PRINCIPLES ef COOKER 
 
 AMERICAN SCHOOLS/HOME ECO! 
 CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 
 
 U.S. 
 
 TEXTBOOK EDITION 
 
Copyright N°_ 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
Principles of Cookery 
 
 ANNA BARROWS 
 
 TEACHER OF COOKERY, TEACHERS' COLLEGE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 DIRECTOR CHAUTAUQUA SCHOOL OF COOKERY 
 
 AUTHOR HOME SCIENCE COOK BOOK, FORMERY 
 
 EDITOR AMERICAN KITCHEN MAGAZINE 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS 
 
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 COPYRIGHT, 1904, BY 
 
 AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOUSEHOLD EO .«< MIC5 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1906, 1910, BY 
 
 HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION, 
 
 Entered at Stationers Hall, London 
 All Rights Reserved 
 
 ©C!.A2782'.2 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Letter to Students 
 
 Fire ...... 
 
 Water ...... 
 
 Methods of Cooking in Water 
 
 Ice ....... 
 
 Preparation and Preserving of Foods 
 Choice of Food .... 
 
 Milk and Its Products 
 
 Butter ...... 
 
 Cheese ...... 
 
 Eggs ...... 
 
 Meat ...... 
 
 Fish 
 
 Poultry ..... 
 
 Vegetables 
 
 Grains 
 
 Bread and Other Doughs 
 
 Pastry and Cake .... 
 
 Cooking of Doughs. 
 
 Form and Flavor .... 
 
 Flavor . . . 
 
 Food for the Day .... 
 
 Bibliography ..... 
 
 Comparative Value of Fuels 
 Alcohol ...... 
 
 Kerosene ..... 
 
 Fireless Cookers .... 
 
 Co-operative Cooking 
 Kitchen Furnishings 
 The Housekeeper's Library 
 Card Catalog of Foods . 
 
 
 1 
 . 16 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 . 2S 
 
 
 3 2 
 
 
 • 39 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 . 48 
 
 
 53 
 
 . 
 
 • 55 
 
 
 67 
 
 
 • 77 
 
 
 79 
 
 
 • S3 
 
 
 94 
 
 
 • 99 
 
 
 114 
 
 
 . I IQ 
 
 
 122 
 
 
 • 13° 
 
 
 133 
 
 
 . I40 
 
 
 147 
 
 
 • I50 
 
 
 151 
 
 
 • LS2 
 
 
 158 
 
 
 • 159 
 
 
 162 
 
 . 
 
 • 165 
 
iv CONTENTS 
 
 Cookery a Fine Art ..... 167 
 
 Cake Making ........ 169 
 
 Menu Making .' . . . . . 170 
 
 Use of Fats . . . . . . . . 180 
 
 Table Service . . . . . .181 
 
 Menus for Special Occasions ..... 182 
 
 Directions for Waitresses at the Lake Placid 
 
 Club, by Mrs. Melvil Dewey .... 1S3 
 
 Program for Supplemental Study . . . 189 
 
 Index ........ 197 
 
AMERICAN SCHOOL OP HOME ECONOMICS 
 CHICAGO 
 
 "January 1, 1907. 
 My dear Madam: 
 
 Cookery is so old a story to 
 many women that they find little interest in it. 
 Others, though they enjoy cooking and are con- 
 stantly devising new ways of preparing food and 
 seeking new recipes from their friends, never 
 learn anything of the chemical composition of 
 foods or the reasons for the processes they carry 
 on daily. 
 
 Comparatively few have yet studied cookery 
 as they study other subjects, getting at its 
 fundamental principles and grouping its varied 
 formulas in a few general divisions. 
 
 In these lessons the attempt has been made 
 to reduce cookery to its lowest terms. It would 
 be impossible to tell the whole story of the art 
 of cookery in so few pages, but by concentrating 
 we are better able to view the subject as a 
 whole. The aim has been to lay a foundation with 
 which each student may become familiar easily 
 and upon which she may build a system of cookery 
 in accord with modern scientific investigation 
 and yet adapted to her own conditions. 
 
 For those who have had little or no experience 
 in cooking, the order in which the tonics are 
 taken up will be suggestive and helpful— that is, 
 the application of heat to foods, the use of 
 water in cooking, cooking of simple foods as 
 grams, vegetables, and meats, and last, the mix- 
 ing and cooking of doughs and the making of the 
 more complicated dishes. If possible, 111 the 
 experiments should be performed, especially when 
 
they are called for in the test questions. Keep-, 
 ing a note book will be found a great help in fix- 
 ing experiences in mind and in preventing a repe- 
 tition of mistakes. 
 
 Most of our present system of cookery has 
 been derived from the experiments of the genera- 
 tions of housekeepers behind us, but there is no 
 reason why the housekeeper or cook of to-day 
 should cling to the traditions of the past if she 
 can devise a better way. It is hoped that these 
 lessons may induce each student to observe, to 
 adapt, to experiment. New life is put into the 
 simplest routine of daily work if we are constant- 
 ly watching processes and studying short cuts to 
 better results. 
 
 Very sincerely yours, 
 
 j?*^^ J^i 
 
 Instructor 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 A NATURAL starting point in the art of cookery 
 is the fire, since cookery without heat is an im- 
 possibility. Human beings everywhere use fire to pre- 
 pare their foods and by such applications of heat man 
 first showed his superiority to the beasts. 
 
 FIRE 
 
 Among the ancients fire was regarded as a gift from 
 the gods, to be protected in every way, and all civiliza- 
 tion, forms of religion, civil ordinances, and family life 
 have been traced to the care primitive man bestowed 
 upon his fire. Among the early tribes, the chieftain 
 was often the only one to have a fire in his home. 
 The hearthstone thus became the center of the home 
 life, the abode of the household gods, and even at the 
 present time it is impossible for some persons to sep- 
 arate the spirit of the home from the kitchen fire. 
 
 In different sections of the country may still be 
 seen all the types of fire and stove that have been Anciont 
 
 J r Stoves 
 
 developed through centuries, and every housekeeper 
 should be familiar with the principles underlying the 
 care of each. Among these are the camp fire where 
 food is broiled over coals or buried in hot ashes, the 
 charcoal brazier of the fruit vender, essentially the 
 same as the portable stoves found in Pompeii, the open 
 fireplace, the brick oven, the Franklin stove, (an in- 
 
2 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 vention of Benjamin Franklin), cookstoves adapted to 
 wood, to hard and soft coal, to kerosene, to gas, and 
 the electrical appliances which as* yet are little more 
 than toys for the rich. 
 
 A century and more ago chimneys and fireplaces 
 were often troublesome by smoking 
 and Count Rumford and Benjamin 
 Franklin each in different ways 
 brought their inventive faculties to the 
 solution of this serious problem of 
 daily life. When the fireplace was the 
 dependence of the home for warmth 
 and cooking, the charred, half-burned 
 brands of wood were carefully covered 
 with ashes at night to start the fire the 
 
 A Roman Stove a 
 
 or Brazier. nex j- m0 rning. If the wind had blown 
 
 off the ashes and the coals were gone out, it was easier 
 to borrow more coals from a neighbor than to use the 
 flint to produce a spark. All this was changed when 
 matches were invented. 
 
 It was but a step for primitive man from baking in 
 Ovens j-jQj. ashes or m a covered kettle set on the coals to a 
 simple form of oven. Often one oven served a com- 
 munity. Brick ovens were built at one side of the 
 chimney. Sometimes the heat was turned through a 
 flue to heat these ovens, sometimes a fire was built 
 directly in the oven, and when it was burned down the 
 oven was swept out and the food put in to be cooked 
 
 First 
 
FlkE. 3 
 
 by the heated bricks. The later brick ovens, still used 
 in some old houses, often had space underneath for 
 a separate fire. 
 
 An Oven. Showing Direction of the Hot Gases. 
 
 For the open fire, wood is the most satisfactory fuel 
 but it is not desirable for continuous use in cooking or 
 heating'. Wood is sold by measure, which is an in- 
 accurate method at best. The drier the wood the better 
 it burns, and a hard wood which produces coals is 
 most useful. 
 
 When wood is heated and the volatile portions ex- 
 pelled, charcoal is produced. This is usually sold by 
 measure. Its weight is about one-fifth that of the wood 
 from which it is made. It is a primitive form of fuel 
 and generally used in warm countries. A succession 
 of small fires which can be quickly lighted and as 
 
 Wood 
 as Fuel 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 quickly extinguished are more suitable to such condi- 
 tions than the one large stove or range. 
 
 The small stoves used today by the Latin races and 
 their colonies do not differ materially from those of 
 the early Romans, 
 charcoal The charcoal broiler is used by many hotels because 
 
 of the flavor it appears to develop in meats. 
 
 Peat is an important fuel in some sections of the 
 world. It must be thoroughly drained or dried, and 
 at best contains a large percentage of ash. 
 
 Both anthracite and bituminous coal have been in 
 common use for less than a hundred years. 
 Hard coal A dense solid, like hard coal, kindles slowly but 
 
 requires far less care to maintain a fire than wood. 
 Coal is a better fuel for winter than summer. If the 
 lumps of coal are too large they will not kindle readily ; 
 if too small, they choke the flame. The large nut and 
 egg grades are best suited to cooking purposes. The 
 draft and size of the fire box determine the size- and 
 grade to be used for good results. The free burning 
 "Franklin" coal should be used with poor draft, while 
 with a good draft and large fire box all grades and the 
 larger sizes may be used. A dark brilliant coal will 
 have fewest clinkers. The intense heat resulting from 
 open drafts fuses in large masses the foreign matter 
 which is mixed with the carbon. By burning oyster 
 shells in such cases, new compounds are formed which 
 prevent the clinkers, but the clinkers seldom form with 
 a moderate supply of air. 
 
Soft Coal 
 
 and 
 Ranges 
 
 FIRE. 5 
 
 .Soft coal needs very different treatment from hard. 
 Little draft underneath is required, but some draft is 
 necessary over the top to burn the gases given off, and 
 the funnel draft must be open to allow the smoke to 
 escape. If the coal has "coked" over on top it must 
 be broken up when good fire is required. If the fire 
 is to be kept, it is allowed to coke over. 
 
 Briquettes are made from coal dust and other sub- 
 stances and are used extensively in places where coal 
 is high priced. 
 
 The wood and coal stoves and ranges are today the st oves 
 most common means of cooking foods. Housekeepers 
 often become familiar with one stove and one kind of 
 fuel and are unsuccessful with another because they 
 are unwilling to study the laws of nature, or lack the 
 patience to experiment with a new adaptation of them. 
 
 Much besides personal preference must be con- 
 sidered in the proper valuation of fuels ; not only the 
 percentage of carbon, moisture, and volatile matter in 
 each, but the necessary waste, the by-products, and 
 the time required for caring for each and keeping the 
 surroundings clean. 
 
 The best stoves and ranges are those plain in finish 
 and simple in construction, with parts well fitted to- 
 gether so that they can be taken apart if necessary 
 and easily cleaned. 
 
 A portable range is one that may be moved if neces- 
 sary, while the "set" range is built into the chimney. 
 
 The fire box is lined on the sides with a kind of brick 
 
 Fire-Bo* 
 
6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 above which the fire should never come. The revolv- 
 ing grate is the most common in recent styles of stoves. 
 There is a grate underneath, and below is a place for 
 ashes or a pan which may be taken out to empty. The 
 oven is surrounded by spaces through which hot gases 
 circulate. 
 
 The housekeeper should investigate her stove thor- 
 oughly when the fire is out, take off all covers, open 
 doors, remove the "clean out" plate for the space, under 
 the oven ; then see Low the dampers work and explore 
 all passages with a lighted match or candle if need be. 
 The Draft The draft given by the chimney depends upon the 
 difference in temperature between the air of the room 
 and the gases of combustion. The hot gases are more 
 expanded and therefore lighter and tend to rise. The 
 hotter the fire the greater the draft will be. 
 
 The supply of air is as essential as fuel for a good 
 fire ; combustion depends upon both. Smoke and an 
 accumulation of soot are indications of incomplete 
 combustion. 
 
 Several drafts and dampers are common to all wood 
 and coal stoves and ranges. They should be open to 
 start the fire, but closed to keep it. The slide under the 
 fire box supplies the fresh air necessary for perfect 
 combustion. A check in the pipe or at the back of 
 the stove under the pipe, or in both places, is usually 
 known as the chimney damper. A slide in the stove 
 pipe or connected with the chimney damper admits 
 cold air into the stove pipe when opened and thus les- 
 sens the draft. 
 
FIRE. 
 
 The oven damper turns the heated air away from oven 
 the pipe so that it goes over the top, down the side, am P er 
 under the bottom, and up the back flue in most stoves 
 and heats the oven before it makes its escape. These 
 differ slightly in different ranges but the purpose of 
 each is the same. Experiment with your own stove 
 until you can control it. 
 
 Many ranges have a slide or door above the fire 
 box which may be used for broiling. Hoods are some- 
 times placed over large ranges to gather odors and 
 excessive heat and convey them to the chimney. 
 
 Whether the fuel be coal or wood, the starting- of a „. - ... 
 
 & Kindling 
 
 fire and its care afterwards are much the same pro- the Fire 
 cess. First remove ashes, brushing off the top of the 
 oven under the covers. When the fire box is clear, 
 put in crumpled paper, bits of wood, and then larger 
 wood and a sprinkle of fine coal. See that all drafts 
 are open. Replace the covers and then blacken the 
 stove, if necessary, but polish after the fire is started. 
 Light the paper and as the wood settles down, add coal, 
 little by little, till it is even with the lining of the fire 
 box. When the blue flame of coal disappears, close 
 the oven damper, and a little later shut the slide under 
 the fire box and the chimney damper. Open the 
 damper when more coal is added. When coal is red 
 it is nearly burned out. 
 
 To keep a fire several hours shake out the ashes, 
 
 1 _ To Keep 
 
 fill with coal, close the dampers, and partially open the Fir8 
 the slide above the fire. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Gas 
 
 Burners 
 
 For continual use it is better to add a little fuel at 
 a time, but not in the midst of baking anything. With 
 wood and soft coal the chimney damper cannot' be 
 closed as much as with hard coal, because there is more 
 soot and smoke which must be allowed to escape. 
 Gas is an invisible fuel obtained from several sources. 
 Pure coal gas is more satisfac- 
 tory than natural gas, or than the 
 so-called "water gas." The es- 
 cape of the latter is less easily de- 
 tected and it is much more poi- 
 sonous, hence there is more dan- 
 ger in using it. 
 
 For institutions at a distance 
 from large towns a private sup- 
 ply of gas which is fairly satis- 
 ^^.^*===> factory is made from gasoline, 
 
 and acetylene gas is now 
 often made even for the single 
 
 Bunsen Burner. llOUSC 
 
 For fuel purposes, the burners are so constructed as 
 to admit sufficient air with the gas for complete com- 
 bustion. A bluish flame is produced, which is much 
 hotter than the yellow blaze used for light. 
 
 It is possible to admit too much air, which causes a 
 loss of heat. If the air supply is adjustable, close the 
 opening for the air until a yellow flame is produced, 
 and then open it until the flame just comes blue again. 
 
 If a burner in a gas stove "burns back" and shows a 
 
FTRE. 
 
 yellowish flame, leaving a deposit of soot on the bottom 
 of kettles, turn it out and light it again, being careful 
 that the gas does not ignite back in the pipe before 
 it mixes with the air. 
 
 Gas stoves should be connected with the main sup- 
 ply by a pipe large enough to insure sufficient supply of 
 
 Gas 
 Stoves 
 
 Gas Stove with Oven. Broiler, and Hot Wa- 
 ter Heater Attachment. 
 
 fuel under all conditions. The amount used can then 
 be regulated by the cook for each burner. Care must 
 be taken to keep the burners and all parts of the stove 
 perfectly clean. 
 
 The gas stove is especially adapted to the conditions 
 of the present age ; it is far less care than either wood 
 or coal ranges, and at ordinary rates for gas, less ex- 
 pensive when properly operated. Even at high prices 
 
 Advantages 
 of Gas 
 Stoves 
 
10 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Gas 
 
 Meter 
 
 for gas it is a cheap fuel if human energy and time 
 are considered. The application of a match makes the 
 full power of the stove available at once and as soon as 
 work is done, the flame may be shut off. Any desired 
 degree of heat may be obtained at short notice with 
 no waste of fuel and no debris to be cared for. The 
 stoves occupy small space and each part may be used 
 independently. 
 
 100 THOUSAND 10 THOUSAND 
 
 (b) 
 
 Dial of a Gas Meter, (a) At the Beginning of a Month, 
 (b) After Registering the Amount of Gas Used for the Month. 
 
 The housekeeper should learn to read a gas meter. 
 Each space on the right hand circle passed by the hand 
 indicates the consumption of ioo cubic feet of gas, on 
 the middle circle 1,000 feet, and on the one on the left 
 hand 10,000 feet. Read from left to right, taking the 
 figure just passed by each hand and add two ciphers 
 for the hundreds. A previous reading deducted from 
 the present one shows the amount of gas consumed in 
 a given time. 
 
 Example. In the illustration, the hand on dial A has 
 just passed the figure 7, indicating 700 cubic feet ; on 
 dial B the hand has passed figure 8 (note that this 
 
FIRE. 
 
 hand moves in the opposite direction to the first), and 
 on dial C the hand has last passed the figure 4. The 
 reading is then, 700-4-8,000-)- 40,000=48,700 cubic feet. 
 I f in a month the hands are 
 in the position indicated in the 
 second figure, the reading is 
 64,900 cubic feet. The dif- 
 ference between the two read- 
 ings is 64,900 — 48,700=16,- 
 200 cubic feet. Sixteen thou- 
 sand two hundred cubic feet 
 is the amount consumed for 
 the month. 
 
 The small dial at the top of 
 the illustration indicates cubic 
 feet and is used only for test- 
 ing the system for leakage. 
 
 Kerosene and gasoline are 
 useful fuels for summer and 
 emergency use. These are 
 sold by the gallon and only 
 the best qualities should be 
 
 used. The blue flame kerosene probably are the best 
 of this class of stoves. The small lamp stoves also 
 have merit. They are similar in construction to read- 
 ding lamps and should receive equal care. Two small 
 stoves often are more useful than one large one, be- 
 cause more readily moved where needed. It is essen- 
 tial that such stoves should stand out of a draft. 
 
 Steam Cooker, Circular 
 Form. 
 
 Kerosene 
 
 and 
 
 Gasoline 
 
12 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Steam 
 Cooker 
 
 Chafing 
 Dish 
 
 i . . • ' -. ■ ' ■ . ' .' • ' i Q t - .in 
 
 . . , .-.-., ' ^«-| T | . 1 1 1 ■ , • . • l,.- 
 
 A steam cooker is an invaluable adjunct to the small 
 stoves whether gas or kerosene is burned. Several 
 articles may thus be cooked over one burner and both 
 time and fuel are saved. 
 
 The Aladdin oven is an arrangement for saving 
 heat. It may be used with an 
 ordinary large lamp or with gas. 
 The iron oven is placed inside a 
 jacket of non-conducting sub- 
 stance, hence little heat is lost. 
 It is especially useful for slow 
 cooking. 
 
 The Norwegian cooking box 
 is another plan for saving heat. 
 A kettle of food is raised to the 
 boiling point and then packed in 
 a box lined with non-conducting 
 materials. 
 
 The modern chafing dish is 
 but slightly different in effect from the primitive char- 
 coal stove or brazier. The use of alcohol for fuel 
 makes it simple and clean. Wood alcohol — a by- 
 product from distillation of wood — is often used for 
 fuel, but its disagreeable odor makes it less desirable. 
 Anything that may be cooked over any other stove 
 in a frypan, saucepan, or double boiler may be pre- 
 pared in the chafing dish. 
 
 Aladdin Oven Heated 
 by Lamp. 
 
•FIRE. 
 
 13 
 
 Heat brings out the flavors in food and develops 
 new ones and makes soluble, substances which the 
 human stomach could not otherwise digest. In most 
 cases moderate heat long continued produces better 
 results than intense heat applied for a short period. 
 
 Effects 
 of Cooking 
 
 A MODIFIED NORWEGIAN COOKING BOX. 
 
 Graniteware Palls with tight covers are packed with asbestos and covered with a pad, the 
 lid of the box is then closed and the whole wrapped in an old blanket. 
 
 The degree of heat best adapted to make food digesti- 
 ible is not always that which produces the most ac- 
 ceptable flavor, hence cooking must be more or less of 
 a compromise. As yet we know little about the de- 
 gree of heat best suited to the perfect cooking of each 
 food and the temperature at which it should be served. 
 Nothing will cook until it is warmed, and warming 
 and drying are usually the first steps in the cooking 
 process. 
 
14 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Transmis- 
 sion of Heat 
 
 Boiling 
 
 Roasting 
 
 The transmission of heat from a fire to our foods 
 may be by conduction, as when heat travels along a bar 
 of metal, by convection, when heat is transferred by 
 the motion of heated liquid or gas, and by radiation 
 through the air. The effect of heat on the food is fur- 
 ther modified by the way the metal or other substance 
 containing the food is affected by heat. 
 
 The use of asbestos in the form of mats and linings 
 for ovens and jackets for kettles to modify the heat 
 transferred to food is likely to increase in the future. 
 
 Broiling probably was the first attempt at cooking 
 since it required little beside the fire and the heat. 
 Roasting is a similar process applied to larger sections 
 of meat and therefore requiring a longer time. The 
 relationship of roasting and broiling is most apparent 
 with a gas range for there is no line of separation be- 
 tween the cooking of thick steaks and thin roasts. 
 Much so-called roasting is really baking. 
 
 In broiling and roasting, tender portions of fish, flesh 
 or fowls are exposed to intense heat at first to sear the 
 outside and close the open tubes or pores which con- 
 tain the juices. The fire should be free from smoke 
 and may be charcoal or half-burned wood or coal or 
 gas. After the surface is browned the section of meat 
 should be drawn away from the intense heat and kept 
 at a more moderate temperature until cooked thor- 
 oughly. More depends upon the shape of the article 
 to be broiled or roasted than upon the weight. 
 
 When a thick mass is to be cooked in this fashion it 
 
FIRE. 15 
 
 becomes necessary to modify the heat on the outside and Basting 
 to aid in driving it in by the process known as basting ; 
 that is, dipping up the hot fat which has dripped into 
 a pan beneath the meat and hence is known as drip- 
 ping, and pouring it over the outside of the mass. The 
 glossy brown secured by basting may have suggested 
 to some early cook the advantage of deep frying. 
 
 Chafiug-Dish — the Modern Brazier. 
 
 The difference between broiling over coals and in a 
 hot pan is but slight and dry frying or sautering is a 
 similar process. Toasting is a similar application of 
 heat to foods already cooked once. 
 
 The earliest forms of baking were in the hot dishes 
 and then in covered kettles set in coals or hung over 
 the fire. Our ovens are an outgrowth from those 
 primitive methods, and now much so-called roasting 
 is really baking. 
 
 A point to study in this connection is the fact that 
 food is fuel for the human body. The amount anr} 
 
16 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 quality of fuel is varied according to the work to be 
 done, so should the food be chosen according to 
 the work of the individual and the climate or season 
 of the year. 
 
 WATER 
 
 Water is not always considered to be strictly a food 
 in itself, but by its aid many foods and flavors are put 
 in forms more acceptable to the palate and more readily 
 absorbed by the body than they could be in any other 
 way. 
 importance Immense quantities of water are necessary for 
 
 in Cooking the preparation of food and the cleansing of dishes 
 in addition to what is needed for laundry and bathing 
 purposes. Cities make provision from some source 
 safe from contamination for the water needed by their 
 inhabitants. In small communities the individual fam- 
 ily must each be responsible for its water supply. This 
 is not the place to discuss the medical aspect of the 
 water question, but all agree that water should be 
 above the suspicion of danger of transmitting disease. 
 Moreover, for household purposes water should be 
 clean and soft, since hard water containing mineral 
 salts hinders processes of cooking and cleaning. 
 
 A limited water supply or inconvenient arrangements 
 for its use and disposal afterward, tend to reduce the 
 consumption to such an extent as to interfere with the 
 proper cooking and service of food, if not below the 
 actual standards for health, 
 
WATER. 17 
 
 Nearly three-fourths of the human body is water and 
 a similar proportion will hold in most foods served at 
 our tables. The total amount of water taken by a 
 human being daily averages two or three quarts, or 
 from four to six pounds. The portion of this which 
 is taken as a beverage depends upon the solidity of the 
 food. 
 
 The benefit gained from mineral waters often is quite 
 as much due to an increased consumption of water as 
 to the mineral constituents they contain. The tendency 
 of civilized man in feeding himself is toward too con- 
 centrated foods, too little water as a beverage and too 
 little watery food. Water not only brings solids into 
 the stomach in an acceptable form, but it is essential 
 in building new tissues and removing wastes. The in- 
 side of the body, as well as the outside, sometimes re- 
 quires washing. 
 
 The temperature at which water is taken into the 
 stomach is an important point. A glass of cool water 
 sipped slowly may have as stimulating an effect as one 
 of wine. Often more ice than water is found in the 
 glasses on American tables, and the ice water is taken 
 hurriedly and interferes with digestion. 
 
 Hot water taken slowly will often revive tired peo- 
 ple as effectually as tea or coffee. The merit of soup 
 as a first course at dinner probably is due to the fact 
 that it contains ninety to ninety-five per cent hot water 
 and that the solids are largely in solution and absorb- 
 able, 
 
 Winers 
 Water 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Flavor 
 of Water 
 
 If clear hot water is an unpalatable beverage, salt 
 or lemon juice may be added to give a distinct flavor. 
 
 There is a marked difference in flavor between water 
 freshly boiled and that which has been kept hot for a 
 long time. The latter has lost the gases which give 
 life to fresh water. For any purpose in cooking stale 
 water will injure the flavor of foods whether it be 
 taken from a hot water faucet or from a teakettle where 
 it has stood for hours. 
 
 Other ill flavors come into our foods because of im- 
 perfect utensils, badly washed. A rough surface or 
 seam will retain something from previous cooking to 
 add to the next substance cooked therein, or greasy 
 dishwater or soap may be left in sufficient quantity to 
 give an appreciable change of flavor. 
 
 Another important use of water essential in good 
 cooking is for the cleaning of utensils. 
 
 Dishwashing is not a popular occupation probably 
 because repairing or setting to rights is never quite as 
 interesting as the construction of something definite. 
 Insufficient appliances and inconvenient conditions for 
 the work are other causes for its unpopularity. 
 
 With a convenient sink of the right height, ample 
 table room for soiled and clean dishes, abundance of 
 towels and hot water, dishwashing loses its terrors. 
 
 A knowledge of the composition of each food and the 
 way it is affected by different degrees of heat is as de- 
 sirable in dishwashing as in cooking. For example, 
 where gelatine has dried on a strainer it should be 
 
Soaking 
 
 WATER. 19 
 
 softened in cold water, but that treatment would not be 
 helpful if the strainer had been used for fry fat, while 
 an egg' beater plunged in boiling" water would be all the 
 harder to wash because the egg would be cooked. 
 Time is saved by careful sorting and scraping of dishes 
 before washing. Detergents are helpful but less im- 
 portant than abundance of water. 
 
 Strong soda water boiled in a utensil will remove 
 food that has burned on. Soaking is as helpful in Dishes 
 dishwashing as in the laundry and dishes that cannot 
 be washed as soon as used should be covered with 
 water. After washing, any dishes are improved by 
 rinsing in scalding water. 
 
 The usual plan is to wash dishes in this order, glass, 
 silver, crockery, cooking pans, or kettles. Often it is 
 more desirable to get the large pieces out of the way 
 first. 
 
 It is half a century since the first dishwashing ma- 
 chine was invented and though they are in general use 
 for hotels, hand work seems better adapted to most 
 households. 
 
 To illustrate the effect of the range of temperature 
 from the block of ice at 32 ° F to the steaming kettle at 
 212 F let us follow the process of making a simple 
 gelatine jelly. The gelatine has been extracted for us 
 in factories from bones of animals and needs no cook- 
 ing, but must be dissolved and combined with liquid 
 and flavoring. It is first softened in cold water, the 
 time required varying according to the size of the parti- 
 
20 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 cles of gelatine. Then it must be dissolved with boil- 
 ing liquid. Use only as much boiling liquid as is neces- 
 Geiatine S ary to dissolve the gelatine. The sugar, if that is to 
 be used, added next, because it will dissolve more 
 rapidly in a warm medium, and then is put in the fruit 
 juice or whatever is to flavor the jelly. 
 
 The compound is to be strained and cooled. The 
 larger the mass the slower the cooling. 
 
 Experiment. To illustrate this put half the jelly in 
 one mould and the other half in several cups. The cup 
 will be firm before the large mould at any tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 To illustrate another point put one cup in a pan of 
 snow or cracked ice mixed with coarse salt. When 
 some of the jelly is half thickened combine with it 
 whipped' cream or white of egg. 
 
 If possible take temperature of each with a ther- 
 mometer. The key to all gelatine desserts, is to have 
 proper proportions of gelatine and liquid and to have 
 the right temperature for the different stages. The 
 proportions are given by each manufacturer on the 
 package. 
 
 METHODS OF COOKING IN WATER. 
 
 Water is as essential as fire in all processes of cook- 
 ery. No food can be Cooked without water and un- 
 less it naturally contains a large proportion of the 
 fluid, more must be added during the cooking process, 
 poiiing Cooking food in water indicates further progress in 
 
WATER. 21 
 
 this art than either broiling or roasting. It implies 
 the invention of a kettle to contain the water, though 
 the earliest cooking of this sort may have been done by 
 dropping heated stones into a hollow one containing 
 the water and meat or into a water tight basket. Homer 
 and other ancient writers have nothing to say about 
 boiled meats, though they mention those which were 
 broiled or roasted. 
 
 Boiling, stewing, and steaming are slight variations 
 of the same process. Under ordinary conditions, with- 
 out pressure, no food thus cooked can be raised to a 
 higher temperature than 21 2° F at sea level, and at 
 high altitudes few foods can be cooked in this way, 
 since water boils at a lower temperature. 
 
 Experiment. Much may be learned by heating a 
 given measure of water and watching it until it reaches 
 the boiling point. 
 
 Tiny bubbles hardly larger than the point of a pin 
 soon form and rise to the top, but this is not boiling. 
 The same thing may happen in a glass of water stand- 
 ing for an hour on the table. How will you explain 
 this ? 
 
 When the water is actually boiling large bubbles 
 rise rapidly and break on the surface. Keep up this 
 process until nothing appears to be left in the pan. 
 Where has the water gone? Has anything been left 
 behind ? There will usually be a trace of coloring mat- 
 ter to indicate that solids do not evaporate. 
 
 This point may be made more apparent by putting a 
 
2'2 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Evaporation 
 
 Choice of 
 
 Utensils 
 
 tablespoonful of salt in the water that is to be evapo- 
 rated. 
 
 What is left behind in a teakettle which is never 
 cleaned inside though the water is allowed to boil day 
 after day ? 
 
 Experiment. Other simple experiments may be made 
 with two dishes of uniform size containing the same 
 amount of water exposed to the same heat, one covered, 
 the other uncovered. Which reaches the boiling point 
 first? From which does the water first evaporate? 
 
 The evaporation of water is an important factor in 
 cooking. The rate of evaporation is proportionate to 
 the surface exposed to the air and not to the amount 
 of water in the kettle. 
 
 Thus the same quantity of syrup or sauce made in a 
 shallow pan will naturally become thicker than when 
 cooked for the same time in a deep pan having only 
 one-fourth the surface. 
 
 The art of the cook is displayed by the proper choice 
 of utensils, or, if utensils are limited, by varying the 
 time of the process or by the addition of more water 
 for different purposes. Where long cooking is neces- 
 sary choose deep utensils, reserving the shallow ones 
 for the occasions when haste is essential. 
 
 The use of a cover serves several purposes ; it pro- 
 tects the food in the kettle from foreign matter from 
 outside, it aids in retaining the heat, and prevents the 
 loss of water to some extent, as much of the steani 
 condenses and runs backs 
 
COOKING IN WATER. 
 
 23 
 
 Even without a thermometer it is evident that water 
 cannot be made as hot as fat, for a potato, a bit of meat, 
 or a lump of dough might be cooked in water indefinite- 
 ly without assuming the brown color which would 
 come to any one of these articles in hot fat. 
 
 By observation also, we might discover that, however 
 rapidly the water in a kettle boils, potatoes or other 
 foods do not cook more quickly. In the same way we 
 should find that absolute boiling or bubbling of the 
 water was not necessary in order to cook some foods. 
 
 Through such observation and experience certain 
 common laws of cooking have been established and 
 these have been verified and explained by the experi- 
 ments of modern scientists. The temperature of the 
 water should be adapted to the type of food material 
 to be cooked in it. Vegetables containing woody fibre 
 to be softened require the boiling-point, while meats 
 and eggs, of different composition, will cook more per- 
 fectly at a lower temperature. To extract juices and 
 flavors of meats and vegetables to the fullest degree 
 divide the substance finely to expose as much surface as 
 possible to the action of the water and let that be cold. 
 Soak first, then heat the whole slowly and hold below 
 the boiling point till the end is gained. 
 
 When water is used only for the purpose of convey- 
 ing heat let it be boiling hot when the food is put into 
 it. Even then some of the solids in the food will be dis- 
 solved in the water and lost unless it be used. In some 
 cases, as in strong flavored vegetables, this may be a 
 
 Temperature 
 in Cooking- 
 
 Cooking 
 with Water 
 
24 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 desirable loss. Mediums like hot fat, a thick syrup, or 
 a gravy in which water is thickened with flour, by 
 their density prevent loss of shape and flavor in the 
 articles cooked in them. Rapid boiling in water tends 
 to disintegrate foods. Meats are cooked to rags, 
 potatoes become a soggy paste, and no intensity of heat 
 is gained. 
 
 A Double-Boiler — an Invention of Count 
 Rumford. 
 
 stewing Stewing implies moist heat, a sort of sweating 
 
 process. Boiling requires much water, at its highest 
 temperature ; stewing is done with little water at a heat 
 sufficient to soften the substance, but considerably be- 
 low the boiling point. Hence boiling is more applica- 
 ble to vegetables and stewing to animal foods. 
 
 Braising Braising and fricasseeing and pot roasting are com- 
 
 binations of broiling or frying and stewing. Sections 
 of meat are first browned to secure a good flavor and 
 then stewed until tender in broth or gravy. 
 
The 
 
 COOKING IN WATER. 25 
 
 Water is a restless substance and is constantly escap- 
 ing from the surface of our foods while they are being 
 cooked. Keep the water in the right place, is a watch- 
 word against many of the difficulties that arise in 
 cookery. 
 
 When a sauce or soup is too thick water may be 
 added. On the other hand, when such foods are too 
 watery the surplus often may be evaporated by cook- 
 ing rapidly, uncovered, for a short time. 
 
 Besides kettles of various shapes, the double boiler 
 and the steam cooker are important utensils dependent Boiler* 
 for use upon water. The double boiler we owe to the 
 inventive genius of Count Rumford. Here is one ket- 
 tle set in another containing water, and so long as 
 there is water between a food and the fire no browning 
 can take place in the food. This utensil is especially 
 associated with compounds of milk and with the cook- 
 ing of cereals. Though the food in the upper part 
 does not quite reach the boiling point, this disadvantage 
 is more than balanced by the long time which may be 
 allowed for cooking with no danger of burning. 
 
 The steam cooker is found in many patterns, all on 
 the same general plan. It differs from the double 
 boiler in having several parts above the kettle contain- 
 ing the water, each with perforated bottom, so that 
 the steam and vapor have direct access to the food. 
 
 The"bain marie" is a French device to serve the same 
 end. One large kettle of water contains a number of 
 
2t> 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Making 
 Tea 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Coffee Pot for 
 Drip Coffee. 
 
 deep sauce pans. This is especially useful for food 
 already cooked which is to be 
 kept hot for intermittent serving 
 in restaurants. 
 
 The prevalent idea that all 
 food must be served the moment 
 it is cooked is due in many 
 cases to imperfect methods for 
 keeping it warm. 
 
 For tea and coffee a moder- 
 ately soft water is generally con- 
 sidered best. 
 
 The different kinds of tea re- 
 ceive their name from the local- 
 ity where they grow and from 
 the size of the leaf, the younger leaves furnishing the 
 choicer varieties. (See the illustration and descrip- 
 tion given on page 139 of Food and Dietetics .) 
 
 To make tea, use an earthen pot, fresh boiling water, 
 and from one-half to one teaspoonful of tea for each 
 half pint of water. Leave covered in a warm place to 
 steep for three to five minutes and serve. For cold 
 tea drain from the grounds at once. 
 
 Names mean little in brands of coffee further than 
 to indicate the original home of a special variety of the 
 plant. The berry improves in quality for several years 
 but loses flavor after roasting and more after grinding. 
 One pound of good coffee measures about one quart 
 and will make at least thirty full cups of strong coffee. 
 Thus one pound should supply one person for a month 
 
COOKING IN WATER. 
 
 27 
 
 or four persons for a week. It is better to buy coffee 
 in small lots often, unless it is ground as used. 
 Coffee may be steeped like tea or boiled. All things 
 
 STEAM COOKER WITH DOORS. 
 
 considered, the drip coffee pots are most satisfactory 
 and the beverage thus made is more economical and 
 uniform and probably less injurious than when it is 
 boiled. 
 
28 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 ICE 
 
 Ice is becoming more and more essential to civilized 
 man, not only for summer use but for the year around. 
 The future promises many improvements along this 
 line, in more rigid inspection of the sources of the 
 natural ice supply, in improved facilities for the manu- 
 facture of artificial ice, perhaps even in the individual 
 home, by the transmission of cold brine as gas and 
 water are now supplied from house to house from cen- 
 tral plants, making it possible to dispense with the 
 iceman's daily round. Patents have been issued for 
 methods of cooling houses in summer similar to those 
 used in cold storage plants. Food is now sent long dis- 
 tances in refrigerator cars and the whole subject of 
 refrigeration has received much study. It has been 
 found that different foods require various degrees of 
 temperature. 
 Cold The preservation of food by cold storage is of great 
 
 Storage b ene fi t t0 arm i e s and navies, but is not an unmixed 
 blessing to the housekeeper for it has upset the seasons 
 of foods, and when we can obtain a food at any time 
 of the year it loses the charm it possessed when the 
 season was a short one. Moreover, though food in 
 cold storage does not spoil, it parts with something and 
 undergoes certain changes which are not fully ex- 
 plained as yet. The housekeeper is usually safer in the 
 use of canned foods than of those subjected to a long 
 period of cold storage. 
 
ICE. 
 
 29 
 
 The household refrigerator is frequently expected to , 
 do impossibilities in caring for foods. It is a great 
 labor saver when properly used and may be depended 
 upon the year around and not merely in summer. 
 
 It should be placed in a cool, light, airy place, con- 
 venient to kitchen and dining room unless a second 
 
 The 
 Refrigerator 
 
 A Refrigerator showing Direction of Air Currents. 
 
 refrigerator be placed there. If possible place it near 
 the door so that the ice man need not track all over 
 the kitchen floor. The cellar is no place for a re- 
 frigerator. A good cellar is a safe place for most 
 foods, and a poor one will injure the refrigerator. 
 
 In many households the cost of ice is more than 
 saved by the preservation of food that would other- 
 wise be lost. The average family will use from one to 
 two dollars' worth of ice a month at city prices. 
 
 In modern houses the water pipe from the ice com- 
 
Refrigerator 
 
 30 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 partment of the refrigerator is often connected with 
 the sewer pipe. This should never be direct. Let the 
 pipe drip into a spout. 
 
