
 most commercial growers hesitate to go to the trouble of 
 making it. The importance of testing fertilizers is appar- 
 
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 203 
 
 ent when one realizes tlie marked difference in results ob- 
 tained in separate experimental orchards. It is wise to 
 try fertilizing on a small scale before assuming any large 
 financial risks, 
 
 " This test should be located in a typical section of the 
 orchard and include not less than six average trees of the 
 same variety and age in each plot. It is also best to have 
 the trees in double rows whenever possible and the plots by 
 a single row left unfertilized. All trees should be labeled 
 and carefully measured at a fixed point on the trunk, and 
 the applications and exact records of both yield and growth 
 should be maintained for at least three years. Good in- 
 dications of an orchard's needs may often be obtained in 
 much less time, but at least this period should be allowed. 
 
 (Rates are stated for each mature tree in bearing.) 
 
 1. Check (unfertilized). 
 
 2. Nitrate of soda, 5 lbs. 
 
 3. Nitrate, 5 lbs.; acid phosphate (16 per cent P2 O5), 
 8 lbs. 
 
 4. Nitrate of soda, 5 lbs.; potash (50 per cent. K2O), 
 2 lbs. 
 
 5. Check. 
 
 6. Acid phosphate, 8 lbs. ; potash, 2 lbs. 
 
 7. Nitrate, 5 lbs. ; acid phosphate, 8 lbs. ; potash 2 lbs. 
 
 8. Manure, 400 lbs. 
 
 9. Check. 
 
 " Other carriers, such as ammonium sulphate or dried 
 blood, may be used for the nitrogen; and bone meal or 
 possibly ' floats ' may be used for the phosphorus. The 
 present materials are likely to be best in the absence of 
 cultivation, however, and they are also quicker in their 
 action as a rule." 
 
204 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 GENERAL SUMMARY AND SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
 (1). Cost production studies emphasize the importance 
 of high yields. Judicious fertilization is a direct method 
 of increasing yields. 
 
 (2). Nitrogen is the limiting element of plant-food in 
 most orchards. It can be supplied best in one of the 
 following ways : 
 
 (a) Barnyard manure, 8 to 10 tons to the acre an- 
 nually. 
 
 (b) Nitrate of soda, applied two to four weeks be- 
 fore bloom; 3 to 5 pounds to a mature tree 
 under western conditions; 4 to 8 pounds to a 
 tree under eastern and middle western condi- 
 tions. Amount varies with age, size and vigor 
 of tree. 
 
 (c) Growing of such leguminous shade- and cover- 
 crops as alfalfa, clover or vetch. 
 
 (3). Nitrogen tends somewhat to increase the size of 
 the fruit, particularly on weak trees. It increases the 
 number of fruits more noticeably. It may reduce color 
 by checking maturity. 
 
 (4). Phosphorus and potash applied in conjunction 
 with nitrogen have given generally better results than 
 nitrogen alone. This has not been definitely established 
 under western and some eastern conditions. 
 
 (5). Potash may improve color to slight degree. 
 
 (6). The application of about 6 to 8 pounds of nitrate 
 of soda ; 7 to 9 pounds of acid phosphate and from 2 to 3 
 pounds of potash to a mature tree may be considered 
 full treatment for soils generally depleted in fertility. 
 Local tests should be made before extensive application of 
 
Fertilizing the Commercial Apple Orchard 205 
 
 commercial fertilizer is made, since conditions vary exceed- 
 ingly in different orchards. 
 
 (7). Two to four weeks before bloom is the time rec- 
 ommended for applying nitrate of soda. Other fertilizers 
 may be applied at the same time. Method of application 
 is by broadcasting fertilizer principally on the area under 
 the outer two-thirds of bearing surface of tree. 
 
 (8). Over-application of commercial fertilizers is to 
 be avoided. Unfruitfulness is not always due to depleted 
 soil fertility. Tests in fertilization should be conducted to 
 determine needs. 
 
 (9). Barnyard manure is an excellent fertilizer for 
 apple orchards, particularly for young trees when rapid 
 wood growth is desired; also for old trees which need 
 stimulation to produce normal annual growth. 
 
 (10). Leguminous cover-crops are very important in 
 maintaining humus and nitrogen supply, and very often 
 obviate the necessity of applying commercial fertilizer. 
 
 (11). Some old orchards, particularly in western New 
 York, apparently do not respond to commercial fertilizers 
 but this does not mean that commercial fertilizers are not 
 valuable under most conditions. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 m 
 
 DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE AND 
 THEIR CONTROL 
 
 In recent years much attention has been given to the 
 study of insects and diseases attacking the different fruits. 
 It is impracticable here to describe all of the pests which 
 are found on the apple and for fuller accounts the reader 
 is referred to the " ]\[anual of Fruit Insects " by Slinger- 
 land and Crosby and " Manual of Fruit Diseases " by 
 Hesler and Whetzel. 
 
 IMPORTANT INSECT ENEMIES OF THE APPLE 
 
 The codlin-moth (Carpocapsa pomonella). (See Plate 
 
 XL) 
 
 This insect, of European origin, is widely disseminated, 
 being present in practically all of the important apple 
 regions of the world. In the United States it is recognized 
 as tl^e most serious insect enemy of the apple and is respon- 
 sible yearly for a great loss of fruit. The codlin-moth, 
 more commonly known as the " apple worm," feeds within 
 the fruit, causing the so-called " wormy apple." In the 
 early part of the season much of the wormy fruit falls 
 to the ground, but the fruit attacked later is not so likely 
 to drop. In regions in which this pest is abundant, many 
 of the apples as they near maturity are frequently 
 " stung." This refers to the small shallow excavations 
 
 206 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 207 
 
 through the skin made by the worms before they succumb 
 to the poison. 
 
 The seriousness of this insect is somewhat variable from 
 season to season and in different fruit-growing districts. 
 In the eastern states the eodlin-moth can be controlled by 
 one to three thorough spray applications. In the Middle 
 West and in the arid fruit-gTowing regions of the West, 
 the insect is more difficult to control, often requiring six 
 to seven sprays. It thrives especially under the warai 
 dry climatic conditions of the West, whereas its develop- 
 ment in the East is retarded by the occurrence of rains and 
 periods of cool weather. The number of broods is in- 
 fluenced by weather conditions as indicated by the fact 
 that there are four broods in the Pecos Valley of New 
 Mexico while in Maine there is practically but one, the 
 second brood being very small. 
 
 The codlin-moth passes the winter in the worm or 
 larval stage, within a small silken cocoon which is nor- 
 mally spun beneath the loose bark of the trunk. By the 
 time the apples are in bloom, many of the worms have 
 changed to the pupal state, after which they further trans- 
 form and issue as moths. The eggs are deposited on the 
 leaves and sometimes on the fruit itself. The worms 
 hatch usually in six to ten days, depending on the weather, 
 and soon eat their way into the fruit if it is not properly 
 protected by poison. 
 
 Before proper control measures can be applied, it is 
 essential to know the life history of the codlin-moth. It 
 is important to have information on the number of broods 
 and the time when each brood is hatching in maximum 
 numbers. It will, therefore, be readily appreciated that 
 no one spraying schedule will be applicable in all fruit- 
 
208 77/fi Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 1 
 
 growing districts, but instead a spraying scheme that will 
 meet local conditions slionld be adopted. 
 
 The following suggestion will be helpful in controlling 
 the codlin-moth: (1) Arsenate of lead powder should belj 
 used, 2 pounds of the paste to 50 gallons of water or" 
 fungicide. (2) The importance of thorough spraying for 
 the calyx treatment can not be too strongly emphasized. 
 This application may be started when 85 to 90 per cent of 
 the blossoms have dropped and must be completed before 
 the calyces have closed. (See Plate XI.) The calyx cups 
 should be literally drenched to insure filling each one with 
 the poison. The spray should be applied with nozzles 
 throwing a coarse spray under a pressure of 200 to 225 , 
 pounds. The upper parts of the trees should be sprayed 
 from a tower. (3) In regions in which the codlin-moth is 
 serious, every effort should be made to reduce the first brood 
 as much as possible. If necessary, three cover sprays 
 should be made for this brood: (a) Just before the worms 
 begin to hatch (three to four weeks after the calyx spray) ; 
 (b) as the worms are hatching in large numbers (ten to 
 twelve days after a) ; (c) as the late hatching first-brood 
 worms are appearing (ten to twelve days after b). 
 
 If the first brood is not practically eradicated, no sub- 
 sequent spraying will eliminate wormy and " stung " fruit. 
 In order to catch the first-brood worms that have escaped 
 being poisoned, it would be well either to band the trees 
 or to employ the codlin-moth trap. A large proportion 
 of the first-brood worms transform in a few weeks to moths, 
 the females of which are capable of laying as many as 300 
 second-brood eggs. From this the fruit-grower will realize 
 the importance of killing as many first-brood worms as 
 possible. In spite of the above precautions, however, 
 
Plate XII. — San Jose scale: (a) natural size; (b) enlarged; 
 (c) appearance of this pest in the apple. 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 209 
 
 some worms will escape both the poison and the mechanical 
 means of capture and it will, therefore, be necessary to 
 spraj for the later broods. 
 
 The following spray schedules are suggested : 
 
 Schedule I (One spray). (1) Calyx spray. 
 Schedule II (Two sprays). (1) Calyx spray. 
 
 (2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1 
 Schedule III (Three sprays). (1) Calyx spray. 
 
 (2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1 
 
 (3) 8 to 10 weeks after 1 
 Schedule IV (Five sprays). (1) Calyx spray. 
 
 (2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1 
 
 (3) 5 to 6 weeks after 1 
 
 (4) 8 to 10 weeks after 1 
 
 (5) 12 to 14 weeks after 1 
 Schedule V (Six sprays). (1) Calyx spray. 
 
 (2) 3 to 4 weeks after 1 
 
 (3) 5 to 6 weeks after 1 
 
 (4) 6 to 7 weeks after 1 
 
 (5) 8 to 10 weeks after 1 
 
 (6) 12 to 14 weeks after 1 
 
 Maine to Connecticut: Frequently schedule I will suf- 
 fice, but if not schedules II or III should be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 New York to Virginia: In some fruit districts within 
 these states schedule I will give satisfactory commer- 
 cial control of the codlin-moth. Where it is more 
 abundant, schedules II or III will be necessary. 
 
 Ohio to Michigan: Usually schedule III will give satis- 
 factory control. 
 
210 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Illinois to Arkansas: There is considerable variation 
 in the relative infestation of the codlin-moth in these 
 states. In some frnit districts schedule III will suf- 
 fice, while in others schedules IV or V should be 
 employed. 
 
 Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah: The severity of 
 the codlin-moth in these states varies to a considerable 
 degree and the best spray schedule for each fruit- 
 growing district will depend on the local conditions. 
 In many of these districts, schedule V should be em- 
 ployed, supplemented by banding or the codlin-moth 
 trap. 
 
 Idaho, Washington, Oregon, California: In many of the 
 fruit-growing valleys in these states the codlin-moth is 
 a pest of first rank, requiring for best control schedule 
 V together with banding and the use of the codlin- 
 moth trap. 
 
 San Jose .scale (Aspidiotus perniciosits) . (See Plate 
 XII.) 
 
 The San Jose scale is one of the most common and inju- 
 rious apple pests. It is widely distributed throughout 
 practically every commercial apple region. The mature 
 scale is gray in color, circular, and about the size of a pin- 
 head. A nipple-like protuberance in the center distin- 
 guishes it from other scales of similar appearance. The 
 scale is merely an excretion for protection ; the louse is 
 bright lemon in color and when crushed emits a percepti- 
 ble juice. 
 
 Annual spraying with lime-sulfur (30°-33° Baume) 
 1 to 8 is recognized as proper treatment. It is desirable 
 to delay the application until early spring, at a time when 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 311 
 
 there will be the greatest hold-over effect against young 
 scale. This occurs just as buds are swelling. For badly 
 crusted infestation of scale, crude petroleum oils are ef- 
 fective. As a rule, San Jose scale is now well controlled 
 by spraying. Control measures are directed particularly 
 to protect the fruit from infestation. 
 
 Oyster-shell scale (Lepidosaphes ulmi). (See Plate 
 XIII.) 
 
 The oyster-shell is another common scale insect which is 
 not as serious, however, as the San Jose. The shape is 
 distinctive and resembles very closely a long narrow oyster- 
 shell. It is about 1/8 vach. long, brown in color, although 
 sometimes grayish. Oyster-shell scale is not so widely dis- 
 tributed as San Jose scale nor is it usually a menace in 
 regions where the latter is serious. It seems to prefer a 
 higher altitude. 
 
 The dormant lime-sulfur spray is not as effective in the 
 control of oyster-shell as of San Jose scale, yet in most 
 instances it seoms to control both insects. Two or three 
 weeks after the blooming period, the old oyster-shell scales 
 begin to loosen and the yovnig lice start to crawl about. 
 Application of distillate oils, kerosene emulsion, or lime- 
 sulfur (1 to 35) is usually effective at this time. Nico- 
 tine sprays, 1 to 200, are also effective although somewhat 
 more expensive. 
 
 Apple aphids. 
 
 Four well-knowTi species of plant-lice affect the apple. 
 Two of these, the oat aphis and the green aphis are green- 
 ish in color and feed chiefly on the foliage, causing it to 
 curl. The third species is commonly called the rosy apple 
 
212 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 aphis {Aphis sorbi) because of its pinkish to purplish color. 
 This louse is a more serious pest than the others since it 
 not only attacks the foliage, but also causes severe damage 
 to the young apples. (See Plate XV.) These injured 
 fruits, known sometimes as " aphis apples," are frequently 
 much dwarfed and distorted in shape and have no com- 
 mercial value. The fourth species is the woolly aphis 
 (Schizoneura lamgera), easily recognized by its whitish, 
 cotton-like appearance, particularly when in colonies. 
 This species feeds chiefly on the twigs, axils of the leaves, 
 the trunk, especially where the outer bark has been in- 
 jured, and the roots. (See Plate XIV.) 
 
 The life history of plant-lice is somewhat complicated 
 and worthy of brief mention. The oat aphis and rosy 
 aphis migrate to other host plants, in the summer, but 
 return in the fall to deposit their eggs on the apple twigs. 
 The green apple aphis breeds on the apple during the 
 entire season as does also woolly apple aphis, although the 
 latter has an alternate host plant in the elm. 
 
 The control of plant-lice is difficult, but by careful and 
 timely spraying satisfactory results can be obtained. The 
 oat, green and rosy aphids hatch in the spring about the 
 time the green tips of the foliage appear. The lice con- 
 gregate upon these tips and soon commence to feed. 
 
 It is in this short period that the fruit-grower has the 
 best chances of effecting control by thorough spraying with 
 a contact insecticide, as nicotine sulfate (40 per cent) at 
 the rate of 1 to 1066 (% pint to 50 gallons of water to 
 which has been added 2 to 3 pounds of soap). If it is 
 desired to spray for the San Jose scale, it may be done at 
 this time, thus giving the tree the so-called " delayed dor- 
 mant " treatment for the San Jose scale and apple aphids. 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 213 
 
 The best spray combination for this treatment is standard 
 lime-sulfur solution 1 to 8 plus 40 per cent nicotine sulfate 
 1 to 1066 (% pint to 50 gallons). The soap should not 
 be used when lime-sulfur is employed as they are not com- 
 patible. 
 
 The above-ground colonies of the woolly apple aphis 
 may best be treated in the summer by a drenching spray 
 of 10 per cent kerosene emulsion. The nicotine spray 
 does not penetrate the woolly covering of these lice as well 
 as the oil spray, otherwise the nicotine solution might be 
 used. As yet, no satisfactory method of combating the 
 woolly aphis on the roots has been found, but growing trees 
 on resistant stock, as the N'orthern Spy, is desirable in 
 regions in which this pest is troublesome. In spraying all 
 plant-lice it is important to remember that these are suck- 
 ing insects. 
 
 Plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar). 
 
 The mature insect is a snout- 
 beetle which punctures the 
 young fruit in the early stages 
 and causes misshapen fruit. 
 Codlin-moth sprays serve to 
 check plum curculio although 
 control may not be entirely ef- 
 fective. Infestation is favored 
 when orchards are in sod or 
 grown up to weeds. Where 
 
 this pest is prevalent, an ar- ^ „ * , , • 
 
 • 11 111 11 1 , Fig. 3. — Apple showing 
 
 Senical should be added to the the egg and feeding punc- 
 
 pink spray application. (See tures of the plum curculio 
 
 i,. Q \ ^^ ^^'^ ^^ *"^ distorted 
 
 xlg. o.) shape of the fruit attacked. 
 
214 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Apple red hugs. 
 
 Red bugs {H eterocordylus malinus and Lygidea men- 
 dax) have come into prominence chiefly in ISTew York state. 
 They do not seem to have spread to the Middle or Far 
 West, although they are more prevalent in Connecticut and 
 on up through jSTew England into ISTova Scotia. These 
 insects puncture the apples early in the season, causing 
 them to drop before maturity or to be misshapen and un- 
 dersized. Nicotine sulfate, 1 to 800, combined with the 
 pink spray for the scab has given best results. A repe- 
 tition of the nicotine application with the calyx spray 
 may be necessary. 
 
 Apple-tree tent-caterpillar (Malacosoma americana). 
 
 The ordinary spray program including lead arsenate 
 usually controls the tent-caterpillar and rarely is it a 
 serious pest. The nests may be destroyed with torches and 
 the egg-masses may be detached and removed while the 
 trees are leafless. (See Plate XV.) 
 
 Round-headed apple-tree borer (Saperda Candida). 
 
 This insect may be particularly injurious to young apple 
 trees and even matured ones. The larvae attack the trees 
 near the base and feed for the first season under the bark, 
 later tunneling deeper into the wood during the second and 
 third years. In infested orchards, trees should be wormed 
 annually with a knife and wire. Painting the trunks with 
 pure white lead and oil from a few inches below the ground 
 to a foot above may serve as a repellent and reduce egg 
 deposition by the adult beetle. Egg deposition begins in 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 215 
 
 May and June and is continued until August or Sep- 
 tember. (See Plate XIII.) 
 
 Cutworms. 
 
 Cutworms are sometimes injurious, particularly in 
 young orchards planted near timber. The worms work 
 chiefly at night, feeding on the buds and tender foliage. 
 During the day they may be found in the soil at a depth 
 of about an inch. A poison bran mash deposited near the 
 trunk of the trees acts as a control measure. 
 
 Bud-moth {Tmetocera ocellana). 
 
 In well-sprayed orchards, the bud-moth is not as a rule 
 injurious. The caterpillars of this insect pass the winter 
 in little cases near the buds and when growth starts in 
 the spring they feed within the small leaves, folding them 
 together with silken threads. Late broods attack the ap- 
 ples by burrowing into the flesh. Arsenate of lead, 2 
 pounds paste to 50, in the scab spray is usually effective 
 against this insect, although an earlier arsenical spray may 
 be necessary. 
 
 The fruit-tree leaf -roller (Archips argyrospila) . 
 
 This insect is especially injurious in New York, Mis- 
 souri and Colorado, often stripping fruit-trees and ruining 
 many of the young fruits. The most efficient method of 
 control is to destroy the eggs early in the spring, using 
 miscible oil, 1 part to 19 parts of water; or a 10 per cent 
 kerosene emulsion may be used. Arsenical sprays are 
 necessary to kill the insects, 6 pounds arsenate of lead in 
 100 gallons of water, making the first application as soon 
 
216 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 as the buds begin to burst, and the second when the blos- 
 som buds in the cluster begin to separate. (See Plates 
 XI, XIII.) 
 
 IMPORTANT APPLE DISEASES 
 
 Apple-scab (Venturia pomi). 
 
 The scab is probably the most widely distributed and 
 most destructive apple disease. It thrives in cool moist 
 climates and is particularly injurious in western ]^ew 
 York, iSTew England and Michigan. Occasionally it 
 causes heavy losses in cool rainy seasons in Illinois and 
 other middle western regions. The Hood Eiver and 
 Eogue River valleys, Oregon, are the only western apple 
 regions which have suifered materially from scab. The 
 fact that severe scab attacks are intermittent and depend 
 largely on the season is likely to cause growers to become 
 careless and an unexpected scab year very often proves 
 disastrous. ' (See Plate XVI.) 
 
 The disease is evidenced by brown or grayish spots on 
 fruit and leaves. Badly attacked apples may be dwarfed 
 and very often crack open. The disease is spread by 
 means of spores and lives over the winter on fallen leaves. 
 
 Lime-sulfur 1 to 35, in combination with lead or nico- 
 tine if desired, is effective against scab. Applications 
 should be made (1) in the pink just before the blossoms 
 open; (2) in the calyx; and (3) two to three weeks later. 
 The first two sprays are the most important, since the fun- 
 gus becomes active with the starting of growth in the 
 spring. Late applications of lime-sulfur are sometimes 
 necessary in bad seasons. While a three-spray program 
 usually sufiices, it does not always serve in seasons when 
 
 I 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 9^17 
 
 spore development is particularly favorable. Only those 
 growers who make two and even three late sprays are able 
 to produce reasonably clean fruit under such conditions. 
 
 Apple-blotch {Phyllosticta solitaria). 
 
 This is essentially a middle western apple disease, being 
 particularly injurious in southern Illinois and Indiana, 
 in the Ozarks, southern Kansas and occasionally in the 
 Missouri River region about St. Joseph. Most susceptible 
 varieties in these states are Missouri Pippin, Northwest 
 Greening and Ben Davis. 
 
 The disease attacks the fruit, leaves and twigs, wintering 
 over in twig cankers. Injury to the fruit is most serious 
 and appears in the form of hard roughened brown spots, 
 irregular in shape and sometimes sunken. Three-cornered 
 cracks in the fruit are characteristic of the disease. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture (3-4-50) is considered most effective 
 against apple-blotch, and lime-sulfur (1-35) in a lesser 
 degree. The latter with the calyx spray and three Bor- 
 deaux sprays at intervals of about three weeks, begin- 
 ning two to three weeks after the petals fall, is recom- 
 mended as an effective program against severe apple- 
 blotch. The first Bordeaux spray is most important. 
 
 Sooty-blotch and fly-speck (Leptothyrium pomi). 
 
 This disease does not penetrate the skin, but detracts 
 greatly from the appearance of the fruit. It appears in 
 two manifestations, the former in large sooty blotches and 
 the latter as minute black spots on the skin of the apple. 
 These diseases are usually controlled by the regular sum- 
 mer fungicides. (See Plate XVI.) 
 
218 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Cedar-rust (Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginiance) . 
 
 In some regions, particularly in the Virginias, the cedar- 
 rust has become a serious menace. It appears on the apple 
 in bright yellow spots as large as l/o to % inch in 
 diameter. In the yellow area are small black specks or 
 pustules. The foliage is similarly affected and late in 
 the season blisters or cushions are found on the under- 
 side of the leaves. The cutting down of all cedar trees 
 within a radius of at least a mile is the principal correc- 
 tive measure. 
 
 Bitter-rot {Glomerella rufomaculans) . 
 
 Bitter-rot is very serious in certain commercial apple 
 regions in the South, particularly in the Piedmont district 
 of Virginia and in parts of the Ozarks. The fungus 
 works in the tissue of the apple, causing first small light 
 brown spots just beneath the skin of the apples. These 
 spots may increase rapidly in size, attaining a diameter of 
 an inch or more, and are usually sunken. Occasionally 
 the apple assumes a peppered appearance and with yellow 
 varieties as the Newtown, the margins of the spots may be- 
 come purple or reddish in color. (See Plate XVI.) 
 
 The disease is spread by spores, transmitted by rain 
 drops, insects or birds. It may appear any time between 
 the middle of June and the middle of September, being 
 favored by warm moist seasons. The Yellow JSTewtown or 
 Albemarle Pippin is very susceptible and Ben Davis, 
 Gano, Grimes and Jonathan more or less so. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) applied from June 15 to 
 July 1, July 15 to 20 and August 1 to 5 is generally con- 
 sidered the best control program. The disease winters 
 
 |i 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 219 
 
 over on mummied fniit and in cankers in the bark. 
 These sources of infection should be removed when the 
 disease is bad. 
 
 Blister-canker {Nummularia discreta). 
 
 This canker, sometimes spoken of as the Illinois blister- 
 canker, is the most destructive apple disease in the Middle 
 West. It is particularly prevalent in the Illinois, Ozark 
 and Missouri River regions where it has caused heavy loss 
 in trees. The fungus gains entrance strictly through 
 wounds in the roots or branches. The initial cankers 
 produced by the disease vary in size from 2 to 18 inches 
 in length and from l^ to 6 inches in width. Their ap- 
 pearance very often resembles that of cankers produced 
 by winter-injury, sun-scald, blight or collar-rot, except 
 that blister-canker affects not only the bark, but also the 
 wood. The bark becomes shrunken and assumes a darker 
 color and the cankers increase in size as long as the branch 
 remains alive. The disease is spread by means of spores 
 and infected wood. 
 
 Unfortunately, the most important varieties of the Mid- 
 dle West are the most susceptible to this disease, namely 
 Ben Davis and Gano. The Delicious, though not widely 
 grown in these regions, is also susceptible. Oldenburg, 
 Wealthy, Winesap and Jonathan are more resistant. 
 Whole trees often appear to die in a single season although 
 as a matter of fact the infection has probably been present 
 for several seasons, but has been invisible from the outside. 
 The disease makes rapid progress in drought years. 
 
 Treatment must be preventive rather than curative. 
 Once infected, a tree can be saved only by the removal of 
 the infected wood. Fortunately, vigorous well-cared-for 
 
230 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 trees are very much less susceptible to the disease than 
 slow-growing neglected individuals. As stated above, in- 
 fection always enters through wounds and for this reason 
 all pruning and other wounds should be disinfected and 
 covered. White lead and oil or liquid asphaltum are rec- 
 ommended as suitable coverings for wounds. A mixture 
 of two-thirds coal-tar and one-third creosote serves not only 
 as a covering, but also as a disinfectant. Cheap grades of 
 these materials are adequate. 
 
 Heavy pruning encourages rather than checks the 
 disease and for this reason should be avoided in regions 
 where blister-canker is serious. Preventive measures may 
 be summed up as follows: (1) Avoid heavy pruning; 
 (2) disinfect and paint all wounds; (3) remove all infec- 
 tions from diseased trees; (4) select resistant varieties; 
 (5) keep trees vigorous. 
 
 Collar-rot. 
 
 The seriousness of collar-rot has become apparent in 
 many commercial apple orchards and the cause of this 
 injury has been the subject of considerable study. Cer- 
 tain varieties such as Grimes, the trunk wood of which 
 does not harden fully for the winter and which for that 
 reason is more subject to injuries from alternate freezing 
 and thawing, seem more susceptible to collar-rot than 
 others. Collar-rot on Grimes is also sometimes attributed 
 to fire-blight. The connection of certain fungi have been 
 associated with collar-rot injury, but at the present time 
 there is no authentic publication which describes the iso- 
 lation of any particular fungus responsible for the injury 
 for which specified treatment is recommended. Trees in 
 
Plate XITI. — Insect enemies of the apple. ( 1 ) The 
 fruit-tree leaf-roller egg mass from which the young cater- 
 pillars have hatched; (2) The rounded-headed apple-tree 
 iDorer in its tunnel at the base of a young apple tree; (3) 
 The oyster-shell scale: (left) scale turned over to show 
 eggs; (middle) mature scale; (right) young scale. 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 221 
 
 low wet ground or near irrigation ditches are sometimes 
 susceptible to collar-rot. 
 
 In working about trees, care should be taken not to 
 scrape the bark or cause wounds at or about the collar. 
 Such wounds may permit the entrance of either sapro- 
 phytic or parasitic fungi. 
 
 Observations have been made of the successful removal 
 of infected or rotted tissues after which bridge-grafting 
 or the planting and grafting in of young trees about the 
 base of the trees has resulted in the saving of many collar- 
 rotted trees. The practice, while recommended for iso- 
 lated cases, is hardly advisable on a large scale. The 
 process is expensive and not always successful. 
 
 Fire-blight (Bacillus amylovorus). 
 
 Fire-blight or pear-blight is a bacterial disease which 
 affects both apples and pears and, while less serious on 
 apples, it is responsible for heavy loss in apple regions. 
 The disease is caused by microscopic bacteria working just 
 underneath the bark in growing tissues of the trees. 
 
 The presence of blight is generally evidenced during the 
 growing season by a wilting of the leaves and branches 
 above infected parts. The disease winters in hold-over 
 cankers which at the beginning of spring growth exude 
 drops of infected gum. Insects are attracted to the sweet- 
 ened gum and very often carry the germs with them from 
 flower to flower during the period of pollination. Bees 
 are well-known carriers of the disease and aphids very 
 often spread infection through feeding punctures. The 
 first sign of blight in the spring is usually apparent when 
 the infected blossom-spurs begin to wither and die, result- 
 
222 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 ing in what is known as twig-blight. Confusion very 
 often results from the use of such terms as twig-blight, 
 blossom-blight and trunk-blight. In reality they are syn- 
 onymous, being merely different names to designate the 
 part of the tree infected. 
 
 ^ Fire-blight is more or less prevalent in all apple regions, 
 but has been particularly serious in the Pacific Northwest 
 on account of the presence there of susceptible varieties. 
 The Esopus (Spitzenburg) is more subject to blight than 
 any other leading commercial variety. Spitzenburg or- 
 chards in the Yakima Valley have suffered severely in bad 
 blight years. On the other hand, the heavy Spitzenburg 
 plantings in the Hood River Valley, Oregon, have been 
 very little injured. It is difficult to say just how far 
 local climatic and soil conditions affect the spread of this 
 disease, but unquestionably they are important factors. 
 
 Preventive measures consist in checking wood growth. 
 Blight works on tender succulent wood. Aphids unques- 
 tionably are active in spreading this disease and their con- 
 trol is important. 
 
 After infection, the removal of the diseased portion is 
 the only treatment. In the care of infected branches, the 
 cut should be made about ten inches below the last visible 
 sign of the blight. Wounds should be disinfected with 
 cyanide of mercur}^ 1 to 500 ; tools should be disinfected 
 with corrosive sublimate, 1 to 1,000. 
 
 Apple rosette. 
 
 The apple rosette is a physiological disease more or less 
 prevalent in certain regions, particularly in the ]>forth- 
 west. The disease is evidenced by a shortening of the 
 terminal growth. Buds are crowded together by a failure 
 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 233 
 
 of the branch to elongate. The result is a whorl of leaves 
 at the tip and an absence of leaves along the side of the 
 limb, which lends to the branch somewhat the appearance 
 of a feather-duster. The exact cause of apple rosette is 
 unknown. Abnormal soil condition or insufficient nour- 
 ishment maj be responsible. In the Northwest the sow- 
 ing of alfalfa in affected orchards has seemed to exert a 
 beneficial effect. Good orchard practice, designed to pro- 
 mote normal growth of the trees, seems the principal cor- 
 rective measure. 
 
 Baldwin-spot. 
 
 This form of fruit-pitting is probably a physiological 
 disease due to abnormal plant growth. More and more 
 emphasis is being placed on good orchard management 
 as a correction to such physiological affections. The 
 maintenance of soil fertility and correct soil management 
 are of particular importance. In the Pacific Northwest, 
 regular irrigation with neither too much nor too little water 
 is essential in controlling such diseases. 
 
 An internal browning has been more or less prevalent 
 in the Newtowns grown at Watsonville, California. Ex- 
 periments in controlling this latter disease have been con- 
 ducted for a number of years, but the disease is still puz- 
 zling to horticulturists. 
 
 ANIMAL PESTS OF THE APPLE 
 
 Meadow mice. 
 
 The field or meadow mouse has become a menace in 
 many orchard regions, particularly in the South where the 
 sod-mulch provides harbor. The mice attack the trees by 
 
234 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 gnawing the bark from the trunk at or near the surface of 
 the ground. Most of this injury is accomplished in the 
 winter under cover of snow, although it may occur any 
 time during the year. 
 
 The runways of meadow mice are found entirely on 
 the surface of the ground under weeds, leaves, brush and 
 similar litter. Ordinarily, orchard sanitation, including 
 the removal of trash and litter from about trees and fence 
 rows, will suffice to control this pest, although poisoning 
 may be necessary for bad infestation. 
 
 Pine mice. 
 
 The pine mouse is not dissimilar to the field mouse except 
 that it is smaller and reddish-brown instead of the charac- 
 teristic grayish -brown color of the field mouse. While the 
 field mouse is more widely distributed throughout the 
 country, the pine mouse is more injurious and more 
 greatly feared in regions where it is prevalent. The Vir- 
 ginias have suffered severe depredations in recent years. 
 In one Virginia county alone, it is estimated that the loss 
 from pine mice would amount to $300,000 annually. The 
 pine mouse works almost entirely below the surface of the 
 ground, feeding on the roots of the apple trees, girdling 
 the trunk at or below the surface of the ground and in 
 many instances tunneling along the roots and eating the 
 bark for a distance of several feet from the trunk of the 
 tree. While the field mouse usually works under cover 
 of snow and is particularly bad in years when a heavy 
 coating of snow remains on the ground for a considerable 
 period during the winter, the pine mouse works beneath 
 the surface of the ground and in all seasons of the year. 
 Its activity in most cases is not apparent until the tree 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 225 
 
 attacked begins to wilt and is beyond recovery. For bad 
 infestation by pine mice, the orchardist must introduce 
 and continue careful and thorough poisoning. 
 
 Control of mice by poisoning. 
 
 It is a good practice for the orchardist to carry a can of 
 poison about with him and as he discovers holes or run- 
 ways, to deposit a few of the grains of poisoned wheat in 
 the openings, covering the latter with trash or leaves in 
 order to make the trap more effective. Poisoning must 
 be done systematically. Badly infested orchards should 
 be first disced and cultivated in the spring. In poisoning 
 it is well to send two or three men down a single tree row. 
 By following a zigzag course and carefully looking for 
 runways or holes, effective and systematic poisoning may 
 be done. One man should easily cover from one to two 
 acres in this manner in a day. A careful orchardist in 
 an infested area should go over his orchard several times 
 a year. 
 
 Trees once girdled or partially so will soon die if 
 exposed to the sun or drying action of the wind. For this 
 reason the practice of poisoning should be accompanied 
 by a search for injured trees. If the wounds can be 
 covered by heaping fresh soil about the trunk, the tree 
 may be saved and later a permanent recovery may be 
 effected by bridge-grafting. 
 
 A good poison formula for control of these mice is as 
 follows : 
 
 ^ ounce strychnine 
 
 1% pints water 
 
 4 pounds sugar 
 
 y2 peck wheat 
 
226 2'lie Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Boil strychnine, sugar and water together for ten or 
 fifteen minutes, then add the wheat and boil a few minutes 
 longer. Eemove the mixture from the fire and stir vigor- 
 ously until the wheat has become thoroughly coated. If, 
 on cooling, the mixture does not sugar, it may be necessary 
 to boil a few minutes longer. It is highly important that 
 the mixture be stirred vigorously in order that the poison 
 may be distributed and the grains of wheat properly 
 coated. The wheat will not ferment and may be kept 
 indefinitely. It is claimed that chickens are not affected. 
 
 SPRAYING 
 
 Spraying as known to-day has come into general prac- 
 tice only within the last fifteen or twenty years. The 
 development of the power sprayer has made practicable 
 the spraying of large commercial tracts and at the present 
 time no other single operation defines so clearly the dis- 
 tinction between commercial and non-commercial fruit- 
 growing. It is now generally accepted that spraying is 
 necessary to the production of strictly commercial apples. 
 
 It is unquestionably true that insect pests and diseases 
 are becoming more numerous and growers in new regions 
 may not reasonably expect their orchards to be immune 
 from the attacks of insects and diseases which thrive else- 
 where under similar conditions. With the present means 
 of communication and with increased number of host 
 plants, isolation becomes less and less a factor. Fortun- 
 ately, the increased energy of these attacks on apple trees 
 has been accompanied almost simultaneously with the 
 development of more effective spray control methods. No 
 other orchard operation in the growing of commercial 
 apples requires such thorough study as does spraying, and 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 227 
 
 pays more on the investment, and yet no other practice is 
 more likely to be slighted. Growers are now coming to 
 look on spraying as a form of insurance and well thought 
 out spray programs are being adopted in every region. 
 
 While the last twenty years mark the period within 
 which spraying has come into general use in commercial 
 apple-growing, the history and development of spraying 
 plants dates back much further. There are authentic 
 records of trees having been " syringed " in Europe as 
 early as 1763. The history of spraying indicates that 
 this practice was probably not unknown much earlier than 
 this date. In 1872 paris green was first recommended as 
 an efficient spray material to be used against the canker- 
 worm in southern Illinois. Eight years later probably 
 the first experiment in the control of the codlin-moth with 
 the use of an arsenical poison was conducted in Michigan 
 by Cook who reported having successfully used London 
 purple in spraying crab-apple trees. In 1892 and 1893 
 arsenate of lead was introduced largely as an outgrowth 
 of the gipsy moth control work. While gTeater emphasis 
 was laid on insecticides in the early history of spraying, 
 the development of suitable spray materials for fungous 
 diseases was almost simultaneous. 
 
 It is exceedingly difficult to describe exact methods of 
 spraying. Thoroughness is all important. Leaking 
 valves, leaking spray hose and faulty equipment should be 
 avoided. Spray applications should be made promptly 
 and at critical times, as delays are costly. For this reason 
 the equipment should be thoroughly gone over well in 
 advance of the season. 
 
 It is impossible to fix a definite spray program which can 
 be followed absolutely. Continued rain or other inclem- 
 
228 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 encie^ may intervene. The seasonal development of pestsj 
 and diseases varies greatly. The spray problem requires 
 individual study with careful regard for general principle 
 in control methods. 
 
 Cost of spraying. 
 
 The results of cost-production studies as applied to spray- 
 ing lack stability since labor rates vary greatly in different 
 regions and change from year to year even within a given 
 district. The cost of spray material suffers similar 
 changes. However, the amount of labor as expressed in 
 man and horse hours does not fluctuate greatly and affords 
 a reliable basis for comparison. The writers conducted 
 detailed cost studies in hundreds of orchards in various 
 regions of the United States and a number of important 
 points regarding the amount of labor involved and material 
 used were brought out. In the cost studies, a three-man 
 and two-horse crew operating a power spray outfit was 
 taken as a basis. Dusting and the spray-gun were not 
 used. 
 
 It was found that such a crew sprayed on the average 
 of three to five acres of bearing trees in a ten-hour day. 
 It was noticeable that the northwestern growers sprayed 
 out more material in a day than those in other districts, 
 the average of Yakima and Wenatchee being 1,750 gallons 
 a day. The same size crew operating in western I^ew 
 York averaged only 1,100 gallons a day. This disparage- 
 ment in favor of the efficiency of the western spray crew 
 may be explained partly by the fact that the presence of 
 water in irrigating ditches greatly facilitates the reload- 
 ing of spray tanks and in this way increases the efficiency 
 of the spray crew. 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control • 229 
 
 Table XI 
 
 Showing Kate and Cost of Applying Spray Materials in Six 
 OF the Leading Apple Kegions 
 
 
 
 C3 
 
 
 > 
 
 d 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 >H 
 
 ;>^ 
 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 j3 
 C3 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 0) 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 -O 
 
 w 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Acres a day . . . 
 
 3.4 
 
 4.24 
 
 3.57 
 
 5.47 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.6 
 
 Gallons a day. . 
 
 1766 
 
 1743 
 
 1253 
 
 1205 
 
 1904 
 
 1150 
 
 Galtons an acre. 
 
 515 
 
 411 
 
 379 
 
 223 
 
 501 
 
 250 
 
 Gallons a tree. . 
 
 6.3 
 
 5.3 
 
 6.3 
 
 3.1 
 
 6.8 
 
 7.0 
 
 Average number 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sprays 
 
 3.4 
 
 4.98 
 
 4.09 
 
 5.65 
 
 3.7 
 
 3.5 
 
 Cost of spraying 
 
 $37.00 
 
 $42.00 
 
 $40.00 
 
 $30.00 
 
 $36.00 
 
 $25.00 
 
 Cost of labor . . 
 
 20.00 
 
 26.00 
 
 23.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 22.00 
 
 14.00 
 
 Cost of materials 
 
 17.00 
 
 16.00 
 
 17.00 
 
 12.00 
 
 14.00 
 
 11.00 
 
 The accompanying table shows the amount of spray 
 materials used and the rate of application in different 
 regions. These and other data are taken to show the 
 approximate cost of spraying one acre of bearing orchards 
 for an entire season in each of six important apple regions. 
 In studying the amount used for a tree for each applica- 
 tion, the size and variety of the tree should be considered. 
 For example, the grower in Hood River, Oregon, applies 
 on an average of only 3 gallons to a tree as compared with 
 an average application of over 6 gallons to a tree elsewhere. 
 The Hood River Newtown with its low head is not to be 
 compared in size with a forty-year-old New York Baldwin 
 tree and therefore does not require the amount of spray. 
 As a matter of fact, if the New York grower would spray 
 his Baldwin trees as thoroughly as the Wenatchee grower 
 sprays his Winesap, he would probably use at least twice 
 
230 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Ji 
 
 as much material instead of about the same amount of 7 
 gallons a tree. 
 
 The dormant lime-sulfur application is included in the 
 averages of Table XI, but as a rule requires somewhat more 
 labor and of course involves more exj)ensive spray material. 
 Considering the best sprayed orchards, it becomes appar- 
 ent that the spraying operations represent an annual out- 
 lay of at least $40 a bearing acre if depreciation of spray 
 outfit is to be included. 
 
 Spray equipment. 
 
 There is considerable variation in the type of spraying 
 outfits. For the small grower, hand outfits such as bucket 
 or barrel sprayers may be sufficient, but for the commercial 
 grower the power spray is essential. At present the power 
 sprayers operated by gasoline engines are in almost exclu- 
 sive use, although traction and compressed air outfits have 
 been employed with some success. 
 
 Generally speaking, a good spray outfit is a most profit- 
 able investment. For the operator of a moderate sized 
 orchard, the common outfit is a three- or four-horse-power 
 gasoline sprayer with a two- or three-cylinder pump, cap- 
 able of delivering 6 to 9 gallons of spray material a minute 
 under a pressure of 200 to 250 pounds. The 200-gallon 
 tank is most popular. It pays to buy a good sprayer. 
 Heavy repair bills and lack of efficiency very often make 
 the cheap sprayer most expensive in the end. 
 
 For the large commercial grower, the high power gas- 
 oline outfit with four-cylinder pumps and four-cylinder 
 automobile type engines from 10 to 12 horse-power are 
 not uncommon. These large outfits are capable of deliv- 
 ering as high as 15 gallons of spray material a minute 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 231 
 
 under pressure of 200 to S60 pounds. The grower can 
 profitably study the different makes of power sprayers 
 before making a selection. Before buying he should insist 
 on seeing a thorough orchard demonstration of the model 
 in question. 
 
 No other one new device since the power sprayer was 
 invented has met with such general interest as the spray- 
 gun, for which the fruit industry is indebted to John Hull 
 of Gasport, Xew York. The idea has been developed by 
 a number of manufacturers. The gun consists of a short 
 metal rod attached to the end of a spray hose. The orig- 
 inal spray-gun was constructed so as to deliver a maximum 
 of 15 gallons of spray a minute. Under heavy pressure, 
 a gi'eat cloud of spray could be sent out, reaching a height 
 of 46 feet. Experiments have not actually determined 
 the relative value of the spray-gTin as compared with the 
 old rod and nozzle, but growers have not waited for pub- 
 lished reports. The spray-gun was introduced to offset 
 the effect of dusting and is now being used by hundreds of 
 growers. Some criticism is voiced against the gun for the 
 calyx spray in controlling codlin-worms. When used from 
 a tower, this criticism is mitigated to a greater or less 
 extent. Speed is the chief recommendation for the spray- 
 gun. The operator usually stands on a tower and with a 
 single gun sprays two rows from a steadily moving spray 
 outfit. 
 
 For apple orchards in full bearing, the spray tower is a 
 necessary accessory if thorough work is to be performed. 
 Planting schemes should provide sufficient space between 
 mature trees to permit the use of a tower in reaching the 
 topmost branches. Various tower designs are in use. 
 Strong iron rods supporting a small square platform with 
 
232 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 railing are suitable material. Wooden towers are more 
 inexpensive. When trees are close together, a tower sup- 
 porting a single wooden bar or " horse " which the tower- 
 man may straddle is a more suitable form. 
 
 Nearly every grower has a favorite type of nozzle and 
 there are many different designs. In the main there are 
 two broad classifications, the Vermorel or eddy-chamber 
 nozzle and the Bordeaux type. With the former, the spray 
 is introduced into an eddy chamber and leaves the artifice 
 in a cone shape mist. With the Bordeaux nozzle, the 
 spray leaves the nozzle with a direct force, but is deflected 
 into a fan shape by striking an obtrusive bar or lip. Thdjj 
 Bordeaux nozzle provides a more direct driving spray and 
 is preferred by many growers for the calyx spray when it 
 is desirable to drive the poison down into the calyx cups. 
 For cover sprays, the eddy-chamber nozzle is more popular. 
 In the first place it does not wear out so quickly. It also 
 uses spray material more economically than the Bordeaux 
 nozzle and' does not catch on the branches. While the 
 Bordeaux nozzle will deliver 21/2 gallons to 3 gallons a 
 minute under 200-pound pressure, the eddy-chamber deliv- 
 ers from 11/2 to 2 gallons. The Bordeaux nozzle causing 
 a driving, fan shaped spray is heartily indorsed by some 
 for the calyx application. For thorough work it may be | 
 more effective, although for an all-round nozzle the 
 " Friend " type or disc nozzle is desirable. 
 
 Hired sprayers. 
 
 In some regions, particularly in the northwestern irri- 
 gated sections, it is often customary to hire a spraying 
 outfit by the day or hour. Thus one grower may do his 
 own spraying and that of several neighbors. The small 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 233 
 
 grower resorts to this practice when he feels that his acre- 
 age is insufficient to warrant the purchase of a power outfit. 
 
 In considering custom spraying, two decided disad- 
 vantages weigh heavily against this practice. In the first 
 place, the value of spraying and its relative cost may only 
 be measured by its efficiency. jS^o matter how cheap the 
 cost, careless spraying is expensive. To be efficient, a 
 spray must be applied at the critical period. If one has 
 to wait for a custom sprayer, very often the value of the 
 spraying is partly lost. The second reason is that while 
 figuring only labor and material costs the hired sprayer 
 may be cheaper, it is considerably less efficient. On sixty- 
 nine fruit-farms studied in the Yakima Valley, thirty- 
 nine growers owned their own sprayers and thirty hired 
 their spraying done. In every instance the custom sprayer 
 applied on the average of one-third less material to a tree. 
 It is quite likely that in every instance this was false 
 economy. The hired outfit will not perform the careful 
 work which a grower himself will do. 
 
 It is not to be concluded from this discussion that the 
 small orchardist is invariably justified in owning a power 
 sprayer. It has been found that the average depreciation 
 and upkeep of a power spray outfit amounts to practically 
 25 per cent a year. Thus a $500 sprayer investment 
 means an annual outlay of $125 in addition to labor and 
 material. On a five-acre orchard, this cost alone would be 
 $25 an acre. It is doubtful whether the orchardist with 
 less than ten acres is justified in owning a power sprayer. 
 
 Regional spraying notes. 
 
 The northeastern states. — The commercial apple- 
 growers in Michigan, New York and New England fear 
 
334 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 the apple-scab more than any other disease. In l^ew 
 York the infestation of the apple red bng is serious in some 
 localities and in New England the gipsy and the brown- 
 tail moths have caused considerable losses. The apple- 
 scab is quite prevalent throughout New England as is also 
 the apple-maggot. Scab is particularly feared by the 
 growers of Mcintosh apples in this region. 
 
 The middle Atlantic states. — The Piedmont grower of 
 Virginia suffers heaviest loss in seasons favorable to the 
 development of bitter-rot. The Yellow Newtown (Albe- 
 marle Pippin) is particularly susceptible to this disease 
 which may occur late in the season and very seriously 
 injure the crop when nearly mature. Serious epidemics 
 of apple-scab are uncommon, although this disease is more 
 or less prevalent throughout the Piedmont district. In the 
 Shenandoah-Cumberland region of Virginia, West Vir- 
 ginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, the pine mouse has 
 been a most destructive orchard pest in recent years. 
 Cedar-rust has also been very destructive and has pre- 
 cipitated a campaign for the eradication of cedar trees in 
 the vicinity of orchard plantings. Root-rot is proving to 
 be one of the most destructive of all orchard diseases in 
 these four states and as yet there is no recognized means 
 of control. 
 
 The Middle West.— Throughout the Middle West the 
 apple-blotch is the most serious disease affecting the fruit 
 and the blister-canker, sometimes known as the Illinois 
 blister-canker, is the most injurious to the trees, particu- 
 larly those of the Ben Davis variety. Apple-scab is pre- 
 valent in favorable years, while bitter-rot is often serious 
 in the Ozarks, southern Illinois and southern Indiana. 
 
 Western boxed-apple region. — The most serious pest in 
 
Plate XIV.— The Woolly Aphis. Upper, Ground colonies of 
 the woolly aphis. Lower, Apple roots distorted and injured by 
 the woolly aphis. 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 335 
 
 the western orchard section is unquestionably the codlin- 
 moth. The dry arid climate in nearly all the irrigated 
 sections seems particularly favorable to its development. 
 The long hot seasons increase the number of broods and 
 seem to stimulate the activities of this pest. Fprthermore, 
 the close grading of the fruit emphasizes the loss from 
 worm injury. Eastern growers are justified in feeling 
 that they have worked out a satisfactory spray program 
 against codlin-moth and are inclined to believe that the 
 western grower is deficient in his spraying methods for con- 
 trolling this insect. Yet in many instances growers on 
 the western slope of Colorado and the Yakima Valley, 
 Washington, have found it difficult to avoid excessive cod- 
 lin-moth loss even after spraying much more thoroughly 
 and frequently than is necessary under eastern conditions. 
 Fire-blight epidemics have been more or less serious in 
 the West and have been particularly injurious in the 
 Yakima Valley, Washington and the Rogue Eiver Valley, 
 Oregon. In the Rogue River and Hood River valleys, 
 Oregon, the apple-scab has been serious in years when the 
 climatic conditions were favorable to its development. 
 However, elsewhere in the West fungous troubles are in 
 the main inconspicuous. 
 