 A refrigerator should have several compartments, 
 that foods like milk and butter may be kept apart 
 from others. The coolest, place is usually under 
 the ice. A tile or enamel lined refrigerator has many 
 advantages, but any that are properly made if kept 
 clean will do good work. Any break should be repaired 
 at once, for an overflow of water or a crack in the lin- 
 ing may cause an odor which will flavor all food. 
 care of The ice should be washed clean before putting in 
 place and no food should ever be placed upon it. The 
 jars of water chilling for table use are the only things 
 to be allowed beside the ice in its compartment. No 
 food should be put away while warm. 
 
 How often a refrigerator should be cleaned depends 
 upon the way it is used. If nothing is allowed to spjll 
 or rub against the sides or shelves, or, when this hap- 
 pens, if it is cleaned away at once, and if nothing stays 
 there until unfit for food, frequent scalding is un- 
 necessary. Every week or fortnight when the ice is 
 nearly out remove shelves and scald them thoroughly 
 and wash throughout. 
 
 Glass and stone jars, deep earthen and agate plates 
 are the best utensils in which to put foods away in the 
 refrigerator. 
 
 The principle of the refrigerator is exactly that of 
 
Freezer 
 
 ICE. 31 
 
 the Aladdin oven — a closet with shelves is put inside a 
 case of non-conducting substance. 
 
 On the same plan, our ice cream freezers are built. i ce cream 
 The outer tub is a non-conducting substance to pre- 
 vent the entrance of heat. 
 
 There are jugs for hot water and coolers for ice 
 water constructed according to the same idea. 
 
 Salt is mixed with ice because its affinity for water 
 will cause the ice to melt, and when a solid changes to 
 liquid form, heat is absorbed from the surrounding 
 objects. Cracked ice about the size of coarse rock salt 
 is used, the proportion being three parts ice to one of 
 salt. 
 
 Ice cream, custard, or fruit juice to be frozen, should 
 be more highly flavored and sweetened than if it were 
 to be eaten at an ordinary temperature. The organs of 
 taste are benumbed by the cold, and a stronger flavor 
 is necessary to produce an effect. The cost of ice for 
 making frozen desserts is less than the cost of fuel for 
 cooking many. 
 
PREPARATION AND PRESERVATION OF FOODS 
 
 Uncooked 
 Food 
 
 Preserving 
 Food 
 
 All processes of cooking are the result of gradual 
 evolution. Nature ripens fruits and seeds in the sun- 
 light. Dry nuts and seeds are stored by squirrels and 
 other creatures. Primitive men were but little in ad- 
 vance of the squirrel when they saved different grains 
 and pounded or parched them for food. 
 
 We may understand better the origin of our proc- 
 esses of cooking if we first consider the foods avail- 
 able without special preparation. Tropical countries 
 have always afforded a variety of fruits capable of sus- 
 taining human life. It is estimated that many more 
 persons may be supported on a given piece of ground 
 planted to bananas than by the same surface planted 
 with any crop in a temperate climate. The breadfruit, 
 fig, date, and raisin are other important fruit foods. 
 
 In temperate climates without knowledge of agricul- 
 ture mankind must depend largely upon animal foods, 
 and doubtless here would come the first application of 
 heat to change the flavor or to aid in preservation of 
 the food from day to day. 
 
 The drying of fruits and the smoking of meats natu- 
 rally were the earliest methods of preserving foods. 
 Probably the preservative action of smoke was acci- 
 dentally discovered and the salting of fish may have 
 been derived naturally from its association with salt 
 water. 
 
 Since all foods are mainly water it was an immense 
 advantage to wandering tribes to reduce their burdens 
 
 32 
 
PRESERVING FOOD. 
 
 33 
 
 by drying their foods,, Even the most primitive house- 
 keepers discovered that in proportion as food parted 
 with water it was less liable to ferment, mould, or de- 
 cay, though the scientific reason for this that most bac- 
 teria can live and develop more rapidly in fluids has 
 only been discovered recently by bacteriologists. 
 
 The modern housekeeper seems to be losing the art 
 of drying foods, yet in many cases that mode of preser- 
 vation is more desirable than canning or cold storage. 
 
 Dried 
 Foods 
 
 Dried Prunes Before and After Soaking. v 
 
 One reason why dried fruits have fallen into dis- 
 repute is this : To remove the discoloration which takes 
 place when cut fruits are dried or evaporated in fac- 
 tories they are often bleached by sulphur and suffer 
 loss of flavor. Another reason for not using dried 
 foods is that it takes time to soak them. 
 
 When they are to be made ready for use the first 
 step is to supply as much water as they lost from 
 evaporation. This is best accomplished by long soak- 
 ing without heat, merely cooking them enough at the 
 end to soften tough fibres and to prevent fermenta- 
 tion. 
 
34 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Honey and olive oil may be considered with the food 
 products requiring little preparation. They were 
 commonly used by the ancients. 
 Nuts Nuts are an important food in some parts of the 
 
 world. The peasantry of southern Europe find in the 
 chestnut a substitute for cereals. It is made more di- 
 gestible by a partial cooking. The neglect of nuts in 
 our country is due to the cheapness of cereal products 
 but there is an increasing use of them as a substitute 
 for meats. Average shelled nuts have weight for 
 weight about twice the fuel value of wheat flour be- 
 cause they contain so much fat. Chestnuts are about 
 two-thirds starch, and contain little fat. Other nuts are 
 from one-third to two-thirds fat. 
 
 It is a common idea that nuts are very indigestible. 
 That may be changed if we learn to masticate them 
 properly or to grind them and combine with other 
 foods instead of eating them without chewing properly, 
 as dessert after sufficient nourishment has been taken. 
 
 Nuts and fruits supplement each other, to some ex- 
 tent, the one containing what the other lacks. 
 
 The leguminous seeds, peas, beans, lentils, and pea- 
 nuts, are somewhat like nuts, but are not so rich in 
 fat and are unpalatable unless cooked. Most of our 
 common vegetables are the result of ages of cultivation. 
 
 We are only on the threshold of the possibilities of 
 combining and preserving fruits. An increased use of 
 fruit, fresh and preserved, will tend to cause a di- 
 minished use of alcoholic beverages. Fruit juice is one 
 
 Fruits 
 
Jellies 
 
 CANNING. 35 
 
 of the best agents to quench thirst. A desire for some 
 other beverage than water may be taken as a cry for 
 food. Fruit juices, hot or cold, will better supply this 
 desire than tea or coffee. The expressed juice of real 
 fruit may- be sterilized and then charged with carbon 
 dioxide, as well as the chemical compounds now sold 
 as soft drinks. 
 
 Inferior fruits and skins and cores, if clean, may 
 under pressure yield juice for jellies, or to flavor other 
 foods. Fruits may be blended, pressed, and strained, 
 and used in many ways even for children and invalids 
 when the solid particles and seeds would prove irritat- 
 ing. The juice of the lemon or orange and the pulp 
 of the banana may thus be combined. 
 
 Since modern housekeepers lack patience to dry foods canned 
 and soak them out again the canning factory has come Goods 
 to their aid. Within the last half century this business 
 has developed immensely. Home canning cannot com- 
 pete with that of the factory, because there a higher 
 temperature is gained which more effectively sterilizes 
 the food. 
 
 Canned foods keep because the bacteria in them are 
 destroyed and others cannot enter because the air is 
 kept out. Fruit will not spoil even if the jar is not 
 full, provided the air above it has been sterilized. 
 
 Unfortunately, ignorance of the processes involved 
 makes the consumer demand impossibilities in color 
 and form, and this has led the manufacturer to use 
 artificial colorings freely. 
 
36 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Preserving 
 in Sugar 
 
 Canning 
 
 Preservatives of different kinds have been found to 
 be cheaper than care and time expended in the prepara- 
 tion. Clean foods keep better than unclean ones, but 
 skilled human labor is the means to cleanliness and that 
 is expensive. 
 
 Pound for pound preserves which include jellies 
 made from fruit juice and marmalades from fruit pulp 
 with equal weight of sugar keep even if exposed to air, 
 because bacteria do not flourish in dense substances. 
 
 Some fruits are preserved half by drying in the sun- 
 shine, half by sugar. Spiced fruits were more common 
 before the days of air-tight jars, for spices are enemies 
 of bacteria. 
 
 The canning of food is not a complicated process. 
 Everything must be clean, that is, free from spores 
 of mould or germs that promote decay. Such cleanli- 
 ness may be accomplished in part by water, partly by 
 heat. The jars, covers, tunnels, and spoons must be 
 subjected to boiling water to render them sterile. They 
 are usually put in cold water which is slowly brought 
 to the boiling point. The scalding of tomatoes and 
 peaches not only renders the skin easy of removal but 
 sterilizes the outside so that nothing is rubbed on to the 
 inner surface as it is peeled, 
 
 An accumulation of dust, mould, and decayed por- 
 tions, even if each be slight, cannot but affect the re- 
 sult. Therefore the fruit for any purpose must be care- 
 fully picked over and washed. Very juicy fruits, like 
 currants, may have the juice expressed without first 
 
CANNING. 37 
 
 •cooking, while others, like the crab apple, require the 
 effect of heat to start the juice. 
 
 The utensils for cooking and straining should not be utensils 
 of metal if the best flavors of the fruit are to be re- for Cannin e 
 tained. Agate or earthen ware kettles, wooden spoons, 
 and linen strainers are desirable for this work. If 
 
 PRESERVE JARS. 
 "LIGHTNING." IMPROVED "MASON." 
 
 necessary to use metal anywhere, do it as quickly as 
 possible, and never leave an iron spoon in a kettle of 
 cooked fruit. 
 
 Sugar is not essential to canning, but is usually 
 added for flavor and because fruit cooked in a syrup 
 keeps its shape better than when cooked in water. 
 
 The best jars are those having glass covers and p rese rve 
 fastening with a spring. The screw tops are easily Jars 
 rendered imperfect and are hard to close and open. 
 
38 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 The less lettering there is in the glass the surer we 
 are of keeping it clean. The rubber rings spoil 
 quickly and none that are stretched or brittle 
 should be used. New ones are usually required every 
 year. Pint jars are more satisfactory for the average 
 family than the larger sizes. 
 
 A grocer's tunnel is desirable for filling the jars, 
 and a half-pint dipper with a long handle is another 
 help. 
 Essential The essential points in canning fruit may be summed 
 
 Points . . . 
 
 up in very few words. All that is necessary is to have 
 the fruit and everything that comes in contact with it 
 sterilized, and then keep the air away from it. That is, 
 the fruit and whatever it touches must be raised to a 
 sufficient degree of heat to destroy any micro-organisms 
 already there that would cause change of form or de- 
 cay. This being done care must be taken that no others 
 are allowed to enter through the air. There is no 
 magic about it, only constant watchfulness. 
 
 Gentle cooking, long continued, seems to be fatal to 
 the bacteria, which might work so much ill, and this 
 method is more conducive to preserving the natural 
 appearance of the fruit than is intense heat for a short 
 period. 
 
 Fruit, vegetables, milk, and meats all are prepared 
 in similar fashion. Animal foods spoil easily because 
 of their composition, 
 
CHOICE OF FOOD 
 
 Primitive man made use of anything near his hand 
 to satisfy his need and accidents and extreme hunger 
 made many foods appetizing to our ancestors which 
 might not appeal to us today if we had not inherited the 
 taste for them. 
 
 According to W. Mattieu Williams, "the fact that 
 we use the digestive and nutrient apparatus of sheep, 
 oxen, etc., for the preparation of our food is merely a 
 transitory barbarism." Other authorities agree with 
 him that the art of cooking may some time be so de- 
 veloped as to enable us to prepare the coarser vegetable 
 substances in an easily assimilated form without de- 
 pending upon animals as middle men. 
 
 The art of the cook has done much to make tin- The Art 
 likely food materials attractive, but there is another of Cookin e 
 phase of the question, and that is the problem how 
 to make what we know is nourishing both pleasant 
 and attractive. The cook of the past had to make 
 the best possible use of the meager nutrients at hand. 
 The cook of the present and future has the harvests of 
 the whole world within reach all the year around. 
 How shall such abundant material be combined to sat- 
 isfy the palate without overloading the digestive or- 
 gans? 
 
 More important still, how shall we select and pre- 
 pare foods that they may produce sufficient energy in 
 the human body for the great tasks awaiting it in our 
 complex civilization. 
 
 39 
 
40 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Classification 
 of Food 
 
 Organic 
 Foods 
 
 During the last twenty years or less much material 
 has been published by the U. S. Department of Agri- 
 culture recording the results of investigations. Many 
 of these pamphlets can be secured for the asking. 
 
 For practical use all the principal substances found 
 in our foods may be classified under five heads : water, 
 mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate. 
 The first, and its importance in cooking, has already 
 been considered. The second appears in different forms 
 in all foods, rarely exceeding one per cent, of their 
 natural weight. This it is which remains as ash when 
 a food is burned. It is most prominent in the refuse 
 portions of food which are removed before coming to 
 the table, such as the husks and bones. Some of these 
 mineral matters are readily soluble in water, hence are 
 lost when no use is made of the water in which vege- 
 tables are boiled. 
 
 Common salt is the principal mineral substance in 
 use in cooking. 
 
 The other three great classes of food substances 
 are known as organic compounds, — the protein, fat, 
 and carbohydrate. 
 
 The proteins are subdivided into many classes, but so 
 far as practical cooking is concerned, little need be said 
 of these here. Since this type of material constitutes 
 about one-fifth of the human body by weight it must 
 be found in the daily food. Lean meat, eggs, milk 
 
 *Following the nomenclature of the U. S. Department of. 
 Agriculture, the term protein is used to denote all classes of 
 nitrogenous foods. 
 
Fats 
 
 CHOICE OF FOOD. 41 
 
 curd, and portions of grains and seeds are the princi- 
 pal sources of this class of food. As a whole, protein 
 of vegetable origin is more slowly and less perfectly 
 absorbed than animal protein. The principal duty of 
 nitrogenous foods is to build up the body and to keep 
 it in repair. 
 
 Fats are obtained from both animal and vegetable 
 sources and for the convenience of the cook are com- 
 monly separated by heat or pressure. Considerable fat 
 is stored as a reserve fund in the normal human body. 
 Its principal office is that of fuel to keep the body's ma- 
 chinery going. 
 
 Carbohydrates are chiefly of vegetable origin and in- carbo 
 elude starch and sugar. They are not apparent to any 
 extent in the body but are important fuel foods, though 
 more than two pounds of starch or sugar would be re- 
 quired to produce as much energy or bodily heat as one 
 pound of fat. 
 
 The provider of food, the cook, and the consumer 
 all should be familiar with the composition of com- 
 mon foods in order that the daily meals may be adapted 
 not only to purse and palate but to climate and the con- 
 dition of individual bodies. 
 
 hydrates 
 
MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 Milk is a complete food for the young animal because 
 it contains the five fundamental types of food ma- 
 terial — water, mineral matter, fat, carbohydrate, and 
 protein. 
 
 The analysis of average milk is about as follows : 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Water 87 
 
 Mineral 01 
 
 Fat 04 
 
 Casein .03 
 
 Sugar 05 
 
 1. 00 
 Since the fat is the most valuable portion commer- 
 cially, dairymen study to feed their cows in such a 
 way as to increase it, and in some instances milk has 
 been produced containing 6 per cent of fat. 
 Use of Though mainly water, milk is a valuable nutritious 
 
 food and should be used freely by itself and in com- 
 bination with other food materials, in soups, sauces, 
 and puddings. When we remember what the depart- 
 ment of agriculture has proved for us, that a quart of 
 milk is quite as nourishing as a quart of oysters for 
 which we pay six or eight times as much, we can 
 see that it is desirable to use it more freely than is 
 generally done. Especially during the summer months 
 we do well to substitute milk and cheese for meats. 
 There are average families which do not use over a 
 pint of milk a day ; there are others who find it neces- 
 
 42 
 
 Milk 
 
of Milk 
 
 MILK. 43 
 
 sary to take a gallon, and the meat bill in the latter 
 cases becomes proportionately small. A pint of milk 
 a day is not an excessive allowance for each member 
 of a family, though many households consume much 
 less. 
 
 To study the composition of milk put a quart of composition 
 fresh milk in a glass jar and leave it twenty-four hours 
 or longer until it is thick and sour. What percentage 
 of the whole is the cream ? Remove the layer of 
 cream on top to another jar, screw on the top, and 
 shake until the fat separates from the watery por- 
 tion of the milk. Collect the butter on a spoon, wash 
 out the milk by pressing and folding with a knife. 
 Weigh or estimate carefully the value of the butter ob- 
 tained. What proportion of the original bulk of milk 
 does it represent ? Persons fond of unsalted butter may 
 thus prepare it for themselves. 
 
 Why is salt added to butter? 
 
 The remainder of the milk, now a thick mass of 
 curd, may be pressed out with a spoon or cut with 
 a knife to show the greenish water known as whey. 
 What nutritive substances are there in this ? 
 
 Turn the thick milk into a two-quart pan and fill 
 with hot water, in twenty minutes drain the water off 
 through a strainer, that no curd need be lost, and pour 
 on more hot water. Do this several times until the 
 curd loses its sour taste and has contracted, but do 
 not allow it to become too hard. If boiling water is 
 used the curd will become unpalatable and indigestible. 
 
Junket 
 
 44 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Buttons have been made of sour milk treated by heat 
 and pressure, 
 sour Press as much water as possible from the curd and 
 eteeie compare the quantity with the original amount of 
 milk. Remember that this still contains much water. 
 Now combine the curd with butter or thick cream, salt 
 it and shape in small balls or pack in cups. Thus 
 we learn something of the value of milk and have 
 made a sour milk cheese more palatable than when 
 the whole mass of curdled milk is heated on the stove 
 or strained in a cloth. 
 
 With prepared rennet in liquid or tablet form the 
 curd and whey of sweet milk may be separated. The 
 milk should be warmed slightly before the dissolved 
 rennet is added, then chilled in the dishes from which 
 it is to be served. This is known as junket or rennet 
 custard. 
 
 Absolute cleanliness is essential for every utensil to 
 come in contact with milk. The souring of the milk 
 is due to the action of bacteria which come to it from 
 contact with utensils and the air. Its fluid form and 
 nutritive material afford a medium peculiarly favor- 
 able to the development of germs of disease, as well as 
 to the growth of useful bacteria which aid in butter 
 and cheese making. 
 
 The growth of such micro-organisms is hastened by 
 moderate heat, but most of them are killed by raising 
 the milk to the boiling point. 
 
 Sterilization requires a temperature of two hun- 
 
MILK. 
 
 AS 
 
 dreri and twelve degrees F, continued for about 
 twenty minutes ; this process usually changes the flavor 
 of the milk so that it is disagreeable to many palates. 
 The high temperature also causes the fat globules 
 to separate instead of being retained in the form of 
 cream. 
 
 Pasteurization takes its name from the noted French 
 scientist, and consists in raising the milk to a tempera- 
 ture of about one hundred and fifty-five degrees F. By 
 this means the flavor of the milk is unchanged. 
 
 The cook finds it safe to scald the milk for soups, 
 bread, or puddings, to prevent its souring during the 
 process, before cooking it with the other ingredients. 
 There is a gain in the time of cooking when the milk- 
 is heated while the other materials are being pre- 
 pared. 
 
 A bit of bicarbonate of soda dissolved in milk before 
 it is heated often will neutralize any incipient acidity 
 and make it usable for puddings or soups. The 
 "cream" of tomato soup is liable to curdle unless the 
 acid of the tomato is neutralized by soda or the milk 
 thickened with flour before the two parts are combined. 
 It is safer with all "cream" soups to keep the stock 
 and thickened milk apart until just before using. 
 
 Lemon or other acid fruit juices are sometimes 
 mixed with milk for sherbet without curdling if, before 
 the juice is added, the milk is thoroughly chilled in the 
 freezer can. 
 
 To Prevent 
 Souring 
 
 Neutralizing 
 Acidity 
 
 Mixing 
 with Acid 
 
46 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Salt sometimes curdles milk, especially when it is 
 added to hot milk. 
 
 Since the solid portions of milk readily adhere to 
 the bottom of the saucepan placed in direct contact 
 with heat, and the resulting burned flavor rapidly pene- 
 trates the whole of the milk, a double boiler or its 
 equivalent, one dish set in another of boiling water, 
 is the best way to heat milk. 
 
 Milk is an important ingredient in preparing cocoa 
 and chocolate, and such beverages rank with soup in 
 nutritive value. Hot milk sipped slowly is a simple 
 remedy. for exhaustion and sleeplessness. Hot milk 
 should be served with coffee when cream is not avail- 
 able. The milk soups are valuable foods and have as 
 their foundation the white sauce described further on. 
 
 Most of our puddings require milk, especially the 
 cereal and custard varieties, 
 cooking Because there are solids in the milk more time must 
 be allowed for the grains of rice or corn meal to 
 absorb the moisture than when cooked in water. The 
 protein portions of the milk have somewhat the same 
 effect as the egg used to coat the croquette or oyster 
 before frying. If the particles of grain are thus var- 
 nished over they cannot absorb moisture as rapidly 
 as from clear water. Hence, it is often advisable to 
 cook the grains in water first and finish the procese 
 in the milk. 
 
 In making blanc mange from Irish moss, if the 
 moss is first cooked in a small quantity of water and 
 
MILK. 47 
 
 the thick paste strained before it is added to the milk, 
 there is no loss of milk. When the moss is cooked di- 
 rectly in the milk there is some loss of milk when the 
 moss is strained out. 
 
 The baked Indian meal pudding and the creamy rice 
 pudding require long, gentle baking. There is a Milk 
 continual evaporation of moisture from the surface of 
 
 "BLANC-MANGE." 
 
 the pudding pan, and really a condensing of the milk. 
 In proportion as the pudding dish is refilled with milk, 
 the pudding increases in nutritive value. 
 
 Milk is commonly used for mixing dough of many 
 types and this adds to the nutritive value of bread 
 and cakes. 
 
 Bread made of milk or part milk will have a browner, 
 tenderer crust than bread made wholly with water. 
 There seems to be good ground, however, for the prev- 
 alent idea that bread or cake made with milk does 
 
 Concentrated 
 
Milk 
 
 48 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 not keep so well as that made with water. A cer- 
 tain cheesy flavor develops where milk is a principal 
 ingredient, 
 sour Sour milk is often used for mixing griddle cakes and 
 quick doughs, because the acid it contains will be neu- 
 tralized by the soda added, and thus produce the effer- 
 vescence which makes the dough light. The souring 
 process seems to have so affected the protein sub- 
 stances in the milk that such a dough is tenderer than 
 one made with sweet milk and baking powder. The 
 use of sour milk will be further treated in the section 
 on doughs, 
 skimmed For doughs, soups, and puddings, in which additional 
 fat is introduced, skimmed milk may be used as well 
 as full milk. 
 
 The use of cream in well-to-do families is increas- 
 ing. Whipped cream is demanded as a garnish or 
 sauce for many desserts quite complete in themselves. 
 
 The process of beating or "whipping" cream gives 
 it an attractive appearance, and by expanding its par- 
 ticles probably makes it more digestible. 
 
 BUTTER 
 
 Butter is one of the most digestible forms of fat. An 
 ounce of butter a day is a fair allowance for each 
 person when meats, lard, olive oil, and cream are used. 
 To test this in your own case, divide one ounce of 
 butter in three portions, one for each meal, and see 
 w.hether you naturally use less or want more. Or, this 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 49 
 
 may be tried in a family by shaping a portion of but- 
 ter into balls with butter paddles and noting the 
 amount consumed by each person at the table. An 
 ounce of butter is easily secured by cutting a quarter 
 pound pat into quarters. Or, if that is not available, 
 measure the butter. Two level or one round table- 
 spoonful is equivalent to one ounce. A pound of but- 
 ter will measure one pint. 
 
 Individual shortcakes to be Served with Whipped Cream. 
 
 Butter is probably rendered slower of digestion by 
 cooking, and for this reason it is wiser to flavor foods 
 with it after they are cooked. Often it is better to 
 allow the individual eater to butter the broiled meat, 
 or fish, or mashed vegetables, according to his own 
 taste. Then there need be no waste if a portion of 
 the whole dish is not eaten, and if the food is re- 
 heated the flavor is better. 
 
 In one dietary study of the Department of Agricul- 
 ture of the United States (Bulletin 75 from the office of 
 Experiment Station), so much butter y ame back in 
 
 Butter 
 
 for Flavoring 
 
. so PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 the platters where it had been poured over steaks, 
 chops, and fish, that it was assumed that none was con- 
 sumed. Certainly, in every household considerable but- 
 ter and other valuable fat finds its way to the dish 
 water. One of the first steps in the application of 
 science to housekeeping is to stop such needless waste. 
 Composition In a glass measure cup, or a tumbler, put a quar- 
 
 ter of a pound of butter, set the glass in a pan of 
 warm water and leave until the butter melts. 
 
 Estimate the percentage of clear fat. 
 
 What other substances appear to be present? 
 
 How does this explain the sour and cheesy tastes 
 sometimes noticed in butter? 
 white Milk thickened by flour and made richer with but- 
 
 ter and flavored, is known as milk gravy, drawn but- 
 ter, or white, or cream sauce. It is a substantial food 
 in itself and forms a valuable addition to fish, eggs, 
 meats, and vegetables. "By its addition a small por- 
 tion of any food substance is extended and made to do 
 more service, and flavors too pronounced to be agree- 
 able to all are much modified. 
 
 There are several ways of compounding this sauce 
 which apply to other sauces in which butter is the 
 principal ingredient. A general formula covering the 
 ordinary sauces — white, tomato, and brown — is this : 
 one ounce of butter, one-half ounce of flour, and one- 
 half pint of liquid ; or, to express the same quantities 
 in other terms, two level tablespoons of butter, the. 
 same of flour, and one cup of 
 
 Sauce 
 
BUTTER. Si 
 
 1. Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the dry Me thods 
 flour, cook and stir until frothy all over, then draw of Making 
 to a cooler part of the stove and stir while adding 
 
 the liquid hot or cold, then cook again till thick, stir- 
 ring till smooth, 
 
 2. Another way is to rub butter and flour together 
 and stir into the warm liquid in a double boiler, then 
 stir till thick and smooth. 
 
 3. When thin cream is substituted for butter and 
 milk, or when less butter is to be used, rub the flour 
 smoothly with a little cold liquid and stir into the re- 
 mainder, which should be hot, and cook over water 
 until smooth. Then add butter and season. 
 
 The theory of the first method is that the butter at- 
 tains a slightly higher temperature than the milk and if 
 the flour is combined with the hot butter it is cooked 
 more quickly and thoroughly than when put into 
 milk. 
 
 In the second case, longer time is required, but the 
 flavor of the butter is changed less than by the first 
 method. 
 
 The third way is more economical of butter. 
 
 Butter is also used for brown sauces. These are 
 
 Brown 
 
 made after the first plan for the white sauce, but the Sauce 
 butter is allowed to brown before the flour is put in, 
 and is cooked until a reddish brown hue is acquired 
 before the liquid, which is usually brown meat stock, 
 is added. 
 
52 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Varieties 
 
 of White 
 
 Sauce 
 
 Creamed 
 Dishes 
 
 'recautions 
 
 in Using 
 
 Butter 
 
 In many other sauces the plan is similar to that 
 followed in making the white sauce, but meat stock, 
 strained tomato, or other vegetable stocks, are used 
 in place of part or all of the milk. 
 
 These sauces are the foundation of many entrees or 
 made dishes, such as croquettes and souffles. 
 
 For meat or fish croquettes the sauce is made of a 
 double thickness by using only half as much liquid. 
 It is then combined with about an equal quantity of 
 meat, seasoned and cooled, when the mixture may be 
 shaped. Souffles have the sauce as the basis and the 
 puffy effect is produced by eggs. 
 
 The usual white sauce, combined with an equal quan- 
 tity of meat, fish or vegetable stock, gives us the cream 
 soup, cream of chicken, cream of cod, cream of as- 
 paragus, etc., etc. 
 
 Since butter is not pure fat but contains water and 
 curd, it is less desirable than other fats for greasing 
 pans unless it is melted and the fat used alone. 
 
 Except in cases when it is necessary to brown some- 
 thing quickly, butter should not be used for frying or 
 or sauteing. It is too expensive and burns easily. Be- 
 cause of the quantity of milk, often sour, contained in 
 butter, it is not strange that some recipes for rich 
 cake call for small quantities of soda to balance this 
 acidity. For such purposes, butter is frequently 
 washed to remove milk and salt. 
 
 That butter responds quickly to changes of tempera- 
 ture ghould be. remembered in mixing any dough, 
 
CHEESE. 
 
 53 
 
 like pastry, when a large proportion of butter is 
 used. 
 
 Slightly rancid butter may be made usable for some 
 purposes by scalding it in water, then chilling and re- 
 moving the cake of fat on top. If further treatment 
 is necessary the fat alone may be heated with bits of 
 charcoal. 
 
 CHEESE 
 
 The origin of cheese is probably more ancient than 
 that of butter. It is a form of dried or condensed milk 
 convenient for transportation. Milk is nine-tenths 
 water, while cheese contains but a trifle over three- 
 tenths water. Average cheese is about one-third each 
 water, fat, and casein. 
 
 A pound of cheese costing sixteen cents contains 
 about twice as much nutritive matter as a pound of 
 meat which will vary in price. There will be less 
 waste in the cheese than in an average piece of meat. 
 Moreover, cheese has the advantage of keeping better 
 than the meat under adverse conditions. Its disad- 
 vantages are that because of its concentration it is not 
 easy of digestion. This may be overcome somewhat 
 by diluting the cheese with milk, as is done in many 
 of the rarebits, fondues, and souffles. The addition of 
 a small quantity of bicarbonate of potash or soda aids 
 in making cheese soluble. There is danger that the 
 cheese will be over cooked. When merely melted it is 
 probably quite as digestible if used moderately, as 
 
 Rancid 
 Butter 
 
 Composition 
 
 Nutritive 
 Value 
 
54 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 many of our common ways of preparing meat. Judg- 
 ing from the types of people who depend upon cheese 
 largely it might be used with us more generally than 
 it is. The annual consumption of cheese in this coun- 
 try is only about three pounds per capita. We might 
 well use cheese more freely in cooked dishes, for flavor 
 as well as for nutriment. 
 
TEST QUESTIONS 
 
 The following questions constitute the "written reci- 
 tation" which the regular members of the A. S. H. E. 
 answer in writing and send in for the correction and 
 comment of the instructor. They are intended to 
 emphasize and fix in the memory the most important 
 points in the lesson. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
 first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write 
 on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the 
 lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instructor 
 may know that you understand the subject. Read the les- 
 son paper a number of times before attempting to answer 
 the questions. 
 
 1. Give a rough diagram of the stove or range with 
 
 which you are most familiar. Show where in 
 the oven and on top of the stove the heat is 
 greatest, and explain why. 
 
 2. What is your method of starting and regulating 
 
 a coal fire? 
 
 3. Counting the time required to keep fire and stove 
 
 in good condition, what is the most economical 
 fuel within vour reach? 
 
 Fig. 1. Pig. 2, 
 
 4. Fig. 1 represents the dial of gas meter at the 
 beginning of the month ; Fig. 2 at the end of 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 the month. What is the reading- in each case, 
 and what will he the amount of the bill at $1.25 
 per 1,000 feet of gas? 
 
 5. If you use a gas stove, read the meter before and 
 
 after a day's baking and find the cost of fuel. 
 If other fuel is used, give the amount and ap- 
 proximate cost. 
 
 6. Where, in your experience, would a thermometer 
 
 be helpful in cookery ? 
 
 7. Mention several foods requiring the action of 
 
 heat, yet which need little preparation and few 
 utensils. 
 
 8. What different ways have we of cooking with 
 
 the aid of water? 
 
 9. Is it possible to cook in water that does not boil ? 
 
 Give examples. 
 
 10. What gain in cooking certain foods over, rather 
 
 than in, water? Describe utensils by which this 
 can be accomplished. 
 
 11. What kinds of foods should be kept in the refrig- 
 
 erator? Describe the refrigerator, or whatever 
 is used in its place. 
 
 12. What are the essential points in canning fruit? 
 
 13. How should dried fruit and vegetables be pre- 
 
 pared to restore them as nearly as possible to 
 their original condition? 
 
 14. Are there any substances suitable to add to foods 
 
 as preservatives? 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 15. What are the relative merits of paper bags, 
 
 wooden boxes, tin cans, and glass jars for keep- 
 ing groceries in pantry or store closet? 
 
 16. How can you determine for yourself that there is 
 
 water and fat in milk, cheese, and butter? 
 
 17. Make a menu for meals for two days, introducing 
 
 as many dishes as feasible that contain milk or 
 cheese. 
 
 18. Suggest treatment and uses for sour milk, dry 
 
 cheese, and butter of poor flavor. 
 
 19. Make a white sauce three times or more, putting 
 
 the ingredients together in different order each 
 time, and report which seems the most satis- 
 factory and expeditious. 
 
 20. Are there any questions which you would like an- 
 
 swered, relating to the topics taken up in this 
 lesson ? 
 
 Note. — After completing the test sign your full name. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 
 
 PART II 
 
NEW ENGLAND KITCHEN OF THE OLDEN TIME 
 / 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 PART II 
 
 EGGS 
 
 Since the egg is similar to milk in composition, both 
 containing water, fat, and protein, without starch, 
 and as there are many simple dishes in which milk and 
 eggs are combined, it is natural that that should be our 
 next topic. 
 
 The egg may seem a small article to have much space 
 devoted to it, but there is no other food so indispensable 
 to the art of cooking. A French chef has compared 
 the office of eggs in cooking to the usefulness of the, an, 
 and a, in conversation, both would be difficult without 
 them. „ , . 
 
 Usefulness 
 
 Aside from its great food value, and there is no egg of Eggs 
 of bird that may not be eaten, the egg is a general 
 harmonizer in the kitchen ; it serves to thicken cus- 
 tards and sauces; to clarify soups and jellies; to make 
 a coating of crumbs adhere to chops or croquettes ; it 
 puffs up souffles ; it leavens a whole group of cakes ; 
 it garnishes salads and emulsifies oil into a smooth, rich 
 dressing for them, and combined with odd bits of 
 fish or meat, it makes many a savory dish of what 
 would otherwise be lost. 
 
56 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 The composition of eggs varies with the kind of fowl 
 and its food. The edible portion of the average hen's 
 egg is nearly 75 per cent, water, 12 per cent, protein, 
 12 per cent, fat, and I per cent, ash or mineral mat- 
 ter. 
 
 Since carbohydrates are lacking, we naturally com- 
 bine eggs with starches and sugar which supply the 
 class of substance missing. 
 
 Like milk, eggs may be eaten either raw or cooked, 
 and the ways of cooking eggs, however elaborate they 
 seem, may be reduced to a few simple processes. 
 
 We shall have the key to all cookery of eggs if we 
 study some eggs cooked by moderate and some by 
 intense heat. 
 Effect' To see how the egg is affected by different degrees 
 on Eggs °i heat, we may poach several eggs, or drop them 
 from their shells into water at different temperatures. 
 When an egg is dropped into a saucepan with cold 
 water, and heat applied, before the egg begins to cook, 
 the egg and water mingle somewhat, showing that a 
 portion of the raw egg is soluble in cold water. As the 
 water is heated, this soluble egg becomes cooked and 
 rises in a thick froth on top, and if the cooking is 
 continued longer, this froth may contract and settle. 
 This point is turned to the cook's advantage in clear- 
 ing jellies, soup stocks, and coffee. Thus even the lit- 
 tle portion of the egg white adhering to the shell is 
 sometimes utilized for clearing coffee. 
 
EGGS. 57 
 
 When an egg is dropped directly into boiling water, 
 the outer portions of it are hardened by the heat. This 
 cooked egg does not appear to be soluble itself and, 
 moreover, protects the under portion until that also 
 is penetrated by the heat. 
 
 Experiment. — Boil one egg rapidly ; put another into 
 the boiling water, remove from the stove, and let 
 stand for fifteen minutes or more. Compare tempera- 
 tures with a thermometer. See which egg is more ten- 
 der, and presumably, more easy of digestion. 
 
 The white and yolk of eggs cook at different tern- Temperature 
 peratures, and these appear to vary slightly with the Eggs° oking 
 freshness of the egg. For general use it is sufficient to 
 remember that 150 to 180 F is ample heat for dishes 
 composed mainly of eggs and milk. When starch is 
 used, a higher temperature is required, and whenever 
 possible, this should be obtained before combination 
 with the eggs. Having learned this, we have the key 
 to the successful cooking of all custards and the like. 
 A custard that has curdled, or wheyed, or settled in 
 the center, has cooked too long, or in too hot an oven. 
 The custom of setting a custard in a pan of water 
 in the oven is wise, for the moisture lowers the tem- 
 perature of the oven. Excessive beating of eggs may 
 aid the curdling of the custard ; it certainly is a waste 
 of effort here, however it may be in cake making. 
 
 Average custards are made with three to six eggs to custards 
 a quart of milk ; naturally the larger number makes a 
 firmer custard, but the other is quite palatable. Often 
 
Eggs 
 w?th Starch 
 
 58 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 gelatine or corn starch is used to assist in thickening 
 milk when eggs are expensive, but these combinations 
 are not real custards. 
 
 There is a long list of puddings where a custard 
 or egg and milk are combined with starchy materials. 
 In such cases as have already been stated, it is wise to 
 have the starch, whether in the form of rice, tapioca, 
 sago, or corn starch, cooked in the milk before the 
 
 POACHED EGGS ON I'ISII BALLS. 
 
 Dropped 
 ■ Egg 
 
 egg is added. Bread or cracker crumbs may be com- 
 bined directly with the milk, for then the starch has al- 
 ready been cooked. 
 
 A single dropped egg may show that water need not 
 boil in order to cook an egg. Even if a thermometer is 
 not available, it can be seen that the white of the 
 egg instantly changes in appearance when it comes in 
 contact with water far below the boiling point. A muf- 
 fin ring placed in the water assists in keeping the egg 
 
EGGS. 
 
 59 
 
 in good shape. A little salt and lemon juice or vinegar 
 in the water makes the egg harden quickly on the out- 
 side instead of mingling with the water. 
 
 Since we reckon the cost of other foods by the V aiu© 
 pound, for easy comparison we must estimate the value 
 of eggs on the same basis. It will be found that the 
 average hen's egg weighs about two ounces, and that 
 eight good sized eggs in their shells, or nine or ten 
 shelled eggs, weigh one pound. The fuel required, 
 the labor of preparation, and the waste are much less 
 with eggs than for most other foods. 
 
 Some experiments recorded in "Eggs and Their 
 Uses as Food" (Farmers' Bulletin No. 128, U. S. 
 Dept. Agl.), show that it cost more than twice as 
 much to serve and satisfy at breakfast a family of over 
 one hundred women in a college boarding hall with 
 mutton chops or beefsteak at less than 20c. per pound, 
 than with eggs at 25c. a dozen. 
 
 Commercially, there are many grades of eggs, de- Preserving 
 pendent upon their age. Cold storage has done away 
 with most other methods of preserving eggs. Anything 
 that will exclude air, without bringing ill flavor to the 
 tgg, will aid in preserving it. Eggs are available al- 
 most everywhere at all seasons and even at their high- 
 est prices, are not more expensive than the choicer 
 cuts of meat. 
 
 An inferior egg injures all other materials with 
 which it is combined, therefore it is never economy to 
 buy poor eggs. When eggs are high do without them, 
 
6o 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Variety 
 
 jorobinations 
 
 to Reduce 
 
 Cost 
 
 making dishes which require few, if any ; then when 
 they are again plenty they will be all the more appetiz- 
 ing. With proper conditions for keeping eggs, it may 
 be economy for some housekeepers to buy a large quan- 
 tity in the fall and pack them carefully in an upright 
 position, but many find it better to give the grocer 
 a few cents more than to take the time and rrsk of 
 loss. 
 
 COMBINATION OF EGGS WITH OTHER FOODS. 
 
 Any fundamental food, like the egg, must be served 
 in a variety of ways or we tire of them. Foods having 
 short seasons should be prepared in the simplest 
 fashion. 
 
 The nutritive value of the food is not materially 
 changed by a variation in the method of cooking, pro- 
 vided no additions are made to it. It may appeal more 
 to the palate in one form than another, and the time 
 of digestion may vary, though in the end as much may 
 be absorbed in the one case as in the other. 
 
 To illustrate this point, let us take two eggs costing 
 at average prices two cents each, or four cents. 
 Whether boiled in the shell or dropped from the shell 
 into boiling water, their food value would be practi- 
 cally the same ; when scrambled or made into an 
 omelet there is a slight addition of nutritive material. 
 
 But the rigid economist says that eggs at two cents 
 apiece are too expensive for the family of limited 
 means. Then comes in the art of cooking to show how 
 the eggs may be combined with less costly food ma- 
 
EGGS. 61 
 
 terials to make several palatable dishes which may 
 take the place of meats and yet require but little more 
 labor in preparation. 
 
 First, the two eggs may be combined with one cup of with 
 white sauce ; this may be served with the omelet, or sauce 
 blended with the scrambled egg, or made into a souffle, 
 or served with hard boiled eggs chopped or sliced. 
 
 The identical quantities might be used in each case. 
 By such combination the cost of the dish is doubled, but 
 it will go at least twice as far and its fuel value is more 
 than trebled. Or, instead of the sauce, we may use 
 one cup of milk thickened with white bread crumbs and 
 well salted and omit the butter or use less. This will 
 reduce both cost and fuel value. 
 
 The foundation may be again extended and varied. 
 To the two eggs and cup of white sauce may be added cheese 
 two ounces of grated cheese or two ounces of chopped 
 ham. If the ham is of average fatness, the fuel value 
 of the cheese and ham will be about the same. The 
 ham might be more expensive than the cheese were 
 it not that this is a way to turn to good account the 
 smaller bits of meat. By this addition the dish, at two 
 and a half times the cost of the eggs, becomes about 
 five times as efficient in fuel value. 
 
 This combination may be served in many forms, — serving 
 the cheese may be warmed in the sauce and poured 
 over the eggs hard boiled, poached or made into an 
 omelet, and the ham might be used in the same way. 
 
 After mixing sauce, cheese, and yolks of raw eggs, 
 
Sponge 
 Cake 
 
 62 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 the stiff whites of the egg may be folded in and the 
 mixture baked in one dish or several little ones. 
 
 All such combinations are naturally eaten with some 
 form of bread, and here again the whole cost is di- 
 minished with an increase of fuel value. 
 
 A summary of these possible combinations may be 
 clearer in tabular form, as follows : 
 
 Weight. Cost. Cal. 
 
 2 eggs 4 oz. 4c. 161 
 
 White Sauce : 
 
 1 C. milk 8 oz. 2c. 162 
 
 Butter 1 oz. 2c. 217 
 
 Flour l / 2 oz. 51 
 
 Cheese 2 oz. 2c. 246 
 
 Ham 2 oz. 2c. 207 
 
 It would be interesting to trace the history of egg 
 cooking and find who first discovered that eggs cooked 
 in milk, sweetened and flavored, made the palatable 
 compound we know as custard; or who first discovered 
 the delicious sponge cake or "diet bread," as our fore- 
 mothers called it. 
 
 All our modern recipes for sponge cake, angel cake, 
 lady-fingers, and sponge drops, are but slight varia- 
 tions from the recipes to be found in old cook books, 
 which call for the weight of the eggs in sugar and half 
 the weight of the eggs in flour. 
 
 The tendency of the artistic cook is to separate the 
 two parts of the egg, using the yolk to produce cer- 
 tain effects and the white for others. 
 
 The proportions are about the same in the angel cake 
 
EGGS. 
 
 63 
 
 as in the sponge cake, but the egg whites only are 
 used. The egg yolks, left from such cakes, are more 
 desirable than the whole egg for many custards and 
 sauces, producing a richer and more creamy effect, 
 since the yolk of egg contains considerable oil. 
 
 Eggs in doughs may better be studied here with 
 other qualities of eggs rather than later with doughs. 
 
 Under this head may be included noodles, pop- 
 overs, Yorkshire pudding, cream puffs, eclairs, tim- 
 
 liUG TIMBALES. 
 
 bale cases, fritters of many varieties, as well as sponge 
 and angel cakes and macaroons. 
 
 From a study of these distinctly egg doughs we may 
 see why eggs are added to muffins, puddings, etc. 
 
 These may be divided into three classes : ( 1 ) When 
 the egg is used merely to stick flour together, such as 
 noodles and timbale cases. (2) When the cake re- 
 sulting is to be hollow like popovers and puffs, then 
 the egg is beaten with the other ingredients. (3) 
 Where a spongy texture is desired, the eggs are sep- 
 arated and beaten separately. 
 
 For such mixtures as the first class lightness is not 
 essential, is really undesirable ; hence, the eggs are 
 
 Eggs in 
 Doughs 
 
 Classes of 
 Egg Doughs 
 
64 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Hoodies 
 
 Timbales 
 
 beaten only enough to blend yolk and white, and not 
 to mix air with them. In noodles, which are a kind 
 of egg macaroni, the egg supplies liquid as well as aids 
 in sticking the particles of flour together. After a stiff, 
 smooth dough is made, it is rolled much thinner than 
 would be possible if it did not contain egg. Then it is 
 
 Pop Overs — an Example Dtmgu liaised by the Expansion of Air. 
 
 cut in strips or fancy shapes and may be cooked at once 
 or dried and used like macaroni. 
 
 The timbale cases are made from a thin batter, in 
 which, to egg and flour, milk and small quantities 
 of fat and sugar are added, and the whole beaten to- 
 gether until smooth. If the batter is then allowed to 
 stand until the air bubbles escape, the timbale cases 
 will have fewer holes in them. The hot timbale iron 
 is then dipped into the batter and the coating adher- 
 ing is fried until crisp. 
 
EGGS. 
 
 65 
 
 The second class should be hollow, and to secure 
 this result the eggs are beaten without separating 
 yolk and white, or better still, are dropped in with the 
 other ingredients and all beaten together. 
 
 Popovers are the result of a very thin batter, usually 
 one cup each of flour and milk, one egg, and a little 
 salt. This is beaten thoroughly together with a Dover 
 
 Popover 
 
 SPONGE CAKE. 
 
 beater, poured quickly into greased cups, iron or 
 earthen, and baked until thoroughly done. Yorkshire 
 pudding is a similar combination. 
 
 Cream puffs have a cooked foundation of water, but- 
 ter and flour ; to this when cool the eggs are added and 
 beaten into it one by one. Because of the scalding 
 of the flour this is a stiff mixture and will keep its 
 shape when dropped on flat pans, and will puff while 
 baking. The same mixture, fried in deep fat, produces 
 a hollow fritter which may be filled like a cream puff. 
 
 Cream 
 Puffs 
 
66 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Spongy 
 Mixtures 
 
 Beating 
 Eggs 
 
 Cooking 
 
 For the third class of egg doughs and for meringues 
 and puffy omelets, the whites of eggs are beaten by 
 themselves and mixed with special care into the other 
 ingredients that none of the air which has been en- 
 tangled may be lost. This air expands when heated, 
 producing the delicate lightness of the meringue, or 
 sponge, or angel cake. 
 
 The use of a whisk on a platter is the best way of 
 quickly converting the slippery egg white into a frothy, 
 flaky mass, so firm and dry that it may be turned up- 
 side down without slipping from the platter. 
 
 Egg beaters are not absolutely essential, for the work 
 may be done with a fork in time. The whisks are 
 best for beating whites alone — those with cog wheels 
 for the whole egg or for beating batters. 
 
 When yolk and white are mixed, it is impossible to 
 beat in as much air as into the white alone, probably be- 
 cause of the oil contained in the yolk. Even a very 
 little of the yolk will prevent the whites from becom- 
 ing a stiff froth. 
 
 Popovers, meringues, and sponge cake, like other 
 articles containing large proportions of egg, require 
 long cooking at moderate heat. When taken from the 
 oven too soon they shrivel out of shape. 
 
 It is not wise to make cheap cakes and try to make 
 baking powder take the place of eggs in making the 
 mass light. When eggs are cheap, make good cakes 
 and custards, but when they are high in price, de- 
 pend upon desserts where they are not required. 
 
FISH, FOWL, AND FLESH. 
 
 Two important animal products, milk and eggs, have 
 been studied, and we come now to a consideration of 
 the flesh of animals as food. The cooking of the flesh 
 in any way is a comparatively simple matter once we 
 have mastered a few fundamental laws which are prac- 
 tically the same as in cooking eggs. 
 
 The choice of different sections of a creature for 
 different purposes and the decision as to best ways of 
 cooking whatever cut happens to be available, are less 
 simple. 
 
 The primitive cook applied heat to his fish, fowl, 
 or section of meat and consumed it when cooked. The 
 modern marketmen first divide and clean, then the 
 chef seasons and applies the heat in different ways to 
 the various portions. One part is naturally tender and 
 ready for immediate cooking, another will be better 
 if kept a week or a month, others will be improved by 
 salting or smoking. 
 
 Savages have fewer kinds of food and simpler meth- 
 ods of preparation than civilized man. Because of 
 greater abundance it is a natural tendency in civiliza- 
 tion to discard as refuse certain portions formerly 
 eaten. On the other hand, business competition makes 
 it necessary to save all by-products and every por- 
 tion of an animal is used for some purpose and brings 
 some money return, even though small. Were it not 
 for this, our animal foods would be higher in price 
 
 67 
 
68 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Meat a 
 
 Secondary 
 
 Product 
 
 Comparative 
 
 Composition 
 
 of Animal 
 
 Food 
 
 Costs of 
 Meat 
 
 than they are. As it is, they are. the most expensive 
 part of the daily food. 
 
 This is partly due to the fact that the flesh of ani- 
 mals is a secondary product. Animals consume grains 
 and require additional human care, and. thus must 
 cost more than the grains, themselves, alone. More- 
 over, it has been learned by dietary studies that average 
 families in the United States obtain from half to 
 two-thirds of the protein in their food from animal 
 source, and the cost of food is usually proportionate 
 to the demand. 
 
 The composition of all animal foods is similar. 
 Milk is mainly water, but contains some of each of 
 the food principles. Eggs have less water than milk,, 
 and no carbohydrates, but furnish larger proportions 
 of fat and protein. Fish would* average about the 
 same proportion of protein as eggs, but rather less 
 fat. Poultry yields more protein than eggs, but about 
 the same amount of fat. The flesh of the larger ani- 
 mals will average about two-thirds water, the pro- 
 tein and fat being in varying proportions according to 
 the age and condition of the animal. 
 
 Without regard to the names given by marketmen of 
 different localities to the cuts of meat, we may learn 
 the location of the choicest pieces. Cuts which offer 
 tender muscle or large proportion of muscle will natu- 
 rally command the higher prices. 
 
 In any of these animals the framework of bone is 
 practically the same. The larger portion of bone is 
 
MEAT. 
 
 69 
 
 in the forequarter. This is one reason why the fore- 
 quarters are cheaper than hindquarters in our mar- 
 kets. Consequently, there is less nutritive value per 
 pound and what there is is less accessible, for the meat 
 is not easily carved unless boned before cooking - . 
 
 Meat of any kind should have little odor when in 
 good condition. It should be firm and dry rather than 
 
 Judging 
 
 Meat 
 
 LAMB CHOPS AND KIDNEYS. 
 
 moist, and should be well marbled with fat. 
 
 The lower part of the legs will have little muscle in 
 proportion to the bone, and there will be tendons hold- 
 ing the muscle to the bone. 
 
 Muscles getting little motion or exercise will be 
 tender, while those which are active will be tough, 
 though juicy. The neck and legs, therefore, will be 
 suitable for broths but not desirable for roasts. 
 
 A general rule is this : the market value of meat 
 increases backward from the head, but decreases down- 
 
 Toughnesr 
 
70 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 ward toward the legs. This brings the choicest cuts 
 in the back upper part of the creature and includes 
 the rump and loin. 
 
 The muscle of good beef is dark red when first 
 cut and grows brighter when exposed to the air for a 
 short time. The fat is yellowish white. 
 Mutton Mutton and lamb have a hard white fat. The flesh 
 
 and Lamb Q f mutton is a duller red than beef. The lamb is 
 pinkish in tinge. The bones of veal and lamb are 
 smaller than those of beef and mutton. Veal and fresh 
 lean pork are somewhat the same shade of dull pink, 
 but the pork has more fat mixed with it. 
 
 Meat from young animals is tender but not so nu- 
 tritious, and does not keep so well as that from older 
 ones. 
 
 The heart, liver, sweetbread, kidney, tripe, are also 
 used as food and the same general laws govern the 
 methods of cooking them. 
 
 The chef may not recognize the same elements in 
 meat that the chemist does, yet his choice and prepara- 
 tion of a cut of meat are based upon its composition. 
 From this point of view, meat consists of three 
 parts : lean muscle, fat, and bone, and the market value 
 of any cut is based upon its relative proportion of 
 these. 
 
 Lean meat is most desired and tender fibres com- 
 mand the higher prices. Some fat is utilized with 
 the meat, but a large part goes to the manufacture of 
 artificial butter, lard, and soap. Much of the bone is 
 
MEAT. 
 
 n 
 
 refuse, but some of its substance may be extracted by 
 right treatment. 
 
 The lean portion of meats is about one-fifth or twenty 
 per cent, protein about five times as much as in an 
 equal weight of milk. 
 
 The muscle or the lean meat may be freed from 
 skin, gristle, bone, and fat, wholly or in part before 
 cooking. It is easier to serve when this is done, and 
 there is no waste at the table, but there may be loss 
 of flavor. Raw meat may be digested readily, but we 
 cook it to make it more attractive in appearance and 
 more appetizing in flavor. 
 
 Some fat is required to keep the meat from drying 
 during the cooking process. Often the muscle is so 
 closely associated with bone, tendon, and gristle, that 
 to remove them would cause serious loss of juice. In 
 any case, when the tougher portions are removed they 
 should be used for stock and their flavor returned to 
 the muscle as a sauce or used for soup or other good 
 purpose. 
 
 Tender muscles may be cooked quickly — steaks and 
 roasts — and should be exposed to intense heat at first. 
 
 Tougher portions may be made more palatable by 
 pounding to separate the connective tissue, but this is 
 often accompanied by loss of juice, or they may be 
 put through the meat chopper or cooked slowly for a 
 long time in a gravy, or both. 
 
 By browning tough meat first we give it a good 
 flavor and sear the surface so that more of the juice will 
 
 Preparation 
 
 Some Fat 
 Needed 
 
 Tough 
 Meat 
 
 Browning 
 
72 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Braising 
 
 Salt Meat 
 
 Fatness 
 
 be retained than if raw meat were used. Some scraps of 
 fat may be browned, an onion sliced and fried in the 
 fat, an equal measure of flour added, and when it is 
 mixed smoothly with the fat, water is put in, in the 
 same proportions as for white sauce. The meat is put 
 in the gravy and left covered on the back of the stove 
 to cook slowly, later vegetables are added. 
 
 Braised meat and pot roasts are similar in effect, but 
 large pieces of meat are used and more time is re- 
 quired. All the trimmings, except the fat, are put with 
 the bones, covered with cold water and the kettle is 
 set on the stove to heat slowly. 
 
 Salt meats should be cooked slowly in plenty of 
 water until tender. When the meat is very salt, it 
 should be put on in cold instead of boiling water. 
 
 Wild animals usually are less fat than those that 
 have been raised for food. Excessive fat may mean 
 disease. Young animals have but little fat compared 
 with older ones. Half the weight of a pig may be 
 fat and a fourth of a fat sheep or ox. Some portions 
 of a creature will contain much more fat than others. 
 Layers of fat occur around the inner organs of ani- 
 mals. Some fish have fat or oil in the liver and little 
 or none elsewhere. Fat mingled with the lean tissues is 
 partly visible, partly detected only by chemical meth- 
 ods. 
 
 To a certain extent fat takes the place of water in 
 the tissues. In fat meat the purchaser gets the same 
 amount of protein but buys fat instead of water. 
 
SAUSAGE AND FRIED APPLES. 
 
 heated slowly to separate the clear fat from the heavy, 
 honeycomb-like tissues which contain it. At the end 
 of several hours the fat will have melted and may be 
 strained from the crisp brown tissues. If raised to 
 too high a temperature the fat is less wholesome and 
 well flavored. 
 
 In the average household, trimmings of beef, pork, 
 veal, lamb, and poultry, may be prepared together for 
 
 Saving 
 
 MEAT. ■ 73, 
 
 The surplus fat purchased with meats should be 
 turned to good account by clarifying it for shortening the Fat 
 or frying. It should be freed from the protein mat- 
 ter as far as possible by trimming and soaking in cold 
 salted water. The water should be changed often, and 
 the fat, after being cut in small pieces, may soak from 
 twelve to twenty-four hours. Then it is drained and 
 
Frying in 
 
 74 - PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 fry fat, and where much meat is used will keep a sup- 
 ply in the frying kettle. 
 
 Frying in deep fat is a satisfactory method of se 
 Deep Fat - curm g a c ri S p ; brown crust. When the process is prop- 
 erly conducted very little fat is absorbed by the food. 
 
 The temperature of fat suitable for cooking is much 
 higher than that of boiling water and ranges from 
 300 to 400 F, according to the nature of the article 
 to be cooked. For doughs which should rise, and fish 
 which must be Cooked through, a lower temperature 
 and longer time are required than for fishballs or cro- 
 quettes, already cooked and only to be browned. 
 
 If many pieces of cold food are put into the kettle 
 of fat at one time, the temperature will be lowered so 
 much that they may absorb fat and even fall to pieces. 
 Testing A bit of bread dropped into the kettle will brown 
 in one minute if the fat is right for frying doughs, and 
 in less time if it is ready for croquettes. 
 
 Fat by itself does not boil, but when moist food 
 is put into it large bubbles of steam begin to form. 
 At first the foods being cold and heavy sink to the 
 bottom of the kettle ; as they warm and the water es- 
 capes, they rise toward the top. 
 
 As soon as the food is brown it should be removed 
 from the fat and drained on soft paper before serv- 
 ing. 
 
 The bones of animals yield considerable nutritive 
 material if we use proper methods to extract it. Mar- 
 
 Temperature 
 
 gones 
 
MEAL\ 
 
 75 
 
 row is found in the leg bones, but they have not so 
 much protein matter as the spongy rib bones. When 
 meat is boned before cooking, bits of meat cling to 
 the bone. By soaking in cold water, then cooking 
 gently, a large part of the flavor and nutritive part 
 of the bone is dissolved in the water. Cartilage, gristle 
 
 Extracting 
 Nutriment 
 
 MEAT LOAF IN RICE. 
 
 and tendons are also somewhat soluble when exposed 
 to moisture and heat. The smaller the pieces into 
 which bone and meat are divided the greater the sur- 
 face exposed to the dissolving action of the water. The 
 flavors of meat which are drawn into the water are 
 known as extractives and are stimulating rather than 
 nourishing, 
 
76 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Soup This process of extraction from portions unsuit- 
 
 stook a bi e to eat j s } <nown as making soup stock. Bouillon 
 
 and beef tea are made from tousrh lean meat with little 
 
 FILLET CUT FROM SIDE OF FISH. 
 
 or no bone. Consomme is made from meat and poul- 
 try together. Anything that would give a strong 
 flavor must be removed. The skin of lamb or beef 
 should be thrown away. 
 
 Names The flavoring; of the soup or the sjarnisli served in it 
 
 of Soups . . ... 
 
 gives its distinctive name. All meat, poultry, and 
 
 fish soups have as their basis a stock made from the 
 
 portions undesirable to use in any other way. 
 
 Yet stock contains but a small proportion of the 
 
 nutriment of the meat, and fibre of the meat from 
 
 which stock has been made may be used for hashes, 
 
 with herbs, etc., to give flavor. 
 
FISH, FOWL AND FLESH. 
 
 77 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Fresh fish have full lifelike eyes, red gills, silvery, 
 not slimy skin and scales, firm tail, not flabby and 
 drooping, and firm flesh. Plump short fish are better 
 than long thin ones of the same variety. The time of 
 their transfer from the water to the table should be as 
 short as possible. While fish as a whole is not so nu- 
 tritious as meat, it may often take the place of meat 
 on our tables. It is the province of the cook to sup- 
 plement the fish with such sauces as will supply both 
 flavor and nutriment. 
 
 In general, the methods of cooking fish are the same 
 as those followed in cooking meats. The flesh should 
 be thoroughly cooked, but not overdone. Oily fish, like 
 
 Proper 
 Appearand 
 
 Methods; 
 of Cooking 
 
 For Fish Stock, 
 
 PREPARATION OF FISH. 
 
 Ready to Fry. 
 
 salmon and mackerel, are best broiled. Almost any 
 fish may be baked whole or in fillets. Boiling is an 
 extravagant method of cooking unless the water is 
 used for a soup or a sauce. Steaming is better than 
 
78 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 boiling, as more of the flavor is retained in the fish. 
 Frying in salt pork fat is a desirable way to cook fish 
 lacking flavor or fat, but for uniformity in cooking the 
 kettle of deep fat is to be preferred to the thin layer 
 in a shallow pan. 
 
 If a fish lacking in fat is brushed over with oil or 
 melted butter and broiled under gas, the result gives the 
 best effects of frying without the disagreeable odors. 
 
 FISH STUFFED AND TRUSSED FUR BAKING. 
 
 Sauces 
 with Fish 
 
 Fish stock may be kept for several days if convenient, 
 or it may be used as the basis of a sauce to serve with 
 the fillets of the flesh. 
 
 Since so many varieties of fish lack fat, rich sauces 
 are generally considered a necessary accompaniment. 
 The composition of the fish and the way in which it is 
 cooked should decide the kind of sauce to be served 
 with it. Acids like lemon juice, pickles, and tomato 
 are often agreeable additions to a fish sauce. 
 
FISH, FOWL AND FLESH. 79 
 
 POULTRY 
 
 Young birds are to be chosen for broiling and other judging 
 quick cooking, but full grown fowls are more nutritious 
 for broths and stews. A fowl is usually fatter than a 
 chicken, the skin is tougher, and the bones — especially 
 the tip of the breast bone — are harder. In the skin of 
 the young bird there are usually pinfeathers, the feet 
 are smoother, and the muscles or flesh are less well 
 developed than in the fowl. 
 
 To prepare poultry, pick out pinfeathers, singe and Preparing 
 rub off the hairs and wipe clean. Cut through the Fricassee 
 loose skin on the back, pull away from the neck, take 
 out the crop and windpipe in front, cut off the neck. 
 
 Cut through the skin on the legs about an inch 
 below the joint, break the bone, twist the leg and 
 pull out the tendons one by one. Take off the wings 
 and cut through the loose skin on the sides and sep- 
 arate the leg and thigh joints. 
 
 From backbone to tip of breastbone cut through thin 
 muscles on either side. This exposes the interior or- 
 gans so that it is easy to learn their relative positions. - 
 Then one knows how to proceed when preparing a 
 bird to roast when the opening is small. 
 
 Loosen the membranes which attach these organs 
 to the body, following the breastbone with the fingers 
 until the point of the heart is felt. Then remove heart, 
 liver, and gizzard together. The gallbag is protected 
 bv the liver, so there is little danger of breaking it if 
 
POULTRY. 81 
 
 they arc not separated. The intestines should be re- 
 moved when the fowls are dressed for market. 
 
 Next detach the lungs from the backbone near the 
 wings, and the kidneys, which are lower down in the 
 back. These are not used. 
 
 Separate the gallbag from the liver without break- 
 ing, and cut away any portions of the liver which are 
 tinged with green. Cut across the larger end of the 
 heart and slip it out of the membrane enclosing it. 
 Cut through the gizard on the wide side and take out 
 the inner portion without breaking, if possible. 
 
 Learn the order of removal of these portions from order of 
 the body, and then nothing will be forgotten when Removal 
 preparing a bird for any purpose, — the crop and wind- 
 pipe from the neck. 
 
 The heart, liver, and gizzard, together, from an open- 
 ing near the tail. 
 
 The lungs and kidneys from the hollows in the back- 
 bone. 
 
 The oil bag on the upper part of the tail. 
 
 The backbone can now be divided near the middle, 
 and by slipping a knife under the sharp end of the 
 shoulder blade and then cutting through the ribs from 
 the point where the wings come off, the upper part 
 of the back is separated from the breast. 
 
 If desired, the fillets of white flesh can be separated 
 from the breastbone and wishbone by running the 
 knife close to the bones. 
 
82 
 
 ■PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Never soak a fowl in water, as is often the practice. 
 If any parts need washing rinse them off quickly one 
 by one. 
 
 The breastbone, upper part of back and neck, and 
 sharp ends of wings should be put in cold water and 
 
 CHICKEN STUFFED AND TRUSSED FOR ROASTING. 
 
 Put in 
 Boiling 
 Water 
 
 heated slowly ; thus more flavor is extracted from these 
 portions which have but little meat. 
 
 When the water is boiling hot the other sections are 
 put in and the hot water coagulates the juices on the 
 outside and thus more flavor is retained. To accom- 
 plish the same end, the joints are often browned in hot 
 fat and then are stewed afterward. 
 
Softening 
 
 VEGETABLES AND GRAINS. 
 
 Like the foods already studied, vegetables are mainly 
 water, but all the five food principles may be ob- 
 tained from the vegetable kingdom. Here we secure 
 our supplies of starch and sugar, or the carbohydrates, 
 but the proportions of proteid and fat are, as a whole, 
 smaller than in the animal foods. From fruits, vege- 
 tables, and grains we obtain mineral substances valu- 
 able for making bones and teeth and keeping the whole 
 system in good condition. 
 
 The woody fibre or cellulose, abundant in vegetable 
 structures, is the great obstacle to be overcome by Celluloae 
 cooking. Plants growing rapidly with plenty of 
 water and sunshine usually have less of this fibre, and 
 it is the aim of the gardener to eliminate it as far as 
 possible. By improved methods of cultivation the 
 agriculturist has removed the acrid flavors of the nat- 
 ural vegetables and has reduced the proportion of 
 woody fibre. 
 
 The cell walls cannot be separated wholly from the 
 nutritive substances they contain, and unless softened 
 by cooking may irritate the alimentary canal so that 
 the whole .is hurried through before digestion is com- 
 pleted. Cellulose, though of little food value, may aid 
 digestion by providing the necessary bulk for its me- 
 chanical processes. 
 
 Experiment. To get a clear idea of the structure 
 and composition of vegetables, grate a portion of a 
 
 83 
 
8 4 ■ PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 potato or turnip. Let the pulp fall from the grater 
 into a strainer placed over a glass and press out all 
 the watery juice possible. Some of the starch of the 
 potato will settle from the juice, and more may be 
 washed out of the mass remaining in the strainer. The 
 presence of sugar in the juice of a carrot may be recog- 
 nized by tasting it after evaporation. 
 
 By examination of the woody fiber left in the strain- 
 er we see how closely it is connected with the starch 
 and sugar, how impossible it would be to separate 
 it, and the necessity for softening it that we may be 
 able to digest the nutrients. 
 
 We discard portions of vegetable foods, the pods, 
 husks, cobs, etc., because of our inability to cook them 
 so they can be digested. 
 
 Chopping and straining aid the cook in dividing the 
 cellulose so that the particles are less irritating and 
 the nutrients are more accessible. 
 
 Parts of It is interesting to note the different parts of plants 
 
 a forFood which are used for food — the roots, tubers or bulbs, 
 stems, leaves, fruits, and seeds. The last are used 
 mainly in the dry form, and absorb much water in 
 preparation. This must be remembered when study- 
 ing analyses of dried legumes and cereals. 
 
 The botanical grouping of plants is helpful. Once 
 we have learned how to prepare and cook one member 
 of a plant family we have something to guide us with 
 its relatives. Among the principal classes to study in 
 
VEGETABLES. 
 
 §5 
 
 this way are the pulses, the grains, and the cabbage 
 family. 
 
 There are many kinds of each vegetable offered by 
 the seedsmen. Moreover, any vegetable differs ma- 
 terially in different years and at different seasons of 
 the year. 
 
 From the standpoint of the cook a convenient classi- 
 fication of vegetables may be made according to the 
 general preparation, the time, and the amount of 
 water required for cooking them. 
 
 Dried vegetables must have abundant water sup- 
 plied and must be allowed time to> soak, thus absorb- 
 ing an amount of water similar to that lost in the dry- 
 ing process. There is little difference aside from the 
 fat added in cooking, in the analysis of the dry bean 
 which has been soaked and baked, and that of the 
 green shelled bean. Sometimes we try to hasten this 
 process of absorption by heat, but the best results 
 are attained when dried fruits or vegetables are soaked 
 until at least double in size before cooking. 
 
 Old or strongly flavored vegetables, such as pota- 
 toes, turnips, and onions, will be improved by the re- 
 moval of the skin and any imperfections before cook- 
 ing, and bv soaking in cold water for an hour or two. 
 Inferior onions may be scalded in soda water before 
 cooking, and by changing the water once or twice dur- 
 ing the cooking process will be rendered less strong 
 in flavor. It is wiser to make the vegetable palatable 
 
 Dried 
 Vegetables 
 
 Strongly 
 Flavored 
 Vegetables 
 
VEGETABLES. 
 
 87 
 
 at the risk of some loss of nutriment than to retain 
 everything and have it uneatable. 
 
 Young- vegetables in summer and those having 
 sugary juices, like squash and beets, should be cooked 
 in little water or by steaming or baking, so that all 
 their sweetness may be retained, unless the water is 
 reserved for soup or used in a sauce for the vegetable 
 itself. 
 
 Slightly wilted vegetables may be improved by 
 washing and soaking or by wrapping in a damp cloth 
 and placing in the refrigerator or by hanging in a 
 draft of air. 
 
 The pulses or leguminous plants include the bean, 
 lentil, pea, and peanut. 
 
 In the bean we have an example of a vegetable which 
 differs much at different stages of growth. We may 
 use the pods before the seeds they contain have 
 reached their normal size, the full grown seeds may 
 be cooked green, or dry after first being soaked. 
 
 This class of plants is of great value where people 
 must be fed at small expense. They are staples in 
 in China, Japan, Southern Europe and Mexico, are in- 
 valuable in prisons, charitable institutions, and for the 
 pioneer or logger. Because they lack fat, cream, 
 butter, or pork are added before eating. 
 
 Some varieties like the Japanese soy beans, contain 
 as much as sixteen per cent of fat, and peanuts are 
 more than one-third, or about forty per cent fat. 
 
 Young- 
 Vegetables 
 
 Wilted 
 Vegetables 
 
 Fat 
 Contents 
 
88 • PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 ©igestibiiity Though rich in nutrients this class of vegetables ap- 
 pears to be slow of digestion. The ease and complete- 
 ness of digestion are aided by thorough cooking and 
 by removing the skins, grinding, mashing, or strain- 
 ing. Long, gentle cooking develops new flavors and 
 removes the peculiar granular texture present in beans 
 and peas insufficiently cooked, even after straining. 
 
 ; 
 
 
 
 '\~^m 
 
 ^o^ 
 
 w 
 
 i" ■ - ■■- 
 
 
 
 Black Bean Soup Garnished with Lemon and Parsley. 
 
 Peas 
 
 The main object in cooking beans, like all vegeta- 
 bles, is to soften the tough fibres of the pods of the 
 string beans and the skins and cellulose of the dry 
 ones. 
 
 Split peas have the skins removed and thus are 
 more readily digested. The skins of the larger beans 
 may be rubbed off after soaking and parboiling. 
 
 Hard water retards the cooking of beans and a bit 
 of soda is often added to soften the water and loosen 
 
VEGETABLES. 
 
 the skin — this water is poured off when the beans are 
 partly cooked. 
 
 Few people use the variety of beans they might, as 
 the black beans for soup, the limas or red kidney 
 for stewed beans, the pea bean and yellow eye for 
 baking- and the French flageolets for salads. 
 
 Potatoes are generally liked because of their lack 
 of pronounced flavor, and for the same reason, may 
 be combined with many other foods. 
 
 A peck of potatoes may cost from fifteen to seventy- 
 five cents, according to the season of the year, and the 
 abundance of the crop. This quantity will weigh fif- 
 teen pounds and will average from fifty to sixty po- 
 tatoes. That is, one pound will be about four pota- 
 toes of medium size, and will cost from one to five 
 cents. 
 
 If pared before cooking and all bad places removed, 
 average potatoes will lose from twenty to twenty-five 
 per cent, or one of the four potatoes in a pound. From 
 selected potatoes the government experts scraped the 
 skins, removing as little flesh of the potato as possible. 
 This was about eleven per cent of the weight. In po- 
 tatoes as usually purchased, the green ends, decayed 
 places, and the potatoes gashed with the hoe easily 
 bring the total loss up to the higher percentage. 
 
 It may be a profitable loss to pare old and inferior 
 potatoes before cooking. The main point to notice in 
 the cooking of the potato is to let out the steam, or to 
 
 Beans 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Loss in 
 Preparing 
 
90 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Potatoes 
 with Meat 
 
 Combinations 
 
 Cooking 
 Vegetables 
 
 pour off the water as soon as the fibre and starch are 
 softened. 
 
 Because the potato is lacking in protein and fat, the 
 instinct of man has taught him to eat it with meat, 
 since it gave him the food principles the meat lacked, 
 and also the bulk desirable for the process of diges- 
 tion. 
 
 The art of the cook has devised many methods of 
 combining butter, oil, milk and eggs with the potato 
 and other vegetables to supply protein and fat. The 
 fried potato absorbs fat while cooking ; the white sauce 
 of creamed potato adds both fat and protein ; a potato 
 soup is creamed potato' with more milk ; the potato 
 croquette contains egg and is cooked in fat; a potato 
 salad has oil and often eggs. 
 
 Such additions, though increasing the cost of the 
 food,, make the result equivalent to vegetables with a 
 moderate allowance of meat. Hence vegetable souf- 
 flees, or croquettes, may be served when the meat sup- 
 ply is limited. 
 
 Almost any vegetable, by due combination with 
 milk, butter, and eggs may appear as soup, fritters, 
 croquettes, soufflees, or salads. For these complicated 
 dishes, it is essential that the vegetable first shall be 
 perfectly cooked in a simple fashion. 
 
 The methods of cookery applied to vegetables are 
 similar to those used for meat, but must be adapted 
 to the composition and condition of the individual 
 specimen. 
 
VEGETABLES. 91 
 
 It is impossible to give the exact time for cooking 
 any variety of vegetable, for every sample will differ. 
 They are unpalatable when underdone and also at the 
 other extreme. 
 
 There is usually some way of cooking best for each 
 vegetable, but if one kind only is available it is neces- 
 sary to serve it in a variety of ways. This, perhaps, 
 explains why the average cook book gives more re- 
 ceipes for the potato' than for all other vegetables. 
 Suitable utensils are essential ; vegetables should not 
 be cooked in iron kettles when others are attainable ; 
 strainers, mashers, cutters, ricers and presses are de- 
 sirable. 
 
 Strong flavors frequently are due to careless prep- preparation 
 aration. Careful trimming and thorough washing are 
 essential. Wilted vegetables are improved, as has been 
 said, by soaking. Salad plants need especial care in 
 washing to remove parasites and insecticides. 
 
 Any portion of a root or tuber grown above ground 
 becomes green and strong flavored and will impart 
 its flavor to other portions with which it may be 
 cooked. A decayed bit, or the scorching where the 
 water evaporates, may often ruin the flavor of all. 
 
 Young, tender, well flavored vegetables should be 
 cooked and served in the simplest manner. Inferior 
 specimens, like tough asparagus or celery which has 
 lost its crispness, by boiling, straining, and flavoring 
 may be made into palatable soup when they would be 
 worthless under simple treatment. 
 
Vegetable 
 Soups 
 
 92 ' PRINCIPLES OF COOKER?. 
 
 Vegetable soups are of two types; — for one, the 
 vegetables are cooked till tender, cut in convenient 
 bits and added to a meat stock. For the other, by long 
 cooking in water a single vegetable or several together 
 are made into stock, and all that is soft enough is 
 rubbed through a strainer and then put with about an 
 equal quantity, according to the strength of each, of 
 
 TOMATO JELLY WITH BEETS. 
 
 Preparation 
 
 and 
 
 Digestibility- 
 
 meat stock or thin white sauce. Thick, pulpy stock, 
 like that from peas, beans, or potatoes, needs a much 
 thinner sauce than would celery or asparagus. Un- 
 less some thickening of flour is used, the solider por- 
 tions will settle, leaving the soup watery on top. 
 
 In one of the publications of the United States De- 
 partment of Agriculture the difference in digestibility 
 of the same food cooked in various ways is thus stated : 
 Whole peas soaked and cooked, 60 per cent digested; 
 
VEGETABLES. 
 
 93 
 
 peas cooked a long time and strained, 82.5 per cent ; 
 pea flour cooked with milk, butter and eggs, 92 per 
 cent. This would seem to prove that the portion of 
 vegetable food considered undigestible can be reduced 
 by right methods of cooking. 
 
 Mashing is a form of preparation suited to squash, 
 turnip, parsnip, and potatoes. A seasoning of cream, 
 
 Mashing 
 
 INDIVIDUAL APPLE AND CELERY SALAD. 
 
 or butter, and salt and pepper, is usually added. Frit- 
 ters and croquettes usually have mashed vegetables 
 as their foundation, or small bits are mixed with a 
 thick cr e am sauce. 
 
 The white sauce is a useful additon to vegetables 
 since it increases their nutritive value and modifies 
 strong flavors. Almost any cooked vegetables may 
 thus be "creamed" or "scalloped" by adding both the 
 sauce and buttered crumbs and baking. This is an ex- 
 cellent way to reheat something left from a previous 
 day. 
 
 Creamed 
 Vegetable* 
 
94 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 salads Salad is a term belonging especially to a class of 
 
 uncooked vegetables and in all cases implies a vegeta- 
 ble foundation though meats or fish may be added. 
 The dressing of oil and vinegar is likewise of vegeta- 
 ble origin. 
 
 Here is another of our attempts to bring together 
 the five food principles in a single compound. Water 
 and mineral matter, protein, fat, and carbohydrate are 
 usually blended in fairly balanced proportions. This is 
 especially true of salads containing eggs, fish, or meat 
 and eaten with bread. 
 
 GRAINS 
 
 The grains or cereals are the main dependence of the 
 human race for food and have been known from very 
 early times. Some member of this family of plants 
 is found in every section of the world. Rice, wheat 
 and corn are most largely used as food, while oats, rye, 
 barley, and millet follow closely. Animals can eat these 
 grains or grasses as they grow. For the human stom- 
 ach the coarser portions must be removed. All are 
 similar in composition, being from two-thirds to three- 
 fourths starch. The protein ranges from 7 to 15 per 
 cent ; fat varies from 1 to 10 per cent ; there is about 
 1 per cent mineral matter and 10 to 12 per cent of 
 water. 
 Addition Before we can eat and digest such foods a large 
 
 amount of water must be combined with them. Analy- 
 ses have shown that the percentage of water in mushes, 
 
GRAINS. 
 
 95 
 
 boiled rice, macaroni, and mashed potato is nearly the 
 same. 
 
 When we buy cereals in paper packages we pay a 
 little more for them than when they are bought in 
 bulk, but that is a convenient, clean form in which to 
 keep them. All cereals should be looked over before 
 cooking since they are liable to' attacks from insects. 
 