 California. — The Watsonville apple-grower in the 
 Pajaro Valley must devote considerable attention to the 
 control of the tussock moth. The leaf-roller is also rather 
 prevalent and the powdery-mildew causes more or less 
 injury. 
 
 DUSTING 
 
 Dusting, as a substitute for the liquid spray method in 
 controlling insects and disease, has been brought to the 
 recent attention of fruit-growers by the extensive experi- 
 
236 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 ments conducted in western New York in 1911-1913 by 
 Blodgett of Cornell. These experiments have been con- 
 tinued elsewhere in different parts of the United States 
 by various state and federal investigators. The practice 
 of dusting has been adopted with greater or less success by 
 many commercial growers in different regions. Its status 
 has not been definitely determined, but certain conclusions 
 may be drawn from results thus far obtained. 
 
 In the first place, dusting has certain inherent advant- 
 ages over the use of liquid spray: (1) More trees may be 
 covered in a given time and with less labor than with the 
 liquid spray; (2) dusting is more convenient in rough 
 hilly orchards; (3) considerable time is saved in loading 
 the machine with material; (4) the elimination of water 
 reduces very materially the weight of the spray material 
 to be hauled through the orchard; (5) the equipment cost 
 is much less than for liquid spraying machine. 
 
 In comparing the cost of common dust materials, such 
 as arsenate' of lead and superfine sulfur, with that of 
 similar materials used in liquid sprays, it appears that the 
 dusting method is more expensive, particularly if much 
 dust is lost in the application in windy or unfavorable 
 weather. In considering labor cost, dusting may be 
 cheaper than spraying with liquids, and it is on this point 
 that advocates for dusting lay particular stress. The 
 spray-gun more recently developed has reduced this ad- 
 vantage of the dusting method over the liquid spray. But 
 certainly the grower may cover his trees at the critical 
 period in less time and with less labor cost by dusting than 
 with liquid spray applied with rods. 
 
 A two-man crew operating a dusting machine can cover 
 from three to four times as many trees as a three-man 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 237 
 
 crew operating a liquid spray outfit with the old rods. It 
 is estimated that fifteen-year old trees require on the 
 average of about 1 to II/2 pounds of dust for a single 
 application, while trees twenty to twenty-five years old 
 require approximately 2 pounds of dust. The time and 
 amount of material vary greatly with the conditions and 
 methods of application. These data will convey in a gen- 
 eral way the relative speed of the two systems. 
 The follow^ing formulse are quite generally used : 
 
 Formula I. Combination dust for chewing insects and 
 fungous diseases: 
 
 Arsenate of lead, powder . . .10 to 15 per cent. 
 Sulfur, superfine 90 to 85 per cent. 
 
 Formula 2. For insect infestations and light fungous 
 attacks : 
 
 Arsenate of lead 10 per cent. 
 
 Sulfur 50 per cent. 
 
 Hydrated lime or gypsum 40 per cent. 
 
 Formula 3. 
 
 Arsenate of lead, powder , . 10 to 15 per cent. 
 Hydrated lime or gypsum . . 90 to 85 per cent. 
 
 It is rather difficult to dogmatize on the efficiency of 
 dusting. Some growers, after a more or less thorough trial, 
 are convinced of its economy and efficiency. Other grow- 
 ers have discarded their dusting machines. In western 
 New York dusting has not become general. Improved 
 dusting mixtures and better methods of application may 
 result in greater popularity for this method, for it has 
 certain time-saving advantages. However, at the present 
 
238 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 time it has not been altogether successful in controlling 
 bad scab infection, excessive codlin-moth, or apple-blotch,, 
 the three most serious apple diseases and pests. It seemsJi 
 possible that dusting may prove better adapted to regions 
 where the codlin-moth is not particularly serious or scab 
 infection critical. For hilly orchards or orchards where 
 water supply is remote, or where liquid spraying is exceed- 
 ingly diflScult, the use of dusting may be recommended as 
 a substitute. 
 
 The power duster is usually operated by a two- or 
 three-horse-power gasoline engine. The dust mixture is 
 fed into a.rapidly revolving fan by means of a hopper and 
 a strong current of air forces the dust out through a dis- 
 charge pipe. A single operator directs the cloud of dust 
 by shifting the discharge pipe. 
 
 INSECTICIDES 
 
 In studying insect control, the first consideration should 
 be given to the methods by which insects secure their food. 
 Generally speaking, there are two classes of insects: (1) 
 biting and chewing insects such as codlin-moth and tent- 
 caterpillar; (2) sucking insects such as aphids and scale. 
 When insects feed on such exposed parts as the buds or 
 leaves, arsenicals or other stomach poisons are necessary. 
 In the case of chewing insects which feed beneath the 
 bark, such as borers, other control methods must be em- 
 ployed. Sucking insects are best checked by the use of 
 contact sprays such as lime-sulfur, nicotine, and kerosene 
 emulsion. 
 
 Following is a general classification of common insect- 
 icides : 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 239 
 
 ( 1 ) Insecticides for biting insects — arsenate of lead, 
 paris green, calcium arsenate and arsenite of zinc. 
 
 (2) Insecticides for sucking insects — lime-sulfur, 
 nicotine solution, miscible oils, so-called dry-lime-sulfur 
 compounds. 
 
 For biting insects. 
 
 Arsenate of lead is the most widely used poison for chew- 
 ing and biting insects. It is particularly effective against 
 the codlin-moth. Both powdered and paste forms are in 
 common use, the powder having come into recent popular- 
 ity on account of convenience in handling. Of the two 
 kinds of lead arsenate, one is known as ortho, triplumbic 
 or neutral lead arsenate and the other as standard or 
 diplumbic lead arsenate. The diplumbic or acid lead is 
 now being employed almost to the exclusion of the ortho 
 or triplumbic form, although the latter is sometimes recom- 
 mended for more tender foliage or in regions where foliage 
 is likely to be burned by arsenicals. Best brands of paste 
 lead contain from 15 to 17 per cent of arsenic oxide, while 
 powdered forms usually contain approximately double that 
 amount, the 50 per cent water-content having been 
 removed. Two pounds paste or 1 pound arsenate of lead to 
 50 gallons of water are standard strengths. Before the 
 lead is added to the spray-tank, it should be made into a 
 thin paste by the addition of water or preferably reduced 
 to a solution in 3 or 4 gallons of water. Particular atten- 
 tion should be given to mixing the powdered forms so that 
 the suspension will be complete. Strengths of less than 2 
 pounds of paste lead wrsenate to 50 gallons of water have 
 not as a rule given satisfaction. At present a number of 
 experiments are being conducted in the Northwest in 
 
240 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 which arsenate of lead is being used 3 and even 4 pounds 
 paste to 50 gallons of water. Where the codlin-moth is 
 becoming a more serious menace, it is thought that by 
 increasing the dosage, quicker killing effects may be 
 secured and the loss from later stings may be reduced. 
 
 Paris green is an arsenical poison which has been largely 
 superseded by arsenate of lead, the latter having proved 
 more adhesive, more compatible with other spray materials 
 and less likely to cause burning. Paris green is not widely 
 used in any commercial apple region. 
 
 Calcium arsenate is being tried out in many parts of 
 the United States and, although more or less in an experi- 
 mental state of development, has given some promise, par- 
 ticularly when used on apples under eastern conditions 
 where codlin-moth infestation is not serious. The pow- 
 dered forms contain 42 to 45 per cent of arsenic-oxide and 
 the paste forms 17 to 20 per cent. When employed alone 
 in the Northwest, some burning resulted. The addition of 
 paste lime at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds of stone lime to 50 
 gallons of water is considered a wise precaution against 
 burning. Combination of lime-sulfur, summer strength, 
 with calcium arsenate has thus far proved satisfactory. 
 Calcium arsenate has not been widely employed in any 
 commercial apple region, although it is being tested by 
 many growers at present. Commercial forms lack the 
 smoothness and fineness which characterizes the well- 
 known brands of arsenate. It is not improbable that the 
 physical properties of commercial calcium arsenate can be 
 greatly improved. Experiments have thus far given some 
 promise. Complete results of thorough trial and demon- 
 stration will be awaited with interest. Although it has 
 not yet demonstrated the quick-killing properties of lead, 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 241 
 
 calcmm arsenate is cheaper pound for pound than lead and 
 this may cause its ultimate introduction in the East where 
 codlin-moth infestation is not the menace which it is in 
 most irrigated regions. Calcium arsenate is still in the 
 experimental stage. 
 
 Ar senile of zinc is a quick-acting poison which in pow- 
 dered form contains about 40 per cent arsenic-oxide. It 
 is used in tussock moth control in the Pajaro Valley or 
 Watsonville district, California, but on account of its tend- 
 ency to burn it has not been employed elsewhere. 
 
 For sucking insects, contact sprays. 
 
 Liquid lime-sulfur has become the standard dormant or 
 winter spray for apples. It is a combination insecticide 
 and fungicide chiefly valuable for its effectiveness against 
 San Jose scale and certain other insects as well as against 
 fungous diseases. It is to be preferred to any of the 
 present forms of so-called dry lime-sulfur. For full win- 
 ter strength, 1 to 8 is generally accepted as the proper rate 
 of dilution. This rate applies to the concentrated com- 
 mercial lime-sulfur testing 33° Baume. Weaker solu- 
 tions should be diluted accordingly. The table of dilu- 
 tion on the next page will serve as guide. 
 
 For sunmaer sprays, particularly for apple-scab, a weak 
 solution of lime-sulfur is widely employed alone or in com- 
 bination with nicotine and arsenate of lead. The strength 
 at which summer applications of lime-sulfur cause burning 
 varies with the season and the climatic conditions. Lime- 
 sulfur has been used 1 to 10 in summer without injurious 
 effects to the fruit or foliage. Again a dilution of 1 to 30 
 may cause foliage burning. It is generally accepted that 
 1 to 35 for the pink spray and later summer application 
 
242 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Table XII 
 Dilution Table for Concentrated Lime-Sulfur Solutions 
 
 
 
 Number gallons concentrated lime-sulfur 
 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 to make 50 gallons spray solution. 
 
 Degrees 
 Baume. 
 
 Summer or 
 
 foliage 
 
 strength. 
 
 Winter or dormant strength. 
 
 
 San Josfi 
 scale. . 
 
 Blister 
 mite. 
 
 36 
 
 1.330 
 
 iy4 
 
 5y2 
 
 4% 
 
 35 
 
 1.318 
 
 1% 
 
 5% 
 
 5 
 
 34 
 
 1.306 
 
 1V2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 33 
 
 1.295 
 
 \V2 
 
 6% 
 
 5U 
 
 32 
 
 1.283 
 
 iy2 
 
 ey. 
 
 5y2 
 
 31 
 
 1.272 
 
 1V2 
 
 6% 
 
 5% 
 
 30 
 
 1.261 
 
 1% 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 1.250 
 
 1% 
 
 7y4 
 
 614 
 
 28 
 
 1.239 
 
 1% 
 
 7y2 
 
 6y2 
 
 27 
 
 1.229 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 6% 
 
 26 
 
 1.218 
 
 2 
 
 8y2 
 
 7% 
 
 25 
 
 1.208 
 
 2 
 
 8% 
 
 7y2 
 
 24 
 
 1.198 
 
 2y, 
 
 914 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 1.188 
 
 2y4 
 
 9% 
 
 sy* 
 
 22 
 
 1.179 
 
 2% 
 
 loy* 
 
 8% 
 
 21 
 
 1.169 
 
 2y2 
 
 11 
 
 9% 
 
 20 
 
 1.160 
 
 2y2 
 
 iiy; 
 
 9% 
 
 is a safe and effective dilution. Excessively hot days 
 should be avoided in summer spraying with lime-sulfur. 
 In the Middle West, Bordeaux mixture is very often pre- 
 ferred to lime-sulfur for the late summer sprays on account 
 of its great effectiveness against blotch and bitter-rot. 
 Some feel also that Bordeaux is less likely to cause burning. 
 Home-made lime-sulfur solution. — It has been demon- 
 strated that the preparation at home of a lime-sulfur solu- 
 tion is practicable and very often economical. When a 
 grower has less than four or five acres of orchard, it is prob- 
 ably advisable for him to buy the commercial lime-sulfur, 
 since it is usually superior to the home-made ; furthermore, 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 243 
 
 considerable difficulties attend the manufacture of lime- 
 sulfur in small quantities. If the grower is operating a 
 large orchard, or if several smaller growers can cooperate 
 as is done in many instances, it is very often advisable for 
 them to manufacture their own solution. The materials 
 for making are : lime, use only fresh lump lime, free from 
 foreign substances and containing at least 90 per cent cal- 
 cium oxide and not over 5 per cent magnesium oxide; 
 sulfur, either flowers of sulfur or commercial sulfur finely 
 ground. Various appliances may be used for cooking lime- 
 sulfur concentrates. A large iron kettle raised from the 
 ground on loose stones, or kettles imbedded in masonry are 
 suggested. When considerable amount of spray material 
 is needed, a more elaborate plant will be practicable. 
 Cooking with steam is the most satisfactory method and 
 with a larger plant the installation of a boiler is advisable. 
 A twelve-horse boiler will furnish sufficient steam for a 
 cooker of 300 gallons capacity. Iron cooking vessels are 
 usually preferable to wooden on account of danger of leak 
 in the latter. The hydrometer is necessary for testing the 
 density of the final solution. Table XII should be fol- 
 lowed in making dilutions. 
 
 Preparation of home-made lime-sulfur solution. — 
 
 Formula 
 
 Fresh stone lime 50 pounds 
 
 Commercial ground sulfur 100 pounds 
 
 Water 50 gallons 
 
 Place the desired quantity of lime in the cooker or 
 slaking-box, then add water (preferably hot, since hot 
 water slakes the lime more quickly). Care should be 
 
344 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 taken to use enough water to prevent too violent slaking 
 or burning, although too much water is objectionable, 
 since this will drown the lime. Mix the sulfur to a thin 
 paste and add the lime, then the desired quantity of water. 
 After the full amount of water has been added, the cook- 
 ing-vat should be marked or a notched stick used to show 
 the original amount of water. Keep adding hot water 
 from time to time to replace that which has evaporated. 
 The solution should not be allowed to boil down stronger 
 than one-half gallon to each pound of sulfur, nor should 
 there ever be much of an excess of water. The solution 
 should be boiled for at least forty-five minutes but not 
 longer than one hour. It is important that boiling should 
 proceed vigorously and that the mixture should be stirred 
 constantly. After the lime-sulfur solution has been made, 
 it should be strained in order that the undissolved particles 
 may be removed. Straining should be through an iron 
 wire (never copper) 30 to 50 mesh to the inch. The solu- 
 tion should be allowed to cool before being tested with a 
 hydrometer. If the solution is left exposed, a film of 
 oil should be poured over the surface to exclude the air. 
 It is highly important that all home-made lime-sulfur be 
 tested with the hydrometer, otherwise the grower is merely 
 guessing as to the strength of the spray. The sediment 
 obtained in the manufacture of home-made lime-sulfur will 
 be useful in painting the trunks of the trees. 
 
 Nicotine solution is recognized as a standard contact 
 insecticide for summer spraying. It is particularly effect- 
 ive against aphids and may be used without injury to the 
 foliage. A solution of nicotine sulfate containing 40 per 
 cent nicotine such as Black Leaf 40 is the common com- 
 mercial form. Proper dilution is given at 1 to 800 and 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 345 
 
 1 to 1,000. Soap should be added at the rate of 2 or 3 
 pounds to 50 gallons to increase the spreading and adhesive 
 qualities of the spray. Nicotine may be used in combina- 
 tion with lead arsenate, lime-sulfur or both. 
 
 Miscible oils. — " Miscible " or " soluble " oils have 
 come into considerable use as dormant sprays, particularly 
 in the West where they have been found a satisfactory 
 treatment for badly encrusted San Jose scale. The misci- 
 ble oils have a tendency to spread after they have been 
 applied and for that reason are particularly effective 
 against scale insects. Home-made emulsions are used to 
 some extent in California where the crude oils can be pur- 
 chased cheaply. The question of injury resulting from 
 continued oil spraying is disputed. It is advisable to make 
 dormant oil spray in the late winter rather than in the fall. 
 If oil sprays can be applied in the spring just previous to 
 the swelling of the buds, preferably on simny days, the 
 danger of injuring the trees will be minimized. When 
 hard water is being used for spraying, it is desirable to add 
 1 to 2 pounds of soda to each spray tank. 
 
 So-called dry lime-sulfur. — The active and killing 
 ingredients of lime-sulfur determine the value of these 
 sprays. The following table gives the relative cost of this 
 liquid versus dry lime-sulfur compounds measured in 
 terms of active sulfur. The comparison in this table is in 
 favor of the liquid lime-sulfur. In lime-sulfur (dry), the 
 active sulfur costs $18.90 for 100 pounds; in soda-sulfur 
 $14.03 for 100 pounds, and liquid lime-sulfur only $8.03 
 for 100 pounds. The inference is clear that lime-sulfur 
 solution is a much more economical form than the so- 
 called dry lime-sulfur or soda-sulfur. 
 
346 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Table XIII 
 
 Dry Sulfur Preparation vs. Lime-Sulfur Solution 
 
 Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory, Agricultural Experiment 
 Station, University of California. (Berkeley), Nov. 1918. 
 
 Material. 
 
 Total 
 
 active 
 
 sulfur. 
 
 (Approx.) 
 
 Cost of 
 
 100 lbs, 
 
 active 
 
 sulfur. 
 
 Amount equiva- 
 lent to 1 gallon 
 lime-sulfur 
 solution. 
 
 Lime-sulfur solution (33 B.) 
 Average retail price $11.26 
 per barrel. 
 Soda-sulfur 
 
 26% 
 
 57% 
 55% 
 
 $8.03 
 $14.03 
 $18.90 
 
 1 gallon weighs 
 10.78 lbs. 
 
 4.9 " 
 
 Average retail price $8.00 
 per cwt. 
 Lime-sulfur (dry) 
 
 5.0 " 
 
 Average retail price $10.40 
 per cwt. 
 
 
 Spreaders for the different insecticides. 
 
 The use of spreaders in securing a more uniform coating 
 of spray is attracting considerable interest among experi- 
 menters and fruit-growers. Three socalled spreaders are 
 more or less well known : 
 
 (1) Glue — 1 to 2 ounces to 50 gallons. 
 
 (2) Flour paste — 2 pounds flour reduced to paste, to 
 
 50 gallons of water. 
 
 (3) Soap — 2 pounds liquid soap to 50 gallons of 
 
 water. Other soaps such as fish-oil, rosin or 
 common laundry soap may be used at the same 
 rate. . i 
 
 The use of soap with nicotine solutions is generally > 
 accepted as highly beneficial. Soap should not be used 
 with lime-sulfur, however, but is compatible with arsenate 
 
Platk X\ .— i pper, The tent caterpillar, nest and young cater- 
 pillars on wild cherry; frequently found in the apple. Lower, 
 Kosy apple aphis and its effect on the foliage and fruit of the 
 apple. 
 
Diseases and Pests of the Apple and Their Control 247 
 
 of lead and is highly recommended in combination with 
 Bordeaux. The other spreaders named, glue and flour 
 paste, are being used with arsenicals, but their status has 
 not yet been definitely determined. It is thought that 
 they may increase the spreading tendencies and effect a 
 more uniform coating of these arsenic stomach poisons. 
 
 FUNGICIDES 
 
 Lime-sulfur has been treated on the preceding pages, as 
 it is both an insecticide and fungicide. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture. — The standard formula for Bor- 
 deaux mixture is as follows: 
 
 Copper sulfate (bluestone) 4 pounds 
 
 Fresh stone lime 4 pounds 
 
 Water 50 gallons 
 
 Dissolve the bluestone and slake the lime separately with 
 water. Bluestone may be conveniently dissolved by plac- 
 ing it in a burlap sack and suspending the sack in the upper 
 part of a barrel or other receptacle filled with water. 
 Stock solutions of this material may be made by dissolving 
 1 pound bluestone in 1 gallon of water and diluting to the 
 required streng-th when ready for use. It is not advisable 
 to make up in advance large amounts of this solution that 
 cannot be used within a period of a few days. Nothing 
 but wooden or earthen containers should be employed 
 since copper sulfate (bluestone) reacts when brought in 
 contact with metal ware of any kind. In slaking the lime, 
 cover with just enough water to start slaking, then add 
 water to prevent too rapid action and heating. Work the 
 lime into a paste and dilute at the rate of 1 pound of lime 
 
248 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 to 1 gallon of water for stock solution. When ready for 
 use, 4 gallons of stock solution will represent 4 pounds of 
 stone lime, sufficient for 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture 
 spray. When the mixture of lime and bluestone is to be 
 made, it is a wise precaution to pour the two solutions 
 simultaneously into the third receptacle in order that they 
 will mix freely while going into the spray-tank or third 
 receptacle. A strainer should be used when filling the 
 spray-tank. Bordeaux mixture is the standard fungicide 
 for bitter-rot and for blotch in the Middle West, and is 
 used double strength in the fall for anthracnose. 
 
 Finely divided sulfur. — There are a number of finely 
 divided sulfur compounds on the market known as atomic 
 sulfur, " milled " sulfur and by similar trade names. 
 Greater adhesion and greater spreading qualities are 
 claimed for these compounds. They are used against the 
 powdery-mildew in some of the orchard regions of the 
 Pacific Coast. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 FRUIT SETTING AND POLLINATION 
 
 One of the most important phases of the orchard prob- 
 lem is pollination. Without this, fruit does not set and 
 crops are impossible. Broadly speaking, there are two 
 phases of the problem: (1) The primary effect of pollin- 
 ation, that is the fertilization of the pistils of the flower so 
 that the bloom is capable of setting fruit; and (2) the 
 secondary effect of cross-pollination about which much has 
 been written, but about which there is still little definite 
 information. In a study of the secondary effect of pollin- 
 ation such questions arise as what effect Baldwin pollen 
 will have on the Mcintosh apple or how the cross-pollina- 
 tion among certain varieties will affect the form, size, 
 flavor or color of the fruit. 
 
 Many varieties are known to be self-sterile. This term 
 is applied to varieties which are unable to set fruit without 
 the aid of pollen from another variety. Here attention is 
 called to the fact that pollen from a different tree of the 
 same variety does not constitute cross-pollination. An 
 indication of self-sterility is the continued dropping of 
 young fruit from isolated trees or from trees in solid 
 blocks of the same variety. Self-sterility is not a constant 
 character with any variety. The same variety may be 
 seK-sterile in one region and nearly self-fertile in another. 
 Emphasis is placed on the fact that local conditions greatly 
 
 249 
 
250 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 influence self-sterility or self-fertility. Poorly nourished 
 trees are more likely to be self-sterile than well nourished 
 ones. 
 
 Imperfect pollination is more often due to other causes 
 than the absence of suitable varieties for cross-pollination. 
 Furthermore, it is not always necessary to have a heavy set 
 of bloom to secure a heavy yield of fruit. It is well known 
 that under normal conditions if 4 to 7 per cent of the blos- 
 soms set fruit in a good bloom year, a large crop of fruit is 
 insured. If 10 per cent of the blossoms set fruit when the 
 bloom is heavy, it is an indication of a very large crop. 
 These facts do not minimize the importance of pollination, 
 however, and it is highly important that every care should 
 be taken to insure proper fertilization of the flowers. 
 While the benefits of cross-fertilization are recognized as 
 important in all plant-breeding work, the experimental 
 data on the secondary effect of pollination are so contra- 
 dictory as not to offer a field for definite discussion. The 
 results of- experiments to determine the effect of cross- 
 pollination on color, form and flavor of the fruit have been 
 largely negative. For that reason, this discussion will be 
 largely confined to the primary effect of pollination. 
 
 CAUSES FOR THE FAILURE TO SET FBUIT 
 
 Failure of blossoms to set fruit properly is not by any 
 means due in all cases to imperfect pollination. Many 
 factors other than this affect the set of fruit and are more 
 often the cause of light crops. Among the factors causing 
 a light set of fruit are : 
 
 1. Fruit-spurs and trees may be weak on account of a 
 lack of proper nourishment. When trees are starved for 
 proper plant-food or when it is not made available by good 
 
Fruit Setting and Pollination 251 
 
 soil management, the fruit-spurs become weak and fail to 
 set fruit-buds which have sufficient vitality to develop into 
 fruit. This often accounts for the crop failure of old trees 
 making little annual growth. In such cases, lack of proper 
 nourishment is more often the cause of unfruitfulness than 
 lack of cross-pollination. 
 
 2. Insects and diseases prevalent at blooming time may 
 cause a poor set of fruit. Some of the bloom is often 
 destroyed outright by various diseases, particularly apple- 
 scab, anthracnose, or blight. Many blossoms may be 
 ruined in their early development by the attacks of insects. 
 
 3. Extreme vegetative vigor of the tree on account of an 
 excess of certain elements of plant-food may detract from 
 fruitfulness. Often when a tree is growing too vigorously, 
 it runs largely to wood growth and sets very few blossoms 
 and even these are shed as soon as the blooming period is 
 past. Excessive amounts of nitrate or manure when 
 applied to orchards already making good growth often 
 over-stimulate wood groMh to the point at which the trees 
 are almost barren. Furthermore, in such cases the fruit- 
 buds go into the winter in an immature condition with less 
 chance of escaping winter-injury. Most experimenters 
 agree that wood growth can not keep up vigorously during 
 the entire season without sacrificing a healthy set of fruit- 
 buds. 
 
 4. Drought injury to trees may prevent the development 
 of fruit-buds. It has been noted that when excessively 
 long droughts occur, trees produce very little bloom the fol- 
 lowing season. The weakening influence of the drought 
 prevents the formation of fruit-buds with sufficient vitality 
 to form fruit. In such cases the tree requires all its 
 energy to repair vegetative growth, and even though it may 
 
252 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 bloom profusely the blossoms are so weak that they fail to 
 set fruit. 
 
 5. Winter-injury to fruit-buds may occur. The apple 
 ordinarily does not suffer greatly from winter-killing of 
 fruit-buds. In the case of most varieties, the fruit-buds 
 are no more sensitive to winter-killing than the tree itself. 
 However, the vitality of the buds may unquestionably be 
 affected by the character of the winter, particularly if the 
 relative humidity is low. Dry atmosphere and soil are 
 more often the cause of injury to fruit-buds than extreme 
 cold. 
 
 6. The buds or bloom may be injured by late spring 
 frosts. Often buds are injured by frost before bloom and 
 if not killed outright are so weakened as to be unable to 
 set fruit. Fortunately, when freezes occur before bloom, 
 there are usually some buds which are not so far advanced 
 as others and which for this reason escape injury. Severe 
 killing frosts are those which occur when the trees are in 
 full bloom or just as the bloom is being shed. ' Frost at 
 this time may so impair the fruiting organs as to cause 
 dropping of the fruit after it has once set. 
 
 7. Some varieties have an inherent inability to set fruit, 
 although gro^vn under favorable conditions and blooming 
 profusely. These varieties are more frequently home 
 orchard sorts and seldom trouble the commercial orchardist. 
 
 8. The last and one of the most important factors which 
 affect the proper set of fruit is pollination. Proper pol- 
 lination is usually dependent on one or some combination 
 of six different factors: (a) In the case of self-sterile or 
 partially self-sterile varieties, proper pollination can not 
 take place unless other suitable varieties are present for 
 pollinizers. (b) An absence of insects or other agents 
 
Fruit Setting and Pollination 253 
 
 may prevent pollination. Bees are almost essential. 
 Other insects may be nseful, but none is as active in carry- 
 ing pollen from flower to flower. The importance of delay- 
 ing the calyx application of lead arsenate until most of the 
 petals have fallen is now emphasized by most horticultur- 
 ists as a precaution against poisoning bees. Much has 
 been said about the importance of wind as a pollinizing 
 agent, useful in carrying the pollen from blossom to blos- 
 som and from tree to tree and much effort has been 
 expended in determining its effectiveness. Most author- 
 ities agree that fully 99 per cent of all fertilized blossoms 
 owe pollination to bees or other insects and less than 1 per 
 cent to the wind. As a direct agency, therefore, wind has 
 very little effect as far as carrying pollen is concerned. It 
 may, however, prevent bees from working on the windy 
 side of the tree and thereby cause a lighter set of fruit on 
 the exposed than on the sheltered side, (c) Eain or cold 
 weather is a factor affecting pollination. Cold, wet or 
 damp weather during the blooming period often checks 
 the activity of bees and sometimes prevents the germina- 
 tion and causes decomposition, or devitalization, of the 
 pollen-grains. Unfavorable weather at blooming is a very 
 important factor in reducing the set of fruit, particularly 
 through the central western states, and often in the East, 
 (d) Very hot and dry weather may also prevent proper 
 pollination, particularly if accompanied by wind. Excess- 
 ive heat may injure the stamens so seriously that they can 
 not properly mature their pollen or it may cause dehiscence 
 of the anthers before the pollen matures, (e) Excessively 
 windy weather. Strong winds, particularly if accom- 
 panied by rain are very injurious to the blossoms. The 
 rain is likely to wash away the pollen-grains and strong 
 
254 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 winds prevent the activity of bees. In very hot weather 
 high winds may so entirely dry up the fluid secreted by the 
 stigma as to make germination of the pollen-grains impos- 
 sible, (f ) Spraying in full bloom. Injury is caused and 
 pollination is sometimes prevented if trees are sprayed in 
 full bloom before pollination has taken place. 
 
 The above discussion outlines some of the influences 
 affecting the set of fruit. It now becomes important to 
 consider mixed varieties with relation to cross-pollination. 
 It is generally recognized that too much emphasis was 
 formerly placed on the advisability of mixing varieties in 
 order to aid in pollination. As a result, many orchards 
 were set with mixed varieties when two or three well 
 selected kinds would have provided for cross-pollination 
 and would have been a much more desirable arrangement 
 from a commercial standpoint. " The orchardist too often 
 proceeded on the theory that if a few different varieties 
 were advisable as pollinizers, many were the more desir- 
 able. As a' matter of fact, one variety which is a good 
 pollinizer may serve exactly as well as a score. The much 
 discussed secondary effects of pollination should not be 
 allowed too greatly to influence the planting of pollinizers. 
 The direct effects of crossing certain varieties have not been 
 established. Variations in the characteristics of different 
 apples are now more generally attributed to bud variation 
 than to cross-pollination. It is generally conceded that 
 flavor, quality or color of apples is not directly affected by 
 the cross-pollinating variety. 
 
 This should in no way be construed as an argument 
 against cross-pollination, for in the case of the self-sterile 
 or partially self-sterile varieties it is absolutely essential. 
 Cross-pollination may effect the size of fruit and may 
 
Fruit Setting and Pollination 255 
 
 increase the set. Darwin states : " Nature abhors self- 
 fertilization." 
 
 ESSENTIALS FOE A GOOD POLLINIZEE 
 
 The following points should be considered in selecting 
 varieties for pollination: (1) Not more than one row in 
 six is necessary to insure certainty of proper pollination 
 under normal weather conditions and in the presence of 
 pollinizing agents. However, attention is called to the 
 fact that varieties to be handled, economically should occur 
 in plantings of at least two or three rows. (2) Varieties 
 should bloom at the same time. This is clearly necessary, 
 otherwise the pollen of one variety would be entirely gone 
 before the other bloomed, making cross-pollination impossi- 
 ble. (3) Varieties must have an affinity for each other; 
 that is to say, the pollen of one must be acceptable to the 
 pistils of the other. It is well in this connection to men- 
 tion the fact that pears will not serve to pollinate apples 
 or vice-versa. (4) Varieties must be good pollen-pro- 
 ducers. If varieties which produce little pollen are 
 planted with those producing abundant pollen, the former 
 but not the latter will be benefited. It is important here 
 to mention that Winesap is a very shy pollen-producer and 
 should not be planted for the purpose of pollinating other 
 varieties. (5) Varieties should come into bearing at 
 about the same age. Such kinds as the Northern Spy 
 would not immediately serve as pollinizers for the Wagoner 
 or Twenty Ounce, since the former is an extremely late 
 bearer. (6) The varieties should be commercial. While 
 this is not at all necessary so far as cross-pollination is 
 concerned, it is highly important from a commercial stand- 
 point. It is clearly inadvisable to plant non-commercial 
 
256 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 varieties as pollinizers when so many good commercial 
 sorts are readily available. 
 
 It is important in any discussion of pollination to name 
 some of the varieties which are known as uncertain or self- 
 sterile as well as some of those known as self-fertile. 
 Cross-pollination with some other variety is usually advis- 
 able, since in most cases it increases the set of fruit. 
 
 Uncertain or Self-stekile Dependable or Self-febtxle 
 
 Varieties, Varieties. 
 
 Arkansas Ben Davis 
 
 Tompkins King Baldwin 
 
 Grimes Oldenburg 
 
 Jonathan Rhode Island Greening 
 
 Gravenstein Yellow Transparent 
 
 Northern Spy Yellow Newtown 
 
 Ortley 
 
 Red Limbertwig 
 
 Rome Beauty 
 
 Esopus 
 
 Twenty Ounce 
 
 Winesap 
 
 The following varieties are grouped according to their 
 desirability for securing best results in pollination. Each 
 column contains those which are well pollinated by any 
 one or more of the varieties in the same column. Certain 
 limitations should be placed on this table, since in certain 
 localities some compatible kinds bloom too early to pollin- 
 ate later-blooming varieties. However, the pollen of each 
 has an affinity for the pistil of the varieties in the same 
 column. 
 
Fruit Setting and Pollination 
 
 357 
 
 II 
 
 Wealthy 
 
 Rome Beauty 
 
 Yellow Transparent 
 
 Yellow Bellflower 
 
 White Winter Pearmain 
 
 Winesap 
 
 Willow Twig 
 
 Wagener 
 
 Esopus 
 
 Arkansas Black 
 
 Baldwin 
 
 Ben Davis 
 
 Gano 
 
 Grimes 
 
 Jonathan 
 
 Mcintosh 
 
 Yellow Xewtown 
 
 Northern Spy 
 
 Ortley 
 
 Gravenstein 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 Red Astrachan 
 
 Many other varieties might be named, but these lists 
 contain a sufficient number to satisfy the commercial 
 grower. If a region is particularly adapted to a combina- 
 tion of any two or three commercial sorts, they may be 
 interplanted with great success without detracting from 
 the very important practice of limiting the number to a 
 few commercial varieties. At the same time such com- 
 binations will insure abundant opportunity for proper 
 cross-pollination. 
 
i 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 PRUNING AND THINNING 
 
 Pruning will always remain a field for independent and 
 individual study. No other orchard practice has aroused 
 in the minds of fruit-growers and horticulturists greater 
 variance in opinion. While investigators and observers 
 are in accord on many of the principles of pruning, their 
 application must always remain, to some extent, an indi- 
 vidual problem. An apple-grower would do well to study 
 pruning in the most productive orchards of his community 
 and observe the system that has been practiced on the best 
 and most productive trees. 
 
 It is the purpose to give a brief description of the 
 several pruning practices in use in the more important 
 fruit-producing sections and to state briefly the advantages 
 and disadvantages of such practices. 
 
 Before planting, the ends of all broken or injured roots 
 should be removed. This is done not with the idea of 
 shortening the roots, but with the view of leaving smooth 
 rather than broken and ragged root ends. Occasionally 
 a few roots may be removed so as to avoid crowding and 
 secure better distribution of the root system. 
 
 Since a large proportion of the root system is removed 
 when the tree is taken from the nursery, it is necessary to 
 remove a portion of the top to restore a proper balance 
 between the root system and top. Again, the removal of 
 
 258 
 
Pruning and Thinning 
 
 259 
 
 ■a portion of the top determines 
 the height of head and encourages 
 the formation of a stocky and vig- 
 orous framework. 
 
 The height of heading will vary 
 with the type of training to be fol- 
 lowed and the locality. Lower 
 heading is practiced with the open 
 center type of tree than with the 
 leader or modified types, as is 
 pointed out elsewhere in this chap- 
 ter. In those sections in which 
 sun-scald is prevalent, it is neces- 
 sary to head lower than where this 
 trouble is not a factor. The 
 height of heading apples at planting time may thus vary 
 from 20 to 36 inches. (See Fig. 4.) 
 
 Fig. 4. — Showing 
 framework of a young 
 Jonathan tree. The 
 trunk is too short and 
 the branches too nearly 
 horizontal. 
 
 TYPES OF TRAINING APPLE TEEES 
 
 All pruning practices are applied with the idea of 
 developing the type of tree suited to the local conditions 
 or conforming to the ideas of the individual. The prun- 
 ing given trees during the first few years may be referred 
 to as training. There are several methods of training 
 apple trees, those in common use in commercial regions 
 throughout the United States being : The " natural form " ; 
 the " central leader " type ; the " open center," or "vase- 
 shaped " tree ; the " double headed " type ; and the " mod- 
 ified leader," or " modified open center " tree. 
 
260 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 i 
 
 Natural form. 
 
 This system of training has been followed largely in the 
 old orchards of Xew York, New E-ngland and some of 
 the middle western states, and by growers generally who 
 had no definite type in mind. Very little pruning is 
 required as compared with other methods of training. 
 The top ordinarily consists of a cluster of branches spring- 
 ing from one point and forming a round head. The pruner 
 merely removes crowding and crossing branches and limits 
 the number of main branches. In the more humid 
 climates, later pruning is confined to the removal of cross- 
 ing and crowding branches and to the shortening of way- 
 ward branches for the purpose of maintaining tree bal- 
 ance. In the drier climates of the Middle West, all the 
 branches are usually headed back for the first few years 
 in order to encourage stockiness. 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Most simple type of training and work may be done by 
 unskilled men. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. Too many main branches are frequently left, resulting in 
 crowding and overlapping main branches. 
 
 2. Splitting at the crotches is not uncommon. 
 
 3. Frequently main branches are not stocky enough to sup- 
 port loads of fruit in natural positions, the result being over- 
 lapping branches and much poorly colored fruit. 
 
 4. Uneven distribution of fruiting wood is not uncommon 
 when trees become mature. 
 
 5. Trees in the orchard lack uniformity. 
 
 6. Trees of this type often require heroic treatment later on. 
 
t v*"^ 
 
 -^^gr 
 
 LATE XVI. — Diseases of the apple. 1, Bitter-rot on Pippin showing spots 
 I red specks. 2, Sooty-fungus and fly-speck. 3, Apples affected with th« 
 b fungus. 4, Leaf afl'ected with apple-scab. 
 
Pruning and Thinning 
 
 261 
 
 Central leader system. 
 
 By this method one central 
 leader is allowed to develop year 
 after year until its increasing- 
 height is naturally checked as the 
 tree begins fruiting. Such lat- 
 eral branches are allowed to re- 
 main as will not crowd and will 
 give the best distribution and bal- 
 ance in later years. The lateral 
 branches are considerably smaller 
 than the central leader and strong 
 unions are formed. While this 
 system of pruning has never been 
 widely practiced by commercial 
 fruit-growers, it has had some 
 popularity, especially for dwarfs 
 and certain varieties such as the 
 Jonathan and members of the Ben Davis group. 
 Fig. 5.) 
 
 /\ 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 '/ 
 
 Fig. 5. — A well 
 pruned young Jonathan 
 tree trained to the cen- 
 tral leader form. 
 
 (See 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. Strong trees are produced. Crotches seldom split apart. 
 
 2. Great skill is not required to inaugurate and adhere to 
 this type of pruning. 
 
 3. Trees like the Rhode Island Greening and Jonathan with 
 tendencies to develop low drooping side branches lend them- 
 selves to the method. 
 
 Disadvantages. 
 
 1. It is difficult to keep trees opened up sufficiently to permit 
 light to penetrate to the inner parts. 
 
 2. Trees usually become too high thereby making orchard 
 operations more difficult and expensive. 
 
263 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Open center, or vase-sliape {Fig. 6). 
 
 Fig. 6. — An exces- 
 sively pruned young De- 
 licious tree carved out 
 to the vase form. 
 
 The open center type of train- 
 ing was the first definite system 
 generally advocated after commer- 
 cial apple-growing became estab- 
 lished in this country on a highly 
 specialized basis. It was for a 
 time quite generally adopted by 
 fruit-growers in all sections of the 
 United States as the ideal method 
 of training and is still advocated 
 by some professional horticultur- 
 ists and is practiced by many 
 fimit-growers. The development 
 of certain weaknesses in the 
 strictly vase-shaped tree has led to a modification of this 
 type of pruning, however. 
 
 In starting an open center tree, one-year-old whips are 
 usually headed at 20 to 26 inches at planting time. The 
 following winter or spring three to five well distributed 
 branches are usually chosen to form the permanent frame- 
 work of the tree, the leader being removed the first year. 
 The three to five main branches growing outward and 
 upward give the vase-like shape to the tree. After the first 
 season's growth, all the leaders are cut back heavily to 
 approximately the same height. Equal cutting is con- 
 tinued each year until the framework is completed, in order 
 that no one of the main scaffold branches may attain prom- 
 inence over the other. The center is kept sufficiently open 
 to permit the penetration of light throughout the tree. 
 The result is a spreading low-headed tree, sufficiently open j 
 to permit good coloring of the fruit. j 
 
Pruning and Thinning 263 
 
 It is usually customary to remove some 50 to 60 per cent 
 of the first year's growth on each of the selected scaffold 
 branches, provided the tree has made a vigorous growth. 
 However, as previously mentioned, all of the scaffold 
 branches should be cut back to approximately the same 
 height, measured from the grolmd. In the succeeding 
 year, two secondary branches are usually selected on each 
 primary branch, the others being removed. The next year 
 these secondary branches are usually shortened by the 
 removal of about 40 per cent of the season's growth. 
 However, the secondary branches should not be left shorter 
 than a foot. 
 
 Pruning during the succeeding two or three seasons is 
 along similar lines, except that the amount of heading back 
 , is lessened each year, provided the tree does not make too 
 rank a growth. 
 
 • Advantages of the vase-shaped tree. 
 
 ' 1. The penetration of light and air is permitted to all parts 
 of the top, which results in a high percentage of functioning 
 fruiting wood and much highly colored fruit. 
 
 2. The method results in a low, spreading, well balanced tree. 
 
 3. The type and form is easily established and maintained. 
 
 ' 4. The ideal may be closely approached with every one-year- 
 old whip. 
 
 t Disadvantages. 
 
 ^ 1. The trees are often structurally weak, due to the fact that 
 i; the scaffold branches frequently issue from practically the same 
 j point, thus leaving weak crotches. 
 
 2. Artificial supports are frequently necessary to avoid split- 
 ting at the crotches when the trees reach bearing age. 
 ' 3. When one main or scaffold branch splits off, the other 
 
264 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 scaffold branches are weakened at the crotches and further 
 breaking usually follows. 
 
 4. If one main branch splits off, the balance of the tree is 
 permanently injured. 
 
 5. The amount of bearing wood is limited. 
 
 The double-headed type. 
 
 In this type of leader tree, developed in New York and 
 West Virginia and in use there, two whorls of main 
 branches or scaffolds are used and the framework is formed 
 by six or eight branches arranged along two or three feet of 
 a strong central stem. If a one-year-old whip is planted, 
 the heading is done at about 24 to 36 inches, which leaves 
 the lowest scaffold branch about 20 to 30 inches from the 
 ground. After the first year's growth and before growth 
 starts the following spring, three or at most four well dis- 
 tributed branches are selected and all others removed. 
 The remaining branches excepting the leader are headed 
 back to 14 to 16 inches in length. The leader or upright 
 branch is left with 16 to 18 inches of new growth. 
 
 After the second season's growth has been made, two 
 secondary branches are selected on each primary branch 
 except the leader and the others are removed. These 
 secondary branches are then headed back to 18 or 20 
 inches in length. Long willowy branches are headed back 
 even more severely. The second year's growth on the 
 leader is removed with the exception of the most upright 
 development and any short spurs. About 16 to 18 inches 
 of the new growth of the leader is left. This leaves the 
 leader extending 2^/^ to 3 feet above the first scaffold. 
 
 After the third season's growth, the lateral main 
 branches and their secondary growth are handled in a 
 
Pruning and Thinning 265 
 
 manner similar to that following the second season's 
 growth, except that the heading back is less severe. It is 
 after the third year that the second story of scaffold 
 branches is started from the central leader at a distance of 
 about 30 to 40 inches above the first set of branches. 
 Three or four laterals are selected for this upper story and 
 the others are removed. The second story scaffold branches 
 are then treated like the first ones were two years earlier. 
 The upward growth of the leader is now suppressed and 
 the tree is continued with an open center. It is sometimes 
 ' advisable to add a third story. 
 
 : Advantages. 
 
 ■ 1. The system results in a strong tree since the lateral 
 branches are smaller than the central leader and therefore do 
 not form weak crotches, as are likely to occur when all of the 
 main branches are of equal size. 
 
 2. The weight of the tree is distributed among six to eight 
 main branches well placed on a central trunk rather than among 
 three or four branches as is the case in open center trees. 
 
 3. The trees have a greater bearing surface than do open 
 center trees, since the space in the center is more completely 
 
 .occupied. 
 
 4. Siifficient light and air are permitted to all parts of the 
 'tree since on the discontinuance of the central leader above the 
 • second scaffold the top then assumes some of the characteristics 
 [of a strictly open center tree. 
 
 5. A rather low spreading top is secured and at the same time 
 [a somewhat larger tree than under the open center system. 
 
 t Disadvan tages. 
 
 r 1. In practice there is a tendency for growers to leave too 
 
 many scaffold branches and thereby create a crowded condition. 
 
 2. There is danger of either the upper or lower set of scaffold 
 
 oranches becoming dominant unless the pruner uses skill and 
 
 j ?ood judgment in maintaining the proper tree balance. 
 
366 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 The modified leader tree. 
 
 In reacting from the two extremes embodied in the 
 strictly " vase-shaped " tree and the central leader type, 
 many commercial apple-growers in the leading producing 
 regions have adopted the " modified leader " system, thus 
 appropriating the best features in both extreme types. As 
 the name implies, this system develops a tree of a modified 
 leader type. 
 
 Starting with a whip headed at 30 to 36 inches, four to 
 seven scaffold branches well distributed along a central 
 trunk after the fashion of an as- 
 cending spiral are permitted to re- 
 main and form the framework of 
 the tree. It is impossible to se- 
 cure all of these branches from a 
 single season's growth, from two to 
 three being selected the first year 
 and the remainder later. The per- 
 manent framework may not be se- 
 cured short of three or four years. 
 One point to be remembered is 
 that scaffold branches should be 
 spaced well apart. Branches that 
 are only two or three inches apart 
 will be entirely too close when the tree reaches maturity. 
 Some growers prefer scaffold branches one foot apart. 
 (See Fig. 7.) 
 
 The leader is permitted to develop during the first three 
 or four years while the framework branches are being 
 selected. The first year's growth will usually consist of an 
 almost upright branch together with several laterals. It 
 may be possible to select two or even three well distributed 
 
 Fig. 7. — Mature Jon- 
 athan tree with com- 
 mon type of frame- 
 work. 
 
Pruning and Thinning 267 
 
 scaffold branches after the first year. All others except 
 the leader are removed and the remaining branches are cut 
 back. In order that the leader may dominate for a time, 
 it is left somev.'hat longer than the other branches. On 
 vigorous trees as much as 40 to 50 per cent of the leader 
 is removed and from 50 to 60 per cent of the laterals. 
 The whole question of heading back* is a subject of varied 
 opinion which will be discussed later. 
 
 Additional laterals will develop during the second year. 
 One or two desirable scaffold branches may then be added 
 to the framework. The leader and selected laterals are 
 treated in the manner described for the year previous, 
 although heading back is usually less severe. 
 
 The system is continued during the third and if neces- 
 sary even to a fourth or fifth year. When suitable scaffold 
 branches have been developed, the leader is removed and 
 there remains a tree with central trunk about six or seven 
 feet high along which are spaced three to six or even more 
 main laterals extending outward and upward in all direc- 
 tions at intervals possibly of 10 to 12 inches. 
 
 Advantages. 
 
 1. This system of training results in a strong tree since the 
 central leader is larger than the main or scaffold branches, thus 
 leaving strong unions, which are not likely to result in split- 
 ting. 
 
 2. The weight of the tree is distributed along a trunk and 
 among several main branches rather than among three or four 
 branches with no central axis as is the case in open center trees. 
 
 3. *rhe system encourages a good distribution of main 
 branches about and along the central axis. 
 
 4. Should one main branch break or be lost because of disease, 
 there is still a sufficient number from which laterals may be grown 
 to fill the opening and thus preserve the tree balance. 
 
268 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 5. Trees trained in this manner have a large capacity for 
 fruiting. 
 
 6. Light and air are admitted to all parts, insuring fruit-spur 
 activity and highly colored fruit. 
 
 7. The resulting tree is low headed and spreading and per- 
 mits economical orchard operations. 
 
 D isadvantages. 
 
 1. More judgment is required in building this type of tree 
 than any of the others. Untrained labor cannot be trusted with 
 the shaping of the trees. 
 
 2. There is danger of some main branches, especially the 
 upper ones, outgrowing the lower ones, thereby suppressing the 
 latter to such an extent that they no longer serve as main or 
 scaffold branches. 
 
 3. When building the young tree, pruners are apt to leave 
 the leader too long or too short as compared with the laterals, 
 thus destroying proper balance. 
 
 GENERAL TREATMENT OF YOUNG TREES 
 
 The foregoing has been a general description of the dif- 
 ferent types of trees, but the reader has gained little infor- 
 mation as to what actually is done each year during 
 the formative period of the tree. The amount of cutting [ 
 back and thinning out does not vary greatly with the type j 
 of training. A more detailed discussion for the modified 
 leader tree will, therefore, serve for the other types as well. 
 
 After first season. 
 
 If there has been a vigorous growth of more than 30 
 inches, the scaffold branches are shortened to about 50 per 
 cent and the leader to 60 per cent. If growth does not 
 exceed 20 inches, the leader is shortened to about 14 inches 
 and the laterals to 10 or 12 inches. When possible, the 
 
Pruning and Thinning 269 
 
 secondary laterals should be developed on the main scaffold 
 branches at a distance not closer than one foot or greater 
 than 20 inches from the trunk. When the scaffold limbs 
 make slow growth, it may be necessary to delay the develop- 
 ment of secondary branches by cutting back the scaffold 
 limbs to two or three buds. 
 
 After second season. 
 
 Heading back should be less severe after the second sea- 
 son's growth. Some recommend leaving about 20 inches 
 new growth on the leader and about 15 inches on the scaf- 
 fold branches. Others think that very little heading back 
 should be done after this time regardless of the amount of 
 growth. There is a growing sentiment that trees should be 
 headed back very little after the second or third year. It 
 is of course necessary to check wayward and crossing 
 branches. Furthermore when growth is vigorous, heading 
 back may be necessary in order to encourage stockiness. 
 If long rangy growths are left, they will not be strong 
 enough to carry heavy loads of fruit in later years. Dur- 
 ing the first two or three years, certain of the main branches 
 may outgrow the others, in which case the stronger grow- 
 ing ones should be headed back more severely than the 
 weaker growing ones. 
 
 After third season. 
 
 The main laterals may be cut back lightly to about the 
 same length, slight predominance being given to the leader 
 if it is retained. When the modified leader type is 
 being followed, the third year may see the development 
 of a sufficient number of scaffold branches, If not, the 
 
270 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 leader is maintained for one or more years, at which time 
 it is removed in order to open up the center of the tree. 
 
 Small side shoots and fruit-spurs developing in the 
 middle of the tree during this time should be left. Such 
 wood is productive of early fruit. Furthermore, an abund- 
 ance of foliage and small twigs are necessary to protect the 
 main limbs from the sun and also to aid growth. There 
 must be plenty of foliage and twig growth if young trees 
 are to produce wood. 
 
 VEGETATIVE, TRANSITORY AND FRUITAGE STAGES 
 
 A tree may be said to pass through three distinct periods : 
 (1) formative period, (2) transition period, and (3) fruit- 
 ing period. The treatment, both in regard to pruning and 
 soil management, changes materially with each of these 
 periods. It is during the formative period that the tree 
 devotes its energies to the formation of wood growth. The 
 proper selection, distribution and training of scaffold 
 branches during this time determines the ability of the 
 tree to bear and carry heavy loads of fruit in later years. 
 The length of the formative period is usually from four to 
 six years, depending on the region and treatment provided. 
 
 Transition period. 
 
 Although less distinct, this period is critical. Between 
 the fifth and eighth year the tree is undergoing a change 
 from vegetative to heavy fruit production. The exact age 
 will vary with the region, variety and treatment. Some 
 varieties may not pass through this period until they 
 become ten or twelve years old. Other varieties and par- 
 ticularly when grown under irrigation begin to bear heav- 
 ily at six and seven years. 
 
Pruning and Thinning 271 
 
 Pruning during the transition period should be light 
 and should consist almost entirely of thinning out, with 
 little or no heading back. The thinning out should be 
 confined largely to the top and ends of the branches and to 
 shoot growths of the previous season. If the tree is becom- 
 ing too thick, two- and even three-year-old branches should 
 be removed. 
 
 Too often the small lateral limbs and fruiting wood 
 toward the center of the tree are removed, thus forcing all 
 the fruiting area toward the tip ends of the limbs. Again, 
 tops frequently become so dense that the inside spurs slough 
 off due to lack of sunlight and air. 
 
 The fruiting period. 
 
 All pruning during this period is to develop and main- 
 tain a liberal supply of fruiting wood, well distributed 
 throughout the entire tree. This pruning will consist 
 largely of thinning out branches in order to maintain a 
 liberal supply of functioning fruit-spurs, and in order to 
 improve the quality of the fruit produced. Weak or way- 
 ward branches should be removed. The tree should be 
 kept open and shapely and in a vigorous growing condition. 
 Regular annual pruning is essential. 
 
 Fruit-huds. 
 
 Fruit-buds may be regarded as the actual fruit manu- 
 facturing machinery of a tree. In case of the apple, the 
 fruit is borne mostly on spurs which develop from lateral 
 buds on the shoots of the preceding season. In certain 
 varieties of apples, such as Jonathan, Gravenstein, New- 
 town and others, much of the first crop of fruit-buds is 
 borne terminally on shoots. Axillary buds are also borne 
 
272 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 on one-year-old wood, but ou the side of the shoots instead 
 of at the tips. Spurs are nothing more than very short 
 branches on which terminal fruiting buds are borne every 
 alternate year, under favorable conditions. These buds 
 are usually developed from branches two years and older. 
 If fruit-spurs are properly cared for, they may live and 
 produce fruit-buds in alternate seasons for at least eight 
 or ten years. 
 
 All lateral buds of the shoots of any one season do not 
 develop into spurs the following year. Some of them grow 
 out into new or branch shoots, many others remain dormant. 
 Spurs are largely developed from the large, plump, vigor- 
 ous lateral buds. 
 
 Having developed a large number of spurs evenly dis- 
 tributed throughout the tree, it is absolutely essential to 
 conserve this fruiting wood. In a great many cases, the 
 fruiting machinery toward the center of a tree fails to 
 produce fruit. This is due principally to the lack of sun- 
 shine and air, two factors on which a spur is entirely 
 dependent for its ability to function. The pruning, then, 
 should be with the idea of leaving spurs distributed 
 throughout the entire tree and of getting plenty of sunlight 
 and air to each individual spur. This can be accomplished 
 by thinhing out as opposed to heading back. It permits 
 more light to percolate through the tree and gives the 
 leaves in the center a better chance to manufacture the food 
 materials necessary for the formation of large strong fruit- 
 buds. 
 
 Changing system of pruning. 
 
 After the form of a tree has once been established, it is 
 not considered advisable to change its type unless its form 
 
Pruning and Thinning 
 
 273 
 
 may be modified without drastic pruning. An open center 
 tree, for example, should be continued as such. A modi- 
 fied leader should not be removed in 
 later years in order to develop an 
 open center tree. The type of train- 
 ing should be established during the 
 first three years and this same style 
 should be followed out year after 
 year. 
 
 Trees four to ten years old that 
 have been pruned with no definite 
 type in view often present some very 
 perplexing problems. The number 
 and proper distribution of scaffold 
 branches should be definitely chosen 
 and part of the most objectionable 
 branches removed the first year. In 
 cases where there are a dozen main 
 branches when half that number 
 would sufiSce, it may be advisable to 
 select only six for the permanent 
 framework. The removal of the ob- 
 jectionable branches should be distributed over a period of 
 two or three years, however. 
 
 Young trees which have been neglected should be cut 
 back rather heavily to encourage the development of good 
 strong laterals near the base of the limb. When heading 
 back has been neglected and the result has been long rangy 
 branches with weak lateral development, it may be neces- 
 sary to cut back into two- or three-year-old wood. When 
 a good side branch is available, it is advisable to cut back 
 to the side branch instead of to a bud. 
 
 F^G. 8. — Common 
 type of trunk and 
 lower framework of 
 Rome Beauty un- 
 der northwest con- 
 ditions. 
 
274 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Crossing and interfei"ing branches should be removed. 
 If too many long parallel limbs have developed, part of 
 them should be taken out in order to allow the remainder 
 freer development. Two limbs which emerge from a com- 
 mon point usually result in a weak crotch, a condition 
 which can be overcome by unequal cutting, i. e. cutting one 
 limb heavier than the other. 
 
 Bearing trees. , 
 
 A tree that has been handled properly up to the bearing 
 age, that has its framework well established, and its fruit- 
 ing machinery w^ell distributed, will require little subse- 
 quent annual pruning. As previously described, the treat- 
 ment of a bearing tree, whatever the type, will consist 
 largely in thinning out the new growth near the tops or 
 outer parts of limbs to allow a good circulation of sunlight 
 and air. Wayward and crossing branches should be 
 checked or removed. 
 
 Gardner', of the Missouri Experimental Station, likens 
 the fruit-spur to a factory. He refers to the spurs as 
 little machines. The raw materials from which fruit is 
 produced come from the soil and air and are manufactured 
 into a finished product by the leaves through the aid of 
 sunlight. The latter is classed as the cheapest, most 
 abundant and yet most valuable form of motive power. 
 The performance of every spur is dependent on a certain 
 amount of sunlight. (See Plate XVI 1.) 
 
 Each individual spur relies on its OAvn leaves for the 
 manufacture of the starches and sugars which it uses. 
 It cannot draw on other nearby spurs or on other parts 
 of the tree for maintenance. As the manufacture of food 
 materials is absolutely dependent on light, the production 
 
Pruning and Thinning 275 
 
 of fruit-bncls and fruit is likewise dependent on sufficient 
 quantities of light. 
 
 Thinning out the top and outer portions, then, is the 
 most effective means of letting light in to each individual 
 spur, thereby distributing the motive power necessary to 
 develop activity within each individual spur and increase 
 the amount of fruit produced. The removal of a few 
 large limbs near the ground only leaves large holes and 
 open spaces. The cutting of lower limbs and those near 
 the body of the tree does not permit sunlight to enter into 
 the parts where it is most needed nor does it permit the 
 distribution of sunlight and air in sufficient quantities to 
 modify the functioning of fruit-spurs. Removing large 
 limbs leaves vacant spaces and admits sunlight in shafts 
 rather than allowing it to penetrate evenly throughout all 
 parts. 
 
 It is better to remove many small branches in thin- 
 ning the outer parts of trees. This leaves the outer fruit- 
 ing wood evenly distributed and still open enough to 
 permit the entrance of sunlight and air. The removal of 
 small branches requires time and makes it necessary for 
 the pruner either to use a ladder or climb well out near 
 the ends of the main branches, but this careful work will 
 prove profitable. 
 
 Distribution and establishment of fruiting wood. 
 
 Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the distribution 
 and establishment of functioning fruiting wood throughout 
 the entire tree. It is not uncommon to see trees which 
 have been stripped of all fruiting wood except near the 
 ends of the branches. For example, limbs 20 to 25 feet 
 long bear all their fruit from within 5 or 6 feet from the 
 
276 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 tip, the balance of the limb being a " boarder " and living 
 at the expense of the productive area. It is highly de- 
 sirable to have several well developed laterals along- the 
 scaffold branches in order that the fruiting area may be 
 brought nearer the ground. 
 
 TIME OF PEUNING 
 
 No concrete rules can be laid down as to the best time 
 for pruning, as no one time will best meet all conditions. 
 Pruning in most sections may usually be practiced in any 
 favorable weather in the dormant season. 
 
 In the Virginias and sections of the Pacific Coast, prun- 
 ing is done from November to early April, while in the 
 New England and middle western states, most of the 
 work is during the spring months. Generally speaking, 
 a slight preference should be given to pruning in late 
 winter and early spring, because the wounds heal over more 
 readily. Many growers are prejudiced against pruning 
 when the wood is frozen. Some maintain that drying out 
 or dying back is likely to result from early winter prun- 
 ing, but the writers do not know of serious injury of this 
 nature in bearing trees. 
 
 If one has a large acreage to prune, he should start work 
 in the older trees in the early winter and reserve the 
 younger trees for the late winter and spring pruning. 
 Some growers hesitate to prune when growth is about to 
 start in the spring, feeling that injury may result from 
 bleeding. However, the writers know of no serious 
 injury resulting from pruning apple trees at this time. 
 
 Summer pruning has received much attention in recent 
 years but the results of investigations have been somewhat 
 confusing. Summer pruning may be practiced to advan- 
 
Pruning and Thinning 277 
 
 tag'e in training the framework of a young tree. It may 
 also increase fruit production if timed correctly. How- 
 over, so many varying factors affect the time element that 
 it is impossible to give exact dates at which summer 
 pruning may be done tQ increase fruit production. The 
 average grower should refrain from inaugurating this 
 practice until a better understanding is had of its effects. 
 Water-sprouts and a few superfluous branches may be re- 
 moved to advantage during the summer months. 
 
 PEUNING TOOLS 
 
 The tool equipment will vary with the man and with 
 the type of work. In the eastern region practically all 
 of the labor is done with a small hand shears and a saw. 
 With these two tools, a pruner can do practically all that 
 will be required in bearing trees and most of the work in 
 young trees. 
 
 Cheap shears and those with coil springs are undesir- 
 able. The former are easily sprung and the latter easily 
 broken. The shears should be 7 to 9 inches in length, 
 the latter usually being preferred. 
 
 A saw on which the teeth are set to cut on the " pull " 
 is less tiring to the pruner. Saws with teeth on both 
 edges are objectionable since they frequently injure the 
 bark. In some sections a swivel or hack saw is used. 
 This type is a modification of a butcher's saw equipped 
 with swivels that permit very thin, narrow, fine-toothed 
 blades being set on the bias. It cuts rather slowly in the 
 case of large limbs, but is particularly good for small cuts 
 and for removing limbs in tight places. The cuts made 
 are clean and smooth. 
 
 Pole pruners, 6 to 10 feet in length, are useful in prun- 
 
278 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 ing the tops of trees six to ten years old, but work with this 
 tool is slow and cutting lacks precision. 
 
 Lopping or wooden handled shears are popular for work 
 on young trees and also for working the lower parts of 
 old trees. However, their use becomes somewhat awkward 
 in the upper parts of bearing trees. The double leverage 
 tj'pe of " loppers " is desirable, 20 to 26 inches being the 
 preferred length. 
 
 WOUND DRESSINGS 
 
 Some difference of opinion exists among growers as to 
 the practicability of the use of dressings for protecting 
 wounds. Certain experiments have shown that undressed 
 wounds healed over more rapidly than dressed ones. 
 However, for nearly all wounds paint is most desirable, 
 white lead or white zinc thinned down with linseed oil 
 having given the best results. Tar or creosote is some- 
 times preferred for large wounds since these substances 
 are considered better preservatives than paint. The 
 heartwood of a large wound will have to stand many years 
 before it is completely healed over. 
 
 Wounds in vigorous growing trees heal over more read- 
 ily than those on trees of low vitality. The painting 
 over of cuts less than one inch in diameter is not recom- 
 mended. 
 
 THINNING 
 
 Although practiced very extensively in some parts of 
 the country and particularly in the West, many growers 
 are slow to adopt thinning, and yet it is essential to the 
 production of high-class fruit. Once a grower has care- 
 fully thinned his fruit for a few years, he needs no further 
 
Pruning and Thinning 279 
 
 proof of the fact that this is one of the most important 
 and profitable of all orchard operations. 
 
 For many years the apple-growers in the Wenatchee and 
 Yakima valleys, Washington, have made thinning a gen- 
 eral practice. Cost production studies indicate that the 
 largest yields and greatest profits have been secured from 
 well and carefully thinned orchards. The same may be 
 said for orchards in all other parts of the country where 
 this practice has been given a thorough trial. In the 
 Middle West and East, however, the grower who thins his 
 trees is the exception rather than the rule. The cost, to- 
 gether with a lack of knowledge and appreciation of the 
 great benefits to be obtained from thinning, are the princi- 
 pal reasons which deter most growers from following this 
 practice. Unquestionably it involves considerable ex- 
 pense, particularly with a full bearing orchard in a heavy 
 crop year. A heavy outlay of expense in any single year 
 might be somewhat disappointing. Thinning is an oper- 
 ation incident to the production of high-class fruit. It 
 should not be sporadic, but should be practiced in every 
 heavy crop year. When fairly competent labor may be 
 secured at reasonable rates, it will be profitable. As the 
 competition in the growing of high-class apples becomes 
 greater, thinning will become more and more a general 
 practice in every commercial region in the country. 
 
 In listing the advantages of thinning it is found that it : 
 (1) increases size and quality of fruit; (2) reduces hand- 
 ling costs such as for picking and packing; (3) prevents 
 overbearing and promotes vigor of tree; (4) encourages 
 annual bearing; (5) increases average annual yield; (6) 
 reduces amount of cull and low-grade fruit since inferior, 
 diseased, or worm-eaten apples may be removed; (7) 
 
280 ' The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 secures uniformity of size and market quality of fruit; 
 (8) insures a high price for crop. 
 
 (1) The statement that thinning tends to increase the 
 size and quality of the remaining fruit will go unques- 
 tioned. Xot only are the apples larger, but the color of 
 fruit on well thinned trees is noticeably better than on 
 overloaded ones. It is manifest that well developed speci- 
 mens of good size and color will be of a superior quality 
 and flavor. 
 
 (2) By reducing the number of apples to be picked and 
 handled at harvest time, the harvesting costs are materially 
 lowered. If apples are not removed at thinning time, 
 they must be picked at harvest at an even greater expense. 
 Many of the culls and inferior fruits can be removed in 
 thinning and this will not only tend to improve the quality 
 of the fruit, but will reduce the sorting cost at harvest 
 time. 
 
 (3) If trees are left overloaded, their vitality is im- 
 paired; branches are quite likely broken; and the pros- 
 pects for the next year's crop are very much poorer than 
 if the tree had been properly thinned. It is difficult to 
 measure the exact value of thinning as affecting annual 
 yields and yet it is a notable fact that thinning unques- 
 tionably stimulates annual bearing. Many well thinned 
 orchards in the Northwest bear heavy crops annually while 
 most unthinned orchards tend to bear biennially. 
 
 (4) To claim that thinning reduces the tax on the 
 vitality of the tree and yet maintain that it actually in- 
 creases yield may seem contradictory. Unquestionably it 
 increases average annual yield and it is a fact that in- 
 creased size in fruit usually more than makes up for 
 
Pruning and Thinning 881 
 
 reauced numbers. Furthermore, by more even distribu- 
 tion the tree may better hold its load. 
 
 (5) It is possible in thinning to remove wormy, stung, 
 diseased or otherwise inferior fruits and in this manner 
 greatly reduce the percentage of cull fruit and in some 
 ways check the spread of the injury. 
 
 (6) Uniformity is one of the most desirable qualities 
 in marketable apples. Thinning, of all orchard opera- 
 tions, is the one which directly influences uniformity in 
 size and marketable quality of fruit. 
 
 (7) When the grower is striving for an abundance of 
 highest quality fruit, thinning unquestionably pays. It 
 increases the percentage of high-grade fruit and thus in- 
 sures a higher net price. Cost of production a bushel will 
 be lowered even though cost an acre may be increased. If 
 a grower has expended heavily for spraying, pruning and 
 other operations, he can not afford to neglect thinning in 
 years when his trees tend to overbear. 
 
 Time and method of thinning. 
 
 Thinning should not be undertaken until after the June 
 or May drop, as in some of the more southern regions, has 
 occurred. When the apples are about the size of walnuts, 
 the natural thinning of the fruit has largely ceased and 
 artificial thinning may be begun profitably. 
 
 Often many growers have a market for early cull fruit 
 or sell it for by-product purposes. In such instances 
 thinning may be delayed until perhaps August, at which 
 time the cull or inferior fruit may easily be picked off. 
 Still other growers thin their apples by making several 
 pickings for commercial purposes, picking off the best 
 
282 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 and most matured apples for market and allowing the 
 others to remain. Such practices can hardly be classed 
 under the head of thinning, although they may be profit- 
 able in some instances and may be practiced in addition to 
 early thinning. 
 
 The common practice in thinning is to start early after 
 the June drop and pull or clip off all apples according to 
 varying rules of spacing. Some growers leave the apples 
 at a minimum of 4 inches apart, others 6 inches and still 
 others 8 inches apart. This distance will depend largely 
 on the variety, its tendency to cluster, and whether or not 
 the apples of the variety are normally large or small when 
 mature. Generally speaking, spacing 6 inches is a safe 
 rule to follow. 
 
 Many varieties of apples have a tendency to produce 
 their fruit in clusters and often thinning the cluster to 
 one apple is practically all that is necessary. In any case, 
 if systematic thimiing can not be practiced, the clusters 
 should at least be thinned as this prevents much insect 
 injury and promotes general uniformity of the fruit. The 
 amount of thinning will depend on the individual tree, 
 the variety and the amount of fruit on the tree. No def- 
 inite formula may be laid down. The usual method of 
 thinning apples is to pick the fruit off by hand, sometimes 
 putting it into a bag, but usually permitting it to drop on 
 the ground. Many growers, particularly in the North- 
 west, prefer thinning shears, of which several types are 
 on the market. The advantage to be gained in using thin- 
 ning shears is that the apples are clipped instead of pulled 
 off and for this reason fruit-spurs are not likely to be 
 broken or damaged. 
 
Pruning and Thinning 283 
 
 Cost of thinning. 
 
 The cost of thinning will depend on several factors, such 
 as the variety, size of tree, kind of labor employed, method 
 used, size of the crop and the vigor of the tree. The 
 average man thins from three to twenty trees a day. In 
 the Northwest one hour to a tree is considered an average 
 amount. It must be remembered, however, that the 
 Northwest trees are much smaller and the fruit easier of 
 access than in the older orchards of the East and Central 
 West. In old orchards, heavy with fruit, from three to 
 five trees is a day's work. It would not do to figure aver- 
 ages on this basis as often many trees do not need much 
 thinning. It requires about sixty hours an acre to thin 
 the better Wenatchee orchards. Very little thinning is 
 done in New York and Virginia, but if the trees in these 
 regions were thinned as systematically as in Wenatchee, 
 the amount of labor expended would be about the same to 
 the acre despite fewer trees. The average grower is safe 
 in assuming that it will pay him to spend on thinning an 
 amount equal to twenty-five cents a barrel for every barrel 
 of fruit produced. The operation usually costs less than 
 this amount. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 RENOVATION OF OLD ORCHARDS 
 
 I 
 
 Throughout the countr}^ and particularly in the east- 
 em and central western states ' are many thousands of 
 apple trees which at present have little or no commercial 
 significance. Many of these are in the old farm orchards, 
 the average of which includes at most but a few acres of 
 poorly kept and very often neglected apple trees. There 
 are, however, a great many orchards originally set out for 
 commercial purposes and later neglected. It is to this 
 latter acreage that the discussion on renovation will partic- 
 ularly apply. 
 
 Greatest possibilities for renovation are offered in Ohio, 
 Pennsylvania, and the northeastern states, also in many 
 sections of the Middle West. In southern states the old 
 neglected orchards are for the most part of such small 
 size and are so inaccessible as to offer slight inducement 
 for successful renovation. The problem of renovation re- 
 quires exceptionally careful study if one is contemplating 
 this method of entering the business of growing apples 
 commercially. In recent years many far-sighted individ- 
 uals have been able to purchase neglected apple orchards 
 and by renovation make much quicker returns on the 
 money invested than would have been possible had a 
 young orchard been set out and the owner waited for the 
 latter to come into bearing. Such opportunities still ex- 
 
 284 
 
Renovation of Old Orchards 285 
 
 ist. It is somewhat surprising in visiting well-known 
 commercial regions to see a large number of orchards which 
 receive little or no care, yet which under proper manage- 
 ment could be made to yield a profit. The above state- 
 ment is not to convey the idea that it is profitable to at- 
 tempt the reclamation of all old farm orchards by the 
 process of renovation. Very many trees are beyond the 
 period when they may be reclaimed profitably. 
 
 It requires considerable experience and nicety of judg- 
 ment to determine what orchards may or may not be suc- 
 cessfully renovated. In the first place, it is essential that 
 the orchard should be large enough to meet the expense of 
 proper equipment such as the spray-pump, and to warrant 
 some detailed attention from the owner. It is doubtful 
 whether an orchard of less than five acres, or one in which 
 many trees are missing, can ever be renovated successfully 
 and put on a profitable commercial basis. Smaller or- 
 chards, of course, might well be restored for home use. 
 
 Commercial orchards to be renovated should include 
 
 varieties for which there is a demand. Plantings should 
 
 be accessible to market and labor. However, one might 
 
 ^ profitably restore an old orchard in a locality in which it 
 
 ' would scarcely be advisable to set new plantings. An 
 
 established orchard always enjoys an important advantage 
 
 ' from being already in bearing. 
 
 ' The following suggestions are ofi"ered with regard to the 
 ' process of renovating an old orchard and apply as much 
 ■ to the home orchard as to commercial plantings : 
 
 General treatment. 
 
 All dead wood' and cankers should be cut out and the 
 trunk of tree thoroughly scraped with a hoe or similar 
 
286 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 tool, being careful not to injure the tender inner bark. 
 This scraping removes the hiding places for many orchard 
 pests. After scraping, some advise that the trunks should 
 be whitewashed. Unquestionably such treatment would be 
 beneficial, although it it not recommended as necessary. 
 
 In cutting large limbs, it is best to make two cuts, the 
 first about a foot above the last in order to prevent split- 
 ting or otherwise injuring the good wood below the final 
 cut. 
 
 It is well to disinfect large wounds with copper sulfate 
 or corrosive sublimate, after which a coat of asphaltum tree 
 paint or white lead is advisable to protect the tree against 
 decay and from the ravages of insects and diseases. When 
 small limbs and twigs are being headed, one should cut to 
 a lateral growth, otherwise the remaining stub dies and 
 decay follows. 
 
 The chances are that in old neglected orchards many 
 holes will be fovmd in the trunks of the trees where limbs 
 have been broken or cut off in years gone by, where decay 
 has set in. Very often trees may be saved if the decayed 
 wood is thoroughly cleaned out. Occasionally such cavi- 
 ties are filled with cement, care being taken that all water 
 and wet wood is removed first. As a general rule, such 
 treatment is not practicable. ' , 
 
 Pruning. 
 
 In shaping or pruning a tree after the dead wood has 
 been removed, a number of precautions should be borne in 
 mind. 
 
 A common mistake in renovation is to sacrifice much of 
 the fruiting area by removal of a large part of the top 
 with a view to bringing the head closer to the ground. 
 
Renovation of Old Orchards 287 
 
 It takes several years to develop fruiting wood and it may 
 be advisable to thin out rather than remove the already ex- 
 isting fruiting wood. 
 
 Very often, however, because of excessively high trees, 
 severe cutting back and thinning out of the remaining tops 
 is necessary. Even in such instances it is unwise to re- 
 move too large a portion of the fruiting wood, even though 
 such wood may be found, as it very often is, at the tips of 
 the larger branches. The orchardist should encourage 
 lateral growth, but should avoid the sacrifice of too great a 
 part of the fruiting area. It is usually advisable to dis- 
 tribute the heavy pruning over a period of several years in 
 order to preserve the balance between the roots and the 
 top, and to prevent sun-scald on the larger limbs through 
 exposure to direct sunlight. 
 
 It is important that the outer parts and tops of all 
 trees should be well thinned by working from the top 
 and tips of the branches downward. This provides for 
 penetration of sunlight and allows distribution of fruiting 
 wood throughout the entire tree. It is common to see a 
 grower start with the lower trunk limbs and prune severely 
 as far as he can reach conveniently, leaving the outer part 
 of the limbs to bear all the fruit. Ladders are almost in- 
 dispensable in thinning and heading back the tops. 
 
 Each limb should be treated somewhat as a separate tree. 
 Laterals should be thinned out and the remaining ones 
 spaced as on the trunk, special effort being made to bring 
 fruiting area nearer the ground. By thinning out the 
 brushy tops, water-sprouts may be encouraged farther 
 down on the main limbs. The following year the water- 
 sprouts should be thinned out to a distance of 18 to 24 
 inches apart and cut back severely so that they will throw 
 
288 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 out laterals and eventually lower the fruiting area. In 
 pruning water-sprouts, the leader should be cut slightly 
 less than its laterals, a safe proportion being to cut the 
 leader 35 per cent and the laterals about 50 per cent. 
 
 Although it is advisable to distribute the heavy prun- 
 ing over a period of three years, the orchardist should 
 bear in mind that the heavy cutting of one main branch 
 does not necessarily produce the vigor necessary for fruit- 
 ing on the remaining limbs. If one branch is pruned 
 heavily, the water-sprouts will come on that particular 
 limb and not on the others. Therefore, a general mod- 
 erate pruning throughout the top, with careful attention 
 given to thinning out the smaller fruiting wood, will serve 
 to encourage fruiting generally throughout the tree and to 
 afford an opportunity for converting water-sprouts into 
 new fruiting wood in the lower part of the tree. System- 
 atic pruning must be followed for a period of several years 
 if renovation is to be made effective. 
 
 Spraying. 
 
 After pruning the next step in renovation is thorough 
 spraying. Old trees are nearly always badly infested 
 with scale as well as with other insects and diseases. A 
 thorough application of lime-sulfur is a necessary clean-up 
 measure. After the dormant winter spray, the same regu- 
 lar spray program should be followed as is necessary in 
 commercial orchards of the region. It is particularly im- 
 portant in the case of old trees to have a tower on the 
 spray rig in order that the spray will reach the topmost 
 branches. The importance of spraying can not be em- 
 phasized too strongly as essential to the proper renova- 
 tion of the orchard. (See Chapter X.) 
 
Benowition of Old Orchards 289 
 
 Soil management. 
 
 Thorough cultivation is usually the first step in reno- 
 vation, although in x'^ome instances deep plowing may re- 
 sult in cutting off many of the feeding roots, especially 
 when an orchard has been in sod for some time and the 
 roots feed close to the surface. If the roots are too 
 greatly disturbed, the trees may be seriously weakened. 
 Thorough discing when possible is always safe and satis- 
 factory. Plowing is to be preferred if it can be done 
 without destroying too many of the roots. Early culti- 
 vation is best and should be performed as soon in the 
 spring as possible. After thoroughly working the soil, it 
 is very often advisable to sow a leguminous cover-crop 
 in order to supply humus and nitrogen when these two 
 essentials have become depleted. 
 
 In many instances inter-crops have been continuously 
 grown in old orchards with the result that the soil is de- 
 cidedly lacking in one or more elements of plant-food. 
 When available, liberal applications of barnyard manure, 
 from 10 to 18 tons to the acre, will aid in restoring soil 
 fertility. When the soil seems generally weak and de- 
 ficient, an application of complete commercial fertilizer, 
 consisting of 6 pounds nitrate of soda, 8 pounds acid 
 phosphate and 3 pounds muriate of potash to a tree, may 
 be considered a very liberal treatment. Fertilizer ex- 
 periments emphasize the efficiency of nitrate of soda used 
 alone. A 5-pound application of nitrate of soda will be 
 generally profitable on weak trees. When commercial 
 fertilizer is applied in conjunction with manure, the above 
 amounts to a tree may be cut to about half. 
 
 In summarizing, the three important steps in orchard 
 
290 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 renovation are: (1) careful pruning; (2) thorough spray- 
 ing; (3) thorough working of the soil with the possible 
 addition of commercial fertilizer. 
 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 HANDLING THE CROP 
 
 The handling of the crop includes the operations from 
 the time the fruit is ripe until it is put on the market. 
 Special care is necessary in picking and packing in order 
 that the apples may reach the market in good condition. 
 
 PICKING (plate XVIII ) 
 
 The time of picking varies greatly with the variety and 
 with the season. Other influences, such as age of trees and 
 cultural practices, may also affect the time of this opera- 
 tion. It is generally thought that fruit comes to maturity 
 earlier on older trees than on young ones ; also that apples 
 grown on sod land should be picked sooner than those in 
 cultivated orchards. As a rule, over-maturity is to be 
 feared more than immaturity, although both conditions 
 may be disastrous. Maturity in most instances means 
 hard ripe and not eating ripe. Since the time of picking 
 has so much to do with the keeping qualities of the fruit, 
 it is important that the ripening tendencies of each variety 
 be studied in every particular locality. The following 
 points should be taken into consideration in order to de- 
 termine the correct picking time for different varieties of 
 apples : 1. The ease with which the fruit separates from 
 the spur; 2. the red color; 3. size; 4. color of seeds; 5. 
 
 tendencies of certain varieties to drop. 
 
 291 
 
292 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 1. One of the most valuable guides in determining the 
 time of picking is the ease with which the apple separates 
 from the spur. Much damage can be done if the apples 
 are picked too soon, for in such circumstances the picker 
 will probably destroy or break off many fruit-spurs. 
 The grower must sacrifice size if the fruit separates readily 
 from the spur, otherwise he may suffer from heavy drop- 
 ping or over-maturity of the fruit. 
 
 2. In most cases, the amount of color is the grower's 
 guide in determining time of picking. In this connection 
 it should be remembered that in bright seasons the apples 
 have a tendency to color early and for that reason there is 
 the danger of picking too soon. In damp cloudy weather, 
 coloring may be checked and under such conditions there 
 is danger of waiting too long before harvesting. Very 
 often two pickings are advisable for such highly colored 
 varieties as Winesaps. If the better colored specimens 
 are harvested in the first picking, the remaining poorly 
 colored apples will benefit by greater exposure to the sun- 
 light. It must be remembered that an added picking rep- 
 resents a considerable expense warranted only in the case 
 of high quality crops, when the added color and size mean 
 a considerable increased price for the product. Investi- 
 gations ^ have revealed that in the case of red apples the 
 ground color which underlies the red color or blush is the 
 most reliable indication of maturity. In immature fruits 
 this color is green. Before the apples are ready to pick, 
 the ground color should have turned to a white or very 
 light yellow. The dark yellow ground color indicates 
 over-maturity. The very common mistake of leaving such 
 
 1 Bull. 587. U. S. Dept. Agr. 
 
Plate XVIII.— Shomnor method of picking practiced in Vir- 
 ginia, particularly in the Piedmont section where a crew of pickers 
 will commonly pick from a single tree. An inefficient method. 
 
m 
 
Handling the Crop 293 
 
 varieties as Jonathan and Esopus too long on the trees 
 results in a much shortened life for the fruit in storage. 
 
 3. For green varieties and particularly early green 
 apples, size is an important factor. The grower should 
 not wait for the yellow ground color, otherwise he will lose 
 through over-maturity of his fruit. If two pickings are 
 made, it will be found that the apples left on the tree 
 will quickly benefit in size by the removal of a portion of 
 the crop. It must be considered that size will vary accord- 
 ing to crop, age of trees, and season, so that no definite 
 idea of the proper size at which to pick can be given. 
 
 4. It has been recommended that apples should not be 
 picked until the seeds have turned brown. While the 
 color of the seeds may be taken as an indication of matu- 
 rity, it should not be considered as always reliable. The 
 seeds should always be brown before the apples are picked, 
 but the brown color of the seeds does not necessarily indi- 
 cate maturity. In other words, immature fruit may have 
 brown seeds. 
 
 5. Such varieties as Mcintosh, Wagener, and Tomp- 
 kins King tend to drop before maturity, and Stayman, 
 Wealthy and Grimes to drop badly with the wind. The 
 grower should watch these tendencies and should regard 
 heavy dropping as an indication of need for immediate 
 picking. 
 
 No other operation in the physical handling is more 
 essential to the life of the fruit than careful picking. 
 The pickers should be impressed with the importance of 
 preventing bruises, punctures or abrasions of the skin, 
 since such injuries permit the entrance of serious storage 
 decay. The fungi which cause most of the storage decay 
 can not injure sound fruit. Careless picking hands may 
 
294 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 pull off the friTit-spurs and seriously injure the tree in 
 climbing about or in carelessly manipulating the ladders. 
 Delays in picking and also delay before storage often in- 
 volve heavy loss. After the fruit has been picked, it 
 should be put in storage as soon as possible. Two or 
 three days' exposure to warm sun in the orchard after pick- 
 ing will cause the apples to ripen rapidly and the life of 
 the fruit will be materially shortened. Immediately 
 stored fruit is always brighter and firmer than that which 
 is left in the orchard for several days after picking. 
 
 Contract picking versus day labor. 
 
 In connection with the operation of picking, it is im- 
 portant to consider the contract system as compared with 
 day labor from the standpoint of efficiency and economy. 
 The principal objection to contract labor in picking is the 
 danger of careless handling of fruit when the picker tends 
 to sacrifice carefulness for speed. Most growers have 
 avoided contract picking, although the practice is gaining 
 somewhat in popularity in some regions, particularly ^ 
 where labor is . scarce. Cost producticta studies have re- 1 
 vealed that the contract picker working by the piece will . 
 pick on the average of at least 25 per cent more apples in a i 
 day than will the day laborer. If competent labor can ,' 
 be secured and carefully overseen, contract picking may 
 offer an opportunity for speed and considerable saving in 
 handling the crop. 
 
 PicJciv^ utensils. 
 
 Various types of picking utensils are in use and each 
 has its advantages and disadvantages. The canvas bag, 
 suspended by straps from the shoulder and opening at 
 
Handling the Crop 295 
 
 the bottom so that the apples may be rolled out into a 
 box or barrel, has become the most popular picking utensil 
 in the ]^sorthwest. Some criticism is voiced against the 
 picking-bag on account of the danger of bruising the fruit. 
 When the picker is climbing about on ladders, apples in a 
 bag may be knocked against the ladder or subjected to 
 more shaking or rolling about than if placed in pails. 
 The chief advantage of the picking-bag is that it leaves 
 both of the picker's hands free for picking. 
 
 A pail with a canvas bottom which may be opened in 
 emptying possesses some of the advantages of the bag and 
 may afford better protection for the fruit. The round 
 half-bushel basket is a very popular picking utensil 
 throughout the East and Middle West. Its value may be 
 enhanced by lining the sides with corrugated paper or 
 padding the' bottom to prevent bruising the fruit. Wire 
 hooks on the handles of pails or baskets will aid in the 
 hanging of these utensils on the ladder or tree. 
 
 If the picker is obliged to walk a considerable distance 
 to a sorting-table, as is the case where fruit is packed in 
 the orchard, a pail or basket is sometimes preferred to the 
 picking-bag, for in such instances the receptacles are filled 
 and left at the bottom of the tree to be carried later to the 
 packing-table. A waiter should be employed to carry the 
 fruit from the base of the tree to the orchard sorting-table, 
 since this workman will carry two or more baskets whereas 
 the picker will make the return trip with only one. AVhere 
 the crop is handled through the packing-house, receptacles 
 for the picked fruit should be distributed throughout the 
 orchard in order that the picker will not lose time in 
 emptying his bag or pail of fruit. In all cases, the picker 
 should be warned against allowing the fruit to drop into the 
 
296 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 box or onto the table with 
 sufficient force to cause se- 
 vere bruising. A low or- 
 chard wagon with springs 
 is recommended for haul- 
 ing receptacles of loose 
 fruit. (See Fig. 9.) 
 
 The pointed ladder is 
 the most efficient type for 
 picking in among the 
 branches since it can be 
 placed against a fork or 
 limb without injuring the 
 tree. Step-ladders with a 
 
 single prop are useful in picking from the outside limbs 
 
 or from small trees. 
 
 r^wr — "" wi^i wu^Pj i 
 
 FiG. 9. — Slatted crate used very 
 generally in the eastern states for 
 bringing apples from orchard to 
 paiking-house. 
 
 PACKING (plate XIx) 
 
 Since there are two somewhat divergent systems for 
 grading and packing the barreled and boxed apples, the 
 two general methods will be discussed separately. 
 Throughout the East and Middle West, much of the pack- 
 ing is done in the orchard although sheds are increasing 
 in number and popularity in nearly every commercial ap- 
 ple region. Western growers early showed a preference 
 for the packing-house, since very exacting labor and good 
 equipment are required in maintaining the high standard 
 of the boxed pack. 
 
 Sorting and packing harreled apples 
 
 Until recently most of the barreled apple crop was 
 packed in the orchard with the aid of portable packing 
 
Handling the Crop 397 
 
 equipment. The packing-shed is growing in popularity 
 throughout the East and Middle West, but many commer- 
 cial apple-growers still pack out their crop in the orchard, 
 and this operation, therefore, must be given separate treat- 
 ment. 
 
 Orchard packing. 
 
 When sorting and packing is done in the orchard, the 
 equipment usually consists of either a portable slatted 
 table or a canvas or burlap-top table. 
 
 Of the above two types, the slatted table is most com- 
 monly used. Very often these tables are equipped with 
 wheels in order that they may be moved about easily in 
 the orchard. The top of the average slatted sorting- 
 table tapers from three to four feet at one end to one to 
 two feet in width at the other end. The table also slopes 
 so that when the fruit is poured on at the wide end, it rolls 
 down past the sorters to the narrow end, and there is 
 lowered into the barrel by means of an apron. The upper 
 'end of the table top should be padded heavily to prevent 
 ■bruising of the fruit. Leaves and brush drop to the ground 
 as the apples roll down over the slatted top. Sorters 
 ■ stand at the side of the table, and when only one grade 
 "is being packed out, as is usually the case, they remove 
 ^only the culls and rots. When two grades are being 
 ^packed, the additional grade is picked out as the fruit 
 ^passes over the table, and is placed in barrels alongside 
 the sorter. The packer stands at the lower end of the 
 table and feeds the apples into previously faced barrels, at 
 the same time assuming part of the responsibility for the 
 ' grade. 
 I The slatted sorting-table is an example of cheap portable 
 
298 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 equipment, but in its use there is danger that inferior 
 fruit will crowd past the sorter. Although the slatted 
 table is widely employed throughout the East and Middle 
 West, it seems probable that its place will be taken more 
 and more by the mechanical sizer or burlap-top table. 
 
 Some barrel apple-growers, and particularly those in- 
 terested in a more careful pack, employ the canvas or 
 burlap-top table, which is usually about three feet high, 
 three feet wide and six or eight feet long. The apples are 
 emptied directly from the tree onto the top of the table. 
 Sorters then grade out the fruit, usually placing it in 
 baskets or receptacles according to its grade. Under this 
 system, two grades are ordinarily packed out, the culls 
 being thrown to one side in a pile or placed in separate 
 barrels. The packer stands behind the sorter and fills 
 previously faced barrels with the fruit according to its 
 grade. 
 
 The use of canvas or burlap-top table facilitates more 
 careful handling and sorting than the slatted-top table. 
 In the case of either, the picker usually carries his own 
 fruit directly to the table, although in some instances the 
 work of transferring fruit from the base of the tree to 
 the packing-table is done by additional workmen. As 
 previously pointed out, the latter system is more efficient. 
 
 Before discussing packing-house equipment, it should 
 be mentioned that portable sizing machines have been 
 used to some extent in orchard packing. 
 
 Packing-houses for barreled apples. 
 
 While orchard packing still predominates, the rapidly 
 increasing number of packing-houses throughout the bar- 
 rel apple states is a distinct sign of progress. Some ad- 
 
Handling the Crop 299 
 
 vantages of a packing-bouse are: (1) Centralization of 
 packing operations, no time being lost in moving equip- 
 ment about tbe orchard; (2) packing may continue unin- 
 terrupted during inclement weather; (3) improved sizers 
 and other labor-saving devices may bo installed econom- 
 ically; (4) packages for the fruit are kept cleaner than if 
 handled in the orchard. 
 
 The eastern apple-grower has come to rely on cold 
 storage rather than common storage in holding his crop 
 for any length of time. For this reason, common storage 
 in connection with packing plants is not recognized as 
 such an important feature as in the West. The grower 
 either sells his winter apples immediately or places them 
 in cold storage. Therefore, the packing-shed in the bar- 
 reled apple industry assumes more the nature of a shelter 
 for centralized packing operations. 
 
 Eastern and middle western apple packing-houses might 
 arbitrarily be classified in three groups: (1) Those pro- 
 viding a mere shelter for either the inclined slatted-top or 
 canvas-top sorting-tables; (2) those which not only pro- 
 vide shelter for the packing operation, but which have a 
 small sizing machine and possibly certain other labor-sav- 
 ing devices; (3) the large improved packing-shed with a 
 daily capacity of 300 to 1,200 barrels of apples. 
 
 In the third class are the larger and best equipped 
 mechanical sizers, fitted with conveyer belts, improved 
 bins and other equipment calculated to insure the greatest 
 speed and efficiency in handling the crop. With such 
 packing-houses, the fruit is usually delivered from the 
 orchard on to a receiving platform or possibly directly on 
 to a receiving belt which carries it past the sorters and 
 delivers it directly into the sizing mechanism. The 
 
300 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 sorters stand beside the conveyer and grade out the fruit 
 as it passes them. More improved sizers permit the grad- 
 ing and sizing of two and even three grades simultaneously. 
 The sorting is accomplished by dividing the grading belt 
 lengthwise with strips which serve as partitions to separate 
 the different grades. A separate set of bins is then re- 
 quired for each grade. 
 
 The machines now most commonly used throughout 
 the East size but a single grade, the fruit being sorted ac- 
 cording to one of the following two practices: (a) Only 
 culls and rots are removed, the remainder being allowed 
 to go into a single grade, in which case the smaller sizes 
 are packed out as No. 2's and the larger sizes, usually 
 from 2^ inches up, are called No. 1 ; or (b) not only are 
 culls removed but also a second grade based on quality, 
 the latter being diverted into a single bin without sizing. 
 The first grade then proceeds along the conveyer belt to 
 the sizing mechanism, the apples being delivered in bins 
 according to their respective sizes. 
 
 The growing tendency in the largest barreled apple dis- 
 tricts where careful grading is practiced, is to size the 
 first grade to quarter inch sizes. This makes a more at- 
 tractive pack than one in which all sizes above a stated 
 minimum are packed into the same barrel. In addition 
 to the advantage of increased attractiveness of pack, the 
 more exact sizing makes possible the handling of the fruit 
 through more bins, and in this way eliminates congestion 
 in any one bin. However, unless the volume of fruit 
 handled is great enough to keep several packers busy when 
 the apples are distributed among three or four bins, it is 
 not advisable to attempt such exact sizing. 
 
 In any of the above practices, the fruit is taken out of 
 
Handling the Crop 301 
 
 its respective bin and placed in previously faced barrels. 
 An additional workman then nails and stamps the barrel 
 and places it in a position ready to be loaded on the cars 
 or hauled to the shipping station. 
 
 Some desirable features for the packing-shed under east- 
 em and middle western conditions may be summed up as 
 follows: (1) It is highly desirable that the packing- 
 shed should be convenient to a railroad loading station. 
 In the case of community packing-sheds, it is always es- 
 sential that a site be selected where the fruit may be 
 loaded immediately on cars. In such cases, the roof 
 should slope to the back to permit of later additions to 
 the building. (2) Storage space should be provided for 
 empty barrels. This may be done conveniently by pro- 
 viding a loft overhead with chutes for delivering the bar- 
 rels to the packing-table. (3) It is highly important that 
 attention be given to proper lighting. Light shafts over 
 the sorting-table may be necessary. It is impossible to 
 sort and grade fruit properly in darkened rooms. (4) It 
 is usually advisable that larger packing-sheds be equipped 
 with mechanical sizers. (5) Storage space should be pro- 
 vided for loose fruit so that the packing operation may 
 continue for a day or more without continued supply from 
 the orchard. There should be storage also for one or more 
 days' run of packed apples so that it will be unnecessary to 
 ship odd lots of fruit. (6) An important point in pack- 
 ing-house arrangement is to provide a conveyer or some 
 means for preventing the culls from accumulating around 
 the packing-table. (7) A receiving platform should be 
 built at a convenient height for unloading fruit from 
 wagons. When mechanical sizers are used, it is advisable 
 to have the receiving platform at the same elevation as 
 
302 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 the sizing machine. This obviates the necessity of lifting 
 the fruit in -feeding the sizer. (8) In passing through 
 the different 'packing-honse operations, the fruit should 
 continue in the same general direction. (9) Ample floor 
 space should be provided. Congestion greatly slows up 
 packing operations. (10) A building more nearly square 
 is better than a long narrow structure. (11) Building on 
 a hillside may permit fruit to be unloaded and packed on 
 the second floor. Packed fruit may then be stored on the 
 first floor and hauled out from the lower side of the build- 
 ing, and all fruit can be lowered to the basement by chutes 
 or reverse elevators where it can accumulate without in- 
 terfering with operations about the packing-table. 
 
 Handling the western box apple crop 
 
 The packing-house, whether it be a rude shelter or an 
 elaborately equipped plant, is a recognized necessity in 
 handling the boxed apple crop. More exact grading and 
 sorting are required for boxed apples and this labor may 
 be performed best in the centralized packing-house to 
 which the fruit is drawn from the orchard. As stated 
 above, common storage space is very often combined with 
 the packing-shed, particularly in the case of the commu- 
 nity packing-house. In such instances, the packing- 
 house serves a double purpose. It provides space not only 
 for the necessary packing-house equipment, but also for 
 storing a large portion of either the loose or packed fruit. 
 It is generally estimated that the packing-house should 
 have storage for about one-third of its total output. In 
 regions where car shortage is likely to occur, this is a 
 good form of insurance. 
 
 There is a most decided drift to the community packing 
 
 
Handling the Crop 303 
 
 system in most western districts and under this plan, 
 large expensive packing-houses are practicable. The in- 
 dividual grower, however, commonly uses a lean-to shed 
 or small frame apple house frequently constructed with 
 a concrete basement. Enough space is usually provided 
 in the packing-house for storing a considerable quantity 
 of loose frait which may be packed out in inclement 
 weather. 
 
 Orchard carriers. 
 
 In the boxed apple regions, the orchardist usually dis- 
 tributes loose boxes under the trees throughout the or- 
 chard so that the picker is not obliged to carry the fruit 
 away from the base of the tree. Lug boxes, made of 
 heavier lumber and slightly larger than the ordinary apple 
 box, have met with some favor as orchard carriers. As a 
 matter of economy, however, the western grower ordinarily 
 prefers to use the standard northwest box as an orchard 
 carrier, later using the same box as a package for the 
 graded fruit. 
 
 Low-wheeled orchard wagons are employed in haul- 
 ing the loose boxes to the packing-shed. 
 
 Sorting and pacTcing the hoxed apples. 
 
 The operation of sorting is logically divided into sizing 
 and grading for color, quality and freedom from blemishes. 
 As has been stated, the barrel apple crop has thus far 
 largely been packed out according to grades based on 
 size, although in some regions distinction is made between 
 the first and second grade according to color and quality, 
 and freedom from blemishes. 
 
 In the West, three standard grades are recognized and 
 
304 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 are commonly spoken of as: (1) Extra Fancy, (2) 
 Fancy, and (3) C grade. Grading rules governing these 
 three grades vary slightly from year to year. In a gen- 
 eral way, however, only normal apples approaching physi- 
 cal perfection are specified as falling within the Extra 
 Fancy grade. Greater tolerance in the way of color re- 
 quirements and blemishes is permitted in the Fancy grade, 
 although the fruit must be perfectly sound and of a high 
 marketable quality. The " C " grade permits poorly 
 colored or slightly misshapen fruit which is still sound. 
 In the Pacific Northwest, all three grades are wrapped 
 with paper, the diagonal pack being used. 
 