 A Cup of Corn Meal, and the Amount of Mush It Will Make. 
 
 To make mushes start with the desired proportion of 
 liquid, as that regulates the final amount. If too much 
 water is used it can seldom be drained off, as it might 
 be from potatoes, and if there is too little at the begin- 
 ning it is practically impossible to add more without 
 making the mush lumpy and pasty. A double boiler, 
 a dish set in a steamer or a covered pail in a kettle of 
 water, are the utensils suitable for cooking mushes. 
 
g6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 cooking The coarser the grain, the more water required, and 
 
 cereals t j ie i on g- er w iu k e the time of cooking. Whole grains 
 are improved by soaking in cold water, finely ground 
 preparations must be mixed with cold water to pre- 
 vent the formation of lumps. All others should be put 
 into boiling water. Add one teaspoonful of salt to each 
 quart of water. Ordinary oatmeal and granulated 
 wheat need four times their bulk of water, cracked 
 wheat and hominy require more. The rolled grains re- 
 quire but twice their bulk of water. 
 
 The cooking at first should be rapid and the upper 
 part of the double boiler should be placed directly on 
 the stove for five minutes. Then put it over the other 
 part, cook closely covered and do' not stir. Such foods 
 are not injured by cooking for a longer time than the 
 usual directions allow. Coarse hominy, oatmeal, or 
 cracked wheat for breakfast should be cooked several 
 hours the previous day. 
 
 ni Ce Rice may be boiled in a quantity of water which is 
 
 afterwards drained off, but this is wasteful unless some 
 use is made of the liquid. 
 
 Macaroni and tapioca are not strictly cereals but con- 
 form to the same rules of cooking. 
 
 Most mushes or cooked cereals may be moulded and 
 served cold for variety, especially in warm weather, or 
 be packed smoothly in oblong pans or round tin boxes 
 and when cold sliced and fried to serve with syrups or 
 to eat with meats. 
 
 Tried 
 Mush 
 
GRAINS. 97 
 
 A portion of cooked cereal may be added to the 
 liquid used in mixing muffins. 
 
 Manufacturers of the present day seem to be trying 
 to see in how many different forms they can prepare 
 the few standard grains ; they are left whole, are 
 cracked, are crushed into flakes, or broken into gran- 
 ules. As the result of this variety of preparations' and 
 
 Cereals shaped in Taney Moulds. 
 
 the generous way in which they are advertised cereals 
 are used more and more. 
 
 During the last few years they have been cooked in 
 
 . "Ready 
 
 the factories and prepared in forms ready for immedi- to Eat > 
 
 11 / Cereals 
 
 ate use. These forms have many merits though not 
 all that are claimed for them. In some respects they 
 resemble the primitive forms of unleavened bread 
 which were the first attempts among all races, the 
 bannock, the hoe cake, the tortilla. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
 first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write 
 on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from the 
 lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instructor 
 may know that you understand the subject. Read the les- 
 son paper a number of times before attempting - to answer 
 the questions. 
 
 1. In what ways are eggs used in cookery? 
 
 2. What substances are naturally combined with 
 
 eggs and milk, and why? 
 
 3. What is the fundamental principle in cooking arti- 
 
 cles containing a large proportion of egg? 
 
 4. Mention five dishes where egg is an essential in- 
 
 gredient, and five others where it may be used 
 or omitted. Explain why. 
 
 5. If we find it necessary to reduce the number of 
 
 eggs in a cake or custard, what other changes 
 would be necessary ? 
 
 6. Make a two days' menu for the season when eggs 
 
 are at the lowest price, and two days' menu 
 for the season when they are expensive. 
 
 7. Which forms of animal food are the most ex- 
 
 pensive and why ? 
 
 Which most economical and why? 
 
 8. What portions of meat are best for soup stock? 
 
 What should be discarded ? Describe the proc- 
 ess of making soup. Has the extracted meat 
 nutritive value? 
 
- PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 9. Why is less fat absorbed by food in frying in 
 deep fat than in sautering? 
 
 10. Give methods of preparing tough meat so that it 
 
 is palatable and nutritious. 
 
 11. Give the names of soups which have (a) little, 
 
 (b) much, and (c) great nutritive value. 
 
 12. Why do we add stuffing and sauce to meats and 
 
 fish? 
 
 13. What is the greatest obstacle to be overcome in 
 
 cooking vegetables? 
 
 14. Give methods for cooking fish. What is the 
 
 proper appearance of a fresh fish? 
 
 15. Plan a rotation of different cereals for five break- 
 
 fasts in winter and five in summer, giving rea- 
 sons for your choice. 
 
 16. How may different methods of preparing a veg- 
 
 etable change its nutritive value? 
 
 17. Describe your own method of roasting meat. 
 
 18. Give the names of the vegetables and grains used 
 
 in your household. Name some that are not 
 used. 
 
 19. Is there any question you wish to ask or subject 
 
 you would like to discuss relating to this les- 
 son ? 
 
 Note. — After completing the test, sign your full name. . 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 
 
 PART III 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 PART III 
 
 BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS 
 
 Having considered the whole grains we must learn 
 how to use them when ground into flour. Although 
 some forms of bread like hoe cake and tortillas can be 
 made from cracked grain without making it into a 
 flour, most people depend upon flour for a large part of 
 their daily food. 
 
 In the best cook books the ingredients are mentioned 
 in the order in which they are to be put together to 
 secure the best results and to save dishes ; the dry cups 
 and spoons are used for the flour and spices, then for 
 the shortening and liquids. The flour is sifted before 
 measuring and sifted again to mix the other materials 
 with it. 
 
 There is such variation in flours that it is impossible 
 to give exact recipes for doughs, but it is easy to learn 
 certain general proportions and experience must teach 
 the rest. A simple formula will be helpful in inter- 
 preting old recipes in which the exact quantities of 
 flour or liquid are not stated, or in analyzing recipes to 
 decide whether they are doughs or batters. 
 
 One measure of flour to one of liquid makes a bat- 
 ter. 
 
 Two measures of flour to one of liquid gives the 
 usual muffin mixture. 
 
 Order of 
 
 Mixing 
 Ingredients 
 
 General 
 Proportions 
 in Doughs 
 
too ' PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Three measures of flour to one of liquid makes a 
 soft dough, but one that may be kneaded. 
 
 Four measures of flour to one of liquid is the usual 
 proportion for doughs to be rolled thin like pastry or 
 cookies. 
 
 Batters and muffins can be stirred with a spoon. 
 Doughs are mixed more thoroughly and easily with a 
 knife. 
 
 Doughs are made light because thus they are more 
 palatable and digestible. 
 Making: The almost endless variety of breads, cake, and pas- 
 
 Light try may be classified according to the means used to 
 make them light. Yeast has been known to the human 
 race from a very early period, the others are much 
 later inventions. 
 
 The principal means are these : 
 
 The. mechanical introduction of air, as by beating 
 or by the addition of eggs or by the folding of pastry, 
 or in the aerated or Daughlish bread. 
 
 The use of yeast, the growth of a plant filling the 
 dough with gas. 
 
 The chemical combination of a bi-carbonate of soda, 
 with some acid substance. 
 Yeast F° r practical use in every-day life it is essential 
 
 to remember that yeast must be treated like other forms 
 of plant life and if we want it to grow, we must pro- 
 vide the right kind of soil, sufficient moisture, and suit- 
 able temperature. After its work is done, the vitality 
 of the yeast must be destroyed by heat. 
 
BREAD. lot 
 
 It may be desirable to know how to manufacture 
 yeast at home and how to utilize the dried yeast cakes 
 in emergencies, though compressed yeast cakes are now 
 so generally used that it is hardly necesary. A com- 
 pressed yeast cake should be firm and solid, not soft 
 and past)- ; it should look something like fresh cheese, 
 not dark colored and moldy. When only part of a 
 
 USEFUL UTENSILS. 
 
 yeast cake is to be used, it should be cut off squarely 
 and the remainder wrapped smoothly in tin foil again, 
 when it may be kept a few days longer. 
 
 BREAD 
 
 The essential ingredients in bread making are yeast, 
 liquid, and flour ; the proportions may be varied ac- 
 cording to conditons. 
 
 Sugar and shortening are commonly used, but if 
 they were omitted wholly it would be possible to have 
 palatable, nutritious bread. Salt is essential to suit the 
 taste of most persons, but as bread is usually combined 
 
 Yeast 
 Cakes 
 
102 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Causes of 
 Slow Rising 
 
 Kinds of 
 Flour 
 
 with salted butter its absence would be less noticeable, 
 and bread might be made without it. Fermentation is- 
 hindered by the presence of salt, a small amount of 
 sugar hastens the process. 
 
 Sugar in large quantities makes the dough dense and 
 the yeast cannot expand so readily. An excess of short- 
 ening has much the same effect. If a dough is made 
 stiff with flour it rises more slowly. A stiff dough 
 usually has small air cells and is finer grained than 
 when the dough is made softer. 
 
 The liquid may be milk, whole or skimmed, or water, 
 or half of each. The milk supplies some sugar, fat and 
 nitrogenous matter and produces a more nourishing 
 loaf than that which is made with water. Mashed po- 
 tatoes or sifted squash or cooked cereals are some- 
 times added to a bread dough for variety, but the proc- 
 ess is not changed by such additions. 
 
 The best bread flour is made from spring wheat and 
 pastry flour from winter wheat, though they may be 
 used interchangeably if necessary. The spring wheat 
 flour contains more gluten and less starch, so that less 
 of the bread flour is required to produce a dough of a 
 given consistency. 
 
 The entire or whole wheat flours provide more bone 
 making materials than white flour, otherwise there is 
 little difference in the nutritive value of the better 
 grades of each. 
 
 The presence of gluten makes wheat the favorite 
 flour for yeast dough, Gluten is adhesive when moist- 
 
BREAD. j 03 
 
 ened and thus retains the gas bubbles formed by the 
 yeast in somewhat the same way that egg-whites hold 
 air when they are beaten. 
 
 Old recipes for mixing yeast bread usually give di- order of 
 rections for rubbing shortening into the flour and then 
 
 Mixing 
 
 "BREAD CAKE" OR BUN BREAD. 
 
 adding the other ingredients with liquid to make a 
 dough that can be kneaded. The best authorities to- 
 day reverse the order, thus saving time and energy and 
 producing a better result. 
 
 The liquid is warmed that the fat, sugar, and salt Li(luid 
 may readily blend with the other ingredients and that 
 the dough may rise more rapidly. When it is below 
 too F, or cool enough to avoir] cooking the yeasty 
 
 Warmed 
 
104 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Double 
 
 Process 
 
 Bread 
 
 Amount 
 oi' \east 
 
 Short 
 Process 
 
 is added and well mixed through the liquid. Sufficient 
 flour then is mixed in to give the desired consistency 
 for kneading. 
 
 At first the mixture may be stirred with a spoon, but 
 as it becomes stiffer a knife will more easily serve to 
 produce a smooth dough. 
 
 The process of mixing bread may illustrate the bat- 
 ter and drop batter or muffin mixture as well as the 
 dough. To make a sponge, half the quantity of flour to 
 be used is mixed with the liquid and this allowed to 
 rise till foamy, when the remainder of the flour is add- 
 ed. The advantages of this double process are that a 
 trifle less flour is required since the first has time to 
 expand before the second is put in, and that the process 
 is somewhat shortened because in the first stage there 
 is less resistance for the yeast to overcome and the 
 whole sponge becomes full of yeast for the second 
 stage. 
 
 Sometimes it is more convenient to use a small por- 
 tion of yeast and allow the dough to rise for a longer 
 time, and again to use more yeast and thus do the work 
 more quickly. Until the scientists decide which is real- 
 ly the better method, the- housekeeper will find it de- 
 sirable to vary the quantity of yeast according to her 
 conditions. Time, temperature, and quantity of yeast 
 must be considered, — if one must be diminished, the 
 others should be increased. 
 
 For common use, a short process is to be preferred 
 to the old custom of letting the dough rise oyer night, 
 
BREAD. 
 
 105 
 
 When it rises by day we can regulate the temperature 
 and stop the process at the right time. One yeast cake 
 to one pint of liquid and about three pints of flour, will 
 make two medium-sized loaves of bread, which can be 
 completed inside of six hours. 
 
 BKEAD MAKING MACHINE. 
 
 When necessary, a dough well risen and ready to 
 shape may be cut down and put in a refrigerator or 
 other cold place and thus held in check for several 
 hours without injury. Sometimes half the bread may 
 be shaped in a loaf and the remainder in rolls and the 
 pans containing the latter set away in a cool place for 
 several hours before baking that they may be hot for a 
 later meal. 
 
 When first mixed, dough is kneaded just enough to 
 blend all ingredients, (hen it is put back in (he bowl, 
 
 Holding 
 Dough 
 in Check 
 
 Kising 
 
io6 
 
 PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 Kneading 
 
 £haPi n § 
 
 brushed over with water or with melted fat and cov- 
 ered while it is rising. Such precautions aid in pre- 
 venting the formation of a dry crust caused by the 
 evaporation of the water on the surface during the 
 process of rising. The bowl containing the dough 
 may be set in a pan of warm water which is changed 
 often enough to keep the temperature even. When the 
 dough must stand over night in a cool kitchen, the 
 bowl may be wrapped in a blanket to prevent the es- 
 cape of heat. 
 
 Much time is doubtless wasted in kneading doughs, 
 though it seems to be agreed that this process works 
 all ingredients together and thus give a better texture 
 to the bread. To knead work the edges of the dough 
 little by little toward the center, pull it over, press 
 down into the mass and press it away with one hand 
 while turning the whole around with the other. When 
 the dough is smooth, elastic, and rises quickly when 
 pressed and does not stick to the hand then it is done. 
 
 After the dough is double in bulk it should be 
 kneaded enough to redistribute the air bubbles which 
 have run together and formed larger ones, and to 
 shape it for baking. At this stage no flour should be 
 added, for here much time would be required to work 
 in a little flour, and that is why long kneading has 
 been thought necessary. Dip the fingers in soft fat if 
 the dough inclines to stick, as one would do when pull- 
 ing candy. 
 
 Tg §hape biscuits or rolls, first make smooth round 
 
BREAD. 
 
 107 
 
 balls, then by gentle rolling and pressiire make the fin- 
 ger rolls — then farther extend till the strips can be 
 twisted or left as sticks for soup. Thus one form may 
 be developed from another. 
 
 When rolls are to be cut out and folded, the pressure 
 of the rolling pin will equalize the air bubbles without 
 previous kneading. Instead of making the dough for 
 rolls rich with butter or lard, it is wiser to brush over 
 the outside of the rolls with melted fat when they are 
 put in the pan. 
 
 BUNS— SEPARATE AND IN LOAF. 
 
 Again the dough must be allowed to double in bulk 
 and then it is ready to bake. 
 
 To summarize the points alreadycovered. — The time 
 required depends upon the quantity of yeast used, and 
 the temperature at which the dough is kept. One 
 measure of liquid to three of flour is the usual propor- 
 tion. For fancy breads make a sponge first, and let 
 the mixture rise three times. Large quantities of sugar 
 and butter tend to retard the growth of the yeast plant. 
 For bread add all the flour at once, Small shape? are 
 
 Summary 
 
io8 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Baking 
 of Bread 
 
 Cooking Soda 
 with Acids 
 
 preferable to large ones, as thus more thorough cook- 
 ing is insured. 
 
 The baking of bread is not easily disposed of in a 
 few words. Yeast doughs having risen before being 
 put in the -oven will bear rather a higher degree of heat 
 at first than other doughs. A more moderate oven 
 is required for loaves than for rolls that the heat 
 may penetrate evenly, but the loaf must remain a suf- 
 ficient time to raise the center to a degree of heat that 
 will insure the destruction of the yeast. A moderate 
 temperature might allow the dough to continue rising 
 and even to sour from the growth of bacteria when in 
 the oven. 
 
 When thoroughly baked, a loaf of bread will seem 
 light and hollow and no steam will come from it to 
 burn the hand as it is turned from the pan. 
 
 The 'usual temperature for baking bread is about 
 400 F, though a good result may be reached by a 
 more moderate heat continued for a longer time. 
 
 Experiment. Three or four glass tubes or common 
 tumblers are all the apparatus needed for some prac- 
 tical experiments which will make the use of these leav- 
 ening agents much clearer than does the ordinary cook- 
 book. Dissolve some soda in half a tumbler of water ; 
 in another tumbler dissolve some cream of tartar, in 
 a third have a little molasses ; in a fourth place some 
 sour milk, and in a fifth some vinegar. 
 
 Now put a part of the soda water into each of the 
 other, glasses, stir well, and watch the result. Leave 
 
BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. 
 
 109 
 
 these till later to see how soon the gas escapes and 
 that it cannot be revived. By tasting soda and cream 
 of tartar we shall see that it is desirable to combine 
 them in such proportions that each may neutralize the 
 other. This is done in baking powders. 
 
 In another glass dissolve some baking powder, first 
 in cold and then in warm water to show that the gas 
 escapes more rapidly at a high temperature. 
 
 CORN BREAD. 
 
 These experiments show us why we should sift 
 cream of tartar and soda or baking powder with the 
 flour instead of dissolving it in liquid. The gas which 
 is to make the dough light begins to escape from the 
 soda when it comes in contact with an acid liquid. 
 
 Some baking powder manufacturers try to convince 
 us that their product is so perfect that it is useless for 
 the housekeeper to continue to keep soda and cream of 
 tartar in her store closet. But much as we owe to their 
 perfect methods' of grinding and sifting and combining 
 
 Soda and 
 Cream of 
 Tartar 
 
no PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 these substances in the right proportions, there are 
 times when we must use them separately. 
 
 Angel cake, for example, requires the addition of 
 cream of tartar to stiffen the egg-white which is its 
 foundation. This aids in holding up the spongy mass 
 until it is made firm by heat. In any case where there 
 is a large proportion of egg-white a slight excess of 
 cream of tartar is desirable. 
 Molasses That molasses is acid in spite of its sweetness is evi- 
 
 dent by testing it with a bit of soda. For this reason 
 soda is added to molasses candy since if it is filled with 
 air bubbles it will be more brittle. The acidity varies 
 in different grades of molasses, and modern methods 
 of manufacture and quick transportation give us a less 
 acid product than that of the past. This explains why 
 many of the recipes of our great-grandmothers called 
 for such large quantities of soda in gingerbread, etc. 
 In such recipes it is usually wise to reduce the quantity 
 of soda and use a small amount of baking powder. 
 Brown bread and all cakes and puddings containing 
 molasses, because of its acidity, are usually more pal- 
 atable if some soda is used to make them light instead 
 of baking powder only. 
 
 Butter contains so much buttermilk that, unless it is 
 
 washed before using, a bit of soda is essential for all 
 
 rich cakes and cookies which are to be kept for any 
 
 length of time. 
 
 sour Miik Because of the tendency to use an excess of soda 
 
 and soda w j t ^ -^ ^ use £ sour m jjj, k as b een condemned. But 
 
BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. in 
 
 thick, sour milk is- not very variable in acidity, and the 
 use of one even teaspoon ful of soda with each pint of 
 sour milk is safe. Soda is inexpensive and sour milk- 
 is also, while cream of tartar and baking powder are 
 costly. One half level teaspoon of soda is usually 
 enough when one cup of molasses is used, as it is with 
 one cup of sour milk. When it is more convenient to 
 
 BOSTON BROWN BREAD. 
 
 substitute sweet milk for sour, we retain the soda and 
 add one slightly rounding teaspoonful of cream of tar- 
 tar. . 
 
 Baking powder contains some starch, but two or strength of 
 three level teaspoonfuls of baking powder are equal in powder 
 effect to one rounding teaspoonful of cream of tartar 
 and the half level teaspoonful of soda. 
 
 Just why some good old recipes recommend dissolv- 
 ing soda in hot water before adding it to the other 
 ingredients, or mixing it with hot molasses, is uncer- 
 tain. Perhaps the housewives wanted to "see with 
 
ii2 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 their eyes" that action would result. Or the habit 
 might have been the result of the impure quality of 
 the alkaline substance. The "pearl ash," as saleratus 
 was called, was not as finely pulverized as is the 'soda of 
 today, and may not have been as thoroughly purified 
 from other ash. Hot water would dissolve it quickly, 
 any impurities would settle, and even if some gas es- 
 caped enough was left to do the work of puffing up 
 the dough. 
 
 Mixing Such small quaniities relatively of soda, cream of 
 
 powder tartar, and baking powder are used in a dough that it 
 
 has been a question how they should be mixed with 
 
 the other ingredients to secure the most perfect result. 
 
 The dough should be light throughout, not here a solid 
 
 streak, and there large bubbles. 
 
 Some teachers of cookery have recommended sifting 
 the one Or two teaspoon fuls of baking powder over a 
 cake after it was mixed and beating thoroughly just 
 before pouring into the pan in which it is to be baked. 
 But as soon as the powder comes in contact with the 
 moist surface of the dough some gas will be lost, and 
 moreover, it is doubtful whether two teaspoonfuls of 
 baking powder can be evenly mixed through a quart 
 of cake batter without much beating which does not 
 improve the quality of the cake at that stage and de- 
 lays the baking. 
 
 The accepted plan at present is to sift with the flour 
 the baking powder or cream of tartar and soda or the 
 
BREAD AND OTHER DOUGHS. 113 
 
 soda alone when it is to be used with some sour milk 
 or molasses. 
 
 The sooner the process is completed after the acid 
 and soda meet each other the better. Therefore we 
 keep all the materials dry until the last moment, then 
 mix quickly and bake at once. 
 
 Similar recipes are found in all cook books, and once 
 the general proportions and the office of each ingre- 
 
 General 
 Directions 
 
 RYE MUFFINS. 
 
 client are learned, it is easy to make many variations. 
 The process of mixing is practically the same in all 
 cases. Prepare the fire and dishes for cooking, be- 
 fore mixing any of the ingredients measure every- 
 thing, sift all dry materials together, add liquids, mix 
 all thoroughly, and cook immediately. 
 
 Changes in the proportions of materials often lead 
 to a change in the manner of mixing them. For ex- 
 ample, when a small quantity of shortening is used in 
 batters, it may be melted and beaten in, l>ut if a large 
 
 Manner 
 of Mixing 
 
n 4 PRINCIPLES OF COOKER?. 
 
 proportion is required, it should be rubbed till creamy 
 and blended with the sugar as for cake, or mixed into 
 the Hour as in pastry making. For stiff doughs which 
 are to be rolled, it is essential that the fat should be 
 put in cold since even a small quantity, if warm, will 
 tend to make the dough soft and sticky. We grease 
 'Shortening" pans, griddles, etc., because fat prevents adhesion ; in 
 the same way fat in a dough keeps the particles sepa- 
 rate and makes it break apart readily, so that we call 
 it "short" or "tender." Hence shortening is any form 
 of fat that will accomplish such a result. To give like 
 results, more shortening is required with bread flour 
 high in gluten than with pastry flour low in gluten. 
 
 Eggs in doughs, as in other cases, have the quality 
 of making particles hold together, just the reverse of 
 shortening. Any dough containing much &gg will be 
 elastic and spongy, and if cooked too quickly will be 
 tough. " Doughs to be made rich with butter, like 
 pound cake, may be saved from heaviness by the use 
 of eggs. 
 
 PASTRY AND CAKE 
 
 Shortcake and pastry are. illustrations of the use of 
 much fat in doughs and the result is brittle and tender. 
 Success in pastry-making depends more upon keeping 
 the ingredients cold and handling the dough deftly 
 than any special formula or order of mixing. When 
 but a small amount of shortening is used, a small quan- 
 tity of baking powder is helpful ; this, of course, is 
 omitted in puff pastry, in which the weights of the 
 
PASTRY AXD CAKE. 115 
 
 Hour and butter arc equal, and it is not essential in 
 other cases. 
 
 Few doughs require a smaller number of ingredients 
 than pastry; flour, salt, shortening, and liquid are the 
 essentials, and air is incorporated in the process of mix- 
 ing. When the flour and shortening are warm they 
 stick together so that less air is mixed into the dough. 
 
 Pastry 
 
 APPLE PIE IN DEEP PLATE. 
 
 The process of rolling and folding is a device for catch- 
 ing more air in the dough. This air, when heated, ex- 
 pands and puffs the layers apart. The colder the air 
 mixed in the dough the greater its expansion in baking. 
 In cake-making a single, well proportioned formula 
 may be made the basis for a great number of varieties. 
 Therefore, it is essential that the fundamental princi- 
 ples be understood, then the variations can be accom- 
 plished easily. 
 
 Cake 
 Making 
 
116 
 
CAKE. 
 
 117 
 
 The principles underlying sponge cake were ex- 
 plained in the section on eggs. The main points in 
 such cakes, which contain no butter and are made light 
 by eggs only, are to mix carefully that sufficient air 
 may be entangled in the dough to make it light, and 
 then to bake slowly but thoroughly. 
 
 The shape in which cake is to be baked should de- 
 cide the proportion of flour to be used. Layer cakes or 
 small cakes require less flour than large loaves. This is 
 probably because the small cake is stiffened more 
 quickly by the heat, while the large mass must be 
 stiffened with flour to hold up the air cells until the 
 heat can penetrate the whole. Variations in cake are 
 easily obtained through changes in flavoring ingredi- 
 ents. To mix chocolate in the cake melt it and mix 
 with the sugar and butter. Such a cake might have a 
 white frosting flavored with vanilla. 
 
 A cake flavored with almond may have a few shred- 
 ded almonds sprinkled over the top just before the cake 
 is put in the oven. Almond paste can be rubbed into 
 the butter and . sugar in making cookies ; it is rather 
 rich and heavy for a cake. Desiccated cocoanut, 
 chopped nuts, raisins, currants, dates, citron, candied 
 orange and lemon peel, singly or in various combina- 
 tions, serve to give us many cakes from a single recipe. 
 
 The ingredients mentioned for pastry are com- 
 mon to all cakes as well, but further variety is gained 
 by the addition of sweetening and seasoning. Air or 
 gas to make the cake light is obtained by the use of 
 
 Sponge 
 Cake 
 
 Flavoring 
 
 Ingredients 
 
n8 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Sweetening 
 
 beaten eggs and of baking powders, etc., as well as by 
 creaming butter and beating the blended ingredients. 
 The shortening for this class of dishes may be lard, 
 dripping, nut oil, cottolene, butter, or cream, each hav-. 
 *ing its own special characteristic. When these are 
 known, combinations and substitutions are possible to 
 adapt a given formula to the available materials. 
 
 The range of sweetening is limited to sugar and mo- 
 lasses, but the quantity to be used in a cake should be 
 
 Relative 
 
 Proportions 
 
 in Cake 
 
 SPONGE CAKE STUFFED WITH CREAM. 
 
 reduced if a frosting or sweet filling is to be added 
 later. 
 
 When we consider the long list of spices and ex- 
 tracts and fruits and nuts available for seasoning the 
 cake, we can see how it is possible to make many va- 
 rieties of the same cake. 
 
 There is a certain relative proportion to be followed 
 in the use of these ingredients which, once learned, 
 
COOKING OF DOUGHS. 
 
 1IQ 
 
 enable us to decide whether a recipe is reliable. In 
 butter cakes there is usually less butter than sugar, 
 and less sugar than flour. When baking powder is 
 used less is required than would be necessary for a 
 dough where there are no eggs. Thus two even tea- 
 spoonfuls of baking powder is enough for three cups 
 of flour for a cake in which three or four eggs are use. 
 Some cooks use from one to two teaspoons of bak- 
 ing powder for each cup of flour in all cases, forgetting 
 that the eggs alone would make a cake quite light. 
 When there is an excess of baking powder, the cake is 
 liable to be coarse grained and will dry quickly. 
 
 Dutch apple cake and cottage pudding are similar to 
 the common muffin mixture in the proportions of flour, 
 liquid, etc., but are made richer by increasing the quan- 
 tity of fat and sugar. 
 
 The ordinary doughnut mixture is not unlike a cot- 
 tage pudding dough, with the addition of flour to make 
 it stiff enough to roll easily. Or it is similar to the 
 quick biscuit dough with the addition of sugar, egg, 
 and spice. Because doughnuts are cooked in fat, less 
 shortening is required than for most stiff doughs. 
 
 Cooky doughs are more like pastry with the addi- 
 tion of sugar, spice, and egg, and the same care should 
 be given to keeping the dough cold in order to roll and 
 cut it without adhering to the board. 
 
 COOKING OF DOUGHS 
 Doughs are steamed, baked in the oven, or on a grid- 
 dle on top of the stove. Such mixtures of many differ- 
 
 Cottage 
 Pudding- 
 
 Doughnuts 
 
 Cookies 
 
120 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 ent ingredients are more difficult to cook than the sepa- 
 rate substances of which they are composed, though 
 heat affects each ingredient in combination much a.s it 
 does singly. Sugar carmelizes and this aids in pro- 
 ducing a golden brown color in the crust of anything 
 
 AN ACCURATE OVEN THERMOMETER. 
 Punch a hole in a common gas stove oven and insert thermometer, 
 which will register to 600 degrees F, wrapped with asbestos and wire 
 where it passes through the top. 
 
 containing it. Since it burns readily, cakes and cookies 
 are more liable to be scorched than unsweetened 
 doughs. Flour browns when exposed to dry heat. 
 
 Eggs cook at a low temperature. Butter melts, 
 hence doughs containing much must contain more flour 
 than those that have little or none. 
 
COOKING OF DOUGHS. 
 
 The heat applied should conform to the way in 
 which it affects the principal ingredients in any dough. 
 Those containing many eggs need moderate heat, etc., 
 etc. The size and shape of the article are also to be 
 considered. In general, small thin portions require 
 less time but will bear higher temperature than larger 
 portions as with bread doughs. 
 
 There are various tests for the heat of the oven. 
 Oven thermometers are valuable aids, showing com- 
 parative if not actual degree of heat. When a ther- 
 mometer is inaccessible, a piece of white paper or a 
 teaspoonful of flour if charred from a five minutes' 
 stay in the oven indicate too great heat and other de- 
 grees may be gauged accordingly. All parts of an 
 oven are not equally hot and each housekeeper must 
 study her own. 
 
 The lower part of a gas oven is very hot because 
 the full force of heat is below ; in the wood or coal 
 range one side is usually hotter than the other because 
 of the position of the firebox. 
 
 Heat 
 Kequired 
 
 Temperature 
 of the Oven 
 
Variety 
 
 FORM AND FLAVORS 
 
 Thus far we have studied the fundamental princi- 
 ples 1 of cooking and have seen that some knowledge 
 of the chemical composition of each food is necessary 
 before we can secure the best result through the ap- 
 plication of heat and moisture. But this is only the 
 foundation of the art of cookery. 
 
 The form in which our food is served may attract 
 or repel, and the flavor may make it appetizing or the 
 reverse. We must depend mainly for sustenance upon 
 a few kinds of meat, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and 
 unless variety were secured in some way we should 
 quickly tire of them. 
 
 Through the ingenuity of cooks of all times and 
 countries, so many combinations have been devised, by 
 changes in flavor and form, that some of our common 
 foods might appear in different guise every day in the 
 year. 
 
 The multiplicity of formulas in our cook-books, even 
 when well classified, are puzzling to the beginner who 
 has not learned to> analyze each recipe and thus find the 
 simple processes' of which it consists. 
 
 What is generally termed "fancy" or "high-class" 
 cookery cookery is merely the application of the simple proc- 
 esses to' costly foods or a further complicated prepara- 
 tion to foods which have first been cooked as perfectly 
 as possible, according to the principles already out- 
 lined. 
 
 123 
 
 'Fancy" 
 
FORM. 123 
 
 For example, if we have learned how to make a creamed 
 white sauce and how to cook meats and vegetables, we Di s he s 
 do not require separate detailed recipes for creamed 
 chicken, creamed oysters, creamed potatoes, creamed 
 cauliflower, or creamed asparagus ; we only need to 
 make the sauce a little thinner or thicker to offset the 
 
 CREAMED FISU IN RAMEKINS. 
 
 dry or watery nature of the article with which it is to 
 be put and to vary the flavor slightly to adapt it to an- 
 other material. 
 
 Furthermore, any such creamed meat or vegetable variety 
 may be served plain, or on toast, or in timbale cases, or in Servm * 
 combined with buttered crumbs, as a "scallop," or by 
 the addition of stiff egg whites it becomes a "souffle" 
 when baked. When the sauce is made of double thick- 
 ness, and combined with the meat or vegetable and 
 chilled, the mass may be shaped into croquettes or cut- 
 
124 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Adaptation 
 
 Principle 
 of Contrast 
 
 Made 
 Dishes 
 
 lets which are then coated with egg and crumbs and 
 fried. 
 
 Thus any intelligent woman knowing something of 
 the nature of foods and the effect of heat and moisture 
 may to some extent make her own recipes or adapt oth- 
 ers to the supplies available at the moment. 
 
 No cook-book can be sufficiently expanded to pro- 
 vide for great variation in climate, food materials, and 
 utensils. The cook must constantly adapt to her condi- 
 tions, she must be observant of the changes of tem- 
 perature and learn when one food material or flavor 
 may be substituted for another. 
 
 If uncertain about the wisest combination of ar- 
 ticles of food, whether in a single dish or for the differ- 
 ent courses in a menu, it is safe to follow the plan of 
 contrast. Thus the cream soup is served with crisp 
 crackers or croutons, the creamed fish is covered with 
 buttered crumbs and baked till crisp, the croquettes 
 are crisp outside and creamy within. 
 
 Another point is to add to any food, substances sup- 
 plying any of the food principles it lacks. Potatoes arc 
 mashed with cream or butter because they lack fat, are 
 blended with egg for croquettes or souffle because they 
 lack protein. Eggs lack starch, so we serve them on 
 toast or use them in puddings with rice, tapioca, etc. 
 
 Composite preparations of food, often classed as en- 
 trees or made dishes, are known by many names de- 
 rived from different languages, especially from the 
 French. 
 
FORM. 125 
 
 Here is no place to attempt to define all the terms 
 
 11 r . Names 
 
 used on a menu card, but we may group some of these 
 compound dishes under a few general heads and study 
 their characteristics. 
 
 Soups have as their basis either animal or vegetable S ou P s 
 stock or both combined. Stock is secured by the aid of 
 heat and moisture from portions of meat and vegeta- 
 bles too tough to be used in other ways. Flavor and 
 some nutriment are soaked, cooked and strained out, 
 and this water is the stock which is then further fla- 
 vored and garnished by the addition of some contrast- 
 ing substance. Thus a meat stock is usually garnished 
 with grains or shreds of vegetable, and a vegetable 
 stock is often combined with milk and thickened. 
 
 Stews are thick soups containing larger portions of stews 
 the meat and vegetables. These are also known as 
 chowders, ragouts, salmis, etc., etc. Sometimes a stew 
 has dumplings steamed over it, sometimes it is cov- 
 ered with a crust of pastry, mashed potatoes, or cooked 
 cereal and baked as a pie. Here again are combined 
 contrasting food principles. 
 
 Hash is a term that also may include the assortment Hash 
 of foods known as scallops, timbales, etc., since the 
 substance giving a specific name to each of these is 
 minced or chopped fine before it is combined with other 
 materials. Meat and fish are put on toast or mixed 
 with potatoes or bread crumbs or encased in rice or 
 in a pastry shell. The exact proportions of the con- 
 
126 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Souffles 
 
 Salads 
 
 Left Overs 
 
 trasting ingredients is of less importance than their 
 proper moistening and flavoring. 
 
 The scallop owes its name to the shell in which it is 
 often served. Au gratni is another name for the same 
 combination of a meat or vegetable with sauce and 
 crumbs. The croquette gets its name from its crisp 
 crust, the timbale from its thimble-like shape. Rissoles 
 and kromeskies are kinds of fried meat pies or cro- 
 quettes in a pastry crust. 
 
 Souffles have as a foundation fruit or vegetable pulp 
 or minced meat in a sauce and are puffed "up by the in- 
 troduction of stiffly beaten egg whites. The name is 
 sometimes given to cold dishes where a similar effect is 
 gained by whipped cream. 
 
 Salads may consist of cold cooked meats, fish, etc., 
 vegetables cooked or raw, fruits and nuts. Almost any 
 food may be served in a salad, singly or in combina- 
 tion. The distinctive feature of a salad is the dressing 
 of fat, oil, butter, or thick cream, which is variously 
 flavored. 
 
 Many of the most satisfactory of these made dishes 
 doubtless had their origin in an effort to use left-overs. 
 
 Milk surplus may be used in many ways. Skimmed 
 milk answers as well as full milk for soups and doughs 
 when fat is also used. Even if otherwise likely to 
 curdle in heating, the addition of a little cooking soda 
 makes it possible to scald milk, and then it may be used 
 for custards, puddings, etc. Sour milk is available for 
 
FORM. 
 
 12? 
 
 doughs and cheese, and cream may be substituted for 
 butter and milk in simpler cakes and cookies. 
 
 Eggs left at the table in a soft-boiled condition may 
 be cooked again until hard and then combined with 
 sauces and served on toast or used as a garnish in 
 soups or salads. 
 
 Meat left-overs should be carefully sorted. 
 
 The obloquy heaped upon hashes is due to careless- 
 ness. All uneatable portions, — bone, skin, and gristle, 
 should be removed, but may yield a little stock if put 
 in cold water. The clear lean may have about one- 
 fourth as much fat with it if it is to be used in the com- 
 bination with potatoes, bread or cereal. There may be 
 two grades of the lean, one cut in pieces of uniform 
 shape an inch or more across, to be served in a sauce 
 or moulded in a jelly ; the other to be chopped fine for 
 hashes, croquettes, etc. 
 
 Vegetables. Cooked vegetables spoil quickly but 
 often may serve as soup, or a scallop, or a salad for a 
 second meal. 
 
 Fruits. It seems practically impossible to put to- 
 gether several kinds of fruit without good results. 
 Combinations of left-over fruits, raw or cooked, will 
 serve as the basis of a gelatine dessert made like the 
 jelly described elsewhere, or may be frozen alone, or 
 combined with cream, or thickened for a pudding 
 sauce, or diluted with water for a fruit punch. Add 
 suear as desired. 
 
 Meat 
 Left Overs 
 
 Fruit 
 Combinations 
 
128 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Attractive 
 Form 
 
 Garnish 
 
 Shapes 
 
 Bread. No scrap of bread of any kind need be lost. 
 Brown bread and muffins of different kinds are some- 
 times wasted when they might be steamed, or toasted 
 and served in cream sauce, or made into puddings like 
 a baked Indian pudding. Slices of stale raised bread, 
 dried, gives us croutons, cut in cubes, or crumbs white 
 and brown, coarse and fine, to use for scalloped dishes, 
 stuffing for fish and poultry, and for many kinds of 
 sweet puddings. 
 
 The use of gelatine is an instance of our endeavor 
 to make foods attractive in form. It has doubtful food 
 value and no> agreeable flavor, but it gives solidity to 
 fruit juices, or in aspic jelly to soup stock, and in such 
 jellies we may mould fruits for dessert, or meat and 
 vegetables for salad. 
 
 Garnish is often desirable to make foods more ap- 
 petizing, but it is a question whether this purpose is 
 served by the addition of unedible materials which 
 must be laid one side before the food itself is accessible. 
 
 The truest art does not waste effort on useless things. 
 
 The form of foods is further varied by utensils pro- 
 ducing different shapes, the meat choppers with ad- 
 justable knives for particles of different sizes, the 
 fancy 'knives for making thin slices or balls of vegeta- 
 bles and fruits, the muffin pans, waffle iron, the timbale 
 iron, the many cutters and moulds for puddings, etc., 
 The tendency of the present day is plainly towards 
 small portions for individual service, and here again a 
 
FORM. 
 
 129 
 
 new recipe is not required, only the necessary changes 
 in time of cooking which would result when a mass was 
 divided into several portions. Moulds in which a food 
 is to be cooked should be greased, but rinsed with cold 
 water when the food is only to be cooled in them. 
 
 Scales and measures are lacking in many kitchens 
 and accurate work is impossible without them. The 
 
 Weighing 
 
 SALMON LOAF. 
 
 average kitchen need not be furnished with many 
 special utensils, but there should be a full supply of 
 "general purpose" articles of the best grade of mate- 
 rial and finish. 
 
 The utensils should be adapted to the size of the 
 family and to the physical ability of those who are 
 to use them. The saying of human life and energy 
 is more to be considered than the durability of imple- 
 ments. 
 
Preparation 
 
 Right 
 Heat 
 
 Common 
 Salt 
 
 FLAVOR 
 
 The art of cooking- shows us many ways of develop- 
 ing - the appetizing flavor of foods. 
 
 First, by the removal of whatever might produce bad 
 flavors, such portions as skin and tainted bits of meat, 
 decayed parts of vegetables, and over brown portions 
 of bread and cake. 
 
 Second, by the right application of heat and moisture 
 to bring out the natural flavors in each food. The 
 steeping of tea instead of boiling, the browning of the 
 coffee berry and cocoa bean before they are ground, 
 the flavor developed by long cooking in cases like the 
 baking of beans and steaming of puddings and brown 
 bread. Sometimes a portion of the nutritive value is 
 sacrificed to flavor, as in the browning of the outer 
 surface of the steak or roast. 
 
 Third, by the use of many additional flavoring ma- 
 terials to intensify natural flavors to supply deficiencies 
 and to produce variety. 
 
 Salt is useful as a preservative, seems to supply a 
 need in the human system and therefore is an agreea- 
 ble addition, but it also serves to bring out natural 
 flavors. As an illustration of this power, taste of a 
 meat or chicken broth that is unsalted, and again after 
 salting, when the flavor of the meat will be much more 
 apparent. For this purpose salt is often eaten with 
 fruits, is added in minute quantities to lemon and other 
 jellies made with gelatine, to custards, ice creams, and 
 often even to coffee. 
 
 130 
 
FLAVOR. 
 
 131 
 
 Lemon juice is also an aid in extending other flavor 
 and is acceptable with many foods, especially fish. 
 
 Salt, pepper, lemon, and onion are the extent of the 
 flavors used in some households, and food need not be 
 insipid if no others are tried, but it is wiser to make 
 occasional use of the long list of condiments and 
 spices. 
 
 The distinction as usually made is that the condi- 
 ments pepper, mustard, etc., are used with meats, 
 while spices, cloves, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc., 
 are associated with fruits and sweets, but this classi- 
 fication has exceptions. Spices are neglected nowa- 
 days and it often seems as if people hardly were ac- 
 quainted with any other flavor for dessert dishes than 
 vanilla. The list of flavoring herbs is a long one, run- 
 ning through sage, thyme, majoram, summer savory, 
 bay leaves, tarragon and parsley, which are used dry 
 or fresh, to the green mint, cress, and salad plants 
 which are condimental rather than nutritive. 
 
 There are many compound flavors which every 
 housekeeper should keep in her store closet, and use in 
 her cooking instead of supplying a single perennial 
 catsup on the table, such are curry, tabasco, tarragon 
 vinegar, mushroom catsup, poultry seasoning, etc. 
 
 Onion, celery, cheese, chocolate, coffee, meat ex- 
 tracts, each may have an important place in our list of 
 flavors. 
 
 Sugar is an important food and also must be looked 
 upon as a flavor, since it will often bring an insipid 
 vegetable up to its normal condition. 
 
 Common 
 Flavoring- 
 Material 
 
 Condiments 
 and Spices 
 
 Sugar 
 
 as Flavoring 
 
132 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Blended 
 Flavors 
 
 Adding 
 Flavoring 
 
 Reasons 
 
 for the Use 
 
 Of Flavoring 
 
 French cooking excels in that blending of flavors 
 which produces an agreeable effect, though no one is 
 apparent. 
 
 The best results are usually reached when the flavor- 
 ing is combined with the food in the process of cook- 
 ing, but there are right and wrong ways of doing this. 
 If salt is put on the cut surface of a roast, juice will be 
 drawn out, but if sprinkled over the fat will gradually 
 flavor all. Whole herbs and spices, tied in a bit of 
 cheese cloth may be left to cook in a soup stock or 
 brown gravy until the desired flavor is attained and 
 then withdrawn, leaving the stock clear. Ground spices 
 would give a cloudy effect. 
 
 The use of flavors is economic, for thus inexpensive 
 foods are varied and made palatable. It is a part of 
 the art of cooking, since nowhere are greater skill 
 and intelligence required than in the distribution of 
 these elusive yet powerful substances, and by discrim- 
 ination in the use of condiments and spices our foods 
 may be made more healthful. 
 
Buying 
 
 FOOD FOR THE DAY 
 
 In the preceding pages the most important foods, 
 their composition and preparation for the table have 
 been considered. Our study would be incomplete with- 
 out some reference to their best combination for the 
 daily meals that they may appeal to the palate and pro- 
 mote health without exceeding the bounds of mod- 
 erate incomes. 
 
 There are three important divisions in the prepara- 
 tion of food for a family, wise buying, good cooking, serving' 
 and careful serving. When buying foods the house- 
 keeper should know the sum available for feeding each 
 person for the day or week, she must note the season 
 of each food, and also adapt her choice to the climate 
 and weather. She must remember the individual 
 needs of each member of the household, depending 
 upon age, health, and occupation. 
 
 Tbe art of cookery finds its field between the . ; „ 
 
 J Art of 
 
 choice of food and the serving of the cooked dishes at cookery 
 the table. As with other arts perfection can come 
 only through constant practice in manipulation, and 
 from continual adaptation of conditions to the desired 
 end. No formulas for combinations of foods can be 
 devised so complete that continuous care is not re- 
 quired in every step of the process. 
 
 m 
 
134 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 Cost of 
 Food 
 
 'Constants' 
 
 Few housekeepers have the time or take the trouble 
 to keep their accounts in such a way as to' know how 
 much it costs 'to feed each person in their charge for 
 a day, week, or month ; fewer still know anything of 
 the relative proportion of protein, fat, and carbo- 
 hydrate which is placed on the family table week by 
 week. 
 
 When purchasing clothing we take note of its wear- 
 ing qualities and the ability to keep us warm, but we 
 seldom apply the same reasoning to our foods, al- 
 though it is quite as necessary. 
 
 Some one has estimated that in the average house- 
 hold one-tenth of the sum spent for food will go 1 for 
 flour, a tenth for butter, another for sugar, another for 
 milk, one-fifth for meat, one-fifth for fruit and vegeta- 
 bles, and the remaining fifth for sundries. 
 
 There are certain articles of which equal quantities 
 will be used each week or month, and by an examina- 
 tion of previous bills it is easy to estimate the amount 
 required for a given period. Many of these "con- 
 stants"' like butter, sugar, and flour, can be bought in 
 quantities sufficient for a month, then the housekeeper 
 knows how to apportion her money for the variable 
 supplies. 
 
 It is not necessary for the housekeeper to attempt 
 to estimate the proportion of food principles in every 
 dish she serves, but once a month or a quarter, if her 
 amounts are well kept, she can see how nearly she ap- 
 
FOOD FOR A DAY. 135 
 
 proaches such daily estimate as the one below for each 
 member of her family : 
 
 A DAY'S RATION 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Meat and fish 12 to 16 
 
 One egg 2 
 
 Butter 1 to 2 
 
 Milk, 1 gill to 1 pt 4 to 16 
 
 Sugar 2 to 3 
 
 Dry fruits 1 
 
 Legumes 1 
 
 Fresh vegetables and fruits 6 to 8 
 
 Potatoes , 8 to 12 
 
 Flour and grains 12 to 16 
 
 Multiply this by thirty and we have a fair' allow- 
 ance for one person for one month. Multiply this by 
 the number of persons in the family, or, to be more 
 accurate, by the fractional parts of a man's ra- 
 tions, usually allowed for women and children, and 
 we have an ample supply for one month for the fam- 
 ily. 
 
 If the larger quantity of potatoes has been used the 
 smaller amount of flour would have been ample, while 
 if eggs were cheap and two or more consumed by each 
 person daily there should be a corresponding reduc- 
 tion in the amount of meat and fish. 
 
 Of the amount purchased there will be not far from Refuse 
 
 and Waste 
 
 10 per cent refuse and waste. Refuse in the form of 
 bones, skin, and parings, waste of what is 1 left on in- 
 dividual plates, and odd bits that are spoiled and are 
 
136 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 A Day's 
 Alowance 
 
 Cost of 
 Labor 
 
 Prepared 
 Food 
 
 Buying 
 
 thrown away. Much fat also is thrown away, but it 
 should be remembered that fat is worth more than 
 twice as much as the carbohydrates in keeping the body 
 warm. 
 
 Twenty-five cents a head a day is a fair allowance 
 for an abundance and variety of wholesome, satisfying 
 food. Life may be sustained on half that amount, while 
 fifty cents daily cannot nourish more completely, but 
 may provide luxuries and foods out of season. 
 
 The actual cost of table board appears, from studies 
 made under different conditions, to be about equally 
 divided between the raw material and the labor re- 
 quired for the preparation and service. It may be 
 cheaper to' pay a little more for a prepared food than 
 to use one's own strength or pay for service to get 
 ready a less expensive article. 
 
 The woman who has time and strength and no 
 ' other way to earn should choose the cheaper grade 
 of food. Cheapness does not always indicate mean- 
 ness, it may mean an abundant supply or less human 
 labor in preparation. 
 
 There is a growing tendency toward the fuller 
 preparation of food outside the home, but there is the 
 more need that the housekeeper should be familiar 
 with processes of manufacture that she may know 
 when she is well served. 
 
 The housekeeper who never goes to grocery and 
 market and does not study the market reports in the 
 
Planning 
 
 FOOD FOR A DAY. 137 
 
 papers is rarely an economical buyer. She is liable 
 to go on in the same old routine instead of varying her 
 menus with the litae surorises that may be found by 
 visiting the markets. There are bargains to be had in 
 foods as well as in clothing, when the market is over- 
 stocked, or some odd lot is left over. Cuts of meat 
 cannot be made to order and the first choice falls to 
 the early visitor to the market. 
 
 Where one woman must take entire care of a fam- 
 ily, she must plan carefully if she would have a well 
 balanced household. Elaborate cooking and meals of 
 many courses are out of the question even if they were 
 desirable. Meals should be planned several days in 
 advance and the buying done accordingly, though such 
 plans will be much modified in the performance. 
 
 A reserve store of canned foods, etc., is a great aid 
 in the emergencies that arise in all households. 
 
 By wise use of outside supplies and by making one's system 
 head do more work and hands and feet less, the food 
 for a family may be provided without exhausting the 
 energy of the housekeeper. 
 
 The actual cooking necessary for a family through 
 a day may be done in a shorter period than is usually 
 allotted to it if the work is planned wisely.- The de- 
 tail of arrangement depends upon the kind of fuel 
 used, and whether the chief meal is served at noon or 
 night. 
 
138 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 The breakfast should be a simple meal — fruit, raw 
 or cooked, cereal or warm muffins, (seldom both at 
 the same meal), and eggs, bacon, creamed salt fish or 
 some cold meat. When -the meat is cold the bread is 
 warm, while with bacon or omelet toast may be served. 
 
 Some one must be in the kitchen for some time to 
 prepare and serve even a simple breakfast, especially 
 if there are tardy members of the family. With the 
 same supply of fuel required for the muffins, it is not 
 difficult for a woman of average ability to bake a cake 
 or pudding which will then be ready for the noon or 
 the night meal. Or at this time the vegetables may be 
 cleaned, fruit picked over and little details attended 
 to which save much time later. 
 
 Noon dinners usually are considered easier for 
 housekeeper and cook, since the work can all be done 
 by daylight and the hours of work if not actually less 
 are not so extended through the day. When supplies 
 are ordered early and delivered promptly, much energy 
 and worry is saved. At least half the time the soup 
 may be derived from previous supplies, and be pre- 
 pared in advance. 
 
 One kind o<f meat or fish, potatoes or rice and a 
 single other vegetable or salad are enough for all 
 ordinary occasions. Fruit or a dessert prepared earlier 
 in the day completes a meal sufficient for all needs of 
 the human body if the articles have been chosen wisely 
 to supplement each other. 
 
FOOD FOR A DAY. 
 
 139 
 
 For a noon luncheon or night supper there are many 
 variations of the souffles, hashes and scallops already 
 described. One of these with bread and butter, tea or 
 cocoa, fruit and a simple sweet will provide all that is 
 essential. 
 
 To prepare meals for a family year in and out 
 is not an easy task. The housekeeper must remember 
 not only the cost and nutritive value of the foods but 
 the whims and notions of her family. The ability of 
 the human being to talk makes him much harder to 
 feed than the animals who must accept the balanced 
 ration bestowed upon them. 
 
 A few points to be observed in planning menus are 
 these : avoid routine, introduce novelties, cheap or ex- 
 pensive, in attractive form, but say little of nutritive 
 value or cost. Do not allow the same meat or fish to 
 appear too many meals in succession. Let some- 
 thing else intervene. When the meat course is sub- 
 stantial let the dessert be light and make the dessert 
 especially nutritious when the meat course is insuf- 
 ficient. Let there be variety on the table through the 
 week or month but have few dishes at each meal. 
 
 The fundamental processes of cookery are not many 
 and the essential points have been outlined in these 
 pages. An intelligent woman can adapt the recipes in 
 any reliable cook-book to her own conditions after she 
 knows something of the composition of foods and the. 
 way each is affected by heat and moisture, 
 
 Supper 
 
 Planning 
 Menus 
 
 In 
 Conclusion 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Boston Cooking School Cook Book ($2.00). Fannie M. Farmer. 
 
 Boston Cook Book ($2.00). Mary J. Lincoln. 
 
 Catering for Two ($1.25). Alice J. James. 
 
 Century Cook Book ($2.00). Mary Roland. 
 
 Home Science Cook Book ($1.00). Anna Barrows and Mary 
 
 J. Lincoln. 
 Kitchen Companion*($2.50). Maria Parloa. 
 Practical Cooking and Serving ($2.00). Janet M. Hill. 
 Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking ($0.40). M. H. Abel. 
 Young Housekeeper ($1.00). Maria Parloa. 
 Rorer's (Mrs.) New Cook Book ($2.00). Mrs. S. T. Rorer. 
 Easiest Way in Housekeeping and Cooking ($1.00). Helen 
 
 Campbell. 
 Hostess of To-day ($1.50). Linda Hull Larned. 
 Luncheons ($1.40). Mary Roland. 
 
 Note. — These books may be borrowed by Members. Any one may pur- 
 chase them through the School by sending price. 
 
 GOVERNMENT BULLETINS 
 
 Free, of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
 
 34. Meats: Composition and Cooking — Charles D. Woods. 
 
 85. Fish as Food— C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D. 
 
 93. Sugar as Food— Mary Hinman Abel. 
 
 121. Beans, Peas and other Legumes as Food — M. H. Abel. 
 
 128. Eggs and their uses as Foods — C. F. Langworthy, Ph.D. 
 
 182. Poultry as Food— Helen W. Atwater. 
 
 183. Meat on the Farm — Andrew Boss. 
 
 203. Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies — Parloa. 
 
 249. Cereal Breakfast Foods— Woods and Snyder. 
 
 256. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table — Parloa. 
 
 263. Use of Milk as Food— R. S. Milner. 
 
 293. Use of Fruits as Food — C. F. Langworthy. 
 
 295. Potato and other Root Crops as Food — Langworthy. 
 
 298. Food Value of Corn and Corn Products. 
 
 332. Nuts and their use as Food — M. E. Jaffa. 
 
 359. Canning Vegetables in the Home — J. F. Breazeale. 
 
 375. Care of Food in the Home — Mary Hinman Abel. 
 
 389. Bread and Bread Making — Helen W. Atwater. 
 
 391. Economical use of Meats in the Home — Hunt, 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 PART III. 
 
 Read Carefully. Place your name and address on the 
 first sheet of the test. Use a light grade of paper and write 
 on one side of the sheet only. Do not copy answers from 
 the lesson paper. Use your own words, so that the instruc- 
 tor may know that you understand the subject. Read the 
 lesson paper a number of times before attempting to 
 answer the questions. 
 
 1. Mention and describe three methods of making- 
 
 doughs light. 
 
 2. What are the advantages in the use of baking 
 
 powder? When should baking soda and cream 
 of tartar be used separately? 
 
 3. Describe some mixture where more than one 
 
 means of making it light is used. 
 
 4. How does the bread obtainable outside your home 
 
 compare with what you can produce there as 
 to cost, including time and fuel, substance, and 
 palatability ? 
 
 5. Experiment, if you can, under your own condi- 
 
 tions and report of the effect of too rapid and 
 too slow baking on different types of dough. 
 
 6. Rearrange this recipe for a simple cake in proper 
 
 proportions and order of mixing : y 2 egg, 2 
 teaspoonfuls butter, 2 c. milk, I c. flavoring, I 
 teasp. flour, 3 c. baking powder, 1 teasp. sugar. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY. 
 
 7. Give examples wherein the form and manner of 
 
 serving" may add to the attractiveness of food 
 and not require too much time. 
 
 8. How does bread flour differ from pastry flour? 
 
 How does this affect its use in doughs ? 
 
 9. Give the general proportion of flour and liquid 
 
 in (1) soft doughs, (2) a batter, (3) muffin. 
 
 mixtures, (4) pastry or cookies. 
 10. Why does shortening make doughs flaky? 
 T T. Give the one method of making bread. What 
 
 conditions will hasten the process ; what will 
 
 retard the process? 
 _, Successful pastry — how made? 
 
 13. What varieties of cake are there and what ai 
 
 the general proportion of the ingredients ? Give 
 some of the reasons why a cake "falls ?" What 
 makes cake dry and coarse in texture? 
 
 14. Discuss the use and abuse of "fancy cookery." 
 
 15. What is meant by contrast in foods? Give ex- 
 
 amples. 
 
 16. What can you say of flavoring? 
 
 17. How mav "left-overs" of meat — of vegetables — 
 
 of bread, be used? 
 
 18. On what principle should menus be planned? 
 
 19. Give the menus for the meals served in your 
 
 household during one week and suggest how 
 they might be improved without additional la- 
 bor or expense. 
 
PRINCIPLES OP COOKERY. 
 
 20. With what cook book are most familiar? What 
 
 are its good points and what are its de- 
 ficiencies ? 
 
 21. Have you had any failures in cookery which 
 
 you cannot understand and which you would 
 like to have explained ? 
 
 22. What new facts and principles have you learned 
 
 from this series of lessons? 
 
 Note. — After completing the test, sign your full name. 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKING 
 
 PART IV 
 SUPPLEMENT 
 
'5 .22 
 
 £0 o 
 
SUPPLEMENT 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 IN 
 
 APPLICATION TO DAILY LIFE 
 
 By Anna Barrows 
 
 Director, Chautatiqua School of Cookery; Lecturer, Teachers, 
 College, Columbia University, and Simmons College. 
 
 The conditions of life in the households represented 
 by the pupils of this school vary greatly with locality 
 and climate, and, taken together, would give a fine 
 composite picture of the average American home. 
 
 While reading the hundreds of papers which have 
 passed through my hands since the School opened, 
 nothing has impressed me more than the variety of 
 conditions to which any woman in this country 
 must be ready to adjust herself at short notice. 
 Much human energy might be set free for other pur- 
 poses, and much money saved, if men and women 
 gave closer study to some of these every-day questions. 
 
 Emerson has said truly : " We must learn the homely 
 laws of .fire and water; we must feed, wash, plant, 
 build. These are the ends of necessity, and first 
 in the order of nature. Poverty, frost, famine, 
 disease, debt, are the beadles and guardsmen that 
 hold us to common sense." 
 
 COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FUELS 
 
 Every householder and housekeeper should have 
 more definite knowledge regarding the amount of 
 heat available from a given bulk of each of the stand - 
 
 "47 
 
148 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 ard fuels. One cord of wood is approximately equal 
 to one -half ton of coal; 1,000 cubic feet of coal-gas 
 is equal to 50 or 60 pounds of coal, or about four and 
 one-half gallons of oil or gasoline. The time re- 
 quired to keep stove and fire in good condition must 
 be counted with the cost of the fuel. 
 
 In this connection, facts reported in some of the 
 test papers received are interesting. 
 
 From a southern plantation, wood is reported as 
 costing only the labor of preparation for the stove, 
 and that only sixty cents a cord. In another locality, 
 one sixteenth of a cord of wood is used daily at a cost 
 of twelve cents, or about two dollars a cord. Else- 
 where, a housekeeper finds wood at five dollars a 
 cord the cheapest fuel within her reach, and estimates 
 her daily supply to cost ten cents, or about one fiftieth 
 of a cord. Another burns a cord of wood each week 
 for cooking only. 
 
 An English pupil writes: "The range to which I 
 am most accustomed is the almost universal farm- 
 house open fireplace and Glendenning oven, used in 
 Cumberland and Westmoreland. The oven is heated 
 by the hot air from the fire by a passage at the back 
 of the fireplace, with only one damper for oven. At 
 the opposite side there is nearly always what is called 
 here a 'set-pot' for heating water. The heat of 
 my oven is greatest at the bottom, on account of the 
 hot air being underneath. What is not cooked in 
 the oven is done over the open fire." 
 
FUELS 149 
 
 COAL 
 
 The price of coal varies according to quality and 
 distance from the mines, and may cost from three to 
 twelve dollars a ton. A hodful or scuttle of coal 
 may weigh from fifteen to thirty pounds, but after 
 weighing the contents of an average hod, any house- 
 keeper may estimate readily the amount used daily, 
 or for different purposes. 
 
 One woman writes that she can do her day's work 
 with a single hodful of coal, making a ton last nearly 
 three months, while a maid in her kitchen usually 
 disposes of a ton a month. Another housekeeper 
 runs a fire day and night on half a ton a month, 
 while in a colder region three hods daily is the usual 
 winter allowance. 
 
 Gas is available in comparatively few sections of 
 the country outside of the large cities, but wherever 
 it is used, housekeepers soon learn to plan their cook- 
 ery to save fuel. This usually results in economy 
 of time, so that fewer hours arc spent in the kitchen, 
 though all the necessary work is as well done as 
 before. 
 
 A thousand feet of gas a week is a generous allow- 
 ance for kitchen use in an average family. Accord- 
 ing to one report, gas at $1.50 a thousand feet has 
 proved cheaper than coal at $5.00 a ton. 
 
 One cannot use a gas range in the same fashion as 
 the wood or coal stove, but must adapt herself to its 
 
150 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 plan and the nature of the fuel. A steam cooker 
 makes it possible to cook enough food for two days 
 over one burner at one time. Today's dinner, a 
 cereal for tomorrow's breakfast, some cup custards 
 for supper, a stuffed fowl to be browned over in the 
 oven for tomorrow's dinner, all may be cooking at 
 once. 
 
 Then, with the ovens as commonly arranged, we 
 may broil or roast beneath the flame which is heating 
 the other oven to bake potatoes, bread or cake. 
 
 One pupil reports that she boils potatoes in the 
 lower part of the double boiler while cooking cereal 
 for the next day, and above that sets a basin of milk 
 to heat for a pudding or sauce or soup. By such 
 forethought the expense of gas is no greater than 
 any other fuel, and the labor of housework is much 
 reduced. 
 
 The removal of the tax on fuel alcohol, January, 
 1907, may mean much to the housekeeper as well as 
 to the manufacturer. Every one who has used a 
 chafing dish or alcohol lamp has wished that alcohol 
 was as cheap as kerosene. Under the new law it 
 may reach that point. 
 
 Since it may be made of many coarse and inferior 
 vegetable products now unused, there need be no 
 lack of this fuel, which is practically without odor or 
 smoke. 
 
 Thus the housekeeper must be ready to adapt her- 
 
FUELS 151 
 
 self to another change in fuels and apparatus for its 
 use. 
 
 With the alcohol lamp and the hay-box much of 
 the discomfort and dirt now associated with kitchen 
 processes will be banished, never to return, and the 
 kitchen itself well may be dignified with the name of 
 "laboratory." 
 
 KEROSENE 
 
 The small oil and gasoline stoves are not used as 
 much as they deserve. With intelligent care and 
 high-grade oil, a well-made oil stove is safe. Fire in 
 any form is not a plaything. 
 
 Every household without gas or electricity should 
 be supplied with a good three-burner lamp stove and 
 small oven to fit it. These will cost about $3 .00. If 
 this lamp is given the same care that is given lamps 
 for evening use, results will be satisfactory. But 
 one must not expect a small stove to work as rapidly 
 or accomplish as much as a larger one. Have the 
 lamp full of oil to do good work. Do not let it burn 
 many hours in succession, but give it a chance to 
 cool off. Keep the wicks even and clean, and have 
 new ones when they become discolored, or too short 
 to reach the bottom of the lamp. 
 
 Oil stoves are liable to smoke if they stand in a 
 draft, and therefore should be protected. Choose 
 utensils to fit the stove and oven, and never fill them 
 so full that there is danger of boiling over into the 
 lamp. Since the heat is greatest in the lower part of 
 
152 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 the oven, cook on the upper shelf as much as possible, 
 or exchange when possible. Asbestos mats may be 
 used on the lower shelves. With two three-burner 
 lamp stoves, and an oven to fit one, it has been easy 
 several times, in my own experience, to do all the 
 cooking for a family of six or eight persons. 
 
 FIRELESS COOKERS 
 
 The Norwegian Cooking Box or Fireless Cook 
 Stove is described and illustrated on pages 12-13. 
 This device has been exploited so much of late that 
 it deserves further description. 
 
 The new interest in this method of cooking is prob- 
 ably due to the experiments made in 1905, under the 
 direction of the Commissary-General of the War 
 Department, and these were the result of a report 
 from United States Consular Clerk, George H. 
 Murphy, of Frankfort, Germany. Below is a con- 
 densation of Mr. Murphy's report, as it appeared in 
 Daily Consular Reports in April, 1905. 
 
 "In an address to an audience of working people, 
 Mrs. Back, wife of the director of the industrial 
 school at Frankfort, brought to the attention of her 
 hearers, the hay-box or fireless stove. 
 
 "Every housewife knows that a pot of coffee can 
 be kept hot for some time, without fire, simply by 
 wrapping it in a dry towel to hinder escape of heat. 
 The Norwegian "automatic kitchen" attracted at- 
 tention at the Paris exposition of 1867 but failed to 
 come into general use. Now in Berlin, Munich, and 
 
CYLINDER TYPE FIRELESS COOKER 
 
 BENCH TYPE FIRELESS COOKER 
 
 The "Caloric," Aluminoid Lined with Aluminum Utensils. The 
 aluminum utensils with clamped covers can be purchased separately 
 for home-made cookers. 
 
FIRELESS COOKER 153 
 
 other cities popular lecturers are showing the prac- 
 tical value of this method of cooking. 
 
 "Mrs Back stated that she had used the hay-box 
 for thirteen years, thus greatly reducing the cares of 
 housekeeping. At first she used the box merely to 
 keep finished food warm. Discovering that the 
 process of cooking continued, she experimented and 
 found that she could finish, in the box, all boiled 
 and roasted meats, sauces, fish, soup, vegetables, 
 fruits, puddings, etc. 
 
 "The box cannot be used for articles whose chief 
 attraction lies in the crispness resulting from rapid 
 cooking on a hot fire, but the rest of the meal may 
 be ready and hot in the box. Patience will secure 
 needed experience, and remove all doubts. In 
 general, two or three minutes actual boiling on the 
 (ire is sufficient for vegetables, while roasted meat 
 requires twenty to thirty minutes. Most articles 
 should remain tightly closed in the box for two or 
 three hours, and may be left to keep hot for ten or 
 twelve hours. 
 
 "Dried legumes, fruit, etc., should be well soaked 
 in cold water, allowed to boil two to five minutes and 
 left for two hours in the box. Soft vegetables should 
 be merely brought to a boil and then placed for an 
 hour or two in the box. Soups are improved by 
 being allowed to develop for two or three hours in 
 the box. 
 
 "Covers of pots should not be lifted when they 
 
154 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 are being transferred. The object is to retain the 
 heat as long as possible when it has once been de- 
 veloped. Too much water is better than too little. 
 
 "A home-made hay-box will usually be found 
 cheaper and more practical than those with immovable 
 felt and upholstery. Almost any box will do, which 
 has a tight cover. The wood should not be too thin, 
 and there should be no knot-holes or cracks. Old 
 trunks and valises may sometimes be used in this 
 way. 
 
 "The box should be loosely filled with shavings, 
 paper or hay, the last being probably most satis- 
 factory. The hay should be renewed every two or 
 three weeks. Nests are made for the pots and the 
 hay packed tightly under and around them. Any 
 kind of pots can be used, although, of course, earthen 
 ones hold the heat best. The tighter the tops fit, 
 the better, but if the food is to be used within six 
 or eight hours, they need not be hermetically closed. 
 AVhen the pots have been placed in the box carefully, 
 without lifting the lids, they should be covered with 
 a pillow and the lid at once securely closed. 
 
 "When not in use, the box should always be left 
 open and the hay loosened, the pillow being hung 
 in the air to dry thoroughly. 
 
 "The chief advantages of the hay-box may be 
 summarized as follows: 
 
 "The cost of fuel can be reduced four-fifths or 
 even nine-tenths. 
 
FIRELESS COOKER 155 
 
 "The pots are not made difficult to wash; they 
 are not blackened, and they will last for an almost 
 indefinite period of time. 
 
 "The food is better cooked, more tasty, more 
 nutritious and more digestible. 
 
 "Kitchen odors are obviated. 
 
 "Time and labor are saved. 
 
 "There is no need of stirring, no fear of scorching 
 or burning. 
 
 "The cares of the housewife are lessened, and her 
 health and happiness are protected. 
 
 "The kitchen need not be in disorder half of the day. 
 
 "Warm water can always be had when there is 
 illness in the house and during the summer when 
 fires are not kept up. 
 
 "Where workmen's families live crowded in one 
 or two rooms, the additional suffering caused by 
 kitchen heat is obviated by the hay -box, for the pre- 
 liminary cooking can all be done in the cool of the 
 morning. 
 
 "At picnics the appetites of young people are only 
 half satisfied by sandwiches and other cold food. 
 The hay-box can furnish a hot meal anywhere at 
 any time. 
 
 "Similarly, men and women working in the fields, 
 or having night employment, can take with them 
 hot coffee, soup or an entire meal, thus avoiding the 
 necessity of returning home at a fixed hour or having 
 it brought to them by another member of the family. 
 
156 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 "When different employments make it necessary 
 for the various members of a family to take their 
 meals at different hours, this can be arranged with- 
 out a multiplication of work with the assistance of 
 the hay-box." 
 
 This consular report covered the ground so fully 
 that any intelligent woman can make it the basis of 
 experiments adapted to her own surroundings. 
 
 A small trunk measuring 18x22x24 inches, an 
 agate-ware kettle with close tin cover, made to order 
 to fit in, or merely rest on the kettle, were the appli- 
 ances which served me satisfactorily this summer. 
 
 It was not easy to secure hay, so we looked about 
 for a similar non-conducting substance, and found 
 some boxes of excelsior and sawdust — not quite 
 enough of either, so they were combined and put 
 in bags and sewed up closely enough to prevent clut- 
 ter. The most of the bags were of denim, but some 
 thin cotton bags, in which five and ten pounds of 
 sugar had come, were filled, and did good service in 
 lilling chinks. 
 
 To test the heat-retaining capacity of this outfit, 
 two gallons of water was raised to the boiling point 
 in the kettle. Closely covered, it was placed on one 
 of the thicker cushions in the trunk and the others 
 fitted in closely around and over the kettle. A 
 blanket and some newspapers were spread over all, 
 and the trunk locked. Twenty-four hours later the 
 water was hot enough for dish-washing or bathing. 
 
TIRELESS COOKER 157 
 
 The statements made in the above report were 
 fully verified by my own experience. This method 
 of cooking is especially adapted to any article requir- 
 ing long, gentle heat, such as the making of soup- 
 stocks and broths and rendering tough meats tender. 
 With very tough fowls, when the water cools down 
 below 150-160 F., the whole may again be raised to 
 the boiling point and started again in the hay-box. 
 
 It must not be expected to do everything, but 
 every housekeeper who must depend upon a gas or 
 kerosene stove should arrange a tireless cooker for 
 economy of fuel and to increase her own comfort. 
 
 Many an American housewife uses both coal and 
 gas ranges in her winter home, and in the summer 
 cottage must depend upon wood and kerosene stoves. 
 Probably during the year she also uses a chafing-dish 
 occasionally, and that may derive its heat from alco- 
 hol or electricity. Wherever a house is supplied 
 with electric lights there should be at least one elec- 
 trical cooking appliance. Some excellent ones are 
 already on the market, and the next generation, doubt- 
 less, will use this force in housekeeping as freely as 
 we use gas. 
 
 Each of these methods of securing heat for cooking 
 may be the best under certain conditions and have 
 disadvantages under others. The housekeeper needs 
 to be keen in judgment and quick to see in order to 
 adapt her formulas of cookery successfully in turn 
 to wood, coal, gas, kerosene, gasoline, alcohol or 
 
158 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 electricity. She must know how to tell when a thing 
 is "done," and not trust wholly to the number of 
 minutes prescribed in a recipe. 
 
 Women who are called upon to make such rapid 
 transitions become adaptable, inventive, and are 
 less "set in their ways" in other directions. The 
 study of processes of cookery may thus become a 
 broadening influence and means of general education. 
 
 CO-OPERATIVE COOKING 
 
 But there are certain household traditions which 
 hold many intelligent women in a firm grasp, and 
 these traditions may be traced to the generations 
 behind us, when no money value was placed upon 
 woman's labor. It does not yet seem easy for 
 women to count fairly the cost of foods cooked 
 under their own roof. Until this can be done there 
 is small, chance for co-operative industries, which 
 might relieve the pressure of home cares where house- 
 workers are not readily secured. 
 
 Few families to-day find it wise to make butter 
 for themselves, and many would do well to buy 
 bread, also. When there is a demand for high-grade 
 bread made outside the home, it will be supplied, as 
 has been the case here with other commodities, and 
 with bread in other countries. There are many 
 small towns to-day to which bread is sent from first- 
 class bakeries ioo to 200 miles away. 
 
 With stronger laws, better enforced for the clean- 
 liness and purity of food products; with greater 
 
HEAT CONSERVER 
 Apparatus used in an attempt to deliver hot meals at a distance. 
 
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 159 
 
 intelligence on the part of the consumer, and greater 
 skill on the part of the producer, there is no reason 
 why we should not in the future be able to secure 
 wholesome prepared foods of all grades at fair prices 
 outside the home, rather than attempt to prepare 
 everything under the home roof. 
 
 The isolated home must still be its own factory, 
 and its director must be a Jack of all Trades. Such 
 households should be supplied with all helps to make 
 labor easy, but even tnen, much hard labor is neces- 
 sary. Only where large quantities of any product 
 are to be prepared does it pay to have all manner of 
 machines and cunning devices to produce the most 
 perfect results. 
 
 KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 
 
 Where many people are to be fed, a few good tools 
 like a bread-mixer (Seep. 105), meat-chopper, etc., 
 are often more helpful than another pair of hands, 
 unless they are especially efficient ones. 
 
 One .pupil has asked for a list of necessary kitchen 
 furnishings. A good list is given in Household Man- 
 agement, page 105. Here is another designed for 
 beginners in housekeeping, or for small families living 
 in city flats, where there is no room to store super- 
 fluous utensils. The stove and refrigerator are usu- 
 ally supplied with such apartments. 
 
 For light housekeeping, where a chafing-dish or 
 small oil or gas stove is the only means for cooking, 
 still fewer utensils would suffice. With the addition 
 
KITCHEN FURNISHINGS 
 
 161 
 
 of a few fancy molds, all the foods illustrated in this 
 book could be prepared by the utensils here men- 
 tioned. On page 101 some of the most useful are 
 shown. 
 
 When selecting any utensil, be sure that it is of 
 good quality, with no imperfections that will inter- 
 fere with keeping it perfectly clean. 
 
 KITCHEN FURNISHINGS. 
 
 High stool $i . 50 
 
 Scales 1 . 00 
 
 Fibre pail .50 
 
 Dish pan 50 
 
 Soap shaker 10 
 
 Dish mop .10 
 
 Vegetable brush .10 
 
 Tea kettle 1 . 00 
 
 Pastry board .40 
 
 Rolling pin 10 
 
 Chopping bowl and 
 
 knife .50 
 
 Bean pot . 30 
 
 Lemon squeezer(glass) .10 
 
 Tea pot .25 
 
 Coffee pot .50 
 
 Muffin pan, agate wave . 50 
 
 Quart measure .35 
 
 Pitcher 50 
 
 Stew kettle and cover. 1 . 00 
 
 Roasting pan .50 
 
 Sauce pans (three) . . .75 
 
 Bowls (two) 50 
 
 Double boiler 75 
 
 Two quart pans (two) . 50 
 Deep plates, to fit pan 
 
 as covers (two) 50 
 
 Cups for moulds (six) . 75 
 
 French knife 
 
 Paring knives (two) . . 
 
 Spatula 
 
 Cork screw 
 
 Can opener 
 
 Measure cups, glass 
 
 and tin .' 
 
 Wire egg beater 
 
 Dover egg beater 
 
 Fine strainer 
 
 Coarse strainer 
 
 Colander 
 
 Flour sieve 
 
 Wire potato masher. . 
 
 Grater 
 
 Wooden spoons (two) 
 Tablespoons (six) .... 
 
 Teaspoons (six) 
 
 Long fork 
 
 Cutters (two) 
 
 Omelet pan 
 
 Loai pans (three) .... 
 Cake pans (three) .... 
 Cake pans (three) .... 
 
 Scotch bowl 
 
 Glass jars (one dozen). 
 
 •5° 
 
 ■3? 
 ■3° 
 ■25 
 •5° 
 
 . 20 
 . 10 
 
 . TO 
 
 05 
 TO 
 
 . IO 
 . IO 
 
 . 20 
 
 ■ 2 5 
 .60 
 
 •30 
 ■3° 
 ■5° 
 00 
 
 Total $20 .00 
 
1 62 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 THE HOUSEKEEPER'S LIBRARY 
 
 Quite as important as helpful utensils to the house- 
 keeper are the right kind of books. 
 
 When we remember that cooking schools have 
 been established for a generation in all our large cities, 
 and that the lessons given in such schools have in 
 several places been put in book form, and when we 
 see the lists of cook-books sent out by publishers, we 
 might suppose that every housekeeper in America 
 would be the possessor of several reliable cook-books. 
 But even the intelligent women taking this course 
 are rarely well supplied. 
 
 One pupil honestly states the matter thus: 
 
 "My failures have been many, owing partly to my 
 lack of a cook-book. I have overcooked custards, 
 and undercooked corn starch. I have stirred and 
 beaten all the gas out of pancakes, and. wondered why 
 they did: not rise, etc., etc." 
 
 Many women everywhere are content to depend 
 upon cook-books issued by patent medicine venders, 
 and upon newspaper clippings liable to typographical 
 errors. Such things may afford helpful suggestions, 
 but much food-material has been wasted by blind 
 following of careless printers, and writers who have 
 little knowledge of the art and science of cookery. 
 
 Enterprising business men realize that they must 
 read their trade journals to keep abreast of the tide 
 of competition. Many a woman spends more than a 
 dollar a year for tissue paper patterns for clothing, 
 
HO USEKEEPER' S LIB PAR Y 1 6> 
 
 who would hesitate to buy a cook-book once in five 
 years, or to subscribe for a reliable household maga- 
 zine. 
 