 It is customary to hire sorters by the day while packing 
 is by the piece. In the inter-mountain regions including 
 the states of Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, all grades 
 are not wrapped. In these states, a jumble or face and fill 
 pack is common except in the case of Extra Fancy apples. 
 
 It is interesting to know that in the movement for 
 standardization of grades and packs, less attention is being 
 given to grading by size and more according to quality 
 and physical perfection. This is particularly applicable 
 to the Northwest where the size of apples is clearly indi- 
 cated by the number stamped on the outside of the box. 
 
 The mechanical sizer, although growing in popularity 
 and more widely used in the West than elsewhere, is not 
 universal among all box apple-growers. It is generally 
 felt that a mechanical sizer is only practicable when the 
 crop amounts to 10,000 boxes or more. Many western 
 growers still prefer to sort out their fruit from canvas or 
 burlap-top tables similar to those used in the East and 
 Middle West. Still others sort directly from the picking 
 boxes as they are drawn to the packing-house. When hand 
 
Handling the Crop 305 
 
 sorting is practiced, the sorters usually grade out the fruit 
 into tliree grades without regard to size, the sizing being 
 done by the packers. A long table with the sorters on one 
 side and the packers on the other has been found efficient 
 by many western growers. Others not infrequently size 
 and grade by hand from canvas conveyer belts. 
 
 Packing-house arrangement and operation. 
 
 As might be expected, efficiency is exceedingly import- 
 ant in western packing-houses, where the system of grad- 
 ing and handling is very intricate. In the larger packing- 
 houses of the West, conveyer belts and gravity conveyers 
 are commonly used in receiving the fruit from the wagon 
 and for moving the boxes about the warehouse or into 
 the car. 
 
 Gravity or belt conveyers eliminate much irksome labor 
 in lifting boxes. In the modern packing-houses of the 
 West, the boxes of loose fruit are imloaded from the wagon 
 upon conveyers and are quickly carried to any part of 
 the house desired. In moving the boxes about within the 
 house, conveyers are used in bringing the loose fruit to 
 the sizer and afterwards in carrying the packed boxes to 
 the car or into storage. In the smaller houses, waiters 
 are usually employed in carrying the fruit about the pack- 
 ing-house in order that the sorters and packers may con- 
 tinue their work uninterrupted. 
 
 When mechanical sizers are used, much the same system 
 of operation is followed as has been outlined for the pack- 
 ing-house with mechanical sizers under eastern conditions, 
 but it must be remembered, however, that many more sizes 
 are packed out in the case of boxed apples than with the 
 barrel pack. For this reason, a more elaborate system of 
 
306 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 bins and a more accurate sizing machine is necessary. In 
 most of the larger packing-sheds of the West, the main 
 floor is used for receiving the fruit and as the packing- 
 room. 
 
 The system of handling the loose fruit as it comes in 
 from the orchard is important. A receiving platform on 
 the north side of the house is convenient for storing the 
 fruit which is to be packed out immediately. Additional 
 storing space for the loose boxes should be provided on the 
 packing floor. All congestion tends to inefficiency. In- 
 creased needs should be anticipated. 
 
 An example of efficiency is seen in the large packing- 
 shed which is equipped with conveyer belts carrying the 
 loose boxes from the wagon directly to the sizing machine. 
 Sorters examine the apples and then pass them to the siz- 
 ing mechanism, and packers stationed at the bins imme- 
 diately pack the fruit. Carriers or conveyors bring empty 
 boxes to the packers and carry the packed boxes to the 
 nailer. The packed fruit is then nailed, stamped and 
 carried by conveyors either into storage or into the car for 
 shipment. The movement of fruit to the car is delayed 
 only by temporary storage as it is being fed into the sizer. 
 As emphasized before, it is important that the fruit con- 
 tinue in one direction when passing thi*ough the packing- 
 house. Careful attention should be given to the disposi- 
 tion of culls which are likely to cause congestion if left to 
 accumulate on the packing floor. Removing the culls to 
 elevated bins by conveying belts or allowing them to pass 
 by means of canvas chutes into the basement are two means 
 of solving this problem. The increasing value of cull 
 fruit makes it advisable that this part of the crop be 
 handled with great care to prevent unnecessary bruising. 
 
 

 Plate XIX. — Packing the fruit. 1. Well packed boxes of apples 
 showing different styles of packing used on large and small fruit. 
 2. Good example of ring tailing. 3. An excellent face made with 
 2%-inch apples. 4. Trucks have largely supplanted this method 
 of hauling packed boxes in the Wenatchee Valley. 
 
Handling the Crop 307 
 
 Mechanical sizer (Plate XX) 
 
 The sizing' machine has become such an important fac- 
 tor in the handling of both the commercial barreled and 
 boxed apple crop as to require separate treatment. It 
 seems apparent that this labor-saving device is destined to 
 play an increasingly important part in the handling of 
 commercial apples. The chief criticism offered against it 
 is the attending danger of careless handling, which is 
 being rapidly eliminated by greater mechanical perfec- 
 tion and judicious operation. One of the greatest ad- 
 vantages of the mechanical grader is sometimes over- 
 looked. It lies in the precision with which the fruit may 
 be handled. A machine properly fed insures a steady 
 flow of fruit through the packing-house. Shirking, wasted 
 or lost time becomes apparent at any delay. 
 
 There are two general types in mechanical sizers : Those 
 which size by weight and those which size by measure- 
 ment. The former type seems best adapted to the use of 
 the western growers, owing to the fact that boxed apples 
 must be closely sized. Machines of the second type are 
 more commonly used throughout the East where extreme 
 accuracy is not required. Sizing machines vary in size, 
 capacity, and price. The grower should insist on thor- 
 ough demonstration. Electricity is the most satisfactory 
 motive power in operating the larger machines, although 
 gasoline engines and even hand power are very often 
 employed with the smaller types. 
 
 The following points should be considered when pur- 
 chasing a sizing machine: (1) The capacity of the sizer 
 should be consistent with the amount of fruit to be handled. 
 (2) Simplicity of design should be sought as well as dur- 
 
308 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 ability. Extreme accuracy is not required in sizing 
 barreled apples as is the case with boxed apples. (3) The 
 sizing should be accomplished without bruising the fruit. 
 
 Community packing-houses 
 
 The community packing-house idea is gaining in popu- 
 larity and prominence, being a development of the cooper- 
 ative movement so important among finiit-growers. The 
 advantages of community packing-houses are numerous, 
 and yet this plan is feasible only under certain favorable 
 conditions. At the present time, most of the community 
 packing-houses are in the western apple regions. By 
 far the larger portion of the crop in such districts as Wen- 
 atchee is being packed out under the community plan. 
 This practice is gaining in western New York and in 
 many^ other regions, and promises to play an increasingly 
 important part in the efficient handling of the barrel apple 
 crop. 
 
 Some of the necessary conditions for the successful oper- 
 ation of community packing-houses are as follows: (1) 
 The plan is feasible only where more or less intensive 
 and centralized plantings occur. While instances have 
 been cited when fruit has been successfully hauled twenty 
 miles to a communuity packing-house, it seems highly 
 important that sufficient fruit be obtained within a radius 
 of about four miles. Twelve miles, over good roads, is 
 given as the maximum haul in the Pacific Northwest. 
 (2) One hundred cars is usually considered the minimum 
 which can be handled through a community packing-house 
 with the greatest economy. (3) Community packing- 
 houses should, scarcely without exception, be situated on a 
 railroad. (4) There must be a community spirit and 
 
Handling the Crop 309 
 
 willingness to cooperate among growers. (5) There 
 must be some uniformity in the character of the ::ruit 
 handled in order that there may be a common interest 
 among growers. 
 
 The following are some of the advantages in the com- 
 munity packing-house plan: (1) There is a possibility of 
 a greater standardization of grades. Apples packed up 
 under a single management will be more uniform in grade 
 than if packed under the direction of a dozen or more indi- 
 viduals. (2) Competent help may be attracted by longer 
 periods of employment. (3) By combining capital it 
 becomes possible for the growers to build modern packing 
 plants and equip them with all the labor-saving devices 
 without incurring too great overhead expense. (4) It 
 becomes economical to provide storage space as an insur- 
 ance against loss. (5) A saving of 3 to 5 cents a box and 
 10 to 15 cents a barrel is ordinarily effected in handling 
 the crop, particularly if supplies are purchased in quan- 
 tities for the members. (6) Community trucks may be 
 employed economically in hauling fruit to the packing- 
 house. (7) The grower may give his entire attention to 
 the packing operation instead of devoting his efforts to 
 finding a packing crew. 
 
 Methods of operating community packing-houses. 
 
 In most instances the grower hauls his fruit in loose 
 boxes or barrels to the community shed where it retains 
 the grower's identity during the packing operation. The 
 cost of packing is pro rated by the barrel or box among 
 the contributing members. Sufficient fruit must be 
 handled to warrant the employment of a competent man- 
 ager. 
 
310 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 An interesting plan Las been evolved and is being oper- 
 ated successfully in certain parts of the West. Under 
 this method the grower's fruit loses its identity, first 
 being weighed and credit being given for a certain arnouut 
 of fruit by weight. A sample is taken representing 3 to 5 
 per cent of each load and unbiased inspectors grade out 
 the sample to determine what percentage will fall within 
 the different grades. In this way, the grower of high- 
 grade fruit is protected and credited for his superior 
 product. The two principal advantages of this plan are 
 that it saves about one-third of the storage space in the 
 packing-house since each grower's fruit does not have to 
 be packed by itself, and the growers know immediately into 
 what grades their fruit will pack out. The chief disad- 
 vantages are that much depends on the sample and the 
 fruit may not pack out according to tests which causes 
 dissatisfaction among members. The tendency is to 
 examine fruit too critically. 
 
 PacMng-house construction. 
 
 Common storage plays such an important part in the 
 handling of the boxed apple crop that it should receive 
 separate, although necessarily brief, consideration in thisi 
 discussion. Very often and particularly under the com- 
 munity plan, the packing-house serves also as a common j 
 storage. It is a common practice in the Northwest to 
 pack the fruit on the main floor and store in the basement. 
 Occasionally only a portion of the building is insulated, 
 the remainder being used solely for the packing opera- 
 tions. In some instances, the packing-house is entirely 
 separate but adjoining a common storage. 
 
 In any event, it should be remembered that a room can- 
 
Handling the Crop 311 
 
 not serve as a common storage and at the same time be 
 i used for packing operations. Particularly is this true in 
 r the early fall when the day temperatures are high. At 
 this time of the year, all doors and openings should be kept 
 tightly closed during the day. It is even suggested that 
 the doors be opened to admit fruit only in the early morn- 
 ing. It is still better to open no doors but admit the boxes 
 through a small opening fitted with canvas flap, as can 
 ' be done if conveyers are used. 
 
 The hollow tile construction once so popular in the 
 
 ' Northwest is not entirely successful without other insul- 
 
 I ators. In laying such tile, it is impossible to make all 
 
 • joints perfect and for this reason the dead air space is 
 
 I lost. Cork is the most effective insulator but it is very 
 
 expensive. Eight inches of mill shavings used either in 
 
 frame or hollow tile construction is the most economical 
 
 ' and at the same time efficient insulator for the West. The 
 
 hollow tile has the advantage of being fire-proof. 
 
 Common storage has not been successful wnth fall var- 
 ieties such as the Jonathan, since their ripening period 
 occurs before nature's cooling temperatures are obtained. 
 Such varieties should be shipped immediately or placed 
 in cold storage. The Delicious deteriorates and the Spitz- 
 enburg tends to shrivel in common storage. On the other 
 hand, the Sta^-man, if stored unpacked, sometimes keeps 
 better in conunon than in cold storage on account of its 
 tendency to scald in the latter. A well constructed com- 
 mon storage, if properly operated, can bo safely used in 
 the Pacific Northwest for holding most late varieties until 
 February and some into March. 
 
 The following are some of the points to be kept in 
 mind when holding or operating a common storage: (1) 
 
313 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 The intake area should represent 1 per cent of the floor 
 space and the intake should occur below the false floor. 
 (2) Boxes may be piled six high if two or three feet air 
 space is left between the topmost box and the ceiling. (3) 
 Mill shavings tend to become wet and to rot out when used 
 in basement constructions. (4) Basement storage has 
 the advantage of being cheaper usually and more econom- 
 ical of ground since the packing-room is overhead. At 
 the same time, as stated above, mill shavings tend to rot 
 out and there is the extra labor in lifting fruit when it is 
 to be taken out of storage. (5) Eight inches of mill 
 shavings with one inch air space on either side is generally 
 recommended for the Pacitic Northwest. (6) Since the 
 success of common storage depends largely on ventilation, 
 attention must be given to the installation of false floors 
 and proper air intakes and outlets. 
 
 Bulk shipments 
 
 In discussing the handling of the apple crop, no refer- 
 ence has been made to bulk shipment. In the Middle 
 West, particularly in the Ozark and in the Missouri 
 regions, bulk shipments sometimes represent over one-half 
 of the crop. Ben Davis and Grimes lend themselves to 
 this method of handling. Bulk shipments are important 
 from Colorado and New Mexico. 
 
 In bulk handling, the apples are loaded loose into cars 
 previously bedded with straw. It should be remembered 
 that these apples are strictly commercial and enter into 
 competition with barreled stock. As might be expected, 
 there is little uniformity in the quality of the fruit mar- 
 keted in this way. There is an urgent need for standard- 
 ization along such lines. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 MARKETING AND STORAGE 
 
 Both distribution and marketing are of prime import- 
 ance in the commercial apple industry. It is not sufficient 
 that the apple-grower shall spray, prune and cultivate his 
 trees so that they will produce high-class fruit, but he 
 
 ' must familiarize himself with the best systems of market- 
 
 ' ing in order that his crop may be disposed of in the most 
 satisfactory manner. 
 
 Much has been said of the cooperative marketing system 
 for fruits. Little has been done in developing this system, 
 however, in the apple regions outside of the Pacific North- 
 
 1 west. The eastern and middle western growers handle 
 their production largely by consignment, through brokers, 
 or sell directly to cash buyers. The apple-grower employs 
 three common methods in disposing of his crop: (1) sell- 
 
 'ing on consignment; (2) selling packed or graded fruit 
 to cash buyers, or selling the entire crop in the orchard 
 to " lump " buyers ; (3) selling under a cooperative system. 
 
 [ 
 
 ! SELLING ON CONSIGNMENT 
 
 ^ Many growers have practiced consignment with entire 
 'satisfaction, although this method of marketing has been 
 
 the subject of some criticism. The personal element is 
 'the determining factor. There are commission firms of 
 
 the highest integrity whose services and expert knowledge 
 
 313 
 
314 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 of marketing can be made invaluable to the producer. A 
 grower should carefully investigate the standing of the 
 firm with which he proposes to deal. 
 
 Cash sales are desirable but in years of heavy produc- 
 tion and for the grower with miscellaneous and odd lot 
 shipments, consignment is sometimes the only alternative. 
 Not infrequently growers have established relations with 
 certain commission merchants and employ these same firms 
 year after year. 
 
 SEI.LING TO CASH BUYERS. 
 
 At present the cash buyer is the dominant figure in the 
 marketing of the commercial apple crop. The legitimate 
 cash buyer performs a necessary service in the distribution 
 of the commercial crop, lie buys for an established trade 
 and requires only a limited margin to insure a fair profit. 
 In most instances he is an experienced salesman, always 
 seeking to develop and open new markets. The cash buyer 
 is a figure of growing importance in the apple industry. 
 
 Much has been said with reference to the popular i 
 demand " direct to the consumer." The fact remains, [ 
 however, that the middle-man performs an important | 
 service in the distribution of any crop. It must be re- 
 membered, furthermore, that even the present cooperative | 
 selling organizations sell largely through brokers or to cash j 
 buyers on the market but operate in such circumstances 
 as to secure more consideration than individuals can com-l 
 mand. Buyers must have profits commensurate with the! 
 risk and sufiicient to cover their overhead, and if they lose 
 in one operation they quite naturally must receive suf- 
 ficient profit to make up for such losses. 
 
 The best and most satisfactory system for dealing with 
 
Marketing and Storage 315 
 
 the cash buyer is to sell a certain grade of a variety at a 
 cash price, f, o. b. the car. The importance of contracts 
 should be emphasized even in cash sales. Verbal contracts 
 permit much misconstruction and misunderstanding. It 
 is always important that definite specifications should be 
 drawn up as to the grade and variety of the fruit, time 
 of delivery and method of inspection. Much can be gained 
 by a thorough understanding between the buyer and the 
 seller. Contracts are particularly indispensable when 
 business operations are conducted at long range. 
 
 The lump-sum cash buyer. 
 
 Under this head is described the system of selling the 
 entire crop on the trees to a buyer who packs and grades 
 out the fruit, assuming entire risk in handling the crop. 
 In general such a system of marketing is very unsatisfac- 
 tory. It is obvious that the buyer's risk is necessarily 
 great and that he therefore must necessarily have a large 
 margin of profit. There is probably no other region in 
 which this system of marketing fruit is so widely prac- 
 ticed as in the Watsonville district or the Pajaro Valley of 
 California. Lump-sum buying strikes a blow at the com- 
 munity spirit by checking the development of a high 
 standard for the output of a region. 
 
 Tree-run cash buyer. 
 
 Throughout certain regions and particularly in western 
 Xew York, the tree-run buyer plays an important part in 
 the marketing of the apple crop. Under this system the 
 cash buyer offers a certain price a barrel for the grower's 
 entire crop, culls and cider stock sometimes excluded. 
 The buyer then grades and packs out the fruit. Growers 
 
316 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 of rather low-grade fruit are attracted to this system of 
 selling. However, the tree-run system of handling fruit 
 does not encourage the highest cultural methods and tends 
 to lower the grade of fruit produced. It should be dis- 
 couraged. 
 
 COOPERATIVE METHODS OF SELLING 
 
 Cooperative handling and marketing has been most 
 widely attempted in the western states, both in the distri- 
 bution of citrus and deciduous fruits. Confronted with 
 the problems of rapidly increasing production, extreme 
 distance from market and high land values, the western 
 fruit-grower has realized the precariousness of highly 
 specialized farming and has felt the need of organization 
 and cooperation more keenly than the eastern growers. 
 Heavy investment has made it impossible for him to turn 
 to other types of farming, and it has been in periods of 
 desperation when prices failed to meet the cost of pro- 
 duction that most comprehensive cooperative movements 
 have been inaugurated. It should not be understood that 
 failure has constantly followed in the foot-steps of the 
 western fruit-grower, for years of good prices and large 
 yields have brought excellent returns. The western 
 grower in many instances has devoted his entire capital to 
 the production of fruit. Naturally he resorts to every 
 means within his power to stabilize and organize the indus- 
 try on a profitable basis. When a period of low prices 
 prevails in the East or Middle West, the growers of these 
 regions having more diversified farms give less attention 
 to the growing and marketing of their apple crop and 
 more attention to their other enterprizes. 
 
 One of the largest cooperative fruit marketing organiza- 
 
MarTceiing and Storage 317 
 
 tions in the United States, known as the California Fruit 
 Growers' Exchange, was organized in 1905 for the purpose 
 of solving the complex marketing and distributing prob- 
 lems confronting the citrus-growers of southern California. 
 A similar organization exists among the Florida citrus- 
 growers and at present among the Georgia peach-growers. 
 Each of these organizations controls more than half of the 
 fruit production of its respective region. 
 
 It must not be understood that the apple industry is 
 exactly analogous with either the citrus or peach industry. 
 The citrus region of southern California is extremely 
 compact; the same is true of the Florida citrus district. 
 These two sections embrace comparatively few counties, 
 yet represent in production nearly the entire citrus crop 
 of the United States. The Georgia peaches are among the 
 first to reach the market and competition is limited largely 
 by the production from Texas, Oklahoma and Arkansas. 
 The apple crop which comes on the market at about the 
 same time from many regions represents a different 
 problem. 
 
 Cooperative handling of apples has played a very 
 important part in the industry of the western irrigated 
 sections, notably in the Grand Valley of Colorado, in the 
 Yakima, Wenatchee and Spokane valleys of Washington ; 
 in the Hood River Valley of Oregon and in certain dis- 
 tricts of Idaho. It has been difficult to follow the growth 
 and development of each of the many cooperative organiza- 
 tions in the Northwest. Some have persisted and enlarged 
 their scope, while others have been abandoned. Many 
 more have failed than have succeeded. Very few of the 
 cooperative marketing organizations which were operative 
 a few years ago are in existence to-day. There is always 
 
318 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 the inherent individualism of farmers as a class to be con- 
 sidered and also their strona; inclination toward inde- 
 pendent operation of their own business affairs. 
 
 There can be little argument advanced against coopera- 
 tion among fruit-grov/ers, the question being as to just 
 how far this cooperation will extend and what form it 
 will assume. The following are some of the necessary 
 elements for successful cooperative marketing: 
 
 (1) There must be a community spirit in the region 
 which will prompt growers to act cooperatively. 
 
 (2) There must be more or less compactness and con- 
 centration of planting. Growers operating scattering 
 orchards at a considerable distance from one another can 
 seldom be brought together under a cooperative plan. 
 There must be a sufficient quantity of fruit produced 
 within a more or less limited region, in order that the crop 
 may be handled economically under cooperation. Many 
 cooperative organizations have failed on account of excess- 
 ive overhead expense. 
 
 (3) A desirable membership must be secured. One 
 danger with newly organized associations is that in their 
 eagerness for new members they are likely to acquire a 
 quantity of undesirable fruit which must be handled by the 
 association. Rather than lose members and political 
 prestige, the management very often fails to enforce grad- 
 ing rules and thereby permits the low-grade fruit to deter- 
 mine the selling price. 
 
 In trying to bring too many growers under one associa- 
 tion, the organizers lose sight of the fact that only a small 
 percentage of the apple crop of the United States is pro- 
 duced in any one state or region. The advantage of 
 controlling a large percentage of the tonnage in any one 
 
Marketing and Storage 319 
 
 district is not to be questioned, but too great importance 
 should not be attached to large memberships, particularly 
 if thej are indiscriminately selected. From a practical 
 standpoint, the best organizations are those which have 
 gro\vn gradually in membership -and which have been 
 careful to exclude the grower of poor fruit. By having 
 only the cream of the output of any particular region, the 
 best returns are obtained for the growers. 
 
 (4) Distance from market is another important factor 
 which must be considered for successful cooperation. An 
 apple-grower situated close to market who has exception- 
 ally high quality fruit, for which he has built up a special 
 market, will be less inclined to abandon his special trade 
 for membership in an association. On the other hand, 
 growers in more remote regions have favored cooperation 
 since it sets up machinery to reli-eve them of the entire 
 problem of marketing their own fruit for which they have 
 neither the experience nor training. In addition, it en- 
 ables them to have personal representatives in distant 
 markets. 
 
 Form of organization for cooperative associations. 
 
 There are two general forms for organizing cooperative 
 associations: (1) stock corporation ; (2) non-stock system. 
 
 Of these the non-stock system is the better. Eather 
 than sell stock and maintain a private corporation which 
 may drift into the hands of a few of the largest stock- 
 holders, it is better that each contributing member should 
 cast a single vote in a purely non-profit or cooperative 
 society. The voting power under this system might be 
 made to vary according to the amount of fruit shipped, but 
 as a rule the one vote a member system is most satisfactory 
 
320 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 and equitable. In emphasizing the advantage of the non- 
 stock system, it should be stated that such organizations 
 enjoy special benefits under legislation fostering coopera- 
 tive effort among farmers. The activities of private stock 
 corporations may be curtailed by legislation designed to 
 prevent operations in restraint of trade. 
 
 Good business management is one of the prime prere- 
 quisites for the establishment of a successful cooperative 
 organization. It is obvious that a sufficiently large ton- 
 nage of fruit must be handled to warrant the employment 
 of an experienced and competent manager. The board of 
 directors should exercise supervisory powers and should be 
 thoroughly in touch with the business operation of the or- 
 ganization. Too often association managers have been se- 
 lected on account of their political activity rather than for 
 their training and experience in marketing fruit. It is 
 highly important that this manager should have ability as 
 a salesman ; otherwise the advantages of cooperative selling 
 may be lost. 
 
 Good business practices should be employed. A proper 
 accounting and auditing system should be installed and 
 those handling the funds should be bonded. It should be 
 possible for the directorate and management to know the 
 exact condition of the business at all times. 
 
 If a cooperative organization is to enjoy stability, its 
 members must be bound under a specified contract to sell 
 their fruit through the association. One-year contracts 
 are usually satisfactory, although they may be made for 
 a longer term. On joining the association, each member 
 should be required to sign a contract whereby he agrees to 
 sell his fruit through the association. This contract must 
 
Marketing and Storage 321 
 
 be legally binding. It is obvious that no well-organized 
 selling system can be developed unless the management 
 knows approximately the amount of tonnage which it will 
 be called on to handle. 
 
 Pooling. 
 
 The practice of pooling the fruit of different members 
 of an association and selling it under one brand has devel- 
 oped widely in the West. Uniformity in the quality of 
 the fruit in each pool is an absolute necessity to the suc- 
 cessful operation of such a system; otherwise the poor 
 fruit will bring down the price of the good and result in 
 dissatisfaction among members. In other words, the most 
 successful pools can only be brought about when the fruit 
 of the contributing members has been grown with similar 
 cultural methods and under similar climatic and soil 
 conditions. 
 
 The only criticism which may be brought against pool- 
 ing is that it may penalize the grower of exceptionally 
 fine fruit. This may be avoided, however, if careful grad- 
 ing rules are adopted and unbiased inspection is enforced. 
 Under a successfully operated pool, the grade of all fruit 
 may be raised rather than lowered, thus insuring the high- 
 est market price. Another distinct advantage under the 
 pooling system is in the protection which it affords an 
 individual grower against the sudden rise or fall in prices. 
 One shipment of fruit may be damaged in shipment, or 
 may be sold at a figure lower than later market prices. 
 This loss distributed over a large membership would not 
 be felt, but with an individual it might be disastrous. All 
 fruit cannot be placed on the market at the same time 
 
3*32 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 and in effecting successful distribution the association may 
 employ the pooling system very satisfactorily in securing 
 an average high price for its fruit. 
 
 The central packing-house which is playing so import- 
 ant a part in the cooperative handling and pooling of fruit 
 has been given separate treatment in Chapter XIV. 
 
 Purchase of supplies. 
 
 A most direct benefit to be derived from cooperative 
 organizations, and one which appeals very strongly to 
 growers, is the purchase of necessary supplies in large 
 quantities at low prices. This factor very often proves 
 the tie that holds the membership together in the face of 
 adversity, since it offers a concrete example of the advant- 
 age of dealing in quantities. Spray materials, boxes or 
 barrels, and all supplies necessary in the production and 
 marketing of apples, can very often be purchased in quan- 
 tity by the association at a great saving to its members. 
 In many instances these materials are advanced to the 
 grower in the form of credit, his crop having previously 
 been signed up with the association as security for such 
 advances. A double saving may result from the ability 
 of the association to buy materials on a cash basis and 
 extend credit to its members, by using their combined 
 security as a basis for lower interest rates on borrowed 
 capital than the individual might be obliged to pay. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION 
 
 Better distribution is the keynote in all successful mar- 
 keting efforts. The methods by which the grower gets 
 his fruit into commercial channels have already been dis- 
 cussed. In studying the machinery of distribution, there 
 
Marketing and Storage 323 
 
 are four fairly well defined factors: (1) The commission- 
 man; (2) the broker; (3) the carlot operator; (4) the 
 carlot distributor. 
 
 Commissicm-man. 
 
 The commission-man is usually allowed 5 to 10 per 
 cent of the gross sales for his services. His incentive for 
 making satisfactory returns is his desire for retaining the 
 business of his patron. As emphasized elsewhere, the suc- 
 cess of this system of marketing depends entirely on the 
 personal element. It is obvious that the commission mer- 
 chant must know in advance of the quantity of goods he 
 will be called on to handle. Therefore, if this method is 
 employed, arrangements should be made as far in advance 
 as possible. 
 
 The broker. 
 
 The legitimate apple broker is one of- the important 
 factors in the distribution of the commercial crop. His 
 function is to negotiate sales between dealers or between 
 growers and dealers. The commission-man handles the 
 consignment, keeps all accounts and deducts his commis- 
 sion. The broker does not handle the funds, but receives 
 a stipulated commission, say $10 to $15 a car for his 
 services. 
 
 Theoretically, the broker represents both the seller and 
 buyer. He is supposed to advise the seller as to general 
 marketing conditions, or in other words take the place of 
 a personal representative in the market. He is supposed 
 also to help in making equitable settlement in case of dis- 
 putes between contracting parties. The personal equation 
 enters very largely into this situation. The grower would 
 
324 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 do w?ll to inform himself as to the integrity of the firm 
 with which he proposes to deal, and by establishing rela- 
 tions with reliable firms be able to insure best results. 
 
 The usual method of procedure in dealing with the 
 broker is as follows: The seller having a carload of a 
 certain grade of a variety will advise his broker of the 
 fact and of the price which he desires. The broker will 
 undertake to place the car and if successful will communi- 
 cate with the seller, instructing him to forward the fruit. 
 This method of handling really amounts to an f, o. b. sale, 
 permission being given by the grower for inspection at 
 destination. In case of a misunderstanding over grades, 
 the broker is in a position to effect equitable settlement. 
 The grower bills his fruit to the broker or to the buyer, , 
 attaching a sight draft to the bill of lading which is sent 
 to a bank designated by the buyer. After inspection on' 
 arrival, the buyer lifts the draft through his banker,, 
 thereby effecting a direct settlement with the seller. 
 
 Carloi operator. 
 
 The carlot operator plays an important part in the 
 distribution of the commercial apple crop. He is usually 
 represented in important regions of production by cash 
 buyers, who contract fruit on his account. The carlot 
 operator may sell again in carload lots, may place the 
 fruit in storage on his own account or may distribute it to 
 the jobber or retailer. The amount of business handled by 
 carlot operators may vary from a very few cars to several 
 hundred or even thousands, depending somewhat on the 
 field for distribution. The carlot operator for a citj with 
 a more or less limited field may be able to distribute suc- 
 cessfully only a few cars. A large operator with head- 
 
 
Marheting and Storage 325 
 
 quarters in JSTew York City may distribute his purchases 
 all over the world. The carlot operator usually has a 
 certain trade built up in a given region and buys to supply' 
 this trade. His business resembles that of a wholesale 
 groceryman who carefully gauges the demands of his cus- 
 tomers and buys to fill their needs. 
 
 iCarlot distributors. 
 
 ^ In recent years, various forms of distributing agencies 
 -have been established for the purpose of accomplishing in 
 •a measure for the whole country what a broker or commis- 
 'Sion merchant does for his immediate city or vicinity. By 
 ■handling a large volume of business, such agencies are en- 
 abled to build up a competent sales organization at a fairly 
 •low overhead. Cooperative marketing associations or in- 
 'dividual growers frequently employ such selling agencies 
 ^usually on a flat fee, a package or occasionally on a per- 
 centage basis. For an additional charge the sales agency 
 sometimes does the necessary warehousing. 
 
 This type of sales service has many advantages. While 
 [^rowers or growers' organizations are usually obliged to 
 feign up their crop in advance of the season, they are given 
 ihe privilege of confirming or rejecting orders as secured 
 oy the selling agency. Not infrequently carlot distribu- 
 I ors help finance the crop by making advances to individual 
 growers during the growing season. 
 
 FIELD OF DISTRIBUTION 
 
 ''foreign markets. 
 
 The extension and development of foreign markets is a 
 )opular subject for consideration. The extent to which 
 his trade may be developed is of course largely a matter 
 
326 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 of conjecture. If the high quality apple approaches a 
 luxury for many persons of this country, it indeed repre- 
 sents a luxury for most foreign consumers. When trans- 
 portation, duty, insurance, interior freight and duty are 
 added to the original cost, the American apple can appeal 
 only to the well-to-do. Despite this, exportations to for- 
 eign markets in some years have approximated 10 per 
 cent of the total commercial apple crop of this country. 
 While the amount of export trade varies considerably wi^h 
 the size of the crop and with general marketing conditions, 
 a study of the figures indicates a very considerable normal 
 increase in exportation of fresh apples in the past ten 
 years. 
 
 The United Kingdom has always been the principal 
 export market, absorbing normally over 80 per cent of all 
 export trade. Australia and even oriental markets have 
 been studied more recently with the view to effecting 
 wider distribution of the apple crop. These latter markets 
 are as yet of little importance in comparison with the 
 heavy European demand. 
 
 Business relations at long range are sometimes unsatis- 
 factory. But if this difficulty may be overcome, export 
 fields are promising. If this country, with its abundance 
 of fresh food stuffs, can absorb over twenty million barrels 
 of commercial apples annually, it seems reasonable thati 
 foreign trade, particularly with thickly populated Euro- 
 pean countries, will afford an excellent outlet for at least 
 10 per cent or more of the total production. Such anf 
 outlet will always relieve the strain on local markets and! 
 will act as a safety valve for the excess supplies which 
 might otherwise glut domestic trade. ; 
 
 Barreled and boxed apples were in general about equally^ 
 
^fei^il 
 
 Plate XX. — Sizing and grading machines. Zipper, Sizing ma- 
 chine with diverging spiral rollers. Middle, This machine sizes 
 the fruit through cups which enlarge as the belt moves along. 
 Lower. Grading machine equipped with sizing belts made of linked 
 rings. A common type used in many sections. 
 
Marketing and Storage 327 
 
 represented in the export trade of the United States for 
 1919. Of the barreled apples, the Baldwin and Northern 
 Spy from New York and New England, York Imperial and 
 Ben Davis from the Shenandoah-Cumberland region and 
 Yellow Newtown or Albemarle Pippin from the Piedmont 
 of Virginia, have been the leading export varieties. Of 
 the western boxed apples. Yellow Newtown, Winesap, 
 Jonathan, Esopus and White Pearmain have been the most 
 prominent varieties for export. 
 
 Improved distribution within the United States. 
 
 The greatest opportunity in the field of distribution is 
 in the extension and development of domestic trade. 
 Attention has been called to the fact that the home orchards 
 generally throughout the United States have been dying 
 out and that the commercial industry is being centralized 
 in a few favored regions. The line of distinction between 
 commercial and non-commercial production is being more 
 closely drawn. The consumers are demanding a higher 
 class product and on being furnished with this are increas- 
 ing their demand. 
 
 Not many years ago before the installation of general 
 cold storage facilities, the trade in small towns and even 
 the larger cities was supplied from the cellar of the gen- 
 eral farmer who grew a few more apples in his home 
 orchard than he had need for. These orchards in most 
 instances have been going backward ; the trees are 
 nnsprayed, the fruit is inferior in quality and unattractive. 
 Consumers are coming to demand a better product. It is 
 in supplying the demand in these smaller towms and 
 cities that the commercial apple-grower will find the great- 
 est opportunity for better distribution. 
 
328 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 The secret of success in the distribution of the California 
 orange crop has been its sale in every cross-road village in 
 the country. The production and sale of oranges in recent 
 years has increased much more rapidly than has popula- 
 tion. By organized effort, wider distribution into the 
 smaller markets, the orange-growers have been marketing 
 a constantly increasing production. The same may he 
 accomplished by the apple-growers and shippers if they 
 will employ similar methods of advertisement and dis- 
 tribution. 
 
 Wliether the growers market their apples cooperatively, 
 through private brokers or by private sales service, there 
 must be campaigns of education and advertisement iu 
 order to effect distribution. The futility of trying to work 
 out broad comprehensive plans for distribution when each 
 grower or shipper acts independently is evident. Such 
 plans lend themselves best to cooperative effort. The bur- 
 den of expense incident to the working out of better plans 
 of distribution must be widely distributed in order that 
 it will not fall too heavily on any one individual. 
 
 The question of advertisement presents an interesting 
 field. Rotable examples of the establishment of brands 
 of commercial grades are seen in the efforts of different 
 associations in the Pacific Northwest. By assessing each 
 box sold under a given brand with a small charge for 
 advertisement, large sums are secured to carry out adver- 
 tising campaigns. By limiting the varieties sold under a 
 given brand to those of high dessert quality, by including: 
 only the highly desirable sizes and zealously enforcing 
 grading rules, shippers can develop a brand of superb 
 marketable quality. Whether such a system can be recom- 
 mended for general adoption remains to be seen. Such 
 
Marheting and Storage 339 
 
 advertisement has gone far in effecting better distribution 
 for the northwestern boxed apples. 
 
 Physical handling. 
 
 The same attention should be given to bettei physical 
 handling of apples as to better cultural methods. A 
 grower can not afford to devote his best energies in pro- 
 ducing high quality apples only to subject them to the 
 abuse of improper physical handling. The importance of 
 careful orchard practices with reference to picking and 
 
 ' packing and immediate storage have been emphasized. 
 In addition the apples must be transported in cars, must 
 be handled in and out of storage and in all of these opera- 
 tions much can be done to improve present methods. The 
 development of new types of refrigerator cars, improved 
 
 ^ methods of car loading and ventilation are of vital import- 
 ance to the apple-growers and shippers. 
 
 J GRADES AND STANDARDS 
 
 The movement for uniform grades and standards should 
 be considered by every apple-grower. Probably no other 
 phase of the marketing problem is receiving greater atten- 
 tion at this time than that of standard grade and pack, 
 i Certainly no other movement can do more in stabilizing the 
 apple industry. 
 
 It is generally agreed that the standardization of grade 
 and pack is a governmental function. There is, however, 
 ;a variance of opinion as to methods of enforcement. State 
 _and federal legislation has been formulated with the view 
 ^towards promulgating certain definite rules which shall 
 j-jpecify the character of fruit to be sold under established 
 
330 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 standard grades. These rules are intended to act as a 
 standard of measure, whereby the buyer may judge the 
 character and the contents of the closed package of apples. 
 In other words, the label on the package of apples is to 
 be made to tell the truth. The difficulties of promulgating, 
 a set of rules which will please every one or even a major- 
 ity is at the outset a difficult problem. Furthermore, oncel 
 promulgated it is exceedingly difficult to secure the enforce-j 
 ment of such a set of rules. 
 
 Standard ^package. 
 
 Obviously the first step in standardization is the estab- 
 lishment of uniform packages. This has already been 
 effected to a great extent by the adoption of the dual stand- 
 ard, i. e. the standard barrel and the standard box. Per- 
 sons are accustomed to think of commercial apples in 
 terms of barrels and boxes. In a geographic way, line of 
 distinction between barrel apple-producing areas and box 
 apple-producing areas has been closely drawn. For Col- 
 orado and states west, the box is the almost exclusive pack- 
 age, while for the eastern and middle western apple crop 
 the barrel is almost exclusively used. 
 
 From time to time different packages have been intro- 
 duced, but their popularity has been more or less tempor- 
 ary. Various crates have been recommended for western 
 low-grade apples and in certain seasons a considerable 
 portion of the New Yprk crop has moved out in bushel 
 baskets. The five-eighths-bushel hamper is very popular 
 in the early apple regions of New Jersey and Delaware. 
 In many ways the smaller package enjoys a distinct advant- 
 age, and while the barrel will probably remain the stand- 
 ard package for eastern and middle western apples, it is 
 
MarTceting and Storage 331 
 
 not improbable that the growers will find it advisable to 
 market a part of their crop in smaller packages in order 
 to attract the smaller purchaser. 
 
 The bulk handling of apples should receive separate 
 consideration. In normal years, at least half of the pro- 
 duction of the Ozark and the Missouri River region is sold 
 in bulk. Recently bulk handling has featured in the move- 
 ment of the apple crop from Colorado and Xew Mexico. 
 Middle western growers maintain that the bulk handling 
 of a certain grade of apples is an efficient system since 
 it enables them to sell a portion of their crop to a class 
 of trade which would otherwise be unable to buy commer- 
 cial apples. The middle western grower further main- 
 tains that after carefully bedding a car with straw, he is 
 able to load apples in bulk without severe bruising. It 
 must be remembered that this bulk movement from the 
 West is essentially competitive with the barreled crop. 
 
 Many state laws have been enacted looking towards the 
 establishment of uniform grades and standards for com- 
 mercial apples. For the most part, these laws are inac- 
 tive on account of lack of funds for their enforcement. 
 Washington has devoted as much effort along these lines 
 as probably any other state, unless it is New York. The 
 Washing-ton grading laws provide for an annual meeting of 
 '■ apple-growers, at which time uniform grade specifications 
 •are adopted for the ensuing year. In other words, no 
 ( hard and fast rules are laid down for a period of years and 
 'the specifications are subject to change each year at the 
 majority will of the growers. Obviously, a law which 
 would be applicable for all states, and furthermore which 
 acould be enforced, would have to be rather general. Such 
 ;a law, however, would tend to keep poorly graded fruit 
 
332 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 out of commercial channels and would, therefore, work to 
 the benefit of the strictly commercial growers in the highly 
 intensive regions. It is not criminal to grow low-grade 
 fruit, but such fruit should not be misbranded or should 
 not sell under false colors to the detriment of the producer 
 of high-grade apples. 
 
 The question of " facing " the barrel pack is one over 
 which much discussion has arisen. " Facing " refers to 
 the practice of placing select apples on the top layer in 
 order to give a good appearance to the pack. This does 
 not enter into the problem of box standards, since inspec- 
 tion may be made at the top, bottom, or side of the box. 
 While it may be legitimate to arrange the top layer so as 
 to give a neat appearance to the barrel pack, a real stand- 
 ard grading law would surely require the contents of the 
 barrel to be uniform. 
 
 The project of establishing uniform grades and stand- 
 ards enlists much active support and at the same time is 
 the subject of much controversy. Generally speaking, 
 every concerted move towards a standardization of grade 
 and pack will work to the benefit of the strictly commer- 
 cial apple-grower and will serve to make a closer distinc- 
 tion between the commercial and non-commercial crop. 
 For that reason every conscientious effort in working out 
 uniform grades and standards seems meritorious. 
 
 Inspection at point of origin. 
 
 Many prominent apple-growers are insistent on govern- 
 ment inspection at point of origin. A common reason 
 for low returns to the grower has been the poor condition 
 of the fruit at the time of its arrival at market. Further- 
 more, there are always changes in transport to be reckoned 
 
Marheting and Storage 333 
 
 with. Federal and state governments may be potent fac- 
 tors in controlling evils which exist under the present sys- 
 tem of fruit inspection. 
 
 Some apple-growers think inspection at point of origin 
 should entirely supplant that at the place of arrival. In 
 other words, it is maintained that all sales should be made 
 f. 0. b. and that the purchaser should assume the risk 
 after the apples have been shipped. While inspection at 
 point of origin is unquestionably a highly desirable step 
 and will go far toward better understanding between 
 grower and dealer^ it seems hardly probable that the buyer 
 will assume all risk incident to the transportation and 
 delivery of the fruit without a rather large margin com- 
 mensurate with the risk. 
 
 The report of an unbiased government inspector would 
 be of great value to any one interested in the purchase or 
 sale of apples. Such inspection at point of origin and 
 particularly at place of destination would establish the 
 damage, if any in transit, and would do much in effecting 
 satisfactory business dealings. If the shipper could be 
 reliably informed as to the exact condition in which his 
 fruit arrives at destination, it would materially aid in 
 studies affecting proper handling methods. 
 
 STORAGE 
 
 The storing of apples is intimately associated with prob- 
 lems of marketing and yet it is a subject of such complex- 
 ity as not to permit of complete treatment without thor- 
 ough scientific discussion involving the practice of storage- 
 house construction and methods of management. Only 
 brief consideration can be given to storage in this work, 
 however. 
 
334 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 The effects of improved storage have been far reaching. 
 It is obvious that a practice which will prolong the market- 
 ing period of any seasonal commodity will have a great 
 influence in its distribution. The possibility of storing 
 fruit has also had an important influence on our leading 
 commercial apple varieties. Formerly only a few of the 
 very late keeping sorts were available for distribution dur- 
 ing the late winter and early spring months. 
 
 Under the present system of handling through storage, 
 it is possible to prolong the life of more delicate and 
 higher quality varieties and in this way greatly stimulate 
 the demand for apples late in the season. The greater I 
 part of the commercial apple crop will always be placed i 
 in storage for periods of varying length and a general I 
 knowledge of the principles involved is of much import- , 
 ance. The difference between common and cold storage ! 
 is generally understood. The former method depends on » 
 natural atmospheric temperatures and the latter on arti- 
 ficial cooling. 
 
 Life processes of the apple do not cease at the time of 
 picking and it is important to retard these processes by 
 getting the fruit into storage with as little delay as possible. 
 A day or two of exposure to the warm sun may shorten 
 the life of the fruit very materially. Emphasis has 
 already been placed on the desirability of transferring the 
 fruit from the orchard to the packing-house as quickly 
 after picking as possible. 
 
 Local vs. distance storage. 
 
 Cold-storage plants were formerly situated near the 
 larger markets. In recent years, however, there has been 
 a growing tendency towards the establishment of cold- 
 
Marketing and Storage 335 
 
 storage plants in the regions of production. Storage at 
 the point of origin has one distinct advantage. By keep- 
 ing the fruit here the shipper or grower is not committed 
 to any particular market, but may hold his fruit or ship 
 to such market as he may see fit. By holding a portion of 
 the crop in regions of production, the strain on transporta- 
 tion facilities at harvest time is very materially reduced. 
 Storage for at least half the crop, particularly in areas of 
 large production, seems to be recognized as a necessary 
 provision. If the grov^^er or shipper has a well established 
 market, it is advisable for him to store his fruit in or 
 near that market rather than hold it at point of origin. 
 In this way his product is available for quick delivery 
 under favorable marketing conditions in quantities to meet 
 the demand and is not exposed to the dangers incident to 
 traffic. I 
 
 As stated above, cold-storage plants are for the most 
 part situated in the eastern states. Large plants are 
 located through western New York and provide excellent 
 facilities for handling the barreled crop of this region. 
 Here it is possible for the grower to haul his fruit imme- 
 diately to the cold storage. At the same time he enjoys the 
 advantage of being in close touch with the eastern market- 
 ing conditions. 
 
 Common storage. 
 
 Common storage has as yet played only a small part in 
 the handling of the eastern apple crop. In the Pacific 
 Northwest, however, this form predominates and is an 
 important factor in the handling of the crop from that 
 region. 
 
 No attempt will be made to discuss in detail the relative 
 
336 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 merits of different types of common storage construction. 
 The success in managing in the early fall depends on atten- 
 tion given to the opening of vents and doors during the 
 night and closing of them during the day. If the storage- 
 rooms are not kept separate from the packing-rooms, the 
 purpose of the cooling system is largely defeated. 
 
 Small storage plants on individual farms or in connec- 
 tion with community organizations are becoming more and 
 more common. By having separate rooms for packing or 
 using the basement only for storage, a combination pack- 
 ing- and storage-house may be constructed economically. 
 The grower may then feel greater sense of security in 
 knowing that he will have several weeks or even months in 
 which to dispose of his fruit. Common storage can never 
 supplant cold-storage and its efficiency will vary some- , 
 what with the season. As an economical and somewhat 
 more temporary method of prolonging the marketing pe- i 
 riod of commercial apples, it is serving an important need. 
 
 Handling and cultural methods as relating to storage. 
 
 There is a growing belief that general health and vigor 
 of the trees has a greater influence on the keeping qualities 
 of fruit than has been generally recognized. However, 
 the development of scalds and spots and the deterioration 
 in storage is most frequently traced back to over-maturity 
 or under-maturity or rough handling of the fruit. One 
 advantage in home storage is that the evidences of these 
 troubles may be brought home more forcibly to the grower. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN MARKETING 
 
 While the greatest effort in improving marketing condi- 
 tions has been exerted by the growers and shippers them- 
 
Marketing and Storage 337 
 
 selves, very important steps have been taken in this direc- 
 tion by various agencies in the United States Department 
 of Agriculture, notably the Bureau of Crop Estimates and 
 the Bureau of Markets. Certain phases of the market 
 ing problem, such as inspection, the issuance of crop fore- 
 casts and market reports, lend themselves best to govern- 
 mental agencies. It is impracticable for the individual or 
 even groups of individuals successfully to study all phases 
 of marketing V70rk. 
 
 Crop estimates. 
 
 The need for reliable crop forecasts is imperative if the 
 grower is to determine the price which he might reasonably 
 expect for his fruit. The perishability of the apple as 
 compared with more stable crops accentuates this need. It 
 is obvious that the government is best fitted to carry on 
 such investigations and can, by the issuance of reliable 
 forecasts, render an important service to the commercial 
 apple-grower. 
 
 Market and storage reports. 
 
 The second very important service which properly can 
 be rendered by a governmental agency is the issuance of 
 reports showing the distribution of the crop. By compre- 
 hensive investigation it is possible for the government to 
 issue reports showing the point of origin and destination 
 of each carload of commercial apples. Shippers and 
 growers alike will be enabled to use this information in 
 seeking out untouched markets. Since the keynote in 
 better marketing is the extension of distribution to small 
 towns and cities, it may be seen that the result of such 
 
338 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 investigation will be an invaluable guide to better distribu- 
 tion. 
 
 The value of unbiased market reports which will afford 
 the growers and shippers alike the benefit of telegraphic 
 news service as relating to the price and marketing condi- 
 tions of apples in the different centers is already recog- 
 nized. 
 
 COOPEEATION VS. INDIVIDUAL EFFORT 
 
 The government has at all times encouraged and fos- 
 tered cooperative spirit among growers. Despite this co- 
 operative effort, it must be recognized that by the issuance 
 and dissemination of reliable crop forecasts and reports, 
 and by its market news and inspection service, the govern- 
 ment is making the individual more independent and more 
 able to conduct his business than formerly. Just what 
 the effect of these divergent tendencies will be remains to 
 be seen. For the exceptional grower, the man with un- 
 usual business acumen, it may mean that he will be en- 
 abled to conduct his individual business independently to 
 his greatest satisfaction. On the whole, however, the bene- 
 fits of cooperation are not to be denied and will doubtless 
 continue to play an increasingly important part in mar- 
 keting. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 YIELDS 
 
 Good yields are absolutely essential to insure profit 
 from any orchard enterprise. The most detailed care may 
 be given to an orchard, but if it is made up of poor yield- 
 ing varieties or if the soil or climate is not suitable for 
 production, good care is only time and money wasted. 
 