 There has been little cash recompense for the 
 housekeeper, however much she studied her trade, 
 but now we are beginning to realize that personal 
 health and family comfort are above price ; that they 
 depend chiefly on the air we breathe, the water we 
 drink, and the food we eat. 
 
 On page 140 of this hand-book, there is given a 
 list of reliable books relating to food and cookery, 
 the whole costing about $20. The average American 
 housekeeper, especially if she does her own house- 
 work, should own at least half of these books. While 
 she may not find it feasible to spend more than a 
 dollar a year in this way, still she may be sure that 
 ten dollars spent in the purchase of helpful books 
 would save more than that amount, in a single year, 
 in her bills for food materials. 
 
 Any one near a public library has the opportunity 
 to read such books, and thus discover which are the 
 ones she wishes to own. If the library is not already 
 supplied in this direction, send in requests that cer- 
 tain books be purchased. (Any of the books will 
 be loaned to members by the School). 
 
 The study of this hand-book lays the foundations 
 in the fewest words possible for the fundamental 
 processes of cookery. As one pupil has expressed it: 
 "I h?.Y p f 01] . rir ! tfe§ lessons wonderfully helpful in 
 
SWEET POTATO CONE 
 
CARD CATALOG OF FOODS 165 
 
 classifying and fixing facts in my mind, and I feel 
 that I am much better grounded in the principles of 
 cookery than I ever should have been by merely 
 studying cook-books." 
 
 After such a beginning, each one reading a cook- 
 book will instinctively select and add to the founda- 
 tion principles, already acquired, such explanatory 
 details as are best adapted to her home conditions. 
 
 CARD CATALOG OF FOODS 
 
 The up-to-date housekeeper is ready to accept 
 modern ideas and adapt methods from other depart- 
 ments of life to her business of housekeeping. She 
 finds a card catalogue one of the simplest means for 
 keeping addresses, and has another for an inventory 
 of her household possessions, and a third for a list of 
 foods especially suited to her family. In this list 
 each card records not only the name of a food, but 
 the approximate beginning and end of its season, its 
 average price, the quantity required to serve a given 
 number of persons, and several of the best methods 
 of using it. Here, also, may be references to certain 
 pages of the cook-books in her library. Or the cards 
 may have copies of the recipes; such cards should 
 have a hole in the top, so that they may be hung up 
 in the kitchen within view of the worker. 
 
 When uncertain what to chose for the next day's 
 dinner, or for some special occasion, she looks over 
 these cards, and several possibilities will be suggested. 
 From this plan one naturally comes to the study of 
 dietaries and an application of the principles laid, 
 down in Food and Dietetics. 
 
COOKING A FINE ART 167 
 
 Among the helps in study along these lines are the 
 series of dietary studies which have been issued from 
 time to time by the office of Experiment Stations, 
 United States Department of Agriculture, Washing- 
 ton, D. C. Two of the best to begin with are Bulletin 
 28 (Revised), "The Chemical Composition of American 
 Food Materials" (5 cents), and Bulletin 129, "Dietary 
 Studies in Boston, Springfield, Philadelphia, Chicago" 
 (10 cents). The latter gives menus for several days at 
 different prices, with itemized list of materials used 
 and cost of each. 
 
 These may be obtained by sending coin to the Su- 
 perintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 
 
 COOKERY A FINE ART 
 
 In cookery, quite as much depends upon the order 
 and manner of combining the materials as upon the 
 ingredients themselves. The manipulation of the 
 cook-stove has something in common with that of 
 a musical instrument. It is possible to play by ear 
 with little knowledge of scales and chords, or to cook 
 without knowing the laws of heat or the chemical 
 composition of food materials. 
 
 Or, by continual practice, a single composition 
 may be committed to memory and be reproduced in 
 a mechanical fashion either upon the piano or on the 
 kitchen range. Only after much study and repetition 
 of processes does one become able to interpret intel- 
 ligently the works of great masters, and the funda- 
 mental laws of harmony must be known, before one 
 
CAKE MAKING 169 
 
 can produce new creations cither in music or more 
 material things. 
 
 As music appeals to the sense of hearing, so does 
 cookery to that of taste. The truest art in cookery 
 is not the ability to construct wondrous complica- 
 tions of food materials, or to carve roses from beets, 
 or model faces in butter, but rather to develop the 
 full flavor of a food by the simplest process, to make 
 the "mouth water'-' — that is, to stimulate the flow 
 of the digestive juices by savory odors and flavors. 
 
 Brillat Savarin well said that the invention of a 
 new dish meant more happiness to the human race 
 than the discovery of a constellation, but quite as 
 important is the constant preparation of the simple, 
 old foods in the very best way — the baked potato, 
 the boiled egg, the broiled steak, etc., etc. 
 
 CAKE MAKING 
 
 The mixing of cake often has more to do with its 
 texture than the proportion of materials used, though 
 both have their influence. 
 
 It is an interesting experiment to make a good 
 cooky dough and bake portions of it with different 
 proportions of flour. Take, for example, the familiar 
 1-2-3-4 cake formulas and transpose the flour and 
 eggs so that we use one cup of butter, two cups of 
 sugar, three eggs and four cups of flour. The stiffness 
 of this dough will vary with size of the eggs and the 
 quality of the flour. Often some liquid and more 
 flour are added, making a less rich mixture, and then ' 
 
170 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 some baking-powder or its equivalent will be needed, 
 otherwise the creaming of the butter and the eggs 
 will bring sufficient air into the dough. 
 
 Even before all the flour is worked in, some of the 
 dough may be spread on a tin and cut in shapes after 
 baking. When slightly stiffer, bits of the mixture 
 may be dropped on the tin, fruit or nuts put over 
 them v and they will spread out in dainty little cakes. 
 
 If still more flour is added, but before the dough 
 is quite firm enough to use a rolling-pin, small balls 
 of the dough may be shaped round with the hands 
 and flattened on the pan with the under surface of 
 a smooth tin cup. 
 
 A dough in this stage may be chilled, and then 
 can be rolled easily, and the resulting cakes will be 
 much richer than if more flour had been worked in. 
 
 Deft, experienced hands produce satisfactory results 
 with doughs, because they can shape them without 
 working in an excessive amount of flour. 
 
 MENU MAKING 
 
 Through the test questions, 5 the attention of our 
 pupils has been called to the planning of meals for 
 a household, for this is an important part of the house- 
 keeper's duties. Under Part I we asked for menus 
 introducing as many dishes as feasible containing 
 milk and cheese. Such menus would be useful where 
 the meat markets were poor and milk abundant, 
 since one may thus secure similar nutritive elements, 
 and usually at less expense than for meats. 
 
MENU MAKING 171 
 
 After Part II, the request was made for a menu 
 for two days when eggs were cheap, and for two days 
 more when they were expensive. This was done 
 because few housekeepers pay sufficient attention to 
 market prices. They get the idea that a certain 
 food is costly, and therefore not to be used at all, 
 when, perhaps, a careful comparison of the prices of 
 all ingredients would show it to be cheap at some 
 seasons. Angel and sponge-cakes, for example, when 
 eggs are at their lowest price, are less expensive than 
 average butter-cakes. 
 
 With eggs at 25 cents a dozen and butter at 25 
 cents a pound, a sponge-cake with five eggs costs no 
 more than a cake with two eggs and half a cup of 
 butter. If the whites of twice as many eggs are used, 
 the actual cost is no greater, since the yolks are avail- 
 able for other purposes. 
 
 At the close of the lessons we asked for a week's 
 menu from each householder represented, with sug- 
 gestions for their improvement, without increase of 
 labor or expense. 
 
 The responses show an increased attention to the 
 details that count in feeding a family satisfactorily 
 to all concerned. 
 
 Yet menu-making is still a great bugbear to many 
 pupils, and a few. more hints on the subject may be 
 helpful. 
 
 Many are hampered seriously by the habits and 
 wishes of different members of their households. 
 
172 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 One young woman writes: "My father demands 
 griddle cakes every morning the year round." 
 
 Naturally, with such tastes, it is difficult to intro- 
 duce many new dishes, or to secure a very varied 
 menu. 
 
 In the old days of the brick oven, most of the 
 necessary cooking for a family was done on one day 
 of the week, for the proper heating of that oven could 
 not be accomplished hurriedly. 
 
 Now with the gas stove, conditions are very dif- 
 ferent, and two or three hours each day should be 
 ample time for the actual cookery for an average 
 family. But to accomplish everything in these 
 limits wise planning is required. Whatever requires 
 long cooking for breakfast must be started the pre- 
 vious day, and preparation for the dinner or luncheon 
 is begun while breakfast is being made ready, and 
 so on. 
 
 Many business women keep house in this way, 
 and their families are as well fed as those where 
 more time is frittered away on petty nothings. It 
 is only by application of business methods in our 
 kitchens, that the routine in many households can 
 be simplified and untangled. 
 
 The preparation of food for an average household 
 is not a difficult matter when the manager has 
 learned her trade and each individual member is not 
 unreasonable in his or her requirements. 
 
 The housekeeper must think out her plan of action 
 
MENU MAKING 
 
 173 
 
 for days in advance and thus save unnecessary dupli- 
 cation of processes. 
 
 When one pair of hands must do all the cooking, 
 it is a foolish waste of time and strength to cook 
 fresh food for the purpose of making composite dishes. 
 Let those come occasionally as an easy way of finishing 
 up some bits too good to throw away, which have 
 already appeared in other forms. For example, it 
 
 Making Timbale Cases. 
 
 takes no more effort or fuel to boil twelve potatoes 
 than is required to cook six. These may appear 
 one day as plain boiled, if we have a roast with a good 
 gravy. The next day we are to serve the meat cold 
 or perhaps fried fish with no sauce, so the second 
 portion of potatoes is cut in cubes or slices and 
 reheated in butter, flavored with onion, and sprinkled 
 with chopped parsley just before serving, giving 
 us Lyonnaise potatoes. Or we might prefer Delmonico 
 potatoes and put them in layers in a pudding dish with 
 
MENU MAKING 175 
 
 a sprinkle of cheese between, pour a thin white 
 sauce over, cover with buttered crumbs, and heat 
 through in the oven. Or the potatoes may be mashed 
 and for a second appearance take the form of a huge 
 cone, or apples, or pears for individual service. 
 
 Sometimes in our zeal to use up left-overs, we 
 expend much*time and strength and more additional 
 material than the value of the original article war- 
 rants. But if one owns a timbale iron, those fragile 
 shells resulting from frying a batter on it are attractive 
 receptacles for a little creamed chicken or a sweet- 
 bread. 
 
 Croquettes have their place occasionally, and often 
 save the purchase of more meat and thus justify the 
 time they require. A garnish of crisp triangles of 
 toast around a dish of creamed meat disposes of 
 both the scraps of meat and bits of bread — or 
 cases may be made of bread and browned in the oven 
 and filled with meat. 
 
 The store closet should be kept well stocked, and 
 this is less expensive and far easier than buying 
 things as needed. One order a week ought to be 
 enough for the staple groceries, and two orders a 
 week in winter and three in summer for meats, 
 fruits, and fresh vegetables. Do not order by tele- 
 phone, but at least once each week visit the market 
 and make the order according to what is available 
 there. 
 
 The time often spent in a daily visit to markets or 
 
MENU MAKING 177 
 
 a dady call from the store-man can be used to better 
 advantage in an average home. 
 
 A fair supply of good-grade canned goods should 
 be kept in the house for emergencies ; but as a whole 
 these are more expensive than fresh cooked meats 
 and vegetables; but where fuel is expensive and 
 labor high, they may be used more freely. 
 
 Milk should be used generously. Many families 
 would do well to double their present milk supply. 
 Where milk is abundant and canned vegetables at 
 hand, it takes but a few moments to prepare a nour- 
 ishing and attractive cream soup of corn, beans, peas, 
 or tomatoes. If the top of the milk has been used 
 for cereal and coffee, the remainder will be quite as 
 satisfactory as whole milk for soups or puddings, 
 when butter or other fat is added. 
 
 If our home is at a distance from markets and we 
 have an abundance of one type of food material and 
 little of others, then it may be necessary for us to 
 devise many ways of serving this one, and then we 
 must use different forms and flavors that we may 
 not tire of the monotonous diet. But when the sea- 
 son of any fruit, vegetable, or meat is brief, then we 
 need serve it only in its natural form or cooked in the 
 simplest manner. 
 
 As the seasons change, cold merging into heat 
 and heat into cold again, we let our fires go out, then 
 we kindle them, and we decrease and then increase 
 our clothing. But few households make a corres- 
 
178 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 pondingly marked change in their food, adapting it 
 to the differing needs of the body as the external 
 temperature changes. 
 
 All of us know places where pork and pies occupy as 
 prominent a position on the tables in July as in Janu- 
 ary, though their heat-giving qualities make them 
 out of place in summer, even if admissible in winter. 
 
 Some Ways of Serving- Oranges. 
 
 "Pork and beans," where the fat predominates, may 
 be suitable for midwinter, while "baked beans," with 
 a small amount of fat — be it pork, beef, butter or 
 olive oil — are not out of place at any season. 
 
 Another phase of this matter is the improvement 
 in nagging appetites, which is accomplished by a 
 change in food. The city dwellers are often better 
 off in the spring than the country family. From 
 the South to the city markets come greens of several 
 kinds, asparagus, lettuce, cucumbers, and radishes, 
 while the country garden is still bare. A small 
 bunch of asparagus as a garnish around some inex- 
 
MENU MAKING 
 
 179 
 
 Lambs Heart with Asparagus. 
 
 pensive meat like lamb or calf hearts will give relish 
 when a larger quantity would be an extravagance. 
 
 Those who prepare the food for the family deserve 
 a change of labor from season to season, and many 
 women in the country would do well to strike from 
 pie making and spend the time so saved out of doors. 
 It is no harder to care for a strawberry bed than to 
 
 Apricot or Peach J 
 
i8o PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 wield the rolling pin or bend over a hot stove, and 
 strawberries may well be substituted for pies. 
 
 True economy must be practiced in the planning 
 of menus and one thing fitted into another so that 
 nothing is lost. 
 
 USE OF FATS 
 
 Perhaps there is no one thing more often wasted 
 in the average household than fat, yet this is essen- 
 tial to our health, and we pay high prices for it in 
 cream, olive oil, and butter, when cheaper forms 
 might be substituted in some cases. 
 
 The fat trimmed from meats is too often left 
 at the market or thrown away after cooking, instead 
 of clarifying it according to the directions on page 
 73. This, when properly prepared, would be far 
 superior to the lard and cooking butter often bought 
 for culinary purposes. 
 
 The flank fat from beef, or "cod fat," as some 
 market-men call it, is much softer than suet, and, if 
 carefully prepared, is to be preferred to cooking- 
 butter for making ordinary cookies, gingerbread, 
 pastry, etc. This clarified fat usually costs less than 
 ten cents a pound, even after the weight of the scraps 
 is deducted. - 
 
 When a housekeeper has not time to prepare 
 such fat, she may buy uncolored oleomargarine at 
 about half the price of table butter, or in the vicinity 
 of fifteen cents a pound. (Colored butterine is taxed 
 ten cents a pound.) Many preparations of cotton ' 
 
TABLE SERVICE 181 
 
 seed oil are on the market, which are satisfactory 
 when fresh for frying and for use in doughs. 
 
 One must use discretion in combining fats for 
 different uses. It is not desirable to use smoked 
 fat like that from bacon, or highly seasoned fat, such 
 as comes from sausages, for frying doughs, but these 
 should be kept each by itself and used for warming 
 potatoes and other vegetables. 
 
 The hard suet and soft chicken oil clarified together 
 give an excellent compound, which may be substi- 
 tuted for butter in tomato sauce and some soups, as 
 well as in many doughs. 
 
 In the same way all bits of meat and bone should be 
 used for stock, alone, or combined with vegetables. 
 Where meat is served once or twice daily in a house, 
 there is rarely need of buying any especially for soups. 
 
 TABLE SERVICE 
 
 The desirability of careful table service for the 
 simplest foods is shown by this incident told by one 
 pupil. 
 
 "My aunt had great difficulty in getting us to 
 eat cereal for breakfast, so she bought us each a very 
 pretty blue bowl. We were allowed to use these 
 only when we had cereal for breakfast. The result 
 was that we eagerly asked for it every morning and 
 now are very fond of the various kinds." 
 
 No one can deny that such attention to details 
 is an important part of the housekeeper's duty. 
 
 Where there are no servants, a housekeeper must 
 
1 82 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 be .careful that her efforts for dainty service do 
 not involve her in labor beyond her strength. Each 
 member of the family should have a part in the table 
 service that everything may move smoothly. 
 
 MENUS FOR SPECIAL OCCASIONS 
 
 Every housekeeper occasionally has to plan a 
 special menu for home or club or church society, and 
 consideration of this matter may be helpful here. 
 
 It is of first importance that we do not undertake 
 more than we can carry out well. This applies to 
 the choice of the food material, to the number of 
 courses, and the way in which they are to be served. 
 
 Instead of sending away for rare luxuries with 
 which our guests might be familiar every day, let us 
 make the most of the specialties of our own locality. 
 
 The table decorations may take the form or color 
 of the season, but beware of special shapes or gar- 
 nishes which might cause any deterioration of the 
 food to be served. 
 
 Other essential points are to have everything served 
 at the proper temperature, to alternate brown and 
 white or crisp and soft effects, and to avoid having 
 the same article appear in two different courses. 
 
 This couplet from an old English poet sums up the 
 whole matter: 
 
 "Three dishes well dressed, and a welcome withal, 
 
 Both please th thy guest, and become th thy hall." 
 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS 
 
 FOR 
 
 WAITRESSES AT THE LAKE PLACID 
 CLUB 
 
 By Mrs. Melvil Dewey 
 Secretary, Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics. 
 
 To serve food at the right temperature, both hot and 
 cold, with neatness and the least possible noise and 
 delay, constitutes the true art of the waitress. It is 
 a problem in economics requiring careful study that 
 there may be no waste of time and energy. 
 
 To Lay the Table. Put on silence cloth, then 
 table cloth with middle folds in the center and the 
 center ornament of ferns or flowers. Arrange places 
 symmetrically. Place knives with sharp edge in, 
 and spoons, with bowl up, at right of plate, forks 
 with tines up, at the left, all one inch from edge of 
 table. Napkins in the center. Glass at right just 
 above point of knife, bread and butter plate at left 
 above forks. Place three sets of salts and peppers on 
 each table, one set at each end and one in middle for 
 long tables; for round tables one third distance apart. 
 Have bread, butter, and water carafe on table at every 
 meal. Fill carafe and butter plates the last thing. 
 Serve cream in individual pitchers, and have a china 
 pitcher of milk on table for breakfast and supper. 
 Leave wafers, jelly, and relishes on table as well as 
 bread, butter, and water. 
 
 '83 
 
1 84 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 Waiting on Table. Keep cool, move noiselessly, 
 wear rubber heels, avoid all clatter of dishes. Study 
 your table carefully, see that everything is in place, 
 that sugar bowls, salt and pepper sprinklers, vinegar 
 and oil cruets are filled, that the extra dishes needed, 
 silver, and finger-bowls are on the side table, and that 
 neatness prevails. 
 
 While waiting, a chair may be drawn back from 
 table at least three feet, and waitress may sit till 
 guests for her table enter dining-room. Never sit 
 near enough to touch the table. Rise as your guests 
 approach, seat the eldest lady or head of the party, 
 pass the menu card to her or the one who usually 
 orders first. Fill glasses and serve butter while menu 
 card is examined. Put only small piece of ice in 
 each glass, enough to cool it, unless more is requested. 
 Some prefer water without ice; study preferences. 
 
 Stand at the left when you pass or receive dishes. 
 Stand at the right when you set down tea, coffee, 
 plates or other dishes. A safe rule is, pass from the 
 left, set down from the right. Place dishes in neat 
 orderly straight lines. 
 
 Begin with a lady or older person. 
 
 For Breakfast, bring fruit and cereal orders 
 together. If near kitchen, a second trip may be 
 made for the hot cereals. 
 
 Place finger-bowls when fruit and cereal is set 
 down and take orders for next course. 
 
 Before leaving the room at any time see that each 
 
DIRECTIONS FOR WAITRESSES 185 
 
 guest is provided with all needed for the previous 
 course, whether finger-bowl, sugar, cream or spoon 
 for cereal or coffee, and that bread, butter, water 
 (the constants for each meal) are sufficient. 
 
 Remove finger bowls and soiled dishes before 
 placing next course. 
 
 For the meat course set down plates from right 
 and pass each dish from which guest is to help him- 
 self at his left. Leave plates of rolls, muffins, and 
 bread on table, always, not on side table. 
 
 The last thing at end of each meal, remove plates 
 and place finger-bowls one third filled, with doily 
 under bowl, before each guest. 
 
 Remove every soiled dish from the table as soon 
 as the purpose which it has served is over. 
 
 Never reach across the table in front of a person. 
 
 In lifting glasses and pitchers never put fingers on 
 the rims. 
 
 For Dinner, general directions are the same. 
 Bring soup individually, pass wafers, and take orders 
 for next course. 
 
 Where meat orders vary, bring an individual platter 
 if for one only, on larger platter according to number 
 to be served. 
 
 Bring vegetables in covered dishes and pass in 
 order seated, beginning, When convenient, with a 
 lady or elder person. Reverse order of passing 
 nccasionallv that the same person, may not always 
 come last. 
 
1 86 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 Study the tastes and individuality of each person 
 and anticipate needs if possible. 
 
 Unless asked to do so, do not bring individual dishes 
 for vegetables except for one person who may come 
 specially early or late. Bring in covered dishes, only 
 enough food for orders given ; take out and replenish 
 with hot food as other orders are taken. 
 
 Leave bread and butter plates till after salad 
 course. 
 
 Remove everything before dessert except needed 
 silver and glass. Brush crumbs lightly from table 
 to clean plate with napkin or doily before dessert is 
 placed. 
 
 Serve coffee after dessert. 
 
 Place finger bowls as at breakfast. 
 
 Study each person's order as though for yourself 
 and see that everything needed to go with it is at hand, 
 salt, pepper, vinegar, oil, sugar, cream, spoon, knife, 
 fork, finger-bowl, whatever the course may require. 
 
 Avoid extra trips to kitchen or serving-room for 
 one article. See that everything required for that_ 
 course is on tray before you leave. 
 
 In removing dishes much waste can be avoided 
 by a little care. Trays should not be piled up high 
 so that breakage occurs from dishes sliding off. Jel- 
 lies, pickles, nuts, salads, olives, butter, bread, and 
 food served on dishes other than the one from which 
 it is eaten, should be taken to special table in serving- 
 room or kitchen and cared for by pantry assistant. 
 
DIRECTIONS FOR J] r AITRESSES 187 
 
 If there is not room to take them out on tra}r without 
 piling other dishes over or mussing them, put on lower 
 shelf of side table and leave till another trip or for tray 
 boy. 
 
SUPPLEMENTAL PROGRAM ARRANGED FOR 
 CLASS STUDY ON 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 Ample material for a course of six or more lessons may be 
 secured from the lesson books on Principles of Cookery 
 and from the Government Bulletins. The Farmers ' Bulletins 
 may be obtained without charge by writing to the United 
 States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. As 
 many copies of each will be sent as desired. The bulletins 
 for which a price is given may be obtained by sending coin 
 to the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 
 The Government will . not accept postage stamps. A few 
 reference books are mentioned which will be loaned by the 
 School for the cost of postage given, if not available in the 
 local public library. Any encyclopedia will furnish much 
 on every subject, and a book of standard quotations will also 
 add to the interest of the meeting. 
 
 All the common daily foods may be studied from the 
 historical or literary standpoint, for each has a history and 
 literature of its own. Often it is wise to set the practical 
 housekeeper to look up the historical side of a food, while 
 a philosophical member is required to report upon its prac- 
 tical use. Thus each gets a fresh point of view and a new 
 interest in an old subject. 
 
 It might prove interesting to arrange for a series of lunches 
 to illustrate the foods being studied. Here it is best to 
 keep out of the conventional lines and make the menus 
 educational. When the class is large, a few may be chosen 
 to prepare the lunch for all and directed to keep the expense 
 within certain limits, 10 to 20 cents apiece, and to give 
 a report. Chafing dishes should be provided for each group 
 of four to eight and some experimental cookery tried. 
 
 1S9 
 
i go PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 MEETING I 
 
 (Study pages i -39) 
 
 Fuels and Appliances for their Use 
 
 Work of Count Rumford: — Rumford Kitchen Leaflets, No. r. 
 ($1.00, postage 8c.) 
 
 Work of Benjamin Franklin. See encyclopedias. 
 
 Aladdin Oven. See Science of Nutrition, by Edward 
 Atkins. ($2.00, postage 14c.) 
 
 Fireless Cook Stove. Pamphlet, postage 4c. See also 
 Supplement to Principles of Cookery. 
 
 The Gas Stove. If gas is in common use, have members 
 calculate the amount of gas required to bake a loaf of 
 bread, a cake, to boil two quarts of water, etc., by observ- 
 ing the length of time taken to burn two cubic feet — i, e., 
 one complete revolution of the hand of the small dial D. 
 See page 10. See also Question 5. 
 
 Electric Cooking — Technical World Magazine, July 1906. 
 (Postage 6c.) 
 
 Water 
 
 Experiments: See pages 21, 22. Test the water boiling 
 slowly and boiling hard with a thermometer. Note the 
 simmering temperature and observe how much less heat 
 is required to keep the water at this temperature than to 
 keep it boiling vigorously. (If a gas stove is not available, 
 use a small kerosene stove or a chafing dish burner.) A 
 suitable thermometer may be obtained through the school 
 for 50 cents. Loaned for 6c postage. 
 
 The experiment on page 22 can be made with one dish using 
 the same quantity (say a cup) in each case. 
 
 Topic: Kitchen Experiment. 
 
 References: Chemistry of Cooking, by Williams. Chapter 
 II. Boiling of Water. ($1.50, postage 12c.) 
 Drinking Water and Ice Supplies, by Prudden. 
 (75c, postage 6c.) 
 
PROGRAM 1 91 
 
 Preserving 
 
 Canning of Fruit, Preserves and Jellies, Maria Parloa . 
 
 Farmers' Bulletin No. 203, free. 
 Improved Method of Canning, in Farmers' Bulletin No. 262. 
 Use and Abuse of Food Preservatives. Extract No. 221. 
 
 Free, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 
 
 MEETING II 
 
 (Study pages 39-54) 
 Milk 
 
 Make sour milk cheese and junket. (See page 44.) 
 Show how acid may be used with milk without curdling. 
 
 (See page 45.) 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 42, Facts about Milk; 
 No. 74, Milk as Food; No. 29, Souring of 
 Milk and othe. Changes in Milk Products; 
 No. 63, Care of Milk on the Farm; No. 210, 
 The Covered Milk pail; No. 227, Clean Milk. 
 Milk and its Products, by Wing. ($1.00, 
 postage ioc.) 
 Butter 
 
 See experiments page 50. 
 
 White. Sauce: In a chafing dish, or over a small kerosene or 
 gas burner, make white sauce by three methods described 
 on page 51. 
 To what extent may other less expensive fats be substi- 
 tuted for butter. 
 Make white sauce with oleomargarine. 
 
 Have some member make two or three small cakes from the, 
 same recipe. In one use butter, in another oleomarga- 
 rine, in another a mixture of equal parts of lard and beef 
 suet. Bake all at the same time and have all conditions. 
 ,as nearly the sanu as possible, Show results,, 
 
1 92 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 Topic: French Sauces and their Inventors. See Hand 
 Book of Domestic Science, by Wilson, page 69. 
 ($1.00, postage ioc.) And other books. 
 References: Extract No. 44. Butter Substitutes. 
 
 Sanitary and Economic Cooking, by Mary Hinman 
 Abel. Chapter on Fats and Oils. (40c, postage 
 6c.) 
 Cheese 
 
 Make and serve Welsh rarebit made from different recipes, 
 
 using the same kind of cheese, or make two lots by the 
 
 same recipe and method, using two or more grades of cheese. 
 
 See Question 17. 
 
 Exhibit: Show samples of all possible kinds of cheese; 
 
 prices and composition. 
 Topic: Ways of using Cheese in Cookery. See Sanitary 
 
 and Economic Cooking and Cook Books. 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 82, Curd Test in Cheese 
 Making; No. 144, The Curing of Cheese; No. 
 162, Cheese Prints; No. 202, Manufacture of 
 Cottage Cheese; No. 244, The Food Value of 
 Cottage Cheese; No. 166, Cheese Making on 
 on the Farm. 
 Chemistry of Cooking, by Williams; Chapter IX, 
 Cheese. ($1.50, postage 2c.) 
 (Select answers to Test Questions on Part I and send them 
 to the School for correction and report on experiments.) 
 
 MEETING III 
 
 (Study pages 55-82) 
 Eggs 
 
 See experiments on cooking of eggs in water, page 57. 
 Try similar experiments in "frying" eggs with fat at high 
 
 and low temperature. 
 See Question 6. 
 Show egg mixtures as custards, sponge cakes, etc., cooked 
 
 at too high a temperature and the same ingredients COOked 
 
 at correct temperature. 
 
PROGRAM 193 
 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 12S, Eggs and their Use 
 as Food; No. 103, Preserving Eggs; No. 122, 
 Flavor of Eggs; No. 262, Color of Eggs. 
 Meat, Fish, Fowl 
 Sanitary and Economic Cooking, "Methods of Cocking 
 
 Meat," by Mary Hinman Abel. (40c, postage 6c.) 
 See Cook Books. 
 
 Farmers' Bulletin No. 34, Meats: Composition and Cooking; 
 No. 85, Fish as Food; No. 182, Poultry as Food; No. 193, 
 Cooking Meat; No. 162, Cooking Meat. 
 The Roasting of Beef, by Isabel Bevier. Circular No. 71, 
 
 University of Illinois (postage 2c). 
 Topic: Methods of Cooking Cheap Cuts of Meat in Palatable 
 Form. 
 
 MEETING IV 
 
 (Study pages 83-97) 
 
 Vegetables 
 
 See experiments, pages 83-S4. 
 
 Get up an exhibit of uncommon vegetables. 
 
 Illustrate the effect of overcooking vegetables by boiling 
 a peeled potato, — one until it is just soft, another until 
 it becomes soggy. 
 
 Topic: History of the White Potato. 
 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No 256, Preparation of 
 Vegetables for the Table, by Maria Parloa. 
 Farmers' Bulletin No. 121, Beans, Peas and 
 other Legumes as Food, by Mary Hinman 
 Abel; No. 127, Sweet Potatoes; No. 244, 
 Cooking Qualities of Potatoes; No. 73, Losses 
 in the Cooking of Vegetables; Extract from 
 \ .- 11 -,H,v.,|. iqoo, Value of Potatoes as Food- 
 
i 9 4 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 Grains 
 
 History: See "Corn Plant " by Sargent. (75c., postage 6c.) 
 Experiment: Cook cereal breakfast food for twenty minutes 
 as directed. Start another portion the night before and 
 cook for two hours, heating before serving. Compare 
 results. 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 249, Cereal Breakfast 
 Foods; Extract 324, Wheat Flour and Bread; 
 Extract 326, Macaroni Wheat. 
 The Cooking of Starch in Cereals, Extract No. 7, 
 Illinois Experiment Station. (Postage 2c ) 
 (Select and send answers to Test Questions on Part II.) 
 
 MEETING V 
 
 (Study pages 99-122) 
 
 Bread 
 
 Demonstration: Illustrate proportion of flour and liquid 
 for (1) Batters, (2) Muffin Mixtures, (3) Soft Dough, 
 (4) Pastry Dough. See pages 99 - 100. 
 
 See experiments with Leavening Agents, page 108. 
 
 If members are in the habit of making their own bread, 
 hold a bread contest, appointing judges to grade the bread 
 according to the chart designed by Professor Isabel 
 Bevier for the Illinois Domestic Science Association, viz. 
 
 Flavor 35 
 
 Lightness 15 
 
 Grain and Texture 20 
 
 Crust — 
 
 Color ) 
 
 Depth >• 10 
 
 Texture ) 
 Crumb — 
 
 Color I 
 
 Moisture \ 
 Shape and Size 10 
 
 100 
 gjzg of pan recommended ( n\ x 3^ x 2;, 1 inches, 
 
PROGRAM 195 
 
 Pastry and Cake: Illustrate the difference between bread 
 and pastry flour by making two cakes exactly alike and 
 baking at the same time. 
 
 Illustrate the effect of a quick and a slow oven on the same 
 dough. 
 
 Topic: Use of thermometers. 
 
 Bread: Quotations from prose and poetry by members. 
 
 References: Farmers' Bulletin No. 112, Bread and the 
 Principles of Bread Making; No. 114, Skim 
 Milk in Bread Making. 
 
 Story of a Grain of Wheat, by W. C. Edge. ($r. 00, postage 
 
 IOC.) 
 
 MEETING VI 
 
 (Study pages 122-138) 
 Food and its Appeal to the Senses 
 
 The importance of flavor, etc., as an aid to digestion: See 
 The Work of the Digestive Glands, by Pawlow, the 
 "Psychic or Appetite Juices." ($2. 00, postage 16c.) 
 Also Food and Dietetics, by Hutchison. Pages 396-397. 
 ($3.00, postage 26c.) 
 Cut illustration of cooked food from magazine to be discussed 
 
 and criticised by members. 
 Topics: The Use and Abuse of Garnish in Food. 
 
 Harmony in Colors, Flavors and Odors in our 
 
 Foods. 
 Salads. 
 
 Use of Left-overs. 
 Menus 
 
 See Supplement. 
 Menus for a week: Have each member give her method of 
 
 planning meals. 
 Menus for Social Occasions. 
 
 Topics: Economy of Time and Strength in Cooking. 
 Is Hospitality a Lost Art. 
 Serving by different Methods, llluslnded 
 
i 9 6 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 References: Hostess of To-day, by Linda Hull Larned. 
 
 ($1.50, postage 16c.) 
 
 Home Science Cook Book, by Anna Barrows 
 
 and Mary J. Lincoln. ($1. 00, postage 10c.) 
 
 (Select answers to Test Questions on Part III and report 
 
 on supplemental work and experiments.) 
 
INDEX 
 
 Aladdin oven, 12 
 Alcohol as fuel, 150 
 Allowance, a day's, 136 
 Animal food, comparative 
 
 composition of, 68 
 Au gratin, 126 
 Baking bread, 108 
 
 powder, mixing, 112 
 
 powder, strength of, 1 1 1 
 Basting, 15 
 Beans, Sg 
 Beating eggs, 66 
 Bibliography, 140 
 Biscuits, 106 
 Boiler, double, 25 
 Boiling, 14, 20 
 Bones, nutriment in, 74 
 Braising, 24 
 Bread, baking of, 108 
 
 double process, 104 
 
 fancy, 107 
 
 left-overs, 128 
 
 mixing, 10 1 
 
 short process, 104 
 Breakfast, 138 
 
 foods,' 97 
 Broiling, 14 
 Brown sauce, 51 
 Butter, 48 
 
 composition of, 50 
 
 for flavoring, 49 
 
 precautions in using, 52 
 
 rancid, 53 
 Buying, 133 
 Cake, 115, 169 
 
 flavoring of, 117 
 
 ingredients of, 117 
 
 making, 169 
 
 proportions in, 118 
 
 Cake, sponge, 62 
 
 sweetening of, 118 
 Canned foods, 35 
 Canning food, 36 
 Carbohydrates, 41 
 Card catalogue of foods, 165 
 Cellulose, softening of, 83 
 Cereals, cooking, 96 
 Chafing dish, 12 
 Charcoal, 4 
 Cheese, 44, 53 
 
 composition of, 53 
 
 nutritive value of, 53 
 Chicken, roasting, 82 
 Chowders, 125 
 Coal, 149 
 
 Coffee, making, 26 
 Cold storage, 28 
 Cook books, use of, 162 
 Cookery, art of, 39, 133, 167 
 
 fancy, 122 
 Cookies, 119 
 Cooking cereals, 96 
 
 co-operative, 158 
 
 effects of, 13 
 
 in milk, 46 
 
 in water, methods of, 20 
 
 temperature in, 23 
 
 vegetables, 90 
 
 with water, 23 
 Composition of butter, 50 
 
 of cheese, 53 
 
 of grains, 94 
 
 of milk, 43 
 
 of vegetables, 83 
 Condiments, 131 
 Constants in food, 135 
 Co-operative cooking, 158, 
 Cottage pudding, t T 9 
 
 W 
 
iq8 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 Cream puffs, 65 
 Creamed dishes, 52, 123 
 
 vegetables, 93 
 Croquettes, 126 
 Custards, 57 
 
 Digestibility of vegetables, 88 
 Dinner, 138 
 
 Directions for waitresses, 183 
 Dishes, names of, 125 
 Dishwashing, 18 
 Double process bread, 104 
 Doughnuts, 119 
 Doughs, 99-121 
 
 manner of mixing, 99, 113 
 Dried foods, 33 
 Drip coffee pot, 26 
 Dropped egg, 58 
 Eggs, 55-66 
 
 beating of, 66 
 
 combination with other 
 foods, 60 
 
 effect of heat on, 56 
 
 in doughs, 63 
 
 poached, 58 
 
 preserving, 59 
 
 temperature for cookings 7 
 
 value of, 59 
 
 with cheese, 61 
 
 with starch, 58 
 
 with white sauce, 61 
 Entrees, 124 
 Evaporation, 22 
 Fancy cookery, 122 
 Fats, 41, 73 
 
 use of, 180 
 Fire, 1-16 
 
 Fireless cookers, 152 
 Fish, methods of cooking, 77 
 
 proper appearance of, 77 
 
 sauces with, 78 
 Flavor, 130 
 Flavors, blended, 132 
 Flavoring materials, 131 
 
 use of, 132 
 Flour, kjt}4s of, J92 
 
 Food, canned, 35 
 
 choice of, 39 
 
 classification of, 40 
 
 cost of, 134 
 
 dried, t,^ 
 
 preserving, 32 
 
 uncooked, 32 
 
 varied with seasons, 177 
 Foods, card catalogue of, 165 
 
 variety of, 122 
 Fowl, preparing for fricassee, 
 
 .79 
 Fruit combinations, 127 
 Fruits, 34 
 
 Frying in deep fat, 74 
 Fuel, 3 
 
 cost of, 148 
 Fuels, comparative value of, 
 
 147 
 Furnishings, kitchen, 159 
 Garnish, 128 
 Gas, 8, 149 
 
 burners, 8 
 
 meter, 10 
 
 stoves, 9 
 Gasoline stoves, 1 1 
 Gelatine, 128 
 
 jelly, 20 
 Grains, composition of, 94 
 Hard coal, 4 
 Hash, 125 
 Hay-box, 152 
 
 use of, 155 
 Heat, transmission of, 14 
 Housekeeper's library, 162 
 Ice, 28 
 
 cream freezer, 31 
 Jellies, 35 
 Judging meat, 69 
 
 poultry, 79 
 Junket, 44 
 Keeping fire, 7 
 Kerosene, 151 
 
 stoves, n 
 Kindling fire, 7 
 
INDEX 
 
 1 99 
 
 Kitchen furnishings, 159 
 
 scales, 129 
 Kneading, 106 
 Kromeskies, 126 
 Labor, cost of, 136 
 Lamb, 70 
 Legumes, 87 
 
 Left-overs, use of, 126, 175 
 Lightening, methods of, 100 
 Meat, 67-76 
 
 braised, 72 
 
 choice of, 67 
 
 cost of, 68 
 
 judging, 69 
 
 left-overs, 127 
 
 preparation of, 7 1 
 
 toughness of, 69 
 Menu making, 170 
 Menus for special occasions, 
 182 
 
 planning, 139 
 Milk, 42-48 
 
 composition of, 43 
 
 concentrated, 47 
 
 cooking in, 46 
 
 skimmed, 48 
 
 sour, 44, 48 
 
 use of, 42 
 Mineral water, 17 
 Molasses with soda, no 
 Mushes, 95 
 Mutton, 70 
 Neutralizing acidity of milk, 
 
 45 
 Noodles, 64 
 Norwegian cooking box, 13, 
 
 i5 2 
 Nuts as food, 34 
 Ordering by telephone, 175 
 Ordering, time for, 175 
 Oven, temperature of, 121 
 
 thermometer, 120 
 Ovens, first, 2 
 Pasteurization, 45 
 Pastry, 115 
 
 Peas, 88 
 Pies, 115 
 Planning meals, 137 
 
 menus, 139 
 Poached eggs, 58 
 Popovers, 65 
 Potatoes, 89 
 
 loss in preparing, 89 
 
 with meat, 90 
 Poultry, 79 
 Prepared food, 136 
 Preserve jars, 37 
 Preserving eggs, 59 
 
 food, 32 
 
 in sugar, 36 
 Principle of contrast, 1 24 
 Program for class study, 189 
 Proteins, 40 
 Pudding, cottage, 119 
 Puff pastry, 114 
 Pulses, 87 
 Ragouts, 125 
 Rancid butter, 53 
 Ranges, 5 
 
 Ration, a day's, 135 
 Refrigerator, 29 
 
 care of, 30 
 Refuse, 135 
 Rice, 96 
 Rissoles, 126 
 Roasting, 14 
 Rolls, 107 
 Salads, 94, 126 
 Salmis, 125 
 Salt meats, 72 
 
 to develop flavor, 130 
 Sauce, brown, 51 
 
 white, 50 
 Sauces with fish, 78 
 Scales, kitchen, 129 
 Scallops, 1 26 
 
 Seasons, food varied with, 177 
 Serving, 181, 183 
 Shaping dough, 107 
 Shortening, 114 
 
PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY 
 
 Short process bread, 104 
 •Soda with acids, 108 
 
 with cream of tartar, 109 
 
 with molasses, no 
 
 with sour milk, no 
 Soft coal, 5 
 Souffles, 126 
 Soup stock, 76 
 Soups, 125 
 
 names of, 76 
 
 vegetable, 92 
 Sour milk with soda, no 
 Spices, 131 
 Sponge cake, 62, 117 
 Spongy mixtures, 66 
 Steam cooker, 12, 27 
 Stewing, 24 
 Stews, 125 
 Storage, cold, 28 
 Stoves, ancient, 1 
 
 gas, 9 
 
 gasoline, 1 1 
 
 kerosene, 1 1 
 
 modern, 5 
 Stuffing, 82 
 
 Sugar as flavoring, 131 
 Supper, 139 
 System, value of, 137 
 Table service, 181 
 Tea, making, 26 
 Temperature for cooking eggs, 
 
 in cooking, 23 
 of oven, 121 
 testing of fat, 74 
 
 Thermometer, oven, 120 
 Timbales, 64 
 Tough meat, 71 
 Transmission of heat, 14 
 Utensils, adaptability of, 129 
 
 choice of, 22 
 
 for canning, 37 
 Variety in foods, 123 
 Vegetable left-overs, 127 
 
 soups, 92 
 Vegetables, 83-97 
 
 classification of, 85 
 
 combinations of, 90 
 
 composition of, 83 
 
 cooking, 90 
 
 creamed, 93 
 
 digestibility of, 88, 92 
 
 dried, 85 
 
 mashed, 93 
 
 preparation of, 91 
 
 strongly flavored, 85 
 
 wilted, 87 
 
 young, 87 
 Waiting on table, 184 
 Waitresses, directions for, 
 
 183 
 Waste, 135 
 Water, 16-27 
 
 flavor of, 18 
 
 mineral, 17 
 White sauce, 50, 52 
 Wood as fuel, 3, 14S 
 Yeast, 100 
 
 amount of, 104 
 
 cakes, 10 1 
 
FREEHAND COOKING 
 
 ON 
 
 SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES 
 
EDUCATION AND LIFE 
 
 I. 
 Typical Schools 
 
 Home School for Girls 
 
 II. 
 
 "To This Favor Shall She Come at Last" 
 
FREEHAND COOKING 
 
 THE purpose of this Bulletin is to tabulate the material 
 in Principles of Cookery and to give the compara- 
 tively few fundamental recipes in cooking which are 
 capable of infinite variation. 
 
 Exact proportions, conditions, and materials are essen- 
 tial to obtain identical results in cooking, but materials vary 
 somewhat and conditions differ, so that it is often necessary 
 to modify a recipe. By "free hand cooking" is not meant 
 hit or miss cooking, or cooking by guess, but the compound- 
 ing of food materials on scientific principles — not following 
 blindly by "rule of thumb" recipes which may have been 
 made for different conditions. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 3 teaspoons=l tablespoon 2 pints=l quart 
 16 tablespoons=l cup 4 quarts=l gallon 
 
 2 cups=l pint 1 cup=8 ounces (volume) 
 
 A gallon of water weighs 8 1/3 pounds — a cup of water, 8 1/3 
 ounces (avoirdupois). A gallon contains 231 cubic inches. 
 
 All materials are measured level, i. e., by filling cup or spoon 
 more than full and leveling with a case knife. This applies to 
 liquids which "round up" in spoons. Flour, meal, and fine sugar 
 are measured after sifting. Measuring cups are not always accu- 
 rate and ordinary tea and tablespoons vary considerably. 
 Test spoons ztv7// each otlier and with the cup before using. 
 
 APPROXIMATE MEASURE OF ONE POUND. 
 2 cups milk 2 5/6 cups granulated cornmeal 
 
 2 cups butter 2 2/3 cups oatmeal 
 
 2 cups chopped meat 6 cups rolled oats 
 
 2 cups granulated sugar 4 1/3 cups rye meal 
 
 2 2/3 cups brown sugar • 1% cups rice 
 
 2 2/3 cups powdered sugar 2 1/3 cups dry beans 
 
 2Y> cups confectioners' sugar 4 1/3 cups coffee 
 
 4 cups patent flour 8 large eggs 
 
 4 cups entire wheat flour 9 medium eggs 
 
 4j/£ cups Graham flour 10 small eggs 
 
 Note. — Read "tablespoons" in place of cups in the above and the 
 weight is about 1 ounce. 
 
 Copyright 1910, by American School of Homo Economics. 
 
No table of weights to measure can be more than 
 approximate, as different samples vary in weight for bulk. 
 In truly scientific cookery quantities should be measured 
 by weight. The table is useful for comparison, i. e., pow- 
 dered sugar is more bulky than granulated and less so than 
 confectioners', hence the greater sweetening power of gran- 
 ulated; ordinary white flour (sifted) is less bulky than 
 Graham flour, and so on. 
 
 Experiments have shown that there may be a difference 
 of 25 per cent in the weight of a "cup of flour" measured 
 by different persons in different ways. One method is to 
 sift the flour onto a square of glazed paper (or oil cloth) 
 and pour it into the cup placed on another piece of paper — 
 tap the side of the cup once with a knife and level. 
 
 METHODS OF APPLYING HEAT. 
 
 Broiling — Cooking before or over glowing coals or. under gas. 
 
 Radiant heat. High temperature at first to sear outside, thus 
 
 developing flavor and retaining juices; then lower temperature 
 
 for the heat to penetrate and to avoid burning. 
 Pan Broiling — Cooking on very hot griddle with only sufficient 
 
 fat to prevent sticking. 
 Roasting — Same as broiling, superseded by baking in oven. 
 Baking — Cooking in oven by heated air and radiation. 
 
 Slow oven, 270° — 350° F. 
 
 Moderate oven, 350°— 400° F. 
 
 Quick oven, 400°— 480° F. 
 
 (Temperatures taken by a thermometer through the top of a 
 gas stove oven.) 
 Boiling — Cooking in boiling water, 212° F. 
 Stewing — Cooking in water at temperature 160° to 180° F. 
 Steaming — Cooking in contact with steam, 212° F. 
 Dry Steaming, as in a double boiler, 192° F. 
 Fryinc — Cooking by immersion in deep fat, approximately 350° F. 
 
 for uncooked foods, 380° F. for cooked foods. The fat used : 
 
 all lard, 2/3 lard and 1/3 beef suet, "cod fat" from the flank of 
 
 beef, oil, "cottolene" and mixtures. Temperatures vary to 
 
 produce similar effects with different fats. 
 Sauteing — Cooking in small quantity of fat-soften called frying. 
 Braising — Combination of stewing and baking. Meat is often first 
 
 seared to develop flavor and prevent escape of juices. 
 Fricasseeing — Combination of sauteing and stewing. 
 
 . 4 
 
COMPOSITION OF RAW FOODS. 
 
 Parts in 100 (approximate). 
 Wheat Flour — 12 water, -12 gluten, 75 starch, 1 fat. 
 Cornmea! — 12 water, 9 protein, 75 starch, 2 fat. 
 Beans and Peas, dry— 13 water, 24 legumen, 60 starch, 2 fat. 
 Potato, white — 78 water, 2 protein, 18 starch, trace of fat. 
 Parsnips, Carrots, Turnips— 85 water, 1 proteid substance, 9 — 12 
 
 starch and sugar, J / 2 fat. 
 Banana — 75 water, 1 protein, 22 sugar and starch, y 2 fat 
 Loin of Beef (avg.) — 60 water, 13 protein, 20 fat. 
 Eggs — 74 water, 13 albumen, 10 fat. 
 Egg, white — 86 water, 12 albumen, ~>c fat. 
 Egg, yolk — -50 water, 16 albumen, 33 fit. 
 Milk — 87 water, 3 casein, 5 sugar, 4 fat. 
 Cheese- — 33 water, 26 casein, 33 fat. 
 Nuts — 3 water, 20 protein, 15 starch, 55 fat. 
 Butter — 12 water, 1 protein, 85 fat. 
 Lard, Olive Oil— 100 fat. 
 
 All the above foods except refined fats, sugar and starch, contain 
 from Yi per cent to 1 per cent of mineral matter (salts), apparent 
 when the foods are burned as ash. Butter and cheese "have 2 per 
 cent or 3 per cent of common salt added. 
 
 Protein foods are eggs, meats, fish, cheese. 
 
 Starchy foods are the grains — wheat, rice, rye, oats, 
 corn, etc., beans, peas, potatoes, chestnut. 
 
 Fats are prominent in fat meats, nuts, cream, butter, 
 lard. 
 
 Cellulose or woody fiber is found in vegetables, unscreened 
 flours and meals, and in fruits, especially when unripe. 
 
 EFFECT OF HEAT ON FOOD MATERIALS. 
 
 Starch absorbs water, swells and becomes partially soluble 
 in water. This begins at about 150° F. Dry starch 
 begins to change to dextrine at about 320° F. 
 
 Cellulose itself is not affected by cooking, but the con- 
 necting substances are softened and it may be separated. 
 
 Albumen is hardened, "coagulated," and will no longer dis- 
 solve in water. Temperature about 160° F. Other pro-^ 
 teins, as the gluten of flour, casein of milk, legumen of 
 
 . . 5 
 
peas and beans, myosin of meat, are hardened some- 
 what. 
 Gelatin is formed from gristle and connecting tissue of 
 meat, and from bones, by long continued heating in 
 the presence of water. 
 ' Sugar is not changed at low temperatures unless acid is 
 present. It melts at about 365° and begins to caramelize 
 at about 420° F. Sugar, boiled with acid, changes 
 slowly to glucose or non-crystallizing sugar. 
 
 Fat is not changed, except at a very high temperature, 
 500° F. and over, when it is broken 'apart — "split" — 
 into fatty acid and glycerine. Some of the glycerine is 
 changed to "acrolein," which is very irritating to the 
 mucus membrane, as is recognized by the smarting 
 sensation given to the eyes and nose when fats are 
 heated too hot. Butter begins to "split" at 374°F, lard 
 at 446 ° F, olive oil at 630 F. 
 Baking Powder, a mixture of cooking soda and an acid 
 substance, as cream of tartar, or phosphates, or alum, 
 undergoes chemical change ; the acid part of the mix- 
 ture drives out the carbon dioxid gas of the soda and 
 salts — as Rochelle salts, or phosphates, or alumina 
 compounds — are formed. 
 The heat of the oven expands any air or gas in the food, 
 evaporates part of the water and drives out volatile sub- 
 stances like alcohol. 
 
 All these changes are, for the most part, physical rather 
 than Chemical in their nature. For example, in a cake after 
 baking, the sugar is still sugar, the starch is still starch, the 
 fat is still fat, and the albumen is still albumen. All the 
 materials have been blended, flavors having been developed 
 through minor but complex chemical changes and a small 
 proportion of the starch and sugar in the crust have been 
 changed to dextrin and caramel. 
 
 TEMPERATURE AND TIME OF COOKING. 
 
 All food materials are poor conductors of heat — it takes 
 time for the heat to penetrate. 
 
 The correct time and temperature depends on (1) what 
 
 6 
 
is. to be accomplished, (2) size to thickness, i. e., the extent 
 of surface exposed to the heat, compared to the bulk. 
 
 Foods with a large proportion of eggs require low tem- 
 perature to prevent toughening. 
 
 Starch requires nearly the temperature of boiling water 
 for cooking. 
 
 No food containing much water can be raised to a tem- 
 perature above the boiling point — 212° F. Water gives off 
 vapor at all temperatures, but at 212° F. steam forms rapidly 
 and in so doing absorbs a large quantity of heat. No brown 
 crust can be formed until the water from the surface is 
 nearly all evaporated. A full oven in which much water 
 vapor is being given off requires the application of more 
 heat than when only one or two dishes are in it. 
 
 In baking doughs, the larger the mass the lower must be 
 the temperature in order that the heat may have time to 
 penetrate to the interior and expand the gas and harden 
 the albumen and gluten. If the temperature is too high at 
 first, a crust forms, preventing the proper expansion of the 
 loaf and hindering the penetration of the heat. 
 
 Thin loaves, pieces of meat, etc., need much less time for 
 cooking, because the heat pentrates quickly. Higher tem- 
 peratures may be used, as the food is cooked before the 
 surface begins to be burned. 
 
 Mixtures containing much sugar or molasses burn easily. 
 
 Vegetables containing much fiber need long boiling to 
 soften them and separate the cellulose. Young, green vege- 
 tables contain less fiber and require less time in cooking. 
 
 Bearing all the above in mind, the following tables may 
 serve as a general guide for beginners. When it is possible 
 to do so, TEST. 
 
TIME TABLE. 
 
 Boiling Baking 
 
 Meats (4 to 5 lbs.) — 2 to 5 hours. Beef rib (medium, 4 lbs.) — 1 hour, 
 
 (Tough meats should be kept 15 min. 
 
 below boiling, 180° F.) Beef rib (medium, 8 lbs. ) — 2 hours, 
 
 Fis.h (2 to 5 lbs. )— 30 to 45 min- 15 min. 
 
 utes. Leg of lamb — 1 hour, 3 minutes. 
 
 Ham (12 to 14 lbs.) — 4 to 5 Pork (rib) — 3 to 4 hours. 
 
 hours. Veal (leg) — 3 to 4 hours. 
 
 Corned Meat (6 to 8 lbs.) — 4 to 6 Chicken (3 to 4 lbs.) — 1 to 1 y 2 
 
 hours. _ hours. 
 
 Potatoes, white — 20 to 30 min- Turkey (S to 10 lbs.) — 2 to 3 
 
 utes. hours. 
 Potatoes, sweet — 15 to 25 min- 1 - Fish (3 to 4 lbs.) — 45 to 60 min- 
 utes, utes. 
 Peas, green — 20 to 60 minutes. Braised beef — 4 to 5 hours. 
 Beans, string — % to 1 hour. Bread, white — 45 to 60 min. de- 
 Beets, young — 45 minutes. pending on shape of loaf. 
 Beets, old — 3 or 4 hours. Bread, Graham — 35 to 45 min- 
 Onions — 40 to 60 minutes. utes. 
 
 Cauliflower — 20 to 25 minutes. Quick Doughs — 8 to 15 minutes. 
 
 Cabbage, cut up — 20 to 25 min- Cookies — 8 to 10 minutes. 
 
 utes. Cake, thin — 15 to 30 minutes. 
 
 Turnips, parsnips — 30 to 45 min- Cake, loaf — 40 to 60 minutes. 
 
 utes. Pudding, Indian, etc. — 3 hours or 
 
 Carrots — 1 hour ; less if young. more. 
 
 Green corn — 8 to 15 minutes. Bread Pudding — 20 to 45 min., 
 
 Spinach — 15 to 20 minutes. depending on shape and num- 
 
 Squash — 20 to 30 minutes. ■ ber of eggs. 
 
 Asparagus — 20 to 30 minutes. Pies — 30 to 45 minutes. 
 
 Diced Vegetables — 10 to 20 min- Scalloped Dishes — 15 to 20 min. 
 
 utes. Baked Beans — 12 hours or longer. 
 
 OVEN TEMPERATURES. 
 
 Enter at Keep at 
 
 Roast Meats 480° F. 350° F. 
 
 Fish 425° F. 350° F. 
 
 Bread 440° F. 400° F. 
 
 Popovers 480° F. 450° F. 
 
 Cookies, Puff Paste 480° F. 450° F. 
 
 Quick Doughs 480° F. 480° F. 
 
 Ginger Bread and Molasses Mixture 380° F. 380° F. 
 
 Plain Cake 380° F. 380° F. 
 
 Sponge Cake 350° F. 340° F. 
 
 Baked Custard 350° F. Higher in water 
 
 These temperatures are for gas ovens, Avith thermometer through 
 the top. An oven door "thermostat" should register from 50° to 
 70° less. Few of these are accurate in their readings, but after being 
 tested a few times they are useful in obtaining desired temperatures 
 thereafter. 
 
 8 
 
PROCESSES 
 
 In addition to the methods or processes of applying heat, 
 there are a few fundamental processes in cooking, i. e., 
 thickening, leavening, shortening and flavoring. 
 
 THICKENING AGENTS. 
 
 The common thickening agents are flour, corn starch, eggs, 
 gelatin, sea moss, junket for milk, and pectin of unripe 
 fruits for jellies and freezing. 
 
 One level tablespoon of flour will thicken one cup of 
 liquid for soups. 
 
 Two level tablespoons of flour will thicken one cup of 
 drippings or other liquid for gravies and sauces. 
 
 Five level tablespoons of browned flour will thicken one 
 cup of liquid for gravy. 
 
 The thickening power of corn starch is about twice that 
 of flour. 
 
 Four level tablespoons of corn starch will stiffen about 
 one pint of liquid, as in corn starch pudding. 
 
 One level tablespoon of granulated gelatin will stiffen 
 about one pint of liquid, if cooled on ice. 
 
 Two good sized eggs to one pint of milk make a custard — ■ 
 one egg to a cup for soft custard or baked cup custard : 
 three eggs to a pint of milk for a large mould custard. 
 
 LEAVENING AGENTS. 
 
 Doughs are made light or porous in the following ways: 
 
 (a) By the production (and expansion by heat) of car- 
 
 bon dioxid gas from the baking soda in baking 
 powder or baking soda, combined with some acid 
 substance. 
 
 (b) From carbon dioxid gas produced by the growth 
 
 of yeast — a plant. 
 
 (c) From the expansion of entangled air, incorporated 
 
 in the dough by means of beaten eggs, especially 
 the white, and by the beating batters, and by 
 ► folding thick doughs. 
 
 (d) From the expansion of water to steam. 
 . • 9 
 
Two level teaspoons of baking powder are equivalent to 
 one-half teaspoon of baking soda combined with one and 
 one-fourth (i. e., slightly rounded) teaspoon of cream of tar- 
 tar; or one cup of thick sour milk, or one cup of molasses,. 
 in place of the cream of tartar. 
 
 Two cups of flour made into a soft dough requires two to 
 four level teaspoons of baking powder. 
 
 Batters and muffin mixtures require somewhat more bak- 
 ing powder to the flour than soft doughs. 
 
 One teaspoon less of baking powder may be used for each 
 egg added. 
 
 The yeast plant grows best at 75° to 90° F. It changes 
 sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxid gas. Flour contains 
 a small proportion of sugar and during bread making some 
 of the starch is changed into sugar, but the yeast begins to 
 act more quickly if a little sugar or glucose is added at first. 
 Salt and fats hinder the growth of the yeast. Low temper- 
 atures stop the growth almost completely ; high temperatures 
 kill the plant. 
 
 When eggs are used as leavening agents, the whites are 
 beaten separately, as they will hold much more air than the 
 yolks, and folded into the mixture the last thing, breaking 
 as few air cells as possible. 
 
 When air is depended on for leavening agent, all mate- 
 rials are kept as cold as possible. Cold air expands more 
 on heating than warm air. In pastry making, heat also 
 melts the fat, so that the dough cannot be handled. 
 
 SHORTENING. 
 
 Fats are added to doughs to make the product brittle — 
 friable — "short," and to enrich the mixture. The fat coun- 
 teracts the adhesive properties of the gluten and starch 
 in flour. 
 
 Pastry flours contain less gluten than bread flours and 
 so require less shortening. 
 
 Butter and oleomargarine contain about one-eighth water 
 and salt, and thus have less shortening powers than lard, 
 drippings, cottolene, and the like, which contain no water. 
 
 Two cups of flour (eight ounces) made into puff paste 
 requires eight ounces (one cup) of shortening. 
 
 10 
 
Two cups of flour in ordinary pie crust requires four 
 ounces (one-half cup) of shortening. 
 
 Two cups of flour in cookies requires four ounces (one- 
 half cup) of shortening, or less. 
 
 Two cups of flour in cake requires about three ounces of 
 shortening. 
 
 Two cups of flour in short cake requires two ounces (one- 
 fourth cup) of shortening, or more. 
 
 Two cups of flour in tea biscuits requires one-half to one 
 ounce (one to two tablespoons) or more of shortening. 
 
 In yeast doughs less shortening is used — from one-half 
 to an ounce to two cups of flour. The tenacity of the gluten 
 is required to hold the carbon dioxid gas slowly formed by 
 the yeast, hence too much shortening prevents proper rising. 
 
 Shortening for batters may be melted and mixed in, but in 
 doughs which are to be rolled — pastry, cookies, short-cake, 
 biscuit, etc. — the fat should be cold and hard and cut into 
 the flour with a knife, or rubbed in with the tips of the 
 fingers. 
 
 FLAVORING. 
 
 The flavoring materials most commonly used are salt, 
 sugar, spices and extracts. The fine art of cookery consists 
 of developing the full natural flavor of the foods themselves 
 and in combining them in pleasing ways. 
 
 The amount of salt to be used -depends, in general, on the 
 total volume of the food. When food tastes salty, too much 
 has been used. A safe proportion is one teaspoon salt to 
 one quart of liquid in soups, cereals, sauces, or to one quart 
 of flour in doughs. When the flavors are delicate, some- 
 what less salt is used, and with strong flavors, somewhat 
 more. Cakes in which much salt butter is used do not need 
 more salt. 
 
 The quantity of sugar to be used depends on the taste 
 desired. Foods served frozen need more sweetening than 
 when at ordinary temperatures. On the other hand, foods 
 that are served warm taste somewhat sweeter than when at 
 ordinary temperature. 
 
 11 
 
RECIPES 
 
 The following recipes were furnished by Miss Anna Barrows, 
 teacher of cookery, Columbia University, author of Principles of 
 Cookery, or adapted by the editor from the Home Science Cook 
 Book,* to which the reader is referred for a full collection of recipes. 
 
 WATER: EXTRACTING FLAVOR. 
 Tea. 
 
 Heat an earthenware teapot with hot water. Empty it 
 and put in one teaspoon of tea for each measuring cup of 
 fresh boiling water. Let it stand in a warm place two or 
 three minutes. Strain and serve at once. If the tea boils or 
 stands too long with the leaves it is unfit to drink. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Use one-fourth cup of coffee for one pint of water. 
 Place fine ground coffee in^strainer in the coffee pot; add 
 actually boiling water slowly, a spoonful or two at a time. 
 Cover between additions Pour through a second time if 
 desired stronger. 
 
 Or : Mix one-fourth cap coffee and one teaspoon beaten 
 egg with a little cold water, add the remainder of one pint 
 of water boiling hot. Let it boil up, pour from the spout 
 and turn back into the pot and leave for ten minutes where 
 it will keep hot but not boil. 
 
 Stock. 
 
 Stock is the basis for all soups, except milk or cream 
 soups, to which it is sometimes added. From a pint to a 
 quart of cold salted water is used to each pound of meat 
 and bone, both of which should be in small pieces. Let 
 stand one hour, heat slowly and simmer gently for four 
 hours or more, strain and cool quickly. Remove the hard- 
 ened fat before using. About a cup of mixed vegetables — 
 carrot, onion, parsley, celery, etc. — may be added during 
 the last hour. Mixed herbs and spices, as bay-leaf, blade of 
 mace, two or three cloves and pepper corns, may be tied 
 in cheese cloth and removed from the liquor when sufficient 
 flavor has been extracted. 
 
 *Horne Science Cook Book, by Anna Barrows and Mary J. Lincoln, 2S1 pages; 
 published by Whitcomb and Barrows, Boston. Price, from the School, $1.00 post- 
 paid. 
 
 12 
 
Bouillon — usually made from beef with little bone and 
 no vegetables. Brown Stock — some of the meat and a part 
 of the vegetables browned in hot fat or marrow. White 
 Stock — made from chicken, veal, or fish; no flavoring 
 which gives color added. Macaroni, Vermicelli, Noodle, 
 Rice, Barley Soup and the like — cook about one-fourth 
 cup of dry material until tender and add a quart of hot 
 stock, or use cooked left-overs. Julienne Soup — one-half 
 cup mixed cooked vegetables cut in cubes, strips or fancy 
 shapes, to one quart of stock. 
 
 RESTORING WATER. 
 Dried Fruits and Vegetables. 
 
 Pick over, cover with cold water, leave for half an hour, 
 then wash thoroughly, inspecting each portion and drain. 
 Again cover with cold water and soak 12 to 24 hours, and 
 then cook slowly until tender. Add sugar if desired for sauce 
 when nearly done, or use like fresh fruit for pies, short- 
 cake, etc. 
 
 Prunes, apricots, peaches, apples, pears and vegetables 
 are treated in this way. 
 
 THICKENING. 
 Sauces. 
 
 Methods of mixing: (1) Melt butter (or other fat) in 
 saucepan, stir in dry flour, cook and stir until frothy all 
 over, then add liquid slowly, hot or cold, while stirring ; 
 cook again until thick, stirring until smooth. 
 
 (2) Rub butter and flour together and stir into the warm 
 liquid in a double boiler, then cook. and stir until thick and 
 smooth. 
 
 (3) When cream or less butter is used, rub the flour 
 smoothly with a little cold liquid and stir into the remain- 
 der, which should be hot, and cook in double boiler until 
 smooth. Then add butter and seasoning. 
 
 Thin Sauce : One level tablespoon fat, one tablespoon 
 flour and one cup liquid, one-fourth teaspoon salt, few grains 
 pepper (white). 
 
 Suitable for creamed potatoes, macaroni, toast, etc. 
 
 13 
 
Medium Sauce : Two tablespoons fat, two tablespoons 
 flour and one cup of liquid. Seasoning. 
 
 For general use with fish and vegetables. 
 
 Thick Sauce : Two to four tablespoons of fat and three 
 or four of flour for each cup of liquid, either milk or milk 
 and stock. 
 
 This is the basis of souffles and croquettes. 
 
 White Sauce may be varied by different flavors and gar- 
 nishes, such as capers, celery, mushrooms, oysters, lobsters, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 Tomato for the liquid in sauce may be seasoned with 
 onion, herbs and spices, by cooking them with it for a short 
 time before straining. 
 
 Spanish Sauce is tomato sauce with the addition of 
 onion and peppers. 
 
 Dutch or Hollandaise Sauce: To one cup white or 
 milk sauce add one or two beaten egg yolks and cook in 
 double boiler like custard. Flavor with one tablespoon lemon 
 juice. 
 
 Brown Sauce for Roast or Pan Broiled Meats : After 
 placing the meat on the platter drain out any fat in the pan 
 and put some water to soak off the browned juice and flour. 
 
 For each cup of gravy put two tablespoons of the fat in 
 a saucepan and brown two tablespoons of flour in it ; then 
 add one cup of the water from the pan. Cook like white 
 sauce. Season as desired with salt and pepper. 
 
 Or, Melt and brown two tablespoons of butter in a sauce- 
 pan ; add two or three tablespoons of flour and continue 
 the browning. When coffee color, add one cup water or 
 stock or milk. 
 
 Welsh Rarebit.* 
 
 Heat one-half cup of cream in the blazier of a chafing dish 
 or in a skillet, add one tablespoon of butter creamed with, one 
 teaspoon of corn-starch, one-fourth teaspoon of salt, and a 
 few grains of cayenne. When thick, set over the hot water 
 or heat very slowly and add one-half pound of soft mild 
 cheese cut up fine and one-half teaspoon of mushroom ket- 
 
 *From Home Science Cook Book. 
 
 14 
 
chup or Worcestershire sauce or one-fourth teaspoon of 
 mustard. Stir until the cheese is' melted and pour over crack- 
 ers or thin toast. 
 
 Cream Soups. 
 
 Cook the vegetable till soft and rub through a strainer, 
 using all or a part of the water in which the vegetable is 
 cooked, except with potatoes. Combine with an equal quan- 
 tity of white sauce or white stock or mixture of the two. 
 Season. If too thick, add hot milk. Beaten egg may be 
 added just before serving if too thin. 
 
 Asparagus, Carrots, Cauliflower, Celery, Corn, Cucum- 
 bers, Lettuce, Mushrooms, Onions, Spinach, Summer 
 Squash, Turnips, Water Cress. 
 
 Cream of Peas. Beans, Lentil, Potato and other thick 
 soups have half quantity or less of white sauce added to 
 keep the materials from settling. 
 
 Cream of Chicken, Fish, etc., made of stock from bone, 
 skin and other inedible portions combined with about equal 
 quantities of hot white sauce seasoned in various ways. 
 
 Corn Starch Blanc Mange. 
 
 Blend two tablespoons cornstarch with an equal bulk of 
 milk, heat remainder of one cup milk in double boiler. Stir 
 the hot milk into the moistened starch, return to double 
 boiler, stir on stove till thick, put over water, cover and 
 cook twenty to thirty minutes or longer. Add two table- 
 spoons sugar, a bit of salt, flavor and put in moulds. 
 
 Variations : For liquid use part thin cream and part 
 strong coffee, or all fruit juice. 
 
 Put layers of raw or cooked fruit alternately with the 
 blanc mange in the moulds. 
 
 Blend two tablespoons of cocoa with the sugar before it 
 is added to the cornstarch mixture. 
 
 Irish Moss Blanc Mange.* 
 
 Soak one-half cup of Irish moss in cold water, pick over, 
 wash and cook with one quart of milk in double boiler for 
 about half an hour. Strain, add a teaspoon of vanilla or 
 
 *Frorc Home Science Cook Book. 
 
 15 
 
other flavor and one-fourth teaspoon of salt. Put in moulds. 
 Or, cook moss in one pint of water, strain and add one pint 
 of scalded thin cream. 
 
 Use of Gelatine. 
 
 One level tablespoon granulated gelatine will stiffen about 
 one pint liquid. Different makes of sheet, shredded, granu- 
 lated and powdered gelatine may be used interchangeably 
 by weight. A larger proportion of gelatine is required for 
 large moulds than for small. A little salt improves most 
 gelatine combinations. 
 
 Soak gelatine in cold water until soft, dissolve by adding 
 boiling liquid, sweeten and flavor with coffee, lemon, or 
 other fruit juices and pulp. Keep the proportions of gelatine 
 and total liquid right. A little more gelatine is required in 
 hot weather, unless ice is used. 
 
 Such jellies may be served with whipped cream or boiled 
 custard. Every package of gelatine is accompanied with 
 directions for its use. 
 
 Fruit Pudding. 
 
 Make a jelly flavored with fruit juice, slightly increasing 
 the proportion of gelatine. As it begins to stiffen, combine 
 nearly an equal amount of fruit with it. With each half 
 cup of jelly, may be used one date, one-half fig, two or three 
 almonds, one-fourth orange, one-fourth banana, etc. 
 
 Snow Pudding or Fruit Sponge. 
 
 Beat one egg stiff and add one cup half stiffened jelly 
 gradually. Or, beat the jelly till frothing and blend the 
 stiff egg with that. Mould and chill. Serve with soft cus- 
 tard sauce made of the egg yolks. 
 
 Bavarian Cream. 
 
 Stiffen a soft custard, or fruit juice, or combination of 
 the two, with .gelatine. As it begins to stiffen, fold in stiff 
 whipped cream. 
 
 Baked Custards. 
 
 Scald one pint milk. Beat two eggs till smooth, add 
 one-fourth cup sugar, a bit of salt, and blend with the hot 
 milk. Strain into buttered molds, set in a pan of hot water 
 
 16 
 
and bake until firm. Put a thin knife blade in center of 
 custard and if done no milk will adhere to the blade as it 
 is removed. 
 
 The same proportions may be used for custard pies, or 
 may be combined with cooked rice for a pudding. 
 
 Soft Custard. 
 
 Use the same proportions as for baked custards, or three 
 egg yolks in place of two whole eggs. Pour hot milk over 
 the beaten eggs, stirring constantly. Sugar may be added 
 before or after cooking the custard. 
 
 Return milk and egg to the double boiler and cook, 
 stirring all the time until the custard thickens and coats the 
 spoon, three minutes or longer. If cooked too long the 
 custard will curdle. Cool quickly. Flavor before serving. 
 
 Egg Timbals. 
 
 Use only one-fourth to one-half cup liquid, milk or stock, 
 for each egg. Flavor with salt, pepper, etc. Cook like 
 custards, turn from mold and serve hot with tomato sauce. 
 
 Thickened Custards. 
 
 Filling for Cream Puffs, Layer Cake, Sauces, Ices, etc. 
 
 Make a smooth paste with one-fourth cup flour and a 
 little milk and scald the remainder of one pint of milk. 
 When it is hot, blend carefully with the flour and cook in 
 a double boiler twenty minutes or more. Then combine 
 with the beaten yolks of two or three eggs and stir steadily 
 while cooking three to five minutes longer. Take from the 
 fire and sweeten and flavor according to its use. For 
 filling for a layer cake one-fourth cup sugar may serve, 
 while for cream puffs one-half cup or more will be needed. 
 
 The same foundation may be combined with an equal 
 quantity of cream or of fruit juice, or of each, made very 
 sweet and frozen as ice cream. 
 
 Frozen Desserts — General Directions. 
 
 All mixtures must be sweeter and more highly flavored 
 than if served without freezing. Cool thoroughly before 
 packing in ice and salt. Use three measures fine cracked 
 ice to one measure of salt. 
 
 17 
 
Lemon Ice. 
 
 Mix in proportion of the juice of one lemon, one-fourth 
 cup of sugar and one cup of water. Or, make a quantity 
 Of syrup, 4 measures of sugar to 2 of water, and use 4 
 measures of syrup to I of fruit juice. Strain into a tin can 
 or .straight glass jar with a close cover. Pack this in a 
 pail or pan with ice (or snow) and salt. Turn the can 
 around and occasionally" scrape down the ice which forms 
 inside. Use other fruit juices in the same way: — orange, 
 pineapple, raspberry — to which lemon juice is usually added, 
 grape juice or acid jelly, 
 
 Pineapple Sherbet.* 
 
 One can of grated pineapple, one cup of sugar, juice of 
 two lemons, one tablespoon of powdered gelatine, one quart 
 of water or milk. 
 
 Ice Cream. 
 
 Scald thin cream in double boiler, dissolve sugar in 
 the proportion of one cup to a quart, add flavoring when 
 cool — extract, one tablespoon to a quart. This is "Phila- 
 delphia" ice cream. Thickened custard made very sweet 
 and highly flavored is often called "New York" ice cream. 
 
 Mousse or Parfait. 
 
 Mix together one cup thick cream,* two tablespoons pow- 
 dered sugar^ and flavoring. Whip cream with egg beater, 
 skimming off froth as it rises and draining on a sieve. 
 Return liquid to bowl and whip until no more froth will 
 rise. Turn drained froth into a mould ; cover, and bind the 
 lid with a strip of muslin dipped into melted fat. Bury in 
 ice and salt for three to four hours before serving. 
 
 Junket. 
 
 The active principle in junket is rennin or "rennet," which 
 is extracted from the lining of calf's stomach. This will 
 coagulate or thicken warm milk but nothing else. Its prop- 
 erties are destroyed at the boiling temperature and it has 
 no action in the cold. Heat two cups of milk to body tem- 
 perature, 99 degrees, powder junket tablet and dissolve in 
 a little water, add one-third cup of sugar dissolved in one- 
 
 'From Home Science Cook Book. 
 
 18 
 
third cup of warm water and flavoring extract. Pour into 
 serving dishes and keep warm until set. Cool. 
 
 Caramel syrup or maple syrup may be used in place of 
 sugar. Chocolate may be added or beaten egg yolks with 
 beaten whites on top. 
 Jellies. 
 
 Pectin is the gelatinizing agent in jellies and jams. It is 
 a substance similar to starch and is found in most fruits 
 and some vegetables. It is most abundant when fruit is just 
 ripe or nearly so. The making of good jelly depends on 
 having the correct proportion of fruit juice, sugar, and 
 acid and on boiling. The density of the mixture should 
 be between 24 degrees and 30 degrees as measured by the 
 syrup gage at the boiling temperature, and the boiling 
 point 217 degrees F. or 103 degrees C. Long boiling alters 
 the gelatinizing properties of pectin. Too great a propor- 
 tion of sugar and violent toiling cause the sugar to crys- 
 tallize in the jelly. 
 
 Pick over and clean, or pare, core and cut up large fruits, 
 heat with or without water and cook until very soft. Juicy 
 fruits like currants and grapes need no added water, while 
 fruits like apples should be barely covered with water. 
 Strain the juice from the pulp through cheese-cloth or 
 flannel. To the strained juice granulated sugar is added 
 usually in the proportion of pint to pint, but good jelly may 
 be made with half the volume of sugar to juice. The pro- 
 portion depends on the acid and sugar in the fruit. Heat 
 slowly to dissolve sugar, and boil gently until proper density 
 is obtained, skimming froth that rises. If no syrup gauge 
 is used, test by dropping a little on a cold plate to see if 
 the jellying point_ is reached. Pour into sterilized glasses 
 and when set cover with melted parafhne. 
 
 The pulp may be squeezed in the straining bag to get a 
 marmalade or even a second quality jelly: or, better, heat 
 pulp again with a small amount of water and strain without 
 pressure. This process may be repeated. Boil down some- 
 what and add sugar and finish as before. Jelly may be made 
 from parings and cores. 
 
 As the presence of acid is essential to make the materials 
 jellv, lemon or currant juice is usually added to sweet flavored 
 
 19 
 
fruits. (Summary of the result of experiments made by Dr. 
 Goldthwaite at University of Illinois and Miss White at 
 University of Chicago). 
 
 Soft Cooked Eggs. 
 
 Place eggs in one cup of boiling water to each egg in a 
 saucepan, cover and remove from the fire. 
 
 From five to ten minutes will be required according to 
 the firmness desired. 
 
 Or. put one egg in one cup of cold water and bring slowly 
 to the boiling point. Then remove the egg. 
 Hard Cooked Eggs. 
 
 Keep eggs in water just below the boiling point for thirty 
 minutes. The yolks should be dry enough to mash easily. 
 Such eggs. are suitable for salads — may be warmed in any 
 well flavored sauce, may be stuffed by blending the yolks 
 with chopped meat or nuts or seasoning of any kind. 
 