 In the first place, it is important to secure good yielding 
 varieties. Most standard varieties of the present day 
 yield fairly well, but many new and untried yet widely 
 advertised sorts are very poor annual bearers. Ben Davis, 
 Baldwin, Winesap, Stayman, Jonathan, York, Rhode 
 Island Greening, and Rome Beauty are old and standard 
 varieties, the high yielding qualities of which are well 
 known. Yellow Newtown and Yellow Bellflower are 
 heavy bearing in certain sections, particularly in the 
 Watsonville district of California. In Virginia the light 
 bearing Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) and the 
 Arkansas (Black Twig) are not being planted as extens- 
 ively as the more prolific York Imperial and Stayman. 
 Among earlier varieties, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, 
 Gravenstein and Maiden Blush are classed as reliable 
 bearers. Yellow Transparent does well in some sections, 
 but yields light crops in other regions. Northern Spy 
 requires a score of years to come into profitable bearing, 
 while the famous Delicious, despite its many excellent 
 qualities, in some sections is only a moderate cropper. 
 
 339 
 
340 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 When trees of good yielding varieties are brought to 
 bearing age, careful record should be kept of annual yields, 
 particularly acre yields. One hundred barrels of commer- 
 cial fruit to the acre is a good average although trees well 
 cared for can often be made to average 200 barrels under 
 normal growing conditions. If an orchard is only 
 averaging from 50 to 100 barrels to the acre (many do not 
 average 50 barrels to the acre), care should be taken to 
 find out the limiting factor. Light yields may be due to 
 a lack of nitrogen or other element in the soil, to lack 
 of pollination, or to poor orchard management. Improper 
 pruning, thinning, spraying or soil management are as 
 often the cause of low yields as the variety of the trees, 
 the season or natural fertility of the soil. Many theories 
 are advanced relative to the development of fruit-buds 
 and fruiting wood, but it is difficult to generalize on this 
 subject. 
 
 Good orchard management is for the purpose of secur- 
 ing heavy yields and no study as to the cause of high or 
 low yields would be complete without a consideration of 
 practically every orchard operation. In analyzing the 
 cause of low yields, one should consider first soil fertility. 
 The growing of leguminous cover-crops or the application 
 of such fertilizers as nitrate of soda may be necessary to 
 maintain healthy normal growth of the trees. Thinning 
 will tend to stimulate annual bearing as well as greatly to 
 increase the amount of market quality fruit of any year. 
 
 Pruning should be considered in relation to its effect 
 on yields. Many advocate summer pruning for fruit. 
 Under certain conditions it probably stimulates fruit pro- 
 duction, but it has not met with wide favor generally. 
 Moderate annual pruning in the dormant season is the 
 
Yields 341 
 
 best practice. Thinning and fertilization are much 
 neglected and this accounts for many of the low yielding 
 orchards. Results are not secured by performing one 
 orchard operation thoroughly and neglecting another. 
 Proper pruning, spraying, thinning and an abundance of 
 available plant-food should insure large commercial crops 
 under normal conditions. 
 
 In studying yield, one should consider not only the per- 
 formances of individual trees or orchards in a given region, 
 but more particularly the average yield on well managed 
 orchards typical of the region. Soil fertility and good 
 orchard management do not entirely determine yields. 
 Unfavorable weather at blooming time occurs more fre- 
 quently in some regions than in others and very often 
 greatly reduces annual yields. There are certain areas, 
 particularly in the more mountainous parts of the country, 
 where on the average one crop out of every four or five 
 is wiped out or severely damaged by hail. It is easy to 
 understand how the profits of good crop years may be 
 almost wiped out by total failures in other years. 
 
 In the Wenatchee district of the Xorthwest, a total fruit 
 crop failure is unknown, while in regions like the Ozarks, 
 the Ohio Valley and the Missouri River region, Michigan 
 and in fact most eastern sections, very light crops and 
 even failures are not infrequent. Most of these failures 
 are due to frost damage, or to unfavorable weather at 
 blooming time which prevents pollination. The frequency 
 of light crops and failures is exceedingly important. 
 
 For a period of ten years, the Xorthwest has had an 
 average of nearly 80 per c6nt of a full apple crop, while 
 for the same period Missouri, Illinois and the middle 
 western states have had scarcely 50 per cent of an apple 
 
342 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 crop. Michigan, N^ew York and New England have 
 shown an average crop condition of about 5 to 10 per 
 cent higher than the Central West, while the crop condi- 
 tion in the Virginias has averaged 10 per cent higher 
 than that of New York. New Jersey and Delaware usu- 
 ally end the season with a condition of about 60 per cent, 
 or 25 per cent less than the Northwest. Thus it is seen 
 that the chances for a good crop are the greatest in the Far 
 West and are next in the middle Atlantic states, third in 
 New York and the northern states, and poorest in the 
 Central West. The low average crop condition in the 
 Central West is largely due to the damp and unfavorable 
 weather which often occurs during blooming time to pre- 
 vent pollination and a good set of fruit. 
 
 The following table refers to western New York condi- 
 tions and shows the average yield on about fifty commer-' 
 cial orchards in each county over a series of five to eight 
 years. Considerable care was taken in obtaining these 
 figures in order that they might accurately represent the 
 average performance of full bearing commercial orchards 
 in western New York. The table does not include yields 
 from unsprayed or neglected plantings, but represents the 
 production of those orchards which are being cared for. 
 It will be noted that Wayne County shows a larger per- 
 centage of cull fruit than any other. This is largely due 
 to the fact that Wayne County is the center of the dried 
 apple industry and much of its fruit which would ordi- 
 narily be barreled in other counties is used for drying 
 purposes. The portion of the crop used for by-products 
 varies considerably from year to year. 
 
Yields 
 
 Table XIV 
 
 343 
 
 Table Showing Average Annual Yield on the Bearing Com- 
 mercial Orchards of Western New York 
 
 
 Barreled Yield. 
 
 Cull Yield (Barrels). 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 total yield. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Per cent, of 
 total yield. 
 
 Wayne 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Monroe 
 
 Orleans 
 
 Niagara 
 
 Bbl, 
 73 
 93 
 
 85 
 87 
 81 
 84 
 
 % 
 67 
 79 
 78 
 77 
 79 
 76 
 
 Bbl. 
 37 
 24 
 24 
 
 27 
 22 
 27 
 
 % 
 33 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 21 
 
 All counties 
 
 24 
 
 The, average yield of apples of coinineTcial grade in 
 western ISTew York is 84 barrels to the acre, while in the 
 Wenatchee Valley of Washington it ^*s between 500 and 
 600 boxes of packed fruit (IfiS to 200 barrels). The 
 average yield for the Yakima Vallev is between 400 and 
 500 boxes while that for the Hood River Valley is between 
 250 and 400 boxes to the acre. The average yield in Idaho 
 is between 300 and 400 boxes to the acre. In good crop 
 years, the southern Idaho orchards yield nearly as well 
 as those in the high producing valleys in Washington. 
 However, Idaho's average is reduced on account of occa- 
 sional crop failures in years of frost-injury. Killing 
 frosts are not uncommon in New Mexico and Utah. 
 
 In comparing these yields with those of eastern orchards, 
 it should be remembered that the figures refer only to 
 marketable fruit and do not include culls, the percentage 
 of which is much lower in the ^Northwest than in most 
 eastern regions where orchards are not given such intensive 
 care. The average yield of 84 barrels to the acre for 
 western New York is more than that throughout the East. 
 
344 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Taking one year with another most of the middle western 
 orchards will not average over 50 barrels to the acre. 
 Michigan orchards bear about as well as those in western 
 ISTew York, while the Hudson Valley and New England 
 trees average somewhat less in annual production. Yields 
 in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and the Shenandoah region 
 compare favorably with those of western JSTew York, while 
 yields in the Piedmont of Virginia will average lighter, 
 due to the greater prevalence of unfavorable weather con- 
 ditions at blooming time and also to the fact that most 
 of the orchards are mountainous and cultivation is seldom 
 practiced. 
 
 One point to be remembered in comparing northwestern 
 yields with those of eastern orchards is that practically all 
 yield records of the ISTorthwest were taken on trees from 
 eight to fifteen years old, while in the East yield records 
 were from trees from twenty to forty years old. On the 
 other hand, there are about twice as many trees to the 
 acre in the Northwest as in western New York and in most 
 all other eastern regions with the exception of Delaware, 
 the Ohio Valley, the Piedmont district of Virginia and 
 Carolina and a few other limited regions where the trees 
 are either of early varieties or have not as yet attained 
 great size. Yields given for the Northwest, although for 
 comparatively young trees, are very nearly a maximum for 
 that region. As trees become older, some will necessarily 
 be pulled out on account of close planting. Furthermore, 
 under northwestern conditions trees attain full bearing at 
 about ten or twelve years. 
 
 The possibilities of any section may be determined by 
 searching out the most successful growers and securing a 
 
Yields 345 
 
 reliable record of yields in both good and bad years. Cer- 
 tain growers in western New York have harvested 200 to 
 300 barrels to the acre from their orchards for a series of 
 several years. Such high yielding orchards may be found 
 about Geneva, Brockport and other towns, but their num- 
 ber is very few. In the Wenatchee Valley a few growers 
 obtained as high an average as 1,000 boxes to the acre. 
 Such yields usually occurred on Rome Beauty or Ben 
 Davis orchards, however. The famous Watsonville dis- 
 trict of California is another section where annual yields 
 of 1,000 boxes to the acre are not uncommon on the heavy 
 redwood soils of the Pajaro> Valley. Orchards which 
 yield fruit in this amount in certain years are found 
 throughout the Middle West, but it is very seldom that 
 average yields approach this figure even in the most care- 
 fully cared for orchards. 
 
 In studying the yielding possibilities of any orchard, 
 the following points should be considered: 
 
 The size of the tree. — Relative size and vigor of the 
 tree for a given age indicates the time required for trees 
 to attain maturity in any given region. 
 
 Soil conditions. — The nature of the soil should be 
 noticed, whether or not it is heavy or light, weak or strong, 
 and how well it is adapted to tree growth and fruit pro- 
 duction. 
 
 The frequency of frost-injury. — Regions are often so 
 situated as to render them very susceptible to frost. Cer- 
 tain areas in nearly all sections are particularly suscept- 
 ible to frost damage. 
 
 Unfavorable conditions at blooming time. — Not only 
 frost but other unfavorable weather conditions often occur. 
 
346 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Cold wet weather which prevents pollination is largely re- 
 sponsible for low yield in certain sections. The history 
 of the region should be carefully noted in this regard. 
 
 Total crop failures. — The number of crop failures in 
 the last ten years in any locality should be carefully noted, 
 for" it is reasonable to assvime that a like number will 
 occur in the next ten years. This consideration is highly 
 important and will also serve to avoid the danger of draw- 
 ing too favorable conclusions from exceptional perform- 
 ances of orchards in any particular year. 
 
 Relative freedom from diseases and insect pests. — The 
 probability of scab or bitter-rot infection should be noted 
 or the presence of any destructive disease or insect which 
 may greatly cut down the crop even after the fruit has set 
 well. Bitter-rot sometimes injures crops in the Virginia 
 Piedmont district. Severe infestations of codlin-moth late 
 in the season often cut the crop in the dry or irrigated 
 western districts. Cedar-rust frequently does heavy dam- 
 age to the York Imperial crop of the Shenandoah Valley. 
 Apple-blotch often greatly injures the apple crop of the 
 Middle West, while the prevalence of apple-scab renders 
 the market quality of the apple crop of New York and 
 Michigan uncertain. Every region has certain troubles, 
 but it is well to be on the lookout for them and to note 
 the success with which they are being controlled. 
 
 The likelihood of hail damage. — Such regions as the 
 Piedmont of Virginia and to a lesser degree the Shenan- 
 doah-Cumberland district of Virginia, West Virginia, 
 Maryland and Pennsylvania are often visited by hail. 
 The same is true of the higher altitudes of Colorado and 
 other regions where fruit is grown at considerable alti- 
 tudes. Hail damage seems to be more prevalent through- 
 
Yields 347 
 
 out the apple regions of the South than in the northern 
 states. 
 
 Bearing tendencies of varieties common to the region. — 
 Varieties differ so markedly in bearing tendencies that 
 one should consider this factor before passing judgment 
 on any particular region. Often high quality varieties, 
 even though bearing lighter crops, are fully as profitable 
 as the heavier bearing varieties which are inferior in 
 market quality. 
 
 Average annual yield. — It is very important to rely on 
 an average yield and disregard acre or tree performances 
 in any particular year. Only averages of several com- 
 mercial orchards over a series of at least five years will 
 indicate the relative productivity of different regions. It 
 is best to select the naturally productive sections for it is 
 no more difficult to rise above the average in a high-yield- 
 ing region than it is in a naturally low-yielding one. 
 
 The importance of large yields is further brought out 
 under cost of production. 'Not only is the gross income 
 increased with larger yields but the cost of production a 
 barrel or box is greatly lowered. The average grower will 
 find his net profits greater if he will practice more intensive 
 methods of culture not counting the initial cost so much 
 as the net results. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 BY-PRODUCTS OF THE APPLE INDUSTRY 
 
 The by-product industry has been of great importance 
 for many years and has assumed added significance since 
 the advent of national prohibition. The apple leads ail 
 other fruits in popularity for by-products, the amount used 
 in 1919 exceeding 700,000 tons of green fruit. A large 
 proportion of this was made into vinegar and sweet cider 
 and about 150,000 tons of green fruit were dried, making 
 25,000 tons of dried fruit. Frequently nearly one-half 
 of the dried fruit is exported as compared to less than 
 one-tenth of the fresh fruit. 
 
 The by-product industry, on a commercial scale, has 
 recently assumed large proportions in the Northwest and 
 the Virginias. In former years it reached and still re- 
 tains its greatest importance in western New York and 
 Calif oruia. In northwest Arkansas also, the manufac- 
 ture of apple by-products is an important industry. Dried 
 apples within recent years have been in great demand. 
 The prices have risen several times those of a decade ago. 
 California to-day takes the lead in intensive apple drying. 
 About 10,000 tons were dried in the two counties of Santa 
 Cruz and Sonoma in 1919. This means that the green 
 apples used for this amounted to 60,000 or 70,000 tons or 
 nearly a million barrels. 
 
 In the East, Wayne County in western New York has 
 
 348 
 
By-Products of the Apple Industry 349 
 
 always been the center of the dried apple industry. 
 Many parts of the country are now taking up the dried 
 apple business and a large proportion of the total apple 
 production is being dried. In California, the Northwest, 
 Xew York, the Virginias and in Arkansas, the industry 
 is on a large commercial scale. The mountainous parts 
 of the southern states, particularly North Carolina, pro- 
 duce several hundred thousand pounds of dried apples 
 annually. In these states, they are sun-dried on the 
 small mountain farms, the apples being grown almost 
 wholly in old uncared for orchards. The Buckingham 
 apple has long been a favorite in Carolina for drying pur- 
 poses. Several varieties are used for drying in California 
 but the Yellow Bellflower leads all others. New York 
 dries the Baldwin and Ehode Island Greening. 
 
 Nearly all driers of the West are commercial, while in 
 the East the small home driers have long been adhered 
 to. Western l^ew York has several large commercial 
 driers but the great bulk of the Wayne County dried apple 
 production comes from the home driers of which this 
 county contains hundreds. 
 
 The by-products industry promises to put apple-growing 
 on a more staple and less speculative basis. Formerly, 
 the grower depended almost wholly on the price a barrel or 
 box of commercial fruit. At present if this price does 
 not warrant putting the apples up in packages or contain- 
 ers, they may be disposed of at by-product plants at a 
 profit. Prohibition has been the important factor de- 
 termining the 1919 increase in by-product uses and prices. 
 At the present time, about 20 per cent of the apple crop 
 of the United States goes to the by-product plant or is 
 made into cider. In California, almost 50 per cent of the 
 
350 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 total crop is dried, while in Wayne County, New York, 
 about 30 per cent is dried. Wenatchee and some of the 
 northwest districts, on account of their ability to produce 
 exceptionally high-grade fruit, send less than 10 per cent 
 to by-product factories. Arkansas, Colorado, many parts 
 of the Middle West, Virginia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
 New York and New England, will, no doubt, increase the 
 percentage of fruit sold for by-products. This will tend 
 to eliminate low-grade fruit from the market. The out- 
 look for the future is bright and the by-product industry 
 has not yet begun to attain full possibilities. It is only 
 within the last three or four years that it has been im- 
 portant or a factor in the apple industry of the Northwest. 
 It rose from a production of almost nothing five years ago 
 to 70,000 tons in 1919 in the state of Washington. Much 
 more detail might be entered into relative to this industry. 
 
 EVAPOEATOES 
 
 In this connection, a full description of all the different 
 types of evaporators cannot be undertaken and but little 
 more than mention can be made of the different designs 
 in use or in course of construction. In general, evapora- 
 tors may be placed in three classes: natural draft evap- 
 orators; forced draft evaporators; and distillation types, 
 including vacuum evaporators. 
 
 Natural draft evaporators. 
 
 Most of the fruit evaporators in use in New York and 
 other eastern states, in Oregon, Washington, and even in 
 California for the evaporation of apples, are of the natural 
 draft type. The driers of this group require no fan or 
 motor for operation ; any type of fuel may be used ; they 
 
By-Products of the Apple Industry 351 
 
 are simple in construction and operation and not expensive 
 to build or operate. They have survived the test of time 
 extremely well, although it would seem that; for Califomian 
 conditions at least, they may be replaced by the more 
 modern air blast types. Some of the natural draft evap- 
 orators are : 
 
 The kiln evaporator is commonly used in California and 
 the East. It is usually constructed in two stories. The 
 upper story houses the drying floor which is usually 20 
 feet by 20 feet and is made of narrow wooden strips with 
 y^ or % inch spaces left between them to permit passage 
 of hot air. Over the drying floor is a steep four-sided roof 
 which has at its apex a large ventilator for the escape of 
 the spent air. The prepared fruit is placed on the floor 
 and turned by a fork or scoop shovel during drying, a 
 practice which does not add to the appearance or cleanli- 
 ness of the product. The lower floor contains the heating 
 system. This consists of a wood, coal or oil-burning 
 furnace connected to a number of turns of large heating 
 pipes; usually the whole lower story is almost filled with 
 these pipes, giving a very large radiating surface with 
 consequent efiicient utilization of heat. The heated air 
 rises from the pipes through the floor grating and thus over 
 the fruit. 
 
 The stack or tower evaporator is the most commonly 
 used at Watsonville, California, where it is successful. 
 The trays of fruit are placed on run-ways in cabinets or 
 " stacks " above a fire-pit ; the trays being stacked one 
 above the other. The heated air rises directly through the 
 trays, in this way differing from the tunnel drier. The 
 bottom of each stack or chamber is open, while the top 
 consists of an inverted hopper connecting to the ventilator. 
 
352 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 There are many better types of evaporators and its use is 
 not strongly recommended. 
 
 Cabinet evaporator is heated by steam coils but other- 
 wise is very similar to the stack evaporator in construction 
 and operation. It has been used recently in New York 
 and Canada for vegetable and apple drying. 
 
 Ceramic oven. — The ordinary bake-oven principle has 
 been successfully applied in California. This type of 
 drier should permit of fuel economy as it is constructed 
 throughout of brick and fire brick. There is practically 
 no fire risk and radiation losses should be small. 
 
 Electrically heated driers. — Small evaporators for home 
 use have been designed in which an electric current passing 
 through resistance wires furnishes the necessary heat. 
 The drier is of the stack type. Except where electricity 
 is extremely cheap, it is doubtful whether such machines 
 would prove profitable, although a machine of recent de- 
 sign appears to have great possibilities. 
 
 Forced draft evaporators. 
 
 Most of the new driers on the market belong to this class. 
 The number of different forms is very great and is con- 
 stantly being added to. Their one common characteristic 
 is the forced air circulation. Outside of this one feature, 
 they are of almost every conceivable design. 
 
 Horizontal tunnel. — In general, this type consists of a 
 long chamber or tunnel resting on the ground with an air 
 heating system and fan so arranged that the heated air 
 may be blown or drawn over the trays. Usually the trays 
 are carried on trucks which enter the cooler end of the 
 tunnel and which leave the tunnel from the hotter end. 
 Great variation exists in the methods of heating the air. 
 
By-products of the Apple Industry 353 
 
 The older types used steam pipes, a system which permits 
 exact regulation of the temperature and permits also of 
 " boosting " the temperature of the air as it passes through 
 the tunnel. Those who have used both steam and direct 
 heat, however, prefer the latter because it is claimed to be 
 more economical of fuel. Some heating systems are very 
 similar to those used in the kiln, stack and tunnel types, 
 consisting of a sheet metal furnace attached to radiating 
 pipes, the air being heated by being drawn over the heated 
 metal surfaces. In another form of heater, the air is 
 forced through large pipes held in a fire-box much after 
 the fashion of boiler flues. The most interesting develop- 
 ment, however, is the use of the gases of combustion 
 directly in drying, thus doing away with all stack loss of 
 heat. Many machines, of difi:"erent designs, have recently 
 come to the attention of the public. At present, stove dis- 
 tillate, a more expensive fuel than crude oil, must be used 
 in this style of heating device to avoid bad odors, soot, and 
 the like. Whether the saving in fuel, therefore, counter- 
 balances the difference in price of distillate and of crude 
 oil is an open question. If it does not more than equal 
 this difference, the saving in fuel cost is more apparent 
 than real. 
 
 Stack type of air blast drier. — Some commercially built 
 evaporators consist of several stacks or tiers of trays placed 
 one above the other and hot air is forced upward through 
 and over the trays. Whether it is a more logical type than 
 the horizontal blast remains to be seen. 
 
 Continuous evaporators have been developed success- 
 fully for vegetable drying, soap chip drying, kelp drying, 
 and the like, but have not worked out well for fruits, be- 
 cause of the bruising of the fruit and its sticking to the 
 
354 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 belts or conveyers. Essentially, the drier consists of sev- 
 eral superimposed metal cloth conveyers or canvas belts 
 in a long tunnel. The material to be dried enters the 
 tunnel on the upper belt, traverses the length of the tunnel, 
 drops to the second belt, and so on until it may travel back 
 and forth five to seven times at such a speed that it emerges 
 from the lower belt dry. If such a machine could be built 
 successfully for fruits, it would doubtless greatly reduce 
 labor costs. It has possibilities and will bear further 
 study and development. 
 
 Distillation types of evaporators. 
 
 In these evaporators the water is distilled from the fruit 
 and the vapors are condensed. 
 
 Atmospheric pressure machines. — In this type the drier 
 is not placed under a vacuum but is, however, rather 
 tightly closed to the outside air. In one form the fruit 
 travels on belts over steam coils. The heat from the coils 
 drives the moisture from the fruit. The vapor passes 
 over water-cooled pipes and is condensed, giving an area of 
 reduced pressure toward which the vapors continually 
 flow. In another type the air and gases of combustion 
 from a furnace heat the fruit and carry the moisture to 
 condensers. This evaporator is really a combination of 
 the distillation and air blast forms. 
 
 Vacuum driers. — Insofar as quality of dried product is 
 concerned, the vacuum drier is in a class by itself. No 
 other drier compares with it in its ability to produce dried 
 fruits of fresh flavor, color and aroma. There are two 
 reasons for this, one being the practical absence of air in 
 the vacuum drier, a fact which accounts for lack of oxida- 
 tion, and a second reason for its superiority is the low 
 
By-Products of the Apple Industry 355 
 
 temperature of drying. Temperatures of 100 to 120 de- 
 grees Fahrenheit may be used successfully and rapid evap- 
 oration obtained. In its commercial form, the drier usu- 
 ally consists of a strong boiler plate chamber with shelves 
 for trays and fitted with steam pipes. To this chamber is 
 connected a vacuum pump and vapor condenser. The 
 air is removed by the pump, the water is driven from the 
 fruit by the steam pipes and is condensed in the spray or 
 other form of condenser. A continuous vacuum drier has 
 recently been built and is a most remarkable machine. 
 Vacuum driers possess great possibilities, probably more 
 than any other evaporator in use, but have not been gen- 
 erally adopted because of their high cost. When such a 
 machine can be produced at a moderate price, it will revo- 
 lutionize present ideas of evaporation. 
 
 CANNING, JELLY MANUFACTURING 
 
 The canning apple industry has only recently attained 
 considerable importance. This phase of the by-product 
 business is growing very rapidly in the Shenandoah dis- 
 trict of Virginia and West Virginia and in Adams County, 
 Pennsylvania. Considerable apples are also canned in 
 New England, the Middle West and in New York. The 
 Northwest has also taken up the canning industry, but in 
 California, apple by-products are still limited largely to 
 dried fruit. In various parts of the country, advantage 
 has been taken of existing breweries or distilleries in con- 
 verting them into canning or cider plants. Most of the 
 work in the big canning plants is done by machinery, al- 
 though it is usually necessary to have the fruit gone over 
 last by hand help in order to detect bits of core or pieces of 
 skin left near the calyx or stem. The process of canning 
 
356 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 is much the same as in the case of other fruits and it is 
 impossible to enter into detail here. 
 
 Apple jelly is now being manufactured on a consider- 
 able commercial scale. It is often made by adding sugar 
 to cider, 100 pounds of cider with 20 pounds of sugar mak- 
 ing about 40 pounds of jelly. The refuse from cider and 
 vinegar mills or apple pomace is often employed for mak- 
 ing jelly, the pectin found in this apple pomace being the 
 ingredient used. All kinds of fancy and concentrated by- 
 products are made from apples and the scope and uses of 
 these various apple by-products promises to enlarge greatly. 
 
 CIDER AND VINEGAR 
 
 Cider and vinegar manufacture still absorb most of the 
 apples used for by-products. Enormous quantities are 
 annually made into cider both in the large commercial 
 cider mills and in the smaller mills in the non-commercial 
 regions. Large vinegar plants with storage capacity for 
 millions of gallons have been established in Virginia, 
 West Virginia, New York, New England, the Central 
 West and the Northwest. Considerable difficulty has been 
 encountered with the prohibition law in the manufacture 
 and sale of cider, but it seems fairly certain that rulings 
 will be obtained which will always permit the manufac- 
 ture of sweet cider. In some of the large cider and vine- 
 gar plants where double presses are used, an average of 
 over 9 gallons of cider to 100 pounds of apples is obtained. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 COST OF PRODUCTION 
 
 Those regions which are able to produce and market 
 apples at the lowest relative cost will survive the keenest 
 competition. Every grower instinctively endeavors to put 
 his fruit on the market as economically as possible, yet 
 only a very few keep accounts of sufficient accuracy to 
 arrive at even an approximation of their actual cost of 
 production. If the individual grower is unable to give 
 accurate cost production figures, it becomes apparent that 
 the relative cost of producing apples in different regions 
 can only be obtained by detailed and thorough study of 
 the items and operations. 
 
 It was the privilege of the authors to study the cost of 
 producing apples in eight of the leading apple states of 
 this country. In the course of this study, extending 
 through several seasons, hundreds of detailed orchard sur- 
 vey records were taken, covering every item and operation 
 which would influence cost of production. It required 
 only a brief study to determine the lack of attention which 
 this important subject was receiving at the hands of the 
 average grower. Many growers would starve under their 
 present lax methods of management if they were wholly 
 dependent on apples, or were it a case of clean-cut com- 
 petition with the survival of the fittest. 
 
 The manufacturer can not long survive if he does not 
 give close attention to production costs. He must not only 
 
 357 
 
358 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 know the total cost of production, but also the various ^ 
 items of which it is comprised. Only by knowing these 
 can he be prepared intelligently to lower his cost items. 
 The same principle applies to the apple-grower. 
 
 An important point in such a study is to determine 
 which operations are profitable and which are not. A 
 grower should not attempt to lower his costs blindly. He 
 must be thoroughly acquainted with the various items of 
 expense in order that in attempting to lower cost he will 
 not cut corners in the wrong direction and thereby lower 
 production. To neglect fertilizing, thinning, spraying or 
 such important operations would be a case of lowering 
 cost in the wrong direction. It would usually pay to 
 spend more on some of these operations in order to increase 
 production, and thereby lower cost of production a unit. 
 It is merely a case of spending wisely. Those who argue 
 against the necessity of knowing the various costs of pro- 
 duction do so through selfish motives or through ignor- 
 ance. 
 
 The survival of any fruit district depends on its ability 
 to produce fruit in competition with other sections. Cer- 
 tain regions by virtue of their extremely favorable location 
 with respect to soil, climate and economic conditions, are 
 firmly established and will always remain prominent in 
 the commercial apple industry. Other regions lacking 
 some of the necessary qualifications can never succeed. 
 In a third class are the marginal districts which lack some 
 of the more desirable qualifications, and yet which in cer- 
 tain years compare very favorably with the best regions. 
 For example, a locality subject to frost might in some 
 years produce a very profitable crop and yet over a period 
 
Cost of Production 359 
 
 of years the crop failures would greatly reduce the average 
 returns. 
 
 In considering the marginal regions it is necessary to 
 recognize that in a period of low prices they will be the 
 first to suffer in the process of elimination. 
 
 Only systematic and careful analysis of the factors en- 
 tering into and influencing the cost of production will 
 indicate which region will survive and which will fail. 
 Growers have made profitable returns on orchard land at 
 $1,000 to $2,000 an acre in some regions, while others have 
 failed on $100 land in other places. 
 
 Cost production varies not only among regions, but 
 among individual growers of the same district. It has 
 been found that it costs some growers 50 per cent more a 
 barrel or box to harvest their crop than it does their more 
 alert neighbors. Some operations, such as spraying, thin- 
 ning and proper soil management, are exceedingly profit- 
 able within certain limits. Without reliable information, 
 the grower can not tell what operations are paying him 
 best on the investment. Often the most expensive opera- 
 tions are the most profitable. 
 
 Cost production figures reveal the regions which are 
 best adapted to the commercial production of apples, em- 
 phasize the value and relative importance of different cul- 
 tural methods, show the size of orchard which the grower 
 can operate most economically, indicate the most profitable 
 varieties, and in short reveal all of the best principles in 
 orchard selection and management. 
 
 The factors which enter into the cost of production are 
 divided into labor costs and costs other than labor. 
 
 The labor costs include both man and horse labor and are 
 
360 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 further subdivided into maintenance, or growing labor 
 costs, and handling labor cost. The growing cost includes 
 all the labor required up until the time the apples are 
 ready to pick, while the handling cost includes the labor 
 of picking, packing, and the like, until the apples are put 
 in storage or on board car. 
 
 Costs other than labor take in material and fixed costs. 
 Material costs include manure, spray material, fertilizer, 
 cover-crop seed, barrels, boxes, and the like. The fixed 
 costs comprise all overhead charges, such as interest on 
 investment, taxes, the orchard's share of insurance, inter- 
 est, depreciation on equipment, and apple buildings. 
 
 Of these main groups of costs, the labor is most likely 
 to be the limiting factor in successful production. Fixed 
 costs are particularly important in the Northwest on 
 account of high land values. 
 
 The various cost items comprising labor, material, and 
 fixed costs are enumerated in Table XV. 
 
 Table XV. — Cost Items in Apple Production 
 
 Labor Costs 
 
 Costs Other Than Labor 
 
 Maintenance 
 
 Handling 
 
 Material 
 
 Fixed 
 
 Manuring 
 Pruning 
 
 Disposal of brush 
 Plowing 
 Cultivating 
 Sowing mulch crop 
 Handling mulch 
 
 crop 
 Propping 
 Thinning 
 Spraying 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Picking 
 
 Hauling barrels 
 and shooks 
 
 Hauling to pack- 
 ing-house 
 
 Packing 
 
 Sorting 
 
 Foreman 
 
 Nailing or head- 
 ing 
 
 Other packing- 
 house labor 
 
 Haul to station 
 
 Fertilizer 
 Manure 
 Spray material 
 Box or barrel 
 Labels, paper, etc. 
 
 Taxes 
 Insurance 
 Equipment charge 
 Apple house depre- 
 ciation 
 Interest 
 Water rent 
 
 It is not enough merely to learn the cost items, but one 
 should go further and study the influences which determine 
 
Cost of Production ' 361 
 
 them. Such factors as availability and kind of labor, 
 location as to soil, climate, transportation, size of orchard, 
 size and type of farm, varieties and most of all yields, 
 directly influence costs. These are to be particularly con- 
 sidered before they become established in any given re- 
 gion, for once fixed the growers may find it impossible to 
 overcome them should they be unfavorable. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF YIELDS 
 
 Yield is the all-important item in determining the cost 
 production a unit. The subject of yields has been given 
 separate treatment elsewhere (see Chapter XVI) but is 
 of such great importance as to require particular empha- 
 sis. A yield of 200 barrels an acre means much more 
 profit a barrel than a yield of 100 barrels an acre. Thus 
 there is a large gain, not only in profit to the acre, but 
 in profit a barrel or box as well. This factor is over- 
 looked by most growers. Otherwise more effort would be 
 expended in increasing the yield of commercial fruit in 
 many orchards. It is vastly more profitable to have a 
 yield of 200 barrels to the acre on a ten-acre orchard than 
 100 barrels to an acre on a twenty-acre orchard. No 
 grower, and especially the beginner, should attempt to 
 handle more acreage than he can take sufficient care of to 
 insure a good yield. 
 
 The importance of a high yield is shov^ni in the accom- 
 panying table which applies to Hood Eiver, Oregon. 
 
 It is seen from Table XVI that the acre cost varies 
 directly with the yield while the box cost varies inversely. 
 For instance, in the case of orchards with a yield of 440 
 boxes to the acre, there is an acre cost of $412.98 or $.938 
 a box, while with orchards with a yield of 115 boxes, the 
 
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Cost of Production 363 
 
 acre cost is only $223.58, but there is an exceedingly high 
 cost of $1.94 a box. In other words, the lowest yielding 
 orchards have an acre cost of $189.40, less than the highest 
 yielding ones, but a box cost of $1,006 more. A saving 
 of $1.00 a box is not only secured by the highest yield, 
 but the profits are swelled since this saving of $1.00 a box 
 applies to 440 boxes an acre instead of 115. By compar- 
 ing the yield in boxes in the first column with the total 
 cost a box in the last, the importance of yields is most 
 forcibly brought out. 
 
 Attention has been drawn to the fact that with yields 
 averaging 440 boxes an acre, apples are produced in Hood 
 River at a cost of $1,006 a box less than when the yields 
 were only 115 boxes an acre. The handling and material 
 costs for boxes, and the like, increased almost directly with 
 the yield, so there is little saving on a box in these items. 
 However, in the maintenance costs such as pruning, spray- 
 ing, thinning, and in the fixed costs such as interest on 
 investment, the greatest saving a box is effected for fixed 
 costs an acre, remain practically the same for all yields. 
 
 In figuring cost of production, so much must be allowed 
 for interest on investment. If an orchardist has an in- 
 vestment of $1,000 an acre, interest on that amount at 7 
 per cent would be $70.00 an acre a year. This cost dis- 
 tributed over 440 boxes would be about 16 cents a box; 
 distributed over 115 boxes an acre this cost would amount 
 to about 61 cents a box. As seen from the above, the fixed 
 costs are the group in which the greatest saving is effected 
 by increased yields. Tixed costs such as interest on in- 
 vestment are too often ignored or overlooked by growers 
 who do not realize that these items very often determine 
 the success or failure of an orchard enterprise. The fixed 
 
364 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 or overhead cost an acre once established can only be met 
 successfully by increased yields. 
 
 Returning to maintenance, it is found that these costs 
 are generally somewhat higher an acre in the high yield- 
 ing than in the low yielding orchards due to more thorough 
 work, although it is obvious that a dormant spray on a 
 low yielding orchard is about as expensive as that on a 
 productive planting. The maintenance costs on the high- 
 est yielding orchards in Hood Eiver were only $18.00 more 
 an acre than on the lowest ones, and yet the saving a box in 
 the case of the former on account of increased yields rep- 
 resented 300 per cent when figured on the box basis. 
 The foregoing principles, although demonstrated by ex- 
 amples from Hood River, Oregon, are applicable to all 
 regions of the United States, whether producing boxed or 
 barreled apples. They demonstrate how and why yields 
 are the all important factor in successfully lowering cost of 
 production. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF SIZE OF OECHABD 
 
 The size of the orchard is another important factor in 
 determining cost. Given the same acre yield, the larger 
 the acreage the less the cost of production a imit. Inves- 
 tigations have shown, however, that beyond a certain 
 acreage the yield decreases more rapidly than does the 
 acre cost of production, thereby making the cost a box 
 or barrel higher than in the small orchards. In other 
 words, the decrease in the maintenance, fixed and material 
 cost an acre is often more than offset by the decrease in 
 yield. 
 
 In Table XVII, which refers to Hood River, a slight in- 
 crease is seen in cost a box as the size of the orchard in- 
 
Cost of Production 365 
 
 Table XVII. — Effect of Size of Orchard on Cost a Box 
 
 
 Yield. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 
 An Acre. 
 
 A Box. 
 
 5 and under 
 
 406 
 331 
 306 
 
 284 
 
 $458 
 381 
 369 
 340 
 
 $1.13 
 1.15 
 1.21 
 1.20 
 
 5 to 10 inc 
 
 10 to 20 inc 
 
 20 and over 
 
 
 creases, which is due to the yield decreasing as the size of 
 the orchard increases. It is obvious, however, that with 
 the same yield to the acre in the larger orchards, the cost 
 a box would be very much less. 
 
 In this connection it should be stated that in certain sec- 
 tions the economic unit of orchards which can safely be 
 managed is much larger, but in every district there is an 
 economic unit beyond which nine growers out of ten do 
 not make as great a success as the small grower. From 
 investigations in western New York, the economic unit 
 would seem to be from fifteen to twenty acres when the 
 orchard is connected with diversified farming. There are 
 many successful and very progressive growers operating 
 large acreages, but these are specialists as a rule. Theo- 
 retically, the larger the orchard the larger the profit, but 
 this does not always work out in practice. Many growers 
 have failed in the apple business because they have figured 
 that a large acreage fairly well cared for would produce 
 
 ' more apples and yield more profit than a smaller acreage 
 more intensively looked after and yielding larger annual 
 crops. The most profitable sized orchard, from the stand- 
 
 I point of cost of production, will vary widely in different 
 regions. It is probably the smallest in the irrigated sec- 
 tions of the Northwest and the largest in such regions as 
 
366 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Virginia. The size should be determined very largely by 
 a study of the most successful orchards in any particular 
 community. When tractors are used, the orchards should 
 be larger. 
 
 Attention must be given to the prevailing system of or- 
 chard operation, to the average annual yields of the region, 
 and to the availability of labor. It is obvious under irri- 
 gated conditions when trees make rapid growth, when the 
 yields are heavy and when such operations as irrigation, 
 thinning and the like are intensively practiced, that 
 smaller acreages are advisable. Probably twenty to 
 twenty-five acres is the best size under such conditions. 
 
 Western JSTew York growers have found that a bearing 
 orchard of twelve to twenty-five acres fits in well with their 
 system of diversified farming. Virginia apple-growers, 
 less given to diversification, find thirty to forty acres an 
 economic unit, and many succeed with much larger units. 
 It is only the exceptional grower with large working capital 
 and keen business ability who can handle successfully a 
 very large acreage. 
 
 EFFECT OF SIZE AND TYPE OF FAEM 
 
 The size of the orchard in relation to its effect on cost 
 of production has been discussed, but very often the or- 
 chard is only one part of a more or less general farm. 
 The size and type of the general farm may reduce profits 
 from the apple orchard by taking away labor at critical 
 seasons, or may increase profits by supplying labor at a low 
 cost. A general farm may insure diversification and a 
 continuous employment and profitable distribution of 
 labor throughout the season. This is largely a problem in 
 farm management. 
 
Cost of Production 
 
 367 
 
 An interesting chart has been prepared showing the 
 average distribution of man and horse labor on an acre of 
 bearing orchard throughout the season under intensive 
 treatment (Fig. 10). 
 
 MONTHS 
 
 HORSE. HOURS 
 10 20 
 
 MAN HOURS 1 
 
 SO 1.0 30 40 SO eo 10 so so 100 no | 
 
 JAN. 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 FEB. 
 
 ■ 
 
 ^■^B 
 
 
 
 MAR. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^a^m 
 
 
 
 APR. 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 MAY 
 
 ■^B 
 
 ■■■■ 
 
 
 
 JUN 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ■^■^ 
 
 
 
 JUL. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^1^ 
 
 
 
 AUG 
 
 SEP. 
 
 OCT. 
 
 NOV. 
 
 ■ 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 DEC. 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 Fig. 10. — Showing seasonal distribution of man and horse labor 
 on the average bearing orchard in irrigated regions. 
 
 In specialized apple-growing, there are always long 
 periods of enforced idleness for both man and horse labor, 
 but particularly the latter. If plenty of day help is avail- 
 able at reasonable rates, this labor distribution is not so 
 necessary, but when help is hired by the month, i is of 
 vital importance. If one were certain of high fruit prices 
 at all times, the small, intensified, specialized farm would 
 be justifiable and even advisable, for in such cases a high 
 quality of fruit is usually produced. However, there has 
 to be a provision for the periods of low prices and this can 
 best be met by diversification. That most fruit-farms in 
 
368 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 the Northwest are small and intensive has been due to the 
 system of land development. Cost of production in this 
 region is only kept within bounds by high average annual 
 yields. The farms of the East are more diversified and 
 with the same yield as in the Northwest orchards the cost 
 of production is very much less, due not only to a less fixed 
 cost an acre, but to a lower maintenance cost and a more 
 seasonable distribution of labor. It should be added, how- 
 ever, that very rarely do the yields in eastern orchards 
 equal those to the acre from the intensified irrigated or- 
 chards of the West. 
 
 The size, type and diversification of the farm will de- 
 pend largely on the initial cost of the land, the adaptability 
 of other profitable crops, and acreage which has proved to 
 be the best economic unit in any particular community. 
 Conditions vary so widely in different districts that no 
 specific recommendations can be made. However, the ex- 
 perience of a community may always be depended on. 
 In every established community there are certain growers 
 or farmers Avhose success and methods stand out above 
 those of their neighbors. It is well to study the secret of 
 their success in farm management. Care should be taken 
 not to be misled by the very unusual or exceptional farm 
 which employs radically different methods. A particular 
 farm may be successful, either through the extraordinary 
 ability of its owner or through peculiar local conditions of 
 labor and transportation, or on account of a special mar- 
 ket. This success may not always be duplicated. 
 
 Under eastern conditions, it is usually better to depend 
 on a fair-sized farm, and endeavor to bring it above the 
 average, than to count on a very small acreage cultivated 
 intensively or on a very large acreage which requires 
 
Cost of Production 369 
 
 skilled farm managerial ability when its size exceeds that 
 of the economic unit. The prospective buyer or settler 
 should always take into consideration the community prac- 
 tice and the existing economic conditions before investing 
 large sums and plunging into a method of farm manage- 
 ment and organization wholly foreign to that region. 
 Such undertakings sometimes succeed, but in most cases 
 they have failed on account of the growers' inability to 
 gauge conditions from a practical instead of a theoretical 
 standpoint. Diversification is generally recommended in 
 lowering cost of production, but it should not be prac- 
 ticed to the neglect of the orchard. Under neglect the or- 
 chard usually ceases to be commercial and is separated 
 from the realm of commercial fruit-growing. 
 
 EFFECT OF CLIMATE AND SOIL ON COST OF PEODUCTION 
 
 The cost of production is affected by climate and soil 
 insofar as these factors determine the yield and quality of 
 fruit and govern cultural methods. In humid climates 
 the cost of spraying is usually greater, on account of 
 fungous troubles. In arid climates, however, there is the 
 added cost of irrigation. Some soils are easily cultivated 
 and adapted to tree growth. Others are poor in plant- 
 food and difficult of cultivation. Soil has such a very 
 direct bearing on yield that it is well to study the yield on 
 different soils. Only average yields should be considered. 
 For example, when the average yield an acre of fifty com- 
 mercial orchards in one district is fifty barrels below that 
 of a similar number of commercial orchards in another 
 district, it is usually safe to assume that this difference is 
 due to soil. Often this may be overcome by scientific and 
 intelligent treatment, although no other test is quite so 
 
370 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 indicative of the adaptibility of apples to any certain re- 
 gion as the average yield. It is not more difficult to rise 
 above the average in a naturally high yielding community 
 than in a low yielding one, and the grower ordinarily 
 would better strive to improve a good soil than to build 
 up a poor one. The question of soil influences cost of pro- 
 duction so greatly as to warrant the most careful consider- 
 ation. 
 
 Climate determines in a broad way where apples may 
 be grown. Apples are confined to the temperate zone. 
 In the United States, the irrigated valleys of the North- 
 west, the northern states, and the higher portion of the 
 southern states are best adapted, and yet throughout these 
 regions frost does enormous damage to the apple crop every 
 year. There are certain favored sections which frost sel- 
 dom damages, such as the Wenatchee Valley of Washing- 
 ton and certain limited sections in the East. Freedom 
 from frost damage means greater annual yields and con- 
 sequently more profit and less cost of production. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF VARIETIES 
 
 Varieties influence cost of production, inasmuch as some 
 are more easily grown than others, and there is a wide dif- 
 ference in yield in orchards of the same age and under 
 like conditions of management. Such varieties as Esopus, 
 Arkansas Black, Winter Banana and Newtown are more 
 costly to grow and produce than Ben Davis, Winesap, 
 Baldwin, Greening and York. Ben Davis, although one 
 of the lowest priced apples in the market, is one of the 
 heaviest yielders and is no doubt generally produced at a 
 lower cost than any other commercial apple. The follow- 
 ing table shows the relative cost of production a unit of bar- 
 
Cost of Production 
 
 371 
 
 rel or box of various commercial varieties. It is based on 
 cost production studies conducted in the leading apple 
 states : 
 
 Table XVIII. — Cost of Production a Fnit or Barrel or Box 
 
 High Cost. 
 
 1. Tompkins King 
 
 2. Mcintosh 
 
 3. Yellow Newtown 
 
 4. Arkansas 
 
 5. Winter Banana 
 
 6. Esopus (Spitzen- 
 
 burg) 
 
 7. Northern Spy 
 
 8. Grimes 
 
 9. White Pearmain 
 
 10. Gilliflower 
 
 11. Lady Apple 
 
 12. Bonum 
 
 Medium Cost. 
 
 1. Hubbardston 
 
 2. Fameuse 
 
 3. Winesap 
 
 4. Stayman 
 
 5. Black Twig 
 
 6. Baldwin 
 
 7. R. I. Greening 
 
 8. Gravenstein 
 
 9. Jonathan 
 
 10. Delicious 
 
 11. Maiden Blush 
 
 12. Missouri Pippin 
 
 Low Cost. 
 
 1. Ben Davis 
 
 2. York Imperial 
 
 3. Rome Beauty 
 
 4. Tolman Sweet 
 
 5. Limbertwig 
 
 6. Yates 
 
 7. Yellow Bellflower 
 
 8. Duchess 
 
 9. Wealthy 
 
 10. Fallawater 
 
 11. Smith's Cider 
 
 12. Willow Twig 
 
 Most of the varieties included under high cost of pro- 
 duction are of high quality. Most of them are produced 
 only in limited quantities, due either to the inherent deli- 
 cacy of the trees or their light yielding tendencies. All 
 command a high price in the market. 
 
 All those given under medium cost are widely grown 
 and are generally good yielders. The column under low 
 cost includes many highly important commercial varieties, 
 but most of these are of low dessert quality. It seems 
 to be a rule that, in general, the low dessert quality apples 
 are the highest producers and consequently the lowest in 
 cost of production, while the high quality apples are high- 
 est in cost of production and lowest in yield. It will be 
 noted that there are exceptions to this in all the columns 
 and in the case of some varieties that are not recorded. 
 Many of the high cost varieties are late bearers. 
 
372 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 ACCESSIBILITY TO MARKET 
 
 Distance and accessibility to shipping point are factors 
 which have an important bearing on the cost of produc- 
 tion. For example, in many sections of Virginia and Car- 
 olina, apples are produced fairly cheap on the trees, but a 
 long haul, often of ten to twenty miles over rough roads, 
 adds very materially to the cost of delivery, f. o. b. ship- 
 ping point. Not infrequently a charge of forty or more 
 cents a barrel must be made to cover the cost of hauling 
 apples to the railroad station. Usually such orchards are 
 situated on low-priced land and have a low overhead 
 charge or fixed cost. For comparison, in Hood River, 
 Oregon, the fixed cost is practically $.31 a box, or $.93 a 
 barrel, while in the mountains of Virginia and Carolina 
 the fixed cost is often not more than one-tenth of this 
 amount. 
 
 While cost of production usually includes only the cost 
 f . o. b. at loading station, to this figure should also be added 
 the cost of delivering the fruit to the consuming markets 
 in order properly to compare one region with another. j 
 
 COST OF MATERIALS ! 
 
 \ 
 
 The cost of materials is one of the direct factors to be \ 
 considered in cost production. The material cost, how- i 
 ever, does not vary greatly in different regions and there- | 
 fore is scarcely a limiting factor. It is important to rec- | 
 ognize, however, that the price of spray material, fertili- li 
 zer, barrels and boxes may be lowered materially by 
 cooperation and judicious purchasing. Examples in low- |- 
 ering the costs by these methods may be found in the apple |- 
 districts of the Northwest. 
 
Cost of Production 373 
 
 LABOR AND COST PKODUCTIOiN" 
 
 Farm and orchard labor varies greatly in the different 
 sections of the country with respect to its efficiency, intelli- 
 gence, and the rate of wage paid. While daily wage rates 
 may be high, they may be more economical in the end, due 
 to greater efficiency. The following table shows the 
 amount of apples which the average laborer picks in a full 
 working day in several of the leading fruit regions. This 
 refers to day labor unless otherwise stated. In the fall of 
 1919, however, picking by the box system came into use 
 in the ^N^orthwest and many under this system averaged 
 150 boxes a day. Picking by the box, however, is not 
 always satisfactory as it promotes carelessness and conse- 
 quent damage to the quality of the fruit. 
 
 Table XIX. — Amount of Apples Picked in One Day 
 
 Yakima, Washington 60 loose boxes, 20 barrels. 
 
 Wenatchee, Washington 75 " " 25 " 
 
 Hood River, Oregon 60 " '^ 20 '^ 
 
 Watsonville, California 54 " " 17 
 
 Western Colorado 57 " " 19 " 
 
 Western New York (day labor) 20 " 
 
 Western New York ( contract labor by barrel ) 25 " 
 
 Piedmont District of Virginia 10 " 
 
 Southern Ohio 11 " 
 
 The orchards in the Piedmont district of Virginia are 
 usually on hillsides and for that reason picking is more 
 difficult. Furthermore, the question of yields is involved. 
 However, it may be seen from the above that it is not im- 
 possible for cheap labor to be the most expensive. There 
 is as much complaint over labor costs in the South as in 
 any other part of the country. In regions of general 
 farming, labor is usually cheaper than in specialized sec- 
 tions since it can be employed profitably for a longer 
 
374 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 season. General farming permits the emplojonent of 
 month labor at a lower wage than must be paid for day 
 labor. On the other hand, labor in general farming com- 
 munities is not likely to be as skilled as where apple-grow- 
 ing is the most important industry. The efficiency of 
 labor is an important factor in the cost of production. 
 
 ORCHARD MAINTENANCE 
 
 Labor is the most important item in orchard mainte- 
 nance, which involves such operations as pruning, culti- 
 vating, thinning and spraying. It will be seen from the: 
 following table that maintenance labor costs vary widely 
 in different regions according to the intensity of the cul- 
 tural practices. 
 
 Table XX 
 Maintenance Labor Cost in Seven Important Apple Regions i 
 
 Region. 
 
 Hours per Acre. 
 
 Cost 1 
 of 
 
 Packed 
 Yield 
 
 
 
 Man. 
 
 Horse. 
 
 labor. 
 
 acre. 
 
 77 
 
 63 
 
 $49.70 
 
 252 bu. 
 
 214 
 
 91 
 
 134.30 
 
 432 bx. 
 
 230 
 
 96 
 
 143.80 
 
 593 " 
 
 142 
 
 82 
 
 88.51 
 
 320 " 
 
 177 
 
 72 
 
 110.10 
 
 337 " 
 
 161 
 
 76 
 
 103.30 
 
 284 " 
 
 89 
 
 54 
 
 60.70 
 
 226 " 
 
 Cost 
 
 per 
 
 bushel. 
 
 Western New York 
 
 Yakima Valley 
 
 Wenatchee Valley 
 
 Hood River 
 
 Southern Idaho 
 
 Western Colorado 
 
 California (Watsonville Dist. ) 
 
 $.197 
 .311 
 .242 
 .277 
 .327 
 .364 
 .269 
 
 1 Man labor rates in these regions varied from 40 to 50 cents an 
 hour while horse labor was figured at about 30 cents an hour. 
 
 The above table is a summary of the maintenance labor 
 costs on approximately 700 commercial apple orchards in 
 various parts of the United States. Detailed orchard 
 
Cost of Production 375 
 
 records and yields covering a period of five years are the 
 basis for these figures which reveal some very surprising 
 facts. Particular attention is called to the variation in 
 amount of man and horse hours expended in maintaining 
 orchards in different regions. The amount of labor does 
 not change materially and is, therefore, a better guide than 
 labor costs which do vary with labor rates. Maintenance 
 labor is that expended in the following operations: Man- 
 uring, pruning, disposal of brush, plowing, cultivating, 
 sowing mulch crop, handling mulch crop, propping, thin- 
 ning, spraying, irrigation and miscellaneous. 
 
 Western New York growers expend annually only 77 
 man hours and 63 horse hours an acre in these operations. 
 Apple-growers in Wenatchee do not use many more horse 
 hours to the acre, but expend three times the amount of 
 man labor an acre than is given for western ISTew York 
 orchards. That such intensive methods are profitable is 
 shown by the increased yields and high marketable quality 
 of fruit produced. After spending $94 an acre more in 
 maintenance, the Wenatchee grower, by increased yields, 
 is able to keep his maintenance costs at a figure only 4^^ 
 cents a bushel greater than the New York grower. 
 
 It is interesting to note that the amount of horse labor 
 to the acre does not vary greatly in the different regions, 
 while the man labor varies 300 per cent, being greater 
 in the Northwest where such intensive practices as thin- 
 ning and irrigation require man labor, but little or no 
 horse labor. 
 
 Cost of pruning and brush disposal. 
 
 The following table will serve to show pruning practices 
 and costs in several important regions : 
 
376 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Table XXI 
 
 Pruning and Brush Disposal — Relative Time and Costs in 
 Different Regions 
 
 Region. 
 
 Man 
 
 hrs. per 
 
 acre 
 
 Horse 
 
 hrs. per 
 
 acre 
 
 Cost 
 
 of 
 labor 
 
 Cost 
 
 of 
 
 busheL 
 
 Trees 
 per 
 day 
 
 Western New York 
 
 31 
 
 64 
 52 
 30 
 58 
 62 
 31 
 
 6 
 11 
 
 14 
 7 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 $14.20 
 35.30 
 30.20 
 15.60 
 31.70 
 34.30 
 17.60 
 
 .06 
 .08 
 .05 
 .05 
 .09 
 .12 
 .08 
 
 14 
 
 Yakima 
 
 14 
 
 Wenatchee 
 
 Hood River 
 
 19 
 30 
 
 Southern Idaho 
 
 Colorado 
 
 13 
 14 
 
 California (Watsonville Dist.) 
 
 23 
 
 In all apple regions, pruning usually represents at 
 least one-fourth of all labor expended up until the time 
 of picking. Although the northwestern growers spend 
 more labor to the acre in pruning, it must be remembered 
 that there are nearly twice as many trees to the acre as in 
 such regions as western 'New York. Cost production 
 studies reveal that the importance of pruning is generally 
 recognized. The amount of pruning necessary varies 
 widely with the variety. In the Hood River Valley, the 
 Yellow Newtown and Esopus Spitzenburg which predom- 
 inate in this region do not require nearly as much pruning 
 labor as the more vigorous or rampant growing varieties. 
 
 Pruning cost a bushel of marketable fruit produced 
 averages from 5 to 8 cents, of which about 2 cents is rep- 
 resented by the cost of handling brush. 
 
 Soil management. 
 
 Different systems of soil management make the cost of 
 this operation exceedingly variable. One would imagine 
 with the general intensive cultural methods of the North- 
 west that soil management would represent a considerable 
 cost item in this region. As a matter of fact, the value ^ 
 
Cost of Production 377 
 
 of the shdde crop usually grown in the orchard more than 
 pays for the cost of soil management plus irrigation in 
 the Northwest. Under the old systems of clean cultiva- 
 tion, the northwest grower expended from $15 to $20 an 
 acre in soil management. By growing alfalfa as a shade 
 crop and taking off one or two cuttings, he makes about 
 enough to pay soil management costs. Some of the best 
 authorities maintain that in taking off two or more cut- 
 tings of alfalfa, the grower is depleting soil fertility. It 
 is to be questioned whether it is advisable to remove more 
 than one cutting. 
 
 For eastern and middle western orchards, with the ex- 
 ception of those in sod mulch, soil management involves 
 about the same amount of labor to the aero as does pruning, 
 since about 25 per cent of all the labor spent in growing 
 apples up until harvest is in cultivation or other labor on 
 the soil. Western JSTew York growers expend about 13 
 man hours and 28 horse hours to the acre in soil manage- 
 ment. 
 
 The greatest saving in sod mulch orchards in the East 
 is in the absence of any expense for soil treatment. How- 
 ever, this saving is usually more than lost in decreased 
 yields. 
 
 It is of interest to note the number of acres one man 
 and teami will cover a day with the ordinary cultivation 
 tools. 
 
 Table XXII.- 
 
 - Acres a 
 
 Day 
 
 FOR 
 
 One Man and Two Horses 
 
 
 Irrigated 
 Regions. 
 
 Eastern 
 Regions. 
 
 ^ Plow 
 
 1.5 
 5.5 
 6.5 
 10. 
 
 2 
 
 ' Disc 
 
 7 
 
 Spring-tooth .... 
 
 10 
 
 J Spike-tooth 
 
 12 
 
378 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 The northwestern grower covers a less number of acres 
 a day with each cultivating tool than does the eastern 
 grower. This is partly explained by the fact that there 
 are practically twice as many trees to the acre in the irri- 
 gated sections, thus necessitating more care than in the 
 East. The orchards in the irrigated sections are often 
 inter-planted with shade crops as alfalfa, and in such cases 
 operations like plowing and discing necessarily require 
 considerable time and labor. 
 
 Thinning. 
 
 The practice of thinning varies so greatly that a study 
 of the extent and cost of this operation in several different 
 regions will be of particular interest. 
 
 Table XXIII. — Thinning Practices and Costs 
 
 
 Yield 
 
 Man 
 
 Cost 
 
 Cost 
 
 Region. 
 
 per 
 
 hrs. per 
 
 per 
 
 per 
 
 
 acre. 
 
 acre. 
 
 acre. 
 
 bushel. 
 
 Western New York 
 
 252 bus. 
 
 4 
 
 $1.60 
 
 $.0063 
 
 Yakima 
 
 432 bxs. 
 
 49 
 
 24.50 
 
 .0567 
 
 Wenatchee 
 
 593 " 
 
 53 
 
 26.50 
 
 .0447 
 
 Hood River 
 
 320 " 
 337 " 
 
 25 
 
 47 
 
 11.25 
 23.50 
 
 .0352 
 
 Southern Idaho 
 
 .0697 
 
 Western Colorado 
 
 284 " 
 
 18 
 
 9.00 
 
 .0317 
 
 California (Watsonville Dist.)... 
 
 226 " 
 
 14 
 
 7.00 
 
 .0310 
 
 A sharp contrast is brought out when the average amount 
 of thinning in such regions as western New York is com- 
 pared with the heavy thinning in the I^orthwest in such 
 districts as Wenatchee Valley. The average ISTew York 
 grower expends only 4 hours an acre in thinning his apple 
 crop. The average Wenatchee grower devotes 53 hours 
 labor to the acre in thinning, but when the cost of this 
 
Cost of Production 379 
 
 labor is distributed over the average yield, it amounts to 
 less than 5 cents a box. When one considers the higher 
 annual yields and the greatly improved quality directly 
 due to thinning, it may readily be seen that to omit thin- 
 ning is to cut costs in the wrong direction. 
 
 From the standpoint of economy, the v^riters are con- 
 vinced that not only will thinning improve quality, but 
 that it will actually lower cost of production by increasing 
 annual yields. 
 
 Spraying. 
 
 The cost of spraying is discussed in Chapter X. 
 
 HARVESTING COSTS 
 
 Harvesting costs include all the labor and material costs 
 incident to picking, packing and delivering fruit to the 
 station. These represent from 40 to 50 per cent of the 
 cost of producing apples. It might be stated here that 
 fixed costs, such as interest on investment, represent about 
 20 to 25 per cent, while maintenance costs for such opera- 
 tions as thinning and spraying, represent from 25 to 30 
 per cent of the total cost of production. 
 
 In Table XXIV is shown the amount of labor neces- 
 sary for harvesting crops in several different regions and 
 also the cost a bushel for labor and material incident to 
 harvesting. It is seen that all harvesting costs make up 
 from 45 to 50 per cent of the total cost of production. 
 
 It is interesting to note that labor cost for harvesting 
 boxed apples is but little greater than for barreled apples, 
 while five years ago it was nearly 100 per cent greater. 
 Labor rates have increased more proportionately in the 
 barrel apple regions than in the box sections. It now costs 
 most barrel sections nearly 25 cents a barrel for picking. 
 
380 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Table XXIV. — Total Harvesting Cost 
 (Cost refers to marketable fruit only.) 
 
 Region. 
 
 Yield 
 per 
 
 Labor 
 cost per 
 packed 
 bushel. 
 
 Labor & 
 
 Material 
 cost per 
 packed 
 bushel. 
 
 Per cent, 
 of total 
 cost of 
 produc- 
 tion. 
 
 Western New York 
 
 Yakima 
 
 Wenatchee 
 
 Hood River 
 
 Southern Idaho 
 
 Western Colorado 
 
 California (Watsonville Dist.) 
 
 252 bus. 
 
 432 bxs. 
 
 593 
 
 320 
 
 337 
 
 284 
 
 226 
 
 .2235 
 .2775 
 .2775 
 .2801 
 .2775 
 .2775 
 .2650 
 
 $.4402 
 .5600 
 .5600 
 .5251 
 .5600 
 .5600 
 .5050 
 
 50 
 47 
 48 
 45 
 49 
 45 
 48 
 
 Other harvesting and packing labor, aside from the pick- 
 ing, averages about 1.8 barrels to a man an hour. This is 
 the case in New York, the Middle West, and commercial 
 sections of Virginia. The western grower figures that he 
 is repaid for any extra cost in handling and packing his 
 crop by increased returns for his fruit. The secret of his 
 success on the market has been due to this intensive effort. 
 
 Table XXV shows fixed costs, including charges for 
 interest on investment, for several important apple regions. 
 
 The fixed costs, as before stated, comprise those annual 
 
 Table XXV.— Total Fixed Costs 
 
 
 Yield _ 
 per 
 
 Interest charge 
 
 Total Fi> 
 
 ed Cost 
 
 % Total 
 Cost of 
 
 Region. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Acre. 
 
 per acre. 
 
 per bu. 
 
 per acre. 
 
 per bu. 
 
 tion. 
 
 Western New York. 
 
 252 bus. 
 
 $26. 
 
 $0.10 
 
 $34. 
 
 $0.13 
 
 15 
 
 Yakima 
 
 432 " 
 
 86. 
 
 .20 
 
 114. 
 
 .26 
 
 22 
 
 Wenatchee 
 
 593 " 
 
 154. 
 
 .26 
 
 187. 
 
 .32 
 
 27 
 
 Hood River 
 
 320 " 
 
 79. 
 
 .25 
 
 99. 
 
 .31 
 
 26 
 
 Southern Idaho. . . . 
 
 337 " 
 
 49. 
 
 .15 
 
 63. 
 
 .19 
 
 16 
 
 Western Colorado. . . 
 
 284 " 
 
 52. 
 
 .18 
 
 72. 
 
 .25 
 
 20 
 
 California — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( Watsonville Dist. ) 
 
 226 " 
 
 41. 
 
 .18 
 
 49. 
 
 .22 
 
 21 
 
Cost of Production 381 
 
 charges, the acre cost being little affected by the size of the 
 crop. Fixed costs include taxes, depreciation, insurance, 
 and interest on investment. Of these, interest on invest- 
 ment is by far the most important. This item alone 
 reaches $154 annually in the Wenatchee Valley, a cost 
 which is a good price for land in many sections. Western 
 New York had an interest cost an acre of only one-sixth 
 this amount. The high yields of the Wenatchee Valley, 
 however, tend to overcome this high interest charge. Fig- 
 ured on the bushel basis, the interest charge at Wenatchee 
 was 26 cents a bushel as compared with 10 cents a bushel 
 in New York state. This fixed cost has not increased in 
 most apple sections since 1914, while labor rates have ad- 
 vanced about 100 per cent and cost of material rose sharply 
 in 1920. 
 
 Hood River, Oregon, has an annual acre interest charge 
 of $75 less than that for the Wenatchee Valley. Return- 
 ing to the interest cost a box, it is seen that Hood River is 
 charged with 25 cents a box as compared with only 26 
 cents for Wenatchee. This serves to show very emphati- 
 cally that high costs a box or barrel are to be considered 
 irrespective of fixed costs an acre, for yields directly de- 
 termine fixed cost a box or barrel. 
 
 On the other hand, it is important to remember that any 
 saving in fixed cost is direct. This may be effected in the 
 judicious purchase of land. It is always poor economy 
 to grow apples on poor land, but at the same time orchards 
 are over-capitalized in many regions and the grower of 
 limited means will sometimes find his fixed cost so high 
 in a series of poor years that he will not be able to sur- 
 vive the hard times. It should be repeated that once these 
 fixed costs to an acre are established, they can not be low- 
 
382 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 ered and can only be met successfully by increasing and 
 maintaining yields. 
 
 Much more detail might be entered into in a discussion 
 of the cost of production in the various regions. It is con- 
 stantly changing with the price of labor and materials. It 
 is important to cut out all unnecessary expense in connec- 
 tion with the orchard and pay strict attention to yield of 
 high quality fruit. However, expenses to the acre should 
 not be spared if it decreases expense a box or barrel. Al- 
 most universally the grower who spends most on his or- 
 chard when invested in a systematic way, such as proper 
 pruning, fertilizing, thinning and spraying, produces 
 apples at a less cost a box or barrel than the grower who 
 tries to save dimes by lack of sufficient attention to the 
 orchard and loses dollars by lack of a good yield. 
 
 When selecting an orchard or site, it is extremely im- 
 portant that probable cost of production be studied and 
 taken into account. The limiting factor which determines 
 the success or failure of a region may be climate, soil, 
 transportation, topography, labor, cost of materials or one 
 of many other things. Above all, it is most important 
 to remember that large annual yields of high quality fruit 
 will overcome most unfavorable factors. In fact, high 
 yields are in themselves proof that most factors are either 
 favorable or, if unfavorable, may be overcome. Yields 
 should be based on an average of at least five years. Mis- 
 leading statements as regarding yields are often wilfully 
 made in various commercial publications for advertising 
 purposes. Acreage averages should be used and not tree 
 averages. One is likely to draw erroneous conclusions 
 from the performance of individual trees. 
 
 If cost production figures are based on the average an- 
 
Cost of Production 383 
 
 nual yields for bearing commercial orchards in a com- 
 munity, the results will indicate the relative success of the 
 average grower. By intelligent handling, the progressive 
 grower usually finds no difficulty in rising above the com- 
 munity average. If the average man is making a good 
 profit, the exceptional grower should made a still better 
 one. 
 
 Table XXVI is a summary of all costs and is based on 
 1919 conditions. The cost a box varies from $1.05 in 
 California to $1.25 in Colorado. The northwest irri- 
 gated regions vary in cost of production from $1.15 to 
 $1.20 a box. Average western New York costs amount 
 to $2.62 a barrel f. o. b. All these costs are based on yields 
 of marketable fruit. Cull apples are not credited. How- 
 ever, as these orchards represent those producing fruit 
 for the commercial box or barrel market, the percentage 
 of cull fruit is small. In fact, the average annual credit 
 from the cull fruit has been found in most instances prac- 
 tically to balance the annual orchard depreciation. These 
 two more or less variable and uncertain factors, may, in 
 general then, be said about to balance. 
 
 Orchard heating is another cost which sometimes occurs 
 in certain regions but this cannot be given consideration 
 as it is now seldom practiced in apple orchards and is 
 very generally discredited. The high cost has been found 
 to make it prohibitive and unprofitable in most cases and 
 particularly in western Colorado where at one time it was 
 widely practiced. 
 
 CONCLUSIONS 
 
 1. Cost of production in any region depends primarily 
 on the yield of marketable fruit. It varies inversely with 
 
384 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 > 
 M 
 M 
 
 a 
 « 
 
 O 
 
 
 S5 
 O 
 
 -5 
 Oh 
 
 3 o 
 
 ^ a 
 
 2 -^ 
 
 D 
 
 Q H 
 
 o a 
 Ph 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 in o o> O N iH 0> 
 »0 lO Tp t- o wo 
 
 00 iH iH i-l r-( cq O 
 »lHlH r-iHr-liH 
 
 «D rH '-' (D in 'f: ■<j< 
 
 O CO >-' <o t- "^ t- 
 
 (N iH oot-00 in CO 
 CI in to CO CO CO (N 
 
 CJcoin t-oi iHO 
 
 COcON OJIXMO 
 CO to r-l O 00 in (M 
 iH C<1 CO CO iH IN N 
 
 00 CM (N CO 00 m o> 
 
 ^ coo O t*05 CO 
 
 <N'q( eg iHinm a> 
 
 CO CO CO CO CO CO IN 
 
 05 CO 00 o> 00 1 o 
 
 O CM 00 CO in CO rH 
 
 •-I 00 OS O: O "-I t- 
 
 00 •<t 00 Ol IN O CO 
 
 CD01'<1'C» COOOW 
 
 inrH cooo 05t>m 
 
 t-TH CgCD t-Tf 0> 
 OJ iH r)i t- CM CO CO 
 
 >-( CO cq e<i CO CO w 
 
 (»7-t^ 1-lrt 
 
 CM CM COO t-TjICO 
 
 in coo eg CO 00 CM 
 
 CM T)( in CO CO CM CM 
 
 o . a> . 
 
 IB O 
 
 ran 
 
 -so 
 
 01 >" >K 
 
 -=>€©• 
 
 lU 3> 
 
 •as 
 
 s « 
 5^ 
 
 ,0 SS 
 
Cost of Production 385 
 
 yields ; the higher the yield, the lower the cost of produc- 
 tion a unit. 
 
 2. Maintenance practices such as spraying, pruning 
 and cultivating, greatly influence yield. As a general 
 rule, increase in maintenance costs to the acre means a 
 decrease in cost a box or barrel. It is poor economy to 
 neglect orchard practices which are necessary to high yields 
 of good quality fruit. 
 
 3. The average commercial grower in the United 
 States could effect a considerable saving in his cost of pro- 
 duction if he spent more time in thinning his fruit. At 
 the present time only growers in the Pacific ^Northwest 
 thin extensively. Even there this operation could be prac- 
 ticed more systematically with profit. 
 
 4. Growers with mature orchards or those reaching ma- 
 turity can in many cases greatly increase annual yields 
 and thereby lower cost of production, if they will give more 
 attention to soil management and fertilization. ]^o phase 
 of fruit-growing is of more importance than the mainte- 
 nance of soil fertility. 
 
 5. The relative acre value of apple orchards should be 
 determined largely by average annual yields. Low yields 
 with excessive fixed costs limit successful production in 
 many widely advertized regions. 
 
 6. The cost of production is exceedingly variable de- 
 pending so largely on yield, labor rates and overhead costs, 
 all of which are so variable that no definite figure which 
 will hold can be given. However, it has been found that 
 under 1919 conditions box apples could not be put in the 
 car for less than $1.20 a box, while barreled apples ordi- 
 narily averaged about $2.50 a barrel, f. o. b., in cost of pro- 
 duction. The cost of boxes was figured at 22 cents, of 
 
386 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 barrels 60 cents. Labor was figured at 40 to 50 cents 
 tbe hour and materials were charged at the 1919 rate. 
 Changes should be made accordingly. Increased price of 
 packages brought the 1920 cost of production of boxed ap- 
 ples to about $1.30 and of barreled apples to about $3.50. 
 
CHAPTEE XIX 
 VARIETIES OF APPLES 
 
 The proper selection of varieties should be given careful 
 consideration by the commercial apple-grower since this 
 may determine the success or failure of his enterprise. 
 Hundreds of varieties of apples are grown in the United 
 States and many hundreds of others are described in 
 pomological lists. It is interesting to note, however, how 
 relatively few varieties make up the commercial apple 
 production of the United States. Twelve varieties repre- 
 sent nearly 80 per cent of the commercial apple crop of 
 the United States. Such a limited list would probably 
 include Ben Davis, Baldwin, Khode Island Greening, 
 Winesap, Jonathan, Northern Spy, Yellow Newtown, 
 York Imperial, Delicious, Stayman, Grimes and Wealthy. 
 These varieties are not of recent origin, but are almost 
 without exception old and well established sorts known to 
 the commercial grower for generations. 
 
 Baldwin has been known since the middle of the eigh- 
 teenth century, while Ben Davis was propagated over one 
 hundred years ago. Jonathan was first exhibited in 1829, 
 while Northern Spy has been famous for its high dessert 
 and market qualities for over one hundred years. Rhode 
 Island Greening was highly recommended as long ago as 
 1800 and the same is true of Tompkins King. Yellow 
 Newtown has been prized for its good qualities for almost 
 
 387 
 
388 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 two centuries, while the good qualities of the Winesap 
 apple were known as long ago as 1817. Oldenburg 
 (Duchess), the planting of which has become very exten- 
 sive in recent years, is a very old European variety which 
 was introduced in this country as long ago as 1835. 
 
 Yellow Bellflower, one of the leading varieties of Cal- 
 ifornia and well known throughout the country, has been 
 noted for its dessert quality for one hundred years. Stay- 
 man, which is ordinarily classed as new, bore fruit as early 
 as 1875. Grimes was a commercial sort in 1800. Esopus 
 Spitzenburg was grown in the Hudson Valley over a cen- 
 tury ago. The Delicious is about the only variety of 
 recent origin which has grown to great popularity and 
 forced itself on practically all the commercial markets. 
 
 This brief discussion serves to emphasize how hard it is 
 for any variety to become well known in commercial chan- 
 nels without many years of thorough trial and an acquaint- 
 anceship with the public. It further serves to emphasize 
 how really few kinds survive. It is said that approxi- 
 mately 7,000 varieties of apples have been described in 
 pomological publications since 1804. Of these, very few 
 are of commercial importance to-day. This does not pre- 
 clude the possibility of developing new and better kinds, 
 but the commercial gi'ower has found it profitable to limit 
 the number of his varieties and allow others to experiment 
 with new or doubtful ones. 
 
 In every region, from four to six well-known varieties 
 have proved most profitable, and it is the safest plan to 
 select three or four from this list and plant new varieties 
 only in limited quantities. In the early history of com- 
 mercial apple-growing, it was necessary to experiment with 
 untried varieties since no one knew exactly what ones 
 
Varieties of Apples 389 
 
 were best adapted to the different regions. Most of this 
 pioneer work has been done, however, and it is no longer 
 necessary to take chances with strange varieties. 
 
 In a discussion of varieties, the question of relative 
 flavor of the same sort grown in different regions arises. 
 An interesting investigation has been conducted by the 
 Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agri- 
 culture, which reveals that there is essentially no difference 
 in chemical constituency between normal specimens of 
 apples of the same variety grown in different regions. 
 The percentage of water content and solid matter is prac- 
 tically the same. This investigation, of course, did not 
 pertain to the physiological or cell-structure of the apples, 
 and it may be true that some difference exists in this 
 respect. 
 
 A western apple forced by unwise irrigation, or picked 
 green, will not compare with the choicest specimens of 
 eastern apples. One region may grow one or two varieties 
 to great perfection in quality and flavor, while another 
 will grow superior apples of some other kind. New York 
 has its Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening; Virginia its 
 York Imperial, Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) and 
 Winesap; the central states their Ben Davis, Jonathan 
 and Wealthy ; the West its Delicious, Jonathan, Winesap, 
 and so on. 
 
 Seed selection and hybridization have been responsible 
 for the improvement of many cultivated plants and for the 
 discovery of many new varieties, but not so for the culti- 
 vated fruits. Practically all varieties of fruit are the 
 result of chance discovery of seedlings. The apple does 
 not come true to seed, but is propogated by grafting a cion 
 or bud from a knoven variety on a seedling root. Plant- 
 
390 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 breeding is a much discussed subject and the layman may 
 conceive that new varieties of apples are being developed 
 by this method. As a matter of fact, the experiments thus 
 far conducted in crossing different varieties of apples have 
 been very inconclusive and unsatisfactory. 
 
 N^ew varieties are being constantly discovered and very 
 often widely advertised. Some are worthy and some are 
 not. The most noted new variety is the Golden Delicious 
 which is being planted very extensively and in the next 
 decade will appear in most of the commercial markets. 
 Wherever tried, it has proved productive and highly profit- 
 able. The grower may experiment but should not plant 
 new varieties extensively before they have been firmly 
 established, or have proved profitable. High quality var- 
 ieties are very often the most profitable, but occasionally 
 they prove undesirable on account of their tendency toward 
 shy bearing. The Ben Davis apple, on account of its 
 high annual yield, has proved more profitable over a period 
 of years than some of the better quality varieties. The 
 public, however, is becoming more fastidious in its selec- 
 tion, and in the competition between high and low quality 
 apples some of the latter are being crowded out. 
 
 Seldom do two varieties ripen at exactly the same time, 
 and with a maximum of four or five leading kinds there is 
 usually a sufficiently long harvest period to permit of the 
 most economical harvesting practice. Buyers and even 
 cooperative organizations insist on a limited number of 
 varieties, and prefer them in carlots. The grower with a 
 miscellaneous list of varieties is the last to sell his crop, 
 whereas the one with two or three kinds of uniform size 
 and color has a decided advantage in the market. The 
 farmer planting a home orchard selects a few trees of each 
 

 
 
 
Varieties of Apples 391 
 
 of several varieties, in order that he may have a continuous 
 home supply during the late sumimer, fall and winter 
 months. The average commercial grower does well to 
 select three or at most four varieties. This choice should 
 not be difficult. Certain regions are adapted to well- 
 known varieties. The consuming public is familiar with 
 the name and quality of these and has come to demand 
 them. Were one to plant an orchard in western New 
 York, the varieties should be largely Baldwin and Green- 
 ing, with possibly some Twenty Ounce, Duchess or 
 Wealthy. Delicious, King David and others may prove 
 profitable, but Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening have 
 stood the test of trial. Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, 
 Ben Davis, Northern Spy and Mcintosh are successfully 
 grown in the Hudson Valley, although proximity to New 
 York City might warrant planting one or two varieties of 
 summer apples, such as Oldenburg, Gravenstein or Will- 
 iams. In the Champlain district of northern New York 
 and Vermont, the Fameuse, Mcintosh and Northern Spy 
 are suited to these northern latitudes. Across in New 
 England the Baldwin, Northern Spy and Rhode Island 
 Greening predominate, with Mcintosh, Fameuse, Wealthy 
 and others following in importance. 
 
 In Virginia, the commercial crop virtually consists of 
 six varieties, Albemarle Pippin (Yellow Newtown), Ben 
 Davis, York Imperial, Winesap, Stayman and Delicious. 
 In the Ohio Valley, Rome Beauty and Ben Davis lead ; 
 in Michigan, the leading varieties are Northern Spy and 
 Baldwin. In the Ozark region Ben Davis, Gano and 
 Jonathan predominate. Western states have a somewhat 
 larger list of leading kinds. Each district has a host of 
 other varieties, but geographic distribution of the really 
 
392 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 iftiportant sorts is comparatively simple and it should not 
 be hard to determine for any one locality the varieties 
 which really have proved successful. It is by no means 
 intended that prospective growers should select only from 
 the few kinds named below, but rather than risk untried 
 varieties it might be wise to select from such old ones 
 and those best adapted to the particular locality. 
 
 The following are some of the standard varieties grown 
 successfully, and recommended for planting in the various 
 regions : 
 
 Western New York — 
 
 Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Ben Davis or Gano, 
 
 Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Twenty Ounce. 
 Hudson Valley — 
 
 Mcintosh, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, Wealthy, Old- 
 enburg, Northern Spy. 
 Vermont and Champlain District — 
 
 Mcintosh, Northern Spy, Fameuse, Wealthy, Gravenstein. 
 New England — 
 
 Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Mcintosh, Wealthy, 
 
 Gravenstein, Williams Early Red. 
 New Jersey — 
 
 Stayman, Oldenburg, Winesap, Williams Early Red, 
 
 Wealthy, Yellow Transparent, Starr. 
 Delaware — 
 
 Stayman, Gano, Yellow Transparent, Williams Early Red, 
 
 Wealthy. 
 Piedmont of Virginia — 
 
 Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin), Winesap, StaymaJi, 
 
 Grimes (top worked). 
 Southern Pennslvania — 
 
 Stayman, York Imperial, Grimes, Oldenburg (Duchess), 
 
 Yellow Transparent. 
 Shenandoah Valley of Virginia — 
 
 Stayman, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Gano, Grimes, 
 
Varieties of Apples 393 
 
 Winesap (in southern end of valley), Yellow Transparent, 
 
 Oldenburg (Duchess). 
 Mountain Region of North Carolina — 
 
 Stayman, Winesap, Ben Davis or Gano, Delicious, Arkansas 
 
 (Black Twig), Bonum. 
 Mountain Region of Georgia — 
 
 Yates, Terry's Winter, Stayman, Arkansas, Yellow Trans- 
 parent, Delicious. 
 Southern Ohio — 
 
 Rome Beauty, Ben Davis, Grimes, Stayman, Oldenburg 
 
 (Duchess), Yellow Transparent, Wealthy. 
 Northern Ohio — 
 
 Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Northern Sny, Mcintosh, 
 
 Oldenburg (Duchess), Yellow Transparent, Wealthy, 
 Illinois — 
 
 Wealthy, Oldenburg (Duchess), Red June, Yellow Trans- 
 parent for extreme southern part -oi state. Jonathan, 
 
 Stayman, Delicious, Gano and Grimes (double worked) for 
 
 south central and western Illinois. 
 Ozarks — 
 
 Jonathan, Stayman, Winesap, Gano, Black Ben, Grimes 
 
 (double worked). Yellow Transparent. 
 Missouri River Region — 
 
 Ben Davis, Gano or Black Ben, Jonathan, Winesap, 
 
 Wealthy. 
 Michigan — 
 
 Northern Spy, Ben Davis, Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, 
 
 Mcintosh, Wealthy, Oldenburg (Duchess). 
 Western Colorado — 
 
 Jonathan, Winesap, Gano. 
 Wenatchee and Yakima Valleys — 
 
 Jonathan, Winesap, Delicious (Red and Golden), Stayman, 
 
 Rome Beauty, Yellow Newtown, Grimes, Winter Banana. 
 Hood River Valley, Oregon — 
 
 Yellow Newtown, Esopus (Spitzenburg), Ortley. 
 Pajaro Valley, California — 
 
 Yellow Newtown, Yellow Bellflower. 
 
 The varieties which will be discussed individually in 
 
394 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 this chapter may assist in outlining in more detail the 
 geographic distribution of the commercial sorts. It is 
 interesting to note how many of these most desirable vari- 
 eties are not new discoveries, but are over a hundred 
 years old. 
 
 SUMMER VARIETIES 
 
 The question of summer varieties requires separate 
 treatment. In their selection, the proximity to markets 
 is an important factor. The great perishability of early 
 apples limits their production to such regions as have access 
 to ready markets. 
 
 It is sometimes suggested that the commercial grower 
 may well have a number of varieties ripening at different 
 times in order to supply the demands of local or nearby 
 markets throughout a long season. In some instances 
 this may be advisable, particularly in the case of small 
 growers in the vicinity of large cities, who do most of their 
 own work and where the orchardist or a member of his I 
 family markets the fruit locally. The extra expense of 
 harvesting apples in small quantities is a strong argument , 
 against too wide diversification. 
 
 The growing of summer varieties has proved very profit- 
 able to many growers who are so situated that their fruit 
 reaches the market in advance of that from other regions 
 and to growers who cater to local and special markets. A 
 light soil which warms up early is essential. 
 
 It is difficult to draw a sharp line between summer, fall 
 and winter varieties. A variety may be known as a fall 
 sort in one section and as a winter in another. It is prob- 
 ably safer to make an arbitrary distinction based on har- 
 vesting dates rather than on varieties. Summer kinds in- 
 
 
Varieties of Apples 395 
 
 elude those normally consumed before September 15th ; fall 
 varieties, those normally disposed of by November 15th; 
 and winter sorts those consumed after November 15th, 
 Were there only the two classes, summer and winter, it 
 might be well to include among summer varieties those 
 which are consumed normally before October 15th. 
 
 Winter varieties are usually considered as those com- 
 monly held in storage. The dates of ripening of the same 
 variety in different regions sometimes works to the advant- 
 age of the earlier sections. One instance of the kind is 
 found in the Pecos Valley of New Mexico, where Jon- 
 athans mature earlier than in the other western apple 
 districts. For this reason, New Mexico Jonathans have 
 a distinct advantage in the Texas markets. Variation in 
 ripening dates is further exemplified in such northern 
 states as Wisconsin and Minnesota, where varieties con- 
 sidered in some sections as strictly summer apples do not 
 ripen until fall. The Oldenburg (Duchess) is an exam- 
 ple of this kind. The Baldwin apple, generally known, 
 and particularly in New York and New England, as a 
 strictly winter variety, is considered a fall apple in some 
 parts of Maryland and Virginia. 
 
 LATE VARIETIES 
 
 The following varieties, divided into early and late, are 
 arranged in their order of importance in total commercial 
 production. They are discussed from a commercial stand- 
 point, with reference to their adaptation and distribution 
 throughout the different apple regions of the United 
 States. No consideration was given to home orchard pro- 
 duction in establishing order of importance. 
 
396 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Baldwin (Plate XXI). 
 
 Approximately 50 per cent of the commercial apple 
 production in ]S>^ew York and New England consists of 
 Baldwins. This variety is said to have originated as a 
 chance seedling in Massachusetts in about 1740. While 
 its culture is largely confined to these states, to Michigan 
 and the northern parts of Ohio and Pennsylvania, it is 
 the leading commercial apple in the United States. The 
 question of selecting Baldwin for commercial planting 
 outside of this region should be considered very carefully, 
 but within these confines it is almost invariably a wise 
 choice. 
 
 In more southern latitudes, the fruit ripens early and 
 tends to drop prematurely, while in northern New York 
 and upper New England the wood sometimes winter-kills. 
 The tree is strong, large and vigorous, the many old Bald- 
 win orchards in western New York testifying to its long- 
 evity. While somewhat late in coming to full bearing, and 
 once matured inclined to biennial bearing, in total pro- 
 duction the Baldwin tree is one of the heavy bearers, and 
 in commercial importance it stands preeminent. The 
 ideal Baldwin soil is a fine sandy loam underlaid by plas- 
 tic light clay or heavy silt loam. The fruit is of good 
 quality, stands shipment and keeps comparatively well, 
 although it sometimes develops Baldwin spot both before 
 and after picking. The Baldwin crop is shipped almost 
 exclusively in barrels and much of it is used for culinary 
 purposes. The selling price, while not the highest, is 
 usually firm. The variety figures prominently in the ex- 
 port trade. 
 
Varieties of Apples 397 
 
 Ben Davis. 
 
 The Ben Davis comes next to the Baldwin in commercial 
 importance on account of its wide distribution.. It is 
 thought to have originated in the southern states about 
 1800 and has been a leading commercial variety for many 
 years, particularly in Missouri and Arkansas where, with 
 the Gano, it represents from 60 to 80 per cent of the 
 commercial production. The Ben Davis apple has played 
 an important part in nearly every commercial apple-grow- 
 ing region in this country, and thrives in nearly all but the 
 most northern states. The tree is strong and vigorous, 
 with upright form, and seldom breaks under heavy loads. 
 It comes into bearing early and yields large annual crops. 
 Unquestionably Ben Davis production is rapidly on the 
 decline. Very few trees of this variety are being planted 
 anywhere in the country. Its susceptibility to the Illinois 
 blister-canker has been the cause of heavy loss in trees all 
 through the Ozarks, Missouri River region and Illinois. 
 This susceptibility seems the one weakness in the tree. 
 
 The fruit ranks lowest in dessert quality of all leading 
 varieties, yet for cooking, shipping, and keeping qualities, 
 it stands among the best. Ben Davis is important in the 
 Northwest where it is boxed. In the Ozarks and Middle 
 West it is shipped both in bulk and in barrels, and in 
 eastern states, principally Virginia, it is largely barreled. 
 
 It is adapted to a very wide range of soils, perhaps more 
 so than any other standard variety. Despite low prices, 
 Ben Davis has unquestionably been a profitable apple on 
 account of its large annual yields. From a strictly mone- 
 tary standpoint, and over a long period of years, commer- 
 cial growers rank Ben Davis among their best paying 
 sorts. 
 
398 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Winesap. 
 
 This old and well known apple is one of the most import- 
 ant commercial varieties. It is growing in popularity and 
 its production has been greatly increased in recent years. 
 It is particularly adapted to the Piedmont section of Vir- 
 ginia and to the Yakima and Wenatchee valleys in Wash- 
 ington, where it is the leading variety. In the Missouri 
 River region, at the intersection of ISTebraska, Missouri, 
 Iowa and Kansas, and also in southern Illinois, the Wine- 
 sap production is increasing. 
 
 Excellent qualities of both tree and fruit make the Wine- 
 sap a good commercial variety for the regions named. It 
 is not grown commercially in New York or 'Kew England. 
 The tree is vigorous, not particularly susceptible to any 
 disease or insect pests, and does best on light rich soils. It 
 comes into bearing early and is an annual cropper. The 
 fruit tends to grow small in some sections and the tree 
 does not thrive on heavy clay or low wet soil. Winesap 
 apples are a stable product. They hang on the trees well, 
 are excellent keepers, and sell well from storage. Arkan- 
 sas, Arkansas Black, and Stayman Winesap are seedlings 
 of the old Winesap. 
 
 Rhode Island Greening. 
 
 Rhode Island Greening, originating in Rhode Island 
 about two centuries ago, is second in importance to Baldwin 
 in New York state and its distribution throughout the 
 northeastern part of the United States coincides largely 
 with that of the latter variety. The Greening fits in well 
 with the Baldwin in a farm management scheme, since it 
 ripens somewhat earlier and very often produces a crop 
 during the light year for Baldwins, 
 
Varieties of Apples 399 
 
 The tree is large, vigorous and productive, but given to 
 biennial bearing. It prefers a fertile surface soil of grav- 
 elly or sandy loam, underlaid by a well drained clay loam. 
 The apple-scab fungus is one of its worst enemies. Com- 
 mercial plantings are almost exclusively in New York, 
 New England, Ohio, Michigan, and the more northern 
 parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The apples are 
 rather large and grade out well. The storage limit is 
 usually February or March. 
 
 Jonathan. 
 
 Jonathan is a seedling of the Esopus Spitzenburg, and 
 originated at Woodstock in Ulster County, New York. It 
 was first described in 1826 and named after Jonathan 
 Hasbrouck, who first called attention to the variety. The 
 stronghold of the Jonathan as a commercial apple is in the 
 middle western and western states. There are few com- 
 mercial plantings of this variety east of the Mississippi. 
 Jonathan is the leading sort in both Colorado and Idaho, 
 and is important in Washington, Utah and New Mexico, 
 being grown under irrigation in large commercial quanti- 
 ties in all five states. The high quality and brilliant red 
 coloring adapts it particularly to the boxed apple industry. 
 Irrigation overcomes its tendency towards small size. The 
 Jonathan has rather extensive distribution through the 
 Middle West, particularly in the loess soil region, along 
 the Missouri River at the intersection of Iowa, Missouri, 
 Nebraska and Kansas. Here it is a barreled apple. 
 
 In quality the fruit ranks high. The' tree, although 
 inclined to a somewhat drooping willowy habit of growth, 
 is vigorous and yields well as it is adapted to rich soil. 
 Under irrigation it is sometimes subject to fire-blight, 
 
400 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 although not to such an extent as the Esopus Spitzenburg. 
 The fruit brings high prices but is inclined to develop the 
 Jonathan spot in storage. It is usually consumed before 
 February and is the first of the leading varieties to be 
 moved from the western irrigated regions. Normal har- 
 vest period is September 10th to 20th. 
 
 York Imperial. 
 
 York Imperial originated shortly after 1800 near York, 
 Pennsylvania. It was propagated before 1830 by Jon- 
 athan Jessop under the name of Johnson's Fine Winter 
 which it still retains in many remote parts of the South, 
 The commercial production of York Imperial is largely 
 confined to the valley of the Shenandoah, in Virginia, and 
 to the Cumberland Valley in Pennsylvania, centering in 
 Frederick County, Virginia; Berkeley County, West Vir- 
 ginia; Washington County, Maryland; Franklin and 
 Adams counties, Pennsylvania. Outside of these and 
 adjoining counties, the distribution of York Imperial is 
 scattering and relatively unimportant, being chiefly in the 
 Middle West. In the district defined, however, this var- 
 iety is preeminent and contributes large quantities of 
 commercial apples. 
 
 Although tending to bear biennially, it yields heavy 
 crops and is the most reliable variety in the Shenandoah- 
 Cumberland region where it has long been one of the 
 leading export apples. It has a preference for heavy 
 clay and limestone soils. The fruit is oblique, or lop- 
 sided, and is inclined to scald in storage. The fruit is 
 also very susceptible to cedar-rust. The normal season 
 ends in February. 
 
Varieties of Apples 401 
 
 Rome. 
 
 The Kome Beauty, a native of the Ohio River Valley, 
 was first planted on the farm of Alanson Gillette at Proc- 
 torville, Ohio, in 1817, and was known as Gillett's Seed- 
 ling until 1832. It has sprung to great prominence in 
 southern Ohio and in the irrigated districts of the Pacific 
 Northwest. The tree is vigorous, bears early, is suscept- 
 ible to few diseases and insect pests, seldom breaks with 
 a heavy load, and yields heavily in the Northwest. 
 
 The Rome Beauty, although not of the highest quality, 
 ranks as a good commercial variety in its proper regions. 
 It is especially desired for baking. The fruit stands up 
 exceptionally well in storage, keeping as late as May. It 
 is occasionally criticized for lack of color at maturity, but 
 seldom lacks good size. Extensive plantings are not found 
 outside of the Pacific Northwest and the Ohio Valley, but 
 in these regions it has proved very profitable. 
 
 Northern Spy. 
 
 The Northern Spy originated at East Bloomfield, New 
 York, in a seedling orchard planted by Herman Chapin 
 about 1800 and was recognized by the American Pomolog- 
 ical Society in 1852. It has a rather wide distribution 
 throughout the northeastern part of the United States, but 
 is declining in importance as a commercial variety. Mich- 
 igan has as large a percentage of Northern Spys as any 
 state, unless it should be Vermont, although production in 
 the former state is many times that of the latter. The 
 " Spy " is generally grown throughout New York, and 
 is a farm orchard variety in many districts. It is adapted 
 to the northermost counties of the latter state and is widely 
 
402 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 grown in Canada. 'Sew York leads in commercial pro- 
 duction of '' Spys " in this country, followed by Michigan. 
 The tree is considered hardy and vigorous, although 
 somewhat susceptible to the apple-scab. Its root system is 
 very often used as a stock for other less vigorous varieties. 
 One of its principal disadvantages is the lateness at which 
 it comes into bearing. When properly matured, the ISTorth- 
 em Spy is a high quality apple and a good keeper, but as a 
 commercial variety it should be grown on heavy soils, as it 
 is deficient in quality when grown in sandy soils. It is 
 not adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions, pre- 
 ferring cooler regions. It matures too early south of Penn- 
 sylvania to be profitable commercially. 
 
 Yellow Newtown {Albemarle Pippin) (Plate XXII). 
 
 This variety is one of the oldest in America and one with 
 very interesting historical association. The origin is 
 credited to Long Island, in the early part of the eighteenth 
 century. Although first grown in New York, jS'ew Jersey 
 and Pennsylvania, its wider cultivation occurred in the 
 Piedmont section of Virginia, particularly in Albemarle 
 County, to which locality it is especially adapted and where 
 it afterwards became known as the Albemarle Pippin. 
 The Newtown is reported to have been exported to Eng- 
 land as early as 1759 and since that time has commanded 
 the highest prices on the English market. It is generally 
 known as an export apple for which it is particularly 
 adapted on account of its late keeping qualities. 
 
 The principal commercial regions for the ^Newtown are : 
 the Piedmont section of Virginia, particularly Albemarle 
 and Nelson counties; the Hood River and Rogue River 
 valleys in Oregon; the Pajaro or Watsonville section in 
 
Varieties of Apples 403 
 
 California ; and the Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, in the 
 state of Washington. The Pajaro Vallej, in Santa Cruz 
 and Monterey counties, California, leads in total produc- 
 tion of Yellow Newtown apples, having produced 1,700,- 
 000 packed boxes in 1919. These were practically all 
 grown within a radius of ten miles of the town of Watson-: 
 ville. Oregon is second. Both states, and possibly Wash- 
 ington, take precedence over Virginia from the standpoint 
 of quantity produced. It may be seen that the Yellow 
 Newtown apple is somewhat exacting in its soil and clim- 
 atic requirements, since the bulk of its commercial produc- 
 tion in the United States comes from the six or eight coun- 
 ties described above. It is a good commercial variety, 
 keeps well, and commands the highest export prices. Its 
 tendency is towards shy bearing, however, and it is partic- 
 ularly susceptible to apple-scab and bitter-rot and to 
 anthracnose in the Hood River Valley. The selling price 
 of the frnit has made it profitable in the regions described, 
 despite somewhat low yields. Virginia and Hood River 
 " Newtowns " are of particularly high quality. 
 
 The tree is a rather slow grower and does not come into 
 full bearing as early as some varieties. The fruit is solid 
 green at harvesting, developing a yellow color late in the 
 season. As stated above, the Newtown is exacting and its 
 selection for extensive planting should only follow careful 
 investigation of the adaptability to a particular region. 
 
 Esopus Spitzenhurg (Plate XXIII). 
 
 The Esopus, known more commonly in commercial dis- 
 tricts as Spitzenhurg, originated at Esopus, Ulster County, 
 New York, over one hundred years ago. It is an import- 
 ant western boxed apple extensively grown in the Wen- 
 
404 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 atchee and Yakima valleys, Washington, and in Hood 
 River and Eogiie Eiver valleys, Oregon. Aside from dis- 
 tribution in western irrigated sections, it is grown in quan- 
 tity in the Hudson and Mohawk valleys of Xew York, and 
 in a more limited way in western New York. 
 
 The Spitzenburg rivals the Newtown in the Hood River 
 Valley and ranks among the leading varieties in Wenatchee 
 and Yakima. Fire-blight has exacted heavy tolls from the 
 Spitzenburg plantings, in both the Yakima Valley and the 
 Rogue Valley, Oregon, and for this reason the variety has 
 grown into disfavor. The fruit is excellent from the stand- 
 point of dessert, cooking and keeping qualities. The tree 
 is inclined to shy bearing, however, and must be protected 
 carefully from disease and insect infestation. It is more 
 susceptible to fire-blight than any other commercity vari- 
 ety. Except in the Hood River Valley and possibly one 
 or two other districts, it is not generally looked on by com- 
 mercial growers as very profitable. One of the most notice- 
 able characteristics of the Esopus is its peculiar habit of 
 tree growth, in the form of long pole-like branches which 
 are difficult to control in pruning. 
 