 THICKENING AND LEAVENING. 
 Omelets. 
 
 There are but two types of omelet to which special names 
 are given from the garnish added. 
 French Omelet. 
 
 Beat an egg slightly. Add one tablespoon water or milk, 
 season with salt and a dash of pepper. Turn into a hot 
 buttered frying pan, which must be perfectly clean and 
 smooth. Lift cooked portions with a fork. Shake the pan 
 to prevent adhesion. When all is firm, fold and serve at 
 oilce. 
 Puffy Omelet. 
 
 Separate white and yolk of one egg. Beat white stiff, 
 add yolk and blend together. Add salt, pepper and one 
 tablespoon of water or milk. Turn into buttered pan and ■ 
 place where it will cook slowly and evenly. When firm, 
 fold and serve. 
 
 Two tablespoons of white sauce or bread, softened in 
 milk may be used instead of one of milk or water. Chopped 
 parsley, or other vegetable, any nice bits of meat or fish, 
 cheese, jelly, etc., may be folded into the omelet just before 
 serving. 
 
 20 
 
Meringues or Kisses. 
 
 Beat egg whites with a speck of cream of tartar. When 
 stiff fold in one-fourth cup powdered sugar for each white. 
 Flavor slightly, drop on ungreased paper, and bake slowly 
 until dry, thirty minutes or more. 
 
 For soft meringues on puddings, use half as much sugar. 
 Fruit Souffles. 
 
 For each stiffly beaten egg white fold in one-fourth cup 
 thick, sweetened fruit pulp, or marmalade, or jam. Partly 
 fill buttered molds, and bake like custards, until firm. 
 
 Serve with soft custard as a sauce. 
 Sponge Cakes. 
 
 Equal measures of eggs, sugar and flour, or the weight 
 of the eggs in sugar, and half of the weight of the eggs in 
 flour. This also applies to the use of egg whites only as 
 in angel cakes. 
 
 In other words, two large or three small eggs rightly 
 blended with one-half cup each of sugar and flour and 
 carefully flavored and baked slowly will produce such a 
 cake as that shown on page 65. 
 
 The yolks of the eggs should be beaten until thicker and 
 lighter colored than when beginning the process. To them 
 add the sugar, one or two teaspoons of lemon juice and a 
 bit of grated rind. Over the whites of the eggs sprinkle 
 a bit of salt and beat until stiff. Fold them into the yolks 
 and gradually sift the half cup of flour over, blending care- 
 fully without stirring. Put into the pans and bake in a 
 gentle heat for twenty minutes, if in small cakes ; twice as 
 long if in one mass. 
 Cream Puffs. 
 
 In a saucepan heat one-half cup water with two ounces 
 of butter or less. When boiling hot mix in one-half cup 
 of flour and continue to stir while it cooks into a smooth 
 mass. Cool till it will not cook eggs and mix in one egg 
 and a second and beat the whole vigorously with the spoon. 
 Shape on greased pan some distance from each other in 
 six to twelve mounds and bake about thirty minutes ac- 
 cording to the size. They should be light and dry when 
 taken from the pan, otherwise they will shrink and be 
 heavy. 
 
 21 
 
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LEAVENING AND SHORTENING. 
 Biscuit.* 
 
 Two cups sifted flour, three teaspoons of baking powder, 
 one-half teaspoon of salt ; sift together, rub in one table- 
 spoon of shortening — butter, oleo, lard or drippings. Mix 
 as soft as can be handled with about two-thirds cup of milk 
 or water. Turn onto a floured board, roll. gently to three 
 quarters inch thick, cut and bake. Pastry flour makes more 
 delicate biscuit than bread flour. 
 
 Dumplings for Stews : Omit shortening, add milk until 
 dough may be dropped from the spoon into boiling stew. 
 Cover and cook rapidly 10 minutes. 
 
 Shortcake: Rub in one-fourth cup of butter in biscuit 
 mixture. Cut like biscuit for individual shortcakes or use 
 a square pan and divide with knife dipped in melted butter 
 so that portions may .separate readily after baking. 
 
 Use shortcake mixture for covering to meat pies, apple 
 dumplings, etc. 
 
 Muffins.* 
 
 Sift together two cups of sifted flour, two teaspoons of, 
 baking powder, one-half teaspoon of salt, and one-half 
 tablespoon of sugar, add one tablespoon of melted shorten- 
 ing, one beaten egg and one cup of milk. Mix thoroughly 
 and bake in quick oven. 
 
 Blueberry Muffins : Use a little less milk in muffin 
 mixture and add one cup of blueberries and a little more 
 sugar. Chopped apples or other fruit may be used in same 
 way. 
 
 Tea Muffins : Use one-fourth cup each of sugar and 
 shortening and two or three eggs in the muffin mixture. 
 
 Graham Drop Cakes.* 
 
 Sift together one and one-half cups of graham meal, 
 one-half teaspoon -each of salt and soda, one-fourth cup of 
 brown sugar. Mix into a stiff batter with one scant cup 
 of sour milk. Drop from spoon on buttered pan, or into 
 gem pans and bake in a quick oven 15 minutes. 
 
 *From Home Science Cook Book. 
 
 23 
 
Cereal Gems.* 
 
 Use even quantities of flour and softened cooked break- 
 fast food, one teaspoon of baking powder to a cup of ma- 
 terial, add sufficient milk to make a batter which will drop 
 from the spoon. Mix thoroughly and bake in hot buttered 
 gem pans. 
 
 Boston Brown "Bread. 
 
 Sift together one cup of cornmeal, one cup of rye meal, 
 or entire wheat flour, one teaspoon of soda, one-half tea- 
 spoon salt. Mix with one-half cup molasses and one cup 
 sour milk. If not soft enough to smooth out in the bowl, 
 add a little water. Put in greased tins with tight cover 
 and steam three hours or more. 
 
 Corn Cake.* 
 
 Sift together three-quarter cups each of cornmeal and 
 flour, one-half teaspoon each of salt and soda, one table- 
 spoon of sugar. Mix with one beaten egg and one cup of 
 thick sour milk or cream. Bake in muffin pans or single 
 pan, twenty to thirty minutes, according to thickness. 
 
 The cornmeal may be scaided with an equal volume of 
 boiling water, left to cool, or over night, and more shorten- 
 ing, two eggs and a little sugar may be added. 
 
 Griddle Cakes.* 
 
 Into one pint of sifted flour mix one-half teaspoon of 
 salt, three teaspoons of baking powder and one teaspoon 
 of sugar. Beat two eggs until very light, turn into one cup 
 of milk without stirring, add the mixture to the flour with 
 two tablespoonsful of melted butter; beat well, and add 
 more milk to make a batter about like thick cream. Beat 
 vigorously, especially before each frying. 
 
 Fry on hot griddle, grease with rind of pork or ham. 
 Drop batter from end of the spoon, making circular cakes. 
 Turn when full of bubbles. 
 
 Waffles. 
 
 Are cooked on a waffle iron, using the griddle cake mix- 
 ture. 
 
 24 
 
Plain Cake ("Lightning" Cake). 
 
 Place the flour sifter in the mixing bowl and put in 
 it one and one-half cups of flour, three-fourths cup of fine 
 granulated sugar, two level teaspoons of baking powder, 
 one-half teaspoon of salt. Sift into the bowl. 
 
 In the measuring cup, melt one-fourth cup of butter (or 
 oleo), break in two eggs," fill up the cup with milk. Add 
 one-half teaspoon flavoring extract or saitspoon of spice. 
 Mix with the dry ingredients and beat well two or three 
 minutes. Bake in sheet or greased muffin tins in quick 
 oven. 
 
 Yariations : Add two tablespoons of cocoa, or an ounce 
 of melted chocolate. Use one cup caramel or maple syrup 
 in place of sugar. Leave out part of the sugar for Cottage 
 Pudding. 
 Cookies.* 
 
 Rub one-half cup of butter until creamy, gradually add 
 one cup of sugar, then put in one egg and beat together 
 thoroughly. Next add, alternately, one-half cup of milk 
 or water and one pint of flour, in which two teaspoons of 
 baking powder have been sifted. Use enough more flour 
 to make, a soft dough, from one to two cupfuls, according 
 to the nature of the flour, roll out thin, cut with a cookie 
 cutter or in fancy shapes, and bake in a quick oven. 
 
 Variations : Before all the flour is added, divide into 
 four portions; to one add one teaspoon of lemon extract, 
 to another one-half cup of desiccated cocoanut ; one-half 
 ounce of chocolate melted, or a teaspoon of cocoa, sifted in 
 with a little flour; to the fourth, one teaspoon of mixed 
 spice and one-half cup of chopped raisins, etc. Or flavor 
 the portions with ginger, almond with chopped almonds on 
 top, or with dates, figs, nuts. Or use less flour and drop 
 from a spoon for a soft thick cake. 
 Gingerbread.* 
 
 Sift together two cups of flour, one-half teaspoon each 
 of salt and soda and one teaspoon of ginger. Mix with one 
 cup of molasses and two tablespoons of fat softened in one- 
 half cup of hot water. Bake twenty minutes or more in a 
 moderate oven. 
 
 25 
 
Doughnuts.* 
 
 Sift together four cups of flour, one teaspoon of salt, 
 three teaspoons of baking powder, one-half teaspoon of 
 mixed spice and one cup of sugar. Mix with one egg and 
 one cup of milk. 
 
 Sour milk and soda may be used in place of baking pow- 
 der. For richer doughnuts, two eggs and one tablespoon of 
 butter may be used. 
 
 Plain Pastry.* 
 
 Sift two cups of flour with one-half teaspoon of salt and 
 cut in with a knife, one-fourth cup or two ounces of short- 
 ening/ Mix with about one-half cup of ice water into' a 
 stiff dough. Roll out and spread with one ounce of butter, 
 fold and add a second ounce of butter in the same way, 
 making one-half cup of shortening in all. For upper crusts 
 more shortening may be rolled in if desired. Keep every- 
 thing as cool as possible. The lightness of the pastry de- 
 pends on the amount and coolness of the air enclosed and 
 the flakiness on the number of layers of fat and dough pro- 
 duced by folding and rolling. 
 
 YEAST DOUGHS— GENERAL PROPORTIONS. 
 
 Bread 
 
 Muffins 
 
 Rolls 
 
 Fancy Rolls 
 
 Buns 
 
 Coffee Cake 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Short- 
 ening 
 
 Liquid 
 
 Yeast 
 Cake 
 
 Flour 
 
 i tsp. 
 
 y 2 oz. + 
 
 i cup 
 
 Ya to i 
 
 3 cups 
 
 i tbs. 
 
 l /l oz. 
 
 i cup 
 
 % Jo i 
 
 2 Clips 
 
 i tbs. 
 
 I oz. 
 
 i cup 
 
 Yx to i 
 
 3 cups 
 
 2 tbs. 
 
 2 OZ. 
 
 i cup 
 
 •Mtoi 
 
 3 cups + 
 
 Y cup 
 
 2 OZ. 
 
 I cup 
 
 Ktoi 
 
 3 cups+ 
 
 Yx cup 
 
 2 OZ. 
 
 Y* cu p 
 
 Ya to i 
 
 2 CUps 
 
 Eggs 
 
 i + 
 
 i + 
 
 2 + 
 
 26 
 
Bread — For Each Loaf — Short Process.* 
 
 One cup of scalded milk, or half milk and half water, 
 one-half teaspoon each of salt and sugar, from one-fourth 
 to one whole Gake of yeast according to time, softened in 
 lukewarm water, and about three cups of bread flour. Mix 
 thoroughly and knead until the dough is smooth and springy. 
 The dough should be warm. Let rise till double, shape, 
 put in pan, rise again and bake. If preferred, shape into 
 a dozen to two dozen rolls. 
 
 Entire Wheat Bread. 
 
 Scald one cup of milk ; in it melt one teaspoon of butter 
 and half a teaspoon each of sugar and salt. When luke- 
 warm,- add half a cake of compressed yeast, softened in 
 one-fourth cup of warm water. Stir in between two and 
 three cups of flour to make a dough stiff enough to hold 
 its shape. Mix thoroughly with a knife, but do not knead 
 it until after it has risen to double its bulk, then shape into 
 small loaves, let rise until double in size, bake in hot oven 
 about half an hour. 
 
 One-fourth cup of molasses may be used in place of the 
 •sugar if preferred. 
 
 Rolls — Long Process.* 
 
 In a bowl put one tablespoon of butter or lard, one table- 
 spoon of sugar, one teaspoon of salt, and one pint of scald- 
 ing hot milk. When cool, add one-quarter yeast cake 
 softened in a little water, and three cups of flour. In the 
 morning, or when light, add to this sponge about three cups 
 more of flour, or enough to knead. Let rise till double in 
 bulk, then shape, put in pans, rise again, and bake. 
 
 Muffins : Add two or three eggs to the sponge, but no 
 more flour. Bake in muffin pans. 
 
 Coffee Cake.* 
 
 Work into one pint of light dough, two-thirds cup of 
 white sugar, one egg, and two ounces of melted butter. 
 Mix thoroughly to a creamy, smooth batter by beating. 
 
 *From Home Science Cook Book. 
 
 27 
 
Pour into shallow pan and let rise again. Sift sugar and 
 cinnamon over the top and bake in a quick oven. Serve 
 warm. 
 
 Use of Stale Bread. 
 
 Bread Cases. 
 
 Cut slices of bread two inches thick and three inches, 
 long. Remove part of crumbs from the center, leaving a 
 hollow space. Spread with butter and brown in the oven. 
 
 Croutons. 
 
 Cut stale bread into slices about one-third inch thick and 
 then in cubes. Bake in moderate oven until golden brown. 
 
 Dry Crumbs. 
 
 Crusts remaining from croutons, etc., should be dried 
 in the oven, rolled and sifted, the fine ones used for cro- 
 quettes, etc., the coarser for stuffing or escalloped dishes. 
 
 Cracker crumbs may be used in the same way. 
 
 Buttered Crumbs. 
 
 Melt butter and stir in crumbs till the butter is evenly 
 distributed. 
 
 One ounce of butter for one cup of crumbs is a fair pro- 
 portion. Buttered crumbs seasoned and moistened are used 
 for stuffing peppers, tomatoes, fish, poultry, etc. 
 
 Filling for Fish or Fowl. 
 
 One cup of crumbs will serve for a small fish or chicken, 
 while' a large fowl or turkey will require two or three. 
 With each cup of crumbs blend one ounce or more of butter 
 or chopped fat salt pork, one teaspoon parsley or mixed 
 herbs, one-half teaspoon salt and a little pepper. Moisten 
 with milk, water or stock. For fish season also with lemon 
 and onion juice. 
 
 Mashed potato or chestnuts may be used instead of 
 crumbs. ^ 
 
 28 
 
Fat— To Try Out and Clarify. 
 
 Cut the fat — beef suet or flank fat — in small pieces, re- 
 moving skin and bits of lean meat. Cover with cold salted 
 water and leave in a cold place for several hours. Drain 
 off the water, and if possible soak again, and drain. Cook 
 slowly in moderate oven or in upper part of the double 
 boiler till the fat has melted and the scraps are crisp, but 
 not brown. Strain and cool. Slices of raw potato or pieces 
 of charcoal cooked in the fat before straining will absorb 
 any impurities. 
 
 Beef, pork and chicken fat may be combined. Surplus fat 
 from roast beef, corned beef, etc., may be added. 
 
 Such fat may be used for shortening muffins, ginger- 
 bread, etc., for greasing pans, for some sauces and soups, 
 or for deep frying. Mutton fat may be prepared to add to 
 fry fat. 
 
 Fat from bacon, ham or sausages should be reserved for 
 hashes or warming over potatoes. 
 
 MEATS. 
 Broiled Meats, Chops, Steaks. 
 
 The meat should be cut in convenient pieces, and some 
 of the bone, gristle and fat removed. Sections one inch 
 thick will be more juicy than thinner ones. Wipe the meat 
 with a damp cloth, grease the broiler or pan with a piece of 
 the fat, or brush melted fat over the meat. Place the meat 
 where intense heat will reach it at first, under the gas flame, 
 or in a hot pan on top of the stove, or over hot coals. Turn 
 often at first, every half minute if directly over the coals, 
 until well seared and browned on both sides, then move it 
 farther away from the fire so the heat may penetrate to 
 the center without burning the outside. 
 
 As the meat is seared on the surface the juices are driven 
 towards the center, and expanding with the heat tend to 
 make the surface of the meat puff outward. This is very 
 apparent between the wires of a double broiler and probably 
 is the best indication that the meat is cooked. 
 
 Steaks one inch thick should cook in five or six minutes 
 to be rare, eight or ten minutes to be well done, the time 
 
 29 
 
varying according to the method of cooking and intensity 
 of heat. Mutton chops may be served rare, lamb usually 
 well done, veal and pork always must be thoroughly cooked. 
 
 Broiled meats should be served at once on a hot dish 
 and with slight seasoning beside their own juices. If kept 
 hot the cooking is continued too far. 
 
 Fish and chicken may be partially broiled and then fin- 
 ished in the oven. Apply the direct heat mainly to the cut 
 inside surface, as the skin burns easily. 
 
 Roast Meats. 
 
 Trim, wipe, score the fat portion and rub salt into that, 
 place on rack in pan, sprinkle flour all over it, put skin side 
 down. Have oven very hot at first to sear outside quickly 
 to prevent escape of juice, then reduce heat. Baste occa- 
 sionally as needed with the fat which cooks out into the 
 pan, and turn the roast over to cook it evenly. 
 
 If there is danger of burning put some water in the pan 
 after the meat is seared, but this is not necessary if heat of 
 oven is lowered. 
 
 A sirloin or rib roast weighing five pounds will require 
 about one hour, or longer, if it is to be well done. A surer 
 rule for time of cooking is to allow fifteen minutes for each 
 inch in thickness, or twenty minutes if wanted well done. 
 
 Braised Beef. 
 
 Use a thick section of the lower part of the round, two 
 to four pounds. Trim, wipe and sprinkle with flour, season 
 with salt and pepper. Brown under the gas or in hot fat. 
 Put in casserole, partly cover with water or brown or 
 tomato sauce. Cover closely and cook in very slow oven 
 three to five hours. 
 
 Meat Stew. 
 
 Neck or breast of lamb of veal or inexpensive cuts of 
 beef may be used in this way. Cover bones with cold water 
 and heat slowly. Cut meat in convenient pieces, roll in 
 flour seasoned with salt and pepper. Fry bit's of fat, then 
 
 30 
 
brown sections of prepared meat and onion if desired. Put 
 meat in kettle with bones when water is hot. 
 
 When nearly tender add carrot, turnip, peppers, or celery 
 cut in small shapes about one cup each to one pound of 
 meat. 
 
 Potatoes pared and cut in quarters may be added 20 to 30 
 minutes before serving, and dumplings 10 minutes before 
 serving. 
 
 Escalloped Fish or Meat. 
 
 Equal measures of cooked minced meat, bread crumbs 
 and white or tomato sauce ; or, for one measure of meat, 
 half as much sauce and one-fourth as much buttered crumbs. 
 (Boiled rice or macaroni may be used instead of crumbs.) 
 
 Remove all uneatable portions from meat and mince or 
 chop. Put in layers in a buttered dish, having crumbs for 
 the last. Bake until heated through and brown on top. 
 Fish or Meat Loaf, or Timbales. 
 
 Remove skin, gristle and bone from meat or fish and 
 mince fine. Combine with an equal quantity of bread 
 crumbs or stuffing from a baked fish or roast fowl, season as 
 desired, moisten with milk or stock. Add one beaten egg 
 or more to each pint of the mixture. Pack in buttered 
 moulds, steam or bake until firm in center. Turn out and 
 serve with sauce. 
 Meat Loaf in Rice. 
 
 Line a mould with well-cooked rice. Fill with the meat 
 prepared as above. Cover with rice. Steam an hour. Serve 
 with tomato sauce. 
 
 Fish Balls. 
 
 In a stew pan put one pint potatoes, pared and quartered, 
 and one cup salt cod fish which has been picked apart in 
 cold water. Cover with boiling water and cook until the 
 potatoes are soft. Drain in a colander till no water can 
 be shaken out. Return to pan, mash thoroughly, add salt 
 if needed, a shake of pepper, one teaspoon butter, one raw 
 egg, and beat all together. Shape on a spoon or in small 
 balls and fry in deep fat, hot enough to brown them in one 
 minute. Drain on soft paper. 
 
 31 
 
CEREALS AND VEGETABLES. 
 
 Breakfast Foods. 
 
 Usual proportions — one-half cup flakes or one-fourth cup 
 granules to one cup water, one-fourth teaspoon salt to one 
 cup water. 
 
 The denser the cereal, the more water and the longer the 
 time required. 
 
 Bring water to boiling point in upper part of double 
 boiler, placed directly on the stove. 
 
 Pour cereal slowly into boiling water, stirring constantly. 
 Let boiling continue about five minutes till mixture begins 
 to thicken. Place over boiling water in lower part of the 
 boiler. Cover and cook gently with little stirring one hour 
 or more, or till tender and soft. Or put in Fireless Cooker 
 for three hours. 
 
 Serve hot, with or without sugar, with milk, cream or 
 butter. Put in moulds with fruit and serve cold as dessert. 
 Pack solidly in loaf shape, slice when cold, brown in hot 
 fat, serve hot. 
 
 Corn Meal Mush. 
 
 Mix one cup cornmeal, one-fourth cup of flour, one tea- 
 spoon salt, one cup cold milk or water. When smooth 
 blend with one pint boiling water, stir for about five min- 
 utes. When thick place over water or in steamers and 
 cook one hour or more. Serve hot or pack in pan to fry, 
 or dip in fat and toast under the gas. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Pick over and wash thoroughly or parboil five minutes 
 and drain. Then put in a buttered dish with twice its bulk 
 of boiling water and set in a steam cooker. In three- 
 quarters of an hour it should be tender and every kernel 
 distinct, and it may be cooked longer without becoming 
 mushy. 
 
 Rice Croquettes. 
 
 With one pint of cooked rice (if cold, reheated) blend 
 one tablespoon butter and one or two beaten egg yolks. 
 Season with salt, pepper and parslev, or with sugar and 
 
 32 
 
spice. Divide in ten or twelve portions, press in firm 
 shape, roll in egg and crumbs, and fry in deep fat. 
 
 Boston Baked Beans. 
 
 Soak one pint beans over night. Parboil in the morning 
 until the skins crack readily with a slight pressure. A 
 very little soda may be put into the water to help this 
 process. Score the rind of one-fourth pound fat salt pork 
 and rinse it. Drain the beans and put part in the bean pot, 
 then the pork and cover with the beans, leaving only a 
 little of the pork rind exposed. Mix one teaspoon of salt, 
 one-fourth teaspoon of mustard and a tablespoon or more 
 of molasses as desired, add water and pour over the beans. 
 Cover and bake twelve hours or more, keeping the beans 
 filled up with water until the last hour, when the cover 
 should be removed and the pork rind and the top layer of 
 beans should brown. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 Baked. 
 
 Choose those of equal size and scrub with brush. Cook in 
 hot oven 30 to 40 minutes, or until soft. Then crack the 
 skin to let out steam. The potato should be plump (not 
 shriveled), and the inside white and mealy. 
 
 Boiled. 
 
 Wash, pare if imperfect or old. If not of uniform size, 
 divide the larger ones. Put in boiling salted water and 
 cook for 20 to 30 minutes, till tender. Drain off the water 
 and shake the uncovered kettle to let the steam escape. 
 
 Riced. 
 
 Put boiled potatoes through strainer or ricer into a hot 
 dish from which thev are to be served. 
 
 Mashed. 
 
 In a hot pan mash boiled potatoes. For each half pint, 
 add two tablespoons milk, one teaspoon butter, season with' 
 salt and pepper. 
 
 33 
 
Croquettes. 
 
 Prepare mashed potato with less milk and one egg yolk 
 for each half pint and season with celery salt, paprika and 
 parslev. Roll in crumbs, egg and crumbs, and fry in deep 
 fat. 
 
 Stuffed Potatoes. 
 
 Cut a slice from end of baked potatoes, scrape out inside, 
 mash and season. Add chopped meat, cheese or parsley for 
 variety. Refill skins and reheat in oven. 
 Canoes, or Potatoes on the Half Shell. 
 
 Cut the potatoes in two lengthwise, refill each part and 
 brown. 
 
 Creamed. 
 
 Cut boiled potatoes in cubes or slices and reheat in thin 
 white sauce, one-half cup to each cup of potato. 
 Hash. 
 
 Use two parts potato to one part meat, or equal amounts 
 of each. Chop meat, chop or mash potato. Season with 
 salt, pepper, onion, etc., moisten with gravy or water. For 
 one cup hash, put one tablespoon fat in a frying pan. When 
 hot, put in the hash and cook slowly, without stirring, until 
 a brown crust forms on the bottom. Fold like an omelet. 
 French Hash. 
 
 Put meat and gravy in a deep dish, cover with mashed 
 potato and bake till golden brown. 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 Caramel. 
 
 Put sugar in a smooth iron pan over a hot fire and stir 
 constantly with an old wooden spoon until melted to a light 
 brown syrup. Scrape off any sugar that forms in lumps. 
 When all is melted add an equal amount of boiling water 
 and simmer a few moments until blended into a thick syrup. 
 
 A quantity of this may be made at once and kept on hand 
 to flavor and sweeten custards and ice cream, or to serve as 
 a sauce with other puddings. 
 
 If it should happen to brown beyond the shade of good 
 maple syrup, let it go a little further until the sweet flavor 
 
 34 
 
would be lost. Then dissolve as above and bottle to use for 
 coloring soups and meat gravies. 
 
 Syrup. 
 
 Combine equal quantities of water and sugar in a sauce- 
 pan and stir until dissolved. Boil five to ten minutes until 
 only slightly reduced in quantity. Can while hot in small 
 jars and keep on hand to sweeten fruit drinks or ices as the 
 dissolving of the sugar in cold liquids is a slow and unsat- 
 isfactory process. 
 
 Fondant. 
 
 In an agate saucepan put one cup granulated sugar, about 
 one-sixteenth of a teaspoon of cream of tartar — a bit the 
 size of a small pea — and one-half cup of hot water. Stir 
 till sugar is dissolved, then cover and cook without stirring. 
 Skim and wipe the sides of the pan if necessary. Boil 
 about ten minutes or till 238 to 240 degrees F., when it will 
 form a soft ball in cold water. Turn into a greased bowl 
 or platter and cool slightly. It will grain if stirred while 
 too warm. Beat and knead till a smooth, creamy mass. If 
 it hardens too rapidly dip the hands in water and continue 
 the kneading. 
 
 Pack away in covered dish for a -day or longer, then shape 
 as desired. Colors and flavors must be very concentrated. 
 By combination with chocolate, dates, figs, nuts, etc., a 
 great variety of candies may be secured. This fondant is 
 a very satisfactory frosting for cake and may be kept on 
 hand. Warm it over water until it can be spread on the 
 cake. 
 
 Boiled Frostings. 
 
 Cook one cup of sugar with one-half cup of water or 
 less, and a bit of cream of tartar until it will thread, not 
 quite reaching the soft ball stage. Then pour slowly on 
 the stiffly beaten white of one egg and continue beating 
 until cool enough to spread. Much depends on the moisture 
 in the atmosphere as well as the dryness of the cake. 
 
 For a still softer frosting a larger proportion of egg white 
 is used. This may be varied with different flavors and 
 colors. 
 
 35 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 French Dressing for Salads. 
 
 One- fourth teaspoon salt, speck pepper, one tablespoon 
 vinegar, two or three tablespoons oil. 
 
 Blend thoroughly and pour over the salad. 
 
 Mayonnaise Dressing. 
 
 One egg yolk, one-half to one cup oil, one tablespoon 
 vinegar, one tablespoon lemon juice, one-half teaspoon salt, 
 one-half teaspoon mustard, few grains cayenne. 
 
 Mix vinegar, lemon juice and seasoning. 
 
 Beat egg yolk, add oil drop by drop at first, beating con- 
 tinually. When thick add a little of the seasoning mixture, 
 then more oil and alternate until all is used. 
 
 Utensils and materials should be kept as cool as possible. 
 
 Chocolate. 
 
 Melt one ounce chocolate in saucepan over hot water, 
 add a few grains salt, one tablespoon sugar, one-half pint 
 boiling water ; stir till smooth ; boil one minute. Blend with 
 one pint hot milk and cook in double boiler. 
 
 Beat with Dover egg beater to prevent skin forming on 
 top. Just before serving, an egg yolk may be added to the 
 chocolate. Serve with whipped cream. 
 
 Chocolate and cocoa both contain starch which requires 
 cooking. 
 
 36 
 
COMPLETE COURSE IN HOME ECONOMICS 
 
 This course covers, systematically, in an interesting and practical way, the new 
 "Profession of Home-making" and "Art of Right Living." It is divided into forty 
 lesson pamphlets of fifty to one hundred pages each. 
 
 REGULAR ORDER IN WHICH THE LESSONS ARE TAKEN 
 
 FOOD SUBJECTS 
 (1) Chemistry of the Household 
 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 (3) Principles of Cookery 
 
 Parts I, II, III, IV. 
 (5) Food and Dietetics 
 
 Parts I, II, III, IV. 
 (7) Household 3Ianagement 
 
 Parts I, II, III, IV. 
 
 HOUSEHOLD ART 
 (9) The House — Its Plan, Deco- 
 ration and Care, I, II, III. 
 (10) Textiles and Clothing 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 
 PARTIAL LIST 
 
 ISABEL BEVIER, Ph. M. 
 
 Professor of Household Science, 
 
 University of Illinois 
 S. MARIA ELLIOTT 
 
 Instructor in Home Economics, 
 
 Simmons College, Boston 
 BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. M. 
 
 Professor of Home Economics, 
 
 University of Vermont 
 KATE HEINZ WATSON 
 
 Formerly Instructor Lewis Insti- 
 tute, Chicago 
 MARGARET E. DODD. S. B. 
 
 Graduate Mass. Inst, of Technology 
 ANNA HARROWS 
 
 Teacher of Cookery, Columbia 
 
 University: Director Chautauqua 
 
 School of Cookery 
 
 BOARD OF 
 
 Mrs. A. COURTENAY NEVILLE 
 President of the Board; First Chair- 
 man Home Economics Committee, 
 G. F. W. C. 
 
 Mrs. ELLEN M. HENROTIN 
 
 Organizer and Honorary President 
 General Federation Women's Clubs 
 
 Mrs. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF 
 President National Congress of 
 Mothers 
 
 Mrs. LINDA HULL LARNED 
 Past President National Household 
 Economics Association 
 
 Miss ALICE RAVENHILL 
 
 Commissioner of the British Gov- 
 ernment on Domestic Science in 
 the United States 
 
 HEALTH SUBJECTS 
 
 (2) Household Bacteriology 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 
 (4) Household Hygiene 
 Parts I, II, HI. 
 
 (6) Personal Hygiene 
 
 Parts I, IT, III, IV. 
 
 (8) Home Care of the Sick- 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 
 CHILDREN 
 
 (11) Care of Children 
 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 
 ( 12) Study of Child Life 
 
 Parts I, II, III. 
 
 OF INSTRUCTORS 
 
 ALFRED C. COTTON, A. M., M. D. 
 Professor Diseases of Children, 
 Rush Medical College, University 
 of Chicago 
 
 ALICE PELOUBET NORTON.M.A. 
 Assistant Professor of Home Eco- 
 nomics, University of Chicago 
 
 MARION FOSTER WASHBURNE 
 Editor of "The Mothers' Magazine" 
 
 AMY ELIZABETH POPE 
 
 Instructor in Nursing, Presby- 
 terian Hospital, N. Y. City 
 
 CHARLOTTE M. GIBBS, A. B. 
 Director of Household Art, Uni- 
 versity of Illinois 
 
 MAURICE Le BOSQUET. S. B. 
 Director American School of Home 
 Economics, Chicago 
 
 TRUSTEES 
 
 Mrs. MARY HINMAN ABEL 
 
 Editor "Journal of Home Eco- 
 nomics" ; Author U.S. Government 
 Bulletins 
 
 Miss MARIA PARLOA 
 
 Founder of the Original Cooking 
 School in Boston; Author, etc. 
 
 Mrs. J. A. KIMBERLY 
 
 Vice-President of National House- . 
 hold Economics Association 
 
 Mrs. JOHN HOODLESS 
 
 Government Supt. of Domesti" 
 Science of the Province of Ontario 
 
 Mrs. WALTER McNAB MILLER 
 Chairman of the Food-Sanitation 
 Committee, G. F. W. C. 
 
THE COMPLETE COURSE 
 
 AUTHORS AND PARTIAL SYNOPSIS 
 
 I. THE HOUSE: ITS PLAN, DECORATION AND CARE, 
 by Prof. Isabel Bevier, University of Illinois. 
 
 Treats of the development of the modern 
 home and the American house, the planning 
 of convenient houses, construction, floors ; 
 the problems of decoration and furnishing ; 
 gives suggestions for changes, repairs, house- 
 hold conveniences; "The Cost of Building," 
 etc. 
 
 II. HOUSEHOLD BACTERIOLOGY, 
 by S. Maria Elliott, Simmons College. 
 An interesting account of the microscopic 
 forms of life and their relation for good and evil to the household ; 
 how to make "dust gardens" showing what dust is; disease germs 
 and how to avoid them; the protecting" agencies of the body and how 
 to keep them active; sanitation, etc 
 
 III. HOUSEHOLD HYGIENE, by S. Maria Elliott, Simmons 
 College, Boston. 
 
 The healthful home ; the best situation for 
 the house; importance of the cellar; all about 
 drainage, heating, lighting, disposal of wastes, 
 plumbing tests, the water supply ; practical 
 suggestions for sanitary furnishings and care ; 
 hygienic housekeeping, etc. 
 
 IV. CHEMISTRY OF THE HOUSEHOLD, by Margaret E. 
 Dodd, S. B., Mass. Institute of Technology. 
 
 "A Day's Chemistry" — a fascinating account of the unseen 
 forces in the common things met in a day's 
 work — water, air, fire, fuel ; chemistry of 
 food, of digestion, of cookery, of baking 
 powder, of cleaning, of laundry, of stains, 
 of lighting; home tests; home-made baking 
 powder, soap, etc., etc. 
 
 V. PRINCIPLES OF COOKERY, by Anna Barrows, Colum- 
 
 bia University and Chautauqua School of Cookery. 
 "A key to the cook books" — analyzing and explaining the 
 principles on which success rests ; all approved methods of cookery 
 explained, particular attention being paid to economy of time and 
 materials; full consideration of menus, making a fireless cook-stove, 
 "Directions for Waitresses," etc. 
 
 VI. FOOD AND DIETETICS, by Prof. Alice P. Norton, 
 University of Chicago. 
 
 Tells of food economy, of the composition, 
 nutritive value and digestibility of foods ; how 
 the body makes use of food ; the balanced 
 ration ; healthful diet for the sedentary, the 
 aged, the children, and so on ; food adultera- 
 tions, etc. 
 
IN HOME ECONOMICS 
 
 AUTHORS AND PARTIAL SYNOPSIS 
 
 VII. HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT, by Prof. Bertha M. 
 Terrill of University of Vermont 
 
 Full treatise on household finance; economy in spending; the 
 best division of income; household accounting; system in housework ; 
 the servant problem; help by the hour; buying supplies and fur- 
 nishings ; how to market economically; cuts of meat; season of 
 vegetables; experiences of students; "Co-operative Housekeeping," 
 etc. 
 
 VIII.- PERSONAL HYGIENE, by M. 
 LeBosquet, S.B., Director of A.S.H.E. 
 The wonderful human machine ; running 
 the machine ; care of the machine — sufficient 
 physiology given to show the reasons for the 
 directions for maintaining health ; emphasis 
 placed on do rather than don't ; articles on 
 ' 'Ethics of Health, ' ' ' 'Use and Abuse of Drugs, ' 
 etc. 
 
 IX. HOME CARE OF THE SICK, by Amy 
 E. Pope, Presbyterian Hospital, New York City. 
 
 Includes the essentials of trained nursing ; 
 specific directions for handling and caring for the 
 patient ; nursing in contagious diseases; obstetrics; 
 food for the sick ; emergencies ; poisons and their 
 antidotes ; bandaging ; articles on communicable 
 diseases, etc. 
 
 X. TEXTILES AND CLOTHING, by Kate H. Watson, 
 formerly Lewis Institute and University of Chicago. 
 
 Fully illustrated descriptions of primitive 
 and modern methods of manufacture ; textile 
 fibres and fabrics; plain and ornamental stitches 
 and their applications; machine sewing; cutting 
 and fitting of waists and skirts, color and 
 ornament; children's clcthes; repairs, etc. 
 XI. STUDY OF CHILD LIFE, by Marion Foster Wash- 
 burne, editor "Mothers' Magazine." 
 Thoroughly sensible and practical directions for the treatment of 
 children; faults and their remedies; character building; home occu- 
 pations ; play; associates; studies and accomplishments ; religious 
 training; the sex question, answers to questions, etc. 
 
 XII. CARE OF CHILDREN, by Dr. A. C. Cotton, Prof. Child- 
 ren's Diseases, Rush Medical College, University of Chicago 
 The care of the baby before birth and of 
 the new baby; healthful clothing; development 
 and growth of the child ; authoritative and 
 specific directions for feeding ; food disorders ; 
 food for older children , treatment of children's 
 ailments ; hygiene, of the child through the 
 pubescence period, etc. 
 
ANNOUNCEMENT 
 
 "LESSONS IN COOKING, THROUGH THE PREP- 
 ARATION OF MEALS." 
 
 THIS new correspondence course in cookery has been 
 prepared to meet the needs of home-makers who have 
 had little or no systematic training in modern methods 
 of cooking but who desire to provide for their families sim- 
 ple, yet appetizing and wholesome meals, with the last ex- 
 penditure of time, effort and money. 
 
 The ordinary cook book, with its numerous and compli- 
 cated recipes, is of little help to the beginner. It does not 
 answer the oft occurring question, "What shall I provide for 
 today, tomorrow, for next week"? It gives no hint of 
 wholesome food combinations or balanced diet. 
 
 The problem of- home cooking is not only how to cook- 
 various separate dishes but how to prepare whole meals. 
 The plan of "Lessons in Cooking" is unique and original in 
 that a systematic course in cooking is taught through a series 
 'of menus, with detailed directions, not only for cooking the 
 separate dishes, but also for preparing and serving each meal 
 as a whole. The course is divided into twelve parts, in each 
 of which is given the recipes for a week's menu, typical of 
 one month of the year — over 250 meals in all. In the first 
 lessons, simple operations of cooking are described and 
 gradually the more difficult and complicated recipes are in- 
 troduced, leading to advanced work in the later lessons. 
 Throughout the course the question of wholesome food com- 
 binations and balanced meals is carefully considered and 
 special emphasis is given to economy of time and money. 
 
 All available authorities have been consulted and the 
 assistance of a number of prominent teachers of cookery 
 has been obtained in the preparation of this course, which 
 presents the best modern methods and the latest scientific 
 discoveries relating to the "Fine Art of Cooking." 
 
 HALF TUITION COUPON. 
 
 American School op Home Economics, Chicago: 
 
 Please enroll me in your new correspondence ' ' Lessons in Cook- 
 ing, " in twelve parts, to be sent one each month. I agree to pay 
 introductory half tuition fee of $6.00; $1.00 herewith and the balance 
 at the rate of $1.00 a month for five months ($5.00 cash in advance, 
 jf preferred). Money to be refunded if not satisfactory. 
 
 Signed 
 
DEC 14 1910 
 
One copy del. to Cat. Div.