 I 
 
 Grimes Golden. 
 
 Originating in West Virginia, and mentioned as a com^ 
 mercial variety as early as 1800, the Grimes Golden has 
 rather wide distribution throughout the state of its origin, 
 Virginia, Maryland, Ohio Valley, middle west and western 
 states. Important commercial quantities are produced in 
 Washington, West Virginia, Maryland, the Ozarks, south- 
 ern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri River region. 
 The fruit is unsurpassed in quality, regular in its cylin- 
 drical form, and uniformly a rich golden yellow. The 
 
 J 
 
Varieties of Apples 405' 
 
 skin is subject to scald in storage, but the flesh keeps well. 
 The tree is not sufficiently hardy to withstand rigorous win- 
 ters and is also subject to collar-rot, the latter tendency 
 being one of its chief weaknesses. When planting, it 
 should always be double worked so as to overcome this tend- 
 ency. The Grimes is an important commercial variety in 
 Missouri, a somewhat refreshing comparison with the pre- 
 ponderance of Ben Davis in this region. In some sections 
 the fruit tends to be small, but invariably it is high in 
 quality, a strong reconmaendation for its use in home 
 planting and also in certain commercial areas. 
 
 Stayman. 
 
 Among the newer varieties, the Stayman Winesap 
 stands out as one of the most worthy and one which is 
 growing in popularity in many parts of the country. The 
 origin is credited to a seedling from old Winesap produced 
 at Leavenworth, Kansas, in 1866, which bore fruit first in 
 1875. In many ways, it resembles the old Winesap, 
 although the coloring of the fruit is less brilliant. It is 
 grown extensively in the Northwest, where it has proved 
 a good yielding and profitable variety, its selling price 
 improving as it has become better known. Old Winesap 
 is looked on with greater favor, however, by most commer- 
 cial growers in the ^N^orthwest. 
 
 The Stayman is one of the softest of the winter varieties, 
 yet a good keeper. It tends to drop somewhat at maturity. 
 Extensive plantings have recently been made in Ohio, 
 Pennsylvania, and the Virginias. It is also adapted to 
 the apple sections of the Carolinas and Georgia, having a 
 somewhat wider range than old Winesap in this respect. 
 Stayman production will imquestionably increase manv 
 
406 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 times since it is proving a popular variety in the eastern 
 regions described. The tree is vigorous, comes into bearing 
 early, and is the old Winesap in many vi^ays. The fruit 
 lacks some of the keeping qualities of the parent variety. 
 
 Delicious. 
 
 The Wenatehee and Yakima valleys in Washington are 
 at present producing most of the Delicious apples which 
 appear on the market, although extensive young plantings 
 occur in the East, particularly in Virginia. The variety 
 is of recent origin, being credited to Iowa, but having been 
 planted more extensively in the Northwest than any other 
 region. While as yet untried in many sections, it has 
 proved profitable in certain irrigated districts of the West. 
 
 The tree is vigorous, grows to good size, and is free from 
 any inherent weakness. The fruit is large, oblong conical, 
 with five knob-like protrusions at the calyx end. This 
 peculiarity gives it a distinctive appearance. The color is 
 yellowish-red, usually striped, but sometimes more or less 
 deep solid red. Its normal season for use ends in March, 
 when the flesh tends to become somewhat dry and mealy. 
 Otherwise it is a very good keeper. The Delicious apple 
 has become very popular as a high class dessert apple on 
 account of its very distinctive and pleasing flavor. It is 
 the favorite fruit-stand apple in eastern cities and tops the 
 boxed apple market in price. Its popularity with the con- 
 suming public is demonstrated by the high price which it 
 commands. 
 
 Obviously the determining factor in the selection of this 
 variety for commercial planting is yield. Some beautiful 
 specimens have been produced on young trees in southern 
 and eastern states, but whether it will prove a profitable 
 
Varieties of Apples 407 
 
 variety when generally planted outside of demonstrated 
 irrigated regions remains to be seen. Performance records 
 of full bearing commercial orchards will be the only safe 
 guide. High quality apples are y/ery often fastidious in 
 their requirements for commercial success, but this variety 
 is certainly worthy of a thorough trial. 
 
 Gano and Black Ben. 
 
 Gano was first brought to notice in Missouri about 1880. 
 In nearly every respect the Gano is so closely identified 
 with the Ben Davis in its distribution and general charac- 
 teristics that brief treatment is sufficient. The fruit is 
 somewhat smaller and more highly colored than the Ben 
 Davis. The Black Ben, given as a separate variety, is con- 
 sidered by many as essentially the same as Gano, although 
 it may diifer slightly in some respects. Gano and Black 
 Ben are now given preference in planting over Ben Davis 
 in most regions. 
 
 Yellow Bellfiower. 
 
 Yellow Bellfiower, if not declining, has at least experi- 
 enced very little increased production in recent years. It 
 is a leading variety in the Pajaro Valley, or Watsonville 
 district of California, where it ranks next to the Yellow 
 Newtown in importance. It is here that a very consider- 
 able proportion of the total commercial crop of this variety 
 in the United States is grown, 800,000 boxes being packed 
 out in 1919, and an equal amount dried. 
 
 The Yellow Bellfiower is an old variety. In 1817 Coxe 
 reported that the original tree which was very old at that 
 time, was still standing at Crosswicks, Burlington County, 
 New Jersey. Scattered plantings are still found in the 
 
408 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 states of Maine, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio and 
 Michigan, but these are confined to old orchards. The 
 tree grows to large size, particularly in the Pajaro Valley. 
 Fruit is usually large but varies greatly in size, a detract- 
 ing feature from a commercial standpoint. Its tender skin 
 necessitates care in spraying and in handling. 
 
 Russets. 
 
 Russet is the name ordinarily given to a great number of 
 different varieties of russet apples. The Roxbury and the 
 Golden Russet are most commonly found on the market 
 and most widely grown. They have long been in general 
 cultivation. Others of very limited production are Eng-*' 
 lish Russet, Perry Russet, French Russet (Pomme Grise), 
 Hunt Russet, Long Island Russet and American Golden 
 Russet. Of these, English Russet and Perry Russet are 
 much the most important, although Pomme Grise is very 
 well known in Quebec, Canada. 
 
 The Roxbury is supposed to have originated at Roxbury, '■ 
 Massachusetts, about 1620. It is the most popular russet 
 apple and is especially adapted to.northern localities, New 
 York and New England. It has proved a reliable cropper 
 in western New York, where it ranks next to Northern 
 Spy and above Tompkins King in commercial importance. 
 It does not seem well adapted to the Sou^h. The fruit is 
 usually above medium to large and variable in form, the 
 sides often being unequal or the form elliptical. It keeps 
 until May or June in common storage and often may be 
 held two years in cold storage. It is of good quality, but 
 since the cold storage has come into general use, other 
 more generally favored varieties have detracted from its 
 popularity and young plantings are practically unknown. 
 
Varieties of Apples 409 
 
 The Golden Russet ranks next in importance in the 
 United States. It is of English origin and has long been 
 generally disseminated. It is found extensively in the 
 older orchards in western New York and parts of New 
 England. Many trees of this variety occur in Pennsyl- 
 vania, Ohio and scattered through the home orchards of 
 the Middle West. The Golden Russet is an excellent stor- 
 age variety and is often exported. It is also in demand for 
 shipment to southern markets. The tree is smaller than 
 that of the Roxbury Russet and generally less productive. 
 The fruit also is smaller but uniform in size and less var- 
 iable in shape. The flesh is more sub-acid, finer grained 
 and of richer flavor than the Roxbury. 
 
 The English Russet is of unknown origin. It is one 
 of the leading, if not the leading, variety in Westchester 
 and Putnam counties, New York, and is generally dis- 
 seminated throughout the Hudson Valley and southern 
 New England. Many carloads of this variety are grown 
 in Westchester County every year, although the orchards 
 are not very well taken care of. The tree may be distin- 
 guished from the Golden Russet by its straight growing 
 habit with erect shoots. According to Beach, the Golden 
 Russet trees are more vigorous, spreading, irregular and 
 bushy than the English Russet. The skin of the Golden 
 Russet does not take a polish while the English Russet 
 does. There are also differences in form of fruit. The 
 flesh of the English Russet is inferior in flavor and of 
 lower quality than the Goldf^n Russet. It is not being 
 planted and although a good keeper will soon be eliminated 
 commercially. 
 
 Perry Russet is quite different from those described 
 above. Its origin is unknown although thought to be 
 
410 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Ehode Island, as it was originally called Rhode Island 
 Russet. It first came to commercial attention at Perry, 
 Wyoming County, ISTew York, and in Onondaga County, 
 New York, where trees over one hundred years old still 
 stand. 
 
 TompMns King. 
 
 The Tompkins King, commonly called King, first came 
 to attention at Jacksonville, Tompkins County, New York. 
 However, it appears to have originated near Washington, 
 Warren County, New Jersey, being brought to New York 
 by Jacob Wycoff in 1804, who gave it the name King. 
 This variety is one of the most popular of the New York 
 varieties and has long been known and highly prized in 
 the commercial markets of the country. 
 
 The fruit is large to very large and is fairly uniform in 
 shape and size. It has a beautiful red color and is excel- 
 lent in quality for either dessert or culinary purposes. It 
 is well adapted for marketing, both for fancy and general 
 trade and usually sells at an advance over more standard 
 varieties in both home and foreign markets. In season it 
 is best in late fall or early winter and is seldom kept in 
 cold storage until after February. It does not retain 
 flavor after midwinter. Tompkins King is generally cul- 
 tivated throughout western New York and has proved 
 profitable, particularly when planted on fertile well drained 
 soils or when top-worked on thrifty hardy stock. There 
 is often considerable loss in windfalls, on account of the 
 large size of the fruit. 
 
 The variety is less susceptible to apple-scab than either 
 Baldwin or Rhode Island Greening. The principal dis- 
 advantages of the Tompkins King as a commercial sort are 
 
Varieties of Apples 411 
 
 that it is rather unproductive, lacks hardiness, is short lived 
 and rather hard to grow. In many parts of the country 
 the tree is very subject to sun-scald, winter-injury and 
 collar-rot, and the fruit is subject to water-core. Certainly 
 this is a variety of the highest quality, and local conditions 
 must determine whether it can prove profitable in the face 
 of inherent weaknesses in the tree. 
 
 Arkansas (Mammoth Black Twig). 
 
 Arkansas, a seedling of the Winesap, originated in Ark- 
 ansas and began to be propagated by nurserymen about 
 1868, since when it has become widely disseminated. Of 
 late years this variety has been planted very extensively in 
 Virginia, North Carolina and some parts of the Middle 
 West. It is also found commercially in the jSTorthwest. 
 It keeps well in cold storage and is in season from Decem- 
 ber until May. " Black Twig " is a large red apple, 
 rather uniform in size and only medium in quality. It 
 brings a good price in the market, but is not recommended 
 for extensive commercial planting as it is rather slow com- 
 ing into bearing and is not a very good annual bearer. On 
 strong soils it has a tendency to excessive wood growth 
 and to, encourage fruitfulness shallow soils are preferable. 
 It has been much advertised and propagated, but is hardly 
 living up to expectations and is inferior to many other 
 standard kinds. 
 
 Wagener. 
 
 The Wagener has attained commercial importance in 
 comparatively recent times. It was first brought to public 
 attention in 1847 as being a new variety of considerable 
 merit. The seedling trees from which the original Wag- 
 
412 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 ener tree sprang were bought by Abraham Wagener in 1796 
 and planted on his place, now included in the village of 
 Penn Yan, New York. Wagener has never attained any 
 commercial importance east of Michigan, although within 
 recent years it has been planted very extensively in the 
 western part of that state. The other extensive plantings 
 are largely confined to the northwest apple regions. In 
 the Spokane district of Washington, Wagener is a leading 
 variety, although in other western irrigated regions it is 
 losing favor. The fruit is in season from October to Feb- 
 ruary and keeps fairly well in common storage, although 
 likely to scald in cold storage, particularly if the fruit has 
 not been well thinned. 
 
 The tree is vigorous, comes into bearing early and is a 
 fairly reliable cropper. On the other hand, it is short 
 lived, rather dwarfish in form, and a slow grower as it 
 attains full size. The fruit should be thinned, otherwise 
 it does not attain good market qualities. The Wagener is 
 recommended as a valuable filler to plant between rows 
 of longer lived trees, but not for general permanent 
 planting. 
 
 Arkansas Black. 
 
 The Arkansas Black, one of the most beautiful apples, 
 has come into considerable prominence conmaercially 
 within the last few years. It originated in Benton County, 
 Arkansas, and first bore fruit about 1870. It attains its j 
 greatest commercial importance in the Northwest where it 
 is boxed, particularly in the Wenatchee Valley of Washing- 1 
 ton, and to a lesser degree in the other irrigated regions. { 
 It is also grown in the Ozarks, but not to any great extent, i 
 Several young plantings occur in the East, particularly in j 
 
Varieties of Apples 413 
 
 the Piedmont district of Virginia, and it is being recom- 
 mended by experiment stations for planting in North 
 Carolina and Virginia. 
 
 The tree is vigorous, with long slender branches, and is 
 very regular in shape. It is hardy and grows to great size. 
 The fruit in regions where this variety is adapted attains 
 a large size, keeps well and commands a high price, going 
 on the market very late in the spring. The color of the 
 fruit is red, deepening on the exposed side to a purplish red 
 or black. It is one of the most beautiful of all apples and, 
 although the trees require considerable time to come into 
 bearing, they bear fairly heavy crops when fully matured. 
 
 Willow Twig. 
 
 The Willow Twig draws its commercial importance from 
 old plantings in a few limited areas. Before the advent 
 of cold storage, it was kno\vn as a desirable variety for com- 
 mercial use on account of its very long keeping qualities. 
 Otherwise, it never has gained commercial favor. Its 
 origin is uncertain, but it is thought to have been in cul- 
 tivation for over a century. Extensive plantings are in 
 Calhoun County, Illinois, also in the northern Panhandle 
 region of West Virginia, particularly in Hancock County. 
 The fruit is in season from January to May, but like many 
 other long keeping varieties it is not of very good quality. 
 The tree is a strong grower, and bears early and regularly. 
 The fruit is not attractive although it is imiform in size 
 and shape. The prevailing color is red with contrasting 
 green showing through the stripes. The Willow Twig is 
 not generally recommended for commercial planting, but 
 limited plantings have proved profitable, largely on account 
 of the late keeping qualities. 
 
414 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 White Pearmain (White Winter Pearmain). 
 
 The White Winter Pearmain is well known to the boxed 
 apple and fruit-stand trade. It retains considerable com- 
 mercial importance in western Colorado, California and 
 the northwestern irrigated regions. The origin of this 
 variety is obscure and for a long time it was confused with 
 several kinds of Pippins. In 1858, however, it entered 
 the American Pomological Society catalogue as \\^nte 
 Winter Pearmain. It is a favorite dessert apple and is in 
 season from December to March. 
 
 The tree is vigorous and rather long lived. The fruit is 
 uniform in size and shape and inclined to be roundish or 
 conic in form, somewhat ribbed, but sjTumetrical. The 
 skin is pale yellow with a shade of brownish red. The 
 flesh is firm, fine grained and of superior aromatic flavor. 
 It is not recommended for commercial planting outside of 
 the irrigated districts in the West. 
 
 Red Limhertwig. 
 
 The widest distribution of the Eed Limbertwig is in the 
 southeastern states, particularly the Carolinas and Georgia. 
 In North Carolina it is of much commercial importance 
 and is the leading variety. Beach gives the Eed and the 
 Green Limbertwig as separate varieties, and it is probably 
 the former that is so widely cultivated in the mountains 
 of western North Carolina, although different strains, 
 spoken of sometimes as the Royal, Sparger, Brushy Mount' 
 ain or Improved Limbertwig, are credited to this region. 
 Here it is a rather deep red apple ; a good keeper, and well 
 adapted as a commercial variety. The tree is vigorous and 
 bears well, but has little distribution in other regions. 
 
Varieties of Apples 415 
 
 Yates. 
 
 The Yates is quite widely distributed over the Piedmont 
 section of the South, but nowhere in the United States is 
 it grown in any commercial quantities outside of Georgia ; 
 here it is undoubtedly the leading commercial variety and 
 in many ways one of the most satisfactory. It is well 
 known in New Zealand and Tasmania, It seems partic- 
 ularly adapted to Georgia conditions, and is a very heavy 
 producer, bearing fairly regularly heavy annual crops. 
 The tree is thrifty and healthy, and comes into bearing 
 quite early. The fruit has long keeping qualities, is very 
 hard and iirm, and can be handled in a careless manner 
 and still retain a good appearance. It is small in size and 
 not of the highest quality. The Yates is very well known 
 in southern markets, but practically unknown in the North. 
 It is a profitable commercial variety for Georgia, but is 
 not recommended for planting in most regions on account 
 of its small size and lack of acquaintance with the consum- 
 ing public. 
 
 Stark. 
 
 Stark is found particularly in the commercial orchards 
 of Maine, New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, and dis- 
 tributed somewhat throughout the Central West. It was 
 first brought to notice in Ohio and is said to have orig- 
 inated in that state. This variety has received favorable 
 notice in a great many regions and was offered by most 
 of the nurserymen about 1890. It is not increasing in 
 popularity, however, on account of poor quality. 
 
 The tree is thrifty, hardy, a reliable cropper and very 
 productive. The fruit is smooth, uniform and keeps well. 
 
416 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 The skin is often pale in color and not attractive, some- 
 times having but very little red coloring, yet at times under 
 favorable conditions being nearly covered with red. The 
 fruit stands handling well because it is very firm and has a 
 thick tough skin. It keeps till June in ordinary storage 
 and for that reason is regarded as a good apple for export 
 trade. The variety has a wide range of adaptibility in 
 regard to soil and climate and is recommended for planting 
 in cases where orchards are long distances from market 
 and the climate is rather severe. Many other varieties of 
 its season are much superior in quality and this will pre- 
 vent the Stark from attaining any great popularity. 
 
 Hubhardston. 
 
 The Hubhardston, which originated at Hubhardston, 
 Massachusetts, has long been known to the commercial 
 grower. Kenrick, as long ago as 1832, reconmiended that 
 it was one of the most desirable varieties for Massachusetts. 
 The commercial importance of the Hubhardston, although 
 considerable, has never been great in any one region. It 
 is a fairly good variety for commercial planting in the 
 more northern sections of the country, but varies remark- 
 ably in market quality, size and color, smoothness of skin 
 and flavor. For this reason, it is kno'\\Ti locally in many 
 places by other names. Normally it ripens between the 
 autumn and the late winter varieties, comes into bearing 
 early, is a heavy cropper and fairly annual bearer. It is 
 somewhat susceptible to winter-injury and apple-canker 
 and seems to be more satisfactory when grafted on to more 
 hardy varieties such as Northern Spy. The quality of the 
 fruit is excellent for dessert, but is excelled by many other 
 varieties for culinary purposes. It is an uncertain keeper, 
 
Varieties of Apples 417 
 
 varying greatly in this respect according to tne regions 
 where grown. The fruit from western I^ew York keeps 
 better apparently than that from the Hudson Valley. The 
 crop should usually be thinned since there is a tendency for 
 a considerable portion of the fruit to be undersized and 
 poorly colored. The Hubbardston soon loses its flavor in 
 common storage. Few authorities now recommend it for 
 commercial planting, although where well adapted it would 
 seem valuable for planting as a filler. 
 
 Tolman Sweet. 
 
 The Tolman Sweet is probably the best known sweet 
 apple grown for commercial purposes, and one which 
 deserves even more attention than is at present given to it. 
 It has long been grown throughout New England, j^ew 
 York, Michigan and more northern states, although its 
 origin is unknown. The Tolman Sweet is best known 
 commercially in the New England states. 
 
 The tree is vigorous, upright, open, with long branches 
 and a form adapted to bearing an abundance of fruit. It 
 is exceptionally productive, long lived, and very hardy, in 
 fact one of the hardiest of all varieties. It comes into 
 bearing at an early age and the fruit hangs well on the 
 tree, is very uniform in grade and suffers little in loss 
 from culls or drops. The fruit, although medium or below 
 medium in size, is attractive for a yellow apple and is 
 highly esteemed for certain culinar^^ purposes, especially 
 pickling, boiling, and baking. It is recommended as a 
 good commercial variety, although as yet the market for it 
 is rather undeveloped. Like the Eusset it is highly 
 prized for cider and its other good qualities are worthy of 
 attention. 
 
418 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Winter Banana. 
 
 Winter Banana originated near Adamsboro, Indiana, 
 about 1876, and was first introduced by a nursery in Mon- 
 roe, Michigan, in 1890. This variety has been widely dis- 
 seminated especially in the Northwest, where it has 
 attained much commercial importance. There are consid- 
 erable young plantings of it throughout the East. 
 
 The fruit is large, clear pale yellow in color except for 
 a pinkish-red blush. The Winter Banana is a dessert 
 apple depending on the fancy trade demand for its pop- 
 ularity. It is classed as a winter apple, but matures rather 
 early and should be eaten before January first as it loses 
 much of its flavor after that date. The tree is productive 
 and well thought of in the Virginias and southern Penn- 
 sylvania districts, although on account of the delicacy of 
 the fruit it is not recommended for very extensive com- 
 mercial planting. It is a good apple for the home orchard 
 and limited commercial planting. 
 
 Missouri Pippin (Plate XXIV). 
 
 The Missouri Pippin originated at Kingsville, Missouri, 
 from seed planted about 1840. After 1860 it began to be 
 widely disseminated through Missouri, Kansas, and the 
 middle western states and is to-day one of the well known 
 market apples in the Middle West. It has been planted 
 extensively in northwest irrigated districts, particularly 
 among the earlier plantings, but has lost favor in the West 
 in recent years. It is not being planted in commercial 
 orchards of any region at the present time. 
 
 The principal advantage of the Missouri Pippin is that 
 it comes into bearing very early and yields heavily. The 
 

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Varieties of Apples 419 
 
 fruit has a good color, but is second rate in quality and re- 
 quires considerable thinning to bring it up to good market 
 quality. It is in season from October to April. This va- 
 riety is not grown throughout the East and is not now rec- 
 ommended for commercial planting in any part of the 
 country. 
 
 Northwestern Greening. 
 
 The Northwestern Greening originated in Waupaca 
 County, Wisconsin, and was first introduced by E. W. 
 Daniels in 1872. It is widely disseminated through. the 
 north central states and is one of the leading varieties in 
 many sections. It is also planted to a considerable extent 
 in some of the larger orchards of the Shenandoah-Cumber- 
 land district and some of the irrigated sections of the 
 Northwest where it finds little favor, however. It is 
 not grown commercially in New York or the New Eng- 
 land states. ,, 
 
 The Northwestern Greening is a large green apple, 
 highly attractive in color, but lacking uniformity. It is 
 especially adapted to planting in cool regions since the tree 
 is very hardy. The fruit has rather poor culinary quality, 
 but rather high market qualities. In the Shenandoah- 
 Cumberland region, this variety yields well, goes on the 
 market early and brings high prices. The tree is hardy, 
 vigorous and productive. It is recommended for planting 
 in a limited way commercially in the north central states 
 and parts of the East. 
 
 Ramho. 
 
 The Rambo is an old variety, the origin of which is 
 unknown. As long ago as 1817, however, it was much 
 
420 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 cultivated in Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 
 The Rambo is grown in considerable commercial quantities 
 throughout parts of Ohio and the Central West. It is 
 found also among the old orchards of the East. It is 
 surpassed by several varieties both for culinary and dessert 
 purposes. It is attractive when well colored, being a bright 
 red with yellow ground color, but very often this red color 
 is largely lacking. Under ordinary conditions, much of 
 the fruit is not of very good market quality. The tree is 
 more or less subject to winter-injury and breaks easily 
 under a heavy load of fruit. The Rambo is decreasing in 
 commercial importance in competition with better sorts. 
 
 Ortley. 
 
 The Ortley has recently attained prominence in the 
 boxed apple regions. It is one of the important varieties 
 of the Hood River Valley, that section producing about 
 100 cars in 1919. It is grown considerably in other west- 
 em irrigated sections. It is highly prized as a dessert 
 apple and is well known to the fruit-stand trade. Ortley 
 is one of the leading varieties in Tasmania and Australia. 
 It long ago lost popularity among growers of the East, but 
 now seems to be gaining in favor in the West. It is an old 
 New Jersey variety, described by Coxe under the name of 
 Woolman's Long Pippin and was first named Ortley in 
 1825 when specimens of this variety were sent to London. 
 In the East it is not found outside of the home orchards, 
 and is rarely planted commercially except in irrigated 
 regions. It is a large pale yellow apple of the Yellow 
 Bellflower type and seems to attain better flavor in more 
 southern and western climates. Ortley is not a very heavy^ 
 
Varieties of Apples 431 
 
 cropper and the fruit is rather easily bruised and tender. 
 It is especially valuable for dessert use. 
 
 Red Canada. 
 
 This is a red winter apple, belonging to the same group 
 as Baldwin and Esopus. It is thought to have originated 
 in New England and was described by pomologists about 
 one hundred years ago. The principal commercial plant- 
 ings of this variety occur in Michigan where it is known 
 as Steel's Eed. It is well adapted to general and special 
 markets and brings high prices. It should be grown on 
 fertile or sandy soils, where it develops high flavor, color, 
 and market quality. It is not adapted to the South. In 
 ordinary storage, it will keep until January or April. The 
 principal disadvantages of this variety are that it is a 
 rather shy bearer, lacks hardiness and is but a moderate 
 grower. It is not recommended for commercial planting 
 and will not prove as profitable as more standard and 
 heavier cropping varieties. 
 
 Monmouth. 
 
 Monmouth reaches considerable commercial importance 
 only in the irrigated districts of Washington, particularly 
 the Yakima Valley where it is known in the markets by 
 the name of Red Cheek Pippin. It is a native of Mon- 
 mouth County, New Jersey, and has long been in general 
 cultivation throughout the East and Central West. It is 
 grown principally only in the home orchards, there being 
 few commercial plantings outside of the Northwest. 
 
 In season it ripens in common storage by November, 
 while in cold storage its season may extend to January. 
 The tree is hardy, long lived, comes into bearing moder- 
 
422 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 ately young and is a fairly reliable cropper. The fruit is 
 of good market quality, but if not well thinned there is 
 likely to be considerable loss in low grade fruit. The fruit 
 is medium to large. Its skin is yellow, faintly shaded with 
 red and in the case of highly colored specimens the fruit 
 has a pinkish-red blush. The variety is not important 
 commercially. 
 
 Collins. 
 
 The Collins originated about 1865 near Fayetteville, 
 Arkansas, and has only recently been introduced to com- 
 mercial growers. It is grown considerably as a commercial 
 variety in northwestern Arkansas, but is not generally 
 recognized in any other district. The tree is a good 
 grower, hardy, and has a reputation of being productive. 
 The fruit is large, of excellent keeping quality and is in 
 season from January to June. The flesh is white, rather 
 coarse, only moderately juicy, and rather lacking in flavor. 
 Highly colored specimens are bright, dark red, with a 
 contrasting clear yellow ground color. The Collins has 
 some attractive market qualities, but is not generally 
 recommended for commercial planting. There seems no 
 doubt that Ben Davis is a more worthy and reliable crop- 
 per and is of equal market quality. Collins does not bic 
 fair to displace any other commercial variety. 
 
 Pumpkin Sweet (Pound Sweet). 
 
 Pumpkin Sweet, more commonly known as Pound 
 Sweet, is one of the best known, easiest grown and most 
 attractive of the sweet varieties. It originate(;i in Con 
 necticut and has been known in New York for about three- 
 
Varieties of Apples 423 
 
 quarters of a century. It is not grown commercially 
 except in western New York and more northern localities. 
 The fruit is large to very large. Well colored specimens 
 become very yellow and sometimes are faintly bronzed on 
 the exposed cheeks, but are never marked with red. 
 
 Pumpkin Sweet is esteemed as one of the best sweet 
 apples for baking, canning, and stewing with quinces, and 
 is prized by some for dessert on account of its peculiar 
 flavor. It usually sells well in special markets and there 
 is a limited general demand for it. The fruit is in season 
 from October to January, but does not keep well in com- 
 mon storage. The tree is a strong grower, long lived, 
 hardy and productive. It thrives particularly well in 
 gravelly or sandy loam, with well drained subsoil. There 
 is often considerable loss from water-core and from wind- 
 falls, although other than this the loss from culls or under- 
 sized apples is usually small. The variety is recommended 
 only where the market demands a sweet apple. 
 
 Wolf River. 
 
 Wolf River is a variety of the Aport group, resembling 
 the Alexander in form and color, although averaging larger 
 in size. It has largely superseded the Alexander in the 
 north central states, although both apples are popular in 
 these regions on account of their extreme hardiness. The 
 variety originated near Wolf River, Fremont County, Wis- 
 consin, and was entered in the American Pomological 
 Society lists in 1881. The tree is very hardy, a good 
 grower, but a light cropper. The fruit is very large and 
 often somewhat irreg-ular in form. Flesh is coarse, tender, 
 juicy, but low in quality. Wolf River apples sometimes 
 sell well on local markets because of their attractive appear- 
 
424 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 ance. The tree is not generally recommended for planting 
 either in home or commercial orchards on account of poor 
 quality, light yields and unprofitableness. However, many 
 northern Michigan and Wisconsin growers have found this 
 variety very profitable. 
 
 Sutton. 
 
 The Sutton, originating in the town of Sutton, Massa- 
 chusetts, was first brought to notice by the Worcester 
 County Horticultural Society in 1848 and was included in 
 the American Pomological catalogue in 1877. It has not 
 attained commercial importance until late years. At the 
 present time, it is being planted quite extensively in the 
 Hudson Valley and some parts of New England, and its 
 dissemination seems to be on the increase. It has beeiCi 
 grown in Michigan under the name of Morris Red. ' 
 
 The Sutton tree closely resembles the Hubbardston, of 
 which it is supposed to be a seedling, but is much more 
 vigorous and healthy. The fruit is of uniform size, sym- 
 metrical, has a beautiful red color and is excellent for 
 dessert. The variety is especially adapted to the Hudson 
 Valley where fancy trade apples are grown. The tree is a 
 strong grower and productive but has a tendency to beai 
 biennially. Sutton is not generally recommended foi 
 planting on any extended commercial scale and should be 
 grown only in those regions near city markets where the 
 fancy trade varieties are in greatest demand. 
 
 Ingram. ' \ 
 
 Ingram was originated by Martin Ingram, near Spring- 
 field, Missouri, about 1850. It has attained considerable 
 commercial importance throughout the Ozarks. Large 
 
 
Varieties of Apples 425 
 
 plantings have been made in the more southern sections of 
 Missouri. The tree is fairly vigorous, but is likely to 
 bear small fruit unless thinned. The fruit is of medium 
 quality and its chief asset is its good keeping quality. In 
 spite of much advertising, it has not proved very popular 
 and is not now recommended for commercial planting. It 
 does not warrant an important place in commercial 
 orchards, even in Missouri. 
 
 Blaclc Gilliflower. 
 
 This variety is generally known to the trade and appears 
 in market quotation as Gilliflower or Gills. It originated 
 in New England prior to 1800 and has long been a market 
 sort in a very limited way. There are very few orchard 
 blocks of Gilliflower in the country, but it is widely dissem- 
 inated in both home and commercial orchards, particularly 
 in New York and New England. The tree is hardy, vig- 
 orous and long lived. 
 
 The fruit is of medium size and very uniform in size, 
 shape and color. It is a dessert apple which is very dis- 
 tinct in color, form and flavor. The color is green, usually 
 completely covered with red, which becomes very dark or 
 almost black. The flesh has a peculiar flavor and aroma, 
 but soon becomes dry and mealy. The fruit is often 
 borne on the ends of the twigs which makes harvesting 
 difficult. It usually brings a high price and particularly 
 in southern markets, on account of its peculiar aroma, 
 flavor, and attractive color. The Gilliflower is preferred 
 by some to all other varieties as a dessert apple, but its 
 popularity is very limited. It is not recommended for 
 commercial planting, except in a very limited way. It 
 is a good variety for the home orchard. 
 
426 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Lady. 
 
 The Lady apple is known to have been in cultivation for 
 well over three hundred years and is thought to have orig- 
 inated in Erance. It is often seen on fruit-stands more 
 for decoration than for eating purposes. It is a strikingly 
 beautiful little apple, especially adapted for decorative pur- 
 poses. It grows in profusion in many parts of the coun- 
 try, particularly in the Piedmont district of Virginia 
 where it is produced commercially in limited quantities. 
 Limited plantings are also found in New York state and 
 the Northwest. The Lady apple often tops the market in 
 price, having sold on the New York markets for as high 
 as $25.00 a barrel when standard sorts were bringing 
 about one-fifth as much. 
 
 The variety seems to do best in Virginia where it grows 
 to perfection. In size it is not much larger than a crab- 
 apple and it is very expensive to grow and harvest. On 
 the whole, it is not to be considered more profitable than 
 the more ' standard varieties. Furthermore, it is not 
 recommended for general planting since a few acres would 
 practically flood the market for this type of fruit. Prop- 
 erly handled it may be held in cold storage far into the 
 summer, but there are few demands for it after the holiday 
 season. The tree is moderately vigorous. The fruit is 
 exceedingly small, somewhat lacking in uniformity; flesh 
 is white, tender, juicy, and of high dessert quality. 
 
 EAELY AND FALI. VARIETIES 
 
 Oldenburg (commercial name. Duchess). 
 
 Oldenburg is probably the leading early variety grown 
 in the United States. It is one of the most valuable of 
 
 11 
 
Varieties of Apples 427 
 
 Russian apples and was introduced into this country from 
 England bj the Massachusetts Horticultural Society about 
 1835. The extreme hardiness of this variety proved its 
 worth and was responsible for the introduction of other 
 Eussian sorts. It is superior in hardiness to the Baldwin, 
 Rhode Island Greening and N"orthern Spy, 
 
 The tree is easily grown, requires little pruning and is 
 an early and heavy bearer. The variety is widely known 
 throughout the North and East, and particularly in the 
 region bordering the Great Lakes. It is in Wisconsin, 
 Michigan and New York that it assumes greatest com- 
 mercial importance. Oldenburg is produced in carload 
 lots in these states and particularly along the Ontario Lake 
 shore in western New York where there are many plant- 
 ings of commercial importance. 
 
 The fruit is medium to large and is uniform in shape 
 and size, with firm, crisp, juicy flesh. It hangs on the 
 tree well. When properly grown and handled, it stands 
 shipment well. The fruit brings good prices and is unsur- 
 passed for its culinary qualities. It is one of the most 
 valuable early apples for commercial purposes. 
 
 Wealthy. 
 
 Wealthy originated as a seedling at Excelsior, Minne- 
 sota, from seed of the Cherry Crab obtained from Maine 
 about 1860. It is one of the most important of the hardier 
 varieties adapted to the cold climates of the northernmost 
 states. It has wide distribution, particularly in northern 
 Illinois, northern Iowa, Wisconsin, and Michigan, being 
 one of the leading, if not the leading, variety of these 
 regions. In New York and Maine, it is grown in consid- 
 erable commercial quantities but in these states it is of 
 
428 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 less relative importance as compared with other varieties. 
 Wealthy is an early sort highly prized in New Jersey and 
 Delaware. 
 
 The fruit is bright red, of large size and of good market 
 quality, selling well in most markets. It is normally con- 
 sumed before November and is essentially a fall apple, 
 although it may be kept into the early winter in cold stor- 
 age. Criticism is sometimes made of the Wealthy on the 
 ground of uneven ripening and tendency to considerable 
 variation in size and lack of color, but with good care it 
 has proved profitable in the regions described above. It 
 is especially adapted for planting as a filler. 
 
 Yellow Transparent. 
 
 Yellow Transparent was imported from Eussia by the 
 United States Department of AgTiculture in 1870. It 
 has since been disseminated from coast to coast and is now 
 the leading very early commercial variety. It is grown 
 extensively^ particularly in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
 West Virginia, the Ohio Valley and especially in the early 
 apple districts of Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio and various 
 other states. 
 
 Since it is about the first apple on the market, it is 
 sought for dessert and is highly prized for culinary pur-ij 
 poses. It grows to good size, is productive and takes on a* 
 good clear yellow color before becoming over-ripe. The 
 crop ripens over a period of three or four weeks and more 
 than one picking is usually necessary. Yellow Transpar- 
 ent brings a good price on the market and thus far has 
 proved very profitable commercially. 
 
Varieties of Apples 439 
 
 Twenty Ounce. 
 
 The Twenty Ounce has proved one of the most popular 
 of fall varieties for commercial planting. Its origin is 
 unknown, but it was first brought to attention when fruit 
 grown in Cayuga County, 'New York, was exhibited before 
 the Massachusetts Horticultural Society about seventy 
 years ago. It is one of the niost important fall varieties 
 gro^vn in New York, being particularly important in Mon- 
 roe and other western counties in the Lake Shore region. 
 
 The fruit is large and attractive, being' green and later 
 yellowish with broad stripes and splashes of red. In New 
 York it is in season from September to early winter, while 
 in New Jersey and Delaware it comes on the market in 
 August. The Twenty Ounce keeps very well for a fall 
 variety and stands shipping well. It is usually handled 
 without going into cold storage, although it may be kept 
 until midwinter in storage. The fruit is fairly uniform 
 in size, is of good marketable quality and is well known in 
 eastern commercial markets where it brings good prices. 
 The tree is vigorous, with erect main branches, but more 
 or less willowy and drooping laterals. The trunk and 
 larger limbs are especially subject to sun-scald and canker. 
 Closer planting may be practiced than with Baldwin, 
 Ehode Island Greening, Northern Spy, York, or other var- 
 ieties, which attain considerable size. Twenty Ounce is 
 recommended for commercial planting in Delaware, New 
 Jersey, and many parts of New England and New York. 
 
 Gravenstein. 
 
 Gravenstein was introduced into this country from cen- 
 tral Europe early in the nineteenth century. It is of 
 
430 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 much commercial importance for a variety of its season, 
 which in the Northeast is from September to November. 
 The largest commercial plantings of this variety are in 
 Sonoma County, California, which ships annually about 
 500 cars of boxed Gravensteins. Gravensteins are grown 
 in a limited way through the other far west and northwest 
 districts. Commercial plantings also occur in New Jer- 
 sey, Delaware, the Hudson Valley, New England and are 
 particularly important in Nova Scotia. The fruit is 
 found on the New York market during the autumn in 
 large quantities. 
 
 Gravenstein is of very attractive appearance and of 
 excellent quality. It is practically unexcelled for culin- 
 ary purposes and is highly prized as a dessert apple, being 
 usually in strong demand and commanding good prices. 
 There is likely to be considerable loss from dropping since 
 the fruit does not color evenly and requires two or three 
 pickings. The tree comes into bearing moderately early 
 and is a fairly reliable cropper. It is large, vigorous, and 
 hardy, and adapted to many climates. The Gravenstein's 
 place as a commercial variety is assured. 
 
 Mcintosh. 
 
 The Mcintosh belongs to the Fameuse group and is 
 adapted to a wide range of localities, although the districts 
 where it grows commercially are limited. It originated as 
 a chance seedling on the Mcintosh farm in Dundas County, 
 Ontario. Allan Mcintosh began its propagation about 
 1870. Its dissemination and cultivation is on the increase. 
 In season it varies from an early fall apple in the South 
 to late fall or early winter apple in Canada. In New York 
 
Varieties of Apples 431 
 
 it begins to ripen about October first. The fruit is very 
 attractive in appearance and the flesh is tender, perfumed 
 and delicious. It may be kept in cold storage until the 
 first of the year. The fruit is susceptible to scab and has 
 a tendency to ripen unevenly and to drop. The trees are 
 generally hardy, come into bearing young and have a tend- 
 ency to biennial bearing. The variety is grown commer- 
 cially in northern New York, Vermont, particularly on 
 Grand Isle, in Lake Champlain. Considerable commercial 
 plantings are in the Hudson Valley, southern New Hamp- 
 shire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, where it does par- 
 ticularly well. It is the leading commercial variety of 
 the Bitter Root Valley of Montana and is grown in the 
 commercial orchards of Idaho, Washington and British 
 Columbia. It usually commands a very good price in the 
 market and is highly prized, especially for dessert pur- 
 poses. Nearly all Mcintosh apples enter commercial 
 channels. 
 
 Maiden Blush (Lady Blush, Red Cheek). 
 
 Maiden Blush is one of the most widely grov^m of all fall 
 apples and is found to some extent in practically all the 
 central, eastern and southern apple-growing states. It is 
 grown in considerable commercial quantities in northwest 
 Arkansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio, and to a 
 lesser extent commercially in New York and the Atlantic 
 seaboard states. It was well known in the Philadelphia 
 market over one hundred years ago. 
 
 The tree is medium in size and moderately vigorous, 
 comes into bearing young and is a reliable cropper. 
 Maiden Blush is a standard market variety and usually 
 
432 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 sells above those of its class. It is good in quality and is 
 valued for many uses. It makes very v^^hite evaporated 
 stock. 
 
 In season it varies from a summer apple in the Ozarks 
 to a fall apple in the I^orth, keeping until December 15th 
 in New York. The fruit is a beautiful pale yellow color 
 with crimson cheek, which adds to its popularity. Its 
 disadvantages are that it is not a particularly good ship- 
 per and keeper, and ripens somewhat unevenly, with a 
 tendency to drop. Its place in the commercial orchard 
 is assured, although its production is not likely to in-' 
 crease. 
 
 Fameuse (Snow). 
 
 The Fameuse is thought by some to be of French origin. 
 It was grown in Quebec at a very early date, possibly as 
 long ago as 1600. It has long been recognized as an 
 important commercial variety and is one of the most valu- 
 able dessert' apples of its season. It is well distributed 
 throughout the northern states, particularly Michigan, 
 New York, and New England, and is especially adapted to 
 cold climates. Fameuse is grown commercially princi- 
 pally in the Champlain district of New York and Ver- 
 mont, the St. Lawrence Valley, and in the commercial dis- 
 tricts of Wisconsin, Michigan and eastern Canada. It is 
 found in home orchards in many northern localities. It 
 is well known in the market and during its season, which 
 is from October to January, it is in good demand and 
 usually commands high prices. 
 
 The fruit is particularly susceptible to apple-scab fun- 
 gus. It is small to medium in size. The flesh is white, 
 very tender, aromatic, juicy, and when ripe is mildly sub- 
 
 II 
 
Varieties of Apples 433 
 
 acid. The skin is bright red, deepening to an almost 
 purplish black. The tree is hardy and vigorous. The 
 Fameuse is not being extensively planted in the United 
 States, its place being largely taken by the Mcintosh. 
 
 Williams (Williams Early Red, Williams Favorite). 
 
 Williams originated in Eoxbury, Massachusetts, nearly 
 175 years ago. It was brought to the notice of the Massa- 
 chusetts Horticultural Society and named Williams in 
 1830, and was entered in the American Pomological 
 Society catalogue in 1854. 
 
 It is one of the most valuable varieties for the commer- 
 cial m.arket and is being planted to a considerable extent 
 throughout 'New England, the Hudson Valley, New Jer- 
 sey, Delaware and Maryland. It is also recommended for 
 planting throughout the South. In season it varies from 
 September 1st in New England to July 1st in Carolina. 
 Williams is a large bright red apple of very attractive 
 appearance and with a pleasant, mild sub-acid flavor, 
 unless over-ripe, when it becomes dry. It comes into 
 bearing early and yields fair to good annual crops which 
 bring high prices in the home commercial market. The 
 apple is highly prized for export. It is recommended as 
 a good variety to plant where an early commercial sort is 
 desired. 
 
 Benoni. 
 
 Benoni is an early apple of commercial importance in 
 the Middle West. It originated at Dedham, Massachus- 
 etts, and was introduced about 1832. It is a fine dessert 
 apple of excellent quality, inclined to be conical in shape. 
 The flesh is yellow, fine grained, crisp, juicy, and pleas- 
 
434 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 antly sub-acid. It begins to ripen early in August and 
 extends into September. The tree is large and vigorous 
 and comes into heavy bearing moderately young and yields 
 good biennial crops. Its commercial production in carload 
 quantities is mostly confined to the early apple section of 
 southern Illinois, particularly Johnson and Union counties 
 where it ripens the first of July. Its production is not in- 
 creasing and it finds little favor in the East. 
 
 Bonum {Magnum Bonum). 
 
 Bonum is wqW known in the Piedmont district of Vir- 
 ginia and ISTorth Carolina. It is highly prized in these 
 states as a commercial variety and invariably commands 
 good prices. It originated in Davidson County, North 
 Carolina, early in the last century, but has never been dis- 
 seminated to any extent outside of the Piedmont region. 
 It is important commercially in several North Carolina 
 counties and particularly in Rappahannock and Patrick 
 counties, Virginia, where it is planted in solid blocks and 
 produced in carload lots. 
 
 The tree is moderately vigorous and comes into bearing 
 early. The fruit is of medium size, superior quality, with 
 yellow skin, mostly covered with crimson and dark red. 
 The flesh is white, often stained next to the skin. It is 
 tender, juicy, and has a peculiar aroma. It is highly 
 prized as a dessert in the southern markets. 
 
 Its season extends from September to about December 
 1st. This is a profitable variety only in certain regions 
 and does not yield as heavily as the more standard sorts. 
 It also has a tendency to drop and has a short picking sea- 
 son. Its place in the commercial orchard is assured, 
 although it will never be grown in considerable quantities 
 
 li 
 
Varieties of Apples 435 
 
 on account of its season. It is very valuable for home 
 orchards of the South. 
 
 Red Astrachan. 
 
 Eed Astrachan, one of the best known and most widely 
 disseminated varieties, originated in Sweden and was 
 known in England as early as 1816. It was introduced 
 in this country in 1835 by the Massachusetts Horticul- 
 tural Society. The variety is well known commercially 
 in Monmouth County, IsTew Jersey, in Delaware and to a 
 limited extent throughout the northern tier of states as far 
 west as the Missouri Eiver. It is a beautiful early sum- 
 mer apple, of medium size, yellow, largely covered with 
 light and dark red stripes, very often a bluish bloom. It 
 is highly prized for culinary and dessert purposes. 
 
 The tree is medium in size, a strong grower, moderately 
 long lived, an early bearer, and a reliable cropper. It is 
 necessary to make several pickings as the fruit ripens very 
 unevenly and there is likely to be considerable loss from 
 dropping. The Red Astrachan is not very uniform- in size 
 and is a poor shipper. It is well suited for local trade 
 demand, but not at all for distant shipping. Eed Astra- 
 chan is so common throughout the home orchards that local 
 markets are generally well supplied. Commercial plant- 
 ings are not generally recommended. 
 
 Early Ripe. 
 
 This is a well known early commercial variety particu- 
 larly adapted to New Jersey, Delaware and Pennsylvania, 
 where it has attained considerable commercial importance. 
 It is one of the leading commercial apples of ISTew Jersey. 
 The tree is large, vigorous, and a fairly good cropper, 
 
436 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 although it has a tendency to bienmal bearing. Fruit is 
 medium, fairly uniform in size, rather inclined to be con- 
 ical, irregular and broadly ribbed, with short thick stems. 
 Its season is July and August. Early Eipe trees come into 
 bearing young and are well adapted as fillers or for perm- 
 anent planting in certain regions. Some large orchards of 
 this variety are in southern Xew Jersey and in the inten- 
 sive apple sections of Delaware. It is recommended for 
 planting in these districts. 
 
 Alexander. 
 
 This apple is of* the Aport group introduced from Russia 
 to England in 1817, later to this country where it is only 
 grown in limited commercial quantities. The tree is usu- 
 ally exceptionally hardy, vigorous and moderately produc- 
 tive. It is subject to blight in some localities. Its season 
 in the North begins in September and extends through Oc- 
 tober. It is often in strong demand in the market and 
 has proved- a highly profitable variety for those who have 
 grown it in a commercial way. One of the best commer- 
 cial orchards of this variety is- at Hilton, New York. It 
 is particularly adapted to northern climates and is widely 
 grown in Canada. 
 
 The fruit is large and uniform in size, attractive, red 
 striped, medium in quality and suitable more for culinary 
 purposes than for dessert. It brings high prices but since 
 the demand is limited it is 'not recommended for commer- 
 cial planting except in a small way, or as a fiUer. 
 
 Starr. 
 
 The Starr is an early variety of commercial importance 
 only in sections of New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland. 
 
Varieties of Apples 437 
 
 Eather extensive plantings are in the district about Bur- 
 lington County, New Jersey. The original tree was found 
 on the grounds of Judge J. M. White at Woodbury, New 
 Jersey, and was first propagated by William Perry in 1865 
 under the name of Starr. 
 
 The tree is moderately vigorous, comes into bearing 
 young and has a reputation of being a good annual bearer. 
 The fruit is- large, very attractive for a green or yellowish 
 apple, very good in quality and especially for dessert use. 
 It is highly prized for the early market and is one of the 
 leading commercial varieties of southern New Jersey. Its 
 season is July to September. At the present time, most 
 of the' fruit of the Starr is shipped in hampers or in five- 
 eighths-bushel baskets. The Starr is recommended for 
 commercial planting in New Jersey, but not in New York 
 or more northern districts-. 
 
 Red June {Carolina Red Jime., Carolina. June, Carolina 
 Red). 
 
 Red June is a southern apple, supposed to have origin- 
 ated in North Carolina. It has long been known commer- 
 cially and is grown in many sections, particularly in south- 
 ern Illinois and in various early apple districts of the 
 southern states, as well as to a limited degree in New 
 Jersey and Delaware. Red June tops the early market in 
 price in many sections and is particularly important in 
 southern Illinois production. The fruit has a very at- 
 tractive deep red color, is inclined to be oblong, with un- 
 equal sides, but is fairly uniform in size and shape. 
 
 The tree bears well, is remarkably vigorous and has an 
 upright habit of growth, with short, straight, slender 
 twigs. The fruit ripens very unevenly so that several 
 
438 Tlie Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 pickings are necessary. This variety is well suited for 
 early fancy trade demand, and although it requires consid- 
 erable care will prove profitable when grown in proximity 
 to early markets. 
 
 Chenango (Chenango Strawberry). 
 
 The Chenango, commonly called Chenango Strawberry 
 or Strawberry, was first brought to attention in Chenango 
 County, New York. This variety has long been a favorite 
 in home orchards and special markets. In dessert and cul- 
 inary qualities it is unsurpassed. It has a very character- 
 istic aroma and flavor which it still retains when cooked. 
 
 Under favorable conditions the tree is a heavy bearer, 
 usually biennial. The fruit begins to ripen in southern 
 Illinois, where it is grown in considerable commercial 
 quantities for shipment, about the last of July and the rip- 
 ening period continues for several weeks. It should thus 
 have several pickings. In IsTew York and New England, 
 where it is' a favorite home orchard variety, it does not be- 
 gin to ripen before September. 
 
 The tree is hardy, long lived and an early bearer. The 
 fruit varies in size from small to very large. It is yellow- 
 ish white, striped with red, and usually elongated, oblong 
 conic in form, although it is particularly subject to varia- 
 tion in quality and form, trees in the same orchard often 
 producing widely different types. It is one of the most at- 
 tractive apples, is unsurpassed as a home orchard variety 
 and has proved very profitable when grown in limited quan- 
 tities for special local markets. It is usually marketed in 
 hampers or baskets. The fruit ripens too unevenly and is 
 too variabJe in size for a standard variety. It is also a 
 very poor shipper. 
 
Varieties of Apples 439 
 
 Fall Pippin. 
 
 The origin of the Fall Pippin is unknown, but it is cer- 
 tain that the variety has been cultivated for many genera- 
 tions since there are trees in New York orchards which are 
 now over one hundred years old. Although a good variety 
 for the home orchard, the Fall Pippin is not widely grown 
 or recommended outside of the Hudson Valley and certain 
 limited areas. 
 
 The fruit is very large, tends to ripen unevenly, but 
 when fully ripened has an attractive yellow color and a 
 peculiar flavor. The flesh is tender, rich, and of fine 
 quality, being excellent both for dessert and culinary pur- 
 poses. The apple is desired by the export and by fancy 
 trade, particularly in the vicinity of New York. Its sea- 
 son is from September to January. The tree is large, 
 vigorous, hardy, and very long lived, but the fruit and foli- 
 age are especially subject to attacks of apple-scab fungus 
 and thorough preventive measures are necessary in order 
 to grow the Fall Pippin successfully. While not recom- 
 mended for general planting, this variety would doubtless 
 prove profitable in the more northern regions where there 
 is a local or fancy trade demand. 
 
 All the foregoing varieties are grown commercially to 
 a greater or less extent. There are other sorts such as 
 Early Harvest, Smith's Cider, Smokehouse, Fallawater, 
 Swarr, Sweet Bough, Westfield, and a great many others 
 which are well known to the home orchardist, and widely 
 listed in nursery catalogues, but which are not important 
 commercially in any part of the country, and for this 
 reason are not described in this discussion. It might be 
 well to mention that such varieties as Lowry, Virginia 
 
440 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Beauty, King David, Opalescent and certain others are be- 
 ing planted with considerable success in certain localities. 
 Lowry and Virginia Beauty are in favor in parts of Vir- 
 ginia and North Carolina, while Opalescent is found in 
 Ohio. King David is quite widely disseminated and is 
 being planted considerably. English Codling, Cham- 
 plain, Pennock or Pelican are found in a commercial 
 way in Monmouth County, New Jersey. Golden Deli- 
 cious has not yet attained commercial prominence but in a 
 decade will no doubt be one of the best prized apples. 
 
 The varieties which have been given detailed description 
 will represent practically the entire commercial crop of the 
 United States. The first twelve described represent nearly 
 80 per cent of the entire commercial production of this 
 country. This serves to emphasize the importance of rec- 
 ognizing and planting only such varieties as are of some 
 commercial importance or promise. Hundreds of other 
 inds might be named which appear in nursery catalogues, 
 bub-vthe greater portion of these are valueless either as 
 home orchard varieties or for commercial planting. 
 
 There are many new and much advertised varieties 
 which are not discussed for as yet they are of little or no 
 commercial importance and several years' trial will be nec- 
 essary to determine their true value. However, there is 
 plenty of opportunity for new varieties if they are really 
 superior to the standard sorts of to-day and experiment 
 stations are doing valuable work in developing apples of 
 superior quality. Before planting any new variety on a 
 large commercial scale, it should be very highly recom- 
 mended by at least two or three experiment stations which 
 have given it a thorough trial. Golden Delicious is one 
 
Varieties of Apples 441 
 
 of these very new varieties which certainly is worthy of 
 a thorough trial commercially. 
 
 STATUS OF COMMERCIAL VARIETIES 
 
 It is of importance to discuss the relative status of the 
 various commercial varieties and the reasons for their in- 
 crease or decline. 
 
 Commercial varieties the production of which is on the 
 increase, and the outstanding reasons for this : 
 
 Variety. Reasons for increase in com- 
 
 mercial orchards. 
 
 1. Jonathan Early bearer, high in color, fine 
 
 in flavor, good shipper. 
 
 2. Stayman Good size, fine keeping quality, 
 
 very productive, agreeable 
 flavor. 
 
 3. Delicious Quality par-excellence, attract- 
 
 ive appearance, fancy trade 
 demand. 
 
 4. Winesap Productive, hardy, excellent 
 
 quality, regular bearer. 
 
 5. Rome Good size, uniform, attractive 
 
 appearance, productive, excel- 
 lent cooking and baking qual- 
 ities. 
 
 6. Williams Early Red Fancy trade demand both local 
 
 and export, attractive appear- 
 ance, good quality, good ship- 
 per. 
 
 7. York Imperial Very productive, excellent cul- 
 
 inary and shipping qualities. 
 
 8. Oldenburg (Duchess) Fine culinary qualities, hardy 
 
 tree, fruit uniform in size and 
 shape, early bearer, produc- 
 tive. 
 
442 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 -rr • , Reasons for increase in com- 
 
 Variety. . , , , 
 
 merctal orchards. 
 
 9. Grimes Excellent quality — both dessert 
 
 and culinary, fancy trade de- 
 mand. 
 
 10. Mcintosh . . .■ Attractive appearance, excellent 
 
 dessert qualities, fancy trade 
 demand, very hardy. 
 
 11. Wealthy Uniform in size and shape, 
 
 hardy, productive, early and 
 reliable cropper, excellent 
 market quality. 
 
 12. Yellow Transparent Very early, productive, excellent 
 
 culinary qualities, attractive 
 appearance. 
 
 13. Arkansas (Black Twig) ...Large size, attractive, excellent 
 
 for baking, fairly productive. 
 
 14. Arkansas Black Large and most attractive ap- 
 
 pearance. Extremely good 
 keeper and shipper. 
 
 15. Winter Banana Early bearer, fine appearance, 
 
 high quality, fancy trade de- 
 mand. 
 
 16. Golden Delicious A new variety being recently 
 
 planted, productive, high qual- 
 ity combining many qualities 
 of Grimes and Delicious. 
 
 The above varieties owe their popularity to widely dif- 
 ferent reasons. Delicious, Mcintosh, Grimes and Winter 
 Banana are in demand by the fancy trade on account of 
 their excellent dessert quality. With the exception of 
 Grimes, they are as yet used little for culinary purposes. 
 Arkansas Black, although of rather inferior quality, is 
 utilized by the fancy trade late in the season. The other 
 varieties are more in demand by the general trade. The 
 disadvantage which some of the apples have in quality 
 
Varieties of Apples 443 
 
 of the fruit is overcome by hardiness of tree, and by ship- 
 ping and keeping qualities. Certain varieties are decreas- 
 ing in some sections and increasing in others. Arkansas 
 (Black Twig) is out of favor v^ith so many growers that its 
 continued popularity is questionable. York is increasing 
 in popularity only in the Shenandoah and Cumberland 
 Valley districts of the Virginias, Maryland and Pennsyl- 
 vania. Stayman is almost universally on the increase. 
 
 The production of the following varieties is practically 
 stationary, the new plantings about taking the place of 
 those which are going out : Baldwin, Rhode Island Green- 
 ing, Yellow ISTewtown, Gravenstein, White Winter Pear- 
 main, Northwest Greening, Twenty Ounce, Gano, Wag- 
 ener. Maiden Blush, Alexander, Benoni, Bonum. 
 
 Of these, the Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and Yel- 
 low Newtown are very important commercial varieties and 
 will remain so. The reason why they are not on the in- 
 crease is due to the fact that the new plantings, although 
 very large, are not sufficient to overcome the decline in 
 production of the thousands of old orchards throughout the 
 East. Yellow Newtown is increasing in the Northwest. 
 Other varieties are decreasing in some sections and increas- 
 ing in others. Gravenstein is growing in a strictly com- 
 mercial way in New Jersey, California and parts of New 
 England. Wagener, although in much favor in the 
 Spokane district of Washington, parts of Michigan and 
 other limited sections, is losing popularity in western 
 Colorado, Wenatchee and Yakima valleys, and is now 
 planted only to a very limited extent in the East. 
 
 Gano is planted much less than formerly and is classed 
 by most persons with the Ben Davis, although Black Ben 
 is being grown quite extensively. Due to many young 
 
4:44 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 plantings, Gano and Black Ben are increasing in produc- 
 tion in the Northwest and boxed apple states. 
 
 The White Pearmain and Northwest Greening are im- 
 portant varieties in particular localities. They tend to 
 hold their own. 
 
 Maiden Blush is widely disseminated and brings good 
 prices in the commercial market. It is not on the increase, 
 due to the limited demand for its class of fruit and the 
 great number of old trees of this variety which are going 
 out. 
 
 Alexander and Benoni are grown only in a limited way 
 commercially, and are striving to hold their ovni against 
 the Duchess and Yellow Transparent. 
 
 Twenty Ounce is in favor in certain sections of New 
 York, New Jersey and Delaware, but its susceptibility to 
 canker has checked planting. 
 
 Bonum, important in certain southern markets, and of 
 superior quality, is at present largely dependent on Eap- 
 pahannock and Patrick counties, Virginia, and western 
 North Carolina for its continued commercial importance. 
 
 The following varieties are declining in commercial im- 
 portance and in another generation many of them will have 
 disappeared from the commercial orchards. Many of 
 these varieties are among the most important in the 
 country, but they evidently are not as generally profitable 
 as others which, for various reasons, excel them in a com- 
 bination of qualities. 
 
 Variety. Reasons for decline in com- 
 
 mercial orchards. 
 
 1. Ben Davis Low quality, susceptible to 
 
 blister-canker. 
 
Varieties of Apples 445 
 
 T7 . , Reasons for decline in com- 
 
 Vanety. . , , t 
 
 mercial orchards. 
 
 2. Northern Spy Slow to come into bearing ; high 
 
 cost of production. 
 
 3. Esopus (Spitzenburg) ....Very suspectible to disease, es- 
 
 pecially fire-blight, light 
 bearer. 
 
 4. Tompkins King Tree short-lived, fruit inclined 
 
 to water-core, high cost of 
 production. 
 
 5. Eoxbury and Golden Former popularity due to long 
 
 Russet keeping quality in common 
 
 storage; place now taken by 
 apples of superior market 
 quality; difficult to harvest. 
 
 6. Hubbardston Loses flavor in storage, tends to 
 
 bear much imdersized and 
 poor colored fruit. 
 
 7. Missouri Pippin Short lived tree, fruit of third 
 
 rate quality and small in size. 
 
 8. Tolman Sweet Decline due to fact it is a sweet 
 
 apple; deserves more atten- 
 tion. 
 
 9. Fameuse Susceptibility to apple-scab, 
 
 place in market being taken 
 by Mcintosh. 
 
 10. Yellow Bellflower Requires great care in handling, 
 
 not regarded as a satisfactory 
 cropper on most soils in the 
 East. 
 
 11. Stark Does not color well, poor quality. 
 
 12. Smokehouse Difficult to develop fruit of good 
 
 color and quality. Other var- 
 ieties much better suited to 
 culinary uses. 
 
 13. Smith Cider Does not rank high in market 
 
 quality, and does not develop 
 in size in many regions. 
 
446 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 -p . , Reasons for decline in com- 
 
 V Q/TV GvlJ» "771 
 
 merctai orchards. 
 
 14. Willow Twig Poor quality. lias declined 
 
 since advent of cold storage. 
 
 15. Red Limbertwig Only fair quality, market price 
 
 below the average, place taken 
 by superior cold storage varie- 
 ties. 
 
 16. Westfield (Seek-no-furtber) Fruit variable in color, usually 
 
 lower in price than other 
 commercial varieties, lacks 
 culinary qualities. 
 
 17. Black Gilliflower Does not hold flavor, difficult to 
 
 harvest, limited demand. 
 
 18. Ralls (Genet or Geniton). .Requires much thinning, rather 
 
 small in size, poor appearance. 
 
 19. Fall Pippin . . ., Very susceptible to apple-scab, 
 
 ripens unevenly, lacks storage 
 qualities 
 
 20. Rambo Leading commercial varieties 
 
 are superior in quality and 
 uses, does not keep well in 
 storage. 
 
 21. Huntsman Susceptibility to bitter-rot, sun- 
 
 scald and scab ; tree slow to 
 come into full bearing. 
 
 22. Ingram Second rate in quality, medium 
 
 size. 
 
 23. Wolf River Fruit too large, lacks storage 
 
 qualities, moderate cropper, 
 poor dessert quality. 
 
 24. Collins Lacking in dessert quality, flesh 
 
 coarse and lacking in flavor. 
 
 25. Lawver (Delaware Red). ..Lacking in dessert quality, not 
 
 a very reliable cropper, place 
 taken by cold storage varieties 
 of superior quality. 
 
 26. Blue Pearmain Not a reliable cropper, rather 
 
Varieties of Apples 447 
 
 TT . , Reasons for decline in corn- 
 
 Variety. . , , J 
 
 mercial orchards. 
 
 low in quality, poor storage 
 variety. 
 
 27. Buckingham Poor shipper, moderate quality 
 
 and irregular bearer. 
 
 28. Falla water Coarse flesh, superseded by other 
 
 late keeping varieties of better 
 quality. 
 
 29. Swaar Tree lacks longevity, moderate 
 
 cropper, lacking in attractive 
 appearance. 
 
 30. Red Canada (Steele's Red) Delicate tree, light and uncer- 
 
 tain cropper. 
 
 Of the above varieties, Ben Davis, N^orthem Spy, 
 Esopus and Yellow Bellflower are of great importance in 
 the commercial market. Ben Davis, formerly planted to 
 the exclusion of most other apples in Missouri and many 
 parts of the Middle West and South, is showing a rapid 
 decline. Not only are comparatively few Ben Davis now 
 being planted, but thousands of the old orchards are dying 
 out through the ravages of the blister-canker and general 
 neglect. Virginia is taking the best care of its Ben Davis 
 orchards. 
 
 While it is true that the Ben Davis is of low quality, its 
 cost of production is very low as compared to most apples. 
 Due to its heavy bearing qualities, it has proved very 
 profitable in many regions. Growers to-day would make 
 no great mistake in planting Ben Davis in those regions 
 outside of the irrigated sections where it is well adapted. 
 It is very suitable for culinary purposes and its low dessert 
 quality should not overbalance its recognized keeping qual- 
 ities and productivity. 
 
448 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Northern Spy, although one of the highest priced and 
 highest quality apples grown, is being superseded by 
 varieties which are earlier and heavier bearers, and whose 
 cost of production is much less. It will retain its place in 
 many localities, however, and will no doubt always be 
 grown in commercial quantities, particularly in northern 
 New York, Michigan, Vermont and Canada. It has no 
 place in the Northwest, Central West or South. 
 
 The Esopus Spitzenburg is declining rapidly in the 
 East, and few conmiercial orchards now exist outside of 
 Oregon, Washington and California. It is grown in large 
 quantities, especially in Hood River and Wenatchee val- 
 leys. On account of the susceptibility of the trees to 
 disease, however, it is being planted to a much less degree 
 than fonnerly, even in its most favored regions. The 
 very high dessert and market quality of the fruit, which 
 is practically unsurpassed in this respect, has kept this 
 apple in the commercial orchards. 
 
 Tompkins King, excellent both for dessert and culinary 
 uses, is hardly suitable for commercial orchards, for the 
 same reasons as the Esopus. It brings high prices but re- 
 quires great care in gi'owing and is particularly subject to 
 damage by windstorms. Its planting is now being largely 
 limited to home orchards. 
 
 Roxbury Russet, Golden Russet, Willow Twig, Smoke- 
 house, Missouri Pippin, Fallawater, and Lawver owed 
 much of their former popularity to their ability to keep 
 well in cellars or common storage. With the advent of 
 the cold storage, these varieties lost much of their im- 
 portance and are now seldom planted in commercial 
 orchards. 
 
 Yellow Bellflower, although important in the aggregate 
 
Varieties of Apples 449 
 
 number of trees in the United States, is grown in a com- 
 mercial way only in the Pajaro Valley of California. It 
 bids fair to retain or increase its importance there, but 
 the trees in the East are nearly all in old orchards, and 
 are rapidly going out. 
 
 Smith Cider has always been largely limited to home 
 orchards, particularly in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and 
 mid-eastern states. Although this is an old and once 
 valuable variety, it is now seldom planted. 
 
 Eed Limbertwig, the leading commercial apple of 
 North Carolina, is being superseded by Arkansas (Black 
 Twig), Stayman and other recognized commercial varieties 
 which surpass it in quality and market demand. 
 
 Fall Pippin and Fameuse are autumn or early winter 
 apples which are losing their place in the commercial or- 
 chards, due principally to the development of other varie- 
 ties of equal or better quality. They will always be grown 
 to some extent commercially, particularly the Fameuse. 
 
 AGE VARIETIES BEGIN TO BEAR 
 
 The age at which trees attain bearing varies greatly 
 with the variety and also somewhat with the region. In 
 the Northwest, and particularly in the Wenatchee and 
 Yakima valleys, some varieties are in profitable bearing at 
 six years and are bearing full crops at ten years of age. 
 In the East, however, the time required for trees to attain 
 full bearing is from three to eight years longer. Trees in 
 Virginia come into bearing earlier than those in Michigan 
 or in New York, while bearing age for the Central West 
 might be given as midway between that for New York 
 and Virginia. New England is a region in which trees 
 attain full bearing at rather advanced ages. 
 
450 
 
 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 The following classification arranges moet of the im- 
 portant commercial varieties into three groups according 
 to the time at which they reach bearing. In the first col- 
 umn are those which are known as early bearers in practi- 
 cally every region in which they are grown. In the last 
 column are those which are generally classed as late bear- 
 ers, while in the middle column are varieties which grade 
 between early and late bearers. Some variation will be 
 found, of course, in different regions. 
 
 Early. 
 
 Wealthy 
 
 Wagener 
 
 Duchess 
 
 Jonathan 
 
 Missouri Pippin 
 
 Twenty Ounce 
 
 Yellow Transparent 
 
 Mcintosh 
 
 Rome 
 
 Medium. 
 
 Winesap 
 
 Ben Davis 
 
 Gano 
 
 Maiden Blush 
 
 Alexander 
 
 R. I. Greening 
 
 Williams Early Red 
 
 Grimes 
 
 Stayman 
 
 Baldwin 
 
 York Imperial 
 
 Late. 
 
 Delicious 
 Arkansas Black 
 Tompkins King 
 Arkansas 
 Yellow Newtown 
 Yellow Bellflower 
 Esopus 
 
 Northern Spy 
 Stark 
 
 Of the varieties listed, l!^orthern Spy is probably slower 
 to come into bearing than any other, while Oldenburg 
 (Duchess), Yellow Transparent and Wealthy, are among 
 extremely early bearers. The latter three varieties begin 
 to bear at about five years of age, even in New York state, 
 while the Northern Spy can not be expected to have a 
 good commercial crop before it is at least fifteen years of 
 age, and is not in full bearing until it is twenty-five. The 
 following examples will show the wide variation in full 
 bearing age for different regions : in the Wenatchee Valley 
 an orchard is considered in full bearing at ten to twelve 
 years ; in New York not generally before twenty to twenty- 
 five years ; in Virginia it requires about fifteen years, with 
 
Varieties of Apples 451 
 
 the exception of the Yellow N^ewtown plantings, which re- 
 quire a somewhat longer time. 
 
 Most of the late bearing varieties are of high quality 
 and all are in demand on the general market. However, 
 it is on account of their very late bearing tendencies that 
 many of them are not planted to a greater extent. It 
 should be remembered that late bearing does not mean un- 
 productive. Varieties which are late in coming into 
 bearing are often more productive than the early bearing 
 sorts. 
 
 RELATIVE PRODUCTIVITY OF VARIETIES IN FULL BEARING 
 
 It is difficult to arrange varieties in columns according 
 to productivity, because many are very productive on 
 some soils and unproductive on others, and also productive 
 in certain regions, while not at all adapted to others. In 
 general, however, twenty of the well known commercial 
 varieties might be arranged as follows somewhat in order 
 of productivity : 
 
 Heavy to Medium Bearing Medium to Light Bearing 
 Varieties. Varieties. 
 
 1. Ben Davis 1. Yellow Newtown 
 
 2. Stayman 2. Winter Banana 
 
 3. Baldwin 3. Mcintosh 
 
 4. Stark 4. Arkansas 
 
 5. York Imperial 5. Arkansas Black 
 
 6. Winesap 6. Grimes 
 
 7. Rhode Island Greening 7. Delicious 
 
 8. Rome Beauty 8. Wagener 
 
 9. Wealthy 9. Esopus 
 10. Northern Spy 10. Red June 
 
 Ben Davis, although undoubtedly the heaviest bearing 
 
i52 Th^ Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 of all commercial varieties, is at the same time usually the 
 lowest in price on the commercial market, while Red 
 June, probabl}' producing about the lighest crop of any 
 commercial apple, usually tops the market in its season. 
 Quality is to be considered as well as the bearing tenden- 
 cies when selecting varieties. 
 
 EELATIVE HARDINESS OF COMMEKCIAL VARIETIES 
 
 Hardiness and health of tree plays an important part in 
 selecting varieties and should be considered especially in 
 severe climates. The following are well known as hardy 
 sorts : 
 
 Northern Spy 
 
 Wealthy 
 
 Ben Davis 
 
 Baldwin 
 
 Fameuse 
 
 Yellow Bellflower 
 
 Yellow Newtown 
 
 Gravenstein 
 
 Tolman Sweet 
 
 Williams Early Bed 
 
 Mcintosh 
 
 Alexander 
 
 Winter .Banana 
 
 Delicious 
 
 'he following varieties lack hardiness: 
 
 Tompkins King 
 
 Grimes 
 
 Twenty Ounce 
 
 Sutton 
 
 Esopus 
 
 Canada Ked 
 
 Hubbardston 
 
 
 One might mention a great many other varieties which 
 would fall midway between these two groups, or might add 
 several to each group, but the more important in each 
 extreme are named above. Of the hardy varieties, Mcin- 
 tosh deserves particular mention. It withstood the severe 
 winter in 1917 in the Champlain district of iSTew York and 
 
Varieties of Apples 453 
 
 Quebec, when trees of such well known and hardy varieties 
 as Northern Spy, Fameuse and Ben Davis were killed in 
 the same orchards. 
 
 VARIETIES IN GREATEST DEMAND 
 
 In the selection of varieties, it is important to consider 
 those which are in great demand in the coimnercial mar- 
 ket, and which ordinarily bring the best market prices. 
 This sort of selection will often eliminate many hardy or 
 productive varieties which are not generally in great de- 
 mand by the consuming public. The following are well 
 known and sought after in the general markets : 
 
 Late Varieties. Early or Fall Varieties. 
 
 Baldwin Yellow Transparent 
 
 Tompkins King Red June 
 
 Esopus Oldenburg (Duchess) 
 
 Rhode Island Greening Gravenstein 
 
 Stayman Williams Early Red 
 
 Delicious Bonum 
 
 Winesap Wealthy 
 
 Jonathan Twenty Ounce 
 
 York Imperial Mcintosh 
 
 Northern Spy 
 
 Grimes 
 
 Yellow Newtown 
 
 Rome Beauty 
 
 Ortley 
 
 Winter Banana 
 
 Of the above named late varieties, Esopus, Tompkins 
 King, Grimes, Northern Spy, Delicious, Mcintosh and 
 Ortley usually outsell all others, while Winesap and Jona- 
 than excel the Stayman, Baldwin, York and most other 
 varieties in barreled apple sections. In the early market 
 
454 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg (Duchess) and Wealthy 
 are probably the three best known varieties, although they 
 do not usually sell for such high prices as some of the spe- 
 cial sorts like Red June. 
 
 EXPORT VARIETIES 
 
 Varieties might be divided further into three classes as 
 follows: (1) those for special or local markets, (2) those 
 for general market, and (3) those for export market. 
 Extensive planting of varieties which are only adapted 
 for special markets is not recommended. It is better to 
 plant general market varieties which are adapted to special 
 markets as well. In considering the export market, it is 
 necessary to eliminate some general market varieties. The 
 following ten or twelve varieties have proved most satis- 
 factory for the export trade : 
 
 Barreled Boxed 
 
 Baldwin Yellow Newtown 
 
 Yellow Newtown Winesap 
 
 York Imperial Jonathan 
 
 Ben Davis Esopus 
 
 Northern Spy White Pearmain 
 
 Ortley 
 
 Yellow Newtown, York Imperial and Baldwin have up 
 to the present time been the favorite export varieties. 
 
 VARIETIES FOR THE HOME ORCHARDS 
 
 In selecting varieties for the home orchard, an entirely 
 different system should be used than for commercial plant- 
 ing. Flavor and keeping quality are the two predomin- 
 ant qualities to be considered. Annual yield, shipping 
 
Varieties of Apples 455 
 
 qualities, appearance and market demand should not ma- 
 terially affect the selection of varieties for a strictly home 
 orchard. Very often apples which conform to commer- 
 cial standards are inferior in quality to certain sorts which 
 may be grown at home. Suitable varieties for the home 
 orchard are very often too tender to ship or are too irregu- 
 lar in their bearing habits to prove profitable in a com- 
 mercial way. 
 
 Varieties most valuable for home use are seldom listed 
 by many nurserymen, while commercial varieties not at all 
 adaptable for the home orchard are often given as suitable. 
 Xursery catalogue descriptions of varieties are not only 
 meagre, but are too general in many ways and at times 
 are misleading. Such descriptions as " fine quality," 
 " very productive " and " excellent for the orchard " have 
 been applied to practically every apple offered by nursery- 
 men. This criticism, of course, does not apply to all 
 catalogues, but one has only to read over the list of varieties 
 offered by several nurseries selected at random to see how 
 widely descriptions differ and to note the number of odd 
 and practically untried varieties listed. A great number 
 of new and odd varieties offered by nurserymen are much 
 inferior in quality to standard sorts. 
 
 To name the varieties suitable for home orchard pur- 
 poses would entail a very large list, if seasonable demands 
 and also varying soil and climatic conditions were con- 
 sidered. Among the commercial varieties suited to home 
 orchard use generally throughout the North and central 
 states are Northern Spy, Mcintosh, Fameuse, Baldwin, 
 Grimes, Gravenstein, Tompkins King, Esopus (Spitzen- 
 burg), Delicious, Stayman, Yellow Newtown, Oldenburg 
 (Duchess), Winter Banana and Rhode Island Greening. 
 
456 The Commercial Apple Industry 
 
 In the more southern regions, Grimes, Delicious, Wine- 
 sap, Stayman and Yellow Transparent are valuable, while 
 Bonum, Virginia Beauty and Yellow Newtown are of par- 
 ticularly high quality when grown in the mountain dis- 
 tricts of the South. Many others are suitable, but the 
 above are excellent commercial sorts as well as for the 
 home orchard. Varieties not particularly suited for the 
 home orchard are Ben Davis, Gano, Rome Beauty, Bis- 
 mark. Wolf River, Blue Pearmain, Pewaukee, Mammoth 
 Black Twig, Arkansas Black, Willow Twig, Missouri Pip- 
 pin, Smith Cider, Smokehouse and many others. Some 
 sweet apples find little place in commercial orchards, but 
 have superior flavor and are unexcelled for dessert and 
 boiling purposes. The Victoria Sweet, a very tender, 
 juicy and rare flavored apple in season from October to 
 January in the J^orth is one of these, Jersey Sweet, a 
 month earlier, being another. Sweet Bough is the best 
 summer sweet apple, excelling all others in dessert 
 quality. 
 
 Pound Sweet is a late fall and winter variety which is 
 valuable, even commercially, and the same is true of Tol- 
 man Sweet. The last named is one of the best apples 
 grown for household use. 
 
 Old varieties like Black Gilliflower, Roxbury and 
 Golden Russet, Westfield Seek-no-further, Yellow Bell- 
 flower and Jeffries are valuable in the home orchard. 
 Chenango is one of the very finest apples for the home 
 orchard, unexcelled in fine dessert quality. Its season is 
 July in southern Illinois, August in Ohio and September 
 in New York. 
 
 It is always well when setting out a home orchard to get 
 in touch with the horticultural extension department of 
 
Varieties of Apples 457 
 
 the state and obtain the advice as to varieties for any 
 particular locality. Also if a variety can not be secured 
 from any particular nursery, the information as to M'here 
 it can be obtained may be received on inquiry of the office 
 of Pomological Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Advertising (effect of), 12 
 Age, bearing, 120-122 
 Albemarle Pippin, 402 
 Alexander, 436 
 Alfalfa, in orchards, 161 
 Alkali, danger of, 178-179 
 American Golden Russet, 408 
 Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, 
 
 86 
 Aphids, life history and control, 
 
 210 
 Aphis sorbi, 212 
 Archips argyrospila, 215 
 Apple-blotch, 217 
 
 rosette, 222 
 
 scab, 216 
 
 tree tent caterpillar, 214 
 
 worm, 206 
 Arkansas 
 
 advantages and disadvantages, 
 108 
 
 Black, 412 
 
 Black Twig, 411 
 
 regional description, 54-56 
 
 Valley region, 59 
 Arsenate of lead, 239 
 Arsenite of zinc, 241 
 Aspidiotus perniciosiis, 210 
 Astrachan, 435 
 Australia, 95-99 
 
 Bacillus amylovorus, 221 
 Baldwin, 396 
 
 spot, 223 
 Barry, Patrick, influence on in- 
 dustry, 22 
 Basement storage, 312 
 Bearing trees, pruning of, 274- 
 275 
 
 Bees, importance of, 253 
 Ben Davis, 397 
 Benoni, 433 
 
 Bitter Root Valley, regional de- 
 scription, 64 
 Bitter-rot, 218 
 Black Ben, 407 
 
 Gilliflower, 425 
 
 Twig, 411 
 Blister canker, 219 
 Blodgett, 236 
 Blossom-blight, 222 
 Boise Valley, 75 
 Bonum, 434 
 
 Boom development, 17-18 
 Bordeaux mixture, 247 
 
 spray nozzles, 232 
 Box apple districts production 
 
 of, 79 
 British Columbia, 92-94 
 Broker, 323 
 
 Brush disposal, cost of, 375 
 Bud-moth, 215 
 Bulk shipments, 312 
 By-products, 34S-356 
 
 increase in use of, 14 
 
 Cabinet evaporators, 352 
 Calcium arsenate, 240 
 California, 76-79 
 
 advantages of, 113-115 
 
 early apples, 83-84 
 
 early development of apple 23 
 
 Fruit Growers' Exchange, 317 
 Canada, 85-95 
 Canning, 355 
 
 Capital, necessary, 126-128 
 Carlot distribution, 325 
 
 operator, 324 
 459 
 
460 
 
 Index 
 
 Carolina June, 437 
 
 Carpocapsa pomonella, 206 
 
 Cash buyers, 314 
 
 Cedar rust, 218 
 
 Census figures, somewhat mis- 
 leading, 2 
 
 Centralization of apple industry, 
 6 
 
 Central leader, pruning, 261 
 
 Ceramic oven, 353 
 
 Champlain, 440 
 
 district, advantages and dis- 
 advantages, 102-103 
 district, regional description, 
 35 
 
 Chapman, Jonathan, influence on 
 industry, 22 
 
 Chenango, 438 
 
 Choosing an orchard, 100-131 
 
 Cider, 356 
 
 Citrus fruit, competition with, 
 18 
 
 Clarke, W. T., influence of, 25 
 
 Classification, scientific, 26-27 
 
 Clean cultivation, 156-159 
 
 Climatic influences, 123-125 
 
 Codlin-moth, life history and con- 
 trol, 206.-210 
 
 Codling, 440 
 
 Collar-rot, 220 
 
 Collins, 422 
 
 Color, effect of fertilization, 193 
 
 Color, indicating maturity, 292 
 
 Colorado, distribution and plant- 
 ings, 60-61 
 first plantings, 26 
 western slope, advantages and 
 disadvantages, 109 
 
 Commercial apple crop, definition 
 of, 4 
 size of, 5-6 
 
 Commission-man, 323 
 
 Common storage, 335-336 
 
 Community packing-house, 308 
 
 Conatrachelus nenuphar, 213 
 
 Consignment, 313 
 
 Conveyor belts, 305-306 
 
 Cooperative organization, form 
 of, 319-320 
 
 selling, 316-319 
 Cost of production, 357-386 
 
 in different regions, 384 
 Costs, other than labor, 360 
 Cover-crops, 159-162 
 
 advantages and disadvantages, 
 161 
 Crop estimates, 337 
 Cross pollination, 249-257 
 Culls, disposition of, 306 
 Cultivation, methods, 162-163 
 
 orchard, 155-171 
 Cultural methods, effect on con- 
 sumption, 13 
 Curculio, 213 
 Cutworms, 215 
 Cycles, in apple industry 8, 
 
 Danger from speculative develop- 
 ment, 18 
 Delaware, advantages and dis- 
 advantages, 104 
 early apples, 82 
 regional description, 37 
 Delicious, 406 
 Diseases of the apple, 216-225 
 
 in selection of site, 122-123 
 Distillation types of evaporators, 
 
 354 
 Distribution, 322-327 
 
 effect on consumption, 12 
 Districts, apple, 28-84 
 Diversified farms, 133-140 
 Double-headed pruning, 264 
 Downing, A. J., influence of, 21 
 Duchess, 426 
 Dusting, discussion of, 235-238 
 
 Early apple regions, 80-84 
 
 Harvest, 439 
 
 Ripe, 435 
 Electrically heated driers, 352 
 English Codling, 440 
 
 Russet, 409 
 Eaopus Spitzenburg, 403 
 
Index 
 
 461 
 
 Establishing the apple orchard, 
 
 144-153 
 Evaporators, 350 
 Exports, 11 — — '-"^ 
 Export varieties, 454 
 
 Facing barrels, 332 
 Fallawater, 439 
 Fall Pippin, 439 
 Fameuse, 432 
 Farm, size of, 125-126 
 
 management phases, 133-143 
 
 orchards, decline of, 4 
 Favorable factors in apple out- 
 look, 9-14 
 Fertile varieties, 257 
 Fertilizer, amount to the tree, 
 198-204 
 
 how to apply, 200-201 
 Fertilizing, present practices, 
 187-188 
 
 the orchard, 186 
 Fillers, use of, 153 
 Fire-blight, 221 
 Fixed costs, 380 
 Flavor, 389 
 Flooding, 185 
 Fly-speck, 217 
 
 Forced draft evaporators, 352 
 Foreign market, development of, 
 
 11 
 Foreign production, 85-99 
 French Russet, 408 
 Friend type nozzle, 232 
 Frosts, in West, 177-178 
 Fruit buds, 271 
 
 setting, 249-257 
 
 tree Leaf-roller, 215 
 Fruiting wood, distribution of, 
 
 275 
 Fungicides, 247-248 
 Furrowing for irrigation, 185 
 Future outlook for ^pple indus- 
 try, 7 
 
 production, 14 
 
 Gano, 407 
 
 Georgia, important regions, 45- 
 
 46 
 Gillett's Seedling, 401 
 Gilliflower, 425 
 Gypsy moth, damage of, 33 
 Glomerella rtifomaculans, 218 
 Golden Delicious, 440 
 
 Russet, 408 
 Government marketing agencies, 
 
 336-337 
 Grades and standards, 329 
 Grading laws, 331-332 
 
 machines, 30 
 Grand Valley, plantings, 60-61 
 Gravenstein, 429 
 Green aphis, 211-212 
 Grimes Golden, 404 
 Gymnosporanqium juniperi vir- 
 
 giniance, 218 
 
 Hail damage, to be avoided, 346 
 Hampers, where used, 330 
 Handling the crop, 291-312 
 Hardiness of varieties, 452 
 Harvesting costs, 379 
 Heaton, J. C. B., influence of, 51 
 Heeling, in, 146 
 Beterocordylus malinus, 214 
 Hexagonal planting system, 147 
 History of commercial industry, 
 
 20 
 Hollow tile, construction of, 311 
 Home orchard varieties, 454 
 Hood River Valley, advantages 
 
 and disadvantages, 112-113 
 region, 70-72 
 Hubbardston, 416 
 Hudson Valley, advantages and 
 
 disadvantages, 101-102 
 regional description, 32-33 
 Hull, John, 231 
 Hunt Russet, 408 
 Hybridization, 389 
 
 Idaho, 74-75 
 
 advantages and disadvantages, 
 110-111 
 
462 
 
 Index 
 
 Illinois, advantapes and disad- 
 vantages, 107 
 regional description, 50-53 
 Implements used in cultivation, 
 
 165 
 Increased demand, 10 
 Inflation, apple land values, 8 
 Ingram, 424 
 
 Insect pests of the apple, 206-216 
 Insects, in selection of site, 122- 
 
 123 
 Insecticides, 238 
 Inspection at point of origin, 
 
 332-333 
 Insulation, 306-312 
 Intensive fairms, 133-140 
 Intercrops, use of, 153-154 
 Internal browning, 223 
 Investment costs, 363 
 Iowa, heavy plantings, 56-59 
 Irrigated districts, amount of 
 water, 181-182 
 characteristics of 173-177 
 choosing of, 177-181 
 Irrigation, 172-185 
 methods of. 183-185 
 number of applications, 182- 
 
 183 
 time of, 182 
 
 Jelly manufacturing, 355 
 Johnson's Fine Winter, 400 
 Jonathan, 399 
 Jumble pack, 304 
 
 Kansas, heavy plantings, 56-59 
 
 Kentucky, 48 
 
 Kiln evaporators, 351 
 
 King David, 440 
 
 Kraus, work of, 189-191 
 
 Kraybill, work of, 189-191 
 
 Labor conditions, 128-129 
 
 cost of, 359-36()' 
 
 efficiency of, 373 
 
 Seasonal distribution, 367 
 Lady, 426 
 
 Leguminous cover-crop, 160 
 Lepidosaphes ulmi, 211 
 Leptotht/rium pomi, 217 
 Lewis, C. I., quoted, 195-198 
 Lewiston district, 75 
 Lime, value of, 192 
 
 sulfur, 241 
 
 dry, 245-246 
 
 home-made 242-244 
 Locality, choosing of, 100-131 
 Loess apple belt, 56-57 
 Longevity of orchards, 121-122 
 Long Island Russet, 408 
 Loppers, 278 
 
 Low prices, danger of, 134 
 Lowry, 439 
 Lump-sum buyers, 315 
 Lygidea mendax, 214 
 
 Mapnum Bonum, 434 
 Maiden Blush, 431 
 Maine, apple industry in, 33 
 Malacosoma americana, 214 
 Malus communis, 27 
 
 sylvestris, 27 
 Mammoth Black Twig, 411 
 Market, proximity to, 118-119 
 Massachusetts, apple industry in, 
 
 33 
 Materials, cost of, 372 
 Mcintosh, 430 
 Mechanical sizers, 307 
 Mice, meadow, 223 
 
 pine, 224 
 Michigan, regional description, 
 
 49-50 
 Michigan, western, advantages 
 
 and disadvantages, 106-107 
 Middle West, early development 
 
 of apple, 23 
 Mill shavings, insulation, 312 
 Milton-Freewater district, 73 
 Minnesota, 80 
 Miscible oils, 245 
 Mississippi Valley region of Illi- 
 
 1 
 
 nois, 52 
 
Index 
 
 463 
 
 Missouri, 54-59 
 
 advantages and disadvantages, 
 107-109 
 
 River region, 56-59 
 
 advantages and disadvantages, 
 108-109 
 
 Pippin, 418 
 Modified leader pruning, 266 
 Monmouth, 421 
 
 Montana, regional description, 64 
 Morris Red, 424 
 
 Natural draft evaporators, 350 
 Natural form pruning, 260 
 Nebraska, heavy plantings, 56-59 
 Neglected orchards, treatment of, 
 
 284-290 
 New England, advantages and 
 disadvantages, 103 
 Baldwin belt, regional descrip- 
 tion, S3-34 
 early apples, 81 
 early plantings, 20 
 New Hampshire, apple industry 
 
 33 
 New Jersey, advantages and dis- 
 advantages, 104 
 district, regional description, 
 
 36 
 early apples, 81-82 
 New Mexico, advantages and dis- 
 advantages, 115 
 distribution of plantings, 62- 
 63 
 New York, early apples. 81 
 
 early development of, 21 
 New Zealand, 95-99 
 Nicotine solution, 244 
 Nitrate of soda, time to apply, 
 205 
 value of, 192-200 
 North Carolina, important re- 
 gions, 43-45 
 Northern Spy, 401 
 Northwestern Greening, 419 
 Nova Scotia, 86-88 
 Nozzles, types of, 232 
 
 Nummularia discreta, 219 
 Nursery stock, 145-146 
 
 Ohio, important regions, 46-48 
 
 southern advantages and dis- 
 advantages, 106 
 Okanogan Valley of B. C, 93 
 
 regional description, 67-69 
 Oldenburg, 426 
 Ontario, 90-92 
 Opalescent, 440 
 Open center pruning, 262 
 Orchard carriers, 303 
 
 cultivation, 155-171 
 Oregon, 70-73 
 
 advantages and disadvantages, 
 112-113 
 Organization, farm, 133-140 
 Ortley, 420 
 Outlook, favorable factors, 9 
 
 unfavorable factors, 15 
 Over-production, 8 
 
 possibility of, 14-16 
 Oyster-shell scale, 211 
 Ozark region, 54 
 
 advantages and disadvantages, 
 107-108 
 
 Package, standard, 330 
 Packing, 296 
 
 boxed apples, 303 
 Packing-house arrangement, 305 
 
 construction, 310-312 
 
 for barreled apples, 298 
 Pajaro Valley, 76-77 
 
 early development of apple, 23 
 Paris Green, 240 
 Payette Valley, 74 
 Fear-blight, 221 
 
 Pecos Valley, plantings in, 62-63 
 Pelican, 440 
 Pennock, 440 
 Pennsylvania, important regions, 
 
 38-42 
 Perry Russet, 409 
 Phosphorus, value of, 192-204 
 Phyllosticta solitaria, 217 
 
464 
 
 Index 
 
 Physical handling, 329 
 Picking, 291 
 
 utensils, 294 
 Piedmont, in Virginia, 40-41 
 
 region, advantages and disad- 
 vantages, 105-106 
 Planting, distances, 149-151 
 
 system of, 147-150 
 Planting-board, use of, 151 
 Plant-lice, 211 
 Plowing, 163 
 Plum curculio, 213 
 Pole pruners, 277-278 
 Pollination, 249-257 
 PoUinizers, 255 
 Pomme Grise, 408 
 Pooling, 321 
 
 Potash, value of, 192-204 
 Pound Sweet, 422 
 Prices, relation to production, 7 
 Prices western apple land, 9 
 Productivity of varieties, 451 
 Pruning, 258-278 
 
 cost of, 375-376 
 
 time of, 276 
 Pumpkin Sweet, 422 
 Pyrus baccata, 27 
 
 loensis, 27 • 
 
 Malus, 26 
 
 Quebec, apple industry in, 89 
 Quincunx planting system, 148 
 
 Rambo, 419 
 
 Raw versus planted land, 116 
 Recommended varieties, 391 
 Red Astrachan, 435 
 
 Bug, 214 
 
 Canada, 421 
 
 Cheek, 431 
 
 Cheek Pippin, 421 
 
 June, 437 
 
 Limbertwig, 414 
 Regional development, 130 
 Regions, apple, 2S-84 
 Renovation of old orchards, 284- 
 290 
 
 Rhode Island Greening, 398 
 Rogue River Valley, 72-73 
 
 advantages and disadvantages, 
 
 113 
 Rome Beauty, 401 
 Rosette, apple, 222 
 Rosy apple aphis, 211 
 Round-headed Apple-tree borer, 
 
 214 
 Roxbury Russet, 408 
 Russets, 408 
 
 San Jose scale, life history and 
 
 control, 210 
 Saperda Candida, 214 
 Saws, 277 
 
 Schizoneura lanigera, 212 
 Sebastopol apple district, 78 
 Sections, apple, 28-84 
 . Seed, quantity to use, 162 
 Seed selection, 389 
 Seeds, indicating maturity, 293 
 Setting of fruit, 250-254 
 
 trees, 151-152 
 Shears, 277 
 
 ' Shenandoah-Cumberland district, 
 38-40 
 
 advantages and disadvantages, 
 104-105 
 Shipping station, distance from, 
 
 119-120 
 Site, choosing of, 116-131 
 Size of farm, influence of, 366 
 
 of orchard, influence of, 364 
 Slatted table, 297 
 Smith's Cider, 439 
 Smokehouse, 439 
 Snow, 432 
 
 Social conditions, 129 
 Sod-mulch, advantages and dis- 
 advantages, 157-158 
 Soil, 130-132 
 
 Management, chart of, 164 
 
 management, Cost of, 376 
 Sooty blotch, 217 
 Sorting barreled apples, 296 
 
 boxed apples, 303 
 
Index 
 
 465 
 
 Southeastern Illinois region, 53 
 Southern Illinois, early apple re- 
 gion, 51-52 
 
 early apples, 83 
 Southern Ohio, 46-47 
 Specialized farms, 133-140 
 Spitzenburg, 403 
 Spokane district, 70 
 
 advantages and disadvantages, 
 112 
 Spray -gun, 231 
 Spraying, 226-248 
 
 cost of, 228 
 
 notes, regional, 233-235 
 Spreaders, in spray, 246 
 Square, planting system, 147 
 Stable manure, value of, 188-205 
 Stack evaporators, 351 
 Stark, 415 
 Starr, 436 
 
 State, H. R., influence of, 45 
 Stayman, 405 
 Sterile varieties, 256 
 Stewart, J. P.. quoted, 191-194 
 Storage, 333-335 
 Strawberry, 438 
 Summer pruning, 276-277 
 Supplies, purchase of, 322 
 Sutton, 424 
 Swaar, 439 
 Sweet Bough, 439 
 Syndicate farming, danger of, 18 
 
 projects, 117-118 
 
 Tasmania, 95-99 
 
 production of, 18 
 Tenantry, systems of, 140-143 
 Thinning, 278-283 
 
 cost of, 378 
 Tillage, 162-163 
 Time to buy, 117 
 
 to plant, 151 
 Tmetocera ocellana, 215 
 Tolman Sweet, 417 
 Tompkins King, 410 
 Tools used in cultivation, 164 
 Tools, pruning, 277 
 
 Total apple crop, 5 
 
 Tractor, advantages and disad- 
 vantages, 165-171 
 
 Transparent, 428 
 
 Transportation, effect on con- 
 sumption, 12, 
 
 Tree-run buyers, 315 
 
 Trees, heading 152-153 
 number to the acre, 149 
 setting, 151-152 
 
 Truck, use of, 171 
 
 Trunk-blight, 222 
 
 Twenty Ounce, 429 
 
 Twig-blight, 222 
 
 Twin Falls district, 75 
 
 Unfavorable factors in outlook, 
 
 15 
 Unfavored regions, 17 
 Utah, advantages and disadvan- 
 tages, 109-110 
 distribution of plantings, 63 
 
 Vacuum driers, 354 
 Value of apple crop, 3 
 Varieties, 387-457 
 
 cost of production, 371 
 
 influence on cost production, 
 367-371 
 
 in selection of site, 118 
 Venturia pomi, 216 
 Vermont, apple industry, 35 
 Vermorel spray nozzles, 232 
 Vinegar, 356 
 
 Virginia, advantages and disad- 
 vantages, 104-106 
 
 Beauty, 440 
 
 history of early planting, 22 
 Virginia, important Regions, 38- 
 42 
 
 Wagener, 411 
 Walla Walla district, 70 
 Washington, advantages and dis- 
 advantages, 111-112 
 regional description, 64-70 
 
466 
 
 Index 
 
 Water rent, 179 
 
 right, 180 
 
 sprouts, treatment of, 287-288 
 Watsonville district, 76-77 
 Wealthy, 427 
 
 Wenatchee Valley, advantages 
 and disadvantages, lU-112 
 
 first plantings, 25 
 
 regional description, 67-69 
 Western New York, advantages 
 and disadvantages, 100-101 
 
 regional description, 29-32 
 Westfield, 439 
 West Virginia, important region, 
 
 38, 39, 42 
 White Pearmain, 414 
 Willamette Valley, 73 
 Williams, 433 
 
 Early Red, 433 
 
 Favorite, 433 
 Willow Twig, 413 
 
 Winesap, 398 
 
 Winter Banana, 418 
 
 Wisconsin, 79-80 
 
 Wolf River, 423 
 
 Woolman's Long Pippin, 420 
 
 Woolly apple aphis, 212-213 
 
 Wounds, dressing, 278 
 
 Yakima Valley, advantages and 
 disadvantages. 111 
 first plantings, 24 
 regional description, 65-67 
 
 Yellovv Bellflower, 407 
 
 Newtown, 402 
 
 Transparent, 428 
 Yields, 339-347 
 
 in selection of site, 118 
 
 table of, 343 
 York Imperial, 400 
 Yucaipa apple section, 78-79 
 
 PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 

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